Full text of "Ecclesiastical dictionary : containing in concise form information upon ecclesiastical, biblical, and historical subjects"

ECCLESIASTICAL DICTIONARY 



CONTAINING, IN CONCISE FORM, 
INFORMATION UPON 




ECCLESIASTICAL, BIBLICAL, ARCH^OLOG- 
ICAL, AND HISTORICAL SUBJECTS 



BY 

RKV. JOHN THRIN 

Priest of the Diocese of Cleveland 

Author of "CHRISTIAN ANTHROPOLOGY* "ANSWER TO DIFFICULTIES 
OP THE BIBLE* "THE CA TECH ISM OF RODEZ* etc. 



NEW YORK, CINCINNATI, CHICAGO 
BKNZIGKR BROTMKRS 

Printers to the Holy Apostolic See 
1900 



Mftrt 



. - 9. 1957. 



COPYRIGHT, 1900, 

BY 
REV. JOHN THEIN 



NEW YORK 
MARCH 21, 1900 



Imprimatur 

MICHAEL AUGUSTINE 

Archbishop of New York 



IRibil bstat 

IGN. F. HORSTMANN 

Bishop of Cleveland 



CLEVBLAND, OHIO 
MARCH g, 1900 



(iii) 




PREFACE 



|HK closing century has been a century of Dictionaries of all 
kinds. Many of these works comprise several large volumes 
and are quite expensive. Very few can afford to make an out 
lay of fifty or one hundred dollars in order to procure an Encyclopedia. 
Hence, it has been the object of the author of the present ECCLESIAS 
TICAL DICTIONARY to furnish, in concise form, information upon eccle 
siastical, biblical, archaeological, and historical subjects, and bring the 
work within reach of everybody by making a small outlay of money. 

The more than three thousand articles, contained in our Dictionary, 
have been culled from various standard and up-to-date works. In order 
not to render the work too bulky, by always giving credit to the au 
thors and their works throughout the text of the book, it was deemed 
best to confine them to a separate list, as can be seen on page v. The 
quotations of Scripture are mostly made from the Latin Vulgate. As 
it was later decided to make the size of the pages somewhat longer and 
wider, in order to give the book a nicer form, the total number of pages 
has not quite reached the original number as advertised. 

The subjects treated in the ECCLESIASTICAL DICTIONARY, may be 
classified under the three following heads : 

MIXED THEOLOGY 

HISTORIC THEOLOGY 

PURE THEOLOGY 

Mixed Theology answers especially to the wants of our time. It 
consists of articles whose characteristics are philosophical, scientific, 
artistic, and literary. This class of articles has for object to urge our 
contemporary adversaries, with the help of demonstrative resources that 
are offered by philosophy, the sciences, arts, and belles-lettres, to admit 
the great truths, continually attacked by them. They address them 
selves to all kinds of readers, and, by studying them carefully, may they 
put into practice the declared proposition of Pope Pius IX., before it 
was taken up again and embodied into the decrees of the Vatican Coun 
cil: "The use of reason precedes faith and leads man to it with the 
help of revelation and grace"; Rationis usus fidem prcecedit, et ad cam 
hominem ape revelationis et gratice conducit. If some of the articles 
appear to have been given too much space, then the importance of the 
subjects makes up for this. 



iv PREFACE 

Historical Theology has for its object, as the name implies, Theologico- 
Historic Generalities and Varieties. It comprises Popes, Councils, 
Particular Churches, Religious Orders, Famous Schools, Biographies and 
Bibliographies, Religious Sects, Ecclesiastical Dignities, etc. 

Finally, Pure Theology consists of Theological and Exegetical Gen 
eralities and Varieties ; God and the Creation ; Christ and all that is 
directly connected with Our Lord ; the Church and the Ecclesiastical 
Hierarchy ; Grace and the Sacraments ; Ecclesiastical Morals and Pre 
cepts, etc. 

These are, in great outlines, the subjects treated in the ECCLESIAS 
TICAL DICTIONARY. We shall be judged in the future. For to-day, our 
only ambition is to be appreciated in the simple exposition of the sub 
jects contained in our work ; and we trust that the book will find many 
readers, who are solely animated by the love of truth. 

THE AUTHOR. 

ON THE FEAST OF ST. JOSEI>H, March igth, 1900. 




WORKS USED IN COMPILING THE 

ECCLESIASTICAL DICTIONARY 



A Catholic Dictionary, by ADDIS and ARNOLD. 

American Ecclesiastical Review, New York. 

Catholic Doctrine and Discipline Explained, by PHILIP BOLD. 

Christian Apology (English translation), by PAUL SCHANZ, D. D.D. PH. 

Concise Dictionary of Religious Knowledge, by REV. SAMUEL M. JACKSON. 

Dictionary of the Bible, 3 vols. (1860-63), by SIR WILLIAM SMITH. 

Dictionnaire de la Bible, by F. VIGOUROUX. 

Dictionnaire des Dictionnaires, 6 vols. (1886), by P. GUERIN. 

Dictionnaire de Theologie, 12 vols. (1876), by BERGIER. 

Elements of Ecclesiastical Law, by REV. S. B. SMITH, D.D. 

Encyclopedia Britannica, with Rev ised American Supplement (1899). 

Grand Catcchisme de la Perseverance Chretic nne, 14 vols. by P. 

D HAUTERIVE. 
Handbook of the Christian Religion (1891), by REV. W. WILLIAM WIL- 

MERS, S.J. 

Histoire Universelle de / Eglise Catholiquc, 12 vols. (18^2), by ROHR- 

BACHER. 

History of the Catholic Church, 2 vols. (English translation), by DR. 

HEINRICH BRUECK. 

History of the Church (fifth edition), by REV. J. A. BIRKHAEUSER. 
Hoffmann 1 s Catholic Directory of 1899. 

Introduction to the Scriptures "(1889), by REV. JOHN MACDEVITT, D.D. 
Kirchen-Lcxicon (second edition), by WETZER and \VELTE. 
Manual of Catholic Theology, by JOSEPH WILHELM, D.D., PH.D., and 

THOMAS B. SCANNELL, B.D. 

Origine du Culte Chretien (1898), by L ABBE L. DUCHESNE. 
Outlines of Church History (English translation 1894), by REV. H. WED- 

EWER, D.D. 

Outlines of Dogmatic Theology, 3 vols. by SYLVESTER Jos. HUNTER, S.J. 
The Century Dictionary, 7 vols. 

Universal Church History, 3 vols. English translation (1876), by DR. 
JOHN ALZOG. 



(v) 






ECCLESIASTICAL DICTIONARY 



Aachen (Lat. Aquis-granum } Fr. Aix- 
la-Chapelle). City in Rhenish Prussia; 
population in 1890, 103,470. It was a 
Roman city, favorite abode of Charle 
magne, and crowning-place of the Ger 
man emperors (803-1558). Its cathedral 
consists of the famous polygonal monu 
ment founded by Charlemagne in 796-804, 
and a beautiful Gothic choir of the four 
teenth century. Charlemagne s structure 
was inspired by St. Vitale at Ravenna, 
which he had seen in his expedition into 
Italy. The cathedral of Aachen possesses 
a very rich treasure of precious objects, 
magnificent reliquaries and numerous 
relics, particularly relics of our Lord, the 
Blessed Virgin, and St. John the Baptist: 
a robe of the Blessed Virgin of yellow- 
white wool, the swaddling-clothes of the 
Child Jesus of dark-yellow wool, the blood 
stained winding-sheet of our Saviour, and 
the fine linen into which the body of 
St. John the Baptist had been infolded. 
Among the so-called smaller relics are 
pieces of the Cross and the Passion- 
instruments, girdle and hair of the Blessed 
Virgin, remains of many Apostles, martyrs 
and other saints. The most of these relics 
had been given to Charlemagne by Eastern 
princes. They are solemnly exposed, to 
the veneration of the faithful, every sev 
enth year. Several ecclesiastical synods 
were held in Aachen : that of 798, in which 
Felix of Urgel renounced anew his Adop- 
tionism ; that of 809, which acknowledged 
the doctrine and practice of the Frankish 
Church, approved the insertion of the 
Filioque in the Symbol of Faith and the 
custom of singing it at Mass; that of 817 
decreed regulations for canons and female 
congregations. 

Aaron (Hebr. enlightened} (1574-1452 
B.C.). First high-priest of the Jews, of the 
tribe of Levi and elder brother of Moses. 



He assisted the latter in the work of deliv 
ering the Israelites, and was the spokes 
man before Pharao. Guilty of weakness, 
during the sojourn of Moses on Sinai, by 
permitting the people to cast and adore a 
golden calf, he soon acknowledged his 
fault and God preserved to him the priest 
hood, which became hereditary in his 
family. In punishment for not having 
shown sufficient confidence in the Lord, 
when He told him to strike the rock at 
Cades, like Moses, he did not enter the 
Promised Land, and died on Mount Hor. 

Abaddon (Hebr. extermination, destruc 
tion). In the New Testament, Abaddon 
is the angel of the abyss (Apoc. ix. n), or 
Satan, and this name designates his power 
of destruction, his zeal of extermination. 

Abarbanel. Rabbinic Doctor, of Lis 
bon, Spain (1437-1508). Minister of 
finances of Alphonso V. of Portugal and of 
Ferdinand of Aragon. Banished in 1492; 
he died at Venice. Besides commentaries, 
he wrote in Hebrew, The Herald of Sal 
vation, which is an examination, in a 
bitter tone, of the principal Messianic 
prophecies, in order to refute the Christian 
doctrine of the Messiasship of Christ. 

Abarim. A mountainous region of 
lofty table- lands in Palestine, east of the 
Dead Sea, on the northern border of Moab 
and within the limits of the tribe of Ruben. 
The mountains Nebo, Pisga and Peor are 
summits of the Abarim (Num. xxvii. 12; 
xxxiii. 47, 48; Deut. xxxii. 49). 

Abasement of Christ. The state of 
abasement of Christ consists in the as 
sumption of humanity and the simul 
taneous occultation of the Divinity. The 
assumption of our nature by the Logos, if 
accompanied by a complete manifestation 
of His power and glory, would not be an 

(i) 



ABBA 



ABBOT 



abasement, but an act of gracious con 
descension. But He, to whom perfect 
glory was due from the beginning, chose 
to lower Himself not only to the position 
of our first parents before the Fall, but to 
the condition of "the sons of man." He 
began life as an infant, lowly, weak, and 
dependent on others, and only gradually 
attained the ripeness of manhood in which 
Adam was created. Placed by His birth 
among sinners, He renounced some of the 
privileges of His original justice and in 
tegrity, and submitted as far as consis 
tent with His dignity and conducive to the 
salvation of man to the imperfections of 
human nature, and to the ordinances and 
laws to which human nature is subject. 
He thus did homage to God sufficient to 
redeem His brethren; He ennobled lowli 
ness and showed its value in the service of 
God; He set us a perfect example of all 
virtues, but especially of humility, pa 
tience, and mercy; He acquired a perfect 
title to our love. 

Abba(aChaldaic word signifying father}. 
When the Jews began to speak Greek, 
this word was probably retained from their 
ancient language, being easier to pro 
nounce, especially for children, than the 
Greek pater. Our Lord used it in His 
prayer in the Garden of Gethsemane 
(Mark xiv. 36). St. Paul uses it twice 
(Rom. viii. 15; Gal. iv. 6) in referring to 
our adoption as Sons of God through the 
Holy Ghost. 

Abbadie (]AMES). A noted French Prot 
estant theologian (1654-1727). He went 
to Berlin about 1680 as minister of the 
French Church there, and thence to Eng 
land and Ireland; was for a time minister 
of the French Church in the Savoy; and 
finally settled in Ireland as Dean of Killaloe 
in 1699. His chief work is the Traite de 
la V trite dc la Religion Chretienne (1684), 
with its continuation, Traite de la Divin- 
ite de notre Seigneur Jesus Christ (1689). 

Abb6. A purely honorary title, given 
in France for about two centuries to all the 
clerics from tonsure to the vicar-general. 
This custom, abusive in principle, is de 
rived from the royal courts. As most of 
the clerics who frequented the courts were 
richly provided with abbeys, one would 
have considered it an insult to appear there 
vested in an ecclesiastical garment and not 
in possession of some abbatial title. Since 
that time, French politeness required the 



cleric to be called Monsieur I Abbe. As a 
rule, to-day, all the clerics in France are 
called Abbe. See ABBOT. 

Abbess. The mother superior of a nun 
nery. According to the Council of Trent, 
the abbess should be elected by the secret 
votes of the religious. She should belong, 
as much as possible, to the monastery 
where she was elected, be forty, or at least 
thirty years old, and have made profession 
eight or at least five years before. Should 
a case of doubtful election arise, the ordi 
nary intervenes and selects from among 
the nuns the one whom he thinks best 
qualified for the office. Without the bish 
op s sanction, the abbess cannot select a 
father confessor, neither for herself nor for 
her nuns; nor can she dispense a nun 
from the obligations of the Rule by her 
own authority; neither suspend nor dis 
miss any one. 

Abbey signifies both the corporate body 
of monks or nuns under an abbot or ab 
bess, and the building in which they live 
and worship. There were royal abbeys, 
which were under the patronage of kings, 
and episcopal abbeys, directly controlled 
by bishops. In the course of time their 
wealth often became very great. In Eng 
land, in the time of Henry VIII., there 
were 190 of them. Henry suppressed them 
all, and confiscated their property, which 
was valued at 2,850,000. See "MONAS 
TERY. 

Abbo of Fleury(ST.) (945-1004). Abbot 
of Fleury, born near Orleans. One of the 
most learned religious of his time, who 
founded the famous Abbey of Fleury. 
His most remarkable work is an Epitome 
de vitis Romanorum Pontifictim, first pub 
lished at Mayence, 1602. F. Nov. i3th. 

Abbot (Lat. abbas). This title, which 
is equivalent to that of father (chief of a 
family), was given in early days to every 
superior of a monastery, in both the East 
and the West. Later on, in the East, this 
title gave way to that of Hcgumen (guide, 

hief of a house). In the West, since the 
tenth century, the name is more strictly 
reserved in certain monasteries or religious 
orders to the superior of the principal 
monasteries, or to those who enjoy a more 
or less unlimited autonomy and independ 
ence. The new orders, the Carthusians, 
Dominicans, Franciscans, and those which 
have been founded since, do not assume 

his title. 



ABBREVIATOR 



ABLARD 



The abbots have taken an important 
part in Church matters and also in the 
progress of European civilization. The 
, respect and veneration which their posi 
tion inspired, the confiding trust reposed 
in them by the weak and lowly, and their 
great influence among all ranks of society, 
enabled them to become the ordinary pro 
tectors of the people against the inroads 
of Feudalism and Barbarism. The gifts 
and privileges bestowed on them by the 
Holy See, the right to wear the crosier, 
miter and ring, to sit in councils and 
synods, also in the counsels of the Sover 
eign Pontiff, bishops, kings, and vassals, 
surrounded them with enlarged advantages, 
which greatly added to their influence. 
Though the number and influence of ab 
bots have greatly diminished in our time, 
there are still many in Europe as well as in 
America, whose zeal for good works and 
religion are no less marked. 

Abbreviator. One who abbreviates or 
reduces to a smaller compass ; specifically, 
one who abridges what has been written 
by another. Abbreviators is also the 
name by which we designate a number 
of secretaries in the chancery of the Pope 
who abbreviate petitions according to 
certain established and technical rules, 
and draw up the minutes of the apostolic 
letters. Their number is now reduced 
to eleven. They sign the apostolic Bulls 
in the name of the cardinal vice-chan 
cellor. The abbreviator of the curia is 
a prelate not belonging to the above col 
lege, but attached to the office of the apos 
tolic datary; he expedites bulls relating to 
pontifical laws and constitutions, such as 
for the canonization of saints, and the like. 

Abdenago. Babylonian name which 
signifies servant of N ago, sun or morning 
star, given by an officer of the Babylonian 
king to Azarias, one of the three compan 
ions of Daniel, who was thrown into a fiery 
furnace and miraculously delivered, in the 
year 600 B. c. 

Abdias. i. Steward of the house of 
Achab, king of Israel. Secreted the proph 
ets whom queen Jezabel wished to put to 
death. 2. The fourth of the twelve minor 
prophets ; lived during the captivity of the 
Jews and foretold their return ; wrote one 
single chapter against the Idumeans. 3. 
Famous impostor of Babylon who wrote 
the life of the Apostles and wished to pass 
as one of the 72 disciples of Jesus Christ. 



Abdon and Sennen. Noble Persians, 
martyrs, at Rome, under the persecution 
of Decius. F. July 3Oth. Their veneration 
is very ancient. In the third room of the 
Pontica Cemetery at Rome a painting 
can be seen, which goes back at least to 
the seventh century. It represents the 
Saviour enfolded to the waist in a cloud and 
deposing from each hand a crown upon the 
head of St. Abdon and St. Sennen, who 
are in Persian costume, wearing the Phryg 
ian bonnet. 

Abecedarians. Anabaptists, who 
claimed that in order to be saved, we must 
ignore even the letters of the alphabet, be 
cause, according to Luther, each Christian 
will be judged about the meaning of 
Scripture, for God instructs all men im 
mediately and by Himself. 

Abecedarian Psalms. The name ap 
plied to those Psalms, which, according to 
the proceeding of the ngth Psalm, are so 
arranged that the letters of each verse fol 
low the alphabetical order. 

A Becket (THOMAS). See THOMAS A 
BECKET. 

Abel. See CAIN. 

Abelard (PETER) (1079-1142). French 
scholar, born near Nantes. After study 
ing under Roscelin, betook himself to 
Paris, and became the pupil of the learned 
William of Champeaux, founder of the 
celebrated Abbey of St. Victor, and after 
ward Bishop of Chalons. His progress 
was so rapid, that he soon outstripped his 
master. In two public disputations, which 
he held with William, he came off trium 
phant. Abelard, though then only twenty- 
two years old, opened a school of his own, 
at Melun, and subsequently at Paris, Cor- 
beil, and at "the Paraclete," a monastery 
founded by him near Troyes. Everywhere 
large numbers of scholars thronged to his 
lectures, as his eloquence was indeed won 
derful. He surprised his contemporaries 
by the brilliancy of his genius, the ready 
flow of his language, and the subtlety of his 
reasoning. Among those who sought his 
instructions was Eloi se, the niece of Canon 
Fulbert. But the acquaintance with this 
accomplished lady proved fatal to his- 
honor. To cover his ignominy, the un 
happy man retired to the monastery of St. 
Denis, and became a monk, while Eloi se 
took the veil at Argenteuil. Abelard 
opened a school at St. Denis, which was 



ABELITES 



ABIMELECH 



soon frequented by crowds of eager stu 
dents from all parts. But his novel views 
on the subject of the Holy Trinity, brought 
him into conflict with the Church. His 
foremost opponent was St. Bernard. Of the 
novel doctrines advanced by Abelard, we 
quote: i. The Father alone is all-power 
ful ; the Son is inferior in power to the 
Father, and the Holy Ghost is inferior to 
the Son. 2. The Holy Ghost proceeds 
from the Father and the Son ; but He is 
not of their substance; He is the soul of 
the world. 3. God cannot accomplish 
more than He has accomplished and in 
tends yet to accomplish. 4. Christ as 
sumed flesh, not to redeem man from the 
bondage of the devil, but to instruct him 
by word and example. 5. Not the guilt, 
but only the punishment of the sin com 
mitted by Adam, is propagated in his pos 
terity. 6. Man can do good by his own 
free will, and without the assistance of 
divine grace. 7. No sin is committed 
through concupiscence or ignorance. His 
errors were condemned by the Council of 
Sens, in 1140. Abelard appealed to the 
Pope, but, on his way to Rome, he took 
sick and sought refuge with Peter the 
Venerable, Abbot of Clugny. Here he 
spent his last days, and died peacefully, 
reconciled with St. Bernard and the 
Church. 

Abelites. Heretics of Africa, in the 
time of St. Augustine, who condemned 
marriage and kept continence in order not 
to bring forth creatures soiled with original 
sin. They founded themselves on the be 
lief that Abel had never been married. 
Each couple adopted a boy and a girl, and 
made them heirs on condition that they 
married each other, but likewise restrained 
themselves. 

Abgar. A name, like Pharao or Caesar, 
borne by the kings of Edessa, a small king 
dom in the southwest of Mesopotamia. 
Eusebius (Ch. Hist. i. 13) gives the re 
puted correspondence between (the fif 
teenth) Abgar and our Saviour, relative to 
the cure of a former leprosy. Christ 
promises to send, after His crucifixion, 
one of His disciples to heal him. Thad- 
deus was sent, and Abgar and his subjects 
were converted to Christianity. A later 
legend is that Christ sent Abgar his por 
trait. 

Abia. King of Juda, son of Roboam 
(958-955 B. c.). Abia is a proper noun and 
frequently mentioned in Holy Scripture. 



Abiathar. Son of Achimelech, and 
high-priest of the Jews. When Saul sent 
his emissaries to Nob, to destroy all the 
priests there, Abiathar, who was young, 
fled to David in the wilderness, with whom 
he continued in the function of high- 
priest. Saul, it would appear, transferred 
the dignity of the high-priesthood from 
Ithamar s family to that of Eleazar, by 
conferring the office upon Sadoc. Thus, 
there were, at the same time, two high- 
priests in Israel; Abiathar with David, 
and Sadoc with Saul. This double priest 
hood continued from the death of Achim 
elech till the reign of Solomon, when 
Abiathar, attaching himself to Adonias, 
was deprived by Solomon of his priest 
hood. 

Abib. The first month of the ecclesias 
tical year of the Hebrews ; afterward 
called Nisan. It answered to our March 
and April. Abib signifies green ears of 
grain, or fresh fruits. It was so named 
because corn, particularly barley, was in 
ear at that season. 

Abigail. Formerly the wife of Nabal 
of Carmel, and afterward of David. Upon 
receiving information of Nabal s ingrati 
tude to the king (I. Ki. xxv. 14, etc.), 
she loaded several asses with provisions, 
and, attended by some of her domestics, 
went out to meet David. Her manners 
and conversation gained for her his esteem, 
and, as soon as the days of mourning for 
Nabal s death were over, he made her his 
wife. 

Abilene. The name of a district of 
country on the eastern declivity of Antili- 
banus, from twelve to twenty miles north 
west of Damascus. So called from the city 
Abila, and also called Abilene of Lysanias, 
to distinguish it from others. This terri 
tory had formerly been governed as a 
tetrarchate by a certain Lysanias ; after 
ward it fell to Herod the Great. 

Abimelech. Name of three personages 
in the Old Testament : i. King of Gerara 
of the Philistines, who took Sara into his 
harem; but being warned by God in a 
dream, he restored her to Abraham (Gen. 
xx.). 2. Another king of Gerara, prob 
ably son of the former, and contemporary 
with Isaac (Gen. xxvi. 6-31). 3. Son of 
Gedeon, by a concubine; made himself 
king of Sichem after his father s death, 
and slew his father s seventy sons on one 
stone, only Joatham, the youngest, being 



ABIU 



ABORTION 



left. Joatham reproached the Sichemites 
for their conduct in his celebrated fable of 
the trees. Three years afterward they 
rose against Abimelech ; he defeated them, 
and destroyed their city, but as he was at 
tacking Thebes, a woman threw a piece 
of a millstone on his head, which so in 
jured him, that he called to his armor- 
bearer to slay him (Judg. ix.). 

Abiu. Levite, son of Aaron, devoured 
by fire from heaven for having offered in 
cense with a profane fire, instead of taking 
it from the altar of holocausts. 

Abjuration. A solemn act of renounc 
ing all false or heretical doctrines which a 
person had formerly held. There is an 
authorized form of abjuration in use in the 
Catholic Church. 

Ablution. This word, in Catholic lit 
urgy, has several meanings. Baptism, as 
persion with blessed water, the washing of 
feet, that of the altars in Holy Week, the 
washing of hands at Mass after the Offer 
tory, are ablutions. We speak here only of 
those that take place after communion. The 
word ablution is now in use in liturgy to 
designate the wine and water received by 
the priest into the chalice and upon his 
fingers to purify them. After the receiv 
ing of the most ( precious Blood, the cel 
ebrant presents the chalice to the Mass 
servant, saying the words: " )jiod ore 
sumpsimiis," etc. While the priest recites 
these words, the servant pours wine into 
the chalice. Properly speaking, this first 
ablution is only that of the cup. The ablu 
tion of the fingers of the priest takes place 
only after he has taken the wine, and when 
he presents the chalice to the servant. He 
extends, over the opening of the chalice, 
the thumb and index finger of each hand, 
with which, only, he has touched the sacred 
Eucharist, and pronounces the following 
words: "Corpus tuutn Domine quod 
sumpsi," etc., while the servant pours wine 
and water into the chalice. In the first ten 
centuries of the Church, they threw the 
wine and water of the ablutions into the 
piscina. About the year 1200, priests, 
guided by a sentiment of respect, judged 
it becoming to take the ablution, and this 
practice soon became a general law. 

Abner. General of Saul; embraced the 
party of David, and was treacherously slain 
by Joab, either to avenge the death of 
Asael, Joab s brother, whom Abner had 
formerly killed, or more probably from 
jealousy. 



Abortion. The premature expulsion of 
the foetus by criminal means. Direct and 
voluntary abortion is always a grievous 
sin, a criminal act. No distinction is made 
between the animated and inanimated 
foetus, hence the condemnation by Pope 
Innocent XI. of the following proposition: 
"It is permitted to procure the abortion 
before the animation of the fetus, in order 
to avoid that a young girl, taken unaware 
with child, might be killed or disgraced." 
Such is the principle. Now behold the 
application : 

A woman dangerously sick is permitted 
to take a remedy, with the view of being 
cured, and at the risk of an abortion, when 
the sickness is mortal, and when the remedy 
is judged necessary for her cure. A 
woman is not permitted to take a remedy 
with the view of being delivered from her 
pregnancy, except in such case where the 
foetus is corrupted. A physician, treating 
a sick pregnant woman, must, if he has 
the choice between two remedies, employ 
the one which will heal the mother with 
out hurting the child ; if there be only one 
remedy at his disposition, then, he can 
employ it, even at the risk of hurting the 
child ; that is, supposing the mother s 
sickness is a grave one, and that the rem 
edy employed does not tend directly to 
ward the death of the child, and, con 
sequently, that the abortion, if it take 
place, is only an indirect accident to be 
deplored, and far from having been held in 
view, was judged only probable or possi 
ble. The direct abortion, under whatever 
circumstances it may have taken place, be 
ing an actual or anticipated homicide, is 
always guilty. It is clear that all those 
who co-operate thereto, like physicians, 
surgeons, druggists, or midwives, sin mor 
tally. But in exceedingly grave cases, 
when both mother and child incur an equal 
danger, and when it can save the one only 
by killing the other, which has to be sacri 
ficed ? The child, according to the opinion 
of a certain class of savants. 

This reasoning, however, is not accepted 
by theology, which says: "The foetus is 
a living human being. Now, it is never 
permitted to take the life of any one i-n 
order to preserve that of another ; there 
fore, the child cannot be killed to save the 
mother. " 

On this point we will add, that the child 
would be unduly deprived of the spiritual 
regeneration and supernatural advantages 
resulting therefrom, and to which it has 



ABRAHAM 



ABSOLUTION 



received a right through redemption. 
One must not, in palliation of a crime, say 
that, " between two evils we must choose 
the lesser one." The principle or moral, 
which is applicable here, is, that it is never 
permitted to do evil in order to obtain the 
good. Now, to kill, willingly and directly, 
a human being is an evil. 

Several Doctors of the Theological Fac 
ulty of Paris, in 1733, consulted on this 
question, answered: "That, if one only 
regards justice, one can sacrifice the child 
in order to save the mother, each one 
having the right to defend his life against 
the one that wishes to deprive him 
thereof." 

This answer has, since then, been fre 
quently refuted ; and the Sacred Congre 
gation ha? forbidden it to be taught in the 
seminaries. Hence, one has to follow the 
principle laid down by St. Ambrose (3 De 
Offic. c. q.) Si altcri subfcnire non potest, 
nisi alter laedatur, commodius est neutrum 
adjuvare, Paris, April 24, 1648. The ques 
tion, however, points toward a solution, 
which may bring harmony between the two 
opinions, namely, to surgery, to which we 
must look for the best results. Three op 
erations promise the possibility of saving 
both mother and child: the Csesarean 
operation, Symphysectomy, and premature 
artificial birth. 

Abraham (Hebrew word, which signi 
fies Father of Nations}. Son of Thare 
and eleventh descendant of Sem, was born 
at Ur, in Chaldea, about the year 2000 
B.C., and died in Palestine, at the age 
of 175 years. He is surnamed the Father 
of the Faithful, because having been the 
man whom God separated from the com 
mon mass, to make him the father, through 
generation, of the people of Israel, Jesus 
Christ Himself is a descendant of his, and 
consequently all the Christians are re 
garded as having come forth from Abraham 
in a spiritual manner. The burial place of 
Abraham, at Hebron, honored by both 
Jews and Christians, is to-day in the hands 
of the Turks. The Greek Church, built 
over the sepulchre, was turned into a 
mosque. 

Abraham a Sancta-Clara. Augustinian 
monk of Germany (1644-1709); one of the 
most popular preachers of his time. He 
mingled everything in his imaginative 
style: fables, stories of all kinds, pedantic 
quotations, jocose traits, picturesque, triv 
ial, and burlesque plays on words. Aside 



from all this, he was a man of great piety 
and had a profound knowledge of men. 
One can judge, by the titles, of the caprice 
of his sermons : " Judas the Archrascal " ; 
" Kek, Kek, Kek, Kek, e Ke, or, The 
Wonderful Chicken of Bavaria." 

Abrahamites. i. Heretics of the ninth 
century, innovators of the Paulinianist 
doctrines, under the empire of Nicephorus 
in the East and of Charlemagne in the 
West. 2. Bohemian peasants, who, about 
the end of the eighteenth century, admit 
ted no other dogma than the divinity of 
God, and adopted Abraham as the father 
of their belief. 

Abraxas. A sort of stone upon which 
were engraved cabalistic characters and 
which were worn as amulets. This word 
signifies God in Persian. 

Absalom. Son of David, revolted against 
his father; was conquered ; in fleeing, re 
mained suspended by his long hair in the 
branches of a tree, and was killed by Joab, 
commander of the armies of David, 10301!. c. 

Absolon or Axel. Born on the Isle of 
Seeland, archbishop of Lund, primate of 
Denmark, Sweden, and Norway ; statesman, 
minister under Waldemar I. and Canute 
IV. (1128-1201). He converted the Riigen 
Islanders. 

Absolution (action to absolve). In re 
gard to the sacraments, the absolution 
designates the action by which the Cath 
olic priest remits the sins in the name 
of God, to the sinner that is before him 
and who comes to make the avowal of his 
faults. It is always given individually; 
however, in imminent and unforeseen dan 
gers, for instance, before a battle, the 
priest can give a general absolution, which 
benefits all those who are well disposed. 
Absolution in articulo mortis, we call 
the action by which a priest, finding him 
self in the presence of a dying person that 
has lost the use of his senses, supposes 
him well disposed by the desire which he 
has to save his soul, and applies to him 
the plenitude of the reparative graces, 
whose dispensation Jesus Christ has left to 
His Church. Absolution in Liturgy, we 
call the prayers and ceremonies which end 
the office of the dead and are performed 
round the coffin or catafalque. The priest s 
absolution in the sacrament of Penance has 
been defined to be a judicial act, and not a 
mere pronouncing or declaring that the 



ABSTAINERS 



ACACIANS 



penitent s sins are forgiven (Council of 
Trent, sess. xiv. chap. 6, can. 9). This is 
clear from the words of Christ: "Whose 
sins vc shall forgive," etc.; "Whatsoever 
ye. shall /oose," etc. The exact formula of 
absolution to be used was not expressly 
stated by Christ or His Apostles. It is 
certain that for upward of a thousand years 
a precatory form ( " May Christ absolve 
thee," or similar words) was in general 
use, as indeed is still the case in the East. 
The indicative form ("I absolve thee") 
came into use in the Western Church dur 
ing the early Middle Ages, and gradually 
supplanted the other. At the present day, 
a priest of the Western Church using the 
precatory form alone would grievously 
sin, and would expose the sacrament to 
-the danger of nullity. 

Abstainers. By this word we under 
stand those persons who have a repugnance 
for wine, and cannot drink it. In the 
primitive Church, the abstainers received 
holy communion only under the species of 
bread. 

Abstinence. Among Catholics, a reli 
gious practice which consists in abstaining 
from flesh-meat on Friday, in Lent, and 
on various other days of the year. The 
abstinence of Friday and Saturday was in 
stituted in the first centuries of the Church, 
in honor of the death and burial of Jesus 
Christ, and to prepare for the Sunday. 
Abstinence is a virtue which assists the 
spirit not to be the slave of matter, to sub 
due the senses, and the disordinate appe 
tites. Finally, it is a practice of penance 
for the expiation of sins committed. See 
LENT; FAST. 

Abstinents. Gnostic or Manichean 
heretics, who appeared in Gaul and in 
Spain, about the end of the third century. 
They proscribed marriage and the use of 
flesh-meat. 

Abucara (THEODORE) . Metropolitan 
of the province of Caria, in the eighth cen 
tury. Wrote: Treatises against the Jcivs, 
the Mohammetans and Heretics, translated 
into Latin by Genebrard and the Jesuit 
Gretzer; De unione et incarnatione . 

Abuna. (Ethiopic or Ar. our father}. 
Title of the head of the Christian Church, 
in Abyssinia. 

Abyssinia. The evangelization of an 
cient Ethiopia, called Abyssinia, was com 



menced by St. Frumentius and his fellow- 
laborer ^Edesius, though some writers 
attribute that honor to the chamberlain of 
the Ethiopian queen, Candace, whose bap 
tism by Philip the Deacon is recorded in 
the Acts (viii. 38). In 316, Frumentius 
and his companion were taken captives into 
Abyssinia while accompanying Meropius 
of Tyre on a journey, and were presented 
to the king as slaves. They eventually 
rose to influential positions at court, and 
were permitted to practice and announce 
their religion without restraint. After the 
death of the king, Frumentius became the 
instructor of the hereditary prince Aizana 
and administered the government. When 
the prince became of age, yEdesius re 
turned to Tyre, and was ordained priest. 
St. Frumentius went to Alexandria, where 
St. Athanasius consecrated him bishop of 
Abyssinia (328). Returning to that coun 
try, Frumentius baptized the king, together 
with a great portion of the people, and 
firmly established the Abyssinian Church, 
whereof Axombecamethe metropolitan see. 
The Abyssinian Church continues to the 
present day, though deformed by heresy and 
Judaism. Cut off for ages from the Cath 
olic communion, it presents a curious and 
almost unique amalgam of religious senti 
ments. Customs analogous to the Jewish 
rites still prevail among the Abyssinians. 
Of these customs we mention circumci 
sion, the observance of the Jewish Sabbath, 
the distinction of clean and unclean food, 
and even the Levirate law. When, in the 
seventh century, the Mohammedans took 
possession of Egypt, their rulers supported 
the Jacobite or Monophysite party, against 
the Melchites or Catholics, and contributed 
strength and permanence to the Abyssinian 
schism. Great efforts have been made, in 
the last fifty years, to convert the Abvs- 
sinians, and the labors of the Catholic 
missionaries were attended with the best 
results, in spite of almost incessant perse 
cutions. See ORIENTAL RITES. 

Acacians. Followers of ^4rr/#.s,bishop 
of Caesarea. In turn Catholic, Arian un 
der the Emperor Constantius, Catholic 
under Jovian, he became Arian again un 
der Valens. After having caused the depo 
sition of St. Cyril of Jerusalem and the 
banishment of Pope Liberius, he estab 
lished the antipope Felix. There were 
several other bishops by the name of Aca- 
ciujs, whom we must not confound with 
the above: Acacius of Constantinople, 



ACARON 



ACHAB 



follower of Eutyches (died 363) ; Acacius of 
Aniida, famous for his charity toward the 
poor (5th century) ; and Acacius of Berea 
opponent of St. Chrysostom (died 432). 

Acaron. City of Palestine, where they 
kept the Ark of the Covenant taken by the 
Philistines. 

Acceptants. The term applied to French 
bishops and clergy who accepted the Bull 
Unigenitus, issued in 1713 by Pope Cle 
ment XI. against the Jansenists. 

Access (the approach}. i. The tenor of 
those prayers which are recommended to 
the priest to be said before saying Mass. 2. 
In canon law, a right to a certain benefice at 
some future time, now in abeyance, through 
lack of required age or some other condi 
tions : if, in abeyance through actual pos 
session of another, it is equivalent to the 
right of succession. Ingress is a right, of 
some previous stipulation, to a benefice 
resigned before entered upon ; regress, to 
a benefice actually renounced. The Coun 
cil of Trent and succeeding Popes abol 
ished such titles, as tending to make 
benefices hereditary; since then they have 
existed in Roman Catholic countries only 
in particular instances and by a special 
Pontifical privilege. 

Accidents (Eucharistic). Name given 
by theologians to the sensible species 
that remain of the bread and wine after 
the words of consecration, when the sub 
stance of the bread and wine is destroyed 
and changed into the body and blood of 
Jesus Christ. 

Accho. A city of the tribe of Aser, in 
Palestine. In the New Testament Accho 
is called Ptolemais (Acts xxi. 7) from one 
of the Ptolemies, who enlarged and beau 
tified it. The Crusaders gave it the name 
of Acre, or St. John of Acre. It is still 
called Akka by the Turks. It sustained 
several sieges during the Crusades, and 
was the last fortified place wrested from 
the Christians by the Turks. Population, 
8,000. 

Accolti (PIETRO) (1455-1532). Born at 
Florence. An Italian Cardinal and legate 
in Ancona commonly called " Cardinal of 
Ancona." He drew up, in 1519, the Bull 
of condemnation of Luther. 

Accommodation. In Exegesis, accom 
modation gives rise to the accommodating 
meaning, which is opposed, first : to the 
literal (historic or prophetic) sense; sec 



ondly, to the spiritual (mystic, moral or 
allegoric) sense, and consists in accommo 
dating, individually, the words of Scripture 
to their proper meaning, though profiting 
to this effect by a real accidental resem 
blance. This accommodative sense not 
being desired by the sacred authors, has, 
consequently, no proving or demonstrative 
value in theology and controversy ; it 
would not be praiseworthy to use it too 
frequently, even in profane subjects, but 
in itself it is legitimate, and we can invoke 
in its favor the example of the Apostles 
and saints. 

Accommodation (Controversy of). 
By this term we understand a controversy 
which arose in the seventeenth century, be 
tween the Jesuits and other missionaries of 
China, in relation to certain allowances 
and rites practiced by the natives of the 
Celestial Kingdom from time immemorial, 
in honor of the memory of their ancestors 
and of Confucius. The Jesuits held the 
opinion that these usages, identified 
with national customs, should be tolerated 
in order to avoid greater evil; that they 
were purely civil or political and had noth 
ing religious or sacred in their perform 
ance. On the other hand, the Dominicans 
held that these rites are superstitious and 
idolatrous, and could not be tolerated 
without sinning. The Holy See reserved 
to itself the decision of such a perplexing 
controversy. After having carefully ex 
amined the case in all its bearings, a defi 
nite decision was given by Clement X., in 
1715, whereby the Chinese ceremonies 
in question, were condemned, as being 
tainted with idolatry. This decision gave 
rise to a bloody persecution of the mis 
sionaries, but the evil consequences which 
followed were justly attributed to the mal 
ice of men. The Church and her Chief 
fulfilled their mission and duty, which is 
to guard the deposit of truth, faith, and 
morals. 

Acephali (literally, those who have no 
head or chief). In Church history, those 
members of the Council of Ephesus, who 
refused to follow either St. Cyril or John 
of Antioch. 

Achab. King of Israel, whose crimes 
and those of his wife Jezabel, as cruel as 
himself, are related in the First Book of 
Kings; persecuted the Prophet Elias, and 
caused the death of Naboth, to get posses 
sion of his vineyard. Achab was killed in a 



ACHAIA 



ACTS OF THE SAINTS 



combat and the dogs came to lick his blood, 
according to the prediction of the Prophet 
(8893. c.). 

Achaia. Taken in the largest sense, 
included the whole region of Greece, 
or Hellas, now called Livadia. Achaia 
proper, however, was a province of Greece, 
of which Corinth was the capital, and em 
braced the whole western part of the 
Peloponnesus. 

Achaz. King of Juda (737-723 B. c.), 
famous on account of his cruelties, his 
profanations and crimes ; was detested dur 
ing his life, and deprived, after his death, 
of royal burial. He was a contemporary 
of the Prophet Isaias. 

Achimelech. High-priest of the Jews, 
was falsely accused of conspiracy and put 
to death by Saul. He gave to David, who 
was fleeing from Saul, the sacred bread 
and the sword of Goliath from the taber 
nacle. 

Achitophel. Friend and counselor of 
David, and, later, of Absalom in his revolt 
against his father. He was famous for his 
political wisdom, and his defection caused 
David great apprehension. 

Acoemeti. An order of monks and 
nuns in Constantinople, under the Eastern 
Empire, so named because they divided 
their communities into relays for keeping 
up perpetual worship. In the sixth cen 
tury, the monks embraced Nestorianism, 
and the order became extinct. The order 
of nuns, however, existed till the conquest 
of Constantinople by the Turks, in the 
fifteenth century. 

Acolyte (from the Latin acolytkus, 
formed from the Greek akolouthos, follo-v- 
infr, one ivho accompanies}. Thus were 
called, after the third century, in the Latin 
Church, and after the fifth, in the Greek 
Church, the young men who aspired to the 
ecclesiastical ministry and who accom 
panied and generally followed the bishops, 
either to serve them, or to be witnesses of 
their conduct. St. Cyprian himself tells 
us that he had acolytes. To-day, the func 
tions of acolytes are of a very different 
character from their first institution. 
Acolyte is the name now given to the 
one who has received the first and most 
considerable of the four Minor Orders. 
Their employment is to light the candles, 
an office formerly performed by the accens- 



ores. In processions and ceremonies at 
the altar, the acolyte carries the lights ; 
this was formerly done by the ceroferrarii, 
He holds the censer and incense-box, pre 
pares the wine and water for the sacrifice 
of the Mass and renders other services at 
the altar. These services to-day are often 
performed by seminarists or others who 
have not received Minor Orders. Also, 
at present, it is customary to confer con 
secutively the four Minor Orders at the 
same ordination. 

Acre. See ACCHO. 

Actor Ecclesiae. This was formerly 
the name of an officer charged to adminis 
ter the revenues of the church ; he is often 
confounded with Advocatus ecclcsice. 

Acts of the Apostles. The Acts of the 
Apostles contain the history of the rising 
Church during the space of twenty-nine to 
thirty years ; that is, from the Ascension of 
Christ until the end of the first captivity 
of St. Paul at Rome, in the year 63 of the 
Christian era. They were written in 
Greek, by St. Luke, /the author of the 
third Gospel. The book is divided into 
two parts. In the first, the author depicts 
the wonderful morals of the first Chris 
tians, and all that passed in the primitive 
Church until the dispersion of the Apos 
tles. The second commences with the 
appearance of St. Paul. Then omitting the 
history of the other Apostles, from whom 
he was too far away, St. Luke relates the 
apostolic labors of St. Paul, of which he 
has been an eye-witness, having been 
chosen by the great Apostle to be his dis 
ciple and companion. With right, this 
book is called the first history of the 
Church. 

Acts of the Martyrs, are works wherein 
we find inscribed, ordinarily, according to 
the official records, the heroic confession 
and death of those who gave their life s 
blood for the sake of Christ. There are 
several Acts of the Martyrs ; the best 
known are those of Ruinart, in Latin, and 
of the Benedictines of Solesmes, in French. 
See MARTYROLOGY. 

Acts of the Saints or Bollandists. By 

this collective title we understand a gigan 
tic collection, which leaves far behind all 
other analogous collections and in which 
we find, first : condensed, day by day, and 
according to the order of the months, then 
verified and approved by diligent and 



ADALBERT 



10 



ADAM 



learned criticism, all the original docu 
ments regarding the lives of the Saints of 
the whole world. This collection, pre 
pared by the Jesuit Rosweyde (died 1629), 
then by his confreres, Bollandus, whose 
name it carries, and Henschenius, counts 
not less than6i volumes in folio. The first 
appeared in 1643, the last in 1881, and 
finishes the month of October. 

Adalbert (ST.). Apostle of the Prus 
sians, born in 955. Received his education 
at Magdeburg. Archbishop of Prague in 
983, resigned in order to devote himself to 
the evangelization of the pagan Prussians; 
was murdered April 23, 997. His remains, 
buried first at Gnesen, were transferred to 
Prague. 

Adalbert of Bremen. Appointed by the 
Emperor Henry III. Archbishop of Bre 
men and of Hamburg in 1043; legate of 
the Pope in 1050. He was a man of gen 
ius, but domineering and violent. After 
the death of Henry III., he was for some 
time tutor of Henry IV., whom he wished 
to acquire absolute power, in order that 
he might obtain Ijie patriarchate of the 
North. The opposition of the German 
princes hindered him from attaining this 
double end. He died at Goslar, May i6th, 
1072. 

Adam (from a Hebrew word, signifying 
earth, as in Latin homo, from humus ). 
God formed the body of the first man from 
matter, and communicated life to this 
body, by giving to it an intelligent and 
reasonable soul, or rather an immortal 
spirit; for the reasonable soul created by 
God is the principle of the life of the body 
(Gen. i. and ii.). Thus, the first man was 
created. Then God formed from him the 
companion which He wished to give to 
him for life. Adam, beholding in Eve 
flesh of his flesh, realized the intimate 
union which ought to reign between hus 
band and wife. The Bible fully accords 
with science on this point, as it establishes 
the unity of the human species. All men 
arise from one single marriage, in order to 
be forever, however dispersed and multi 
plied they may be, one unique and the 
same family. God, who appointed man to 
Le the complement and the king of earthly 
creation, created him to His image and 
likeness. By his body, man is, so to say, 
the abridgment of the triple physical 
world : animal, vegetable and mineral. By 
the nature of his soul and the natural and 
supernatural gifts with which God endowed 



him, he shares the characteristics of the 
angels, of the pure spirits, and even carries 
within himself the image and resemblance 
of God. The natural gifts, the proper, es 
sential attributes of the reasonable nature 
of the human spirit, are immortality, 
and the sublime faculties, reason and lib 
erty. The supernatural gifts, which God 
was pleased to bestow also upon man, 
were the enlightenment of his understand 
ing by a divine light, and the raising of 
his will, by the divine assistance, to the 
state of justice and holiness, the harmony 
between the faculties and the natural in 
stincts, through the subordination of the 
inferior powers of the soul to its superior 
powers. This supernatural state compre 
hended also the incorruptibility of the cor 
poral existence, that is, the exemption of 
pains and sufferings. The preservation of 
this primitive state of perfection, inno 
cence, peace, and blessedness, were con 
ditioned by God to the observance of 
His law or will. This trial was neces 
sary in order that the reasonable and free 
man might unite himself freely, with the 
help of grace, to God the supreme good. 
" Thou who hast created me, Thou couldst 
not save me without Thee." Eve, seduced 
by the cunning of the rebellious angel, 
who himself had fallen during the period 
of trial of the angels through the tempta 
tion of pride in presuming to become equal 
to God. Adam, seduced by his spouse, dis 
obeyed God grievously in wishing, in spite 
of His formal forbidding, to know too 
much and elevate themselves by them 
selves. Thus man lost the peace and 
blessedness which he enjoyed until then, 
and which were the consequences of his 
faithfulness. He became subject to suffer 
ings, to the death of the body, to the re 
bellion of the flesh against the spirit, to 
all kinds of miseries, of which he had been, 
until then, a stranger through the grace of 
God. He lost both his holiness and jus 
tice. This great fall from his supernatural 
state extended itself, also, over his natural 
faculties, which were deteriorated ; his rea 
son become obscured, his will weakened 
and inclined toward evil. But, since the 
day of our loss, God discovered, also, our 
future deliverance; He announced to man 
kind, that the woman would crush the 
head of the infernal serpent, by the divine 
offspring that she would produce, Jesus 
Christ, the incarnate Word, the Redeemer. 
The state of the primitive man, a state of 
perfection and happiness (Golden Age), the 



ADAMITES 



1 1 



ADOPTIONISM 



state of degradation which followed, the 
effect of sin or of the revolt of man against 
God, the idea of a redemption, are found in 
the traditions of all nations of antiquity; 
all the religious books contain, in a more 
or less altered manner, the antique tradi 
tions, the primitive revelation, which we 
find more precise and more complete in the 
Bible. The mixture of the good and the 
evil upon earth, and especially in man, is 
an insoluble problem without the accounts 
which revelation furnishes to us. After 
their fall, Adam and Eve had several chil 
dren, sons and daughters. The Bible has 
preserved us the names of three sons : Cain, 
Abel, and Seth. Adam lived 930 years. 
See MAN. 

Adamites. Gnostic heretics of the 
second century, who pretended to have 
shared, in an inadmissible manner, the 
original innocence of our first parents. 
They practiced all kinds of turpitudes and 
among others that of the community of 
women. Adamites was also the designa 
tion of a sect of Manicheans, which appeared 
in France, Holland and Bohemia, about the 
end of the fourteenth century, and revived 
the errors and immoralities of the Gnostics 
of the second century. This society has 
maintained itself until our time, especially 
in Bohemia, in a more or less latent state. 

Adelbert or Aldebert. A sadly famous 
episcopus vagus of the eighth century in the 
Prankish kingdom. This enthusiast assem 
bled the people for divine worship in the 
fields and in the open air, and imposed upon 
their credulity by pretending to have re 
ceived relics from the hands of an angel, 
and distributed among them copies of a let 
ter which, he said, had fallen from heaven 
and alighted in the center of the city of 
Jerusalem. With empty vanity he com 
pared himself to the Apostles, whose equal 
he pretended to be; caused houses of 
prayer to be dedicated to his honor, be 
cause, as he claimed, God would infallibly 
grant a request made in his name ; and as 
serted that, as he knew by intuitive vision 
the secrets of every man s conscience, con 
fession was wholly useless. Confession 
was, therefore, abolished by him, venera 
tions of saints reprobated, and pilgrimages 
to holy shrines discontinued. St. Boni 
face, the apostle of Germany, used every 
available means to counteract the influence 
of this visionary. He preached against 
him, drew the attention of the First Coun 
cil of Soissons (744), and of a council held 



at Rome the following year, to his doc 
trines, and finally caused his imprison 
ment at Fulda. Having escaped from this 
place of confinement, he was seized by 
shepherds, robbed, and murdered. 

Adelm or Aldhelnv (ST.). Abbot of 
Malmesbury and first bishop of Sherborne, 
in England. Died May 25, 709. He was 
a near relative of Ina, East-Saxon king. 
Abbot during 30 years, he was consecrated 
bishop in 705. His poetical and prose 
works were published by J. A. Giles 
(Oxford), 1844. 

Adelheid (ST.) (931-999). Widow of 
Lothaire, king of Italy. She married the 
Emperor, Otho the Great and governed 
the empire with great success during the 
minority of her nephew, Otho III. F- 
Dec. 16. 

Adelphians. See EUCHITES. 

Ademar of Chabannes. Monk of St. 
Cybard of Angouleme, then of St. Martial 
of Limoges (988-1030) ; author of a his 
tory of the Franks, published for the first 
time by Labbe, and which extends to the 
year 1029. 

Adeodat (A Deo ctcttus), POPE (672- 
676). He was a monk of Rome, fought 
zealously for the Catholic faith against the 
Monothelites. Since some call a former 
Pope, Deusdedit (615-618) also Adeodat, 
he is sometimes called Adeodat II. 

Adiaphorists. Name given in the six 
teenth century to those Lutherans, who 
ranked themselves on the side of Melanch- 
thon, whose opinions, more mitigated than 
those of Luther, approached nearer the 
Catholic belief. 

Adonai (Hebr. lord, sovereign, mas 
ter). Habitual name of which the Jews 
made use to designate God, not daring to 
pronounce his proper name which is Je 
hovah. They claim that the latter name 
was pronounced only once a year, on the 
day of expiation, by the high-priest, in 
the Holy of Holies. 

Adoptionism. Theological doctrine. 
Adoptionists was the name given to the 
followers of Elipandus. archbishop of 
Toledo, and of Felix, bishop of Urgel 
(about 770), according to whom Christ, in 
His humanity, is only the adoptive Son of 
God, and not His real Son. The Adop 
tionists of the eighth century attributed 



ADORATION 



12 



ADULTERY 



natural Sonship to the Logos alone, the 
Man Christ being only son by adoption. 
Their doctrine, a badly disguised form of 
Nestorianism, was condemned by Pope 
Adrian I. and the Council of Frankfort 
(792), denning that Christ as man is, by 
reason of His personality, which is the 
personality of the Word Incarnate, the 
true and natural, and not the adopted, Son 
of God. 

Adoration. See WORSHIP. 

Adoration (Perpetual}. Permanent ex 
position of the Blessed Sacrament, in the 
same Church, or successively, in several 
Churches. 

Adoration (Religious of The}. Anne 
of Austria, mother of Louis XIV., desir 
ous of promoting the perpetual adoration 
of the Blessed Sacrament, tried to found, 
with the assistance of Catharine of Bar, 
surnamed Sister of the Blessed Sacrament 
and Abbess of the Benedictines of Ram- 
bervillers, in Lorraine, a distinct con 
gregation (1654). With the cooperation of 
the king and prelates it was erected, ap 
proved at first by Papal legates and finally 
by Pope Innocent XI. (1676). Clem 
ent XI. drew up its constitution in 1705, 
and called from France some religious to 
Rome, where they established a convent. 
The religious of the Adoration (adorici} 
wore the emblem of the Blessed Sacrament 
upon their breasts. 

Adramelech. i. Son of Sennacherib,king 
of Assyria, who, upon returning to Ninive, 
after his fatal expedition against Ezechias, 
was killed by his two sons, Adramelech 
and Sarasar, who fled to the mountains 
of Armenia, 713 B. c. 2. Adramelech, one 
of the gods adored by the inhabitants of 
Sepharvaim, who settled in Samaria, whose 
inhabitants had been banished beyond the 
Euphrates. 

Adrian (name of six Popes). Adrian 
I. (772-795). Appealed to Charlemagne 
against Desiderius, king of the Lombards; 
received Charlemagne at Rome, named him 
Patrician and obtained from him the con 
firmation of the donations made by Pepin 
the Short to the Holy See. He presided 
by his legates over the Second Council of 
Nice, in 787. Adrian II. (867-872). He 
deposed Photius, but could not hinder the 
Schism of the East. Adrian III. Pope 
only one year (884-885). Adrian IV. 
(1154-1159). He was a man of great 



virtue, famed for learning and re 
markable eloquence. He had to flee from 
Rome to escape the adherents of Arnold 
of Brescia; returned thither under the 
protection of Frederick Barbarossa, after 
the death of Arnold ; successively upheld 
a legitimate war against William of Sicily. 
The supposed Bull of Adrian IV., purport 
ing to grant the investiture of Ireland to 
Henry II., of England, from the latest 
researches on the subject, must be pro 
nounced a forgery. Adrian V. A na 
tive of Genoa ; was Pope only one month 
(1276). Adrian VI. (1522-1523). A 
humble, but learned and holy priest of 
Utrecht, who had formerly been the pre 
ceptor of Charles V. He took up, with 
great earnestness, the subject of reform 
within the Church, and devoted all his 
energy to the religious pacification of 
Germany. Seeing all his cherished pro 
jects frustrated by human malice, Adrian 
died, it is said, of excessive grief. 

Adollam. The name of the cave in 
which David and his followers found ref 
uge from the vengeance of Saul (I. Ki. 
xxii. i, 2). 

Adultery. Violation of the conjugal 
union. The punishments for this grave 
offense have been severe or moderate in 
various countries and ages, mainly de 
pending on the state of morality of society. 
Among the Jews the adulteress was pun 
ished more severely than the adulterer; the 
guilty one was stoned to death. In India, 
the Code of Mann, enjoined the severest 
punishments; the woman was cast to the 
dogs and the man was burned on a bed of 
hot iron. At Athens, the laws of Solon de 
clared it legitimate on the part of the hus 
band to kill the paramour if found in the 
act ; the husband should repudiate his wife, 
and she could not again appear in public 
except when dressed in the coarsest gar 
ments, and her entering the temples was for 
bidden. In Rome, under the Republic, the 
husband, in certain cases, was permitted 
to kill the paramour, and the father might 
sometimes kill both. The corruption of 
morals at the end of the Republic prompted 
Augustus to publish a special edict for the 
suppression of adultery, the famous law, 
Julia, de adultcriis coerccndis, which for 
the first time in Rome, considered adultery 
a public crime, imposed special penalties, 
consisting of forfeiture of goods and ban 
ishment, both on the adulteress and the 
paramour. Among the Barbarians, in the 



ADVENT 



AEGIDIUS COLONNA 



Middle Ages, adultery was sometimes pun 
ishable by death, or ignominious chastise 
ments. In modern times, the legislation 
on adultery is more lenient. The adul 
teress was often condemned to be locked 
up in a convent and wear secular garments 
for two years, during which time the 
husband could receive her back, but if 
the time passed and the husband deter 
mined not to receive her, she was con 
demned to be shorn of her hair and veiled 
for life. In English law, the act is punish 
able only by ecclesiastical censure. A 
civil action for damages by the common 
law may be brought by the husband 
against the adulterer. This is called an 
action for "criminal conversation," and is 
also a ground for divorce. In some of the 
States, adultery is a crime, while in others 
it is the same as in the English law, only 
civil proceedings being allowed. Adultery, 
proved before an ecclesiastical court, ap 
pointed by the bishop, the latter may decree 
continual separation from bed and board. 
The Greek Church, as well as the Protes 
tant, may dissolve the marriage union, so 
that the parties are individually at liberty 
to marry again. See MARRIAGE. 

Advent (Lat. Adventus arrived}. 
The time appointed by the Catholic Church 
to prepare for the feast of Christmas the 
coming of Christ the Son of God. The 
season of Advent is as ancient in the 
Church as is the feast of Christinas. This 
we know by a decree of the Council of 
Saragossa (380). It is a time during 
which we should prepare ourselves through 
prayer, fasting, etc., for the spiritual arri 
val of Jesus Christ; hence, the word Ad 
vent. This season is also known as the 
Lent of Christmas, for, indeed, in former 
times, the faithful fasted forty days. In 
certain Churches they fasted every day, 
from the day following the feast of St. 
Martin(Nov. n), on which they rejoiced, 
as they still do in many countries the day 
before Lent. In others, Advent began in 
the month of November, but they fasted 
only three times a week, which did not 
always comprise forty days of fast. There 
are yet other differences regarding the 
duration and manner of spending the time 
of Advent, as we can see from the ancient 
commentaries. It is many years since the 
season of Advent has ceased to be a time 
of fast and abstinence for all the members 
of the Church throughout the world. 
To-day, only certain religious orders follow 



the ancient custom. For the Catholics in 
the United States, the general rule for 
fast and abstinence during the time of 
Advent is only on Friday. All nuptial 
solemnities or festivals are prohibited dur 
ing Advent. 

Adventists. A Protestant sect chiefly 
found in the United States. It was founded, 
in 1833, in New York and Boston, by 
William Miller (born at Pittsfield, Massa 
chusetts, in 1782). The distinctive char 
acteristic of the sect is the belief in the 
speedy advent or second coming of Christ. 
At first, most of them believed in various 
dates fixed for the second coming of Christ 
from 1843 to 1861, but afterward aban 
doned the attempt to determine the date. 
There are several divisions or sects of Ad 
ventists, the principal of which are : the 
Advent (or Second-Advent) Christians, 
the most numerous; the Seventh-Day Ad 
ventists not so numerous, but better organ 
ized ; and the Evangelical Adventists, the 
least numerous. The members of the first 
believe in the final annihilation of the 
wicked, which those of the other two reject. 
The second observe the seventh day as the 
Sabbath, and believe in the existence of the 
spirit of prophecy among them ; they 
maintain missions in various parts of the 
world, and a large institution at Battle 
Creek, Michigan, their headquarters. 
William Miller died in 1849. 

Advocates of St. Peter. The name of 
a society of Jurists and Counselors-at-law, 
formed on the occasion of the Golden 
Jubilee of Pope Pius IX. as Bishop. The 
object of this union is to combat the at 
tacks against the Catholic religion, to 
defend the rights of the Church and es 
pecially those of the Holy See. Pope Leo 
XIII. confirmed the statutes of the society 
by a Brief dated July 5, 1878. 

Advocate of the Devil. A phrase ap 
plied in the Church to a person whose 
business it is to magnify the faults, or de 
tract from the merits, of those who are 
proposed for canonization as saints. He 
is opposed to "God s Advocate." An 
Advocate of the Devil nearly succeeded in 
preventing the canonization of St. Charles 
Borromeo. 

jEdesius. See FRUMENTIUS. 

^Egidius Colonna. Died in 1316. A 
monk of the Augustinian Order and a dis 
tinguished disciple of St. Thomas Aqui 
nas. He taught philosophy in Paris and was 



AELANA 



AGAG 



preceptor to the sons of Philip III. Gen 
eral of his Order from 1292 to 1295; Arch 
bishop of Bourges, in 1296. Surnamed 
"Doctor Fundatissimus." He left quite 
a number of philosophical and theological 
works. 

JElana. Ancient city of Arabia, on the 
Red Sea, whence the vessels of Solomon 
departed for Ophir, about 20 miles north 
of Sinai. 

JEneas Sylvius. See Pius II. 

./Erians. Heretics of the fourth cen 
tury, who derived their name from ^Erius, 
an Arian priest of Sebaste. He main 
tained the equality of bishops and priests, 
rejected prayers for the dead and observ 
ance of Easter, and all appointed feasts, 
as Jewish superstitions. 

^Etius. Heretic of the fourth century; 
was a deacon of Antioch. His followers 
were called ^Etians. From his denial of 
the Divinity of Christ, yEtius was sur- 
named the "Atheist." At the instigation 
of the Semi-Arians, he was banished under 
Constantius, but recalled under Julian, and 
made bishop. yEtius died in 370. 

Affinity. According to the laws of the 
Church, affinity is a relationship con 
tracted between a man and his wife s 
kindred and between a wife and her hus 
band s kindred. Baptism establishes a 
spiritual affinity between the godfather 
and the godmother on the one hand, and 
their godchildren on the other, and the 
parents of the latter. See MARRIAGE, 
MATRIMONY. 

Afire ( DENIS- AUGUSTE) (1793-1848). 
Archbishop of Paris, a man of benevo 
lence and learning, who did much to im 
prove education in his country. While 
endeavoring to mediate in the disturbances 
of 1848, he was mortally wounded by the 
insurgents. 

Africa ( Evangelization of ) . The 
Christian faith was carried into Africa, 
during the first century, probably, by St. 
Matthew, who passes for having evangel 
ized Ethiopia, but certainly by St. Mark, 
who founded the great Church of Alexan 
dria. As to Carthage and the northern 
coast of the African continent, they re 
ceived the faith through the intermediary 
of Rome in the course of the second cen 
tury, if not sooner. During the years 200- 
230 the Christian religion was extremely 



flourishing in those countries. Unfortu 
nately, the venom of heresy was early spread 
there by the Donatists, the Pelagians, the 
Arians, etc. Afterward came Mohammed 
anism. However, Christianity always 
preserved some disciples there, and espe 
cially since the conquest of Algiers, Rome 
has sent there numerous missionaries, 
founded bishoprics and apostolic prefec 
tures, who powerfully second the civiliza 
tion carried there by France. Algeria, the 
largest and most important of the colonial 
possessions of France, contains upw r ard of 
380,000 Catholics, nearly all French, Span 
ish and Italian emigrants, distributed 
among three sees the Archdiocese of 
Algiers, and the suffragan sees of Oran 
and Constantine. The ancient Archbishop 
ric of Carthage, which was re-established 
in 1884, and includes the former vicariate 
of Tunis, has a Catholic population of 
50,000, while the prefectures of Tripoli and 
Morocco count together some 1 1,500 Cath 
olics. The rest of Africa is fringed around 
on both coasts with Catholic missions, 
which are rapidly developing and extend 
ing over the whole of the "Dark Conti 
nent." Where forty years ago existed 
only two bishoprics (Loanda and the Two 
Guineas), there are to-day fifteen vicariates 
and fourteen prefectures apostolic, man 
aged by missionaries of Algiers, Fathers of 
the Holy Ghost, Jesuits, Lazarists, and other 
religious Orders. Adding to these the 
bishoprics of Northern Africa (including 
Egypt), and those of the islands of Ma 
deira and St. Thomas, the Azores, Canaries, 
and Cape de Verde islands, we obtain 
thirty-two dioceses or vicariates. and seven 
teen prefectures apostolic, with a Catholic 
population of over 2,642,000. This includes 
the prefectures of Madagascar and May- 
otta, the vicariate of the Seychelles, and 
the bishoprics of St. Denis and Port Louis 
in the islands of Bourbon and Mauritius, 
respectively, which together have a Cath 
olic population of more than 400,000. The 
mission of Madagascar, which dates from 
1855, contains some 42,000 Catholics in 
charge of French Jesuits. With a view to 
supplying the African missions with native 
priests, colleges have been founded at 
Cairo, Brussels, Louvain, and in Malta, in 
which young negroes are educated for the 
clerical state. 

Agag. King of the Amalecites, con 
quered by Saul, who spared him, in spite 
of the order of the Lord ; but put him to 



AGAPAE 



AGNES 



death when Samuel reproached him for his 
disobedience. 

Agapae. The Agapse were feasts or 
repasts held by the early Christians before 
the celebration of the mystery of the 
Blessed Eucharist, in which the rich sat 
with the poor at the same table, in com 
memoration of the Last Supper when 
Christ instituted the Blessed Eucharist. 
The Agapse, however, gave rise to some 
abuses from the beginning, as St. Paul 
points out in his First Epistle to the Cor 
inthians (xi. 20-21.) Later, on account of 
the disorders which they occasioned, the 
Council of Carthage (397) suppressed them 
altogether. The Agapae owed their ori 
gin to the fact, that all the faithful, who 
wished to partake of the Sacrament of the 
Eucharist, brought bread and wine into 
the assembly. They consecrated only 
what was needed, the remainder being 
distributed among those who assisted. A 
trace of this custom still lingers in some 
countries, that is, in the distribution of 
blessed bread, after the Offertory. 

Agapetae. In the primitive Church, 
virgins, who, without making any vows, 
lived in common or assisted the ecclesias 
tics in the service of the Church and the 
relief of the poor. Some scandal arose 
from these communities and the Councils 
abolished the Agapetse about the fourth 
century. 

Agapetae. A sect of Gnostics which 
appeared about A.D. 395, and was princi 
pally composed of women, who went as 
tray on an exaggerated interpretation of 
the principle, that "to the pure all things 
are pure." 

Agapetus (name of two Popes ). 5Y. 
Agapetus I. Pope, successor to John II. 
in 535, died in 536. To obtain peace ac 
cording to the request of Theodat, king of 
the Ostrogoths, he went to see Emperor 
Justinian ; refused to ordain Anthimus for 
the bishopric of Constantinople, because 
he was Eutychian ; consecrated Mennas, 
with the title of patriarch. Agape tus II. 
Successor to Martin II. from 946 to 956. 

Agareneans. Name given in the sev 
enth century to the apostate Christians in 
Arabia who had embraced the religion of 
Mohammed; also, to the Arabians, de 
scendants of Ismael, son of Agar. 

Agatha (ST.). Born at Palermo, Sicily, 
was martyred on Feb. 5th, 251, at Catanea, 



during the persecution of Decius. Quin- 
tianus, the governor of Sicily, seeing his 
love for her repudiated, took revenge by 
accusing her of being a Christian, and 
caused her to suffer most cruel torments. 
She was scourged, burned with hot irons, 
torn with hooks, and then placed on a bed 
of live coals and glass. From all these 
tortures St. Agatha went forth triumphant, 
and finally died in her prison. The in 
habitants of Catanea invoke her, especially 
during an outbreak of Mount ^Etna. F. 
Feb. 5 th. 

Agatho (Sx.) Pope (678-681). Born at 
Palermo, Sicily. His legates presided at 
the Sixth Ecumenical Council (Constanti 
nople), which condemned Monothelism, in 
the year 680, and which had assembled at 
the request of Constantine IV.(Pogonatus), 
to whom the Pope had written a re 
markable letter to refute the new heresy. 
F. Jan. loth. 

Age (canonical). The canonical age is 
the number of years attained by a person 
from birth and required by Canon Law, to 
be eligible for certain duties, responsi 
bilities, callings and sacred offices. Such, 
as for instance, the age of reason; the age 
at which a person may receive the sacra 
ments ; to observe such or such precept ; to 
exercise a certain function. 

Agelli (ANTHONY). Hellenist, and 
Theatine religious ; director of the Vatican 
printing institute. Bishop of Acerno, in 
1693; DUt soon resigned his office and re 
turned to his monastery, where he died 
in 1608. Author of esteemed commen 
taries on Holy Scripture. 

Agenda {dispute concerning the}. In 
1816, the king of Prussia introduced a new 
Agenda for the Protestant divine service 
which gave rise to a general opposition in 
Prussia and in Baden, and which, instead 
of uniting, only spread the discord among 
the different factions of Protestantism. 

Aggeus (Hebr. feast, solemnity) One 
of the twelve minor Prophets; prophesied 
520 B. c. Was born during the Babylonian 
captivity. At the return, he exhorted the 
people to rebuild the temple, whose glory 
he foretold in announcing that the Messias 
would enter therein. 

Agnes (ST.). A Roman virgin and 
martyr, 12 or 13 years of age, beheaded 
during the reign of Diocletian. She was 
slain after having been exposed to the 



AGNOETAE 



16 



AlLERANUS 



vilest outrage in a brothel. F. Jan. 2ist. 
A magnificent Church was erected in her 
honor, at Rome, by Constantine the Great. 
There, every year on the feast of the saint, 
they bless two lambs, which Religious have 
carefully raised. The lambs wool serves 
to make the palliums which the sovereign 
Pontiff sends, as a sign of their jurisdic 
tion, to all the patriarchs and all the met 
ropolitans. 

Agnoetae (from the Gr. agnocin, to be 
ignorant). i. Name given to heretics 
of the fourth century, followers of Theo- 
phronius of Cappadocia, who attacked 
God s science on future, present and past 
things. 2. Sect of Eutychians in the 
sixth century, of which Themistius was 
the author. They maintained that Jesus 
Christ, as man. ignored certain things, 
and especially, the hour of the last judg 
ment. 

Agnus Dei (Lamb of God). i. Any 
image or representation of a lamb, which 
represents meekness. Symbolic name of 
Christ, the Redeemer of the world. 2. A 
prayer at Mass, before Communion. 3. 
A figure of a lamb stamped on the wax 
which remains from the paschal candles, 
and solemnly blessed by the Pope on the 
Thursday after Easter, in the first year 
of his Pontificate and then every seventh 
year. 4. A heart-shaped article of de 
votion, covered with woolen cloth or silk, 
to be worn about the person. 5. Part of 
the Mass between the Pater Noster and 
Communion where the celebrant says 
three times the words which St. John the 
Baptist said, when he pointed out Christ. 
This part of the Mass was introduced 
therein about the end of the seventh cen 
tury or the beginning of the eighth. 
Before this time, only the choir sang it. 

Agobard (ST.). Archbishop of Lyons, 
born very probably in Spain, in 779. We 
have esteemed treatises by him against the 
ordeals and judicial duels, against idola 
try, witchcraft, on the priesthood, etc. 
See his works in Migne s Pat. Lat., civ. 
Died in 840. F. June 6th. 

Agonistici (from the Gr. agonistika ; 
agonidzcin, to combat}. Name by which 
Donatus and his followers designated 
the preachers which they sent to spread 
their doctrine. 

Agricius (AGRCECIUS, ST.). Bishop of 
Treves in the fourth century; died about 
332. He was a cleric of the Church of 



Antioch, whom Pope St. Sylvester, at the 
request of the Empress St. Helena, sent to 
assure the conquests of Christianity at 
Treves. Agricius turned the palace of St. 
Helena into a metropolitan basilica and 
deposited therein precious relics which 
his illustrious protectress had intrusted to 
him. He rooted out the remainder of 
paganism at Treves and made the Chris 
tian religion flourish around him in Gaul, 
Belgium, and Germany. F. Jan. igth. 

Agricola (JOHN). See ANTINOMIANS. 

Agrippa. Name of two of the Herodian 
family. i. A grandson of Herod the 
Great, was raised by Caligula from a prison 
to a throne, and ultimately became king 
of all Palestine. He affected to be a Phari 
see, and to please the Jews he caused St. 
James to be beheaded, and threw St. Peter 
into prison, whence he was miraculously 
delivered. But the king, shortly after 
ward, died a miserable death (Acts xii., 
etc.). 2. A son of the former, who several 
years after his father s death was made 
tetrarch of northern Palestine with the 
title of king. It was before him that 
St. Paul made his famous defense (Acts 
xxvi.). After the fall of Jerusalem he re 
tired to Jerusalem, where he died about 
100 A. D., the last of the race of Herod 
commemorated in history. See HEROD. 

AguirrefJosEPH S^ENZ). Spanish Bene 
dictine, professor of theology at Sala 
manca, then cardinal ; born at Logrono, 
1630; died at Rome, 1699. The most im 
portant of his works is the Collection of 
tlie Councils of Spain, Rome, (4 vol. in fol. 
1693-1694). Bossuet called him "the light 
of the Church, the model of morals, the 
example of piety." 

Aidan (ST.). Irish monk of Hy or lona, 
then Bishop of Lindisfarne (Holy Island). 
By his prudence, conciliating disposition, 
and affable manners, he won the hearts and 
gained the souls of his barbarous people. 
Aidan, following the practice of his 
country, erected a monastery by the side 
of his cathedral, on the island of Lindis 
farne. Between Aidan and King Oswald, 
there always existed the warmest sympathy 
and the most intimate friendship. Aidan 
died in 651. The Church reveres him as 
a martyr, and the English nation, as one of 
its most glorious saints. F. Aug. 3ist. 

Aileranus. Irish monk and ecclesias 
tical writer of the eighth century. He 



AlLLY 



ALB 



was superior of the convent school at 
Cluainerard, which was visited by thou 
sands of scholars ; on account of his extra 
ordinary erudition they surnamed him 
" The Wise." Of his writings, under which 
Gesta S. Pairitii are mentioned, the only 
one extant is his Intcrpretatio mystica 
de progenitoribus Christi ; it was pub 
lished together with the writings of St. 
Columban by Patricius Flemming (Ord. 
Minor., Louvain 1667, in fol.) and is also 
found in Biblioth. PP. Lugd. xii. 37; 
Migne, PP. Lot. Ixxx. 337. 

Ailly (PETER D ) (1350-1420). French 
prelate and theologian. Born at Com- 
piegne of a poor family. Chancellor of 
the University in 1389; confessor of Charles 
VI. ; Bishop of Puy, in 1395, then of 
Cambrai, in 1397. He did all in his power 
to extinguish the schism which then des 
olated the Church. In the Council of 
Pisa he energetically declared himself 
against the Hussites as well as for certain 
reforms. In regard to the latter subject 
he published his views in a work entitled, 
Libellus de emendatione Ecclcsice. His 
philosophical and theological doctrines 
are especially found in a Commentary on 
the. Book of Sentences, and in his work 
De Anima, which indicates a mitigated 
Nominalism. His vigorous logic caused 
him to be surnamed "The Eagle of 
France" and "The Hammer of Heretics." 

Aix-la-Chapelle. See AACHEN. 

A-Kempis (THOMAS) (1380-1471). 
Canon regular, born at Kempen, diocese 
of Cologne, died in the convent of Mount 
St. Agnes, near Zwoll, in the Upper 
Yssel. His principal occupation was to 
copy works of piety, and particularly the 
Bible. They have also attributed to him 
the incomparable work, which has for 
title Imitation of Jesus Christ. Critics 
have claimed this honor for John Gerson, 
chancellor of the University of Paris, 
others for John Gerson, Abbot of Verceil. 
The Benedictine Celestin Wollsgruber, 
in his work Giovanni Gersen (1880), 
brings forth a peremptory argument 
against Thomas a Kempis; it is a manu 
script bearing the date of 1384, a time 
when Thomas a Kempis was 4 years old. 
Hence, he would be only a copyist and not 
the author of the Imitation. 

Akiba-Ben-Joseph. Jewish rabbi ; died 
in the year 135 A. D. During forty 
years he directed the Israelitic College of 

2 



Jasne or Tiberiades. Gave in a book the 
explanation of the tables of the law, and 
the first compilation of the Jewish tra 
ditions. It is to be regretted that he 
falsified some sacred texts, to prove that 
the Messias had not yet come. He em 
braced the cause of Barchochebas who 
passed himself for the Messias, was cap 
tured by the troops of Emperor Hadrian 
and flayed alive. 



Alanus-ab-Insulis(yl/rt/ de Lil 
1203). Learned ecclesiastic, born at Lille, 
France ; Abbot of Bivoux of the Order of 
Citeaux; Bishop of Auxerre, theologian, 
philosopher, literator and poet. His prin 
cipal works are: Regulac dc sacra, tlico- 
logia ars catholicae fidei ; Anticlaudianus 
(encyclopaedia); Liber par abolarum. Ac 
cording to some authors, Alanus ab Insulis 
would not have been Bishop of Auxerre. 

Alanus (ANGLICUS). An English can 
onist at the beginning of the thirteenth 
century, compiled a collection of Papal 
Decrees of the twelfth century, which com 
pleted that of Gilbert, his countryman, and 
was also soon united with it. 

Alb. Church vestment. The alb is 
an ample linen tunic reaching to the feet, 
and so called from the Latin word alba, 
tv/iife. Long garments were usually worn 
not merely in the States of ancient Greece 
and by the separate nations of the East, 
but throughout the Empire of Rome. 
Some, however, were plain and made of 
common stuff, as they were employed for 
ordinary use ; others were more costly, 
and used exclusively on days of religious 
ceremony and on state occasions. The 
priests and Levites, under the Mosaic dis 
pensation, were undistinguished in ordi 
nary life from the rest of society by any 
particular garments. They assumed, how 
ever, a different and official attire to 
distinguish them while discharging the 
functions of their sacred ministry. This, 
no doubt, the Church of Christ, together 
with several other things, borrowed from 
the synagogue. The Church has now 
consecrated the alb or linen tunic for the 
use of her priests, her deacons and her 
subdeacons, who are ministering at the al 
tar. The lower edge of the alb and the 
wrist bands were anciently ornamented 
with stripes of scarlet attached to them. 
A remnant of the scarlet border is still pre 
served by some of the religious orders, that 
trim the bottom and the sleeve-cuffs of the 



ALBAN 



18 



ALBIGENSES 



alb with lace, under which they attach 
scarlet silk. In the Middle Apes the alb 
was adorned with emblems embroidered in 
silk and gold, sometimes enriched with 
pearls and precious stones, or with four 
pieces of rich silken stuff, two at the 
wrists and two at the bottom, one in front 
and one behind. Still later the custom of 
contracting the alb, bv plating it in long 
folds, was introduced and is still observed. 
This long linen garment, which is called 
the alb in the Latin or Western Church, is 
also used among the Oriental Christians 
by priests, deacons, and subdeacons in the 
celebration of Mass. 

Alban (ST.). First English martyr, 
scion of a noble Roman family and lived 
as a highly esteemed citizen at Verulam in 
Britain (now St. Albans in Hertfordshire). 
St. Amphibalus, a learned and pious 
ecclesiastic, who had come to England at 
the beginning of the Diocletian persecu 
tion, and whom he had received in his 
house, gained him for Christ. When it 
became known that St. Alban concealed 
a messenger of the faith in his house, he 
exchanged clothing with him, in order 
to assure his flight and life. Hereupon 
our Saint was brought before the court, 
and as he refused to sacrifice to the idols, 
he was first scourged, then imprisoned 
and after half a year executed by the 
sword. Miracles glorified his death and 
moved many to accept the faith. These 
new converts, as well as St. Amphibalus, 
soon also died for the faith. After ten 
years (313) a Church was erected over the 
tomb of St. Alban, which became a much 
frequented place of pilgrimage. Alban 
died in the year 303. F. June 22d. 

Albanians (Conversion of the). See 
IBERIANS. 

Albanians. Heretics of the seventh cen 
tury, who appeared principally in Asiatic 
Albania and in the eastern part of Georgia. 
They had borrowed their doctrine from 
the Manicheans. 

Albert the Great (1193-1280). Born at 
Lauingen on the Danube ; died at Cologne. 
The most remarkable man of his time for 
varied acquirements was Albertus Magnus, 
the celebrated master of St. Thomas 
Aquinas. Born of a noble family, he stud 
ied at Paris, Padua and Bologna. Upon 
entering the Dominican Order, he was em 
ployed as teacher in various places, 
especially at Cologne. In 1260, he was 



unwillingly promoted to the bishopric of 
Ratisbon, which he relinquished after two 
years, when he returned to public teach 
ing. His contemporaries, marvelling at 
his extensive learning, called him the 
"Universal Doctor" and the "Second 
Aristotle." He left numerous works, which 
fill twenty-one folio volumes. 

Albigenses. Noted heretics of the 
sixteenth century, who multiplied rapidly 
in the neighborhood of Albi and in the 
country of Lower Languedoc, France, 
and named Albigenses by contemporary 
writers. Their doctrine was of Oriental 
origin, a mixture of Manicheism, Gnos 
ticism and Christianity. This heresy 
seems to have spread first in the Slav coun 
tries, then passed into Lombardy, from 
whence it penetrated into the southern 
parts of France, where it took deep root 
among the ignorant people. They called 
themselves Cathares, that is, the/re, and 
were condemned in the Council of Lom- 
bez, 1176, under the name Bans Homines, 
and again in the Lateran Council, 1179. 
However absurd their doctrines and pre 
tensions, they found protectors among 
many of the lords of the South, particu 
larly Raymond VI., Count of Toulouse, 
his nephew Raymond- Roger, vice-Count 
of Beziers and Carcassonne. After the as 
sassination of the papal legate, Peter de 
Castelnau (1208), Pope Innocent III. or 
dered a crusade in which the people of 
northern France took part. The crusaders, 
led by Simon de Montfort, took Beziers 
and then Carcassonne, in 1209. And in 
1213, they defeated the army of the Count 
of Toulouse and his ally Peter of Aragon, 
at Murat. But, in 1218, Simon de Mont- 
fort, to whom was given the earldom of 
Toulouse, was killed in the siege of that 
city, and Raymond VII. reconquered a 
part of the earldom of his father. In 1226, 
Louis VIII. directed a new expedition 
against the South, but he died after taking 
Avignon. Finally, in 1229, the Treaty of 
Maux put an end to these long wars ; the 
Count of Toulouse ceded to the king of 
France the senechals of Beaucaire and 
Carcassonne, and betrothed his daughter, 
heiress of most of his domains, to Al- 
phonse of Poitiers, brother of Louis IX. 
From this time little was said or done by 
the Albigenses, except, in 1243, at the siege 
of the Castle of Montsegur, in the diocese 
of Toulouse, where some of the sect had 
retreated. See BOGOMILES. 



ALCANTARA 



ALEXANDER 



Alcantara (Knights of). One of the 
three religious and military orders of 
Spain. It was founded in 1156. In 1218, 
King Alphonse VI. gave to it the city of 
Alcantara; hence its name. The order 
was suppressed in 1835 ; and to-day it is 
only an order of military merit. 

Alcuin (Lat. Albimts). Famous Anglo- 
Saxon scholar (725 or 735-804), born at 
York in England ; made the most brilliant 
studies in the Episcopal School of that city. 
He had for teachers the learned Aelbert, a 
disciple of the Venerable Bede, who taught 
all the branches of literature, science, and 
the fine arts, explained, simultaneously, 
the Greek and Latin authors, Holy 
Scripture and the Fathers of the Church. 
Alcuin, after having accompanied Aelbert 
in a voyage to Rome, became his successor. 
In 782, he became master of the school of 
the palace of Charlemagne and served as 
his general superintendent in educational 
affairs. At the Council of Frankfort, in 
794, he led the opposition to Adoptionism, 
which the council condemned; and at the 
synod of Aachen, in 799, he persuaded 
Felix, the leader of the Adoptionists, to 
recant (his second recantation). Alcuin 
wrote on a great variety of subjects, in 
cluding theology, history, grammar, rhet 
oric, orthography, dialectics, etc. The 
doctrine of Alcuin is very sound. 

Alexander (name of eight Popes). Al 
exander I. (109-117). Successor of Evar- 
istus, is counted among the martyrs. 
Alexander II. (1061-1073). Formerly 
Anselm, bishop of Lucca. He had given 
proof of his virtue, and of his zeal for 
clerical celibacy, while yet only a priest 
at Milan, where the practice of simony 
and marriage was quite general among 
the clergy. He boldly denounced clerical 
corruptions, especially against the anomaly 
of a married clergy. He had to wrestle 
with the anti-pope Honorius II., upheld by 
Henry IV., Emperor of Germany, and 
opposed himself to the persecutions of 
the Jews, in France. Alexander III. 
(1159-1181). Formerly Cardinal Roland 
of Siena. He was opposed by three anti- 
popes : Victor IV., Pascal III., and Calix- 
tus III., willing instruments of Emperor 
Frederick s ambitious designs. He pro 
nounced excommunication against the 
emperor, the anti-popes, and their adher 
ents. Strict Catholics no longer regarded 
Frederick Barbarossa as emperor, and 
looked upon Alexander III. as the only se 



cure asylum of the liberties of the Church. 
The contest between the Pope and the 
emperor ended in the decisive defeat of 
the latter at the battle of Legnano, May 
2gth, 1176. In 1177 a reconciliation took 
place at Venice, and in 1178 the anti-pope, 
Calixtus III. abdicated. Pope Alexander 
III., in order to remedy the evils produced 
by the late schism, convoked, in 1179, the 
Third Lateran, or Eleventh Ecumenical 
Council. Alexander IV. (12541261). 
Formerly Bishop of Ostia ; opposed him 
self to the encroachments in Italy of Man 
fred, natural son of Barbarossa, and made 
efforts for the reunion of the Greek and 
Latin Churches. Alexander V. (1409- 
1410). Formerly Archbishop of Milan; 
he was elected by the Council of Pisa, 
after the deposition of Benedict XIII. and 
Gregory XII., with the understanding 
that he would reform the abuses of the 
Church. Alexander VI. (1492-1503). 
The Pontificate of Alexander VI. was a 
time of degradation for the Holy See, and 
a calamity to the Church. This Pope was 
of the Borgia family, and his mother was a 
sister of Calixtus III. When he became 
Pope he made his nephew, then a military 
officer, Bishop of Valencia, and shortly 
after created him cardinal and vice-chan 
cellor of the Roman Church. Before his 
elevation to the Papacy, he became the 
father of four children, by a Roman lady 
of noble family. His election to the Pa 
pacy was accomplished by bribery. Alex 
ander possessed, indeed, all the qualities 
of an able and valiant ruler, but utterly 
lacked the virtues of a Pontiff. When 
raised to the Papacy, he availed himself of 
every means to enrich and elevate his fam 
ily. He formed a league with the King 
of Naples, against Charles VIII. of France, 
who laid claim to the Neapolitan Crown. 
It was under the reign of this Pope that 
the eloquent, but eccentric Dominican, 
Jerome Savonarola, made war upon tem 
poral rulers, including the Pope, de 
nouncing their corruption and excesses. 
Alexander s Pontificate was contemporary 
with the Discovery of America, by Chris 
topher Columbus, and one of the Pope s 
first acts was the publication of a Bull, 
known as the "Bull of Partition," which 
provided for the propagation of the Chris 
tian faith in the recently discovered re 
gions, or regions to be discovered in the 
future, between Spain and Portugal. A 
Bull of this Pontiff, forbidding the publica 
tion of new books, without the approbation 



ALEXANDER OF ALEXANDRIA 20 



ALEXANDRIA 



of the ecclesiastical authority, tended tc 
check the spread of heretical and other 
obnoxious writings. 

The hatred entertained for the rule of 
Alexander VI. led men to charge him with 
imaginary crimes, and to greatly exagger 
ate his real failings. The horrible crimes 
of which this Pope and his children, es 
pecially Lucretia, stand accused were but 
the inventions of malice; these atrocious 
calumnies, as W. Roscoe, an eminent Pro 
testant historian, has shown, are traceable 
to the revengeful journalists of the day. 
The implacable hostility of the Reformers, 
and the resentment of France, because of 
the political attitude of Alexander VI. to 
that country, have contributed, not a little, 
to blacken his memory. Besides, the 
deeds of violence committed by Caesar 
Borgia in the Pope s name, added much 
to bring disgrace on his father s Pontifi 
cate. Yet enough is known, which com 
pels us to acknowledge that the elevation 
of Alexander VI. was disgraceful, and his 
government calamitous. But the errors 
of his private life never affected his con 
duct as Pope. He made several wise de 
crees and patronized learning; in his 
many constitutions, he never taught or 
commanded anything contrary to faith 
and morals. Alexander VII. (16^-1667). 
Formerly Cardinal Chigi, was a man of 
great talents and virtues. The arbitrary 
proceedings of Louis XIV. of France 
against the Holy See, gave Alexander 
much annoyance and greatly embittered 
his life. It was in his Pontificate that the 
Swedish Queen, Christina, daughter of 
Gustavus Adolphus, abjured Lutheranism, 
and, sacrificing her crown, embraced the 
Catholic faith. Alexander confirmed the 
Bull of his predecessor, Innocent X., against 
the five propositions of Jansenius. Alexan 
der VIII. (1689-1691). A Pontiff highly 
extolled for his moderation and prudence, 
obtained from Louis XIV. the restoration 
of Avignon, which had been occupied by 
the French under the preceding Pontificate. 
Published the Bull " Intermultiplices" 
against the four articles of the French clergy 
of 1682, which proclaimed Gallicanism. 

Alexander of Alexandria (Sx.). Patri 
arch of Alexandria, combated the heresy 
of Arius, whom he caused to be con 
demned in the Council of Nice (325), and 
died in the year 328. F. Feb. 26th. 

Alexander of Hales. Born in Glouces 
tershire, England ; was one of the great 



est theologians that the Middle Ages 
produced. He was reared in the monas 
tery of Hales, where he derived his sur 
name, while he received his higher 
education at Oxford and Paris. In 1222 
he became a Franciscan monk, and was 
the first of his order that lectured in the 
University of Paris, where he taught phi 
losophy and theology with great success. 
Of the Schoolmen, Alexander was the 
earliest acquainted with all the works of 
Aristotle, whose philosophy he was also 
the first to apply to the treating and solv 
ing of theological questions. Besides his 
commentary on the Mctapf/vsic?. of Aris 
totle, the first of the kind on that work, he 
constructed, by order of Pope Innocent 
IV., a Sum of Theology, which, having 
been examined by a committee of seventy 
doctors, was recommended by the Pope 
as a complete manual to all masters and 
students of theology. On account of his 
extensive and deep erudition, his contem 
poraries called him the "Irrefragable 
Doctor" and the " Monarch of the Theolo 
gians." He died in 1245. 

Alexander (ST.). Surnamed the "coal- 
seller" ; lived poor at Comana, Italy, was 
named bishop of that city about the year 
248. He discharged his office with as 
much zeal as prudence, and died for the 
faith. The year of his death is unknown. 
F. Aug. nth. 

Alexander (ST.) (317-337 or 340). 
Patriarch of Constantinople, had to wrestle 
against Arianism. He was the first that 
insisted on the convocation of a General 
Council. In the year 336, when it was ex 
pected that Arius with his followers would 
be solemnly introduced into the Church of 
Constantinople, Alexander prayed to God 
either to let him die or hinder such a scan 
dal from his Church. God listened to his 
prayers ; Arius died suddenly during the 
procession. Alexander occupied the See 
of Constantinople during 23 years. F. 
Aug. 28th. 

Alexander (ST.). Bishop of Jerusalem ; 
he left to that city a beautiful library, was 
the defender of Origen, and died in prison, 
under the Emperor Decius, in 251. F. 
March i8th. 

Alexandria (Councils of). The Church 
held several -Councils at Alexandria 
(Egypt) in the early ages of Christianity. 
The first two (230 and 231) condemned 
Origen. The Council of 320 condemned 



ALEXANDRIA 



21 



ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOLS 



Arianism, one hundred bishops uniting in 
judgment. In that of 339, the Egyptian 
bishops declared themselves in favor of St. 
Athanasius, driven away by the Eusebians. 
The Council held about the end of 430 by St. 
Cyril, condemned Nestorianism. Finally, 
in that of 633, the Patriarch Cyrus tried to 
reconcile the Theodosians, a sect of the 
Monophysites, with the Church. 

Alexandria (Patriarchate of). The 
Alexandrian patriarchate is held by the 
Monophysite heretics (Copts), since the 
dominion of the Saracens, in the seventh 
century. The schismatic Greeks have a 
patriarchate of Alexandria at Cairo. In 
November, 1895, Ppe Leo XIII. created a 
patriarch styled " Patriarch of Alexandria 
of the Copts," to govern the Catholics of 
that country. See COPTS. 

Alexandrian Christian School. This 
School was one that shed a luster on the 
early Christians of the East. Amidst the 
storms of persecution, the Christian youth 
thronged its academic halls to drink the 
teaching which fell from the eloquent lips 
of Origen or St. Clement. The teachers, 
in order to meet the votary of Plato 
or Aristotle on his own ground, were 
compelled to study the subtilities of both; 
they were obliged to mingle with the 
elementary and catechetical, teaching 
more scientific lessons on Christianity, 
and ended in giving a complete doc 
trine on the whole of the philosoph 
ical sciences. The latter was made to 
shine from light borrowed chiefly from the 
former. Side by side with theology, they 
taught the Platonic and Aristotelian philo 
sophies. At that period, Plato was in the 
ascendant, and exclusive partiality for 
Plato betrayed the eloquent Origen into 
some errors and extravagances. Besides 
these, geometry, rhetoric, grammar, etc., 
were amongst the regular courses of in 
struction, and all molded to the Christian 
standard. The Christian School of Alex 
andria did produce illustrious represent 
atives: Athenagoras, Clement, Origen, 
Dionysius, Peter the Martyr, Didymus the 
Blind, Athanasius, Cyril, etc. One dis 
tinguishes between the ancient (St. Clem 
ent, Origen) and the later school of 
Alexandria (Sts. Athanasius, Cyril) ; the 
first had to combat Gnosticism, the second 
Nestorianism. 

Alexandrian Library. History and tra 
dition assures us that the Alexandria 



Library was the most famous and valuable 
one of antiquity. It was founded by 
Ptolemy Soter, and during its most flour 
ishing period, it is said to have contained 
400,000, or, according to another authority, 
700,000 volumes or rolls. During the siege 
of Alexandria by Julius Caesar (48 B.C.) 
a great deal of the library was destroyed 
by fire ; but it was partly restored by Mark 
Antony. A second library of 43,000 vol 
umes was kept in the Serapeum, the 
temple of Jupiter Serapis, which for the 
most part were ordinary works ; the most 
valuable collection was stored in the Mu 
seum, in the quarter called Brucheium. 
During a revolt in 391, a portion of the 
library was destroyed, but at the taking of 
Alexandria by the Arabians, under the 
Calif Omar (641), the remainder was com 
pletely ruined. Orosius, a writer of the 
fourth century, and some modern infidel 
writers, would fain accuse the Christians 
under Archbishop Theophilus of destroy 
ing the library, but if this were the case, 
the library would have ceased to exist two 
hundred and fifty years before the Arabs 
fired and sacked Alexandria, which was 
not the case. 

Alexandrian Schools. After the decline 
of literature and art in Greece, Alexandria 
in Egypt became one of the most brilliant 
centers of antique civilization. Under the 
Ptolemies, founders of the Library, Mu 
seum, and other munificent improvements, 
a vast field of intellectual wealth arose 
from this center. The first school of 
Alexandria (323-30 B.C.) consisted prin 
cipally of savants, grammarians, and poets. 
There it was that the first inquiries were 
made about human anatomy, in which the 
illustrious names of Erasistratus and 
Herophilus shine forth. From these halls 
Galen went forth equipped to practice the 
healing art. Euclid founded the school 
of mathematics which produced an Ar 
chimedes, Eratosthenes, Aristarchus of 
Samos, and later on Claudius, Ptolemaeus, 
Diophantus, and Pappus. The school of 
grammarians, were both philologists and 
literateurs, in the sense that they ex 
plained things as well as words; they 
devoted themselves to the critical study of 
the texts of antiquity, particularly to re 
vising the poems of Homer and preserving 
corrected texts of the earlier Greek poetry 
for future generations. The most noted 
of this school were Philetas, Zenodotus, 
Aristophanes of Byzantium, Aristarchus 



ALEXIANS 



22 



ALLELUIA 



of Samothracia, Crates of Mallus, Diony- 
sius the Thracian, etc. 

In the second century of the Christian 
era, Apollonius Dyscolus summed up, in 
a series of treatises, the grammatical 
science such as it was understood in his 
time. From the attention paid to the 
study of language, correctness, purity and 
elegance of expression followed. Of the 
poetic school, may be mentioned Philetas, 
Aratus, Callimacus, Asclepiades of Samos, 
Apollonius of Rhodes, Euphorion, Lyco- 
phron, and, before all, Theocritus. The 
second School of Alexandria, which ex 
tended from the fall of the Ptolemies 
(30 B. c.), to the Arab conquest (A. D. 640), 
was especially one of philosophers, who 
undertook to unite the mystic doctrines of 
the Orient with the principles of Greek 
philosophy, particularly to the ideas of 
Pythagoras and Plato. The distinguished 
names of this eclectic or syncretic school 
were Ammonius Saccas, Philo the Jew, 
Photinus, Porphyry, Jamblicus, and 
Proclus. The amalgamation of the reli 
gious notions of the East with Greek 
dialectics, represent the struggle of an 
cient civilization with Christianity, and 
gave rise to the system of the Gnostics 
which was elaborated in Alexandria, 
against which the Christian Fathers of 
the Church of Alexandria had to con 
tend. 

Alexians or Cellites. A religious Con 
gregation, who have chosen for their pa 
tron St. Alexius, distinguished for his 
great charity and self-denial. They are 
also called Cellites, from cella (tomb), be 
ing disposed and often destined to fill an 
early tomb. Owing to the nature of their 
vocation, they are called to care for the 
victims of all kinds of diseases, even the 
most loathsome and contagious. In many 
cities of Europe as well as in the United 
States, the Alexians have houses wherein 
they care for the sick and all that apply, 
without distinction of creed or nationality. 
The Alexians came to the United States in 
1867, and have now several houses in this 
country. 

Alfred the Great. King of the Anglo- 
Saxons from 871-901 ; was born in 849, 
in the Villa Wanading, in Berkshire. 
He w r as the youngest son of Ethelwulf, 
king of the West Saxons, succeeded on 
the death of his brother Ethelred to a 
throne threatened by invasion from with 
out and dissension within. His first 



care was to drive off the Danes, whom 
he is said to have encountered in fifty- 
six battles by land and sea. The great 
victory of Edington (878) led to the peace 
of Wedmore, and Alfred was thus for a 
time free to devote himself to the peaceful 
reform for which his name is renowned. 
Prominent among these are the establish 
ment of social order, the encouragement 
of learning, and the founding of a national 
fleet. Alfred was highly esteemed as a 
religious and industrious man, and a wise 
and learned king. He himself composed 
several works, among others a Collection 
of Chronicles ; translated into Anglo- 
Saxon the Church Historv of Bede, the 
Epitome of Paul Orosius, the Pas 
toral and the Dialogues of St. Gre 
gory, etc. Under him, England had 
become, by its clergy and monasteries, a 
center of Christian civilization. 

Algiers ( The Church in). See AFRICA; 
AUSTRALIA. 

Allatius (LEO) (1586-1669). Born on 
the island of Scio ; died in Rome. Scholar 
in the Greek College at Rome, he became 
a Catholic and Librarian of the Vatican in 
1661. Has left numerous and learned 
works on theology, archaeology and phil 
ology. His principal works are: De 
Ecclesiae occidentalis et orientalis perpetna 
consensione, wherein he proposes to prove 
that the Roman Church and the Greek 
Church have always been united in the 
same faith, De Libris ecclcsiasticis Grce- 
corum. 

Allegorical. Theologians generally dis 
tinguish two kinds of meaning in Holy 
Scripture: the literal and mystical mean 
ings. They subdivide the mystic sense 
into allegorical, tropological and anagogi- 
cal. The allegorical sense is that which 
results from the explanation of a thing 
accomplished literally, but which is, how 
ever, only a figure of another thing: thus 
the brazen serpent raised by Moses in the 
desert to heal the Israelites from their 
wounds, represented in an allegorical 
sense, Jesus Christ, raised up on the Cross 
for the redemption of mankind. 

Alleluia, is a Hebrew word which means 
Praise God! but at the same time ex 
presses an emotion, a joyous transport, 
that no Greek or Latin word is found 
capable of conveying. Wherefore it has 
been left unchanged. From the time of 
Pope Damasus, this word was introduced 



ALLEN 



ALMS 



from the Jerusalem Church into the Latin 
Church, and not from the Greek Church, 
as some authors falsely affirm. 

Allen (CARDINAL) (1532-1594). Born 
at Rossall ; died in Rome. To prevent 
the dying out of the true faith in England, 
Dr. William Allen, formerly principal of 
St. Mary s Hall, Oxford, opened, in 1568, 
a seminary in the new University of 
Douay, in order to train priests for Eng 
land. Aided by liberal contributions, he 
was enabled to send thither, in the course 
of five years, no fewer than a hundred 
missionaries. He was created cardinal, 
in 1587, and two years later, Archbishop of 
Malines, Belgium, but he never left Rome. 

Allies (THOMAS WILLIAM). English 
ecclesiastical writer, born at Bristol in 1813, 
became a convert to the Catholic Church 
in 1850. His principal works are : The 
English Church Purified from the Sin of 
Schism (before his conversion) ; The See 
of St. Peter (1850) ; Dr. Pusey and the 
Ancient Church; The Formation of Chris 
tendom. 

Allioli ( JOSEPH FRANZ) (1793-1873). 
Theologian and Catholic scholar, born at 
Sulzbach, in Bavaria; died at Augsburg. 
Priest and doctor in theology at Landshut, 
1816; professor of Holy Scripture in the 
University of Munich, 1825 ; Provost of 
the Chapter of Augsburg. We have of 
him a German translation and a Com 
mentary on the Bible; Biblical Antiqui 
ties; Manual of Biblical Arch (Eology ; On 
the Internal Motives of the Canonical 
Hours, etc. 

All-Saints Day (in old English All 
Halloivs). The feast of All Saints; is al 
ways held on the ist of November. This 
feast was instituted, not only to honor the 
Saints, as the friends of God, but also to 
return thanks to Him for the benefits He 
has deigned to bestow upon them the 
reward of eternal happiness, in order to 
animate us to imitate their virtues, and to 
obtain their intercession with God ; to ren 
der veneration to all the Saints we do not 
know in particular, but whose lives were 
consecrated to God alone. On the cessa 
tion of the persecutions of the Christians, 
Pope Boniface IV., in 607, dedicated the 
Pantheon, at Rome, to the Invocation of 
the Blessed Virgin Mary and all the Mar 
tyrs which caused this ancient temple of 
idols to be called : Our Lady of the 
Martyrs or of the Rotunda. Boniface 



appointed the I2th of May for the observ 
ance of this feast. About the year 731, 
Gregory III., consecrated a chapel in 
the Church of St. Peter, in honor of 
all the saints, which increased the sol 
emnity of the feast from that time on. 
Gregory IV., in 837, instituted the feast 
in France, under the reign of Louis the 
Kind, and appointed the ist of November 
for the celebration of the feast, which be 
came generally adopted. Father Men- 
ard has, however, proved that the observ 
ance had already taken place in several 
Churches, though there had not been a de 
cree published to that effect. The Greeks 
celebrate this festival on the Sunday after 
Pentecost. See PANTHEON. 

All-Souls Day. A day of devotion on 
which the Church solemnly commemo 
rates and prays for all the souls in purga 
tory, that they may be speedily released 
from their sufferings, and which takes 
place on the 2d of November. Amalarius, 
Deacon of Metz, has placed the Office of 
the Dead, in a work of the Ecclesiastical 
Offices, dedicated to Louis the Kind, in 
827. But it seems that this office was not 
performed for the dead in particular in 
the ninth century. St. Odilo, Abbot of 
Cluny, in 998, instituted in all the monas 
teries of his congregation, the feast of all 
the faithful departed, an Office for all in 
general. This devotion, approved by the 
Popes, soon spread all over the West. 

Almoner. i. An ecclesiastic attached 
to the personage of kings, princes, and 
bishops, to perform service in their chapels 
and distribute their alms. 2. An ecclesi 
astic charged with the religious service in 
certain bodies and certain establishments : 
Almoner of a regiment, of a hospital, of a 
college, etc. They are also called Chap 
lains. 

Alms. The records of pagan antiquity 
will be searched in vain for any institution 
to support those who are unable to main 
tain themselves. But the words of Christ, 
that he that gives a cup of cold water 
should not lose his reward (Matt. x. 42), 
that what was done to one of His least 
brethren was done to Him (Matt. xxv. 40), 
sank deep into the hearts of His disciples, 
and led in some cases to the community of 
goods described in the Acts of the Apos 
tles (ii. 44-46). The administration of 
relief was not without its difficulties (Acts 
vi. i), but the system was persevered in, 



ALOGI 



24 



ALTAR 



and became a regular part of the polity 
of the Church. St. Ambrose, in the sec 
ond of his three Books on the Duties of 
the Ministers of the Church, argues that 
even the consecrated vessels that serve for 
the use of the altar must be sold, when 
money is needed for the redemption of 
captives (Dc Off. 2, 28), and he tells the 
famous story of St. Lawrence, the deacon, 
who, being required to surrender the treas 
ures of the Church to the tyrant, pointed 
to the poor, by whose hands all his wealth 
had been carried to the storehouses of 
Heaven. 

Alogi. Heretics in the early Church. 
The Alogi denied the doctrine of St. John 
with regard to the Word (Logos), as well 
as the active co-operation of the Holy 
Ghost in all gratuitous gifts, but partic 
ularly that of prophecy. Not satisfied 
with unwarranted denials, the Alogi also 
changed the Biblical canon to suit their 
own purposes. 

Alpha and Omega. The first and last 
letters of the Greek alphabet. Thus 
united, they are employed by St. John in 
the Apocalypse (i. 8; xxii. 13; xxi. 6) to 
designate the divine wisdom, origin, and 
end of all things. The Alpha and Omega, 
the first and the last, the beginning and 
the end. These two letters were also used 
by the early Christians, as symbols of 
faith, and are sometimes found on coins, 
tombs, and Church vestments. 

Altar (Lat. altare, from altum, elevated, 
and ara, altar, a place for sacrifice). In 
ancient times, the altar was a sort of 
pedestal or table of stone, whereon offer 
ings were laid by both Jews and heathen. 
With the pagans, an altar was a hearth of 
stone, raised in a place before a temple or 
before an idol, but always in the open air, 
destined to burn thereon the flesh of the 
victims, and pour out wine, milk, honey 
and other kinds of libations. 

With the Christians, the altar is the 
table whereon is celebrated the sacrifice 
of the Mass. If we examine the various 
monuments of antiquity, we shall discover, 
that everywhere throughout the Christian 
world, from the apostolic era down to the 
present time, the same idea has prevailed 
that the temples of the Christian faith 
were erected for the express purpose of 
offering up, in their sanctuaries, the sac 
rifice of the body and blood of Jesus Christ, 
and that the table on which this offering 



was made became a true, a hallowed altar, 
while the spot on which it stood was re 
garded as a consecrated sanctuary, the holy 
of holies, of the New Testament, sacred 
from the tread of any other save the priest 
of God and his lawfully appointed minis 
ters. If we turn to the several liturgies in 
use throughout the universal Church we 
shall find that they clearly demonstrate 
both the existence and the necessity of an 
altar, for the purpose of the true and 
proper sacrifice peculiar to the Christian 
dispensation. With regard to the liturgy in 
use throughout the Latin Church, the cor 
rectness of this assertion is so conspicuous, 
and such obvious proofs present them 
selves in every page of the Roman Missal, 
that we do not need to stop to discuss this 
question. We will proceed at once to the 
Oriental liturgies. That which passes un 
der the denomination of St. James s is re 
markable for its antiquity. In this liturgy 
the priest is frequently instructed to speak 
of the holy, the divine altar, and the sacri 
fice which he is going to offer upon it. It 
would be impossible to select clearer or 
more expressive terms of insistence upon 
the obligation of erecting an altar for the 
purpose of sacrifice than those employed 
in their respective liturgies by the Oriental 
Christians in general, whether Greeks, 
Copts, Syrians, Jacobites, Maronites, Nes- 
torians, or Armenians. 

For the first three centuries, the altar 
was generally, though not always, of 
wood, as is evident from a variety of testi 
monies. Tradition has handed down the 
altar in the form of a wooden table, upon 
which St. Peter, as it is said, was accus 
tomed to offer up the Eucharistic sacrifice 
of the Mass, in the house of the Patrician 
Pudens, at Rome, where it is still pre 
served with much respect in the Church 
of St. Pudentiana. From the earliest 
times, however, it is certain that it was 
customary to celebrate Mass in the cata 
combs upon the tombs of the Apostles and 
martyrs, not only in Rome, but in every 
other portion of the Church of Christ. 
The slab of marble which covered the 
sepulchre was made to serve as the altar- 
table, and the low-browed arched recess 
that spanned it merely left sufficient space 
for the priest to perform the sacred Eucha 
ristic mysteries. When the altar was not 
the tomb of a martyr, it was sometimes 
an oblong, cubic figure; at others, it re 
sembled a quadrangular table, supported 
in the center by a single column, or upheld 



ALTAR BREAD 



ALTAR OF HOLOCAUSTS 



at its extremities by two, or at its angles 
by four low columns. For more than 
fourteen centuries it has been a universal 
custom to have the table of the altar of 
stone or marble. It should be one piece. 
Judging from the piety of the primitive 
Christians, it is more than probable that, 
from the apostolic times no altar was ever 
used for offering up the holy sacrifice of 
the Mass without having been previously 
consecrated by a solemn rite peculiar to 
that holy purpose. We have the most 
authentic documents to prove the use of 
such a rite at the commencement of the 
fourth century. The ceremony of dedica 
tion, which must have been performed in 
secrecy during the times of persecution, 
began to be celebrated with much public 
magnificence during the tranquil reign of 
Constantine. It was then a gratifying 
spectacle, as Eusebius informs us, "to 
witness how the ceremony of consecration 
and dedication of the recently erected 
Churches was solemnized in every city." 
St. Ambrose has left us a prayer which he 
employed in the dedication of Churches 
and altars which he erected. According 
to Genesis (xxviii. 17, 18), not only did 
the Church bear in mind the divine com 
mand issued to Moses (Ex. xxx. 23, 24) of 
celebrating the dedication of the altar, but 
she also remembered that the holy table 
was more particularly consecrated to the 
purposes of religious worship by being 
anointed with rich and precious unguents. 
The Church conceived that the anointing 
of her altars was an emblematical cere 
mony which she could appropriately bor 
row from the Old Law. At what precise 
period the Church adopted the ceremony 
of anointing the altar at its consecration is 
uncertain. It is certain that toward the 
commencement of the sixth century it be 
came an ordinance enacted by several 
councils. It is a firmly established law 
not to consecrate an altar without placing 
some relics therein. 

Altar Bread. The matter, as it is called, 
of the sacrifice of the Mass is composed of 
wheaten bread, and wine of the grape. 
Whether the bread employed be leavened 
or unleavened, is a circumstance of pure 
discipline, which does not touch the essence 
of the Eucharist. That our Divine Re 
deemer, however, used unleavened bread 
at its institution, is a fact concerning which 
no doubt can be for a moment entertained ; 
for the Evangelists particularly notice 



that Christ instituted the Blessed Eucharist 
on the first day of the Azymes, or of the 
unleavened bread (Matt. xxvi. 17; Mark 
xiv. 12; Luke xxii. 7), and after He had, 
with his Apostles, partaken of the paschal 
lamb, at which sacrifice it was unlawful to 
make use of any other than unleavened 
bread. See HOST. 

Altar Cards. These cards contain a 
printed copy of a certain portion of the 
prayers of Mass, which the priest cannot 
conveniently read from the Missal. They 
are placed at the center and at each end of 
the altar. They are of modern introduction 
and are not at all essential to the service. 

Altar Cloths. Anciently, as now, the 
table of the altar was overspread with 
linen cloths. Throughout the Latin 
Church, the altar is at all times covered 
with a cere or waxed cloth and three linen 
cloths, the uppermost of which should 
reach to the ground. Over this is laid, 
at the celebration of the man, a second 
species of altar cloth, called the corporal, 
and is used for such a purpose, not only in 
the Western but throughout the Greek and 
all the Oriental Churches. The corporal, 
in the Latin Church, continued for many 
ages of such dimensions that it completely 
covered the table of the altar; but the 
gradual curtailments through which it 
passed, reduced it to its present size of 
about eighteen inches square, merely suffi 
cient to cover the spot more immediately 
before the priest upon which he consecrates 
the Eucharist. 

Altar (Main or High Altar. ) The 
altar placed in the sanctuary or choir of 
the Church. 

Altar (Mosaic). Before the time of 
Moses, the Jews sacrificed upon altars, 
constructed from rough stones unsoiled by 
fire, which they raised in localities where 
they sojourned or temporarily resided. 
But the law of Moses ordained that there 
should be only one place of sacrifice, which 
at first was the Tabernacle and afterwards 
the Temple of Jerusalem. 

Altar of Holocausts. That which Moses 
built in the desert was a kind of chest, of 
setim wood, overlaid with plates of copper, 
five cubits (eight feet) square, and three 
cubits (five feet) high. It had a horn at 
each corner, and was carried about by 
means of staves. Upon this altar they 
kept up a perpetual fire, and burned the 



ALTAR OF INCENSE 



26 



AMALECITES 



victims thereon. It was placed in the east, 
and before the entrance of the Tabernacle, 
in the open air, in order that the smoke 
might not damage the interior of the Tab 
ernacle. This portable altar was replaced 
in the temple of Solomon by an altar of 
holocausts of much larger dimensions. It 
was 10 cubits square, or about 18 feet high, 
and in the first temple 20 cubits square, 
and in the second 24 cubits. The tradition 
of the Jews is, that it was 32 cubits (about 
50 feet) square at the base, contracting to 
24 cubits at the top, by several steps en 
circling it at different heights, each step 
a cubit broad. The highest of these steps 
was three feet below the top of the altar, 
so that, standing upon it, the priest was 
able to arrange the sacrifice upon the fire, to 
supply it with fuel, and remove the ashes. 
The lower steps were to enable him to 
sprinkle the blood on the sides of the altar. 
The lowest step had a raised ledge on the 
outside, by which the blood poured upon the 
altar, was confined till it ran through an 
aperture into a subterranean pipe. It must, 
therefore, have been an immense structure, 
and though called " an altar of brass," 
was probably built of stone, and merely 
covered with plates of that metal. 

Altar of Incense. In the old Testament, 
this is described as a small altar of setim 
wood, overlaid with gold plates, one cubit 
in length, one in width and two in height. 
In the morning and evening, the priest of 
the week, chosen by lot, offered upon 
this altar a perfume of a particular com 
position. For this, he entered with the 
smoking-censer, filled with fire from the 
altar of holocausts, into the Holy, where 
this altar was placed opposite the altar of 
the "loaves of proposition." After hav 
ing placed incense in the censer, the priest 
retired outside the Hoi/. 

Altar of the Show Breads. In the Old 
Testament a table of setim wood, overlaid 
with gold plates, being two cubits long, 
one cubit wide, and one and one-half cub 
its high. It was placed in the Holy and 
on the northern side of this receptacle. 
Upon this table were placed twelve loaves 
of bread renewed every week, with incense 
and salt. 

Altar (Portable). This is a square plate 
of stone, generally of marble, blessed or 
consecrated according to the ordinary 
forms of the Church, to celebrate Mass 
thereon, anywhere, as for instance, in pri 



vate houses, public halls, camps, etc. Most 
of the altars in this country contain simply 
this plate of stone or marble, which is 
placed in the middle of the wooden altar. 
Travels to the Holy Land, the wars of 
the Middle Ages, and the constant jour 
neys, in missionary countries, have neces 
sarily given rise to this kind of altar. 

Altar (PriTi lcffcd). T$\ privileged al 
tar, we understand an altar to which the 
Apostolic See has attached, as a special 
favor, a plenary indulgence applicable only 
to the souls in purgatory by way of suf 
frage (per modum suffragii), which indul 
gence is gained if the celebrant offers upon 
this altar the sacrifice of the Mass for these 
souls. This privilege is a double one : 
local and personal, and both may be either 
perpetual (ad perpeteum) or for only a 
limited time (ad quinquennium, se.ptcn- 
nium, dcccnnium, etc.). According to a 
decree of the Sacred Congregation of 
Rites (Sept. 2d, 1741), all the altars pos 
sess the foregoing privilege on All Souls 
Day. 

Altar Stone. The portable altar, upon 
which the celebrant places the chalice and 
host during the Mass. It can be used only 
after it has been consecrated by the bishop. 

Alvarez (DIEGO). Spanish Dominican 
of the seventeenth century. Professor of 
theology in Spain and in Rome; Arch 
bishop of Trani (kingdom of Naples) ; 
zealous defender of the cause of the Thom- 
ists against the Molinists. His principal 
works are: De auxiliis divinae gratiae; 
Concordia liberi arbitrii cum praedestina- 
tione. Died in 1635. 

Alzog (J. BAPTIST) (1808-1878). 
Learned German. Born at Ohlau, Silesia; 
died at Freiburg, Baden. Studied in the 
College of Brieg, and in the Universities 
of Breslau and Bonn. Priest at Cologne, 
1834; doctor of theology ; professor in the 
great seminary of Posen ; Canon of Hilde- 
sheim (Hanover) ; professor in the Uni 
versity of Freiburg-in-Breisgau (1853) ; 
called to Rome for the Vatican Council. 
Has written the following works : Univer 
sal Historv of the Church; Compendium 
of Patrologv, etc. 

Amalecites. Ancient Arabic people of 
Arabia Petraea, in the south of Palestine. 
They were at continual war with the Jews, 
who conquered them under Josue (1491 
B.C.), under Saul (1079), under David 



AMAN 



27 



AMICE 



(1058-10156). They were entirely subdued 
only by the Simeonites, under Ezechias 
(715 B. c.)- 

Aman. Amalecite; minister and favor 
ite of Assuerus, king of Persia. Impious, 
proud, and cruel, he desired to destroy 
Mardochai and the Jews. Queen Esther 
saved her uncle and all her compatriots, 
and Aman was hung (510 B. c.) on the very 
scaffold which he had erected for Mardo 
chai. 

Amasa. Son of Abigail, sister of 
David. He commanded the troops of 
Absalom, during his revolt ; was conquered 
by Joab, general of David. The latter 
pardoned Amasa, and even promised to 
give to him the command of his army, 
instead of Joab, whom he detested on ac 
count of his insolence, and the murder of 
Absalom. But Joab treacherously mur 
dered him. 

Amasias (839-810 B. c.) Eighth king 
of Juda, son and successor of Joas. He 
reigned twenty-nine years. He did good 
in the sight of the Lord, but not with a 
perfect heart (IV. Ki. xiv. 1-20). 

Ambo. In the early Christian churches 
and basilicas, a raised desk or pulpit from 
which certain parts of the service were 
read or chanted and sermons preached. 
It was often an oblong inclosure with 
steps at both sides, and was generally 
richly decorated. It was very common 
to place two ambos in a church, from 
one of which was read the Gospel, and 
from the other the Epistle. A tall, or 
namental pillar for holding the paschal 
candle is sometimes associated with the 
ambo. 

Ambrose (ST.). Father and Doctor of 
the Church, born at Treves in 340; died 
Archbishop of Milan in 397. Was Roman 
governor, when, upon the death of the 
Arian Auxentius, he was, though then 
only a Catechumen, chosen Bishop of 
Milan, in 374. Rising at once to the full 
height of his office, Ambrose distributed 
all his goods among the poor, and with 
unwearied zeal, devoted himself to the 
performance of his pastoral duties. With 
great mildness and moderation, he united 
a wonderful firmness and inflexibility 
wherever the divine law was concerned. 
He resisted the attempts of the Arian 
Emperor Justinian to obtain from him one 
of the churches of Milan for the use of 



the Arians; and with fearless zeal, he 
compelled Emperor Theodosius I. to a 
humilating penance for the indiscriminate 
massacre of about seven thousand persons, 
which, in a moment of irritation, he had 
ordered at Thessalonica, in 390. Such 
was his zeal and success in rooting out 
heresy and propagating the orthodox 
faith, that it caused St. Jerome to write, 
that, when Ambrose became Bishop of 
Milan, all Italy was converted to the faith. 
To him, also, in part, is to be ascribed the 
conversion of the great St. Augustine. 
The writings of Ambrose are numerous 
and various, comprising dogmatical, ex- 
egetical, and ascetic treatises, besides a 
number of letters and hymns. See Migne, 
Pat. Lat. XIV XVII. The best edition 
of his works is that of the Benedictines 
(Paris 1686-1690). F. April 4th. 

Ambrosian Chant. See PLAIN CHANT. 

Amen. At Mass, the acolyte in the 
name of the people answers "Amen" at 
the end of the Collect, Secret and Post- 
Communion, and thus ratifies what the 
priest has been saying, according to the 
custom of the Jews and primitive Chris 
tians. Amen is a Hebrew word, employed 
to confirm what has been announced, and, 
according to the tenor of the discourse to 
which it is appended, signifies either 
that is true, or may it be so, or / 
agree to that. It is, in reality, a form of 
speech indicative of an assertion, a desire, 
or a consent. i. When the Amen is 
uttered after a declaration of the truths 
of faith, as for instance the Creed, it is a 
simple assertion, and signifies "That is 
true." 2. When it follows a prayer for 
some blessing or spiritual good, such as 
the conversion of nations, health of soul 
and body, or rest to the souls of departed 
brethren, the Amen expresses a wish. 
3. After a prayer pledging us to the per 
formance of anything, the Amen declares 
our determination to comply with the 
engagement. 

America ( The Church in). See CHURCH ; 
MISSIONS; CHRISTIANITY IN AMERICA. 

Amice (ecclesiastical vestment). The 
amice is an oblong piece of fine white linen. 
The priest places it for a moment, like a 
veil, upon the crown of his head, and then 
adjusts it around his neck so that it hangs 
down over his shoulders, reciting, mean 
while, the prayer recommended for this 



AMMONITES 



28 



AMPULLA 



purpose. The amice is not without a mys 
tic signification. The act of resting it for 
a moment on the head, as well as the 
prayer which the priest is directed to pro 
nounce on assuming it, render it strikingly 
illustrative of that helmet of salvation with 
which each Christian warrior should arm 
himself to extinguish and repel the fiery 
darts of the wicked one. Formerly the 
amice was worn upon the head in the man 
ner of a hood while vesting, and until the 
priest arrived before the altar, when it was 
lowered and thrown back upon the shoul 
ders, a custom which is still retained in 
some churches of Europe, as well as by the 
Dominican and Capuchin friars. The cor 
responding vestment in the Coptic liturgy 
of St. Basil is called epomis and the ancient 
liturgies termed it anabolaffium. Amices 
were formerly richly embroidered with 
gold and silk, or adorned with an oblong 
piece of silken material called an apparel. 
Appareled amices were in use until the 
end of the sixteenth century, since which 
time they have gradually dropped out of 
use. The term amice is derived from the 
Latin verb amicire, to cover; being intro 
duced in the eighth century as a covering 
for the neck, which until that period was 
usually bare. 

Ammonites. People descended from 
Ammon, son of Lot. They dwelt east of 
the Dead Sea and the Jordan, and north of 
the Moabites. Allied with the latter, they 
were almost always at war with the Israel 
ites. Their capital was Rabbath-Ammon. 
They were reduced to bondage and trans 
ported from their country by Nabuchod- 
onosor, in the year 583 B. c. 

Ammonius Saccas. This philosopher 
received his surname on account of having 
been a sack-carrier. Born at Alexandria, 
taught philosophy in that city, about the 
end of the second century or the beginning 
.of the third. It is said that he abandoned 
Christianity, in which he had been raised, 
for the pagan philosophy. It is believed 
that he had Pantsenus for teacher. He en 
trusted his principles to only a few of his 
disciples, and under the veil of mystery. 
He is looked upon as the founder of Neo- 
Platonism. Longinus, Erennius, Plotinus, 
and Origen the pagan were his disciples. 
Ammonius died about 243. 

Ammonius (ST.). Cenobite of the 
fourth century. He was a friend of St. 
Anthony, and, like him, he established 



monastic communities in the Nitrian des 
erts in Upper Egypt, where 5,000 Ceno- 
bites soon assembled under his direction. 

Amorites. People of Palestine, of gi 
gantic stature, descendants of Amor or 
Amorrheus, son of Chanaan. They lived 
west and northeast of the Dead Sea. 
They were driven away from their country 
by Moses, and their territory was divided 
among the tribes of Gad, Ruben and 
Manasses. 

Amort (EUSEBIUS) (1692-1775). Born 
near Tolz, Bavaria; died at Polling. 
Canon of St. Augustine; entered the or 
der of Canons Regular and taught the 
ology in his convent. He composed, in 
Latin, a great number of works on differ 
ent subjects. 

Amos. The third of the minor proph 
ets, was a herdsman of Thecue, a small 
town of Juda, about twelve miles southeast 
of Jerusalem. His prophecies, contained 
in nine chapters, are distinguished for their 
poetic simplicity. We remark, therein, 
the employment of Aramaic forms ap 
proaching the popular language. He re 
ceived his mission about the year 785 B. c., 
and prophesied at Bethel, the principal 
seat of idolatry. 

Amphilochius. Bishop of Iconium in 
375. He proved his brilliant talents in sev 
eral Councils; held a Council at Iconium, 
against the Macedonians, in 376. He as 
sisted in 381 at the Council of Constanti 
nople and presided over that of Sida in 388 
or 390, in Pamphylia, wherein the rising 
heresy of the Messalians was condemned. 
We do not know the date of his death. 
All the works, carrying the name of St. 
Philochius, are contained in the Bibliotli. 
Gallandii; in Migne, Pat. gr. XXXIV. 
F. Nov. 23d. 

Amphipolis. A city of Macedonia, situ 
ated a short distance from the mouth of 
the river Strymon, which flowed around 
the city, and thus occasioned its name. 
The village, which now stands upon the 
site of the ancient city, is called Empoli 
or Yamboli, a corruption of Amphipolis. 
(Acts xvii. i.) 

Ampulla. i. In Roman antiquities, a 
vessel with a narrow neck and a body more 
or less nearly globular in shape, usually 
made of glass or earthenware, rarely of 
more valuable materials, and used, like 



AMRI 



29 



ANABAPTISTS 



the Greek aryballos, bombylios, etc., for 
carrying oil for anointing the body and for 
many other purposes. 2. In the Catholic 
Church a cruet, generally made of trans 
parent glass, for holding the wine and 
water used at Mass. 3. A vessel for hold 
ing the consecrated oil or chrism used in 
various Church rites and at the coronation 
of kings. The ampulla used at the coro 
nations in England is in the form of an 
eagle, of pure gold, richly chased. The 
famous ampulla formerly used at the coro 
nation of the French kings, was kept at 
Rheims, and which tradition reported as 
having been brought from heaven by a 
dove for the baptism of Clovis I., was 
broken in the Revolution ; but a portion 
of its oil is said to have been preserved and 
to have been used at the coronation of 
Charles X. 4. In the Middle Ages a small 
bottle-shaped flask, often of glass, used by 
travelers and especially by pilgrims. 

Amri. Commander of the army of Ela, 
king of Israel; but, being at the siege of 
Gabaon, and hearing that his royal master 
had been assassinated by Zambri, who had 
usurped his kingdom, he raised the siege, 
and, being elected king by his army, 
marched against Zambri, attacked him at 
Thersa, and forced him to burn himself 
with his whole family in the palace in which 
he had shut himself up. After his death, 
half of Israel acknowledged Amri as king, 
the other half adhered to Thebni, son of 
Gineth ; this division continued four years. 
When Thebni died, the people united in 
acknowledging Amri as king of all Israel, 
and he reigned twelve years, six years at 
Thersa, and six years at Samaria. 

Amsdorfians. Lutheran sect of the six 
teenth century, so called from Nicholas 
Amsdorf (1484-1565). In 1542, Amsdorf 
forcibly obtruded himself into the bishop 
ric of Naumburg, in place of Julius Pflug, 
the lawfully elected bishop. Luther as 
sumed to consecrate his friend Amsdorf, 
and profanely boasted of the uncanonical 
manner in which he had performed that 
rite, as he said, "without lard, or tar, or 
grease, or incense, or coals." Amsdorf 
denied the necessity of good works, and 
even maintained that they were a hind 
rance to salvation. He combated, ener 
getically, the attempts made to modify the 
Lutheran doctrine of the Last Supper in 
the Calvinistic sense. 

Amula. Same as AMPULLA. 



Amulets. Something worn about the 
person to ward off disease or other evils. 
The superstitious character of Oriental 
nations led them to the use of charms of 
this nature, sometimes in the form of 
carved gems, or in that of words on parch 
ment tightly rolled up. Christianity, 
which is opposed to all superstitious prac 
tices, could not destroy these customs 
completely. In all ages, certain Christian 
sects have preserved the use of amulets, 
and we find that many Councils condemned 
them. 

Anabaptists. Heretics who believe in 
rebaptism ; specifically, those who hold 
baptism in infancy to be invalid, and re 
quire adults, who have received it, to be 
baptized on joining their communion. 
The name is best known, historically, as 
applied to the followers of Thomas Miinzer, 
a leader of the peasants war in Germany, 
and who was killed in battle in 1525 ; and 
also to those of John Mathias and John 
Bockhold, or John of Leyden, who com 
mitted great excesses while attempting to 
establish a socialistic kingdom of New 
Zion, or Mount Zion, at Mianster, in West 
phalia, and were defeated in 1535, their 
leaders being killed and hung up in iron 
cages, which are still preserved in that 
city. The name has also been applied to 
bodies of very different character in other 
respects. It is most frequently applied to 
the Mennonites. 

HISTORY OF THE ANABAPTISTS. The 
principles which Luther had formulated 
and caused to prevail in theory, were soon 
taken up and put in practice by some of 
his disciples, who pushed them to the ex 
treme limits of logic. Luther had been 
teaching that the Sacraments were effi 
cacious only through faith. Nicholas 
Stork, of Stolberg, accepting this teach 
ing, refused the sacrament of baptism to 
children and rebaptized the adults ; hence 
his followers were called Anabaptists. 

This sect soon spread among the com 
mon people, and was strengthened by the 
turbulent and fanatical spirit of the times; 
their leaders exciting the peasants against 
the nobles, so that the history of the 
movements of this sect at the time was in 
a certain measure a repetition of the revo 
lutionary movement begun by the peas 
ants, and in which the nobles had taken 
part. The religious unrest which Luther 
and his followers stirred up, was fol 
lowed by every species of excesses and 



ANABAPTISTS 



ANABAPTISTS 



aggression. Ulrich of Hutten, Goetz of 
Berlichingen, and several Protestant min 
isters, among whom Carlostadt merits 
special mention, fired the passions of the 
people and led them to combat and 
slaughter. During the same period, PfeifTer 
stirred up the people of Franconia to war, 
but it was Thomas Miinzer of Zwickau, 
in Saxony, who styled himself the 
"Prophet of Zwickau," who gave ana- 
baptism a political character in 1520. 
I laving succeeded in penetrating the mines 
at Mansfeld, he preached to the miners 
and dragged them into the movement. 
Soon the whole people of Franconia were 
in the throes of revolution, and had taken 
a white cross for the sign of gathering. 
Excited to bloodshed by the fanatical 
Miinzer, they attacked the noblemen, with 
the resolve not to spare a single one of 
these " lazy fellows." On their march they 
destroyed several churches, but were met 
by the regular troops, who cut them down 
or sent them to the gallows. One hundred 
thousand perished in 1524. Miinzer, how 
ever, had taken possession of Miilhausen, 
in Thuringia, established there a govern 
ment, which he called TJieocracv, based 
on the community of goods, and sum 
moned princes to join them, on pain of 
losing their temporal power. The bat 
tle of Frankenhausen crushed their prog 
ress in Saxony and Franconia, Miinzer 
was captured (May isth, 1525) and tortured 
to death. 

After these reverses, the scattered ad 
herents of the new doctrine were brought 
together by self-assumed traveling preach 
ers. They spread themselves in Bavaria, 
Silesia, Moravia, Prussia, Livonia, Swe 
den, along the Rhine, especially In Swit 
zerland and the Netherlands, and, though 
persecuted, did not fail in making pros 
elytes. Since their general defeat in 1533, 
the Anabaptists concentrated at Munster 
in Westphalia. This city had already 
been gained for Luther, and it was not safe 
to preach Catholic dogma, even in the 
Cathedral, for fear of causing revolt. The 
religious frenzy of these deluded people 
was augmented by a dry goods merchant 
named Knipperdolling, who, after a lively 
opposition against the Bishop of Miinster, 
destroyed the churches and appointed 
twelve judges over the tribes, as among 
the Israelites; and one Bockhold, a tailor 
of Leyden, had himself crowned king of 
the " New Zion," under the name of John 
of Leyden. 



The Anabaptist madness in Miinster 
now went beyond all bounds. The city 
became the scene of the wildest licen 
tiousness and turbulence. The scattered 
fanatics flocked to the city to hear the 
Lutheran minister Rottmann, who had 
adopted the new doctrine. When suffi 
ciently numerous, they began to preach in 
public " that the time had arrived when 
the elect would go and unite themselves 
from the four corners of the world to lead, 
under the immediate conduct of Christ, 
their God, a happy life, without laws, 
without superiors, without marriage ; that 
everything would be in common among 
them. The baptism of children," they 
added, "is an abomination before God. 
Papists and Lutherans are equally impious 
We must have no relations with any of 
them; we cannot obey pagan authorities. 

The Lutheran preachers tried in vain to 
crush the new doctrine, but the sect still 
persevered in gaining new adherents, and 
being reinforced by the Anabaptists of 
Holland, headed by their bishop/ one 
John Mathiesen, a baker of Haarlem, in 
stalled by the visionary preacher Melchior 
Hoffmann, a furrier of Swabia, they took 
entire possession of Miinster, by the elec 
tion of a council pledged to their interests 
(Feb. 23d 1534). Four days afterwards, 
they drove from the city all those who 
refused rebaptism, compelling them to 
leave all their property and goods behind. 
Miinster was then delivered to a mob of 
fanatics who pretended they were inspired, 
and giving full reins to the most shameful 
excesses. Men ajid women rolled them 
selves on the streets, jumped and danced, 
with hands raised toward heaven; one 
moment in supplication, and the next in 
voking maledictions on their aggressors. 
Knipperdolling, Rottmann, and Mathie 
sen pretended to have prophetic visions, 
the latter, however, was killed in a sally 
against the Bishop of Munster John of 
Leyden assumed full power; selected six 
teen of the most beautiful women of Mun 
ster for his wives, instituted a kind of 
Oriental court, and named Knipperdolling 
viceroy and sword-bearer, that is, hang 
man. Whoever resisted him was sent to 
the gallows. Meanwhile the city was be 
sieged, and all the horrors of bloodshed 
and famine stared them in the face. Moth 
ers ate their own children, fiends rioted 
on the blood of their victims, and finally 
on a June night (1535) Munster was cap 
tured in spite of the desperate resistance 



ANABOLAGIUM 



ANANIAS 



of the Anabaptists, and those who did not 
perish by the sword were tortured to 
death. The final disruption of the new 
kingdom, and cessation of excesses and law 
lessness, was hailed with rejoicing by both 
Catholics and Lutherans. 

It is no easy task to point out the real 
creed of the Anabaptists. Menno Simons 
collected the scattered adherents of the 
sect and expounded their principles. He 
called the members of the community 
"God s Congregation, poor, unarmed 
Christians, brothers" ; later they took the 
name of Mennonites, and at present they 
call themselves in Germany, Taufgesinnte ; 
in Holland, Doopsgezindcn. However, 
their principal tenets showed they were 
millenarians. They expected, after the 
destruction of the impious, a perfect com 
munity without any exterior law. Holy 
Scripture itself would become useless, 
owing to the fact of its being engraved on 
the hearts of the children of God. The 
community should compose itself of pure 
members, only those of sanctified lives 
being worthy; proselytes had to be 
baptized with the new baptism, the 
baptism of fire and the spirit of Christ, 
whilst the other Christians baptize only 
with the baptism of St. John. The Last 
Supper with them had only a symbolical 
meaning; it was a great popular feast at 
which they ate and drank to satiety. They 
opposed the Lutheran doctrine on justifi 
cation, and held that good works were 
necessary to salvation,. For fear of the im 
possibility of keeping themselves in a state 
of impeccability before God, they taught 
that the body of Christ was created by the 
Holy Ghost and only nourished in the 
womb of the Blessed Virgin Mary. They 
attached so much value and weight to 
their communications with God, and con 
sequent inspiration, that often when fail 
ing to accord with Holy Scripture, they 
declared the latter in error. They op 
posed the erection of temples for wor 
ship, declaring the custom idolatrous. 
They made severe use of excommunica 
tion; no brother was allowed to accept 
any public office; they rejected the taking 
of oaths, war, and every kind of revenge. 
After various vicissitudes and persecu 
tions, chiefly by the Lutherans, this sect 
of Anabaptists, with other sects more 
modified in doctrine and discipline, still 
exist in Germany, Switzerland, Holland, 
England, and especially in the United 
States. See BAPTISTS. 



Anabolagium. One of the ecclesiastical 
vestments in the sacred functions. It de 
signates what we now call Amice, which 
see. 

Anacletus (ST.). Pope, died about the 
year 91. Very ancient martyrologies give 
him the title of martyr. He is named, by 
the ancients, among the first successors of 
St. Peter to the See of Rome. But they 
are not in accord about the order which 
they assign to him in this succession. 
According to St. Irenseus, and also given 
by Eusebius, the following is the catalogue 
of the first Popes : Peter, Linus, Anacle 
tus, Clement. According to St. Augustine, 
Clement was the successor of Linus, 
and Anacletus succeeded Clement. There 
are catalogues which mention a Cletus 
instead of Anacletus. Others name Cletus 
and Anacletus as two different personages. 
It would appear, according to the chronicle 
of Damasus, and according to St. Epiph- 
anius and Rufinus, that Linus and Clem 
ent were charged by St. Peter, as his 
representatives, to govern the Church of 
Rome, without any of them becoming 
Pope in the proper sense of the word, as 
successor of Peter. In this case, Peter s 
immediate successor was Clement, who 
would have been succeeded by Anacletus. 
As to the distinction between Cletus and 
Anacletus, we find it indicated in many 
old catalogues and especially in a notice 
of the "Pontifical," according to which 
Cletus was a Roman by birth, and Anacle 
tus an Athenian. 

Anagnost. The Greek term correspond 
ing to the Latin lector. 

Anamelech and Adramelech. Deities 
of the Sepharvaim, a people who settled in 
Samaria, instead of those Israelites who 
were banished beyond the Euphrates. The 
Sepharvaim made their children pass 
through fire in honor of these false deities. 
The general opinion is, that Adramelech 
represented the sun and Anamelech the 
moon. At any rate, they seem to have been 
personifications of the heavenly bodies. 

Ananias. Three persons of this name 
are mentioned in the New Testament, 
i. A Jew of Jerusalem, the husband of 
Saphira, who attempted to join the Chris 
tians, but died instantly on being convicted 
of falsehood by St. Peter (Acts v. i, 3, 5). 
2. A Christian of Damascus, who re 
stored the sight of St. Paul after his 
vision (Acts ix. 10-17). 3. A high-priest 



ANAPHORA 



ANATHEMA 



of the Jews, the son of Nebedaeus. He was 
sent as a prisoner to Rome by Qiiadra- 
tus, the governor of Syria, and Jonathan 
was appointed in his place ; but being lib 
erated by the Emperor Claudius, lie re 
turned to Palestine, and Jonathan being 
murdered, through the treachery of Felix, 
Ananias appears to have performed the 
functions of the high-priest, as a substitute, 
until Ismael was appointed by Agrippa 
(Acts xxiii. 2; xxiv. i). 

Anaphora or Prosphora. Signifies, in 
the Greek liturgy, what the Latin liturgy 
understands by canon, that is, the stable 
part found in most of the liturgies of the 
Mass, and wherein the words of conse 
cration are found. In antiquity there was 
a special book containing the canon. 

Anastasia (name of several saints). i. 
Anastasia the Ancient. Patrician of 
Rome, instructed in the faith by St. Peter 
and St. Paul, suffered and died for the faith 
together with her friend Basilissa. F. 
April ipth. 2. Anastasia the Younger. 
Noble Roman lady, persecuted by her 
husband Publius and burned alive under 
Diocletian on the island Palmeria, in 303 
or 304. F. Dec. 25th. 3. Anastasia. Mar 
tyr at Rome, together with St. Cyril, in 303. 
We have preserved to our time some letters 
written by her in prison and addressed to 
Chrysogonus, her confessor. F. Oct. 28th. 

Anastasius (name of four Popes). 
St. Anastasius I. (398-402). Combated 
and condemned the errors of Origen. St. 
Jerome calls him a man of great sanctity 
and apostolic solicitude. Anastasius II. 
(496-498). Combated Arianism, and made 
attempts at Constantinople to put an end to 
the Eastern schism. Sent legates to Con 
stantinople with letters to the Emperor 
Anastasius, in which he insisted upon the 
removal of the name of Acacius from the 
diptychs, and the recognition of the Coun 
cil of Chalcedon, yet declaring valid the 
sacraments conferred by that schismatic. 
Anastasius III. (911-913). Anastasius 
IV. (1153-1154). His administration was 
disturbed by the movements of Arnold of 
Brescia and his followers. 

Anastasius (surnamed Bibliothccarius, 
The Librarian). Died 886. Librarian 
of the Vatican and Abbot of Sta. Maria, 
Trans-Tiberim, at Rome. Cardinal in 
847. He assisted, in 869, at the Eighth 
Ecumenical Council of Constantinople, 



wherein Photius was condemned; and he 
translated the acts of the seventh and 
eighth Councils. The translation of the 
acts of the sixth Council is also attributed 
to him, and the lives of the Popes from St. 
Peter to Nicholas I. 

Anastasius of Constantinople. Died 
753. Patriarch of Constantinople in 730. 
lie was elected by the influence of the 
Emperor Leo III., and favored the Icono 
clasts, for which he was excommunicated 
by Gregory VIII. 

Anastasius (ST. ) . Patriarch of Antioch 
(559-599), banished for a time under the 
Emperor Justinian, because he defended 
the right doctrine on the body of Christ, 
against heretical arbitrariness. F. April 

2ISt. 

Anastasius Sinaita (ST.). A priest and 
monk in the celebrated monastery on 
Mount Sinai, whence his surname. Here 
he passed the main portion of his life from 
640 to 700. At times, however, he would 
leave his solitude and traverse Egypt and 
Syria, and hold, wherever an opportunity 
offered itself, disputations with heretics 
(Monophysites and Monothelites). He also 
wrote in defense of the orthodox doctrine 
of the Church. He lived to an advanced 
age, but the precise dates of his death and 
birth are unknown. 

Anathema. The word anathema is of 
Greek origin, and exists in that language 
in two forms, distinguished by a very 
trifling difference of spelling, but very 
distinct in use. Both are derived from a 
verb meaning to set aside, and in one form 
the word is used to denote something pre 
cious, set aside for the service of God, such 
as the gifts with which the Temple in Jeru 
salem was adorned (Luke xxi. 5; see also 
II. Mach. ix. 16). But the word occurs 
also in another form, and is employed to 
signify a penal setting aside, whether of a 
thing which has been used as the instru 
ment of wickedness, or of a person who 
has lost his social rights by crime. It 
occurs in both senses, in a verse of Deuter 
onomy (vii. 26). St. Paul uses the word 
more than once to signify that a person is 
not worthy to be admitted into the society 
of Christians (I. Cor. xvi. 22 ; Galat. i. 8, 9). 
In the language of the Church the phrase, 
"Let him be anathema," is used in the 
same manner as by St. Paul, and is a form 
of assigning the penalty of excommuni 
cation for an offense ; when used, as it often 



ANATOLIUS 



33 



ANDREW OF CRETE 



is, to enforce definitions of faith, it means 
no more than this ; but sometimes an 
Anathema seems to mean an excommuni 
cation pronounced against an offender with 
solemn and impressive ceremonies, which, 
however, do not alter the nature of the 
punishment. No anathema or other act of 
human judge can take away the grace of 
God from the soul, if by any error the 
judgment has been pronounced against an 
innocent man. In one place (I. Cor. xvi. 
22) St. Paul adds to the word Anathema, 
"Maranatha," and the same is sometimes 
done by councils of particular Churches, 
but the usage has not passed into the 
general Canon Law. It has been supposed, 
but wrongly, that the addition of this word 
signifies that the censure will never be 
relaxed. Maranatha is in truth an Aramaic 
word, belonging to a language familiar to 
St. Paul and most of his readers. It means 
the Lord is at hand, and has the same 
force as when this expression is used in its 
Greek form (Phil. iv. 5). The phrase 
enhances the force of that to which it is 
appended, by solemnly reminding the 
reader that Christ will come again, to 
judge the world. 

Anatolius (ST.). Born at Alexandria, 
about 230 ; died in 283. Was named Bishop 
of Laodicea, in Syria, about the year 270. 
He was one of the most learned men of 
his age. Of his works, which were not 
numerous but very valuable, only meager 
portions have been preserved. 

Anchor. This was a symbol of hope 
among the early Christians. St. Clement 
of Alexandria, says the anchor was one 
of the principal symbols which the first 
Christians engraved upon their rings. They 
considered it a sign of hope, of firmness 
in their faith, of a conscience always on 
the lookout, in order to avoid shipwreck, 
may it be during the storms of the human 
passions, or may it be during the tempests of 
persecution. To show that their hope was 
anchored in Jesus Christ, the first Chris 
tians (as we can see by the inscriptions on 
tombs and in cemeteries), associated the 
figure of the anchor, with the fish or 
dolphin, which was the symbol of the Son 
of God. See FISH. 

Anchorite. A religious hermit who 
seeks the solitude of the desert, in prefer 
ence to living, like the monk or cenobite, 
in communities. Anchorites began to ap 
pear in the Christian Church about the 
3 



second century. The hermits of Thebaid 
were renowned for their sanctity, absti 
nence and austerity. In the two following 
centuries, anchorites became numerous and 
peopled the deserts of Egypt and Syria. 
The most renowned were Paul the Hermit, 
or Thebean, A. D. 250, whose example was 
followed by St. Anthony, St. Pachomius, 
St. Simeon Stylites, and many others famed 
in legend and song. The fame of their 
sanctity drew many to visit them, become 
their disciples and live under their direc 
tion. This was the origin of the cenobitic 
life, but it was not till the end of the fourth 
century, that the hermitical life began in 
Italy and Gaul. The persecutions to which 
Christians were subjected, and the desire 
to withdraw from amusements and the 
general corruption of society, caused many 
pious and earnest persons to seek the soli 
tude of deserts w r here they could more 
freely give their thoughts to God ; after 
ward the glory of a life spent in loneliness 
and austerity became a substitute for that 
of the martyr s death. For further infor 
mation, see MONASTICISM. 

Ancient. A title of dignity bestowed 
on aged persons, because they were chosen 
from among men to fill important func 
tions. Among the Jews, the ancients of 
the people of Israel were the chiefs o f the 
tribes and of the great families who, at the 
beginning, formed a kind of government, 
and had authority over the whole people 
as well as that of their family. Moses es 
tablished seventy Ancients of Israel (Num. 
xi. 16-17), whose government perpetuated 
itself until the time of Josue, and even 
Judges. 

Ancyra. An ancient town of Galatia 
(originally of Phrygia), in Asia Minor, 
founded, according to the legends, by 
Midas, son of Gordius, the modern An 
gora. An ecclesiastical council was held 
here in the year 314, which passed twenty- 
five canons relating chiefly to the treat 
ment of those who had betrayed their 
faith or delivered up the sacred books 
during the Diocletian persecution. 

Andrew of Crete. Born at Damascus, 
660; died 720 or 723. An Archbishop of 
Crete; favored for some time the error of 
the Monothelites ; but having read the 
acts of the Sixth Ecumenical Council, he 
found himself deceived and acknowledged 
in Jesus Christ two wills and two oper 
ations. 



ANDREW 



34 



ANGEL 



Andrew (ST.). The first disciple of 
Christ, and afterward an Apostle, was, like 
his brother Peter, a fisherman. Previous 
to his recognition of Christ as the Mes- 
sias, he had been numbered among the 
disciples of John the Baptist ( John i. 40, 
41). The career of Andrew, as an Apostle 
after the death of Christ, is unknown. 
Tradition tells us that after preaching the 
Gospel in Scythia, Northern Greece, and 
Epirus, he suffered martyrdom on the 
cross at Patrse, in Achaia, 62 or 70 A. D. 
A cross formed of beams, obliquely placed, 
is styled St. Andrew s cross. St. Andrew 
is the patron saint of Scotland. He is 
also held in great veneration in Russia, 
and according to a tradition, preached the 
Gospel in that country. In both countries 
there is an order of knighthood named in 
his honor. 

Angel. This word is from the Greek 
agtrelos, which signifies messenger, a word 
which indicates not the nature of the 
angels, but the office they often exercise. 
Angels are spiritual creatures. When 
angels, according to the Old and New 
Testaments, have appeared under sensible 
forms, these were forms which they had 
borrowed to put themselves into relation 
with men, and to fulfill the purpose of 
their mission to them. The Fifth Lateran 
Council teaches: "There is only one 
principle of all things, Creator of all that 
is visible and invisible, spiritual and 
corporal ; which at the beginning of time 
has drawn both from nothing, through its 
almighty, powerful virtue, the spiritual 
and the corporal creation, that is, the 
angels and matter; and afterward the 
human nature, which is like a common 
nature, composed of spirit and body. 
These incorporal beings have a superior 
intelligence and a well regulated will. 
Their knowledge of the divine decrees and 
of the government of Providence, although 
very extensive, is, however, limited. There 
are mysteries for them, and the future is 
often hidden from them. They were created, 
not only in a great natural perfection, but, 
also, in a state of supernatural justice and 
holiness, an habitual and sanctifying grace, 
subject to the trial of liberty for the good 
and the evil; the one, with the help of 
grace, persevered in the good and ac 
quired thus by their personal activity and 
decision, with God s help, the definitive 
holiness and eternal beatitude. Others, 
succumbing to this trial, lost themselves 



by their own fault. Lucifer, who became 
the chief of the rebellious angels, or the 
first of the demons, did not wish to submit 
himself." Speaking of this, St. Augustine 
says: "They turned from the Sovereign 
Being and returned toward themselves." 
Our Saviour has said of the bad angels, 
that they "did not remain in the truth " 
(John viii. 44). 

Scripture makes allusion to numberless 
hosts of angels, but gives no complete and 
systematic account of them. The belief 
of the Church respecting them, except in 
a few points, has never been exactly de 
fined. It has always been held that angels 
and human souls, notwithstanding the 
high origin of the latter, are distinct; only 
Dionysius, Areopagita, and a few modern 
speculators have maintained the contrary. 
The Church in the Second Council of 
Constantinople (553), has expressed her 
self against the opinion of Origen, after 
which all these spirits would be equal in 
substance, virtue, attributes, etc. Indeed, 
Holy Scripture speaks of nine classes of 
choirs of angels, whom the Fathers and 
theologians divide into three hierarchies, 
and these are again subdivided into three 
classes as follows : first hierarchy: Choirs 
of the Seraphim, Cherubim, Thrones; 
second hierarchy: Choirs of the Domina 
tions, Virtues, Powers; third hierarchy: 
Choirs of the Principalities, Archangels 
and simple Angels. 

Initiated in the plan of Providence, the 
angels act on mankind in order that the 
designs of God may become realized and 
humanity accomplish its destiny. We be 
hold them many times on errands of great 
import, and often interfering in the great 
phases of humanity, to second the di 
vine power; they will appear at the uni 
versal Judgment to close, in the name of 
God, the history of the world. What the 
angels are, and do for all mankind, the 
angel is and does in particular for each 
person, like the Guardian angel. Each of 
us is placed under the auspices of an angel ; 
angels, also, according to the opinion 
of the most ancient theologians, preside 
over just laws which rule the world, 
watch over the diverse kingdoms of na 
ture, such for instance as plants, animals, 
etc. Nations and societies are under the 
patronage or care of certain angels. 
Whatever is great, worthy, holy, in a min 
istry consecrated to the service of God 
and to the happiness of mankind, merits 
our respect and veneration. Therefore, 



ANGELA DE MERICIA 



35 



ANGLICANISM 



nothing is more justified than the honor 
rendered the angels, and the invocation of 
those whose names are so familiar in Holy 
Writ, special bearers of tidings of great joy 
to all people; defenders of the majesty, 
power, and glory of God ; instruments of 
averting danger, disaster, distress and 
misfortune; guardians ever ready to 
prompt to good actions, and to avert evil. 
We can present them, to our eyes, only 
under human form. They give them the 
figure of man instead of woman, though 
they are sexless, being pure spirits, be 
cause this is the more noble and powerful of 
the sexes. They are usually represented as 
young, because youth is symbolic of grace 
and beauty, and to mark their innocence 
and eternal freshness. The rapidity with 
which they fulfill their mission is symbol 
ized by the wings. When they wish to 
represent them in the act of praising God, 
harps and other musical instruments are 
placed in their hands. 

The creation of the angels was placed by 
the Platonizing Church Fathers before 
that of the material world ; others assigned 
it to one of the six genetic days, and not a 
few modern theologians see in the primor 
dial creation the wisdom of God, in mak 
ing those spiritual beings witnesses of all 
His works of creation, their matter and 
development, their order and harmony, 
their perfection and purposes, all proclaim 
ing His power, wisdom and glory, now 
and forever. 

Angela de Mericia (ST.) Foundress of 
the Order of the Ursulines. Born at Des- 
enzano, in the diocese of Verona (1511- 
1540). To this woman, hidden in God 
and crucified in Jesus Christ, Heaven pre 
served the high mission to found the Insti 
tute of the Ursulines, Sisters whose lives 
are devoted to the education of young girls. 
In 1537 she laid the foundation thereof, and 
soon it spread all over Europe. Her Life, 
the most complete, was published by Mgr. 
Postel (1878, 2 vols.). See URSULINES. 

Angelicals. Name adopted by an Order 
of nuns, following the Rule of St. Augus 
tine. Founded in Milan, about the year 
1530, by Luigia de Forelli, Countess of 
Qjjastalla. Each nun prefixes to her fam 
ily name that of a saint, with the word 
Angelica, which when uttered is to remind 
her of angelic purity. Their statutes, re 
vised by St. Charles Borromeo, were ap 
proved by Pope Urban VIII., May I2th, 
1625. 



Angelics. Sectarians in the early ages 
of the Church, who regarded the angels 
as creatures of the world, to whom they 
rendered worship due to God alone. 

Angelic Salutation (Lat. Angelus Dom 
ini}. Words which the Angel Gabriel ad 
dressed to the Blessed Virgin Mary, when 
he announced to her that she would be 
come the mother of the Redeemer, and 
the prayer which is composed of three 
verses, each one followed by a Hail Mary 
and an oration. The Angelic Salutation 
is repeated three times a day : at sunrise, 
noon, and sunset, when the so-called "An 
gelus bell" is rung. This pious practice 
can be traced, we are assured by some au 
thors, to Pope Urban II. See AVE MARIA. 

Angelites. Heretics of the fifth cen 
tury, thus named from Angelium, their 
place of meeting in Alexandria. They 
taught that none of the Three Divine Per 
sons was God by nature. The Father was 
one, the Son another, and the Holy 
Ghost another; that none of the Three Di 
vine Persons was God by His nature, but 
that there was in the Three the divine nature 
which was common to Them, and that by 
partaking of this divinity, in an indivisible 
manner, each One of Them was God. 

Anglicanism or Anglican Church. The 

official and established religion of England. 
Anglicanism embraces the Protestant Epis 
copal Church in Ireland, the Episcopal 
Church in Scotland, and all the colonial 
Episcopal Churches,since the sixteenth cen 
tury. Anglicanism is, as to its doctrines, one 
of the forms of Protestantism, but in its 
constitution and exterior forms of worship, 
it assumes an intermediary state between 
Catholicity and German Protestantism. It 
receives the general appellations : Church 
of England, EstablishedChurch, Episcopal 
Church and High Church, to distinguish 
it from other Protestant Churches of Great 
Britain. 

The Anglican Church was founded by 
Henry VIII. Wycliffe had, in the preced 
ing century, tried to draw every malcon 
tent from the Church by his abuse of 
ecclesiastical power and influence, and pre 
tense of reform, but sensible people seeing 
that he was a fire-brand in society, and that 
his principles led directly to sedition, and 
to the breaking up of all social order, of 
fered him no encouragement in his mad 
career. But when Luther forced a separa 
tion from the Church, in Germany, the 



ANGLICANISM 



ANGLICANISM 



principles of the Reformation soon found 
sympathizers in England, and though 
Henry wrote a book against Luther, he 
soon became inoculated with the same 
virus, and found a pretext to establish him 
self Pope in England. Tired of an aged 
and virtuous wife, the royal founder of 
Anglicanism panted for new nuptials with 
another, Anne Boleyn, whose youthful 
charms had already captivated his sensual 
heart, and whose wily arts had rendered 
her inexorable to his wishes, except on the 
condition of supplanting the lawful queen, 
and becoming, herself, his queenly con 
sort. The Pontiff was appealed to, to 
second the plan of the English king, and 
to grant the necessary dispensation; but 
the Popes never flattered the vices of 
princes; and in this particular instance, 
Clement VII. would not consent to sacri 
fice his consience, to trample upon the 
holy laws of God, and to be recreant to his 
duty toward a virtuous and much injured 
woman, who, for eighteen long years, was 
the most faithful of wives. After pro 
tracting the affair for some years, during 
which he tried every possible means to dis 
suade Henry from his purpose, the Pope 
was, at length,, compelled to decide against 
the divorce, on which the English king 
had already resolved. Henry became in 
dignant; he sacrilegiously usurped the of 
fice of head of the Church in England; 
and the majority of the English bishops, 
won over by intrigue, worn out by har 
assing solicitations, or intimidated by men 
aces, were weak enough to sanction his 
wicked conduct. In this sacrilegious 
usurpation of the office of Pope in Eng 
land, and seizing on the first fruits of the 
benefices which had hitherto been paid 
to the Roman Pontiffs, he was ably sec 
onded by the sycophant Thomas Cranmer, 
whom Lord Macaulay sketches in his 
history of the English Reformation : 
"They (the English Reformers) were, 
a king, whose character may be best de 
scribed by saying that he was despotism 
itself, personified; unprincipled ministers; 
a rapacious aristocracy; a servile parlia 
ment. Such were the instruments by which 
England was delivered from the yoke of 
Rome ! The work, which had been begun 
by Henry, the murderer of his wives, was 
continued by Somerset, the murderer of 
his brother; and completed by Elizabeth, 
the murderer of her guest. 

"If we consider Cranmer merely as a 
statesman, he will not appear a much 



worse man than Wolsey, Gardiner, Crom 
well, or Somerset; but when an attempt is 
made to set him up as a saint, it is scarcely 
possible for any man of sense, who knows 
the history of the times well, to preserve 
his gravity. The shameful origin of his 
history, common enough in the scandalous 
chronicles of courts, seems strangely out 
of place in a hagiology. Cranmer rose 
into favor by serving Henry in the dis 
graceful affair of his first divorce. He 
promoted the marriage of Anne Boleyn 
with the king. On a frivolous pretense 
he pronounced it null and void. On a 
pretense, if possible, still more frivolous, 
he dissolved the ties which bound the 
shameless tyrant to Anne of Cleves. He 
attached himself to Cromwell, while the 
fortunes of Cromwell flourished; he voted 
for cutting off his head, without a trial, 
when the tide of royal favor turned. 
He conformed, backwards and forwards, 
as the king changed his mind. While 
Henry lived, he assisted in condemning to 
the flames, those who denied the doctrine 
of transubstantiation ; when Henry died, 
he found out that the doctrine was false. 
He was. however, not at a loss for people to 
burn. The authority of his station, and 
of his gray hairs, was employed to over 
come the disgust with which an intelligent 
and virtuous child regarded persecution." 

Is it possible, that a Church which 
originated under these circumstances, was 
the Church of Christ? Is it credible, 
that that was the Church of Christ, which 
came into existence at the bidding of a 
man, who was subsequently the murderer 
of his wives, and the unmitigated tyrant 
over his people? The man, of whom it 
has been truly said, "that he never spared 
man in his anger, nor woman in his 
lust!" Is that the Church which unbiased 
Protestant historians say was engendered 
by beastly lust, brought forth by hypocrisy 
and perfidy, and cherished by national 
blood ! 

On the death of Henry VIII., in 1547, 
and the accession of Edward VI., many 
changes had taken place in the English 
liturgy. First, the idea of the real pres 
ence and of a true sacrifice, which had 
been deemed essential to every previous 
liturgy, whether Latin, Greek or Oriental, 
was carefully excluded ; and, secondly, 
the liturgy itself was studiously amended, 
at least three times, just as the English 
parliament happened to become more en 
lightened. Here is presented the ludi- 



ANGUSTIA Loci 



37 



ANIMALS 



crous spectacle of a boy king and Pope 
making changes in the ancient liturgy and 
discipline of the Church, and subscribing 
to forty-two articles of faith of which he 
had not the slightest knowledge. It was a 
religion of the crown and parliament, and 
changed to suit the caprice of rulers and 
ministers. 

After the fruitless attempt to restore 
Catholic unity under Mary, Elizabeth re 
vived the former laws, rejected the Papal 
supremacy and restored the Anglican 
ritual, and formulated the Act of Uni 
formity, or thirty-nine articles of faith, 
which was approved by the Synod of 
London in 1562. As a natural consequence 
of this separation from the true Church of 
Christ, and rejection of her ancient liturgy, 
and adoption of private interpretation 
of Holy Scripture, new sects sprung from 
this diseased branch, which struggled for 
place and power. The Puritans triumphed 
for a moment under Cromwell, who was a 
sort of theocratic dictator. The Catholic 
dynasty of the Stuarts, re-established in 
1660, was dethroned anew in 1668. The 
new king, William of Orange, published 
the Act of Tolerance, which somewhat 
mitigated the rigors of previous laws 
against the Catholic and Protestant dis 
senters ; but many of the previous statutes 
remained in force until 1828 and 1829. 
The repeal of those odious laws that in 
terdicted the Non-Conformists, and the 
Catholics in particular, from offices of 
public trust, and the holding of certain 
property, was not received as a gracious 
and voluntary act of government, but as 
wrung from it by agitation and strong ap 
peals to justice. 

The Anglican Church has a temporal 
sovereign for its head, whether it be man, 
woman, or child. The Act of Parliament 
empowers the sovereign to name the per 
sons for episcopal sees, but the dogmas, 
administration and discipline of the clergy 
are under the direction of the archbishops. 
The Anglican Church has preserved, al 
most entire, the ancient Catholic hier 
archy and part of the exterior ceremonies 
of the worship. There are two arch 
bishops, Canterbury and York. The Arch 
bishop of Canterbury carries the title of 
Primate of the United Kingdom and First 
Peer of the Realm. He crowns the sov 
ereign, and has twenty-one suffragan 
bishops. The Archbishop of York, Primate 
of England, has seven suffragan bishops. 
All the bishops, with the exception of two, 



sit in the House of Lords, as spiritual lords. 
Besides these, there are fifty-three bishops 
in the Colonies, appointed by the Arch 
bishop of Canterbury. The inferior clergy 
comprises the Chapters and those of the 
parishes. The Church of Ireland (sup 
pressed as Established Church by Act of 
July 26, 1869), the Episcopal Church of 
Scotland and that of the United States are 
embraced in the Anglican Church, and 
use the English Book of Common Prayer; 
in America, this has been slightly altered. 
Anglicanism acknowledges the symbol 
of the Apostles Creed, that of Nice and 
also that of St. Athanasius. It admits the 
Trinity, the Incarnation of Jesus Christ, 
the Resurrection, the divinity of the Holy 
Ghost, the sacrament of baptism, the 
Eucharist, purgatory, indulgences, the 
veneration of the Blessed Virgin Mary, of 
the saints and of images. Auricular con 
fession is optional ; the communion, which 
has become a mere symbol, is given under 
two kinds ; celibacy is not imposed upon 
their clergy. The Book of Common 
Prayer contains the prayers and liturgical 
offices, Puseyism (see PUSEYISM), which 
arose in our times at the University of 
Oxford, promises to approach more closely 
to the Roman liturgy, as it has re-estab 
lished altars, crosses, stations of the cross, 
veneration of the Blessed Virgin Mary, 
and many other ceremonies repudiated 
since the reign of Elizabeth. 

Angustia Loci (the smallncss of the 
place}. Is one of what theologians call 
" oonest causes for dispensation," in mar 
riage. A place is held to be small, when 
it contains no more than three hundred 
hearths, which would be equivalent to about 
twelve hundred souls. A maiden, who is 
of such a place, can ask dispensation from 
the impediment of relationship, if she 
does not find, outside of her family in this 
place, a husband suitable to her, with re 
gard to her patrimony, condition, or age. 

Anicetus (ST.). Pope from 157 to 168. 
Syrian by birth, suffered martyrdom under 
Marcus Aurelius. He was visited at 
Rome by St. Polycarp of Smyrna. These 
two Saints had some dispute in regard to 
the date of the feast of Easter, a dis 
cussion which did not alter their friend 
ship. F. April i7th. 

Animals (pure and impure). This reg 
ulation explains itself in the dietary code 
of Moses, which prescribed the pure ani 
mals for food for the Hebrew people, and 



ANIMISM 



ANIMISM 



the impure animals, which they were to 
reject. The permission to eat the flesh of 
certain animals, while that of others is 
strictly forbidden, has been a subject for 
ridicule and attacks of all kinds. Those 
who have judged that the distinction be 
tween pure and impure animals had no 
foundation in fact, did so in ignorance, for 
this law was made by Moses for well 
known hygienic reasons. 

Animism. (Lat. anima, soul.} I3y this 
word we designate the doctrine which ad 
mits the identity in man with the thinking 
soul and vital principle. The real ani 
mism has been taught in antiquity only by 
Aristotle. The lonians and other philoso 
phers before Plato, recognized, it is true, 
that the soul is the principle of life, but 
according to them, the soul was a subtile 
matter air, fire, etc. Plato supposed 
that there were in the same body several 
souls having different operations and seats. 
The nutritive soul was seated in the liver, 
the concupiscent soul in the heart, and the 
cognitive soul in the brain. Galen ad 
mits the Platonic distinction of three souls ; 
attributes only to the inferior soul the 
principle of life, and does not consider the 
reasonable soul immaterial and immortal. 
The Pantheistic animism of the Stoics 
was materialistic, like that of the lonians ; 
Parcelsus, Robert Fludd, Van Helmont, 
approach Plato a good deal. 

Aristotle distinguishes four kinds of 
souls : the nutritive soul, the sensible soul, 
the locomotive soul, and the reasonable 
soul. They are not different substances 
which superadd themselves in the same 
living being, but are diverse and hier- 
archal function*, of which the soul of a 
vegetable fulfills the first, the soul of a 
zoophyte the first and second, the soul of 
an animal the first three, and the soul of a 
man all four at once. 

We regain this real animism in the 
scholastic philosophy of which St. Thomas 
is the most illustrious and most exact 
representative. According to him, man is 
composed of a body and soul. The first 
principle of life of the body is the soul, 
since life manifests itself through diverse 
operations in the various degrees of the 
living beings; the first principle by which 
we operate each of these vital works is the 
soul. The soul is the first principle by 
which we nourish ourselves, we feel, we 
go from one place to another, just as she 
is also the first principle of the intellectual 



operations. The soul, being, not only 
united with the body as its motor, such as 
Plato believed, but as its substantial form, 
it is impossible that in one sole man there 
are several essentially distinct souls; there 
is in man no other substantial form but 
the intellective soul; as it contains, virtu 
ally, the sensitive soul and nutritive soul, 
so also it contains, virtually, all the 
inferior forms and produces in it alone 
what more imperfect forms produce in 
the other beings. We have to say the 
same of the sensitive souls in beasts, 
and the nutritive souls in plants, and uni 
versally of all the most perfect and im 
perfect forms. 

The doctrine of St. Thomas, which is 
cited here, is also that of the Church. 
The Ecumenical Council of Vienne (1312), 
in Dauphine,and Pope Clement V., in 1311, 
decided against Peter-John of Oliva, and 
Ubertin of Casal, successively superiors of 
the " Spiritual Franciscans," that the prop 
osition " the reasonable or intellective sub 
stance is not really and by itself the form 
of the human body," is erroneous, con 
trary to Catholic truth; they classed as 
heretics, those who uphold it with stub 
bornness. In our days the Holy See has 
recalled, to mind and confirmed this article 
of faith, June I5th, 1857. Pius IX-, in his 
letter to the Archbishop of Cologne, speak 
ing of the writings of the German priest 
Giinther, censured and condemned by the 
Congregation of the Index, with the ap 
probation of the Pope, says: "We know 
that it is a blow to the Catholic sentiment 
and doctrine, touching the nature of man, 
which is composed of a body and soul, but 
of a rational soul, which is by itself the 
real and immediate form of the body." 

Among modern philosophers, Stahl has 
adopted the most precise, and we might 
add, the most complete exposition of ani 
mism. He tells us that the soul, even in 
physiological operations, knows what she 
is doing. This appears to be a too hasty 
conclusion and bold assertion. To-day, 
animism holds first place among spiritual 
istic philosophers, but they are not willing 
to grant to the soul, like Stahl, the knowl 
edge of what she does, as vital principle; 
it is in virtue of an instinct which ignores 
that the thinking soul accomplishes its 
functions as principle of life. The physi 
ologists and philosophers opposed to ani 
mism are : those who pretend that the 
vital phenomena are explainable by the 
play of the sole forces which govern brute 



ANNAS 



39 



ANOMOEANS 



matter without having to recur to any 
principle of life (they are the Anti-Vital- 
ists). And among the Vitalists, those 
who explain the principle of life, by either 
the double Dynamism, or by the Organ- 
icism (see these two terms) ; finally, 
those who affirm life as a special phenome 
non, and in so affirming pretend that sci 
ence is yet powerless to refer it to its real 
cause. 

Anna (Sx.). According to old tradi 
tions, the saintly mother of the Blessed 
Virgin, whose name, Anna, signifies 
grace, was descended on her father s side 
from the tribe of Levi, and on her mother s 
side from the tribe of Juda. She w.as 
born in Bethlehem and was married, 
while still a pure and pious virgin, to 
Joachim, a man of position, with whom 
she lived, occupied in pious works, and 
patiently conforming to the will of God in 
all things. When the pious couple had 
reached a very advanced age, in which 
they could scarcely expect to have chil 
dren, an angel announced to them that 
they were to be blessed with a daughter 
whom they were to name Mary. And it 
occurred as foretold. In the fall (Sept. 
8th) following the announcement was 
born the holiest of God s creatures, the 
Queen of angels and of men, the 
chosen Mother of the Son of God, not so 
much the fruit of the body as she was the 
fruit of grace. Joachim and Anna brought 
this child Mary, at a very tender age, to 
Jerusalem, presenting her to the high- 
priest as an offering to God, to be brought 
up in the service of the temple. How 
long Anna lived after this sacrifice is not 
known, but she is now enthroned among 
the elect in heaven with her beloved child 
in glory. F. July 26th. The devotion 
towards St. Anna is very great among the 
faithful. Her remains, first buried at 
Bethlehem, in the tomb of her parents, 
then transferred by the faithful into the 
Church of the Sepulchre of Notre-Dame, 
in the valley of Josaphat, were, finally, 
transferred into the Church of Apt, in 
Provence. From the city of Apt, all the 
relics of St. Anna are derived. 

Annas. A high-priest of the Jews. He 
is mentioned in St. Luke as being high- 
priest along with Caiphas, his son-in-law. 
He was first appointed to that office by 
Cyrenius, or Quirinus, proconsul of Syria, 
about A. D. 7 or 8, but was afterwards de 
prived of it. After various changes, the 



office was given to Joseph, also called 
Caiphas, the son-in-law of Annas, about 
A. D. 27 or 28, who continued in office until 
A. D. 35. In St. Luke iii. 2, therefore, it is 
apparent that Caiphas was the only actual 
and proper high-priest; but Annas, being 
his father-in-law, and having been for 
merly high-priest himself, and being, also, 
perhaps, his substitute, had great influence 
and authority, and could, with propriety, 
be still termed high-priest along with 
Caiphas. 

Annats. The first fruits, consisting of 
a year s revenue, or a specific portion of 
the revenues of vacant benefices which 
ought to be paid to the Pope, but which 
now form a scarcely appreciable portion of 
the papal revenues. See PETER S PENCE. 

Anna the Prophetess. Daughter of 
Phanuel, of the tribe of Aser, became 
widow after a marriage of seven years, 
and consecrated her life to God in the 
temple. She received the Saviour when 
He was presented there by His mother. 

Anniversary. Feast or ceremony which 
takes place every year on a certain day. 
The dedication of a church is an anniver 
sary festival. An anniversary service is 
the yearly commemoration of the day of 
a person s death, by a Mass offered for his 
soul. 

Annunciade. Literally, the Annunci 
ate, that is, the Blessed Virgin Mary as 
the receiver of the Annunciation. A name 
which designates several religious orders 
founded in honor of Mary. 

Annunciation (Feast of the}. The an 
nunciation of the Angel Gabriel to the 
Blessed Virgin. Festival which the Church 
celebrates in honor of this mystery, March 
25th. The institution of this feast dates 
back to the first centuries of Christianity. 
St. Athanasius mentions it in one of his 
sermons. For a long time they com 
menced the civil year with the feast of the 
Annunciation. The custom of commencing 
the year on the ist of January was intro 
duced in France in 1564, in Scotland in 
1579, in England in 1752. 

Anomceans. Members of an extreme 
sect of Arians, in the fourth century, who 
held that the Son is of an essence not 
even similar to that of the Father (whence 
their name), while the more moderate 
Arians held that the essence of the Son is 
similar to that of the Father, though not 



ANSCHARIUS 



40 



ANTHEM 



identical with it. Also called sEtians, 
Etidoxians, and Ennomians. 

Anscharius (ST.) (surnamed the Apostle 
of the North). Born near Amiens, in 
Picardy, in 801. In 829 he accom 
panied the imperial embassy to Sweden, 
where he made many converts and built 
several churches. In 832, Pope Gregory 
made him Archbishop of Hamburg and 
apostolic delegate for the North ; to this 
appointment the See of Bremen was added 
in 849. Anscharius, with immense toil 
and privations, and amidst many dangers, 
succeeded in firmly establishing Christian 
ity in Denmark and Sweden. After an 
apostolate of thirty-four years, he died in 
865. F. Feb. 3d. 

Anselm (ST.). Archbishop of Canter 
bury; born at Aosta, Italy, in 1033. Wil 
liam II., during a dangerous illness, re 
solved to restore the estates which he had 
taken from the different churches; and, 
urged by his nobles, he nominated the 
learned Anselm, Abbot of Bee, in Nor 
mandy, to the See of Canterbury. Only 
on the king s promise to resign the tem 
poralities belonging to the See of Canter 
bury, to follow his counsels in things 
spiritual, and to acknowledge Urban II. as 
rightful Pope, did Anselm, at last, consent 
to receive consecration, in 1093. But, 
when restored to health, the king, by his 
renewed rapacity and despotism, soon gave 
much trouble to the new Primate. The 
refusal to acknowledge Urban II. and per 
mit Anselm to receive the pallium from 
the Pontiff, led to a complete rupture. In 
his struggle with the king, Anselm was 
forsaken by the bishops, whilst the nobles 
of the realm earnestly supported him. 
Shortly after, William acknowledged 
Urban, and was reconciled with Anselm. 
But fresh aggressions compelled Anselm 
to have recourse to the Holy See. He set 
out for Rome, in 1097, and was received 
by Urban with signal marks of respect; 
but his resignation, the Pope refused to 
accept. While in Italy, Anselm took part 
in the Councils of Lateran and Bari. At 
the latter Council, he defended, in a 
masterly oration, the " Procession of the 
Holy Ghost" against the Greeks. Anselm 
remained a voluntary exile, living chiefly 
at Lyons, till the year noo, when, upon 
the sudden death of William and the acces 
sion of Henry I., he repaired to England. 
Although the new king had promised to 
respect the liberties and immunities of the 



Church, he was engaged in a sharp con 
flict with Anselm concerning the right of 
investiture. As Henry would not give up 
his pretensions, Anselm went into exile a 
second time. Pope Paschal II. threatened to 
excommunicate Henry ; but, at the instance 
of Anselm, the Pontiff contented him 
self with pronouncing excommunication 
against the venal prelates who had re 
ceived investiture from the king. At last, 
the good services of Henry s sister, Adela, 
led to a compromise. Anselm returned to 
England in 1106, and henceforth lived in 
peace till his death, in 1109. Anselm is 
regarded as the earliest of the Scholastic 
theologians, and is sometimes called the 
"Father of Scholasticism." He did not, 
indeed, construct a complete sum, or sys 
tem of theology, but his various works are 
so many formal treatises on the principal 
parts of theological science. He composed 
elaborate tracts On the Freedom of the 
Will, On Original Sin, On the Fall of 
Satan, On the Procession of the Holy 
Ghost, and On the Agreement of Divine 
Fore-knowledge, Predestination, and Grace 
with Free Will. His Monologium and 
Prosologinm, respectively, treat of the 
Existence of God, and of the Holy Trinity 
and the Divine Attributes, while his work, 
entitled Why God ivas made Man, is a 
learned exposition of the Incarnation and 
Redemption. Against the Nominalistic 
theory of Roscelin, he wrote his work On 
the Belief in the Trinity, and the Incar 
nation of the Word. In the works of St. 
Anselm is found the celebrated Ontolog- 
ical argument for the existence of God, 
deduced from the idea of an infinitely per 
fect Being. His extraordinary erudition 
won for him the surname of "the Augus 
tine of the Middle Ages," and, in 1720, the 
honor of being numbered among the Doc 
tors of the Church, by Pope Clement XI. 
F. March i8th. 

Antependium. The hanging by which 
the front of an altar is covered. It is 
frequently made of silk or velvet, and 
ornamented with embroidery. 

Anterus (ST.). Greek by birth, elected 
Pope after the death of Pontianus, on 
November 21, 238. Occupied the Holy 
See only one month and a few days. He 
died on January 3, 239, and had for suc 
cessor St. Fabian. 

Anthem. Originally, a hymn sung in 
alternate parts; in modern usage, a piece 




ANTHONISTS 



ANTHROPOPHAGY 



of sacred music, set to words, usually 
taken from the Psalms or other parts of 
the Scriptures. See ANTIPHON. 

Anthonists. Members of a religious 
Community. This Congregation was 
founded on the occasion of the visitation 
of the "Sacred Fire," or "St. Antkony s 
Fire," a terrible plague which was brought 
into Europe from the East in the eleventh 
century. Among those attacked by this 
disease was one Guerin, the son of a 
wealthy nobleman by the name of Gaston, 
who had also been stricken by it. Both 
had recourse to St. Anthony, the Hermit, 
and obtained their recovery. Out of grati 
tude for this blessing, the two made a 
pilgrimage to Didier-la-Mothe, where the 
saint was particularly venerated, and there 
consecrated their entire fortune to the 
foundation of an order whose work was to 
consist in serving and caring for those 
who were stricken with that and similar 
maladies. They were approved in 1096 
by Pope Urban II., after which they took 
the name of Anthonists, or Hospitalers. 
The order, which was at first entirely of 
laymen, but subsequently, by permission 
of Boniface VIII., included canons, ob 
served the Rule of St. Augustine, under 
the direction of a superior called a Master 
(mag-ister). 

Anthony (ST.). Founder of Monasti- 
cism. Born in Egypt, of rich and virtuous 
parents, in 251, he, after dividing all his 
possessions among the poor, retired into 
the desert, where he lived, for twenty 
years, the life of a hermit. The fame of 
his miracles, and still more the power 
of his words and example, drew about him 
many followers, who, under his guidance, 
desired to devote themselves to this new 
life. He became the director of a number 
of anchorites who dwelt in detached cells, 
forming a community called a "Laura." 
This venerable patriarch of the Cenobites, 
died in 356, at the age of one hundred and 
five. There are extant, seven authentic 
letters and an "Exhortation to the Monks" 
by St. Anthony. His life was written by 
St. Athanasius. F. Jan. i7th. 

Anthony of Padua (ST.). Born at Lis 
bon, in 1195; died at Padua, in 1231. 
Entered the order of St. Francis, who was 
still alive, and who gave him the mission 
to preach. He preached with wonderful 
success in Italy, France, and Spain. "His 
sermons," says his biographer, "were 



flames, impossible to withstand, which 
aroused numbers of sinners and criminals 
to penance." He died at the age of only 
thirty-six. F. June I3th. 

Anthropomorphism. In theology, the 
conception or representation of God with 
human qualities and affections, or in a 
human shape. Anthropomorphism is 
founded in man s inability to conceive 
beings above himself otherwise than in 
his own likeness. It determines the growth 
and form of all human religions, from the 
lowest up to the highest : as where the 
Scriptures speak of the eye, the ear, and 
the hand of God, of His seeing and hear 
ing, of His remembering and forgetting, of 
His making man to His own image, etc. 

Anthropophagy. The habit of eating 
human flesh. This horrible and repulsive 
habit may be traced to many tribes and 
peoples of the Old and New World, though 
it does not appear, however, that the cus 
tom was general or practiced at all among 
the primitive races, as we learn from the 
attentive study of the bones which have 
been preserved from remote times, and 
which G. de Mortillet seems to have es 
tablished. Everything goes to prove that 
primitive man was a vegetarian ; the or 
ganization and the form of his teeth, the 
length and structure of the digestive tube, 
are, indeed, more in his favor as a vegeta 
rian than as a carnivore. This is also cor 
roborated by the fact that the taste for 
flesh meat is rather acquired than natural, 
and in general man shows repugnance to 
raw food and will relish it when cooked. 

The depraved taste for human flesh is 
due to several causes, the principal one is 
the want of religious ideas and a gross 
conception of the same. Man, after hav 
ing become accustomed to slay animals 
and use them for food, finds himself at 
certain times without game or other sub 
stitute, and none immediately in prospect, 
may hunger for human flesh and become 
a cannibal. In tales of shipwreck and 
destitution, even in modern times, the sad 
spectacle is presented of hunger forcing one 
person to eat another. On the other hand, 
we find most of the heathen forms of wor 
ship agreeable to the deities by sacrifices 
of animals, and, in grave circumstances, of 
human victims, which they ate, as it was 
the custom for the ordinary victims. They 
usually selected enemies and those cap 
tured in battle for sacrifices, and from this 
idea grew the general immolation of the 



ANTICHRIST 



42 



ANTIMENSIUM 



conquered for the occasion of feasts and 
special gratification of the deities. 

Whatever may have been the origin of 
cannibalism, it has been in practice with 
most of the people in a savage state, and 
in some instances with people already 
civilized, but in the latter case, it is true, 
only so far as isolated facts show. Every 
student of ancient history remembers the 
account of Josephus concerning the Jewish 
woman who, during the memorable siege 
of Jerusalem by Titus, cooked and ate her 
own child. In France, in the year 1030, 
during a terrible famine, some of those in 
want took to hunting men to appease their 
hunger, and even human flesh was for sale 
at Tournay. In 1590, during the siege of 
Paris by Henry IV., a rich lady, if we 
may credit the story of Peter de 1 Estoile, 
salted and ate her two children who died 
of hunger. Numerous cases of shipwreck 
go to prove the old adage that hunger will 
break through stone walls, and that civi 
lized people will sometimes, when pressed 
by hunger, and no other alternative before 
them, devour their companions. 

The facts of anthropophagy do not refer 
strictly to victims intentionally strangled 
for nourishment of others. There are 
people who have at times devoured the 
corpses of individuals who died a natural 
death, and to bury within one s self, as it 
were, the bodies of old parents, is looked 
upon as something praiseworthy. The mor 
bid desire to eat corpses goes sometimes so 
far with some of the native races of Austra 
lia, that, as we are assured by Mgr. Sal- 
vado, who resided many years among the 
Australians, they unearth the bodies and 
use them for nourishment. Certain facts 
could be brought forward of isolated cases 
of a similar kind which have taken place 
in civilized countries, but as a rule, these 
could be traced to a morbid taste for human 
flesh, the consequence of aberration of 
mind. 

Among the people most addicted to 
cannibalism, we will mention the New 
Caledonians, who regard human flesh as 
the greatest of delicacies, and were continu 
ally at war to procure a supply. In 1868, 
the fact became known that a tribe of 
Basuto-Caffres lived mostly by hunting 
men for food. The Fans of Africa buy 
from their neighbors those who die from 
disease, and the Niam-Niam treat them 
selves to the flesh of their prisoners and 
at times those who are useless and indigent 
among their own people. The New Zea- 



landers and Noukahivians have practiced 
cannibalism to a great extent. In America 
the practice had been spread among the 
Moxos; the Guaranis fattened their pris 
oners in cages before eating them, and 
the Mexicans made human flesh an article 
of commerce. In Asia, the accounts of 
cannibalism are far from being rare. The 
Battas of Sumatra, through filial love, it is 
said, eat their aged parents, and the crimi 
nals through a desire to satisfy vengeance. 
Ancient historians attest the presence of 
cannibalism in parts of Europe at an early 
day. St. Jerome tells of having seen in 
Gaul, Scotchmen addicted to this habit. 

Thus it is seen that the causes which 
have led to the eating of human flesh are 
many; notably, pressing hunger, religious 
ideas, captured enemies of battle, respect 
for aged parents, and finally an aberration 
of mind approaching the bestial state. 

Antichrist. It is the belief of the 
whole Church, that before our Lord comes 
again, a real individual being will appear in 
the world, who will become an evil power, 
persecute the Church, and lead many into 
apostasy. The general notion of anti 
christ, as a power opposing itself to the 
reign of the Messias, may be traced back 
beyond the Christian era. Its origin is, 
perhaps, to be found in the prophecy of 
Ezechiel, concerning the doom of Gog 
and Magog. The ancient Jews conceived, 
that immediately before the Messias s 
reign, national adversity must be experi 
enced in an extreme degree, and that an 
angel of Satan would appear, who must be 
overcome before prosperity could be re 
stored. This was antichrist. The idea is 
adopted in the New Testament, although 
the term antichrist occurs in no place of 
Scripture, except in the First and Second 
Epistles of St. John. 

Antidicomarianites. Name given about 
the end of the fourth century to the adver 
saries of the divine maternity and of the 
perpetual virginity of Mary. They include 
in their number the following: Helvidius, 
Jovinian, Bonosus, and Paul of Samosata. 
At all times they were looked upon as 
heretics. 

Antidoron. Name given by the Greeks 
to blessed bread which they distribute to 
those who do not communicate. 

Antimensium is in the Greek Church a 
silk cloth blessed by the bishop for use 
where there is no altar, corresponding, 



ANTINOMIANS 



43 



ANTIPAS 



therefore, to the portable altar of the 
Latin Church. 

Antinomians. Sectarians of the six 
teenth century, who pretended to reject 
all moral law through motives founded 
apparently on Christian truths. They 
made use, for the first time, of this name, 
in the discussion of Luther against John 
Agricolaof Eisleben (died 1566). The latter 
passes for the chief of the sect. He taught 
that the law, whatever it might be, has 
no share in justification, for the Holy 
Ghost is given without it ; that the law 
has no longer any sense for the just, nor 
for those who desire to become just. It 
was a simple consequence of Luther s 
doctrine; however, the latter tried to de 
fend himself and wrote against Agricola. 

Antioch. Name of two cities mentioned 
in the New Testament. The first in im 
portance is situated on the river Orontes, 
and was the metropolis of all Syria. It was 
founded by Seleucus Nicanor and named 
after his father Antiochus. It was a noted 
city at an early day. Cicero says it was 
opulent and abounding in men of taste 
and letters, hence it became a great resort 
for the Jews and afterwards for the Chris 
tians, as encouragements and invitations 
were held out by Seleucus Nicanor to 
worthy settlers. The distinctive name 
Christian was first applied to the fol 
lowers of Christ at Antioch (Acts xi. 19- 
26; xiii. i; Gal. ii. 2). It is now called 
Antakieh. Ten Church councils were 
held in this city from 252 to 380; in the 
sixth century, it became the seat of a 
patriarchate, which extended over Syria, 
Mesopotamia and Cilicia. 

The other city was named Antioch of 
Pisidia, because it was attached to that 
province although situated in Phrygia. 
It was also founded by Seleucus Nicanor 
(Acts xiii. 14; xiv. 19-21 ; II. Tim. iii. u). 

Antiochus. The name of twelve kings 
of Syria, of whom several have connection 
with the Old Testament. Antiochus II. 
(261-246 B. c.) He is supposed to be the 
king of the North whom Daniel mentions 
(xi. 6) as forming a marriage connection 
with the king of the South (Egypt). An 
tiochus III., the Great (224-187). After 
being defeated at first (Dan. xi. n), he 
conquered Palestine and the adjacent coun 
tries, but afterwards advancing into Europe 
was defeated by the Romans, and obtained 
peace only on hard terms (Dan. xi. 18). 



After his death, which soon followed, hewas 
succeeded by his brother, Antiochus 71 ., 
Epiphanes (illustrious] (176-164), a man of 
overweening pride (Dan. xi. 36), who en 
gaged in an insane attempt to supplant 
Jewish institutions and usages by Hellenic 
arts and culture, and was guilty of the most 
cruel tyranny and the foulest sacrilege. At 
first he succeeded, and set up the abomina 
tion that maketh desolate in the temple 
(Dan. xi. 31), but in the end he roused the 
Jews to a successful insurrection under 
Mattathias, Judas Machabeus, and the 
other members of that heroic family. The 
nation achieved its independence, and 
retained it until, with the rest of Western 
Europe, it became subject to Rome. The 
prominence given to Antiochus Epiphanes 
in Daniel is due to the fact that his attempt 
was the turning point in Jewish history, 
deciding whether Greek worldly refine 
ments were to stifle Israel s true faith. 
Persecution was God s method of saving 
His people from seductions which had 
well-nigh made them compromise their 
witness of His truth. 

Antiochus. Monk of St. Sabas, in Pal 
estine. At the request of Eustathius, Abbot 
of the monastery Attalina near Ancyra, he 
composed in Greek an abridgment of 
Holy Scripture, entitled : Pandcctce divinee 
Scriptures, in 130 moral discourses which 
contain precepts and maxims on the prin 
cipal duties of a Christian, founded upon 
various passages of Scripture and ancient 
Doctors of the Church ; it is, so to speak, 
a code of moral theology. The work com 
mences with an account of the martyrdom 
of 44 religious of St. Sabas, put to death 
by the Arabs in the time of the taking of 
Jerusalem by the Persians (614). The 
Pandcctce have been published by Timan- 
nus (Paris, 1543), and inserted since into all 
the Libraries of the Fathers. 

Antipaedo-Baptists. A term designat 
ing one who objects to infant baptism. 
In this sense, the term has been sometimes 
applied to the sect known as Baptists, 
in this country and elsewhere. 

Antipas (ST.) -Suffered martyrdom at 
Pergamum, of which city he was bishop, 
under the reign of Domitian. He had 
been one of the first disciples of the Sav 
iour. He was burned alive, and in the 
Apocalypse he is called the faithful wit 
ness of Jesus Christ (xi. 13). F. April 
nth. 



ANTIPATRIS 



44 



ANTITRINITARIAN 



Antipatris. The name of a city of Pal 
estine, situated about three miles distant 
from the coast, in a fertile and well watered 
plain between Ca:sarea and Jerusalem, on 
the site of a former city, Cafar-Saba. It 
was founded by Herod the Great, and 
called Antipatris, in honor of his father 
Antipater (Acts xxiii. 31). 

Antiphon. An alternate chant, sung in 
the Church at vespers and on feast days. 
i. In the Liturgy of both the Eastern and 
Western Churches, as well as in the daily- 
hours and other Offices, a series of verses 
from the Psalms or other parts of Scrip 
ture, either in their original sequence or 
combined from various passages, are sung 
as a prelude or conclusion to some part of 
the service. It is sometimes especially 
applicable to the verse sung before or after 
the Psalms of the office, the tones of which 
are determined by the musical mode, ac 
cording to the Gregorian Chant of their 
respective antiphons. 2. A kind of hymn 
in honor of the Blessed Virgin Mary, which 
is sung at the end of tt\e Compline : the Alma 
Rcdemptoris Mater is the antiphon from 
Advent to Purification; the Avc Regina 
is sung after Purification and during Lent ; 
the Regina Cceli during the Paschal 
time, and the Salva Regina from Trinity 
Sunday until the time of Advent. 

Antiphonarium. Book of the Church 
which contains the anthems of the Breviary, 
with the notes of Plain Chant, according to 
which they should be sung ; the verses and 
hymns are added thereto. The most an 
cient Antiphonarium known is that of Pope 
Gregory the Great. At the time of John 
the Deacon, called Abbe Fleury, 300 years 
after St. Gregory, it was yet preserved in 
St. John Lateran, but the original was de 
stroyed by fire. 

Antipope. A pontiff elected in opposi 
tion to one canonically chosen ; one who 
pretends to assume the Pontificate to the 
prejudice of the Pope legitimately elected, 
and who causes by this pretension a 
schism in the Church. The following is 
the list of Antipopes : Novatian, 251; 
Felix, 356; Ursicinus, 356; Eulalius, 418; 
Laurentius, 498; Dioscorus, 530; Vigilius, 
537 ; Paschal, 687 ; Theodorus, 687 ; 
Theophylactus, 757; Constantin, 767; 
Zizimus, 824; Anastasius, 855; Sergius, 
891; Christophorus, 904; Franco or 
Bonifacius VII., 973; Philagathus or John 
XVI., 997; Gregory, 1012; John or Syl 
vester III., 1044; John, Bishop of Velletri, 



or Benedict, 1058; Cadalons or Honorius 
II., 1061 ; Guibert or Clement III., 1080; 
Albert, Theodoric, and Maginulf, noo; 
Maurice Bourdin or Gregory VIII., 1118; 
Peter of Leon or Anaclet, 1130; Gregory 
or Victor, 1138; Octavian or Victor III., 
1159; Guy of Cremoa or Paschal III., 1164; 
John, Abbot of Strume, or Calixtus III., 
1168; Lando Sitinos or Innocent III., 1178; 
Peter of Corbieres, 1328; Gilles Munias or 
Clement VIII., 1424; Amedeus of Savoy 
or Felix V., 1439. 

The power which the rulers of Europe 
exercised in the temporal affairs of the 
Church, together with appointments en 
trusted to their judgment and interest, 
were very often used to further their am 
bition and influence, or to resent some 
real or fancied reprimand from the Pontiff 
or prelate in whose kingdom or principal 
ity he exercised spiritual authority. Sev 
eral emperors of Germany set up Popes 
against those who were legitimately 
elected. After the death of Honorius 
III. France began to intermeddle in the 
strifes. Sicily and Savoy followed with 
rival Popes. The Council of Constance 
in 1415, after nearly three years of patient 
labor and mature deliberation to compel 
the three claimants to resign, disposed of 
the three rival claimants, and proceeded 
to the election of a new and undoubted 
Pope. On the nth of November, 1417, 
the choice fell upon a noble Roman, Otto 
di Colonna, who took the name of Martin 
V. The schism was at an end ; both the 
Church and the Papacy came out much 
stronger than they went into it. 

Antisabbatarian. One who denies the 
perpetual obligation of observing the 
Sabbath (Sunday), and maintaining that 
it was a part of the ceremonial, not of 
the moral law, and abolished by Christ. 
Hence, the word is applied to those who 
oppose strict observance of the Sabbath. 

Antitactes. A sect of Gnostics who 
appeared in the second century, and re 
garded God as the involuntary author of 
evil, though in Himself He was good and 
holy, but had delivered the world to an 
evil genius that deceived men, and repre 
sented to them as good what was evil, and 
everything to the contrary. Hence, in 
order to do good, one must do the contrary 
of that which is prescribed by the law. 

Antitrinitarian. One who denies the 
dogma of the Trinity. Theologians gen 
erally agree that the Samosatians, who do 



ANTITYPE 



45 



APOCALYPSE 



not admit the distinction between the Di 
vine Persons, the Arians, who deny the 
divinity of Christ, the Macedonians, who 
contest that of the Holy Ghost, the 
Socinians or modern Unitarians, who ob 
ject to the Trinity on theological grounds, 
and the Mohammedans, who are charac 
terized by the intensity of their monothe 
ism, are antitrinitarians in the general 
sense of the term. 

Antitype (Gr. Anti, instead of tupos 
figure). Literally signifying a type or 
figure. In its theological sense it denotes 
that which is pre-figured or represented 
by a type, the person in whom any pro 
phetic type is fulfilled ; thus, the paschal 
lamb is called the antitype of Christ; 
the offering of bread and wine by Mel- 
chisedech was an antitype of the sacrifice 
of the Mass. 

Antoninus (ST.). 1389-1459. Born at 
Florence; Dominican, and then Arch 
bishop of Florence; distinguished himself 
by his piety and learning. Has left: 
Summa confessionalis; Summa tJieologica, 
great compilation of moral extracts from 
the works of the Fathers, scholastics, and 
councils ; Summa historialis, the greatest 
chronicle of the Middle Ages, rich in 
notices on Church history, commencing 
with the creation of the world and ending 
with the last year of the saint s life. Best 
edition of his complete works is that by 
Mamachi and Remedelli, Florence. 

Aod. Son of Gera, of the tribe of Ben 
jamin, was judge of Israel after Othoniel 
and before Samgar. Charged to bring 
Eglon, king of Moab, the tribute which 
the Israelites had paid him for eighteen 
years, he profited by this occasion to free 
his country. He feigned, therefore, to 
have a secret to communicate to the 
king, and when they were alone he mur 
dered him. Before the guards of Eglon 
could learn of the death of their master, 
Aod had time to assemble an army with 
which he occupied the passes by which 
the Moabites could fly to their country. 
Ten thousand were killed, 1496 B. c. The 
Bible adds that this victory procured 
eighty years of peace to God s people. 
Aod was chosen Judge by his grateful com 
patriots. We do not know the date of his 
death. 

Apelles. A Gnostic of the second cen 
tury, the most famous disciple of Marcion ; 
spread his errors about the year 145 B.C. 



Apelles. A Roman Christian, to whom 
St. Paul sends greetings as virum probum 
in Christo (Rom. xvi. 10). He became 
Bishop of Smyrna and died by martyrdom. 

Aphec. i. City of the tribe of Aser, 
undoubtedly the same as Aphaca spoken 
of by Eusebius and Sozomenus, situated 
near the Libanon, famous for having a 
temple of Venus; known, to-day, under 
the name of Afka. 2. Royal city of the 
Chanaanites, whose king was killed by 
Josue ; situated south of Jerusalem, in the 
neighborhood of Hebron. 3. City situ 
ated east of the Sea of Galilee, where the 
Syrian Benadad lost a battle against the 
Israelites, and where there is still a place 
called Pheik. 4. City of the tribe of 
Isachar, in the neighborhood of which 
Saul lost against the Philistines a last 
battle, and his life. 5. City in the neigh 
borhood of Eben-Ezer, where, in Samuel s 
time, the Philistines came to camp in face 
of the Israelites, south of Palestine, be 
tween Masphat and Sen. 

Aphraates (JAMES). Syrian writer of 
the fourth century. We have from him 23 
treatises or homilies about questions on 
dogma and morals. 

Aphthartodocetae. A Monophysite sect, 
which existed from the sixth to the ninth 
centuries, or later. They taught that the 
body of Christ was incorruptible even 
before the resurrection, and that He suf 
fered death only in a phantasmal appear 
ance. From this, they are sometimes 
called P/iantasiasfs, a name more properly 
belonging to the Docetce, who denied even 
the reality of Christ s body. 

Apis. The bull worshiped by the 
ancient Egyptians, who regarded it as a 
symbol of Osiris, the god of the Nile, the 
husband of Isis, and the great divinity of 
Egypt. 

Apocalypse. A Canonical book which 
contains the revelations of St. John the 
Evangelist, while on the Island of Pat- 
mos. The Apocalypse treats of the pro 
gressive development of the Kingdom of 
the Messias upon earth, its victory over 
its two enemies, Judaism and Paganism, 
and of its transformation into the eternal 
Kingdom of heaven, after the second com 
ing of Christ at the end of time. The in 
structions contained in this book, on all 
these points, are not given to us in the or 
dinary prophetic style, which describes 



APOCALYPSE OF MOSES 



46 



APOCRYPHA 



future events almost under the form of a 
simple narrative, often without any figura 
tive expression, but in a series of symbolic 
visions, which interlink themselves with 
the greatest art, by wonderful transitions, 
and offer a complete and perfect tableau of 
the ordeals of God s Church upon earth. 
from her first combats to her final triumph. 

After the exposition of the subject in a 
vision, which serves as a preamble, the 
book divides itself into two chief parts, 
the first of which comprises information 
about the state of the seven Churches of Asia 
Minor, figure of the entire Church (Apoc. 
ii. iii.) ; the second about what is to come, 
that is, a prophecy concerning the com 
bats of the Church and her victories over 
her enemies (Apoc. iv. xxii.). In this 
prophecy the first representation is the 
combat of the Kingdom of Jesus against 
Judaism, and the defeat of the latter. 
A series of symbolic visions make known 
and describe the swift chastisement which 
will, by and by, fall upon the country, upon 
the city, and upon the Temple to its total 
ruin (Apoc. iv. xii.). 

After the victory over Judaism, the 
prophecy passes to the triumph which the 
Church will achieve over Paganism, though 
an unequal contest in the beginning; dis 
playing greater hatred and rage since the 
fall of Jerusalem. Paganism with power 
and opulence, commanding the world s 
conquering armies tries, by every device 
to annihilate the small body of Christians. 
Heaven declares in favor of the Christian 
army the army of saints and martyrs 
and in a series of symbolic visions the 
destruction of the Roman Empire is 
pointed out and that of Rome, its capital 
designated under the name Babylon, the 
great prostitute, seated upon the seven 
hills is shown to be on the point of fulfill 
ing itself (xiii. xix.) ; an event after which 
Christianity reigns for a long time (a 
thousand years) the Empire of the world 
(xx. 1-6). Satan having lost power, 
during this long period, to seduce man, 
as in the days of Paganism, receives 
fresh power, about the end of time, and 
renews his combat. The enemies of the 
Christian religion make every effort to 
annihilate the faith in God, and in His 
Christ, but in vain. Jesus Christ appears; 
Satan and all his followers are cast into hell ; 
the dead arise; they are judged, and the 
Church, that was earthly until now, trans 
forms herself into the heavenly Kingdom. 
Thus is the end which this sublime and 



mysterious book has revealed to us. It 
has been proven that the Apocalypse was 
written in Greek. * 

Apocalypse of Moses. An apocryphal 
book, under this name, \vhich some have 
confounded with the small Genesis. It is 
a revelation made to Moses by the Arch 
angel Michael, when the tables of the 
law were given to him. It contains the 
history of Adam and Eve and their chil 
dren. Tischendorf places its composition 
about the time of our Lord. The Assump 
tion and the Ascension of Moses is of the 
same epoch, and can be regarded as a con 
tinuation of the Book of the Jubilees. It 
is a prophecy about Israel, placed in the 
mouth of Moses and addressed to Josue. 

Apocalyptic Number. The mystical 
number, 666, spoken of in the book of 
Apocalypse (xiii. 18). As early as the sec 
ond century, the Church had found that 
the name, Antichrist, was indicated by the 
Greek characters expressive of this num 
ber; while others believed it to express a 
date. The most probable interpretation, 
and the one that has been most generally 
accepted, is that which found the number 
in the word Lateinos (Latinus} the Ro 
man nation, the mightiest pagan power on 
earth. See ANTICHRIST. 

Apocrisarius. A title formerly given 
to certain ecclesiastical agents or deputies ; 
but in modern times it has been changed 
to that of nuncio or ablegate. At Con 
stantinople and other European courts, 
they represented the Holy See and the in 
terests of the Church. 

Apocrypha or Apocryphal Writings. 
This word is now employed to mean a 
number of writings which were sometimes 
considered as an appendage to Holy Scrip 
ture, and sometimes as a portion of it, 
and which the Church does not receive as 
Canonical. The Apocryphal writings of 
the Old and New Testaments form quite a 
considerable literature for the Biblical 
scholar. The principal works are, for the 
Old Testament: The 3rd, 4th and gth 
book of Esdras; the book of Enoch, the 
Small Genesis; the Ascension of Isaias ; 
the Testament of the twelve Patriarchs ; 
the letter of Baruch to the twelve tribes 
of Israel ; the 3rd book of the Machabees ; 
the eighteen Psalms of Solomon, etc. For 
the New Testament: The Gospel of the 
Twelve Apostles; the Gospel of Cerinthus 
and Carpocrates; the Gospel of St. Peter; 



APODIPNE 



47 



APOLLONIUS OF TYANA 



the Gospel of the Four; besides numerous 
Epistles and Acts and apocryphal Apoca 
lypses. 

Apodipne. In the Greek Church, that 
part of the divine office which we call 
Compline. 

Apokatastasis. In theology, accord 
ing to the Acts of the Apostles (iii. 2), the 
word signifies the re-establishment of all 
things, through the work of Redemption, 
conformably to the divine promises. To 
Origen is attributed the teaching of a 
more radical and more absolute apokatast- 
asis, in virtue of which everything that 
comes from God, must be restored to its 
former state. This would imply the sup 
pression of the eternal hell, so clearly 
taught in the Gospel. This error was re 
vived in the ninth century by John Eri- 
gena, and in the sixteenth by Petersen. 

Apollinaris (ST.). First Bishop of Ra 
venna and the only one of this Church 
who suffered martyrdom, was, it is be 
lieved a disciple of St. Peter. He is fa 
mous in Church History, although the acts 
of his life, such as we have them, are not 
authentic. His panegyric was pronounced 
by St. Peter Chrysologus, one of his suc 
cessors. Hungary claims him as its apos 
tle. His remains, formerly kept at Closse 
(ancient sea harbor four miles from Ra 
venna), were transferred in 549 into a vault 
of the same Church. Pope Honorius 
founded a Church at Rome in honor of St. 
Apollinaris about the year 630. We read 
his name in the Martyrologies ; the Ro 
man Martyrology commemorates him on 
July 23rd. 

Apollinaris the Apologist. Bishop of 
Hierapolis in Phrygia about the year 160. 
He addressed to the Emperor Marcus 
Aurelius an Apology in favor of the Chris 
tians. He reminded this prince of the mi 
raculous rain which saved his army, a rain 
obtained through the prayers of the i2th 
legion, and a miracle of which the emperor 
himself had been a witness. This Apology 
is lost. According to Eusebius, Apollin 
aris also wrote five books against the 
pagans, two on truth, two against the 
Jews, and one against Montanism. All of 
these works are lost. Fragments thereof 
can be found in Routh s Reliquice Sacrce 
(vol. i.)> and in Migne s Greek Patrology 
(vol. v.). 

Apollinarists. Heretics of the fourth 
century. Their founder was Apollinaris, 



Bishop of Laodicea in Syria. Adopting 
the psychological trichotomy of Plato, 
the doctrine affirming three component 
parts of man, spirit, soul, and body 
he maintained that Christ had, indeed, a 
human body and human passions, or a 
sensitive soul, but not a spirit, or rational 
soul. This was supplied in Him by the 
Divine Word ; consequently, Christ had no 
human will, which would mean that He 
was not impeccable. The Apollinarists 
denied that Christ assumed flesh from the 
Virgin Mary; His body, which was heav 
enly and divine, as they maintained, 
merely passed through her virginal womb. 
This heresy was ably refuted by St. Athan- 
asius, and condemned by the Synods of 
Alexandria in 362; of Rome in 368, under 
Pope Damasus ; and lastly, by the Second 
Ecumenical Council of Constantinople in 
381, which proclaimed " Christ is true God 
and true Man." After the death of Apol 
linaris, which occurred about 392, his fol 
lowers were divided into two parties the 
Timotheans and Valentinians. During 
the fifth century they were absorbed by 
the Monophysites. 

Apollo. A Jewish Christian, born at 
Alexandria, distinguished for his eloquence 
and success in propagating the Christian 
religion. His history and character are 
given in Acts xviii. 24, etc. 

Apollonia. A city of Macedonia, situ 
ated between Amphipolis and Thessa- 
lonica, about a day s journey from the 
former place. (Acts xvii. i.) 

Apollonius. A very eloquent Church 
writer and opponent of the Montanists. 
He lived in the second century. He is the 
author of an extensive and celebrated 
work against the Montanists, of which a 
few passages are found in Eusebius. 

Apollonius of Tyana (in Cappadocia). 
Was born about the time of the birth of 
Christ. This Apollonius, a Neo-Pythag- 
orean philosopher, may be called the 
heathen counterfeit of Christ, just as the 
Neo-Platonic system was the caricature 
of Christianity. Origen calls him both 
magician and philosopher, and Dion Cas- 
sius terms him a skillful wizard. His 
biographer, Flavius Philostratus, describes 
him as a great religious and moral re 
former, and represents him as a god. But 
the work of Philostratus, which he com 
piled at the bidding of the Empress 
Domna, wife of Septimus Severus, and 



APOLOGETIC 



48 



APOLOGETIC 



from the materials collected by her and 
Damis, a disciple of Apollonius, has no 
claim whatsoever to historic truth. This 
life of the pretender Apollonius, furnishes 
many striking points of resemblance to 
the life of Christ, and the design of its 
author seems to have been to give to 
paganism a standard bearer and repre 
sentative in the same manner as Christian 
ity had such a standard bearer and 
representative in Christ. Carefully ab 
staining from every mention of Christ or 
his religion, Philostratus tacitly imitates 
both; he makes his hero depart from the 
earth in a miraculous manner, ascribes to 
him the power of working miracles, and 
the knowledge of not only absent and 
secret, but, also, of future things, and por 
trays him as equal to Christ in wisdom, 
power, and the practice of every virtue. 
Thus his work reveals an intense inward 
antagonism to Christ and the Christian 
Church. 

Apologetic. In the broadest sense, apol 
ogetic is the science which teaches us how 
to defend or justify the Catholic religion, 
in its teaching and practices, against the 
attacks of infidelity, heresy, and schism. 
Apologetic furnishes a two-fold demon 
stration: i. It proves the divine origin 
of Christianity in general ; this is what 
we call Christian or Evangelical demon 
stration. 2. It proves that true Christian 
ity finds itself entirely and exclusively in 
the Roman Catholic Church ; this is what 
we call the Catholic Demonstration or Dis 
sertation on the true Church. As to the 
particular controversies on such or such a 
point of dogma or moral, ecclesiastical law 
or history, apologetic relegates them gen 
erally to theology itself, which gives the 
solution thereof in proportion to its ex 
position of the dogma, moral, etc. We 
can see, hereby, that apologetic is rather 
a preamble or introduction to theology 
than theology itself. Indeed, it has 
sometimes rightly been given the title of 
Religious Philosophy. The Historv of 
the Religions, much in vogue for some 
years past, is nothing more, when it is 
written in a Catholic spirit, than an apolo 
getic work referring to the dissertation of 
religion. The object of this science is 
to successfully make partial or universal 
apologies for the Catholic religion. Hereby 
we understand a real advocacy and plea for 
the truth, whether it be against rationalism 
or naturalism, paganism or idolatry, Juda 



ism or Mohammedanism. Apologies can 
be traced to the origin of Christianity 
itself; each assault upon it stimulated the 
production of new refutations; and the 
Church often profited by the works of de 
fense made by heretics against those who 
denied all revelation, or openly confessed 
themselves opposed to Christianity. The 
authors of these pleas of sublime power 
are called Apologists. We divide them 
into four series for the better understand 
ing of the lines of defense, and the 
character of the adversaries they had to 
combat. 

Among the most illustrious names of 
those that fought against the paganism of 
the ancients and irreligion of the leaders 
of the people are the following : i. St. 
Justin, Athenagoras, Tertullian, St. Cv- 
prian, Origen, St. Athanasius, Lactantius, 
and St. Augustine, whose City of God 
is the masterpiece of primitive apolo 
getic. 2. Those who arose against the 
Jews, Mohammedans and Arabian philos 
ophers of the Middle Ages : St. Isidore of 
Seville, Agobard of Lyons, St. Peter 
Damian, St. John Damascene, Raymond 
Martin, and especially St. Thomas of 
Aquinas, whose incomparable Summa 
against the Gentiles, has been, and is now, 
an indestructible bulwark of Catholic 
truth and teaching. 3. Those who battled 
against the leading spirits misled by the 
Renaissance, Protestantism, infidelity, and 
philosophical speculations: Bellarmine, 
Stapleton, Pascal (who unfortunately was 
tainted with Jansenism), the great Bos- 
suet, the learned Feller, Houteville, the 
industrious Bergier, the Cardinal of 
Luzern, and Chateaubriand by his Genius 
of Christianity. 4. Those who stood 
foremost against the attacks inspired by 
inexact interpretations of science and false 
ideas of modern progress, the lecturers 
at Notre Dame, Paris, who arose "like 
walls of Israel" Frayssinous, Lacordaire, 
Ravignan, Felix, Monsabre. Spain up 
holds the truth with her learned Balmes 
and Donoso Cortes; England with her 
Cardinals Wiseman and Newman; Italy 
comes forward with Perone, Nardi, and 
the celebrated Manzoni ; and Germany 
stands in line with her Doctors Denzinger 
and Hettinger, the latter of whom in his 
Apology for Christianitv, has undoubt 
edly, reared, one of the strongest bulwarks 
against the attacks of infidelity. The 
Catholic Church knows that she will 
always have adversaries; and she knows, 



APOLOGIST 



49 



APOSTLE 



too, that she will ever have fearless and 
learned champions to defend her cause 
and lead her to victory. 

Apologist. One who speaks or writes 
in defense of anything ; but, this name was 
originally used to designate a defender of 
Christian doctrine against the attacks of 
pagans, heretics, schismatics, etc. In this 
sense, the term is applied to the writers who 
have lived at the time of the Fathers of the 
Church, and during the great combats be 
tween paganism and Christianity, whose 
special work entitles them to a distinct 
place in the galaxy of Christian defenders. 
The principal apologists were Quadratus 
and Aristides of Athens, who addressed 
their writings to the Emperor Hadrian ; St. 
Justin, Martyr ; Meliton, Bishop of Sardes ; 
Miltiades, Christian philosopher of Asia 
Minor; Claudius Apollinaris, Bishop of 
Hierapolis, in Phrygia ; Athenagoras, 
Athenian philosopher; Tertullian, Theo- 
philus, Bishop of Antioch ; Minutius Felix, 
St. Cyprian, Tatian, Hermias, Origen, 
Apollonius of Tyre, Apollinaris the 
Younger, Eusebius, St. Cyril of Alexan 
dria, Clement of Alexandria, Lactantius, St. 
Athanasius, Arnobius, St. Augustine, and 
Paul Orosus. Otto has published Corpus 
Apologetarum Christianoriim Saeculi Se- 
rundi (Jena, 1847-1848, 5 vols. in 8vo.) ; 
Freppel, The Christian Apologists (Paris, 
1866) ; Mereaux, Canon of Orleans, has 
made a collection of the principal passages 
from the works of the philosophers of the 
eighteenth century, in favor of Christian 
ity, under the title : The Involuntary 
Apologists. 

Apolyctic Prayer. Prayer recited in 
the Greek Church by the priest at the end 
of Mass. 

Apostate. Literally this word desig 
nates any one who changes his religion, 
whatever maybe his motive. In its primi 
tive sense, the word Apostasy, from the 
Greek apostasia and the Latin discessio, is 
employed in the Bible to express the repre 
hensible act of one who had abandoned Ju 
daism as well as of the one who had 
renounced the Christian faith. In early 
Christian times, the word was applied to 
those who abandoned their faith in order to 
escape from persecution ; but it was also 
applied to such as rejected Christianity on 
speculative grounds (the Emperor Julian 
for instance). On the decline of paganism, 
those who had made profession of Chris 



tianity and were baptized, and who subse 
quently assisted at heathen festivals, offered 
sacrifices or incense to the Roman gods to 
gain favor or avoid persecution, were 
deemed apostates, but were styled variously 
Sacrificati, Thurificati, etc., according to 
the modes in which they publicly made 
known their return to heathenism. The 
word apostasy now expresses the formal 
and declarative abjuration of the funda 
mental principles of Christianity, which 
in itself distinguishes unbelief from heresy 
and schism. One who abjures the Chris 
tian religion for Islamism is called rene 
gade; Catholicism for Protestantism, per 
vert ; and the former name is also applied 
to the convert who returns to his former 
religious belief. Entering a religious order 
by solemn profession, and afterwards lay 
ing off the monastic habit, without being 
authorized by legitimate superiors, is, in 
canonical language, deemed apostasy ; but 
passing from one religious order into 
another cannot be called apostasy. An 
ecclesiastic, who has received the Major 
Orders, and who afterwards returns to the 
custom and mode of life of the world, 
commits apostasy, an action of ecclesias 
tical infamy; and if such a one marries, 
he is excommunicated. 

Apostle. One ivho is setif, but es 
pecially used to denote the twelve per 
sons whom Jesus had chosen, from among 
His disciples, to preach the Gospel and 
govern His Church after Him. The ones 
sent by God, in the Old Testament, were 
the prophets ; in the New Testament, they 
are the twelve men whom the Saviour 
selected to announce His doctrine, spread 
His religion, establish His Church, and 
whom the Holy Ghost endowed with the 
necessary gifts for this end. Their names 
were Simon Peter (always named first), 
Andrew (his brother), James (the son of 
Zebedee), John (his brother), Philip, 
Bartholomew, Thomas, Matthew ( sur- 
named Levi), James (the son of Alphaeus), 
Thadeus, Simon (of Cana), and Judas 
Iscariot. Subsequently, Matthias was 
chosen in the place of Judas; and at a 
still later period, the number of the 
Apostles was further increased by the call 
ing of Paul and Barnabas to the Apostle- 
ship. The Apostles were twice com 
missioned by their Master to go forth on 
their work of evangelization. First, 
during the third year of His public 
ministry. On this occasion their labors 



APOSTLES CREED 



50 APOSTLES, DOCTRINE OF THE 



were to be restricted to the Jews, properly 
so called. The second time was shortly 
before the Lord s Ascension, when their 
sphere of labor was indefinitely extended 
to all the nations of the earth, "Go, and 
teach all nations," etc. On the day of 
Pentecost, the Apostles received miracu 
lous gifts, fitting them for their arduous 
work. The spirit who inspired them 
already spoke in them, as the Saviour Him 
self testifies, and according to the promise 
that had been made to them. They re 
ceived the power to bind and to loose; 
the power to perform miracles, drive 
out demons, heal the sick, and raise the 
dead to life. Not only did the Apostles 
under their visible Chief, Christ, establish 
the first Church, but it was also a part 
of their special mission to establish His 
Church throughout the world ; and they 
were the first exponents of the divine prin 
ciple which founded and preserved the 
Church. It was this that Christ wished 
they should be for the entire world, in His 
name and place, what they had been for 
the primitive Church, the perpetual medi 
ators of His doctrine, in thp person of their 
successors. If the principle of Christian 
knowledge called Tradition, is the liv 
ing conscience of the Church, and if the 
principle of this conscience is the living 
contemplation of the.Person of Christ, this 
conscience was at first alive in the Apostles 
and always transmits itself alive to their suc 
cessors. They beheld with their own eyes 
the glory of the Lord, as one among them 
says (I. John i. 14) : "That which we have 
seen and have heard, we declare unto you 
that you always may have fellowship with 
us, and our fellowship may be with the 
Father, and His Son, Jesus Christ" 
(I.John i. 2-4). It is for this reason that we 
Christians build upon the foundation of 
the Apostles, and the true Christian Church 
is necessarily the Apostolic Church. 

Apostles Creed. See CREED. 

Apostles, Doctrine of the Twelve ( a 
work of the apostolic times). The author 
of the Doctrine of the Twelve Apostles, a 
work well known to ancient authors, holds 
place among the Christian writers of the 
Apostolic age. Express mention is made 
of this work both by Greek and Latin au 
thors, such as Eusebius, St. Athanasius, 
St. Jerome, and Rufinus. Many quota 
tions, also, from the Doctrine of the Apos 
tles are to be found in the second part of 
the Epistle of Barnabas, in the Pseudo- 



Clementine. Apostolic Constitution (book 
vii.) and very clear traces of the work are 
apparent in the compositions of Justin, 
Tatian, Clement of Alexandria, Theophilus 
of Antioch, Origen, Irenrcus, Lactantius, 
and John Climacus. But from the twelfth 
century downwards the Didac.he disap 
peared, and was believed to be utterly 
lost, until 1873, when Philotheus Bryen- 
nius, at that time Professor and, since 
1877, Metropolitan of Nicomedia, discov 
ered in a monastic library at Constanti 
nople a codex, written by Leo the Notary 
in the year 1056, which contained, besides 
the Epistle of Barnabas and two Epistles of 
St. Clement to the Corinthians and some 
other writings, the Doctrine of the Tweh e 
Apostles. 

According to its contents, the work con 
sists of two parts ; the first, from chapter 
i. vi., treats of the two ways of life and 
death ; that is, of the general duties of a 
Christian and of whatever is opposed to 
them; and from chapter vii. x., of partic 
ular duties, especially the administration 
of baptism, fasting, and the reception of the 
Holy Eucharist. The second part gives 
instruction for the admission of brethren, 
for discerning true and false prophets, for 
showing hospitality to Christian pilgrim? 
and strangers, for the maintenance of 
teachers (apostles), for the choice of 
" bishops" (priests) and deacons, and for 
fraternal correction. Chapter xvi. closes 
with an admonition to watchfulness, a de 
scription of the doings of the antichrist, 
and the coming of our Lord. 

Concerning the time and place of the 
origin of the work, opinions differ very 
considerably. While some place it as early 
as between 50 and 70, others assign it to 
the middle, or toward the end of the sec 
ond century. The majority, however, of the 
learned assume the last quarter of the first 
century to be the time of its composition, 
on the ground that the work itself con 
tains nothing which would point to a later 
origin, while its author speaks of prophets 
and apostles in a way that was possible 
only for a writer of the first century. On 
other grounds, also, the hypothesis of a 
later period is untenable. 

In spite of its small dimensions, the 
work possesses great merits. It is written 
with admirable simplicity of style, and its 
subject-matter is of the highest importance 
to the Catholic theologian, for it places in 
his hand an excellent weapon wherewith to 
defend the traditional doctrine of the 






APOSTLESHIP OF PRAYER 



APOSTOLIANS 



Church on the obligation and merit of 
good works, the necessity of baptism, con 
fession of sins, the Holy Eucharist, both as 
sacrament and sacrifice. It likewise fur 
nishes proof of the lawfulness of baptism 
per infusionem, the duty of submission to 
ecclesiastical superiors, as well as of the 
divine institution, authority, and visibility 
of the Church herself. 

Apostleship of Prayer. See CONFRA 
TERNITY. 

Apostolate ( Catholic). A name adopted 
by an ecclesiastical congregation, and by 
certain societies of piety, founded by 
Father Vincent Palotti, a priest of Rome, 
in 1835. This congregation is comprised 
of communities of secular priests and lay 
brothers combined, devoted to the work of 
giving missions; communities of religious 
women occupied with the instruction and 
care of poor girls ; associations of pious 
laymen, of every condition and state, who 
by alms and prayers assist in aiding this 
and other good works. 

Apostolate of the Press. An organiza 
tion recently established in New York 
City, through the instrumentality of the 
Paulist Fathers, with the approbation of 
the Archbishop of New York, for co-oper 
ation in the spread of printed Truth. 
This organization is made up of men and 
women of approved Catholicity, who de 
sire to co-operate with the clergy in the 
dissemination of printed truth regarding 
the doctrines of the Church, and the atti 
tude of Catholic citizens toward the public 
schools and institutions of the United 
States; to counteract the baneful influence 
of secret and organized associations, which 
flood the country with false and malicious 
literature prejudicial to the Church. 

Apostolians. The name adopted by 
three different sects, who fancied that they 
followed the customs and practices of the 
Apostles. The first Apostolians, also 
called Apotactitce, arose from the En- 
cratites or Catharists, in the third century. 
They professed to abstain from marriage, 
wine, flesh meat, etc., directed in this by 
their Gnostic opinions in regard to the 
corruption of matter. The second sect 
appeared near the Lower Rhine, neighbor 
hood of Cologne, and also at Perigueux, 
France, in the twelfth century. Doubt 
less, the prevalence of Manichean and 
Gnostic opinions of former centuries, 
mingled with sincere aspirations toward 



the Apostolic poverty and simplicity had 
something to do with the strange and 
incongruous beliefs which now and then 
sprung up, wherever the taint of heresy 
remained. The third sect of the so-called 
Apostolians appeared in 1261, its founder 
being Gerard of Sagarelli, of Parma, who 
was supported by Fra Dolcino of Prato. Ge 
rard, a fanatical young man, had been dis 
missed from a Franciscan convent. Like 
many of the heresiarchs who went before 
him, he believed himself called upon to 
revive the Apostolical era of the Church. 
He entered upon his self-appointed mis 
sion in 1261 ; and, accompanied by a num 
ber of followers, who, though not 
permitted to marry, were attended by 
women called " Sisters," went up and 
down the country, begging, singing, and 
announcing that the kingdom of God was 
at hand. The scope and aim of their 
teaching was for some time kept secret, 
but gradually came out, when it was dis 
covered that they were communistic, 
subversive of society at large, hostile to 
the Church, but chiefly opposed to the 
Papacy. Both Church and State under 
took their suppression, and in 1300, their 
fanatical leader, Gerard, was burned to 
death at Parma. 

Gerard s death did not put an end to 
their sect. They found a new leader in 
Dolcino of Prato in the county of No- 
vara an Italian of considerable culture and 
remarkable energy of character, and some 
military talent. He introduced himself to 
public notice by a circular letter, addressed 
to all Christendom, in which he claimed a 
" new age was dawning on the Church, 
and that he and his followers were the lat 
ter prophets who were to immediately 
precede the great Judgment Day " (1303). 
After going about for some time in Tyrol 
and Dalmatia, he returned to Piedmont, 
and, having gathered together his follow 
ers at Novara, formally declared war 
against Rome (1304). After fighting sev 
eral battles, Dolcino and his followers 
were driven to seek refuge on Mount 
Zebello, where those who escaped death 
by famine perished by the sword of the 
crusaders sent against them. Both Dol 
cino and his female companion, Margaret, 
whom he called his spiritual sister, were 
taken prisoners, and, after having borne 
severe torture, the former was executed 
and the latter burned to death. From this 
time forth the Apostolians ceased to exist 
as an organized sect, though small com- 



APOSTOLIC CANONS 



APOSTOLICAE SEDIS 



munities were to be found scattered here 
and there, in Germany and in the south of 
France, as late as the beginning of the 
fourteenth century. 

Apostolic Canons. Collections which 
contain the rules of discipline adopted in 
the Church during the first centuries. 
They are also called Apostolic Constitu 
tions. See CANOXS. 

Apostolic Council. See COUNCIL. 

Apostolic Fathers. The name given to 
the immediate disciples and fellow-labor 
ers of the Apostles, and their successors 
in the sees founded by them, and, in a 
more restrained sense, to those of the 
primitive epoch of the Church who have 
left writings behind them. The Apostolic 
Fathers, specially so-called, have left us 
the following writings: i. A letter of St. 
Barnabas; 2. Two letters of St. Clement 
of Rome; 3. Seven letters of St. Ignatius, 
Bishop of Antioch and Martyr; 4. A letter 
of St. Polycarp of Smyrna to the Phillip- 
pians; 5. A letter to Diognetes; 6. The 
book entitled Pastor of Her mas; 7. Frag 
ments of a work of Papias ; 8. The Acts of 
the Martyrs or the Circulars addressed to 
the Churches on the death of St. Ignatius 
and of St. Polycarp. The writings of the 
Apostolic Fathers as to their form and sub 
ject have been looked upon as a continu 
ation of the Apostolic Epistles. Editions 
were published by Cotelier (Paris, 1672, 2 
vols. ; Amsterdam, 1720) ; ed. Auctior the 
latter not correct by the Armenian, Le 
Clerc ; ed. with new inquiries and explana 
tions in the Bibliotlieca of Gallandius and in 
Migne, (Greek series, vols. i. and ii.) ; 
Jacobson (Oxford, 1830 and 1840) ; Hefele 
(Tubingen, 1839, 1857, 1875); Dressel 
(Leipsic, 1863); another by Zahn, Geb- 
hardt, and others began to appear in 1875. 
There are several English translations. 

Apostolic King. A title given to the 
kings of Hungary from the time of Stephen 
I., founder of the royal line, on account of 
his efforts to propagate Christianity. 
Hungary claims the proud title of calling 
herself Apostolic Kingdom by virtue of 
the title bestowed upon her Kings by the 
Pope. 

Apostolic Majesty. Title of honor, be 
stowed on the Pope during the Middle 
Ages. 

Apostolic Notaries. Notaries who com 
mit to writing, in each diocese, the acts 
which belong to ecclesiastical matters. 



Apostolic Nuncio or Delegate. An am 
bassador charged with ecclesiastical affairs, 
sent by the Holy See. See DELEGATE. 

Apostolic Prefects. See VICARS. 

Apostolic Sees, Churches, and Patriar 
chates are those sees and Churches which 
were founded by the Apostles themselves. 
The Churches follow in order of date : Jeru 
salem, Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome. 
To-day this title is reserved and attributed 
only to the See of Rome. A Spanish bishop 
was excommunicated at the Council of 
Rheims (1049) for having arrogated to him 
self the quality of "Apostolic," which, by 
virtue of succession, pre-eminence, and 
common consent, is reserved to the Pope 
alone. 

Apostolic Succession. An uninter 
rupted succession of Popes and bishops in 
the Church by regular ordination, from 
the Apostles down to the present day. 
Leo XIII. is the 259th in the long line of 
Roman Pontiffs. See POPES. 

Apostolic Times. The time when the 
Apostles lived ; the first century of the 
Church. 

Apostolicae Sedis. Latin words which 
designate a celebrated Constitution or Pon 
tifical Decree, dated Oct. 12, 1869. It is the 
ecclesiastical penal code of excommuni 
cations, suspensions, and interdicts latce 
scntenticE, i. e., incurred by the fact of a 
fault committed, and before all legal pro 
ceeding and judgment against the guilty. 
This constituent part of canonical legisla 
tion, having been in need of revision, Pope 
Pius IX. provided therefore by the Consti 
tution apostoliccE sedis, of which we can 
have an adequate idea when saying that it 
enumerates first the excommunications 
latce sententice specially reserved for abso 
lution to the sovereign Pontiff; the ex 
communications of the same kind simply 
reserved to the Pope; those which are 
reserved to the bishops or ordinaries; 
again those which are reserved to no par 
ticular authority, and from which a simple 
confessor can absolve. After this, the 
Constitution specifies the suspensions latte 
sententice reserved to the Holy See, and, 
finally, the interdicts reserved either to 
the Pope or to an inferior authority. This 
important act of the Papal power, belongs 
to what Canonists call the modern Canon 
ical law, the source of which is the Council 
of Trent. Hence we will not be surprised 
to learn that it maintains, in a great part, 



APOSTOLICITY 



53 



APPARITIONS 



the spiritual penalties decreed by said 
Council. This Constitution had several 
commentaries. 

Apostolicity. Conformity to the doc 
trines of the Apostles, one of the marks 
of the Catholic Church. Apostolic suc 
cession from the chief Apostle, St. Peter. 
The marks of the true Church of Jesus 
Christ are : Authority to teach and in 
terpret the word of God, visibility in her 
chief and universal head, unity in faith 
and teaching ; universality from the fact 
that she extends to all time and to all 
places. 

Apostolicity of the Church. (Fourth 
mark of the Church.} By this term, we 
distinguish two kinds of apostolicity : the 
apostolicity of the doctrine which the 
Church has preserved since her origin, 
and which consists in the belief of all the 
truths the Apostles have transmitted to us 
by voice or writing ; and the apostolicity 
of the ministry, which consists in the un 
interrupted succession of pastors since the 
time of the Apostles. We also distinguish 
two kinds powers in the apostolic ministry, 
namely : the power of order and power of 
jurisdiction. These two powers emanate 
from the Apostles who had received them 
from Jesus Christ. The first, i. e., the 
power of order, which is inherent in the 
episcopal power, has perpetuated itself, 
without interruption, through ordination, 
which rite has been determined by our 
Lord Jesus Christ. The Apostles, after 
receiving their mission from Jesus, dis 
persed in different directions, carrying 
with them the light of faith, preaching the 
Gospel, baptizing the people, and teaching 
them all that their Divine Master had 
taught them. We read, in the Acts of the 
Apostles, that in each village in which 
they planted the faith, there they estab 
lished bishops, priests, and deacons to 
govern the faithful, and that it was in this 
manner that Churches were founded. It 
must be obvious to every person that the 
Apostles had, in fulfilling their mission, 
ordained the first bishops, and they in 
turn ordained others, and so on, in suc 
cession to our own days. The same 
power of order, like that which the suc 
cessors of the Apostles received, has been 
transmitted from one to the other, and 
whoever has not been ordained by a 
bishop, with vested rights, cannot partake 
in the Apostolic ministry. The power 
and iurisdiction is that by which one can 



exercise the power of order and take part 
in the government of the Church. It is 
attached to the Canonical institution and 
its mode is determined by the ecclesias 
tical laws emanating from the Pope, or, at 
least, sanctioned by him as the Chief of 
the universal Church. By this institution 
each bishop receives the jurisdiction which 
his predecessors had in line up to the 
Apostles. 

The new bishoprics, founded by the 
successors of the Apostles, are as apostolic 
as those which have been founded by the 
Apostles themselves, because they are 
founded by the same apostolic power 
which was given to the first successors of 
the Apostles. 

The power of jurisdiction is no less 
essential than the power of order to the 
apostolicity of the ministry, and the 
apostolicity of the ministry is no less es 
sential to the Church than the apostolicity 
of doctrine. Scripture and tradition rep 
resent to us the apostolic ministry per 
petuating itself through a succession of 
bishops, like the property of God s 
Church, and with the mark of vested 
rights, which has ever distinguished it 
from all schismatic organizations. 

Apotheosis. Deification, or the raising 
of a mortal to the rank of a god. Among 
heathens generally, and especially among 
the Romans, every departed spirit became 
a deity; and as it was common for chil 
dren to worship (privately) the manes of 
their fathers, so it was natural for divine 
honors to be publicly paid to a deceased 
emperor, who was regarded as the parent 
of his country. At the consccratio, as it 
was called, of a Roman emperor, the body 
was burnt on a funeral pile, and, as the fire 
ascended, an eagle was let loose to mount 
into the sky, carrying, as was believed, the 
soul of the emperor from earth to heaven. 
Many medals are found with the word 
consccratio surrounding an altar, with fire 
on it, and an eagle rising into the air 
(C/iamb. Encyc.). 

Apparitions. The general belief that 
the spirits of the departed are occasionally 
presented to the sight of the living, has 
existed in all ages and countries, and 
usually declines only when a people has 
advanced considerably in the knowledge 
of physical conditions and laws. " These 
apparitions are all to be accounted for by 
peculiar conditions of the organism of the 



APPARITIONS 



54 



APPARITIONS 



individual sensible of them" is the theory 
of some of our modern savants. 

To amplify this point and make it more 
clear, we must understand by apparitions 
all extraordinary and sensible manifesta 
tions, by which an object, be it spiritual 
or corporeal, is placed in communication 
with the exterior or even interior senses of 
a subject which could neither naturally be 
expected nor known. May it be God, an 
angel, or a soul who shows itself under a 
material form; may it be a body far away, 
that one hears, feels, or sees, as if present 
before him. There are many apparitions, 
and all cannot be due to a diseased or dis 
ordered state of the mind. 

The belief of the Catholic Church in the 
Sacred Scriptures, does not permit us to 
question numerous apparitions mentioned 
in them, since it speaks of the apparition 
of God to the first man in the earthly para 
dise ; of Jesus Christ descending from 
heaven at the end of the world, "to judge 
the living and the dead," as the Apostles 
Creed tells us. 

As a logical consequence, the Church 
believes in the possibility of apparitions, 
and which have taken place since the Bib 
lical revelation, and which have been re 
ported in Church history, and in the 
biographies of the saints. Does she be 
lieve, in like manner, in their reality? Her 
conduct in the canonization of the saints, 
and in the direction of the faithful, her 
feasts and liturgical prayers, certainly 
prove that she believes in them, because 
she examines carefully the facts of this 
kind, when they are met with in the life 
of personages for whom one asks for the 
honors of a public veneration, because she 
blames or permits certain accounts of ap 
paritions, and finally she authorizes and 
sometimes solemnizes facts of this kind, 
like the Apparition of the Archangel St. 
Michael in Sicily (May 8th, 493 or 520). 

But does she impose the obligation of 
belief, in particular, in the reality of one 
or the other of these apparitions or non- 
Biblical visions? Not at all. These ap 
paritions, posterior to revelation, without 
being outside the sphere of the infalli 
bility of the Church, cannot become the 
object of a definition of faith, nor of an 
act of faith, properly speaking; hence one 
would not be- a heretic were he to question 
or deny them. It is true that the Church, 
by the manner she receives many of them, 
tells us quite clearly that we can and ought 
to accept them, prudently, as authentic; 



but she does not go beyond this; and, 
while the limits of scientific and Christian 
prudence should never be overstepped, a 
respectful and judicious liberty of ex 
amination or judgment remains the right 
of the Catholic faithful. 

1. The general objections against the 
possibility and reality of every apparition, 
of every supernatural vision, being the 
same which one raises against the super 
natural, the miracle, the historical value 
of the Bible, we do not need to occupy 
ourselves with these here. It is sufficient 
for us to say that a cause infinite in power 
and -wisdom, can very well, through itself, 
or through secondary causes, which it 
governs and animates by its own energy, 
operate the interior or exterior phenomena 
necessary to an apparition, to a vision, 
and co-ordain them so perfectly with the 
regular function of the physical powers, 
that the order of the world will not be 
troubled thereby. 

2. They have asked how a pure spirit, an 
angel, and especially God, would appear in 
a visible manner? The answer is contained 
in that which precedes. Certainly it is not 
the immaterial nature which enters into 
direct and physical contact with our senses, 
organic and material faculties; but for 
this purpose it makes use of an interme 
diary instrumental cause, which obeys it 
and manifests to us its presence, its 
thoughts, its will. Several philosophers 
have preferred another explanation of this 
miraculous communication ; they suppress 
the intermediary, the instrument, and be 
lieve that God, or the appearing spirit, 
acts upon our interior and exterior senses 
to prejudice them, as really present and 
sensible objects do. Although this inter 
pretation seems difficult to reconcile with 
the account of most of the Biblical appa 
ritions, it is not indefensible, especially 
when it applies itself to non-Biblical 
apparitions; and it maintains quite the 
objective reality of a superior and super 
natural action, for not being rejected 
entirely. 

3. They have often pretended that the 
apparitions and the visions are the result 
of morbid dispositions, of lively and pro 
longed excitements of the brain, of great 
intellectual fatigues, of profound medita 
tions or severe fastings, etc. Undoubtedly 
this may have such effects, and many ap 
paritions may have been produced by one 
or the other of the causes mentioned. 
Nothing is more interesting than to behold 



APPEAL 



55 



APPEAL AS ABUSE 



the most minute, careful, and discretionary 
measures indicated by Pope Benedict 
XIV., who so earnestly desired that the 
proofs of the facts of this kind, when they 
are alleged in a process of beatification, 
are of a weight equal to those which are 
required in criminal causes (De Bcatif. ct 
Canoniz. Sanctorum; libr. III. ch. iii. v. i) ; 
by the Canonists, who admit, only with 
difficulty, the testimony of the minors, 
women, persons whose veracity or good 
faith may be suspected (Cf. E. Grand- 
eclaude, Visions and Apparitions in the 
" Revue des Sc. Eccl." of 1873, and in the 
"Canonist," May, 1888) ; by the mystic 
theologians, of which the most celebrated 
may be mentioned Cardinal Bona, the 
Jesuit Godinez, the Benedictine Schram, 
and quite recently the Sulpician Ribet, 
show themselves of extreme rigor in the 
examination of these phenomena. Schram, 
for example, enumerates nineteen signs by 
which we can recognize the falseness of a 
vision, and these among others : whether 
the person who passes for having had ap 
paritions sit supcrba, si visiones deside- 
rct, si sit arrcptitia, vel delira, si 
sit melancholica, si sit novitia, si sit 
pauper, dives, juvenis, senex; si sit fem- 
ina, si visiones suas facile propalet. 
Certainly these signs are not equally and 
always certain, and they themselves must 
be appreciated with a great wisdom. But 
when, after the most careful examination 
of the facts, the ecclesiastical authority 
approves or at least does not disapprove 
the publication of a supernatural vision, 
we can say that there are very serious 
motives in favor of the fact. Besides, the 
Church permits this publication only after 
the attentive judgment of the diocesan 
bishop. The Council of Trent, in its 
XXVth session, has enacted a very precise 
decree regarding this matter. 

4. What use, is asked, can there be in 
these particular visions and apparitions, 
which do not enter into the official deposit 
and in the body itself of the Catholic doc 
trine? We answer, that God has estab 
lished not only His Church; but that He 
also governs and assists it continually 
through ordinary or extraordinary helps, 
among which we have to admit in the first 
rank certain striking and famous appari 
tions ; that the Church does not occupy 
herself, solely, \vith the palpable, fixed 
and bounded, but takes care of the soul in 
particular; and if some do not wish to 
profit by the extraordinary signs and 



graces, it is no reason why others should 
be deprived of such awakening manifesta 
tions ; the divine liberality, in the midst 
of such frightful enormity of wickedness, 
must not be shackled here any more than 
human liberty. 

Appeal. In Canon Law, this is an 
act by which a layman or cleric, who be 
lieves that a wrong or injury has been 
done to him, or that his rights have been 
violated by an ecclesiastical superior or 
judge, demands justice by appealing to a 
higher court or superior. One can always 
appeal directly to the Sovereign Pontiff, 
without first passing through the inter 
mediary jurisdiction, such as that of an 
Archbishop or Primate. 

The ecclesiastical law, however, of the 
United States is such that, if an ecclesi 
astic has any grievance, he can appeal only 
from his bishop to the Papal Delegate 
residing in the United States, and from 
the latter to the Propaganda of Faith. 

One can never appeal from an act of the 
Sovereign Pontiff (or Propaganda for the 
United States) to another authority, not 
even to a future Ecumenical Council, 
neither to the successor of the actual 
Pope, nor to this same Pope better in 
formed. The Pope has, indeed, the su 
preme authority in the Church ; to pretend 
to revoke one of his acts is a revolutionary 
temerity which cannot find place in the 
Catholic Church. Also the appeal one 
would make from a decree or command of 
the Pope to a future General Council 
would incur, if so facto, the pain of excom 
munication, especially reserved for abso 
lution to the Holy See. If the appeal is 
made by a Chapter, University, or Cor 
poration, such a society would incur, ipso 
facto, the interdict, also especially re 
served to the Pope. 

Appeal as Abuse. This means a re 
course to civil authority about ecclesiasti 
cal affairs. This kind of appeal is not in 
harmony with the Church, and has served, 
for a long time, as a protective wall for 
Gallicanism, having proceeded, probably, 
from the "Pragmatic Sanction" of Bourges 
(1438), and is based on the thought that 
the king, as protector of the Church, can 
examine and do away with the orders of 
the Pope and bishops before his court. 
The French bishops were well enough 
satisfied w r ith this appeal as long as it was 
made against the Papal orders; but, 
finally, when all ecclesiastical obedience 



APPROBATION 



ARABIA 



had been destroyed, they remonstrated in 
such a manner that Louis XIV. imposed 
some restrictions upon the Parliament. 
After the king s death, the evil grew 
wonderfully. All the disorders and troubles 
of Jansenism found, in this appeal, their 
full explanation and support. Priests in 
the United States cannot have recourse 
to the civil courts for redress in matters 
strictly ecclesiastical. Among other proofs 
this goes forth, clearly, from the instruc 
tion of the 5. Congregation dc Propaganda 
fide, Sept. 2d, 1837, on the decrees of the 
Third Provincial Council of Baltimore. 
We say in matters strictly ecclesiastical. 
It is true, that, according to the general 
law of the Church, as formerly in force, 
ecclesiastics were not allowed to have 
recourse to secular tribunals against other 
ecclesiastics, even in temporal affairs. 
But this general law no longer exists, 
having been modified by concordats, or 
by custom to the contrary. Hence, as 
the 6". Congr. dc Prop. Fide in the above in 
struction indicates, ecclesiastics or re 
ligious are no longer forbidden to bring 
before the civil courts causa? mixfce, that is, 
those causes where the persons are ec 
clesiastics, but the things concerning which 
there is a controversy are temporal and 
family matters. This holds, especially, as 
the Sacred Congregation says, in the 
above instruction, in non-Catholic coun 
tries, where redress can scarcely be ob 
tained outside the civil tribunals. How 
ever, according to the declaration of the 
,S. Congr. S. Officii., Jan. 23d, 1886, ap 
proved by Pope Leo. XIII., ecclesiastics 
and others must always obtain leave 
from the Holy See before they can have 
recoiirse to the secular court against a 
bishop, even though it be in temporal 
matters. See S. B. Smith, Elcm. of 
Eccl. Lavj, vol. I. No. 456. 

Approbation in theology is the power 
which a bishop gives to a priest to hear con 
fession and preach in his diocese. In 
canon law, Approbation is an act by which 
the Holy See, the bishop of a diocese, or an 
inquisitor of faith, authorizes the publica 
tion of a book. In virtue of actual discipline, 
this approbation is required only for the 
writings referring to religious things. The 
Church exercises great tolerance in this 
matter when there is question of Catholic 
authors and good works, reserving to her 
self, however, the right to put on the 
Index, those books which could not re 



ceive her approbation if asked for and 
which present a special danger to morals, 
etc. 

In moral theology, Approbation is the 
favorable judgment passed, by the ecclesi 
astical authority, on the capacity of a 
priest with regard to the ministry of 
hearing confession. Mostly by the fact 
that the jurisdiction is obtained, also the 
approbation is included, that is, the effect 
ive power to absolve in the tribunal of 
penance. Formerly, however, the dis 
tinction between both was of a continual 
custom, and to-day it is in vigor for the 
exempt religious who receive their juris 
diction from the Sovereign Pontiff, but 
who must obtain the approbation of the 
bishops in whose diocese they hear con 
fessions. 

Aquarians. Heretics who believed that 
water is a principle coeternal with God, 
and hence they used water instead of wine 
in the sacrifice of the Mass. St. Cyprian, 
who refuted this heresy in his >3rd Letter, 
states that it was a new sect in his time. 
They were disciples of Hermogenus, an 
African heresiarch, about the middle of the 
third century. 

Aquila and Priscilla. A Jewish Chris 
tian couple, tent-makers, who, driven from 
Rome, went to Corinth, where St. Paul 
met them, and where they instructed 
Apollo (Acts xvi. 3-5). 

Aquileia. A town in the crownland of 
Gorz and Gradiska, Austria-Hungary, sit 
uated near the head of the Adriatic, 22 
miles north of Trieste. It was one of the 
chief cities of the Roman Empire, an em 
porium, and the key of Italy on the north 
east, colonized by Rome about 181 B. c. 
In 452 A. D. it was destroyed by Attila s 
forces. A Synod held at Aquileia, in 558, 
condemned the Fifth General Council, 
and thus caused a formal schism, which 
lasted till the year 700, when the last of 
the schismatics returned to the unity of 
the Church. Aquileia became the seat 
of a Patriarchate in the sixth century. 

Arabia. A country of Western Asia, 
lying south and southeast of Judea. It 
extends 1,500 miles from north to south and 
1,200 miles from east to west. It is 
bounded on the north by Syria, on the east 
by the Persian gulf and the Euphrates, 
on the south by the Arabian Sea and the 
straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, and on the west 
by the Red Sea, etc. Arabia is divided, by 



ARABICI 



57 



ARBELA 



geographers, into three parts Arabia 
Deserta, Petrsea, and Felix. The north 
eastern portion is called Arabia Deserta. 
Arabia Petrcea, or Stony, is now generally 
known as the Sinaitic peninsula and lies 
between the two arms of the Red Sea. 
Arabia Felix is the larger and the southern 
portion. Holy Scripture often refers to 
the country of Arabia. 

Christianity was introduced into Arabia 
by some of the Apostles, at least it is 
certain that St. Paul, after his conversion, 
dwelt for some time in Arabia (Gal. i. 
17). The seed sown by St. Paul in Arabia 
bore fruit a hundredfold, for one of the 
Emirs of that country sent a request to 
Origen, asking him for instruction in the 
Christian religion, to which the latter 
gladly acceded. There was a bishopric at 
Bostra at a very early date, and at many 
other places in Arabia about the middle of 
the third century. About the year 350, 
the Emperor Constantius sent an embassy, 
composed of the most distinguished per 
sons, to the Sabeans or Homerites, a peo 
ple inhabiting southern Arabia, to concili 
ate them, if possible, to Christianity. 
Theophilus, the Arian bishop, an Indian 
of Diu, who was at the head of the em 
bassy, made an effort to obtain from the 
king certain privileges for the Christians. 
These were granted. Many inhabitants 
embraced the faith and three Churches 
were built at Tapharan, Aden, and Hor- 
muz. Monks from the frontiers of Pales 
tine labored zealously during the fourth 
and fifth centuries among the nomadic 
tribes of Arabia, as, for instance, Hilarion, 
Simeon Stylites, and Euthymius. Through 
the efforts of these holy solitaries, im 
mense multitudes of the tribes we now 
call Bedouins, embraced Christianity. In 
401, Euthymius converted Aspebethos, 
chief of a Saracenic tribe, and also conse 
crated him bishop for his subjects. 

Arabici. Heretics of the third century, 
who attacked the immortality of the soul, 
without, however, denying that it has 
another life. They maintained that the 
soul would die with the body, and rise 
again with it. These heretics held a great 
assembly, in Arabia, in regard to this 
question, at which Origen was present. 
He spoke there with such firmness and con 
viction that many of those who had fallen 
into this error, immediately abandoned it. 

Aram (elevation ]. Hebrew name of the 
region situated north and east of Palestine 



reaching to the Tigris. In Scripture, Aram 
is often distinguished by means of a de 
terminative, for example : Aram Naharim* 
Aram or Syria of the tivo rivers (the 
Tigris and Euphrates), is the Mesopotamia 
of the Greeks (between the rivers). Aram 
of Soba, of Damascus, of Beth-Rohob, of 
MaacJia. The Septuagint and Vulgate 
render the name Aram by Syria. In the 
Assyrian cuneiform inscriptions, the names 
Aramu, Arimu, and Arumu are used, but 
only of Mesopotamia, and the peoples on 
the western bank of the Euphrates. As 
early as the period of the Judges, an 
Aramean king extended his conquests to 
Palestine (Judg. iii. 8, 10). David took 
Damascus from the Arameans, but Solo 
mon was obliged to restore it. The last 
king of Damascus, Rezin, allied himself 
with Phacee, King of Israel, against Juda, 
but succumbed to Teglath-Phalaser of 
Assyria (745-727 B.C.). The Arameans 
became an important factor in the As 
syrian state ; their language seems to have 
become the common speech of trade and 
diplomacy, and it gradually supplanted 
Assyrian in Assyria, and Hebrew in 
Palestine. 

Ararat. The ancient name of a district 
in eastern Armenia between the river 
Araxes and the lakes Van and Urumiah ; 
also used for all Armenia, and for the 
mountain ridge in the south of that coun 
try. The usual statement that Noe s ark 
rested on Mount Ararat, has no foundation 
in the Hebrew text, which reads, "on the 
mountains of Ararat." Tradition fixes 
upon a point called by the Turks "Steep 
Mountain," as the spot where the ark 
rested. In the Assyrian cuneiform in 
scriptions, the country is mentioned under 
the name Uratu, and many expeditions of 
the Assyrian kings against it, are enum 
erated. The height of Great Ararat is 
about 17,000 feet (17,325 according to Par 
rot) ; that of Little Ararat, 12,840 feet. 

Arator. Latin poet, born in Liguria 
(490-556) ; secretary and stew r ard of Athal- 
aric, king of the Ostrogoths of Italy ; em 
braced the ecclesiastical state and became 
subdeacon at Rome. He put the Acts of 
the Apostles into Latin verses, published 
by Aide (Venice, 1502). 

Arbela. In ancient geography, a town 
in Assyria, the modern Arbil, Erbil, or 
Ervil. It was an early seat of the worship 
of Istar, and a place of considerable im 
portance (I. Mach. ix. 2.). 



ARBRISSEL 



ARCHELAUS 



Arbrissel (ROHERTOF) (1047-1117). A 
French ecclesiastic, the founder of the Order 
of Fontevrault. He was appointed vicar- 
general of the Bishop of Rennes, in 1085 ; 
became professor of theology at Angers, 
in 1089; and two years later, retired to the 
forest of Craon, where he founded the 
Abbey of De Rota. Later, he founded the 
celebrated Abbey of Fontevrault, near 
Poitiers, after which the Order was named. 

Archangel. See ANGEL. 

Archbishop. The title given to a met 
ropolitan prelate, who superintends the 
conduct of suffragan bishops in his prov 
ince, and who exercises episcopal author 
ity in his own diocese. This title was 
unknown in the primitive Church, and for 
the first time was applied in the Orient by 
St. Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, to 
his predecessor, Alexander (fourth cen 
tury) ; and in the Occident, to St. Isidore 
of Seville, who died in 636. However, 
since the Roman epoch, the prelate resid 
ing in the capital of a province, exercised 
over the bishops of the same province a 
kind of suzerainty, and it was generally 
the suzerain bishop who, later on, took 
the name of archbishop. There is no dif 
ference between the bishop and the arch 
bishop as to order and character, but only 
in regard to privileges and jurisdiction. 
The archbishop judges, in his metropoli 
tan officiality, the appeals lodged against 
the sentences rendered by the officials of 
his suffragans. He possesses the power 
of convoking and presiding in the pro 
vincial synods, superintendence and power 
of visitation over the bishops of the metro 
politan see ; the power of enforcing the 
laws of the Church as well as the canons 
and constitutions of his province. He has 
also the right of having the Cross carried 
before him in his own archiepiscopate, of 
giving his blessing, etc. See METROPOLI 
TAN ; APPEAL. 

Archbishopric. The extent of ecclesi 
astical territory under the jurisdiction and 
spiritual authority of an archbishop. In 
the United States there are at present 
(1899) fourteen archbishoprics. This term 
is also applied to the city where there is 
an archiepiscopal see. 

Archchaplain. This title was given in 
the early French monarchy to the court 
chaplain, often the same as the Papal, or 
later the imperial apocrisiary, and identical 
with the grand almoner and a.rchchancel- 



lor. The title became extinct with the 
Carlovingian dynasty or second line of 
kings before A. D. 1000. The archchaplain 
had great privileges over matters concern 
ing the Church ; presided as mediator 
between the bishops and king. The same 
ecclesiastical office existed at the court of 
the Emperor of Germany and at other 
courts of sovereigns and princes. 

Archconfraternity. As the name indi- 
dicates, this is, in the Church, a chief 
confraternity, having other confraternities 
affiliated with it, and endowed with 
special privileges. See CONFRATERNITY. 

Archdeacon. An ecclesiastical digni 
tary whose jurisdiction is immediately 
subordinate to that of the bishop. In 
early times, the archdeacon was often 
charged by the bishop with attending and 
assisting him in the administration of his 
diocese, wholly, or in part. His duties 
consisted in attending the bishop at the 
altar, and at ordinations; assisting him in 
managing the revenues of the Church, and 
directing the deacons in their duties. The 
name archdeacon is found among the 
ecclesiastical dignities since the fourth 
century. In the East it ceased with an 
ecclesiastical officer of the Court of Con 
stantinople under the Byzantine Empire, 
and in the West after the eighth century. 
Dioceses had begun to be divided into 
separate territories over which rural arch 
deacons were placed, having under them 
deans or rural archpriests, charged with 
the supervision of the parish priests of 
their respective districts; over these was 
placed the general or grand archdeacon of 
the whole diocese, who took precedence of 
the archpriest and held his own court with 
its officials distinct from that of the 
bishop, so that appeals were taken from 
the former to the latter. The rural arch 
deacons were often priests, having care 
of souls, as was also the grand archdeacon 
from the twelfth century. The powers 
and privileges of this office were gradually 
restricted, and since the Council of Trent, 
its place is, for the most part, supplied by 
the bishop s vicar-general, between whom 
and the parish priests are sometimes placed 
the vicars forane or present rural deans ; 
while the archdeacon of the present day, 
where the office survives, holds it as a 
position of honor. There are no archdea 
cons in the United States. 

Archelaus. A son of Herod the Great, 
by his Samaritan wife, Malthace. He was 



ARCHELAUS 



59 



ARCHITECTURE 



educated with his brother Antipas, at 
Rome, and after his father s death was 
placed over Judea, Idumea, and Samaria 
(the cities Gaza, Gadara, and Hippo ex- 
cepted), with the title of cthnarch or te- 
trarck ; whence he is said to reign in Judea 
(Matt. ii. 22). After enjoying his power 
for ten years, he was accused before the 
Roman emperor, on account of his cruel 
ties, and banished to Vienne, on the 
Rhone, in Gaul, where he died. 

Archelaus. Bishop of Kascar, in Meso 
potamia, flourished about 278, under the 
reign of Probus. He is only known by his 
controversies with Manes or Manicheus. 
He wrote them in Syriac ; we still pos 
sess an ancient Latin translation thereof, 
made, not according to the primitive text, 
but according to a Greek version, attrib 
uted to Hegomenus. This Latin text has 
been published by Zaccagni, Librarian of 
the Vatican, Rome, in 1698. 

Archimandrite. Formerly, this word 
signified a superior of a monastery. In 
the eighteenth century, it was used to 
denote an abbot-regular. At the present 
day, the word is applied to the superior of 
a monastery in the Greek Church, and the 
title has been retained among the United 
Greeks, that is, among those who acknowl 
edge the Pope supreme Pontiff. 

Architecture (Early Church). What 
little is known of the places of worship of 
the early Christians is found in the patris 
tic writings and among the writings of the 
early Christian historians, while much in 
formation is also obtained from the early 
pagan writers of the age. In the earli 
est times, doubtless, there were no fixed 
edifices, services being held in the houses 
of Christians; sometimes, as we read in 
the Scriptures, in an upper room, as when 
St. Paul was stopping at Troas (see Acts 
xx. 7-11). This is the most particular de 
scription of a house of worship that we 
find in the Scriptures. It is an upper 
room, as was also that in which our 
Saviour celebrated the Last Supper. These 
out-of-the-way places were doubtless se 
lected because in those early days a Chris 
tian was exposed to the danger of losing his 
life by proclaiming his religion. In Rome 
we find them worshiping in the houses of 
wealthy Christians, in underground chap 
els, and in other places where they were 
least liable to be disturbed, and discovered 
to be Christians. After the period of perse 



cutions, in the fourth century, however, 
Christians already possessed in many 
places spacious and often beautiful edifices 
set apart for the worship of God. The 
form of the primitive Christian Church 
was generally that of an oblong quad 
rangle, divided into three, rarely five, 
spaces by parallel rows of columns. The 
middle space, unlike that of the pagan 
basilicas, was roofed in and called the 
nave of the building, from its similarity to 
a ship, while the two or four spaces on 
either side were called the aisles, or wings 
of the building. There were, however, 
many churches built in other forms. The 
Church built by Constantine over the 
Holy Sepulchre was round; the one built 
by him at Antioch, octagonal; the Church 
of Nazianzum, built by the father of 
Gregory Nazianzen, was also octagonal. 
Others were in the form of a cross, such 
as that of the Apostles at Constantinople, 
built by Constantine. The church built 
by the same emperor at Mambre was, ac 
cording to the authority of Valesius, in 
the form of a quadrangle, or square. There 
was still another form of church built in 
the figure of an arch, or hemisphere, re 
sembling, if not identical with, the Pan 
theon at Rome. This, however, is more 
properly a description of part of a church, 
such as that of Saint Sophia at Constanti 
nople, the body of which was built in the 
form of a trulla, or half-globe or cupola, 
though the general outline of the church 
was oblong. The churches were com 
monly so situated that the front or chief 
entrances faced at first toward the east, 
and the sanctuary, or altar, toward the 
west; but these positions were reversed 
in the Western world, and the altar was 
made to face toward the east, and the chief 
entrances toward the west. But in Ireland, 
as Bishop Usher, quoting from Jocelin, 
observes, the churches built by St. Patrick 
differed in position from any of these, and 
faced north and south. 

The interior of the church was com 
monly divided into three parts: i. At the 
western end was the narthex, antetemple, 
or vestibule, where the penitents and 
catechumens stood. 2. The naos, from its 
similarity to a ship, or temple, where the 
communicants or faithful took their re 
spective places. These were separated ac 
cording to sex, the men occupying the 
north side and the women the south. Be 
sides this general division, there was still 
another. In the transept on the side occu- 



ARCHIVES 



60 



ARIANISM 



pied by the women, the consecrated vir 
gins and widows were separated from the 
others in a division called the matromeum; 
similarity, on the opposite side of the tran 
sept, monks and men of rank also held a 
separate position, called the scnatorium. 
In Eastern churches the women occupied 
tribunes. And 3. The bema, or choir, or 
sanctuary, which was raised by a few steps 
above the nave, and separated from it by 
a curtain or partition usually of wood, but 
sometimes of marble. This terminated in 
a large semicircular hall, at the central point 
of which, and against the wall, was the bish 
op s throne, flanked on either side by the 
seats for the clergy, which also ran along 
the wall, and particularly surrounded the 
altar. Only the clergy were permitted to 
enter here. The altar stood in the center 
of the choir. 

Archives. Rooms to keep for safety 
and examination public records and his 
torical documents. The principal archives 
of the Church, from apostolic times to the 
present day, are those contained in the 
Vatican at Rome. Pope Leo XIII. has 
graciously opened the Vatican Archives to 
public examination. They contain the 
most rare and most valuable records in the 
world. 

Archontics. Heretics of the second 
century, a branch of the Valentinians. They 
received this name because they attributed 
the creation, not to God alone, but to 
divers powers or principalities, which they 
called Archontes. They rejected the sacra 
ments, and pretended that Sabaoth, an in 
ferior archon or principal, was their author. 
They held that woman was the work of 
the devil ; denied the resurrection of 
the body, and permitted every excess of 
sensual indulgence. They had books, 
which they called Revelations of the 
Prophets. Their chief was one named 
Peter, priest and anchorite. This heresy 
started in Palestine ; Eutactus carried it 
into Armenia, and it was refuted by St. 
Epiphanus of Salamia. 

Archpriest. A title of ecclesiastical 
dignity which gives to certain priests a 
pre-eminence over others. Called by 
the Greeks protopresbyter, and later 
protopope. The title dates from the fourth 
century, and was originally given to the 
senior by ordination in a diocese, a rule 
long observed in the West. The arch- 
priest, or dean of the Cathedral, assisted 



the bishop in solemn functions as well as 
in the spiritual adminstration, though 
without ordinary jurisdiction; the rural 
archpriest, or dean, had a limited superin 
tendence over the parish priests of his 
deanery or district of the diocese, and 
formed with them the rural Chapter, as 
the bishop with his canons formed the 
Cathedral Chapter. The archpriest, in 
the Catholic Church, at the present time, 
is merely a title of honor, the former 
duties of the office being now performed 
by the auxiliary bishop or dean of the 
Cathedral Chapter. The duties of rural 
archpriests, since the Council of Trent, 
have generally devolved on the vicars 
forane, still called rural deans, or directly 
on the bishop s vicar-general. 

Aretas. Name of several kings of 
Arabia Petraea. One of them, at the in 
stigation of the Jews, attempted to put St. 
Paul into prison (I. Cor. ii. 32; Cf. 
Acts ix. 24, 25). 

Arianism. Name of the most formid 
able heresy of ancient times, having for 
its founder one Arius, a native of Cyre- 
naic Libya, and generally supposed to 
have been born about the year 296. In 
early life, we find him mixed up in the 
religious disputes going on at Alexandria. 
Having studied under Lucian, at Antioch, 
he was well instructed in matters of exe 
gesis, eloquent, subtle, and ambitious for 
fame. Degraded from the deaconate for 
having taken part with Meletius, Bishop of 
Lycopolis, in Upper Egypt, in strenuously 
opposing certain rules of discipline enter 
tained by Peter, Bishop of Alexandria, 
but afterwards became reconciled to the 
latter. The reconciliation, however, was 
brief. Arius once more took part with 
Meletius, and was excommunicated by 
Peter in consequence ; but the latter 
dying soon after, Achillas, his successor, 
restored Arius to his office and raised him 
to the priesthood. His new function 
opened vast resources to his already gifted 
intellect, and it is no wonder that his 
preaching became popular, and his erro 
neous opinions vehemently embraced. In 
a conference held in 313 with his bishop, 
Alexander, Arius, while speaking of the 
Trinity, rejected the eternal generation of 
the Word and its equal divinity to that 
of the Father. In a word, he denied 
that the Word was consubstantial to 
the Father, and alleged that such a con 
ception was impossible to the human 



ARIANISM 



61 



ARIANISM 



mind, and accused Alexander of Sabellian- 
ism, i. e., of destroying the distinction of 
persons. In maintaining his ground Arius 
went beyond his first statement of the 
absolute distinctness of person between 
the Father and the Son ; he maintained 
that the Son was not coequal or coeternal 
with the Father, but only the first and 
highest of all finite beings, created from 
nothing, by an act of God s free will, and 
that He ought not to be ranked with the 
Father. 

In holding these opinions, we find that 
Arius had embraced the principles of 
Philo. Later on, he expressed himself 
more fully before his adherents and in 
public : The Father alone is not produced. 
He alone has the being by Himself; if 
such is the character of the divine. Being, 
if this is a condition of the divine unity, 
the Son cannot be but having been pro 
duced ; the basis of His Being and of His 
essence is outside of Him; He is not God, 
but of an essence different from that of 
the Father; He is a creature, but the first 
of the creatures, the most eminent, mani 
fested before every other by the free will 
of God, who through Him creates all 
things ; hence there has been a time when 
the Son was not. Thus it was that Arius 
denied, with the Monarchians, the distinc 
tion of the Persons in God, maintained, 
with Sabellius, that God has not been 
eternally Father, that He became this only 
in time, when He created the world 
through His Son; finally he taught, with 
the Manicheans, that Christ has delivered 
man only through His doctrine and 
example. 

Arius, not heeding the admonitions of 
his bishop nor the supplications of the 
priests who wished to see him reconciled 
to the Church, was excommunicated at 
the Council of Alexandria, in 321. Per 
sisting in his opinions and in open defiance 
of the excommunication, he succeeded in 
securing the adherence of a number of the 
clergy and laity in Egypt, Syria, and Asia 
Minor, by his subtle and equivocal expla 
nations. To escape persecution, Arius re 
tired to Palestine, where he wrote a letter 
to his friend Eusebius, who was Bishop of 
Nicomedia, a city of Bithynia, and not far 
from Constantinople. Eusebius, one of 
the most influential Christians of his time, 
warmly sympathized with him ; wrote in 
his behalf to Paulinus, Bishop of Tyre, 
and others; absolved him from the Alex 
andrian Council s excommunication; and 



in 323 convened another Council in Bithy 
nia, which pronounced favorably on Arius. 
He even enlisted Constantine on the side 
of the latter to the extent, at least, that the 
emperor addressed admonitions to both 
Alexander and Arius, assuring them that 
the point in dispute was a trifling one, and 
ought not to provoke a serious quarrel. 
While Arius was residing at Nicomedia, 
he wrote a theological work in verse and 
prose, called Thalcia, some fragments of 
which remain, but they contain expres 
sions which could not but pain a believer 
in the divinity of Christ. The Thalcia is 
said to have been sung by the Arian 
neophytes, who thus kindled the passions 
of their adversaries, and increased the 
virulence of the contest. The comedians, 
who were pagans, took advantage of the 
occasion to ridicule the Christian religion 
in the theaters. The officers of the em 
peror, in several cities, wished to repress 
the profane temerity, but the insolence of 
the Arians added to the confusion. 

It now became impossible for the em 
peror to remain neutral or indifferent to 
the spread of Arianism and its fatal conse 
quences. Hosius, Bishop of Corduba, 
whom he had appointed mediator between 
Alexander and Arius, took part with the 
former and reported unfavorably of the 
doctrine of Arius. Seeing the tranquillity 
of his empire threatened and dissensions 
among the eastern Christians growing 
more numerous through the efforts of 
Arius and his adherents, he listened to the 
advice of the most eminent bishops and, 
with the full approbation of the Pope, con- 
yoked the Ecumenical Council of Nice, 
in 325. Three hundred and eighteen bish 
ops from all parts of the world were pres 
ent, besides numerous priests and deacons 
well versed in theology. Arius was allowed 
to explain his doctrines, and the utmost 
freedom and facilities were provided for 
him at each session, to plead his case be 
fore attentive listeners. He boldly ex 
pounded and defended his opinions. He 
declared in the most unambiguous manner 
that the Son of God was created out of 
nothing; that He had not always existed; 
that He was not immutable or impeccable; 
that it was through His free will He re 
mained good and holy; that if He had 
chosen, He could as easily have sinned as 
not ; in a word, that He was a mere creature 
and a work of the Deity. He further af 
firmed that the Son of God was not of the 
same substance with the Father; that He 



ARIANISM 



62 



ARIANISM 



was not the "Word" or "Wisdom," prop 
erly speaking; and that the Scriptures 
only attribute these names to Him as they 
do to other created intelligences. 

These propositions were listened to with 
great calmness by all the bishops until he 
had done. Then the document containing 
his confession of faith was torn to pieces 
before his face and consigned to the flames. 
The xealous young deacon, Athanasius, 
more than the equal of Arius in eloquence 
and logic, ably seconded Bishop Alex 
ander in controverting the opinions of 
Arius, word for word. The logical effect 
of the argument was so precise and clear 
that the Council defined in the most pre 
cise manner the doctrine of the Godhead, 
founded on that of the Apostles, and 
signed by all the bishops except two, 
Theonis of Marmarica, and Secundus of 
Ptolemais. 

The definition of the Godhead, declaring 
the absolute unity of the divine essence, 
and the absolute equality of the Three 
Persons; that the Son of God is true God, 
/ . r., being necessarily of the essence of 
the Father, and not made from a substance 
equal to the Father, unmasked the errors 
of Arius, and was a clear admonition to 
his friend Eusebius, and their adherents. 
Even in exile Arius planned various am 
biguous definitions of his doctrines to 
betray Constantine into the belief that 
in substance he acknowledged the Nicene 
symbol of faith. He went so far as to 
promise to conform to the decisions of the 
Council. Disappointed in his expectations, 
Arius, in 336 A. D., proceeded to Con 
stantinople, where he presented the em 
peror with another apparently orthodox 
confession of faith. The bishops Eusebius 
and Theonis were also recalled from exile. 
Constantine thought by this declaration 
that it would surely tend to restore peace 
and unity to the Church, but immediately 
on their return, the Arians became bolder 
and continued to persecute the most faith 
ful defenders of the Nicene Creed: Eusta- 
chius of Antioch, Athanasius, etc. Atha 
nasius was one of their most formidable 
antagonists, and they sought every means to 
influence the emperor against this saintly 
champion of the Church. Believing that 
peace and concord would more readily be 
restored by yielding to their presentations, 
he banished Athanasius to Treves, where 
his voice and pen could not exert such in 
fluence among eastern Christians against 
the errors of Arianism. 



The new formula of faith presented by 
Arius to Constantine was so ingeniously 
put together that the emperor accepted 
his adherence to the Nicene dogma, and 
requested Alexander, Bishop of Constanti 
nople, to administer to him Holy Com 
munion on the Sunday following. This 
was considered a grand triumph by Euse 
bius and his friends, and, when the day 
arrived, they escorted the heresiarch 
through the streets of the metropolis. 
When about to enter the Church of the 
Apostles, to sacrilegiously partake of the 
Body and Blood of our Lord and Saviour 
Jesus Christ, whom he denied being co- 
eternal and coequal, he was seized with 
violent colic and forced to seek a private 
closet to relieve nature, where he died of 
a painful hemorrhage in a few moments. 

Arianism did not cease after the death 
of its founder. On the contrary, it spread 
rapidly in the East under the Emperor 
Constantius, and conquest over Magnen- 
tius gaining dominion over the West, 
spread there also. The Nicene doctrine 
had strong support on its side, and was 
strictly maintained by the banished Athan 
asius, and all in communion with the Holy 
See. The Arians soon became divided on 
points of doctrine and split into many 
parties. The old Arians, also styled Ano- 
moeans, or Heterousians, asserted, in the 
boldest style, their doctrine of " distinct 
substances." The semi-Arians modified 
the former doctrine by acknowledging 
that the Son of God was similar to the 
Father, at least by grace. Instead of 
/lomousian, which means consubstantial 
of the Same substance, they said homoiou- 
sian of a similar substance. Morally, 
the victory was leaning to the side of the 
Niceans. Other parties qualified the doc 
trines of the others till the verbal differ 
ence between them and the orthodox doc 
trine was in some instances quite slight. 
Each sect carried the name of its chief. 
There were Eusebians, Eunomeans, Pho- 
tians, Apollinarists, Accacians, Macedon 
ians, etc. 

Julian the Apostate (361-363), in his 
hatred of the Christian religion, left all 
parties at liberty to contend as they pleased 
with one another, so that they did not in 
terfere with his plans. Indeed, it is said 
that he favored the Arian heresy to weaken 
the true Christians. Arianism, at last, 
was virtually abolished in the Roman 
empire under Theodosius in the East 
(379-395), and Valentinianus II. in the 



ARIAS MONTAGUS 



ARK OF THE COVENANT 



West. Among the German nations, how 
ever, it continued to spread. The Van 
dals carried it into Africa, the Burgundians 
into Western Gaul, the Visigoths into 
Southern Gaul and Spain. The Arian 
controversy has never excited any great 
interest in modern times, though Eras 
mus was accused in the sixteenth cen 
tury of wishing to revive this doctrine in 
his Commentary on the. Neiv Testament, 
while it is known that Michael Servetus 
published a work against the mystery of 
the Trinity later on, which served as a 
basis for a new system of Arianism. This 
modern heresy degenerated in the course 
of time into Socinianism. Dr. Samuel 
Clarke (1675-1729) and Whiston, who died 
in 1752, tried to revive it in England. 
Recently, a part of the Arian doctrine, the 
denial of the "eternal sonship," was 
broached in the Wesleyan Methodist Society 
by Dr. Adam Clarke and a few followers, 
but it was soon suppressed by the Confer 
ence. Pure Arianism can hardly now he 
said to exist. It has gradually lapsed into 
Unitarianism. 

Arias Montanus (BENEDICTUS) (1527- 
1598). Spanish Orientalist and philoso 
pher; born at Frejenal, in the mountains 
of Estremadura, whence his surname 
Montanus. He took a distinguished part 
in the Council of Trent, and was the editor 
of the Antwerp Polyglot Bible (1568-73). 

Ariel (Hebr. lion of God}. Name given 
by Isaias to Jerusalem, because the moun 
tain on which it was built resembles a 
lion at rest. 

Arimathea or Rama. A city of Pales 
tine, near Jerusalem, now called Nebi- 
Sahamuil, because the people there claim 
that they possess the tomb of Samuel. 
Country of Joseph of Arimathea, a disci 
ple of Christ. 

Arioch (Chald. servant of the moon-god). 
i. King of Ellasar, one of the four kings 
who, at the time of Abraham, made an at 
tack on the cities in the valley of Sodom 
(Gen. xiv.). In the book of Judith (i. 6) 
he is called king of Elam; identified by 
some with Erim-agu, king of Ellasar. 2. 
A captain of the guard of Nabuchodonosor 
(Dan. ii. 14 f.). 

Aristides (ST.). Christian apologist, 
of the first half the second century, was 
an Athenian by birth, and wore, after 
having become a Christian, the gown of 



the philosophers. The Emperor Adrianus, 
staying in Athens in 125, Aristides pre 
sented to him an apology for the Chris 
tians, filled with passages selected from 
philosophers. Adrianus was struck by it 
and mitigated the lot of the Christians. 
Of this long lost Apology, a considerable 
fragment,in an Armenian translation dating 
from the tenth century, was found in 1878 
in an old codex by the Mechitarist monks in 
Venice, together with an oration ascribed 
to Aristides. But in the year 1889, J. Ren- 
del Harris, an American palaeographer, 
found in the Convent of St. Catharine, on 
Mount Sinai, the entire Apology of Aris 
tides in a Syrian manuscript of the sev 
enth century; and, soon after, Professor 
Robinson made the surprising discovery 
that the Greek text also was to be found, 
not only in manuscript, but actually 
printed, since 1832, in the Vita Barlaam et 
Joasaph, found among the writings of St. 
John Damascene. Though the three texts 
agree on the whole, they differ from each 
other in many particulars, but the Syrian 
seems to be preferable. 

Aristo of Pella. A Jewish Christian 
and apologist of the second century, of 
whose life we know very little. He wrote 
Disputatio Jasonis et Papisci , a dialogue 
on the Christian religion between Jason, 
a converted, and Papiscus, an unconve:ted 
Jew. It was written in Greek, and trans 
lated into Latin; both the original and the 
translation are lost. Its object was to 
show the fulfillment of the ancient prophe 
cies in Jesus Christ. 

Aristobolus. Name of princes and high- 
priests of the Jews. Aristobolus I. Son of 
John Hyrcanus, and King of Judea (106-1015 
B.C.). His Hebrew name was Judah. Aris 
tobolus II. Son of Alexander Jannaeus ; 
died about 48 B. c. Aristobolus III. A 
Jewish prince, who was made high-priest 
by Herod I. Herod had him assassinated 
about 30 B. c. 

Ark of the Covenant. One of the most 
important parts of the furniture of the 
Tabernacle, which, by divine direction, 
the Israelites constructed in the wilderness, 
and afterwards of the Temple, built by 
Solomon, at Jerusalem, to be used as a 
sacred depository for the Tables of the 
Law. It was a chest of setim wood, 
covered with gold within and without, two 
cubits and a half in length, one cubit and 
a half in breadth and in height (according 



ARLES 



64 



ARNAULD 



to the common estimate of the length of 
the cubit, three feet nine inches in length, 
and two feet three inches in breadth and 
height). The lid was formed of pure 
gold, with a crown or raised border of 
gold. Within the Ark was deposited 
the "testimony," consisting of "the two 
Tables of the Law," i. e., the stone 
tablets upon which the ten command 
ments were inscribed. The golden lid of 
the Ark was called merry seat or fropitia- 
torv, and above it were the Cherubim made 
of the same piece of gold with it, and be 
tween them was the place of the Shech inah 
or manifestation of the Divine presence. 
The Ark had also golden rings, through 
which they passed staves of setim wood, 
overlaid with gold, for carrying it in the 
journeyings of the Israelites (Ex. xxv. 10- 
22). At first it was placed in the part of 
the Tabernacle called the Holy of Holies, 
and later on in the Temple of Solomon. 
It was carried before the people when 
they marched to battle. The Philistines 
got possession of it but restored it shortly 
after. Before the Babylonian captivity, 
Jeremias secreted it in a cave of Mount 
Nebo. There is no mention of it being 
deposited in the second Temple, and the 
general belief, current in early times, was 
that it was burned at the destruction of 
Solomon s Temple. 

Aries. One of the oldest towns in 
France, situated on the left bank of the 
principal branch of the Rhone, after it has 
divided into a delta, in the department 
of Bouches du Rhone. In the early 
Christian times several important synods 
were convened at Aries (314, 354, 452, and 
475)- 

Armenia. An extensive country of Asia, 
having Media on the east, Cappadocia on 
the west, Colchis and Iberia on the north, 
Mesopotamia in the south and the Eu 
phrates and Syria on the southwest 
(IV. Ki. xix. 37). 

Armenia (Christianity in). See GREG 
ORY THE "ILLUMINATOR." 

Arminius and Arminians. A r m i n i u s 
(1560-1609), a preacher in Amsterdam, and, 
in 1603, a professor in Leyden, dissented 
from Calvin s severe doctrines on Free 
Will and Predestination, and adopted a 
system which he deemed less revolting to 
the reason of man. -He was opposed by 
Gomar, one of his colleagues. The con 
troversy between the Arminians, also 



called "Remonstrants," from their Re 
monstrance, which in 1610 they presented 
to the States-General, and the Gomarists, 
known also as Anti-Remonstrants, led, 
early in the seventeenth century, to civil 
commotions. Repeated, but ineffectual, 
attempts were made on the part of the 
civil authorities to bring about a recon 
ciliation between the contending parties. 
The National Synod of Dort, in 1618, 
upheld Calvin s doctrines, and condemned 
the Arminians as heretics, who, in con 
sequence, were deprived of their position, 
and even banished from the country. 
Though much persecuted, the Arminians 
continued as a distinct organization and 
are chiefly confined to the Netherlands, 
where they number only about twenty con 
gregations and a few thousand adherents. 
The doctrine of Arminius, and of Epis- 
copius, his successor, against that of Cal 
vinism and that proclaimed by the " Synod 
of Dort," was as follows : i. Conditional 
election and reprobation in opposition to 
absolute predestination as taught by Cal 
vin. 2. Universal redemption, or that the 
atonement was made by Christ for all 
mankind, though none but believers can 
be partakers of its benefits. 3. That man, 
in order to exercise true faith, must be 
regenerated and renewed by the operation 
of the Holy Ghost, which is the gift of 
God. 4. That this grace is not irresistible. 
5. That believers are able by the aid of the 
Holy Ghost to resist sin, but that there is 
always in this life the possibility of the fall 
from grace, in opposition to the Calvinistic 
doctrine of the perseverance of the saints. 
Protestants in general shared in the con 
troversy excited by the promulgation of 
these doctrines, and all opponents of Cal 
vinism are still often characterized as 
Arminians. In the Church of England 
Arminianism was especially favored by the 
High Church party. The Methodist de 
nomination was divided on the subject, 
the followers of Wesley being Arminians 
and those of Whitefield, Calvinists. 

Arnaujd (ANGELICA). Daughter of the 
following, born in 1591 ; died in 1661. When 
only 14 years old, she became Abbess of 
Port-Royal des Champs, where she revived 
the spirit of the Institute of St. Bernard. 
She also reformed the Abbey of Maubuisson. 
ArnauJd (Jeanne Catharine Agnes de 
St. Paul}. Sister of the preceding (1694- 
1671), became coadjutress of her eldest 
sister,and ruled Port- Royal after her sister s 



ARNAULD 



ART 



death. She wrote : The Image of the Per 
fect and Imperfect Religious (Paris, 1660) ; 
The Rosary of the Blessed Sacrament 
(1663), suppressed at Rome, without being 
censured. The four other daughters of 
Antoine Arnauld were also religious of 
Port-Royal and attached to the Jansenist 
party. 

Arnauld (ANTOINE) (1560-1619). 
Famous lawyer, son of the general advo 
cate of Catherine de Medici. He com 
posed works against the Jesuits and against 
Philip II. King of Spain. He had by 
Catharine Marion twenty children, of 
ten survived him. 



Arnauld (ANTOINE). Son of the pre 
ceding and youngest of his children, born 
at Paris in 1612. By the advice of Abbe 
St. Cyran, director of Port-Royal, and 
friend of his family, he embraced the eccle 
siastical state and joined the cause of Jan 
senism. Doctor of the Sorbonne in 1643, 
he published his book on Frequent Com 
munion, to which he might have given 
just the opposite title. Violent disputes 
broke out in regard to this subject. A 
priest of St. Sulpice having refused abso 
lution to the Duke of Liancourt, who had 
taken up, with an extraordinary zeal, the 
defense of the book of Jansenius, Arnauld 
wrote in favor of Jansenism two lively 
letters. The Sorbonne censured the two 
following propositions : The Fathers show 
us a just man in the person of St. Peter, in 
whom grace, without which we can do 
nothing, was wanting on one occasion, 
where we cannot say that he did not sin. 
We can doubt whether the five proposi 
tions condemned by Innocent X. and Alex 
ander VII. are those of Jansenius, Bishop 
of Ypres, and whether they are contained 
in the book of this author. Arnauld, re 
fusing to subscribe to the censure, was 
excluded from the Faculty. A transaction 
between the parties, concluded in 1669, 
under the name of "Peace of Clement 
VII.," permitted him to leave without 
disgrace. He devoted this time of peace 
to the defense of Catholic orthodoxy, 
against the Protestant ministers Claude 
and Jurieu. Then he published (in French) : 
Perpetuitv of faith; The Destruction of 
the Morals of Jesus Christ by the Calvin- 
is/s, and several other works of contro 
versy. But his relations with Port-Royal 
and the Jansenists rendered him suspicious 
once more. He was obliged to leave France ; 
he went to Belgium, where in spite of his 

5 



advanced age and infirmities he did not 
cease to write and to fight. He died at 
Liege in 1694. See JANSENISM. 

Arnobius. A distinguished rhetorician. 
He was a native of Sicca, in Africa, and 
nourished in the beginning of the fourth 
century. He was a zealous advocate of 
paganism, until, as St. Jerome relates, he 
was warned by heavenly admonitions to 
embrace Christianity. To give some pub 
lic proof of the sincerity of his conversion, 
Arnobius, about 304, wrote, probably at 
the bidding of the bishop to whom he ap 
plied for admission into the Church, his 
seven books of Disputations against tlic 
Gentiles, in which he exposes the falla 
cies of heathenism and the immorality of 
idolatry. He dwells in particular on the 
reproach made by the pagans that the 
Christians, by despising the ancient gods, 
were the cause of all the calamities that 
befell the empire. As he wrote this work 
while a novice in the faith, his expressions 
are somewhat inaccurate regarding certain 
doctrines of the Gospel. He died in 325. 

Arnoldists. Heretics of the twelfth 
century, who took their name from the 
impetuous Arnold of Brescia. They are 
said by some writers to have held the 
errors of the Petrobusians, regarding infant 
baptism and the Holy Eucharist. Their 
special doctrine was, that secular and re 
ligious power ought not to be vested in the 
same person; that salvation was impossible 
to a priest holding property, or to an 
ecclesiastic exercising temporal power; 
and, consequently, that Church property 
might be lawfully seized by laymen. They 
are branded as heretics by Pope Lucius 
III., and also in the law of Frederick II. 

Arnon (Oucd-Modjel}. River of Pales 
tine, which descends from the mountains 
of Galaad into the Dead Sea. It separates 
Palestine from Arabia. 

Arphaxad. i. Son of Sem, born two 
years after the Deluge, and father of 
Cainan. According to Josephus, he set 
tled in Chaldea. 2. King of the Medes, 
mentioned in Judith, where it is said that he 
built Ecbatana. It is believed that he is 
the Phraortes or Phrartes of Herodotus, 
who subdued all the peoples of Asia, and 
was finally conquered and killed by Nabu- 
chodonosor. 

Art (Christian}. Christian art was 
born in the Catacombs of Rome. It com- 



ART 



66 . 



ARTEMON 



prises three periods : The first answers to 
the age of primitive Christianity; the sec 
ond produced in the Orient the Byzantine 
style, and the third produced in the Occi 
dent the Latin and Roman style. From 
the first century, the history of art and 
the Church are inseparable. The early 
Christians employed painting in the dec 
oration of their places of worship, as 
abundant evidence in the Catacombs bears 
witness. Among them is a head of 
Christ, the type to which all succeeding 
artists have adhered. There are also sev 
eral representations of the Blessed Virgin 
and a head of St. Peter and of St. Paul. 
(See PAINTING). In the fourth century, 
after the recognition of Christianity, art 
received new life and some remains may 
be traced to that time ; but it relapsed after 
the Western Empire, and would, most 
probably, have been forgotten had it not 
been for the monks. Those patient toilers 
preserved, through the illustration of the 
Bible, and the illumination of missals, the 
germs which in the thirteenth century 
waxed strong, and budded and bloomed 
into beauty, in the matchless work of 
Cimabue, Nicholo, Pisano, and Giotto, 
whose names will remain landmarks in 
the history of art for all time. 

At this time, art completely abandons the 
ancient traditions to take a new form all 
Christian in expression. The thought 
which dominates in the monuments of the 
thirteenth century is the transporting to 
wards heaven. This new architecture, so 
improperly called Gothic, arose in the 
bosom of France, perfected by French 
workmen and artists. So, too, with 
sculpture ; it creates from itself a new 
type, essentially Christian, through which 
it is in harmony with the temples it 
decorates ; the plastic beauty was all in 
the pagan statuary ; in the statues of the 
Middle Ages it is the expression of 
the moral sentiment which is predomi 
nant. Finally, a new art, encouraged and 
nurtured by the French the painting on 
glass developed during this time and 
largely contributed toward the decoration 
and solemnity of the churches; touching 
the vaulted ceilings, aisles, altars, paint 
ings and statuary with a mellow and sub 
dued coloring, which is both touching and 
elevating to the soul and to the artistic sense. 
And now alter the great architects come 
the great painters; the latter arose in Italy 
at the end of the thirteenth century. In 
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 



the master works of the Middle Ages were 
not so highly prized as they are to-day. 
The advancement in all departments of 
knowledge has cultivated a higher ap 
preciation of the classic works of art which 
will stand alone in their perfection for all 
time. 

Art (Christian) and Protestantism. 
Protestantism, says Cardinal Wiseman, 
presents no types of Christian art. It 
has destroyed the types of the past. It 
excludes as legendary all the most beau 
tiful histories of the early saints; it has 
quenched all sympathy for the favorite 
themes of medieval painting the Fathers 
of the Desert, St. Benedict, and the great 
monastic heroes; and, still more, the in- 
spirer and the maturer of art and of its 
poetry, the glorious St. Francis of Assisium. 
And as to the present, it allows no com 
munion with saints in heaven, and conse 
quently no interest in having their effigies 
before our eyes; no loving intercourse 
with blessed spirits, and therefore no right 
to bring them visibly in action. All 
ecstasy, supernatural contemplation, vision, 
and rapturous prayer, with the only ap 
proach to heavenly expression that earth 
can give ; all miracles and marvelous 
occurrences, with the store of incident 
which they supply ; all mingling, in any one 
scene, of the living and the blessed, the 
past and the present; in fine, all the poetry 
of art, is coldly cut out nay, strangled 
and quenched by the hard hand of 
Protestantism. 

Furthermore, Protestantism lacks essen 
tially all religious tenderness and affection- 
ateness. It has no sympathy with the 
mysteries that touch the feelings. The 
crucifix is to it, what it was in St. Paul s 
time dividedly to Jew and Gentile, both a 
stumbling block and foolishness. The 
Mother of sevenfold grief is a superstition. 
Meditation on the Infancy or Passion of 
Our Lord is not part of youthful training 
in its schools; it has not produced a 
tender writer on these subjects. 

Artemon and Artemonites. Artemon, 
the founder of the Artemonites, taught in 
Rome, at the end of the second and the 
beginning of the third century. He de 
clared the doctrine of the Divinity of 
Christ to be an innovation, and main 
tained that the belief of his party, with re 
gard to Christ, was the primitive one in 
the Church during the first two centuries, 



ARTICLES OF PERTH 



67 



ARTICLES 



till the faith was perverted by Pope 
Zephyrinus. This bold assertion was ably 
refuted by a Roman presbyter (Cajus or 
Hippolytus) from the sacred Scriptures, 
the writings of the Fathers and the Apolo 
gists ; by the prayers and hymns of the 
early Church, and by the condemnation of 
Theodotus the Tanner. 

Articles of Perth. The five articles 
agreed upon at a General Assembly of the 
Church of Scotland, convened by James 
VI., in 1618, enjoining certain episcopal 
observances, such as the observance of fast 
days, kneeling at the Lord s Supper, etc. 
They were ratified by the Scotch parlia 
ment in 1621, and became a subject of bit 
ter controversy between the king and the 
people. 

Articles of Schmalkald. Articles of 
Protestant faith, drawn up by Luther, and 
submitted to a meeting of Protestant elec 
tors, princes, and States, at Schmalkald, 
Germany, in 11537, intended to bring them 
into closer union and form a league against 
the Catholic States and Charles V. 

Articles (The Lambeth}. Nine articles 
drawn up at Lambeth, England, in 15915, 
which were intended to define the Calvin- 
istic doctrine with regard to predestination, 
justification, etc. 

Articles (The Six). These are often 
mentioned in the ecclesiastical his 
tory of England as the "whip with six 
strings," or " bloody statute," as they were 
called from the bloody persecutions to 
which they gave rise. These articles were 
imposed by act of parliament in 1539, when 
Henry VIII., was displeased with some of 
the bishops most favorable to the Reforma 
tion. They upheld the doctrine of Tran- 
substantiation, declared communion in one 
kind only necessary, condemned the mar 
riage of priests, enjoined the continued 
observance of vows of chastity, and sanc 
tioned private Masses and auricular con 
fession. Severe penalties were appointed 
for writing or speaking against them, and 
for abstaining from confession or Com 
munion at the accustomed times, for priests 
failing to put away their wives, and for 
persons writing or speaking against the 
doctrine of Transnbstantiation. Arch 
bishop Cranmer vainly opposed the act 
in the House of Lords as a "blow to the 
Reformation"; the king was resolved to 
have it passed. Its severity was mitigated 



by a subsequent act of Henry s reign 
(1544), and repealed in 1549. 

Articles (The Thirty-Nine). Are the 
articles of religion of the Church of Eng 
land, which were agreed upon by the 
archbishops and bishops of both provinces 
and the whole clergy, in the Convocation 
held in London in the 4th year of Eliza 
beth, 1562, under Archbishop Parker. In 
the reign of Edward VI. the original arti 
cles were forty-two in number, and were 
set forth by the King s authority in 1552. 
To these articles was prefixed the Cate 
chism, nearly all of which was the work 
of Cranmer, for he acknowledged before 
Queen Mary s commission that they were 
his doing. After Edward s death, one of the 
first acts of the Convocation was to reject 
these forty-two articles. In 1558, Eliza 
beth succeeded her sister, and in the fol 
lowing year Parker was installed in the 
see of Canterbury, and then came a fresh 
opportunity for drawing up some articles 
of faith which might be binding on the 
Anglican Church. Parker revised the 
forty-two articles of King Edward, reject 
ing four of them entirely, and introducing 
four new ones, viz. : the 5th, i2th, 29th, 
and 3Oth, as they now stand, and altering 
more or less seventeen others. This draft 
Parker laid before the Convocation, which 
met in 1562, where further alterations were 
made; and the 39th, 4Oth, and 42d of 
King Edward, which treated of the resur 
rection, the intermediate state, and the 
doctrine of the final salvation of all men, 
were finally rejected. The 413! of King 
Edward s articles, which condemned the 
Millenarians, was one of the four which 
Parker omitted. Thus the articles were re 
duced to thirty-nine. They were drawn up 
and ratified in Latin, but when they were 
printed, as was done both in Latin and 
English, the 2Qth was omitted, and so the 
number was further reduced to thirty- 
eight. From these thirty-eight there was 
a further omission, viz., of the first half of 
the 2oth article, which declares that "the 
Church hath power to decree rites and 
ceremonies, and hath authority in contro 
versies of faith." As all the records of 
the Convocation perished in the great fire 
of 1666, it is difficult to tell who author 
ized Parker to make the omissions, altera 
tions and additions, and to place a num 
ber of clergy " under ban" for accepting 
the original draft instead of the revised 
and altered one. However, the commis- 



ASA 



68 



ASCENSION DAY 



sion had found some of the bishops and 
clergy adhering to the 42 articles, while 
others maintained the original draft. This 
was leading to different beliefs among the 
professed members of the Church, some 
holding to the doctrine of purgatory, and 
others to the final salvation of all men by 
receiving the last rites prescribed by the 
Church to the dying. In 1571, the articles 
once more underwent revision and altera 
tion. Some clamored for a radical change 
in doctrine and for a complete elimination 
of Catholic doctrine. Parker and Jewel 
made some alterations to satisfy the ex 
treme Churchmen, and an act of parlia 
ment was passed, in that year, compelling 
the clergy to subscribe to " such of them as 
only concern the confession of the true 
Christian faith, and the doctrine of the 
sacraments." The question now arose, 
which was the authorized copy, some of 
the copies being printed with, and others 
without, the disputed clause of the 2oth 
article and the restoration of the whole of 
the 29th. The articles in dispute were set 
tled, and the whole thirty-nine, as they now 
stand, were approved in 1604 ; and adopted 
by the Convocation of the English Church 
in Ireland in 1635, and by the Scotch Epis 
copal Church in 1804, and, with certain 
modifications, by the Protestant Episco 
pal Church of the United States. 

Theologians find in the thirty-nine arti 
cles of faith a curious admixture. Some 
of them have been taken from the Confes 
sion of Augsburg, others from Melanch- 
thon s Apolog v and Luther s writings, and 
not a few from the articles drawn up by a 
commission appointed by Henry VIII., 
which contain some points of Catholic 
doctrine. Cranmer framed the nth arti 
cle, on justification; three of the bishops 
of the Convocation which ratified said 
articles were accused of Arianism, and no 
two wholly agreed on certain clauses 
which were added from time to time. Is 
it possible that a Church which came into 
existence at the bidding of a lecherous 
tyrant and murderer, which changed its 
confession of faith in each successive reign 
according to the royal pleasure and the 
will of the parliament, that promulgated 
its liturgy by the force of the halter and 
the stake, was the Church of Christ? 

Asa. Son and successor of Abia, king 
of Juda (944-904 B. c.). Restored the wor 
ship of the true God, conquered the Moab- 
ites and Ethiopians. He united with the 



king of Syria against the kingdom of Is 
rael, and imprisoned the Prophet Ananias, 
who reproached him for that alliance; but 
he repented and reigned happily during 41 
years. Josaphat was his successor. 

Asael. Son of Sarvia, brother of Jacob; 
one of David s thirty heroes, and extremely 
swift of foot. He was killed by Abner, in 
the battle of Gabaon. 

Asaph. A celebrated musician in 
David s time, and one of the precentors of 
the Temple music. Some Psalms are at 
tributed to him, but it is probable that he 
only set them to music. 

Ascalon. One of the five chief cities in 
the land of the Philistines, on the coast of 
the Mediterranean, 39 miles southwest of 
Jerusalem. After the death of Josue, the 
tribe of Juda took Ascalon. Its site is 
marked by the modern village of Asgalan. 

Ascension Day (sometimes called Holy 
Thursday). One of the greatest festivals 
in the Catholic Chun h. It is celebrated on 
the fortieth day after Easter, and is intended 
to commemorate the Ascension of Christ 
into heaven. Ascension Day has been ob 
served from the earliest times of the 
Christian Church. St. Augustine believes 
it to have been instituted by the Apostles 
themselves or the primitive bishops suc 
ceeding them. Christ having remained 
with His Apostles forty days after His 
resurrection, and having them sufficiently 
instructed to go forth and preach His Gos 
pel to all nations, He led them outside the 
city of Jerusalem; then, extending His 
hand to bless them, He raised Himself up 
to heaven in their presence, and seated 
Himself at the right hand of God, His 
Father, from whence He shall come to 
judge the living and the dead, and render 
to each according to his works (Acts i. i 
II.). Several ancient writers assure us that 
Christ left the impress of His feet upon 
the ground when He raised Himself up to 
heaven. In order to preserve every re 
membrance of our Saviour s Passion, Res 
urrection and Ascension, the Empress 
Helena caused a magnificent Church the 
Church of the Ascension to be built 
over the place, leaving unpaved the spot 
where the imprint of the Saviour s feet 
was visible ; and in closing the vault, a 
part was left open to indicate the direc 
tion the Redeemer took in ascending to 
heaven. St. Augustine is of the opinion 
that the ascension took place at the hour 



ASCETIC 



69 



ASH WEDNESDAY 



of noon. The Apostolic Constitutions or 
dain that the Church shall celebrate the 
feast on Thursday, the fortieth day after 
His resurrection. 

Ascetic (Gr. Asketes, from Askein, to 
exercise oneself). Name given to those 
Christians who practiced penance, fasts, 
abstinence, self-mortification, etc. Among 
the Greeks asceticism denoted the exer 
cise and discipline practiced by athletes or 
wrestlers who had to harden their bodies 
by exertion and to avoid all sensual and 
effeminating indulgences. In modern 
times the name is also applicable to one 
who retires from the ordinary bustle and 
business of life to engage in pious exer 
cises, or who withdraws from society to 
practice the austerity of the recluse or 
hermit. 

Ascetical. That which has reference to 
the exercise of the spiritual life and bodily 
mortification ; ascetical theology which 
treats of the mastering of the desires and 
passions and the practice of severe virtue; 
the ascetics of the Fathers of the Church, 
- . -., of St. Basil. The word has been 
adopted by modern Protestants to desig 
nate that part of ethics which treats of the 
practice of virtue, or, in other words, the 
essence of asceticism is to hold self-denial 
and suffering to be meritorious in the 
sight of God, in and for itself, without 
regard to whether it promotes in any way 
the good of others or the improvement of 
the ascetic s individual character. Though 
the fundamental principle of the Reforma 
tion is that salvation is secured by justifi 
cation through faith, and not through 
"dead works," yet, the ascetic spirit often 
shows itself still animate under various 
disguises of Protestantism. 

Asceticism. The life or practice of an 
ascetic ; the principles and historic customs 
of ascetics. In the Christian sense, ascet 
icism signifies, in general, the exercise of 
every action which furthers the self-perfec 
tion of man, especially self-command, self- 
denial, and mortification of the lower sensual 
nature. In this sense, asceticism is the duty 
of every Christian. The teaching of St. 
Paul in comparing the Christians to wrest 
lers who had to contend with Satan, the 
world, and the flesh, contributed to the 
mastering of the passions, though the phi 
losophy of the time exercised an influence 
toward it, as it held the freeing of mind from 
matter to be the means of union with God ; 



or, at least, that the refraining from all lux 
urious pleasure was the way to restore the 
soul to its original purity. In a more re 
stricted sense, asceticism designates- an un 
measured degree of self- victory, like the 
renouncing of earthly possessions, pleasure, 
abstinence in eating and drinking, exercise 
of penance, abstinence from marriage, and 
submission of our own will to that of a 
superior. The ascetic is one who wishes 
to obtain, through such means, a higher 
state of holiness than is generally attained. 
Towards the beginning of the second 
century, the ascetic spirit began to show 
itself in the practice of poverty, celibacy, 
and abstinence from all sensual gratifica 
tion. Some of the ascetics remained 
among men, and others dwelt apart as 
hermits. The union of scattered hermits 
into separate communities, was first made 
by Pachomius in 340 A. D. Afterwards, 
each community followed the rule of its 
founder, and this virtually led to the 
institution of monasticism. See MONAS- 
TICISM. 

Ashdod (Gr. Azotus}. One of the five 
cities of the Philistine confederacy, and a 
seat of the worship of Dagon, the fish-god 
(I. Ki. v. 5), between Gaza and Jaffa. It was 
assigned to the tribe of Juda, but was never 
subdued by the Israelites. It was de 
stroyed by the Machabees (I. Mach. v. 68; 
x. 84). Its site is marked by the modern 
village of Esdud. 

Ashima or Asima. A deity adored by 
the people of Hamath, who settled in Sa 
maria. It means, probably, the same as 
the Persian word asuman, heaven; and 
signifies the host of heaven, that is, the 
stars, or perhaps the sun alone. 

Ashtoreth (plural AsJitaroth, called by 
the Greeks Astarte). A goddess of the 
Phoenicians, whose worship was also intro 
duced among the Israelites and Philis 
tines. She is more commonly named in 
connection with Baal. Another Hebrew 
name for the same goddess is Asherah, that 
is, the happy, the fortunate; or more 
simply, fortune. In connection with the 
worship of Astarte, there was much of 
dissolute licentiousness; and the public 
prostitutes of both sexes were regarded as 
consecrated to her. 

Ash Wednesday is the first day of 
Lent, so called from the Catholic cere 
mony of blessing ashes and strewing it 
upon the forehead of the clergy and laity 



ASIA 



70 



ASPERSION 



as a sign of penance. The Fathers of the 
Church, especially St. Gregory, call the 
first day of Lent the " head of the fast," 
caput jejunii, because it is on this day 
that the fast of Lent begins. This custom 
is very ancient, for we know it was ob 
served in the time of Pope Gregory the 
Great (590-604). The covering of the 
head with ashes has long been a common 
sign of mourning among eastern nations, 
indicative of the deepest sorrow and dis 
tress. Instances of this are mentioned in 
Scripture. Jeremias advises the people 
of Jerusalem to cover themselves with 
ashes to escape the wrath of Nabuchodo- 
nosor ( Jer. xxv. 34). The Ninivites dressed 
in sackcloth and put ashes upon their heads 
to avert the heavenly vengeance (Jonas iii. 
6). The Christian Church has adopted a 
symbol so potent to excite in the soul senti 
ments of humility, compunction, and pen 
ance, by reminding us that we are but dust 
and unto dust shall return. Penitents, in 
the early Christian Church, testified their 
sorrow and humiliation at times by stand 
ing at the door of the Church in "sack 
cloth and ashes." The ashes are blessed 
at the altar, immediately before Mass ; the 
celebrant marks on the heads of the clergy 
and the assembled people, with the blessed 
ashes, and to each person he thus marks, 
he addresses the words which God an 
nounced to the first sinner: "Remember, 
O man ! that thou art dust and that thou 
shalt return unto dust " (Gen. iii. 19). The 
ashes that are used on Ash Wednesday 
should be dry; this the Sacred Congrega 
tion of Rites specifies (May 23d, 1693, 
apud Garde/lint, vol. I, p. 19). They 
should be made from the branches blessed 
on Palm Sunday, the year previous. The 
Rubric of the Missal is formal on this 
point. These ashes, are indeed the re 
mains of the glory of the God-Man, and 
as the seed of that which is reserved for us 
in heaven. Hence we should receive them 
in accordance with the sentiments of the 
Church. 

Asia. The largest division of land on 
the globe, generally regarded as the birth 
place of the human race, and the most 
ancient seat of civilization. The same Asian 
characteristic of variety and wide con 
trast is found in the religious creeds as in 
the countries and tribes of people : The 
Brahminical religion of India; the doctrines 
of Buddha, Confucius, and of Lavtse in 
China ; the worship of the Grand Lama in 



Tibet; the creed of Islam in several varie 
ties in Arabia, Persia, and India; the rude 
heathenism of the north ; the various 
sects of native Christians in Armenia, 
Syria, Kurdistan, and India; the Greek 
Church in Siberia, these and other forms 
of belief or religious profession, display 
diversities and contrasts nearly as striking 
as Asian geography. 

Christianity, however, has spread with 
the European populations. The so-called 
orthodox religion in the Russian Empire; 
Anglicanism, and other denominations of 
Protestantism, are mostly found in English 
possessions, while Catholic missionaries, 
besides preaching the Gospel in Asia, have 
founded nourishing missions in Syria, India, 
Japan, and China. The Catholic Hier 
archy of Asia at the present time, com 
prises six patriarchates ; 26 archbishoprics ; 
51 bishoprics; five apostolic delegations; 
26 apostolic vicariates ; six apostolic pre 
fectures, with a Catholic population of 
about nine millions. 

Asia Minor. The ancient name of what 
is now called Anatolia. Many of its cities 
were famed as seats of civilization, litera 
ture, and commerce. Since the Christian 
era it has been divided into numerous 
sects, and many of the heresies which have 
antagonized the Church from apostolic 
times found many adherents among the 
people. To-day, pure Christianity has to 
contend against Mohammedanism, Armini- 
anism, and the Russian Church. 

Asiongaber (the modern Akabah). An 
cient port of Arabia, on the Elamitic Gulf, 
whence the Hebrews and Phoenicians de 
parted to trade with Ethiopia and Arabia 
Felix. 

Asmodeus (from the Hebr. samad, de 
stroyer). Demon of which there is men 
tion in the Book of Tobias and in the 
Talmud. The Rabbis call him " the 
prince of demons." He is generally looked 
upon as the demon of licentiousness. 

Asmoneans. Name given to the Mach- 
abees, natives of Amson, in the tribe of 
Simeon, or descendants of a certain Asmo- 
neus. 

Asor. Musical instrument of the He 
brews, formed of 10 strings mounted on 
an oblong square; they played on it either 
with the fingers or a plectrum. 

Aspersion (from the Lat. aspergerc, 
from ad and spargo^ I spread). The 



ASSAR-HADDON 



ASSUMPTION 



religious ceremony of spreading or sprink 
ling water over the people or objects which 
are to be blessed. Aspersion is found al 
most among all nations. The Jews had 
different aspersions ordained bj the Law 
of Moses. Our blessed water has evi 
dently replaced the lustral water of the 
Romans. The rite of aspersion goes back 
to the first centuries of the Church. Pope 
St. Clement prescribes aspersions with 
water mixed with oil. Alexander substi 
tuted the salt for the oil ; we bless water 
and salt to be used in sprinkling the people. 
The prayers said in the blessing of the 
water consist in exorcisms over the water 
and salt; they are found in almost all the 
missals. The custom of blessing water 
every Sunday before Mass is of the high 
est antiquity ; it is evidently connected 
with the custom that the early Christians 
had of washing their hands and faces in 
blessed water to purify themselves be 
fore entering the church. See BLESSED 
WATER. 

Assar-Haddon. King of Syria, of the 
second dynasty, successor to his father Sen 
nacherib in 681 B. c. He commanded an 
army in Armenia when he learned the 
news of the assassination of his father by 
his eldest sons. Assar-Haddon hastily re 
turned, defeated his two brothers at 
Khanir-rabat, in January 680, and was pro 
claimed king. He invaded Syria, de 
stroyed Sidon, and transported the skilled 
laborers to Babylon. He went south into 
the heart of Arabia, and north as far as the 
Caucasus, subduing the Cimmerians and 
Medes. In 672, he invaded Egypt, effected 
its conquest, and defeated the Ethiopian 
prince Tirhaka. He divided Egypt into 
20 governments. In 669, Assar-Haddon 
fell sick. In 668 he associated his son 
Assurbanipal with the government, and 
died at Babylon in 667. Under his rule, all 
Western Asia formed one single empire. 

Assemani. Name of a famous family of 
United Maronites. i. Giuseppe Aloysio, 
A. Born at Tripoli, Syria, about 1710; 
died at Rome, 1782. A Syrian Orientalist 
and professor of Oriental languages at 
Rome. 2. Simone A. Born at Tripoli, 
Syria, 1687; died at Rome, 1768. A Syr 
ian Orientalist, custodian in the Vatican 
library; author of Bibliotheca Orientalis, 
Clemcntino-Vaticana (1719-1728). 3. Ste- 
fano Evodio, A. Born at Tripoli, Syria, 
1707; died 1782. A Syrian Orientalist 
and custodian in the Vatican library. 



His works include Bibliothec(E Mediceo- 
Laurentiance et Palatines cod., etc. (1742) ; 
Acta Sanctorum Marty rum (1748), etc. 

Assuerus (more correctly Ahasnerus, or 
AchasveroscJi, derived from the Sanscrit 
kchatra, king, which became kchcsche in 
the cuneiform inscriptions). i. Assuerus. 
King of the Medes, mentioned in Daniel 
( ix. i.) . This ruler has been identified with 
Cyaxares, father of Astyages, who con 
quered Ninive. 2. Assuerus. King of the 
Medes mentioned in Esdras (iv. 6), to 
whom the enemies of the Jews, desirous of 
hindering the rebuilding of Jerusalem, sent 
accusations against the latter, is the Cam- 
byses of history, who waged war and died 
in Egypt. 3. Assuerus. The best known, 
is the potentate who figures in the Book of 
Esther. Having repudiated Queen Vasthi, 
who had refused to appear at a court festival, 
Assuerus married, four years afterwards, 
a young Jewess named Esther, a ward of 
Mardochai. Five years after this mar 
riage, the minister Aman, on account of 
some insult he had had to suffer, persuaded 
the king to murder all the Jews of the 
empire. But a few days before the fatal 
date, Esther and Mardochai succeeded in 
so completely overthrowing the influence 
of Aman that the latter was executed in 
stead of the Jews, and the king permitted 
them to defend themselves against their 
enemies, whom they murdered by thou 
sands. This Persian king has been identi 
fied with the historic Xerxes according to 
two concordances between Scripture and 
Herodotus (Her. vii. 7, and Esther, i. 3; 
Her. ix. 108, and Esther, x. i). 

Assumption. Term employed to-day 
in the language of the Church to signify 
the miraculous removal into heaven of 
the Blessed Virgin Mary, body and soul. 
Jesus Christ, before dying, having recom 
mended His Mother to St. John, this Apostle 
took care of her, and it is believed that she 
followed him to Asia, and finally settled at 
Ephesus where she died. The Church 
honors her death under the name of depo 
sition, rest, sleep, passage, since the be 
ginning of the fifth century, as it appears 
from a letter of the Ecumenical Council of 
Ephesus, of the year 431. Since the cen 
tury following, the Faithful commenced to 
distinguish the Assumption from the other 
solemnities of the Blessed Virgin. About 
the end of the seventh century, the belief 
in her resurrection became current. We find 
this pointed out under the name of Assump- 



ASSYRIA 



72 



ASSYRIA 



tion in an ancient Martyrology attributed 
to St. Jerome, and in the Sacramentaries 
of Popes St. Gelasius and St. Gregory. 
The Feast of Assumption is celebrated on 
August I5th. In regard to this assump 
tion or resurrection of .body and soul of 
the Blessed Virgin into heaven, it is no 
article of faith, but only a common opin 
ion which it would be rash to contradict. 

Assyria. In the Old Testament Assur. 
An ancient Asiatic state, which, at the 
period of its greatest power, covered a 
territory of 75,000 square miles; bounded 
by Armenia on the north, the Lower Zab 
on the south, the Zagros mountains on the 
east, and the Tigris on the west. In Gen. 
x. 2, the name is given to a small district 
(about 25 by 17 miles in extent) on the left 
bank of the Tigris. The name of the country 
is derived from that of the city Assur. situ 
ated about 50 miles south of the modern 
Mosul, and marked by the ruins of Kileh- 
Shergat. The city is not mentioned in 
the Old Testament, but it survived Ninive, 
being still in existence in the time of 
Cyrus, the conqueror of Babylon. The 
name, besides being given to the city and 
country, was also applied to the national 
god, always spelled Asur in this con 
nection. The Persians called the city 
Athura. The Greeks comprised in the 
name Assyria, or its shortened form Svria, 
the entire territory between Babylonia and 
the Mediterranean, sometimes applying it 
even to Babylonia. The northern and 
eastern portions of the country were 
mountainous, but the greater part was flat, 
being an extension of the Babylonian 
plains. Its principal rivers were the Ti 
gris and Euphrates, with their tributaries, 
the Choser and the Upper and Lower Zab. 
Assyria was a fertile country, and abounded 
in all sorts of animals; among others the 
stag, roebuck, wild bull, and lion. The hunt 
ing of the lion was the favorite sport of the 
Assyrian kings. According to Genesis (x. 
812, 22), the Assyrians w r ere descendants of 
Sem, and emigrants from Babylon. Their 
Semitic-Babylonian origin is fully attested 
by sculptures and inscriptions. Their lan 
guage is, apart from new dialectical and 
orthographical variations, identical with 
Babylonian, and akin to Hebrew. Assyria, 
derived its civilization from Babylonia. 
Its religion was the same as that of 
the mother-country, with the exception 
of the national god Asur, which was placed 
at the head of the pantheon. Assyrian 



architecture was a slavish copy of that of 
Babylonia. Although stone abounded in 
Assyria, bricks continued to be used in 
imitation of the practice in Babylonia, 
where no stone existed. The Babylonian 
emigrants who settled Assyria, probably 
set out about 2000 n. c. The first Assyrian 
rulers, of whom we have knowledge, were 
Belkapkapu, Ismi-Dagan, and his son 
Samsi-Ramman (1816 B. c.). For the next 
300 years nothing is known of the con 
dition of Assyria. In the fifteenth century 
n. c. Assyria was involved in a war with 
Babylonia, then under the rule of the Sem 
itic Kassites. War continued between the 
two countries for a long time with varying 
fortunes. Finally, however, Assyria be 
came supreme and Babylonia the vassal 
state. The chief makers of Assyria s 
glory were Theglath-Phalassar I. (1120- 
uoo), who conquered the city of Babylon, 
other cities of Babylonia, and penetrated 
as far as the Mediterranean. His more 
important successors were Assur-Nasir- 
Hapal (Sardanapal) (930-911); he built 
the palace of Nimroud, and his expeditions 
into Armenia, Asia Minor, Syria and Phoe 
nicia are related to us by numerous in 
scriptions; Asurnazirpal (884-860); Sal- 
manasar II. (860-824), who came in 
contact with Damascus and Israel ; The- 
glath-Phalasser II I . ( />/// in the Old Testa 
ment, 745-727), whose power extended to 
the confines of Egypt, and who put the 
crown of Babylon on his head. Sargon 
(722-705), the conqueror of Samaria, who 
defeated the Egyptians at Raphia; Senna 
cherib (705-681). We are in possession of 
an inscription relating his war against 
Hiskia (Ezechias), of Juda, and his siege 
of Jerusalem. He did not succeed in tak 
ing the city, but, after having devastated 
all Palestine, he transported 200,000 Jews 
into Assyria. He had for successor, Assar- 
haddon (680-668). These last two kings 
mark the height of Assyrian power, and 
Assarhaddon was enabled, by his conquests, 
to add to his tftles that of king of Upper 
and Lower Egypt and Ethiopia. Under 
Asurbanipal (the Sardanapalus of the 
Greek writers, 668-626 B. c.), the decline 
of the empire began. In some respects, 
this reign \vas most prosperous and bril 
liant; it was the golden age of art and lit 
erature. During this reign, too, Susa was 
conquered and destroyed. But signs of the 
approaching ruin were seen in the constant 
uprisings of the oppressed nations. The 
downward course was rapid. Once, about 



ASTARTE 



73 



ASTRONOMY 



625, Assyria succeeded in repelling the at 
tack of the Medes and Persians under 
Phraortes, but when his son Cyaxares, in 
union with Nabopolassar of Babylon, re 
peated the attack (608 B. c.) Ninive fell, 
and the Assyrian power entirely disap 
peared. 

Astarte. See ASHTORETH. 

Asterius. Metropolitan of Emesa, in 
Pontus, about the end of the fourth cen 
tury. Distinguished orator; he has left 
us twenty-one homilies. 

Asterius (URBANUS). A presbyter or 
bishop, in Asia Minor, in the first half of 
the third century. Published a treatise 
against the Montanists, in which he gives 
an account of the tragic end of their 
founder. 

Astrology. Originally meant much the 
same as astronomy, the knowledge of the 
stars, but was at length restricted to the 
cabalistic art of predicting future events, 
especially the fortunes of men, from the 
positions of the heavenly bodies. It as 
sumes that the heavenly bodies exert, 
according to their relative positions at 
certain times, a direct influence upon hu 
man life and destiny, and proposes to 
determine in any given case what this in 
fluence is, and thus foretell the future. 
Astrology is one of the most ancient 
forms of superstition, and is found pre 
vailing among the nations of the East 
(Egyptians, Chaldeans, Hindus, Chinese) 
at the very dawn of history. Understood 
in this sense, we find that the ancient 
Babylonians were astrologers as well as 
astronomers. They professed to cast 
nativities, to expound dreams, and to fore 
tell events by means of the stars (Is. 
xlvii. 13; Dan. ii. 2). The Babylonian or 
Chaldaic astrology was primarily and 
mainly genethliacal. It investigated under 
what aspect of the heavens persons were 
born or conceived, and from the posi 
tion of the celestial bodies at one or other 
of these moments, it professed to deduce 
the future life and fortunes of the in 
dividual. Chaldaic astrology was not, 
however, limited to genethlialogy. The 
Chaldeans professed to predict from the 
stars changes of the weather, high winds 
and storms, excessive heat and cold, pes 
tilential diseases, appearance of comets, 
eclipses, earthquakes, wars, and similar 
phenomena. The science was brought from 



Greece to Rome during the reign of Augus 
tus, and astrologers played an important 
part there, and were known as Chaldeans 
and Mathematicians. Though often ban 
ished by the senate and emperors under 
pain of death, they continued to hold their 
ground. Astrology had always a fertile 
field in the East ; it accords well with the 
predestinarian doctrines of Mohammed 
anism, and was accordingly cultivated 
with great ardor by the Arabs from the 
seventh to the twelfth centuries. Many of 
the early Fathers of the Church argued 
strongly against this false science. Em 
peror Constans caused an edict to be pro 
mulgated against astrologers, decreeing 
one of the most severe punishments 
against them, that of being torn to pieces 
with iron hooks. Charlemagne also en 
acted severe laws against them, perceiving 
that their false divinations of the stars had 
disturbed the tranquillity of rulers and 
countries. Popes Urban VIII. and Sixtus V. 
condemned the system of astrology, and the 
Church, at various times, raised her voice 
against believing and aiding such false 
predestinations. Henry III., Louis XIII., 
and Louis XIV., vigorously endeavored to 
crush the science within their realms, but 
some of the Christian rulers and nobles 
either cultivated it or accepted it in a 
modified form. Louis XL, Charles V., 
and Catherine de Medici protected pro 
fessionals in their practice, and in the 
sixteenth century several princes had 
astrologers at their courts. On the birth 
of a royal child, or on contemplation of 
war or conquest, their duty was to con 
sult the stars as to destiny or victory. The 
Copernican system gave the death blow to 
astrology. 

Astronomy (Gr. ash-on, a star, nomos, 
a la-w). The science of the heavenly 
bodies. From the earliest period man 
loved to gaze on the starry firmament, and 
watch the movements of the whole planet 
ary system with mingled astonishment 
and awe. " The heavens show forth the 
glory of God, and the firmament declareth 
the work of His hands" (Ps. xviii. 2). The 
Chinese, Hindus, Chaldeans, Egyptians, 
and even the Greeks, are known to have 
investigated the heavens in times remote 
from the Christian era. The first four na 
tions respectively claim the honor of being 
the first students of astronomy. The claim 
of the Chinese has been questioned by mod 
ern scientists, as their tables conclusively 



ASTRONOMY 



74 



ASTRONOMY 



prove a later period than that assigned to 
them. The same may be said of the 
Hindu tables, which, as far as date is con 
cerned, have been proved to be fictitious. 
The mass of evidence seems in favor of 
the plains of Chaldea being the primal 
seat of observative astronomy. The ris 
ings and settings of the heavenly bodies 
and eclipses were subjects of observation 
and notation by their priests at a very 
remote period. Simplicius and Porphyry 
mention that Aristotle had transmitted to 
him from Babylon, by order of Alexander 
the Great, a catalogue of eclipses observed 
throughout 1903 years preceding the con 
quest of that city by the Macedonians. Ptol 
emy gives six of the eclipses from this cata 
logue, but the earliest does not extend 
further back than 720 B.C. The prob 
ability is, therefore, that the statement of 
Simplicius, as to their early date, is an 
exaggeration. However, it is remarkably 
illustrative of their habit of diligent ob 
servation, that the Chaldeans were ac 
quainted with the cycle of 6585^ days, 
during which the moon makes about 223 
synodical revolutions, and passes through 
the same number of eclipses, alike, too, 
in order and magnitude, comparing cycle 
with cycle. The clepsydra as a clock, the 
gnomon for determining the solstices, and 
the hemispherical dial for ascertaining the 
positions of the sun, were used by the 
Chaldeans, and they are credited with 
the invention of the zodiac and the 
duodecimal division of the day. 
Although it is supposed that the Egyp 
tians were the first instructors of the 
Greeks in astronomy, we have every 
reason to believe that their knowledge 
was meagre and crude. The Greeks have 
the honor of elevating it into a reliable 
history, and to the dignity of a science. 
Thales (640 B. c.) laid the foundation of 
Greek astronomy. He it was who first 
propagated the theory of the earth s 
sphericity. The sphere he divided into 
five zones. He predicted the year of a 
great solar eclipse, but this it is now sup 
posed he must have accidentally succeeded 
in doing the Greeks at this time having no 
observations of their own to guide them 
by means of the Chaldean Saros, or 
period of eighteen years and ten days, 
which gives a regular recurrence of 
eclipses. He made the Greeks, who, prior 
to his time, were content to navigate their 
vessels by the Great Bear a rough ap 
proximation to the north acquainted 



with the lesser constellation of that name, 
and a much better guide for the mariner. 

Pythagoras (500 B. c.) was the next 
astronomer of eminence. He promulgated, 
on grounds fanciful enough, the theory, 
the truth of which, however, has been 
since established, that the sun is the center 
of the planetary system, and that the earth 
revolves round it. He, also, first taught 
that the morning and evening stars were 
in reality one and the same planet. Be 
tween Pythagoras and the advent of the 
Alexandrian School, about two centuries 
later, the most prominent names in as 
tronomical annals are those of Meton 
(432 B. c.), who introduced the lunar-solar 
cycle, and in conjunction with Euctemon, 
observed a solstice at Athens in the year 
424 B.C.; Callippus (330 B.C.), who im 
proved the Metonic cycle ; Eudoxus of Cni- 
dus (370 B.C.), who introduced into Greece 
the year of 365^ days, and Nicetas of Syra 
cuse, who is reported to have taught the 
diurnal motion of the earth on its axis. 

The Alexandrian School originated a 
connected series of observations relative 
to the constitution of the universe. The 
positions of the fixed stars were deter 
mined, the orbits of the planets carefully 
traced, and the solar and lunar inequalities 
more accurately ascertained. Angular 
distances were calculated with instruments, 
suitable to the purpose, by trigonometrical 
methods, and the School presented to the 
world the first system of theoretical astron 
omy, and attempted to determine the 
distance of the earth from the sun, and 
the magnitude of the terrestial globe. 
Hipparchus of Bithynia, catalogued no 
less than 1081 stars. He also determined 
the mean motion of the moon, her eccen 
tricity, the equation of her center, and 
the inclination of her orbit. He invented 
processes analogous to plane and spherical 
trigonometry, and was the first to use 
right ascensions and declinations, which 
he afterwards abandoned in favor of lati 
tudes and longitudes. 

Ptolemy (130-150 A. D.) is the next who 
rises above the mass of mediocrities. 
Besides being a practical astronomer, he 
was accomplished as a musician, geo 
grapher, and mathematician. His most im 
portant discovery in astronomy was the 
libration or evection of the moon. He 
was also the first to point out the effect of 
refraction. 

With Ptolemy closes the originality of 
the Greek School. It is to the Arabs that 



ASYLUM 



75 



ASYLUM 



we owe the next advances in astronomy. 
For four centuries, the Arabs prosecuted 
the study of the science with assiduity, 
but they are chiefly meritorious as ob 
servers. The most illustrious of the 
Arabian School was Albategnius or Al- 
Batani (800 A. D.) who discovered the mo 
tion of the solar apogee, and who was also 
the first to make use of sines and versed 
sines instead of chords; he corrected the 
Greek observations, and was altogether the 
most distinguished observer between Hip- 
parchus and the Copernican era. 

We now come to the illustrious priest, 
Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543) to whom 
was reserved the distinction of explod 
ing the Ptolemaic ideas, and of promul 
gating a correct theory of the universe, 
appropriately called after him the Coper 
nican, which is now generally accepted, 
and which led to the brilliant discoveries 
of Kepler and Galileo, and formed the 
basis of the splendid mathematical demon 
strations of Newton and Laplace. 

Following Copernicus, we must mention 
the eminent Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), 
who compiled a catalogue of 777 fixed 
stars, more perfect than any that had pre 
viously been tabulated. He made the first 
table of refractions, and discovered the vari 
ation and annual equation of the moon, the 
inequalities of the motion of the nodes, and 
the inclination of the lunar orbit. His re 
searches made possible the brilliant discov 
eries of Kepler (1571-1631), and of those 
famous laws which have rendered his 
name immortal. Kepler is also said to 
have had some idea of gravitation. 

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) in a measure 
revolutionized the system of astronomy by 
his discovery and application of the tele 
scope. He was rewarded by the discovery 
of the inequalities on the moon s surface. 
The important discoveries of the four 
satellites of Jupiter, the ring of Saturn, 
the spots on the sun, and the crescent 
form of Venus, followed in quick succes 
sion. 

Galileo was followed by the epochal New 
ton (1642-1727). In the interval, astron 
omy profited largely by the researches of 
Descartes, Gascoigne, Auzout, and Picard. 
Newton s fame rests upon his discovery of 
the law of gravitation. The discovery is 
perhaps the grandest achievement of human 
genius of which we have any record. New 
ton also made the important discovery of 
the revolution of comets round the sun in 
conic sections, proved the earth s form to 



be an oblate spheroid, gave a theory of the 
moon and tides, invented fluxions, and 
wrote upon optics. 

If the eighteenth century opened with 
lustre derived from the physical demon 
strations of Newton, and the numerous 
observations of Flamsteed, Halley, Dr. 
Bradley, and others, it closed magnifi 
cently with the telescopic discoveries of 
Sir William Herschel, which added to our 
universe a primary planet ( Uranus) with 
its satellites, gave two more satellites to 
Saturn, resolved the milky way into count 
less myriads of suns, and unraveled the 
mystery of nebulae and of double and triple 
stars. Laplace, in his great work, the 
Mccanique Celeste (1799-1808), gave what 
further proof was needed of the truth and 
sufficiency of the Newtonian theory. 

Leverrier, Gall, Challis, Lord Ross, 
Father Sechi, S. J., and many others, have, 
by means of powerful telescopes, spectrum 
analysis, and photography, made many 
important discoveries, corrected and sys 
tematized former observations, added sev 
eral small planets and planetoids to the 
already extensive catalogue of stars, double 
stars, and nebulae. Optical and other in 
struments have been brought to what ap 
pears almost a state of perfection. In more 
recent years, research has been directed, 
chiefly, toward the physical nature of the 
sun and other heavenly bodies, by means 
of spectrum analysis. These scientific ex 
plorations and discoveries in the regions 
and laws of the universe all tend to show 
and conclusively prove that the visible 
creation is a mirror in which God reflects 
to intelligent beings His infinite perfec 
tion, power, goodness, wisdom, and jus 
tice. Man is created for God ; and the 
cause of the happiness and joy man feels 
in contemplating the visible creation, is 
because it reflects the infinite beauty and 
perfections of the Creator. 

Asylum (a place of refuge). In ancient 
times, sacred places, especially the temples 
and altars of the gods, were appointed as 
asylums to which criminals, as well as per 
secuted individuals, might flee for refuge; 
and to molest them in such places, was re 
garded as an impiety. They were, how 
ever, sometimes surrounded and watched 
until the refugees died of starvation. The 
Jews set apart six cities of refuge for per 
sons guilty of manslaughter (Ex. xxi. 13 
sq.; III. Ki. ii. 28-31 ; i. 50). Romulus, 
according to popular legend, attracted 



ATHANASIAN CREED 



ATHEISM 



many persons from other places to Rome 
by offering the city as an asylum for crimi 
nals. The Emperor Tiberius abolished all 
places of refuge from the law, except those 
in the temples of Juno and Esculapius. The 
custom of allowing to real or supposed 
criminals a place of safety in temples, was 
also adopted by the Christian Church. In 
the reign of Constantine the Great, all 
Christian churches were asylums. The 
privileges were afterwards extended to con 
vents, but they were much abused by 
criminals during the Middle Ages. Several 
Popes, in order to prevent this abuse, ex 
cluded murderers and some other classes of 
offenders from the privilege of the sanctu 
ary. The word asylum is now applied to 
places of shelter for unfortunate and desti 
tute persons, and especially the blind, 
insane, etc. 

Athanasian Creed. See CREED. 

Athanasius (ST.). The greatest lumi 
nary among the Oriental Doctors was St. 
Athanasius, surnamed the Great, whom 
God had chosen to be the champion and 
defender of His Church against the Arian 
heresy. Athanasius was born at Alexan 
dria, about the year 296, ordained deacon 
in 319, and was chosen by Alexander, his 
bishop, to accompany him to the Council 
of Nice. To his acuteness, learning, and 
eloquence in that Council, was principally 
owing the condemnation of Arianism. On 
the death of Alexander in 328, Athanasius 
became Patriarch of Alexandria, and dur 
ing forty-five years, he withstood, often 
almost alone, the whole brunt of the Arian 
assault. He stood unmoved against four 
Roman emperors, was banished five times, 
was the butt of every wrong and calumny 
the Arians could devise, and lived in con 
stant peril of death. Firm and unbending 
in defense of the Catholic faith, he merited 
the honorable title of " Father of Ortho 
doxy. " He closed his stormy life in 
peace, in 373. With few exceptions, the 
numerous works of St. Athanasius have an 
apologetical and polemical tenor, having 
been written in defense of Catholicity 
against paganism and heresy. His dicta 
tion and style are clear, full of deep sense, 
strength, and solid reasoning. The first 
of his works are his two discourses 
" Against the Gentiles " and " On the 
Incarnation," which form one work ad 
dressed to a convert from heathenism, and 
which were written before the Arian con 
troversy had broken out. Most of his 



other works have a direct bearing upon 
that heresy. The most noted of them are : 
i. Four Orations against the Arians, 
which he wrote while concealed in the 
desert (356-361) ; 2. An Apology against 
the Arians, containing thirtv-six au 
thentic documents relative to the history 
of Arianism ; 3. Two encyclical letters 
to the orthodox bishops, one against the 
illegal intrusion of Gregory the Cappado- 
cian into his see; the other a warning 
against the wiles and stratagems of the 
Arians; 4. An Apology to the Emperor 
Constantius and An Apology for his 
Flight, both of which were written in 
the desert. Against the heresies of the 
Macedonians and the Apollinarians, St. 
Athanasius wrote : Four Letters to Serap- 
ion bishop of Thumis; a treatise "On 
the Incarnation and against the Arians " ; 
A Book on the Trinity and the Holy 
Ghost; Tu O Books against the ApoUi- 
narians; a treatise "On the Incarnation 
against Appollinaris," and another " On 
the Advent of Our Lord Jesus Christ." 
St. Athanasius is, however, not the author 
of the famous Creed bearing his name, as 
it was compiled in Latin in the fifth or 
sixth century. F. May 2d. 

Atheism. A word of modern formation 
from Gr. Atheos, ivithout God, signifies 
the doctrine of those who deny the existence 
of a God. Atheism is not a system, it is a 
negation; and although it is found in the 
logical consequences of certain doctrines 
which pervert completely the idea of 
God, there is not, in the whole history of 
philosophy, any great school which has 
professed atheism. The first Greek phi 
losophers, who believed in the eternity of 
matter and sought in material elements 
the first principle which strikes the senses, 
did not deny, formally, the existence of 
God. Neither did the ancient philoso 
phers deny the existence of a divinity, 
though accused of atheism, but only re 
jected the common notions of a plurality 
of gods. We have proof in the instance 
of Protagoras, who declared he could 
affirm neither that God is, nor that He 
is not; this doubt explicitly expressed is 
sufficient to banish him from Athens, where 
the Ionian philosophy flourished at that 
time. Epicurus, whose system, perhaps 
more than any other, implies the negation 
of God, nevertheless speaks of the gods. 
Who does not know the beautiful verses 
his disciple Lucretius composed, in his 



ATHENAGORAS 



77 



ATOMISM 



invocation of the goddess, " who alone gov 
erns all nature * ? 

St. Thomas teaches that whoever be 
lieves in the direction of the world is 
no atheist. Spinoza, in spite of his 
promises, concludes his ethics in proclaim 
ing as the end of our actions the knowl 
edge and love of God, and as sovereign 
good, God himself. Consequently, neither 
the Materialists nor the Pantheists are 
ipso facto atheists. It is, therefore, in 
vain that some atheists in our days, de 
sirous of finding themselves a numerous 
body, have claimed for their negative sys 
tem whole schools and nations. They 
wish, in the name of science, to attack the 
ancient proof of the existence of God, 
founded upon the universal testimony. 
Science has answered them through the 
words of a conspicuous authority in similar 
matters, De Quatrefages : " Bound by my 
teaching to pass review of all the human 
races, I have sought atheism, but have met 
with it nowhere, except, perhaps, in an in 
dividual state, or in the state of more or less 
limited schools. Atheism is found no 
where except in an erratic state ; always, 
and everywhere, the mass of the populations 
escape it." Anthropology, the science 
which made it a law to make use only of 
experimental method, repeats after Aris 
totle that " Man is a religious animal " ; an 
thropology even confirms that the sentiment 
of the divine is natural to man, that it 
is his distinctive characteristic. Besides 
atheism is directly refuted by the demon 
stration of the existence of God. See GOD. 

Athenagoras. Born at Athens ; flour 
ished about 176 A. D. A Greek Platonist, 
philosopher, and Christian. Author of an 
apology or intercession in behalf of the 
Christians, addressed to the Emperors 
Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. He ex 
pounds and refutes the accusations of athe 
ism, cannibalism, and incest, made against 
the Christians in his day. A treatise on 
the resurrection of the dead is also attrib 
uted to him. 

Athos or Monte Santo, that is, the 
Holy Hill, the principal mountain of a 
chain extending, in a peninsular form, 
from the coast of Macedonia into the 
^Egean Sea, between the Gulf of Contessa 
and Monte Santo, and connected with the 
mainland by a narrow isthmus. The time 
of the first establishment of hermitages on 
this romantic spot is uncertain, though the 
origin of some may be traced to the days 



of Constantine the Great, and others to 
the reign of the Emperor Basil, in 885. 
One convent was "restored" 900 years 
ago. The monks follow the Rule of St. 
Basil, and lead an ascetic life, engaged 
chiefly in agriculture, gardening, and the 
care of bees. 

Atomism. The philosophical system, 
which in modern times has been brought 
forward to account for the formation of 
the universe, and known as the atomic or 
corpuscular theory. The diverse atomic 
systems have one common basis ; they ad 
mit that matter, to whatever degree it 
might be divisible, is not this infinitely, 
and that its primordial elements, the atoms, 
furnish us with the explanation of the 
origin of the world and of natural phenom 
ena. But, upon this common basis, contra 
dictory doctrines have reared themselves. 
Are the atoms eternal? Do they contain 
in themselves the principle of movement, 
indispensable to their existence, their com 
bination, and to their development? Are 
they of one sole species, or of an in 
definite number of species, or do they exist 
in such varied quantity as the bodies? 
Can they be made to agree with the funda 
mental dogma of religions, the existence 
of a being or principle outside of them, or 
do they exclude it absolutely? So many 
questions, necessarily bearing and bound 
up with the atomic theory, have been 
solved differently by the atomic philoso 
phers. Granting, however, that the chem 
ist can prove that his simple and compound 
forms of matter are built up of chemical 
atoms, the problem still remains to be 
solved as to the possible identity of physi 
cal and chemical atoms. What the chem 
ist regards as an atom in his science, may 
not be an ultimate and indivisible atom 
from a physical point of view ; the chemical 
atom, though incapable of division as a 
chemical atom, may still be composed or 
built up of many physical atoms, and may 
be capable of being subdivided into such. 
Indeed, while the atomic theory of Dai- 
ton, when first announced, was eagerly 
seized upon as the best possible evidence 
for the existence of both chemical and 
physical atoms, the tendency of recent in 
vestigations and experiments in chemistry 
has been to show that the chemical atom 
is different from the physical. 

The origin of the atomic theory goes 
back to the Hindoo speculative system 
called Vaiseshika, and which was founded 



ATONEMENT 



AUGUSTINE 



by the philosopher Kanada, a mysterious 
and legendary personage. Kanada, meta 
physician like all the thinkers of his race, 
does not content himself with a purely 
physical explanation of the world, and 
acknowledges the existence of an imma 
terial principle. We do not know that his 
system was known to the Greeks. How 
ever, we find quite evident traces in the 
theories of Empedocles and that of Anaxa- 
goras, who both admit atoms, but equally 
acknowledge the existence of independent 
principles, and, aside from their physical 
properties, leave room for a theology. 
Democritus and Leucippus adopted their 
doctrine, but declared that nothing exists 
outside the void and the atoms ; the atoms 
meet together in the void, and combine 
themselves by chance; it is thus that they 
have formed the world. Epicurus re 
mains the faithful disciple of Democritus 
and Lucretius, without adding anything 
to the theory such as it manifests itself in 
antiquity, gives to it its distinctive form 
and all the development of which it is 
susceptible. After Lucretius, the theory 
of atoms was abandoned until the time of 
Gassendi, who, besides trying to place 
it in harmony with the Christian dogma, 
removes from the atoms the character of 
eternity and of necessity, in order to make 
them, so to say, the contingent elements 
of creation. After Gassandi, atoms ceased 
to play an important role in philosophy, 
until Hugius, Richter, Dalton, and others 
took them up to support their theories or 
hypotheses of the physical nature of 
matter. See COSMOGONY. 

Atonement. See REDEMPTION. 

Attila ( surnamed " the scourge of 
God"). King of the Huns, ravaged Gaul, 
was defeated near Chalons-sur-Marne, by 
yEtius, with the aid of the West-Gothic 
Theodoric (434-453). See LEO I. 

Attributes of God. See GOD. 

Attrition. An imperfect sorrow for sin, 
fear of disgrace, fear of hell, etc. ; distinct 
from contrition, yet good in itself as com 
ing from God and leading to contrition, 
but without actual confession will not 
avail to justify the sinner. See CON 
TRITION. 

Audians. Heretics in the early Church. 
Their name is derived from their founder 
Audius, whose home was in Mesopotamia. 
They refused to hold communion with 



Catholics, rejected canonical penances, 
observed the Jewish manner of celebrating 
Easter, and were Anthropomorphites, be 
lieving that God exists in a human form. 
Audius, who had himself been irregularly 
consecrated bishop, was banished by Em 
peror Constantius; but in spite of repeated 
persecutions, they maintained their sect 
till the close of the fifth century. 

Audients. In the early Church, those 
not yet baptized, but receiving instruction 
preparatory to baptism ; catechumens of 
the first grade. Such persons were per 
mitted to hear the Psalms, lessons, and 
sermon, but were not present at the more 
sacred services which followed. 

Augsburg Confession. Formulary 
which the Protestants presented at the 
Diet of Augsburg. It contained their con 
fession of faith in 28 articles, drawn up by 
Melanchthon, approved by Luther, and 
signed by the Protestant princes. The 
Diet rejected this formulary and the Re 
formers did not unanimously admit it. 
Hence, in order to come to an understand 
ing, Melanchthon modified it, and the 
formulary was called confessio variata. 

Augsburg Peace, declared September 15, 
1555, in which Charles V. granted to the 
Reformers the free exercise of their re 
ligious convictions. 

Augustine (ST.). The most illustrious 
among the Doctors of the Church, Au 
gustine, was born in 354 at Tagasta, in 
Africa. He received his literary educa 
tion in the schools of Madaura and Car 
thage, and was reared by his mother, St. 
Monica, in the Christian faith ; but, as 
his own Confessions tell us, his conduct 
was far from exemplary ; he early lost his 
faith and innocence. At the age of twenty 
he embraced the Manichean heresy, and 
for a space of nine years, remained more 
or less under its influence. From Maniche- 
ism he turned to Neo-Platonism without, 
however, finding a resting-place in that 
system. The reading of Hortensius, by 
Cicero, roused him to a diligent search 
after truth. Setting out for Rome and 
thence to Milan, he was, by God s grace, 
rescued from the errors of his youth, and, 
together with his son Adeodatus, and his 
friend Alypius, baptized by St. Ambrose, 
in 387. He was then thirty-three years of 
age. From this time forth, Augustine de 
voted himself with his whole mind and 
soul to the service of truth and the Church. 



AUGUSTINE 



79 



AUSTRALIA 



His mother having died at Ostia, Augus 
tine returned to Carthage and lived for 
three years with several friends in monastic 
retirement. He was ordained priest by 
Valerius, Bishop of Hippo, who also, 
about the year 395, appointed him coadju 
tor and successor in his see. For thirty- 
five years Augustine was the center of 
ecclesiastical life in Africa, and the 
Church s mightiest champion against 
heresy ; he bore the great burden of the 
controversy against the Donatists, Mani- 
cheans, and Pelagians. His death oc 
curred in 430, while Hippo was besieged 
by the Vandals. These barbarians en 
tered and burned the city, but the library 
of Augustine was providentially saved. F. 
Aug. 28th. Of his multitudinous works, St. 
Augustine gives a critical review in his Re 
tractions, which he wrote towards the end of 
his life, to correct whatever seemed doubt 
ful or extravagant in his writings and to 
harmonize dis cordant opinions. The most 
famous of his works are the Confessions, 
and the twenty books of the City of God. 
In the former he gives a history of his own 
life up to the year 400, when the work ap 
peared. This extraordinary work is classed 
as one of the choicest of ascetic books. 
The City of God, which was begun in 413 
and finished in 427 thus engaging the ma- 
turest years of the author s life is Augus 
tine s masterpiece and one of the noblest 
apologetical works of which the ancient 
Church can boast. It is a learned defense 
of the Christian religion against the ab 
surd calumnies of the pagans, who accused 
the Christians of having brought about all 
the calamities then befalling the empire, 
by renouncing the time-honored deities of 
ancient Rome. Augustine was a philos 
opher and dogmatical theologian, as well 
as a mystic, and a powerful controversial 
ist. For his other works, see Migne Pat. 
Lat. XXXII-XLVII. 

Augustine or Austin (ST.). Apostle of 
England. Died in 605. A Benedictine 
monk, sent by Pope Gregory I. in 596, 
with thirty-nine of his brethren, to under 
take the conversion of Anglo-Saxons in 
Britain. The effect of their preaching 
was accompanied with most wonderful 
success; on the following Christmas, ten 
thousand, following the example of King 
Ethelbert of Kent, were baptized. On 
learning of the wonderful and prosperous 
mission of Augustine, Pope Gregory ap 
pointed him the first bishop, and, in 601, 



metropolitan of the Anglo-Saxons with 
the authority to found twelve suffragan 
sees, and, when the Northern English 
should have embraced the faith, also to 
consecrate a bishop for York, which 
should, likewise, be a metropolitan with 
twelve suffragan sees. Augustine chose 
Dovernum, now Canterbury, for his metro 
politan see. St. Augustine died, after 
having chosen Lawrence, one of his faith 
ful fellow-laborers, to succeed him in the 
See of Canterbury. 

Augustinian Hermits. These hermits 
regard the great St. Augustine of Hippo 
as their patron and composer of their rule, 
if not their founder. In 1256, Pope Alex 
ander IV. united several existing com 
munities under the title of " Hermits of 
St. Augustine," giving to them the rule 
ascribed to that Father. Lanfranco Sep- 
tola, of Milan, became their first General. 
A colony of Augustinians from Dublin, 
Ireland, came to the United States in 1790, 
and settled in Philadelphia, where they 
largely contributed to the spread and 
progress of Catholicity. They have quite 
a number of establishments in this country. 

Aureola Sanctorum. In Christian art 
it is used to designate the glory of the 
figure represented. In painting and statu 
ary, the golden aureola which surrounds 
the head and sometimes the whole body of 
saints and martyrs. The circle or nimbus, 
when it encloses a cross, belongs to Christ ; 
without the cross, it designates canonized 
saints. There is also a form of aureola 
which designates the beatified, those 
whose heads are encircled with golden 
lines. See NIMBUS. 

Auricular Confession. See CONFESSION. 

Australia. The religious history of 
Australia or Australasia, which term in 
cludes the British colonies of Australia, 
Tasmania, and New Zealand, begins with 
the year 1787, when these islands became 
penal colonies of England. Among the 
convicts transported to Australia were 
many Irish Catholics, whose religion, 
joined with patriotism, was their only 
crime. Instead of being ministered to, as 
they requested, by Catholic priests, they 
were driven, even with the whip, to assist 
at the Anglican service, as no other reli 
gion was then tolerated in the colonies. 
In 1818, Pius VII. established the Vicariate 
Apostolic of Mauritius, with jurisdiction 



AUSTRALIA 



80 



AUSTRIA 



also over the Australian islands. For the 
Australian colonies the Rev. Mr. Flynn 
was appointed, on whom the Holy See had 
conferred the title of Archpriest with 
power to administer confirmation. But 
the colonial government, which consisted 
mostly of Protestant ministers, could ill 
brook the presence of a Catholic priest in 
the islands : so, when Father Flynn arrived 
in Australia, he was at once seized, put in 
prison, and finally sent back to England. 
This intolerance of the colonial authori 
ties gave great offense, even in Protestant 
England. To reconcile public feeling, the 
English Government was obliged, in 1820, 
not only to permit two Catholic priests to 
serve the Irish exiles in the Australian 
colonies, but also to grant them a yearly 
support. Meanwhile, Catholic emancipa 
tion in England had borne its fruits it had 
also secured liberty to the Catholics in the 
British colonies. In 1832, the Rev. W. Ul- 
lathorne, a Benedictine, late Bishop of 
Birmingham, England, was appointed Vi 
car General and Visitor Apostolic of the 
desolate mission by the Holy See. There 
were, then, in all Australia and New 
Zealand, only one partly-finished Church, 
two chapels, and four free schools, in 
charge of only three priests. The result 
of his zeal and activity soon became mani 
fest. In 1835, the Holy See named the 
Rev. Bede Polding, a Benedictine from 
England, Vicar Apostolic of " New Hol 
land," which then comprised the whole 
of Australia, besides Tasmania, Norfolk, 
and other islands. This prelate s first care 
was to secure fellow-laborers for his exten 
sive vineyard. Soon twenty-three priests 
came to join him, and in 1840 the first 
Sisters of Mercy arrived from Ireland, who 
took charge of the orphans and female 
prisoners. Five years after the arrival of 
Bishop Polding, the Catholics already 
formed one-third of all the inhabitants of 
the colonies. In 1842, Gregory XVI. 
raised the vicariate of " New Holland " 
to an ecclesiastical province. Sydney 
became a metropolitan see with two suf 
fragan bishops, one at Adelaide, in New 
South Wales, and the other Hobart Town, 
in Tasmania. In 1844, Archbishop Polding 
held his First Ecumenical Council; it was 
attended by two suffragan bishops and 
thirty-three missionaries from all parts of 
the Australian Continent. The most im 
portant decrees adopted by this Council 
bore upon the life and manners of the clergy, 
the founding of Catholic schools in all the 



missions, and on the preservation and ad 
ministration of Church property. 

Australia (The Church in). According 
to the Census of England, etc., Fourth Gen 
eral Report of 1873, there are in Australia 
proper, two archdioceses: The ecclesiasti 
cal province of Sydney, with the following 
suffragans : Armidale, Bathurst, Brisbane, 
Gaulbourn, Maitland, and Port Victoria; 
and the province of Melbourne with the 
following suffragans : Adelaide, Ballarat, 
Hobart Town, Perth, and Sandhurst. To 
tal population of both provinces, 2,000,000 ; 
Catholic population, 271,000. New Zea 
land contains the following bishoprics: 
Auckland, Dunedin, and Wellington, with 
a population of 400,000; Catholic popula 
tion, 51,000. Oceania comprises seven Pre 
fectures Apolostic, with a population of 
435,000; Catholic population. 80,000. 

According to the Missione.s Catholicce 
of 1892, the Church in Australia and New 
Zealand numbers about 750 priests, some 
1,700 churches and chapels, over 900 paro 
chial schools, which are attended by 95,- 
ooo pupils. The Catholic population is 
about 700,000, and this flock is ruled by a 
hierarchy of five archbishops, Sydney, 
Melbourne, Adelaide, Brisbane, and Wel 
lington, in New Zealand, seventeen bish 
ops, and four vicars apostolic. 

Austria ( Christianity in) . Christianity 
was introduced into Austria in the fourth 
century. The Roman colony of Trent had 
a bishop as early as A. D. 381, named Abun- 
dantius. His successor, Vigilius, among 
other extant works, left a letter addressed 
to St. Chrysostom. But the real apostle 
of Southern Rhsetia, or the Tyrol, was St. 
Valentinus, a Belgian Bishop. He died in 
the year 470. His famous contemporary, 
St. Severinus, preached the Gospel in 
Noricum, principally in the neighborhood 
of Vienna, where he built a monastery. 
For many years this extraordinary man 
was the guide and refuge of all the tribes 
in those parts. He extended his mission 
as far as Pannonia, embracing then parts 
of Hungary, Styria, Croatia, and Lower 
Austria, with the whole of Slavonia. St. 
Severinus died in the year 482. 

Austria (Worship in). The religious 
hierarchy is represented, in the Austrian 
Empire, by 26 Catholic bishops, 9 Evan 
gelical superintendencies, 2 Greek-Oriental 
bishoprics, a superintendence and upper 
| consistory of the Unitarians. In the king- 



AUTHENTICITY 



81 



AVE MARIA 



dom of Hungary by 25 Catholic bishops, 
10 Evangelical superintendencies, and 8 
Greek-Oriental bishops. The different 
worships of the total population are as 
follows: i. Austrian Countries, Roman 
Catholics, 17,808,530; Greek and Armen 
ian Catholics, 2,593,618; Oriental Greeks 
and Armenians, 493,542 ; Protestants, 
401,479; Israelites, 1,005,394; Others, 14,- 
004. 2. Countries of the Hungarian 
Cro-wn, Roman Catholics, 7,849,692 ; Greek 
Catholics, 1,497,268; Armenian Catholics, 
3,223; Oriental Greeks, 2,434,890; Evan 
gelicals, 1,122,849; Calvinists, 2,031,803; 
Unitarians, 33,792. Other Christian sects, 
4,645; Israelites, 683,314; Others, 3,626. 
See Census of the year 1890. 

Authenticity (Holy Scripture). A 
book is credited as authentic that was 
written by the author whose name it car 
ries and to whom it is generally attrib 
uted. A history, or narrative may be true 
or conformable to facts without being 
authentic, that is without having been 
written by the author to whom it is attrib 
uted. It is sufficient that it was the work 
of a writer adequately informed and sin 
cere, whoever he may have been. Be 
cause the author of a book is unknown, it 
does not follow that all it contains is false 
and fabulous, and it may have as much 
weight and authority as if the author were 
certainly known, the subject matter being 
the final criterion of the value of the work. 
In fact, among the Sacred Books there are 
some, especially in the Old Testament, 
whose authors are not authentically known ; 
we only know that they proceed from an 
inspired hand, because the ancients, bet 
ter enabled than we to discover their 
origin, have believed in them and have 
quoted them as historic authority. In re 
gard to this point, tradition is the only 
guide we have. As to the books of the 
New Testament, we know for certain that 
they are authentic, and that they were 
written by the authors whose names they 
carry. 

In order that a book may be held ca 
nonical, inspired, divine, reputed as the 
word of God, it is not enough that it is 
authentic, that it was written by one of the 
Apostles, or by one of their immediate suc 
cessors ; but the Church must have adopted 
it as such, and ancient .tradition must tes 
tify in its favor. The Church would not 
be in a condition to guarantee the Christian 
doctrine, if she had not the authority to 



teach us, without danger of error, what 
are the books we must regard as rules of 
our belief. The rules of criticism may 
serve to discover whether a book was writ 
ten by such or such an author, but they can 
not inform us whether this book is or is not 
a rule of faith ; it remains for the Church to 
judge whether it contains the doctrine of 
Christ or not. This holy society was 
instructed by word of mouth by the Apos 
tles before she had received their writ 
ings, and no book can entirely supply the 
public with the never varying teaching of 
the Church. 

Authority. See LAW; POPE (Preroga 
tives of the); JURISDICTION. 

Autocephali. Name given by the Greeks 
to bishops who are not subject to the 
jurisdiction of the patriarchs. 



Auto Da Fe (Act of Fait/i). 
given to the ceremony that took place 
when the Inquisition had rendered its 
judgment on the person brought before it 
for trial. It was especially applied to the 
execution of the judgment by fire. See 

iNqUISITION. 

Ave Maria or the " Angelical Saluta 
tion." Catholics, after having said the 
" Our Father," almost invariably add the 
"Ave Maria." It has always been cus 
tomary among Christians to imitate the 
example of the archangel Gabriel, and 
salute our Blessed Lady in his words. The 
devotion to Mary was not introduced by a 
decree of a Council, nor at the behest of 
any Pope ; at all times the faithful have 
been wont to pay their devout homage to 
the Queen of heaven. She herself foresaw 
that this would be so ; that all generations 
would call her blessed (Luke i. 48). The 
" Ave Maria" is also called the Angelical 
Salutation, because it commences with the 
words of the archangel. It consists of 
three parts: The salutation of the arch 
angel Gabriel, the greeting of St. Eliza 
beth, and the words of the Church. The 
salutation of the archangel runs thus: 
" Hail, full of grace, the Lord is with 
thee ; blessed art thou among women" 
(Luke i. 28). The greeting of Elizabeth 
is this : " Blessed art thou among women, 
and blessed is the fruit of thy womb " 
(v. 42)-. The remaining words were added 
by the Church. The first and second parts 
were recited by the faithful in the earliest 
ages of Christianity in their present form, 
while the concluding words were varied. 



AVIGNON 



82 



BABYLON 



St. Athanasius used to add : " Pray for us, 
Patron and Lady, Queen and Mother of 
God." From the time of Luther it was 
customary to end with the words : "Holy 
Mary, Mother of God, pray for us." The 
final clause now in use dates from the reign 
of Pope St. Pius V., who directed it to 
be printed in all the authorized prayer 
books. 

Avignon ( The Popes at). See CAPTIV 
ITY OF THE POPES. 

Aviz ( Order of St. Benedict). An Order 
of knighthood, instituted in 1134-1147, by 
Sancho I., king of Navarre. Its purpose 
was to aid in the suppression of the Moors. 
It received the papal confirmation as a re 
ligious Order under the Rule of St. Bene 



dict in 1162. In 1187 the seat of the Order 
is said to have been placed at Aviz. In 
1550 Pope Paul III. united the grand mas 
tership to the Portuguese crown, and in 
1789 it was changed into an honorary order 
for the reward of military merit. 

Azarias. King of Juda. He began his 
reign at the age of 16 years, 812 B. c. The 
first part of his reign was prosperous and 
happy; but presuming to offer incense in 
the temple, he was smitten with leprosy, 
and continued a leper till his death, in 758 
B. c. 

Azimites. A name signifying users of 
unleavened bread, applied to the Roman 
Church, by the Patriarch of Constanti 
nople, Michael Caerularius, in 1053. 



B 



Baader (FRANZ X AVER VON) (1765-1 841). 
Born at Munich. A German scholar, ap 
pointed honorary professor of philosophy 
and speculative theology at the University 
of Munich in 1826; chiefly known from 
his philosophical writings. He devoted 
himself at first to the study of medicine 
and the natural sciences, held the position 
of superintendent of mines in Munich 
(1797) and published various scientific and 
technical works. Catholic and profound 
thinker, Baader had the misfortune to fall 
into the errors of mystics, such as J. 
Bochum, Paracelsus, Van Helmont, and 
St. Martin. He imagined a democratic 
Catholicism, enfranchised from the su 
premacy of the Pope and governed in a 
parliamentary manner by councils. He 
believed in having found his ideal in the 
Greek Church, which he maintained to be 
superior to the Roman Church. However, 
Baader died a Catholic, at Munich. 

Baal or Bel, signifies lord, and was 
the name of an idol, god of the Phoeni 
cians and Chanaanites, which is very com 
monly mentioned along with Ashtaroth, 
or Astarte. The word Baal, in the Old 
Testament, when employed without further 
addition, denotes an idol of the Phoenici 
ans, and particularly of the Tyrians, whose 
worship was also introduced, with great 
solemnities, among the Hebrews, and 
especially at Samaria, along with that of 
Astarte (Judg. vi. 25; IV. Ki. x. 18). In 
the plural, Baalim, the word signifies 



images or statues of Baal. Of the extent 
to which the worship of this idol was 
practiced among the Phoenicians and 
Carthaginians, we have an evidence in the 
proper names of persons; as, among the 
former, Ethbaal, Jerubbaal ; and among 
the latter, Hannibal, Asdrubal, etc. Also 
the name Baal is often joined to the name 
of a city where Baal is adored : Baal-Bek, 
Baal-Hazor, Baal-Pharasim, etc.; with the 
name of another false deity, like Baal- 
Phegor, Baal-Berith, that is "lord of the 
covenant," Beel-Zebuth. Among the Bab 
ylonians, the same idol was worshiped 
under the name of Bel, which is only 
another form of the word Baal. 

Baalah or Cariath-Yarim. City of Pal 
estine, in the tribe of Juda, where they 
deposited the Ark of Covenant brought 
back from the country of the Philistines. 

Baanites. Heretics of the ninth cen 
tury. They were followers of Baanes, a 
Paulician, and who founded a separate 
sect of the Manicheans. 

Babel. Same as Babvlon (which see). 

Babylon. In ancient geography, the 
capital of Babylonia, situated on the Eu 
phrates. Its original foundation is re 
ferred, in the Bible, to the attempt of the 
descendants of Noe to build "a city and a 
tower," on account of which their lan 
guage was confounded, and they were 
scattered by the interposition of God Him- 



BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY 



BALLERINI 



self (Gen. xi.). Hence the name Babel, 
that is, confusion. Babylon is now a mass 
of ruins, but once, according to Herodo 
tus, it included within its walls 200 square 
miles. It is named 250 times in the 
Bible. Babylon rose to great glory under 
Nabuchodonosor. Thither the Jews were 
carried into captivity. Cyrus captured it 
(Dan. v.), as did also, later, Alexander the 
Great, who died there. Its overthrow was 
frequently foretold (Is. xiii, 4-22; Jer. 
xxv. 12; Hab. i. 5-10). 

Babylonian Captivity. See CAPTIVITY. 

Bacon or Baconthorp (JOHN). English 
monk and theologian, born at Baconthorp, 
in the province of Norfolk, England, died 
at London about 1346. Provincial of the 
Carmelities. They surnamed him the 
" Resolute Doctor " on account of the great 
facility with which he answered the pro 
posed questions. He is the author of a Com 
mentary on the Master of Sentences, 

Bacon (ROGER) . Born at or near Ilches- 
ter, Somersetshire, about 1214; died, prob 
ably at Oxford, in 1294. A celebrated 
English philosopher. He was educated at 
Oxford and Paris, and joined the Francis 
can Order. In 1227 he was sent by his su 
periors to Paris, where he was kept in close 
confinement for several years. About 1265 
he was invited by Pope Clement IV. to 
write a general treatise on the sciences, in 
answer to which he composed his chief 
work, the Opus Majus. In 1278 his 
writings were condemned as heretical by a 
Council of his Order, in consequence of 
which he was again placed in confinement. 
He was set at liberty in 1292. Besides the 
Opus Majus, his most notable works 
are Opus Minus, Opus Tertium, and 
Compendium Philosophice. 

Baden ( Worship in). See GERMANY. 

Baius (MICHAEL) (1513-1689). Doctor 
and professor of theology at Louvain. 
Misinterpreting the doctrine of St. Augus 
tine, he advanced new opinions on original 
justice, grace, and freedom of will. His 
lectures on these subjects excited much 
opposition among his academic colleagues, 
especially among the Franciscans. The 
principal errors couched in the doctrine of 
Baius are, that original justice is an in 
tegral part of human nature, and not a free 
gift of God; that fallen man, being utterly 
depraved in his nature, is incapable of do 
ing good ; that all actions of man in the 



natural order are sinful; and that divine 
grace constrains man to be and to do good. 
In 1567 Pope Pius V. condemned seventy- 
six propositions, representing the teaching 
of Baius, as erroneous and heretical, which 
sentence Gregory XIII. renewed in 1579. 
Baius submitted to the papal decision. 
His tenets, which are hardly distinguish 
able from those of Calvin, took root and 
passed from his disciples to Jansenism in 
the next century. See JANSENISM. 

Balaam. Prophet or diviner of the city 
of Pethora,on the Euphrates. Balak, king 
of Moab, having seen the hosts of Israel, 
and fearing they would attack his country, 
sent for Balaam to come and curse them. 
His messengers having declared their 
errand, Balaam, during the night, con 
sulted God, who forbade his going. Balak 
afterward sent others, whom Balaam 
finally accompanied, contrary to the will 
of God, who sent an angel to stop him on 
the way. Here occurred the miracle of 
Balaam s ass. But instead of cursing he 
blessed the children of Israel. See Num. 
xxii. Balaam and Balak were killed in 
the year 1461 B. c. | 

Baldachin. A canopy of various kinds : 
i. A portable decorative covering, borne 
in ceremonial processions, as a sign of 
rank or dignity; particularly, the dais-like 
canopy carried over the Pope, which is 
supported on eight poles and carried by 
distinguished personages. 2. A portable 
canopy borne over the Blessed Eucharist, 
carried processionally, as on the feast of 
Corpus Christi. 3. A stationary covering, 
of baudekin, silk, or other rich material, 
stretched above the seat of a dignitary. 
4. A fixed canopy, often of metal or stone, 
above the isolated high altar, in many 
churches, especially in Italy and the East. 
From its center, according to the old 
ritual, usually hung by a chain the vessel 
containing the Sacred Host; but this usage 
has been superseded. 

Ballerini (ANTHONY) (1803-1881). Ital 
ian theologian, born at Bologna, entered 
the Society of Jesus in 1826, and was suc 
cessively professor of philosophy at Feren- 
tino, of Church History at Rome and at 
Fermo. He occupied the chair of moral 
theology at the Gregorian University of 
Rome when he died. He published the 
Compendium Theolog-itz Moralis, of R. P. 
Gury, and Tractatus de Justitia et Jure ; 
Tractatus d Actibus Humanis ; Sylloge 



BALLERINI 



84 



BALTIMORE 



Monumentorum adMysterium Conceptionis 
Immaculatce Virginis Deiparce; Juris 
Officium Episcoporum in fercndo suffragio 
fro Infallibilitate, Romani Pontificis, etc. 

Ballerini (JEROME) (1720-1770). Priest 
and theologian, brother of the following, 
born at Verona. His knowledge of eccle 
siastical history was very extensive. He 
was the fellow-laborer of his brother in 
his various works, and he himself pub 
lished a complete edition of the Works of 
Cardinal Noris, with notes and disserta 
tions. 

Ballerini (PETER) (1698-1764). Italian 
theologian and canonist, born at Verona; 
priest and savant, published an excellent 
edition of the works of St. Leo the Great; 
of the Theological Summa, of St. Anthony, 
and of Raymond of Pennafort. More 
over, we have from him a small treatise 
entitled : " Methods of Studying, Drawn 
from the Works of St. Augustine" (1724), 
a work which became one of the causes 
of the quarrel of Probabilism. 

Balmes ( JAIME LUCIANO). Born at 
Vich, in Catalonia, 1810; died there, 1848. 
A Spanish publicist and philosophical 
writer. He founded a journal "77 Pensa- 
miento de la Nation," to defend religion 
and monarchy. But Balmes especially 
owes his great fame to his Protestantism 
and Catholicity Compared in their Effects 
on the Civilization of Europe, a work 
translated into English. Other works of 
his in English are : Fundamental Philos 
ophy ; The Foundations of Religion Ex 
plained ; Letters to a Skeptic, on Religion. 

Balsam. An oily, aromatic, resinous 
substance, exuding spontaneously from 
trees of the genus Balsamodcndron. The 
balsam from the tree of the species opo- 
balsamum was anciently plentiful in Judea, 
and particularly in Galaad, hence called 
the "Balsam of Galaad" (Jer. xlvi. 11). 
It was considered very valuable as a cure 
for external wounds. In our days, it is 
collected chiefly in Arabia, between Mecca 
and Medina. Its odor is exquisitely fra 
grant and pungent. It is very costly, and 
it is still in the highest esteem among the 
Turks and other Oriental nations, both as 
a medicine and as a cosmetic. The bal 
sam used in the Catholic Church in the 
confection of chrism is, by the rubrics, that 
of Syria or Mecca; but from difficulty in 
obtaining this, concessions have been made 



by the Popes for the use of balsam of 
Brazil, Tolu, Peru, etc. 

Balthasar. Son of the last Chaldean 
king of Babylon, Nebu-Nehid or Nabon- 
idus. Intrenched by his father in Babylon, 
when besieged by Cyrus, he trusted in the 
strength of the place, and spent the time 
in debaucheries. The Bible relates (Dan. 
v.) that at a great festival he profaned the 
sacred vessels of the temple of Jerusalem. 
The same night Cyrus took Babylon and 
put an end to the Chaldean empire, which 
had lasted 200 years. 

Baltimore Councils. Three plenary 
councils were held in the city of Balti 
more, Maryland. The First was held in 
1852. Thirty-two archbishops and bishops 
took part in its deliberations. The decrees 
of this Council related chiefly to ecclesi 
astical discipline, the school question, and 
other important matters, and proposed the 
creation of eight new sees. Bishop Fr. P. 
Kenrick, Archbishop of Baltimore, pre 
sided over the First Plenary Council. 
The Second took place in 1866. It had 
been convened by Archbishop Spalding, 
as Apostolic Delegate, and was attended 
by seven archbishops and thirty-eight 
bishops. One of the decrees of the Coun 
cil recommended to the Holy See the 
erection of fifteen new episcopal sees. 
The Third took place in the year 1884. 
No such gathering had been witnessed in 
the history of the American Church. 
Among its attendants were fourteen arch 
bishops, sixty bishops, five visiting bishops 
from Canada and Japan, one prefect apos 
tolic, and seven mitred abbots. The ap 
pointed task of the Council was to promote 
uniformity of discipline, and provide for 
the exigencies and a closer organization 
of the Church of America. 

Baltimore (LORD), or Sir Cecil Calvert 
(1613-1676). An English Catholic noble 
man, known as Lord Baltimore. Having 
obtained from Charles I. a charter for the 
settlement of Maryland, in 1634, sent out 
his brother, Leonard Calvert, and two 
hundred English emigrants, chiefly Cath 
olics, to establish a colony in his new pos 
session. The new settlement, to which 
the name of St. Mary s was given, began 
with Catholics and Protestants living to 
gether in peace, neither interfering with 
the religious rights of the other. Thus 
"religious liberty," says Bancroft, "ob 
tained a home, its only home in the wide 



BANNER 



BAPTISM 



world, in the humble village which bore 
the name of St. Mary s." To insure the 
continuance of peace and mutual confi 
dence among the colonists, the Assembly 
of Maryland, at the instance of Lord Balti 
more, in 1649, passed the famous Act con 
cerning- Religion, which provided that no 
person believing in Jesus Christ should be 
molested in respect to their religion, or 
the exercise thereof, or be compelled to 
adopt the belief of any other religion, 
against their consent. 

Banner. See STANDARD. 

Banns of Marriage. Proclamations 
which are solemnly made in the Church, 
in order to make known an intended mar 
riage, so that those who know of any im 
pediment, may state it to the proper 
authorities. Banns were made a part of 
ecclesiastical legislation by the Fourth 
Council of the Lateran, in 1215, whose 
decrees were confirmed by the Council of 
Trent. In the Catholic Church the cele 
bration of marriage, without previous proc 
lamation of the banns, is, unless by 
special dispensation, gravely illicit, but not 
invalid. The proclamations of the banns 
are made by the parish priest of the con 
tracting parties, on three consecutive Sun 
days at high Mass. 

Baptism. Baptism is the first of the 
sacraments, because without it we can re 
ceive no other sacrament; and if we were 
to participate in any other sacrament, it 
would be void ; and we, knowingly and wil 
fully unbaptized, would commit a sacrilege. 
God might accord persons so acting sancti 
fying grace, but it would not be conferred 
through the bestowal of the sacrament. 

The word "baptism" is a Greek word 
which signifies ablution or immersion. 
This was the manner of baptizing in 
the primitive Church, symbolizing puri 
fication, and expressive of the spiritual 
effect of this sacrament. Although St. 
John baptized, his baptism was but the 
figure of the real baptism, the sign of 
heartfelt penitence, in preparation for re 
ceiving the grace of the remission of sins ; 
but it neither contained nor conferred that 
grace. 

According to some theologians, our 
Lord instituted the sacrament of baptism 
on receiving from St. John the figurative 
baptism. In the opinion of others, it was 
after the resurrection of our Saviour, when 
He said to His Apostles: "Teach ye all 
nations, baptizing them in the name of the 



Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy 
Ghost" (Matt, xxviii. 19). 

In the sacrament of baptism, instituted 
by our Lord Jesus Christ, He effaces the 
stain of original sin, and communicates to 
our souls the supernatural life of sanctify 
ing or habitual grace, rendering us Chris 
tians, children of God, members of His 
Church, and inheritors of the kingdom of 
heaven. Baptism imprints an ineffaceable 
character on the soul, as St. Paul explains 
by saying : " Grieve not the Holy Spirit of 
God, whereby you are sealed unto the day 
of redemption" (Eph. iv. 30). In adults, 
having the necessary dispositions, the 
grace conferred by the sacrament of bap 
tism effaces actual sin as well as original 
sin, and remits the temporal punishment 
due to sin. St. Paul affirms this in ex 
horting sinners to contrition and baptism, 
in these words : " Be penitent, therefore, 
and be converted, that your sins may be 
blotted out" (Acts. iii. 19). " Do penance 
and be baptized, every one of you, in the 
name of Jesus Christ, for the remission of 
your sins ; and you shall receive the gift of 
the Holy Ghost" (Acts ii. 38). To those 
who sin after baptism, but who do not die 
in mortal sin, there remains expiation of 
purgation in this world, or of purgatory 
in the next, for there is " no condemnation 
to them that are in Christ Jesus, who walk 
not according to the flesh " (Rom. viii. i). 
Those who die undefiled by any kind of 
sin, are numbered among the just, and 
immediately enter heaven. By baptism 
we are made Christians, for those who 
" have been baptized in Christ have put 
on Christ" (Gal. iii. 27). We are " chil 
dren of God by faith in Jesus Christ" 
(Gal. iii. 26) ; and members of His Church, 
having entered by baptism, that great re 
ligious society established by our Lord, 
and being designated in Scripture as " Be 
lieving " (i Cor. vii. 14). We are inheri 
tors of the kingdom of heaven, " for the 
Spirit Himself giveth testimony to our 
spirit, that we are the sons of God. And 
if sons, heirs also; heirs indeed of God, 
and joint heirs of Christ; yet so, if we 
suffer with Him" (Rom. viii. 17). Al 
though baptism blots out the stain of sin, 
it does not absolve us from the temporal 
consequences of original sin, but leaves us 
ever subject to suffering, ignorance, con 
cupiscence, and death. This is in order to 
prove our virtue and steadfastness toward 
God, to afford us opportunities of expiat 
ing our own faults by resistance to tempta- 



BAPTISM 



86 



BAPTISM 



tion, and by patience and forbearance, 
thereby giving us occasion for increasing 
sanctifying grace in our souls, and of 
gaining new merits wherewith to add to 
our heavenly glory and happiness. 

In cases of necessity, when ecclesiastical 
administration of the sacrament of bap 
tism cannot be procured, any person of 
either sex, of any age or religion, may 
baptize. Indeed, it is obligatory to bap 
tize, when an unbaptized child or adult is 
in danger of death, and no priest is at 
hand ; but otherwise it is not permissible 
under pain of sin. In any case, the cere 
monies must, as soon as convenient, be 
supplied by a priest, and the baptism 
itself must be renewed, conditionally, if 
there be any doubt as to its having been 
validly administered. 

To baptize validly, water must be poured 
on the forehead, while the person baptiz 
ing says at the same time, with the in 
tention of carrying out the precept of the 
Church : " I baptize thee in the name of 
the Father, and of the Son, and of the 
Holy Ghost." In conferring this sacra 
ment, great care should be taken, while 
pronouncing these words, that the water 
should be poured on the forehead three 
times, forming the sign of the cross at each 
pouring to bring more clearly to mind 
the sacrifice of our Saviour, the source 
of baptismal grace, and the Holy Trinity. 
If there be any doubt as to whether the 
person has been already baptized, and 
dangerous illness does not afford time to 
make proper inquiries, the baptism must 
be made "conditional," by the person who 
administers it, saying: "If thou art not 
baptized, I baptize thee," etc. In the same 
manner, if there be doubt as to whether 
the person be still alive, the words should 
be in a conditional form : " If thou art 
living, I baptize thee," etc. 

Baptism is absolutely necessary for sal 
vation, for our Lord said : "Unless a man 
be born again of water and the Holy 
Ghost, he cannot enter into the kingdom 
of God" (John iii. 5). "He that believeth 
and is baptized, shall be saved; but he 
that believeth not shall be condemned" 
(Mark xvi. 16). 

But when the baptism of water cannot 
possibly be effected, it may be supplied by 
the baptism of desire : " For whosoever 
shall call upon the name of the Lord shall 
be saved" (Rom. x. 13). This, however, 
neither gives the character of the true 
baptism, nor the right of participating in 



the other sacraments of the Church; and 
will remit temporal punishment due to 
sin only when the desire and devotion are 
sufficiently ardent. The baptism of de 
sire is the perfect love of God, with the 
strong resolve of obedience to all that God 
has commanded, including the desire of 
baptism. But after the passing away of 
the circumstances that have called forth 
the desire, baptism must voluntarily be 
sought for on the first available oppor 
tunity, and be administered according to 
the rites of the Church; otherwise, by the 
clear evidence of the desire having ceased 
to exist, a grievous sin is committed. 

The baptism of water may also be sup 
plied by the baptism of blood, or martyr 
dom ; which, properly speaking, is death 
endured in the name of our Lord, to pre 
serve faith, chastity, or some other Chris 
tian virtue. This baptism of blood, in 
which man manifests the greatest proof of 
love for the Creator, remits all punish 
ment due to sin, as in ordinary baptism. 
This is distinctly so explained in the sense 
of the words of Christ: "He that shall 
lose his life for my sake, shall save it" 
(Luke ix. 24). But if the martyrdom is a 
torture that does not result in death, bap 
tism of water must be administered as 
soon as procurable, as in the case of bap 
tism of desire, to ratify and increase the 
gifts received. 

No avoidable delay is admissible in the 
baptism of a child ; and parents are greatly 
and sometimes grievously at fault in thus 
exposing a soul to exclusion from heaven, 
for it is written : " There shall not enter 
into it anything defiled" (Apoc. xxi. 27). 
It is, therefore, according to faith, that 
every child, though of itself sinless, so far 
as actual sin is concerned, is deprived, if 
dying unbaptized, of the sight of God and 
glory of heaven. In the opinion of some 
theologians, they are taken to the place 
called Limbo, where the souls of the just 
went, who died before our Saviour s com 
ing on earth. It is evident, that by the 
justice of God, these children enjov a 
greater degree of happiness, though how 
far their exclusion from heaven is realized 
by them, to the tempering of that happi 
ness, is unknown. Probably not at all. 

For the baptism of children who have 
not attained the age of reason, or of adults 
who have always been deprived of that 
faculty, or who have lost the use of it be 
fore being baptized, any disposition for 
the reception of the sacrament is neces- 



BAPTISM 



BAPTISM 



sarily dispensed with, because they are in 
capable of judging for themselves on such 
matters, and consequently cannot oppose 
the grace of God working in the sacra 
ment. For the baptism of adults in pos 
session of reason, their full consent is 
indispensable to its validity. They should 
also have sufficient knowledge of the prin 
cipal truths of religion, and adequate con 
victions of faith, hope, love of God, and 
sincere repentance of sin, at least from the 
motive of attrition. With consent, but 
without the necessary dispositions, bap 
tism would be valid, but would not efface 
the stain of original and actual sin, nor give 
sanctifying grace to the soul until such 
time as the requisite knowledge and fitting 
dispositions should drive away all obstacles 
to the full reception of sanctifying grace. 

The promises, solemn, sacred, and irrev 
ocable, exacted by the Church from the 
catechumen, or from the godfather or god 
mother in the name of the infant to be 
baptized, are the renouncing of Satan, his 
pomps and his works. That is to say, the 
embracing the law of our Saviour, and de 
claring adherence henceforth to God and 
His holy will; and the rejecting the vani 
ties of the world, over-indulgence in out 
ward show, and flattering deceptions of 
pride, which can be of little avail in this 
life, and are compromising to the interests 
of our eternal happiness. Further, the 
repudiation of the wicked and false maxims 
of the world, including all that selfish 
love of luxuries and all those worldly dis 
positions so totally opposed to the doc 
trines and examples of our Lord. It is 
important for parents or godparents to ex 
plain to children, as soon as they are ca 
pable of understanding them, the value and 
consequences of the promises that have 
been made in their name, the grace that 
has been accorded to them by God, the 
privileges with which they have been en 
dowed in having been made members of 
the Holy Catholic Church, and the neces 
sity of their remembering in whose ser 
vice they are to pass their lives. They 
should teach children to celebrate worthily 
the anniversary of that day on which they re 
ceived the life of sanctifying grace through 
the sacrament of baptism; instructing 
them to ask pardon, with all sincerity of 
heart, for sins meanwhile committed, and 
to renew, with ardent fervor, the solemn 
pledges given in baptism, praying for the 
help of divine grace in carrying out their 
resolutions. 



For the solemn administration of the 
sacrament of baptism, the godfather or 
godmother may, if necessary, be repre 
sented by someone else, who, however, 
contracts none of the obligations of the 
godparents. The Church exacts that 
every child to be baptized should have a 
sponsor to act in its name in making the 
required promises, and to see to the due 
carrying out: of the same by the child who 
receives this sacrament. Godparents 
must at least have attained the age of dis 
cretion, and be in full possession of the use 
of reason. They must be Catholics, be 
cause the Church admits none but her 
followers to assume this position. They 
must be of good faith and morals, and 
adequately versed in the knowledge of our 
holy religion, that their teaching may be 
pure, and their instruction sufficient for 
those intrusted to their spiritual direction. 
Of course, neither the father nor the 
mother of the child to be baptized can act 
as sponsor. According to the laws of the 
Church, the godparent contracts a spirit 
ual affinity with the child, which prevents 
the sponsor s marriage with the child or 
with its mother or father, in case of the 
death of either. This spiritual alliance, 
however, is only formed in the solemn ad 
ministration of the sacrament of baptism, 
and not in connection with ceremonies of 
the Church performed for a baptism that 
has already been conferred without the 
ceremonies prescribed. 

The duty of godparents is to love their 
godchildren in a spiritual manner, to 
teach them, or have them taught, in de 
fault of their natural parents, the prin 
ciples of the Christian faith, and to remind 
them of the serious and sacred promises 
and obligations contracted on their behalf 
before Holy Church. The duty of god 
children is to respect and to love, in a 
spiritual manner, their godparents, and to 
receive, with gentleness and grateful 
recognition, their good counsel and char 
itable corrections. 

The custom of giving the children to be 
baptized one or several names of saints of 
the Old or New Testaments, in order that 
they may be especially protected by them, 
is very ancient, especially in several 
Churches of the West. The ritual makes 
it an obligation upon the priest not to 
impose upon the children profane bap 
tismal names, or such as have a ridicu 
lous meaning, or are contrary to decency. 
See CATECHUMENATE. 



BAPTISM 



88 



BAPTISM 



Baptism (Ceremonies of). The person 
to be baptized waits at the entrance of the 
Church, to indicate that until he has thrown 
off the yoke of sin, and submitted to Christ 
and His authority, he is unworthy to enter, 
because baptism is the portal to God s 
grace, to the kingdom of heaven, and to 
the communion of saints. The person to 
be baptized receives a saint s name; that 
by this name he may be enrolled, thro-ugh 
baptism, among the number of Christians 
whom St. Paul calls saints ; that he may 
have a patron and intercessor, and that the 
saint whose name he bears may be his 
model and example, according to which 
he may order his own life. The priest 
breathes in the face of the one to be bap 
tized, in imitation of Christ who breathed 
on His Apostles when He gave them the 
Holy Ghost (John xx. 22). The priest im 
poses his hand upon the head of the person 
to be baptized, to signify that he is now the 
property of God and is under His protec 
tion. The numerous exorcisms signify that 
the evil spirit, which, previous to baptism, 
holds the unbaptized in bondage, is now 
commanded in the name of God to depart 
that a dwelling place may be prepared for 
the Holy Ghost. The one to be baptized 
is often signed with the sign of the cross, 
to signify that through the power of 
Christ s merits and of His death on the 
Cross, baptism washes away original sin; 
that he is henceforth to be a follower of 
Christ the Crucified, and as such must 
fight valiantly under the banner of the 
Cross against the enemies of salvation, 
and must follow Christ on the way of the 
Cross, even unto death. The salt which is 
put into his mouth, is an emblem of 
Christian wisdom and of preservation 
from the corruption of sin. Then the ears 
and nostrils are touched with spittle, to sig 
nify that as Christ put spittle on the eyes 
of the man born blind, thus restoring his 
sight, so by baptism the spiritual blind 
ness of the soul is removed, and the mind 
receives light to behold heavenly wisdom. 
The priest asks the question: "Dost thou 
renounce the devil, and all his works, and 
all his pomps?" in order that the Chris 
tian may know that his vocation requires 
him to renounce and combat the devil, his 
works, suggestions, and pomps. The per 
son is anointed on the shoulders and 
breast with holy oil, in order to strengthen 
him to fight bravely for Christ. As the 
combatants of old anointed themselves with 
oil before they entered the arena, so is 



he anointed on the breast, that he may 
gain courage and force, bravely to com 
bat the world, the flesh, and the devil ; 
and on the shoulder that he may be strong 
to bear constantly and untiringly the yoke 
of Christ s commands, and pursue the toil 
some course of life in unwavering fidelity 
to God and His holy law. The Lord s 
Prayer and the Apostles Creed are said 
at baptism, in order that, when the child 
is a grown person an acknowledgment 
of faith may by this means be made in 
the face of the Church. When children 
are baptized, these prayers are said by the 
sponsors who are thus admonished to see 
that their godchildren are well instructed 
in these as in all other Christian truths. 
The priest expressly asks the person if he 
will be baptized, because as man, through 
Adam, of his own free will obeyed the 
devil, so now when he would be received 
among the number of Christ s children, 
he must, to obtain salvation, of his own free 
will obey the precepts of God. Water is 
poured three times upon the head, in token 
that man after this thrice-repeated ablution 
rises from the death of sin, as Christ, 
after His three days burial, rose from the 
dead (Rom. vi. 4, 5). In early times the 
candidate for baptism was immersed three 
times in the water. For divers reasons 
this custom has been abolished. The per 
son is anointed on the head with chrism, 
because this anointing is, so to speak, the 
crown of the young Christian. As in the 
Old Law the kings were anointed (I. Ki. 
x. i), as Jesus is the anointed One, and as 
the Apostle St. Peter calls the Christians 
a chosen race, a kingly priesthood, a holy 
people (I. Pet. ii. 9), so the baptized by 
means of this unction is embodied in 
Christ, the anointed One, and participates 
in His priesthood and kingly dignity. 
The white robe represents the glory to 
which by baptism we are born again; the 
purity and beauty with which the soul, 
having been washed from sin in the sacra 
ment of baptism, is adorned, and the inno 
cence which the baptized should preserve 
through his whole life. The lighted can 
dle placed in his hand, is an emblem of 
the Christian doctrine which preserves the 
baptized from error, ignorance, and sin, 
illumines his understanding, and leads 
him safely in the way of virtue; it repre 
sents the flame of love for God and our 
neighbor which the baptized should hence 
forth continually carry, like the five pru 
dent virgins (Matt. xxv. 13) on the path to 



BAPTISTERY 



89 



BAPTISTS 



meet the Lord, that when his life is ended 
he may be admitted to the eternal wedding 
feast. It signifies also the light of good 
example which he should keep ever burn 
ing- 
Baptistery (a place for baptizing.) The 
baptisteries, in the first centuries of the 
Church, were usually buildings of a cir 
cular form, apart from the Church, and 
sometimes so spacious that large assem 
blies might be held in them. The faith of 
our forefathers was attentive to every 
thing that could add to the embellishment 
of these places, in which the great mystery 
of regeneration was accomplished. The 
purest gold and the most exquisite marble 
shone on all sides. But nothing can give 
us a better idea of the magnificence of 
early baptisteries, than the description of 
that of St. John Lateran, at Rome, built 
by the Emperor Constantine. It was a 
magnificent square hall, with walls of 
marble and porphyry. In the center was 
to be seen a basin of porphyry, adorned 
with silver, in which the baptismal waters 
were preserved ; from the middle of the 
basin rose a column of porphyry, sup 
porting a golden vase of fifty pounds 
weight, which contained the holy chrism 
for the unctions of the newly baptized. 
On one side of the basin were steps to de 
scend into it. At the two extremities were 
silver statues, one of our Lord, the other 
of St. John the Baptist, each weighing a 
hundred and seventy pounds. Around the 
sides of the basin were seven large silver 
hearts, emblems of souls that pant after 
the salutary fountains; each of them 
weighed eighty pounds and jetted water 
into the basin. In the center of every 
baptistery was the font. (See FONT.) 

Baptistines (religious). The hermits 
of St. John the Baptist, or Baptistines, 
were founded by Mary Antonia, called 
later Mary Battista Solimani, born at Al- 
baro, near Genoa, in 1688. In 1730, at 
Moneglia, Battista commenced with some 
virgins a congregation of very austere life ; 
established at Genoa in 1736 a similar 
society, and in 1742 went to Rome, where 
Pope Benedict XIV. approved the rules 
which she had drawn up (January, 1744). 
Having returned to Genoa and occupied 
with the foundation of a new convent, 
Mary received, with twelve companions, 
the habit from the hands of the archbishop 
and became the first Abbess of the Institute. 
She died in the odor of sanctity April 8th, 



1758. These religious make a novitiate of 
eighteen months, observe a rigorous fast, 
never use any flesh-meat, and say the 
office in choir during the night. There was 
also a community of male members called 
Baptistines, which was suppressed during 
the French Revolution. 

Baptists. Members of a Protestant de 
nomination. The Baptists appeared in 
history at the beginning of the seventeenth 
century. They condemned baptism by 
sprinkling as an innovation. They baptize 
by immersion, and administer the sacra 
ment only to adults. They reject the 
communion with the Christians of other 
Churches, who, according to them, are not 
Christians, because the baptism they re 
ceived before they were grown up is null 
and void. The religious affairs are treated 
in assemblies, where all the Faithful, men 
and women, have a deliberative voice. In 
the United States the Baptists owe their 
origin to Roger Williams, and his settle 
ment at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1639. 
To Mark Lucar, an immigrant in 1644 
from England, is attributed the introduc 
tion of immersion as the characteristic 
rite of this denomination. He was a " Par 
ticular Baptist," as those religionists were 
called who held to the high Calvinistic 
doctrine of an atonement particularly for 
the elect. It is from these "Particular 
Baptists" that the many different denomi 
nations of Baptists developed, brief men 
tion of which is made below. The first 
division took place in 1652, in Providence, 
when Chad Brown established a congrega 
tion of "General Baptists"; the term 
"General" implying adherence to the 
doctrine of a general atonement for the 
sins of mankind. These General Baptists 
were largely tinctured with Arminianism, 
if not wholly adherent to that body of. 
theology. " Freewill Baptists," who are 
Arminian in theology and open commu 
nists in practice ; and " German Baptists," 
popularly called " Dunkers " (see this 
subject), "Old School Baptists," sometimes 
called "Anti-Mission" or "Hard-Shell 
Baptists," from their extreme Calvinism, 
which leads them to oppose all active 
measures for the conversion of the world 
(a sect numbering 40,000) ; " Seventh-Day 
Baptists " who keep the seventh day instead 
of the first, as the Sabbath; "Sixth-Prin 
ciple Baptists," so called from the six 
principles which constitute their creed; 
"Disciples of Christ," also called "Chris- 



BARAC 



90 



BARNABITES 



tians " or " Campbellites." See DISCI 
PLES, WlNEBRENNARIANS, WlXEBREN- 

NER, CHRISTIANS, or the CHRISTIAN 
CONNECTION, an American sect of Unita 
rian Baptists which arose about the begin 
ning of the present century. The Baptists 
of the world numbered, in 1895, ^1,^7,07^, 
and had 46,520 Churches, and 32,447 min 
isters. The greatest number of Baptists 
are in North America, where they enu 
merate : 41,227 Churches, 28,475 ministers, 
and 3,856,584 members. See ANABAPTISTS. 

Barac. Fourth Judge of Israel (1396- 
1356 B. c.) ; with the help of the prophetess 
Debbora, he delivered the Hebrews from 
the bondage of the Chanaanites, in attack 
ing and routing the army of King Jabin, 
which was under the command of his 
general, Sisara. 

Barabbas. A Jew condemned for theft, 
murder, and revolt, who was preferred to 
Jesus Christ when Pilate proposed to the 
people to deliver a prisoner at the occasion 
of the feast of the Pasch. 

Baraga (FREDERICK). Austrian Cath 
olic missionary (1797-1868). Bishop of 
Marquette, Michigan, in 1853. He com 
piled a Grammar and a Dictionary of the 
Chippewa language (Detroit, 1849 and 
1853) ; and wrote a History of the Indians 
of North America. 

Barbara (ST.). Virgin and martyr of 
the third century ; daughter of Dioscorus, 
ardent defender of paganism, who, being 
unable to make his daughter abandon the 
faith in Jesus Chrjst, became himself her 
executioner, by beheading her, at Nico- 
media, about 240. F. Dec. 4th. 

Bar-Cochebas (Aram, son of the star}. 
A Hebrew whose real name was Simeon 
from the town of Coziba. The heroic 
leader of the Jewish insurrection against 
the Romans (122-135 A. D.). He was be 
lieved by many Jews to be the Messias, 
was proclaimed king, and maintained his 
cause against Hadrian for two years, but 
was overthrown amid the slaughter of 
over half a million Jews, and the destruc 
tion of 985 villages and 50 fortresses. Jeru 
salem was destroyed and yElia Capitolina 
founded on its ruins. After this failure 
his name was interpreted " son of lies." 

Bardesanes. Syrian philosopher, born 
about A. D. 154; we find him at Edessa 
in 174. He was a man of great learning. 
A convert from Valentinian Gnosticism, 



he soon relapsed into Gnostic heresies, 
and became himself the founder of a num 
erous sect. He and his son Harmonius 
were noted composers of beautiful hymns. 
He is said to have held the following 
Gnostic theories: "Satan cannot be said 
to have derived his origin from God," 
and " Our body being the prison of the 
soul, can never rise again." He held that 
Christ was clothed with a celestial and im 
material body, and that He taught man to 
subdue the sensual passions, and enjoined 
fasting, abstinence, and contemplation, as 
a means of shaking off the fetters of evil 
matter; that thus freed from grosser bonds, 
the body might return to heaven after the 
death of the flesh, as an ethereal substance, 
etc. The poetic beauty of his hymns drew 
to his side so many followers; and so great 
was their influence among the people that, 
in the fourth century, Ephrem of Syria 
was obliged to compose others of an or 
thodox nature to counteract it. 

Barnabas (ST.). Follower of Christ 
and one of the seventy-two disciples. Ctf 
his apostolic labors, beyond what is con 
tained in the Acts of the Apostles, nothing 
certain is known. He accompanied St. 
Paul on his first missionary journey to 
Cyprus and Asia Minor (45-48.) In the 
year 53, Barnabas and Paul proposed 
another missionary expedition. Barnabas 
wished to take with him his nephew John, 
surnamed Mark, to which Paul objected. 
The two Apostles thereupon parted, and 
Barnabas taking Mark with him, sailed to 
Cyprus, his native land. Here the Acts 
say nothing further about him. His life 
is reported to have been ended by martyr 
dom, between 55 and 57. A letter which 
Origen calls "Catholic Epistle," has been 
handed down under the name of St. Barna 
bas, and to him it is ascribed by the most 
eminent Christian writers of the first 
centuries. F. June nth. 

Barnabites. Religious of the Clerks 
Regular of St. Paul. This Congregation 
was founded at Milan, about the beginning 
of the sixteenth century, by St. Zaccaria, 
priest of Cremona (died 1539), together 
with two priests of Milan. By a bull of 
Feb. i8th, 1533, Pope Clement VII. author 
ized them to follow particular rules. Their 
constitutions were approved, Nov. 7th, 
I 5 f 79^ by Gregory XIII. The Barnabites 
were austere preachers of penance, who, 
at the same time, took charge of semina 
ries for the priesthood. 



BARONIUS 



BARTOLOMITES 



Baronius(C^ESAR)( 1538-1607). Ecclesi 
astical historian, born at Sora, Campania; 
died at Rome. Pope Clement VIII. named 
him pronotary apostolic, cardinal, and 
librarian in the Vatican. He rendered great 
services by his Church History, but his chief 
work is his Annales Ecclesiastici a Christo 
Natum ad Annum (1198), which appeared 
in Rome in 12 volumes, from 1588 to 1593. 
It is a reply to the Protestant Magdeburg 
Centuries, a history of the Church written 
in an intensely Protestant and hostile 
spirit. 

Barsabas (JOSEPH) (surnamed "the 
Just "). Disciple of Christ, was presented 
together with Matthias to replace Judas 
Iscariot; the lot designated Matthias. We 
do not know any particulars either of his 
life or death. 

Barsabas. Surname of Jude, a disciple 
of Christ, who was chosen to accompany 
Paul and Barnabas to Antioch. 

Barsanians. Heretics of the sixth cen 
tury. Their doctrine was a mixture of the 
errors of the Guianites and Theodosians. 
They celebrated the Eucharist by dipping 
the finger into fine wheaten flour, and then 
putting it into the mouth. Their name 
was derived from their bishop, Barsanes, 
whose consecration was hotly contested. 

Bartholomew s Day (or Massacre of St.). 
In order to cement the peace of St. Ger- 
main-en-Laye (1569), which put an end to 
the third civil war in France, a marriage 
was concluded between the young king of 
Navarre (Henry IV.) and Margaret, the 
sister of Charles IX. The Huguenot 
chiefs who had gone to Paris to assist at 
the wedding, availed themselves of the oc 
casion, and on August 23d, concerted a 
plan for murdering the whole royal family 
and proclaiming Henry of Navarre king 
of France. To anticipate the bloody and 
traitorous designs of the conspirators, 
Catherine de Medici, who was as unscru 
pulous as she was adroit in the management 
of affairs, persuaded her son, the king, to 
command the horrible Massacre of St. 
Bartholomew. Coligny and his chief coun 
selors were slain. The populace joined in 
the work of blood, and not only Paris, but 
several of the provincial towns that suf 
fered most from the Huguenots, now took 
a fearful reckoning. When the tidings of 
the tragic event reached the Papal court, 
Gregory XIII., the then reigning Pontiff, 
congratulated King Charles IX., on his 



escape from the plot against his life, and a 
service was held in thanksgiving for the 
preservation of the royal family, because 
the deed had been represented to the Pope, 
as to the other sovereigns, as a necessary 
act of self-defense against the machina 
tions of Coligny and the Huguenots. But 
when he afterwards learned the true state 
of affairs, Gregory expressed his horror at 
the deed, even with tears. All Europe ab 
horred the terrible slaughter, the German 
Lutherans excepted, who regarded the 
massaacre as a just punishment of God upon 
the Huguenots. The number of victims 
in the cruel massacre cannot be ascertained 
with accuracy ; but it has been much ex 
aggerated by hostile writers. The most 
reliable account, corroborated by docu 
mentary evidences, estimates the number, 
for all France, at less than two thousand. 
According to an old record of Paris, the 
gravediggers of that city at the time 
buried eleven hundred bodies. Foxe, the 
martyrologist, in his Acts and Monuments, 
commonly known as the Book of Martvrs, 
gives the names of 786 who perished in the 
inhuman slaughter. This bloody tragedy 
was but a political scheme, and had noth 
ing whatever to do with religious interests. 

Bartholomew (ST.). One of the twelve 
Apostles. He is generally supposed to be 
identical with Nathanael ; carried the Gos 
pel into India, / . e., Arabia Felix or 
modern Yemen. A century later, traces 
of Christianity were found in those coun 
tries by Pantsenus of Alexandria, who also 
discovered a copy of St. Matthew s Gospel 
in Hebrew which had been left there by 
St. Bartholomew. Armenian writers in 
form us that he afterwards traversed Persia, 
Babylonia, Mesopotamia, Syria, and Asia 
Minor. Thence he passed into Greater 
Armenia, and there, after making numer 
ous conversions, suffered a cruel martyr 
dom at Albanopolis. By order of King 
Astyages, whose predecessor and brother, 
Polymius, had been converted by him, the 
Apostle was flayed alive and beheaded. 
F. Aug. 24th. 

Bartholomites. i. Members of the com 
munity of Basilian monks of the Armenian 
rite who took refuge in the West and were 
assigned the Church of St. Bartholomew, 
in Genoa, in 1307. The community was 
finally suppressed in 1650. 2. Members of 
a congregation of secular priests following 
a rule drawn up by Bartholomew Holz- 
hauser (died, 1658) in Germany in 1640. 



BARUCH 



92 



BASILIANS 



They spread into Hungary, Poland, and 
Spain, but, under this name, became ex 
tinct in the eighth century. 

Baruch. One of the twelve minor 
Prophets, offspring of a noble family of 
the tribe of Juda, disciple and secretary 
of Jeremias, whose prophecies he wrote 
and read to the people, and whom he fol 
lowed into Egypt. After the death of his 
master, he rejoined the Jews, captive at 
Babylon, to make known to them prophe 
cies which he himself had composed, and, 
according to tradition, died there in the 
twelfth year of the captivity. The Book 
of Baruch, inserted in the canon of the 
Scriptures, exists no longer in Hebrew, 
hence the reason why the Jews do not ac 
knowledge it as canonical. We have two 
Syriac versions thereof, but the Greek text 
appears to be more ancient. In the first 
centuries of the Church, several Fathers 
and Doctors understood and quoted the 
prophecies of Baruch under the name of 
Jeremias. 

Baruli. Heretics of the twelfth cen 
tury, who maintained that Christ had 
assumed a chimerical body, and that souls 
were created before the creation of the 
world, and all committed sin together 
after the creation. They only renewed 
the opinions of the Origenists. 

Basan or Batanea. Country of ancient 
Palestine of Perea, that is, beyond the 
Jordan, situated in the half tribe of Ma- 
nasses. It was bounded on the east by 
the mountains of Galaad, north by Mount 
Hermon, south by the brook Jabok, west 
by the Jordan. It contained several forti 
fied cities and passed as one of the most 
fruitful countries of the world. 

Baselian Manuscript. The name given 
to two Greek manuscripts of the New Tes 
tament. One is a nearly complete copy 
of the Gospels written at Constantinople, 
in uncical characters, about the eighth 
century, and lacking only Luke iii. 4-15; 
xxiv. 47-53. The other is a copy of the 
whole Testament, excepting the Apoca 
lypse, and is written in the cursive charac 
ters of the tenth century. These valuable 
manuscripts are preserved in the library at 
Basel; hence their name. 

Basil of Ancyra.-r- A native of Ancyra, 
and bishop of that city (336-360). One of 
the leaders of the Semi-Arians. He was de 
posed in 360 by the Council of Constanti 



nople, and exiled to Illyricum, where he 

probably died. 



Basil the Great (Sx.). Archbishop of 
Ctesarea, in Cappadocia ; was born at 
Caesarea, about the year 330. Two of his 
brothers, Gregory and Peter, became bish 
ops, the former of Nyssa, the latter of Se- 
baste, and are also honored by the Church 
as saints. Basil studied with great success 
at Athens, where he became intimate with 
Gregory Nazianzen. The two friends vied 
with each other both in learning and in 
the practice of virtue. "We know but 
two streets in the city," said Gregory, " the 
one leading to the Church and the other 
leading to the schools." They remained 
at Athens four or five years, where they 
also made the acquaintance of Julian, who 
afterwards earned the evil name of apos 
tate. Having received baptism in 357, 
Basil visited the monastic institutions of 
Syria and Egypt, and founded several 
monasteries in Pontus and Cappadocia. 
He became father of monasticism in the 
East. The Basilians are to this day the 
principal religious order in the Oriental 
Church. In 364, Basil was ordained priest 
by Bishop Eusebius, successor of Dianius, 
and, on the death of that prelate, was 
chosen Bishop of Csesarea, in 370. He 
was an instrument in the hand of God for 
beating back the Arian and Macedonian 
heresies in the East. His energy and 
zeal, learning and eloquence, and the ex 
ceeding austerity and holiness of his life, 
have gained for him the reputation of one 
of the greatest bishops of the Church, and 
his character and works have earned for 
him the surname "Great." Basil died in 
379. His works are of a theological or an 
ascetical and ethical character, and em 
brace also sermons and commentaries. 
See Migne, Pat. Gr. XXIX-XXXII. The 
liturgy ascribed to St. Basil is still used in 
the Eastern Church, both by Catholics 
and schismatics. F. Jan. i4th. 

Basil the Heretic. See BOGOMILES. 

Basilians. Monks and nuns following 
the Rule of St. Basil the Great. This 
saint exercised so great an influence on 
monastic life in the East that the monks 
there were usually called after him, Basil 
ians. Besides giving them a new rule, he 
founded a cloister in the neighborhood of 
Neo-Caesarea, which formed at once a bul 
wark against the Arian heresy, and an 



BASILICA 



93 



BASLE 



asylum for the persecuted during the so 
cial disturbances of that age. This cloister 
served as a pattern for many others, which 
were now usually built within easy dis 
tances of some city. The monks took part 
in the controversies on the faith, and were 
frequently driven to fanatical excesses by 
the advice of ambitious leaders. More 
over, they sometimes lived together in 
parties of two and three, and, recognizing 
no superior, soon lost all traces of the 
monastic spirit and discipline. These 
were called Sarabites and Gyrovagi, or 
lazy, worthless fellows, who, by their con 
stant quarreling, their vain pretensions 
and excesses the last frequently alter 
nating with their fasts lost all dignity 
and became disreputable. The Basilians 
comprise nearly all the Greek and Orien 
tal monasteries, and are found in com 
munion with Rome in Sicily, and in the 
Graeco-Ruthenian and Armenian rites. 
There are several Basilian monasteries in 
Canada and in the United States. 

Basilica. The ancient basilica was a 
court of commerce or justice. Many of 
these halls were appropriated for Christian 
churches and new churches were built 
upon a similar plan, whence basilica be 
came a usual name for a church. Major 
Basilica, Minor Basilica are honorary 
titles to which are attached certain canon 
ical privileges. There are Major Basilicas 
only in Rome ; these are the five principal 
churches of St. John Lateran, St. Peter of 
the Vatican, St. Paul without the Walls, 
San Croce of Jerusalem, and St. Lawrence 
without the Walls. They are also called 
Patriarchal Churches, because they answer 
to the five great patriarchates of the Cath 
olic Church. St. Mary Major and St. 
Sebastian on the Appenine road, are 
ranked among the number of Major Basil 
icas. The title of Minor Basilicas is 
granted, in Rome and outside of Rome, to 
other churches famous on account of their 
antiquity or the devotion which the faithful 
have toward them. In Rome there are six 
of these : St. Mary de Travestevere, St. 
Lawrence in Damaso, St. Mary s in Cos- 
medin, St. Peter in Chains, St. Mary in 
Monte Sancto, and the Church of the 
Twelve Apostles. The Roman States con 
tain some Minor Basilicas. In France 
there are three Minor Basilicas : The 
Church of Notre Dame in Paris, the 
Cathedral of Valence, and Our Lady of 
Lourdes. See CHURCH (BUILDING). 



Basilidians. So called from their 
founder Basilides. He was a citizen of 
Alexandria, and Syrian by birth. He 
taught in Alexandria betweeen the years 
125 and 130, and his sect existed as late as 
the fourth century. Basilides and his son 
Isidore, based their doctrines on the pre 
tended prophecies of certain Oriental 
prophets and boasted of a secret tradition 
which they claimed to have from the 
Apostle Matthias, and a certain Glaucias, 
the interpreter of St. Peter. Jesus was to 
Basilides not the Redeemer; he was dis 
tinguished from other men only in degree. 
The Redeemer was the highest ^Eon, who 
was sent down from the Supreme God and 
united himself with the man Jesus at His 
baptism in the Jordan, but left Him again 
in His passion. The Basilidians were 
grossly immoral. 

Basle or Basel ( Council of) (1431-1442). 
The object of this Council was to complete 
the work commenced by the Council of Pisa 
and continued by the Council of Constance. 
The Council of Basle was convoked by Pope 
Martin V. ; but he died the day before the 
opening. Eugenius IV., his successor, 
confirmed the convocation of the Council 
of Basle, as well as the appointment of 
Cardinal Julian Cesarini, as papal Legate 
and president of the assembly. The Coun 
cil opened under John of Polemar and 
John of Ragusa, delegates of Cardinal 
Cesarini, who was at the time engaged in 
endeavoring to effect a reconciliation with 
the Hussites. But very few prelates were 
in attendance. On his arrival in Basle, 
Cesarini sent a messenger to Rome, to ac 
quaint the Pope with the state of affairs. 
In the meantime, the prelates at Basle, con 
sisting only of three bishops and fourteen 
abbots, held their first public session; they 
declared their assembly a lawfully convened 
Council whose object was defined to be : 
i. The extirpation of heresy. 2. The es 
tablishment of peace among Christian 
princes. 3. The reformation of the Church 
in its head and members. The small at 
tendance of bishops at Basle, but especially 
the proposals for a reunion made by the 
Greeks, who, however, desired the Coun 
cil to meet in some Italian city, induced 
the Pope to dissolve the Council and con 
voke a new one to open at Bologna, eigh 
teen months later. The cardinal legate 
obeyed, and declined to take his seat as 
president of the Council then in session. 
But the bishops at Basle vehemently op- 



BASSIANS 



94 



BAVARIA 



posed the removal of the Council. They 
continued their sessions and proceeded to 
act, at first, independently of the Pope, 
and, soon after, against his authority and 
person. A serious conflict between the 
Pope and the Fathers at Basle now ensued. 
In its second session, which was attended 
by only fourteen bishops, they renewed 
the decrees of the Council of Constance, 
proclaiming the superiority of an Ecu 
menical Council over the Pope. In its 
subsequent sessions, the recalcitrant con 
venticle commanded the Pope to withdraw 
his Bull of dissolution; cited him and his 
cardinals to appear at Basle, and threatened 
him with further action, if they, in three 
months, did not obey the summons. Fi 
nally, in the tenth session, the Fathers of 
Basle, who, in the interval, had increased 
to the number of five cardinals and forty- 
one prelates, proceeded to declare Eugenius 
contumacious ! Eugenius sent four legates 
to Basle with authority to negotiate with 
the assembled Fathers, on the continuance 
of the Council. But his legates were ill 
received, and his overtures rejected as un 
satisfactory. The refractory prelates, in 
the eleventh session, went so far as to 
menace the Pope with suspension and dep 
osition, for refusing to recognize the ar 
rogant pretensions of their conventicle. 
Pope Eugenius, revoking his Bull of dis 
solution, consented to acknowledge the 
assembly of Basle as a lawfully convened 
Council, under the express condition, 
however, that his legates would be admit 
ted to preside at its sessions, and that all 
decrees derogatory to his person and the 
prerogatives of the Holy See, would be 
repealed. From the period (Feb. 5th, 
1434, to May 7th, 1437), all sessions, from 
the sixteenth to the twenty-fifth, were held 
under the presidency of the papal legates. 
A number of decrees was passed by the 
Council, which apply to the extinction of 
heresy, the establishment of peace among 
Christian rulers, and the reformation of 
the faithful. These are the only Acts of 
the Council that are recognized as truly 
synodical, and that were approved by the 
Holy See. Still, before long, the Council 
again engaged in a contest against the 
Pope. Returning to their former schism, 
the Fathers renewed the declaration of the 
supremacy of a General Council over the 
Pope. This caused Eugenius to once 
more dissolve the Council of Basle, and 
to transfer its sessions to Ferrara, Sept., 
1437. The cardinals, excepting L Alle- 



mand, and nearly all the prelates of rank, 
in obedience to the Pope s mandate, re 
paired to Ferrara. The malcontents, ex 
asperated by the general defection from 
their conventicle to the Council of Fer 
rara, now proceeded to revolutionary ex 
tremes. The following propositions were 
defined by them as articles of faith : i. 
That a General Council is superior to the 
Pope. 2. That the Pope cannot dissolve, 
or transfer, or adjourn a General Council. 
3. That whoever denies these articles is a 
heretic. They, furthermore, excommuni 
cated the Council of Ferrara, and cited its 
members to appear before the Basle tribu 
nal; finally in their thirty-fourth session, 
which was attended by only seven bishops, 
they presumed to depose Eugenius, in 
whose stead they thrust forward Amadeus 
of Savoy. The antipope took the name of 
Felix V. After playing his miserable part 
for ten years, Felix abdicated, and his 
party put an end to the schism by recog 
nizing the Pontificate of Nicholas V. Fe 
lix, who is the last antipope recorded in 
history, died in 1451. 

Bassians. Disciples of Bassus, heretic 
of the second century, who, supporting 
himself on the word of our Saviour: "I 
am the Alpha and the Omega" pretended 
that the perfection of all things consists 
in the letters of the alphabet. 

Bath or Ephah. A Hebrew measure, 
containing seven gallons, two quarts, liquid 
measure, or three pecks, one quart, one 
pint, dry measure. 

Bautain (LOUISE EUGENE MARIE). 
French Catholic philosopher (1795-1867). 
Was professor of philosophy at Strasburg. 
He denied that human reason could attain 
to certainty on religion and religious 
truths. He did not place the source of 
certainty in the "sansns communis," as De 
Lamennais had done, but considered divine 
revelation to be the sole ground of re 
liance; and the trustworthiness of this, he 
thought, could not be proved by reason. 
Pope Gregory XVI. condemned this doc 
trine, and Bautain, together with his disci 
ples, submitted to the judgment of the 
Church. 

Ba.va.na.(C/iris/iani/v in). The Baioarii, 
or Bavarians, in Northern Rhaetia, were 
chiefly converted to Christianity by the 
Frankish bishops, St. Rupertus and St. 
Emmeramnus. St. Rupertus, who was 
bishop of Worms, baptized the Duke 



BAVARIA 



95 



BEATITUDES 



Theodon of Ratisbon, restored the Bishop 
ric of Salzburg, and founded the Monas 
tery of St. Peter near that city, and another 
for women under the direction of his 
niece, Ehrentrudis. He died in the year 
620. About the same time St. Emmer- 
amnus, a bishop of Aquitaine, appeared 
in Bavaria, and for three years zealously 
preached the Gospel. Falsely accused of 
a great crime, he was ruthlessly slain by 
Lambert, Theodon s son, in 654. The work 
of these holy men was continued by 
another Prankish missionary, St. Corbin- 
ianus. He founded the Bishopric of 
Freising and died as its first bishop, in 
730. In the North of Bavaria, the country 
now known as Franconia, the Gospel was 
first preached by St. Kilian. See KILIAN. 

Bavaria ( Worship in). In the year 1885 
the population of Bavaria was 5,284,798. 
The division in regard to worship was as 
as follows : Catholics, 3,748,253; Protes 
tants, 1,477,952; other Christians, 5,017; 
Jews, 53,526; those professing no religion, 
30. Hence per 1,000 inhabitants there were 
709 Catholics and 280 Protestants. See 
GERMANY. 

Bayley ( JAMES ROOSEVELT). A Roman 
Catholic prelate; born in New York city, 
Aug. 23d, 1814; died at Newark, New 
Jersey, Oct. 3d, 1877. He graduated at 
Trinity College, Hartford, in 1835. After 
a year s study of medicine he turned his 
attention to theology, and was, in 1840, 
established as rector in Harlem. Becom 
ing dissatisfied with Episcopal doctrines, 
he resigned his charge, went to Europe, 
and in 1844 was ordained a priest of the 
Catholic Church. He was made vice- 
president and then president of St. John s 
College, Fordham; was pastor of a Church 
on Staten Island ; private secretary to 
Bishop Hughes; and in 1853 was created 
first Bishop of Newark. In 1872 he was 
made Archbishop of Baltimore, which 
placed him at the head of the hierarchy in 
the United States. Archbishop Bayley 
was a philanthropic man, an untiring 
worker, and the author of historical works 
relating to the Catholic Church. 

Bdellium. Generally supposed to be a 
gum from a tree common in Arabia and 
the East. But this substance, whatever 
it is, is mentioned with gold and gems; 
while a gum is certainly not so remarkable 
an object of nature as to deserve this classi 
fication, or that the production of it should 



confer on Havilah a peculiar celebrity. 
Hence the opinion of the Jewish writers is 
not to be contemned, namely, that pearls are 
here to be understood, of which great quan 
tities are found on the shores of the Per 
sian Gulf and in India, and which might 
not, inaptly, be compared to manna, as in 
Num. xi. 7. 

Beads. See ROSARY. 
Beatific Vision. See VISION. 

Beatification. Act by which the Pope, 
after the death of an individual, declares 
that he is numbered among the blessed. 
Beatification differs from canonization in 
this, that in beatification, the Pope does 
not act as judge, who decides about the 
state of the one who is beatified, but grants 
only to certain persons the privilege to 
honor with a form of religious worship the 
one who is beatified, without incurring the 
punishments pronounced against those who 
render a superstitious worship. In can 
onization, the Pope speaks as judge, and 
as we say, he pronounces " ex cathedra " the 
state of the one whom he canonizes. 
Beatification has been introduced since the 
time when it was judged proper to allow 
a longer interval of time to elapse before 
the canonization of the saints. Beatifica 
tion is regarded as the preliminary step 
to canonization. It is a provisory permis 
sion to render public veneration to the 
blessed, granted to a diocese, a city, or a 
religious order. Pope Urban VIII. for 
bade the rendering of any veneration to any 
person who has not been beatified, whether 
the person may have died in the odor of 
sanctity, or wrought miracles during life 
or after death. The same Pope prescribes 
that every biographer, who makes use of 
the terms blessed, saint, or martyr, in 
speaking of a person that has not yet been 
beatified, ought to declare, that he does 
this, only to acknowledge the innocence 
of his life and the excellence of his virtues, 
without any prejudice to the authority of 
the Church, the only sovereign judge 
about these questions. 

Beatitudes (The Eight}. Jesus behold 
ing the multitude, spoke to them from a 
certain mount, and this discourse has been 
called "The Sermon on the Mount." Jn 
this sermon of our Lord \v?s contained 
" The Eight Beatitudes," which are as fol 
lows : "Blessed are the poor in spirit 
[i. e., those who have the spirit of poverty, 
the sincere and Christian detachment 



BEATON 



96 



BEDE, THE VENERABLE 



from the goods of this world], for theirs 
is the kingdom of heaven." "Blessed 
are the meek [who try to avoid all quar 
rels], for they shall possess the land 
[heaven]." "Blessed are they that 
mourn, for they shall be comforted." 
Christ, according to the Gospel of St. John 
(xvi. 20), has expressed the same thought 
in these terms: "Amen, Amen, I say to 
you, that you shall lament and weep, but 
the world shall rejoice; and you shall be 
made sorrowful, but your sorrow shall be 
turned into joy, [in a better world]." 
" Blessed are they that hunger and thirst 
after justice [who are deprived of justice, 
who are robbed of their rights here be 
low], for they shall have their fill [they 
will obtain a glorious reparation in the 
land of heaven]. " Blessed are the merci 
ful [towards their neighbor], for they shall 
obtain mercy [by God]." "Blessed are 
the clean of heart, for they shall see God." 
" Blessed are the peacemakers [who 
avoid quarrels, discord, and seek to main 
tain, and to restore union among men], for 
they shall be called the children of God 
[who is the God of peace] "(Rom. xvi. 20). 
St. John has said in the same sense : "The 
Father has given us love for one another, 
in order that we may be called children of 
God and that we be this in reality." 
"Blessed are those that suffer persecution 
for justice sake [who are persecuted be 
cause they do not wish to betray their duty, 
nor do anything that is contrary to justice 
and honesty], for theirs is the kingdom 
of heaven" (Matt. v. i-io). 

Beaton (CARDINAL) (1494-1546) . 
Scotch prelate and statesman. During 
the minority of James V., he was sent to 
negotiate an alliance w T ith Francis I. against 
Charles V. and Henry VIII. On his re 
turn, he became keeper of the seals. In 
I 533 h e was charged to ask for James V. 
the hand of Magdelen, daughter of Francis 
I. ; but this princess having died, Beaton 
asked for his master the hand of Mary of 
L orraine, widow of the Duke of Longue- 
ville. He succeeded, and the marriage 
took place in 1538. Francis I. gave him 
the bishopric of Mirepoix, and at the same 
time asked for him the cardinal s hat, 
which Paul III. gave to him the same 
year. In 1539, he succeeded his uncle 
James as archbishop of St. Andrews. De 
voted to a national politic, and dreading 
for his country the example and influence 
of England, from the double point of view 



of religion and patriotism, he employed 
all his strength to keep James V. away 
from Henry VIII., and succeeded in pre 
venting a projected interview between the 
two kings.- A war followed, and James V. 
was killed in the battle of Solway (1542). 
Beaton produced a will which gave to him 
the title and power as regent during the 
minority of Mary Stuart. The nobility 
declared this document as apocryphal, and 
appointed as regent the Duke of Arran. 
Beaton was arrested and thrown into 
prison ; but soon left this, and, in accord 
with Mary of Lorraine, he appointed, in 
stead of the Duke of Arran, the Count of 
Lennox, who left the whole power to the 
Cardinal (1543). His line of conduct was 
clearly Scotch. Convinced that England 
was the enemy, he energetically combated 
this country with all the power of his 
political ambition and religious influence. 
Perhaps, in his pursuit, he committed ex 
cesses, but it is impossible to doubt the 
sincerity of his intentions and the grandeur 
of his views. His conduct and memory 
have been sharply attacked by English 
writers who cannot pardon him his pa 
triotism and faith. It is certain that the 
Cardinal pursued the Protestants and used 
against them violent means which the 
legislation furnished to him, and which 
the customs of the time tolerated. He 
tried, at the same time, to reform the dis 
cipline and morals of his clergy. Beaton 
became a victim of the hatred of Protes 
tants and of the adherents of the English 
alliance. Surprised in his castle of St. 
Andrews, he fell under the strokes of as 
sassins, who were never punished. 

Bee. A ruined abbey at Bec-Helloin, 
near Brionne, France. Bee may be con 
sidered the origin of universities, which 
soon began to be established in every 
country, after the model of that renowned 
institution. Many eminent scholars issued 
from this school, among whom were Pope 
Alexander II. ; the learned Guitmund, 
Archbishop Averse; Ives, Bishop of Char- 
tres, the restorer of Canon Law in France; 
and the celebrated St. Anselm. 



Becket (THOMAS A). 
BECKET. 



See THOMAS A 



Bede, The Venerable. Anglo-Saxon 
monk, historian, and theologian. Bede, 
w r ho from his superior learning and ad 
mirable virtues received the appellation of 
"Venerable," was born about the year 673. 



BEELPHEGOR 



97 



BELGIUM 



He was educated by the monks of Jarrow 
and Weremouth, his first instructor being 
Benedict Biscop himself. The proficiency 
of Bede in all branches of learning was 
considerable, and the diversity, as well as 
the extent of his reading, remarkable. 
His ardent and comprehensive mind em 
braced every science which was then 
studied. In his own catalogue of books, 
which he composed, we find commentaries 
on most of the books of the Scripture, 
treatises on physics, geography, astronomy, 
and all the sciences of the period, lives of 
saints, and sermons. But his Ecclesiastical 
History of the Anglo-Saxons, in five 
books, from the landing of Julius Caesar 
to the year 731, is the most celebrated of 
his works. Venerable Bede died in 735. 

Beelphegor, Baalphegor, Baal-Peor. 

Syrian god, adored especially by the Am 
monites and Madianites, was the same as 
Priapus according to Origen ; as Saturnus, 
according to St. John Chrysostom, Theod- 
oret, Apollinaris and Suidas. But it would 
appear that Dom Calmet has shown that it 
was the same god as Adonis or Horus, 
adored by the Egyptians. "Phegor or 
Peor," he says, "is the same as Or or 
Horus, by cutting off from this word the 
article Pe, which signifies nothing. Horus 
is the same as Adonis or Osiris." The 
Israelites, in the desert of Sin, permitted 
themselves to be dragged into the w r orship 
of Phegor and committed lewd actions 
with the daughters of Moab (Num. xxv. 
2-3), and the Psalmist adds that they par 
took in the sacrifices for the dead. Now 
we know that the feasts of Adonis were 
celebrated as funeral feasts, and that they 
abandoned themselves to all kinds of de 
baucheries. 

Beelsamen and Baal-Samen. Assyrian 
deity, adored also at Carthage. It is be 
lieved that it was the sun, king- of heaven, 
or the personification of heaven itself, the 
King-Heaven, the Uranus of the Greeks. 
At Carthage, they made a goddess thereof, 
identical with Minerva. 

Beelzebub. Deity of the Philistines; 
"the prince of the devils " (Matt. xii. 24, 
etc.). The Jews seem to have applied this 
appellation to Satan, as being the author 
of all the pollutions and the abominations 
of idol worship. 

Beghards or Spiritualists, also called 
* Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit." 
A sect of mediaeval heretics. They spread 

7 



in the thirteenth century, chiefly through 
France, Italy, and Germany. Owing to 
their professional character as beggars, 
they were called Beghards. They de 
nied the difference between good and 
evil works and maintained that the soul, 
which is a portion of the divine sub 
stance, could not be stained by sensual 
excesses. Thus they committed acts of 
the coarsest licentiousness and in their 
wanderings they were accompanied by 
women called " Sisters." Hence the name 
"Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit." 

Beguines. An association founded 
about 1180 for pious widows and single 
women desirous of consecrating their lives 
to God. They did not take any vows and 
had no convents proper, but dwelt in small 
houses within the same enclosure, with 
the church or chapel in the center (to 
which the name of Beguinage was given), 
and devoted themselves to works of piety 
and mercy. The institution was approved 
by Urban VIII. Beguine communities 
still exist in Belgium, France, and the 
Netherlands. Similar institutions existed 
for laymen who were called " Beghards." 

Bel. See BAAL. 

Belgium (Christianity in). St. Aman- 
dus of Aquitaine, after a pilgrimage to 
Rome, where he was consecrated mission 
ary bishop, preached the Gospel with 
much success in modern Belgium. The 
principal scene of his missionary labors 
was the neighborhood of Antwerp and 
Ghent. About the year 646, he was ap 
pointed to the Episcopate of Mastricht, 
and there devoted himself with unceasing 
energy to the work of evangelizing the 
surrounding tribes. He died about the 
year 661. St. Omer, or Audomar, contem 
poraneously labored with him in the same 
country. After thirty years of missionary 
labors, which converted the heathen tribes 
of Morinia from their idolatries, St. Omer 
died about 667. St. Livinus, an Irish 
bishop, is called the Apostle of Brabant. 
He suffered martyrdom about the year 
656. The work of these apostolic men 
was continued by St. Elipandus, Bishop 
of Noyon, and the bishops St. Lambertus 
and Hubertus of Mastricht. 

Belgium (Worship in). In Belgium the 
religious hierarchy is represented by one 
Catholic archbishop, residing at Malines, 
the metropolis, and by five bishops of the 
same religion at Bruges, Gand, Liege, 



BELLARMIN 



98 



BENEDICT 



Namur, and Tournay. The population is, 
in fact, almost entirely Catholic, both 
Flemish and Wallonish. They estimate the 
number of Protestants to be about 15,000, 
and that of the Jews 3,000. The lat 
ter reside especially at Antwerp, and 
are of German nationality. Both the 
Protestant and Israelitish worship are ac 
knowledged by the State. The majority of 
the Protestants are subject to a synod 
which has its seat at Brussels, and its 
members assemble once a year. The cen 
tral synagogue at Brussels has branches of 
minor importance at Liege, Antwerp, 
Gand, Arlon, and Namur. 

Bellarmin (ROBERT). Italian cardinal 
and theologian, Archbishop of Capua, 
born at Montepulciano (Tuscany), in 1542, 
and entered the Society of Jesus in 1560. 
Extremely severe toward himself, an 
enemy to all indulgence, and an indefati 
gable worker, he left behind him writings 
so numerous and valuable that no better 
evidence of the holiness and self-sacrifice 
of his life could be required. He was a 
successful preacher, but was especially 
distinguished for the ability with which he 
taught the various branches of theology. 
In 1602 he was appointed Archbishop of 
Capua, and died Sept. lyth, 1621. The 
principal works of Bellarmin are: Dis- 
futiones de controrersis Christiana fdei 
Articulis, libri, IV; De Scriptoribus ec- 
clesiasticis (a sort of patrology or bio- 
grapical sketches of ecclesiastical writers) ; 
De Ascensione Mentis in Deum per Scalas 
rerum Creatarum, and De Gemitu Coltimbtz, 
sen de bono Lacrymarum, etc. 

Bells. Bells were known to the He 
brews, Egyptians, and Romans. But the 
employment of bells in churches to an 
nounce the hours of office does not go 
back beyond the reign of Constantine the 
Great. During the heathen persecution it 
was of course impossible to call the faith 
ful by any signal which would have at 
tracted public notice. After Constantine s 
time, monastic communities used to sig 
nify the hour of prayer by blowing a 
trumpet, or by rapping with a hammer at 
the cells of the monks. The use of bells 
was spread only in the time of St. Paul- 
inus, Bishop of Nola (409-431). The cus 
tom of blessing bells goes back to the 
year 750. The bishop or his delegate 
first blesses salt and water, then he washes 
the bell within and without ; makes seven 
unctions in the form of a cross on the bell 



outside, and four inside. For the outside 
unctions he uses " Oleum Catec/tunicnorum," 
and for those inside " Holy Chrism." 
Then the bishop names the saint under 
whose invocation the bell is blessed. After 
this the censer-bearer places under the 
bell a censer filled with incense, a passage 
of the Gospel is sung and the celebrant 
ends the ceremony in making the sign of 
the Cross over the bell. 

Belphegor. See BEELPHEGOR. 

Benedict (name of 14 Popes). Benedict 
I. Surnamed Bonosus; Pope, Roman by 
origin (574-578). Successor of John III., 
after a vacancy in the Holy See which had 
lasted ten months. In his Pontificate the 
Longobards extended their conquests in 
Italy and threatened Rome. Benedict II. 
Priest of Rome, succeeded, in 684, Leo II. 
in the Chair of St. Peter. He occupied it 
only 10 months and 12 days, but with so 
much zeal and virtue that he was admitted 
among the number of saints. Benedict 
III. (855-858). Roman priest. His elec 
tion was opposed by the ambassadors of 
Emperor Louis II., who supported the 
pretensions of the antipope Anastasius. 
But the constancy of both clergy and laity 
obliged the imperial messengers to recog 
nize the lawful Pontiff. Benedict III. is 
praised for his meekness and forbearance 
toward his adversaries. He beautified 
many churches, and reopened the English 
college in Rome. Benedict IV. Roman 
by birth, successor of John IX. (900-903). 
He crowned Louis, King of Provence, em 
peror, in 901. Benedict V. Roman by 
birth, successor of John XII. (964-965). He 
was elected by the Romans, in opposition 
to Leo VIII., the choice of the Emperor 
Otto I. The ernperor reduced Rome, and 
secured the person of Benedict, who was 
kept till his death in confinement under 
the charge of Bishop Adaldag at Hamburg. 
Benedict VI. Roman by birth, succes 
sor of John XIII. (972-974). He was 
dethroned, imprisoned in the Castle St. 
Angelo, and finally strangled. Benedict 
VII. Roman bv birth, successor of 
Domnus II. (975-983). He excommuni 
cated Cardinal Franco, the antipope, and 
governed the Church with vigor and great 
prudence. Benedict VIII. Bishop of 
Porto, successor of Sergius IV. (1012-1024). 
Proved a most worthy Pontiff, who spared 
neither weariness nor exertion to restore 
to his high office the prestige it had lost. 
An antipope, named Gregory, set up by 



BENEDICT BISCOP 



99 



BENEDICT 



the opposite faction, forced Benedict to 
leave Rome. He was restored to his See by 
the Emperor St. Henry II. of Germany, 
who with his wife, the sainted Cundigunda, 
received from him the imperial crown in 
1014. The indefatigable Pontiff labored 
strenuously for Church reform, and held 
several councils, the decrees of which the 
emperor confirmed as laws of the empire. 
Benedict IX. (1033-1044). He obtained 
his elevation to the Papacy by simony, 
when a youth of eighteen. During the 
eleven years of his reign, under the protec 
tion of the emperor, and supported by the 
power of his family, this youth harassed 
the people by his capricious tyranny, and 
disgraced the Apostolic See by the wanton 
conduct of his life. The Romans, disgusted 
with his disorders, expelled him, but he 
was restored by Emperor Conrad. In 
1044, he was driven away a second time, 
when an antipope, styled Sylvester III., 
was intruded on the throne for three 
months. To free the Holy See from the 
degradation to which it had sunk in con 
sequence of the bribery and tyranny of the 
nobles, Gratian, a distinguished and re 
spected Roman archpriest, by offering a 
large subsidy in money, induced Benedict 
to resign and withdraw to private life. 
Gratian was then himself canonicallyelected 
Pope, under the name of Gregory VI. 
Benedict X. Bishop of Velletri, placed 
in the Holy See by a faction at the death 
of Stephen IX. (1058). He resigned ten 
months afterwards, and the Romans elected 
Nicholas II. By several authors he is 
regarded as an antipope. Benedict XI. 
(Nicholas Boccasini}. Italian by birth 
( 1303-1304). He annulled the Bulls of Boni 
face VIII. against Philip the Fair of France. 
Benedict XII. Cistercian monk, succes 
sor of John XXII. (1334-1342). He was 
an eminent canonist and theologian, and a 
severe reformer. He meditated the res 
toration of the Holy See to Rome, but was 
resisted in this effort by the cardinals. 
Benedict XIII. Successor of Innocent 
XIII. (1724-1730). A Dominican; accepted 
with reluctance the papal dignity ; held a 
provincial council in the Lateran (1725), 
which enacted wise laws for the suppres 
sion of abuses and the reformation of 
morals, and terminated the dispute con 
cerning the " Spiritual Monarchy of Sic 
ily." But he was rudely treated by the 
Catholic courts, on account of inserting 
an historical fact in the office of St. 
Gregory VII. Benedict XIV. Successor 



of Clement XII. (1740-1758). One of the 
most learned Popes that ever filled the 
Papal Chair, yielded in the extreme to 
ward civil rulers, and thus succeeded in 
preserving friendly relations with most of 
them. However, he gained little by the 
great concessions he made. He saw the be 
ginning of the warfare against the Society 
of Jesus. 

Benedict Biscop (628-690). An English 
ecclesiastic, founder of two celebrated 
monasteries of Wearmouth and Jarrow. 
He made several journeys to Rome, and 
each time brought back a valuable col 
lection of books, as well as a large supply 
of relics and images for his monasteries. 
His memory has been transmitted to 
posterity by his disciple, Venerable Bede, 
in his Lives of the Abbots of Wearmouth. 
England, and even Europe, owes much to 
the zeal of Benedict Biscop; for the civi 
lization of the eighth century may be said 
to have rested on the monasteries he 
founded, which produced Bede, and 
through him the School of York, Alcuin, 
and the Carolingian School, on which the 
culture and learning of the Middle Ages 
were based. In 690, he also brought bells 
from Italy, and was the first person who 
introduced into England constructors of 
stone edifices, as well as makers of glass 
windows. 

Benedict of Aniane ( ST. ). Born in 
Languedoc about 750; died 821. A re 
former of monastic discipline. Encour 
aged by Louis the Mild, he conceived and 
carried out the idea of restoring among 
his monks the severity of the ancient 
discipline. They soon became models of 
order and piety for other monasteries, and 
contributed much to the revival of letters. 
But owing to the disturbances arising 
from the strife of contending factions 
within the Frankish empire, the reforms 
of Benedict did not exert any permanent 
influence. F. Feb. i2th. 

Benedict (ST.) and the Benedictines. 
Founder of monachism in the West. 
Benedict, born in 480 at Nursia in Umbria, 
of noble parents, at the age of fourteen 
withdrew into the wilds of Subiaco, in the 
Apennines. Here he lived for three years 
in a deep and almost inaccessible cavern. 
His reputation for sanctity and his mira 
cles soon gathered a number of disciples 
around him, for whom he erected two 
monasteries. In 529, he retired with a 



BENEDICTION 



100 



BENJAMIN 



few monks to Monte Cassino, where, on 
the site of an ancient temple of Apollo, he 
founded a monastery, which became the 
glorious monastic center of the West. Sev 
eral other monasteries were also founded by 
St. Benedict; among these, one for women, 
which he placed under the direction of his 
sister St. Scholastica. St. Benedict, who is 
called the patriarch of the Western monks, 
died in 543. F. Mch. 2ist. The Rule of St. 
Benedict, which very appropriately has been 
called a " Summary of the Christian Relig 
ion," is a masterpiece of enlightened wis 
dom and prudence. Its precepts are few and 
simple. In seventy-three chapters, it con 
tains a collection of regulations intended 
to train men in retirement from the world, 
and in the acquisition of Christain per 
fection, through the practice of the evan 
gelical counsels. In it we find the duties 
and observances of the monastic life clearly 
defined. The evils, arising from the cus 
tom of monks continually passing from 
one convent to another, are prevented 
by the "vow of stability," binding each 
member to remain constantly in the same 
community. The Benedictine Rule grad 
ually superseded all other rules in the 
West, as, for example, the Irish Rule of St. 
Columban, that of St. Martin in France, 
and those of Sts. Fructuosus, Caesarius, 
and Isidore in Spain. In the ninth cen 
tury, it was formally adopted throughout 
the dominions of Charlemagne, and later 
on, it was received in all the Cathedral 
monasteries of England. The order 
founded by St. Benedict spread rapidly 
and widely. It was established in Sicily 
by St. Placidus, in Gaul by St. Maurus, 
both disciples of St. Benedict; in Britain 
by St. Augustine, and in Germany by St. 
Boniface. No other religious order can 
claim to have accomplished so much for the 
conversion and civilization of the world. 
The monks planted Christianity in Eng 
land, Friesland, and Germany; and the 
Scandinavian North received with the true 
faith its first monasteries as well. For 
centuries the Benedictines were the prin 
cipal teachers of youth in all branches of 
sciences and art. The oldest establish 
ment of Benedictines in the United States 
is that of St. Vincent s Abbey at Latrobe, 
in Westmoreland county, Pennsylvania, 
founded by a colony of monks from Bava 
ria, in 1846. It was raised to the dignity 
of an Abbey in 1855. The Abbey of St. 
Meinrad, Indiana, which was founded in 
1853, i s a filiation of the celebrated Bene 



dictine abbey at Einsiedlen, in Switzer 
land. The first convent of Benedictine 
nuns in the United States was established 
at St. Mary s, Pennsylvania, in 1853. 

Benediction (from the Lat. benedicere, 
to speak -well). Signifies a solemn invoca 
tion of the divine blessing upon men or 
things. The ceremony in its simplest form 
may be considered almost coeval with the 
earliest expression of religious feeling. 
We know from Holy Writ that the Jewish 
patriarchs, before they died, invoked the 
blessing of God on their children; but at 
a later period the priests were commanded 
to implore the divine blessing upon the 
people. Christ sanctioned the custom, 
which was consequently grafted into the 
primitive Church, where it gradually de 
veloped itself in different forms. See 
BLESSING. 

Benefice (Ecclesiastical). A Church 
office endowed with a revenue for its 
proper fulfillment. We have no such bene 
fices in the United States. 

Benignus (ST.). Apostle of Bourgogne 
and martyr. He was a native of Smyrna, 
and disciple of St. Polycarpus, who or 
dained him priest and sent him into Gaul, 
under the reign of Marcus Aurelius. His 
mission was confirmed by Pope St. Anicet. 
Benignus evangelized Autun, Langres, 
and Dijon, the latter of which he selected 
as the center of his apostolic labors. Ar 
rested by the soldiers of Terentius, gov 
ernor of the province, in a village near 
Epagny, nearly eight miles from Dijon, he 
was put to death by order of Marcus Aure 
lius, about the year 178. The Cathedral 
church of Dijon bears the name of St. 
Benignus, and was built in his honor. 
F. Nov. ist. 

Benjamin (Hebr. son of the right hand) 
The youngest son of Jacob, he was called 
Bcnoni (son of my sorrow), by his mother, 
Rachel, who died in giving him birth; 
but this was changed into Benjamin by 
Jacob. The Benjamites occupied a terri 
tory about 26 miles long and 12 miles 
wide, between Ephraim (on the north) 
and Juda, containing Jerusalem and Jeri 
cho. The Benjamites became famous 
for their skill in using the sling. During 
the period of the Judges they were nearly 
all slain by the army of the other tribes, 
on account of an outrage committed 
against a Levite of Ephraim. Only 600 
Benjamites were spared and repeopled the 



BERENGARIUS 



IOI 



BERNARD 



country. After the death of Saul, who 
was a Benjamite, the tribe of Benjamin 
remained faithful to his son Isboseth, until 
the definitive installation of David. Dur 
ing the schism of the tribes, that of Benja 
min remained united with the tribe of 
Juda. 

Berengarius (Heresy of). Up to the 
tenth century, the Real Presence had not 
really been called into question. Beren 
garius of Tours, was the first who im 
pugned the Presence of our Lord in the 
Holy Eucharist and the doctrine of Tran- 
substantiation, and thus anticipated the 
Sacramentarians of a later age. He was 
born about A. D. 1000, and was made Arch 
deacon of Angers, and appointed Scholas- 
ticus, or Master, of the Cathedral school of 
Tours. Berengarius held that Christ was 
only spiritually present in the sacred ele 
ments, which in every respect remained 
unchanged, and that a certain efficacy was 
imparted to them by the faith of the com 
municant. The matter having been re 
ferred to Rome, his errors were condemned 
by Pope Leo IX. in the councils, which 
were held at Rome and Vercelli, in 1050. 
Berengarius was excommunicated until he 
would recant. In 1054, a synod was held 
at Tours by the cardinal-deacon, Hilde- 
brand, and there Berengarius made and 
signed a confession of faith, acknowl 
edging that " bread and wine after the 
consecration are the Flesh and Blood of 
Christ." As he continued, however, to 
teach his heresy, he was, in 1059, cited 
to appear at Rome, by Pope Nicholas 
II., and there, before a council of 113 
bishops, Berengarius made a new re 
cantation, and signed a new confession of 
faith, affirming that " the bread and wine 
placed on the altar, are, after the conse 
cration, not only the Sacrament, but also 
the true Body and Blood of our Lord." 
Nevertheless, the fraudulent heretic, hav 
ing returned to France, relapsed into the 
condemned errors, and spoke detractingly 
of the Pope, and of the Roman See, which 
he called the "See of Satan." Pope Alex 
ander II. in vain exhorted him no longer 
to scandalize the Church. Cardinal Hilde- 
brand, who in the meantime had ascended 
the papal throne as Gregory VII., sum 
moned Berengarius once more to Rome, 
and, in the councils held in 1078 and 1079, 
obliged him to confess that he had till then 
erred on the mystery of the Eucharist, and 
to declare under oath, that the " Bread of 



the altar is, after consecration, the true 
Body of Christ, the same which was born 
of the Virgin, and was offered on the 
Cross, and is now seated at the right 
hand of the Father in heaven." But the 
obstinate heretic continued to teach as be 
fore, and accused Gregory VII. of incon 
sistency and partiality. He made the last 
recantation at the Council of Bordeaux, in 
1080, after which he became silent. He is 
said to have died in communion with the 
Church, in 1088. 

Bernard (ST. ) (surnamed the "Last 
Father of the Church"). Born in the 
Castle Fontaines, near Dijon, France, in 
1091, of an old patrician family ; he entered, 
in his twenty-second year, with some 
thirty of his kinsmen and friends, the 
Order of Citeaux, of which he is sometimes 
regarded as the second founder. After two 
years, the abbot, St. Stephen Harding, an 
Englishman, sent Bernard to found a new 
abbey at Clairvaux, which soon rose to 
great celebrity. He was consecrated abbot 
by William of Champeaux, the great dia 
lectician and teacher of Abelard. The 
fame and influence of Bernard spread 
rapidly. " He united in himself," as the 
learned Hurter well observes, "the qualities 
of the most perfect contemplative monk 
with those of the most profound politician. 
His judgment decides who is the 
rightful successor of St. Peter; and he it 
is who shields the Church from new 
dangers engendered by rash teaching. 
Popes follow his counsels like humble 
monks. He is proffered and refuses bishop 
rics and archbishoprics ; but, wherever he 
appears, greater honors are shown to him 
than to the bishops and archbishops of the 
most famous sees." Bernard died in 1153. 
The works which St. Bernard has left be 
hind him are as various as they are numer 
ous, and consist^of sermons, epistles, and 
moral treatises. His letters, which num 
ber no less than 404, record many historical 
facts, interspersed with sage reflections and 
salutary advice. Of his sermons he de 
livered 86 on the Book of Canticles to his 
monks. His most famous work is his 
treatise De Consideratione, addressed to 
Eugenius III., who had been his pupil, in 
which he states, without disguise, what 
are the duties of the chief pastor, and 
urges the necessity of reforms. He ac 
quired the appellation of the " Mellifluous 
Doctor" and, on account of the value of 
his writings, he was numbered among the 



BERNARDIN 



1 02 



BETHLEHEM 



Doctors of the Church, by Pius VIII. 
F. Aug. 2oth. 

Bernardin (ST.) of Siena (1380-1444). 
Franciscan religious. Famous preacher 
of penance; he preached in nearly all the 
cities of Italy, and the effect which his 
sermons everywhere produced, is said to 
have been overwhelming. He was sur- 
named the "Trumpet of Heaven," the 
" Evangelical Preacher." F. May 2oth. 

Bernardines. Religious of the Order 
of St. Benedict, reformed by St. Bernard. 
See CISTERCIANS. 

Bernice. Eldest daughter of king Herod 
Agrippa I., and sister to the younger 
Agrippa (Acts xxv. 13, 23). She was first 
married to her uncle Herod, king of Chal- 
cis; and after his death, in order to avoid 
the merited suspicion of incest with her 
brother Agrippa, she became the wife of 
Polemon, king of Cilicia. This connec 
tion being soon dissolved, she returned to 
her brother, and afterwards became mis 
tress of Vespasian and Titus. 

Beryl. The name of a precious stone, 
of a sea-green color, found principally in 
India (Apoc. xxi. 20). 

Beryllians. Members of a sect founded, 
in the third century, by Beryllus, Bishop 
of Bostra in Arabia. This heresiarch de 
nied that there was in Jesus Christ a per 
sonal divine essence, and maintained that 
there was in Him no other divinity than 
that of the Father. 

Besor. River of Judea, which watered 
the territory of the tribe of Simeon, to 
Oued - Cheria. Watered Gerara (Oum- 
Dfcrar), and emptied into the Mediterra 
nean south of Gaza. 

Bessarion (JOHN or BASIL). Born at 
Trebizond, in 1403 ; died at Ravenna, 1472. 
A Greek scholar and a Roman Catholic 
ecclesiastic, notable as a patron of learn 
ing and a collector of manuscripts. He 
entered the Order of St. Basil in 1423; 
studied under the Platonic scholar George 
Gemistus Pletho; became Archbishop of 
Nice in 1437 ; accompanied John Palaeolo- 
gus to Italy, in 1438, to assist in effecting 
a union between the Greek and Latin 
Churches; supported the Roman Church 
at the Councils of Ferrara and Florence, 
whereby he gained the favor of Pope Eu- 
genius by whom he was made cardinal in 
14.39, and successively invested with the 



Archbishopric of Siponto and the bishop 
rics of Sabina and Tusculum ; and received 
the title of Patriarch of Constantinople 
( 1463). He wrote AdversusCalumniatorem 
Platonis, libr. IV.; Rcsponsio ad quatuor 
argumenta Maximi Planudis dc proces- 
sione Spiritus Sancti ex solo Pat re; Epis- 
tola catholica sire generalis ad omnes, qui 
sedi Patriarchali Constant inofolitance sub- 
sunf, etc. 

Bethany (Hebr. house of grace}. A 
place about forty minutes ride from Jeru 
salem, on the road to Jericho, southeast of 
the Mount of Olives. It is often men 
tioned in the New Testament as the home 
of Lazarus, Martha and Mary, and of Si 
mon the Leper. It is identified with the 
modern El-Azariyeh, a village of forty 
huts, inhabited by Mohammedans exclu 
sively. 

Beth-Arab (Hebr. house of passage). 
Locality of Palestine, where the Israelites 
crossed the Jordan, under the leadership 
of Josue. In sight of this place, situated 
on the right shore of the Jordan, in the 
tribe of Juda, St. John was baptizing. 

Bethel (Hebr. house, of God). A town 
(originally named Luza) in Palestine, 
twelve miles north of Jerusalem, the rest 
ing-place of the Ark, and later, a seat of 
idolatrous worship; the modern Beitin. 

Beth-Horon (Hebr. place of the hollow). 
Two villages of Palestine, about twelve 
miles northwest of Jerusalem. At the pass 
between them Josue defeated the kings of 
the Amorites. It was also a scene of a vic 
tory of Judas Machabeus in the second 
century B. c. 

Bethlehem (Hebr. house of bread). A 
town in Palestine, six miles south of Jeru 
salem; the modern Beit-Lahm. It was 
the birth-place of David, and, according to 
St. Matthew, St. Luke, and St. John, of 
Christ. The Convent of the Nativity at 
Bethlehem is a complex body of structures 
distributed between the Greek and Latin 
creeds, and grouped around the church is 
a basilica of five naves, with apse and 
apsidal transepts, built by the Empress 
Helena and the Emperor Constantine. 
There are four long ranges of monotho- 
litic Corinthian columns 19 feet high, 
above which rise the walls of the nave, 
with round arched windows. The choir is 
richly ornamented with illustrations of the 
Greek rite; beneath it is the tortuous 



BETHLEHEMITES 



103 



BIBLE 



Grotto of the Nativity. The church meas 
ures 86 by 136 feet. The population of 
Bethlehem is about 5,000. 

Bethlehemites. i. Old religious order 
whose only known monastery was founded 
about the year 1257 at Cambridge, Eng 
land. The religious wore a habit similar 
to the Dominicans, and on the breast a red 
star to remind them of the star that ap 
peared to the Magi. 2. A religious order 
founded in Guatemala, in 1653. Extended 
to Mexico a few years later, and ulti 
mately to other parts of Spanish-America. 
The members lived according to the mon 
astic rules of the Augustinians. 

Bethphage (Hebr. house of unripe figs). 
A village in Palestine, situated on the 
Mount of Olives eastwards from Jerusalem 
and near Bethany. The exact site is in 
dispute. " The traditional site is above 
Bethany, halfway between that village and 
the top of the mount." William Smith. 
At Bethphage Jesus mounted an ass in 
order to make His triumphant entry into 
Jerusalem. 

Bethsaida (Hebr. fishing-place). The 
name of two cities in Palestine: i. Beth 
saida of Galilee was situated in Galilee, 
on the western shore of the lake Gennesa- 
reth, a little south of Capharnaum, and 
was the birthplace of the Apostles Philip, 
Andrew, and Peter. 2. The other Beth 
saida lay in Gaulonitis, on the eastern site 
of the same lake, and near the place where 
the Jordan enters it. This town was en 
larged by Philip, tetrarch of that region 
(Luke iii. i), and called Julias in honor 
of Julia, the daughter of Augustus. Near 
by Jesus wrought the miracle of the multi 
plication of the five loaves of bread and 
two fishes (Luke ix. 10-17). 

Bethsan (Hebr. house of rest) More 
generally known by the name of Sc\thop- 
olis, was situated on the west of the Jor 
dan, at the southern extremity of the great 
plain of Esdrselon, on the high ground 
between that plain and the valley of the 
Jordan. The place is now called Bysan. 
The bodies of Saul and Jonathan, killed in 
the battle of Gelboe, were hung on the 
wall of Bethsan by the Philistines ; but the 
inhabitants of Jabes Galaad removed the 
remains during the night and buried them 
in the wood of Jabes (I. Ki. xxxi. 10). 

Bethsur. Town of Palestine, in the 
tribe of Juda, twelve miles south of Jerusa 



lem, fortified by Roboam. Besieged by 
Lysias, regent of the kingdom of Syria, it 
was delivered by Judas Machabeus who 
routed the Syrians (I. Mach. vi. 6). 

Bethulia. City of Palestine, in the 
tribe of Zabulon, famous through the siege 
of Holofernes, who was killed by Judith. 
Some authors believe that the existent 
small town of Saour, situated about 17 
miles north of Naplouse, near the plain of 
Esdraelon, arose on the site of the ancient 
Bethulia. 

Beza (THEODORE). One of the princi 
pal chiefs of the so-called reformers (1519- 
1605). Born in Burgundy; died at Geneva. 
In 1548 he fled to Geneva, where he ab 
jured his Catholic faith and became the 
successor of Calvin in this city on the lat- 
ter s death in 1564. 

Bible (from the Gr. biblion, biblios, a 
letter or paper). The Sacred Books of 
the Jews and Christians. St. Paul has di 
vided the Bible into the Old and New 
Covenant, because it sets forth the cove 
nant which God made with the Jews, when 
He constituted them His chosen people, 
and afterwards with the Jews and Gentiles 
when Christ redeemed the world. This 
Covenant of St. Paul is translated Testa- 
men turn in the Latin Vulgate, and Testa 
ment in English. In the reading of the 
Old Testament, the early Christians gener 
ally used the Septuagint (see this subject) 
version, which was considered divinely in 
spired. This version was held in high 
veneration, even by the Jews until the 
Christians quoted it against them, when 
the Rabbins affected to condemn it. Three 
new Greek versions were produced, which 
were intended to supersede the Septuagint. 
The first by Aquila, a Jewish proselyte of 
Sinope in Pontus, under Hadrian; a sec 
ond by Symmachus, an Ebionite of Eph- 
esus, under Severus ; and a third by 
Theodotion, another Ebionite, who lived 
in the reign of Commodus. These ver 
sions Origen republished in his famous 
Hexapla, which contained, besides the 
original Hebrew, the same in Greek text, 
and the Septuagint. Of the Hexaplarian 
Septuagint, a new edition, published by 
Pamphylus and Eusebius, was adopted in 
the Churches of Palestine. Other edi 
tions of the Septuagint appeared, one by 
Lucian of Antioch, and another by He- 
sychius, an Egyptian bishop ; the former 
being used in the Churches of Asia 



BIBLE 



104 



BIBLE 



Minor and Constantinople, the latter in 
those of Egypt. One of the oldest and 
most important renditions of the Bible, 
the Syriac version, called the Peshito or 
"Simple," appeared, probably at Edessa, 
about the middle of the second century; 
some refer it even to the time of St. Jude, 
the Apostle. The Peshito, which was 
made from the original text, that is, the 
Old Testament from the Hebrew, and the 
New from the Greek, was held in high re 
pute by all the Christians of Syria. Latin 
versions are known to have existed in the 
earliest ages of Christianity. Of these the 
most famous was the ancient Vulgate, 
also called Italic, although it is believed 
to have been made in Africa. It was 
made, if not in the age of the Apostles, 
at least in the second century, and was 
translated from the Greek copy (Septua- 
gint) of the Old Testament and from Greek 
copies of books of the Old Testament not 
found in the Septuagint, as well as from 
the Greek copies of the books of the New 
Testament. This version was used in the 
Latin Churches till the sixth century, when 
it was superseded by the New Vulgate of 
St. Jerome. See CANON OF THE SCRIP 
TURES. 

Believing the Sacred Scriptures to be di 
vinely inspired writings, the Church, at all 
times, recommended their perusal and study 
to the people. In no instance did the Church 
ever prohibit the reading of the Bible in 
the original text, or in authentic versions; 
neither did she ever forbid translations to 
be made into the language of any country. 
But when the heresies of the Waldenses 
and Albigenses arose, there was danger 
from corrupt translations. These heretics 
appealed to the Bible, in justification of 
their assaults upon civil and ecclesiastical 
authority, and insisted that the people 
should judge the Church by their own 
interpretation of the Scriptures. These 
evils elicited restrictions from the Councils 
of Toulouse (1229) and Tarragona (1234) 
with regard to vernacular versions. "The 
lawless political principles of Wycliffe," 
says Blunt, "and the still more lawless 
ones of his followers, created a strong prej 
udice against vernacular translations of 
the Scriptures, on the part of the rulers of 
England, both in Church and State. The 
Bible was quoted in support of rebellion 
and of the wildest heresy." (Reform of 
the. Church of England, vol. I. p. 504.) 
That the Bible was scarce, or its reading 
neglected, is historically untrue. "There 



has been much wild and foolish writing," 
the same author observes, "about the 
scarcity of the Bible in the age preceding 
the Reformation. It has been taken for 
granted that Holy Scripture was almost a 
sealed book to clergy and laity, until it was 
printed in English by Tyndale and Cover- 
dale, and that the only real source of 
knowledge respecting it, before them, was 
the translation made by Wycliffe. The 
facts are that the clergy and monks were 
daily reading large portions of the Bible, 
and had them stored up in their memory, 
by constant recitation ; that they made 
very free use of Holy Scripture in preach 
ing, so that even a modern Bible reader is 
astonished at the number of quotations 
and references contained in mediaeval 
sermons; that countless copies of the 
Bible were written out by the surprising 
industry of cloistered scribes; that many 
glosses or commentaries were written 
which are still seen to be full of pious and 
wise thoughts ; and that all laymen who 
could read were, as a rule, provided with 
their Gospels, their Psalter, or other de 
votional portions of the Bible. . . . The 
clergy studied the word of God, and made 
it known to the laity ; and those few 
among the laity who could read had 
abundant opportunity of reading the Bible 
either in Latin or in English, up to the 
Reformed period." (Ibid. p. 501.) 

It has been asserted by Protestants that 
Wycliffe s and Luther s translations of the 
Scriptures first made them accessible to 
the laity. This is not true. For it is a 
well ascertained fact, that long before the 
Reformation of Luther, the people of 
almost every country in Europe had the 
Bible already translated into their own 
vernacular tongues. In most nations there 
was not only one, but there were even 
many different versions. We begin with 
Germany, the theatre of the Reformation. 
The Germans had no less than jive dif 
ferent translations of the Scriptures into 
their own language, of which three were 
previous to that of Luther in 1530, and 
two were contemporary with or immedi 
ately subsequent to it. The oldest was 
that made by Ulphilas, Bishop of the 
Ma3so-Goths (now Wallachians), as early 
as the middle of the fourth century. This 
version seems to have been used for sev 
eral centuries by many of the older Gothic 
and Germanic Christians. The second 
version was that ascribed to Charlemagne 
(beginning of the ninth century) proba- 



BIBLE 



105 



BIBLE 



bly because it was made by some erudite 
translator under his direction. It was 
translated into the old German, or Teu 
tonic dialect. Besides, there was a very 
old rhythmical paraphrase of the four Gos 
pels, much used in Germany from the time 
of the first Emperor Louis (814-840). The 
third German version was a translation 
from the Latin Vulgate by some person 
unknown, an edition of which was printed 
as early as the year 1466. Two copies of 
this edition are still preserved in the sena 
torial library at Leipsic. Before the ap 
pearance of the German Bible of Luther, 
the version last named had been published 
in Germany at least sixteen times: once at 
Strasburg, five times at Nuremberg, and 
ten times at Augsburg. Add to these the 
three editions of Wittenberg, mentioned 
by Seckendorf (published in 1470, 1483, 
and 1490), and not included in this esti 
mate, and we ascertain that the Bible had 
already been reprinted in the German lan 
guage no less than twenty times before 
Luther s translation appeared. In 1534, John 
Dietemberg published his new German 
translation from the Latin Vulgate at May- 
ence, under the auspices of the Archbishop 
and Elector, Albert. It passed through up 
wards of twenty editions in the course of 
one hundred years, four of which appeared 
at Mayence, and seventeen at Cologne. 
Though somewhat unpolished in style it 
was generally esteemed as a faithful trans 
lation. In 1537, another Catholic version 
appeared under the supervision of Doctors 
Emser and Eck, the two learned champions 
of Catholicity against Luther. This ver 
sion likewise passed through many edi 
tions. The facts already stated clearly 
prove how utterly unfounded is the state 
ment, that before the Reformation "the 
Bible was an unknown book ! " 

Other Catholic countries were not be 
hind Germany in the sincere desire to 
translate the Scriptures into the vernacu 
lar tongues, and to circulate them among 
the people. In fact there is not a country 
in Europe in which the Bible had not been 
repeatedly translated and published long 
before the Reformation. In Italy, there 
were two versions anterior to that of Lu 
ther : that by the Dominican, Jacobus a 
Voragine, Archbishop of Genoa, which 
version, according to the testimony of 
Sixtus Senensis, was completed as early as 
1290 (see BibliotJieca sacra, torn. I. p. 397) ; 
and that by Nicholas Malermi, a Camal- 
dolese monk, which was first printed sim 



ultaneously at Rome and Venice, in the 
year 1471, and which passed through as 
many as thirteen different editions before 
the year 1525. This translation was after 
wards reprinted eight times before the year 
1567, with the express permission of Santa 
Uffizio, or Holy Office, at Rome. Almost 
simultaneously with that of Luther, there 
likewise appeared two Italian trans 
lations of the Bible: that by Antonio 
Bruccioli, in 1532, which in twenty years 
passed through ten editions ; and that of 
Santes Marmochino, which was succes 
sively printed in 1538, 1546, and 1547. 
The oldest French version of the Bible 
was that by Des Moulins, whose Bibly 
Historyal almost a complete transla 
tion of the Bible appeared, according 
to Usher, about the year 1478. A new 
edition of it, corrected by Rely, Bishop of 
Angers, was published in 1487, and was 
successively reprinted sixteen different 
times before the year 1546, four of these 
editions appearing at Lyons and twelve at 
Paris. Le Fevre published a new French 
translation, which passed through many 
editions. A revision of this version was 
made by the divines at Louvain, in 1550, 
and was subsequently reprinted in France 
and Flanders thirty-nine times before the 
year 1700. According to Mariana, the 
great Spanish historian, the Scriptures 
were translated into Castilian by order of 
Alphonso the Wise (1252-1282). The 
whole Bible was translated into the Valen- 
cian dialect of the Spanish, in the year 
1405, by Boniface Ferrer, brother of St. 
Vincent Ferrer. This version was printed 
in 1478, and reprinted in 1515, -with the 
formal consent of the Spanish Inquisition. 
In 1512, the Epistles and Gospels were 
translated into Spanish by Ambrosio de 
Montesma. This work was republished at 
Antwerp in 1544, at Barcelona in 1601 and 
1608, and at Madrid in 1603 and 1644. In 
England, besides the translation made by 
the Venerable Bede in the eighth century 
and that of the Psalms ascribed to Alfred 
the Great, in the ninth century, there was 
also another translation of the whole Bible 
into the English of that early period, 
which was completed about the year 1290 
long before the version of Wycliffe in the 
fifteenth century. In the year 706, Ad- 
helm, first Bishop of Salisbury, according 
to the testimony of the Protestant bibli- 
cist Horn, translated the Psalter into 
Saxon. At his persuasion, Egbert, Bishop 
of Lindisfarne, also translated the four 



BIBLE 



1 06 



BIBLE 



Gospels. In the fourteenth century, a 
new English version of the whole Bible 
was made by John Trevisa. In the year 
905, Elfric, Archbishop of Canterbury, 
translated into English the Pentateuch, 
Josue, Job, Judges, Ruth, part of the books 
of Kings, Esther, and the Machabees. 

The Bible was translated into Flemish, 
as Usher admits, by jacobus Merland, 
before the year 1210. This version was 
printed at Cologne in 1475, and it passed 
through seven new editions before the ap 
pearance of Luther s Bible in 1530. The 
Antwerp edition was published eight times 
in the short space of seventeen years. 
Within thirty years there were also pub 
lished, at Antwerp alone, no less than ten 
editions of the New Testament translated 
by Cornelius Kendrick in 1524. In the 
course of the seventeenth century, there 
also appeared in Flanders several new 
Catholic versions by De Witt, Laemput, 
Schum, and others. All these were re 
peatedly republished. A Slavonic version 
of the Bible was published at Cracow in 
the beginning of the sixteenth century. 
As early as the fourteenth century the Bi 
ble had been translated into the Swedish, 
by the direction of St. Bridget. Accord 
ing to the testimony of Jonas Arnagrimus, 
a disciple of the distinguished Tycho 
Brahe, a translation of the Bible was made 
in Iceland as early as 1297. A Bohemian 
Bible appeared at Prague in 1488, and 
passed through three other different edi 
tions ; at Cutna in 1498, and at Venice in 
1506 and 1511. 

Finally, to complete this hasty summary 
of bibliographical facts, we may state, as 
an evidence of the solicitude of Rome for 
the dissemination of the Bible, that many 
editions of Syriac and Arabic Bibles have 
been printed at Rome and Venice for the 
use of the Oriental Churches in commun 
ion with the Holy See. A translation 
of the Bible into Ethiopic was published 
at Rome, as early as 1548. The famous 
convent of Armenian monks, called Mech- 
itarists, at Venice, has more recently pub 
lished exquisitely beautiful versions of the 
Bible translated into Armenian. 

The bishops at present recommend the 
German version of Allioli. which is very 
faithfully rendered word for word from 
the Latin Vulgate, and is furnished with 
very fine explanatory notes. It appeared 
in 1830. So, too, in French there are many 
Catholic versions, dating as far back as 
1294; but the latest and best is that 



published with excellent notes in 1861, by 
the Abbe Glaire, who has faithfully ren 
dered the text of the Latin Vulgate. In 
Italy, of all the Catholic versions, the one 
that holds the highest place was translated 
literally from the Vulgate, in 1779, by 
Anthony Martini, Archbishop of Florence, 
who has also added valuable notes. The 
Spanish Catholics have a favorite version 
on the same plan, by Don Felipe de San 
Miguel, published in 1793, and the Portu 
guese possess one by Antonio Pereira, 
which appeared in 1781 ; while the Belgian 
or Dutch Catholics have the version of 
Nicholas Van Winghe, printed in Louvain 
as early as 1548. In short, there is no 
Catholic country without its native ver 
sion of the Scriptures, approved and 
circulated by episcopal authority. In the 
sweet and expressive language of Ireland 
there is a Catholic Bible, as old as 1347, 
which emanated, it is supposed, from the 
pen of Richard Fitz-Ralph, Archbishop 
of Armagh. Dr. McHale, the late Arch 
bishop of Tuam, was actually engaged in 
correcting the old Irish translation ac 
cording to the Latin Vulgate; but fail 
ing health prevented the completion of 
the undertaking. English-speaking Cath 
olics use the Douay Bible. It is an Eng 
lish translation, made in the English Col 
lege at Rheims, France, about 1582, and 
taken directly from the Vulgate; but as 
the Old Testament part was not published 
until 1610, in the English College at Douay, 
the whole was given the name Douav 
Bible. Dr. Challoner, Catholic Bishop of 
London, revised it in 1750, and the Catholic 
hierarchy of Ireland soon circulated it 
among their flocks. The Catholic bishops 
of America adopted it in 1810, and Scriv 
ener, the learned Protestant editor, in his 
supplement to the Authorized Protestant 
Version, says the "Douay translation is 
highly commendable for its scrupulous 
accuracy." 

Bible (Canon of the}. See CANON OF 
THE SCRIPTURES. 

Bible (Geneva or Breeches}. This work 
is the joint production of Gilby, Witting- 
ham, probably John Knox, and other prom 
inent divines of the Puritan stamp, who, 
when the Catholic Queen Mary ascended 
the throne of England, fled to the more 
congenial atmosphere of their Calvinistic 
center, in Switzerland. It is saturated 
with Swiss Protestantism, and derives its 
most familiar name from the rendering it 



BIBLE 



107 



BIGAMIST 



gives of Genesis (iii. 7) to this effect: 
" Then the eyes of them both were opened, 
and they knew that they were naked, and 
they sewed fig-tree leaves together, and 
made themselves breeches. 1 

Bible (King James s). Version of the 
Bible authorized by the Church of Eng 
land. When King James I. (1603-1625) as 
cended the throne of England, an address 
was presented to his majesty by the clergy 
of Lincoln diocese, with the request to re 
vise the English versions of the Bible. In 
consequence of this, and other representa 
tions, the king ordered fifty-four of the 
most eminent divines from Oxford and 
Cambridge to produce a new version of 
the Hebrew and Greek Testaments. Four 
years were devoted to the task, and the 
outcome was the present Authorized Prot 
estant Version, which received the royal 
sanction in 1605. It is the version ap 
pointed by the Crown to be used in all the 
Churches belonging to English commun 
ion, so that no Anglican clergyman can 
use any other in public worship. This 
" Authorized Version," after a long inter 
val of over 260 years, was lately revised by 
a learned company, under the presidency of 
Dr. Ellicot, Protestant Bishop of Glouces 
ter and Bristol. These distinguished schol 
ars devoted ten years to their arduous work, 
and some of their corrections are in har 
mony with the Catholic Vulgate. 

Biblia Pauperum (Bible of the Poor). 
Collection of the principal passages of the 
Bible, engraved on wood, before the in 
vention of printing, for the instruction 
and use of the people. This work, which 
dates from the fourteenth century, is one 
of the first monuments of xylography. 
The text has been drawn up by Bona- 
ventura, General of the Franciscans, in 
1260. A fac-simile has been published 
by J. Russel Smith, in 1859. 

Bible Societies. Protestant associations 
established to propagate the Bible among 
all the peoples and in all the languages. 
The first regular Bible Society was consti 
tuted at London, England, in 1804. Pope 
Leo. XII., in his Encyclical of May 3d, 
1824, condemned the Bible Societies. The 
same was done by Pope Pius VIII., May 
29th, 1829; by Gregory XVI., May 8th, 
1844; and by Pius IX., Nov. gth, 1846. 

The annual report of the British and 
Foreign Bible Society for the year ending 
March 3ist, 1895, showed a total issue for 



Fo 
Fo 
Fo 
Fo 
Fo 
Fo 
Fo 
Fo 


ten years to March 31 
ten years to March 31 
ten years to March 31 
ten years to March 31 
ten years to March 31 
ten years to March 31 
ten years to March 31 
March 31, 1890, to Jam 

Grand total from org< 
zation to January i, 


830. 




840 . . . . 


5,768,673 


850. 


860. 




870 


21 868 843 


880 




890 . . . 


35) ?6o 627 


lary i, 1895.. 
ini-1 


.. 19,467,184 




18951 





that year by the Society of 3,837,222 copies 
of the Holy Scriptures. The great in 
crease of the work of the British and 
Foreign Bible Society during the last few 
years may be seen by the following tabular 
statement of its total issues by decades : 

Total issues to March 31, 1820 2,843,291 



The receipts for the year ending March 
3ist, 1895, aggregated $1,166,815 ; total ex 
penditure for the year, $1,074,850. The 
American Bible Society issued during the 
year ending March 3ist, 1896, an aggregate 
number of 1,750,283 copies, an increase 
over the preceding year of 169,155. Its 
total issues from 1816, the date of its or 
ganization, to March 3ist, 1896, aggregated 
61,705,841. The cash receipts for the year 
aggregated $437,223. The number of is 
sues of the two Societies (British and 
Foreign and American Bible Societies) 
during 1895 aggregated 5,418,350 copies, 
an average of about 17,366 copies of the 
Scriptures for every working day of the 
year. The grand total of issues to Jan. ist, 
1896, circulated by all the societies, was 
256,647,008. 

The British and Foreign Bible Society 
reported, March 3ist, 1890, a list of 3,279 
auxiliary and branch Bible societies. The 
American Bible Society at the same date 
reported a list of 2,034, a gg re g at i n g a total 
of 5,313 auxiliary and branch societies 
which are connected with those two parent 
societies. 

Bigamist and Bigamy. The term ap 
plied to a person who has committed the 
crime of bigamy, that is, who has more 
than one wife or husband at the same time. 
In Canon Law a bigamist is defined as one 
who has married two wives successively, 
or who, having been married but once, has 
married a widow. In both cases such a one 
cannot hold a bishopric without dispensa 
tion. This point of discipline is founded 
upon what St. Paul says in his Epistle to 
Titus, (Tit. i. 6). " Husband of one wife." 
Hence it was that bigamists were not ad 
mitted to sacred orders : either because big 
amy was real, for having married two wives ; 



BlNATION 



1 08 



BISHOP 



or because it was interpretative, for having 
married a widow or daughter, who had been 
corrupted before her marriage. Even those 
were declared as bigamists who had made 
a vow of celibacy before their marriage ; 
and the Church observed such a great 
rigor in regard to bigamists, that Pope 
Leo I. never wished a bishop of Mauri- 
tanea to ordain them. Father Doucin, in 
his History of Ncs tor ianism, says that 
Irenaeus being a bigamist, because he had 
been married twice, had been elected 
Bishop of Tyre against the canons. St. 
Jerome, Gennadius, and the Greeks re 
garded as bigamists only those who had 
married two wives successively, after they 
had received baptism ; but St. Ambrose, 
St. Innocent, and St. Augustine regarded 
with the Latin Church as bigamists those 
who had married two wives, even when 
they had married the first before being 
baptized (see FATHER THOMASSIN). St. 
Epiphanius says (Hcer. 59, n. 4), that the 
Church strictly observes the rule not to 
ordain bigamists, although they had mar 
ried the second wife only after the death 
of the first. In the sixth, seventh, and 
eighth centuries, bigamists were excluded, 
both in the East and West, from the epis 
copate, priesthood, and deaconate; they 
could receive inferior orders with the 
dispensation of their bishop, according to 
several theologians and canonists, who 
quote in their favor St. Thomas ; but 
Father Thomassin says that the interpret 
ing cardinals of the Council of Trent, and 
Sixtus IV., have declared that, even in 
this case, one must have recourse to the 
Pope. See MATRIMONY. 

Bination. By bination we understand a 
priest saying two Masses on the same day. 
Formerly priests were allowed to cele 
brate several times a day. But at present 
this is prohibited, except on Christmas 
and in the case of necessity. Cases of 
necessity are held to be when either an 
entire congregation, or a large portion of 
a congregation, is debarred from hearing 
Mass on Sunday and holydays, unless the 
pastor says two Masses on the same day. 
Hence : i. A pastor who has two parishes at 
so great a distance from each other that the 
people residing in one of the places cannot 
conveniently go to the other place for Mass, 
can say two Masses a day, one in each 
parish. 2. A pastor can say two Masses a 
day in the same church, if a considerable 
number, v. g., thirty, would otherwise be 



deprived of Mass on Sundays and holydays, 
v. g., because the church is too small to 
hold the entire congregation at the same 
time. 3. We say on Sundays and holy- 
days; that is, the necessity for saying two 
Masses can occur only on those days on 
which the faithful are bound to hear Mass, 
but not on week-days, nor on Holy Thurs 
day or Good Friday. The permission of 
the bishop, as a rule, is required for the 
bination even in the above circumstances. 
On Christmas every priest is allowed to say 
three Masses without the permission of the 
bishop. 

Biretta. Originally, any small cap 
worn as distinctive of a trade or profes 
sion ; afterwards, a scholastic cap, or such as 
was worn indoors by members of the learned 
professions; and at present in the Catholic 
Church the ecclesiastical cap. This last is 
square, and has three, and sometimes four, 
ridges or projections on top, crossing it at 
equal angles, frequently having a tuft or 
tassel where the ridges meet in the middle. 
For priests and the lower orders of the 
clergy its color is black, and for bishops 
who are resident at Rome, though else 
where they commonly wear one of violet, 
corresponding with the color of the cas 
sock; for cardinals it is red. It seems to 
have been introduced in the offices of the 
Church, when the amice ceased to be worn 
over the head in proceeding to and from 
the altar at Mass. 

Birgit (ST.). See BRIGET. 

Bishop. The word bishop, etymolog- 
ically, means overseer, and priest means 
elder. The Greek originals of both words 
(episcopos, presbyteros) are of frequent 
occurrence in the New Testament, and do 
not seem to be always used with, precision ; 
the verbal distinction was not fixed. But 
in the second and following centuries, we 
find that the distinction between bishops 
and priests is no less marked than that be 
tween priests and deacons. Bishops have 
always been regarded as the chief pastors, 
and as superior to the priests in authority 
and jurisdiction, as well as in order. This 
distinction between the episcopate and the 
simple priesthood, with the superiority of 
bishops, which is clearly pointed out in the 
Sacred Scriptures (I. Tim. v. 19; Tit. i. 5; 
Phil. iv. 3; Col. iv. 17), was uniformly 
taught by the early Fathers. St. Clement 
of Rome writes: "The Apostles, foresee 
ing that contentions would arise regarding 



BISHOP 



109 



BISHOPS 



the dignity of the episcopacy, appointed 
bishops, instructing them to appoint others, 
that when they should die, other approved 
men would succeed them in their ministry." 
Nothing can be plainer than the language of 
St. Ignatius the Martyr, who ventures to say, 
that in the Church the bishop presides in the 
place of God, and the priests represent the 
College of the Apostles (Ad MagneS, n. 
6), and this saint s epistles are full of 
similar expressions. The Presbyterians 
find no answer to this argument, except to 
call in question the genuineness of the let 
ters. St. Irenseus and St. Cyprian affirm 
the same truth. That this gradation of 
dignity and authority had existed in the 
first ages, appears from the fact that the 
early Fathers, in their controversies with 
heretics, often appealed to the catalogue 
of bishops, which existed in nearly all the 
principal churches, and had come down 
unbroken from the days of the Apostles. 
Nor have the early heretics ever denied 
the apostolic appointment of bishops, or 
their superiority over priests. If, in the 
New Testament, the words "bishop" and 
"presbyter" are sometimes indifferently 
applied to the same person, it does not 
follow, that there existed no distinction 
between the episcopacy and the priesthood. 
St. John, though an Apostle, calls himself 
an ancient, i.e., a presbyter (II. John i.) ; 
and thus also with the bishops of the sec 
ond and third centuries, whose right to 
exercise authority over priests was cer 
tainly never called into question at that 
period. The same ecclesiastics, indeed, 
passed often for bishops and priests ; yet 
as to the power or dignity, a distinc 
tion was always recognized between the 
two, even from the very beginning of the 
Church. See CLERGY AND LAITY. 

Bishop (Auxiliary). Auxiliary bishop 
is a titular bishop appointed by the Holy 
See to assist an ordinary bishop, not in the 
exercise of his jurisdiction, but merely of 
the episcopal order, v.g., to give confirma 
tion. He is called first, titular bishop (epis- 
copus tttularis, episcopus in partibus infi- 
delium) ; for he is consecrated with the 
title of some diocese in the hands of the 
infidels; and, secondly, appointed by the 
Holy See. At present titular bishops are 
appointed only: i. When they are really 
needed. 2. Where it is customary to have 
them. 3. On condition that a proper sal 
ary be assigned to them. The reasons for 
which they are usually appointed are : i. 



Where a bishop does not reside in his see. 
2. Or cannot perform the episcopal func 
tions of order on account of old age, in 
firmity, or the great extent of his diocese. 
Auxiliary bishops are not bound to make 
the visit ad limia. Their office lapses as 
soon as the bishop jdiom they assist dies 
or in some other way relinquishes his see. 
They exist at present chiefly in Prussia, 
Austria, Spain, etc. The Pope makes use 
of titular bishops in the discharge of his 
apostolic duties. 

Bishop (Suffragan). See SUFFRAGAN. 

Bishops (Appointment of in the United 
States). Prior to the "Third Plenary 
Council of Baltimore," held in 1884, the 
candidates for a vacant diocese were pre 
sented to the S. C. de Prop. Fide by 
the bishops of the province to which 
the vacant diocese belonged. The priests 
of the vacant diocese had no share or 
voice in this presentation or nomination. 
The "Third Plenary Council of Balti 
more " amended this mode of appoint 
ment and made the following enactments, 
which now form the law in this country : 
i. When a diocese falls vacant, whether 
by the death, resignation, transfer, or re 
moval of the bishop, and when, in conse 
quence, three candidates are to be chosen, 
the consultors and the irremovable rectors 
of the vacant diocese shall be called to 
gether, v. g., thirty days after the vacancy 
occurs. It will be the right and duty of 
these consultors and rectors, thus properly 
assembled, to select three candidates for 
the vacant see. The candidates thus 
chosen shall be submitted to the bishops 
of the province, whose right it will be to 
approve or disapprove of them. 2. The 
meeting of the consultors and irremovable 
rectors is called and presided over by the 
metropolitan of the province to which the 
vacant diocese belongs ; or, if the metro 
politan be lawfully hindered, then the 
meeting may be presided over by one of the 
suffragan bishops of the same province, to 
be deputed for this purpose by the metro 
politan. Where there is question of choos 
ing three candidates for a metropolitan see 
which is vacant, the meeting of the con- 
suitors and irremovable rectors of the 
vacant metropolitan see is called and pre 
sided over by the senior suffragan bishop, 
or, if he be hindered, by another bishop to 
be deputed by him. 3. Before they cast 
their votes, the aforesaid consultors and 
rectors shall swear that they are not in- 



BISHOP S COADJUTOR 



I 10 



BLASIUS 



duced to cast their votes for a candidate 
because of unworthy motives, such as that 
of expecting favors or rewards. They 
shall vote by secret ballot. This vote is 
merely consultive, /. c., it is simply equiva 
lent to a recommendation that one of the 
candidates be appointed to the vacant see. 
4. The president of the meeting shall 
cause two authentic copies of the min 
utes of the meeting containing an ac 
curate list of the candidates chosen, to be 
drawn up and signed by the secretary. He 
shall forward one copy directly to the .S. 
C. de Prop. Fide, the second to the other 
bishops of the province. A third copy 
may also be drawn up and kept in the dioc 
esan archives, as is done in England. 5. 
Thereupon, on a day fixed beforehand, 
v. jr., ten days after the above meeting of 
consultors and rectors, the bishops of the 
province shall meet and openly discuss 
among themselves the merits of the candi 
dates selected by the consultors and rec 
tors, or of others to be selected by them 
selves. Afterwards they make up their 
list of three candidates to be sent to Rome. 
From this it will be seen that the bishops 
have a right to approve or disapprove of 
the candidates chosen by the clergy. But 
if they disapprove of them, they are bound 
to give the reason upon which they base 
their disapproval to the 5. C. de Prop. 
Fide. 6. In everything else the bishops 
shall observe the instruction of the .S. C. 
de Prop. Fide dated Jan. 2ist, 1861, and 
given in the Second Plenary Council of 
Baltimore, n. 106, 107. In other words, 
the bishops shall state in writing the qual 
ifications and merits of the various candi 
dates, according to the questions given in 
the Second Plenary Council of Baltimore, 
n. 107. The minutes of the meeting of the 
bishops shall then be sent to the 5". C. de 
Prop. Fide by the archbishop, or senior 
bishop of the province. 7. When there 
is question of appointing a coadjutor- 
bishop, with the right of succession, the 
rules laid down above under Nos. i, 3, 
4, 5 and 6 shall be strictly adhered to. 
Rule 2 will, however, be changed thus: 
The meeting of the consultors and irre 
movable rectors will be presided over, 
not by the archbishop of the province, or 
his deputy, but by the archbishop or 
bishop for whom the coadjutor is to be 
chosen; or, where he is hindered, by the 
vicar-general, or other priest, deputed by 
him. Moreover, in this case, the bishop 
for whom the coadjutor is to be named 



can, if he desires, suggest or point out 
the names of the candidates who would 
be most acceptable to him for the coad- 
jutorship. 8. When there is question 
of electing a bishop for a diocese newly 
erected, the rules given above under 
Nos. 2, 3, 4 and 6 shall be observed. 
However, Rule i shall be changed thus: 
When there is question of proposing to the 
Holy See the names of candidates for the 
new diocese, the consultors of the diocese, 
or dioceses, from which the new see has 
been formed, and the irremovable rectors 
of the newly erected diocese, shall be 
called together, and it will be their right 
and duty to select three candidates for the 
new bishopric. This rule is based on the 
fact that a newly erected see will, of 
course, have no consultors until after the 
first bishop, having been confirmed, ap 
points them. Hence, the consultors of the 
old diocese properly take the place of the 
future consultors of the new diocese, for 
the purpose of naming the first bishop. 

Bishop s Coadjutor. See COADJUTOR 
BISHOP. 

Bithynia ( The Faith hi). See ETHIOPIA. 
Black Friars. See DOMINICANS. 

Blanc (ANTHONY). Catholic prelate; 
Archbishop of New Orleans ; born in Surry, 
France, Oct. nth, 1792. He left his native 
country in 1817, a year after his ordina 
tion to the priesthood, and came to the 
United States ; was created Bishop of New 
Orleans in 1835; archbishop in 1850. He 
founded a theological seminary, introduced 
several religious orders into his diocese, 
and was instrumental in founding many 
educational institutions and orphan asy 
lums. He died at New Orleans, June 2oth, 
1860. 

Blanchet (FRANCIS NORBERT) (1795- 
1883). American prelate; was born in the 
parish of St. Pierre, Canada; died in Ore 
gon. Ordained priest in 1819, he came to 
the United States in 1838 to labor among 
the Canadians who had settled in Oregon. 
Bishop of Oregon in 1845 ; Archbishop of 
Oregon in 1846. 

Blasius (ST.). Martyr; was Bishop of 
Sebaste, in Cappadocia, when Licinius be 
gan a bloody persecution of the Christians, 
Blasius left the town and concealed him 
self in an unknown chasm in the rocks; 
but his abode was discovered by Agricola, 
the governor, while out hunting. The 



BLASPHEMY 



in 



BOGOMILES 



saint was conveyed to Sebaste ; and as he 
steadfastly refused to deny Christ, and to 
worship the heathen gods, he was put to 
death in 316. The wool-combers claim 
him as their patron saint, for the singular 
reason that he was tortured, among other 
instruments, with a wool-comb. The prac 
tice of invoking St. Blasius in cases of sore- 
throat is said to have originated in the 
circumstance that, when imprisoned, he 
saved the only son of a rich widow from 
being choked by a fish-bone. 

Blasphemy. An offense against God 
and religion, by denying the Almighty, His 
being and providence, or by contumelious 
reproaches of our Lord and Saviour Jesus 
Christ; also all profane scoffing at the 
Holy Scriptures, or exposing them to 
ridicule and contempt. 

Blessing. See SACRAMENTALS. 

Blood-Avenger. Among the Hebrews, 
a wilful murderer forfeited his own life, 
and it was the duty of the next of kin to 
inflict the penalty, since the crime was 
committed against God as well as society, 
and no ransom could be allowed (Num. 
xxxv. 31-33). But cities of refuge were 
provided for the accidental homicide, who 
could flee thither and have his case de 
termined by the assembly (Num. xxxv. 
12, 24), when, if guilty, he was surrendered ; 
but if not, was required to remain there 
till the death of the existing high-priest. 

Blood (Congregation of the Most Pre 
cious). See PRECIOUS BLOOD. 

Blue Laws.- A code of laws passed by 
Puritans for the regulation of religious 
and personal conduct in the colonies of 
Connecticut and New Haven, in the seven 
teenth century. Among the Blue Laws 
of Connecticut we find one enacting that 
"no priest shall abide in this dominion; 
he shall be banished, and suffer death on 
his return. Priests may be seized by any 
one without a warrant." They also em 
braced the following provisions : " No 
one shall travel, cook, make beds, sweep 
house, cut hair, shave, on the Sabbath day. 
No woman shall kiss her child, and no 
husband shall kiss his wife, or wife her 
husband, on the Lord s day. No one shall 
read common Prayer, keep Christmas or 
Saints days, make mince pies, dance, play 
cards, or play on any instrument of music, 
except the drum, trumpet, and jews harp." 
See Archbishop Spalding s Miscellanea. 



Bockhold (JOHN). See ANABAPTISTS. 
Boehme (JAMES). See ROSECRUCIANI. 

Boethius. Senator and philosopher, 
called "the last of the Romans," was born 
between the years 470 and 480. He was 
one of the most accomplished scholars of 
his age. He was consul from the year 508 
to 510, and enjoyed the friendship of King 
Theodoric. His strict honesty and advo 
cacy of the cause of the innocent and weak, 
had made him many enemies by whom he 
was accused of plotting with the Byzantine 
emperor to free Rome from the Ostro- 
gothic rule. He was imprisoned by order 
of King Theodoric, and ultimately exe 
cuted, in 524 or 525, in the fiftieth year of 
his age. A magnificent mausoleum, with 
an epitaph by Pope Sylvester II., was 
erected to the memory of Boethius by the 
Emperor Otto III. The works of Boethius 
are chiefly philosophical, containing trans 
lations with notes of the works of Plato, 
Aristotle, and other Greek philosophers. 
His principal literary relic, Consolation of 
Philosophy in five books, Boethius com 
posed in prison at Pavia, shortly before his 
execution. It is a dialogue between the 
author and philosophy, showing the incon 
stancy and insufficiency of earthly happi 
ness, and that true happiness is to be 
sought in God alone. Its tone is elevated, 
its style eloquent and pure, but the fact 
that the name of Christ or of the Christian 
religion is not even once mentioned in the 
work, has led many to question the 
author s belief in Christianity. The sev 
eral theological tracts written against the 
Arian, Nestorian, and Eutychian heresies, 
which are attributed to our author, are by 
many regarded as not genuine. 

Bogomiles. Heretics of the twelfth 
century. Had for founder one Basil, a 
Bulgarian monk. Their tenets resembled 
very much those of the ancient Manicheans. 
They believed that God had two sons, 
Satanael, the seducer and chief of the fallen 
angels, and creator of the material world; 
and Christ, whom He sent into this world 
to destroy the power of Satanael. They 
rejected the Old Testament and part of the 
New, abhorred the Holy Eucharist, con 
demned the invocation of the saints and 
the use of images and churches, repudiated 
marriage, and would not recognize any 
liturgy, except the Lord s Prayer. They 
were detected at their impious work in the 
Greek Empire, during the reign of Alexius 



BOHEMIAN BRETHREN 



I 12 



BONIFACE 



Comnenus, by whom Basil was condemned 
to the flames, in 1119. From the East, the 
Nevv-Manicheans nocked into Western 
Europe, where they appeared under a va 
riety of names, such as Bulgarians, Pur 
itans, Paterines, Good Men, and, above all, 
Catharists. See ALBIGENSES. 

Bohemian Brethren. Heretics of the 
fifteenth century. They sprang from the 
Utraquists in Bohemia and Moravia. 
Their first head was Michael Bradacz, 
Utraquist parish priest at Zamberg. The 
members of this sect, who wished to re 
store the Church to its ancient simplicity, 
rejected Transubstantiation and some other 
dogmas. The sect spread throughout 
Germany, principally, however, in Saxony. 
At a later period its adherents made com 
mon cause with the Protestants. 

Boleyn (ANNE) (1507-1536). Queen of 
England ; the second wife of Henry VIII. of 
England, whom she married on or about 
Jan. 25th, 1533, and mother of Queen Eliza 
beth. She was the daughter of Sir Thomas 
Boleyn, later Earl of Wiltshire and Ormond. 
She was condemned to death on a charge 
of adultery and incest, and decapitated. 
See HENRY VIII. 

Bollandists. See ACTS OF THE SAINTS. 

Bolsena (Mass of). See MASS OF BOL- 
SENA. 

Bona (GIOVANNI) Cardinal. Born at 
Mondovi, Piedmont, Oct. 12, 1609; died at 
Rome, Oct. 28, 1674. General of the Or 
der of the Feullants (1651), cardinal in 
1669; he failed to be elected Pope at the 
death of Clement XI. and then it was said 
that Papa Bona had been Papa Bonus. 
He was distinguished for piety and learn 
ing. His principal works are De rebus 
liturfficts, a work full of learned inquiries 
about the rites, prayers, and ceremonies 
of Mass; Manductio ad Caelum; Hor- 
logium asceticum ; De Principals vitce 
Christiana, which work has been com 
pared to the Imitation of Christ; Psallen- 
tis ecclesice har mania; De sacra Psalmo- 
dia. 

Bonaventure (ST.). Surnamed "Doctor 
Seraphicus " ; Franciscan, distinguished 
for his learning and piety. He was born 
in 1221, at Bagnarea, in Tuscany, and was 
educated at the University of Paris, where, 
as early as 1253, he obtained a professor 
ship of theology, and at the age of thirty- 
five years he became the general of his 



order, the internal disorders and conten 
tions of which he brought under due reg 
ulation. Pope Clement IV. wished to 
make him Archbishop of York, but de 
sisted at the request of Bonaventure; on 
the other hand, Gregory X., in 1273, com 
pelled him to accept the bishopric of Al- 
bano. In the year following Bonaven 
ture attended the Ecumenical Council of 
Lyons, and died while it was in session, 
July I5th, 1274. Bonaventure acquired great 
fame by his mystical writings. But both 
his philosophical and scholastico-theologi- 
cal works, of which the principal ones are 
the Breviloquium, and the Certiloquium, 
are highly esteemed, although their author 
does not on these subjects reach the level 
of St. Thomas. As a mystic, however, he 
surpasses him. 

Boniface (name of 9 Popes). Boniface 
I. Successor of Zosimus I. (418-422). 
Was for a time opposed by the Antipope 
Eulalius till the latter was banished by the 
Emperor Honorius. He was an unswerv 
ing supporter of orthodoxy and a strenuous 
defender of the prerogatives of the Holy 
See. Boniface II. Successor of Felix 
IV. (530-532). His election was disputed 
by one Dioscorus; but the Church was 
saved from schism by the death of the 
antipope a few weeks afterwards. At a 
Synod held in Rome, Boniface appointed 
his own successor in the person of the 
Deacon Vigilius, but annulled the act in 
a subsequent Council. Boniface III. 
Successor of Sabinianus (607). Died ten 
months after his election. Obtained from 
the Emperor Phocas (602-610), a decree 
acknowledging the Roman Church the 
" Head of all the Churches," and forbid 
ding the bishops of Constantinople to 
usurp the title of " Universal Patriarch." 
The assertion that from this epoch dates 
the Papal Supremacy is too absurd to 
need refutation. Boniface I V. Successor 
of the foregoing (608-615). Obtained the 
grant of the famous Pantheon, which he 
dedicated to divine worship under the in 
vocation of the Blessed Virgin and all the 
holy martyrs. Boniface V. Successor of 
Deusdedit (619-625). He evinced great 
zeal, especially for the Anglo-Saxon 
Church. Boniface VI. Elected Pope 
after Formosus, by a popular faction, died 
or was driven away 14 days afterwards, in 
896. He had been previously deposed 
from the priesthood, and some writers re 
gard him as an antipope. Boniface VII. 



BONIFACE 



BONIFACE 



Cardinal-deacon Franco. They rank him 
among the antipopes. Irregularly elected, 
on August 20th, 974, while Benedict VI. 
was yet alive, he was accused of having 
taken part in the assassination of this 
Pontiff. A creature of the Cescentians, 
when Otto II. drew near to the city of 
Rome, the pseudo-Pope fled to Constanti 
nople. Returned to Rome in 985, threw 
John XIV. into the castle Michael Angelo, 
where he caused him to be killed. But in 
the month of December following, he died 
quite suddenly, and his corpse, pierced 
with a lance, was left on the public place 
in front of the statue of Constantine; 
finally, some priests buried his remains. 
Boniface VIII. Successor of Celestine 
V. (1294-1303). He was of a noble family 
in Anagni. The Pontificate of this truly 
great, but much calumniated, Pope oc 
curred when the political affairs of Eu 
rope were extremely complicated. The 
policy of Boniface was to establish peace 
among the States of Europe and unite 
them in a great crusade for the recovery 
of the Holy Land. He issued, Feb. 25th, 
1296, the Bull Clericis laicos, which was 
directed against Philip the Fair, of France, 
who had imposed taxes on the French 
clergy, and which forbade the clergy of 
any country to pay tribute to the secular 
government without the papal permission ; 
but was forced by an enactment of Philip, 
which stopped the exportation of money 
from France, to concede that the French 
clergy might render voluntary contribu 
tions. He opened at Rome, Oct. 3oth, 1302, 
a synod in which he promulgated, Nov. 
i8th, 1302, the Bull Unam Sane/am. 
This Bull, after explaining the relations 
between Church and State, between the 
Spiritual and Temporal power, affirms 
that the temporal power is, of its na 
ture, subordinate to the ecclesiastical, as 
earthly are to heavenly things, and defines 
the obligation, which is incumbent on 
rulers as well as their subjects, of sub 
mitting in spiritual matters to the author 
ity of the vicar of Christ. " We declare to 
every creature, we affirm, define, and pro 
nounce, that it is altogether necessary for 
salvation to be subject to the Roman 
Pontiff." No more is taught in this docu 
ment, as of faith, than what all Catholics 
in every age have held, namely, that sub 
jection to the Bishop of Rome in matters 
of salvation is a necessary duty. He was 
made prisoner at Anagni, Sept. 7th, 1303, 
by Nogaret, vice-Chancellor to Philip, and 



Sciarra Colonna ; and, although released by 
the inhabitants of Anagni, he died at 
Rome of a violent fever. Zfoniface IX. 
Successor of Urban VI. (1389-1404). A 
pious and mild Pontiff, but too indulgent 
to his relatives, re-established the papal 
authority at Rome, restored the cardinals 
deposed in the preceding reign, and has 
tened to make terms with the royal family 
of Naples. He recognized young Ladis- 
laus, son of Charles III., as the legitimate 
king, and energetically supported him 
against Louis of Anjou, who was com 
pelled to withdraw to France. 

Boniface (ST.). Surnamed " Apostle of 
Germany." Was born of noble parents in 
Wessex, at Crediton, 680. At an early 
age he developed a strong predilection for 
the monastic profession and was educated 
in the monastery of Adescanceaster. His 
name was then Winfrid. At the age of 
thirty he was ordained priest, and being 
eminent among his brethren for learning 
and ability, had the prospect of future 
greatness before him. Having heard of 
the spiritual conquests of St.Willibrord and 
other missionaries, he desired to con 
tribute, like them, to the progress and 
diffusion of Christianity. His longings 
turned particularly to the old country, the 
fatherland of the Anglo-Saxons. In 716, 
Winfrid, accompanied by three other mis 
sionaries, sailed from the port of London 
to the coast of Friesland. But his attempt 
was singularly inopportune. Ratbod, 
King of the Frisians, was then at war with 
Charles Martel. The missionaries fled; 
the churches and monasteries in Friesland, 
which had been founded by the Franks, 
were demolished, and paganism recovered 
the ascendancy. This state of affairs com 
pelled Winfrid to return to England, hav 
ing accomplished nothing. Two years 
later, Winfrid was again permitted to pur 
sue his apostolic labors. Fortified with a 
commendatory letter from his ordinary, he 
went to Rome and there obtained from 
Pope Gregory II., an apostolic mission to 
all Northern Germany. He began his 
apostolic career in Thuringia, in 719, which 
had been Christianized in part by the dis 
ciples of St. Columbanus ; but the clergy, 
as well as the people, were demoralized. 
He instructed the people and reformed the 
clergy. His missionary efforts, however, 
in this direction were interrupted by the 
tidings of the death of Ratbod, and the 
subsequent success of the Franks. He 



BONOSIANS 



114 



BORROMEO UNION 



repaired at once to Friesland, and offering 
his services to Willibrord, then Archbishop 
of Utrecht, labored three /ears under the 
direction of that apostolic prelate. In 722, 
declining to become the coadjutor and suc 
cessor of Willibrord, Winfrid returned to 
Thuringia, and thence went to Hesse, 
where he made many converts. Being in 
formed of the conquests of our Saint, Pope 
Gregory II. summoned him to Rome, 
consecrating him regionary bishop, and 
sent him back with honor to his converts, 
in 723. On that occasion our Saint also 
assumed the name " Boniface," by which 
he is known in history. Returning to 
Germany, he resumed his mission among 
the Hessians and Thuringians. With his 
own hands, and in the presence of an 
assemblage of heathens, he felled the 
Sacred Oak of Thor, at Geismar, and 
of its wood built a chapel which he dedi 
cated to St. Peter. As the number of 
conversions daily increased, zealous as 
sistants from England joined Boniface. 
Pope Gregory III. sent Boniface the pal 
lium (732), made him vicar apostolic with 
full power to consecrate bishops and erect 
dioceses, and appointed him superior, not 
only of German, but also of Gallic prelates. 
In 738 Boniface made his third and last 
pilgrimage to Rome. Returning with in 
creased powers, he proceeded to settle the 
ecclesiastical divisions of Germany. The 
next object of the apostolic archbishop was 
to insure a permanent supply of mission 
aries. With this view he erected several 
monasteries. The most famous among 
these was that of Fulda. Between the 
years 742 and 746, Boniface held several 
synods, at which he reformed abuses and 
established excellent rules for the govern 
ment of the churches in Germany. In 
747, Pope Zacharias appointed Boniface 
Archbishop of Mentz and Primate of Ger 
many. By order of the same Pope, the 
Saint, in 752, crowned Pepin the Short, 
king of the Franks. For more than thirty 
years, Boniface had devoted himself to the 
salvation of Germany. Having completed 
his great task, he resigned his archiepisco- 
pal see to his disciple Lullus, in order to 
undertake the conversion of the Frisians. 
He had already converted several thou 
sands of this nation, when the great 
Apostle of Germany terminated his holy 
and useful life by a glorious martyrdom. 
He was attacked and slain, together with 
his companions, by a band of pagan Frisi 
ans, in 755. The remains of the illustrious 



martyr were deposited in the monastery of 
Fulda. F. June 5th. 

Bonosians. Macedonian heretics about 
the end of the fourth century, who had for 
founder Bonosus, Bishop of Sardica. He 
maintained that Mary did not always re 
main a Virgin. He was suspended and 
his error condemned in the Council of 
Capua, in 389, and finally excommunicated 
by the Macedonian bishops. 

Book of Common Discipline. The lit 
urgy of the Church of Scotland. In 1562, 
the Book of Common Discipline, com 
monly termed " Knox s Liturgy," was 
partially introduced in place of the Book 
of Common Prayer, and in 1564 its use was 
authoritatively ordained in all the churches 
in Scotland. This liturgy was taken from 
the order or liturgy used by the English 
Church at Geneva. 

Book of Common Prayer. The service- 
book of the Church of England, or a sim 
ilar book authorized by the other branches 
of the Anglican Church. It is popularly 
known as the Prayer Book. It was nearly 
all taken from mediaeval liturgical books. 
English was substituted for Latin, and a 
uniform use was established for the whole 
Church of England. The first Book of 
Common Prayer was issued in 1549; and 
revisions were made in 1552, 1559, and 1662. 

Borborites. A nickname for certain 
Ophite Gnostics, and also in general for one 
who holds or is supposed to hold filthy and 
immoral doctrines ; in modern times, espe 
cially applied to a branch of the Men- 
nonites. 

Borromeo (ST. CHARLES) (1538-1584). 
An Italian Cardinal, archbishop of Milan, 
born at Arona, near Lago Maggiore ; died 
at Milan. Noted as an ecclesiastical re 
former and philanthropist. He was a 
model bishop and his life is full of ex 
amples to all Christians. Especially did 
he show his courage and great trust in God 
by staying in Milan during the fearful 
plague of 1576. He founded the "Col 
legium Helveticum " for the education of 
priests to labor in Switzerland, and to 
prevent the introduction of Protestantism 
from that quarter. 

Borromeo Union, founded in Coblenz, 
1844, for the circulation of Roman Cath 
olic literature ; up to 1890, numbered over 
50,000 members and had distributed more 
than $3,000,000 worth of books. 



BOSSUET 



BRAHMANISM 



Bossuet (jAcquES BENiGXE)(i627-i7o4). 
A French prelate, and celebrated pulpit 
orator, historian, and theological writer; 
was born at Dijon ; died at Paris. He was 
preceptor to the Dauphin in 1670-81, and 
became Bishop of Meaux in 1681. His 
chief works are Exposition of the Catholic 
Doctrine; Discourse on Universal History ; 
History of the Variations of the Protes 
tant Churches. 

Bourdaloue (Louis) (1632-1704). A 
famous French theologian and preacher, 
born at Alencon; died at Paris. He was 
a member of the order of the Jesuits, pro 
fessor of rhetoric, philosophy, and the 
ology in the Jesuit College of Bourges, 
court preacher (1670), and one of the most 
illustrious pulpit orators of his time. His 
sermons have been published in 16 volumes 
(1707), in 17 volumes (1822-26). 

Bourignists. Members of a sect founded 
by Antoinette Bourignon (1616-1680), a 
religious enthusiast who assumed the Au- 
gustinian habit, and traveled in France, 
Holland, England, and Scotland. She 
maintained that Christianity does not con 
sist in faith and practice, but in the inward 
feeling and supernatural impulse. 

Bradwardine (THOMAS). Born at Hart- 
field, Sussex, England, about 1290; died at 
Lambeth, England, in 1349. A celebrated 
English prelate, theologian, and mathema 
tician, surnamed "Doctor Profundus." 
Chancellor of the University of Oxford 
and Archbishop of Canterbury in 1349. His 
works include De Causa Dei, De Quadra- 
tura Circuit, Geometria Speculativa, Ars 
Mcmorativa, etc. 

Brahmanism. Doctrine of the Brah- 
mans. The word Brahmanism does not in 
dicate a formal religion with certain fixed 
dogmas, but a system of beliefs and practices 
superseding other and older forms. It com 
prises a kind of slow evolution among the 
many religious systems of India, from 
pantheistic, anthropomorphous, and poly 
theistic, up to a sacerdotal and hierarchical 
form. The first phasis of Hindoo religion 
is shown to us in a body of writings called 
Veda (science) or Sruti (revelation). 
These writings are subdivided into four col 
lections : Rig- Veda, Sama - Veda, Tayur- 
Veda, and Atharva-Veda. To each of 
these parts is attached a series of Brahma- 
nas, i. p.., rites and ceremonies, then a 
second class of writings, the Aranvakas, 



and, finally, a series of speculative and 
philosophical writings, called Upanishads. 

Of this whole body the Rig- Veda is 
evidently the most ancient. It appears to 
be composed of hymns, whose origin goes 
back to the first migrations of the Aryians 
in India, and in this Rig-Veda the first 
eight books are anterior to the ninth. The 
religious views set forth in the Rig- Veda 
are purely pantheistic, consisting of the 
adoration of the great phenomena of 
nature, conceived as endowed with a soul, 
whose power is greatly superior to that of 
man, and which is not unmindful of praise. 
This personification of the elements is 
hardly sensible. We have here the first 
phasis of polytheism, without having yet 
a well-arranged pantheon and deities with 
definite attributes. For the Vedic wor 
shiper, the different departments of nature 
are so mingled together that we are con 
tinually in the presence of confusion and 
repetitions, and the author of the hymns, 
in his adoration for the power which he 
implores, constantly forgets that there are 
other powers existing. The word dcvas, 
the brilliant, by which the Vedas designate 
the gods, proves that it is the phenom 
enon of light which most lively struck 
the primitive Aryian. Also this is the 
name of the personification of the atmo 
sphere, Indra, which is so often repeated 
in the Rig- Veda hymns, and which plays 
the greatest role in the allegorical ac 
counts, the solar myths, figuring the rising 
and setting of the sun, its wrestling with 
the clouds and night. Besides all this, 
the deities were divided into gods of the 
air, water, and earth, without that each of 
these elements was ruled by a special deity. 
Gradually the deities which were not ab 
solutely distinct became commingled into 
one body, and, as some among them were 
supposed to exercise important creative 
and cosmic functions, there was formed a 
god the creator of the other gods, and of 
all things. This god was called Prajapati 
(king of creatures) or Visvakarman (the 
creator of all things). At the same time, 
concluding from the spirit which animates 
men on a universal spirit spread in whole 
matter, they succeeded in reconciling this 
pantheistic idea with the preceding mono 
theistic one, and made of Prapati the prin 
cipal creative god of Brahma. 

This evolution of the Vedic theology 
took place in the tenth century B.C., 
while the preceding phasis dates since the 
thirteenth century B. c. About the same 



BRAHMANISM 



116 



BRAHMANISM 



epoch on account of the necessity of sep 
arating the Aryan conquerors from the 
conquered black tribes and by reason of 
the formation of a sacerdotal class, in 
terested in separating itself from the rest 
of the people the division, self-effected, 
of the Hindoo people into four classes or 
castes took place : the Brahmans, the 
Kchattryas (warriors), the Vaicyas (la 
borers), and the Soudras (s/ares). After 
many and long struggles, which the great 
epic poem Mahdbhdrata relates, finally 
the Brahmans overcome the warriors, and 
consolidated their power by a vigorous 
theocratic legislation, of which the laws 
of Manu are a recent reproduction. All 
the Vedic writings are declared to be of 
divine origin. The respective rights and 
conditions of the four castes were codified ; 
all the acts of the Hindoo families became 
subject to a rigorous ceremonial, of which 
no rite could be performed without the 
service of a priest. The three superior 
castes were united and separated from the 
Soudras by a particular ceremony; the in- 
vesture of the sacred cord, which was of 
distinct material for each class, composed 
of priests, warriors, and husbandmen, out 
side of which was only the caste of P arias, 
required a solemn religious rite. The 
teaching of the law is reserved to the 
priests, who were to explain it to the war 
riors and husbandmen only. Regarding 
the Soudras, it was forbidden even to teach 
them the manner of expiating their sins. 
Marriage between the different castes was 
prohibited. This strict distinction of 
caste, which appears shocking to us, was, 
however, a necessary outcome of a belief 
of a universal world-god in Brahma. In 
fact, the Brahmanic priest who considers 
the entire human race as an emanation 
of the same force, conceives their different 
forms as a kind of gradation in which the 
divine spirit manifests itself more and 
more clearly. Every relapse of an elevated 
being towards a lower one, must therefore 
be avoided. Every being being a spirit, 
and every spirit being immortal, each 
being possesses a spiritual family, or 
Manes, as well as a human family. The 
pantheistic monotheism of the period of 
composition of the Brahmana, was hardly 
a period of transition. The ancient poly 
theistic notion of the gods of the air, earth, 
and water continued to exist. Gradually 
the number of these deities became defi 
nite. Thirty-three were enumerated, eleven 
in each of the three kingdoms, or elements, 



being presided over by Agni (the fire) for 
the earth, Indra (the atmosphere} for the 
air, and Sourya (the sun) for the kingdom 
of the cloudy heaven. This attempt at clas 
sification, which dates from the end of the 
Vedic epoch, was united to the cosmogonic 
conceptions which the laws of Manu de 
veloped about the period of the institu 
tion of castes and the supremacy of the 
Brahmans. The laws of Manu teach that 
in the beginning spirit alone existed, un- 
perceptible, indivisible, yet floating, as it 
were, throughout space. The primal 
spirit, by contemplating itself, created the 
nature, and deposited in this creation a 
golden egg, from which came forth 
Brahma, the aboriginal god of all things. 
To this purely philosophic doctrine, which 
probably affected the common people very 
little, is joined, in order to form the 
Brahmanic pantheon, the influence of the 
popular worship of the deities especially 
adored in such a region and by such a 
people. From all these religious elements 
and different deities, the Vedic gods, 
local, national, and purely speculative 
gods, the Brahmans constituted a great 
pantheon. Siva or Mahadeva the great 
god and Vishnu seem to have been wor 
shiped by the people in the time of 
Ramayana. From these two deities which 
were evidently evolved by the union of a 
great number of local gods, and from 
Brahma, was formed the superior Triade, 
Brahma being the Creator, Vishnu the 
preserver, and Siva the destroyer. To 
each of these male energies or powers was 
associated a female energy. Vach or 
Sarasvati (science), was the wife of 
Brahma; Sai or Laksclimi (the beauty), 
that of Vishnu; and Parvati (death), that 
of Siva. The latter god transformed him 
self into a phallic and genetic deity, while 
the distinctive functions were assigned to 
his wife, surnamed Kali ( the black ), 
Durya (the terrible). It is said that 
Vishnu, in his quality of benevolent deity, 
appeared ten times on earth in different 
incarnations, or avataras, in order to be 
useful to men. To unite this supreme 
Triade with the Vedic gods, it was taught 
that the deities had become created like 
men, by an emanation of the spirit of 
Brahma, that they live in a material 
heaven the air and tend towards per 
fection. 

Indria governed the region of the Orient : 
Agni the Southeast ; Sourya the South 
west ; Yama had the South ; Varttna, 



BREAD 



117 



BRETHREN AND SISTERS 



god of the sea, the West; Vayu (the 
-Mind}, controlled the Northwest; Kubera 
(-vealtli), the North; Soma (drunkenness), 
the Northeast. Besides these many gods, 
Hindoo mythology knew genii, Gandhar- 
vas ; nymphs, Apsaras. Varada serves 
as a messenger of the gods to men. Kam- 
adeva or Ananga is the god of love. 
Gancka, the god with the head of an ele 
phant, presides over wisdom ; Skanda 
leads the heavenly armies, and the six 
Krittikas resemble the Greek pleiades. 

The moral precepts of Brahmanism are 
very simple in theory. The sovereign 
good is the perfect knowledge of the di 
vine essence. This knowledge can be at 
tained only by close, intense, meditation, 
which, in its turn, is possible only by the 
mortification of the senses and all sensual 
instincts, gained by a life of religious as 
ceticism. Those who, being thus detached 
from their bodies, have entered into com 
munion with the divinity, escape, in dying, 
all corporal or material life, and enter im 
mediately into the Great All. The others 
enter into one of the forms of life, inferior 
or elevated, according to the degree of 
victory they have gained over themselves. 
These moral and theological doctrines 
were regulated into coherent systems by 
the different schools of philosophy which 
succeeded each other in India, as Chris 
tian metaphysics and ethics were elabor 
ated by the Scholastics. The school of the 
Vedantas, the most orthodox, was led to 
deny matter, the creation of which it was 
unable to explain. The school Sankhia 
affirmed the eternity of matter, and united 
indissolubly to it a spiritual principle, 
similar to the god of Spinoza. Finally, 
comes Buddhism, whose doctrine is ex 
plained elsewhere. It drove out, during 
the centuries of our era, Brahmanism from 
the greater part of India. But later Brah 
manism again became victorious, although 
considerably altered and weakened from 
the struggle. Owing to the distances of 
the provinces from each other, as also 
to the permanency of the common classes 
for particular devotions and superstitious 
beliefs, Brahmanism has resolved itself 
into a number of sects. The worship of 
Siva, of Vishnu, and of Parvati, has re 
placed the ancient religious unity. The 
priests have adopted the Buddhist custom 
of being united into religious communities. 
The four original castes are each subdi 
vided into eighteen new ones. To-day 
the precepts concerning the life of the 



Brahmans and the several ethical doctrines 
are no longer followed, except by a small 
number of ascetics. The great majority 
of the people contents itself with quite a 
material worship offered to some particu 
lar idol. Divine worship is even now 
given to irrational animals, as is shown by 
the honors given, in many parts of India, 
to the cow. 

Bread (Liturgical}. The matter, as it 
is called, of the sacrifice of the Mass, is 
composed of wheaten bread and wine of 
the grape. The Latin Church, in imi 
tation of our Divine Saviour, employs un 
leavened bread in the celebration of the 
Blessed Eucharist; a practice which is 
mentioned by Alcuin, in a letter written in 
the year 798. However, whether the 
bread employed at the sacrifice of the 
Mass be leavened or unleavened is a cir 
cumstance of pure discipline, which does 
not touch the essence of the Eucharist. 
The Maronites and Armenians also em 
ploy unleavened bread ; while the Greeks 
and other Oriental Churches, orthodox 
and schismatical, use leavened bread. 

Breads of Proposition. See ALTAR OF 
SHOW BREADS. 

Brebeuf ( JEAN DE). A noted French 
Jesuit missionary among the Huron In 
dians in Canada; born at Bayeux, France, 
March 25th, 1593; killed by the Hurons 
March i6th, 1649. He translated the Cat 
echism into the Huron language. 

Brendan (ST.) . Born at Tralee, County 
Kerry, Ireland, in 484; died in 577. An Irish 
monk, a contemporary of St. Brendan of 
Birr, and called "Son of Finnloga," or 
St. Brendan of Clonfert, to distinguish 
him from the latter. After completing his 
studies at Tuam he set forth on the ex 
pedition known as the " Navigation of St. 
Brendan." According to the legendary 
account of his travels, he embarked with a 
company of followers to seek the terres 
trial paradise, which was supposed to exist 
in an island of the Atlantic. Various mir 
acles are related of the voyage, but they 
are always connected with the great island 
where the monks are said to have landed. 
The legend was current in the time of 
Columbus and long after, and many con 
nected St. Brendan s island with the newly 
discovered America. F. May i6th. 

Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit 
(also called "Spiritualists"). Fanatics 



BRETHREN 



118 



BRIDGET 



who spread, in the thirteenth century, 
chiefly through France, Italy, and Ger 
many. Owing to their professional char 
acter as beggarfi, they were also called 
Beghards and Beguines. See these sub 
jects. 

Brethren (Apostolic). See APOSTOLIANS. 

Brethren of Our Lord. Those persons 
whom the Gospel calls " Brethren of 
Jesus Christ," were not His brethren, 
properly speaking, but His first cousins. 
These personages are in the number of 
four, of which the most famous is James, 
not a son of Mary the Mother of Jesus, and 
consequently no brother of Jesus, but a 
son of Mary, the wife of Cleophas, who 
was a sister of the Blessed Virgin. The 
simple careful reading of the Gospel is 
sufficient to do away with this difficulty. 
What gave rise to this misunderstanding 
is that our word brother had, in Hebrew, 
besides the meaning which it still has 
among us, another broader signification, 
and which indicated the kinship to all the 
degrees, such as those of cousin, uncle, 
nephew, etc. Thus Lot, who was only a 
nephew of Abraham, is called his brother 
by the sacred writer (Gen. xiv. 14-16). So 
also Laban calls Jacob his brother, who 
was really only his nephew (Gen. xxxi. 
15); Tobias calls Sara his sister, although 
she was only a distant relative of his (Tob. 
viii. 9). 

Brethren (Plymouth). See PLYMOUTH. 

Breviary. The breviary is a formulary 
of prayers and sacred reading which priests 
recite and read daily. Formerly the 
psalms, hymns, orations, and spiritual 
selections, which all priests and religious 
were obliged to recite were of consider 
able length. Pope St. Gregory VII. 
abridged this "office," for those of his 
pontifical court who were under the obli 
gation of saying it. This abridgment 
soon became of common use throughout 
the Church, under the name of "Roman 
Breviary." According to some authors, 
it takes its name from the fact of its form 
ing, as it were, a summary of religion, a 
compendium of Christian teaching. Ac 
cording to Benedict XIV., breviary signi 
fies a short, brief order of the divine office. 
It was also called "OJficium divinum, of us 
ad agenda Dei," because its recitation is a 
sacred work which has God for its object. 
" Pensum scrt itutts," because it is a debt, 
a duty to be paid to God by those who are 



in a special manner consecrated to Him. 
" Curstis," because it should be said, in its 
different parts, according to the hours of 
the day. " Horce Canonicce," either be 
cause the sacred canons ordain its recita 
tion or because it obliges the regular Can 
ons in particular. "Synaxis" or " Col- 
Iccta," because in monasteries it is recited 
in common. 

The breviary contains the divine office, 
or the formal prayers which the Church 
puts into the mouths of her priests and 
religious. It is composed of seven parts, 
called canonical hours, viz.: Matins, 
Lauds, Prime, Tercc, Scxt, None, Ves 
pers, and Compline. The part called Mat 
ins, which are said towards the break of day, 
is also called Nocturn or Vigils, because 
formerly it was chanted during the night. 
Lauds are said after Matins. The custom 
to-day is to recite these parts on the eve of 
the feast or feria to which they belong. 
There are yet certain religious orders which 
recite them during the night, beginning at 
2 A. M. Prime is said at sunrise ; Terce, at 
the third hour, or 9 A. M. ; Sext, at the sixth 
hour, or noon; None, at the ninth hour, or 
three o clock in the afternoon. The gen 
eral custom to-day is to recite these " little 
hours," as they are called, in the morning. 
Vespers followed by Compline form the 
evening prayers. This division of the di 
vine office is not an obligatory one. The 
Church has made these divisions in order 
to imitate David, who sang the praises of 
God seven times a day. A reform being 
found necessary, the Council of Trent 
made it the object of a special decree. 
The breviary was restored to its primitive 
purity, and thus first edited by Pope Pius 
V., and then by Urban VIII., who pre 
scribed the new edition for the entire 
Church. However, the Churches of the 
Oriental rite, as also the dioceses of Milan, 
Italy, and Toledo, in Spain, were exempted 
by the papal rescript from the use of this 
edition. In the United States the Roman 
Breviary is obligatory. 

Brethren (United). See MORAVIANS. 

Brethren ( White). Visionaries who ap 
peared in Prussia in the fourteenth century 
and who pretended to have particular 
revelations to go and deliver the Holy 
Land from the hands of the infidels ; they 
wore a white cloak with a cross of St. An 
drew thereon. 

Bridget (ST.). Virgin and patron saint 
of Ireland, born in 453, died in 523. Found- 



BRIDGITTINES 



119 



BROTHERS 



ress and abbess of several nunneries, the 
first and most celebrated of which was 
that erected at Kildare Feb. ist, 490. F. 
Feb. ist. According to an ancient Irish 
account of her life, she was born at Fo- 
chart (now Faugher) and was the daugh 
ter of Dubhthach, by his bondmaid 
Brotsech or Broiceseach. She obtained 
her freedom through the intervention of 
the king of Leinster, who was impressed 
by her piety. 

Bridgittines (Religious). So called 
from St. Bridget of Sweden, by whom they 
were founded. St. Bridget was born about 
the year 1302, of the royal family of Swe 
den. The state of marriage which she 
embraced by the advice of her parents, 
did not cause her to lose her fervor for 
the pious exercises she had shown from 
her tenderest years. After having be 
come a widow (1343), she consecrated her 
self entirely to works of charity and to 
exercises of piety and founded the Monas 
tery of Wadstena (1344), on the shores 
of Lake Vettern. The order was con 
firmed, under the title of "Order of the 
Saviour," by Urban V., in 1370. The re 
ligious followed the Rule of St. Augustine 
and the particular constitutions which 
their holy foundress is said to have re 
ceived by divine revelation. 

Brief (Apostolic}. A letter of the Pope 
or of the great-penitentiary concerning 
brief, minor, and concise affairs, without 
preface or preamble. The briefs which 
are sent through the Datary s and Secre 
tary s offices are generally written upon 
ordinary paper, but sometimes on parch 
ment, sealed with red wax and stamped 
with the Fisherman s ring. The differ 
ence between a brief and a bull consists 
in the fact that the latter is more ample, 
that it is always written on parchment 
and sealed with lead or green wax. The 
Brief is subscribed by the Secretary and 
not by the Pope. At its heading it con 
tains the name of the Pope separately, and 
following this, " Dilecto fi lio salutem et 
apostolicam benedictioncm," etc. (To our 
beloved son salutation and apostolic bless 
ing) ; then without any preamble, it simply 
explains what the Pope says or grants. 
Pope Alexander VI. considerably ampli 
fied the matter of briefs, and it was this 
Pope who instituted the College of Secre 
taries. Formerly briefs treated only of ju 
dicial affairs ; to-day they are employed 



in the granting of favors, dispensations, 
etc. See BULL. 

Brothers (Congregations of). Reli 
gious communities whose number is con 
siderable : i. Most prominent among 
them is the Congregation of the Broth 
ers of the Christian Schools, founded in 
1684 by Blessed John de la Salle and con 
firmed in 1725 by Benedict XIII. This 
congregation has to-day over 1,400 houses 
with 13,000 brothers, not counting the 
novices and aspirants, and is in charge of 
2,500 schools. In France there are 1,100 
houses, in Belgium 53, in Spain 42, in Eng 
land and Ireland 14, in Austria and Ger 
many 13, in Italy 22, in the Levante 27, in 
the extreme Orient 10, in Madagascar and 
the Island of St. Maurice, 5. Their mother 
house is in Paris, where the Superior Gen 
eral resides. 

In the United States the Brothers of the 
Christian Schools have four provinces: 
Baltimore, with 220 brothers ; New York, 
with 446; St. Louis, with 206; San Fran 
cisco, with 106. 

2. The second largest congregation of 
brothers is that of the Marists or Brothers 
of Mary. Their mother house is in Saint 
Genis-Laval in the Diocese of Lyon. It is 
one of the few congregations of the kind 
that have priests among their members. 
Founded by the Ven. Abbe Chaminade in 
the beginning of the present century, it 
has grown rapidly, so that it now has 6,500 
members, 740 houses, 14 novitiates, and 23 
juvenates, so called, distributed as follows : 
7 in Belgium, i in Denmark, 21 in Spain, 
7 in England, i in Italy, 2 in Switzerland, 
3 in Turkey, 16 in Canada, 2 in Brazil, 4 in 
the United States, 13 in Colombia, 7 in 
Africa, 10 in Asia, 8 in Australia, 9 in New 
Zealand, 7 in New Caledonia, 3 in Central 
Oceanica, .and the others in France. The 
American provincial mother house is in 
Dayton, Ohio. 

3. The Congregation of the Marianists 
also has its seat in Paris. Its members 
wear lay garb and are distributed not only 
over France (in 30 dioceses), but likewise 
in other European countries, America, 
Japan, and Oceanica. 

4. A flourishing congregation is that of 
the Brothers of Christian Instruction 
(called Petits-fr^res), which sprang from 
the union of two different societies, that of 
the Abbe Deshayes and that of the Abbe 
J. M. R. de Lamennais, Vicar Capitular, 
in 1819, and was canonically approved by 



BROTHERS 



I2O 



BROTHERS 



Leo XIII., on March I3th, 1891. It has 
380 houses with some 2,000 members, in 
structing nearly 100,000 children, in 
France, Canada, Hayti, Senegal, Marti 
nique, etc. They have rules similar to 
those of the Brothers de La Salle. 

5. The Brothers of the Holy Ghost, or of 
St. Gabriel, date back their foundation to 
the year 1705. Their spiritual father was 
the Blessed Maria Grignon de Montfort. 
The congregation did not grow strong 
till after the storms of the Revolution. Re 
suscitated by the Abbe Deshayes in 1835, 
it now has schools in 23 dioceses of France, 
in Canada, Egypt, and Italy. The mother 
house is at St. Laurent-sur-Sevre in 
France. It also has priests among its 
members. 

6. The Congregation of the Brothers of 
the Sacred Heart, of Puy, established in 
1821, has its main seat in Paradis, France, 
and houses in 20 French dioceses, as well 
as in North America and Algiers. They 
are credited with 140 members in the 
United States. 

7. In the Diocese of Puy there is the 
small Congregation of St. Francis Regis, 
called the Brothers of Agriculture, with 
their mother house at La Roche-Arnaud. 
This society was founded by P. de Bussy, 
S. J., in 1850; has 7 houses and 60 mem 
bers employed in the training of orphans, 
especially in agricultural pursuits. 

8. The Clerics of St. Viateur, established 
by the Abbe Querbes at Lyons, conduct 
schools, assist the clergy in giving reli 
gious instruction, direct church choirs, etc. 
Their mother house is in Paris. The 
members are scattered over 24 French dio 
ceses. Mother house at Vourles in the 
Diocese of Lyon. 

The first house in the United States was 
opened in 1865 by Vy. Rev. P. Beaudoin and 
Brothers A. Martel and J. B. Bernard, at 
Bourbonnais, Illinois. It grewinto the pres 
ent St. Viateur s College. In 1882 the first 
and so far only American province was 
erected, with headquarters at Bourbonnais. 
The number of priests in this province is n, 
that of Brothers, 34, according to Hoff 
mann s Directory for 1899. 

9. In Nancy there is a congregation called 
the Brothers of Christian Doctrine, of 
Lorraine, dating back to the year 1822, and 
having the Bishop of Nancy for its Supe 
rior-General. It has branches in 9 French 
dioceses. 

10. Thejosephites (or Fathers and Broth 
ers of the Holy Cross) were founded in 



1821 by the Abbe Dujarrie in the Diocese 
of Le Mans, France. They have some 40 
institutions in France and Africa, in which 
they devote special attention to manual 
training, and several industrial schools and 
orphanages in North America. 

11. The Brothers of St. Vincent de Paul 
have their mother house in Paris. We 
have no data regarding their development 
and work. 

12. The Brothers of St. Joseph, founded 
in Oullins, France, by the Abbe Rey, de 
vote their attention to neglected boys, and 
such as have been in houses of refuge, 
striving, with much success, to bring them 
up as good Christians, able to make their 
living as farmers or mechanics. 

13. The Brothers of the Christian Schools 
of Mercy, founded in 1842 by the Abbe 
Delamarre, later Archbishop of Auch, have 
their mother house at Montebourg, in the 
Diocese of Coutances. They direct between 
40 and 50 schools in three French dioceses. 

14. The School Brothers of the Holy 
Family, approved in 1874, have their mother 
house at Belley, France. Their founder 
w as P. Gabriel Taborin. They work in 13 
French dioceses and, we are told, also in 
America, though we are quite sure not in 
the United States. They are very popular 
among the French clergy as sacristans and 
organists. 

15. The School Brothers of Christian 
Doctrine of Matzenheim in Lower Alsace 
were founded in 1845 by Eugene Mertian. 
There are about a hundred of them. It 
seems they are connected with the Nancy 
Brothers of the same name. 

16. The School Brothers of St. Anthony 
were canonically approved in 1823. Their 
mother house is in Paris. 

17. The School Brothers of Ireland, 
founded in Waterford, A. D., 1802, by E. 
Rice, after the model of the Congregation 
of Blessed de la Salle, have their mother 
house in Dublin and branches in various 
parts of Ireland, England, Australia, and 
East India. 

18. The Josephites of St. Fuscien, estab 
lished in 1756 by Bishop de Chabons in 
Amiens, conduct primary schools in sev 
eral French dioceses and act as organists 
and sextons. 

19. The Congregation of the Sons of St. 
Joseph in the Diocese of Gand was estab 
lished A. D. 1817, at Grammont, in Flanders, 
by Canon van Crombugghe. It consists 
of priests and brothers, the former teach 
ing the higher, the latter the elementary, 



BROTHERS OF CHARITY 



121 



BROWNSON 



branches. In 1880 this congregation had 
168 members. The mother house is at 
Grammont. 

20. The Indian Brothers of St. Joseph 
are recruited from among the natives of 
East India for the instruction of the young 
and the training of teachers for them. 

21. The Society of the Brothers of St. 
Joseph of Klein-Zimmern (Diocese of May- 
ence) were founded in 1864 by the great 
Bishop Ketteler. So far as we are aware, 
this congregation has no branches outside 
the Diocese of Mayence. 

22. The Brothers of the Cross of Jesus 
originated in the Diocese of Belley, France, 
in 1832. The novitiate is at Menestruel. 
They are in charge of about fifty odd 
schools and hospitals in the Dioceses of 
Grenoble, Lyon, and Saint-Claude. This 
order also has a branch for females. 

23. The Brothers of the Christian Schools 
of the Holy Infant Jesus were founded in 
the seventeenth century by P. Nicholas 
Barre. They devote themselves to the in 
struction of the young, especially poor 
children. They have a house in Paris, and 
are spread over eight provinces of France. 
There is also a branch for females of this 
congregation. 

24. The Congregation of the Brothers 
of the Holy Cross is likewise of French 
foundation, dating from the year 1856. It 
consists of priests and lay brothers ; they 
are especially active in the United States 
(Notre Dame University, etc.) and the 
British colonies. 

25. The School Brothers of Tilburg 
(Freres de Charite de. Notre Dame, Mere 
de misericorde), founded in 1844 by J. 
Zwysen later Archbishop of Utrecht. 
They have ten houses with about 300 mem 
bers, and among these about twenty priests. 

26. The Xaverian Brothers, founded 
in 1839 at Bruges, Belgium, have their 
mother house there. The novitiate of the 
American province is at Baltimore, Mary 
land. There are 159 of these Brothers in 
the United States, instructing 5,729 pupils 
in colleges, high schools, academies, in 
dustrial and parochial schools. 

27. The Brothers of Our Lady of 
Lourdes, who conduct a college at South 
Park, Washington, and a protectory for 
homeless boys in Pittsburg, having 16 mem 
bers in all in this country, and have their 
mother house in Oostacker, Belgium. 

28. The Brothers of Charity of St. Vin 
cent de Paul, who conduct the House of 
the Angel Guardian in Boston, are quite a 



modern institution, having only recently 
received the Roman approbation. 

29. In the Archdiocese of New York 
and the Diocese of Brooklyn there are 88 
Franciscan Brothers, in charge of 6 acade 
mies, i college, and n schools. Hoffmann s 
Directory tells us they were founded in 
1858 by brothers from Mt. Bellew, County 
Gal way, Ireland.* 

Brothers of Charity. See JOHN OF Gon. 

Brothers of the Common Life. An In 
stitute of Clerks, established at Deventer, 
by Gerhard Groot (died in 1384). It spread 
rapidly in the Netherlands and Germany, 
and produced a number of distinguished 
men, among them Thomas a Kempis. 
They made no vows, and devoted them 
selves to preaching and instructing the 
youth. There existed a branch for females 
of this order. 

Brown (ROBERT) (1549-1630). A Puri 
tan, known as the founder of the " Brown- 
ists." In 1561, while at Cambridge, was 
cited to appear before Archbishop Parker 
for heterodoxy, and before he died he was 
imprisoned thirty-two times. In 1580, he 
accepted a ministry at Norwich, and later 
went to Holland. In 1585, he returned to 
England and was excommunicated. See 
PURITANS. 

Brownson (ORESTES AUGUST). Ameri 
can writer, born at Stockbridge, Vermont, 
Sept. i6th, 1803. Agitated, from his child 
hood, by religious questions, his opinions, 
in these matters, varied a good deal. He was 
a Presbyterian in 1822, then a Universalist 
and Deist in 1825 ; three years later, he 
united himself with the " Workingmen s 
Party," and became a passionate admirer 
of the contemporary French philosophers. 
Then he published, in the " Christian Ex 
aminer," a series of very keen articles; it 
was the prelude of the little volume which 
appeared in 1836 under the title, Neiv Views 
on Christianity, the Society of the Church. 
In 1837 there is a new change ; he entered the 
" Society for Christian Union and Progress 
for Christianity," and delivered very re 
markable lectures. The year following, he 
published a romance : Charles El-wood or 
The Infidel Converted, which contains the 
history of his philosophical and religious 
ideas. Finally, in 1844, convinced, un- 

*See "The Review," St. I<ouis, Missouri, Sept. 
I5th, 1899. 



BRUNO 



122 



BUDDHISM 



doubtedly, of the impotency of man to 
build his own beliefs, he entered the bosom 
of the Catholic Church. From that time, 
until his death he defended the Church in 
his " Review," which he published under 
the name of " Brownson s Quarterly Re 
view," with the vigor and sincerity that 
characterized him. He died a Catholic, in 
Detroit, Michigan, April lyth, 1876. 

Bruno (GIORDANO) (1548-1600). Born 
at Nola, near Naples, entered, at the age of 
fifteen years, the novitiate of the Domini 
cans. Accused of heresy before the Roman 
Inquisition, he threw, it is said, his accuser 
into the Tiber, discarded the habit of his 
Order and fled ( 1576) . After having erred 
in Italy, France, England, and Germany, 
he landed in Venice, where his religious 
opinions again brought him into trouble. 
The Roman Inquisition claimed him, and, 
after a few years imprisonment, he was 
condemned to degradation and to be 
burned alive on account of obstinate 
heresy. Bruno received little sympathy 
among his contemporaries, and, in the 
course of the seventeenth and eighteenth 
centuries, the scholars who occupied them 
selves with researches concerning his char 
acter, or his works, were unanimous in re 
garding him with disfavor. In our days, 
on the contrary, he is praised for his knowl 
edge of mathematics and astronomy; in 
philosophy, it is stated, he opened new ave 
nues, and, as to his death, it was that of a 
martyr, immolating himself for the tri 
umph of liberty of thought. Certainly no 
great sagacity is required to discover the 
motives of this sudden enthusiasm. The 
enemies of the Church feel that they have 
to change, from time to time, their mode 
of warfare ; when they have shouted them 
selves hoarse against the pretended respon 
sibility in the Massacre of St. Bartholo 
mew, they agitate the phantom of the 
Inquisition ; after having exhausted the 
subject of Galileo, they resurrect Giordano 
Bruno. This time, however, their choice 
is a somewhat unfortunate one. The un 
bounded eulogies heaped upon an apostate 
monk have provoked the critical inquiry 
of his doctrines, and Bruno has not gained 
anything thereby. In his philosophy, 
Bruno adopted the pantheistic hypothesis ; 
but this was known and refuted a long 
time before him. In astronomy he ex 
pressed some new and correct ideas ; but 
he did not master this science sufficiently 
to enable him to speak correctly of the 



sideral world. Bailly regards him as a 
rash innovator, misled by his imagination. 

Bruno (Sr.). See CARTHUSIANS. 
Bruys (PETER). See PETROBRUSIANS. 

Buchanites. A sect of fanatics which 
sprang up in the west of Scotland in the 
last quarter of the eighteenth century. Its 
foundress was Elspeth Buchan, born in 
1738, the daughter of John Simpson, away- 
side innkeeper near Banff. Separating 
from her husband, she began to preach, 
and in 1783, in conjunction with the Rev. 
Hugh White, founded the sect which bore 
her name. She claimed to be the woman 
mentioned in the first six verses of the 
twelfth chapter of the Apocalypse. Ex 
pelled from the town by the magistrates in 
1784, they established themselves near 
Thornhill with a few followers. The poet 
Burns, in a letter (August, 1784) speaks 
of their idleness and immorality. Mrs. 
Buchan died in May, 1791 ; the last sur 
vivor of her sect died in 



Buddhism (from Buddha, seventh cen 
tury B.C., name of the reformer). A 
philosophical and religious doctrine; 
founded in India. Buddhism is rather a 
reformation of Brahmanism than an orig 
inal, independent system. It admits of no 
distinction of Caste in religious matters, 
and insists on an ascetic life of contempla 
tion. Buddhism, banished from India, 
after an existence of a thousand years, 
propagated itself in Thibet, Tartary, 
China, and Japan. It would appear that 
this doctrine played in the history of Asia 
something of the role of Christianity in 
Europe, by effecting a reform or rather a 
total overthrow of former paganism. 

HISTORY. We must distinguish in 
Buddhism the doctrine which Buddha 
himself expounded from that taught bv 
his disciples. The primitive doctrine of 
Buddha is found best elucidated in the 
"Treatise on the Four Truths." This 
small manual teaches: i. That pain is an 
effect of existence, which is itself an illu 
sion, a thing void and unsubstantial. 2. 
That pain is produced in life by the con 
tinued desire of living and by the joy 
thereof. 3. That pain ceases when life 
ends, or on the cessation of the joy of liv 
ing. 4. That to end pain it is necessary to 
cease taking pleasure in living. The cause 
of life, says Buddha, is evil, which can be 
expiated only by suffering. The one who 
walks in the way of renunciation will avoid 



BUDDHISM 



123 



BUDDHISM 



sin and its punishments, will discern the 
motives of existence and of pain, will be 
delivered from all future existence, and will 
merge his individuality into annihilation. 
The Nirvana, or the state of non-being or 
of blissful repose is self-produced. The 
one who attains the Nirvana is freed from 
existence and from the necessity of being 
reborn. Brahmanism admitted Metempsy 
chosis. Buddhism lays down rules to attain 
this annihilation, or perfect moral inertia. 
In the first place it is necessary that the 
Buddhist gives up all impure desires and 
all desires of vengeance or of any kind of 
evil. He finally must give up all doubt, 
all heresy, and every kind of wickedness. 
"Let my disciple," says Buddha, "pour 
out, as it were, his good will over all be 
ings." Then will he have attained the 
last stage of perfection. He will be free 
from ignorance, passion, and sin. Freed 
from the laws of material existence, know 
ing all things by their causes, he will pass 
from this life into absolute and eternal 
annihilation, the Nirvana, or negation of 
all life, where exists neither soul nor God. 
In fact, the cosmogony and philosophy of 
primitive Buddhism, are essentially mate 
rialistic. Without occupying itself with 
material things, it affirms that all things 
are subject to the laws of cause and effect, 
to change, death, decline, and regeneration. 
The world, as well as everything that sur 
rounds it, must be destroyed periodically 
by fire, air, or water, and must always be 
reconstituted by the sum of sin (desire to 
live) of its inhabitants. The number of 
the latter will never increase, except when 
one escapes to life in attaining the Nir 
vana. 

The 24 heavens and the 8 hells which 
surround the earth and which are inhabited 
by mystic beings are equally subject to the 
laws of decline, death, and regeneration. 
(For the Buddhists the human soul is 
nothing but a vital force which perishes 
with the body.) An old person is regen 
erated into a new being only in the sense 
that his body is substituted for the soul, 
and represents in the world the desire to 
live which the soul manifested, sinning 
thereby. The Karma, the desire to live, 
does not pass as an immaterial and per 
manent substance from the one to the other, 
but the Karma of the one succeeds the 
Karma of the other as two identical phe 
nomena, peculiar to every being. The 
holy Buddhist must not trouble the pure 
inertia of his soul, by desiring eternal hap 



piness after life. When he speaks of the 
Nirvana as the Christian books speak of 
heaven, he does so by the Oriental custom 
of exaggeration. Eugene Burnouf has 
clearly proved that the Nirvana of Budd 
hism is nothing else but absolute annihila 
tion. 

This void and desolate system of reli 
gion, in spite of the nobility of its chari 
table precepts, would not have obtained 
more disciples than the philosophy of the 
Sankhyas to which it approaches, if Bud 
dha had not joined to his theological teach 
ing social doctrines which rendered it dear 
to the people. He boldly attacked the 
Brahmans and openly separated himself 
from them, denounced the inanity of their 
ceremonial regarding their prescriptions 
of living, ridiculed their pantheon peo 
pled by an infinity of gods, but over and 
above all, he pleased the people by denying 
the Brahmanic priesthood, who pretended 
to be the only ones called to salvation. To 
this must be added his effective contempt 
for any distinction of caste, a distinction 
absolutely insisted on by Brahmanism and 
under which India groaned. He preached 
as a mendicant monk, sought to do good 
among the outcasts of society, the poor, 
the unfortunate, the unclean, and hurled 
against the pharisaism of the Brahmans 
anathemas which recall to mind the de 
nunciations of Christ. 

From the third century B. c. Buddhism 
was spread throughout all India. This was 
mainly effected through the monastic and 
preaching method, by the Sangha, or order 
of mendicant monks. The opinion which 
Cakyamuni held of life, necessarily led 
him to a life of asceticism, to which h ob 
ligated his disciples. He recommended to 
them to free themselves from all family 
relations, from all riches and power, and to 
leave the world. However, these rules did 
not originally imply the creation of a 
sacerdotal class. For the Sramana (those 
who contain it) or Bikschou (the mendi 
cants), as they called them, had no power 
of regeneration, confirmation or absolution. 
To enter their society, it was sufficient for 
the monk to shave himself and to observe 
their manner of living, the rule of which 
is expounded in the Patimokkha, which 
dates from 250 B.C. The monks should 
eat only between the rising of the sun and 
noon time. They should beg their nourish 
ment in going from house to house without 
saying a word, abstain from all flesh-meats 
and even filter the water for fear of swal- 



BUDDHISM 



124 



BUDDHISM 



lowing some animalcule. They should 
travel from place to place during the fair 
season, and retire during the season of 
rains into the house of the community. 
Their costume, which they never should 
lay off, was composed of three yellow gar 
ments. All sexual relations were forbid 
den to them, as well as theft and murder. 
They could possess only eight objects : the 
three garments, a cincture, a bowl, a razor, 
a needle, and a filter. But the community 
could receive as a gift landed property, 
houses, and books. As to the laymen, 
Buddha recommends to them the observ 
ance of the ordinary moral precepts, never 
to exterminate life, and to prepare as much 
as possible for a sinless regeneration. 

The disciples of Buddha assembled in 
councils, immediately after the death of 
their chief; one hundred years afterwards, 
at Naisali, and again in 250 B.C., at Patna, 
under the Buddhist Ernperor Asoka. The 
latter ordered the drawing up of the sacred 
books, containing the teaching of Buddha. 
These books, the most of which were un 
known until then, reproduce exactly the 
doctrine of the master. The history of 
Buddhism in India is little known. In 400 
A. D., the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hian found 
it flourishing very generally in that coun 
try. The pilgrim Hiouen-Tsang pointed 
out its decay. In the eighth and ninth cen 
turies the Hindoo kings, probably irritated 
at the wealth and corruption of the monks, 
organized a great persecution and entirely 
destroyed the sect in the whole peninsula. 
Buddhism was introduced at Ceylon in the 
third century, A. D., by the son of Emperor 
Asoka. From here, in the fifth century, 
it passed into Burmah, then, in the seventh 
century, into Siam. From Kaschmir itwas 
introduced into China in 68 A. D. and 
from there into Thibet. Mr. de Schagin- 
weit estimates the number of disciples of 
this religion at 341 millions, or one-fourth 
of humanity. Recent calculations seem 
to reduce this figure. Buddhism, at pre 
sent, little resembles the doctrine taught 
by Gautama, its real founder. From the 
time of the first century after his death, 
divergences of doctrine manifested them 
selves. In the second Council of Buddhism, 
it is said that the assembly decided that 
" all that is not contrary to reason must 
be considered as belonging to the teaching 
of Cakyamouni." Later on it was ad 
mitted that Buddha had adapted his teach 
ing to the capacity of his hearers, and 
since that time the different sects of 



Buddhism sought to interpret the real 
meaning of the doctrines of their master. 
The principal sects are: i. The Ilina- 
janists, or "School of the small Council," 
which holds as sufficient for salvation a 
moral life, united with reflections on the 
causes and inanity of life. 2. The Mahaj- 
anists, or "School of the large Council," 
which appeared in the second century B.C. 
This School pretended that the chief du 
ties were asceticism and meditation, which, 
according to them, give to man super 
natural powers. 3. The Mystic Schools, 
Kala Tchaktra, or "Schools of the Wheel 
of Time," which arose in Central Asia and 
spread throughout India, being dissemi 
nated by the teaching of the Cachmir, 
who asserted that neither meditation nor 
virtue is sufficient for salvation, holding 
that man needs the aid of supernatural 
beings to shield- him from demons. This 
aid is obtained by the use of certain for 
mulas, amulets, and ceremonies. This 
sect, which developed itself in the ninth 
century A. D., offers a striking analogy to 
Gnosticism. This school, which eventually 
prevailed over all the others, includes in its 
system the whole Brahmanic pantheon. It 
flattered the people by its belief in magic 
and by its worship of the dead ; instituted 
a ritual, a number of prayers and conjura 
tions, a hierarchy of priests endowed with 
mystic powers, all of which have continued 
to exist in Mongolia and Thibet. In the 
latter countries Buddhism has taken the 
name of Lamaism, and has become, in 
fact, a religion greatly different from the 
doctrine half-philosophical, half-ethical 
preached by Gautama. The essence of 
this religion consists in a slight modifica 
tion, introduced into the doctrine of Bud 
dha, concerning the perfect life. The 
latter recommended his disciples to attain 
perfection by meditation and the practice 
of virtue, diminishing the joy of desiring 
to live, and to reach Nirvana by annihila 
tion of self. The new egoistical doctrine 
requires that its best disciples, in order to 
save the world from iniquity, must trans 
form themselves into Buddhists, or into be 
ings capable of becoming Buddhists. The 
primitive books of Buddhism do not treat 
of precepts necessary to attain this perfec 
tion, while the new form of religion is ex 
pounded in nine books, two of which have 
been translated and published, the Lalifa 
Vistara, by M. Foucaux, and Saddliarma 
Pttndarika, by M. E. Burnouf. The most 
ancient of these dates from the second 



BUGENHAGEN 



125 



BUGENHAGEN 



century A. D. The chief apostles of this new 
doctrine called themselves Nagascna and 
Vasumitra. 

To explain the wonderful power of the 
Buddhists it was asserted that they were 
the emanation of spiritual Buddhas, of 
Dhyani Buddhas. From these emanations 
the new school founded a Trinity and from 
this Trinity were reproduced several other 
Buddhas. But in the Trinity formed by 
Gautama, AmitJiaha (Tvisdom) and Ava- 
lokitesvara {conquering love) remained 
dominant. Asanga, a monk of the sixth 
century, was the first to corrupt this doc 
trine by attaching to it magical practices 
and joining to the Buddhic Triades the 
bloody gods of India. About the seventh 
century, king Srong Tsang Gampa intro 
duced this corrupted form of Buddhism 
into Thibet, assisted by his minister, 
Thumi Sambhota, worshiped since in this 
country as the incarnation of Amithaha, 
and by his two wives, the queens Bribsun 
and Wen-Ching, whose worship still exists 
in the monasteries of Thibet, under the 
name of "Glorious mothers, incarnations 
of the wife of Siva." Moreover, the Mon 
golians and the Siberians adopted the 
worship of a holy and miraculous virgin, 
whom the sacred images of these peoples 
often represent with a child in her arms. 
Owing to the continual additions which 
the Lamaic pantheon received, this reli 
gion threatened to be dissolved into a 
vague Gnosticism, when it was consoli 
dated by a powerful, sacerdotal, and tem 
poral hierarchy. Kublai-Khan, nephew of 
Genghis-Khan, founder of the Mongolian 
empire, gave to the chief of the convent 
Cakya, the title of sovereign tributary of 
Thibet, chief of the Buddhist religion and 
suzerain of all the other abbots. This 
event took place in the year 1006. Not 
withstanding a sort of schism which took 
place in 1390, at the instigation of the monk 
Tsongkapa, whose reforms were directed 
particularly against the dissolute and luxu 
rious life of the monks, and whose follow 
ers henceforth distinguished themselves 
by a yellow bonnet from the red bonnet of 
their adversaries, the power of the abbots 
of Cakya at Lhassa only increased the 
more. Since the fifteenth century, Dalai 
Lama, chief of theYellow-Bonnets, Abbot of 
Gedun Dubpa, near Lhassa, and Pantschen 
Lama, chief of the Red-Bonnets, Abbot of 
the Convent of Kraschis Jumpo, were ac 
knowledged by the emperors of China as 
sovereigns of Thibet. Gradually the fol 



lowers of Dalai Lama increased in power 
and influence over their rivals, the follow 
ers of Pantschen Lama. 

The spiritual power of Lama extends 
over Bhutan, Sikkim, Mongolia, the 
country of the Kalmuks and Burets, and 
the Buddhist convents of Pekin. This 
Lama is believed to be immortal and is 
considered as the earthly incarnation of 
Buddha. At his corporal death, his spirit 
passes into a new depository. 

The third class of ecclesiastical function 
aries is formed by the Chubilchanes. 
Then come the conventual authorities, the 
abbots (Khanpo), the monks, ordained 
priests (Gelong), the new monks ( Gethul), 
and the lay brothers (Boudi). The secu 
lar clergy is composed of TchoidscJie 
(scribes ), and of Rabdschampas (doctors). 
All these ecclesiastics live in monasteries 
and are bound to celibacy. There exist 
also nunneries, governed by abbesses, in 
whom the saints are incarnated. The con 
vents are very rich. These ecclesiastics 
are intercessors, astrologers, exorcists, and 
physicians. They copy and print books, 
make religious images, and sell relics. They 
have the privilege of transmitting and cul 
tivating both divine and human science. 
The temples are quadrangular, pointing 
toward the four cardinal directions and 
are divided into a vestibule, nave and 
iconostasis or sanctuary. Besides these 
places of worship there are chapels, sacred 
pyramids, columns upon which prayers are 
engraved, prayer mills, and sacred trees. 
The religious wear and say the rosary. 
Their ceremonies end by distributing 
leavened bread among the faithful. They 
also use blessed water. The ceremonies 
must be celebrated every day by the eccle 
siastics, and they have recourse to them 
to assure the repose of the dead. In one 
word, the Lamaic worship and institu 
tions resemble so much the Catholic cere 
monial, that the first missionaries held 
them as a diabolical imitation of their re 
ligion. 

Bugenhagen (JOHN). Protestant minis 
ter, born at Wollin (Pomerania) in 1485, 
died at Wittembergin 1558. At first, priest 
and adversary of Luther, he became his 
follower and one of his missionaries, taught 
theology at Wittemberg, and made him 
self known by his oratorical talent, which 
contributed a good deal towards the pro 
gress of the Reformation in a great part of 
Germany, Denmark and Norway. 



BULL 



126 



BUSENBAUM 



Bull. The Bull is a papal decision on im 
portant matters, rendered in a most solemn 
manner. They are written on parchment, 
in Gothic letters and sealed with a leaden 
seal, and most carefully guarded in the 
Chancellor s office. When the object of 
the Bull is to proclaim graces granted, the 
bands are of silk ; when the object is to pro 
nounce decisions of justice, the bands are 
of hemp. The following are the distinc 
tions drawn between the great and small 
Bulls : the great Bulls are given for affairs 
which decree permanent rules of a general 
character; they contain the words: "Ad 
perpctuam rci memoriam." The Pope as 
sumes therein the title of "Semis servo- 
rum Dei." The small Bulls are given for 
the expedition of current affairs, and do 
not contain the formula indicating the per 
petuity. The Bulls are designated, gen 
erally, by their initial words ; thus, we say 
the Bull " Unigcnitus" " Unam Sanc- 
tam," " Vine a in Domini," " In Caena Dom 
ini" etc. The appointment of bishops is 
made by Bulls. 

Bullarium. Collection of several papal 
Bulls. The Great Roman Bullarium is 
divided into three parts: i. Until Urban 
VIII., /. e., until the year 1623 (Rome 1634). 
2. From Urban VIII. to Clement XIII., or 
from 1623 to 1758 (Luxemburg, Geneva, 
1747 to 1758, eleven volumes). 3. From 
Clement XIII. to Gregory XVI., or from 
1758 to 1831 (Rome 1837-1843, eight vol 
umes). Under the supervision of Cardinal 
San Felice, Archbishop of Naples, they 
actually print at Naples a new edition of 
the Bullarium Diplomatum et Privile- 
giorum. 

Burgundians (Conversion of the}. The 
Burgundians, whose original territory lay 
on the shores of the Baltic Sea, penetrated 
into Gaul in the beginning of the fifth 
century, and, settling between the Alps, 
Saone, and the Rhone, established the 
Burgundian kingdom, of which Lyons was 
the capital. At that time they were still 
pagans, but soon afterwards embraced the 
Catholic faith. The priest Orosius, in 417, 
commended the mildness and modesty of 
these Burgundians, who treated their sub 
jects of Gaul as their Christian brethren. 
In 450 they were found professing Arian- 
ism, which was probably owing to their 
Arian neighbors, the Visigoths. However, 
Arianism was not generally adopted by the 
Burgundians. King Sigismund returned 
to the Catholic Church in the year 516, 



and Arianism entirely disappeared from 
among the Burgundians, after their king 
dom had passed under the dominion of the 
Franks, in 534. 

Burial (Christian). The early Chris 
tians, when sick or in danger of death, 
following the precept of St. James, called 
in the priests of the Church, who strength 
ened and sustained them with the holy 
sacrament of Extreme Unction in the last 
and trying conflict of the soul. The mortal 
remains of men were no longer burned, as 
was the custom among the pagans. The 
Christians, following the Jewish practice 
of funeral service, placed the body in the 
earth, accompanying the ceremony with 
prayer and singing of hymns, taken from 
the sacred liturgy, deeming this the most 
fitting way of paying the last tribute of re 
spect to the earthly remains of man which 
had been the temple and dwelling place of 
the Holy Ghost, and which was to rise 
again immortal and impassible. See 
CEMETERY. 

Ecclesiastical burial must be denied in 
the following instances, i. To pagans, 
Jews, and infidels. 2. To apostates. 3. 
To notorious heretics and schismatics. 4. 
To those publicly excommunicated and 
interdicted. 5. To those who committed 
suicide, if " before dying, they did not 
manifest any repentance." Those, how 
ever, who committed suicide while in 
sane, or deranged in mind, can be buried 
by the Church. 6. To those killed in a 
duel. 7- To public and notorious sinners 
who die in final impenitence. 8. To 
those who died in the act of some grievous 
crime. 9. Finally to those who refused 
the sacraments when at the point of death. 
See CREMATION. 

Bursa (Latin word which means a purse, 
a bag). Specifically, a receptacle for the 
corporal and chalice cover. It is square 
and flat, made of cardboard, covered gen 
erally with the same material as the 
chasuble; is open on one side only, and 
placed over the chalice veil when the sacred 
vessels are carried to and from the altar. 
The bursa was introduced in the fourteenth 
century. 

Busenbaum (HERMANN). German. Jes 
uit and theologian, born in 1600 at Noth- 
elen, Westphalia, died in 1668. He wrote 
Medulla Theologice moralis, which work is 
an abstract from various authors (Munster, 
1645). It passed through more than 50 



BUTLER 



127 



CAESAREA 



editions. Lacroix, Collendall, and St. 
Liguori, made additions and commentaries 
thereon. 

Butler (ALBAN) (1711-1773). Born at 
Appletree, Northampton, England ; died 
at St. Omer, France. An English Catho 
lic hagiographer. He wrote Lives of the 
Saints (1745, 5 vols.). 

Byrne (ANDREW). Roman Catholic 
prelate; born in Navan, Ireland, in 1802; 
died at Little Rock, Arkansas, 1862. He 
was educated at the college of his native 
town, and came to America in 1820 with 



Bishop England, who visited Ireland for 
the purpose of securing Catholic mission 
aries for the work in America. Byrne was 
ordained in 1827, and assigned to duty in 
North and South Carolina. In 1830 he 
was appointed to pastoral work in New 
York city, and in 1844 was made the first 
bishop of the Diocese of Little Rock. He 
made three visits to Ireland, on the last 
two of which he secured the services of 
priests and sisters of mercy to assist in his 
work. Through his efforts the Catholic 
schools and churches increased in num 
bers, and their prosperity was greatly pro 
moted. 



Cab. A Hebrew measure for both dry 
and liquid substances. It was equal to two 
quarts, four-sevenths pints. 

Cabala (reception}. The secret tradi 
tion of the Jews, the origin of which may 
be traced to pre-Christian times, but which 
grew up mainly after the beginning of 
the tenth century, and flourished for many 
generations. The Cabala was employed 
first in a mystic explanation of the Deity 
and cosmogony, and in the creation of 
hidden meanings for the sacred Hebrew 
writings, thus drawing into its province all 
the Hebrew law and theology. Later, 
Cabalists pretended to find wonderful 
meanings even in the letters and forms of 
the sacred texts, and made for themselves 
elaborate rules of interpretation. 

Cades (more fully Cades Barnea}. i. 
A place on the southern boundary of the 
East Jordan territory, the modern Ain Ka- 
dish, in the country of the Azarime. It 
was the headquarters of the Israelites in 
their wanderings in the desert. Miriam, 
the sister of Moses, died here; the episode 
of the "waters q| strife" took place here ; 
and whence the spies were sent to explore 
Chanaan. 2. The capital of the Hittites, 
on the Orontes, near Tel Nebi Mende. In 
the year 1380 B. c. Rameses II. of the igth 
dynasty, gained there a decisive victory 
over the Hittites. 

Caecilia (ST.). A Christian martyr. 
Died at Rome, 230. According to the leg 
end, she was compelled, in spite of a vow 
of celibacy, to marry a young nobleman, 
Valerian. She succeeded in converting 



him to her views and also to Christianity, 
for which they suffered death. She is 
generally considered the patron saint of 
music, and is represented in art as sing 
ing and playing on some musical instru 
ment, or as listening to the music of an 
angel who has been drawn from heaven by 
her harmony. F. Nov. 22d. Through the 
care of Pope Urban I., the remains of St. 
Csecilia were first buried in the cemetery 
on the Appian Way, and then transferred 
to the Cemetery of St. Callistus. The 
palace which she had inhabited having 
been erected into a church, Pope Paschal 
I., in 821, rebuilt the ancient basilica, 
whose walls threatened to fall down, and 
transferred the remains of our saint into 
this Church. In 1599, her tomb having 
been opened, they established the com 
plete integrity of her body, which can be 
seen in the same position until to-day. (Cf. 
Sainte Cecile et la Societe Romaine, by 
Dom Gueranger, Paris, 1878.) 

Caelestius. See CCELESTIUS. 

Caesar. Originally the surname of the 
Julian family at Rome. After being dig 
nified in the person of Julius Caesar, it be 
came the usual appellation of those of the 
family who ascended the Roman throne. 
The last of these was Nero ; but the name 
was still retained by his successors, as a 
species of title belonging to imperial dig 
nity. 

Caesarea (the name of two cities in Pal 
estine). i. Csesarea of Palestine, or sim 
ply Caesarea, situated on the coast of the 
Mediterranean sea, between Joppa and 



CAESARIUS OF ARLES 



128 



CAJETAN 



Tyre. It was anciently a small place, 
called the "Tower of Strato," but was re 
built with great splendor, and strongly 
fortified by Herod the Great, and named 
Ctesarea in honor of Augustus. It was in 
habited chiefly by Greeks. This city was 
the capital of Judea during the reigns of 
Herod the Great and of Herod Agrippa I., 
and was also the seat of the Roman power, 
while Judea was governed as a province of 
that empire. It is often mentioned in the 
New Testament. About the end of the 
second century it became the residence of 
a bishop, and possessed a Christian school 
in which Origen was teaching. The mod 
ern Kaisariyeh is a desolate place of 
ruins. 2. Caesarea Philippi, a town in 
northern Palestine, situated at the foot of 
Mount Hermon. The modern village is 
called Banias, formerly Paneas. 

Caesarius of Aries (ST.). Archbishop 
of Aries. Was born of pious parents, about 
470, at Chalons-sur-Saone ; and studied for 
the priesthood at the Monastery of Lerins. 
As his health became enfeebled by the aus 
terity of his life, the Abbot of Lerins sent 
him to Aries where, in 499 he was ordained 
priest by his relative, Bishop Nonius, 
whom he succeeded in 502. As bishop, he 
exercised a truly apostolic ministry by 
preaching, by attending to the sick and 
prisoners of war, by promoting the divine 
service, ecclesiastical discipline, and mon 
astic observance. Owing to the false ac 
cusation of some unscrupulous priests, 
among them his own secretary, Csesarius 
was, in 505, driven into exile by Alaric, 
King of the Visigoths; but was recalled 
again as soon as the king became convinced 
of his innocence. Somewhat later he was 
likewise accused of disloyalty to Theodoric, 
King of the Ostrogoths, but he completely 
cleared himself of the charge. Pope Sym- 
machus took advantage of his presence at 
Rome to confer upon him the pallium. 
Csesarius held several synods in which 
many important disciplinary decrees were 
enacted. He presided over the Council of 
Orange (529), at which Semi-Pelagianism 
was condemned. He died in 542. 

Cahenslianism. A term applied to an 
apparent agitation (since 1891) in the 
Catholic Church in the United States for 
the purpose of inducing the Pope to ap 
point bishops and priests, for Catholics in 
the United States, as much as possible of 
their own nationality: so called from a 
memorial addressed to the Vatican in 1891 



by Herr Cahensly, president of the Society 
for Immigrants and other Europeans. 

Cain (Hebr. acquisition}. The firstborn 
of the human race and the first murderer. 
Presenting to God an offering of fruits, his 
sacrifice was rejected, while that of his 
brother Abel was accepted. Hence, through 
envy, he slew his brother and was ban 
ished by God, and made a fugitive and a 
wanderer. Cain received from God a 
sign to protect him from the avenger of 
blood. He withdrew into the land of Nod, 
east of Eden, and built a city, which he 
called Enoch, after the name of one of his 
sons. (Gen. iv.) 

Cainan. i. The fourth of the ten Pa 
triarchs anterior to the Deluge. He was the 
son of Enos, father of Malaleel, died in 
the year 2769 B. c., at the age of 910 years. 
2. In the Septuagint (Gen. x. 24, and 
xxxi. 12), and in St. Luke (iii. 36), son of 
Arphaxad, consequently great-grandson of 
Noe, father of Sale. Several commenta 
tors believe him interpolated, because his 
name is found neither in the Vulgate nor 
in the Hebrew text, which makes Sale a 
son of Arphaxad. 

Cainites. A Gnostic sect, a branch of 
the Valentinians, in the second century; 
so called because they revered Cain, Cham, 
the Sodomites, and other persons branded 
in Holy Scripture. They despised Jesus 
as the Messias of the Psychites ; Judas 
Iscariotwas to them the only true Apostle. 

Caiphas. See ANNAS. 

Caius or Gaius. A disciple of St. Paul, 
received the Apostle into his house when 
he went to Corinth, and followed him to 
Ephesus. According to Origen, he after 
wards became Bishop of Thessalonica. (I. 
Cor. i. 14.) 

Caius (Sx.). Pope (283-296), born in 
Dalmatia ; was a near relative of Diocletian 
whose niece and wife he converted to the 
faith. 

Cajetan( CARDINAL) (1469-1534). Ital 
ian Dominican born at Syracuse; died in 
Rome. Cardinal in 1517. Professor of 
Holy Scripture and philosophy in the 
Sapiencia; defended the Papal authority 
against the Council of Pisa ; wrote, among 
other works, a treatise on Indulgences ; 
sent, as papal Legate to the Diet of Augs 
burg, where he had three fruitless inter 
views with Luther. He became Bishop of 



CAJUS 



129 



CALIXTUS 



Gasta (Cajeta, whence his surname) in 



Cajus. A learned Roman priest of the 
third century. The time and place of his 
birth are unknown, was most probably a dis 
ciple of St. Irenaeus, and lived at Rome 
under Pope Zephyrinus. He held a dis 
putation with the Montanist leader Proclus, 
which he afterwards published in the form 
of a controversial dialogue. 

Calatrava ( Order of}. A religious and 
military order, founded in Castile, in 1158, 
for the protection and extension of the 
Christian cause in that kingdom. Mem 
bership in the Order is now conferred as a 
reward of merit. 

Calderon de la Barca (PEDRO) (1600- 
1681). A celebrated Spanish dramatist 
and poet. Was born at Malaga. After 
having borne arms as a gallant soldier, he 
became a priest and canon of Toledo. He 
sang in sweet and graceful numbers of the 
heroism of Christians and the unfading 
crown of glory they shall receive on wak 
ing from " the dream of this life." Much 
of his fertile dramatic genius and glowing 
religious enthusiasm was expended in il 
lustrating in his Autos Sacramentales, or 
Corpus Christ!, the mysteries of the Chris 
tian religion. These dramatic productions, 
designed to be played in the open air on 
Corpus Christi Day and other feasts of the 
Church, were allegorical in character, be 
ing based on Scriptural events, but com 
bining, in their composition, references to 
incidents related in the history of the peo 
ple or consecrated in their folklore. 

Caleb (Hebr.f/ie brave). Son of Jephone, 
of the tribe of Juda. He was one of those 
who were sent by Moses as spies into the 
land of Chanaan. 

Calendar (Ecclesiastical). An arrange 
ment of the civil year employed by the 
Church to designate the days set apart for 
particular religious celebration. As many 
feasts of the Church depend upon Easter, 
the date of which varies from year to year, 
either the calendar must vary every year 
or must contain simply the matter from 
which a true calendar can be computed 
for each year. In the Catholic Church, 
special circumstances in the history of each 
nation affect its liturgical calendar ; hence 
every nation, and to some extent every re 
ligious order, and even every ecclesiastical 
province, has its own calendar. See ORDO. 
9 



Calendar (Gregorian). The reformed 
Julian Calendar introduced by the Bull of 
Pope Gregory XIII., in February 1582, and 
adopted in England in September, 1752. 
By the " new style " of distributing and 
naming time the length of the year of the 
Gregorian Calendar is regulated by the 
Gregorian rule of intercalation, which is 
that every year whose number is the com 
mon reckoning, since the birth of Christ, 
is not divisible by 4, as well as every year 
whose number is divisible by 100, but not 
by 400, shall have 365 days, and that all 
other years, namely, those whose numbers 
are divisible by 400, and those divisible by 
4, and not by 100, shall have 366 days. 
The Gregorian year, or the mean length 
of the years of the Gregorian Calendar, is 
365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes, and 12 
seconds, and is too long by 26 seconds. 
The Gregorian rule has sometimes been 
stated as if the year 4000 and its multiples 
were to be common years : this, however, 
is not the rule enunciated by Pope Greg 
ory. The Gregorian Calendar also regu 
lates the time of Easter, upon which that 
of the other movable feasts of the Church 
depend. See EASTER. 

California (Missions in). See MIS 
SIONS. 

Calixtines. See HUSSITES. 

Calixtus (name of three Popes). Calix- 
tus I. Successor of Zephyrinus (218-222). 
Born a. slave, he governed the Church 
under the reign of Heliogabalus. He con 
demned the Antitrinkarian heresy of Sabel- 
lius, as also the ditheistic doctrine of 
Hippolytus, who, falling into the opposite 
extreme, made the Son inferior to the 
Father. CalixtusII. Successor of Gelasius 
II. (1119-1124). One of the first acts of Cal 
ixtus was to convoke a Council at Rheims, 
which, after fruitless attempts on the part of 
the Pope to induce Emperor Henry V. of 
Germany to abandon his claims, solemnly 
excommunicated the emperor and his Anti- 
pope Gregory VII., and released the Ger 
mans from the oath of allegiance until their 
sovereign should adopt better sentiments. 
At length, the charitable admonitions and 
prayers of Pope Calixtus prevailed on 
Henry to come to an agreement with the 
Holy See. The Concordat of Worms, or 
Calixtian Treaty, as it was called, was 
solemnly ratified by the First Council of 
Lateran, or Ninth Ecumenical Council, 
which Calixtus had convoked for that pur- 



CALMET 



130 



CALVIN AND CALVINISM 



pose, in 1123. The same Council renewed, 
in twenty-three canons, the censures against 
simony and clerical marriages. Calixtus 
If I. Successor of Nicholas V. ( 1455-1458) . 
A Pontiff of remarkable firmness; em 
ployed all his endeavors to unite all Chris 
tendom in an expedition against advancing 
Mohammedanism. He himself raised and 
equipped an army to aid the Hungarians 
against the Turks ; and, to obtain the Di 
vine assistance for the Christian warriors, 
he ordered the Lord s Prayer and the 
Angelic Salutation to be recited by the 
Faithful at noon; whence originated the 
"Angelus." To his efforts mainly is at 
tributed the great victory of the Christians 
at Belgrade, in 1456. 

Calmet (AUGUSTINE) (1672-1757). A 
noted French Benedictine scholar and bib 
lical critic. He was the author of numer 
ous works, including Commentary on all 
t/ie Books of the Old Testament (1707-1716), 
and Historical, Critical and Chronological 
Dictionary of the Bible. These works are 
written in French. 

Calotte. A plain skull-cap or coif of 
hair, skin, or other fabric, worn by some 
clergymen, to cover the tonsure when ex 
posed to draft. 

Caloyers (monks of the Order of St. 
Basil). The Caloyers lived particularly 
on Mount Athos and administered to nearly 
all the Churches of the East; they occupy, 
to-day, only a few monasteries. 

Calumny and Slander. Calumny is, cor 
rectly speaking, a false and injurious charge 
against another, such as imputing to him 
habits that he does not possess, or sins 
which he has not committed. Slander 
consists in spreading or exaggerating evil 
reports, unjustly tending to injure our 
neighbor s reputation; detraction is the 
making known, without just cause, the 
faults of another s character. Slander and 
calumny are, therefore, the most pernicious 
of lies, because they falsely ruin another s 
good name; and unless excusable, from 
ignorance or inadvertence, and other ex 
tenuating circumstances, are serious, and 
may be mortal sins. 

Calvary or Golgotha (Hebr. the place 
of a skull). A little hill northwest of 
Jerusalem, and so called, it is supposed, 
from its skull-like form, or else because it 
was a place of execution. It formerly 



stood outside the walls of Jerusalem, and 
was the spot upon which our Saviour was 
crucified. Hadrian, having taken Jerusa 
lem, entirely destroyed the city, and settled 
a Roman colony there, calling it "^Elia 
Capitolina." The new city was not built 
exactly on the ruins of the old, but farther 
north; so that Calvary became almost the 
center of the city of ^Elia. Hadrian pro 
faned the mount, and particularly the place 
where Jesus had been crucified and His 
body buried ; but the Empress Helena, the 
mother of Constantine the Great, erected 
over the spot a stately church, which still 
exists. 

Calvary (Daughters of). Benedictine 
religious, founded at Poitiers by Antoi 
nette of Orleans, of the House of Longue- 
ville. Pope Paul V. confirmed the order 
in 1617. The object of this institute is to 
honor the mystery of the Compassion of 
the Blessed Virgin with the dolors of Jesus 
Christ. 

Calvary (Priests of). Religious Con 
gregation founded near Paris, upon Mount 
Valerien, in 1634 by Hubert Charpentier 
(died, 1650). On Good Friday the mem 
bers of this congregation made to the 
Calvary, which they had erected on the 
Mount, a pilgrimage which was inter 
dicted in 1697. The Congregation, sup 
pressed in 1791 and restored under Na 
poleon I., soon disappeared. Under the 
Restoration the Jesuits established there a 
house and a cemetery which were de 
stroyed in 1830. 

Calvin and Calvinism. John Calvin 
(C/iauvin) was born July loth, 1509, at 
Noyon, Picardy; died at Geneva, May 
27th, 1564. Having received the tonsure, 
he was early provided with an ecclesias 
tical living, but he was never admitted 
to any of the holy orders. He studied 
philosophy and theology at Paris. At 
the request of his father he went to study 
law at Bourges. There the influence of 
the Lutheran Volmar won him over to 
the heresy of the "Reformers." In 1533, 
he appeared at Paris, openly advocating 
the new teachings. Being obliged to leave 
France, he fled to Basle, where, in 1535, 
he published his principal work, The 
Institutions of the Christian Religion. 
In this work, Calvin, with much skill and 
learning, elaborates his religious system, 
which is based on the stern theory of pre- 



CAMALDOLITES 



CAMISARDS 



destination. At the instance of Farel, Cal 
vin, in 1536, settled at Geneva, as preacher 
and professor of theology. Here he exer 
cised a controlling influence, even in 
temporal affairs. He compelled the people 
to abjure the Papacy, abolished all Church 
festivals, and introduced rigid regulations 
of discipline. His arbitrary and despotic 
measures aroused a strong opposition 
against him, which resulted in his expul 
sion from the town. He went to Stras- 
burg, where he married, and organized a 
congregation which adopted his tenets and 
discipline. His party at Geneva, having 
meanwhile gained the ascendancy, recalled 
him, in 1541, and from this time Calvin 
ruled Geneva with supreme command, 
exercising an absolute power in temporal 
as well as spiritual matters. He estab 
lished a Consistory, or tribunal of morals, 
composed of twelve laymen and six minis 
ters, whose office it was to take cognizance 
of all infractions of morality, including 
even dancing and similar amusements. 
Imprisonment and severe penalties were 
inflicted for slight offenses. Public wor 
ship was organized with extreme simplic 
ity, preaching and instruction forming the 
chief part thereof. Images and all sorts 
of decorations were excluded from the 
churches. The constitution of the Calvin- 
istic sect was rigidly Presbyterian. The 
distinguishing characteristic of Calvinism 
is the doctrine of absolute predestination. 
According to this doctrine, God ordains 
some to everlasting life, others to ever 
lasting punishment. The decree of pre 
destination, the consequence of Adam s 
fall, is eternal and immutable. The whole 
nature of fallen man is utterly corrupt, and 
devoid of all goodness; man has an uncon 
querable tendency to do wrong. As man 
is acting under Divine impulse, which is 
irresistible, it follows that there can be no 
question of merits foreseen on account of 
which God predestines some to salvation, 
others to eternal damnation. With Luther, 
Calvin taught justification by faith alone, 
which, according to him, consisted not in 
man s real sanctification, but in the guilt 
of sin not being imputed to him. With 
Zwingle, he agreed in teaching that the 
Lord s Supper was a figure, only, of the 
Body and Blood of Christ. He denied 
Transubstantiation, but held that at the 
moment of communion, a divine power, 
emanating from the Body of Christ, which 
is now in heaven, is communicated, but 
only to those predestined to eternal life. 



Camaldolites. Religious order founded 
at Camaldoli, near Arezzo in Tuscany, by 
St. Romuald in 1018. Its members observed 
the Benedictine Rule in its stricter form, 
were divided into cenobites, living in ordi 
nary monasteries, and hermits, who passed 
their lives in lauras and recluses and who 
never quitted their cells. The Camaldo 
lites wear white robes. Pope Alexander 
II., approved the order in 1072. St. Ro 
muald died June igth, 1027, at the age, 
some claim, of 120 years. 

Camerarius. Name given to Chamber 
lains of the Pope, of a cardinal, or any Ital 
ian prelate. The Pope has two camerarii. 
One has charge of the alms and the other 
keeps watch over the silver plate, jewels, 
and reliquaries. These prelates wear a 
violet cassock with hanging sleeves, but 
without a cloak. 

Camerlengo. The chamberlain of the 
Pope, having charge of the secular interests 
of the Papacy. He takes rank as one of 
the four chief officers of the Pope, the 
others being the cardinal-vicar, the cardi 
nal-patron and the cardinal-penitentiary. 
The camerlengo is always chosen from 
the College of Cardinals, and is, therefore, 
usually called cardinal camerlengo. Dur 
ing a vacancy in the Holy See he takes 
charge of all the temporalities and pre 
sides over the apostolic chamber or palace. 

Cameronians. Followers of Richard 
Cameron in Scotland, who refused to ac 
cept the indulgence granted to the Presby 
terian clergy in the persecuting times of 
Charles II., lest, by so doing, they should 
be understood to recognize his ecclesiasti 
cal authority. They were known at first 
as "The Societies," but were afterwards or 
ganized as the Reformed Presbyterian 
Church of Scotland, most of the members 
of which, in 1876, were merged into the Free 
Church. 

Camillians or Fathers of a Good Death. 
Members of a religious order founded at 
Rome by St. Camillus of Lellis, priest of 
the Diocese of Theate, and approved by the 
Holy See, March 8th, 1585. These religious 
take care of the sick and wounded in hos 
pitals and on the battlefield. St Camillus 
died July i4th, 1614, at the age of 65 years, 
and was canonized by Benedict XIV. 

Camisards. Name given to the French 
Protestants in the Cevennes, who. took up 
arms in defense of their civil and religious 



CAMPBELLITES 



132 



CANDLE 



liberties early in the eighteenth century ; 
so called from the white blouses worn by 
the peasants who were the chief actors in 
the insurrection. 

Campbellites. i. A Protestant denom 
ination, otherwise known as the "Disciples 
of Christ," founded by the Rev. Alexander 
Campbell (who died in 1866). He came to 
America in 1809. The Campbellites were 
also called "New Lights." 2. The fol 
lowers of Rev. John McLeod Campbell, a 
minister of the Church of Scotland, who, 
when deposed, in 1831, for teaching the uni 
versality of the atonement, founded a sep 
arate sect. 

Campeggio (LAWRENCE) Cardinal. 
The eldest of five sons, born at Bologna, 
Nov. 7, 1472, died in Rome, July 25, 1539. 
Professor at Padua; after the death of his 
wife he embraced the ecclesiastical state ; 
was appointed by Julius II. Auditor of the 
Rota, Bishop of Feltri, and Nuncio of Ger 
many. Leo X. created him cardinal and 
sent him into Germany to try to win back 
Luther; then into England to implore the 
assistance of that country against the 
Turks. In spite of his skill he failed in 
these two missions ; but Henry VIII. was so 
pleased with him that, in 1518, he gave him 
the Bishopric of Salisbury. Under Clem 
ent VII., he was sent as legate to the Diet 
of Nuremberg, but could not unite the 
German princes against Luther (1524). 
Sent back to England (1528), he was un 
able to prevent the divorce of Henry VIII. 
from Catherine of Aragon. In spite of 
all his failures, he retained the favor of the 
Pope and continued to exercise a great in 
fluence over him until the end of his life. 
Towards the close of his career, he was 
named Archbishop of Bologna. 

Cana. A city of Galilee in which our 
Lord performed his first miracle, and be 
longed to the tribe of Zabulon. It has 
been identified with Kefre-Kenna and with 
Kana-el-Jelil, both near Nazareth. At 
the present day it contains 300 schismatic 
Christians and as many Mohammedans. 
On the site where it is claimed our Sav 
iour wrought his first miracle is pointed 
out the remnants of a Christian Church 
transformed into a mosque. In the actual 
Church, which belongs to schismatic 
Greeks, two large stone vases can be 
seen, which are, it is asserted, two of the 
six vases which contained the water that 
was changed into wine M. de Saulcy, who 



has carefully examined them, believes that 
they are at least contemporary with the 
time of our Saviour. 

Canada (Missions in). See MISSIONS. 

Canada (Statistics of the Church in) in 
1898. (See opposite page.) 

Candace. Queen of Ethiopia of whom 
there is mention in the Acts of the Apos 
tles (viii. 27), and who introduced Chris 
tianity among her people. She had been 
converted by her treasurer, the eunuch 
Judas, who, in a voyage which he made to 
Jerusalem, was converted by St. Philip. 

Candle (Paschal). A candle blessed on 
the eve of Easter. That its origin is very 
ancient may be unhesitatingly asserted, 
when we remember that St. Jerome and St. 
Augustine respectively make mention of its 
usage. That, in Rome, in the fifth cen 
tury, a candle was solemnly blessed upon 
the eve of Easter, and kept burning at Di 
vine service during Paschal time, or the 
period which elapses between the feasts of 
the resurrection and ascension, is ascer 
tained by a permission which, the Liber 
Pontificalis informs us, was conceded by 
Pope Zosimus (417-418), in favor of the 
several parish Churches throughout Rome, 
by which they were authorized to bless the 
Paschal candle, in imitation of the prac 
tice then observed in the basilicas of that 
metropolis of Christianity. The Paschal 
candle is of unusual size, being, generally, 
many feet in height and several inches in 
diameter. It is regarded as an emblem of 
Christ. While it is unlighted, it is figura 
tive of His death and repose in the tomb; 
when lighted, it represents the splendo- 
and glory of His resurrection. Before it is 
blessed, the officiating deacon inserts the 
five grains of incense, to signify that the 
sacred body of our Divine Redeemer was 
bound in linen cloths with spices, and 
thus consigned to the grave. The five in 
cisions made to receive the grains of in 
cense, which are so arranged as to form 
the figure of a cross, represent the five 
wounds that were inflicted on the body of 
Christ at His crucifixion. See EXULTET. 

Candle ( Triple). In the service peculiar 
to Holy Saturday, or Easter eve, is in 
cluded the ceremony of the lighting of the 
triple candle, the branches of which all 
arise from one stem. This stem is affixed 
to the top of what is denominated the reed. 
This three-branched candle is intended to 



CANDLEMAS 



CANISIUS 



STATISTICS OF THE CHURCH IN CANADA IN 1898. GENERAL SUMMARY 



Archdioceses and 
Dioceses. 


Archbishops 




a 



x 
3 


Clergy 


Churches 
and 
Chapels 


Seminaries 


Secular 
Students 


High 
Schools 


Charitable 
Institutions 


Population, 
about 


3 
O 

._ & 

"5 
oi 


i* 

CS 

"5 
Cl 

11 

tc 


rt 

t- 1 





n 


*C 

o 


Halifax . ... 


I 


i 
i 
i 


ii 

7 


40 

80 

45 
S 2 
49 
40 
16 
29 

3 6 9 
184 

94 
64 
96 

25 
424 

8 3 

!5 

"3 

84 

7 
44 

5 
6 

17 
56 
42 

53 

J 4 


5 1 
87 

45 

5 2 
68 

45 
16 

53 
610 

202 

94 

67 

187 
36 

459 
89 

I0 5 
116 
86 

IO 

94 

3 1 

34 

3 

21 

88 
60 
69 

*4 


103 
96 

49 
62 
61 
64 

23 
162 

285 

"5 

69 

58 
no 

83 

245 

III 

58 

2OO 

44 

17 
93 

90 

32 

20 

5 1 
85 
81 

78 
44 


I 


18 


2 
I 
I 

I 

I 


3 

i 
8 
9 

2 
2 
I 


6 


50,000 
73,000 

55,000 

SS, 000 
58,000 
37,000 
18,000 
40,000 
415,000 
119,000 
65,000 
56,125 
128,000 
40,000 
320,000 
57,000 

79,3 6 9 

84,500 
60,568 

7,000 
27,800 

28,000 
15,000 

8,000 

8,200 

65,000 
50,000 
60,000 

9,000 


Antigonish . . 


Charlottetown . 
Chatham 






5 
5 
9 


i 
6 

7 
4 




St. John. . 




i 
i 


19 

5 


Kingston 
Alexandria . 


I 






Peterborough . 
Montreal 




i 


24 
241 

18 




4 
272 
42 

12 
IO 

28 

3 

87 

29 

22 
142 
H 






78 
9 

i 

IO 

ii 

4 

22 

6 
4 

4 

IO 


I 


I 

2 

I 

I 


25 
17 

5 
6 

5 


44 

23 
3 

J 4 
ii 

4 
19 
4 
19 

5 
n 


St. Hyacinth. . . 




2 
I 


Sherbrooke. . . . 




Valleyfield 
Otta~wa 


I 
I 


I 
I 

I 
I 

I 
I 


3 
9i 
ii 

35 
6 


Pembroke 
Quebec .... 


I 
2 
I 
I 
I 


6 

2 

7 


Chicoutimi .... 
Nicolet 


Rimouski . . . 




3 

2 

3 
50 

26 

28 

30 

4 

32 
18 
16 


Three Rivers 




6 


P.-A. St. Lau 
rent 




St. Boniface . . . 
New Westmin 
ster 


I 


2 
I 

2 

I 






i 




6 

3 
6 

6 

6 

7 
7 
4 

4 






6 


4 

5 

3 

32 

7 
3 
8 

3 


St. Albert 








A. Athabaska 
V. -Mackenzie 
V.-A. Saskatch 
ewan 
















Toronto 




I 


20 
II 

9 


i 
i 
i 

i 


Hamilton . . 




I 
I 

I 


London 
Vancouver s Is 
land 
















TOTAL 


6 


2 4 


683 


2236 


2919 


2589 


13 


742 


96 


248 


239 


2,088,562 



indicate a Trinity of persons in one God, 
or the light and glory of the Triune God 
beaming forth upon mankind through the 
person of our Redeemer Jesus Christ. 

Candlemas or the feast of the Purifica 
tion of the Blessed Virgin is observed on 
the 2d of February. The Festival of Puri 
fication, a festival common to the Latin and 
Greek Churches, is rendered peculiar by 
the blessing of wax tapers which are 
carried burning by those who form the 
procession which takes place afterwards. 
The symbolical meaning attributed to this 
ceremony is, that the faithful should, with 
the holy Simeon, recognize in the Infant 
Jesus the salvation which the Lord had 



prepared before the face of the people, 
"A light to lighten the Gentiles, and the 
glory of the people of Israel" (Luke ii. 31- 
32) and be admonished by the burning 
tapers which they are carrying in their 
hands, that their faith must be fed and aug 
mented by the exercise of good works, 
through which they are to become a light 
to. shine before men (Matt. v. 14-16). 

Candles Used in Church. See LIGHTS. 

Canisius (PETER), latinized from De 
Hond (1524-1597). Born at Nimvvegen, 
in the Netherlands, died at Freiburg, Switz 
erland. Jesuit and the first provincial of 
his order in Germany. He founded the 
College of Freiburg. Was at once anapos- 



CANONICAL HOURS 



CANONIZATION 



tie and theologian; distinguished himself 
in the Council of Trent; converted numer 
ous heretics and composed highly esteemed 
works. Among others, a Larger and a 
Smaller Catechism, the former bearing 
the title Sum ma Doctrinte Christiana; 
and the latter, an abridgment of the former, 
published in 1561. It was not long before 
the Summa was translated into every liv 
ing language. 

Canonical Hours. See BREVIARY. 

Canonist. Doctor in canon law, or au 
thor who has written on the laws of the 
Church. See CANON LAW. 

Canonization. A solemn declaration by 
which the Pope places in the catalogue of 
the saints, a person who has died in the 
odor of sanctity. Du Gange informs us 
that, in the early Church, canonization was 
but a mandate of the Pope by which he com 
manded that the names of those who were 
remarkable for their sanctity should be in 
serted in the Canon of the Mass. Father 
Mabillon, in the preface of the Acta SS. 
Bened. (p. 88), remarks, very correctly, that 
the term canonization is not as ancient as 
the act which it signifies. The word was 
not in use before the thirteenth century, 
and we first meet the term in the letter of 
Udalric, Bishop of Constance, to Pope 
Calixtus II., referring to the canonization 
of Bishop Conrad. We also find the word 
used by Pope Alexander III., in the canon 
ization of St. Edward, King of England, in 
1161 ; also in that of St. Thomas of Canter 
bury in 1173. Father Mabillon distin 
guishes between a general and a particular 
canonization. The first is that which took 
place by a general council or by the Pope; 
the second, that which was performed by 
a bishop, by a particular Church, or by a 
particular council. There are some in 
stances of canonization, or of a kind 
of canonization, pronounced by abbots. 
Thus St. Viboradus, killed by the Bar 
barians, May 2d, 925, many miracles 
having been wrought on his tomb, Abbot 
Engilbert, on the anniversary of his death, 
enrolled him among the saints, and, after 
having consulted his monks, composed an 
"Office" in his honor, and celebrated the 
Mass Commune Virginum. (See Mabillon, 
Prcef. et Sa?c. I, n. 91.) Fleury adds that 
he did this by the authority of the bishop. 

The first saints which the Church hon 
ored were the holy martyrs. She com 
menced later on to canonize the confessors. 



The first authentic instance of a canoniza 
tion by a Pope is that of St. Uldric or 
Udaric, Bishop of Augsburg ; this was per 
formed by Pope John XV., June nth, 983, 
in the eighth year of his Pontificate. This 
canonization occurred twenty years after 
the saint s death. The final process is 
signed by the Pope, five bishops of the 
vicinage of Rome, nine priests, and three 
cardinal-deacons. Even in the solemn and 
formal act the word " canonization " is not 
used. The process is found in Baronius, 
in the collection of the Councils by Labbe 
(to HI. IX, p. 741), and in the Propylaium 
ad Acta SS. Maii. Canonization consisted 
formerly in putting the name of the saint 
in the sacred diptychs or in the canon, that 
is, in the catalogue of the saints; to erect, 
under their invocation, churches, or ora 
tories, with altars, and to offer thereon the 
holy sacrifice of the Mass ; to remove their 
remains from their first burial place, etc. 
This manner of canonizing is very ancient. 
In the early ages of Christianity, as we 
have seen, the Pope was not the sole au 
thority in canonizing. This privilege was 
enjoyed by the ordinaries, especiallv the 
metropolitans and primates. This was 
sometimes exercised on the occasions of 
their official visits, or in a council of their 
province. We do not know exactly at 
what period the right of canonization was 
reserved solely to the Pope. Some believe 
Alexander III. to be the author of this 
restriction. The Jesuits of Antwerp in 
their learned Propylceum ad Acta Sanc 
torum Maii (p. 471) (173 B.C.), conjecture 
that it had been established for two or 
three centuries, by a custom which had 
passed into law, but which, in the tenth 
and eleventh centuries, was not energet 
ically enforced. Father Mabillon (Acta 
SS. Bened. scec. V. Prtef. 6), also refers it 
to the tenth century. It is certain, however, 
that it was absolutely and generally received 
before Alexander III.; for the Archbishop 
of Vie*hne, in France, and his suffragans, 
acknowledged it authentically in the year 
1231, in a letter which they wrote to Greg 
ory IX., petitioning him for the canoniza 
tion of Stephen, Bishop of Die, who died 
in 1208. 

The ceremonies of canonization were not 
instituted at once, but were of gradual 
growth. The first and most ancient form 
of canonization consisted in the simple act 
of the Pope in declaring an individual 
worthy of public honor and ordering his 
feast to be celebrated on the anniversary 



CANON 



CANON LAW 



of his death. This declaration was ordi 
narily made in a council, though it was 
sometimes pronounced by the Pope alone, 
as in the case of St. Edward. Again, the 
declaration was made in a great assembly 
of Faithful, as in the case of the canoniza 
tion of St. Francis of Assisi. To render 
this ceremony still more imposing, Pope 
Honorius III., in 1225, added days of in 
dulgences. Even a plenary indulgence 
could be gained, as in the instance of the 
canonization of St. Bennon in 1523, under 
Pope Adrian IV. An ancient ceremonial, 
which had succeeded the Roman Ordo, 
and which had been in use until Leo X. 
(1513-1521), under whose Pontificate, Mar- 
cellus, Archbishop of Corcyra, published 
the new Ceremonial, is the first book in- 
which we find the ceremonies of canoniza 
tion. These ceremonies had not been in 
serted in the Roman Ordo, because at that 
time they were not performed in the Church 
during the celebration of the sacred mys 
teries, but in the meeting place of the 
council. Thus, it is believed, that Alex 
ander III. was the first who canonized St. 
Thomas of Canterbury during the cele 
bration of the Mass. Baronius, in his Notes 
on the Martyrology, and after him Phce- 
baeus, remark that at the canonization of 
St. Rochus, performed in the Council of 
Constance in 1414, they bore for the 
first time the picture of the saint in pro 
cession through the city; and Phoebseus 
believes that this was the origin of the 
banners of the canonized saint and of the 
procession made at the canonization. (See 
Bollandist, Propyl. ad Acta SS. Maii Dis 
sert. XX, p. 171, etc., and the Preface on 
the Acta Sand. Bcned. SCEC. V. vi.) A 
mode of canonizing the saints in use in the 
tenth and eleventh centuries was to erect, 
with the permission of the Holy See, an 
altar over their remains ; this was the case, 
for instance, in regard to St. Romuald, 
who died in 1027. The honors which the 
Church renders to canonized saints have 
been reduced to seven, i. The names of 
those saints are inscribed in the martyr- 
ologies and litanies. 2. They are invoked 
publicly. 3. Churches and altars are dedi 
cated under their patronage. 4. The sac 
rifice of the Mass is offered in their honor. 
5. The day of their feast or the anniversary 
of their death is celebrated. 6. Their pic 
tures are exhibited and are represented with 
an aureola. 7. Their relics are venerated. 
Beatification precedes definitive canoniz 
ation. It is the duty of the Congregation 



of Rites to institute the process of canoni 
zation. This takes place only after the 
examination and verification of facts and 
necessary petitions have been made by the 
diocesan authorities. Then are discussed 
four questions, or doubts ; the first three 
before the process of beatification and the 
resumption of proofs of new miracles, which 
latter must have occurred after the first 
process has been taken. The first question 
to be inquired into is : i. Whether the re 
quired degree of heroic virtue is well at 
tested. 2. Whether the required number 
of miracles (two at least) is adequately 
proved. 3. Whether it is expedient to 
proceed to the beatification, in view of 
the proceedings, proofs, and answer to the 
objections. 4. Whether the canonization 
should be proceeded with. When the 
deceased has left any written works, these 
are to be scrupulously and rigorously ex 
amined, in order to ascertain whether they 
are in accordance with the rules and obli 
gations of morality and truths of religion. 
See BEATIFICATION. 

Canon. For the meaning of this word, 
see CANOX OF THE SCRIPTURES. 

Canon Law (rules or laws relating to 
faith, morals, and discipline, enjoined on 
the members of the Catholic Church by 
its lawful ecclesiastical authority). In the 
early ages, the Sacred Scriptures, tradition, 
and the disciplinary rules laid down by the 
Apostles, or by apostolic men, constituted 
the law of the Church in the East as well as 
in the West. Later on, however, Church 
synods formed numerous canons for the 
regulation of ecclesiastical discipline and 
the government of the particular churches. 
Thus, the Council of Nice, besides its dog 
matic decrees, framed a number of canons, 
which, with those of subsequent councils, 
were translated into Latin and widely cir 
culated in the West. The celebrated and 
very ancient collection referred to in the 
Council of Chalcedon (451) contained 66 
canons, enacted respectively by the Coun 
cils of Nice, Ancyra, Neo-Caesarea, Gangra, 
Antioch, Laodicea, and Constantinople. 
Up to this period, there existed various 
other collections of canons and papal decre 
tals in the Latin Church. Of these, that 
of Dionysius Exiguus was most generally in 
use. The work is divided into two parts : 
the first part contains the canons of coun 
cils; the second the decretal epistles of the 
sovereign Pontiffs from Siricius to Anas- 
tasius II. This collection, though never 



CANON OF THE MASS 



136 CANON OF THE SCRIPTURES 



expressly approved by the Holy See, at 
tained great influence throughout the 
whole Church. Pope Adrian I. presented 
it, with some additions, to Charlemagne, 
in order that it might serve as the code of 
laws for the government of the Church 
in the Frankish empire. The collection 
wrongly attributed to St. Isidore of Seville 
contained, besides the canons and decretals 
of Dionysius, additions from the Fathers 
and Spanish councils. About the middle 
of the ninth century, a new and largely in 
creased code of canons came into use; first 
in the Frankish empire, and then in 
other countries. It appeared under the as 
sumed name of Isidore Mercator, or Peca- 
tor, and is now generally known as the 
Pseudo-Isidorian Collection, or False De 
cretals. This collection contains, besides 
questions of ecclesiastical law, also treat 
ises on dogmatical and moral theology, 
liturgy, and penitential discipline. It is 
divided into three parts, of which the first 
contains the canons of the Apostles, and 
sixty decretals of the earlier Popes, from 
Clement I. to Melchiades. The second 
part contains a number of conciliar canons, 
beginning with the Council of Nice, and 
ending with the second Council of Seville 
(619). Many of these canons are unau- 
thentic. The third part is made up of the 
decretal letters of the Popes, from Sylves 
ter I. to Gregory II. Of these, about forty 
were compiled by the author himself. The 
Pseudo-Isidorian Collection was regarded 
as genuine during the whole of the Middle 
Ages, that is, from the ninth to the fifteenth 
centuries ; no one thought of questioning 
the genuineness of the papal decretals 
which it contained. The first doubts as to 
their authenticity were raised about the 
year 1400 by Laurentius Valla, Canon of 
the Lateran. As early as 1431, Nicholas 
of Cusa proved the forgery of the Donation 
of Constantine as well as the writings at 
tributed to Popes St. Clement, St. Anas- 
tasius, and St. Melchiades. That the Isi- 
dorian Collection is a forgery, at least irf 
part, there can be no doubt at present. 
The Pseudo-Decretals wrought, however, 
no material change in the discipline of the 
Church. So much is certain, that the 
Popes had nothing to do with the compila 
tion ; and their authority derived no con 
firmation, much less an increase of power, 
from the False Decretals. 

As to the jurisdiction of the ecclesias 
tical tribunals extending over a variety of 
persons and causes, it became necessary to 



establish a uniform system for the regula 
tion of their decisions. Hence Gratian, a 
Benedictine monk, and professor of canon 
law at Bologna, published, in 1151, his 
celebrated Manual, entitled Concordantia 
discordantittm Canonum, but which is now 
commonly known as Dccretum (iratiani. 
This work is divided into three parts, 
treating respectively of ecclesiastical per 
sons, ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and the 
Liturgy of the Church. Gratian s collec 
tion of the canon laws, though never re 
ceiving the formal approbation of the Holy 
See, acquired great authority in the schools, 
and superseded all other collections in the 
West. It fell short, however, of what was 
required, in the progress of ecclesiastical 
judicature. Hence, Pope Gregory IX. 
caused the Five Books of Decretals, which 
bear his name, to be published by St. Ray 
mond of Pennafort, in 1233. These con 
sist almost entirely of decretals, issued by 
the Popes, from the time of Gregory I. to 
that of Gregory IX. himself. Boniface 
VIII., in 1298, added a Sixth Book of De 
cretals, containing papal constitutions, 
promulgated since the time of the Pontifi 
cate of Gregory IX. New collections of 
papal constitutions were published by sub 
sequent Pontiffs under the name of Cleni- 
entincE, containing the decretals of Clem 
ent V. and of Extravagantes of John XII., 
which contain the constitutions of that 
Pontiff. 

Canon of the Mass. The Canon begins 
with the words " Te igitur," and closes 
with the "Pater Noster." The whole is 
recited in an inaudible tone of voice by 
the celebrant of the Mass. It is called 
Canon, because as the meaning of the 
Greek word imports, this prayer has been 
laid down as the Rule, or Canon, which 
is to be rigidly followed by the priest who 
offers the holy sacrifice. The minutest 
variation from it can never be tolerated. 
The Canon of the Mass, according to the 
use of Rome, was certainly written before 
the middle of the fifth century, probably, 
as early as 416; prior to which time it had 
been handed down by oral tradition. 

Canon of the Scriptures. The word 
canon, which is of Greek origin, means a 
rod or stick, with which lines were drawn, 
and quantities measured. The name of 
this instrument denoted the standard by 
which the quality of things was fixed, and 
in the middle of the fourteenth century it 
was employed to distinguish the collection 



CANONS 



CANONS 



of the Old and New Testament Scriptures, 
accepted by the Church as the Word of God 
or inspired. The Scriptures were revered 
by the Jews as holy, as God s word, or as in 
spired by God. For, according to Jewish 
tradition, they contained the deposit of the 
divine wisdom that God revealed to Moses 
and the Prophets, to the Psalmist, Solomon, 
and others. Our Lord and the Apostles 
found the Jewish Canon in existence, and 
used it to establish the mission of the Mes- 
sias, and the divine origin of Christianity. 
It was the Messianic prophecies that made 
the Old Testament so valuable in the New 
Law ; and as the need arose, the Apostles 
and their disciples composed the Scrip 
tures of the New Testament. The two 
Testaments are placed side by side, and 
together constitute "Holy Scripture." 
Before Christ the Old Testament num 
bered thirty Books as seen in the Septua- 
gint. In the first century after Christ, Jose- 
phus tells us the number had been reduced 
to twenty-two. Later on, at Babylon, the 
number had been fixed at twenty-four. 
This last enumeration is retained by the 
Jews to this day. The Christian Church 
adopted the Septuagint Canon, the text of 
which is used almost throughout the new 
Testament. But, in controversy with the 
Jews, the place of honor was assigned to the 
Hebrew Canon. Finally, according to the 
division in the Vulgate, the Old Testament 
comprised thirty-six books. The Church 
made decrees concerning the Canon of 
Scripture in a Roman synod under Pope 
Damasus (374), and in the synods of 
Hippo (393), and Carthage (397). The 
first general council to make the Canon 
universally obligatory, was the Council of 
Trent, which in its fourth session enumer 
ated the following books in the Old Testa 
ment : 



The books of the New Testament were 
written at different times and in different 
places. Hence time was required to col 
lect the books, and to complete the Canon. 
In the above-named early synods, the 
Church declared twenty-seven books of the 
New Testament canonical. The Council 
of Trent also declared twenty-seven books 
of the New Testament canonical, and its 
decision is final. The Council arranged 
the Canon of the New Testament imme 
diately after that of the Old. It enumerates 
the following books : 

The Gospel according to St. Matthew; 
the Gospel according to St. Mark; the 
Gospel according to St. Luke ; and the 
Gospel according to St. John. The Acts of 
the Apostles written by the Evangelist, St. 
Luke. The fourteen Epistles of St. Paul : 
One to the Romans; two to the Corinth 
ians; one to the Galatians ; one to the 
Ephesians; one to the Philippians ; one to 
the Colossians; two to the Thessalonians ; 
two to Timothy ; one to Titus ; one to 
Philemon; one to the Hebrews; two of 
Peter, the Apostle. The three Epistles of 
St. John, the Apostle; the one Epistle of 
James ; the one of Jude, the Apostle ; and 
the Apocalypse of St. John, the Apostle. 

Canons (Cathedral}. Dignitaries who 
possess a prebend or revenue allotted to 
them for the performance of divine service 
in a cathedral or collegiate Church. Can 
ons were formerly divided into three 
classes : regular, secular, and honorary. 
The regular canons lived in monasteries, 
and added the profession of the three evan 
gelical vows to their other duties. Secular 
or lay canons did not live in monasteries, 
but were bound to keep the canonical 
hours. Honorary canons were not obliged 
to keep the canonical hours. Collectively, 



Genesis 1 J3 


Tobias 


Osee 




Exodus 

1 o o 


Judith 


Joel 


n 


Leviticus f m ^ 


Esther 


Amos 


u 


Numbers 


Job 


Abdias 


o 


Deuteronomy J SI S 


Psalms (150) 


Jonas 





Josue 


Proverbs 


Micheas 


I* 


Judges 


Ecclesiastes 


Nahum 


> O 


Ruth 


Canticle of Canticles 


Habacuc 


i 


rst Book of Kings 


Wisdom 


Sophonias 


V 


2d Book of Kings 


Ecclesiasticus 


Aggeus 


"v 


3d Book of Kings 


Isaias 


Zacharias 




4th Book of Kings 


Jeremias (with Baruch) 


Malachias 


H 


ist Book of Esdras 


Ezechiel 


ist Book of Machabees 


2d Book of Esdras (or 


Daniel 


2d Book of Machabees 


Nehemias) 







CANONS 



138 



CAPTIVITY OF THE JEWS 



with the dean at their head, the canons 
formed the Cathedral Chapter. We have 
no canons in the United States. See Cox- 

SULTORS OF THE BlSHOP. 

Canons (Penitential). The nature and 
duration of penances to be performed in 
the first and second centuries were deter 
mined by the bishops after consulting their 
diocesan counselors; in the more impor 
tant cases, bishops also asked by letter 
(epistola canonica} the advice of their 
brother bishops. When crimes became 
more frequent, the Church became very 
severe, and established through her sacred 
canons proper regulations determining the 
nature and time of the penance to be im 
posed. The collection of these regulations, 
which appointed the manner and duration 
of penances for different sins, was called 
Penitential Canons or simply "Peniten- 
tialc." 

Canticle of Canticles. Canonical book 
of the Old Testament. It is allegorically 
under the symbol of a chaste spouse, rep 
resented as a shepherd, and his wife as the 
keeper of a vineyard, or the King s daugh 
ter, that Solomon, who is believed to be 
the author, describes the love with which 
God cherishes the Synagogue, as well as 
the Christian Church of which the Syna 
gogue was but the figure. The words of 
this Canticle of Canticles are applied as 
descriptive of the union of Christ with all 
the just members of His Church, and es 
pecially with our Blessed Lady. 

Cantor. An officer whose duty it is to 
lead the singing in a cathedral, or in a 
collegiate or parish church; a precentor. 

Canus (MELCHIOR). Spanish theolo 
gian, born at Tarancon, diocese of Toledo, 
1509, died at Toledo, 1560. Dominican, 
professor at Alcala and Salamanca, 1546; 
sent to the Council of Trent under Paul 
III. Appointed Bishop of the Canaries in 
1552, he did not take possession of his see. 
He was a friend of Philip II. ; Provincial 
of Castile, and had some trouble with the 
Jesuits. His theological works are: I*o- 
corum theologicorum, libri XII (Sala 
manca, 1562, often reprinted) ; Prcelec- 
tiones de Pcenitentia; De Sacramentis. 
Complete works, Cologne (1605 and 1678), 
and Lyons (1674). 

Capharnaum. In the time of Christ, an 
important place on the western shore of 
the Sea of Galilee, about three miles dis 



tant from where the Jordan falls into the 
sea. It was the scene of many incidents 
and actions in the life of Christ. It is iden 
tified with the modern ruins of Tel Hum, 
by some with Khan Minyeh. 

Caphtor. The name of a country in the 
Old Testament, mentioned as the starting 
point of the migrations of the Philistines, 
whence they are also called Caphtorim 
(Deut. ii. 23; Jer. xlvii. 4; Amos ix. 7). 
Formerly identified with Cappadocia or 
Cyprus, but considered by the majority of 
modern scholars as identical with Crete. 
This view is favored by many passages in 
which the Philistines are- called Cretans 
(Cherethites) (Ez. xxv. 16; Soph. ii. 5; 
I. Ki. xxx. 14), and is supported by ancient 
writers who connected the Philistines with 
the island of Crete. In Gen. x. 14, the 
Caphtorim are enumerated among the 
descendants* of the Egyptians (Mizraim), 
and it is therefore assumed that a portion 
of the Philistines emigrated from Crete by 
way of Egypt to Palestine. 

Capital Sins. See SIN. 

Capitularies. The body of laws or stat 
utes of a Chapter or of an ecclesiastical 
council. This name is also given to the 
laws, civil and ecclesiastical, made by 
Charlemagne and other princes in general 
councils and assemblies of the people. 
They are called Capitularies because they 
are divided into chapters or sections. 

Cappadocia. An ancient province and 
kingdom of Asia Minor, now part of Asi 
atic Turkey. Jews resident in this place 
were among St. Peter s hearers on the day 
of Pentecost, and Christians were among 
those addressed by him in his First Epistle. 

Captivity of the Jews. The most fa 
mous captivities in history are those of the 
Jews in Egypt under the Pharaos; at Nin- 
ive under Salmanasar; and in Babylonia 
under Nabuchodonosor, in 606 B.C., who 
transported into Babylonia 18,000 Jews; in 
599 B.C. a second and greater transporta 
tion took place ; in 588 B. c., Nabuchodono 
sor destroyed Jerusalem, and led away into 
captivity the great mass of the people. 
The exile lasted until 535 B. c., when, after 
the conquest of Babylon by Cyrus, the 
Jews were permitted to return to their 
country of Palestine. Thus, from 606 to 
535 B. c., the Babylonian captivity lasted, 
exactly 70 years, as it had been foretold 
by the Prophet Isaias (lii. 28). See JEWS. 



CAPTIVITY OF THE POPES 



i39 



CARMELITES 



Captivity of the Popes. We thus char 
acterize the period from 1305 to 1378, when 
seven Roman Pontiffs took up their resi 
dence at Avignon, France ; also called the 
"Captivity of seventy years." These 
Popes were Clement V., 1305-1314; John 
XXII., 1314-1334; Benedict XII., 1334- 
1342; Clement VI., 1342-1352; Innocent 
VI., 1352-1362; Urban V., 1362-1370; and 
Gregory XI., 1370-1378. All these Popes 
were natives of France. 

Capuchins. A branch of the great 
Franciscan Order, instituted by Matteo di 
Bassi of Urbino, in 1528, and named from 
their long pointed capoch or cowl which 
is the distinguishing mark of their dress. 
Their special object is the strict observance 
of monastic poverty as prescribed in the 
Rule of St. Francis. They were to have 
no revenues, but to live by begging. In 
1528, they obtained from Clement VII. 
permission to wear beards. The new Or 
der spread rapidly and became very popu 
lar. The Capuchins labored, with much 
success, in reclaiming to the true faith 
numberless Protestants in Germany, Savoy, 
and Switzerland. The Capuchins are most 
numerous in Austria. In the United States 
they have convents in the Dioceses of New 
York, Pittsburg, Green Bay, Milwaukee, 
etc. See FRANCISCANS. 

Capuciati. A short-lived, semi-politi 
cal, and communistic sect, devoted to the 
Blessed Virgin Mary, which appeared in 
Burgundy about 1182; so called from their 
hood or capoch. 

Carchemis. The ancient capital of the 
Hittites. It was formerly identified with 
the Circessium of the Greeks and Romans, 
a fortified place near where the Chaboras 
empties into the Euphrates. Is now repre 
sented by the ruins of Jerablus. In 605 
B.C., the battle between Nabuchodonosor 
and Nechao of Egypt took place under its 
walls (Jer. xlvi. 12; 2 Par. xxxv. 20), in 
which the Egyptian was disastrously de 
feated. 

Cardinals. Members of the Sacred Col 
lege ; a body of ecclesiastics who rank in 
dignity next to the Pope and act as his 
counselors in the government of the 
Church. From early times the chief coun 
selors and assistants of the Pope were, be 
sides the regionary deacons and archpriests 
of the principal Churches at Rome, the 
bishops of adjacent sees. Thus in the proc 
ess of time an ecclesiastical senate the 



College of Cardinals was formed, to ad 
vise and assist the Pope in the government 
of the Church. As early as 769, seven 
cardinal-bishops were recorded. The title 
of cardinal, however, has been in use only 
since the seventh century. At first it was 
applied to all ecclesiastics permanently in 
charge of churches, particularly to those 
attached to cathedrals. Pope Pius V., in 
1567, ordained that it should henceforth be 
exclusively applied to the members of the 
Sacred College, or cardinals of the Roman 
Church. The cardinals are appointed by 
the Pope, and are divided into three 
classes, whose full titles are as follows: 
cardinal-bishops (6), cardinal-priests (50), 
and cardinal-deacons (14). A cardinal- 
priest may be a bishop or an archbishop, 
and a cardinal-deacon may be of any eccle 
siastical grade below bishop. The dress 
of a cardinal is a red soutane, or cassock, 
a rochet, a short purple mantle, and a low- 
crowned, broad-brimmed red hat (not 
actually worn), with two cords depending 
from it, one from either side each hav 
ing fifteen tassels. See CONGREGATIONS 
OF CARDINALS. 

Cardinal Virtues. See VIRTUES. 

Carmel. i. A mountain ridge in Pales 
tine which branches off from the mountains 
of Samaria, and stretches in a long line 
toward the Mediterranean sea. It fell with 
in the lot of the tribe of Aser, and is fre 
quently mentioned in the Old Testament. 
It was the scene of many of the deeds of 
the two great Prophets Elias and Eliseus. 
The mountain is formed of hard gray lime 
stone with nodules and veins of flint; it 
abounds in caves, and is covered with rich 
vegetation. The highest part of the 
mountain, its northwestern end, rises 1,742 
feet above the sea. Its grottoes were the 
abodes of Christian hermits from the early 
times of Christianity. In 1207 these her 
mits were organized into the Order of 
Carmelites, and their monastery is situated 
480 feet above the sea, where the mountain 
slopes down to a promontory in the direc 
tion of the sea. 2. A city in the mountains 
of Juda (Jos. xv. 55). The modern ruins 
of Kurmul are situated about seven miles 
below Hebron, in a slightly southeastern 
direction. 

Carmelites (religious order). A 
crusader, Berthold of Calabria, is regarded 
as the founder of the Carmelite Order. 
With a few companions, he retired, in 1156, 



CAROLINE BOOKS 



140 



CARTESIAN ISM 



to the Mount of Carmel, in Palestine, where 
they lived as hermits in separate cells. 
The increasing number of his followers 
made it necessary to build a monastery. 
The rule composed for the use of the order 
by Albert, Patriarch of Jerusalem, was 
approved by Pope Honorius III., Jan. 30, 
1226. The conquest of Palestine by the 
Saracens, made it impossible for the Car 
melites to live there in peace; they passed 
into Europe and established themselves in 
various countries. In 1245, Innocent IV. 
confirmed them as a Mendicant Order under 
the title of " Order of Friars of our Lady 
of Mount Carmel." From their white 
cloak and scapular, they became popularly 
known as "White Friars." Under St. 
Simon Stock, an Englishman, its sixth 
general, the order was rapidly extended. 
To this saint is ascribed the introduction 
of the scapular. See this subject. In the 
United States there are convents of the 
order in the Dioceses of Leavenworth, 
Newark, Pittsburg, Baltimore, St. Louis, 
New Orleans, etc. The three convents 
last named follow the Rule of St. Theresa, 
who instituted the " Discalced Carmelites," 
or reformed branch of the order, consist 
ing of both monks and nuns. The new 
institute was approved by Pope Gregory 
XIII., in 1580. 

Caroline Books. Name given to four 
books composed by order of Charle 
magne, to refute the Second Council of 
Nice. They contain 120 accusations 
against the Council of Nice. Pope Adrian 
I. had a Latin translation of the Seventh 
Council made, which he sent to Charle 
magne. An unfortunate mistake of the 
translator was the cause of grave misunder 
standing on the part of the Frankish 
bishops regarding the real doctrine of the 
Council. In their reply to the Pope, they 
severely censured and protested against 
the supposed errors of the Nicene Synod. 
Misled by this same faulty translation, the 
Great Western Council of Frankfort, in 
794, in its second canon, repudiated the 
doctrine wrongly imputed to the Fathers 
of Nice, and charged Pope Adrian with 
having favored the Iconoclastic supersti 
tion of the Greeks. A fuller refutation of 
the Seventh Council is given in the Caro 
line Books. From this work, however, it 
is clear beyond doubt, that the Council of 
Frankfort never condemned the true doc 
trine defined at Nice. What it did con 
demn was the opinion falsely attributed to 



Bishop Constantine, in Cyprus, for which 
it held the Fathers of Nice responsible, 
viz.: that f^afrta, the homage of adoration, 
the same as that due to the Trinity, was to 
be given to images. Pope Adrian, to set 
right the erroneous apprehension of the 
Frankish bishops, forwarded to Charle- 
mange a dignified reply defending the 
Council of Nice, and explaining the true 
doctrine on the veneration of images. 

Carpocratians. Egyptian Gnostics ; fol 
lowers of Carpocrates, a native of Alex 
andria who nourished under the reign of 
Hadrian. He taught the pre-existence of 
human souls, the community of property, 
the indifference of all moral actions and 
perfect abandonment to an antinomian or 
lawless life. His son Epiphanes, devel 
oped the system of his father, introduced 
community of wives on the Ionian Isle of 
Cephalonia, where also a temple was dedi 
cated to his honor. 

Carroll (Jonx) (1735-1815). American 
prelate; was born in Maryland. He was 
educated in France and was a member of 
the " Society of Jesus " until its suppression 
by Pope Clement XIV., when he returned 
to America. Pius VI., appointed him Pre 
fect Apostolic, and five years later, in 1789, 
made him Bishop of Baltimore. On the 
breaking out of the Revolution, he, with 
his relative, the also illustrious Charles Car 
roll of Carrollton, at once took sides with his 
own country. During the war he was ap 
pointed one of four commissioners to visit 
Canada for the purpose of gaining over the 
Canadians to the American cause. To 
provide more effectually for the religious 
wants of his flock, Bishop Carroll, in 1791, 
convoked a diocesan synod. From the 
first, he directed his efforts toward the 
education of the young and the establish 
ment of religious institutions. Under the 
impulse of his apostolic zeal arose colleges 
and convents. The number of Catholics 
having considerably increased in the large 
towns on the Atlantic coast, Pius VII., in 
1808, raised Baltimore to metropolitan rank, 
and John Carroll became its first arch 
bishop. 

Cartesianism. Philosophical system 
pertaining to the French philosopher, 
Rene Descartes (1596-1650). Cartesius, sur- 
named "the father of modern philosophy," 
disdained, according to the example of the 
Humanists, Lutherans, and Jansenists, the 
Peripatetic philosophy; made doubt the 



CARTHAGE 



141 



CASTELNAU 



starting point and the first condition of all 
inquiry; repudiated skepticism, and estab 
lished, as a fundamental proposition: "I 
think, therefore, I am." Animated with 
religious sentiments, Descartes wished to 
combat materialism and the abuses o*f 
empiricism by placing in the conscience 
the immutable point to which one must at 
tach himself in case of doubt, and in the 
existence of God, the guarantee of the ob 
jective truth of our knowledge. The sys 
tem of Descartes was put on the Index at 
Rome until corrected (Nov. 2oth, 1663). 

Carthage. An ancient city and country 
in northern Africa situated on the Medi 
terranean, a few miles east of modern Tunis. 
The modern Bizerta is located on its site. 
It was founded by Phoenicians in the mid 
dle of the ninth century, B. c. It had two 
harbors, one naval and one mercantile, and 
was a commercial and colonizing center. 
Several Church councils were held in the 
city of Carthage. 

Carthagh (ST.) (surnamed "the Early"). 
Bishop of Ireland, died in 657. Founder 
of the Monastery of Kathenin, famous 
school of the seventh century, and of an 
other in the province of Munster. He is 
looked upon as the first bishop of Lismore, 
where he founded a monastery, cathedral, 
and school. 

Carthusians (religious). The founder 
of the Carthusian Order was St. Bruno of 
Cologne. With six companions, Bruno 
retired into the desert of Chartreuse, near 
Grenoble, France, and laid the foundation 
of his new Order. This was in 1086. Fol 
lowing the Benedictine Rule, the Carthu 
sians were famed for the severity of their 
discipline. They lead a contemplative life, 
and devote a portion of their time to 
manual labor. Bruno was summoned to 
Rome by Pope Urban II., who had been 
his pupil. After founding two new con 
vents in Calabria, he died in 1101. Guigo, 
the first Prior of the Chartreuse, made a 
compilation of the customs and statutes 
observed by the Carthusians. The Car 
thusian nuns originated about 1230, and, 
with some modifications, follow the rules 
of the Carthusian monks. 

Casas. See LAS CASAS. 

Cassianus (]OHN). Priest and Abbot 
of Marseilles. Was born about 360, prob 
ably in Gaul (or according to Gennadius, 
in Scythia), of wealthy and pious parents. 



He received his early education in a mon 
astery at Bethlehem. In 390, he went with 
his friend Germanus to Egypt, and lived 
for seven years with the solitaries of the 
Nitrian desert. After a short visit to Beth 
lehem, he returned to Egypt, and then 
set out for Constantinople. There he was 
ordained deacon by St. John Chrysostom, 
who, a second time condemned to exile, 
chose him to be the bearer of a letter to 
Pope Innocent I. The lamentable state of 
affairs in the Byzantine Church induced 
him to leave the East and withdraw into 
Southern Gaul, where he was ordained 
priest. In 415 he founded two monasteries 
at Marseilles, one for men and one for 
women, which served as models for similar 
institutions, and as places of refuge for in 
nocence and learning. Cassianus died, rich 
in merit and ripe in years, about 435. His 
Institutions of the Monastic Life, and his 
Conferences of the Fathers, were written 
for the instruction of monks. In the thir 
teenth " Conference," some Pelagian prin 
ciples are unwittingly favored. By the 
request of the Roman deacon, afterwards 
Pope Leo the Great, he also wrote On the 
Incarnation of Christ in seven books, a 
work directed against Nestorius. 

Cassiodorus (477-570). Born at Scylla- 
cium, in Calabria. A distinguished states 
man under Odoacer and Theodoric, filling, 
under various titles, the highest offices of 
the State. When seventy years of age, he 
retired to the Monastery of Viviers (mon- 
asterium Vivariense), which he had 
founded in Calabria. Here he spent the 
remainder of his days in religious and lit 
erary pursuits. Under his direction his 
monks devoted themselves to the copying 
of the Sacred Scriptures and ancient manu 
scripts of Christian and classical writers. 
He himself wrote numerous philosophical 
and theological works. 

Cassock. A clerical garment reaching 
to the feet. It has an upright collar. That 
worn by priests is black, by the bishops 
purple, by the cardinals scarlet, and by the 
Pope white. The cassock is generally con 
fined at the waist by a broad sash. 

Castelnau (PETER OF). Monk of Cit- 
eaux, legate of Pope Innocent III., who 
charged him to combat the heresy of 
the Albigenses. Having excommunicated 
Raymond VI., Count of Toulouse, who re 
fused to abandon the party of the heretics, 
he was assassinated in an inn on the shores 



CASUISTRY 



142 



CATACOMBS 



of the Rhone (1208), by two noblemen, 
followers of the Count. This crime be 
came the signal for the crusade against the 
Albigenses. 

Casuistry. Part of moral theology which 
treats of matters of conscience. We find 
traces of Casuistry in the acts of the 
Apostles, the Epistles of St. Paul and in the 
Letters of St. Cyprian, who decided the 
different cases that were submitted to him. 
The penitential canons emanated either 
from the councils or from important per 
sons in the Church. These canonical rules 
and regulations determined the various 
penances which had to be undergone for 
violations of law, both of divine and ec 
clesiastical origin. They were, in their 
application, abundant sources of casuistic 
decisions. The different degrees of pen 
ances, being distinguished in time, one 
from another, made it necessary to estab 
lish parallel classifications of faults. The 
rigorous discipline and severity of the 
early Church disappeared with the circum 
stances that called them forth and made 
them necessary and applicable. This 
modification of ancient discipline distinctly 
made its appearance in the time of Pope 
Leo the Great. What had been preserved 
until then perished almost entirely in the 
ruin of the old world and its civilization 
by the invasion of the Barbarians. But 
just as soon as the Church arose again, she 
sought to strengthen the Christian life by 
new penitential canons. 

This was the work of the Casuist and 
moral theologian, who, having revived 
for a time, the ancient rigor of Church 
disciplinary laws, were obliged to modify 
this rule as the laws gradually fell into 
disuse. In time, indulgences, granted 
even in the early days of the Church, 
through the intercession and charity of the 
martyrs and confessors, became of more 
frequent and usual application. In place 
of the former severe canonical penances 
were substituted acts of charity, good 
works, such as the liberation or redemption 
of slaves, protection of pilgrims, donations 
toward the building of churches, schools, 
and convents, visiting the poor and 
afflicted, and supporting widows and or 
phans. Casuistry endeavored to determine 
the particular merit of each of these good 
works, and their proportionate value in 
accordance with the degree of guilt in 
curred by those whose reparation and 
penance seemed worthy of mitigation 



through the application of indulgences. 
It is thus that the various labors of the 
Casuists and others produced the Peniten 
tial Books, which first appeared in the 
Greek Church. These works later on be 
came even more numerous in the West. 

Casuistry received a new impetus and a 
more scientific development through the 
labors of the great collector of Decretals, 
Raymond of Pennafort, who, in the thir 
teenth century, transformed the Penitential 
Books into a Casuistic Sum ma, and made, 
in a scholastic sense, a science of this 
department of moral theology. The vigor 
ous impulse given to this work incited, in 
the two following centuries, an active em 
ulation among the Casuists. These ques 
tions and discussions, after having been for 
a long time in abeyance on account of the 
controversies of princes brought on by the 
Reformation, were taken up again, toward 
the end of the sixteenth century, by the 
new religious Order of the Jesuits and 
carried on with zeal. The Jesuits suc 
ceeded in making of Casuistry one of the 
most fruitful branches of theological sci 
ence. The practical system of the sons of 
St. Ignatius of Loyola induced them to cul 
tivate in a special manner moral theology 
and Casuistry. The doctrine of probabil- 
ism gave rise to heated discussions. The 
Jesuits were fiercely attacked by Pascal, 
Nicole, and the whole tribe of Jansenists. 
This continued up to the middle of the last 
century, when the controversy seemed to 
be exhausted. It was taken up again and 
continued even to our day by several Prot 
estant writers. The best work on this intri 
cate question of Casuistry is Busembaum s 
Medulla TJieologiiz, and St. Liguori s The- 
ologia Afora/is, who made Busembaum s 
book the basis of this great work. 

Catabaptists. Name of heretics, who, 
like the Socinians, denied original sin, and 
consequently rejected the sacrament of 
baptism, especially of children, and main 
tained that it had only a power to excite 
faith. 

Catacombs. Subterraneous chambers 
and passages, formed generally in rock 
which is soft and easily excavated, such as 
tufa. Catacombs are to be found in almost 
every country where such stone exists, and 
in most cases, probably, originated in mere 
quarries, which afterwards were used either 
as places of sepulture for the dead or as 
hiding places for the living. The most cele 
brated catacombs in existence, and those 






CATAFALQUE 



CATECHISM 



which are generally understood when cata 
combs are spoken of, are those on the Via 
Appia, a short distance from Rome. To 
these dreary crypts it is believed that the 
early Christians were in the habit of repair 
ing, in order to celebrate their new wor 
ship in times of persecution ; and in them 
were buried many of the saints and martyrs 
of the primitive Church. They consist of 
long, narrow galleries, usually about eight 
feet high and five feet wide, which twist and 
turn in all directions, very much resembling 
mines. The graves were constructed by 
hollowing out a portion of the rock, at the 
side of the gallery, large enough to contain 
the body. The entrance was then walled up 
with stone, on which usually the letters, D. 
M. (Deo Maximo) orX. P. (the first two let 
ters of the Greek name of Christ) were in 
scribed. Other inscriptions and marks, such 
as the cross, are also found. Though in later 
times devoted to the purposes of Christian 
interment exclusively, it is believed by 
some authorities that the Catacombs were, 
at an earlier period, used as burying places 
by pagans also. At irregular intervals, 
these galleries expand into wide and lofty 
vaulted chambers, in which the service of 
the Church no doubt was celebrated, and 
which still have the appearance of churches. 
It has been calculated that the Catacombs, 
found in every direction around the walls 
of Rome, numbered about forty in all, and 
that the united length of the passages is 
300 leagues or 900 miles, and their walls 
lined with from five to six million tombs. 
When Rome was besieged by the Lombards 
in the eighth century, many Catacombs were 
destroyed ; and the Popes afterwards caused 
the remains of many of the saints and martyrs 
to be removed and buried in the churches. 
The discovery of the Catacombs bear 
important testimony both as to the 
practice and the belief of the early Chris 
tians. They illustrate to us the belief of 
the early Church in the Primacy of St. 
Peter, the various orders of hierarchy, 
the sacrament of baptism, the forgiving of 
sins, the Blessed Eucharist, the veneration 
of the holy Mother of God, and of the 
saints, supplication for the departed, etc. 
Thus the Catacombs are lasting monu 
ments, affording the most unmistakable 
evidence, that the Catholic Church of to 
day is one in faith and dogma with the 
Church of the first century. 

Catafalque. An oblong, bin-shaped 
erection used during the celebration of 



Masses for the dead, when the deceased 
has not been brought to the Church. It is 
suitably placed in a position near the altar, 
surrounded by lights, and draped in black. 

Cataphrygians. See MONTANISTS. 

Catechism (instruction in the principles 
and mysteries of faith). The Council of 
Trent recommended the use of Cate 
chisms, and ordered that a special book 
should be published on the matter. 
Children, especially those who are pre 
paring to receive their first communion, 
should be instructed in the Catechism of 
their parish or diocese. They may not, 
without special authorization, receive any 
other religious instruction. There must 
be a grave reason in order to obtain per 
mission to have children instructed at 
home or in another parish. When chil 
dren are attending a college or religious 
institution it is the duty of the chaplain to 
teach them the Catechism. Those schools 
which have no chaplain must conduct the 
pupils to the respective parishes to which 
they belong, or to the parish church of the 
institution. There are in most parishes 
three kinds of Catechisms : the first, 
called the elementary Catechism, in 
tended for children between the ages of 
eight and 10 years; the second, which is 
most important, is the preparatory Cate 
chism, used by those about to make their first 
communion. To study this Catechism is 
obligatory on children between the ages of 
10 and 12 years, when after, at least one 
year s study, they are supposed to be suffi 
ciently instructed to receive holy commun 
ion. Parents are expected to be present 
at some of these instructions in order to 
learn what is necessary for their children s 
moral training, and the conditions which 
are required before their children are ad 
mitted to holy communion. The Church 
requires great exactitude in this matter, 
and all nonattendance at such catechetical 
instruction must be accounted for. The 
third, or Catechism of Perseverance, is 
less obligatory; nevertheless, its study 
should be pursued for at least one year. 
In many parishes children are permitted 
to receive their first communion only on 
condition of their making a promise to 
attend Catechism classes for one year after 
they have made their first communion. 
In the study of Catechism, three years are 
generally employed in order to obtain a 
thorough religious training. 



CATECHISM OF TRENT 



144 



CATHERINE OF SIENA 



Catechism of the Councilof Trent. This 
Catechism, which is the most esteemed of 
all, was not composed by the Fathers of 
the Council, whose name it hears, but in 
obedience to their order. Father Alhy, a 
Jesuit, assures us in the Life of Cardinal 
Sirlet, that this cardinal was the author of 
the Catechism of the Council of Trent. 
Anthony Fabrice of Liege, in a preface 
which he wrote for this Life, insinuates 
that Cardinal Sirlet is not the only one 
who composed the Catechism, but that he 
was assisted by several theologians. The 
author of a work printed in 1607 and again 
in 1647, entitled Questio thcologica, etc., 
says that the principal theologians who 
edited the Catechism of die Council of 
Trent, were Leonard Marin, Archbishop 
of Lanciano, a Dominican, Gilles Fus- 
caratio, Bishop of Modena, and Francis 
Forerius, also a Dominican. When these 
theologians, with others named by the 
Pope, had composed the whole body of the 
Catechism, they selected three learned men 
to write it in pure, elegant Latin. These 
were Paul Manuce, Julius Poggianus, and 
Cornelius Amaltheus, the latter a physi 
cian by profession. Thus this famous Cate 
chism is not only highly instructive as 
regards its subject-matter religion but 
it is also an agreeable book to read on ac 
count of its beauty of style. This Cate 
chism was printed by order of Pope St. 
Pius, and approved by a Brief of Gregory 
III. in 1583. St. Charles Borromeo ap 
proved of it in five synods, held at Milan. 

Catechumenate. The state or condition 
of a catechumen, /. e., a person under in 
struction to prepare him for baptism. In 
the apostolic age, as appears from the New 
Testament, baptism was administered at 
once to every one professing an earnest be 
lief in Christianity, and a sincere sorrow 
for past sins. Since the second century, 
however, instruction preceded reception 
into the Church, and no one was admitted 
without previous probation. By prayer, 
imposition of hands, and the signing of 
the Cross, the neophyte was received 
among the Catechumens. Under this de 
nomination all those were classed who were 
undergoing instruction previous to the re 
ception of baptism. 

Since the fourth century, there were 
three orders of Catechumens: i. The 
" hearers " (audienfes), or those who were 
allowed to remain at the divine service till 
after the sermon, when they were dismissed 



as the Mass of the Faithful began with 
closed doors. 2. The "kneelers" (genu- 
flectentes), or those who remained after the 
sermon to participate in the prayers and 
receive the bishop s blessing. 3. The " ap 
proved " or " elected " (compctentes, e/ecfi), 
who had passed through the regular course 
of instruction and training, and who at the 
next approaching festival (Easter, Pente 
cost, and, among the Greeks, also Epiph 
any), were admitted to baptism. The time 
of probation varied according to the charac 
ter or the age of the individual; but the 
Council of Elvira (305) determined that it 
should commonly last two years. In the 
Apostolical Constitution three years are 
prescribed. 

Catena. A methodized series of selec 
tion from different authors to elucidate a 
doctrine or a system of doctrines; espe 
cially such a set of quotations from the 
Church Fathers to assist in the study of 
Christian dogmas or biblical exegeses: as 
the Catena Aurca of St. Thomas Aquinas. 

Catharine of Alexandria (ST.). Virgin 
and martyr about the year 312. Daughter 
of Cestus, governor of Alexandria and 
pagan. She was converted by a hermit. 
Christ appeared to her in a dream, and 
said to her, that He would select her for 
His spouse; then He put a ring upon her 
finger which she found when she awoke. 
(Certain biographers and painters have 
applied this legend to St. Catharine of 
Siena). After this, Catharine, seized by a 
mystical love for Christ, ardently tried to 
gain followers to the Saviour. According 
to tradition, she even disputed with philos 
ophers, her ancient teachers, whom she 
confounded by her wisdom. She suffered 
martyrdom under Maximin Daja, whose 
love she repudiated. Placed on a wheel of 
knives and sharp iron hooks, she was de 
livered by an angel ; but afterwards she 
was beheaded. Her remains were buried 
by angels on Mount Sinai, where, in the 
eighth century, they were found by the 
Christians. St. Catharine is the patron saint 
of schools and philosophers. F. Nov. 25th. 

Catherine of Siena ( ST.) . Born at Siena 
March 25th, 1347, died at Rome April 3oth, 
1380. Offspring of an artisan family, she 
entered, in spite of her parents, the Domin 
ican Order about 1364. Her spirit, elo 
quence, austerity, zeal, ecstasies, and reve 
lations, soon rendered her name famous. 
Catharine played an important political 



CATHARISTS 



CATHOLICS 



role. In the war which the united Guelphs 
and Ghibellines made on Pope Gregory 
XL, she retained the cities of Arezzo, 
Lucca, and Siena in the Pope s party. 
After that she went to Avignon to see the 
sovereign Pontiff, reconciled him with the 
Florentines, and induced him to return to 
Rome. She was canonized by Pius II. in 
1461. F. April 3Oth. 

Catharists. Heretics, called thus from 
the Greek word kataros (pure), because 
they believed themselves purer than the 
rest of the Christians. The name was 
applied principally to the Apostatics, Mon- 
tanists, Patarini, Bulgari, and Albigenses. 

Cathedra. The throne or seat of a 
bishop in the cathedral or episcopal 
Church of his diocese. Formerly the 
bishop s throne or cathedra was generally 
situated at the east end of the apse, behind 
the altar, and was often approached by a 
flight of steps ; but it is now almost univer 
sally placed on one side of the choir, usu 
ally the gospel side. That of St. Peter s at 
Rome is especially honored as reputed to 
have been the chair of St. Peter, and it is 
now enclosed in a bronze covering. 

Cathedral. The principal church of a 
diocese, which is especially the church of 
the bishop; so called from the fact that it 
contains the episcopal chair or cathedra. 
Many cathedrals, particularly the French 
and Italian, furnish the most magnifi 
cent examples of the architecture of the 
Middle Ages. Those in England are the 
most interesting ; though, unlike the con 
tinental cathedrals, they were originally 
designed, almost without exception, not 
as metropolitan, but as monastic churches. 

Cathedral Schools. See SCHOOLS. 

Catholic. The meaning of the word 
"Catholic" is of Greek origin, signifying 
throughout the -vliole, universal, and is 
used in this sense in various connections by 
both Greek and Latin pagan writers. The 
word is found in the same general sense in 
the earliest Christian writers. The Roman 
Catholic Church possesses universality of 
doctrine and communion in the world-wide 
area of its dissemination and in time. On 
the other hand, although Protestants may 
be found in divers parts of the world, they 
hold opinions heretical, and beliefs never 
universally identical ; nor have they Catho 
licity of time, since they date only as far 
back as the sixteenth century. Our right 



to the title Catholic is amply demon 
strated by the designation given in all 
ages to the Church of Christ, through its 
diffusion in universality of communion 
throughout the Christian world. Further, 
Protestantism not only varies in its teach 
ing, but is not unfrequently so limited in 
range as to be confined to the particular 
nationality where, for the time being, it 
happens to find acceptance. The very 
name "Protestant," in its antagonism to 
the Catholic Church, is expressive of ab 
sence of universality. 

Catholic Emancipation Act. An Eng 
lish statute of 1829 repealing former laws 
which imposed disabilities upon Roman 
Catholics, and allowing them (except 
priests) to sit in parliament, and to hold 
civil and military offices with certain ex 
ceptions. This measure had reference 
especially to Ireland. 

Catholic Epistles. See EPISTLES. 

Catholicos. i. In the later Roman 
Empire, a receiver-general or deputy- 
receiver in a civil diocese. 2. In Oriental 
countries, a primate having under him 
metropolitans, but himself subject to a 
patriarch. 3. The head of an independent 
or schismatic communion. The general 
force of the title seems to have been that 
of a superintendent-general of missions or 
of churches on and beyond the borders of 
the Roman Empire. It is also the title of 
the head of the Armenian Church, and has 
been used by the Jacobites, and for the 
Metropolitan of Ethiopia. 

Catholic (Roman) Relief Act. A series 
of English statutes removing the political 
disabilities of Roman Catholics: as (1829) 
permitting them to sit in parliament; en 
abling their clergymen to perform mar 
riages between Protestants and Catholics ; 
abolishing a certain oath as a qualification 
for Irish voters; repealing statutes against 
them; making all subjects eligible to the 
office of lord chancellor, etc. 

Catholics (German). See RONGE. 

Catholics (Number of). The whole 
number of Catholics in the world has been 
variously estimated. Some claim there 
are 250,000,000; others, depending largely 
on statistics compiled from reports made 
to the Propaganda, place the number at 
about 235,000,000. The fact should not be 
overlooked, that in diocesan reports only 



CATHOLICS 



146 



CELESTINE 



those who are known to be Catholics are 
counted, many thus remaining unenu- 
merated. This is especially true of such 
places as the United States, Canada, Aus 
tralia, Asia, and Africa. Distributed in 
round numbers, in Europe there are 158,- 
000,000; in South America, 33,000,000; in 
Mexico and Central America, 15,000,000; 
in the West Indies, 3,000,000; in the 
United States, 12,000,000; in Canada, 
2,200,000; in Asia, 8,312,000; in Africa, 
2,656,000; in Australia and adjacent is 
lands, 700,000 ; making a total of 234,868,000 
Catholics throughout the world. It seems 
unnecessary to state that all Catholics owe 
full civil allegiance to the governments of 
the countries wherein they dwell. It may 
be matter of interest to note that there are 
under the flags of republics, more Catho 
lics than all other believers of any kind, 
also including those who profess no re 
ligious belief. In the republics of Europe 
and Africa there is a total population of 
about 43,550,000, of which all but 4,456,000 
are Catholics. The total population of all 
the republics of North and South America, 
estimating the United States at 63,000,000, 
is about 113,000,000, of which at least 
61,500,000 are Catholics, 51,500,000 being 
non-Catholics, or about the proportion of 
15 Catholics to 13 who are not Catholic. 
In the whole world there are under repub 
lican forms of government, about 101,000,000 
Catholics to about 55,500,000 who are not 
Catholic. Under the various monarchical 
governments of Europe there are 119,000,- 
ooo Catholics, and, including Russia, 170,- 
000,000 who are not Roman Catholics. See 
American Supplement to Encyclopaedia 
Britannica. 

Catholics (Old}. i. The name used by 
a small body of believers in Jansenism in 
Holland, with an archepiscopal see in 
Utrecht. They have continued since 1723 
to recognize the authority of the Pope by 
sending him notice of each new election 
of a bishop, which he always ignores. 2. 
A party in the Roman Catholic Church, 
founded after the proclamation of, and in 
opposition to, the dogma of Papal Infalli 
bility proclaimed by the Vatican Council 
in 1870. A schism with the Roman Cath 
olic Church was not intended, but it 
resulted ; the leaders were excommunicated 
and new congregations formed. No bishop 
having joined the movement, the ordina 
tion of a bishop was obtained from the Old 
Catholic Bishop of Deventer in Holland. 



Old Catholics have departed in several 
respects from their former ecclesiastical 
customs as Roman Catholics. Auricular 
confession and fasting are voluntary with 
them, and priests are allowed to marry. 
Mass is permitted to be said in the vernac 
ular. They are found chiefly in Germany 
and in Switzerland, where they call them 
selves "Christian Catholics." 

Cecilia. See CECILIA. 

Cedron. A brook of Palestine that passes 
to the north and east of Jerusalem, and 
empties into the Dead Sea. Its source is 
north of Jerusalem. Its banks are lined 
with tombs, ancient and modern. It was 
crossed by David in his flight from Absa 
lom and by our Lord on His way to Geth- 
semane. 

Celebrant. One who celebrates; the 
priest who actually offers Mass, as distinc 
tive from his assistants at the altar. 

Celebret (Latin word). Testimonial let 
ter delivered to a priest by his bishop or 
ordinary, testifying that there is no canon 
ical impediment that hinders said priest 
from saying Mass, or discharging other 
ecclesiastical functions, in places where he 
is sojourning or passes through. 

Celestine (name of five Popes). Celes 
tine I. Successor of Boniface I. (422-432). 
Was zealous in suppressing Pelagianism ; 
confirmed the decrees of the General Coun 
cil of Ephesus and the sentence of deposi 
tion pronounced by that body against Nes- 
torious. This Pope sent St. Palladius and St. 
Patrick to convert the Scots and the Irish. 
Celestine II. Pope from 1143 to 1144. 
He removed the ecclesiastical censures from 
Louis VII. king of France, which he had 
incurred under Innocent II. Celestine III. 
Successor of Clement III. (1191-1198). 
Crowned Henry VI. of Germany, but soon 
had grounds for complaint against him. 
Henry s tyranny and the oppressions of his 
officials exasperated all parties. Pope Cel 
estine threatened to excommunicate him if 
he did not release Richard Coeur de Lion, of 
England, who, when returning from Pales 
tine, had been barbarously seized, and who, 
in further violation of the law of nations, 
was imprisoned by the emperor. Celestine 
IV. Pope from Sept. 2Oth to Oct. 3d in 
1241. Died before he was consecrated. 
Celestine V. (Peter Morrone, a pious re 
cluse). Pope from July 5th to December 
I3th, in 1294. A stranger to the world 



CELESTINIANS 



CELJBACY 



and its workings and intrigues, the 
holy Pontiff lacked knowledge of men and 
acquaintance with temporal matters. He 
transferred his residence to Naples, and 
thus came completely under the influence 
of Charles II., king of Sicily. He at once 
created twelve cardinals, seven of whom 
were French and three Neapolitans, and 
appointed the king s son, a youth of twenty- 
one years, Archbishop of Lyons. He lav 
ished dignities and offices with a profuse 
hand, and inconsiderately bestowed bene 
fices, sometimes giving the same benefice 
to three or four persons at once. The loud 
complaints of the confused state of affairs, 
which reached his ears, and the conscious 
ness of his own unfitness for his exalted po 
sition, induced the sainted Pontiff to ab 
dicate, after having occupied the Papal 
Chair five months. Before taking this final 
step, Celestine re-enacted the Conclave 
Law of Gregory X., and issued a new con 
stitution, declaring that the Pope might 
resign his dignity, and that the Sacred 
College was competent to receive such 
resignation. 

Celestinians (Religious Congregation). 
This austere order, which adhered to the 
Rule of St. Benedict, was instituted, about 
1254, by the holy hermit, Peter of Mor- 
rone, who afterwards became Pope Celes 
tine V. 

Celibacy (Clerical}. At the beginning 
of the rite for the ordination of subdeacons, 
the bishop addresses a solemn warning to 
the candidates, to consider well how great 
is the burden which they offer to take upon 
themselves; he warns them that they are 
still free; but that when once the Order 
has been received they will be free no 
longer, but will be perpetually bound to 
serve God in chastity; and the candidates, 
taking a step forward, signify that they un 
derstand and accept the obligation. 

This obligation of chastity has from the 
earliest days been regarded in the Latin 
Church as belonging to the higher grades 
in the Hierarchy; and at present, it is at 
tached to the Subdiaconate. No marriage 
can be validly contracted by a subdeacon ; 
nor can a married man lawfully receive the 
Order, unless his wife consents to perpetual 
separation from him, and herself vows per 
petual chastity. The Order is a dire impedi 
ment to marriage. 

This law insisting on chastity, is of hu 
man institution, and it can be dispensed by 
authority of the Holy See. Such a dispen 



sation, however, is very rarely granted. 
Celibacy seems to have been practiced by 
the higher clergy before it was enjoined by 
law; it is suggested by the favor promised 
by Christ to such as leave wife for His sake 
(Matt. xix. 27, 29) ; and by the doctrine of 
St. Paul, that there is danger lest care for 
a wife call a man away from the service of 
God (I. Cor. vii. 32-33). In another pas 
sage of the same Epistle (ix. 5), the Apostle 
claims for himself the privilege to carry 
about a woman, a sister, as well as the rest 
of the Apostles; and writing from Rome 
to the Philippians, he sends a message 
(Phil. iv. 3) to his "sincere companion"; 
and we read of the care of St. Peter s 
wife s mother (Luke iv. 38) at an early 
period of the ministry of our Lord. These 
are all the Scriptural passages which the 
opponents of clerical celibacy have been 
able to bring together in support of their 
views. It is scarcely worth while to deal 
with them, but we may remark that be 
cause St. Peter had a mother-in-law at one 
time, it does not follow that he lived with 
his wife two years later; it is hardly prob 
able that St. Paul had a wife living in 
Philippi while he was at Rome ; that if 
the word translated " companion " means 
"wife," then the epithet "sincere" must 
mean " genuine " or " lawful," a true wife 
and not a concubine ; and, what seems to 
conclusively demonstrate that the "com 
panion" was not a woman, but a man, is 
that the adjective "genuine" is in the 
masculine gender; lastly, it is hardly likely 
that St. Paul would have furnished his op 
ponents at Corinth (I. Cor. i. 12, etc.), with 
an effective argument against him, if he 
urged others to adopt a celibate life while 
he himself enjoyed the companionship of 
a wife. St. Jerome is doubtless right in 
believing that the " woman, a sister," was 
a Christian woman who accompanied St. 
Paul in his laborious journeys, and minis 
tered to his wants, according to a practice 
approved by Jewish public opinion and 
adopted by Christ Himself (Matt, xxvii. 
55, and St. Jerome on the passage; PP. 
Lat. xxvi. 214). When St. Paul requires 
(I. Tim. iii. 2) that a bishop should be the 
husband of one wife, the meaning is that 
no one is fit for the dignity who has taken 
a second wife after the death of the first. 

That celibacy was the practice of the 
clergy in the earliest times is proved by 
the absence of any indications to the con 
trary. One of the earliest laws upon the 
subject is, perhaps, the thirty-third canon 



CELLITES 



148 



CEMETERY 



of a Council held at Elvira in 305, which 
requires "bishops, priests, and deacons and 
all clerics" to abstain from their wives; 
and in the course of the same century we 
find the same law enforced in other places 
in the Church. It is therefore altogether 
false to say, as some writers do, that cler 
ical celibacy was a novelty introduced into 
England by St. Dunstan, and forced upon 
the whole Church by Pope St. Gregory 
VIII. It is true that the ravages of the 
Barbarians had led to great relaxation of 
discipline throughout Christendom, and 
that these saints incurred much odium 
through their zeal in restoring primitive 
discipline; but the existing monuments of 
history prove that what they insisted on 
was nothing new. 

It is true that not all who have taken 
this solemn obligation upon themselves 
have been faithful in observing it; but 
their frailty merely illustrates the weak 
ness of human nature; and in the most 
corrupt times the morality of the clergy 
has stood pre-eminent when contrasted 
with the practices of the laity. 

Cellites. See ALEXIANS. 

Celsus. An eclectic philosopher, who 
flourished in the latter part of the second 
century. He was the first pagan who at 
tempted to oppose the advancing Chris 
tian faith with the arms of science. His 
work entitled, The Word of Truth is re 
plete with vulgar and blasphemous asser 
tions against Christ, His religion, and His 
followers. The strength of Celsus s argu 
ments lies in shameless slanders and 
cowardly insults. He introduces a Jew in 
whose mouth he puts the vilest calumnies 
against the person of Christ and his Apos 
tles. Then, again, acting as arbitrator, he 
attacks both the Christian and Jewish 
religion. Christ Himself is represented 
as an impostor, justly crucified by the Jews 
for calling Himself God. His reputed 
birth of a virgin as well as His miracles, 
prophecies, and resurrection, are described 
as mere fictions. The charges which Cel 
sus brings against the Christians are full 
of contradictions. The work of Celsus is 
not extant, but is sufficiently well known 
from the masterly refutation, in eight books, 
written by Origen about a century later. 

Cemetery (the word cemeterv means a 
dormitory). It was Christianity that first 
gave this name to the place where the de 
ceased rest; it is full of philosophy. In the 



eyes of the Catholic Church, death is only 
a sleep ; hence the place in which they who 
have lived, repose, is called a dormitory. 
Sleep necessarily supposes an awakening. 
Henceforth it will be impossible to pro 
nounce the name cemetery without ex 
pressing the most consoling dogma for the 
good and the most terrible for the wicked, 
the dogma of the Resurrection. From 
the beginning, the Church showed the 
greatest respect for the mortal remains of 
her children. See BURIAL. It has even 
been the desire of the Church that the 
dead should be assembled in one place near 
her temple; that she might watch over 
bygone generations as the mother watches 
over the cradle of her sleeping child. The 
first temples of the Catholic Church were 
actually cemeteries; the catacombs were 
nothing else. It was amid the dead that 
the living met to pray, and to offer up the 
sacred mysteries. Later on, when peace 
came, and it was lawful to build Christian 
temples, the Church hastened to conse 
crate a place for the burial of her children. 
She wished that this place should be near 
her temple, in order to preserve the mem 
ory of her cradle, and to teach men that a 
mother does not forget her children, even 
when they are no more. It is said that the 
custom of burying in or near churches has 
become dangerous in large cities. This 
supposition is more or less gratuitous. 
Until it is proved, it would be well to let 
us hold it as at least doubtful. We are so 
much the more authorized in doing this, 
as it tends to impeach the Catholic Church, 
and comes from persons whose levity, to 
say nothing else, is clear to a demonstra 
tion. It would also be well to let us bear 
in mind that at Rome, burials take place 
in churches, and that, notwithstanding the 
heat of the climate, no inconveniences are 
found to arise therefrom. We will next 
inquire if a single instance can be cited 
from history, of an epidemic engendered 
by the practice of burying in cities. Be it 
as it may in cities, we maintain that in the 
country, where the air has free circulation 
and there is no danger, the established 
custom should not be changed. It is most 
proper that, before entering the temple of 
the Lord, the faithful should have an op 
portunity of resting their eyes on some 
scene that will awaken in their minds a 
thought of the shortness of this life, a hope 
of a happier future, and tender recollec 
tions of their departed relatives and friends. 
See CREMATION. 



CENITES 



149 



CENSURE OF BOOKS 



Cenites. A people who dwelt west of 
the Dead Sea, and extended themselves far 
into Arabia Petrsea. Jethro, the father-in- 
law of Moses, was a Cenite. The lands of 
the Cenites were in Juda s lot. 

Cenobite (word formed from two Greek 
words, which signify life in common}. 
A religious who lives in community 
under a rule. In the eighteenth Con 
ference of Cassian, the Abbot Piammon, 
speaks of three different orders of monks 
who were resident in Egypt: the "Ceno- 
bites," who lived in common; the "An 
chorites," who, after having formed them 
selves into communities, retired into soli 
tude ; and the "Sarabites," who were false 
monks and roamers. See CONVENTS. 

Censer. A vessel in which incense is 
burned. See INCENSE. 

Censure (Ecclesiastical). The eccle 
siastical censure, the usage of which goes 
back to the time of the Apostles, is a 
spiritual punishment, or infliction by 
which a Christian w r ho is a contumacious 
sinner is deprived, in whole or in part, 
of the spiritual goods and benefits at the 
disposition of the Church. These are, 
principally, the sacraments, indulgences, 
spiritual jurisdiction, sacred functions, as 
sisting at Mass, prayers, or public suffrages. 
But the sinner cannot be deprived of grace 
coming immediately from God. 

There are three classes of censure : ex 
communication, suspension, and inter 
dict. The censures are either incurred or 
made active by law, that is ajtire, or by sen 
tence or a particular ordinance, when the 
latter is called censura ab homine. The first 
class of censures are explicitly laid down by 
the general laws of the Church, or made by 
particular laws of each diocese, or by gen 
eral and particular ordinances, published 
by the bishop for the reformation of morals 
and the general good of the diocese. Those 
called ab homine are promulgated or made 
effective by the superior or ecclesiastical 
judge against a particular individual. These 
latter censures are pronounced judicially 
in the form of a sentence or command on 
the part of the superior. The censures a 
jure are as permanent as the laws which 
evoked them ; consequently they exist after 
the death or demission of the legislator or 
executive; while the special ordinance, 
command, sentence, by which a censure 
becomes effective, passes away with the 
officer who issued the sentence or censure 



ab homine. Yet this does not mean that 
in a particular case where a censure ab 
homine. was actually incurred it is taken 
away by the fact of the superior s death. 
Nothing but absolution from the censure 
can effect this. Again, censures are said 
to be incurred or pronounced latce senten- 
tiee; orferendce sententice. The former are 
incurred if so facto; that is, by the fact 
alone of the violation of the law. Cen 
sures ferenda? sententice are threatening, 
and are incurred when sentence is promul 
gated by the superior. The terms in 
which the law is conceived and published, 
make known whether the sentence is latce 
or ferendice sentential. 

The sovereign Pontiff, having plenary 
jurisdiction over the entire Church, has ple 
nary power in the matter of promulgating 
censures. The bishop s authority extends 
only to his diocese. During the vacancy of 
the see, this power passes to the Cathedral 
chapter, or, in the absence of such, to the 
administrator, as in this country. The 
vicar-generals can inflict censures by virtue 
of delegated authority which they hold from 
the bishop. Finally, superiors of religious 
orders enjoy the right to punish with cen 
sures those subject to their authority or 
jurisdiction. The metropolitan cannot in 
flict censures on subjects of his suffragans, 
except in cases of appeal or when he vis 
its the dioceses of his province. In order 
to incur censure there must be contumacy 
and this contumacy exists only as far as the 
delinquent has a positive knowledge of the 
punishment to which he is liable. When 
a suspension or an interdict is pronounced 
for a determinate time, at the expiration 
of this time the censure ceases, without 
the necessity of an absolution. 

The censure ab homine can be removed 
only by the officer who pronounced it, or 
by his superior, delegate, or successor. 
Among the censures a jure, some are re 
served to the sovereign Pontiff, or to the 
bishop, while others are not. Every priest 
empowered to hear confession can absolve 
from unreserved censures. He also 
can absolve from all censures the penitent 
who is at the point of death. 

Censure of Books. The right which 
ecclesiastical superiors have to remove 
every influence contrary to the unity and 
purity of faith and the life of the Church, 
implies also the right to censure writings 
concerning religion, morals, and the 
Church, if such writings be found con- 



CENTRAL AMERICA 



150 



CEREMONIAL 



trary to good morals or to the teachings of 
the Church, or even against its liturgical 
and disciplinary laws. From the begin 
ning of Christianity, the bishops of the 
Church exercised this right, founded on 
the command of the Apostle: "Keep 
that which is committed to thy trust, 
avoiding the profane novelties of words, 
and oppositions of knowledge so called " 
(I. Tim. vi. 20). When we read the his 
tories of heresies and schisms, we find 
traces and examples of this kind of cen 
sure. The Church redoubled her vigi 
lance in this respect when the invention of 
printing multiplied the number and in 
creased the circulation of books. Pope 
Alexander VI. required for the printing of 
books the authorization, or imprimatur, of 
the bishop. Leo X. in the tenth session of 
the Fifth Lateran Council (May 4th, 1515) 
renewed this rule of discipline. The 
holy Council of Trent forbids the print 
ing, sale, and reading of books treating on 
religious matters, if such books have not 
obtained the ecclesiastical imprimatur. 
It likewise forbids the obtaining of any tax 
for the censure, or the receiving of any 
gift for the required ecclesiastical permis 
sion or imprimatur to print or to sell 
books (Sess. iv. Dec. de edit, ct usu 
Script.). -Pope Pius V. (1566) instituted 
at Rome a supreme tribunal for such cen 
sures, the "Congregation of the Index," 
and which Sixtus V. definitively organized. 
There is, therefore, from a religious point 
of view, an obligation on all writers, au 
thors, and publishers of works; treating on 
religious matters or on morals, to submit 
such works to the judgment of ecclesiasti 
cal authority and to abide by its decision. 
The same obligation extends to those 
whose duty it is to thoroughly examine all 
such works, and return them with ap 
proval, or correction, or condemnation, as 
each case may require. This is to be done 
gratuitously. 

Central America (Missions in). See 
MISSIONS. 

Centuries of Magdeburg. A history of 
the Christian religion divided by cen 
turies, of which each century forms a vol 
ume. The object of the " centuries " was 
to combat the Roman Church, and espe 
cially the Papal authority, in trying to 
show the accordance of Lutheran doc 
trine with that of the primitive Church. 
This compilation is replete with errors, 
caused by the partisan spirit which di 



rected the pen of the writers, and induced 
them to alter the facts and the texts, and 
also because of the inadequacy of their 
learning and criticism. Cardinal Baronius 
opposed to the Centuries his Ecclesiasti 
cal Annals, which are a solid refutation 
thereof. See ANNALS. 

Centurion. A Roman officer command 
ing one hundred men (Matt. viii. 10). 

Cerdonians. A Gnostic sect of the sec 
ond century. It derived its name from 
Cerdo, a Syrian, who had come to Rome 
in the time of Pope Hyginus. Cerdo 
maintained that the God of the Old Law 
and the Prophets was not the Father of 
Jesus Christ. He was a teacher of Marcion 
and was associated with him at Rome in 
the publication of his peculiar views. See 
MARCION. 

Ceremonial or Ceremonies. The cere 
monial is a system of rites or ceremonies 
enjoined by law or established by custom in 
religious worship. If man were a disem 
bodied spirit, like the angels, he might 
worship with his soul only ; but he has 
superadded to his spirit a body characteris 
tic of his mortal existence. As long, there 
fore, as his spirit is the tenant of this 
earthly tabernacle, and animates a portion 
of the visible creation ; as long as his spirit 
receives the impress of its ideas, and ac 
quires its impressions through the medium 
of the physical senses, and explains its own 
sensations by their instrumentality, so long 
must the use of some exterior ceremonial 
be necessary for man to exhibit a becom 
ing religious reverence toward his Maker, 
who requires that all His creatures, both 
visible and invisible, should pay Him the 
homage of their adoration. 

So consonant is this with the sentiments 
of nature, that we discover her dictating 
to the human race in the earliest period 
of its existence, certain rites and ceremon 
ies to be observed for the outward worship 
of Almighty God. Abel offered sacrifice; 
Enoch invoked the name of the Lord; and 
the patriarchs erected altars. 

God Himself was pleased to promulgate 
those ritual observances which were to be 
practiced by the Jews. Our divine Re 
deemer, though He could have wrought 
His miracles with the same facility with 
which He called forth the world from noth 
ing, by a single w r ord, still, however, con 
descended to employ certain ceremonies 
while He performed them. He mingled 



CERINTHUS 



CHALICE 



spittle with the clay (John ix. 6) with 
which He restored sight to the man born 
blind ; He groaned in spirit and troubled 
Himself before He called forth Lazarus 
from the tomb (John xi. 33) ; He blessed 
and broke the bread before He converted 
it into His body and gave it to His dis 
ciples to eat. The example which the 
Saviour has furnished was imitated by His 
disciples. We find St. Paul exhorting the 
Corinthians to "do all things according to 
order" in the Church (xiv. 40); and St. 
John, to impress upon our minds the 
grandeur of the heavenly Jerusalem, de 
scribes in fervent language the splendor of 
the awful ritual of which he was a witness, 
as he saw in vision the throne of the Lamb 
in the celestial city; and particularly 
noticed the four-and-twenty elders, with 
their harps and fragrance-breathing vials, 
full of the prayers of the saints, as pros 
trate before the Lamb without spot, who 
was reclining upon the golden altar. 

Cerinthus. Heresiarch of the first cen 
tury. This heretic, coming from Alex 
andria, resided at Ephesus while St. John 
the Apostle dwelt in that city. He denied 
the identity of Jesus with Christ, and main 
tained that Jesus, " the son of Joseph and 
Mary," was but a mere man, who in 
baptism received the Holy Ghost, / . <?., 
the Christ ; and that Christ withdrew from 
the man Jesus at the crucifixion. God, 
being immaterial, could not, he said, be 
the Creator of the material world, which 
was made by an angel called Demiurge. 
Cerinthus believed in the coming of the 
millennium on the earth, when Christ 
would found an earthly kingdom, which 
would consist in the enjoyment of sensual 
pleasures. 

Cerularius (MICHAEL). Patriarch of 
Constantinople from 1043 to 1059. Ceru 
larius was an ambitious and turbulent man. 
He revived the Photian schism. At his 
instigation Leo of Achrida, Metropoli 
tan of Bulgaria, circulated a document in 
which the following charges were brought 
against the Latins as grievances: i. The 
use of unleavened bread in the holy sacrifice. 
2. Fasting on Saturdays in Lent. 3. The 
eating of blood and things strangled. 4. 
The omission of the "Alleluja" in Lent. 
Condemned by Pope Leo IX., excommun 
icated by the papal legates, in 1054, he ex 
communicated the Pope and tried to 
separate from Rome the patriarchs of An- 
tioch, Alexandria, and Jerusalem. His 



pride and pretensions caused him, finally, 
to be exiled by the Emperor Isaac Comne- 
nus on the island of Proconesus, where 
he died in 1059. 

Cesarini (JULIANUS). Roman prelate, 
created cardinal by Martin V. in 1426. 
Was sent to Poland, Hungary, and Bohe 
mia, to preach the crusade ; then charged 
by Pope Eugenius IV. to combat the 
heresy of the Hussites. Opened and pre 
sided at the Council of Basle, in 1431, 
transferred afterwards to Florence. He 
upheld, against the Greeks, the doctrine of 
the Roman Church. 

Cesena (MICHAEL). See FRATRICELLI. 

Cetura. Abraham s second wife (Gen. 
xxv. 1-2) ; is held by the Jews to be the 
same as Agar. We know nothing of her 
except as the mother of Zamran, Jecsan, 
Madan, Madian, Jesboc, and Sue. Abra 
ham gave presents to these children and 
sent them to Arabia Deserta. 

Chair of St. Peter. The See of Rome, 
or the office of the papacy, so called from 
the fact that St. Peter was the first bishop 
of Rome. St. Peter s Chair is also the 
name of two festivals, held on February 
22d and January i8th, in commemoration 
of St. Peter founding the Episcopal sees of 
Antioch and of Rome. 

Chalcedon (Council of). The Fourth 
Ecumenical Council held in this city, in 
451, condemned Eutychianism and Mono- 
physitism. This council also conferred 
high privileges on the See of Constanti 
nople, confirming and extending those 
given by the Second Ecumenical Council, 
and putting it nearly on an equality with 
the See of Rome. 

Chalice (Lat. calix, a cup). The cup 
used at Mass for the wine which is to be con 
secrated. The chalices and sacred vessels 
used for offering up the Eucharistic sacri 
fice were, in the early Church, not unfre- 
quently employed on great solemnities to 
ornament the sacred table, upon which 
they were arranged in rows, together 
with the Diptychs or carved ivory tablets 
(see DIPTYCHS). Although the service 
to which these vessels were dedicated, 
and not the richness of the materials 
composing them formed the criterion of 
their value in the estimation of the pious 
Christian from his reverence toward the 
tremendous sacrifice yet, wherever cir- 



CHALLONER 



152 



CHANCELLOR 



cumstances permitted, the most costly sub 
stances were used in making them, and 
chalices, not only of glass, and of silver, 
but sometimes of crystal, onyx, sardonyx, 
and the purest gold, were appropriated to 
the altar service. Like the altar, they 
were anciently, as they are at present, con 
secrated and anointed before being used 
in the service of religion throughout the 
Church, whether Latin or Greek. At 
present the Rubrics require that the 
chalice be of gold or silver, or at least a 
silver cup which is gilt on the inside. It 
must be consecrated by the bishop with 
chrism, according to a form prescribed in 
the Pontifical. It may not be touched 
except by persons in holy orders. We 
know nothing about the chalice which our 
Lord used at the Last Supper. 

Challoner (RICHARD) (1691-1781). 
Born at Lewess, Sussex; died in London. 
Born of Protestant parents, he embraced 
the Catholic faith, received holy orders, and 
was made Bishop of Debra in 1740, and vicar 
apostolic of London in 1758. He was edu 
cated at the English College at Douay, and 
was professor of philosophy there (1713 
1720), and vice-president and professor of 
theology (1720-1730), returning to London 
in the latter year. lie published a large 
number of polemical and theological works, 
including The Rheims New Testament 
and the Donav Bible, rvitJi Annotations 
(1749-1750). His version of the Douay 
Bible is substantially that which has since 
been used by English-speaking Catholics. 

Chanaan. i. The fourth son of Sem 
(Gen. ix. 25:6; x. 6-15). 2. More fre 
quently " Land of Chanaan," interpreted 
to mean lo-wland, from the Semitic cana 
(fo humble, subdue). It generally denotes 
the country west of the Jordan and the 
Dead Sea to the Mediterranean. As the 
name " lowland " would indicate, it origi 
nally comprised only the strip of land, 
from ten to fifteen miles in breadth and 
one hundred and fifty miles in length, shut 
in between the Libanon and the Mediterra 
nean, and extending from the Bay of An- 
tioch to the promontory of the Carmel, that 
is, southern Phoenicia. To this maritime 
plain of the Phoenicians and Philistines 
passages like Isa. xxiii. n; Soph. ii. 5, re 
fer. Later the name was extended to the 
whole west-Jordanic territory. Thus, also, 
in the Tel-el-Amarna tablets, which date 
back a century before the Exodus, Kinakk, 
or Chanaan, designates the district between 



the cities of Philistia and the country 
northward of I lebal (Byblos) . 3. The non- 
Israelitish inhabitants of Palestine. The 
origin and affinity of the various tribes are 
still disputed. 

Chanaanites. See CHANAAN. 

Chancel. The enclosed space in a 
church, surrounding the altar, and railed 
off from the choir; the sanctuary. In 
small churches having no separate choir, 
the altar-rails (and, in some churches, the 
screen or lattice work) separate the chancel 
from the body of the church. In a wider 
sense, the word chancel and choir are some 
times used to include both the sanctuary 
and the choir proper. In Greek churches 
the bcma answers to the chancel or sanc 
tuary, and the iconostasis (as the choir 
does not intervene between the sanctuary 
and nave) corresponds, in some measure, 
to both altar-rails and rood-screen, to the 
former as separating the altar from the 
rest of the church, and to the latter, as 
constituting a marked boundary to the 
nave. 

Chancellor and Chancery. Chancellor 
is an officer in charge of records. Under 
the Roman emperors, the chancellor stood 
at the latticed railing inclosing the judg 
ment-seat, to keep back the crowd and to 
introduce such persons as were entitled to 
pass inside. The name chancellor seems, 
however, to have been introduced onlv 
about the year 850. From the custom of 
the Roman empire, the ecclesiastical court 
at Rome introduced the office. From the 
first ages the Roman Pontiffs had in their 
service some clerics who wrote and expe 
dited letters in their name. St. Jerome tes 
tifies that he thus assisted Pope Damasus. 
These clerics were not called chancellors, 
but were designated by the name of notaries, 
regionaries, and librarians. In the ninth 
century, however, the word chancellor was 
introduced. It was derived, as some claim, 
from the fact that the chancellor cancelled 
every letter with a line drawn through it; 
or, as others maintain, from the grate be 
hind which he sat and gave audience. 
Each diocese, and frequently each of the 
great monastic houses, had its chancellor. 
The Council of Trent permits the bishop 
to receive a stipend for the expenses of the 
Chancery, or for the expedition of letters 
of ordination, dimissorials, dispensations, 
etc. Its rights are fixed by Canon Law. 
See TAXES. 



CHANCERY 



CHAPTERS 



Chancery (Roman). The Roman Chan 
cery is the oldest tribunal of the Court of 
Rome. Through it are issued letters or 
acts relative to affairs discussed and ar 
ranged in consistories, viz.: appointments 
of archbishops, bishops, abbots, and other 
dignitaries. It expedites, at the present 
time, only those Pontifical letters which are 
made out in the form of bulls. It is pre 
sided over by the Cardinal of San Lorenzo 
in Damaso, who is assisted by a director of 
chancery and other subaltern officials. The 
cardinal-chancellor is called n ce-cancel- 
larius, probably because the chancellor 
ship is not properly a cardinal s office; his 
jurisdiction lapses with the death of the 
Pope, when also the seal of the chancery 
is broken in the presence of the cardinals. 
The mode of procedure of this tribunal is 
regulated in strict accordance with the 72 
regulce cancellarice. 

Chant. See PLAIN CHANT; Music. 

Chapel. A subordinate place of wor 
ship. The right to grant the erection of 
chapels or oratories in private houses is re 
served to the Pope. When this is done by 
the bishop, it is in virtue of a papal indult. 
The oratory must be surrounded by walls 
which separate it from the household in 
terior, and from all domestic usages ; it must 
be inspected by the bishop, whoassures him 
self that all its accessories are becomingly 
and decently arranged. The bishop alone 
can grant permission to say Mass therein. 
Mass cannot be said in a private oratory or 
chapel on the days of Easter, Pentecost, 
Christmas, Ascension, Annunciation, As 
sumption, the feasts of the Apostles Peter 
and Paul, the feast of Transfiguration, nor 
on the day of the patron saint of the parish. 

Chaplain. Chaplains are priests at 
tached to hospitals, prisons, and similar 
places for the purpose of exercising the 
sacred ministry. Their peculiar rights and 
duties are usually determined by the ordi 
nary, according to the requirements of the 
institutions or places with which they are 
connected. There are various kinds of 
chaplains, namely : chaplains of nuns or 
convents ; of colleges or other similar insti 
tutions ; of hospitals, asylums, protectories, 
prisons, and the like; of military com 
panies, etc. Chaplains of nuns or sisters 
should be of mature age. Military chap 
lains, in order to be able to administer the 
sacraments of penance, Holy Eucharist, 
and extreme unction to soldiers in garrison, 



stationary camps, or forts, must, as a rule, 
be approved by the bishop of the place 
where the quarters are situated, unless they 
have special faculties from the Holy See. 
Exempted nuns (or rather, their regular 
superiors) have the right to nominate their 
chaplains. As there are no exempted nuns 
in the United States, the chaplains of con 
vents are all appointed by the bishop. 

Chapter (an assembly of canons or reli 
gious). In diocesan organizations, the 
chapter is a body of priests attached to a 
cathedral church for the celebration of the 
divine office, with the charge to assist the 
bishop in the government of his diocese 
when the see is occupied, or to supply his 
place during the vacancy, and in certain 
cases of impediment. Chapters can, at 
present, be established only by the Pope, 
and not by the bishop. This applies not 
merely to chapters of cathedrals, but also 
to those of collegiate churches. We have 
no cathedral chapters in the United States. 
See CONSULTORS. 

Chapters (The Three}. " Three Chap 
ters " was a term applied to : i. The per 
son and writings of Theodore, Bishop of 
Mopsuestia. 2. The writings of Theodoret, 
Bishop of Cyrus, in favor of Nestorius and 
against St. Cyril, as well as the Synod of 
Ephesus. 3. The Letter of Ibas, Bishop 
of Edessa, to the Persian Bishop Maris. 
Emperor Justinian, with his usual eager 
ness to engage in theological disquisitions, 
published, in 544, an edict, in which, under 
the name of the "Three Chapters," he 
condemned the works of the above named 
authors. The imperial edict usurped the 
form of a confession of faith, and trans 
gressed on the exclusive prerogative of 
the Church to anathematize the expounders 
of erroneous doctrines. The authors of 
these writings had subscribed to a confes 
sion of orthodox faith and rejected the er 
rors which had been attributed to them ; 
the Council condemned neither their per 
sons, nor their writings, the errors of which 
latter it, however, rejected. Hence the im 
perial edict appeared as an attack on the 
Council of Chalcedon. The bishops of the 
East subscribed to the edict through fear of 
being deposed. Those of Illyricum, Spain, 
Gaul, and especially of Africa, vigorously 
resisted. Justinian proposed a Council at 
Constantinople, whither Pope Vigilius went 
himself. The latter, in a document, "Judi- 
cafum," condemned the "Three Chapters" 
under the saving clause, "without prejudice 



CHARITY 



CHARLEMAGNE 



to the Council of Chalcedon." Then it 
was agreed to withdraw both the edict and 
the Judicatum, and to allow full liberty to 
the future Council. But before the Council 
assembled, Justinian, in 551, issued a second 
edict against the " Three Chapters " ad 
dressed to the whole Christian world, and 
the Pope drafted anew his own, in the 
Constitution. Vigilius did not assist at 
the Council, was banished, and died in 
Sicily. The decisions of the Council of 
Constantinople, however, were confirmed 
by Vigilius shortly before his death. His 
successor, Pope Pelagius, also confirmed 
its decrees, and, under Pope Sergius, in 619, 
the last dissidents in regard to this Coun 
cil were in the West. The schism of 
Aquileja held out longest. It was not until 
700, that the last of the schismatics re 
turned to the unity of the Church. 

Charity. A virtue which moves us to 
love God above all things, and to feel con 
tented with what it has pleased Providence 
to bestow upon us. Also to love our neigh 
bor as ourselves; thereby wishing good to 
him as earnestly as to ourselves; and it 
diverts our ambition from earthly success 
toward the attainment of heavenly treas 
ures. 

Charity (Sisters of). A congregation 
which owes its origin to a confraternity 
founded at Chatillon-les-Dombes, France, 
under the title of "Servants of the Poor," 
by Louise de Marillac, widow of Antoine 
le Gras, secretary of the Queen. Trans 
ferred to Paris in 1633. St. Vincent of 
Paul transformed it into a community, to 
which he gave a rule and constitutions 
which were approved in 1655 by the Car 
dinal of Retz, Archbishop of Paris. They 
are also called "Gray Nuns" and "Sisters 
of St. Vincent of Paul." As a rule, they 
attend to the sick in hospitals and have 
charge of orphans. They have many 
houses in the United States and Canada. 
See SISTERS. 

Charlemagne or Charles the Great. 
King of the Franks and Emperor of the 
West, born in 742, died at Aachen in 814. 
He was the son of Pepin the Short, king 
of the Franks, at whose death in 768, he 
succeeded to the throne, conjointly with a 
brother, Karlmann. On the death of the 
latter, he became master of the entire 
government (771). Having become mas 
ter of all the countries that had formed the 
empire of the West, he seems to have had 



a triple policy: i. To organize the Ger 
manic tribes under his rule. 2. To es 
tablish a close alliance between Church 
and State, " For I cannot believe," he 
said, " that those who are disobedient to 
the priests of God, can be loyal to the 
State." 3. To secure for his people the 
twofold benefit of a Christian civiliza 
tion. 

Being desirous to continue the work of 
St. Boniface, he endeavored to propagate 
Christianity among the Saxons. The 
latter, a cruel and treacherous people, 
made frequent predatory inroads on the 
kingdom of the Franks. This, together 
with their refusal to embrace Christianity, 
led to a war which lasted for a period of 
thirty-three years. Their complete subju 
gation being necessary to the security of 
the empire, Charlemagne cut down 45,000 
of the insurgents near the river Aller. 
His forcing the Saxons to embrace Chris 
tianity was a political measure disapproved 
by the Church and by his distinguished 
friend, Alcuin. His conduct toward the 
conquered Saxons was otherwise mild ; he 
left them their laws and liberties ; he de 
manded no taxes from them, but merely 
tithes for the support of churches and 
schools. On Christmas Day (800) Pope 
Leo III. bestowed on Charlemagne the im 
perial crown and saluted him " Emperor of 
the Romans." This act revived the em 
pire of the West, which had been extinct 
since the time of Augustulus, 324 years be 
fore. It was an ideal empire, one which 
imposed upon the emperor a twofold right 
and duty: i. To propagate and direct 
the Church. How well Charlemagne un 
derstood his duty is manifest from the 
manner in which he inscribed his name: 
" Charles, king and most faithful protector 
of the Apostolic See in all things." 2. To es 
tablish a universal Christian monarchy. 
As the Church creates spiritual unity 
among the nations, so should the em 
peror establish temporal unity, not by 
subjugating princes and peoples, but by 
superior direction over the union of 
Christian states. For this reason the em 
pire was, after 962, called the Holy Roman 
Empire of the German nation. The rela 
tion between Pope and emperor was that 
of mutual support and dependence. The 
Pope was subject to the emperor as the 
latter was the supreme temporal ruler; 
the emperor being a member of the 
Church was subject to the Pope, its head. 
Both exchanged oaths of fealty. 



CHASTITY 



CHEVERUS 



Chastity. The virtue opposed to lust is 
chastity, which renders us circumspect in 
all that might tend to impurity, and induces 
us to abstain from what is immoral. Chas 
tity is obligatory on all in a general sense, 
but it is a special duty for ecclesiastics and 
those in religious communities, who have, 
by their vow, bound themselves to an in 
creased obligation of obedience to the 
sixth commandment. It is a virtue of ex 
ceeding rarity when accorded as a peculiar 
privilege to the few who may be said to 
possess angelic chastity; for " incor- 
ruption bringeth near to God "(Wis. vi. 20). 
Man is under moral obligation to cultivate 
purity of thought and action by avoiding 
any occasion of defilement; fleeing from 
the world of dissipation, and devoting him 
self to serious occupations ; seeking help 
by prayer, mortification of the senses, and 
penance. 

Chasuble. The sixth and last vestment 
which the priest, who is about to offer up 
the holy sacrifice of the Mass, puts on, is 
called the chasuble, from the Latin casula 
diminutive of casa. This upper garment 
consists of a broad flat back piece, and a 
narrower front piece, the two being con 
nected over the shoulders only. The chas 
uble is generally ornamented with a cross 
and flowers. It derives its origin from a 
species of cloak which, among the ancient 
Romans was called pcenula, and is supposed 
by many commentators on the Scriptures 
to be the same kind of mantle as that left 
by St. Paul at Troas with Carpus, and which 
he requested Timothy to bring with him 
to Rome (II. Tim. iv. 13). The psenula, 
which was substituted for the toga, was per 
fectly circular in shape, with an aperture in 
the center of the garment to admit the 
head, and it enveloped the entire person 
of the wearer; and precisely similar was 
the chasuble worn by the priest at Mass 
during more than twelve hundred years. 
In the Greek Church this vestment still re 
tains its ancient form of a large round 
mantle covering the whole figure, and is not 
unfrequently starred all over with a multi 
tude of small crosses. Up to the sixth 
century the paenula was a civic habit, worn 
without discrimination by laymen and 
ecclesiastics. Its reservation for use within 
the sanctuary seems to have been formally 
adopted toward the close of the sixth cen 
tury. 

Chateaubriand (FRANCOIS AUGUSTE, Vi- 
COMTE DE) (1769-1848). French writer,. 



born at St. Malo in the Bretagne; was in 
tended for the navy, studied for the Church 
and finally entered the army. He was in 
Paris during the early part of the Revolu 
tion, but in 1791 sailed to America, where 
he wandered among the Indians. Return 
ing the following year, he joined the first 
emigration and took refuge in London, re 
maining there till 1800. His chief works 
are Atala and Rene (1802); Le Genie du 
Christianisme (1803), and Memoirs. 

Chatel (FRANCIS) Abbe (1795-1857). 
French schismatic priest, born at Gannat 
(Allier). Founder of a so-called "French 
Catholic Church." Successively vicar of 
the Cathedral of Moulins, curate of Mone- 
tay-sur-Loire, and chaplain of the army 
from 1823 to 1830. He wrote in the " Re- 
formateur" and in the "Echo de la Reli 
gion et du Siecle," articles of an equivocal 
orthodoxy, which caused his suspension. 
After the July revolution, he recruited 
some followers among the clergy, settled 
in a house in the rues des Sept- Voles, 
where he said Mass in French and ended 
by proclaiming himself bishop and primate 
of his Church. Since a consecrator was 
necessary for this dignity, he found a more 
or less authentic one in Dr. Fabre-Palaprat, 
who claimed to have received the episcopal 
consecration from the Bishop of San Do 
mingo. But division soon entered among 
the chiefs of the French Church. The Abbe 
Auzon, who had joined Chatel, ashamed 
of his error, retracted and went to ex 
piate his fault in a Carthusian convent. 
Abbe Chatel had only partial success, and, 
involved in financial embarrassment, left 
Paris to settle at Clichy-la-Garenne. The 
quondam bishop and primate finally found 
employment in the post office of Saone-et- 
Loire where he died in oblivion. 

Chemos. Deity of the Ammonites and 
Moabites. St. Jerome (On Isaias L. V .) 
tells us that there was an idol of this name 
upon Mount Nebo. The Moabites are 
called people of Chemos. It was to Chemos 
that Mesa offered his son (II. Ki. iii. 27), 
and in the inscription on the Moabite 
stone the same king attributes to Chemos 
his victories. 

Cherubim. Supernatural beings who 
guarded the entrance to Paradise, after the 
Fall. Angels of the second choir of the 
first hierarchy. See ANGELS. 

Cheverus (JOHN Louis LEFEBVRE) 
(1768-1836). A French prelate; was born 



CHILI 



156 



CHRISTIAN ALLIANCE 



at Mayenne, France; died at Bordeaux. 
Refusing the constitutional oath, he was 
cast into prison, but escaped in June, 1792, 
and reached England. He landed at Bos 
ton in 1796, and, receiving faculties from 
Bishop Carroll, set to work among the 
scattered Catholics in Maine. Became 
the first Roman Catholic Bishop of Bos 
ton, Massachusetts, in 1808. Archbishop 
of Bordeaux (1827), and cardinal (1837). 

Chili (Missions in). See MISSIONS. 
Chiliasm. See MILLENNIUM. 
China (Christianity in). See INDIA. 

Chodorlahomor. King of Elam, who 
for twelve years made the five cities of the 
Plain his tributaries, and on their rebel 
ling in the thirteenth year, went with four 
allied kings and overran the whole country 
south and east of the Jordan. Lot was 
among his captives, but was rescued by 
his uncle Abraham with his own depend 
ents and neighbors (Gen. xiv). Chodor- 
lahomor s name is found on Chaldean 
bricks recently discovered. 

Choir. That part of a church which is 
appropriated to the use of the singers. In 
churches built according to ancient archi 
tecture (see ARCHITECTURE) it is that part 
between the nave and the apse which is 
reserved for canons, priests, monks, and 
choristers, during divine service. In cruci 
form churches, the choir usually begins 
at the transepts and occupies the head of 
the cross, including the altar; but some 
times, especially in monastic churches, it 
extends beyond the transepts, thus en 
croaching upon the nave. In churches 
without transepts the choir is similarly 
placed. In mediaeval examples, especially 
after 1250, it was usually surrounded by 
an ornamental barrier or grating, and sep 
arated from the nave by a rood-screen. 
See CHANCEL. 

Choir Bishops (also called rural bishops). 
Ecclesiastical dignitaries in the early 
Church, some of whom had received epis 
copal consecration, but the majority of 
whom remained simply priests. Although 
assistants, and subordinate to the bish 
ops of cities, or sees, the choir bishops 
must not be confounded with suffragan 
bishops. The choir bishops could ordain 
readers, exorcists, and subdeacons ; but not 
deacons or priests, without the permission 
of the bishop of the city. 



Chosroes II. See CROSS. 

Chrism. A compound of oil and balsam 
consecrated by a bishop, and used for 
anointing with the sign of the cross at con 
firmation, as well as in baptism, ordina 
tion, consecration of altar-stones, chalices, 
churches, and in the blessing of baptismal 
water. The component parts of chrism of 
olive oil and balsam signify the two na 
tures in Christ ; the oil symbolizes the 
human nature, the balsam the divine na 
ture. 

Christ. See JESUS CHRIST. 

Christian. It was about the year 40 
A. D. when the first Pagano-Christian com 
munity was formed at Antioch on the 
Orontes, and it was also there, about the year 
43, that the Faithful were first called Chris 
tians. The Acts of the Apostles relate this 
fact (Acts xi. 26), and it is evident that the 
Christianoi meant nothing else than the 
disciples, the adherents of Christ. It is 
very probable that the name Christians 
was first used by the pagans, and very prob 
ably by the Romans. They called the fol 
lowers of Christ, Christiani, as they called 
the followers of Cresar, Ccesariani, those 
of Pompey, Pompciani. It is not prob 
able that the Christians themselves adopted 
this name, for they generally called them 
selves Disciples, Brethren, the Saints, the 
Faithful ; besides the word Christianoi, at 
the beginning, was applied as an epithet of 
contempt, as can be seen from the texts 
(Acts xxvi. 28; I. Pet. ix. 14, 16). Neither 
were the Jews the authors of this name; 
for certainly they did not give to a race so 
odious to them a title of honor such as, 
"followers of the Messias," "Disciples of 
the Anointed or of the Christ." We know 
that they generally made use of such ex 
pressions as Nazarenes, Galileans, or of 
other disrespectful terms. 

Christian Alliance. A religious asso 
ciation organized in 1887, with its head 
quarters at 692 Eighth avenue, New York 
city. It was founded by Rev. A. B. Simp 
son, who has been its president from the 
date of its organization. Its membership, 
as described by its founder, "consists of 
all professing Christians who subscribe to 
its principles and enroll their names." Its 
objects are stated to be " the wide diffusion 
of thre Gospel in its fullness, the promo 
tion of a deeper and higher Christian life, 
and the work of evangelization, especially 
among the neglected classes, by highway 






CHRISTIAN BROTHERS 



CHRISTIANITY 



missions and any other practical methods." 
At the end of 1895 the organization is 
said to have established 265 missions in 
China, India, Japan, Haiti, and Congo 
Free State. In New York city special 
work is done for fallen women by means 
of "The Door of Hope," a branch "home" 
opened by the Alliance. 

Christian Brothers. See BROTHERS. 

Christian Endeavor (The United So 
ciety of}. A Protestant association formed 
at Wiliston Church, Portland, Maine, in 
the year 1881, and which, in 1896, had in 
creased to 44,596 societies, with a member 
ship of 2,630,000 in the United States, Can 
ada, Great Britain, and missionary lands. 
The purpose of the association is to pro 
mote an earnest and useful Christian life 
on the part of each member, to increase 
mutual acquaintance between members, 
and to train young converts in the practi 
cal duties of Christianity. 

Christianity (Christendom, the totality 
of the Christian nations). The four Gos 
pels, written according to St. Matthew, St. 
Mark, St. Luke, and St. John, give us the 
details of the divine mission of the Saviour 
from His birth to His passion, death, and 
resurrection. This is the basis of Chris 
tianity, taught by the lessons and precepts 
of Christ, developed afterwards by His 
Apostles, and formulated in an abridgment 
in their Symbol or Apostles Creed. But in 
; ts source, Christianity goes further back; 
it is intimately connected with the divine 
facts related in the Old Testament. The 
Bible, in its entirety, is the exposition of 
the Christian religion, based upon the 
primitive revelation which followed the 
creation of man, and which Christ came to 
complete in fulfilling the Old Testament 
prophecies. Thus both Testaments unite 
in a grand and wonderful harmony. The 
religious needs and aspirations of the soul, 
and an unbiased, complete examination of 
facts and proofs, certainly lead to the re 
ligion of Christ, to the divine faith which 
He came on earth to establish. This divine 
religion, expounded by Christianity, alone 
answers to the cries and needs of our nature, 
a nature both corporal and spiritual ; this 
alone victoriously combats the principle of 
evil which is within us as an original stain ; 
this alone can sanctify the individual, the 
family, and society; this alone is the voice 
of truth and life ; finally, this alone, regu 
lates with authority the duties, guides faith 



in its hesitations, hope in its waverings, 
charity in its works, and is the source of 
all good and of expiation, in view of eternal 
life. 

Let us read the Gospels, in order to ar 
rive at the starting point of Christian 
preaching, at the foundation of Christian 
ity. The Messias who was announced from 
the beginning of the world, and again and 
again foretold by the Prophets, has fulfilled 
His divine mission. In His "Sermon on 
the Mount," He has given us a summary 
of His sublime doctrine ; He has spread the 
good news, and transmitted to His Apos 
tles the doctrine which should be taught by 
them to the whole world : " Docete omnes 
g-en/es." He has established among them a 
chief, to whom He said : "Thou art Peter, 
and upon this rock I shall build my 
Church." This chief will represent the 
unity and authority, and his successors will 
continue in possession of this deposit of 
unity and supreme authority until the end 
of time. The power to bind and to loose 
will be given to them. Jesus Christ dies 
upon the Cross : "constimmatum esf." Tri 
umphantly He comes forth from the grave, 
and appears to His disciples in order to 
confer on them His divine mission and 
confirm them in the truths thereof. Soon 
the effects of the Redemption make them 
selves felt. The Jews who denied and 
crucified Him are no longer the chosen and 
privileged, the only repository heretofore 
of the faith revealed by God. The Old 
Law must give place to a new covenant of 
grace and love ; all nations and peoples, 
tribes and tongues are called to share in 
its benevolent effects. The Holy Ghost 
who descended in the Upper-Room upon 
the Apostles, loosened their tongues, and 
communicated to them the divine spirit. 
Two sermons of Peter at Jerusalem make 
eight thousand converts, who gladly con 
fess the faith of Christ, and thus the first 
Church of Christians is founded. These 
new Faithful, in their fervor and zeal, de 
posit their goods at the feet of the Apos 
tles for equitable division among the 
Community. 

Soon, however, the Synagogue becomes 
suspicious and wrathful ; the Apostles are 
put into prison, scourged, and forbidden to 
preach. They answer that "they must obey 
God rather than man," and continue to 
preach Christ crucified. Seven deacons are 
chosen by the Apostles ; the first of these is 
Stephen, who became the first glorious mar 
tyr. Paul, struck with blindness on his way 



CHRISTIANITY 



158 



CHRISTIANITY 



to Damascus, whither he was going to per 
secute the Christians, beholds the scales fall 
from his eyes, and from a relentless per 
secutor becomes the great Apostle of the 
Gentiles. Reunited with Peter in that Capi 
tal which groans under the tyranny of a 
Nero, they together seal with their blood the 
faith of Christ. Rome will become the See 
of the universal Church. John teaches and 
labors in Asia Minor, Philip in Upper 
Asia, Andrew among the fierce Scythians. 
Thomas preaches among the Parthians, j 
and even pushes his labors till he embraces 
the Indies, whither he is followed by 
Bartholomew ; Matthew labors in Ethiopia, 
and Simon in Persia. The pagan world is 
shaken, astonished, amazed, by the new 
doctrine which affirms only one God, a 
God made man in order to save man; 
which proclaims men equal and brethren; 
which preaches renouncement, mortifica 
tion, fasts, devotedness, the despising of 
this world in order the better to win a 
celestial one. The wise and the powerful 
wrap themselves up in their pride and 
folly, but the poor, the humble, the miser 
able, feel themselves carried along by these 
words of peace and love which show to 
them beyond their life of trials, a reward 
of eternal happiness. The pagans believe 
that they can smother the divine voice by 
torments and death. " The Christians to 
the lions ! " and the wild beasts, fire, the 
most cruel torments, were employed in 
vain on these resigned victims. But, says 
Tertullian, " The blood of the martyrs be 
came the seed of Christians." They 
hid in the Catacombs the mysteries of 
their precious worship ; and here, too, they 
buried the victims of imperial barbarity. 
There are counted, during the first three 
centuries, ten general persecutions di 
rected against the Christians (see PERSE 
CUTIONS). However, the Christians were 
not enemies of the empire ; on the con 
trary, obedience to all laws not contrary to 
morality or conscience was to them a re 
ligious duty. But to the blinded and 
hardened pagans, liberty of conscience 
was revolt and disloyalty; and paganism, 
with all its revolting rites and ceremonies, 
was an integral part of the constitution 
and of social life. Even the emperors, be 
sotted voluptuous tyrants, were deified, 
and to kill Christians appeared to them 
a measure of public safety. But truth 
always ends in triumph, and the Chris 
tian Church in the person of Constantine, 
after his victory over Maxentius, was 



triumphant, but she had not completed 
her work. She had to strengthen and ex 
tend herself, to give herself, after three 
centuries of struggle, an organic constitu 
tional form of government. She had, too, 
to prepare herself to enter dipon a new, 
and though bloodless, yet more dangerous 
struggle, the combat within her fold, 
against error and heresy. There had 
already commenced in the desert of The- 
biad that wonderful institution of Monas- 
ticism, based upon the spirit of penance 
and the desire to more closely approach 
heaven by means of contemplation, prayer, 
and the strict practice of ascetic virtues. 
St. Paul, St. Anthony, and St. Pachomius, 
were the first Apostles and models of this 
eremitic life a mode of life soon to be re 
placed by that of the cenobitic or com 
munity life. The East became covered 
with monasteries to which St. Basil gave 
his Rule. When the monks passed into 
the West, following St. Athanasius, they 
strengthened and consolidated themselves 
by the aid of a new force. This auxiliary 
was the joining to prayer and contempla 
tion of manual labor. Indefatigable in 
all kinds of labors, they soon became the 
pioneers of European civilization. " They 
cleared it in great part," says Guizot, " in 
joining agriculture with preaching." 
This religious militia was one of the great 
est forces of Christianity and a vigorous 
element of civilization. The monasteries 
became the nurseries of priests, asylums 
of study, centers of schools, and barriers 
against the inroads of Barbarians. 

In proportion as the Church established 
the hierarchy of patriarchs, metropolitans, 
bishops, and pastors, to oversee and propa 
gate her doctrine, she beheld rising around 
her errors which she was bound to com 
bat and suppress. From the first century, 
at her very cradle, she had to confute and 
confound Simon, the Magician, Apollon- 
ius of Tyana and the Ebionites. The Gnos 
tics and the Montanists appeared in the 
second century, and in the third and fourth 
the Manicheans and the Arians. The latter, 
though powerful and numerous, and having 
the support of several emperors, failed, in 
spite of craft, power, and numbers, to over 
throw the Church. They, indeed, cor 
rupted and won over a part of the Episcopate 
court prelates, and many of the Barbarians 
who had recently been converted from 
paganism. Then arose the Donatists, Pe 
lagians, Nestorians, and Eutychians, all of 
whom, in various ways, denied some of the 



CHRISTIANITY 



CHRISTIANITY 



Christian dogmas, and tried to destroy the 
purity, unity, and integrity of the Church. 
To all of these heresies and heresiarchs, 
the Church opposed her victorious cham 
pions, St. Justin, Athenagoras, Tertul- 
lian, and others. To these apologists was 
added the lofty and powerful eloquence of 
the early Fathers: St. Athanasius, St. 
Basil, St. Chrysostom, St. Jerome, St. 
Ambrose, and St. Augustine. She affirmed 
and established her dogmas with incom 
parable authority in the assemblies of her 
Ecumenical Councils, where all the bish 
ops, supported by the authority of the Ro 
man Pontiff, formulated their decisions 
and anathematized, in such a manner as to 
leave no subterfuge unexposed, nor its 
abettors unmasked. 

In the second century, Gaul had re 
ceived Christianity through the teaching 
and labors of St. Pothinus, who was mar 
tyred at Lyons under Marcus Aurelius, to 
gether with a number of the Faithful. The 
Church of the Gauls flourished by the 
great learning, wisdom, and virtues of 
her bishops, when Clovis and his Franks 
came to bow their heads and received the 
faith from St. Remigius, at Rheims. The 
other Barbarians, who had been infected 
with Arianism were brought back to the 
true faith. Ireland, converted by St. Pat 
rick, became a home and a center of Mon 
astic zeal and all Christian virtues. From 
her famous Monastery of Bangor, St. Co- 
lumbanus and St. Gall went forth to evan 
gelize the regions of the Vosges and of Hel 
vetia. In 596, the Anglo-Saxons were con 
verted by St. Augustine. In 690, twelve 
English monks, led by St. Willibrord, went 
to convert the Frieslanders, while another 
Irish monk, St. Killian, spread the faith 
in Franconia. In the year 716, St. Win- 
frid (or Boniface) went to destroy the 
idols and plant the faith in Thuringia, 
Saxony, and Bavaria, establishing, wher 
ever he came, bishoprics, churches, and 
schools. 

The religious faith and spirit, so alive 
and active in the West, had grown cold in 
the East. Here a general relaxation of 
morals and the subtleties of heresies had 
produced woeful effects. On the other 
hand, Mohammed inflamed with fanati 
cism the Arabian race, and with it marched 
to victory and made conquests which ex 
tended from the shores of the Euphrates 
and Nile to the Pyrenees. From this point, 
his followers after penetratingGaul, threat 
ened Christian civilization with ruin. The 



sword of Charles Martel, fortunately, ar 
rested their progress on the plains of Poi 
tiers, in 732. It required eight centuries 
of heroic struggle on the part of the Chris 
tians of Spain to drive forever from her 
soil the Moslem power. This power was 
eventually shaken in the Orient, and the 
Holy Sepulchre was restored to the Chris 
tians. 

The benevolent action of Christianity 
had continued to exercise its influence and 
agencies upon the Western nations. Char 
lemagne, in the eighth century, had by 
his power and example strengthened it in 
Germany, and introduced it into several 
provinces hitherto unenlightened by its 
beneficient rays. In the following century 
Denmark and Sweden received the faith 
through the preaching and labors of St. 
Ansgar. St. Cyril and St. Methodius ef- 
ected the conversion of the Slavs. The Nor 
man Pirates brought into France by Rol- 
lin also bowed their necks under the sweet 
yoke of Christ. 

But schism and heresy were still very 
active in the East. In the eighth century, 
the Church was afflicted by the Iconoclast 
heresy, and still more by that of Photius, 
who effected the separation of the Eastern 
Churches from the center of authority 
Rome. The Papacy had ever, and has 
still, to war for the cause of that divine 
faith, the integrity of which it must pro 
tect and preserve. It triumphed in the 
twelfth century over the errors of the 
Waldenses and Albigenses, and again in 
the long and bitter quarrel concerning the 
right of Investiture. It finally forced the 
emperors of Germany to respect the 
rights and dignities of the priesthood. It 
also created for its work and defense mili 
tant orders of monks : The Knights and 
Hospitalers of St. John of Jerusalem 
(noo); the Templars (rn8); the Teu 
tonic Knights (1190) ; the Knights of Avis, 
in Spain and Portugal (1146); of Cala- 
trava (1158); of Alcantara (1213); and, 
finally, the Sword Bearers of Livonia 
(1202). On the other hand, the great mon 
astic orders had received from St. Bene 
dict of Monte Cassino, the famous Bene 
dictine Rule, which became in time the 
basis of all conventual institutions. The 
great " Schism of the West" (1378-1449) 
arose to trouble the Church, and, by its 
sorrowful effects, lessened the prestige of 
the Papacy. Religious unity received an 
almost fatal blow. The spirit of revolt 
manifested itself in the heresies of Wycliffe, 



CHRISTIANITY IN AMERICA 



1 60 



CHRISTIANITY IN AMERICA 



of John Huss, and of Jerome of Prague. 
These heresiarchs, with their errors, pre 
pared the way for the separation finally 
completed by Luther in Germany, Zwingli 
in Switzerland, Calvin in France, and 
Henry VIII. in England. The Councils 
of Basle and of Constance were powerless 
to heal the schisms which now divided 
Europe, and brought in their train bloody 
wars. By God s providence, a new re 
ligious order, that of the Jesuits, sprung 
up, and soon became famous for its loyalty 
to the Holy See, giving to it stanch de 
fenders, men remarkable for their learn 
ing and sanctity. These men devoted 
themselves principally to the education 
of youth and to the defense of Christian 
dogmas. The Council of Trent (1545- 
1563) assembled to fix the dogmas, regu 
late the discipline, establish the infalli 
bility of the Church, and correct the abuses 
with which they reproached her. The 
" Peace of Augsburg," in 1555, granted to 
the Protestants liberty of conscience, but 
yet division continued to remain among 
the Christian bodies. In pretending to 
bring back Christianity to its primitive 
purity, the Protestant Reformation had 
essentially altered its essence and shaken 
its very foundation. It introduced the ra 
tionalistic element as a negation of author 
ity, for where there is no authority, disorder 
and anarchy must inevitably prevail. While 
Catholicity remained firm and unchange 
able, Protestantism became split into a 
multitude of sects, Lutherans, Calvinists, 
Anabaptists, Moravians, Anglicans, Presby 
terians, Puritans, Independents, Quakers, 
Methodists, Pietists, Unitarians, etc., hav 
ing their common foundation in Rational 
ism, under the cloak of liberty of conscience. 
To-day, the sovereign Pontiff has lost his 
temporal power, which protected and 
guaranteed his independence; neverthe 
less, he remains all-powerful and absolute 
in his spiritual sway, and never was the 
matchless unity of Christ s mystical body 
the Church so great and true as to 
day. The temporal powers still gladly 
make the successor of St. Peter the um 
pire of their many disputes. He, and he 
alone, in undiminished power, is the living 
representative and vicegerent of Christ, 
who lives, reigns, and commands. 

Christianity in America. The discov 
ery of America (1492), by the pious 
Christopher Columbus, opened a new 
field for the missionary labors of the 



Church. Pope Alexander VI. commis 
sioned Ferdinand the Catholic to have 
Christianity introduced into the New 
World. The first missionaries were Bene 
dictines, Hieronymites, Franciscans, and 
Dominicans. Their labors were in great 
measure frustrated by the avarice and 
cruelties of the Spanish settlers, who com 
pelled the natives to work as slaves. The 
missionaries stoutly denounced the en 
slavement of the Indians as being a vio 
lation of their natural rights and the laws 
of Christianity. At an early period, 
negroes were brought from Africa, to re 
place the Indian slaves. After the death 
of Ferdinand, Cardinal Ximenes, regent 
of Spain, prohibited this practice. Bar 
tholomew de Las Casas, a member of the 
Dominican order, wished, under cer 
tain restrictions, to have the negroes who 
were slaves, employed in the labors of the 
colonies, instead of the weaker Indians. 
For this reason, he has been unjustly ac 
cused of introducing the slave trade, 
whereas he was the true apostle of the 
Indians, the stanch defender of their per 
sonal freedom. He crossed the Ocean 
sixteen times to defend their rights. (See 
LAS CASAS). The friends of slavery as 
serting that the Indians were but irrational 
beasts and born to slavery, Pope Paul III., 
in a Bull issued in 1537, vindicated the 
liberty of the Indians and maintained 
that, as they belong to the human race, 
they are heirs to the rights of man. The 
decrees of the Bull were frequently re 
newed by succeeding Popes. Their ex 
ample was followed by the kings of Spain. 
The missionaries were the zealous apostles 
of peace and true friends of the persecuted 
natives. They compiled grammars, dic 
tionaries, and other works in the native 
tongue of the aborigines, and thus won 
the most savage tribes to Christianity. 
Together with the other religious orders, 
the Jesuits labored in Peru, Chili, and 
Mexico. Bishoprics were established in 
the different parts of Spanish America, 
seminaries founded, and provincial and 
diocesan synods held to promote the cause 
of religion. The clergy and religious were 
animated with zeal for souls. St. Louis 
Bertrand labored in Columbia, St. Francis 
Solano in La Plata and Peru. St. Peter 
Claver became the apostle of the slaves. 
St. Rose of Lima is the first canonized 
saint of America. To the Catholic 
Church America owes her discovery and 
her civilization. See MISSIONS. 



CHRISTIANS 



161 



CHRONOLOGY 



Christians or Christian Connection. 
The name adopted by a religious denomi 
nation in the United States, which origi 
nated, in 1793, in a secession from the 
Methodists of Virginia and North Caro 
lina, led by the Rev. J. O Kelley, and at 
first called "Republican Methodists." The 
name was changed that it might express 
their renunciation of all sectarianism. 
This sect must not be confounded with the 
"Christian Churches" or "Disciples of 
Christ." They are widely scattered 
throughout the United States, and in 1895 
had 1,300 Churches, 1,380 ministers, and 
9,500 communicants. Their principles 
create each congregation into an inde 
pendent body and the Bible is their only 
rule of faith, which every person is at 
liberty to interpret for himself. Member 
ship is obtained by a simple profession of 
belief in Christianity. As a rule they are 
antitrinitarians and immersionists. 

Christians (Chaldean). The Chaldean 
Christians, or converted Nestorians, are 
to be found chiefly in Persia, Kurdistan, 
Mesopotamia, and Turkish Armenia. 
They are ruled by the " Chaldean Patri 
arch of Babylonia," who resides at Mosul 
and Bagdad. He has under him two arch 
bishops and ten bishops. In 1892, the Nes- 
torian patriarch Marchisnu, with the last 
remnants of his sect, sought union with the 
Holy See, thus putting an end to what was 
once known as the Nestorian schismatic 
Church. In Persia and the surrounding 
countries the Catholics of various rites 
number about 63,000. See ORIENTAL 
RITES. 

Christians of St. Thomas. Name given 
to the ancient Christians which the first 
Portugueseconquerors found spread around 
Calicut, and who pretended to be descend 
ants of the people whom St. Thomas con 
verted in his apostolate of the Indies. They 
are Nestorians of the Chaldean rite and 
belong to the Nestorian patriarchate of 
Babylonia. 

Christmas (Feast of the Nativity of our 
Lord). The institution of this feast, which 
is celebrated on December 25th, is attrib 
uted to Pope Telesphorus, in the year 138. 
Originally, Christmas Day was often con 
founded with the feast of Epiphany. On 
the feast of Christmas Day, the Catholic 
priest is permitted to say three Masses, 
in commemoration of the temporal, spirit 
ual, and eternal birth of Christ. When 



ever Christmas Day falls on Friday, it is 
permitted to eat flesh-meat. 

Christology. That part of theology 
which treats of the person and work of 
Christ. Dogmatic theology is divided into 
Ontology and Christology. 

Christolytes. Name given to heretics of 
the sixth century who pretended that Christ 
descended into hell with both body and soul, 
that He left both therein, and ascended into 
heaven only with His divinity. 

Christopher (ST.). A martyr of the 
third century. He is said to have lived in 
Syria, and to have been of prodigious 
stature and strength. As a penance for 
having been a servant of the devil, he de 
voted himself to the task of carrying pil 
grims across a river where there was no 
bridge. Christ went to the river one day, 
in the form of a child, and asked to be car 
ried over, but his weight grew heavier and 
heavier till his bearer was nearly broken 
down in the midst of the stream. When 
they reached the shore, the child said, 
" Marvel not, for with Me thou hast borne 
all the sins of the world." Christopher is 
usually represented as bearing the infant 
Christ and leaning upon a great staff. F. 
July 5th. 

Chrodegang (Sx.). Bishop of Metz; 
was born in Brabant, in 712. Kinsman of 
Pepin the Short; became chancellor of 
Charles Martel, to which office was joined 
that of Bishop of Metz (742). He was a 
great statesman and ecclesiastic. We owe 
to him a famous rule concerning the can 
ons of his cathedral. He died March 6th, 
766. 

Chronicles. See PARALIPOMEXA. 

Chronology. There is no science so full 
of difficulties as that which treats of events 
lost in the night of ages. It strikes against 
uncertain periods, where it is fain to de 
pend upon inference and conjecture. 
Where written documents are wanting, 
we are reduced to calculate the number of 
generations, to invoke astronomical ac 
counts, the eclipses, and to examine mon 
uments. A passage of Confucius which 
indicates thirty-five eclipses of the sun, 
has permitted us to calculate that the 
facts of which he speaks must have taken 
place between the years 720 to 481 B. c., 
but this is only one point in the space of 
ancient times. The first people of Italy, 



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162 



CHRONOLOGY 



Gaul, and Germany, had no chronology 
properly speaking. We find a limited 
ancient chronology, beginning with the 
tenth century B. c. Thanks to the discov 
ery of the "Marbles of Paros," we have 
been enabled to recover the chief events of 
the annals of Greece, from the foundation 
of Athens, about 1558 B.C., until the year 
200 of our era. The Roman chronology 
has been determined according to the 
"Consular Fathers" or "Capitoline Mar 
bles," which were unearthed in the ancient 
Forum in 1547. For Egypt we have the 
"History of Manetho" in the extracts 
transmitted to us by Julius Africanus and 
Eusebius; moreover, the hieroglyphics re 
cently deciphered, the continual excava 
tions and the discoveries made in the 
hypogene of the land of the Pharaos, have 
furnished new secrets to chronology. 
Finally, the Bible offers to chronology 
the most authentic and precise sources, and 
according to the accounts it furnishes has 
been established the era followed by all the 
Christian peoples. 

The first thing to observe in the chron 
ological calculations, is the measure of 
time, the year which has served to estab 
lish the calendar, either according to the 
solar month, or according to the lunations. 
It is requisite also to study the cycles 
which are periods of time succeeding one 
another in determined intervals. Among 
the Romans, the cycle of indication was 
composed of fifty years or three lustres, 
but without connection with the astronom 
ical movements. The word era desig 
nates a memorable epoch which serves as 
a starting point for the calculation of the 
years, anterior and posterior to the event 
which it designates. History mentions at 
least twenty different eras, the best known 
of which are : the Era of the Olympiads, 
776 B. c. ; the Era of the Foundation of 
Rome, 752 B. c. ; the Julian Era, 45 B. c. ; 
the Era of Mohammed or Hegira, 622 A.D. ; 
finally the Christian Era or the Incarna 
tion of Jesus Christ. The latter, to which 
is referred all the others, is based upon the 
text of the Bible, but since we have three 
principal ones (the Hebrew, the Samaritan, 
and the Greek of the Septuagint) notable 
divergences have resulted from it in regard 
to certain dates, so that from the creation 
of the world till the birth of Jesus Christ 
is counted, according to the Septuagint 
and Vulgate, 5228 years; according to the 
Samaritan, 4293 years, and according to 
the Hebrew, 3992 years. A learned chro- 



nologist of the sixteenth century, Usserius, 
has modified these calculations and fixed 
the period before Christ at 4000 years. 
Then came the Benedictines of the eight 
eenth century, who, in their learned work, 
Art to Verify the Dates, fixed the dura 
tion of the world before Christ at 4963 
years. Finally, in our time, a new system 
has been established by the Abb6 Chev 
alier, who, by means of observations, en 
deavors to bring into agreement the 
different texts of our Sacred Books, and 
reconcile them with the accounts given by 
the most ancient authors, as well as with 
those that result from modern discoveries 
in Assyria and Egypt; thus he attempts to 
fix the origin of the world in the year 
5949 B. c. 

Chronology (Biblical). We do not 
find in the Bible a complete chronology, 
nor a fixed era or epoch at which the 
numeration of the years commences, and in 
this sense we can say, repeating the words 
attributed to Silvestre de Sacy : "There 
is no Biblical chronology." But there 
are in the Scriptures some figures, dates, 
and chronological accounts, which may 
serve to form a system of Biblical chro 
nology. It is the same with the Egyptian 
monuments, which only indicate the years 
of a reign, with the help of which the 
chronologists calculate the dates of Egyp 
tian history. We have, therefore, as much 
right to speak of a Biblical chronology as 
of an Egyptian chronology. 

But the Bible does not contain an ordi 
nary history : it is the work of God ; it has 
been written under the inspiration of the 
Holy Ghost. Hence we may ask whether the 
Biblical chronology is inspired and whether 
it forms a part of the divine revelation. 
Certainly, the sacred writers have written, 
under divine impulse, some dates, and fur 
nished chronological accounts which were 
inspired by God, and consequently exact. 
These teachings which formed part of the 
divine revelation, would constitute a re 
vealed chronology, if it were certain that 
the inspired authors desired to point out 
the age of the world and the regular suc 
cession of time and historic events in Israel, 
and that they have indicated all the neces 
sary dates. Some, undoubtedly, had the 
design to fix chronologically the epoch of 
the events which they related ; but not all 
took this care, and the chronographers 
establish in their writings many breaks 
or simple chronological approximations. 



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163 



CHRONOLOGY 



The Bible contains, therefore, chronolog 
ical accounts which are incomplete and 
insufficient to form a revealed and certain 
chronology. We might arrange them 
systematically, but the calculation result 
ing therefrom would remain doubtful 
and faulty. It would not enforce the as 
sent of any Catholic, who would always 
have the right to discuss and reject it. 
Moreover, all the figures of the Bible 
have not reached us in their primitive 
integrity, and the dates present themselves 
to us with such variations that criticism is 
unable to restore with any certainty the 
original text. This evident alteration of 
dates still further increases the uncertainty 
of chronological calculations. Further 
more, the Catholic Church never had an 
official chronology. She has always per 
mitted discussion of the numerical varia 
tions of the sacred text, and liberty of 
reckoning the duration of the Biblical 
periods. We shall set forth briefly the re 
sults obtained by the chronologists, pass 
ing successively over the principal epochs 
of the Biblical history. 

I. DATE OF THE CREATION OF THE 
WORLD. The Bible does not fix the era 
of this supreme event; it narrates only 
that God created heaven and earth " in 
the beginning," without fixing precisely 
the epoch of this " beginning." It also 
describes the primordial condition of the 
terrestrial globe as a state of chaos, of 
confusion, and of disorder, during which 
dense darkness covered the surface of the 
chaotic elements (Gen. i. i, 2). It does 
not inform us as to the duration of this 
primeval period. Until the nineteenth 
century, critics generally did not dis 
tinguish the date of the creation of the 
world from that of the creation of man, 
from which it was separated, they com 
monly believed, only by six days of 
twenty-four hours. Previously, however, 
some more perspicuous writers, such as 
St. Justin, St. Gregory of Nazianz, Gen- 
nadius of Marseilles, and Petavius, had ad 
mitted an indefinite period between the 
creation of primordial matter and its defin 
itive organization. (Cf. Motais, Origine 
du Monde d apres la Tradition, c. ii., pp. 
17-42.) The present interpreters acknowl 
edge almost unanimously that Moses is 
silent as to the space of time that elapsed 
between the primitive creation and the 
production of the light on the first geneti- 
cal day. Several even consider the days 
of creation as periods of an indeterminate 



duration (see COSMOGONY), and all critics 
leave to the astronomers and geologists 
the task of determining the time neces 
sary for the formation of the planetary 
bodies and the geological strata. Besides, 
science, no more than exegesis, possesses 
the means of estimating this time with 
precision and certainty. Reliable time 
gauges are wanting. However, geolo 
gists, in accord with astronomers, allow 
centuries to the igneous state of the 
earth, and it is a fact demonstrated 
beyond question that its planetary phase 
goes back to a very ancient origin. The 
earthly stratifications, the configuration 
of the continents, the changes of the 
flora and fauna, have required centuries. 
The geologists who venture to fix by fig 
ures the age of the world arrive at very 
different conclusions. Their calculations, 
which start from different hypotheses, are 
based on the time necessary for the action 
of existing causes. But, while always iden 
tical in their essence, the forces of nature 
must certainly have varied in their mode 
of action. Their intensity has been more 
or less powerful, and their associations, 
more or less complex, have deviated in a 
large measure from the combinations at 
present existing. Hence we can admit 
only with great reserve the numerical re 
sults at which different scientists have 
claimed to arrive. Reputable geologists 
do not believe they exaggerate in estimat 
ing at some millions of years the time 
necessary for the geological formations. 
According to this the figures might vary 
from i to 20, sometimes from i to 100, 
millions of years without any one of the 
extreme results meriting less confidence 
than another. Hence, it would not be un 
reasonable to place between 20 and 100 
millions of years as the duration of time 
involved in the sedimentry formations. 

II. DATE OF THE CREATION OF ADAM. 
The Biblical times can be measured only 
from the appearance of man upon earth. 
However, the sacred text does not deter 
mine chronologically the origin of man in 
a formal and precise manner. Nowhere is 
it said : Adam was created at such a date. 
This date is the result of the calculation of 
all the chronological references contained 
in the Old Testament. Now, with the 
same data and employing the same proc 
esses, chronologists have arrived at very 
divergent figures. Alphonse des Vignolles 
has collected more than two hundred dif 
ferent calculations, " of which the shortest 



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164 



CHRONOLOGY 



counts only 3,483 years from the creation 
of the world to Jesus Christ, and the long 
est counts 6,984 years. This is a difference 
of thirty-five centuries." Ricoli has drawn 
up a table of seventy of these systems. 
Father Tournemine, at the end of his edi 
tion of Menochius, gives the ninety-two 
most famous. The Art of Verifying 
Dates notes one hundred and eight. The 
modern Jews place the creation in 3761 be 
fore our era; Scaliger, in 3950; Petavius, 
in 3983; Usserius, in 4004; Clinton, in 
4138; the new edition (1820) of the Art of 
Verifying- Dates, in 4963; Hales, in 5411 ; 
Jackson, in 5426 ; the Church of Alexandria, 
in 5504; the Church of Constantinople, in 
5510; Vossius, in 6004; Panvinio, in 6311 ; 
the Alphonsine tables, in 6984. These very 
different conclusions result from the fact 
that chronologists follow diverse accounts 
of the sacred text and combine after their 
own fashion the chronological data of the 
Bible. Further on we shall discuss the bases 
of these systems, and we shall have to deter 
mine whether there is reason to increase, 
as many of our contemporaries believe, the 
age of man upon earth. Our discussion 
will not be hampered by any dogmatic de 
cision. The Roman Church, which has 
chosen the Vulgate as the official edition 
of the Bible, has kept in the Martyrology, 
which forms a part of her liturgy, the date 
of 5199, drawn from the Septuagint, for 
the creation of man. The Fathers and the 
Catholic exegetists have differed on this 
subject, and nobody disputes the right of 
geologists, paleontologists, and chronolo- 
gists to search out scientifically the time 
that elapsed from the creation of man to 
the birth of Jesus Christ. 

Certain supporters of prehistoric arch 
aeology have abused this liberty and as 
signed a very remote antiquity to mankind. 
Abbe Hamard, a great authority on this 
subject, is of the opinion that neither ge 
ology nor prehistoric archaeology obliges 
us to fix the date of the creation of man 
many thousands of years earlier than is 
commonly thought. Yet we must ac 
knowledge that, while rejecting the fan 
tastic figures of some writers, Catholic 
scholars admit the appearance of man upon 
earth at a more remote date than that which 
results from the highest Biblical chronol 
ogy. M. de Lapparent, a noted French 
authority, believes that the origin of man 
is interglacial and that it goes back, as far 
as it can be expressed in figures, to thirty 
or thirty-two thousand years. Others be 



lieve that man is of postglacial origin, 
and the Marquis de Nadaillac has repeat 
edly attributed to the existence of man 
upon earth a duration from ten to twelve 
thousand years. Be this as it may, we shall 
have to examine further back, whether, 
in default of geology and paleontology, 
history obliges us to raise the date of the 
origin of man and to increase the duration 
of the existence of mankind upon the earth. 
We have also to determine in what Biblical 
epoch the chronological increase can and 
ought to be made. 

III. FROM ADAM TO THE DELUGE. The 
time which elapsed in this interval is cal 
culated according to the genealogy of the 
descendants of Adam in the line of Seth 
(Gen. v. 1-31). This genealogy comprises 
ten patriarchs and nine generations; it 
notes the age of the patriarch at the 
time of his paternity, the number of years 
he lived after the birth of his son, and 
the total duration of his life. By adding 
the ten figures of the age of the patriarchs 
to the birth of their sons, we easily obtain 
the duration of the period. This simple 
calculation gives, however, notably diver 
gent sums, because it is computed from dif 
ferent dates. We possess, indeed, three 
accounts of the Pentateuch ; the first is 
represented by the version of the Septua 
gint, the second by the massoretic Hebrew 
text and the Vulgate of St. Jerome, and 
the third by the Hebrew text of the Samari 
tans. The following table will enable us 
to judge at a glance the difference in the 
figures : 



NAMES OF THE 
PATRIARCHS 


AGE AT THE BIRTH 
OF THE SONS 


Greek 


Hebrew 
& Vulgate 


Samar 
itan 




230 
205 
190 
170 

I 5 
162 

165 
167 
188 
500 

IOO 


30 
105 
90 
70 
65 
162 
65 
187 
182 
500 

IOO 


130 
105 
90 
70 
65 
62 
65 
67 
53 
500 

IOO 


Seth 














Lamech 


From Noe to the Deluge. . . 
TOTAL 


2,242 


1,656 


1,307 





We see here that the Hebrew and Sa 
maritan computations are generally in 



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165 



CHRONOLOGY 



accord, and present with the Septuagint a 
divergence of one hundred years for the 
epoch of paternity of the several patriarchs, 
except for Noe, about whom the three texts 
are in accord. But there are among them 
differences of detail. The Samaritan di 
minishes by one hundred years the age of 
Jared at the birth of Henoch ; by 120 years, 
that of Methusala at the birth of Lamech, 
and by 129 years that of Lamech at the birth 
of Noe ; it differs, therefore, from the He 
brew by 349 years and from the Septua- 
gint by 935 years. On the other hand, the 
manuscripts of the Septuagint present dif 
ferences. We have adopted the figures of 
the Vaticanus; the Alexandrinus has 
twenty years more, and this total coincides 
with the calculations of Julius Africanus. 
Josephus arrived at a total of 2,156. We 
are reduced to conjecture to explain the 
origin of these divergences. They are too 
numerous to make us believe that they are 
due to the carelessness or ignorance of the 
copyists. Undoubtedly, nothing is altered 
in the transcription of manuscripts so 
easily as figures. But if we had to attribute 
the established divergences solely to this ac 
cidental cause, we could not account for 
the almost regular process of increase or 
subtraction of one hundred years. It is 
also necessary, it seems, to suspect, with 
St. Augustine (De Civ. Dei, xv. 13), a 
willful juggling with the figures, without 
our being able to say when, where, by 
whom, and how it was done. Whom shall 
we hold responsible, the Jews of Palestine 
or the Alexandrine Jews? Was the process 
one of addition or subtraction? All these 
hypotheses are admissible. Certain critics 
have supposed that the Jews of Palestine 
reduced the age of the first men. "One 
might say that the Israelite desired, by 
systematically abridging the duration of the 
succession of the patriarchs, to cut short 
the numberless genealogies, which were 
nothing else but cosmogonies, like that of 
Berosus and of Sanchoniathon, and thus to 
combat polytheism, of which they were a 
constant source." (Ph. Berger.) And F. 
Lenormant adds : "Perhaps it would be 
permissible to suppose that it was about 
the epoch of the Captivity that the 
Hebrews, just when they had knowledge of 
the fabulous periods, begotten by the spec 
ulative imagination of the Chaldeans, began 
to feel scruples about the figures of their 
own books, and, wishing to guard against 
the possible danger of an analogous tempta 
tion, shortened their primitive chronology 



in order to prevent its indefinite extension 
like that of the Gentiles." Paul Pezron, 
thought that the Rabbi Akiba had dared to 
set hand on the divine Scriptures and had 
abridged the years in the Hebrew text. 
Other critics have made analogous suppo 
sitions. Lenormant, who admits the willful 
shortening of the Hebrew account, also be 
lieves in a systematic lengthening of the 
Septuagint. The authors of the Alexan 
drine version revised the Hebrew text to 
put it in accord with the calculations of the 
Chaldeans, and increased by one hundred 
years the age of the patriarchs at the birth 
of their first son. St. Augustine (loc. cit.) 
recognized these intentional revisions; but 
instead of making the Septuagint respon 
sible, he attributes them to a later scribe, 
who is supposed to have introduced them 
into his copy of the Greek version of the 
Pentateuch. The Samaritan version might 
be no more exempt from willful alteration, 
and its chronology might be the result of 
an artificial combination. The shortening 
of the Hebrew text is clear, and its purpose 
is to square the dates thus obtained with 
the cycle of the sabbatic years. ( Lenormant, 
L rs Origin es . ) 

We may admit that the figures of the 
three versions of the Pentateuch are not 
certain, and that its true version may never 
be known. But we cannot admit with 
Lenormant that the figures of duration of 
life of the antediluvian patriarchs are 
"cyclic numbers." We maintain their 
historical character which they had in the 
original text, and which they would still 
have if the text had come down to us in its 
entirety. Some critics have thought they 
found it in one of the three versions. 
Pezron followed the version of the Septua 
gint. Father Hummelhauer regards it as 
certainly faulty, because it makes Mathu- 
sala survive the Deluge fourteen years. 
Its figures are less certain than those of the 
Hebrew text. The Samaritan version ap 
pears preferable even to that of the Masso- 
rets. They differ only for Jared, Mathu- 
sala, and Lamech. Now, while the 
Hebrew dates the death of Mathusala 
only from the year of the Deluge, the 
Samaritan makes Jared and Lamech die in 
the same year. According to the opinion 
of Father Hummelhauer, the Hebrews re 
vised the figures in regard to these two 
patriarchs in order not to confound them 
with the impious generation swallowed up 
by the waters. But we are also permitted 
to suppose that the Samaritans arranged 



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1 66 



CHRONOLOGY 



these figures in order to terminate the life 
of the three patriarchs in the last year of 
their chronological system. Mgr. Lamy 
favors the massoretic text, which represents 
the text received in Palestine and is proven 
to be not less ancient than the version of 
the Septuagint. One conclusion is forced 
upon every impartial reader, namely, that 
for this period the Biblical chronology is 
altogether uncertain. Critics even discuss, 
as we shall see very soon, the chronological 
meaning of the patriarchal genealogies, 
which they suppose to be incomplete. 

IV. FROM THE DELUGE TO ABRAHAM. 
The duration of this period is measured 
by the genealogy of Sem, son of Noe 
(Gen. xi. 10-26), and is reckoned by the 
same method as the length of the pre 
ceding period. Here, also, we possess 
three versions, which differ from one an 
other and have not the same relation be 
tween them as in the preceding. The 
following table sums up the data w r hich 
serve for calculation : 



NAMES OF THE 
PATRIARCHS 


AGE AT THE BIRTH 
OF THEIR SONS 


Greek 


Samar 
itan 


He 
brew 


Sem (after the Deluge) . . . 


2 

135 
130 
130 

134 
130 
132 
13 
79 
70 

75 


2 

35 

130 
134 
130 

132 
130 

79 
70 

75 


2 

35 

3 
34 
30 
32 
30 
29 
70 

75 


Cainan 


Sale 


Heber 


Phaleg 


Reu 




Nachor 


Thare.. 


Abraham (until his voca 
tion). 


TOTAL 


i,i47 


917 


367 





Thus the three texts are in accord only for 
the years of Thare and Abraham. The 
Samaritan, which in the preceding period 
was generally in accord with the Hebrew, 
follows it now only once, namely, for the 
age of Arphaxad. It coincides with the 
Septuagint for six generations, of which 
five have each one hundred years more than 
the Hebrew, and one, that of Nachor, only 
fifty years. The Greek counts one gener 
ation more than the two others, that of 
Cainan; finally, its manuscripts present 
variations which have produced different 
results. Eusebius counts from the Deluge 
until Thare, 945 years ; Theophilus of An- 
tioch, 1070; Julius Africanus, 993; Clement 



of Alexandria, until the vocation of Abra 
ham, 1250. 

The figures of the genealogy of Sem are 
still more corrupted than those of the gen 
ealogy of Seth, and criticism is powerless 
to restore them to their pristine state. Ac 
cording to Father Hummelhauer, the Sa 
maritan text is less sure and less authentic 
at this point than previously, because it pre 
sents only the total duration of the lives of 
the patriarchs of this line. The difference 
of one hundred years in the age of the ances 
tor at the birth of his son is the result of a 
subtraction or addition. The subtraction 
must have been wrought in the Hebrew 
text, it is said, in order that the postdi 
luvian patriarchs, whose lives are dimin 
ished, might not have begotten their sons 
at a more advanced age than the antedilu 
vian patriarchs. The reason is futile, for 
the genealogical list of Sem may omit the 
first generation of this patriarch, to speak 
only of that of the ancestors of Abraham. 
One may maintain, for a stronger reason, 
that the figures of the Hebrew have been 
diminished. While this text gives to Na 
chor only 29 years at the birth of Thare, 
both the Samaritan and Greek attribute to 
him 79 years. Why this inferior number 
and not 129 years, if an addition of one 
hundred years had been made to the pre 
ceding figures? We can understand better 
the different reading in the hypothesis of a 
subtraction. If they have cut off a hundred 
years from the figures above one hundred, 
this operation has been found impossible 
on the figure 79. The calculator re 
moved only fifty years and obtained the 
number of 29 years. The authenticity of 
Cainan in the Septuagint has been dis 
puted. The affirmative is supported on 
the presence of this personage in the gen 
ealogy of Jesus, drawn up by Luke (iii. 
36). Although the textual criticism of the 
Gospels is favorable to the insertion of 
Cainan in this genealogy by the Evangelist 
himself, several Catholic exegetists pre 
sume that the name of Cainan was inter 
polated quite early into the text of St. 
Luke by a copyist who desired to make the 
Evangelist agree with the Septuagint. 
However it may be as to this particular 
point, we are forced once more to the con 
clusion that we are not certain of possess 
ing the true figures written by Moses in 
Genesis, and that we cannot draw from 
them a sure chronology. 

While the commentators have always 
believed that Moses had the intention of 



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giving in the genealogies of Seth and of 
Sem a real chronology, which it is impos 
sible to recover to-day, modern apologists 
have maintained that the author of Genesis 
had not the intention of furnishing the 
elements of a general chronology. The 
ancient chronologists were persuaded that 
there were no breaks in the chain of the 
patriarchal generations, and that the gene 
alogical lists were continuous. Now, the 
Bible presents examples of intentional 
omissions and missing links in the gene 
alogies. In order to have three series of 
fourteen names in the genealogy of Jesus, 
St. Matthew (i. 8) omits three kings 
Ochozias, Joas, and Amasias between 
Joram and Ozias. The list of the high- 
priests (I. Esdr. vii. i) is certainly short 
ened, and to convince ourselves of this it 
is enough to compare it with I. Par. vi. i. 
Esdras himself (I. Esdr. vii. 1-5) shortened 
his own genealogy, and between Azarias, 
whom he calls son of Maraioth, and Marai- 
oth himself, he omits five members, Jo- 
hanan, Azarias, Achimaas, Achitob, and 
Amarias, named in I. Par. vi. 7-14. 

Now, in these fragmentary genealogies, 
the disjoined members are, however, re 
united in the generative account, "he be 
got," or by the name of "son." The 
consequence of this is that in the Bible, as 
might be proved by other examples, the 
verb "to beget" and the name "son" 
mark the relation between a grandfather 
and a remote descendant as naturally as 
between a father and his son. The use of 
the verb "to beget" in the genealogy of 
Sem is, therefore, not necessarily a proof 
of the continuity of the generations, and 
it permits the insertion of omitted mem 
bers there as well as in the genealogy of 
Jesus in St. Matthew. It has been ob 
jected, it is true, to this conclusion that 
the particular form of the patriarchal 
genealogies, in which the names are in 
cluded in two or three series of numbers, 
excludes the idea of a lapse of continuity, 
and it appears contrary to the obvious and 
natural sense of the Mosaic account to 
translate Gen. xi. 10 by : " Sem, at the age 
of 100 years, begot a son from -whom is 
descended Arphaxad," when in verses 12 
and 13 his very name designates Arphaxad 
himself. To this objection Father Brucker 
answers judiciously that in this interpreta 
tion the same signification, perfectly deter- 
mined,is attributed to the name of Arphaxad 
in the whole context. The metonymy is 
not in the names, which always remain the 



names of distinct individuals; it is in the 
verb _<? *Y, "he begot," which we must 
understand in the sense genuit mediate, 
" he begot mediately." Therefore, the 
genealogies may be discontinued and pass 
generations, even when the mention of a 
patriarch is accompanied by figures of 
years. Against the hypothesis of breaks 
Mgr. Granclaude has appealed to all tradi 
tion. According to him, all the Fathers 
of the Church, in the quality of authorized 
interpreters of the Bible, and after them 
all the Catholic exegetists down to our 
days, have received the Biblical genealo 
gies as the absolute rule of chronological 
calculations and have never supposed the 
least omission therein. Hence, there is 
here a common sentiment, which cannot 
be abandoned without rashness, unless it 
is clearly indefensible. This unanimous 
opinion of the Fathers does not exist, be 
cause they have differently interpreted the 
figures of Genesis, and their view does not 
constitute a traditional teaching against 
which we may not be permitted to go. 
Therefore, we can without rashness main 
tain that the Biblical genealogies are not 
continuous. 

Moreover, this lack of sequence in the 
genealogy of Sem, in itself possible and 
probable, must necessarily be admitted if 
we wish to put sacred history, from the 
Deluge to Abraham, in accord with pro 
fane history. Compared with the antiq 
uity of the ancient peoples, the chronol 
ogy drawn from the Hebrew text is 
insufficient with its 367 years; the longer 
one of the Septuagint is certainly very 
restricted, if not too much so. We shall 
not insist on the great antiquity of the 
Chinese and Hindoos, for their traditions 
are certainly fabulous. Father Gaubil has 
commenced the dated history of the Chi 
nese with the reign of the Emperor Yao, 
in the year 2357 before our era. Yet, in 
this epoch China had already been thickly 
inhabited and much advanced in civiliza 
tion ; but the time necessary for the estab 
lishment of the Celestial Empire is easily 
reconciled with the Septuagint. The con 
nected history of the Hindoos goes back 
only to the fifteenth century before our era. 
Assyriologists generally admit that the 
first kings of Chaldea existed about thirty 
or even forty centuries before our era, that 
is, one thousand or even two thousand 
years before the epoch of Abraham. Al 
though the chronological accounts fur 
nished by Berosus may be in great part 



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fabulous, the high antiquity of Chaldean 
history is revealed to us by monuments 
recently brought to light. Assurbanipal 
(668628) relates that in his conquest of 
Susiana, in 633, he brought back to Erech 
a picture of the goddess Nana that Kudur- 
Nakhundi had carried off 1,635 years be 
fore, consequently 2,274 years before our 
era. A more ancient date is inscribed on 
a cylinder of Nabonidus, King of Babylon. 
While repairing the Temple of the Sun, at 
Sippara, this prince found, thirty-two feet 
under ground, the dedication composed 
by the first builder, Naram-Sin, son of 
Sargina, 3,200 years previously. Since 
Nabonidus reigned about 550 B. c.,his cal 
culation carries back the reign of Naram- 
Sin to about the year 3800 B. c. The Del 
uge, which was known to the Chaldeans 
and Babylonians, therefore goes back more 
than 4,000 years, for Naram-Sin had pre 
decessors posterior to this cataclysm. 
(Cf. Lenormant, Histoire Ancienne de 
llOrient.) The postdiluvian chronology of 
the Septuagint, which is the highest, is 
therefore insufficient. The same conclu 
sion is deduced from the history of Egypt. 
Manetho, a Sebennytan priest of the third 
century before our era, attributed to Egypt 
an antiquity of 30,000 years before Alex 
ander the Great. Passing by the mythic 
reigns, there still remain thirty historical 
dynasties, which begin with Menes and 
which fill a space of about 5,000 years. 
Now, the history of Manetho, beginning 
with the eighteenth dynasty, has been 
confirmed by the royal lists reproduced in 
the papyrus of Turin and the tables of 
Abydos, of Saqqarah, and of Karnak. 
Nevertheless, Egyptologists still disagree 
on the subject of the total duration of the 
Egyptian history, because they adopt dif 
ferent starting points, and dispute about 
the continuity or the simultaneousness of 
the dynasties. If all have been successive, 
their history goes back 5,000 years; if 
many have been contemporaneous or col 
lateral, their history may be reduced to the 
limits of the chronology of the Septuagint. 
But it appears that if some have reigned 
simultaneously, the majority of them have 
succeeded one another, and the duration 
of their existence exceeds that of the fif 
teen generations which the Bible places 
between the Deluge and Moses. Besides, 
were it absolutely impossible to determine 
in a precise manner the beginning of his 
torical times in the valley of the Nile, it 
remains proven that the beginnings of this 



country are very ancient. From the period 
that it becomes known to us, Egypt ap 
pears with a very advanced civilization, 
highly developed polytheistic religion, and 
every indication of an already lengthy exis 
tence. Considering it only as it was in the 
time of Moses, "can we (without suppos 
ing omissions in the genealogies of chapter 
xi. of Genesis) comprise within the space 
of fifteen generations the multiplication 
of mankind after the Deluge; the disper 
sion of the peoples; the forgetting of re 
vealed or natural religion; the rise of 
polytheism and of idolatry; the coloniza 
tion of Egypt; the formation of a civiliza 
tion different from the Asiatic, with its 
language, its writing, and peculiar religion ; 
the differentiation of the races, white, 
black, colored ; the succession, generally 
from father to son, of more than one hun 
dred kings known by their monuments to 
have governed the whole of Egypt, without 
taking into account a much larger number 
that reigned over that country, but of 
whom we have not yet discovered any 
monuments or inscriptions?" (E. Pan 
nier, La Chronologic des Temps Primi- 
tifs.) 

If profane history obliges us to lengthen 
the Biblical history, it is in the period 
which extends from the Deluge to Abraham 
that the increase should take place. To 
what extent this is necessary we cannot ex 
actly tell. Some Egyptologists find them 
selves only " somewhat inconvenienced " 
to make the history of Egypt coincide with 
the chronology of the Septuagint. Others 
require an increase of thousands of years. 
The exegetists cannot say between what 
links of the genealogy of Sem they should 
insert those that are missing. It cannot be 
between Noe and Sem, nor between Thare 
and Abraham, whose direct relations of 
paternity and filiation are expressly marked 
in Scripture ; it may be between other links 
of the genealogical chain, whose bonds are 
less close. 

V. FROM THE CALL OF ABRAHAM TO 
THE DEPARTURE FROM EGYPT. The Bible 
expressly marks the principal dates of this 
period. Abraham was 75 years old when 
he left Haran to go into the country of 
Chanaan (Gen. xii. 4). He was 100 years 
old when the birth of Isaac was announced 
to him (xvii. i, 17; xxi. 5). At the age of 
40, Isaac married Rebecca, and 20 years 
afterwards Esau and Jacob were born (xxv. 
20, 26). Hence, 85 years had elapsed be 
tween the arrival of Abraham in Palestine 



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and the birth of his grandsons. Jacob was 
130 years old when he went to Egypt 
(xlvii. 9). His sons dwelt in this coun 
try 430 years (Ex. xii. 40). All these fig 
ures added give to this period a total of 
645 years. 

The date of the sojourn of the Israelites 
in Egypt alone is contested. The version 
of the Septuagint and the Samaritan Pen 
tateuch present (Ex. xii. 40) a notable dif 
ference, which is confirmed by the Targums 
of the pseudo- Jonathan and of Jerusalem : 
"The time which the children of Israel 
and their fathers dwelt in Egypt and in 
the country of Chanaan was 430 years." 
This computation has, therefore, for its 
starting point the arrival of Abraham in 
Palestine. Now, as from this epoch until 
the coming of Jacob into Egypt 215 years 
elapsed, the sojourn of the Hebrews in the 
land of Gessen had also a duration of 215 
years. Josephus reproduces this calcula 
tion, and, according to Calmet,most of the 
commentators adopt this view and follow 
the reading of the Septuagint. But this 
reading was not found in all the ancient 
manuscripts of the Greek version, for St. 
Theophilus (Ad Autolycum} wrote that the 
Israelites sojourned 430 years in Egypt. 
St. Chrysostom, who proposes the period 
of 215 years (In Genesim, Horn, xxxvii.), 
admits, however, elsewhere (In Act. Apost. 
Horn, xvi.), that the Hebrews remained in 
the country of the Pharaos 400 years and 
more. The Talmud of Jerusalem, treatise 
on Meghilla, points out verse 40 of chapter 
xii. of Exodus as one of the thirteen pass 
ages which the Septuagint has modified 
in its translation of the Pentateuch on 
account of King Ptolemy. Besides, the 
words, " and their fathers," . . . "and 
in the land of Chanaan," are hardly in 
agreement with the context, which speaks 
only of Egypt, and appear to be glosses 
added to the original text. 

The adherents of the shortest date con 
firm their opinion by the testimony of St. 
Paul (Gal. iii. 17) and by the less extended 
genealogy of Moses. The Apostle, indeed 
speaks incidentally of the date of the pro 
mulgation of the Law, made 430 years after 
the promise. But he does not fix precisely 
the starting point of these 430 years, and 
instead of putting it at the first promise of 
God to Abraham, on his entry into the land 
of Chanaan, we might refer it to the later 
promises repeated to Abraham, Isaac, and 
Jacob. As to the genealogy of Moses, we 
may properly consider it as one of those 



abridged genealogies of which we have 
spoken. 

The Hebrew text which gives a duration 
of 430 years, does not stand alone. It is re 
produced in the Targum of Onkelos, the 
Peshito, the Latin Vulgate, the Arabic ver 
sion of Saadias, and the Greek version of 
Venice. It is confirmed by other Biblical 
accounts. The time of the captivity of the 
Hebrews had been foretold by God to Abra 
ham : "Know thou beforehand that thy 
seed shall be a stranger in a land not their 
own, and they shall bring them under bond 
age and afflict them four hundred years." 
(Gen. xv. 13.) This prophecy recalled by 
St. Stephen (Act. vii. 6-7), is also found in 
the version of the Septuagint, as well as 
in the Hebrew text, and announces in round 
numbers, the length of the sojourn of the 
Israelites in Egypt. God adds (verse 16) 
that the posterity of Abraham shall return 
into Palestine in the fourth generation (He 
brew : dor). The word dor signifies "period 
of the human life," and may be understood 
as the space of one century. Interpreters 
refer also to this prophecy the words of 
St. Paul in his discourse in the synagogue 
of Antioch of Pisidia (Act. xiii. 19-20). 
They adopt the reading of the Vulgate, 
which, from the critical point of view, is the 
best, and they understand the number of 
about 450 years in the 400 years of Genesis 
xv. 13, plus the 40 years of sojourn in the 
desert and the seven years of the conquest 
of Palestine by Josue. Achior, general of 
the Ammonites, reported later on to Holo- 
fernes that the Israelites had multiplied 
in Egypt during four hundred years to such 
an extent that they formed a numberless 
army (Judith v. 9). According to some 
interpreters, Ezechiel (iv. 5-6) foretold a 
second bondage of Egypt, the duration of 
which is estimated at 390, plus 40 days, that 
is 430 years, for the days designate years. 

To these exegetical proofs we may add 
in favor of the figure 430 an argument 
drawn from the history of Egypt. It is 
very probable that Joseph was led away 
into Egypt under the Shepherd Kings, and 
it is generally believed that it was under 
the Pharao Apapi II., whom Manetho 
calls Apophis. Now, between the reign of 
this king and that of Menephtah, under 
whom the exodus took place, "we must 
place the 150 years which at least, accord 
ing to the Egyptologists, were necessary 
for the indigenous chiefs to destroy the 
domination of the Shepherds; then the 
whole duration of the eighteenth dynasty 



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and of a portion of the nineteenth, that is, 
more than sixteen reigns, of which two 
(those of Thotmes III. and of Rameses 
II.) aloneembraced i2iyears." (J. Brucker, 
in 77ie Controversy of Sept. isth, 1886.) 
The duration of the sojourn of the He 
brews in Egypt has been, therefore, really 
43 years. Consequently, if, as Oppert be 
lieves, the exodus took place in 1493 B. c., 
the entering of the Israelites into Egypt 
goes back to 1923, Jacob was born in 2053, 
and Abraham arrived in Palestine in 2138. 
But these figures are far from being certain. 

VI. FROM THE EXODUS TO THE BUILD 
ING OF THE TEMPLE OF SOLOMON. All 
the Egyptologists, guided by the synchro 
nism of the epochs and by the entirety of the 
facts, are agreed in placing the departure 
of the Hebrews under the nineteenth dy 
nasty, but they are divided as to the name 
of the king under whom this great event 
took place. Some, like Maspero, say it was 
Seti II.; Lepsius, Rouge, and Chabas, fol 
lowed by almost all the learned investiga 
tors of France, England, and Germany, by 
Lenormant, Sayce, Brugsch, Ebers, etc., 
think it was Menephtah I. This divergence 
of opinions does not notably affect the date 
of the exodus. In fact, we cannot fix it ex 
actly according to the chronology of the 
kings of Egypt, which is yet too uncertain. 
We have to determine it according to the 
Bible and the history of the kings of Juda 
and Israel. Oppert refers it to the month 
of April, 1493 B.C. The other chronologists 
deviate from him only by a few years. 

The interval that separates the exodus 
from the building of the temple of Solo 
mon is measured in precise figures (III. 
Ki. vi. i) ; it was 480 years according to the 
Hebrew text and 440 years according to 
the Septuagint. This date has been much 
discussed. Critics have contested its au 
thenticity ; they have wished to make this 
a cyclic figure, because 480 is twelve times 
forty. Some chronologists found it too 
low and wished to raise it; others regard it 
too high and wish to lower it. The former 
support their contention on the chro 
nology of the Book of Judges. The dura 
tion of each judicature is indicated by the 
sacred writer, and the total sum of the 
Biblical figures is 410 years. If we add 
the judicature of Heli, which was 40 years 
(I. Ki. iv. 18), and the interval from Heli 
to the fourth year of Solomon (an interval 
of 84 years) , we obtain the sum of 534 years. 
With the 65 years, which elapsed from the 
going out of Egypt until the death of Josue, 



by omitting the two unknown figures of the 
judicature of Samuel before the coming of 
Saul and from the time that separates 
Othoniel from Josue, we reach, at the low 
est figure, a total of 599 years. It coin 
cides close enough with the calculation of 
592 years which Josephus counts from the 
going out of Egypt until the building of 
the temple. The commentators of the 
Acts, who in this book (xiii. 20) adopt the 
reading of the " text received," grant to 
the period of the Judges a duration of 450 
years and reject the date of III. Ki. vi. i. 
In order to reconcile these apparently con 
tradictory accounts, Danko has gratui 
tously supposed that the author of the 
Book of Kings, writing in the theocratic 
sense, passed over in silence the years dur 
ing which the Israelites had given them 
selves up to idolatry and had been reduced 
to bondage. The only valid reconciliation 
is to admit that several judges were contem 
poraneous. A careful study of the text, 
moreover, suggests this solution, although 
we can only conjecture which judges 
have lived contemporaneously. Some 
Egyptologists have pushed still further the 
hypothesis of the simultaneousness of the 
judicatures, and with the design of estab 
lishing a perfect synchronism between 
sacred history and the history of Egypt, 
they have reduced from 300 or 350 years the 
period of the wanderings in the desert, of 
Josue, the Judges, and David. But Egyp 
tian chronology beyond the twenty-second 
dynasty is not certain enough to weaken the 
account of the Book of Kings, which we 
uphold until there is proof to the contrary. 
If, therefore, the exodus took place in 
1493, Solomon would have commenced the 
building of the Temple of the Lord in 
1013 B. c. ; but the synchronisms of ancient 
history seem to establish that it was only 
some years later that Solomon undertook 
this great work. 

VII. FROM THE BUILDING OF THE 
TEMPLE OF SOLOMON UNTIL ITS DE 
STRUCTION BY THE CHALDEANS. The 
dates of this period have been carefully 
noted in the last Books of Kings. The 
author, who had consulted sources lost to 
day, gives two royal lists, that of the kings 
of Israel and that of the kings of Juda. 
Their reconciliation is extremely difficult, 
and the difficulties arising are not yet 
solved. St. Jerome, who had noticed 
them, wrote to the priest Vitalis (Epist. 
Hi. 5) that to stop at these questions was 
rather the affair of an idle man than that 



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of a busy student. On the throne of Juda, 
Roboam reigned 17 years (III. Ki. xiv. 21 ; 
II. Par. xii. 13) ; Abias (III. Ki. xv. 2 ; II. 
Par. xiii. 2); Asa 41 (III. Ki. xv. 10; II. 
Par. xvi. 13) ; Josaphat 25 (III. Ki. xxii. 
42 ; II. Par. xx. 31) ; Joram 8 (IV. Ki. viii. 
17; II. Par. xxi. 20); Ochozias I (IV. Ki. 
viii. 26; II. Par. xxii. 2); Athalia 6 (IV. 
Ki. xi. 3; II. Par. xxii. 12); Joas 40 (IV. 
Ki. xii. i ; II. Par. xxiv. i) ; Amasias 29 
(IV. Ki. xiv. 2; II. Par. xxv. i); Ozias 52 
(IV. Ki. xv. 2; II. Par. xxvi. 3); Joatham 
16 (IV. Ki. xv. 33; II. Par. xxvii. i) ; 
Achaz 16 (IV. Ki. xvi. 2 ; II. Par. xxviii. i) ; 
Ezechias 29 (IV. Ki. xviii. 2; II. Par. 
xxix. i) ; Manasses 55 (IV. Ki. xxi. i; II. 
Par. xxxiii. i) ; Amon 2 (IV. Ki. xxi. 19; 
II. Par. xxxiii. 21) ; Josias 31 (IV. Ki. 
xxii. i ; II. Par. xxxiv. i) ; Joachaz, 
3 months (IV. Ki. xxiii. 31; II. Par. 
xxxvi. 2); Joakim, n years (IV. Ki. xxiii. 
36; II. Par. xxxvi. 5); Jechonias, or Joa- 
chin, 3 months and 10 days (IV. Ki. xxiv. 
8; II. Par. xxxvi. 9); Sedecias, n years 
(IV. Ki. xxiv. 18; II. Par. xxxvi. n). In 
the kingdom of Israel, Jeroboam I. reigned 
22 years (III. Ki. xiv. 20) ; Nadab 2 (ibid. 
xv. 25) ; Baasa 24 (xv. 33) ; Ela 2 (xvi. 8) ; 
Zambri, 7 days (xvi. 15) ; Amri, 12 years 
(xvi. 23); Achab 22 (xvi. 29) ; Ochozias 2 
(xxii. 52); Joram 12 (IV. Ki. iii. i); Jehu 
28 (ibid. x. 36) ; Joachaz 17 (xiii. i) ; Joas 
16 (xiii. 10) ; Jeroboam II. 41 (xiv. 23) ; 
Zacharias, 6 months (xv. 8) ; . Phaceia 2 
(xv. 23) ; Phacee 20 (xv. 27) ; Osee 9(xvii. 
r). Several of these figures do not agree 
with other chronological data of the Books 
of Kings and of Paralipomena, but it does 
not enter into our design to discuss them 
here. 

A more general difficulty springs from 
the difference which the totals of these 
lists present in the period of their coinci 
dence. In fact, if we add the figures from 
the first years of Roboam, when the sepa 
ration of the two kingdoms commences, 
until the sixth year of Ezechias, during 
which Samaria was taken (IV. Ki. xviii. 10), 
we find for the kings of Juda a sum of 261 
years, and for those of Israel only 240 years. 
Hence there is a disagreement between the 
two lists of about twenty years. Numerous 
theories of reconciliation have been sup 
posed. Recent critics have diversely 
lengthened the reigns of Jeroboam II. and 
of Phacee; others have admitted associa 
tions of kings on the throne of Juda. More 
generally it is believed that the succession 
was regular and constant on the throne of 



David, and critics have introduced into 
Israel two inter-reigns or periods of an 
archy. The first, which lasted eleven years, 
is placed between the reign of Jeroboam II. 
and that of his son Zacharias, who com 
menced to reign only in the thirty-eighth 
year of Azarias or Ozias of Juda (IV. Ki. 
xv. 8). The second, of nine years, is sup 
posed to have existed between Phacee and 
Osee. But the sacred text seems to state 
that these princes succeeded one another 
consecutively, and it is hardly probable that 
the throne of Israel remained unoccupied 
at two different times during several years. 
These inter-reigns, which have no direct 
foundation in the Bible, are therefore 
hypotheses, invented by embarrassed chro- 
nologists, and they may be an indication 
that the ordinary chronology of the Jewish 
kings is too long. 

There has been discovered at Ninive an 
Assyrian chronological canon, which agrees 
with the Biblical figures only on condition 
of reducing about forty years the total 
period of the reigns of the kings of Juda. 
It is a list of personages called limmu or 
eponyms, who gave their names to the year 
like the archons at Athens and the consuls 
at Rome. It commences in the reign of 
Binnirar II., in 893 B. c., and extends at least 
to 647. It therefore permits us to check the 
corresponding Biblical data. If the two 
chronologies are in perfect harmony for 
the taking of Samaria by the Assyrians in 
721, there is manifest disagreement be 
tween them on several points. The critics 
until now have been unable to agree on 
the reconciliation of the divergent figures. 
Some defend the Biblical chronology, 
others abandon it. As it is artificial, and 
as the disagreement of the figures of the 
existing text of the Bible is certainly the 
result of the faults of copyists in the trans 
cription of the numbers, we may hold, " at 
least provisionally, that the persons whose 
names are found mentioned together in 
the cuneiform inscriptions and which cor 
respond with the Biblical names have been 
contemporaries, whatever embarrassment 
may be experienced in reconciling the 
dates furnished by the Bible, on the one 
hand, and by the Assyrian monuments, on 
the other." (F. Vigouroux, La Bible et 
les Decouvertes Modernes.) Let us ex 
amine the points of contact that create 
difficulty. 

According to the Biblical chronology 
generally received, Achab, king of Israel, 
died in the year 897 B. c. Now the As- 



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Syrian inscriptions record that he was de 
feated with the confederate kings at Kar- 
kar, by the king of Ninive, Salmanasar II., 
in 854, that is, more than forty years after 
the date usually assigned to his death. The 
declaration of the cuneiform texts is clear 
and precise, while the calculations of the 
Biblical chronologists may be erroneous. 
Therefore we have to admit, it seems, that 
Achab and Salmanasar II. were contem 
poraries. 

Ozias, king of Juda, reigned, it is asserted, 
from 809 to 758. Now, the inscriptions of 
Theglathphalasar II. chronicle him as be 
ing at war with the latter king in the year 
742 or 740, sixteen or eighteen years after 
his death. Manahem, king of Israel, oc 
cupied the throne from 770 to 759, and 
twenty-one years after the end of his reign 
in 738, the same Theglathphalasar enumer 
ates him among his tributaries. To uphold 
the Biblical chronology Oppert believes 
that the Azriyahu of the inscriptions is 
not Azarias or Ozias, father of Joatham 
and grandfather of Achaz, but a usurper, 
the son of Tabeel, of whom Isaias speaks 
(vii. 6). As to Manahem, who paid tribute 
to Phul, he is distinct from Manahem II., 
tributary of Theglathphalasar. This ex 
planation is inadmissible, and we have to 
acknowledge that Azarias, king of Juda, 
Manahem, king of Israel, and Theglath 
phalasar, king of Ninive, whom it seems we 
have to identify with Phul (IV. Ki. xv. 19- 
20; I. Par. v. 26), are contemporaneous. 

The Biblical and cuneiform documents 
are found in disagreement on another point. 
The fourth Book of Kings (xviii. 13) tells 
us that Sennacherib marched against the 
cities of Juda in the fourteenth year of the 
reign of Ezechias, that is, in 713, because 
the Jewish king had mounted the throne in 
727. Now, according to the canon of the 
eponyms, Sennacherib became king in 705, 
and his expedition against Palestine took 
place in 701. The sickness of Ezechias and 
the embassy of Merodach-Baladan, king 
of Babylon, would have taken place only 
after the disaster of Sennacherib (IV. Ki. 
xx. i, 12). Now, Merodach-Baladan, would 
have reigned from 722 to 710. The best 
answer to this difficulty is to acknowledge 
that the Biblical account has disarranged 
the order of events. The sickness of Eze 
chias really took place in the fourteenth 
year of his reign, because the king lived 
fifteen years after his recovery, and his 
reign lasted 29 years. The embassy of 
Merodach-Baladan is posterior to Ezechias 



and may be placed in 703 or 702, when 
Merodach-Baladan, a native of Lower 
Chaldea, after having been driven away 
from Babylon, had again taken possession 
of the throne of this city. The invasion 
of Sennacherib took place in 701. If the 
Fourth Book of Kings put these three 
facts in an inverted order, it is probably 
because its author adopted the unchrono- 
logical arrangement of the prophet Isaias 
(xxxvi.-xxxix.). The date (IV. Ki. xviii. 
13) ought to be changed and put at the 
head of the account of the sickness of 
Ezechias. 

It was the empire of Babylon that over 
threw the throne of Juda. Before entering 
on his reign, Nabuchodonosor made a 
campaign against Nechao, king of Egypt; 
Joakim, king of Juda, acknowledged him 
self as his tributary. But he revolted and 
refused to pay the tribute. When Nabu 
chodonosor arrived at Judea, Joakim was 
dead and replaced by his son Jechonias. 
At the end of a three months reign the lat 
ter was led away into captivity at Babylon. 
His uncle Sedecias was placed on the 
throne; he also revolted. Nabuzardan 
besieged Jerusalem, which, reduced by 
famine, capitulated in 599, after a long re 
sistance. This date ends the period which 
we are studying. 

Thus it is seen that the chronology of 
the kings of Israel and of Juda is not so clear 
and certain as is commonly believed. It 
needs to be brought into agreement with 
the Assyrian chronology. Father Bru- 
nengo has made the attempt to do this, 
and he has set the beginning of the schism 
of the ten tribes in the year 930 B.C., in 
stead of 976 B. c., the date ordinarily as 
signed to it. Adopting this view, w r e will 
reproduce here the chronological list of 
the Jewish kings, adopted by Lenormant 
and Babelon : Saul, 1050-1012; David, 
1012-973; Solomon, 973-932. In the king 
dom of Israel: Jeroboam I., 932-911 ; Na- 
dab, 911-909; Baasa, 909-886; Ela, 886- 
885; Zambri, 885; Amri, 885-873 ; Achab, 
873-843; Ochozias, 843-842; Joram, 842- 
830 ; Jehu, 830-802 ; Joachaz, 802-785 ; Joas, 
785-769; Jeroboam II., 769-744; Zacharias, 
744; Sellum, 744; Manahem, Phaceia, and 
Phacee, overthrown and restored one after 
another, 744-732 ; Osee, 732-724. Fall of 
the kingdom of Israel, in 721. In the 
kingdom of Juda : Roboam, 932-915 ; Abia, 
915-912; Asa, 912-870; Josaphat, 870-836; 
Joram, 836-831 ; Ochozias, 831-830; Atha- 
lia, 830-823 ; Joas, 823-783 ; Amasias, 783- 



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764; Ozias, or Azarias, 764-739; Joatham, 
739-735; Achaz, 735-7 2 9; Ezechias, 729- 
688 ; Manasses, 688-645 ; Amon, 645-643 ; 
Josias, 643-612 ; Joacaz, 612; Joakim, 612- 
600; Jechonias, or Joachin, 600-599; 
Sedecias, 599. 

VIII. FROM THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIV 
ITY UNTIL THE BIRTH OF JESUS CHRIST. 
For this period a first date is furnished 
by Jeremias (xxv. 11) ; but the commenta 
tors are not in agreement as to the starting 
point of the duration of the seventy years 
captivity. Some date it from the first de 
portation, which took place in the fourth 
year of Joakim, in 606 (or 608), according 
to the ordinary calculations, and find sev 
enty years until the edict which Cyrus pub 
lished in 536 (or 538), giving to the Jews 
the right to rebuild the Temple of Jeru 
salem (I. Esdr. i. i). Others take as first 
date the destruction of Jerusalem (II. Par. 
xxxvi. 21-23) , in 599, and as last the resump 
tion of the building of the Temple, which 
took place in the second year of Darius, 
son of Hystaspes (Aggeus i. 1-14; I. Esdr. 
v. i), in 519. 

Be it as it may in regard to the com 
mencement of the captivity of Babylon, as 
foretold by Jeremias, in the first year of 
Cyrus at Babylon, in 536, many captives 
returned into Judea, under the leadership 
of Zorobabel and of the high-priest Josue, 
and as soon as they had arrived they made 
the necessary preparations to rebuild the 
Temple of Jerusalem. But, on account of 
numerous obstacles, the building could be 
completed only in the sixth year of Darius, 
that is, in 516 (I. Esdr. vi. 15). In the sev 
enth year of Artaxerxes, Esdras brought 
other captives back into Judea (I. Esdr. 
vii. 7). In the twentieth year of Arta 
xerxes, Nehemias, cupbearer of this prince, 
obtained the permission to rebuild the 
walls and gates of Jerusalem (II. Esdr. ii. 
1-8). The identity of this king is disputed. 
Most of the exegetists admit that Es 
dras and Nehemias were able to gain, thir 
teen years apart, the favor of the same 
king, whom they identify with Artaxerxes 
I., called Longo-Manus, who reigned from 
464 to 424. Therefore, Esdras could have 
brought back his caravan in 457, and Ne 
hemias could have restored the walls of 
Jerusalem in 444, and he would have re 
mained in Palestine until 433, the thirty- 
second year of the reign (II. Esdr. v. 14). 
Saulcy and Kaulen hold that it was Arta 
xerxes II., surnamed Mnemon. Van Hoon- 
acker claims a distinction between the two 



kings. He believes that Nehemias returned 
to Judea the twentieth year of Artaxerxes 
I., but that Esdras, instead of having ef 
fected his return thirteen years previously, 
revived the Jewish religion only fifty- 
nine years afterwards, under Artaxerxes 
Mnemon (404-358). 

From Nehemias, whose end is unknown, 
until the Machabees, there elapsed a period 
of 260 years about which we know very lit 
tle and the chronology of which the Bible 
has not fixed. But the two Books of the 
Machabees date the events which they re 
late after the era of the Seleucides. This 
era starts with the autumn of 312 B.C. It 
is easy, then, to determine the dates of the 
Books of the Machabees. Mathathias rose 
against Antiochus Epiphanes in the year 
145 of the Seleucides, consequently in the 
year 167 B. c. ; he died in the year follow 
ing (I. Mach. ii. 70). His son Judas was at 
the head of the revolt until his death in 
161 (I. Mach. ix. 3, 18). Jonathas, brother 
of Judas, continued the struggle until 143. 
In the year 142, the first year of Simon, 
the Jewish nation became again independ 
ent (I. Mach. xiii. 41-42). Simon, who 
died in 135, was succeeded by his son, 
John Hyrcanus (I. Mach. xvi.). For the 
remainder of the Jewish history the Bible 
notes no other date except the death of 
Herod the Great. In the interval, the 
princes or kings who governed Judea 
were John Hyrcanus I., 135-107; Aristo- 
bolus I., 107-106; Alexander Janneus, 106- 
79; Hyrcanus II., 79-66; Aristobolus II., 
66-63; Hyrcanus II., restored, 63-40; 
Herod I., 40-4 B. c. 

IX. DURATION OF THE LIFE OF JESUS. 
The beginning of the Christian era was 
fixed, in the sixth century, by a monk, 
Dionvsius the Small, as occurring in the 
year 754 of the foundation of Rome. Ac 
cording to him, our Lord was born on 
December the 25111 of the year of Rome 753. 
But he was mistaken in his calculations, 
and made the Christian era begin too late. 
The date of the birth of our Lord is con 
troverted. What is certain is that Jesus 
Christ was born under Herod (Matt. ii. i), 
at the time when a census was taken, as 
ordered by Augustus (Luke ii. 1-5). The 
determination of these two facts of the 
evangelical account marks the precise 
epoch of the birth of Jesus. According 
to Josephus, Herod reigned thirty-seven 
years, if we count the years of his reign 
from the acknowledgement of his royalty 
by the Roman senate, and thirty-four, if 



CHRONOLOGY 



CHRONOLOGY 



we calculate his effective reign beginning 
with his entry into Jerusalem. Now the 
senate declared Herod king of Palestine 
under the consulate of Domitius Calvinus 
and of Asinius Pollion, in the year of 
Rome 714, or 40 B. c. Herod took Jeru 
salem under the consulate of Vipsanius 
Agrippa and of Caninius Gallus, in the 
year of Rome 717, or 37 B.C. The last 
year of the reign of Herod was, therefore, 
in the year of Rome 750, or four years be 
fore our era. According to the duration 
of the reigns of his sons and successors, 
we can conclude that Herod died before 
the 7th Nisan or the 2d of April of this 
year. If Jesus were born on December 
the 25th, it could not have been later than 
on December the 25th, 749. 

Other dates will inform us whether the 
birth of Jesus goes back a few years 
earlier. St. Luke (ii. i) says that it took 
place when the first census of the Roman 
world was made, Quirinius (Vulgate : 
Cyrinus) being governor of Syria. Now, 
according to Josephus, Quirinius was sent 
into Syria, with the mission of taking the 
census of Judea, the thirty-seventh year 
after the battle of Actium, that is, about 
ten years after the death of Herod, when 
Archelaus was deposed from the throne 
and Judea reunited with the empire. To 
reconcile these apparently contraditory 
accounts, all kinds of hypotheses have 
been imagined. Some have translated the 
text thus : " This census took place before 
the one that was made when Quirinius 
governed Judea." But Th. Mommsen has 
proved that an inscription found at Tivoli 
in 1764 could refer only to Publius Sulpicius 
Quirinius. Now, it affirms that he was 
twice legate to Syria. Hence it is no 
longer necessary to have recourse to an 
apparently forced interpretation. How 
ever, the difficulty remains, for the first 
legation of Quirinius into Syria can have 
taken place only in the year of Rome 751, 
or, at the earliest, about the end of 750, 
consequently after the death of Herod. 
To solve this difficulty, it has been thought 
that the census of which St. Luke speaks 
had been commenced before the year of 
Rome 750, by the governor at that time, 
who might have been Sentius Saturninus, 
mentioned by Tertullian ( Contra Marcion, 
iv. 19) ; but, interrupted by the death of 
Herod, it could be completed only about 
751, when Quirinius took possession of his 
province. Thus understood, the text of 
St. Luke would confirm the opinion which 



places the birth of the Saviour before the 
year of Rome 750. In fact, the edict of 
the general census of the empire must have 
been posterior to the universal pacifica 
tion, marked by the closing of the temple 
of Janus, at Rome. This fact took place 
only in the middle of summer of the year 
746, eight years before the present era. 
Hence the birth of Christ ought to be fixed 
on December the 25th of one of the three 
years 747, 748, or 749. 

Most of the chronologists select one of 
these three years and justify their prefer 
ence by the relation which they establish 
between the birth of the Saviour and the 
other chronological accounts of the Gospel. 
Now, St. Luke further informs us (iii. i, 
23) that St. John the Baptist commenced 
his mission in the fifteenth year of Tiberius, 
and that Jesus was about 30 years old when 
He received baptism from the hands of His 
precursor. But the years of Tiberius have 
been computed in two different ways. If 
we adopt the ordinary fashion of counting, 
the reign of Tiberius begins with the death 
of Augustus, which took place on Aug. 
igth, in the year of Rome 767. The fif 
teenth year of Tiberius runs, therefore, 
from Aug. igth, 781, to Aug. igth, 782, or 
28-29 of our era. By cutting off exactly 
thirty years the birth of Jesus would fall in 
751 ;. but this date would not agree with the 
death of Herod, which took place in 750. 
Therefore, we must understand the words 
" about thirty years" in a broader sense, 
and, according to the opinion of Keppler, 
they may be said of a man who is more 
than twenty-five years old and less than 
thirty-five years. If we suppose Jesus born 
in 747, He would have been from thirty- 
four to thirty-five years of age in the fif 
teenth year of Tiberius ; if He was born 
only in 749, then He would have been from 
thirty-two to thirty-three years of age. 
Several chronologists have counted the 
fifteenth year of Tiberius not from the 
death of Augustus, but from the associa 
tion of Tiberius to the tribunitial power, 
in the year of Rome 765 or 764. Thus it 
would fall in 779 or 778. Consequently, 
Jesus, had He been born about 747, would 
have been at the time of His baptism 
about thirty-one years old. 

As to the duration of the public life of 
Jesus, it has been reduced to one year by 
some ancient writers for reasons having lit 
tle foundation, and which St. Irseneus has 
ably refuted. Eusebius extended it to three 
and one-half years. Some modern com- 



CHRONOLOGY 



CHRONOLOGY 



mentators adopt this estimate by support 
ing themselves upon the Paschs expressly 
mentioned by St. John, and understanding 
by this solemnity "the festival of the 
Jews," of which there is mention in John 
v. i. However, many give to the preach 
ing of the Saviour only a duration of two 
and one-half years, and, with St. Iraeneus 
and St. Jerome (In Isaiam, I. ix.), they 
acknowledge only three Paschs. The first 
soon followed the baptism (John ii. 13) ; 
the second was immediately preceded by 
the multiplication of the loaves of bread 
(vi. 4) ; the third was that of the Passion 
(xiii. i). If, therefore, our Lord were 
baptized in the fifteenth year of Tiberius, 
the first Pasch of His ministry took place 
in the year of Rome 782, the twenty-ninth 
of the present era, and the last, that of 
the Passion, in the year A. D. 31 or 32; of 
Rome, 784 or 785. 

Thus the date of the death of Jesus would 
almost be fixed to a year, and we could 
verify it by determining in which year the 
day of Jesus s death was found to be a Fri 
day (Mark xv. 42; Luke xxiii. 54; John 
xix. 31). Unfortunately, this very simple 
question is rendered very complicated, be 
cause there is question whether this Friday 
was the i4th or isth Nisan. Now, on this 
point the chronologists and commentators 
are divided into two camps. If the Friday 
of the death of the Saviour was the i4th 
Nisan, we have to eliminate the year 32, 
during which the I4th Nisan commenced 
on Saturday evening, and to accept the 
year 33, during which this day fell, accord 
ing to the Jewish method of counting, from 
Thursday evening to Friday evening. If 
we prefer the 15th Nisan, in order to re 
strict the inquiry to the years 28 to 34, this 
day of the first month happened to be a 
Friday only in the years 30, 31, and 34 of 
the popular era. We can see, then, by this 
short summary, that the dates and the 
duration of the life of Jesus Christ are un 
certain. However, the labors of the 
learned have notably reduced the limits of 
uncertainty. The result seems to be that 
we must fix the time of the birth of the 
Saviour between the years of Rome 747 
and 749, or 7 and 5 before the Christian 
era, and those of His death between the 
years 29 and 33 of our era. The duration 
of the life of Jesus will range between a 
minimum of thirty-three and a maximum 
of thirty-eight years, 

X. CHRONOLOGY OF THE HISTORY OF 
THE APOSTLES. To fix this we have only 



some dates of the Acts of the Apostles and 
of the Epistles of St. Paul. The apostolic- 
history commences with the ascension of 
Jesus, which took place forty days after 
His resurrection. Ten days later the Holy 
Ghost descended upon the Apostles (Act. 
ii. i). These facts occurred within the 
same year of the death of the Saviour ; 
their date varies, therefore, according to 
that adopted for the latter event. The 
death of Herod Agrippa I., related in Acts 
xii. 19-23, determines the time of the mar 
tyrdom of St. James and of the imprison 
ment of St. Peter. According to Josephus, 
this king was then celebrating games in 
honor of the Emperor Claudius. This was 
in the year 44 of our era. It is not neces 
sary, however, to say that the persecution 
of Herod Agrippa against the Christians 
took place in the same year as his death, 
and we may suppose with Patrizi and 
Fouard that there elapsed several years in 
the interval. These critics also place the 
death of St. James and the imprisonment 
of St. Peter in the year 42. 

The first mission of Saul and Barnabas 
is posterior to the death of Herod Agrippa. 
Hence we have to fix it at the earliest 
about the end of the year 44. This date 
may serve as the starting point in the life of 
St. Paul. The Apostle of the Gentiles, 
before his voyage to Jerusalem, had passed 
one year at Antioch (Act. xi. 26). If we 
keep account of his return to Tarsus and 
his three years in Arabia and Damascus 
(Act. ix. 30; Gal. i. 17, 21), we have to re 
fer his conversion to five or six years 
previous. Other considerations confirm 
these conclusions, which are only approx 
imate. Aretas, king of Arabia, reigned 
at Damascus when St. Paul had to leave 
this city (II. Cor. xi. 32). Now, it is gen 
erally believed that this king re-took this 
city after the death of Tiberius, which oc 
curred March i6th, in the year 37. On 
the other hand, the persecution of the 
Christians by the Jews, in which Saul took 
part (Act. viii. 57), could have taken place 
only after the departure of Pilate. 

Another certain date is furnished to us 
by the relations of St. Paul with the pro 
curator Felix. The Apostle was captive at 
Ca;sarea for two years, when Felix was re 
placed by Portius Festus (Act. xxiv. 27). 
Now, Felix was recalled to Rome by Nero 
in the year 60 or6i. Before Festus, St. 
Paul appealed to Caesar; he traveled the 
whole winter and arrived in Rome in the 
spring of the year 61 or 62. He remained 



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176 



CHRONOLOGY 



a prisoner for two years (Act. xxviii. 30). 
Hence it was in 63 or 64 when the last 
events related in the Acts took place, and 
when this history probably was composed. 
Such is the extreme date of the inspired 
history of the Apostles. But the date of 
the departure of Felix assists us in deter 
mining the chronological position of the 
anterior events. If St. Paul left Csesarea 
in 61, his captivity in this city had com 
menced in 59. He had left Ephesus one 
year before (Act. xx. i; I. Cor. xvi. 8), 
and his sojourn in that city lasted nearly 
three years (Act. xix. 8, 10; xx. 31). 
After his second mission, which extended 
over one year at least, the Apostle stayed 
one year and six months at Corinth (Act. 
xviii. n). Therefore, six years had elapsed 
before the Council of Jerusalem (Act. xv. 
4-6), which thus convened in the year 52. 
If we count the fourteen years that pre 
ceded the presence of St. Paul at this 
Council (Gal. ii. i), and the three years 
that separated his conversion from his 
first voyage to Jerusalem (Gal. i. 18), we 
would conclude in dating the conversion 
in the year 34. While estimating an in 
terval of seventeen years to have elapsed 
between the Council of Jerusalem and the 
conversion of St. Paul, we can place this 
latter in 37, when we remember " that 
the Jews are in the habit of counting the 
unfinished and incomplete year as if it 
were a full one." (Fouard, 6V. Pierre, p. 
527.) By counting thus, the first voyage 
of St. Paul to Jerusalem would have taken 
place in 39 and the second in 52. The 
dates of the composition of the Epistles 
and of the Apocalypse are matter for the 
domain of Biblical Introduction and do 
not belong to sacred chronology, strictly 
speaking. 

XI. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE 
PRINCIPAL BIBLICAL EVENTS. This 
table will give a summary of the present 
article and will present the principal dates 
of the Bible. All those dates that precede 
the taking of Samaria are more or less un 
certain. We will indicate them, beginning 
with the call of Abraham, according to 
the chronology usually accepted ; although 
it is doubtful to the establishment of the 
monarchy. Even in this epoch, there is 
reason to believe that it locates too early 
the reigns of the kings of Juda and of Israel 
before the taking of Samaria, which date 
is assured and incontestable: 

Creation of the world and of man . . Dates unknown 
Deluge Date unknown 



Arrival of Abraham in Palestine 2138 

Birth of Isaac , 2113 

Birth of Esau and Jacob 2053 

Descent of Jacob into Egypt 1923 

Exodus and the promulgation of the Decalogue 1493 
Death of Aaron and of Moses. End of the 

sojourn in the desert 1453 

Conquest of the Promised Land by Josue. 1453-1446 

Death of Josue 1428 

Bondage under Chusan Rasathaim 1409-1401 

Othoniel nnd the peace which followed. . 1401-1361 

Bondage under the Moabites 1361-1343 

Aod and peace in the south of Palestine. . 1343-1263 
Bondage of the north of Palestine. Debora 

and Barac 1323-1263 

Bondage under the Madianites 1263-1256 

Oedeon and peace 1256-1216 

Abimelech 1216-1213 

Thola 1213-1190 

Jair 1190-1168 

Heli and bondage under the Philistines (west 

of Palestine) 1168-1128 

Exploits of Samson 1148-1128 

Samuel until the battle of Masphath .... 1128-1108 
Bondage under the Ammonites (east of the 

Jordan) 1168-1150 

Jephte 1 150-1 144 

Abesan 1144-1137 

Abialon 1137-1127 

Abdon 1127-1119 

Samuel from the battle of Masphath until 

Saul 1 108-1095 

Saul 1095-1055 

David 1055-1015 

Solomon 1015- 975 

Building of the Temple ion 

Accession of Roboam and of Jeroboam 1 975 

Death of Roboam and accession of Abia 958 

Death of Abia and accession of Asa 955 

Nadab succeeds to Jeroboam 1 954 

Assassination of Nadab and accession of Baasa 953 

Ela succeeds Baasa 930 

Zambri reigns seven days 930 

Amri replaces him 930 

Accession of Achab 918 

Accession of Josaphat in Juda 914 

Accession of Ochozias, son of Achab 897 

Accession of Joram, son of Achab 896 

Accession of Joram in Juda 889 

Accession of Ochozias 884 

Accession of Jehu 884 

Accession of Athalia 883 

Accession of Joas 877 

Accession of Joachaz, son of Jehu 856 

Accession of Joas, son of Joachaz 840 

Accession of Amasias 833 

Accession of Jeroboam II 824 

Accession of Ozias, or Azarias 809 

Accession of Zacharias, sou of Jeroboam II. .. 772 

Accession of Sellum 772 

Accession of Manahem 771 

Accession of Phaceia. his son. . 761 

Accession of Phacee 759 

Accession of Joatham 757 

Accession of Achaz "41 

Accession of Osee 729 

Accession of Ezechias 726 

Taking of Samaria 721 

Accession of Manasses 697 

Accession of Amon 642 

Accession of Josias 640 

Accession of Joachaz 609 

Accession of Joakim 609 

First deportation to Babylon 606 

Accession of Jechonias or Joachin 508 



CHRYSOLOGUS 



177 



CHRYSOSTOM 



Accession of Sedecias 598 

Taking of Jerusalem 587 

Edict of Cyrus to rebuild Jerusalem, and re 
turn of Zorobabel 53$ 

Finishing of the second Temple 516 

Return of Esdras 457 

Return of Nehemias 445 

Definitive departure of Nehemias for the court 433 

Alexander visits Jerusalem 332 

Era of the Seleucides 312 

Antiochus Epiphanes takes Jerusalem 170 

Insurrection of Mathathias. 167 

His death and the accession of Judas Macha- 

beus l66 

Restoration of the Temple 164 

Death of Judas Machabeus 161 

Jonathas, high-priest 161- 143 

Simon, ethnarch and high-priest 143- 135 

Independence of the Jewish nation 142 

Death of Herod the Great and birth of Jesus. 4 



Deposition of Archelaus and Coponius, first 

procurator of Judea 6 

Jesus in the midst of the Doctors 8 

Marcus Ambivius, second procurator 9 

Annius Rufus, third procurator 12 

Death of Augustus Tiberius, emperor 14 

Valerius Gratus, fourth procurator 15 

Pontius Pilate, fifth procurator 26 

Beginning of the public life of Jesus 26 

Death of Jesus ; Ascension and Pentecost 29 

Death of Philip the tetrarch 33 

Conversion of St. Paul 34 

Removal of Pilate, who is replaced by Marcel- 

lus, sixth procurator 36 

Death of Tiberius and accession of Caligula . . 37 
Herod Agrippa becomes tetrarch of Trachoni- 



dis. 



37 

Exile of Herod Antipas 39 

Herod Agrippa becomes tetrarch of Galilee 

and of Perea 39 

First voyage of St. Paul to Jerusalem 39 

Murder of Caligula and accession of Claudius 41 

Herod Agrippa is king of Judea 41 

Death of St. James and imprisonment of St. 

Peter 42 

Death of Herod Agrippa. Juda is placed un 
der the direct domination of Rome ; Cus- 

pius Fadus, seventh procurator 44 

First mission of St. Paul 44 

Tiberius Alexander, eighth procurator 45 

Cumanus, ninth procurator 48 

Felix, tenth procurator 52 

Council of Jerusalem and second mission of 

St. Paul 52 

Herod Agrippa II. becomes tetrarch 53 

Accession of Nero 54 

Third mission of St. Paul 55 

St. Paul leaves Ephesus after a sojourn of 

three years 58 

Captivity of St. Paul at CEesarea 59 

Portius Festus, eleventh procurator 60 

St. Paul leaves Csesarea for Rome 61 

Albinus, twelfth procurator 62 

St. Paul at Rome, and end of the account of 

the Acts 63 

Gessius Florus, thirteenth procurator 64 

Vespasian, imperial legate to .Syria 67 

Martyrdom of St. Peter and of St. Paul at 

Rome 67 

Accession of Galba 68 

Accession of Otho, Vitellius, and of Vespasian 69 

Taking of Jerusalem by Titus 70 

12 



Chrysologus (ST. PETER) (406-450). 
Peter, surnamed on account of his elo 
quence Chrysologus, was born at Imola, 
and baptized by Bishop Cornelius, from 
whom he also received his ecclesiastical 
training and ordination to the deaconate. 
After studying the spirit of Asceticism in 
a monastery, he was consecrated Bishop of 
Ravenna by Pope Sixtus III., in 433. By 
his ever watchful solicitude, his untiring 
practice of prayer, and his constant fidelity 
to the duties of his office, he was a shining 
disciple of the Good Shepherd. His method 
of life was that of an ordinary priest, and 
he labored successfully in converting the 
pagans, as well as in combatingthe Manich- 
ean, Novatian, Pelagian, and Nestorian 
errors. By word and example he encour 
aged the practice of Christian virtue, and in 
his sermons freely denounced prevailing 
vices, and exhorted the Faithful to avert, 
by works of penance, the divine chastise 
ment. The Archimandrite Eutyches, who 
was trying to win supporters for his new 
heresy in the West, he entreated to submit 
to the authority of the Pope, "because 
through him St. Peter, who continues to 
sit in the Chair of Rome, makes known the 
true faith to the sincere inquirer." St. 
Chrysologus was on intimate terms with 
Pope Leo I. He died and was buried at 
Imola. F. Dec. 4th. St. Peter Chrysolo 
gus left quite a number of works which can 
be found in Migne, Pat. lat. LII, 9-680. 

Chrysostom (ST. JOHN) (347-407). The 
incomparable John of Constantinople, from 
his sanctity and eloquence called "Chrysos 
tom" or "Golden-mouthed" was born at 
Antioch. After spending six years in 
monastic solitude, where he devoted him 
self to prayer and the study of the Sacred 
Scriptures, he was baptized in 369. In 386, 
he became a priest and in 397 he was ad 
vanced to the see of Constantinople. In 
his new post, John displayed a wonderful 
zeal and energy. Greatly loved as he was 
by the people, his bold denunciation of 
vice made him numerous enemies, espe 
cially at court, who in 403, procured his 
banishment. Although almost instantly re 
called, he was, at the instigation of the 
licentious Empress Eudoxia, again exiled 
the following year to Cucusus in Armenia. 
Three years after, a new decree banished 
John to Pityus, in Colchis, the farthest 
limits of the empire; but before reaching 
that place, he died at Comana in Pontus. 
F. Jan. 27th. 



CHURCH 



178 



CHURCH 



Of all the Greek Fathers, the writings of 
St. Chrysostum are the most voluminous. 
They consist of numerous commentaries 
and homilies on the Bible, of sermons, dog 
matical and moral treatises, and of a mass 
of letters. His homilies and commentaries 
on the Bible alone fill nine volumes, and 
embrace nearly all the sacred books of both 
Testaments. Besides these, our saint com 
posed a number of excellent sermons and 
homilies on Christian doctrine and Chris 
tian virtues and duties. Most of his hom 
ilies he preached at Antioch while yet a 
presbyter. Of his moral works, must be 
mentioned his incomparable treatise on the 
Priesthood in six books, which he com 
posed to excuse himself to his friend Basil, 
for whom, by his flight, he had left open 
the way to episcopal dignity. With the 
exception of a few, his letters to the num 
ber of 243, were written during his exile. 
Of these, two are addressed to Pope Inno 
cent I. The Liturgy bearing the name of 
St. Chrysostom is used to this day through 
out the East, by the Catholics and Schis 
matics alike. 

Church. The assembly of Christians in 
general, and, in a more restricted sense, 
every assembly or communion of persons 
united by the same Christian faith. Both 
the words and acts of Jesus prove that He 
wished to perpetuate His teaching in a 
doctrinal society or organized body, which 
is the Church. He speaks explicitly of this 
Church which will be founded upon the 
chief of the Apostles as the corner stone. 
He promises to him divine assistance which 
should continue till the end of the world. 
The Apostles show us how they understood 
the realization of the divine plan. With 
them the first Christian community unites 
itself at Jerusalem. They rule and direct 
this community, which constitutes the 
primitive Church. They receive the prize 
of the goods of the Faithful, judge their dif 
ferences, and hear their complaints. They 
found the hierarchy by the imposition of 
hands, that is, through ordination ; punish 
by excommunication, instruct by their 
preaching and by letters. Finally, all an 
tiquity proclaims the Bishop of Rome the 
successor of St. Peter and heir of his 
power. St. Clement of Rome, St. Igna 
tius, St. Polycarp, immediate disciples of 
the Apostles, assume everywhere in their 
letters the episcopal and sacerdotal author 
ity and the submission of the Faithful to 
this power. Such a constitution existing 



in fact implies the institution of Christ 
and proves it historically. From that 
time, the Church appears to us as a per 
fect society. It has its peculiar aim, 
which is the sanctification of souls, and 
also the means to realize this end, namely, 
the sacraments. It is an obligatory so 
ciety for all men to whom it is sufficiently 
known, and it is in this sense that outside 
the Church there is no salvation. We dis 
tinguish in the Church a threefold min 
istry : the doctrinal ministry, or the word 
of God taught by the members of the hier 
archy; the decision of controversies be 
longing only to the successors of the 
Apostles, to the bishops and Pope; the 
sacerdotal ministry, or the application of 
the grace of the sacraments to the indi 
viduals; finally, the disciplinary or admin 
istrative ministry, by which the exterior 
life of the members of the Church is di 
rected so that the whole Church really 
represents the society or community 
founded by Christ, in the march to God. 
The Church, being, therefore, an exterior, 
visible, hierarchical, and doctrinal society, 
must be recognizable, and it will be this by 
means of marks, namely : unity, holiness, 
apostolicity, and catholicity. The Church 
is one, because we cannot speak of several 
churches without contradicting Christ, 
who speaks of only one flock, and of only 
one pastor. She is one, by one and the 
same Lord, Jesus Christ, by one and the 
same Gospel, by one and the same baptism, 
by one and the same Holy Ghost who 
operates in the souls, and by one and the 
same visible head, the Pope. The Church 
is holy by her vocation, by the means she 
offers to efface sin, by the heroic virtues 
which, in all centuries have been the at 
tributes of many of her members, and 
which have been proved by the miracles 
wrought by their sanctity. The Church is 
catholic, because she is destined to become 
the universal religious society, and carries 
within herself all that is necessary to be 
come universal; because, in fact, she is 
spread all over the world and is accessible 
in all regions to men of good will, who are 
anxious about their salvation. In such a 
manner, however, is she catholic that on ac 
count of the liberty of each one in the order 
of salvation, the catholicity of the number 
may be changeable in the different coun 
tries, now superabundantly enlightened 
by the light of the Gospel, anon more or less 
abandoned by that same light whose lumin- 
ousness reveals itself in other places. The 



CHURCH 



179 



CHURCH 



Church is apostolic, not only because his 
torically she dates back to the Apostles, but 
also because she perseveres in the spirit and 
essential form which she received from 
the Apostles, and because she is always 
the same, in the presence of the mutabil 
ity of earthly things. The Church is a 
doctrinal society, because she is not only 
the guardian of a morality more perfect 
than that of philosophers, but the deposi 
tary of truths or dogmas which she incul 
cates into all generations. Christ has taught 
His divinity, and founded upon this dogma 
the mission of His Church. He has 
taught the prophetic relation of the Old 
Testament with the Gospel and with His 
person; the mystery of the Most Holy 
Trinity; the dogma of the responsibility 
for works; of the resurrection of the dead 
and of the judgment ; the dogmas of grace, 
of human liberty, of redemption, and of 
man s communication with God through 
prayer. He has taught the existence of 
a Church, destined to pursue her work of 
sanctification, and, consequently, the in- 
defectibility of the Church, whose corol 
lary is her infallibility. This infallibility 
is exercised in the progress of the centuries 
by the decision of controversies, remitted to 
the judgment of the pastors, and especially 
to the chief of the Apostles. Thus there 
exists in the Church an always living mag- 
istery, destined to guide and direct the 
Faithful. The Church had always a creed, 
or confession of faith, to which she at 
tached herself. 

Church (Greek}. See SCHISM. 

Church ( The, in the United States ). 
The first Catholic bishop in the United 
States was Most Reverend John Carroll of 
Baltimore, appointed in 1790. Under him, 
at that time, were 20 priests and 30,000 
laity scattered throughout the thirteen 
states, but particularly in Maryland, Penn 
sylvania, and the territory northwest of 
Ohio. Most of these were native born. 
Bishop Carroll s calculation fixes the num 
ber at 44,000. In 1803, with the annexa 
tion of Louisiana, 30,000 Catholics, born in 
that state, were added to the natural in 
crease, so that in 1810 there were 90,000 
native born and 30,000 foreign born Catho 
lics. In 1830, the Catholics born in the 
United States had gained, by natural in 
crease, 81,000, making 231,500 out of a total 
population of 361,000. In 1850 the Catho 
lic population was about 1,876,470, of whom 
not more than 800,000 were of foreign 



birth. In 1860 the Catholic population 
was 3,000,000, of whom at least 1,701,470 
were natives, the natural increase by births 
over deaths being at least 625,000. In 1870 
there were 4,685,000 Catholics, of whom 
2,786,470 were born in the United States. 
The total foreign born population that 
year was 5,567,229, of whom 1,898,530 were 
Catholics. In 1880, out of 7,000,000 Cath 
olics, 4,468,470 were native born. The 
foreign born Catholics were 2,531,530, out 
of a total foreign born population of 6,679,- 
943, as reported by the census. In 1890 
the Catholic population was certainly 10,- 
000,000. Of these, over 6,750,000 were na 
tives and 3,250,000 of foreign birth. These 
figures are substantiated, also, by a calcu 
lation made according to the English 
tables of morality; for, taking the number 
of Catholic births from the year 1800, and 
enumerating the survivors, there must 
have been, not including Indians and ne 
groes, over 6,000,000 native born Catholics 
in 1890. In 1896 there were surely 12,000,- 
ooo Catholics in the United States, of 
whom no fewer than 8,250,000 were native 
born. From those figures it will be seen 
that the great body of Catholics in the 
United States is, and always has been, 
mostly native born and English speaking, 
and that those of American parentage far 
outnumber those born in America of for 
eign parentage. Cf. Art. " Roman Cath 
olic Church," by Cardinal Gibbons, in 
Supplement to Encyclopedia Britannica. 
On the following pages will be found a 
General Summary of the Catholic Church, 
taken from Hoffmann s Catholic. Directory 
of the year 1898. According to our Sum 
mary, it is far from being complete, at 
least in regard to the number of Catholics 
in the United States. 

Church ( The) and Basilica as Place of 
Worship. (The name basilica is derived 
from the Lat. basilica, which means royal 
house. A royal palace, or public building 
where judgment was rendered, or where 
the merchants assembled for the consid 
eration of affairs). During the early times 
of Christianity, many basilicas were util 
ized as churches, some of which retained 
the ancient name of these edifices after 
their transformation into places of wor 
ship. Among the Romans, the basilica 
was a large building of an elongated form, 
divided inside by colonnades surmounted 
by galleries. The most famous and also 
the most ancient of Roman basilicas were 



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CHURCH AND CIVILIZATION 182 CHURCH AND CIVILIZATION 



that of Porcius Cato, which history re 
cords as having been erected in the year 
184 B. c. ; the Julian, Emilian, Ulpian ba 
silicas, and, finally, that of Constantine, the 
latest in date and the most solid in struc 
ture, for it was entirely arched, whereas 
the more ancient basilicas were merely 
roofed with ceilings. Aside from the pub 
lic basilicas, the wealthy Roman patricians 
and the principal citizens of other Italian 
cities possessed private basilicas where the 
master of the house granted audience to 
his dependents and adjudicated their af 
fairs. 

The edifices for worship of the Christian 
Church originated from the private basil 
ica. When the Faithful left the Cata 
combs, and were destitute of the means for, 
or could not as yet venture, in those pagan 
times the erection of public buildings con 
secrated to their worship, they found in 
the basilicas of the converted patricians 
structures eminently fitted for their assem 
blies, and which they reproduced, by 
slightly modifying them, in their first tem 
ples. For this reason, the latter were also 
called basilicas, a name which was still 
employed in the Middie Ages and also in 
our days to designate either large churches, 
or churches venerated under various titles 
or enjoying certain liturgical privileges. 
The ancient basilicas were composed of 
three parts. See ARCHITECTURE. Ma 
jor Basilicas and Minor Basilicas are hon 
orary titles to which correspond certain 
canonical privileges. There are Major 
Basilicas only in Rome; these are the five 
principal churches: St. John Lateran, St. 
Peter of the Vatican, St. Paul Without 
the Walls, Santa Croce in Gerusalemme, 
and St. Lawrence Without the Walls. 
They are also called patriarchal churches, 
because they correspond to the five great 
patriarchates of the Catholic Church. 
Santa Maria Majore and St. Sebastian, on 
the Apennine road, are also counted among 
the number of Major Basilicas. The title 
of Minor Basilicas is granted, in Rome 
and outside of Rome, to other churches 
famous for their antiquity or on account 
of the veneration the Faithful have toward 
them. In Rome, there are six Minor Ba 
silicas : Santa Maria de Transtevere, St. 
Lawrence in Damaso, Santa Maria in Cos- 
medin, St. Peter in Chains, Santa Maria 
in Monte Santo, and the Church of the 
Twelve Apostles. The Roman States also 
contain some Minor Basilicas. In remem 
brance of the coronation of Napoleon I., 



Pius VII. raised, by a Bull of Feb. 28th, 
1805, the Church of Notre Dame de Paris 
to the rank of a Minor Basilica. There are 
two other churches in France which share 
the honor of the metropolis of Paris : the 
cathedral of Valence, where there is pre 
served the heart and bowels of Pius VI. 
who died in that city, and the Church of 
Our Lady of Lourdes. 

Church and Civilization. Christianity 
in general, and the Catholic Church in 
particular, have been the most influential 
factors in civilizing the world. Modern 
civilization proves herself ungrateful toward 
the mother that bore her. No other religion 
has exercised such a mighty civilizing in 
fluence as Christianity. Its chief influence 
lay in the direction of mind and will, that 
is to say, of intellectual and moral prog 
ress, both of which, especially the latter, 
are most closely bound up with the great 
social problem. 

Neither the false religion of the heathen 
nor even the true, but imperfect religion 
of Israel, were able to regenerate the world. 
To heal the woes and miseries of mankind, 
a new covenant, a nobler religion, was 
needed. That religion is Christianity and 
the Spirit of God. It alone goes to the 
root of the evil. Embracing all people and 
classes without distinction, it brings re 
demption from error, sin, and death. It 
sets before all, the life to come as their 
true end ; it views this life as a stepping 
stone to eternity, and earthly goods as a 
means for laying up treasures in heaven. 
It thus overcomes the base charms of 
sensual enjoyment, and plants in the hearts 
of men a new and indestructible principle 
of life divine charity (Rom. v. 25). The 
Incarnation of the Son of God has changed 
the face of the earth ; the very name of 
its founder, Jesus (Saviour, Redeemer) 
suggests the deliverance of mankind. from 
the bondage of sin, death, and the devil. 
By His example He has taught us in the 
most elevated way how to sacrifice our 
lives. He was meek and humble, and 
emptied Himself, took the form of a serv 
ant. He called none of this world s goods 
His own, for He had not where to lay His 
head. And yet, He healed the sick, fed 
the hungry, and comforted the sorrowful. 
He spoke as one having authority, and 
His words struck a chord in the heart 
of suffering humanity. From sheer love 
of men, He chose to suffer, to be perse 
cuted, and to endure a most cruel death. 



CHURCH AND CIVILIZATION 183 CHURCH AND CIVILIZATION 



Jew and Gentile united to strike Him 
down. But He who was thus sacrificed, in 
the simple words of the Apostle, was the 
Author of Life (Acts iii. 15), and the Cross 
became henceforth the tree of life to 
mankind. All eyes would now be turned 
to Calvary (John xix. 37) ; thither all 
hearts would be drawn (John xii. 32). 

The disciples and Faithful generally imi 
tated the example of Jesus, and put in 
practice His teaching. They evinced their 
Christian charity by their good deeds 
in lending a helping hand to the unfor 
tunate, and to those in bodily and spiritual 
distress. When the neglect of widows 
gave rise to dissatisfaction at Jerusalem, 
deacons were appointed for the special 
purpose of ministering to the poor (Acts 
vi. iff.). St. Paul, who maintained him 
self by the work of his hands, ordered 
collections to be made in all the Churches 
he had founded for the poor in Jerusalem- 
He also urged the Faithful in the several 
Churches to esteem and support one an 
other. And he rebuked the Corinthians 
for not keeping the Agape or love-feasts 
in common (I. Cor. xi. 21-22). He admon 
ishes the Romans to minister to the neces 
sities of the saints, pursuing hospitality 
(Rom. xii. 13). 

The most wretched and abject class of 
the poor were the slaves, who swarmed not 
only in the East, but also among the Greeks 
and Romans, and even among the Germans. 
They were not accounted as men, but as 
implements, chattels, and beasts, destined 
from their birth to bear the yoke. Their 
physical and moral wretchedness clamored 
to heaven for vengeance. So hard was the 
condition of the slave that one year of 
slavery would suffice to thrust him into 
the rank of a veterator, that is, to cast him 
aside as a worn-out commodity. The 
least offense might entail loss of life or 
limb. He was subject to the most cruel 
outrages. Husbands were torn away from 
their wives, children from their parents. 
Where were they to look for comfort in 
their misery, or for strength to endure 
their sufferings? Not in the religion of 
their masters. The hearts of men were 
closed against them. The asylums and 
sanctuaries erected for their benefit, hardly 
produced a noticeable mitigation of their 
lot. A master, like Pliny, who treated his 
slaves humanely, was a phenomenon. 
Those who treated them with every refine 
ment of cruelty were far more numerous. 
Slaves were even thrown as food for fishes ! 



Yet Christianity was able to deal with the 
inveterate canker that had been gnawing 
at the vitals of the social life of those 
times. It strove to elevate these unhappy 
beings, spiritually and morally, to temper 
their harsh lot, and gradually to abolish 
slavery as a blot on Christianity and a dis 
grace to mankind. Nor was the manner 
in which Christianity accomplished this 
great social revolution less admirable. On 
the one hand, the Apostles exhorted slaves, 
for the love of God, and in the hope of an 
eternal reward, to bear their hard lot with 
patience, and to be faithful even to cruel 
and froward masters. On the other hand, 
they entreated and enjoined on masters, to 
consider their slaves as brethren in Christ, 
since all had been redeemed by the same 
precious blood of Jesus Christ. Only when 
society had been penetrated with the spirit 
of Christianity, could slavery as an insti 
tution be wholly abolished without danger 
of a social upheaval. But it was owing to 
the Christian spirit that a great portion of 
mankind recovered their full human rights 
and dignity, and domestic life was estab 
lished on a new basis. See SLAVERY. 

In the heathen world, sympathy with 
suffering and charity to the poor, were un 
known. The attempts which it was con 
strained to make toward alleviating the 
most frightful misery, were utterly inade 
quate. The few attempts made in Greece 
and Rome to care for the poor cannot 
compare, either in comprehensiveness or 
in motive, with the works of Christian 
cha-rity. They were essentially for giving 
State support to citizens incapacitated from 
work, and for distributing free supplies of 
corn to the poor. In the reign of Nerva 
and Hadrian spasmodic efforts were made 
to establish schools for the education of 
foundlings. The collegia, or brotherhoods, 
were each supposed partly to care for their 
own poor. No one, in the vast Roman 
empire, dreamt of almshouses or hos 
pitals. 

How different was the action of the 
Christian Church ! The care of the sick 
and poor, from religious motives, for 
God s sake, was a Christian work in which 
every Christian community was occupied. 
Widows and orphans, the poor and the 
sick, were tended and supported as re 
deemed in Christ, and made conformable 
to Him in suffering. The pagans, who 
treated poverty with contempt, and closed 
their eyes to the wretchedness of their 
fellow-men, frequently flung in the teeth 



CHURCH AND CIVILIZATION 184 CHURCH AND CIVILIZATION 



of Christians the taunt that none but the 
outcasts and scum of society and credulous 
women were found to listen to their teach 
ing. Tertullian goes so far as to say that 
there was hardly a rich man in the house 
of God. Consequently, poverty and dis 
tress found a place of refuge in the Chris 
tian Church. Besides receiving relief for 
the bodily wants, the unfortunate pariahs 
of society learned how to bear their 
wrongs patiently, for they felt that they 
were redeemed, elect, and brethren. How 
.those blunted, deadened hearts must have 
beat with joy when they learned that even 
they were the object of that pre-eminently 
Christian virtue of brotherly love, and 
that God the Son had shed His blood even 
for them ! 

According to the Canons of Hippolytus, 
the bishop has charge of the poor. ^The 
Apostolic Constitutions likewise enjoin on 
the bishop to care for the widows and 
orphans. He is to distribute the offerings 
of the Faithful, and he will have to render 
to God an account of his stewardship in 
this matter. The Synod of Orange, held 
in 511, decreed (c. 16) : "The bishop shall 
provide for the sick and poor, who are in 
capacitated from work, with food and cloth 
ing, as far as it is in his power." When 
it was a question of relieving the distress 
of the poor or of ransoming captives, not 
even the sacred vessels of the Church 
were spared. To provide a wider scope 
and application and greater efficiency in 
the works of mercy, the Christian bishops 
made early attempts at the organization of 
charity by establishing hospitals and alms- 
houses, as was done by St. Basil in 
Csesarea. The establishment of houses for 
the poor and for strangers was mentioned 
at the Synod of Chalcedon. The Synod 
of Tours (567) ordered every city to make 
provision for the poor. Pope Gregory the 
Great took active measures, both by his 
personal action and by his decrees, in pro 
viding for the poor. 

The wider Christianity spread, and the 
more it penetrated with its spirit the 
masses and classes of men, the greater and 
more flourishing became the work of 
Christian charity. The rise of monas 
teries marks a new epoch in this respect. 
They became the homes of the poor. For 
not only did a poor man never knock in 
vain at the monastery door, but the mon 
asteries frequently maintained poorhouses, 
hospitals, and schools. In these works, 
Benedictines, Cistercians, and Premon- 



stratensians vied with one another. More 
over, numerous guilds or brotherhoods 
were established, which devoted them 
selves in a special manner to ministering 
to the sick and poor, v. g., the Brothers of 
the Holy Ghost, the Brothers of St. An 
thony, the Beguines, the Orders of Knights, 
etc. In our time, hundreds of religious 
institutions were established for the same 
purpose. Reformation, on the other hand, 
destroyed many of these houses, confis 
cated the goods of the poor, and handed 
them over to the rich. The poor were de 
prived of their asylums, and the unselfish 
exercise of Christian charity and brotherly 
devotion was rendered impossible. 

The position of woman and wife in an 
cient times, was often very little better 
than that of female slaves, and in this respect 
non-Christian nations of to-day resemble 
pre-Christian heathen. The Church, how 
ever, took the doctrine of Holy Scripture on 
the equality of woman and the sanctity of 
family and married life and erected it into 
a maxim : Una lex est de viris et fcminis. 
Marriage, invested with the sacramental 
blessing, has rights and duties, which are 
correlative. The object of marriage became 
mutual sanctification and the bringing of 
children to heaven a duty shamefully 
neglected by Greeks and Romans. Mar 
riage might not be dissolved. Fidelity and 
chastity were held in high honor. Even 
second marriage was looked upon as a spe 
cies of incontinency. The detestable prac 
tices of abortion and the exposure of infants 
were stringently condemned. The oldest 
Christian writings contain a prohibition 
against child-murder, either by procuring 
abortion or by infanticide. It also incul 
cated on women their duties as Christian 
housewives. St. Chrysostom, for example, 
severely denounced the unworthy and cruel 
behavior of mistresses to their female slaves. 
The same saint has also recorded how 
high, as a rule, Christian women stood 
in the estimation of their heathen neigh 
bors, by reason of their continency and 
chastity. The reverse of the picture is 
given in Rottiger s Sabinaand Wiseman s 
Fabiola. The glimpse which they give 
into the home life of heathen women is by 
no means pleasant reading. 

The effects of this sanctification of family 
life on social and economic science cannot 
be appraised too highly. Both public and 
private life were ennobled. The social 
intercourse of men and women with one 
another could not but be governed by a 



CHURCH AND CIVILIZATION 185 CHURCH AND CIVILIZATION 



gentler and nobler spirit, as St. Jerome s 
letters to noble Roman ladies abundantly 
testify. This accession of dignity to the 
married state also healed the gaping wounds 
which lax morals had inflicted on the social 
fabric of Greece and Rome. Lasciviousness, 
adultery, and slavery, are largely responsi 
ble for the devastation and depopulation of 
countries that were once flourishing. In 
this respect, too, the countries blighted by 
Islamism render conspicuous by contrast 
the blessings that Christianity has brought 
in its train. 

Christian Science has ever been unfold 
ing her banner for fresh victories. How 
ever much her fortunes may vary, her 
conquests are as assured as they are unde 
niable. No matter how philosophers, 
especially modern ones, may have cast 
themselves adrift from Christian philoso 
phy, they cannot wholly emancipate them 
selves from its influence. Even they are 
indebted to Christianity for what they 
have. Consciously or unconsciously, they 
have drawn whatever of merit there is in 
them from the well-spring of Christianity. 
The very fact that the condition of modern 
philosophy grows hopeless in proportion to 
its abandonment of Christianity is a proof 
of it. Society is shaken to its very founda 
tion because of the intellectual confusion of 
the age. Skepticism and infidelity have 
passed from the classes to the masses. What 
wonder, then, that the highest authority 
in Christendom has tittered the watch 
word : "Go back to St. Thomas ! " 

The study of philosphy was likewise fa 
vorable to the study of the classics. That 
the Fathers, especially the Greek Fathers, 
were well versed in them goes without say 
ing. St. Chrysostom s style is, not with 
out reason, called the Attic style of St. 
Paul. In the West, St. Jerome is a model 
classic. In the monasteries the ancient 
masterpieces were carefully preserved, 
copied, and studied. Mad it not been for 
the monasteries, the rich literature of the 
ancients would have been lost in the stormy 
ages that followed. The Humanists, in 
deed, revived classic studies, collated man 
uscripts, and rendered them generally 
accessible. But who preserved them but 
that Church which, for centuries, had 
been almost the exclusive guardian of 
science? The Popes, even in the days of 
Humanism, were among the most vigorous 
promoters of these studies. And the mon 
asteries were as solicitous for education 
as for science. The Church established 



upper and lower schools. The most 
famous libraries, notably the Vatican, owe 
their origin and maintenance to the 
Church. 

Nowadays all scientific studies center in 
the Natural Sciences. The great strides 
made in theory and practice in modern 
times are due to them. Our present in 
dustrial and commercial system is of their 
creation. And it is often maintained that 
this triumph of realism is a protest against 
ideal Christian science, and the religious 
life inculcated by Christianity. This con 
tention seems to derive confirmation from 
the bent of these sciences, which is natural 
istic and materialistic. The history of 
these natural sciences, from first to last, 
is represented as a series of skirmishes and 
conflicts, in which science vindicates the 
right of free inquiry against the Church 
and finally emerges from the conflict 
triumphant. No matter how much the 
changes are rung and the theme varied, the 
contention is untrue in the main, and exag 
gerated in detail ; moreover, its ultimate 
consequence would be the rejection of all 
religion, and with it the downfall of civili 
zation. 

The abuse which modern historians and 
scientists have heaped upon the Church, 
as if she were opposed to social and 
scientific progress, induced the Vatican 
Council to declare itself in the Chapter on 
Faith and Reason. It teaches : " Not only 
can faith and reason never be opposed to 
one another, but they are of mutual aid, 
one to the other. For right reason demon 
strates the foundations of faith, and, en 
lightened by its light, cultivates the 
science of things divine ; while faith frees 
and guards reason from errors, and 
furnishes it with manifold knowledge So 
far, therefore, is the Church from opposing 
the cultivation of human arts and sciences, 
that it in many ways helps and promotes 
it. For the Church neither ignores nor 
despises the benefits to human life which 
result from the arts and sciences, but con 
fesses that, as they came from God, the 
Lord of all science, so, if they be rightly 
used, they lead to God by the help of His 
grace. Nor does the Church forbid that 
each of these sciences, in its sphere, should 
make use of its own principles and its own 
methods; but, while recognizing this just 
liberty, it stands watchfully on guard lest 
science, setting itself against the divine 
teaching, or transgressing its own limits, 
should invade and disturb the domain of 



CHURCH HISTORY 



1 86 



CIRCUMCISION 



faith." Christianity, then, and the Church 
have no reason to fear the history of 
civilization and progress. 

Church History. The history of the 
Christian religion and of the Church 
forms the most important part of the gen 
eral history of mankind, and is intimately 
connected not only with the political his 
tory of the world, but also with the history 
of philosophy, literature, and civilization. 
The sources and authorities of this history 
are extremely various, and their due ap 
preciation often requires as much judgment 
as their exploration requires toil. Church 
history is either general, embracing a 
view of the affairs of the Church in the 
whole world, from the beginning to the 
present day; or particular, relating to 
some particular country, or time, or por 
tion of the Church. By some authors 
Church history has been treated chiefly 
with regard to the outward affairs of the 
Church, and by others with reference to 
doctrine, morals, and the evidences of 
spiritual life; while still others have de 
voted their attention chiefly to the forms 
of worship, the constitution of the Church, 
and other subjects generally comprehended 
under the name of ecclesiastical antiquities. 

Churching of Women. In the Jewish 
law (Lev. xii.) women, for forty days after 
the birth of a boy, and for eighty days 
after the birth of a girl, were regarded as 
unclean, excluded from the temple and re 
quired, at the expiration of such time, to 
bring a lamb as a holocaust, and a dove as a 
propitiatory sacrifice to the temple, and 
then be pronounced pure by the prayer of 
the priest. This law does not, it is true, ap 
ply to Christian women, because the Church 
has abolished the Jewish ceremonies. But, 
the Church, nevertheless, permits them to 
remain absent from divine service for six 
weeks, or as long as circumstances conse 
quent upon the birth of a child may require. 
This should be remembered by husbands, 
who should see that their wives have the 
necessary quiet and attendance which na 
ture requires for their recovery after giving 
birth to a child. The Church desires that 
at the end of this time the mother, follow 
ing the example of the Blessed Virgin 
Mary, should resort to the Church to ob 
tain the blessing of the priest, and thank 
God for her delivery, offer the child to 
God, praying with the priest for the grace 
to train her offspring in sanctity and piety. 
This comprises the Churching of Women, 



which is a very old and praiseworthy cus 
tom and should not be neglected. This 
practice was not instituted to prevent 
mothers from being harmed by the devil, 
by malicious persons, or by ghosts, and it 
would be not only a foolish fear, but an ab 
surd superstition to be condemned, if one 
were to suppose that a woman were liable 
to harm if she should go abroad before she 
were churched. 

Ciborium. A vessel used in Catholic- 
Churches to hold the sacred Host; it is 
made of gold or silver, and generally 
ornamented with a cross. There anciently 
prevailed a custom of enclosing the Blessed 
Sacrament, reserved under the form of 
bread, for administration to the dying, in 
a vessel of gold or silver, made in the form 
of a tower or of a dove, which was sus 
pended by a chain from the center of the 
altar-canopy or ciborium, beneath a small 
tent or tabernacle of silk or other rich ma 
terial. In process of time this custom was 
changed in many churches, and the Blessed 
Sacrament, deposited in a pyx, was placed 
within a tabernacle erected on the altar, 
and which was accessible only to the priest 
who possessed the key to its miniature 
portal. In France the use of the suspended 
dove or pyx was retained in many churches 
until the middle of the eighteenth century ; 
and in the cathedral of Amiens and a 
few other churches the custom was ad 
hered to up to a quite recent date. The 
ancient practice of keeping the Blessed 
Eucharist reserved for the communion of 
the sick, and for the perpetual adoration 
of the people, in a pyx suspended above 
the altar was observed in Catholic England 
down to the fifteenth century, and in many 
churches until the schism. 

Cingulum. See GIRDLE. 

Circumcelliones (or " Hut-rovers " ) . A 
sect of fanatics which sprang up among 
the Donatists. In the name of religion 
they committed all kinds of excesses and 
depredations against the Catholics, pillag 
ing and burning their houses, blinding 
and murdering their priests. 

Circumcision (Feast of). Festival cele 
brated on the ist of January to remind us 
of the humility of our Lord in allowing 
Himself to be seemingly numbered among 
sinners, by submitting to the law of the 
Jews. Circumcision was a religious prac 
tice among the Jews in the observance of 
which a distinctive mark was placed on 



CISTERCIANS 



187 



CLEMENT 



male children the eighth day after their 
birth, and on all adults who embraced their 
religion. It was established as a distinc 
tive sign of the people of God, a sign of 
the covenant made by God with Abraham, 
and as the figure of baptism in the New 
Law. The feast of Circumcision is very 
ancient in the Church, as is proved by the 
homilies and sermons of the Fathers of 
the Church. 

Cistercians. Religious order, founded 
by St. Robert of Molesme (died in mo). 
Robert left the monastery which he had 
founded at Molesme, and with twenty zeal 
ous monks retired into the thick forest of 
Citeaux, where he formed a new order. 
Its statutes received the approbation of 
Calixtus II. in 1119. The austerities prac 
ticed at Citeaux seemed at first to threaten 
the community with extinction. The ac 
cession of St. Bernard with thirty young 
men, mostly of noble birth, gave it new 
life. By the middle of the twelfth century, 
the number of abbeys had increased to 
five hundred ; a century later, to eighteen 
hundred. About the end of the eighteenth 
century, the Order counted 1,800 monas 
teries for men and 1,400 for women. The 
Cistercians have abbeys in the United 
States at Gethsemane, in Kentucky, and 
near Dubuque, in Iowa. 

Clarendon (Constitutions of). A coun 
cil of the kingdom summoned by Henry 
II. of England at Clarendon, in 1164. Six 
teen ordinances, known as " The Consti 
tutions of Clarendon," and purporting to 
declare the Ancient Customs of the realm, 
were submitted to the assembly as the 
" Laws of the Realm," for the settlement 
of the relation between Church and State, 
in matters of jurisdiction. These consti 
tutions, by restraining the jurisdiction of 
the bishops and bringing the clergy under 
secular jurisdiction, by inhibiting canoni 
cal censures, appeals to the Pope, and all 
intercourse with the Holy See, save with 
the royal permission, and by other odious 
provisions, tended to destroy all ecclesi 
astical liberty, and to reduce the English 
clergy to perfect subjection to the Crown, 
even in spiritual matters. 

Clares (Poor). Besides his order for 
men, St. Francis founded one also for wo 
men, commonly called Poor Clares, after 
St. Clara of Assisi, who was the first of 
her sex to embrace this manner of life. In 
1224, St Francis gave a written rule to St. 



Clara and her community, which was ap 
proved by Innocent IV., in 1246. Within 
a few years the order had many houses in 
Italy, France, and Spain. The Poor Clares 
also have several houses in the United 
States. St. Clara died in 1253, and was 
canonized already in 1255. F. Aug. 12th. 

Claudius. Iconoclast bishop of Turin, 
born in Spain, died in 839. Wrote an 
Apology against Theodomir, which was 
condemned by a council of Paris. 

Claudius Apollinaris (ST.). Bishop of 
Hierapolis, highly esteemed by his con 
temporaries on account of his great knowl 
edge and virtues, wrote an Apology to the 
Emperor Marcus Aurelius, which was 
much praised by St. Jerome. He also 
wrote, as we learn from Eusebius, five 
books against the heathen, and two on 
truth against the Montanists. All these 
writings, however, with the exception of 
a few fragments, have been lost. 

Claver (PETER). See PETER CLAVER. 
Clemangis (NICHOLAS OF). See NICH- 



Clement. Heretic ; a native of Scotland ; 
lived in the eighth century and was an epis- 
copus vagus. He was an adversary of St. 
Bonifice, apostle of Germany. He assailed 
some of the teachings and practices of the 
Church with great vigor and pretentious 
display, but with little, if any, real ability. 
He objected to the Judaico-theocratic con 
stitution of the Church, denied that the 
canons of councils and the writings of the 
Fathers are a safe rule of faith, and, drift 
ing still further from the true spirit of 
Catholic teaching, held erroneous opinions 
on some doctrines of the Church, such as 
predestination. He also held that, when 
Christ descended into the regions of the 
dead, He set free all those who had been 
confined in hell, whether believers, infidels, 
or idolaters. He advocated and practiced 
lax principles of morality, rejected celi 
bacy, and continued to exercise episcopal 
functions, though living with a concubine, 
by whom he had two sons. He was con 
demned to a life of confinement, by order 
of the Synod of Rome (745). 

Clement (name of fourteen Popes). 
Clement I. Pope from 91 to 100. A dis 
ciple and third successor of St. Peter. He 
is supposed to be the same Clement men 
tioned by St. Paul (Phil. iv. 3) as one of 



CLEMENTINAE 



188 



CLEOBIANS 



his fellow-laborers. By another account 
Clement was the immediate successor of 
St. Peter, St. Linus and St. Cletus being 
only the Apostle s vicars at Rome in his 
absence. St. Clement, in 96, wrote an 
Epistle to the Corinthians, "in the name 
of the Roman Church," which for a long 
time continued to be read in the ancient 
Churches. He suffered martyrdom under 
Trajan. Clement II. Pope from 1046 to 
1047. Formerly Suidger of Bamberg. 
Reigned only nine months. Clement III. 
Pope from 1187 to 1191. Was elected at 
Pisa and entered Rome March i3th, 1188. 
He reconciled the Papacy with the Roman 
city, which had for fifty years disputed its 
authority. Clement IV. Pope from 1265 
to 1568. Clement V. Pope from 1305 to 
1314. Formerly Bertrand de Got, Arch 
bishop of Bordeaux ; was elected through 
the influence of the French King, Philip 
the Fair. Notwithstanding the urgent in 
vitations of the cardinals, he declined to live 
in Rome, had the ceremony of his coro 
nation performed at Lyons, and fixed his 
residence at Avignon. He absolved Philip 
from all censures, allowed him an ecclesi 
astical tithe for five years, and created nine 
French cardinals. He convoked the Fifth 
General Council, which opened at Vienne, 
in 1312. In the same year he dissolved 
the Order of the Templars. Clement VI. 
Pope from 1342 to 1352. He established 
the Jubilee for every fifty years, and pur 
chased Avignon in 1342. During his 
Pontificate, Lola de Rienzi attempted to 
re-establish the republic at Rome. Clem 
ent VII. Pope from 1523 to 1534. He was 
the posthumous son of Julian de Medici, as 
sassinated in the conjuration of the Pazzi. 
The legitimacy of his birth, contested at 
first, was acknowledged under Leo XI. He 
entered into a league with France, England, 
Venetia, and other Italian States, against 
the emperor, Charles V., of Spain, and, 
being besieged in Rome by the imperial 
army under the Constable de Bourbon, 
was compelled to capitulate, Jan. 5th, i5 2 7- 
He fled to Orvieto, but concluded a peace 
with Charles in 1529, and crowned him 
emperor, at Bologna, in 1530. He forbade 
(1534) the divorce of Henry VIII. of Eng 
land from Catharine of Aragon. Clement 
VIII. (Aldobrandini). Pope from 1592 to 
1605. Called Baronius, Bellarmin, and 
other learned celebrities into the College 
of Cardinals, undertook the publication of 
the revised edition of the Vulgate, and 
appointed the so-called " Congregation de 



Auxiliis." Clement IX. (Rospigliosi) . 
Pope from 1667 to 1669. Negotiated the 
Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668, restored 
diplomatic intercourse between Portugal 
and the Apostolic See, and assisted the 
Venetians against the Turks. Clement 
X. Pope from 1670 to 1676. At the re 
quest of France, he raised the Church of 
Quebec to a bishopric. Clement XI. 
Pope from 1700 to 1721. A learned man, 
and an able prince of the Church; had a 
difficult Pontificate. He was compelled to 
place the kingdom of Sicily under inter 
dict, and published bulls directed against 
the Jansenists : " Vineam Domini" (1705), 
and" Unigenitus" (1713). Clement X 1 1 . 
Pope from 1730 to 1740. Restored the 
good understanding with Portugal; 
founded the Museum of Roman antiquities, 
and sent the learned Assemani into the 
East to buy manuscripts. This Pope, in 
1738, pronounced excommunication on the 
Order of Freemasons. Clement XIII. 
Pope from 1758 to 1769. Agitation against 
the Jesuits reached a high pitch of excite 
ment under the Pontificate of this Pope. 
Yet he firmly refused to accede to the de 
mands of Portugal and of the Bourbon 
courts for the suppression of the oraer. 
Clement XIII. conferred on the Empress 
Maria Theresa and her successors, the 
title of "Apostolic Majesty" (JRex apos- 
tolicus). Clement XIV. Pope from 1769 
to 1774. Had less firmness of character 
than his predecessor, Clement XIII. He 
created the brother of Pombal, minister 
of Portugal, cardinal; abolished the prac 
tice of annually reading the Bull "/ Ca?na 
Domini," and suppressed the Order of the 
Jesuits. 

Clementinae. See CANOX LAW. 

Clement of Alexandria. Was born at 
Athens and was a disciple of Pantaenus, 
through whose influence he embraced 
Christianity. When Pantaenus went as 
missionary to India, in 180, Clement, who 
in the meantime had been ordained priest, 
succeeded his master at the bread of the 
Catechetical School of Alexandria. The 
persecution under Severus, compelled him 
to withdraw, first to Cappadocia and after 
wards to Jerusalem, where he is said to 
have opened another school. Little is 
known of the later years of his life. He 
died in 217. 

Cleobians. Members of a Christian sect 
at Jerusalem in the apostolic times. Their 



CLERGY 



189 



CLOISTER 



chief was a certain Cleobulus, or Clobius, 
who denied the authority of the prophets, 
God s almighty power, and the resurrec 
tion. They attributed the creation of the 
world to an angel. 

Clergy and Laity. The priesthood is 
described in the Sacred Scriptures as two 
fold : internal and external. The former 
extends to all the Faithful, whom St. Peter 
calls a "holy priesthood to offer up 
spiritual sacrifices, acceptable to God 
through Jesus Christ" (I. Pet. ii. 5). The 
external priesthood, however, does not 
extend to the great body of the Faithful, 
but is appropriated to a certain class of 
persons, who, by the imposition of hands 
and the solemn rite of ordination, "are set 
apart for the Gospel of God," and devoted 
to some particular office of the sacred min 
istry. Hence appears the distinction in 
the Church between teacher and people, 
ruler and subjects, clergy and laity. Those 
ecclesiastics who filled the office of the 
priesthood were, as St. James says, called 
"Clergy," clerici, from klerus (lot or her 
itage), "either because they are chosen by 
lot to be the Lord s, or because the Lord is 
their lot or heritage." This distinction was 
clearly pointed out by our Lord, when, 
selecting His Apostles from the crowd, He 
ordained them and authorized them to 
teach all nations and rule His Church. 
The discrimination between the clergy and 
laity, therefore dates from the very begin 
ning of the Church ; it was strongly marked 
even in the time of the Apostles, as appears 
from the Epistle to the Romans (i. i), 
and from the Acts (vi. and xiii.) where 
mention is made of the election of the 
seven deacons and the appointment of Paul 
and Barnabas, who by order of the Holy 
Spirit were set apart for the ministry of 
the Gospel. The same truth is manifest 
from the fact that the power of the priest 
hood, ever since the time of the Apostles, 
is conferred in the Church by prayer and 
the imposition of hands. St. Clement of 
Rome, speaking of this distinction between 
the clergy and laity, says: "A bishop has 
a particular charge laid upon him, and the 
priest exercises functions special to his 
office ; the Levite has his own proper min 
istry, but laymen are concerned only with 
the laws that pertain to their own order." 

Next to the bishops ranked the presby 
ters or priests, who had the power to 
preach, to offer up the Holy Sacrifice, and 
to administer the sacraments (excepting 



ordination) to the Faithful. They were 
considered the bishop s vicars, orassistants, 
and constituted his advisory council 
(presbyter ium). After the priests came 
the deacons, who constantly accompanied 
the bishop, attended him when preaching, 
and assisted him at the altar and in the 
administration of the sacraments; they 
also administered Holy Communion and 
baptism. To the deacons was committed 
the distribution of the goods of the Church. 
The office of subdeacons, who are first 
mentioned by St. Cyprian, was to serve 
the deacons in their sacred ministrations. 
The inferior officers of the Church were 
the acolytes, lectors, exorcists, and ostia- 
ries, or porters (see these subjects). Pope 
Cornelius enumerates all these grades, or 
ranks of the hierarchy, in his Letter to 
Bishop Fabius of Antioch, stating " that 
there were at that time (250) in Rome 46 
priests, 7 deacons, and as many sub- 
deacons, 42 acolytes, 52 exorcists, lectors, 
and ostiaries." To the deaconesses, who 
originated in the time of the Apostles 
(Rom. xvi. i; Tim. v. 9), was entrusted 
the instruction of females and the various 
offices in connection with their baptism. 
Aged widows were generally selected for 
this office. See ORDER (Holy). 

Clerks Regular. Are in general, those 
ecclesiastics bound, by solemn profession, 
to the rules of religious orders, in con 
tradistinction to secular ecclesiastics. In 
a more restricted sense, those ecclesiastics, 
leading a life in common, according to 
the example of the Clergy of St. Augustine. 
The discipline introduced into many 
Churches since the twelfth century, gave 
rise to Canons Regular. Since the six 
teenth century, a great many congrega 
tions of Clerks Regular have been founded : 
Theatines, Piarists, Lazarists, Mechitar- 
ists, etc. ; or quasi Clerks Regular (less 
austere in discipline and without particular 
vows) ; Oratorians, Bartholemites, etc. 

Cletus. See ANACLETUS. 

Clinic Baptism, or baptism on a sick bed. 
In the early Church given only to those at 
the point of death, and hence were called 
clinici. 

Cloister (from the Lat. claustrum, an 
enclosing wall). Originally an archway 
encircling a monastic establishment, which 
was usually located in the center of the 
group of buildings. The purpose of the 



CLOVIS AND CLOTILDA 



190 



COAT 



cloister was to afford a place in which the 
monks could take exercise and recreation. 
See MONASTICISM. 

Clovis and (ST.) Clotilda. St. Clotilda 
was born about 475, died at Tours, France, 
S4"v Queen of the Franks, daughter of Chil- 
peric, king of the Burgundians. Her 
father, mother, and two brothers, were 
murdered by her uncle Gundebald, joint 
king of the Burgundians, by whom she was 
educated in the Christian faith. She mar 
ried (493) Clovis I., king of the Franks, 
whose conversion from heathenism was ac 
complished chiefly through her instrumen 
tality. Clovis, by reason of his great victory 
over the Alemanni at Zuelpich, near Bonn, 
in 496, was induced to embrace the Cath 
olic faith. Within the same year, Clovis, 
true to the vow which he had made on the 
occasion, was instructed in the Christian 
religion by St. Vedastus of Toul, and 
baptized at Rheims on Christmas day, by 
St. Remigius. With him were baptized 
three thousand of his followers. Clovis 
died in 511. 

Cluny (Abbey of). One of the most 
famous monasteries of the West, founded 
in 909 by William the Pious, Duke of Ac- 
quitaine, and by Bernon, its first abbot. St. 
Odon, successor of Bernon, establshed in 
his house a reform of the Benedictine insti 
tute, which was soon adopted by nearly two 
hundred abbeys that affiliated themselves 
with Cluny. As a sign of vassalage, the 
superiors of the latter took the title of 
simple Priors. From the Abbey of Cluny, 
which, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, 
acquired great celebrity, always flowed 
forth, as from a fountain, an eager desire 
for learning and literary pursuits. It was 
especially famous as a center of ecclesias 
tical training. The Abbot Peter the Ven 
erable, contemporary and friend of St. 
Bernard, was recognized by two thousand 
monasteries, all dependent on the Abbey 
of Cluny. 

Coadjutor Bishop. Coadjutors are 
those ecclesiastical officers who are ap 
pointed by the proper superior to assist 
bishops in the administration of the dio 
cese. Coadjutors, therefore, must be dis 
tinguished from auxiliary bishops. The 
latter assist bishops in the discharge of 
the functions of the episcopal order; the 
former in the exercise of the episcopal 
jurisdiction. By reason of their duties, 
coadjutors are divided into two classes, 
temporal and spiritual. The latter are ap 



pointed to assist the bishop in the per 
formance of his spiritual duties, whether 
of order or jurisdiction, and not unfre- 
quently also in the management of Church 
property. In order to be able to exercise 
"pontificalia," they are consecrated as titu 
lar bishops; the temporal coadjutors assist 
only in the administration of the tempor 
alities of the diocese, and consequently 
need not be consecrated. Again, by reason 
of their tenure of office, they are divided 
into two classes, those who hold office tem 
porarily, until the bishop s death or re 
covery, and those who hold office perma 
nently, that is, who are appointed with the 
right of succession at the death of the 
bishop. The right of appointing coadjutors, 
belongs solely to the Holy See. In certain 
exigencies, however, v.ff., if the diocese be 
at a great distance from the Holy See, a 
bishop, who, by reason of age or infirmity, 
is unable to discharge his duties, may 
himself, by virtue of papal authority, select 
a temporary coadjutor, with the advice and 
consent of his chapter; and, in case of the 
insanity of the bishop, the chapter itself, 
provided two-thirds of the canons consent, 
may appoint such a coadjutor ; but a report 
of the whole case should be sent to Rome 
as soon as possible. In the United States, 
when appointing coadjutors to bishops or 
archbishops, with the right of succession, 
the rules laid down for the appointment 
of a bishop must be observed. Where, 
however, a coadjutor bishop or archbishop 
is to be appointed who shall have the right 
of succession, it is sufficient for the bishop, 
who wishes the appointment of such a co 
adjutor, to present to the Holy See the 
name and credentials of the ecclesiastic 
whom he wishes to have appointed. 

Coat (The //0/r). The world-famous 
relic in the cathedral of Treves, is the 
seamless coat of Christ, for which His 
executioners cast lots at the crucifixion 
(Matt, xxvii. 35). The Empress Helena, 
having obtained possession of it in the Holy 
Land, is said to have given it to the city of 
Treves, where she resided fora considerable 
time. In 1196, the coat was deposited in 
the main altar. It was exposed repeatedly 
for veneration in the sixteenth century. 
On account of the disastrous events of the 
time, it was carried to Augsburg, in 1794, 
but was brought back to Treves in 1810. 
A multitude of pilgrims, numbering over 
two hundred thousand, visited Treves to 
celebrate this joyful restoration. But the 



CODEX 



191 



COLOR OF VESTMENTS 



most striking and successful exposition 
was that of 1844, when eleven bishops and 
more than a million of the laity nocked to 
Treves from all sides during the period 
that the holy coat was exhibited. Its last 
exhibition took place in 1891. 

Codex. A name applied to ancient man 
uscripts, especially of the classics or of the 
Scriptures. Of the latter class the princi 
pal are the " Codex Sinaiticus," discov 
ered in 1844 and 1859 in the Monastery of 
Mount Sinai by Tischendorf, and the 
"Codex Vaticanus," both of the fourth 
century; the " Codex Alexandrinus" and 
the "Codex Ephraemi" of the fifth cen 
tury. 

Ccele-Syria. See SYRIA. 

Ccena Domini (/). A celebrated papal 
Bull ; is the work of several Popes. Its first 
composition dates from the fourteenth 
century. Pope Urban VIII., in 1627, had 
it revised, since which time it has received 
no essential alteration. It contains a cata 
logue of such crimes as subject the of 
fender to excommunication. It especially 
condemns public heretics, schismatics, 
apostates, falsifiers of Pontifical writings, 
pirates, etc. ; those who appeal from the 
Pope to an ecumenical council, or from 
the spiritual to the secular courts ; those 
who are robbers of Church property, or 
who plunder pilgrims ; those who assist the 
enemies of religion, especially the Turks, 
with implements of warfare ; those who levy 
unjust taxes, etc. Pope Pius V. (1566-1572), 
the original author of the Bull, decreed that 
it should be proclaimed every year through 
out Christendom on Holy Thursday ; hence 
thename/w Cosna Domini. In 1770 Clement 
XIV. suspended the proclamation of this 
Bull and Pius IX. abolished many censures 
thereof. 

Coenobites. See MONASTICISM. 

Collation. i . Term for the gift of a bene 
fice by a bishop, either as patron, or one 
which came to him by lapse. 2. Also for 
the spare meals on days of abstinence, con 
sisting of bread or fruit, but no meat. 3. 
The readings from the lives or collations 
of the Fathers in a monastery before Com 
pline. 

Collect. Certain short prayers of com 
prehensive brevity, collected together, and 
said in the Mass at different times. See 
STATION. 



Colleges. See MISSIONS. 

Collegiants. Members of a sect founded 
near Leyden, Holland, in 1619, the soci 
eties of which are called "colleges." The 
sect spread rapidly in the Netherlands, and 
is still maintained there and in Hanover. 
In doctrine and in practice the Collegiants 
resemble the Quakers, having no creed or 
organized ministry; but they believe in the 
necessity of baptism, which they admin 
ister by immersion. 

Collegiate Churches, in England. One 
of those churches which, while not being 
a cathedral, nevertheless possess a college 
or chapter, consisting of a dean or provost 
and canons, attached to them. They date 
from the ninth century, when such foun 
dations in large towns became frequent. 
They are under the jurisdiction of the 
bishop of the diocese in which they are 
situated, and he exercises visitorial powers 
over them. Examples of such are West 
minster Abbey and St. George s Chapel, 
Windsor. In the United States the term 
is applied to a collection of churches 
having their pastors in common, as the 
Dutch Collegiate Church of New York. 

Collydrians. An Arabian sect of the 
fourth century. They worshiped the 
Blessed Virgin as a goddess, offering sac 
rifice to her in the form of small cakes 
(collydria). 

Color of Vestments. In her vestments 
the Church employs five different colors. 
On the feasts of our Lord, of the Blessed 
Virgin, of the angels, and of those saints 
who were not martyrs, she makes use 
of white, not only to signify the stain 
less purity of the Lamb and of His Vir 
gin Mother, but also to symbolize the 
"great multitude, which no man could 
number, of all nations, and tribes, and 
peoples, and tongues, standing before the 
throne and in sight of the Lamb, clothed 
with white robes" (Apoc. vii. 9). On the 
feasts of Pentecost, of the Finding and the 
Exaltation of the Cross, of the Apostles 
and martyrs, she employs red, to signify 
those fiery tongues that alighted on the 
heads of the Apostles when the Holy Ghost 
rested visibly upon them and in reference 
to the effusion of blood by Christ and His 
followers. On some Sundays (when the 
office is of the day) the vestments are green. 
Purple is the color assigned for the peni 
tential times of Advent and Lent, for the 



COLUMBA 



192 



COLUMBANUS 



Ember days, and for several vigils through 
out the year; while black is reserved for 
the office of Good Friday and Masses for 
the dead. Rose color is used on Gaudet 
and Laetare Sundays ; and on the fourth 
Sunday in Advent, when it falls on the 
24th of December. Cloth of gold may be 
substituted for white. Yellow (color flav us} 
and heavenly blue (color ccErulcus} are ex 
pressly forbidden (S. R. C. 16 Mart. 1833 
in Veron). 

Columba or Columkil (ST.). Apostle of 
the Caledonians or Northern Picts. This 
remarkable man, who was a scion of the 
royal houses of Ireland, was born at Gar- 
tan, in the county of Donegal, Dec. 
7th, 521, and was educated in the famous 
school of St. Finnian of Maghbile, who 
had himself studied at Rome. Before 
Columba had reached his twenty-fifth 
year he had founded a great number of 
monasteries in Ireland, the most cele 
brated of which was that of Derry, in his 
own native province, which was long the 
seat of a great Catholic bishopric, and is 
now known under the modern name of 
Londonderry. lie had received deacon s 
orders from St. Unnian, and in the year 
550 was raised to the priesthood, but his 
humility was such that he would never 
consent to take upon him the episcopal 
office and dignity. In the year 563, when 
in the forty-second year of his age, Co 
lumba set out from his native land, accom 
panied by twelve companions, and, in one 
of those large osier boats, covered with 
hide, which the Celtic nations used for 
purposes of navigation, sailed to the north, 
and landed on the shores of the island of 
lona, or Hy, to which, in memory of the 
saint, the name of Hy-Columkil was after 
wards given. lie and his companions im 
mediately set about building a monastery, 
which was of the rudest description, con 
sisting only of a frame covered with the 
interlaced branches of trees. It was not 
till some years later that a more substan 
tial edifice was erected, with much danger 
and labor, as the large oaks to be used in 
its construction were brought across the 
waters from the neighboring shores. Such 
was the beginning of the great monastic 
center whence issued those devoted heroes 
who carried the blessing of religion and 
civilization to Scotland and Great Britain. 
God deigned to give the divine sanction to 
the mission of Columba by granting him 
the grace of miracles. Purity of life and 



humility were his two distinguishing vir 
tues. In the year 590, Columba returned 
to Ireland. In virtue of his privileges as 
founder of the Church in both Northern 
and Southern Scotland, he exercised eccle 
siastical jurisdiction throughout both of 
these countries. After a long and labo 
rious life, Columba died as he had lived. 
After journeying over the entire island and 
taking a tender farewell of the monks at 
work in the field, and praying in the cloister, 
he withdrew to his own cell, and, when the 
bell rang at midnight for matins, rose and 
preceded his brethren to the Church. 
Here he was found by his faithful children, 
prostrate before the altar, and in a dying 
condition. Raising his right hand, he 
blessed the community, and expired, June 
9,597- F.June 9th. 

Columbanus (ST.). Irish monk, born in 
545 in the province of Leinster, died in 
615. Well educated in literary pursuits, 
he wished to fly the temptations of the 
world and retired into the monastery of 
Bangor, then famous through the zeal of 
its monks. An inner voice moved him to 
leave his country. Accompanied by twelve 
companions, he came to Gaul, preaching 
on his route the Christian virtues. In 
Bourgogne, King Gontran induced him to 
settle in his country. He gave him the 
old Roman Castle of Annegray, and here 
Columbanus passed some years in the 
practice of austere penance. The number 
of his disciples increased continually. 
Gontran offered to him the ancient castle of 
Luxeuil, at the foot of the Vosges, which 
became the center of his order. After 
wards he established a third community 
at Fontaines. Labor alternated with prayer 
in these pious asylums which the strong 
hand of Columbanus directed. Twenty 
years he spent thus with his religious. 
His reputation and influence became very 
great. However, he had disagreements 
with the Gaulish episcopate, especially in 
regard to the feast of Easter, which he 
always wished to celebrate according to 
the Irish custom, the fourteenth day of 
the moon, even when the feast came on 
Sunday, instead of the custom of the Latin 
Church which celebrated it the Sunday 
after the fourteenth day. The favor which 
Columbanus enjoyed was followed by 
hatred and persecution. After the death 
of Gontran, he was banished from the 
country. lie was led to Nantes, and put on 
board a boat bound for Ireland. But land- 



COLUMBUS 



193 COMMEMORATION IN LITURGY 



ing on the shores of the Rhine, he preached 
the Gospel to the Alemanni in the neigh 
borhood of the lake of Zurich, and to 
gether with his companion Gall, con 
verted many idolaters. Gall remained 
in Helvetia to continue his apostolate, 
while Columbanus went to Lombardy, 
where he founded the famous monastery 
of Bobbio. Finally, Columbanus retired to 
a cave on the shores of the Trebbia, there 
to devote himself to the austerities of 
penance. Here he died, leaving to his 
religious a stricter rule than that of St. 
Benedict. In ten chapters it prescribed 
perpetual silence, complete abstinence 
from flesh-meat, daily fast, labor, reading, 
prayer, poverty, humility, and chastity. 
The tenth chapter, entitled "Penitentiale," 
punished the infractions of the rule with 
200 strokes of the whip, which was the 
maximum. F. Nov. 27th. 

Columbus (CHRISTOPHER). Born at or 
near Genoa, Italy, probably in 1446; died 
at Valladolid, Spain, May 2oth or 2ist, 
1506. The discoverer of America. His 
parents were wool-combers. He was 
educated at Pavia, and after many years of 
seafaring life, settled at Lisbon in 1470 as 
a maker and seller of maps. Becoming 
convinced of the existence of land beyond 
the Atlantic, he vainly sought assistance 
from Portugal and England, but finally 
set sail from Palos with three ships under 
the auspices of Ferdinand and Isabella, 
king and queen of Spain, and after two 
months of despair and mutiny on the part 
of the sailors, on October I2th, 1492, 
sighted Guanahani, or San Salvador, one 
of the Bahama islands. Sailing on, he 
discovered several of the West India 
islands, including Hispaniola (St. Dom 
ingo), where he founded a colony. On 
his return he was received with honor at 
the courts of Portugal and Spain. He 
made several other voyages of discovery, 
but through the calumnies of his enemies 
was deprived of the government of 
Hispaniola and sent back to Spain in 
chains. He died in poverty at Valla 
dolid. 

The providential discovery of America 
obtained for Columbus the title of Am 
bassador of God. His mission, virtues, 
and the services which he rendered to the 
Church and the world, and other facts 
about which religious authority has not 
yet pronounced itself, have caused to be 
introduced at the court of Rome (as an 



extraordinary and exceptional case) his 
process of Beatification. 

Commandments. The Commandments 
of the Christian religion were taken from 
the Mosaic religion, with modifications 
made by the divine authority of our Lord 
Jesus Christ and of His Church. They 
are laws expressing the will of our Creator, 
and are imposed by Him on all men 
throughout the universe. They are the 
twofold fundamental precepts of God ; the 
development of the great law of Charity. 
They are obligatory, general, just, useful, 
permanent, legitimate, and promulgated 
for the well-being of our transitory exist 
ence in this world with a view to our ulti 
mate salvation. Therefore, the violation 
of one commandment may involve for 
feiture of attainment of eternal happiness, 
for it is written, "Whosoever shall keep 
the whole law, but offend in one point, is 
become guilty of all " (James ii. 10). The 
Commandments of God are called the 
Decalogue, which is a word derived from 
the Greek, meaning ten -words; they are 
also called the Tables of the Law, because 
God gave them to Moses on Mount Sinai, 
engraved on two tables of stone. The first 
three concern our duties toward God, and 
the seven others our duty toward our 
neighbor ; and they were ratified by our 
Lord when He said, " On these two com 
mandments dependeth the whole law and 
the prophets" (Matt. xxii. 40). All Chris 
tians, having reached the age of reason, are 
required to know the words of the Deca 
logue, and the meaning of the Command 
ments, at least as to substance. Among 
other ecclesiastical laws of various descrip 
tions regarding hierarchical superiors, 
parish priests, religious orders, etc., cer 
tain commandments have been constituted 
by the legislative power of the Church, 
through the divine authority of govern 
ment and teaching established by our Lord 
Jesus Christ, when He said, " Whatsoever 
thou shalt bind upon earth, it shall be 
bound also in heaven ; and whatsoever thou 
shalt loose upon earth, it shall be loosed 
also in heaven" (Matt. xvi. 19; xviii. 18). 
These commandments are for the direction 
of all the members of the Church, and 
to help us in the better accomplishment of 
the Commandments of God and the maxims 
of the Gospel. For the Commandments of 
God and of the Church, see DECALOGUE. 

Commemoration in Liturgy. The men 
tion which the Church makes of a saint, 



COMMODIANUS 



194 



COMMUNION 



whose proper office cannot be celebrated, 
because there is a more important feast on 
that day. The commemoration consists of 
a Collect, Secret, and Post-Communion, 
at Mass, and in an Antiphon, verse, and 
oration, at Lauds and Vespers. We make 
also a commemoration of the octaves of 
the major feasts. By commemoration is 
also meant the remembrance in prayer of 
the living and the dead. In the Canon of 
the Mass before the Consecration, there 
is a commemoration for the living, and 
later on in the service another for the 
dead. 

Commodianus. Christian poet of an un 
certain period, probably of the third cen 
tury, very possibly a native of Gaza, in 
Africa. Commodianus is the author of two 
important poems for the history of the 
Latin language and Latin meter. /- 
structiones adrersus Gentium Deos, pro 
Christiana disciplina, and Carmen Apolo- 
geticum adverstis Judceos et Genics. The 
Instructions are contained in Migne s 
Patrology. The Apology (of 1,020 verses 
in 47 sections) was published for the first 
time in 1852, in the Spicilcgium Solis- 
mense of Dom Pitra (vol. I). 

Communion (Eucharistic) (the receiv 
ing of the Blessed Eucharist). The re 
ceiving of Communion is obligatory for all 
members of Christ s Church who have at 
tained an age when they fully possess the 
requisite qualifications alluded to in the 
fourth commandment of the Church to " re 
ceive communion annually, at Easter or 
thereabouts." Wilful disregard of this 
commandment is a mortal sin. It was our 
Lord Himself who established communion 
as a means necessary for our salvation, 
when he said : " Except you eat the flesh 
of the Son of Man, and drink his blood, 
you shall not have life in you " (John vi. 
54). Communion is obligatory on mem 
bers of the Church who have attained the 
age of twelve years, according to St. Al- 
phonsus; though they may be admitted 
earlier, and as soon as they can " discern 
the body of our Lord," that is, are capable 
of understanding the importance and so 
lemnity of the act, and of appreciating the 
requisite dispositions of respect and hu 
mility with which all should approach the 
Blessed Sacrament. " Whosoever shall 
eat this bread, or drink the chalice of the 
Lord unworthily, shall be guilty of the 
body and the blood of the Lord " (I. Cor. 
xi. 27, 28, 29). Therefore, " let a man 



prove himself, and so let him eat of that 
bread." 

Our Lord Jesus Christ said : " Unless 
you eat the flesh of the Son of Man and 
drink His blood, you shall not have life in 
you" (John vi. 54). Therefore, we can 
scarcely accomplish this divine precept 
unless by receiving holy Communion at 
least once a year; and, indeed, how can 
we expect to be received by our Saviour 
into the eternal happiness of heaven, if we 
give ourselves so little trouble to receive 
Him here on earth, and with Him, His 
promise and pledge of that everlasting 
life? The partaking of the holy commun 
ion at Easter is an obligation inseparable 
from the commemoration of the institution 
of the most Blessed Sacrament by our Lord 
Jesus Christ ; and to impress us with a vivid 
remembrance of our Saviour s passion 
and death, of which the Holy Eucharist is 
the perpetual and living memorial, accord 
ing to Christ s own words as given to us 
by St. Paul: "As often as you shall eat 
this bread, and drink the chalice, you shall 
show the death of the Lord, until He 
come" (I. Cor. xi. 26). It is desirable, 
but not obligatory, that the Easter Com 
munion should be received in the Church 
of the parish to which we belong, for, by 
doing this, we can offer good example, 
one to another; we strengthen the union 
that should exist between ourselves and 
the minister of Christ under whose super 
vision we are placed, by public acknowl 
edgment of his authority; and enable him 
to recognize those who have acquitted 
themselves of their duty, that he may 
strive to bring defaulters to repentance. 

As the Holy Eucharist is a sacrament of 
the living, the necessary dispositions for 
rightly receiving communion, consist in 
being in a state of grace, that is, con 
scious of being entirely free from mortal 
sin. Otherwise we should commit a sac 
rilege, and expose ourselves to severe 
spiritual and temporal physical punish 
ments. For, according to the words of 
St. Paul: "Whosoever shall eat this bread, 
or drink the chalice of the Lord, unworth 
ily, shall be guilty of the body and blood 
of the Lord . . . For he that eateth 
and d r i n k e t h unworthily, eateth and 
drinketh judgment to himself, not discern 
ing the body of the Lord" (I. Cor. xi. 27, 
29). Dispositions not strictly obligatory, 
but nevertheless most expedient, are the 
purifying of the soul from venial sins with 
a strong desire to avoid falling into temp- 



COMMUNION 



COMMUNION 



tation, and the making serious effort to 
correct ourselves of faults displeasing to 
God, and to adorn our souls with holy 
thoughts, firm resolves of good, and the 
meritorious actions performed in the 
strength of faith, the confidence of hope, 
the generous love of charity, as well as 
other virtues springing from these three 
theological virtues. As to the requisite dis 
positions of our bodies, it is absolutely 
essential that we should be fasting from 
midnight, scrupulously avoiding anything 
whatsoever to eat or drink, either by inten 
tion or inadvertence ; leaving no possible 
chance of violating the precept, not to 
swallow any substance that has entered 
the mouth from without. Our outward 
behavior should be such as is suitable, 
and should be eminently consistent with 
reserve, propriety, modesty, and purity, 
both in our attire and deportment. We 
should approach the altar-rail with the 
utmost gravity of demeanor, receiving 
the Holy Host from the hand of the 
priest, without unnecessary contact with 
the lips or teeth, and retiring, without pre 
cipitation, to quiet meditation, adoration, 
and other prayer, in which we should spend 
some length of time, say, a quarter of an 
hour. For what moment can be so pro- 
pititious for the supplications we have to 
make, and for offering grateful recognition 
of the favors we have received, as when we 
are, temporarily, the living tabernacle of 
our Lord Jesus Christ? We should ex 
press to Him the worship and gratitude of 
our whole hearts, imploring aid for our 
own spiritual and temporal needs, for those 
of the living and the dead who share our 
prayers, and for all the Faithful of Holy 
Church ; making good resolutions for our 
future conduct, and asking help of grace 
in the accomplishment of our desires and 
resolves. It is furthermore well to keep, 
throughout the day, a devout remembrance 
of the inestimable favor received, and 
even a pious recollection of our First Com 
munion. 



Communion (Liturgical}. 
COMMUNION. 



See POST- 



Communion of Saints. By "Commun 
ion of Saints" is understood the belief in 
the communication of spiritual goods be 
tween the members of the Church here 
upon earth, those in purgatory, and those 
in heaven, all of whom form one body : 
" For the body also is not one member, but 
many. If the foot should say, because I am 



not the head, I am not of the body; is it 
therefore not of the body?" (I. Cor. 14- 
15.) " For as in one body we have many 
members, but all the members have not 
the same office ; so we, being many, are one 
in Christ, and every one members, one of 
another" (Rom. xii. 4-5). See SAINTS. 

Communion under Both Kinds. The 
disciplinary regulations of the Western 
Church at the present day forbid the 
Faithful to receive the Holy Eucharist 
under the form of wine, except in the case 
of the priest who is saying Mass. All the 
sects which arose out of the Protestant 
Reformation, allow all who share in their 
eucharistic rites to receive the cup, and 
even in the fifteenth century the obligation 
of receiving communion under both forms 
was urged by John Huss and his Bohemian 
followers. They received the name of 
Utraquists, from the Latin word uterque, 
signifying both. The point has, in fact, 
for nearly five centuries, been a test ques 
tion between the Catholic Church and her 
heretical opponents. 

It is a curious fact that in the fifth 
century it was a badge of heresy in a lav- 
man to refuse to partake of the Eucharistic 
chalice. Some sects of the Manicheans 
held that wine was created by an evil being 
and not by God ; in consequence, they 
refused to taste it, and extended their ob 
jection even to the Precious Blood under 
the form of wine. These heretics, never 
theless, desired to be reputed as belonging 
to the Catholics, whose assemblies they fre 
quented ; and St. Leo bade the Faithful to 
observe if there were any who habitually 
communicated under the form of bread 
alone. (Serm. 42.) This abstinence from 
the cup would betray the lurking Mani- 
chean. It seems clear from this anecdote, 
that in the days of St. Leo, the Faithful 
were at liberty to receive communion 
in their public assemblies, in the form of 
bread and wine, or with but one of those 
forms, as they preferred ; in earlier times 
communion under the form of bread alone 
was certainly held to be valid, for we read 
stories of the Sacred Host being carried to 
confessors of the faith in prison, which 
could not be done with the wine. After 
wards, the mode of communicating con 
tinued to be optional, but the superior 
convenience of receiving the sacred em 
blem under the form of bread alone caused 
this mode to prevail exclusively, although 
not enjoined by any express law. This 



COMMUNISM 



196 



CONCURSUS 



practice prevailed in England as early as | 
616, and it was fully established through 
out the West by the end of the twelfth i 
century, although it was a custom long 
after, to give to each communicant an 
ablution of unconsecrated wine, to assist 
him in swallowing the Host. The fif 
teenth century saw the rise of the Hussite 
heresy, which, among other things, taught 
that partaking under both emblems was a 
divine ordinance. In opposition to this 
error, the Council of Constance, in 1418, 
passed a decree establishing the present 
law. This was a disciplinary enactment. 
The doctrine that there is no divine com 
mand for receiving communion under 
both sacred emblems, was declared to be 
of faith by the Council of Trent. 

Communism. See PROPERTY. 
Competentes. See CATECHUMENATE. 
Compline. See BREVIARY. 

Concanen (RICHARD LUKE). Ameri 
can prelate; was a native of Ireland, died 
in Naples, Italy. Entered the Order of 
St. Dominic in the convent of the Holy 
Cross in Lorraine. Became distinguished 
for his learning and virtue, and after his 
ordination was Prior of the Irish Domin 
icans in Lisbon and at Rome. At the re 
quest of Bishop Carroll, he was appointed 
bishop for the newly erected see of New 
York, in 1808. The French, however, 
then had full sway in Italy, and all British 
subjects were liable to arrest. In vain did 
he try to obtain passage to America. The 
anxiety and difficulty brought on a danger 
ous illness, and Bishop Concanen closed 
his edifying life in the great convent of St. 
Dominic in Naples. 

Conception (Immaculate ). See IMMAC 
ULATE CONCEPTION. 

Conceptualism. Philosophical system. 
The adherents (Conceptualists) of this 
system drew a distinction between objec 
tive reality, intellectual conception, and 
the word expressing the idea formed by 
the mind. They held that as the intellect 
could not adequately comprehend all the 
component parts of an object, so neither 
could language adequately express them, 
and that the intellectual comprehension 
held a place midway between an object 
and the word by which it was designated. 
Abelard, it appears, was the author of 
Conceptualism. 



Conclave. See POPE (Election of the}. 

Concomitance(Sacr amenta I). Doctrine 
of the Catholic Church, as established by 
the Council of Trent, that the Body and 
Blood of Christ are given either under the 
form of bread or under that of wine ; 
hence that Christ is received whole and 
entire when received under the species of 
bread alone or wine alone. 

Concordance (from the Lat. concordarc, 
to agree). Denotes a collection of pas 
sages which in some respects agree with 
one another. Such collections can, of 
course, be made from the works of any 
author. But the idea originated from the 
study of the Bible, and developed gradually 
with the increasing demands of that study. 
The very first work of the kind was the 
Concordantia S. jfacobi, made in Latin 
upon the Vulgate by Cardinal Hugo de S. 
Caro, in 1244, and named after its place of 
preparation, the convent of St. Jacques, in 
Paris. There now exist complete Hebrew 
concordances to the Old Testament, Greek 
to the New Testament, and French, Ger 
man, English, etc., to the respective trans 
lations of the whole Bible. 

Concordats. A concordat is in the na 
ture of a treaty between the sovereign Pon 
tiff as supreme governor of the Catholic 
Church and the head of a State, whereby, 
in consideration of certain undertakings on 
the part of a civil ruler, the Pope expresses 
himself content to abstain from urging, for 
the present, certain rights to which he is 
entitled ; with the result, that all Catholics 
may, with a safe conscience, act in accord 
ance with the concordat. The real effect 
of a concordat, according to the intention 
of the Pontiff, is often wider than the 
words ; and if any doubt arises concerning 
the binding effect of the Canon Law in any 
country, it must be solved by application 
to the bishop, who if he sees fit, will obtain 
instructions from Rome. It is a settled 
doctrine of Catholic canonists that the 
Pope never absolutely cedes purely spirit 
ual powers. Thus, in the presentation to 
bishoprics, while a king might nominate 
or elect, the Pope always reserved to him 
self the power of "canonical institution." 

Concupiscence. See SIN (Original). 

Concursus. An examination into the 
qualifications of candidates for ecclesiasti 
cal benefices with cure of souls. The Coun 
cil of Trent, desirous that parishes should 



CONDIGNITY, CONGRUITY 



197 



CONFESSION 



he provided with worthy and competent 
pastors, ordained that appointments to par 
ishes must be made by concursus or compet 
itive examination. Hence, it ordained 
that when a parish becomes vacant, the 
bishops shall fix a day for the competitive 
examination. On the day appointed, all 
those whose names have been entered for 
examination shall be examined by the 
bishop or his vicar-general, and by at 
least three synodal examiners. The vacant 
parish can be conferred by the bishop only 
on one of those who have successfully 
passed the examination. If several have 
been approved or passed by the exami 
nation, the bishop must confer the parish 
on the one who is the senior or most 
worthy among them. All appointments 
made contrary to these prescriptions, are 
irregular, and are, therefore, null and 
void. 

This is the general rule. However, there 
are exceptions, partly indicated by custom, 
and partly sanctioned by the Holy See. 
Thus, no concursus is required : i. In the 
appointment of rectors or parish priests 
ad nutuni amovibilcs; for the Council of 
Trent speaks merely of bencfcia curata 
which are perpetual, that is, those parishes 
which have irremovable rectors. 2. Nor 
in appointments to parishes whose rev 
enues are so small as not to admit of the 
trouble of such examination. 3. Nor if 
there be danger of grievous quarrels and 
tumults resulting from the concursus. 4. 
Nor in the appointment of vicars of par 
ishes united to monasteries, chapters, and 
the like. See RECTOR. 

Condignity , Congruity . T h e o 1 og i ca 1 
terms, having reference to meritorious 
works. Theologians distinguish two kinds 
of merit pleasing to God, merit, strictly 
so called (dc. condigno), which rests upon 
the performance of the action ; and merit 
of a wider sense (de congruo), which is 
not grounded on justice, but on a certain 
fitness. See MERIT; GRACE. 

Conferences. Reunions of priests of a 
certain district, ordained by the bishop, 
who determines their programme, in order 
to preserve and increase in the clergy the 
necessary knowledge for the exercise of 
their ministry. It was only after the Coun 
cil of Trent, that St. Charles Borromeo 
regulated the Conferences in their actual 
form. The Third Plenary Council of Balti 
more also prescribes them for the clergy 
of the United States. 



Confession, as part of the sacrament of 
penance, is the self-accusation, made to a 
duly authorized priest, of all grievous sins 
committed after baptism, or since the last 
confession. Our Lord instituted Confession 
when He gave power to His Apostles to 
remit sin. The necessity of confession, 
being implicitly included in the words: 
"Whose sins you shall forgive, they are 
forgiven them; and whose sins you shall 
retain, they are retained" (John xx. 23). 
The priest, acting in God name, can only 
judge from what the penitent makes known 
to him, whether a sinner is worthy or un 
worthy of absolution, and can forgive or 
retain only those sins of which he is given 
full knowledge. Therefore, he cannot ful 
fill his office, except through the means of 
the penitent s self-accusation in confession. 

In the Catholic Church, it has always 
been understood that our Lord Jesus Christ 
Himself, instituted Confession for the re 
mission or retention of sins, through the 
instrumentality of His ministers. It is 
evident, that through so many ages, this 
practice, so naturally repugnant to human 
sensibilities, would not have been followed, 
had it not been certainly instituted by our 
Saviour, who, in His infinite goodness, 
gave us this means of healing the wounds 
of venial sin and of curing the more ma 
lignant injury of mortal sin. Confession 
is, according to the regulations of the 
Church, strictly obligatory once a year, 
and before receiving any sacrament of "the 
living," when one has had the misfortune 
to commit a mortal sin. It is more in ac 
cordance, however, with the spirit of the 
Church s teaching to confess any mortal 
sin without delay, that by so doing we neg 
lect not an indispensable means of salvation 
and voluntarily risk death, while a crime, 
rendering us an enemy of God, is upon our 
conscience. "The beginning of the pride 
of man, is to fall from God " (Ecclus. x. 14), 
and confession humbles that pride which 
"is the beginning of all sins "( Ecclus. x. 15). 
Humility before God in the self-accusation 
of our sins to a minister of Christ s Church 
brings honor to the soul ; for an humble 
avowal of sin, and sincere repentance is 
always deserving of a sentiment of esteem 
for the penitent sinner. "Before destruc 
tion, the heart of man is exalted ; and before 
he be glorified, it is humbled" (Prov. xviii. 
12). Confession improves the character, 
redoubles our energy in the correction 
of our faults, and saves us from the 
shame of acknowledging our weakness by 



CONFESSION 



198 



CONFIRMATION 



falling anew into the same sin ; and that we 
may persevere in a state of grace, and begin 
new life in peace with God and man. It 
comforts the heart, soothes the conscience, 
infuses new hope, and lightens the burdens 
of sin that weighed down our souls and 
rendered us more ready to yield to fresh 
temptations. The confessor instructs us 
in our ignorance; enlightens us in our 
doubts, scruples, or illusions; calms our 
remorse or desolation ; counsels us in temp 
tation or apprehension of danger; encour 
ages us to bear our trials with patience, and 
with willingness to incur sacrifices that 
insure our sanctification and eternal sal 
vation. 

A sincere confession should be marked 
with completeness, humility, prudence, 
and simplicity. Confession is marked with 
completeness when the penitent confesses 
at least all grievous sins which he remem 
bers, together with their number and the 
necessary circumstances. With humility, 
that is, the penitent ought to be humble 
in his exterior; ought to appear at the con 
fessional with plain and modest dress, 
kneeling as criminal and suppliant, with 
out arms, without gloves, without gaudy 
finery. With prudence, that is, confession 
must be made in terms as respectful and 
pure as the subject admits of. With 
simplicity, that is, the penitent ought to 
declare his sins without exaggerating them, 
modifying or excusing them, but in plain 
language, unadulterated with purposeless 
and profuse phrases, and without the ob 
scurity of meaning that often leads us, 
though not intentionally, to a misrepresen 
tation of facts we desire to communicate, 
thereby deceiving the confessor in his 
judgment of us, whether favorable or un 
favorable. 

A worthy confession must be especially 
marked with contrition. See PENANCE. 

Confession (the tomb of a martyr or con 
fessor). In the early Church if an altar was 
erected over the grave of a martyr or confes 
sor, the name was extended also to the altar 
and to the subterranean chamber in which it 
stood. In later times, a basilica was some 
times erected over the chamber ; the high 
altar was placed over the altar on the tomb 
below, and so this high altar also, and sub 
sequently the entire building, was called 
Confession. Several of such Confessions 
may be seen in European countries, espe 
cially in Rome, of which the most famous 
is that of St. Peter in the Vatican basilica. 



Confessional. The place where the 
priest hears confessions. Originally this 
was an open chair, upon which the priest 
sat to hear the confession of the penitent 
who was kneeling before him. This cus 
tom still exists in certain religious com 
munities. In monasteries of women, there 
is often a special room in which to hear 
confession. This is so arranged that, while 
the confessor is sitting in the confessional 
of the church, the religious may make her 
confession to him from this room, a closely 
grated opening serving for the communi 
cation of the word. The Monastery of 
Martorana, at Palermo, affords an example 
of this arrangement. It was only in the 
sixteenth century, that the custom was in 
troduced, according to the ordinances of 
councils, of placing between the chair of the 
confessor and the penitent a grated sepa 
ration, which became the origin of the 
actual confessional. Shortly the priest was 
sitting between a double partition, which 
generally was left open ; and later on this 
was covered by a movable veil. The most 
remarkable sculptured confessionals are 
found in Belgium. 

Confession of Augsburg. See AUGS 
BURG. 

Confessor. i. One who hears con 
fessions; specifically an approved priest 
who has received jurisdiction from the 
bishop to hear confession and grant abso 
lution; distinctively, as a title of office, a 
priest employed as a private spiritual di 
rector, as of a king or other great person 
age. Formerly, at European courts, the 
office of confessor was a very important 
one, giving its incumbent great privileges 
and influence, and often great power 
politically. 2. One who makes a pro 
fession of his faith in the Christian re 
ligion; specifically, one who avows his 
religion in the face of danger, and adheres 
to it in spite of persecution and torture. 
It was formerly used as synonymous with 
martyr. Afterwards it was applied to 
those who, having been persecuted and 
tormented, were permitted to die in peace ; 
and it was used also for such Christians as 
lived a good life and died with the repu 
tation of sanctity, as Edward the Con 
fessor. 

Confirmation. A sacrament, instituted 
by our Lord Jesus Christ, which com 
municates to us the plenitude of the gifts 
of the Holy Ghost, renders us perfect 



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CONFRATERNITIES 



Christians and soldiers of Jesus Christ, 
and gives us strength to confess the faith, 
even at the peril of our lives. This sacra 
ment was conferred upon the first converts 
to Christianity immediately after baptism, 
but it was always held to be a sacra 
ment different from baptism. It is of 
faith that confirmation is a true sacrament, 
instituted by Jesus Christ. The Holy 
Scripture furnishes proofs of this doctrine, 
as can be seen from the Acts (viii. 14; xix. 
5, etc.) where it is said that Peter and 
John were sent to Samaria, in order to 
communicate the Holy Ghost to those 
whom the deacon Philip had baptized, 
which they did by laying their hands upon 
them. St. Paul did the same for the dis 
ciples at Ephesus. Thus was this sacra 
ment administered by the Apostles by a 
sensible sign, which conferred the Holy 
Ghost, showing that it is an institution of 
Jesus Christ, who only could give to a 
sensible sign this power. It is, therefore, 
really a sacrament, and, as such, has been 
in constant use in the Church since the 
days of the Apostles. The Council of 
Trent declares: "If any one saith that 
the confirmation of those who have been 
baptized is an idle ceremony, and not a 
true and proper sacrament, let him be 
anathema" (Sess. vii., can. i. on Confirm.). 
According to the present discipline of 
the Western Church, the ordinary minister 
of the sacrament of confirmation is a 
bishop, but a simple priest may also act 
by special delegation from the Holy See. 
The matter involves the use of chrism, and 
also certain manual acts of the minister. 
This sacrament is not absolutely indispen- 
able for salvation, as a necessary means, 
for the person who receives confirmation 
is supposed to be already in the state of 
grace, but it is in some way necessary, 
from the very fact of its having been in 
stituted by the Saviour as a means of sal 
vation, and in adults the neglect to receive 
it, when opportunity is offered them, is 
sinful. Only persons who have been bap 
tized can receive this sacrament. All 
baptized persons, even infants, may validly 
receive it, but, in our times, it is con 
sidered proper to wait until children have 
attained the use of reason before admitting 
them to be confirmed. See GIFTS OF THE 
HOLY GHOST. 

Confiteor. A form of prayer adopted in 
the ecclesiastical rite for the general and 
public confession of si^is, which we call 



simply Confiteor. It begins : " I confess 
to Almighty God, to Blessed Mary ever 
Virgin," etc. The first trace of our Con 
fiteor is found in Egbert, Archbishop of 
York (735), who prescribed it as an instruc 
tion for sacramental confession, and in 
Chrodogang, Bishop of Metz (743). The 
present form of the Confiteor came into 
general use during the thirteenth century. 
A Council of Ravenna (1314) mentions 
that a variety of forms were current, and 
imposed the present one. 

Confraternities or Associations (Re 
ligious). Religious associations are vol 
untary societies formed among the Faithful, 
with the object of furthering their own 
salvation or the salvation of their fellow- 
men. They may be divided into confra 
ternities or sodalities, and charitable 
societies. Confraternities are, as a rule, 
exclusively for purposes of devotion ; 
charitable societies are for the relief of the 
spiritual and temporal needs of others. 
Religious associations are in all spiritual 
matters subject to episcopal authority; in 
some countries the legislature exercises a 
certain control over them. The formation 
of religious associations has always been 
highly recommended by the Holy See, and 
large indulgences have been granted to 
them, because they are of great benefit 
both to the individual members and to the 
community in general. 

Our holy father, Leo XIII., in his en 
cyclicals of 1884 and 1891, expressed high 
approval of religious associations, espe 
cially of the Society of St. Vincent of Paul, 
and the guilds of artisans and workingmen. 
Pope Pius IX. says they are an army set 
in battle array, to combat the adversaries 
of faith, not with the clash of arms, but 
with the silent weapons of prayer. Con 
fraternities maybe compared to Noe sark, 
because persons living in the world seek in 
them a refuge from the rising tide of crime 
and corruption. The members of these 
confraternities, as a rule, lead a more de 
vout and well-ordered life than the rest of 
the world. They are not as apt to neglect 
prayer, because their rule prescribes cer 
tain prayers to be recited daily; they 
approach the sacraments more frequently, 
because days are marked for them on 
which a plenary indulgence can be gained ; 
they learn obedience because they submit 
to the decisions of their director. In a 
word, they tend to keep a high standard of 
faith and morals in the parish to which 



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200 



CONFRATERNITIES 



they belong, and by their good example 
lead others to the fulfillment of their duties 
as Christians. And if some members give 
scandal, the rules of the confraternity are 
not to blame, but the neglect of them ; and 
it must be remembered that cockle always 
grows among the wheat. There is also 
this advantage in such societies, that the 
rules enjoining the performance of certain 
good works, are not binding under pain of 
sin. 

The number of confraternities is very 
great. We can quote: Confraternity of 
the Child Jesus. Its object is to provide 
funds to enable missioners to receive and 
educate in a Christian manner heathen 
children who are abandoned by their par 
ents. Societv for the Propagation of the 
Faith. (See PROPAGANDA OF LYONS.) 
Confraternity of the Blessed Sacrament, 
also called Rucharistic Leagtic. The ob 
ject of this confraternity is to adore our Di 
vine Saviour in the most Holy Sacrament 
of the altar. Each member pledges himself 
to spend an hour every week in adoration 
of the Blessed Sacrament. Many indul 
gences have been granted to this confrater 
nity. Confraternity of the Sacred Heart 
of Jesus. Its object is to venerate and 
adore the Sacred Heart of Our Lord, and 
participate in the abundant graces He 
promises to those who practice this devo 
tion. The members of this confraternity 
are required to recite an Our Father, Hail 
Mary, and the Creed daily, with the prayer : 
" O sweetest Heart of Jesus, I implore that 
I may ever love Thee more and more." 
They are, moreover, to approach the sac 
raments every month, if possible on the 
first Sunday or Friday of the month ; to 
keep the feast of the Sacred Heart (on the 
Friday or Sunday after the octave of Cor 
pus Christi) with all solemnity, and to pray 
for the members of the association both 
living and dead. Many rich indulgences 
are attached to this confraternity; among 
others, an indulgence of sixty days is 
granted for every good work performed 
during the day. See HEART (Sacred). 
Confraternity of the Holy Rosary. Its 
object is to promote the devotion of the 
Rosary. To form the "living rosary" 
fifteen individuals unite every month to ap 
portion among themselves (generally by 
drawing lots) the fifteen decades of the 
Rosary ; each one recites the decade which 
falls to his share daily throughout the 
month. This confraternity is under the 
direction of the Dominicans. A plenary 



indulgence may be gained by the members 
on the third Sunday of every month, on 
Trinity Sunday, on the principal feasts of 
Our Lord and of His Blessed Mother. 
The recitation of the Rosary is also in- 
dulgenced in a special manner. The Con 
fraternity of the Holy Rosary was estab 
lished in the lifetime of St. Dominic; the 
members are required to recite all the fif 
teen decades of the Rosary every week, but 
not all on one and the self-same day. This 
confraternity is affiliated to the Dominican 
Order; its members share in the good 
works of the whole order, and are placed 
under the special protection of Our Lady. 
A plenary indulgence is granted on the 
first Sunday of the month, on all feasts of 
Our Lady, on the three great festivals of 
the Church, and in the hour of death. 
(See ROSARY.) Confraternity of the Holy 
Scapular of Mount Carmel. Its object is 
to implore the protection and intercession 
of the Blessed Mother of God in all the per 
ils of this life, in the hour of death, and in 
the flames of purgatory. ( See SCAPULAR.) 
There are other Scapular Confraternities : 
that of the Holy Trinity, of the Seven 
Dolors, of the Immaculate Conception, 
and of the Passion. The five are often 
worn altogether. For each of these cer 
tain prayers are prescribed to be repeated 
daily. Confraternity of the Bona Mors. 
The object of this confraternity is to ob 
tain for its members who are yet on earth 
the privilege of a happy death, and for the 
departed a speedy release from the cleans 
ing fires. The members of this confrater 
nity are bound to have a Mass said once 
every month for the intention of their fel 
low-members, that the one who is the next 
to die may have a happy death, and those 
who are already gone before may experi 
ence a mitigation of the pains of purgatory. 
They are also exhorted to approach the 
sacraments frequently, to entertain a 
special devotion to the Immaculate Con 
ception, to St. Joseph, the patron of a good 
death, and often to make acts of the theo 
logical virtues and of contrition. This 
confraternity is very richly indulgenced. 
For every visit to a sick person, twenty 
years; for every visit to a Church, seven 
years, etc. AH these indulgences are ap 
plicable to the souls in purgatory. 77te 
Apostlcship of Prayer. A league in union 
with the Sacred Heart of Jesus. The 
Apostleship of Prayer is not a confrater 
nity or sodality, but a pious organization, 
whose object is to give an apostolic char- 



CONGREGATIONALISM 



2OI 



CONGREGATIONS 



acter and power to all our prayers, works, 
and sufferings. This object it attains by 
the union of its members with the unceas 
ing pleading of the Sacred Heart in the 
sacrifice of the Mass ; and this union is 
effected by the morning offering, which 
constitutes the First Degree of the Apos- 
tleship of Prayer and the only essential 
duty of its members. The morning offer 
ing is thus worded : " O Jesus, through the 
immaculate heart of Mary, I offer Thee 
the prayers, work, and suffering, of this 
day in union with the intentions of Thy 
Divine Heart in the holy Mass." Two 
things are necessary for membership: i. 
Registration of the candidate s name by a 
local director in an affiliated center. 2. 
A certificate of admission. Centers are 
affiliated by diplomas from the director 
general (a father of the Society of Jesus, 
residing at Toulouse, France) and trans 
mitted to them by the diocesan directors, 
whom, with the license and in accordance 
with the nomination of the ordinary, he 
has appointed for that purpose. The 
Second Degree consists in the daily re 
cital of one Our Father and ten Hail Marys 
for the monthly intention approved by the 
Holy Father; and the Third Degree, in 
offering a communion of atonement to the 
Sacred Heart, once a week, or at least once 
a month on a day or days fixed by arrange 
ment with a promoter of the Apostleship 
of Prayer. The organ of the association 
is called " The Messenger of the Sacred 
Heart," published by the authorized edi 
tors in various countries under the direc 
tion of the director general. There are 
thirty-seven distinct editions of the "Mes 
senger." The members of the Apostleship 
of Prayer in the whole world number some 
twenty to thirty millions. 

For other confraternities and congrega 
tions, see articles, THIRD ORDERS, JOSEPH 
(Sx.), BROTHERS, SISTERS. 

Congregationalism. Form of polity 
among certain Protestant denominations. 
They maintain the independence of each 
congregation and the competency to fulfill 
all the ecclesiastical acts. The creator of 
this system, was, it is claimed, John Rob 
inson, who, in 1608, left England to be 
come a Brownist pastor in Holland. He 
modified Brownism. Mis followers, at first 
called Independents, emigrated to America 
in 1620. The Congregationalists are very 
numerous in Great Britain, but more so in 
the United States. 



Congregations (Sacred). The sacred 
congregations are committees to whom 
the sovereign Pontiff refers certain mat 
ters that relate in a special manner to the 
Church. These congregations are six 
teen in number, as follows: i. Congre 
gation of the Holy Office. This congrega 
tion erected and constituted by Pope Paul 
III., in 1542, was approved and enriched 
with many privileges by his successors, 
Pius IV., Pius V., and Sixtus V. Its object 
was to combat heresy and false doctrines, 
and to restrain heretics from injuring 
religion and the Church. (Office : Palazzo 
della S. Uffizio.) 2. Congregation of the 
Consistorial. This congregation was 
founded by Sixtus V., in 1588. Its office 
is to examine and discuss the questions 
which call for a formal pronouncement of 
the Pope at a private or public Consistory. 
It inquires, particularly, into the applica 
tions for the erection of new churches, 
patriarchal, metropolitan, and cathedral ; 
regulates all about chapters, the number 
of canonicates, etc., and decides contro 
versies arising therefrom. (Office: Pal 
azzo della Canceller ia Apostolica.) 3. 
Congregation of the Apostolic Visitation. 
This congregation was established to 
regulate the visits to the Churches and 
holy places in the city of Rome. (Office : 
Palazzo della Cancelleria Apostolica. ) 
4. Congregation of Bishops and Regu 
lars. This congregation was founded by 
Gregory XIII., and appointed by Sixtus 
V. for the arrangement of the rights and 
privileges of bishops and of the regular 
orders established in the Church. Hence 
all classes of appeal against the bishop s 
decisions, whether by seculars or regulars, 
is referred to it. It is also entrusted with 
the revision and approbation of the rules 
of religious bodies. (Office: Palazzo della 
Cancelleria Apostolica.) 5. Congregation 
of the Council. This congregation was 
founded by Pius IV., for the purpose of 
promoting the observance of the Council 
of Trent. To this Pius V. added the in 
terpretation of these decrees and the 
decision of all controversies arising from 
them. In 1587, the congregation was also 
commissioned by Pope Sixtus V. to revise 
the decrees of all provincial councils, and 
to see that all bishops paid their visits at 
the time required by the canons, and sub 
mitted to the Holy See a report of their 
dioceses, ad limina apostolorum. Bene 
dict XIV., however, appointed a special 
congregation in connection with the coun- 



CONGREGATIONS 



202 



CONGREGATIONS 



cil for the purpose of examining the 
decrees of national and provincial coun 
cils, and a similar one was constituted by 
Pius IX., for the special purpose of attend 
ing to the visits and reports of patriarchs, 
archbishops, and bishops. (Office: Palazzo 
dclla Cancelle.ria Apostolica.) 6. Congre 
gation of Residence of Bishops. Many 
laws exist, differing according to circum 
stances, obliging bishops to reside in their 
diocese. Urban VIII. established this 
congregation for the purpose of seeing 
that these laws were observed. The rules 
to be followed by the congregation were 
laid down by Benedict XIV., and are now 
part of the Canon Law. (Office : Palazzo 
della Cancelleria Apostolica. ) 7. Con 
gregation of the State of Regulars. Pope 
Pius IX. restricted the jurisdiction of the 
Congregation of Regular Discipline to 
Italy and the adjacent islands, and estab 
lished the new Congregation of the State 
of Regulars to perform similar duties for 
countries outside of Italy. (Office : Pal 
azzo della Cancelleria Apostolica. ) 8. 
Congregation of Ecclesiastical Immunitv. 
Instituted by Urban VIII. to protect and 
defend lawful ecclesiastical immunities 
against the encroachments and attacks of 
civil magistrates and secular communities. 
Most of the cases submitted to this con 
gregation for examination and judgment 
arose in the Papal States. Conflicts and 
controversies regarding concordats with 
other countries are now generally decided 
by the Cardinal Secretary of State, assisted 
by the members of the Congregation of 
Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs. This 
congregation is, by special disposition of 
his holiness the Pope, temporarily con 
nected with the Congregation of the 
Council. (Office . Palazzo dclla Cancelleria 
Apostolica.) 9. Congregation of the 
Propaganda. This congregation was 
founded by Pope Gregory XV., in 1622. 
The Pope in his Constitution Inscrutabili 
conferred upon it the most ample powers 
for the propagation of the faith, and espe 
cially for the superintendence of missions in 
countries where heretics or infidels had to 
be evangelized. For this purpose it could 
not only appoint and change the necessary 
ministers in the countries specially sub 
mitted to its care, but also perform every 
thing else it considered necessary or 
opportune for the advancement of religion 
in such districts and provinces. The juris 
diction proper of the congregation ex 
tends to all territories which are governed 



more missionum, or as missionary countries, 
i. e., not by bishops constituted in the reg 
ular hierarchy, but by prefects and vicars 
apostolic. Certain countries, even where 
the regular hierarchy is established, such 
as Ireland, England, Scotland, and the 
United States, are likewise subject to the 
congregation, and transact almost all 
their business with the Roman Curia 
through it. Hence, applications for dis 
pensations, etc., are addressed to this con 
gregation through its secretary. The 
congregation has, moreover, a legislative 
and judicial power; and by authority con 
ferred upon it by Gregory XV., and con 
firmed by Urban VIII. and Innocent X., 
its decrees, signed by the secretary and 
confirmed by the prefect, have the force 
and authority of an Apostolic Constitution. 
All communications should be written in 
Latin, or, at least, in French or Italian, 
and addressed to the secretary as follows : 
"A Sua Excellcnza Revma. II Signor 
Scgretario della Congregazione di Prop 
aganda Fide: Rome." 10. Congregation 
of the Index. This congregation was 
founded by Pope Pius V., and confirmed 
by Gregory XIII., Sixtus V., and Clement 
VIII. Its office is to examine books sub 
mitted to its judgment by bishops or 
others, and to proscribe those it finds op 
posed to faith and morals. An index or 
catalogue of wicked and dangerous books 
had been drawn up at the Council of Trent, 
and approved by Pope Pius IV. (Office : 
Palazzo della Cancelleria Apostolica.) II. 
Congregation of Rites. This congregation 
was instituted by Sixtus V. for the pur 
pose of promoting the observance of the 
sacred rites and ceremonies of the Church, 
and of restoring and reforming them when 
necessary. It was also charged with the 
process of the canonization of saints, and 
with the regulation of the days to be ob 
served as feasts in the Church, and was 
also bound to see that all kings, princes, 
ambassadors, and other exalted personages, 
whether lay or clerical, were received with 
becoming dignity and honor at the papal 
Court. These are the duties which it still 
performs. (Office : Palazzo della Cancel 
leria Apostolica.) 12. Congregation of 
the Ceremonial. This congregation ar 
ranges all the Pontifical ceremonies and 
decides questions of participation and 
precedence in them. ( Office : Via Principe 
Umberto 5.) 13. Congregation of Regular 
Discipline. This congregation was estab 
lished by Innocent XII. to promote the 



CONGRUITY 



203 



CONSCIENCE 



observance of discipline in monasteries and 
convents ; to regulate the time to be spent 
in novitiates, to grant licenses for the re 
ception of postulants, and for their training 
and profession, etc. (Office: Palazzo 
della Cancelleria Apostolica.) 14. Con 
gregation of Indulgences and Sacred 
Relics. Founded by Pope Clement IX. in 
1669, for the purpose of solving all doubts 
and difficulties concerning indulgences 
and relics, correcting abuses relating 
thereto, forbidding apocryphal, false, or 
indiscreet indulgences, examining relics 
newly discovered, etc. General indul 
gences obtained directly from the sov 
ereign Pontiff are null and void, unless 
a copy of such concession be deposited 
with the secretary of. this congregation. 
Decretum Bencdicti XIV., Jan. 28th, 1756. 
(Office : Palazzo della Cancelleria Apos 
tolica.) 15. Congregation of Examination 
of Bishops. This congregation was estab 
lished for the examination in Theology 
and Canon Law of Roman priests named 
for the Episcopate. (Office: Palazzo della 
Cancelleria Apostolica.) 16. Congrega 
tion of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical 
Affairs. Founded by Pius VII. in 1814, to 
assist the Cardinal Secretary of State 
in maintaining proper relations with 
foreign countries, especially in times of 
revolution and disturbance. All concor 
dats and relations with foreign governments 
come under its supervision. (Office : Pal 
azzo della Cancelleria Apostolica.) 

Congruity. See CONDIGNITY. 

Conon. Pope from 686 to 687. Gave 
to St. Kilian, Bishop of Ireland, the mis 
sion to preach the faith to the people of 
Germany. 

Consanguinity. See MARRIAGE. 

Conscience. Inner light, inner senti 
ment by which man renders testimony to 
himself of the good and evil he does. 
Psychological conscience, or interior sense, 
is the power which the soul has to per 
ceive its different states without inter 
mediary. The testimony of conscience is 
the last recourse, the supreme criterion of 
truth, and to its intervention is due that 
the mind, placed in face of truth, affirms 
its evidence. The notion of conscience is 
identical with the notion of being, instan 
taneous like the latter, and repugnant as 
much to the idea of posterity as to that of 
anteriority. Through conscience we dis 
cover in us the existence of a distinct 



principle, if not independent from our 
body, a principle whose substantial entity 
resides for the present in its indissoluble 
union with the body to which it is united 
as its form, but which, at the destruction 
of the body, will survive and will exist, 
although in an incomplete mode, until the 
integral and definite reconstitution of the 
human compound. It is through con 
science, enlightened by the rays of truth, 
that we appreciate precisely the facts that 
appertain to the soul in opposition to the 
facts that belong to the body. It is 
through conscience that we distribute 
these facts into groups and series, and that 
we attach these series and groups to 
three primordial powers or faculties : sen 
sibility, intelligence, and will. Finally, it 
is through conscience that, desiring to 
characterize each of these faculties, we 
attribute to them sometimes a simple 
power of perception or reflection (pas 
sivity), sometimes a power of spontaneous- 
ness and action (activity). Moral con 
science is the conscience more especially 
defined by its role as supreme judge of the 
moral value of its acts. But this judge is 
not reduced to the sole mission of ap 
preciating the nature of such or such an 
act and its degree of goodness or malice. 
It penetrates the most inner thought, and 
finding therein the unavoidable and abso 
lute idea of law and duty, it seeks to ex 
plain their nature and origin by a rigorous 
analysis of the more simple idea of good 
and evil. Hence, since the notion of good 
corresponds to a transcendent and absolute 
precept, and since the notion of evil is 
only that of the derogation of this precept, 
conscience renders to itself an account of 
the blame or praise in regard to the acts 
of the will which it finds reprehensible or 
praiseworthy. Language translates instan 
taneously the testimony which conscience 
renders to itself, and humanity declares 
this testimony to be the expression of 
truth. 

Conscience (Liberty of). Liberty of 
conscience constitutes a religio-confes- 
sional fact, which is founded partly on the 
psychological study of our faculties. It is 
attested to each one of us, within ourselves, 
as an absolutely unobjectionable fact. It 
is the cause of confessional merit or de 
merit, as well as of the religio-confessional 
remorse, which is also a fact of conscience 
perceived by us, without a shadow of 
doubt, if we forsake the confession of faith 



CONSECRATION 



204 



CONSOLAMENTUM 



which our intelligence judged conform 
able to truth. From the incontestable 
liberty of conscience must we logically 
conclude on the liberty of conscience? 
Liberty of conscience is an internal fact, 
and liberty of conscience is an external fact 
which refers to our belief exteriorally in 
the midst of society. Liberty of con 
science can be looked upon as a political 
right, protected by constitutional guaran 
tees. In its relations to the State, as well 
as to the Church, we have to consider it 
from an historical, theoretical, and legal 
point of view. St. Augustine claims for 
the Church the power of constraint, only 
in the ages when it had become the social 
power, absorbing in its unity humanity. 
He dates this power of constraint only 
from the day of the incontestable social 
arrival of the Church (Ep. 204, to Don- 
atus). He modifies his thesis, restrains 
or limits it every time the number of the 
"wicked" happens to increase, or when 
the contagion of evil invades the multi 
tudes (Contr. Parmenion libr. III. c. ii.). 
He acknowledges that the exterior con 
straint, civilly efficacious, was granted by 
the religion of the emperors in a time 
when society became and remained Chris 
tian. This neat and clear doctrine of St. 
Augustine has been entered into the public 
rights of the Christian societies. The 
United States of North America is the 
country where liberty of conscience has 
become most fully established as a political 
right. The Puritans, who first peopled 
New England, pushed the intolerance to 
the most extreme limits. After them, 
also, the Quakers became intolerant. But 
when the followers of the different and num 
erous sects agreed to acknowledge the most 
extensive political liberty, the liberty of 
conscience was the result of political lib 
erty. There was not, in the new terri 
tories of Northern America, a Church 
that had become such a social power that 
it could absorb the State in its unity, as 
St. Augustine claims. Be this as it may, 
until quite recently, several countries were 
made to depend upon the acquisition and 
preservation of certain rights, either po 
litical or social, and upon the acceptation 
of such or such a confession of faith. 
Even in the United States, Maryland 
maintained for a long time the exclusion 
of Jews, and in Europe, England granted 
the emancipation of the Catholics only 
after long struggles. In fact, whatever 
may be the affirmations of the right of 



conscience, we must always acknowledge 
in a society a certain number of truths, 
without which no society could exist. The 
negation of these truths, when it is public, 
becomes an attack against the existence of 
society, or at least an evident disturbance 
of the peace. Hence we can understand, 
in principle, that a confession of faith may 
be required as a condition for the full ex 
ercise of the rights of citizens. A nihil 
istic sect, for instance, may be excluded 
from it. And to speak in more general 
terms, we can understand that liberty of 
conscience, like political liberty, may, or 
even must, in modern society, suffer some 
restrictions. 

Consecration. i. The formula of 
words by which the bread and wine in the 
Mass are changed into Christ s body and 
blood. 2. The act of solemnly dedicating 
a person or thing to the service of God. 
See TRANSUBSTANTIATION. 

Consecration of Churches. See DEDI 
CATION. 

Consistentes. In the penitential system 
of the early Church, especially in the 
Eastern Church during the second half of 
the third and the whole of the fourth cen 
turies, penitents occupying the fourth or 
highest penitential station. They were 
allowed to remain throughout the Euchar- 
istic service and take their station with the 
Faithful above the ambo, but not offer ob 
lations or be admitted to communion. See 
CATECHUMENATE. 

Consistory. An ecclesiastical senate, 
consisting of the whole body of cardinals, 
which deliberates upon the affairs of the 
Church. It is presided over by the Pope, 
or by the dean of the College of Cardinals. 
The ordinary meetings of the Consistory 
are secret ; but public consistories are held 
from time to time, as occasion may re 
quire, and are attended by other prelates 
than the cardinals ; in these public consis 
tories the resolutions arrived at in secret 
session are announced to them. 

Consolamentum ( consolation ) . Cere 
mony of the Cathari, who rejected the holy 
sacraments, and the dogmas of the Church. 
Instead of baptism by water, they had 
what they called baptism of the Holy 
Ghost, or the Consolamentum, which, ac 
cording to their dootrine, freed the receiver 
from all sin without any kind of contrition. 
Most of the Cathari put off the Consola- 



CONSTANCE 



205 



CONSTITUTIONS 



mentum till their life drew to its close. 
In case the receiver fell back into sin, as, 
for example, ate meat, he must again have 
recourse to this consolation. To avert 
this danger, the "consoled" frequently 
had recourse to the " Endura," a process 
by which, through starvation, bleeding, 
poison, or other means, they put an end to 
their lives. 

Constance ( Council of) . The Council 
of Pisa had been unable to put an end to 
the great schism of the West in declaring 
Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. deprived 
of the Pontificate, and naming Alexander 
V., who was succeeded by John XXIII. 
The latter, in accord with the Emperor- 
elect Sigismond, convoked the Council of 
Constance, which was opened Novem 
ber 5th, 1414. John XXIII. presided over 
the first two sessions, but the Council hav 
ing requested his promise to abdicate the 
Pontificate, if the good of the Church re 
quired this, he gave this promise, but then 
fled secretly. One of the cardinals assumed 
the presidency, and, in the fifth session, 
they proclaimed the famous decree : " That 
the General Council, once assembled, holds 
its authority immediately from Jesus 
Christ, and that, consequently, every per 
son, even the Pope, is obliged to obey it, 
in that which concerns the extinction of 
the schism and the general reformation of 
the Church in its head and members." 
This decree was never approved by Pope 
Martin V., and is contrary to sound doc 
trine. In the subsequent sessions, John 
XXIII. was deposed and submitted; 
Gregory XII. abdicated through his am 
bassador; Benedict XIII. was not only 
deposed, but excommunicated, and in 1417 
(4ist session), Martin V. was elected. He 
confirmed the forty-fifth and last session, 
and all that the Council had decreed in 
matters of faith. This Council also con 
demned as heretics Wycliffe, John Huss, 
and Jerome of Prague. 

Constantine. Pope from 708 to 715. A 
Syrian by birth. 

Constantine the Great. Roman Em 
peror (272-337). Son of Constantius Chlo- 
rus and of St. Helena. Was appointed Caesar 
at the death of his father in 306; and in 
307 assumed the title of Augustus. In the 
spring of the year 312, Constantine, to 
gether with Licinius, published a general 
edict of toleration, granting to every one 
the right to follow the religion of his 



choice, after which he marched into Italy 
against Maxentius, whom he defeated near 
Rome, the same year. Before this battle, 
according to tradition, the sign of the 
cross appeared in the heavens, with the 
inscription " In hoc signo vtnces," which 
induced him to adopt the labarum as his 
standard. In 323 he became sole Augus 
tus. After this he caused Christianity to 
be recognized by the State, convened the 
Council of Nice in 325, and in 330 inaugu 
rated Constantinople as the capital of the 
Roman Empire. Constantine had many 
faults. He postponed his baptism till his 
last illness; was at times very passionate 
and meddled with the freedom of the 
Church. But he also possessed good qual 
ities, great energy, prudence, and noble 
aspirations. All in all, he was an illus 
trious ruler and is justly styled "The 
Great. V See DONATION OF CONSTANTINE. 

Constantinople (Councils of}. See 
COUNCILS. 

Constitution (Civil) of the Clergy. In 

order to un-Catholicize France, the so- 
called " Civil Constitution of the Clergy" 
was adopted by the National Assembly, 
July i2th, 1790. After the insurgents had, 
on August 24th, extorted the royal signa 
ture to this measure, they demanded, on the 
motion of the Protestant, Barnave, on Jan. 
4th, 1791, that the clergy should take the 
oath of the Civil Constitution. Very few of 
the clergy complied with this demand. On 
April I3th, Pope Pivis VI. condemned the 
Civil Constitution. The Civil Constitution 
of the Clergy reduced the number of bish 
oprics from 136 to 83, a bishopric for each 
department into which France was di 
vided ; it decreed that bishops should be 
elected by the clergy, and interdicted their 
appointment by the Pope; abolished re 
ligious orders, and made the reception of 
a papal Bull or Brief, unauthorized by the 
government, a State offense. Only four 
bishops, and a very small minority of the 
priests, adhered to the new constitution. 
These were the " Jurors," or " Asser- 
mentes," while those refusing the oath 
were styled " Nonjurors," or " Insermen- 
tes." 

Constitutions ( Apostolic] . The laws 
carried under this name by the sovereign 
Pontiffs for the entire Church, or for a 
portion thereof, oblige before all accepta 
tion, even the bishops, in matters of dis 
cipline as well as in matters of faith. 



CONSUBSTANTIAL 



206 



CONTEMPLATION 



However, upon points of discipline which 
interest neither the rites nor the ceremo 
nies, nor the life of clerics, the bishop can 
suspend their execution, by referring to 
the Holy See and asking for dispensation, 
at least for a temporary one. 

The Constitutions are not the direct 
work of the Apostles, and have never 
figured in Holy Scripture. They are, how 
ever, very ancient. The first six books 
treat of Holy Scripture, the conduct of 
bishops and priests, of widows, of orphans, 
the poor, and the solemnities of the 
Church. The seventh appears to be of 
posterior date, and the eighth seems to 
constitute another addition. After the 
middle of the fifth century, these different 
parts formed only one whole, and St. Epi- 
phanus speaks of the Apostolic Constitu 
tions as forming only one work, such as we 
have received it. 

Consubstantial. From the Latin cum 
and substantia (substance). A term used 
in speaking of the Persons of the Most 
Holy Trinity, to express that they are 
only one and the same substance. This 
term was adopted by the Council of Nice, 
in 325, in order to leave to the Arians no 
pretext for concealing their errors under 
equivocal terms; hence they obliged them 
to make use of the word "Consubstantial" 
in their profession of faith, and to sign the 
consubstantiality of the Word. 

Constitutum. See CHAPTERS (The 

Three). 

Consubstantiation. A term used by 
the Lutherans to express the manner of 
the Real Presence of Jesus Christ in the 
Blessed Eucharist. Since Luther taught 
that the substance of the Body of Christ 
was present in the consecrated Host, to 
gether with the substance of bread, the 
change was called Consubstantiation, in 
stead of transubstantiation, as taught by 
the Catholic Church. 

Consultors or Bishop s Council. The 
"Third Plenary Council of Baltimore" 
ordains that each diocese shall have six, or 
at least four, consultors ; that where this 
number can in no wise be had, there shall 
be at least two. As to the mode of their 
appointment, this Council enacts that one- 
half of the above number shall be ap 
pointed solely by the bishop; the other 
half also by the bishop, though only on 
the nomination made by the entire clergy, 
in the manner laid down by the Council. 



The diocesan consultors thus properly ap 
pointed hold their position for three years, 
after which they must either be reappointed 
or others chosen in their stead in the same 
manner as above prescribed. If, however, 
this term of three years expires during the 
time when the episcopal see is vacant, the 
consultors will remain in office until the 
accession of the new bishop, who will be 
bound to proceed within six months from 
the day of his consecration to the new ap 
pointment of the consultors in the manner 
above stated. Finally, where, during the 
above term of three years, a consultor 
either dies, or resigns, or is removed, the 
bishop has the right and duty to appoint 
another one, though only with the advice 
of the other consultors. As will be seen, 
the mode of appointment of our diocesan 
consultors resembles somewhat that of 
canons of cathedral chapters. Diocesan 
consultors, during their term of office, can 
not be removed, against their will, except 
for legitimate and just cause, and by the 
advice of the other consultors. Diocesan 
consultors are, like the cathedral chapters, 
the official and legal senate of the bishop 
in relation to the government of the 
diocese. They are to take the place of 
cathedral chapters until the latter can be 
properly established. Wherefore, the 
"Third Plenary Council" enacts that the 
bishop shall be bound to take the advice of 
his consultors in a number of cases ex 
pressly stated by it. We say advice; for 
the council does not oblige the bishop to 
act with the consent of his consultors in 
any case whatsoever. The case where 
bishops are bound to proceed with the ad 
vice of their diocesan council are : cases 
that relate to the diocesan statutes, the 
division of parishes, the placing of missions 
in charge of religious, the appointment of 
the deputies for the seminary, of new con- 
suitors, and of synodal examiners, the 
alienation of ecclesiastical property, and 
the imposing of a new tax or assessment bv 
the bishop. 

Contemplation (profound application of 
the mind to some object, especially purely 
intellectual objects). The common char 
acteristic of religious contemplation, like 
that of philosophical contemplation, con 
sists in withdrawing the soul from external 
objects, to absorb it into the things of God. 
But for some, it is the final end, and for 
others, the highest degree, which the activ 
ity of the mind can attain for the knowledge 



CONTRITION 



207 



COPE 



things in their very essence. A life of 
contemplation is not a useless life, as some 
claim. The Fathers of the desert and all 
the Saints devoted themselves to a con 
templative life, and were venerated through 
out the Christian world for doing so. How 
ever, Christian mystics do not behold in 
contemplation a fact which solely interests 
the soul. Fenelon sums up their doctrine 
as follows: "Contemplation is neither a 
rapturous transport, nor a lively impres 
sion, nor an ecstatic suspension of all the 
faculties of the soul ; the state of passive 
contemplation is nothing else but an inner 
peace and an infinite suppleness, which 
permit us to be moved by the impressions 
of grace and to better feel the divine im 
pulse." 

Contrition. See PENANCE. 

Convents (religious houses, monaster 
ies). Convents were established where- 
ever Christianity penetrated. The ascetic 
life sprung up in the Orient in the first 
centuries of the Church. The ascetics 
fled from the Roman corruption and the 
persecutions which afflicted the Church 
during the first three centuries. It was 
thus that the solitudes of Egypt and of the 
Thebaid became peopled by those hermits 
who were the first models of the cenobitic 
life. Among them figure St. Anthony, 
St. Paul, St. Pachomius, the two Am- 
monii, the two Macarii. The life in common 
soon prevailed over the solitary life. Ac 
cording to St. Jerome, there were not less 
than 50,000 monks in the annual reunion 
of the congregation, which one single abbot 
grouped, until A. D. 500, under his direction. 
Prayer, reading of the Holy Scriptures, 
meditation, and manual labor occupied all 
their time ; each convent was a school of 
charity and of fruitful activity, which 
served as model in Asia for the foundations 
of St. Basil and of St. John Chrysostom. 
When the Arian persecution forced St. 
Athanasius toward the Thebaid, in the 
fourth century, he was the guest of the 
cenobites during six years. On his return 
to Rome in 340, he sowed there the seed of 
the religious life, which did not delay to 
bring forth fruit. The Life of St. An 
thony, written by him, represented a model 
which they strove to imitate. The souls 
consecrated to God were confirmed in 
their heavenly detachment by the Treat 
ise on Virginity, which St. Ambrose 
consecrated to them. He, at the same 
time, drew to God the troubled soul of St. 



Augustine. The latter, having become 
Bishop of Hippo, established a religious 
order on the African soil. The impulse, 
once given, never paused. The monasteries 
of Liguge and of Noirmoutiers, founded 
by St. Martin, arose in Gaul ; that of 
Lerins, by St. Honoratus; that of St. 
Victor at Marseilles, by Cassian. These 
foundations, and many more which we 
cannot enumerate, had thus far neither 
unity nor common rule which could assure 
their future. St. Benedict appeared to 
accomplish this task. From Mount Cassino, 
where he founded the capital of the 
monastic world, went forth that famous 
Rule which embraced, under its yoke, all 
the religious orders of the West. Auxil 
iaries of the secular clergy, the convents 
lent to the latter their eminent men and 
supported them in all their works ; they also 
furnished to the Papacy a militia always 
ready and devoted. Many convents of 
women were also houses of education for 
the youth, and the confidence of the fam 
ilies was justified by the tender cares 
with which they surrounded their young 
daughters. This custom has maintained 
itself with success in the nunneries of the 
Sacred Heart, the Ursulines, the Sisters of 
Notre Dame, etc. See MONASTICISM. 

Conversion of St. Paul. A festival of 
the Church, observed on the 25th of Janu 
ary, in commemoration of the conversion 
of St. Paul the Apostle, as related in the 
ninth chapter of the Acts. 

Convulsionaries. A class of Jansenists 
in France, who gained notoriety by falling 
into convulsions and by other extravagant 
actions, supposed to be accompanied by 
miraculous cures, in response to a supposed 
miraculous influence, emanating from the 
tomb of a pious Jansenist, Francois de 
Paris, in the cemetery of St. Medard near 
Paris, who died in 1727. They continued 
to exist for more than fifty years. 

Cope. A Church vestment which re 
sembles in its shape an ample cloak. It is 
open in the front, and is fastened over the 
breast by a morse, or stiff band furnished 
with clasps. To the part which corresponds 
to the shoulders of the wearer is attached a 
piece of the same material, in form like the 
segment of a circle, and resembles a hood, 
which is usually adorned with lace. .The 
prototype of our cope is easily discoverable 
among the garments of the ancient Ro 
mans. Like the chasuble, it was a mantle 



COPERNICUS 



208 



CORINTHIANS 



deriving its origin from the paenula, which 
it perfectly resembled, with this variation, 
that, while it encircled the entire person, 
the cope was open in front, and adapted to 
defend its wearer from the severities of 
the season, the variations of the weather, 
and from rain, by the addition of a cowl or 
hood. Necessity introduced this robe 
among the sacred vestments; and the 
Latin fluviale, or rain-cloak, the term by 
which it still continues to be designated, 
will immediately suggest its primitive use 
to every learned reader. Its appropriation 
as a sacerdotal garment may be referred to 
that epoch when the Popes were accus 
tomed to assemble the people, during the 
penitential seasons of the year, at some 
particular Church, which had been pre 
viously indicated for that purpose, and 
thence proceed with them, in solemn 
procession and on foot, to some one or 
other of the more celebrated basilicas of 
Rome, to hold what was called a station. 
To protect the person of the Pontiff from 
the rain that might overtake the procession 
on its way, the pluvialc, or cope, was on 
such occasions assumed by him at the com 
mencement of the ceremony. It has been 
employed at the altar ever since, and is 
worn by bishops and by priests on different 
occasions, but particularly at vespers. 

Copernicus ( 1473-1543) .Born at Thorn, 
Prussia; died at Frauenburg, Prussia. 
The founder of modern astronomy. He 
entered the University of Cracow in 1491, 
studied law at Bologna (1495-1500), was 
appointed canon of the chapter of Frauen 
burg in 1497, lectured on astronomy at 
Rome in 1500. He published, in 1543, an 
exposition of his system of astronomy, 
which has since received the name of the 
Copernican, in a treatise entitled De 
Orbium cosiest turn Rcvolutionibus. 

Copiates or Gravediggers. A class 
of persons who, in the early Church, were 
counted among the number of the clergy. 
They were charged with the burial of the 
dead, especially of the poor. 

Copts. Egyptian Christians; the most 
of them follow the heretical doctrine of 
Eutyches and are also called Monophy- 
sites. The Schismatical Copts number 
about one hundred thousand, and the 
United Copts about five thousand ; accord 
ing to another estimate they are put down 
to twelve thousand. Great efforts have 
been made in the last forty years to con 



vert the Copto-Ethiopians, or Abyssinians, 
who are closely connected with the Egyp 
tian Copts. The labors of the Catholic 
missionaries were attended with the best 
results in spite of almost incessant perse 
cutions. Including the converted Gallas, 
there are in Abyssinia to-day over 30,000 
Christians, living in communion with 
Rome. The Copts in communion with the 
Holy See formerly were governed by a 
vicar apostolic residing at Cairo, but in 
November, 1895, Ppe Leo XIII. consti 
tuted for them a regular hierarchy, with a 
patriarch styled " Patriarch of Alexandria 
of the Copts." Besides the patriarch they 
have two bishops and some forty priests, 
foreign and native. Educational institu 
tions have been opened by the Capuchins. 

Coran. See KORAN. 

Corban. In Judaism, an offering of any 
sort to God, particularly in fulfillment of a 
vow. To the rules laid down in Leviticus 
(xxvii.) and in Numbers (xxx.) concerning 
vows, the rabbins added the rule, that a 
man might interdict himself by vow, not 
only from using for himself any particular 
object, for example food, but also from 
giving or receiving it. The thing thus 
interdicted was considered as corban. A 
person might thus release himself from 
any inconvenient obligation under plea of 
corban a practice which Christ repre 
hended, as annulling the spirit of the law. 

Cordeliers. Name given in France to 
the regular Franciscan monks; so called 
from the girdle of knotted cord worn by 
the members of that order. 

Core. A Levite who rebelled against 
Moses, with Dathan and Abiron, and who 
together with them was swallowed alive by 
a miraculous opening of the earth. 

Corinth. In ancient geography the 
capital of Achaia, and situated on the isth 
mus which separates the Peloponnesus 
from Attica. It was originally called 
Ephyre, and was noted in ancient times 
as a center of commerce, literature, and 
art. 

Corinthians (Epistles to the}. First 
Epistle: When St. Paul was at Ephesus, 
about A. D. 57, prosecuting his third Apos 
tolic journey, he heard that an effort was 
being made by some among the Corinthian 
converts to divide the seamless robe of 
Christ by creating a dissentient element 
within the Catholic body on the pretense 



CORNELIUS 



209 



CORPUS CHRISTI 



of following favorite preachers. In order 
to show the magnitude of this evil he ex 
plains the doctrine of the unity of the 
Church by the familiar illustration of the 
consummate harmony existing between 
the members of the human body. The 
antidote he offers against this tendency 
toward division is charity, which he eulo 
gizes in brilliant language. Turning, 
then, to the luxurious habits of these Cor 
inthians, the Apostle pronounces the sen 
tence of excommunication on one who was 
living publicly in incest. This brought 
him to discuss the relative merits of vir 
ginity and matrimony in answer to a re 
quest forwarded to him by this people. 
He extols the excellence of marriage, but 
declares it to be inferior to the state of 
virginity. Lastly, to spur the Corinthians 
to their duty in these particulars, the 
Apostle sets forth the cheering doctrine of 
the resurrection of the body. Second 
Epistle: Toward the end of this same 
year, A. D. 57, St. Paul sent Titus to Cor 
inth, in order to ascertain on the spot the 
effect produced by the First Epistle to the 
Corinthians, and thence to come on direct 
to Troas. Titus announced that the First 
Epistle to the Corinthians wrought a most 
marked change for the better on that 
people. This, he said, was the more con 
soling, because certain jealous intruders 
did all they could to poison the mind of 
the Corinthian converts generally against 
the Epistle. To expose their fraud and 
malice the Second Epistle to the Corinth 
ians was written, which opens with sen 
timents of the tenderest charity toward 
the erring people. Then he turns to his 
labors in no spirit of vain boasting, but to 
defend the honor of Jesus Christ whose 
Apostle he thus fearlessly asserted himself 
to be. The false teachers who had been 
calumniating him, he denounced with ter 
rible severity. And he concludes by ex 
pressing a strong hope of seeing them very 
soon. 

Cornelius. A Roman centurion, sta 
tioned at Caesarea, whom St. Peter, in con 
sequence of a special revelation, received 
into the communion of the Christian 
Church, directly by baptism without cir 
cumcision (Acts x.). 

Cornelius (Pope, 251-252). A learned 
Roman priest; his election was opposed 
by the ambitious presbyter, Novatian, who, 
yielding to the wicked counsels of Novatus, 
a turbulent priest from Carthage, became 

14 



the rival of Cornelius and the founder of a 
schismatical sect, called after him the 
" Novatians." Novatian was excommuni 
cated by a council of sixty bishops held at 
Rome, and the three bishops who had or 
dained him were deposed. In 252, Corne 
lius was exiled by Emperor Gallus to Cen- 
tumcellae (Civitta-Vecchia), where he died 
a martyr. 

Cornelius & Lapide (properly van der 
Steen) (1568-1637). Great Biblical scholar ; 
was born at Boehaff, near Liege, Bel 
gium ; became a Jesuit. Professor of Holy 
Scripture at Louvain and afterwards at 
Rome, where he died. His learned and 
valuable commentaries cover the entire 
Bible, except Job and the Psalms. (Best ed 
ition, Lyons, 1833, u vols. Partly trans 
lated into English.) 

Corozain. A city of Galilee, on the 
western shore of Lake Tiberiades, near 
Bethsaida. Christ preached often in this 
city and wrought many miracles therein. 

Corporal. The corporal is a square piece 
of fine linen on which the Host is conse 
crated. It is so called because it touches 
the Body of our Lord. It has been known 
by this appellation for more than ten cen 
turies. In the Ambrosian rite, the corpo 
ral is likened to the linen cloths in which 
the Body of our Saviour was shrouded in 
the sepulchre, and on unfolding it at the 
Offertory, the priest recites what is termed 
ihe"Orat/o super sindonem." Anciently 
the chalice was also covered by the corpo 
ral, a practice still retained by the Carthu 
sians. The Greeks make use of a similar 
square piece of linen cloth, which they 
spread out as we do. The corporal must 
be blessed by a bishop, or by a priest hav 
ing special faculties. 

Corpus Christi (Latin words which sig 
nify Body of Christ}. The most impos 
ing festival of the Catholic Church. Pope 
Urban IV., in his decree concerning it, 
gives the following explanation of the 
institution and grandeur of this festival : 
"Although we daily, in the holy Sacrifice 
of the Mass, renew the memory of this 
holy sacrament, we believe that we must, 
besides, solemnly commemorate it every 
year, to put the unbelievers to shame ; and 
because we have been informed that God 
has revealed to some pious persons that 
this festival should be celebrated in the 
whole Church, we direct that on the first 
Thursday after the octave of Pentecost, 



CORRIGAN 



2IO 



COSMOGONY 



the Faithful should assemble in the Church, 
and join with the priests in singing the word 
of God," etc. Hence this festival was in 
stituted on account of the greatness of 
the divine mystery; the unbelief of those 
who denied the truth of this mystery, 
and the revelation made to some pious 
persons. This revelation was made to a 
nun at Liege, named Juliana, and to her 
devout friends, Eve and Isabella. Juliana, 
when praying, had frequently a vision in 
which she saw the bright moon, with one 
part of it somewhat dark ; at her request 
she received instructions from God that 
one of the grandest festivals was yet to be 
instituted : the festival of the most Blessed 
Sacrament of the Altar. In 1246, she re 
lated this vision to Robert, Bishop of 
Liege, who, after having investigated the 
matter with the aid of several men of 
learning and devotion (among whom was 
Jacob Pantaleon, Archdeacon of Liege, 
afterwards Pope Urban IV.), made arrange- 
men-ts to introduce this festival in his 
diocese, but death prevented his intention 
being carried into effect. After the bish 
op s death the Cardinal Legate Hugh un 
dertook to carry out his directions, and 
celebrated the festival for the first time in 
the year 1247, in the Church of St. Martin 
at Liege. Several bishops followed this 
example, and the festival was observed in 
many dioceses, before Urban IV., in 1264, 
finally ordered the celebration by the 
whole Church. This order was confirmed 
by Clement V. at the Council of Vienna 
in 1311, and the Thursday after the octave 
of Pentecost appointed for its celebration. 
In 1317, Pope John XXII. instituted the 
solemn procession. 

Corrigan (MICHAEL AUGUSTINE). 
Catholic prelate ; born at Newark, New 
Jersey, Aug. i3th, 1839. He was ordained 
to the priesthood at Rome in 1863. After 
filling for a few years the chair of dog 
matic theology and Sacred Scripture at 
Seton Hall College, Orange, New Jersey, 
he became its president in 1868. In 1873 
he was appointed by Pius IX. to the see of 
Newark, and in 1880 was made coadjutor 
to Cardinal McCloskey, Archbishop of 
New York, under the title of Archbishop 
of Petra, and on the death of the cardinal 
in 1885 he became metropolitan of the dio 
cese of New York, receiving the pallium 
shortly afterwards. 

Corrupticolae. Name of a sect of Eu- 
tychian heretics whose chief was a cer 



tain Severus, false patriarch of Antioch 
(551). Severus, having withdrawn to Al 
exandria, maintained there that the Body 
of Christ was corruptible ; that the Fathers 
had acknowledged this ; and to deny this 
was denying the truth of the Passion of 
the Saviour. On the other hand, Julian 
of Halicarnassus, also a Eutychian refugee 
in Egypt, maintained that the Body of 
Christ had always been incorruptible; to 
maintain that it was corruptible, he said, 
was to admit a distinction between Jesus 
Christ and the Word, and consequently 
two natures in Jesus Christ. The followers 
of Julian were also called Phthartolatrce, 
or Phantasiastes. 

Cosmas and Damianus (Sxs.). Broth 
ers, born in Arabia, labored as Christian 
physicians, and exercised their art gratu 
itously. Denounced as Christians, they 
suffered martyrdom at Eges, in Cilicia, 
under Diocletian, about the year 286. 
Their remains were brought to Rome, 
where a splendid church was dedicated to 
their memory, and where they are still 
venerated, September 27th. Patron saints 
of physicians and druggists. 

Cosmogony ( The Mosaic}. All the re 
ligions and all the nations of antiquity 
have attempted to explain the origin of 
things. The various cosmogonic systems 
have common traits which seem to indi 
cate a community of origin, perhaps even 
a primitive revelation ; but the most of 
them have been disfigured in the course of 
the centuries through the addition of child 
ish details, often in flagrant contradiction 
with the most incontestable accounts of 
modern science. A single one of these cos 
mogonies, that which figures at the head 
of our Sacred Books, has escaped this 
general corruption in such a manner as 
to defy still to-day the attacks of infidel 
scientists. It does not enter into our plan to 
give here a detailed commentary thereon. 
To state this cosmogony, to point out 
briefly its superiority over all others, to 
say a word on the scientific cosmogony, 
and finally the accord of both such is the 
end which we have proposed to ourselves 
in this article. 

I. THE MOSAIC ACCOUNT OF THE 
CREATION. Since we could not discuss 
the Biblical cosmogony without knowing 
its text, we will give here the literal trans 
lation according to the Plebrew, content 
ing ourselves with grouping the works 
peculiar to each of the six days into so 



COSMOGONY 



21 I 



COSMOGONY 



many special paragraphs: " In the begin 
ning God created heaven and earth. And 
the earth was unformed and empty; dark 
ness was upon the face of the deep ; and 
the spirit of God moved over the waters." 

First Day. "And God said: Be light 
made ! And light was made. And God 
saw the light that it was good, and God 
divided the light from the darkness. And 
God called the light Day and the darkness 
Night; and there was evening and morn 
ing: one day." 

Second Day. "And God said: Let 
there be a firmament made amidst the 
waters and let it divide the waters from 
the waters. And God made a firmament, 
and divided the waters that were under the 
firmament from those that were above the 
firmament, and it was so. And God called 
the firmament Heaven. And the evening 
and morning were the second day." 

Third Day. " And God said : Let the 
waters that are under the heaven be 
gathered together into one place, and let 
the dry land appear. And it was so done. 
And God called the dry land Earth; and 
the gathering together of the waters he 
called Seas. And God saw that it was 
good. And God said : Let the earth bring 
forth the green herb, bearing seed after its 
kind, and the tree yielding of the fruit 
which had in itself its seed after its kind. 
And God saw that it was good. And the 
earth brought forth the green herb, and 
such as yieldeth seed according to its kind 
and the tree that beareth fruit, having 
seed each according to its kind. And 
God saw that it was good. And the even 
ing and morning were the third day." 

Fourth Day. " And God said : Let 
there be lights made in the firmament of 
heaven, to distinguish the day and the 
night, and let them be for signs and for 
seasons, and for days and years. And let 
them be lights in the firmament of heaven 
to give light upon earth. And it was so 
done. And God made two great lights: 
the greater light to rule the day, and the 
lesser light to rule the night, and he made 
also the stars. And God placed them in 
the firmament of heaven to shine upon the 
earth. And to rule the day and the night 
and to distinguish the light from darkness. 
And God saw that it was good. And the 
evening and morning were the fourth 
day," 

Fifth Day. "And God said : Let the 
waters bring forth a multitude of living 
animals and let the fowl fly over the earth 



under the firmament of heaven. And God 
created the great marine monsters and 
every moving animal of which the waters 
are swarming, according to their kinds, 
and every winged fowl according to its 
kind. And God saw that it was good. 
And God blessed them, saying: Increase 
and multiply, and fill the waters of the sea, 
and let the birds be multiplied upon the 
earth. And the evening and morning were 
the fifth day." 

Sixth Day. "And God said: Let the 
earth bring forth the living animal in its 
kind, cattle, the creeping being, and the 
beasts of the earth, according to their 
kinds. And it was so done. And God 
made the wild beast after its kind, and the 
cattle according to its kind, and everything 
that creepeth on the earth after its kind. 
And God saw that it was good. And God 
said : Let us make man to our image, ac 
cording to our likeness ; and let him have 
dominion over the fishes of the sea, and 
over the fowls of the air, and over the 
beasts, and over the whole earth, and over 
every creeping creature upon earth. And 
God created man to His own image ; to 
the image of God He created him. He 
created them male and female. And God 
blessed them, saying: Increase and multi 
ply, and fill the earth, and subdue it, and 
rule over the fishes of the sea, and the 
fowls of the air, and all living creatures 
that move upon the earth. And God said : 
Behold, I have given you every herb bear 
ing seed upon the earth, and all trees that 
have in themselves seed of their own kind ; 
this will serve you for nourishment. And 
to all beasts of the earth, and to every fowl 
of the air, and to all that move upon the 
earth and wherein there is life, all green 
herb will serve for nourishment. And it 
was so done. And God saw all the things 
that He had made, and they were very 
good. And the evening and morning were 
the sixth day." "These are," says the 
sacred writer in the second chapter of 
Genesis, "the generations of the heaven 
and the earth on the day when they were 
created." 

When there is pointed out in this won 
derful drama the successive acts by which 
the intervention of the Creator reveals 
itself, nine of them present themselves in 
the following order : (i) Creation of mat 
ter; (2) Apparition of the light ; (3) For 
mation of the firmament or of the atmos 
phere by the separation of the condensed 
lower waters and of the waters remaining 



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COSMOGONY 



in the state of vapors ; (4) Emersion of the 
continents; (5) Appearance of the plants ; 
(6) Appearance of the sun, moon, and 
stars; (7) Creation of the aquatic animals 
and of the birds; (8) Appearance of the 
earthly animals; (9) Creation of man. As 
can be seen, two distinct works are attrib 
uted to the third and to the sixth days. 
The division of the works of creation into 
six days cannot be looked upon as arbitrary, 
and must have had some motive which it 
is undoubtedly not impossible to discover, 
that is, the religious institution of the 
week. As to the order of succession, it is 
not doubtful, and we shall see further on 
that, on the whole, it is in accord with the 
accounts of modern science. 

II. SUPERIORITY OF THE MOSAIC COS 
MOGONY. Although the cosmogony we 
have just presented has not escaped the 
attacks of infidelity, which has pretended 
to see in it nothing but nonsense and con 
tradictions, the most of the Rationalists 
have acknowledged that it is immensely 
superior to all the other cosmogonies 
which antiquity has bequeathed to us. 
" It contains not one word," says one of 
them (Dillman, Genesis (1875), p. 9), 
"which would appear unworthy of God s 
thought. From the time that the mystery 
of creation, which will always remain a 
mystery for man, was attempted to be 
sketched, in order to render it conceivable 
to human intelligence, it was impossible to 
trace a more magnificent and more worthy 
tableau. It is with perfect right that they 
draw from the creative account a proof in 
favor of its revealed character." A fa 
mous naturalist, who has become, since 
the death of Darwin, the principal repre 
sentative of the advanced evolutionary 
school, Haeckel, Professor in the University 
of Jena, grants the same praises to the Mo 
saic history of the creation. He extols in 
particular " the simple and natural dispo 
sition of the ideas exposed therein, which 
advantageously contrast with the confu 
sion of the mythological cosmogonies of 
most of the ancient peoples. According 
to Genesis, the Lord God first formed the 
earth as an inorganic body. Then He 
separates the light from the darkness, 
then the waters from the firm earth. And 
lo, we have the earth habitable for organ 
ized beings. Then God forms, in the 
first place, the plants ; later on, the ani 
mals, and even among the latter He fash 
ions first the inhabitants of the sea and of 
the air, and finally those of the firm earth. 



Finally, God creates the last of the organ 
ized beings, man; He creates him accord 
ing to his image, in order to be the master 
of the earth." The illustrious naturalist 
goes so far as to discover the application 
of his evolutionary ideas to these suc 
cessive and progressive creations. " Al 
though," he says, " these great laws of 
organic evolution . . . may be regarded 
bv Moses as the expression of the activity 
of a creator forming the world, we dis 
cover therein, however, the beautiful idea 
of a progressive evolution, of a gradual 
differentiation of primitively simple matter. 
Therefore, we can pay to the grand idea 
contained in the cosmogony ... of 
the Jewish legislator a just and sincere 
tribute of admiration." (Sckdpfungsge- 
schi elite). 

In order to fully appreciate the superior 
ity of the Mosaic cosmogony, it will not be 
useless to cast a rapid glance on the 
others. Aside from some features which 
seem to have been borrowed from it, or at 
least drawn from the same source, what 
exaggerations, what childishness and ex 
travagances ! The Chaldean cosmogony, 
which in many respects approaches ours, 
shows us, according to Berosus, the su 
preme god Bel, cutting into two parts his 
spouse, of which parts he makes both 
heaven and earth. Then we have him 
cutting off his own head, and the other 
gods modeling men out of the slime im 
pregnated with the blood of the divine 
victim. The Phoenician traditions trans 
mitted by Sanchoniaton, represent the 
primitive world in a state of chaos and 
wrapped in darkness; but at the end of 
a certain number of centuries, they add, 
the Spirit and the chaos united to produce 
the world. In India, we have two cos 
mogonies: that of Riga-Veda, and the 
more recent one of the code of Manu. 
The first, which is rather obscure, shows 
us still the Deity immolating itself to give 
birth to the world. 

The code of Manu shows us that the 
Lord, the supreme and eternal Being, 
" was self-existent, producing first the 
waters (nara), into which he deposited a 
seed." This seed became an egg, brilliant 
like gold, also sparkling like a star of a 
thousand rays, and in which the supreme 
Being himself was born under the form of 
Brahma, the ancestor of all the beings. 
" Hence the name Narayana, the one who 
moves upon the waters," given to the new 
being. After having dwelled in this egg one 



COSMOGONY 



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COSMOGONY 



Brahmanic year (that is, 3, 110,400,000,000 
years like ours), the Lord divided this egg 
into two parts, of which he made heaven and 
earth, separated by the atmosphere, " the 
eight heavenly regions and the permanent 
reservoir for the waters." Then from his 
mouth, his arm, his thigh, and his foot, he 
drew forth the diverse castes, commencing 
with the Brahmans. His body, divided 
into two parts, became half male and half 
female, and gave birth to a whole hierarchy 
of beings, in which the spirit loses itself. 
There are, according to Manu, ten eminent 
saints called maharchis; then the gnomes, 
the giants, the vampires, the nymphs, the 
Titans, etc. In the Egyptian cosmogony, 
still little known, we see the creator Phtah 
modeling man on a potter s wheel. Among 
the Persians we find the division into six 
epochs ; but these epochs have a duration 
which varies from forty-five to eighty days. 
They beheld successively appearing the 
heavens, the water, the earth, the trees, the 
animals, and man. There are seven heav 
ens, each of which bears a special name. 
The bull was created before every other 
animal and lived alone; but at its death its 
seed, transported into the lunar heaven, 
gave rise to the other animals. Man him 
self drew his body from the right arm of 
the first bull. In his turn he lived alone, 
and at his death he was transformed into a 
tree, which, cut into two parts, gave birth 
to a man and a woman, the ancestors of all 
mankind. We omit numerous details void 
of all sense or too childish. In Japan, we 
find again the chaos of Genesis, chaos which 
gave rise to heaven and earth ; but the earth 
is represented as swimming upon the sea 
like a fish, and above it is shown a flower 
which becomes a divine spirit. The Occi 
dental cosmogonies contain the same mix 
ture of truth and error, of probability and 
of absurdities. Greece furnishes very little 
on the origin of the world and of man. On 
the contrary, we find in her cosmogony 
long and tedious details about the origin 
of the gods, who for the most owe their 
birth to a series of evolutions, the one more 
improbable than the other. However, at 
the beginning of mankind, Hesiod shows 
us the golden age, which might be an 
altered remembrance of the earthly para 
dise. Among the Latins we find, as in the 
Bible, chaos rudis indigcstaque moles 
(Ovidius) , at the beginning of the things. 
Then, all the elements are confounded 
air, earth, and water. After this they 
separate themselves, and the continents 



appear. In the Germanic cosmogony we 
see an enormous mass of ice springing forth 
from the North Pole, which by melting 
gives rise to the chaos. From this chaos 
God caused to arise the cow Audumbla, 
which, in licking the ice to find some nour 
ishment therein, forms from it the osseous 
frame of the giant Bur, father of Bor and 
grandfather of Odin. Then, from the 
primitive chaos there are formed nine 
spheres, which represent the entire universe 
and its inhabitants, gods, men, giants, 
gnomes, etc. 

Incomplete as it may be, this short re 
view is sufficient to give an idea of the 
extravagance of the pagan cosmogonies, 
and to show that they cannot enter into 
comparison with the simple, sublime, and 
rational cosmogony which figures at the 
head of our Sacred Books. "Compare 
the Biblical account with these fables," 
said Mgr. Meignan, " and you will admire 
how the former bears in all its parts the 
imprint of historic truth. The entire ac 
count is sober, plain, clear, and comfonn- 
able to reason. Undoubtedly the history 
of Genesis breathes the highest poetry; it 
has magnificent traits, sublime words ; but 
we discover therein neither any philo 
sophical system, nor any poetic fancy, no 
obscure myth or childish fables. To this 
recital, so grand and so simple, we have to 
reduce all the exaggerations of the other 
cosmogonies." 

III. THE SCIENTIFIC COSMOGONY. 
Before passing to the critical study of 
the Biblical cosmogony, it is necessary to 
briefly notice what science teaches us on 
the same subject. The history of our 
globe may be divided into two plainly dis 
tinct parts, the one anterior, the other 
posterior, to the appearance of life. The 
first, eminently conjectural, because it 
escapes the direct observation, is connected 
with the astronomical and physical sci 
ences; the second, more precise and better 
known, belongs to the domain of geology. 
Let us throw a rapid glance on both. 

i. Cosmic Era. According to a theory 
generally admitted and which everything 
confirms, the earth and the other planets 
and satellites which form a part of the solar 
system, were primitively in the gaseous 
state, and in this state constituted an im 
mense sphere, of a radius at least equal to 
the distance of the sun from Neptune, the 
most remote planet. This gaseous sphere, 
which they have called the primitir>e neb 
ula, was endowed with a rotary move- 



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214 



COSMOGONY 



merit which by and by became accelerated 
as a result of the condensation. The cen 
trifugal force developing itself in propor 
tion, gaseous particles, perhaps even com 
plete rings, detached themselves from the 
surface of the immense sphere, at its equa 
torial part, and by concentrating them 
selves gave rise to the planets, which 
themselves still gaseous, produced the satel 
lites in the same manner. The nucleus of 
the nebula, not yet entirely condensed, is 
nothing else than the sun, whose mass is 
seven hundred times above that of all the 
planets united with their satellites. This 
hypothesis, to which Herschel and Laplace 
have attached their names, rests upon 
numerous facts. It is observed, for in 
stance, that the density of matter increases 
upon our planet from the surface to the 
center, and undoubtedly also from the 
most remote planets to the sun itself, which 
is probably still in a gaseous state. In the 
second place, the different phases through 
which our nebula must have passed are 
again found in our days in our solar system, 
or in the extraneous systems. The teles 
cope here shows us nebulae which seem in 
the process of becoming condensed ; there, 
suns on the point of being extinguished 
in order to become planets; elsewhere, 
planets or satellites, like the moon, that 
have attained, it would seem, the extreme 
point of their transformations and be 
come uninhabitable in default of atmos 
phere. A last argument appealed to in 
confirmation of this system consists in the 
uniformity of the rotary and revolutionary 
movements of fiie planets and of their 
satellites, all of which, or nearly all, are 
direct, that is, executed from west to east. 
We say almost all, for it is believed to 
have been established within the last few 
years that the movements of the satellites 
of the two most remote planets, Uranus, 
and Neptune, are effected from east to 
west; but this exception, if it be real, does 
not, whatever may be said, run counter to 
the system attributed to Laplace. It is 
rather a quite natural consequence of the 
law of Kepler, who claims that the celestial 
bodies most remote from the star around 
which they gravitate have a swiftness the 
inverse of their distance. But here is not 
the place to insist on a question of such a 
technical nature. In spite of the criticisms 
to which it might have been exposed, the 
theory which beholds in the heavenly 
bodies so many fragments more or less con 
densed of an ancient nebula is universally 



accepted by the learned world, and although 
it may not be susceptible of a direct demon 
stration, and may be variously understood 
in the details, it is a very difficult thing to 
prove it lacking in a foundation of truth. 

But the matter of which the universe is 
composed could not pass abruptly from 
the gaseous into the solid state. In the 
interval there was a liquid or doughy 
state, which must have served as tran 
sitional. The molecules drawn together 
through the effect of condensation, which 
itself resulted from the law of attraction, 
combined themselves in such a manner as 
to form solid bodies, and in combining 
themselves they must have produced heat 
and light. Nevertheless, the principal 
source of heat has been the condensation 
itself of the nebula, condensation which, 
by continuing before our eyes in the sun, 
makes of this central astral sphere the 
radiant heat-giver which sustains life upon 
our planet. 

Much smaller than the sun, the earth 
necessarily passed more quickly through 
the diverse phases through which it seems 
every heavenly body is called upon to 
pass. Like its satellite, the moon, which 
had become detached from its still gaseous 
mass, our globe needed only a relatively 
short time to transform itself from a 
simple nebula into a luminous sun, and 
from a sun into a cooled planet, capable of 
being inhabited. To the gaseous state, as 
we have said, succeeded the liquid state, 
and to the latter the solid state. In conse 
quence of the perpetual radiation that was 
produced on its surface, the superficial 
layer became solidified first, so as to form 
a thin crust similar to that which covers 
the currents of lava after a volcanic 
eruption. Often broken at the beginning, 
on account of its thinness and of the 
violence of the internal fire, this crust 
ended by reconstituting, consolidating, 
and cooling itself, so as to permit vege 
table and animal life to develop on its 
surface. Then commences the geological 
era, which we have to describe briefly. 

2. Geological Era. This era has been 
divided in^o three long epochs, called 
Primary (or epoch of Transition), Sec 
ondary, and Tertiarv. Very often geolo 
gists add a fourth epoch, of which the 
actual age is only the extension of the 
Tertiary, called the Quaternary epoch; 
but on account of its short duration, con 
fusion, and absence of precise character 
istics, the latter epoch cannot, by common 



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COSMOGONY 



consent, enter into comparison with the 
foregoing ones. The characteristics of the 
geological epochs are as follows : The 
first has been the era of the vegetables ; 
the second the era of the aquatic animals, 
especially of the reptiles; the third the 
era of the terrestrial animals, and the fourth 
the human era. But without making here 
a course of geology, we shall enter some 
what more into details. 

a. The Primary epoch is also called, as 
we have said, the Period of Transition, be 
cause the grounds which represent it mark 
it as a passage between the rocks of fiery 
origin, which constitute the mass of the 
earthly crust, and the sedimentary rocks, 
deposited at the bottom of the waters and 
often enriched with fossil remains of plants 
and animals. It is divided into five periods, 
which correspond to the successive forma 
tion of the Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian, 
Carboniferous, and Permian strata. Life 
seems to have appeared upon earth at the 
beginning of the Cambrian period, under 
the form of the lowest beings, annelides, 
polyps, graptolithes, etc., belonging to 
the lowest steps of the animal ladder. It 
developed itself in the period following; 
but it is still represented only by beings of 
minute structure, mostly aquatic, the conti 
nents having yet hardly made their appear 
ance. The species which dominates in this 
humble fauna is a family of Crustacea called 
tribolites, on account of the three lobes 
that characterize them and distinguish 
them from the other existing beings. 
However, in the upper part of the Silurian 
stratum fishes appear ; but they are scarce 
and of slight dimensions. The Carbonif 
erous period, which follows, is the most 
important of the primary school. On the 
recently emerged continents, thanks to the 
humidity, the still intense and uniform 
heat, and the carbonic acid abundantly 
spread over the impure atmosphere of the 
primitive era, there develops a luxuriant 
vegetation, whose debris, carried along by 
the waters into the estuaries and lakes, 
gave rise to immense deposits of coal, which 
foster modern industry. When, later on, 
it was represented by plants of a more ele 
vated order, at no time in the history of the 
globe has it been so abundant. This won 
derful vegetation continues, while becom 
ing weaker, during that Permian period, 
which is, so to say, only a prolongation 
of the preceding, although it had its char 
acteristics in certain mollusks which then 
made their appearance. 



b. Four times less extended than the 
Primary period, when we judge it by the 
thickness of the strata which are connected 
with it, the Secondary epoch, divided in 
its turn into three periods, Triassic, Juras 
sic, and Cretaceous, has been essentially 
that of reptiles, and especially of aquatic 
reptiles. Undoubtedly, the mollusks are 
always the most numerous in it, as, witness 
the ammonites and belemnites, which oc 
cupy such a large place in the glass cases 
of our paleontological collections; but the 
cold-blooded vertebrae, the fishes and the 
reptiles, attract the attention still more on 
account of their strange forms or their im 
posing proportions. The reptiles, especially, 
in this period, have dimensions which we 
no longer find in the existing fauna. Such 
are the ichthyosaurus, the megalosaurus, 
animals, more or less amphibious, of the 
Saurian family, which measured more than 
thirty feet in length. Others, like the 
pterodactvl is and the ramphorhynchus, 
had the strange privilege of being provided 
with wings and with the power of flying, 
or at least of maintaining themselves in the 
air for some time. In that time also the 
birds make their appearance. We can rec 
ognize them by the imprints which their 
feet have left on the strands of the period, 
and also by their bones, which, however, 
are very rare. As to the class of fishes, 
which we have seen making their appear 
ance in the Primary epoch, it maintains and 
develops itself during the Secondary epoch, 
especially towards the end, during the de 
posit of the cretaceous layers, without, how 
ever, assuming extraordinary proportions. 

c. The Tertiary epoch, the third of the 
geological times, much resembles our own 
from the point of view of the fauna. It is 
par excellence the era of the earthly ani 
mals. All the families of mammifera are 
represented therein, but none by more 
gigantic animals than that of the pachy 
derms. Aside from the paleotherium and 
the acerotherium, which seemed to fore 
cast our rhinoceros, and aside from the 
hipparion, whose transformation has made 
it the ancestor of the horse, we see the 
dinotherium and the mastodon, "the most 
imposing of the earthly mammifera which 
have lived upon our globe." (Albert 
Gaudry.) The dinotherium attained to 
fifteen feet in height. The mastodon, 
which hardly differed from the elephant 
except by its knobbed dentition, prevailed, 
however, over the latter through its still 
more colossal proportions. 



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216 



COSMOGONY 



d. Finally, in the superficial strata which 
represent the Quaternary epoch, or, if you 
wish, the beginnings of the actual era, we 
find the real elephant, the mammoth, and, 
aside from this, the predecessors of our 
actual species, the rhinoceros, the bear, 
the stag, the horse, etc., and finally man 
himself, our ancestor, whom we recognize 
by the rude implements of stone which he 
fashioned, more than by his bones, which 
are almost always of a doubtful authen 
ticity. 

Such are, in summary, the diverse mani 
festations of life on the surface of the 
globe. In the primary times, there were 
neither mammifera nor birds, but low 
mollusks, crustaceae (tribolites), some 
fishes, the first batrachians, and especially 
a luxuriant vegetation which gave us our 
immense layers of coal. Favored by a 
warm and cloudy atmosphere, which is 
not without analogy to that of our tropical 
regions, this vegetation ended in puri 
fying the air, from which it removed the 
excess of carbonic acid, and perhaps the 
other impurities which until then un 
doubtedly had been an obstacle to the 
direct action of the solar rays. Hence 
forth, terrestrial air-breathing and pulmo 
nary animals will be enabled to live upon 
the earth. They also make their appear 
ance in the Secondary epoch, first under 
the form of more or less amphibious rep 
tiles, for undoubtedly the continents are 
as yet little extended and the air has not 
acquired its definitive purity. Only toward 
the end of the Secondary period do the 
birds appear, whose energetic respiration 
requires an air rich in oxygen ; and some 
of the lower mammifera. Thanks to these 
same conditions, the great terrestrial ani 
mals arrive in their turn to animate nature, 
henceforth ready to receive man himself, 
the last arrival of the created beings. 
This is the Tertiary epoch, of which the 
present era is, so to say, only the contin 
uation. 

IV. ACCORD BETWEEN SCIENCE AND 
THE BIBLE. If we will now go back to 
the first chapter of Genesis, which we 
have given at the head of this article, we 
will find there, instead of an alleged dis 
cord, a striking resemblance to the pre 
ceding cosmogony. To convince ourselves 
of this, let us examine successively each 
of the Genetical days. 

Creation of Matter. The creation of 
matter preceded every other intervention 
of the Deity in the production of the vis 



ible world ; science requires this not less 
than logic. Science proves, indeed, that 
matter cannot be eternal. By teaching us 
that it took successive forms in an uninter 
rupted progress from one to another, pass 
ing from the simple and gaseous state into 
the composite and solid state, it shows it 
to us at the beginning in a state of the 
greatest simplicity. It is impossible to go 
back further than to the beginning of the 
evolutionary period. At this point of the 
past, which, although extremely remote, 
cannot have been infinite, creation asserts 
itself. It is the moment when God 
launched the material atoms into space, 
subjecting them to laws which have formed 
of them our actual world. The ex 
pressions of which the sacred writer makes 
use, seem to indicate that he had an idea 
about the state of matter as it went forth 
from the hands of the Creator conformable 
to that of contemporary science. The 
earth, he tells us, -was unformed and empty 
(Gen. i. 2). "Invisible and without con 
sistency," says the Septuagint. These 
words may be applied to the primitive 
nebula, whose elements were so rarefied 
that it was inferior in density, astronomers 
tell us, to the air that remains in the pneu 
matic machine after the attempt at a vacuum. 

First Day. It was marked by the ap 
pearance of light. Thus it preceded the 
light of the sun by three days. This fact, 
far from being in contradiction with 
science, denotes, on the contrary, in the 
sacred writer an extraordinary intuition, 
which can hardly be explained without a 
special revelation. To speak of light be 
fore pointing out the existence of the 
hearth which is to-day the only source 
thereof, must have appeared paradoxical in 
times of yore, and an ordinary writer 
w o u 1 d undoubtedly never have even 
dreamed of this. It needed the progress 
of modern science to verify the author of 
Genesis. We know now that the sun did 
not need to be the first hearth of light to 
enlighten the earth. 

Geology teaches us that long after life 
had appeared on the globe under the forms 
of vegetables and the lower animals, at 
least until the carboniferous period, our 
planet was surrounded by an opaque at 
mosphere charged with carbonic acid, 
gaseous matters, and watery vapors, which 
an elevated temperature hindered from 
becoming entirely condensed. In conse 
quence of these perpetual clouds, very 
favorable to vegetation when joined w r ith 



COSMOGONY 



217 



COSMOGONY 



heat and dampness, the luminous rays 
emitted by the stars were intercepted, so 
to say, and the earth received only a 
diffusive light. It was only when the tem 
perature had become somewhat lower, and 
when the wonderful vegetation of the car 
boniferous times had absorbed the greater 
part of the carbon with which the atmos 
phere was saturated, that the humble 
inhabitants of the earth could see the solar 
disk and the other stars. Hence it is not 
without reason that the sacred account 
postpones, until this date, posterior to the 
great vegetable manifestation of the third 
day, or of the carboniferous period, the 
appearance of the sun, moon, and stars. 
For, we must not forget, the sacred writer 
does not tell us that these heavenly bodies 
were created on this day. The word bara, 
which signifies to create in Hebrew, is 
used by him only in rare circumstances 
and always with a deliberate intention, for 
instance, for the first appearance of mat 
ter. The word here used, asdh, has evi 
dently not the same force. It signifies at 
most to make, and we have no right to ex 
aggerate or alter its meaning. Let us 
conclude from what precedes, on the one 
hand, that the sun was not the first hearth 
of light that illuminated the earth; on the 
other hand, that its disk became visible 
only quite late, undoubtedly long after it 
had already fulfilled its actual role, a 
double reason why the sacred writer could, 
even had to, in spite of the sneers of the 
last century, mention its appearance long 
after that of the light. 

Second Day. The first day, joining 
with it the period that preceded the appear 
ance of light, must have been of immense 
duration. We can consider this epoch as 
extending from the very creation of the 
elements of matter until the time when the 
earthly crust commenced to form itself. 
Therefore, it comprises the whole time 
during which the earth remained in the 
gaseous state. As to the second day, it ex 
tended from the formation of the solid 
crust to the emersion or appearance of the 
continents, and will comprise not only the 
Azoic age of the geologists, but also at least 
the whole Cambrian period, the first of 
the geological eras ; for there is every rea 
son to believe that the continents did not 
yet exist in this period. At least the ani 
mal and vegetable kingdoms have not fur 
nished us until now with any distinctly ter 
restrial fossil that dates from these remote 
times. We can even, it seems, say the 



same of the first part of the Silurian period. 

Be this as it may, on the second day, the 
Bible tells us, the waters that were above 
separated themselves from those that were 
below. What does this mean, if not that 
the water, maintained until now in the 
vaporous state through the intense heat 
which radiated from the globe, and not yet 
solidified, then became partly condensed ? 
All this is conformable to the accounts of 
science. At the same time that the earthly 
crust became thicker and cooler, the vapor 
ous water evidently must have become 
condensed, and by condensing have formed 
round the globe a continuous liquid mass; 
for if there be here and there inequalities of 
the soil, such as are to be met with in the 
cooled volcanic lavas, there are as yet no ele 
vations or depressions which might merit 
the name of mountains. However, the tem 
perature is still very high, because a part 
of the vapors remains yet a long time in the 
state of clouds high in the heavens. This is 
really the separation of the waters from 
the waters, of which the sacred writer 
speaks ; it is the formation of the atmos 
phere or of the firmament, to use the ex 
pression consecrated by the Vulgate. 
However, the waters become cooler by and 
by and permit the development of life at 
the bottom of the seas under the most 
humble forms. This is the beginning of 
the Primary Epoch. If the Bible does not 
tell us anything of these first beings, it is 
because, buried in the depth of the waters, 
they have played in the history of the globe 
a role which may interest science, but not 
man, generally speaking. 

Third Day. Until now the waters 
covered the entire face of the earth, still 
destitute of sensible life. But behold the 
mountains and plateaus rising and permit 
ting life, until now relegated to the bottom 
of the seas, to develop itself upon the firm 
earth. The earthly crust has become 
thicker. In order to continue to rest on 
the liquid nucleus, which has diminished in 
volume, it bends itself, and these bendings 
form the mountains. This appearance of 
the continents inaugurates the third part 
of the creative work. Upon these freshly 
emerged lands develops, thanks to the 
dampness, heat, and atmosphere always 
saturated with carbon and watery vapors, 
the luxuriant vegetation which character 
izes the carboniferous period. Here again 
everything is rational and conformable to 
the teachings of science. The dominant 
trait of the Primary epoch, like that oi 



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218 



COSMOGONY 



the third genetical day, is, after the for 
mation of the continents, the development 
of the vegetation, which never in any other 
epoch attained a similar exuberance. If 
the sacred writer really intended to seize 
the characteristics of each of the days of 
the creation ; to note down in a few words 
that which would have especially struck 
every spectator who had assisted at the 
slow formation of the world, it would have 
been about the plants, and about the plants 
alone, he should have instructed us, after 
having pointed out the emersion of the first 
continents. Undoubtedly, it was not the 
vegetable life alone that existed in this 
period. Animals of an inferior order, 
mollusks, Crustacea, even some vertebrates 
of the class of fishes, lived concurrently ; 
but, buried at the bottom of the waters, 
these beings passed in some way unper- 
ceived in the midst of the abundant car 
boniferous vegetation. Hence it is that 
some exegetists have wrongfully appealed 
to this silence of the inspired author in 
order to refuse to identify the carboniferous 
period with the third day of the creation. 
Their objection would, perhaps, have some 
value, if Moses attributed the appearance 
of the fishes to another period ; but he does 
not do this. He does not even mention 
them on the fifth day. The aquatic animals 
which he points out at this date are not 
fishes, but marine monsters and reptiles of 
whimsical and imposing forms, a new 
proof that the inspired writer contents 
himself with pointing out at each epoch 
that which constitutes for the mass of men 
the striking and characteristic feature. 
Now, that which constitutes for everybody, 
even for the learned, the characteristic 
feature of the Primary epoch, is evidently 
its vegetation. In view of the mighty 
spectacle it presents, the humble fishes 
that were swimming in the seas of that 
period could be overlooked. 

Fourth Dav. The event referred to at 
this date by the sacred writer, namely, the 
appearance of the sun, moon, and stars, 
does not belong to the domain of geology 
and almost escapes scientific treatment 
altogether. However, it is conformable 
to the accounts of science. It is quite 
natural, indeed, that the air, purified 
through the abundant vegetation of the 
foregoing period, permitted the luminous 
rays emanating from the heavenly bodies 
to reach our planet for the first time. 
Hence it is no longer only a diffusive light 
which the earth receives ; henceforth the 



sun, moon, and stars will be visible, at 
least at intervals. It is undoubtedly in 
this sense rather than, as we have said, in 
the sense of a real creation, that we must 
understand the sacred text. It would be 
contrary to the scientific probabilities that 
all the heavenly bodies should have been 
created at the same time and in this late 
period. Also, as we have seen before, 
Genesis does not speak here of a creation. 
The word bard (to create}, which has thus 
far been employed only once, in regard to 
the first appearance of matter, will not be 
employed any more except in regard to 
animals and man; which is also conform 
able to the requirements of sound phi 
losophy. 

The fourth genetical da\ could not have 
had such a considerable duration as the 
preceding ones. We can place it geo 
logically only between the Carboniferous 
period and the Secondary epoch, the 
former of which clearly corresponds to 
the third Biblical Dav, and the latter to the 
fifth. In fact, the single event to which it 
is devoted, the appearance of the astral 
bodies, must have been almost instanta 
neous; a rent produced in the thick clouds 
that veiled the heavens was sufficient to 
reveal to the earthly beings, yet of so in 
ferior a type, the celestial wonders. How 
ever, a considerable length of time must 
have elapsed before this spectacle, at first 
exceptional and very rare, was offered al 
most constantly to the earth, and this time, 
which constitutes the fourth day, may be 
identified with the Permian period, the last 
of the Primary epoch. The carbonifer 
ous vegetation which then continued, it is 
true, but with less exuberance, must have 
resulted in completing the purification of 
the atmosphere and preparing the way 
for the arrival of pulmonary-breathing ani 
mals. 

Fifth Day. The work of this day is a 
double one ; it consists in the successive 
creation of the aquatic reptiles and of the 
birds. It is something remarkable that 
the Secondary period of geology presents 
to us the same animals in the same order. 
Since the Triassic period, which consti 
tutes the first part thereof, we see appear 
ing various reptiles of the class of the 
swimming saurians. However, the most 
monstrous of these reptiles, such as the 
ichthyosaurus, for instance, appear only 
later, in the Jurassic epoch. As to the 
birds, they have found but little of their re 
mains or imprints, except in the Crcta- 



COSMOGONY 



219 



COSMOGONY 



ceous layers, that is, on the upper part of 
the secondary strata. It is true they are 
not very numerous therein, but they are 
no more so in the periods following. 
This comparative rarity is due undoubtedly 
to the tenderness of their bones, which 
could hardly resist the destructive action of 
time. It is due also, according to Pictet, 
to their specific weight, which being in 
ferior to that of water, prevented them from 
becoming fossilized, as it caused them to 
float on the surface in cases of inundation, 
and thus become a prey to the voracity of 
fishes and of other carnivorous animals. 
Besides it is well to remark that the Hebrew 
word of, employed here, and generally 
translated bird, is not, however, con 
fined to this sense exclusively ; it also signi 
fies flying creature and consequently may 
be applied to winged reptiles, such as the 
pterodactylus and the ramphorhynchus, as 
well as to birds, properly speaking. 

The same remark applies still more rig 
orously to the fishes, whose creation it is 
customary to refer to the fifth day. In 
reality, there is no question of fishes at this 
date, but only of marine monsters and of 
animals which crawl in the water. More 
over, the geological epoch called Second 
ary is remarkable, not only for its fishes, 
but for its marine monsters and aquatic 
reptiles; so that they have called this 
period " the age of reptiles." But one fact 
to which sufficient attention has not until 
now been paid, is that these reptiles are all, 
or nearly all, aquatic. Of the various 
orders which compose this class, a single 
one only, that of the ophidians (serpents), 
has almost exclusively earthly habits; be 
sides, it is not represented in the Sec 
ondary epoch, while the others are abound 
ing in the strata of this age. 

It seems, then, that all the Secondary 
reptiles frequented the seas, lakes, or 
rivers : which is in conformity with the 
Biblical account, which makes the fifth 
day the era of the aquatic animals. Let 
us remark, however, that if they should 
succeed in establishing among these rep 
tiles some land species, the veracity of the 
sacred writer would not suffer on this ac 
count. It would always remain true that 
the marine monsters and the aquatic rep 
tiles have constituted, before and contem 
poraneous with the birds, the striking 
feature of the fifth day, and it would be 
poor grace for us to require from a writer, 
who devotes his pen to great outlines, to 
point out such very small exceptions. 



Sixth Dav . The sixth and last part of 
the creative work undoubtedly corresponds 
to the Tertiary epoch of the geologists. 
According to both the Bible and science, 
this epoch is preeminently the age of the 
earthly animals. Certainly among the 
mammifera, then so numerous, there ex 
isted some species which, like our present 
cetacea, lived in the sea; but, except the 
group of aquatic animals, which appeared 
in the preceding period, they are relatively 
scarce, especially when we consider the 
facility with which their remains ought to 
have been preserved at the bottom of the 
waters. That which dominates in the 
Tertiary fauna, are before all the pachy 
derms and the ruminants. These have 
given to this period its peculiar physiog 
nomy, and it was quite natural for a 
writer, who neglects the details and has no 
scientific pretensions, to concentrate his 
intention upon them. We will not take 
the trouble to enumerate them. To form 
an idea of their importance and of their 
variety, it is enough to glance at any geo 
logical treatise. 

But a still more important work is at 
tributed to the sixth day: Man is created. 
Here there is question of a real creation. 
The expression used is the word bard, 
which signifies to draw out from noth 
ing, and which we have met only twice : 
first in regard to the appearance of mat 
ter, and the second time at the creation of 
the first animal ; a double circumstance 
where sound reason, resting upon science, 
claims, indeed, the creative intervention 
of God. 

A little difficulty presents itself as to the 
subject of the identification of the sixth 
Genetical day with the Tertiary epoch. 
The Bible refers the creation of man to 
the sixth day, while geology shows us 
man only in the Quaternary epoch. We 
might answer that certain scientists have 
pretended to find in the Tertiary layers 
manifest proofs of the existence of our 
species; but their opinion is to-day almost 
unanimously rejected, as we shall see in 
another place. It will be sufficient for us 
to remark, in answer to this objection, 
that the Quaternary epoch has been sepa 
rated arbitrarily, and without sufficient 
reason, from the preceding period. It is 
so little distinct from it, and has such 
weak titles to be placed upon the same 
footing as the great geological epochs, 
that the English scientists have made of it 
a simple appendant of the Pliocene period, 



COSMOGONY 



220 



COSMOGONY 



the last of the Tertiary times, and for this 
reason have called it Postpliocene. 

The very remarkable accord which we 
find established between the Biblical cos 
mogony and the teaching of science has 
struck, as we have said already, many 
learned investigators. The chronological 
sequel of the events is exactly the same in 
both, says Pfaff, in his Schdpfungsge- 
schichte: " The primitive chaos ; the earth 
covered first by the waters, afterwards 
emerging; the formation of the inorganic 
kingdom followed by the vegetable king 
dom, then by the animal kingdom, which 
has for first representatives the animals liv 
ing in the water, and after them the earthly 
animals; man appearing the last of all: 
such is, indeed, the real succession of the 
beings; such are, indeed, the diverse 
periods of the history of the creation, 
periods designated under the name of 
days." In face of a simijar accord one is 
tempted to cry out with Ampere : " Either 
Moses had a scientific knowledge as pro 
found as that of our century, or he was 
inspired." 

The table below sums up what we have 
just said on the manner in which we un 
derstand the identification of the two cos 
mogonies, the scientific and Biblical : 



received the name of concordistic system, or 
system of day-periods. The latter name is 
given to it because, in the days of Genesis, 
it beholds not ordinary days, but periods 
or epochs of indeterminate duration. 

That the day may be taken in this sense 
can hardly be questioned. In English, 
this word is sometimes taken in the meta 
phorical sense with an analogous meaning ; 
but the Hebrew word yom, which they have 
translated day, has a still broader mean 
ing. We have a proof of this in the Bible 
itself, which often uses it in a figurative 
sense. (See especially Gen. ii. 4; Ex. x. 6; 
Lev. vii. 35; Num. vii. 10; Deut. ix. 24.) 
One may ask, besides, how the first three 
days could have been days of twenty-four 
hours. It, is in fact, the sun which regu 
lates the duration of our ordinary days ; 
now, according to the common interpreta 
tion, it did not yet exist at this time. But 
if the first days were not of twenty-four 
hours, why should those following be so? 

It is customary to appeal to tradition 
against the concordistic system. The 
Fathers and Doctors of the Church have 
always, they tell us, taken the word day of 
Genesis in its literal sense. We answer 
that there are numerous and imposing ex 
ceptions to this rule. St. Augustine, St. 



AGREEMENT OF THE TWO COSMOGONIES 



IST SCIENTIFIC 


2d Biblical 


Common Characters 


Epochs 


Periods 


COSMIC . 


Id. 

Id. ) 
Cambrian . > 


First day | 


Creation of matter in the gaseous 
state. Appearance of light. 
Transformation of a part of the 
watery vapors that surround the 
whole earth ; formation of the at 
mosphere. 

Emersion of the continents. 
Kingdom of plants. 

Appearance of the celestial 
bodies. 

Kingdom of marine monsters, 
aquatic reptiles, and birds. 

Kingdom of the earthly animals. 
Creation of man. 


Azoic. 


Third day j 
Fourth day 

Fifth day I 


PRIMARY 


r,-, 1 Lower . . 1 


Silurian j igher j 


SECONDARY < 
TERTIARY < 


Carboniferous . . ) 




Triassic ~) 
Jurassic > 
Cretaceous . j 


Eocene . .... "1 


Miocene ! 


QUATERNARY 


Pliocene f 




Postpliocene . . J 





V. CONCORDISTIC, RESTITUTIONIST, 
AND IDEALISTIC SYSTEMS. i. Concord 
istic System. The opinion which sees in 
the first chapter of Genesis a page of his 
tory and seeks to put it in accord with the 
scientific accounts, as we have just done, has 



Thomas, and many others are of this num 
ber. We may add that if Christian tradi 
tion is divided in this respect, pagan 
tradition is hardly so. The Phoenicians, 
the Persians, the Hindoos, the Chaldeans, 
the Etruscans, etc., believed in the division 



COSMOGONY 



221 



COSMOGONY 



of the creation into periods, and generally 
into six periods of long duration. Does 
this not tell us that we must understand in 
the same sense the equivocal word vised by 
the author of Genesis? We may believe 
that Moses purposely employed a word 
which signified at once a day of twenty- 
four hours and a long period. In any case, 
it cannot be questioned that it was his pur 
pose to make of this divine week the sym 
bol and type of the ordinary week, which 
is really composed of days of twenty-four 
hours. Therefore, we can understand why 
he preferably employed a word which had 
a double meaning, even if he had at his 
disposition another more precise : which 
is more than doubtful. In view of all 
these reasons which we can only allude to, 
the exegetists are evidently free to see in 
the days of Genesis periods of long dura 
tion. 

2. Restitutionist System. The com 
mentators who at the beginning of this 
century had to explain Genesis conform 
ably to the teachings of the rising geology 
hesitated at first to attribute to the day a 
meaning different from the literal sense to 
which they were accustomed. They pre 
ferred to place outside the Biblical cosmog 
ony, between the creation and the first day, 
the long series of the geological ages. 
According to them, after the millions of 
years required by science for the evolution 
of our planet and the formation of the 
earthly strata, a cataclysm should have 
taken place. All life should have been an 
nihilated upon earth, and the Creator 
should have taken up again His work, this 
time in six days, each of twenty-four hours, 
conformably to the saying of the sacred 
writer. This theory which bears the name 
of Buckland, an Englishman, and is still 
called restitutionist or the theory of res 
toration, is to-day almost totally aban 
doned, for reasons which we can reduce to 
three: (i) It is difficult to form an idea of 
a cataclysm which would have overthrown 
the earth so as to annihilate both plants 
and animals, to cause the disappearance 
even of light, and to reduce our globe to 
the state expressed by the terra inanis et 
vacua of Moses. (2) It is repugnant to 
admit that God, who had employed num 
berless ages in organizing the world a first 
time, had gone about the work a second 
time employing some days of only twenty- 
four hours, each. (3) Finally, geology 
nowhere and in no epoch presents traces 
of the supposed cataclysm. It even con 



tradicts this hypothesis in the most formal 
manner; for if it shows us modifications in 
both the fauna and flora of the geological 
times, these modifications are effected 
quite slowly. Nowhere is there an absolute 
interruption in the vegetable and animal 
life. Plants and animals always pass in 
part from one epoch to the following, thus 
showing that there has been no complete 
annihilation in the interval. Therefore, 
from both the scientific and rational point 
of view, the restitutionist system is inad 
missible. 

3. Idealistic System. There is another 
theory which counts a greater number of 
adherents; this is the idealistic system. It 
consists in denying the historical character 
of the genetical account of the creation. 
Moses had not, they tell us, the intention 
of relating scientifically the origin of the 
world. His object was to give to the He 
brew people a religious instruction which 
taught them the existence of a God, Creator, 
and the duties which they had to fulfill 
toward God. Hence, they were truths of 
the philosophical and moral order which he 
wished to impress upon their mind. But 
he did not present them under the didactic 
form, which the people could hardly under 
stand, and which is especially in opposition 
to the spirit of the Orientals ; he had re 
course to a dramatic setting. Taking in 
turn what the Israelites had before their 
eyes, he represented God creating all this : 
heaven and earth, the green fields, the 
seeds man sows, the trees, the animals liv 
ing in the water, upon earth, in the air, the 
sun which enlightens the day, the moon 
which shines during night, finally, man 
himself. Then, as he had to establish a 
positive law, the law of the Sabbatic rest, 
he distributed into the six days work of 
one week the works of the creation. It is 
very probable that it never entered his 
mind to ask how much time it needed for 
God to create the world. This question of 
mere curiosity did not interest him. What 
he aimed at, was to give to his people the 
only teaching that suited them, a religious 
teaching. 

We do not adopt this system. Our pref 
erences are for the concordistic system, 
and the best reason we can give for this 
consists in the wonderful exactitude which 
we have established from the scientific 
point of view in the Biblical account of the 
creation. By refusing to admit the his 
torical character of this account, the ad 
herents of idealism deprive themselves 



COUNCILS 



222 



COUNCILS 



willfully of a great argument in support of 
the inspiration of our Sacred Books; for 
the accord to which they obstinately close 
their eyes does not appear to us to be an 
effect of chance. Is it not an astonishing 
fact that the only three genetical days 
which can be verified by geology, the third, 
fifth, and sixth, correspond exactly, as to 
the characteristics attributed to them, to 
the three great geological epochs? Also, 
who could have taught Moses that the 
world commenced with chaos? that matter 
was in the beginning in such a state of rarity 
that it escaped, so to speak, the sight: 
invisibilis et incompositaf that, later on, 
the water covered the whole surface of the 
globe? that the aquatic animals appeared 
upon earth in the same epoch as the " fowl " 
and preceded the terrestrial animals? 
finally, that the light preceded the appear 
ance of the sun? Would the sacred writer 
have imagined the latter fact, if he had 
had no other guide but his reason? The 
pretended contradictions alleged between 
the Biblical cosmogony and the scientific 
teaching have not the least reality. Who 
ever adheres to the certain teachings of 
geology, and, on the other hand, knows 
the part which imagery and metaphor play 
in the Oriental languages, is forced to 
acknowledge the striking accord of the two 
cosmogonal systems. We repeat it: the 
Bible does not treat on scientific questions. 
This is true; but does it follow from this 
that it can be deceived iri regard to facts 
that touch upon science? Undoubtedly, 
no one would dare to maintain this. There 
fore, let us conclude that if the division of 
the works of creation into six days or peri 
ods may be considered as arbitrary, it pre 
sents itself at least in the chronological 
order. 

Councils (Ecumenical). The word ecu 
menical means -world-rvide, and hence an 
Ecumenical Council is one gathered from 
the entire Church, and having authority 
over the whole. The word general is 
often used as synonymous with ecumeni 
cal, but some writers make a distinction, 
employing general to signify a council 
which embraces the whole of the Greek- 
speaking or the Latin-speaking Church. 
We shall use the two words indifferently. 
A general council represents the whole 
body of the episcopate, and thus cannot 
fail in the faith. The assembly of a gen 
eral council is never absolutely necessary, 
unless we except the possible case of an 



ex cathedra utterance being absolutely 
necessary in order to check some grave 
existing evil, while at the same time con 
sultation with the assembled bishops of 
the whole Church is needed in order 
that the Pontiff may assure himself of 
the truth, and for securing the existence 
of the Church. For the papal authority 
is, absolutely speaking, sufficient to cope 
with all difficulties, whether they touch 
faith or morals, heresy or schism ; the 
Pontiff can teach with infallible authority 
what men are bound to believe, and he 
can make such laws as the occasion may 
demand. No council can do more, for 
the free wills of men are not constrained. 
Occasions may, however, arise when the 
advance of some great evil cannot be 
effectually stayed by the authority of the 
Pope alone, and in these circumstances it 
is in a sense necessary for him to seek the 
moral support of the episcopate assem 
bled in council; but these occasions are 
not of frequent occurrence, and will prob 
ably be less frequent as time goes on, and 
the exchange of sentiments more easily 
facilitated without actual meeting. The 
Church had existed for nearly three 
hundred years before the first General 
Council met at Nice, in 325; and more 
than that period elapsed between the close 
of the Council of Trent, in 1563, and the 
opening of the Council of the Vatican, in 
1869. The right to convoke a General 
Council belongs to the Roman Pontiff 
alone, for he alone has jurisdiction over 
the whole Church, entitling him to call all 
the bishops to meet together. If a num 
ber of bishops come together without the 
papal summons or consent, they do not 
constitute a General Council; but their 
proceedings may subsequently attain to 
that authority, if they receive the ratifica 
tion of the Holy See. 

The general councils, among which is 
not enumerated the one held by the Apos 
tles at Jerusalem, are twenty in number. 

1. The First Council of Nice convened in 
325. Three hundred and eighteen bishops 
were assembled at this Council and re 
jected the heresy of Arius and fixed the 
date of the festival of Easter, correcting the 
error of the Quartodecimans. In several 
respects, the Council of Sardica (343) is 
considered a continuation of that of Nice. 

2. The Jirst Council of Constantinople, 
in 381, proclaimed the divinity of the Holy 
Ghost, against the Macedonians. There 
were 150 bishops present. 3. The Council 



COWL 



223 



CRANMER 



of Ephcsus, in 431, in which 200 bishops 
condemned the heresy of Nestorius. 4. 
The Council of Chalcedon, in 451, in which 
630 bishops anathematized the error of 
Eutyches. 5. The Second Council of Con 
stantinople, in 553, in which 165 bishops 
pronounced themselves against the Three 
Chapters. 6. The Third Council of Con 
stantinople, in 681, which condemned, 
through the mouth of 189 bishops, the er 
rors of the Monothelites. 7. The Second 
Council of Nice, in 787, convened to defend 
the veneration of images against the Icono 
clasts. It comprised more than 350 bish 
ops. 8. The Fourth Council of Constanti 
nople, in 889, where more than 200 bishops 
put an end to the schism of Photius. How 
ever, the schism was revived, and finally 
led to the separation of the Eastern and 
Western Churches. Consequently, it was 
the last General Council held in the East. 
9. First Lateran Council, in 1123, in 
which 900 bishops decided on the abo- 
liton of the investitures of the crosier and 
ring. 10. Second Laferan Council, in 1139, 
in which they condemned the schism of 
Peter de Bruys and the heresy of Arnold 
of Brescia, n. Third Lateran Council, in 
1179, in which they condemned the Albi- 
genses and Waldenses. 12. Fourth Lateran 
Council, in 1215, in which they condemned 
the errors of the Abbe Joachim and the 
heresy of Amaury. 13. The First General 
Council of Lyons, in 1245, endeavored to 
effect a reunion between the Greek and Ro 
man Churches, called the Christians to arms 
against the Saracens and the Mongolians 
and excommunicated Frederick II.,emperor 
of Germany. 14. The Second General 
Council of Lyons, in 1274, attempted a re 
union with the Greek Church, proclaimed 
anew the dogma of the procession of the 
Holy Ghost from the Father and the Son. 
15. The Council of Vienne, in 1311, which 
abolished the Order of the Templars and 
condemned the Fratricelli, the Beghards 
and the Beguines. 16. The Council of Con 
stance, in 1414, was not legitimate at its 
commencement and only became so by 
the posterior convocation of Gregory XII. 
It restored the urfity of the Church ; after 
which Pope Martin V., legitimately 
elected, confirmed the anterior decrees 
of the assembly against the doctrines 
of Wycliffe and of John Huss. 17. The 
Council of Basle (1431-1442), which 
ceased to be legitimate when Pope Eu- 
genius IV. had transferred the assembly to 
Ferrara (1438), thence to Florence in 1439, 



where they concluded the reunion with 
the Greek Church. 18. Fifth Lateran 
Council, in 1512, is not generally acknowl 
edged as ecumenical, but this is erroneous ; 
none of the conditions of legitimacy were 
wanting to it. The Gallicans did not wish 
to acknowledge it, because it had pro 
claimed the abolition of the Pragmatic 
Sanction. 19. The Council of Trent, con 
vened in 1545, and after several interrup 
tions, closed in 1563. It restored the ec 
clesiastical discipline and condemned the 
doctrines of Luther, Zwingle, and Calvin. 
See TRENT (Council of). 20. Finally, the 
Vatican Council, which was opened under 
Pope Pius IX., Dec. 8th, 1869. There 
were present at this Council 769 bishops. 
The work actually completed during the 
first meeting of the Vatican Council con 
sisted of two Dogmatic Constitutions. The 
first, " On Catholic Faith," purposes to 
affirm and define the existence of a super 
natural order as opposed to rationalism 
and naturalism. Its four chapters, affirm 
ing the existence of two orders of truth, 
are on God, the Creator of all things; on 
Revelation ; on Faith ; and on Faith and 
Reason. To these were added eighteen 
canons proscribing the errors at variance 
with divine revelation and faith. The 
second Constitution the "First on the 
Church of Christ," in three chapters, 
treats of the institution, the perpetuity, 
and nature of the primacy of the Roman 
Pontiff; the fourth and last chapter de 
fines the infallible teaching of the Pope in 
matters of faith and morals. On July i8th, 
the Fourth Public Session was held and 
the Constitution, Pastor sEternus, consti 
tuting the definition of Papal Infallibility 
was promulgated. On the same day that 
the Vatican Council defined the dogma of 
the Infallibility, Napoleon III. declared 
war against Prussia. The withdrawal of 
the French troops from Rome and the oc 
cupation of that city by the Piedmontese 
king, Victor Emmanuel, caused the Pope 
(Oct. 2oth) to indefinitely suspend the 
sessions of the Council of the Vatican. 

Cowl. A hood attached to a gown or 
robe, so adjusted that it may be drawn 
over the head or worn upon the shoulders. 
A part of the dress adopted by monks, 
usually of black, gray, or brown color 
varying in length in different ages and ac 
cording to the usages of different orders. 

Cranmer (THOMAS) (1489-1556). First 
Protestant Archbishop of Canterbury. 



CREATION 



224 



CREATIONISM 



Professor of theology at the University of 
Cambridge, he married there, against the 
rules, a first wife, became priest, chaplain 
of the family of Anne Boleyn, whom 
Henry VIII. had already resolved to 
marry, and composed a treatise to justify 
the divorce of the king. Rewarded by the 
gift of an abbey, he was afterwards sent to 
Rome to resume the negotiations with the 
Pope. Through double dealing he ob 
tained the title of great Penitentiary. He 
then went to Germany, to recruit there 
among the principal heads of the Refor 
mation, followers in favor of the project of 
the king s divorce. At Nuremberg he 
contracted a secret marriage with the niece 
of Osiander. On his return he received 
from Henry the see of Canterbury, and 
propagated in England the Lutheran doc 
trine. Queen Mary imprisoned him in 
the tower. He was condemned for the 
crime of heresy, high treason, violation of 
his ecclesiastical oaths, and perished on 
the funeral pyre. 

Creation (making something out of noth 
ing). According to Scripture God brought 
forth the world out of nothing. " In the 
beginning God created heaven and earth" 
(Gen. i. i). The words immediately fol 
lowing: "And the earth was void and 
empty," plainly exclude the use of all pre 
existing matter, and show that creation, 
not formation, is to be understood. For 
if the earth had been merely formless, the 
foregoing words could not signify creation. 
Again, " In the beginning was the Word. 
. All things were made by Him, 
and without Him was made nothing that 
was made" (John i. 1-2). If the Word 
made all things, there was no self-existent, 
uncreated matter. Therefore, the world 
was called into existence by Him, without 
the co-operation of any outside cause, not 
from pre-existing matter, but merely by 
the act of His will. The error of those 
who, adopting the opinions of pagan 
philosophers, believed in the pre-existence 
of uncreated primitive matter, and, there 
fore, acknowledged in God only the Archi 
tect, not the Creator of the world, was 
refuted even by the earliest Fathers of the 
Church (S. Iren. adr. hceres. II, c. 14, 
n. 4). They showed that the greatness of 
God is revealed by the very fact that, 
whereas man can only mold existing mat 
ter, God produces matter itself. And, in 
fact, God s power would be limited if it 
required pre-existing matter for the pro 



duction of things. Hence the Vatican 
Council (de fide, i. can. 5) declares: "If 
any one confess not that the world and all 
things which it contains, both spiritual 
and material, are, according to their whole 
substance, brought forth by God from 
nothing: let him be anathema." Although 
reason of itself could only with difficulty 
attain to a definite and clear idea of cre 
ation properly so called, yet after revela 
tion has once supplied this idea it easily 
recognizes that the world could not have 
originated otherwise than by creation, 
since any other kind of origin is im 
possible. See PANTHEISM. 

The words, " In the beginning God cre 
ated heaven and earth," refer to the be 
ginning of time. The words of Christ are 
still more evident: "And now glorify 
Thou Me, O Father, with Thyself, with 
the glory which I had before the world 
was with Thee" (John xvii. 5). The 
world is not, like the Son of God, from all 
eternity. It was created in time, or rather 
at the beginning of actual time; for as 
there was no real succession of changes 
before the creation of the world, neither 
was there any actual time, since time is in 
conceivable without real succession of 
changes (S. Aug. dc civ. Dei, xi. 6). Also 
the Lateran Creed says that God " at the 
beginning of time created the spiritual 
and the material world." Biblical chro 
nology, however, which begins with the 
creation of man, affords no sufficient data 
for determining the age of the world. For 
it is not certain whether the creation of the 
earth, as described in Genesis (i. i), was 
immediately followed by the first day s 
work, described in the following verses 
(3-5), or whether an interval elapsed dur 
ing which those changes may have taken 
place which are observable in the crust of 
our globe. Nor is it by any means cer 
tain in what sense the six days are to be 
understood ; whether they are days of 
twenty-four hours or longer periods of 
time; or whether, perhaps, without any 
reference to time, they signify the work 
itself. In this latter case, Moses has only 
related how God gave* the earth, which 
He had created, its present form, and the 
different orders of creatures their existence. 
See COSMOGONY. 

Creationism. Opinion of those who 
believe that God creates each soul at the 
moment of conception. Concreationism 
might be a better name, since Pre-exist- 



CREATIONISM 



225 



CREATIONISM 



entianism likewise implies a kind of cre 
ation. Creationism has as its basis the 
independent, spiritual substantiality of the 
soul, from which it argues that the soul 
can be produced only by creation. Human 
generation, in so far as it must be dis 
tinguished from creation, cannot produce 
anything simple. The system further af 
firms that God gives existence to the soul 
at the very moment when it is to be united 
to the body produced by generation, be 
cause it is primarily designed to form with 
that body one human nature. Creation- 
ism is neither more nor less than an ex 
planation of the contents of two Catholic 
dogmas ; the spirituality of the soul and 
the unity of nature in man. The fact that 
Creationism has not always been uni 
versally held in the Church, must be as 
cribed to the difficulty of harmonizing it 
with other dogmas, e. g., the transmission 
of sin, and also with certain expressions 
of Holy Scripture, e. g., that God rested on 
the seventh day. We find it questioned 
only in those times and places in which 
the controversies on original sin against 
the Pelagians were carried on. Doubts 
began to arise in the West, in the time of 
St. Augustine ; two centuries later, when 
the struggle with Pelagianism was at an 
end, we hear of them no more. 

Creationism solves the question of the 
origin of the human soul, but not that of 
the origin of human nature by generation, 
at least not completely. On the contrary, 
it introduces a new difficulty, inasmuch as 
the creation of the soul by God divides the 
production of man into two acts, and 
makes it more difficult to see how human 
generation is a reproduction and commu 
nication of the whole nature, and especially 
of life, and how there is a relation of de 
pendence between the souls of children 
and those of their parents. This difficulty, 
much insisted upon by the Generationists, 
can only be removed by maintaining, not 
indeed the production of one soul by an 
other through emanation or creation, but 
a certain relation of causality whereby the 
souls of the parents are, in a certain sense, 
the principle of the souls of the children. 
Here, as in the coexistence of grace and 
free will, we have two principles combined 
for the production of one effect. In order 
to understand the combined action of God 
and of man in the production of the human 
soul, we must bear in mind that the crea 
tion of the soul, although a true creation, 
is not the creation of a being complete in 

5 



itself : on the contrary, its tendency is to 
produce that part of human nature which 
is destined to give form and life to the 
body and to constitute with it one 
human nature. But as this also applies to 
the creation of the first soul, which was 
not the product of generation, we must 
infer this other circumstance that the soul 
is created in an organic body because of the 
action of the human generative principle. 
So far we have two principles and two 
activities standing side by side and meet 
ing in one common product, but we have 
not yet that unity of the principles, whereby 
not only a part, but even the whole of 
the product may be ascribed to each of 
them. Such a unity is established by the 
fact that each of the principles, although 
producing by its own power only part of 
the product, tends, nevertheless, to pro 
duce the whole product as a -whole: the 
generative principle producing the organ 
ism solely for the purpose of being ani 
mated by the soul ; the creative principle 
creating the soul merely for the purpose of 
animating the organism. 

The following considerations will help 
to illustrate the unity of the combined Di 
vine and human actions. Each of the two 
actions requires the co-operation of the 
other in order to attain its end ; they thus 
complete one another and are intrinsically 
co-ordained for common action. As man 
has received his procreative power and its 
direction from God, and exercises it with 
the Divine concurrence, in the act of 
generation he stands to God as a subordi 
nate and dependent instrument ; not, how 
ever, as a mere tool, because man s genera 
tive power and tendency are natural to 
him, and are exercised spontaneously. 
Whence it appears that the common action 
begins with man, but is supported through 
out and completed by God. The Divine 
co-operation might be called supernatural 
in so far as it is distinct from and superior 
to the Divine concurrence granted to all 
created causes ; but, strictly speaking, it is 
only natural, because it is exercised in ac 
cordance with a law of nature. The pro 
duction of the soul is due not to a miracu 
lous interference with the course of nature, 
but to the natural Providence of God, 
carrying out the laws which He himself 
has framed for the regular course of nature. 

We can now easily understand: i. How 
the human generation is a true generation 
not only of the flesh but of man as a whole. 
2. How a relation of causality exists be- 



CREDENCE 



226 



CREED 



tween the progenitor and the soul of his 
offspring. 3. How the creation of the 
soul by God is not a creation in the same 
absolute sense as the original creation of 
things. 4. How the natural consequences 
of generation are safeguarded. 

Credence. A small table placed against 
the wall of the sanctuary, near the Epistle 
side of the altar, on which are placed the 
cruets holding the wine and water to be 
used at Mass. 

Creed. The Creed is an abridgment of 
the Christian doctrine, and is usually de 
nominated the " Symbol of Faith." The 
word symbol means a sign to distinguish 
things. To the primitive Christians, the 
Symbol or Creed was what the watchword 
is to an army in the field, a sign by which 
a friend may be immediately discriminated 
from an enemy. As the Creed was the 
medium through which the true believers 
were recognized amidst heretics and Gen 
tiles, it became customary to say: "Da 
signum" "Da Symbolum" (give the 
sign), (repeat the Symbol or Creed). 

There are six creeds: the Apostles 
Creed, the Nicene Creed, the Constanti- 
nopolitan Creed, the Athanasian Creed, the 
Creed of Pius VI., and the Vatican Creed. 

I. APOSTLES CREED. That the Creed 
which is attributed to the Apostles and 
bears their name was in reality drawn up 
by them has been ably demonstrated. (See 
Noel Alexandre, Hist, Bed.} This was 
the only Creed in use among the primi 
tive Christians, and for the first three cen 
turies was not committed to writing lest it 
should fall into the hands of unbelievers, 
but was handed down orally. With the 
exception of Tertullian, no author, before 
the reign of Constantine the Great, pre 
sumed to note down this Creed. After 
that period, when the danger of being 
ridiculed by Jew or Gentile had passed 
away, it began to be penned, and first of 
all appeared in the works of St. Athanasius 
and of St. Basil. 

II. NICENE CREED. In the fourth 
century, Arius, a priest of the Church of 
Alexandria, denied the divinity of the 
Word made flesh. To condemn the error 
of this heresiarch, the Church, in the year 
325, convoked a General Council at Nicaea, 
a city of Bythinia. The assembled Fathers 
found it expedient to develop the meaning 
of the second article of the Apostles Creed 
by a more copious explanation of its sense 
and doctrine. The exposition of the coun 



cil was ingrafted on the Apostolic Symbol, 
which, along with the verbal addition, ac 
quired a new denomination, and came to 
be entitled the Symbol of Nicaea, or 
Nicene Creed. 

III. CONSTANTINOPOLITAN CREED. A 
short time afterwards, Macedonius, Bishop 
of Constantinople, impugned the divinity 
of the Holy Ghost. The Church was again 
obliged to call a General Council, which 
met at Constantinople in the year 381, and 
delivered to the Faithful the general belief 
upon this litigated article of faith. The 
explanation furnished by the council was 
appended to the Nicene Creed, and this 
second enlargement of the Symbol of the 
Apostles was called the Creed of Con 
stantinople. 

IV. ATHANASIAN CREED. About this 
time a multitude of innovators attempted 
to pollute the pure stream of Apostolic doc 
trine by commingling with it their errors 
concerning the essence and properties of 
Christ s humanity. There were in the 
Church many zealous pastors, who arose 
to guard the fountain stream of faith from 
such contaminations, and among them, 
the unknown author of that Creed which 
was immediately recognized as so ortho 
dox and so beautiful, that it was commonly 
attributed to the most celebrated champion 
of the faith, St. Athanasius, and still passes 
under his name, though ascertained not to 
be his production. 

The Creed which is now repeated in 
Liturgy, is in reality the Creed, not of 
Nicsea, but of Constantinople. It was 
not until the decline of the eighth century, 
or the commencement of the ninth century, 
when the discipline of the Secret was 
abandoned, that the Creed began to be re 
cited at Mass. 

The Creed is said every Sunday during 
the year, and on all those feasts which are 
in a manner indicated in it, such as the 
different festivals instituted in honor of 
Christ, of His Mother the Blessed Virgin, 
and of the Apostles and Doctors of the 
Church, by whose arduous labors and 
writings the doctrine contained in this 
Symbol of Christianity has been dissemi 
nated through the world. 

V. CREED OF Pius IV. Like the last 
three Creeds, that of Pius IV. so denomi 
nated from the Pope under whose Pontifi 
cate it was framed, suggested by the exi 
gencies of the period, and was drawn up 
to exhibit a summary of the genuine 
doctrines of Christ in an epoch when the 



CREMATION 



227 



CREMATION 



innovators of the sixteenth century were 
employing every expedient to decoy the 
Faithful into error. This Creed is also 
called the Tridentine Creed. 

VI. THE VATICAN CREED. The Coun 
cil of the Vatican, which met in 1869, de 
fined certain points of doctrine especially 
the Infallibility of the Pope speaking 
ex cathedra, and in 1877 Pope Pius 
IX., following the example set by Pius 
IV., added to the Tridentine formula a 
clause expressing acceptance of the Vati 
can definitions. This put the Creed into 
the shape in which it is in use at present, 
supporting the faith of Catholics who re 
joice to be provided with a form of words 
which they can safely trust as expressing 
the truth which they hold. 

It should be carefully remembered that 
in these several successive creeds no new 
doctrines are promulgated, nor is any ad 
dition made to the code of faith delivered 
to the Church by the Apostles Creed, but 
these creeds merely unfold its doctrines 
and present an explanation of its several 
parts in a more precise and intelligible 
manner. 

Cremation (action of burning the re 
mains of the dead). Originally the 
custom of interring the dead in the ground 
was common to all nations, for the most 
ancient human remains that have been 
discovered bear no signs of having been 
subjected to fire. Vaults containing skele 
tons have also been met with, closed by a 
slab of stone. We know that the Jews 
buried their dead; Holy Scripture con 
stantly speaks of the burial of kings and 
prophets. That his corpse should be left 
unburied was a chastisement threatened 
to the transgressor (Deut. xxviii. 26). 
Only during the time of pestilence were 
the Jews allowed to burn individual corpses 
(Amos vi. 10). The Romans in earlier 
times buried their dead. Cicero tells us 
that their graves were considered sacred, 
and the profanation of a tomb was severely 
punished, even by the loss of a hand. 
Bodies were often deposited in sarcophagi, 
where they were reduced to dust. Pliny 
records that the Romans burned their dead 
only when they feared they might be out 
raged by the enemy. In later times, when 
manners became corrupt, cremation was 
practiced among them. The custom of 
embalming the dead prevailed among the 
Egyptians. It is a noteworthy fact that 
all barbarous nations, who, in an uncivilized 



state, burned their dead, substituted the 
grave for the funeral pyre as soon as civi 
lization shed its light in their land. 
Christianity did, in fact, abolish cremation. 
But in these days, when Christian faith is 
on the decrease, cremation is once more 
becoming the fashion. St. Augustine de 
nounces the practice as horrible and bar 
barous. It offends our Christian instincts. 
For we are taught to regard death as a 
sleep; the dead sleep in Christ (I. Cor. 
xv. 18), for they will rise again; they are 
laid to rest in peace, and the idea of the re 
pose which they enjoy is connected with the 
churchyard, not with the crematorium. 
When we commit our dead to the kindly 
earth, we tacitly express our belie! that 
our body is like a seed, which is cast into 
the ground to germinate and spring up. 
" It is sown in corruption, it is raised in 
incorruption" (I. Cor. xv. 42). As Chris 
tians, we have a higher esteem for the soul, 
which partakes of the divine nature, and 
consequently for the body, which is the 
servant and tool of the soul. No true 
Christian can fail to shrink from the hor 
rors of cremation ; only those who are lost 
to all sense of the dignity of human 
nature, to all belief in the truths of re 
ligion, can desire it for themselves. Let 
us remember that Christ, our great Ex 
emplar, was laid in the tomb and rose 
again. For pagans such considerations 
naturally had no weight; they disliked the 
sight of the sepulchre, the mound raised 
over the dead, because it reminded them 
of death, which would put an end to their 
earthly enjoyments. For the same reason 
in our own day infidels advocate cremation. 
Burial suggests to them too strongly the 
immortality of the soul, whereas cremation 
appears to promise the annihilation that 
they desire as their portion after death. 
Yet let no one imagine that the Christian 
dreads the destruction of the body by fire 
as an impediment to its future resurrection, 
for God can effect the reintegration of the 
body after it has been dissolved into 
gaseous elements. In the interest of jus 
tice destruction of the body by fire is 
highly reprehensible, since, if a body is 
buried it can afterwards be inspected if this 
is necessary for the detection of crime, such 
as murder. By this means many a mur 
derer has been brought to justice; after 
cremation this is impossible. Those, there 
fore, who speak in favor of cremation 
befriend criminals, inasmuch as they aid 
in the removal of all traces of their crime. 



CRIB 



228 



CROSS 



Crib. A representation of the manger 
at Bethlehem, ai.d exhibited in many 
churches throughout the world from 
Christmas to Epiphany. The effect is 
generally heightened by a figure in the 
crib of the Child Jesus, by figures of an 
gels, of the shepherds, of the Magi, etc. As 
a subject of popular devotion it owes its 
origin to St. Francis of Assisi, in the early 
part of the thirteenth century. In the Li- 
berian basilica, at Rome, is preserved the 
crib in which Christ was born. It was 
brought from Bethlehem in the seventh 
century. 

Crosier. See STAFF. 

Cross. A structure consisting essen 
tially of an upright and a crosspiece, an 
ciently used as a gibbet for execution by 
crucifixion, now, in various reduced repre 
sentative forms, as symbolic of the Christian 
faith. There are four principal forms of 
the cross: i. The Latin cross, crux imissa 
or capitata (the form supposed to have 
been used in the crucifixion of Christ), 
in which the upright is longer than the 
transverse beam, and is crossed by it near 
the top. 2. The crux decussata (decussate 
cross), or St. Andrew s cross, made in the 
form of an X. 3. The crux comissa, or St. 
Anthony s cross, made in the form of a T. 
4. The Greek cross, an upright crossed in 
the middle at right angles by a beam of the 
same length. The other forms are, for 
the most part, inventions for ecclesiastical, 
hierarchic, or similar objects. 

That the primitive Christians were ex 
emplary in the reverence which they mani 
fested towards the cross may be gathered 
from a variety of sources. According to 
Tertullian they were denominated by the 
pagans, " Crucis reh giosi," or, "devout to 
wards the cross." Among the fragments 
of early Christian antiquities which are 
still preserved, we recognize splendid testi 
monials of this respect. In the Christian 
cemeteries, scarcely one sepulchral monu 
ment has been discovered, \vhich does not 
bear the monogram of Christ, arranged in 
the form of a cross. The rings that have 
been found in these tombs display the same 
emblem, and the fresco paintings perpetu 
ally exhibit the same holy sign. That it 
was customary with the primitive Chris 
tians to wear about their persons crosses 
made of gold and silver, or of wood, is evi 
dent from the incident which led to the 
martyrdom of St. Orestes, a soldier in the 
Roman legions during the reign of Diocle 



tian. Orestes was distinguished in his 
cohort for his agility in every martial ex 
ercise, and in particular for the precision 
with which he cast the disc. Once, as he 
was displaying his activity in presence of 
his commander Lysias, a cross which the 
Christian soldier wore around his neck by 
accident escaped from between the folds of 
his garment, where it lay concealed, and 
proclaimed the religion of Orestes, whose 
resolute refusal to sacrifice in honor of the 
gods, was crowned with martyrdom. 

Cross (Congregation of the Holy). A 
religious order, founded in France imme 
diately after the Revolution, and approved 
by the Holy See as an educational body. 
Was introduced into the United States in 
1814 by Father Sorin (died in 1892). Besides 
the Mother House at Notre Dame, near 
South Bend, Indiana, it has more than 
twenty houses scattered throughout the 
United States. The most important edu 
cational establishments of the order are the 
University of Notre Dame, near South 
Bend, Indiana, St. Mary s College, at 
Galveston, Texas, and the lately erected 
College in Washington, D. C., connected 
with the Catholic University. 

Cross (Daughters of the) (also called 
"Sisters of St. Andrew"). A teaching 
and hospitaler congregation, founded in 
1806 by Madame Elisabeth Richier des 
Ages, with the assistance of Abb6 Andrew 
Hubert Fournet, Vicar-general of Poitiers. 
Destined particularly for the gratuitous 
instruction of children, this congregation, 
whose Mother House is at Puye, near 
Poitiers, comprises to-day several thou 
sands of religious, and has many provincial 
houses throughout France. 2. Daughters 
of the Cross. Young women living in 
community, whose occupation is to con 
duct Christian schools and to instruct 
young girls. Their Institute was founded 
at Roye, in Picardy, in the year 1625. 

Cross (Finding of t/ie}.St. Helena, 
having gone to Jerusalem, ordered the de 
struction of a temple of Venus, built over 
the tomb of Christ. Then, upon excavat 
ing to a great depth, the holy Sepulchre, 
and near it three crosses, also the nails 
which had pierced our Saviour s body, 
and the title which had been affixed to 
His cross, were found (326). The true 
Cross was recognized by the miracles 
which it wrought. St. Helena sent a part 



CROSS 



229 



CRUSADES 



of the Cross to Constantinople and left 
the other part at Jerusalem, where it was 
encased in a silver box and preserved 
in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, which 
had been erected on the spot of the dis 
covery (335). The Church has consecrated 
this event by the institution of the feast of 
the " Finding of the Holy Cross," which 
is celebrated on May 3d. Chosroes II., 
king of Persia, having taken Jerusalem, 
carried off the relic (614), which was recap 
tured fourteen years later, under Siroes, 
his son and successor, by the Emperor 
Heraclius (629). Both the Greek and the 
Latin Church still celebrate this victory, 
on September i4th, by the feast of the 
" Exaltation of the Cross." 

Cross (Sign of the). By making the 
sign of the Cross, we express the con 
viction that our hopes of a joyful resurrec 
tion., and of the happiness of eternal life, 
are founded solely on the merits of Jesus 
Christ crucified. The custom of making 
the sign of the Cross dates from the earli 
est times of Christianity. Tertullian, writ 
ing about the year 202, observes : " At 
every step and movement, whenever we 
come in or go out, when we dress our 
selves, or prepare to go abroad, at the bath, 
at table, when lights are brought in, 
on lying, or sitting down; whatever we 
be doing, we make the sign of the Cross 
upon our foreheads " (Liber de Corona 
Militis, c. iii.). St. John Chrysostom, 
Archbishop of Constantinople (398-407), 
thus addressed his auditors : " Everywhere 
is the symbol of the Cross present to us. 
On this account we paint and sculpture it on 
our houses, our walls, and our windows, we 
trace it on our brows, and we studiously 
imprint it on our souls and minds" 
(Ecloga de veneranda Cruce). Similar 
testimonials are furnished by other Fathers. 
We make the sign of the Cross, because it 
was by the Cross that Christ became " our 
peace . . . and hath reconciled us to God 
in one body by the Cross, killing the en 
mities in Himself, and coming He preached 
peace" (Ephes. ii. 14-17). We form the 
sign of the Cross by lifting our right hand 
to the forehead, and afterwards drawing, 
as it were, a line to the heart, and then an 
other line crossing the former from the 
left to the right shoulder, at the same time 
pronouncing, in order to attach a meaning 
to the action, these words : " In the name 
of the Father, and of the Son, and of the 
Holy Ghost." 



Cross (Way of the). See STATIONS OF 
THE CROSS. 

Crucifix. A cross, or a representation 
of a cross, with the crucified figure of 
Christ upon it. Crosses, with a repre 
sentation of the crucified Christ, seem not 
to have been made previous to the ninth 
century. Upon those made for similar pur 
poses before this date was painted or 
carved at the intersection of the arms of 
the cross, the Lamb, with or without a 
cross-flag, the sacred monogram, or some 
other emblem. The Crucifix, being the 
symbol of the Passion of the Saviour, was 
represented also by the figure of a lamb at 
the foot of the cross. On the top of the 
cross was sometimes attached a crown, to 
express the reward promised to the Faith 
ful who suffer as Christ did. Also a stag 
could be seen at the foot of the cross, the 
stag being an enemy of the serpent, as 
Christ is an enemy of the devil. To these 
various symbols succeeded the picture of 
Jesus Christ on the Cross. 

Crusades. Guided by the spirit of St. 
Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, 
many Christians visited the sacred places 
of Palestine. These pilgrims were sub 
jected to severe hardships and trials, and 
especially was this the case under the rule 
of Seljuk, who, in the year 1072, abused 
and murdered the pilgrims, and ended by 
plundering the Holy City. The object of 
the Crusades was, therefore: i. To secure 
protection for the Christians. 2. To res 
cue the sacred places and guard them 
against profanation and destruction. 3. To 
repel the Saracens, who threatened Chris 
tian Europe. The idea of the Crusades 
originated with the Popes, who directed 
them, and furnished, from the revenues of 
the Church, the means necessary for their 
subsistence. They also granted remission 
of ecclesiastical penalties to all who en 
gaged in the religious expeditions. The 
first Crusade (1096-1099), was set on foot 
by Pope Urban II., at the Synod of Cler- 
mont, where the multitudes, whose en 
thusiasm had already been aroused by 
Peter the Hermit, in one voice cried out : 
"God wills it." The army, headed by 
Godfrey de Bouillion, and other gallant 
princes, numbered from 300,000 to 600,000 
men. On July igth. 1099, they took 
Jerusalem and proclaimed Godfrey king. 
Six other Crusades were undertaken for 
the deliverance of the Holy Land. After 
the fall of Edessa, Louis VII. of France 



CRYPT 



230 



CRYPTO-CALVINIST 



and Conrad III. of Germany, moved by 
the soul-stirring words of St. Bernard of 
Clairvaux, undertook the second Crusade 
(1147-1149). They made a vain attempt 
to take Damascus. The third Crusade 
(1189-1192), was brought about by the un 
fortunate battle near Tiberias in 1187, in 
which 50,000 crusaders were either killed 
or imprisoned. Saladin conquered Jerusa 
lem and seized the Holy Cross. The army, 
headed by Frederick I. (Babarossa), of 
Germany, Philip Augustus of France, 
Richard the Lion Hearted of England, and 
William of Sicily, took Acre and obtained 
freedom for the pilgrims. The fourth Cru 
sade (1202-1204) was chiefly composed of 
the French nobility, and resulted in the 
founding of the Latin empire (1204-1261). 
In the year 1212, 40,000 children sallied 
forth to conquer the Holy Land. Many 
thousands perished by shipwreck, others 
were enslaved. The fifth Crusade (1228- 
1229), under the leadership of Frederick 
II., emperor of Germany, etc., ended in 
disaster. The sixth Crusade (1248-1254) 
was undertaken by Louis IX. of France, 
who took Damietta, in Egypt. Soon af 
terwards, Louis IX. was taken prisoner 
and compelled to leave the territory. Eigh 
teen years later he engaged in another 
Crusade which ended in disaster. All the 
territory, including Acre, was lost to the 
Mohammedans. 

Although the Crusades did not fully at 
tain their immediate object, the entire re 
covery and preservation of the Holy Land, 
yet great and invaluable were the advan 
tages to religion and society which they 
produced, i. The crusaders reawakened 
the faith, slumbering in many, and 
secured its triumph over the rising ration 
alism of the age. These popular expedi 
tions, undertaken in the name of religion 
and humanity, aroused, by the memories 
they recalled, the religious feeling of the 
Middle Ages. 2. They were not less prof 
itable to society, not only by the encour 
agement they afforded to science and art, 
and the impetus they imparted to com 
merce, but also in re-establishing and pre 
serving peace and concord among Christian 
nations. Contemporary writers tell us 
that the preaching of a crusade produced 
everywhere a marvelous change; dissen 
sions were healed ; wars, with their horrors 
and crimes, were suddenly brought to an 
end ; strifes among petty princes and 
chieftains, who were ever quarreling 
among themselves, or with their sover 



eigns, and whose restlessness had, until 
then, brought so many evils on the fairest 
portions of Europe, gradually disappeared, 
and other public disorders ceased. The 
crusades were of the greatest importance 
in preserving the safety of Europe. They 
were from their commencement virtually 
defensive wars, waged to repel Turkish 
aggression, and preserve the Catholic na 
tions from the Mohammedan yoke. They 
preserved Europe for centuries from her 
hereditary foe. 4. Through the crusades 
the institution of chivalry attained its full 
development, as they gave occasion for the 
establishment of new orders which pre 
sented a model of chivalry, and combined 
all the knightly virtues. 5. That the 
clergy derived an increase of power and 
wealth from the crusades, is historically 
untrue. On the contrary, the clergy, from 
the Pope down to the lowest ecclesiastic, 
contributed the greater part of the subsi 
dies levied for the recovery and defense of 
the Holy Land. From those wars, the 
Popes sought no accession of power or aug 
mentation of territory ; they cheerfully left 
to the crusaders the conquered country, 
with the spoils and honors of war. The 
crusades did not and could not add to the 
papal power; but the pre-eminence and in 
fluence of the Pope, which result from his 
office and dignity as head of Christendom, 
were mainly and essentially instrumental 
in setting on foot these vast movements of 
the European powers, for the reconquest 
of the Holy Land. 

Crypt. A vault under an ecclesiastical 
building, as a cathedral, church, etc. , below 
the chief floor, commonly set apart for 
monumental purposes, and sometimes used 
as a chapel or a shrine. The first crypts 
were the subterranean places where the 
Christians concealed themselves to cele 
brate their worship; in the Catacombs 
chapels divided into two parts for the sep 
aration of the sexes and provided with 
arcosolia, tombs of martyrs serving as 
altars. The Roman churches were often 
raised over crypts, where they buried the 
clergy. The examples of crypts later than 
the twelfth century are rare. 

Crypto-Calvinist. One who is secretly 
a Calvinist; a term applied in the six 
teenth century by orthodox Lutherans to 
the Philippists or Melanchthonians, fol 
lowers of Philip Melanchthon. They were 
accused of secretly being Calvinists, be 
cause they maintained the Calvinistic view 



CUBIT 



231 



GUSH 



of the Eucharist, rejecting Luther s doc 
trine of consubstantiation, as it was called 
by them. 

Cubit (a measure used among the an 
cients). A cubit was originally the dis 
tance from the elbow to the extremity of 
the middle finger, which is the fourth part 
of a well-proportioned man s stature. The 
Hebrew cubit, according to some, is 
twenty-one inches; but others fix it at 
eighteen inches. The Talmudists observe 
that the Hebrew cubit was larger, by one 
quarter, than the Roman. 

Culdees (Keledei) (Cel. Ceile De; Lat. 
Cultorcs Dei, that is, servants of God, 
or, according to another interpretation, 
men living in a community). Culdees are 
first mentioned in the history of Scotland 
after the middle of the ninth century. 
They were evidently secular canons, who 
served as chapters to cathedrals. The 
Culdees had the privilege of electing the 
bishop ; those of the metropolitan see of 
St. Andrew asserted the right that, with 
out their consent, no bishop could be ap 
pointed to any see in the country. By 
degrees the Culdees gave up community 
life and lived in separate dwellings ; some 
even took wives. Hence, from the twelfth 
century, the Scottish bishops and mon- 
archs endeavored to reform them; in sev 
eral instances the Culdees were replaced 
by regular canons coming from England. 
In Ireland, Culdees are for the first time 
mentioned at the beginning of the ninth 
century. They continued in the Church 
of Armagh down to the seventeenth 
century. 

Cullen (PAUL). Irish prelate, Arch 
bishop of Dublin, born in that city in 
1803. Studied theology in Italy, and became 
rector of the Irish College at Rome. In 
1849 he received from Pius IX. the dignity 
of Archbishop of Armagh and the rank of 
Primate of Ireland and apostolic delegate. 
He suggested the idea of a Catholic Uni 
versity at Dublin, and caused its realiz 
ation. In 1862, his title, Apostolic Dele 
gate, was prolonged for life. Cardinal in 
1866, and commander of the Legion of 
Honor in 1876. Died in 1878. 

Cultus. See WORSHIP. 

Cummian (ST.). An Irish monk; flour 
ished in the first half of the seventh cen 
tury; was instrumental in procuring the 
adoption by the Irish of the Roman rule 



regarding the celebration of Easter. His 
well known paschal treatise (634), ad 
dressed in the form of an epistle to Segienus, 
Abbot of Hy, gives us a lofty idea of the 
erudition of the author, as well as of the 
solid learning which Ireland could then 
give her priests. He also left a collection of 
penitential canons, entitled Liber de 
Pcenitentiarum Mensura. Cummian died, 
according to the Four Masters, in the 
year 66 1. 

Curate (guardian of souls} . An assistant 
priest to a pastor or rector. Whenever, 
owing to the number of parishioners, one 
rector is not sufficient, the bishop not only 
can, but should, oblige the parish priest 
to associate with himself as many assist 
ants as are required. Moreover, the bishop, 
and not the parish priest, is the judge 
whether or not, and how many, assistants 
are necessary. The bishop can assign as 
sistant priests a proper salary, to be taken 
out of the revenues of the Church. 

Curia Romana. By Curia Romana is 
meant, in a strict sense, only those officials 
whom the sovereign Pontiff regularly 
makes use of to assist him in the govern 
ment of the universal Church ; in a broad 
sense, also those who aid the Pope in his 
capacity of Bishop of Rome, metropolitan, 
or primate. All these assistants are ap 
pointed by the Pope. The persons com 
posing the Court of Rome ( Curia Romana} 
are divided into three classes, designated 
respectively Cardinals of the Holy Roman 
Church, Prelates of the Holy Roman 
Church, and curiales in the strict sense of 
the term. The latter are composed of the 
various magistrates not in prelatical dig 
nity, of advocates and procurators, solicit 
ors and agents, of notaries and all ecclesi 
astical officers who form the cortege of the 
Pope. These various ministers are either 
intra curiam, v. g., cardinals; or extra 
curiam, v. g., legates, nuncios, and similar 
officers. See CONGREGATIONS. 

Cusa (NICHOLAS OF). See NICHOLAS. 

Cush. A name applied in Scripture to 
three countries: i. The Oriental Cush, 
nearGehon (Gen. ii. 13). 2. The southern 
parts of Arabia and the coasts of the Red 
Sea, where Nemrod originated and whence 
the wife of Moses came (Gen. x. 8; Num. 
xii. 12; II. Par. xxi. 16). 3. More com 
monly Ethiopia proper and now called 
Abyssinia (Ps. Ixviii. 31 ; Is. xviii. I ; Jer. 
xiii. 23). 



CUTHBERT 



232 



CYRIL 



Cuthbert (ST.). Bishop of Lindisfarne, 
England, died in 687. Shepherd, then 
monk and prior of the Monastery of Mel- 
rose. Was a model of the evangelical 
virtues, and proved his zeal and charity 
during a plague which desolated all Eng 
land. F. March 2oth. 

Cutheans. Inhabitants of Assyria ; were 
transported into Samaria by Salmanasar 
(IV. Ki. xvii. 24, etc.). 

Cycle (Easter). See EASTER. 

Cycfe (Dionysian). Method of reckon 
ing time and dates, not as the Jews, from 
the creation, nor as the ancient Romans, 
from the foundation of their city, but from 
the birth of Jesus Christ, the Saviour of 
the world. The Roman abbot, Dionysius 
Exiguus, was the first who, in the sixth 
century, introduced this method of dating 
from the birth of Christ. According to 
this computation, which is now generally 
followed, the birth of our Lord occurred 
in the year of Rome 754. But it is gen 
erally conceded that he places this bliss 
ful event from four to seven years too late. 
Christ was born several months, at least, 
before the death of Herod the Great, 
which, according to Josephus Flavius, oc 
curred in April, 750 B. c. From other 
considerations it is more than probable 
that the Nativity took place in the year 
747 or 748. See CHRONOLOGY. 

Cyprian (ST.). Bishop of Carthage. 
Born in the beginning of the third cen 
tury of a wealthy senatorial family; had 
been an esteemed and successful rhet 
orician at Carthage, his native city. His 
high station, as well as his abilities, made 
him the pride of his pagan fellow citizens. 
He was converted to Christianity about 
the year 246, by Csecilius, a presbyter of 
Carthage, whose name he added hence 
forth to his own ; soon after he was raised 
to the priesthood, and, on the death of 
Bishop Donatus in 248, he was chosen to 
succeed that prelate. During the perse 
cution under Decius in 250, Cyprian con 
cealed himself ; maintaining, however, 
from his place of concealment, a constant 
correspondence with his flock. After the 
fanatical frenzy had abated, he returned to 
Carthage, where, between the years 251 
and 256, he held several councils to de 
termine the validity of baptism adminis 
tered by heretics and the manner to be 
observed in readmitting the schismatics 
and those who had apostatized in the time 



of persecution. Cyprian ended his noble 
episcopate by martyrdom under Valerian in 
258. We have his Life written by Pontius, 
his deacon. St. Cyprian has left eighty-one 
letters and thirteen other works on various 
subjects. His letters exhibit an interesting 
picture of his time, and contain much 
valuable information regarding the usages, 
institutions, and doctrines of the early 
Church. Very important is his admirable 
treatise On the Unity of the Church, in 
which he gives a clear statement of the 
Church s organic unity, which he proves 
is founded on the Primacy of Peter. F. 
Sept. i6th. 

Cyprus. The largest island in the Med 
iterranean sea, situated between Cilicia 
and Syria, the inhabitants of which were 
plunged in all manner of luxury and de 
bauchery. Their principal deity was the 
goddess Venus, who had a celebrated tem 
ple at Paphos. Of the cities in the island, 
Paphos and Salamis are mentioned in the 
New Testament. The Apostles St. Paul 
and Barnabas landed here in 44 (Acts 
xiii. 4). 

Cyrene. The chief city of Cyrenaica 
(now called Tripoli), or the Lybian Penta- 
polis. It was a Grecian city, but under 
Roman rule. Many Jews were settled 
there, and they had a synagogue at Jeru 
salem, some of whose members (Acts vi. 9) 
took part against St. Stephen, but others 
became heralds of the Gospel (ix. 20). 
Simon, who helped to carry our Lord s 
Cross, was of this city. 

Cyriacus (ST.) (596-606). Patriarch of 
Constantinople. According to the example 
of his predecessor, John the Faster, he 
took the title of "Ecumenical Patriarch," 
and caused it to be confirmed in a Concil- 
iabulum, in 599. Pope St. Gregory and 
Emperor Phocas were opposed to his 
pretensions ; and even the emperor pro 
hibited by a decree the bestowal of this 
title on other bishops than those of Rome. 
F. June 7th. 

Cyril (ST.) of Alexandria (376-444). 
Father of the Greek Church and Patriarch 
of Alexandria, in 412. He took an active 
part in his uncle s (Theophilus) opposition 
to St. John Chrysostom. He closed the 
Churches of the Novatians. The Jews 
having murdered a certain number of 
Christians, he expelled them from the city, 
and embroiled himself with the Governor 
Orestes. He contributed, also, to the con- 



CYRIL 



233 



DALMATIA 



damnation of Nestorius. St. Cyril has left 
a large number of writings, mostly of an 
apologetical, controversial, and doctrinal 
character, and which can be found in 
Migne s Pat. Lat. IV. and V. F. Jan. 
28th. 

Cyril (Sx.). N ative ofjerusalem; 
Father of the Church; was born at, or 
near, Jerusalem about the year 315. He 
was ordained priest in 345 by Bishop Max- 
imus who also intrusted him with the 
charge of the Catechumens, and in his 
stead appointed him preacher to the people. 
In 350, Cyril succeeded Maximus in the 
see of Jerusalem, and was consecrated by 
Acacius of Caesarea. This Acacius, a 
bitter Arian, soon became a severe enemy 
and persecutor of Cyril, and in 358, pro 
cured his deposition and exile from Jeru 
salem. Cyril was restored by the Council 
of Seleucia, in 359, but, at the instigation 
of Acacius, he was banished again, the 
next year, by Constantius. On the acces 
sion of Julian, Cyril returned to Jerusalem. 
The Emperor Valens, in 367, again 
banished Cyril from his see, and only after 
eleven years was he allowed to return. In 
381, he assisted at the Second General 
Council of Constantinople. He died in 
386, after a troubled episcopate of thirty- 
five years, sixteen of which were spent in 
exile. F. March i8th. 

Cyril and Methodius (Sxs.). The con 
version of the Moravians and other Slavic 
tribes was the work, especially, of Sts. 
Cyril and Methodius, deservedly called 
the " Apostles of the Slavonians." They 
were brothers, born at Thessalonica, of an 
illustrious senatorial family. The mission 
of Cyril and Methodius in Moravia was 



crowned with wonderful results. They 
baptized Radislav, the king, and securely 
established Christianity in his country. 
Cyril invented a Slavic alphabet, called 
after him the " Cyrillic," and, with the aid 
of his brother, translated the Holy Scrip 
ture into Slavonian. Cyril died at Rome, 
in 869, and Methodius, in 885. F. Feb. i4th. 

Cyrillus Lucaris. A native of Candia 
(ancient Crete). Died in 1638. Patriarch 
of Alexandria, then of Constantinople. He 
taught Protestant doctrines in the Greek 
Church, was deposed from the patriarchate 
and banished to the island of Rhodes. 
Recalled a few years afterwards, he pub 
lished Catechisms and Confessions of 
Faith filled with errors. Finally, driven 
away and restored seven or eight times, he 
was strangled by order of the Great Lord. 

Cyrinus, or Cyrenius, Quirinius. Suc 
cessor to Quintilius Varus in the govern 
ment of Syria, about the year A. D. 10. 
See CHRONOLOGY (Biblical}. 

Cyrus. Patriarch of Alexandria, died 
in 640. Bishop of Phasis (620), Patriarch 
of Alexandria (630), fell into the errors of 
the Monothelites. His writings were con 
demned by the Council of Lateran (649), 
and in the Sixth General Council (680). 

Cyrus. Son of Cambyses, king of Per 
sia. He aided his uncle Cyaxares (in the 
Bible, called Darius the Mede) in the con 
quest of Asia Minor; and afterwards their 
joint forces captured Babylon and overran 
the Assyrian empire. Cyrus was foretold 
by the Prophet Isaias (xliv. 28 ; xlv. i 
etc.) The Prophet Daniel was his favorite 
minister (Dan. vi. 28). 



D 



Dabir. Royal city of the Chanaanites, 
which was apportioned as the share of the 
tribe of Juda, and afterwards yielded to 
the Levites. 

Dagon (fish). Idol of the Philistines, 
the form of which was half man and half 
fish. Scripture tells us that the Ark of the 
Covenant, having been captured by the 
Philistines and placed in the temple of Da 
gon, the next day the priests found the 
head and hands of the idol cut off upon 
the threshold (Judg. xvi. 23; I. Ki. v.). 



Dalmanutha. Place whither our Sav 
iour went after having embarked with His 
disciples on the Sea of Tiberiades. In 
stead of Dalmanutha, which is found in 
St. Mark (viii. 10), we read in the Vulgate 
(Matt. xv. 39), Magedan, and, in the 
Greek text, Magdala. 

Dalmatia. Province of Austria, on the 
Adriatic sea, capital Zara. It is believed 
that the Gospel was preached in Dalmatia 
in the time of the Apostles, because it is 
said in the Second Epistle to Timothy (iv. 



DALMATIC 



234 



DAN 



20), that Titus, disciple of St. Paul, went 
to Dalmatia. 

Dalmatic. A Church vestment worn 
by the deacon while ministering at high 
Mass. It is a long robe, open on each 
side, and differs from the chasuble by hav 
ing wide sleeves, and instead of being 
marked on the back with the cross, which 
superseded the senatorial latus-clavus, it 
is ornamented with two stripes, that were 
originally the Augusti-clavi, worn upon 
their garments by the less dignified 
among the ancient Romans. It derives its 
name from Dalmatia, the people of which 
place invented it, and was originally a 
vestment peculiar to the regal power, and, 
as such, was adopted and used in pub 
lic, by several of the Roman emperors. 
In the earliest ages of the Church the 
deacons wore a garment called colobium, a 
kind of tight, narrow tunic with very 
short sleeves, and which, in the times of 
the Roman Republic, was worn by the 
more substantial citizens, but afterwards 
became a senatorial robe. In the reign of 
Constantine, Pope St. Sylvester conceded 
to the deacons of the Roman Church the 
use of the dalmatic on particular solemni 
ties, a privilege which was gradually ex 
tended to other Churches by succeeding 
Popes, as we learn from St. Gregory the 
Great (Epistola, CVII). The custom 
of wearing the dalmatic under the chasuble 
was anciently peculiar to the Roman 
Pontiff, but w r as afterwards allowed as an 
episcopal favor to certain prelates of the 
Church. For many centuries, however, 
every bishop has been entitled to assume 
this, together with his other vestments, 
whenever he celebrates high Mass. An 
ciently the dalmatic was white, and its 
stripes were narrow and scarlet, according 
to St. Isidore, and, as may be observed in 
the fresco-paintings of the Roman Cata 
combs, and in the mosaics which decorate 
so many of the ancient churches of Rome. 
The Greek dalmatic closely resembles 
that of the Latin Church. It extends 
farther down the person, and its sleeves 
are closer and longer than ours. With 
the Greeks, as in the Western Church, it 
is customary to employ purple-colored 
vestments during the season of fasting. 

Damasus (name of two Popes). Dam 
asus I. Pope from 366 to 384. Damasus 
appears as the principal defender of Catho 
lic orthodoxy against Arius and other 
heretics. He condemned the Macedonian 



and Apollinarian heresies, and confirmed 
the decrees of the General Council of Con 
stantinople. He was very solicitous for 
the preservation of the Catacombs and 
adorned the sepulchres of many martyrs 
with epitaphs in verse, which he himself 
composed. For his secretary he chose St. 
Jerome, his faithful friend, and induced 
him to publish a corrected version of the 
Bible, known as the Latin Vulgate. Dam 
asus II. Pope in 1047. Raised to the 
Pontificate by Henry the Black, emperor 
of Germany, without having been elected; 
he died twenty-three days after his coro 
nation. 

Damianists. Members of a Christian 
sect founded by Damian, Patriarch of 
Alexandria (569). They formed a branch 
of the Accephali Severians ; admitted in 
God only one nature, but without distinc 
tion of persons. In fact, they called God 
Father, Son and Holy Ghost, but believed 
these three names to be mere denomina 
tions. 

Damianus. See COSMAS. 

Damianus (Sx. PETER) (988-1072). 
Cardinal ; born at Ravenna. He combated 
the corruptions of his time. The Popes 
Stephen IX., Nicholas II., and Alexander 
II. sent him, in turn, into France and Savoy 
in order to reform there the different re 
ligious orders. In Germany, he prevented 
the divorce of the Emperor Henry IV. 
from Bertha of Suza. 

Damiende Veuster (JOSEPH) (1840-1889). 
Roman Catholic priest and missionary; 
was born in Belgium. He devoted his life 
to the welfare of the lepers in the govern 
ment hospital, on the island of Molokai, 
Hawaii, until he, himself, fell a victim to 
the disease. 

Dan (Hebr. lie has judged}. Son of Ja 
cob and of Bala, servant-maid of Rachel, 
born in the year 1788 B. c. Father of the 
tribe of Dan. The tribe of Dan counted, 
when they left Egypt, 62,700 warriors. It 
had for share the lands to the east of Juda 
and of Benjamin ; the Philistines separated 
it from the sea. The Danites established 
a colony in the city of Laish, comprised in 
the share of Nephtali, but occupied by the 
Sidonians, and called it Dan. The city at 
the northern extremity of Israel gave rise 
to the saying, "From Dan to Bersabee," 
which meant from one end of the country 
to the other. 



DANCE OF DEATH 



235 



DANTE-ALIGHIERI 



Dance of Death. A certain class of al 
legorical representations illustrative of the 
universal power of death, and dating from 
the fourteenth century. The drama was 
constructed simply, consisting of short 
dialogues between Death portrayed by a 
skeleton figure, and a number of followers. 
They were enacted originally in churches, 
and by religious orders. After a time an 
illustration was attached to each strophe, 
and these eventually became the chief 
point of interest. Being transferred from 
the quiet convent to more public places, 
they gave a new impulse to popular art, 
and series of scenes founded upon the 
Dance of Death are to be found treated in 
painting, sculpture, and tapestry through 
out Europe. The more ancient name was 
Dance Macabre, a word whose origin has 
given rise to a great amount of dispute 
among etymologists. 

Dancers. Religious enthusiasts of the 
fourteenth century. They were known as 
the " Dancers," from a wild and indecent 
dance (St. Guy s or St. John s Dance), 
which formed the main feature of their exer 
cises. They continued to dance until ex 
hausted, and then fell into convulsions. 
Some derived their origin from King David 
(II. Ki. vi. 14; I. Par. xv. 29), and others 
believed them possessed by the devil. The 
latter opinion seems to have been the 
more generally accepted, for the ecclesi 
astical forms of exorcism were em 
ployed to free them from the possession of 
the evil spirit. They were eventually 
pursued by the Inquisition. 

Dancing. A measured rythmical move 
ment of the feet, usually accompanied by 
some musical instrument. Dancing seems 
to have been originally a religious exer 
cise. The Hebrews celebrated by dancing 
their passage of the Red Sea ; David 
danced before the Ark. The priests of 
Egypt, like those of China and India, 
represent by dancing the movements of 
the stars. Among the Greeks and Romans, 
dancing (saltatio) comprised: the re 
ligious dances, consisting in slow and grave 
movements round altars ; the gymnastic 
and martial dances, serving as prepara 
tion for combat and exciting to chivalry 
(cybistic, spkcristic, pyrrhic, bellicrepa, 
etc.) ; the combined military and religious 
dances, as those of the priests of Cybele 
in Phrygia and Crete, and that of the 
Salians at Rome ; the mimic dances, which 
took place in theatres ; the dances exe 



cuted during festivals by male dancers, 
and especially by professional female dan 
cers, the latter being dressed only in a long 
transparent veil. Dancing in churches took 
place until the twelfth century, and reli 
gious dancing continued to exist in Spain 
until the seventeenth century. Dancing is 
not illicit in its nature ; therefore, we can 
not condemn it absolutely, as though it 
were essentially evil. The holy Fathers 
blame only indecent dances and the abuse 
of dancing. However, even the most de 
cent dances are seldom without danger; 
very often they are more or less dangerous, 
according to the circumstances and dispo 
sitions of those who attend them ; there 
fore, it would be imprudent to counsel and 
approve of them. 

Daniel. Prophet of Israel during the 
Babylonian Captivity. He had the gift of 
explaining visions and dreams; his science 
procured for him the favor of Nabucho- 
donosor, who raised him above the magi 
and the first dignitaries of the kingdom. 
Daniel either retired later on or lost his 
high position, for he had to be recalled to 
the mind of Balthasar when there was 
question of explaining the mysterious in 
scription of the festival. Under Darius 
the Mede, he was again raised to the rank 
of one of the first three dignitaries of the 
State, which caused him to be hated by the 
courtiers, and, consequently, bad treat 
ment, as being thrown into the lions 
den, from which he was miraculously de 
livered. He preserved an elevated posi 
tion at least until the third year of the 
reign of Cyrus. Daniel was a man of ex 
traordinary virtue and wisdom. 

The Book of Daniel is composed of two 
parts : the first, written in Chaldaic, 
(twelve chapters), contains historical facts 
and prophecies ; the second, in Hebrew 
(two chapters), contains the history of 
Susanna and that of Bel and the Dragon. 
The Jews refuse to rank Daniel among the 
Prophets properly speaking, because he 
never lived in the Holy Land. The Greeks 
celebrate his feast on December i7th, and 
the Latins on July 2ist. 

Dante- Alighieri. This famous epic poet 
of Italy and of all Europe in the Middle 
Ages, was born at Florence, in 1265, and 
died in poverty at Ravenna, in 1321, after an 
agitated existence. His Divine Comedy, 
"Hell," "Purgatory," and " Heaven, "- 
is the great Christian poem of the scholastic 
times. It is divided into three parts, of 33 



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236 



DEACON 



cantos each, with a prologue to the whole. 
" Hell " is the vice punished ; " Purgatory" 
is the expiation that purifies ; " Paradise " is 
the triumphant and rewarded virtue. The 
Divine Comedy has been translated into 
English by Gary, Longfellow, Norton, and 
others. "Hell " has remained the most fa 
mous part, but the two other parts are not 
inferior to it, except, perhaps, in the mat 
ter, which lent less to the imagination. 
Dante is one of the greatest poets man 
kind has produced. He can be placed be 
side Homer and Virgil, and above Tasso 
and Milton. 

Darboy (GEORGE) (1814-1871). A 
French prelate. Born at Fayl-Billot, Haute- 
Marne ; shot at Paris, May 24th, 1871. 
Archbishop of Paris (1863-1871). He was 
arrested and assassinated by the Commu 
nists. 

Darby (]OHN). English sectarian, 
founder of the Plymouth Brethren. Died 
in 1882. See PLYMOUTH BRETHREN. 

Darius (name of three kings). i. Da 
rius, the Mede, son of an unknown Xerxes 
(Assuerus) and otherwise of whom not 
much is known. After the taking of Babylon 
by Cyrus he reigned over Babylonia during 
two years (Dan. v. 31 ; vi. iff. ; ix. i ; xi. i), 
and can be identified neither with Cyrus 
himself nor with Darius Hystaspes, but was 
a governor upon whom Cyrus had bestowed 
the rights of a sovereign. Perhaps he was 
the Gobryas discovered in the cuneiform 
inscriptions. 2. Darius, son of Hystas 
pes, the known Persian king (I. Esd. iv. 
5, 24; vi. iff.; Aggeus i. i; ii. i, n). 
3. Darius Codomanus, the last of the 
Persian kings. (II. Esd. xii. 22; I. Mach. 
i. i.) 

Darwinism. See MAN and EVOLUTION. 

Dataria (a papal office). The Dataria, 
so called from the fact that papal conces 
sions or favors are properly dated, and 
the date registered by an official of the 
Pontifical court, is a tribunal from which 
are issued dispensations pro foro externo, 
in matters reserved to the Pope. Hence, 
it is necessary to recur to this tribunal for 
dispensations from public impediments of 
marriage and public irregularities. A car 
dinal is generally at the head of this tribu 
nal ; he is named Pro datarius, because 
the datary is not properly a cardinal s 
office. 



David. King of Israel and Prophet, 
born at Bethlehem, in the eleventh century 
B.C.; died at Jerusalem at the age of 71 
years. Eighth and youngest son of Isai, of 
the tribe of Juda. David was one of the 
most remarkable men in either sacred or 
profane history. His first appearance is as 
a shepherd youth, who alone of all Israel 
ventures to accept the challenge of the 
proud Goliath, and vanquishes him in mor 
tal combat. God led him on to become a 
mighty warrior, the ruler and king of all 
Israel, and the founder of the royal family, 
which continued till the downfall of the 
Jewish State. But, notwithstanding his 
external pomp and power, David is best 
known and honored for his piety, and as 
being "the man after God s own heart." 
He indeed became guilty of great sins ; but 
he humbled himself in the dust on account 
of them, and God forgave him. His royal 
race was spiritually revived in the person 
of our Saviour, who was descended from 
him according to the flesh, and who is, 
therefore, called "the son of David," and 
is said to sit upon his throne. His history 
is chiefly found in the Books of Samuel 
and the First Book of Chronicles. He 
was distinguished as the " sweet singer of 
Israel," and his Psalms are full of ex 
pressions of deep devotional feeling. The 
Church honors David as a penitent saint, 
a patriarch and a Prophet. 

Deacon (a ser cant, attendant, minister). 
The first seven deacons were not ordained 
merely to assist the poor, because St. 
Stephen gave himself up to preaching and 
St. Philip administered baptism. The 
Apostles who had received the plenitude 
of the sacerdotal power, communicated it, 
in proportionate extent, to the bishops, 
priests, and deacons. The latter were as 
signed to the bishops as associates for the 
celebration of the sacrifice of the Mass, 
for the distribution of the Holy Eucharist 
which they carried to those absent, and 
even for a part of the power of adminis 
tration of the dioceses. The ceremonies 
for the ordination of the deacon are very 
ancient; they consist especially in the im 
position of hands, and the presentation of 
the stole and dalmatic. The ordination of 
the deacon is begun with the following 
address of the bishop: "Dearest child, 
who art about to be promoted to the Levit- 
ical order, consider earnestly to what 
grade in the Church you ascend. For it 
is the duty of the deacon to minister to the 



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altar, to baptize, and preach." After many 
prayers, when the moment of ordination 
has come, the candidate goes up to the 
altar and kneels before the bishop, who 
places his right hand on his head, saying: 
" Receive the Holy Ghost, in order that 
you may have strength, and to enable you 
to resist the devil and his temptations. In 
the name of the Lord." Through the im 
position of the hands of the bishop, the 
candidate has now received the sacred in 
delible character of the deacon. He is 
now permitted to stand near the priest at 
the altar, to baptize and preach, and sing 
the Gospel in the Church of God both 
for the living and the dead, and there 
fore the bishop gives him the insignia of 
his office. 

Deaconess (widow and daughter who, 
in the primitive Church, were employed 
in certain ecclesiastical ministries). 
Although women have always been con 
sidered in the Catholic Church as incapable 
of receiving sacred orders, they have, how 
ever, exercised, since the apostolic times, 
certain functions that approached the min 
istry entrusted to the deacons. They as 
sisted the female catechumens at baptism, 
and also devoted themselves to the care of. 
the sick. They were supported at the 
expense of the Church if their personal 
means were insufficient for their mainte 
nance. They were called deaconesses or 
subdeaconesses, episcopals or episcopesses, 
and presbyteresses. 

Dean (an ecclesiastical title). Civil 
officials so called, were known to the Ro 
man law, and are mentioned in the codes 
of Theodosius and Justinian. The title 
was thence adopted for Christian use. In 
the monasteries, for every ten monks a 
decanus or dean was nominated, who had 
charge of their discipline. The senior 
dean, in the absence of the abbot or pro 
vost, governed the monastery; and since 
monks had the charge of many cathedral 
churches, the office of dean was thus intro 
duced into them. Custom gradually de 
termined that there should be only one 
dean in a cathedral, and he eventually as 
sumed the chief charge of its ecclesiastical 
and ritual concerns, especially in regard 
to the choir. He became also general as 
sistant to the bishop. These deans often 
served as deputies of the bishop to expe 
dite matters of minor importance in cer 
tain districts of the diocese. In the course 
of time, the name dean was given to eccle 



siastics placed at the head of a parish. 
These are called rural deans; and it is 
their office to inspect the country curates 
or to transmit to them the orders of the 
bishop. Generally, in European countries 
a rural dean is named for each county. 
According to the Third Plenary Council 
of Baltimore, the bishops of the United 
States are also advised to appoint similar 
deans in different parts of their diocese. 

At Rome, the Dean of the Sacred 
College, who is generally the oldest car 
dinal bishop according to the date of his 
ordination, and the cardinal bishop of 
Ostia, presides at all the reunions of car 
dinals, at which the Pope does not preside 
himself. 

Death (the extinction of life). The 
time of man s probation and merit ends 
with this mortal life. "The dust (shall) 
return into its earth from whence it was, 
and the spirit return to God who gave it " 
(Eccles. xii. 7). Since man s earthly 
career ends with death, his soul, which is 
not of the dust, but created immortal by 
God, returns to God, its Creator and last 
end, to receive its recompense. Hence 
Christ exhorts us to work while it is day, 
before " the night (of death) cometh, when 
no man can work " (John ix. 4). Besides, 
there is no reason to believe that a new 
probation will follow after death. For in 
that case man, who is now urged on to 
virtue by the uncertainty of death and the 
certainty of eternal retribution, would be 
tempted, by the prospect of a new proba 
tion, to indulge his passions in the present 
life and put off his conversion and the 
service of God till after death. 

Debora. Jewish prophetess, judge in 
Israel. Governed the Hebrew people dur 
ing forty years (1396-1356 B. c.). In 1392, 
she assembled the tribes, placed at their 
head Barac, of the tribe of Ephraim, in 
order to throw off the yoke of Jabin, king 
of Asor. The troops of the latter were 
defeated near Thabor, and Sisara, their 
general, was killed while asleep, by Jahel. 
Debora celebrated the victory by a fa 
mous canticle, which is found in the fifth 
chapter of the Book of Judges. Debora. 
Nurse of Rebecca, accompanied Jacob on 
his return from Mesopotamia into the 
Promised Land, died there, and was 
buried at the foot of Bethel, under an oak 
tree, which from that time was called 
"Oak of Tears." 



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238 



DECALOGUE 



Decalogue (the Commandments of God 
and the Church). The Commandments 
of God are called the Decalogue, which is 
a word derived from the Greek, meaning 
ten -words; they are also called the Ta 
bles of the Law, because God gave them 
to Moses on Mount Sinai, engraved on two 
tablets of stone. See the subject COM 
MANDMENTS. 

First Commandment: "I am the Lord 
thy God. Thou shalt not have strange 
gods before me ; thou shalt not make to 
thyself any graven thing to adore it." By 
the first Commandment it is ordained to 
us to acknowledge God with sentiments 
of faith, hope, charity, and religion, ren 
dering to Him that devotion and wor 
ship He exacts from us. Thus faith, hope, 
and charity, are the three theological vir 
tues, and religion (which occupies the first 
rank among the moral virtues), belong 
especially to the first precept of the Deca 
logue. 2d Commandment: "Thou shalt 
not take the name of the Lord thy God in 
vain." This Commandment forbids blas 
phemy, regulates the oath and the vow. 
(See these subjects.) 3d Commandment: 
"Remember thou keep holy the Sabbath 
day." The Church has established the 
worship and celebration of the Sabbath on 
the day of Sunday (day of the Lord), in 
commemoration of the resurrection of our 
Divine Saviour Jesus Christ. Moreover, 
the Church can establish and, in fact, has 
established, feasts for the celebration of the 
principal mysteries of religion, to honor 
the Blessed Virgin, the martyrs and the 
saints. To hear Mass with devotion, assist 
at Vespers and other exercises of piety 
that take place in Church, approach the 
sacraments of penance and the Eucharist, 
listen with respect and attention to the 
word of God, make some spiritual reading, 
visit the sick, relieve the poor, console the 
afflicted, are the principal acts which the 
true Faithful are accustomed to perform 
on Sundays and holy days of obligation. 
Rigorously speaking, the one who con 
tents himself with hearing Mass on Sun 
days and holy days, if otherwise he abstain 
from all servile work, satisfies the third 
Commandment, at least in the sense that 
he does not commit a mortal sin. 4th 
Commandment: "Honor thy father and 
thy mother." According to the meaning 
of the sacred language, the father com 
prises not only the one who, after God, 
has given us life, but also those who, 
according to the order of Divine Provi 



dence, are placed over us in both the spirit 
ual and temporal order. Their power is an 
emanation from God s power. Thus, the 
fourth precept contains the duties of chil 
dren in regard to their parents, and of 
inferiors in regard to their superiors; as, 
by a natural reciprocity, it contains the 
duties of parents in regard to their chil 
dren, and of superiors in regard to their 
inferiors. 5th Commandment: "Thou 
shalt not kill." (See HOMICIDE, ABOR 
TION, WAR, SUICIDE). 6th and gth Com 
mandments: "Thou shalt not commit 
adultery." " Thou shalt not covet thy 
neighbor s wife." These two command 
ments forbid all kinds of luxury, that is, all 
sins against chastity. This offense com 
prises not only fornication, adultery, but 
also the thoughts, the desires, the looks, 
the words, etc., and generally all the acts 
that may lead to impurity. 7th and loth 
Commandments: "Thou shalt not steal." 
"Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor s 
goods." The seventh Commandment for 
bids to injure our neighbor in his property 
by robbery or theft, by cheating, usury, or 
in any other unjust way. And the tenth 
forbids all voluntary desire for our neigh 
bor s goods. See JUSTICE, PROPERTY, 
USURY, etc. 

The Commandments of the Church 
have always existed in teaching, in tradi 
tion, and in practice; but nothing proves 
that they were ever formulated into a uni 
form text until the Council of Trent, and 
this Council itself never gave to them a 
precise form. Father Canisius, a Jesuit, 
was the first who, in his great Catechism, 
Summa Doctrince Christiana, in 1554, con 
ceived the idea of drawing up an abridg 
ment of the religious duties imposed by the 
Church. He reduced them to five. The third 
Plenary Council of Baltimore reduced them 
to the following six : i. " To rest from ser 
vile work and to hear Mass on all Sundavs 
and holy days of obligation." 2. " To fast 
and to abstain from flesh-meat on the days 
appointed by the Church." 3. "To con 
fess our sins at least once a year." 4. "To 
receive worthily the Blessed Eucharist at 
Easter or within the time appointed." 5. 
" To contribute to the support of our pas 
tors." 6. "Not to marry persons within 
the forbidden degrees of kindred or other 
wise prohibited by the Church, nor to 
solemnize marriage at the forbidden 
times." In regard to the sixth precept of 
the Church, we are commanded to con 
tribute willingly, according to our means, 



DECAPOLIS 



239 



DELUGE 



to the support of our pastors and our 
Churches, and of religious institutions. 
St. Paul says : " So the Lord ordained that 
they who preach the Gospel should live 
by the Gospel" (I. Cor. ix. 13,14). For the 
explanation of the other five Command 
ments of the Church, see CONFESSION, 
COMMUNION, FAST, ABSTINENCE, LENT. 

Decapolis (Gr. ten cities). A region in 
Northern Palestine, mainly on the east 
side of the Jordan, mentioned in Matt, 
(iv. 25); Mark (v. 20). Writers do not 
agree as to the names of the cities. 

Decius (Roman emperor) (249-251). 
Decius ordered a most violent persecution 
against the Church, which, in extent and 
severity, surpassed all preceding perse 
cutions. He published an edict, command 
ing all Christians throughout the Empire 
to abandon their religion and to offer 
sacrifices to the gods. The most exquisite 
tortures were devised against the Chris 
tians in order to induce them to apostatize. 
The property of those who fled was con 
fiscated, and they themselves were obliged 
to remain in exile. By the imperial de 
cree, bishops were to suffer death at once. 
Decius was slain in battle by the Goths. 

Decretals. See CANON LAW. 

Dedication (consecration of a church or 
chapel). The dedication of a church is 
a liturgical solemnity performed only by 
the bishop, who consecrates the building 
for divine service to the exclusion of all 
profane usage. It is believed that the 
solemn dedication of churches began 
under the reign of Constantine the Great. 
St. Ambrose, in the fourth century, tells 
us that the deposition of relics in the 
building recently erected, was one of the 
conditions of dedication. The ceremonies 
comprise the sprinkling with holy water, 
special prayers, the anointing of the walls, 
and the double inscription of the alphabet 
(Greek and Latin), which the bishop traces 
on the floor of the church. In the United 
States, most of the churches are simply 
blessed. Feast of the Dedication we call the 
anniversary of the day on which a church 
has been dedicated ; also the feast of the 
saint to whom the church is dedicated. 

Defender of the Faith. A title of honor 
sometimes bestowed upon sovereigns who 
protected the Church in both her temporal 
and spiritual interests. This title was con 
ferred by Pope Leo X. on Henry VIII. 



King of England, in 1521, as a reward for 
writing against Luther. 

Defensor Matrimonii. A clerical officer, 
appointed by the bishop, charged with de 
fending the validity of marriage, whenever 
such cases come before the ecclesiastical 
court. It is his duty to collect and present 
evidence against the plaintiff. 

Degradation, Deposition (terms in eccle 
siastical law). Degradation is an act de 
priving an ecclesiastic of his orders or 
privileges or of both. There are two kinds of 
degradation : the simple or verbal; the 
actual or solemn. By the first, the accused is 
deprived of all his orders and benefices. 
By the second, he is with great ceremony 
stripped of his ecclesiastical vestments and 
ornaments and publicly reprimanded by 
the bishop, deprived of his orders and 
benefices, as in simple degradation, and of 
his various privileges. He remains, how 
ever, a priest, and can, in special emergen 
cies, administer the sacraments. Also the 
degraded priest is not exempt from the 
vow of chastity or from saying his brevi 
ary. Degradation is now resorted to only 
in extreme cases. Deposition debars a 
priest from the privileges and duties of 
his order, but differs from degradation in 
that the latter is always perpetual, while 
the former may be only temporary, and 
consistent with the hope of restoration. 

Deism. System of those who, rejecting 
all revelation, believe only in the existence 
of God. Certain commentators confound 
Deism with Theism, seeking to designate 
thereby only the common foundation of 
all the philosophical doctrines which pro 
fess the belief in a God. But in the 
general acceptation, the Deist is the one 
who affects to limit his belief to the faith 
in a rational, impersonal God, whose attri 
butes and providence he does not seek to 
determine. For him, God is only the 
first cause, the great indispensable mechan 
ism of the world s movement. Deism does 
not push its inquiries any farther, and for 
the most of its followers the immortality 
of the soul as well as the divine personality 
are insoluble problems, about which the 
human mind should not concern itself. 

Delegate. See LEGATE. 

Deluge (the Noachian). By the Noa- 
chian Deluge is understood the inundation 
which took place at an unknown date in 
ancient times, and which, according to 



DELUGE 



240 



D