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THE
ECLECTIC MANUAL
OF
METHODS
FOR THE ASSISTANCE OF TEACHERS
VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & CO.
C INC INN A TI NE W YORK
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Copyright
1885
Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co.
■■■
ECLECTIC PRESS '.
VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & CO.
CONTENTS.
Introduction
PAGE
READING.
I
Chapter I. — Auxiliary Studies
II. — Methods of Teaching .
III.— McGuffey's Primer
IV.— McGuffey's First Reader
V. — General Remarks
VI. — McGuffey's Readers. — Concluded
II
24
32
4i
57
69
SPELLING.
Chapter VII. — McGuffey's Spelling-book
85
WRITING.
Chapter VIII. — Eclectic System of Penmanship
93
ARITHMETIC.
Chapter IX. — First Year
X. — Second Year .
X I . — Arithmetic . — Concluded
105
ii5
131
GEOGRAPHY.
Chapter XII.
XIII.
-The Eclectic Elementary Geography .
-The Eclectic Complete Geography
54 4 623 < m >
145
162
IV CONTENTS.
GRAMMAR.
PAGE
Chapter XIV. — Harvey's Elementary Grammar and Com-
position 177
" XV. — Harvey's Revised Practical Grammar . 188
HISTORY.
Chapter XVI. — The Eclectic History of the United States 207
" XVII. — The Eclectic History. — Appendix . . 227
PHYSIOLOGY.
Chapter XVIII. — The Eclectic Physiology .... 249
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THE
ECLECTIC MANUAL.
IN TR OD UCTION.
THIS Manual is the outgrowth of numerous requests
from young and inexperienced teachers of country
district schools in nearly every part of the United States
for assistance in their work. While it is therefore ad-
dressed particularly to this class, it is hoped that it con-
tains many suggestions which will prove useful, also, to
teachers generally.
During the past few years, there has been a strenuous
effort made in many states to evolve some degree of
symmetry and order out of the chaos in which the un-
graded schools have heretofore existed. Superintendents
have held meetings and discussed methods and the
proper use of text-books ; they have also, in many cases,
issued manuals to their teachers, setting forth the results
of the conferences, and making many valuable sugges-
tions as to the future conduct of the schools. These
manuals, although frequently differing in unessential
details, agree in recommending a definite and uniform
(5)
S- THE ECLECTIC MANUAL.
course of study, and, as far as may be possible, a uni-
formity of text-books in classes.
Wherever these suggestions of the superintendents
have been followed, the schools without exception have
been improved in character. But many difficulties con-
front the inexperienced teacher, regarding which he
receives no aid from the superintendent's manual. Not
the least of these, perhaps, is owing to the fact that he
does not understand how to use his text-books to the
best advantage. In order to use a book properly, a
teacher must know what the aim of the book is ; on
what plan it has been constructed, and in conformity with
what method ; how far its text is merely suggestive, etc.
As the Eclectic Educational Series is used very generally
in the district schools throughout the country, the Pub-
lishers feel themselves called upon to aid in supplying
such information in regard to these books and their
use as will assist the teacher in securing the best pos-
sible results. With this object in view, the following
books of the Eclectic Educational Series have received
full and careful treatment : McGuffey's Revised Eclectic
Primer, Readers, and Spelling-Book ; the New Eclectic
Penmanship ; Ray's New Primary, Intellectual, and Prac-
tical Arithmetics ; the New Eclectic Elementary and
Complete Geographies ; Harvey's Revised Elementary
Grammar and Composition, Harvey's Revised English
Grammar ; the Eclectic History of the United States ;
the Eclectic Physiology and Hygiene.
INTRODUCTIOX. 7
The several books mentioned have been prepared in
conformity with those modern methods of teaching
which are recognized by the most advanced instructors
as the best. It has been the endeavor to show in this
Manual what the method is for each subject, and how it
should be applied. Suggestions as to details have been
given wherever it is felt they will be of service, but they
must be viewed in the proper light, as mere suggestions.
For example, it is by no means desired to convey the
impression that in our opinion the plan suggested for
conducting the opening lesson in McGuffey's Revised
Eclectic First Reader is the only proper plan for conduct-
ing that lesson. The same is true of all similar sugges-
tions : it is not intended that they shall be followed
servilely, but simply be accepted as hints. Each teacher
must necessarily originate his own plan of conducting a
lesson. Originality in this respect is indeed a necessary
element of success ; for the teacher must be able to
recognize the particular needs of his own school, and
must adapt his teaching to those demands. No amount
of suggestions will give this power, nor can any one
teach the knack of imparting information to others. It
is a well known fact that many a wise man is a very
poor teacher owing to deficiency in this respect.
A teacher's success, then, depends very largely upon
natural gifts, but it also depends upon a thorough
knowledge, not only of the subjects he teaches, but also
of the methods and books that he uses. With this
8 THE ECLECTIC MANUAL.
knowledge added to the necessary natural gifts, a
teacher, no matter how inexperienced, may look con-
fidently for good results from his teaching. Without it,
even the most experienced teacher can not attain the
best results. To supply this necessary information in
regard to the books of the Eclectic Educational Series is
the aim of this Manual, and it is issued in the hope that
it will prove of valuable assistance to all teachers who
are using those books in their schools.
The Publishers take this opportunity of expressing
their obligations to Superintendent R. W. Stevenson,
Hon. Thomas W. Harvey, Miss M. E. Thalheimer, Dr.
Eli F. Brown, and J. T. Stewart for their valuable assist-
ance in the preparation of this Manual.
READING
I.
AUXILIARY STUDIES.
THERE are certain studies intimately connected with
reading which should be taught in connection with
it from the first. It will therefore be well to consider
these briefly, and their relations one to another, as well
as to the reading lesson itself, before taking up the
details of the reading lesson proper.
The four important auxiliary studies to be considered
are : Language Lessons, Writing, Object Lessons and
Composition, and Spelling.
Language Lessons. — When the child first comes to
school, he knows how to talk. He learned this art by
associating certain spoken words with certain objects,
attributes, and actions. He imitated the words that he
heard, and thus in time learned to speak. If he has
always heard correct language, his own language will for
the most part be correct, and the errors he makes
through inexperience or imperfect reasoning can be
easily rectified. But the case is different where the child
/tears the same grammatical blunders and inelegant ex-
pressions day after day, at home or on the playground,
and naturally imitates them. These errors can be over-
come only by patient persistence on the part of the
child's instructors. A child of well educated and refined
parents, and one whose associates are cultivated persons,:
will probably have but little use for a grammar at any
time ; but such children are the rare exceptions, and the
(ii)
12 READING.
teacher must prepare to battle against great odds. He
has only the short time that the child is in school to
weigh against the many hours spent by that child under
adverse influences, therefore there is all the more reason
why work in this direction should receive the most
watchful attention. Never allow a grammatical blunder
to pass uncorrected either in a child's speech or in his
written exercises. Above all, the teacher should be
careful about his own language, both as to the choice of
words and the form of expression.
Do not make the mistake of writing wrong forms on
the board, or elsewhere, for correction by young chil-
dren. This may be done with profit in advanced
classes, but it is best that a beginner should never
see a wrong form of word or expression in the school-
room. Correct all bad English instantly and quietly,
but teach only the best, and bear in mind that the best
is nearly always the simplest.
This instruction in language is of the greatest import-
ance to the child. "Just as the twig is bent the tree 's
inclined," and a man frequently bears unconsciously
through life the marks of his early training. Habits of
incorrect speech acquired in childhood become a part of
a man's nature, and cling to him in his old age in spite
of the cultivation of later years.
But language lessons should not stop with the correc-
tion of language ; they should teach, also, the proper
use of the different parts of speech and the meaning of
words. We do not mean the formal rules of grammar,
nor the formal definitions of the dictionary ; but, by
skillfully prepared and carefully graded oral exercises,
practically illustrated, the child's vocabulary may be ex-
tended, and he may be taught to understand and to use
AUXILIARY STUDIES. 1 3
English correctly, — when to use is and when to use are ;
to distinguish between this and that, and these and those,
I and me, who and which, slozv and slozvly, strong,
stronger, and strongest, etc., etc.
Writing. — The reading and the writing of script
should be begun with the first reading lesson. Chil-
dren in the primary classes are occupied but a small
portion of the time in reciting, and it is absolutely
necessary to employ the remainder of their time in
school in some way that will interest as well as instruct
them. In no other way can this time be employed to
better advantage than by having the scholars copy on
their slates, or on the blackboard, both the printed and
written forms of the letters and words learned in their
reading lesson, for in no other way will the characters be
so indelibly stamped upon the minds of the children.
To facilitate instruction in these writing lessons, we
present, on the four pages following, the "Slate Exer-
cises" to be found on pages 61-64 of McGuffey's Re-
vised Eclectic Primer. They will be found invaluable in
this connection, and are repeated here for the benefit of
those teachers who for any reason do not wish to use
the Primer, and think it best to begin with the First
Reader. In these Exercises, the small script letters are
given in the order of their simplicity. They should be
practiced as given in the copy, first separately, and then
in combination, forming a word. It is not intended that
the class should be confined to the exercises presented
in the book. As rapidly as new letters are introduced,
the teacher should form new words, and the exercises
may then be multiplied at discretion.
By the time a child has completed pages 14, 15,
and 16, he should be familiar with all the small script
14
READING.
A UXIL IAR Y S T I T DIES.
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READING.
AUXILIARY STUDIES.
17
E. M.-2.
1 8 READING.
letters. The capitals, given alphabetically on page 17,
and the script figures should be taught gradually, ac-
cording to the daily requirements of the reading lessons.
The copies presented on these four pages may be used
apart, if so desired, simply as writing lessons, and to
employ the unoccupied time of the children, but this
work should by no means be allowed to interfere with
the writing to be taught in connection with the reading
lessons, which should be conducted as follows :
Before beginning work, see that each child is provided
with a slate properly ruled.* It is important, too, that
each child should have a long and neatly sharpened slate
pencil, for it must be borne in mind that this slate work
is preparatory to work in the copy-books ; and it is very
necessary that the first steps should be taken properly,
and that no bad habits be formed. The child must be
taught to hold a pencil in exactly the same way as he
will be taught in future to hold a pen. (See Hand-book
to the New Eclectic Penmanship, page 24.) This is an
impossibility with a short pencil. Moreover, a short
* It is necessary that this ruling be done very carefully, and, to
secure the necessary accuracy and uniformity, the teacher himself
should rule all the slates. The proper form of ruling is shown on
pages 14, 15, and 16. The lines should be scratched on the slate
with some sharp instrument, and care must be taken to make all
lines exactly parallel and at right angles to the side of the slate,
also to make the corresponding spaces precisely equal. A steel
pen from which the points have been broken, leaving two stubs
about one eighth of an inch apart, will be found of much assist-
ance in scratching the lines properly. It is a good plan to rule
the lines first with a slate pencil, and, when you have thus located
them just as they should be, go over the pencil lines with a
scratcher.
A UXILIAR Y STUDIES. 1 9
pencil invariably leads to the bad habit of cramping the
hand, while a clumsy, blunt pencil can be expected to
produce but clumsy work. An intelligent teacher will
look carefully after just such points in order to produce
the best results.
Of course, too great precision in the form and slant
of the letters, or in any of the "fine points" of writing,
is not to be expected of very young children. Let
details go unnoticed at first, and be content with a care-
ful correction of glaring faults in the position of the
body and the limbs, in the manner of holding the pencil,
etc. Little by little, one after another, the errors may
be corrected and good habits formed. Thus, when
work in the copy-books is commenced, tasks will prove
easy and progress will be rapid.
Give each child credit for effort, no matter how crude
the first writing may be. The mere attempt at writing
is meritorious, and it is very important that the child
should not become discouraged at the outset.
Begin the lesson in writing by putting on the black-
board, between a head and a base line, in large, well-
formed script, the first word learned in the reading
lesson, or the first letter taught by the Phonic method,
and let the children try to copy it on their slates ; when
this is fairly learned, take up the next word or letter,
and so on, until the children can write all the words of
the lesson. The children are supposed to learn the
printed forms of these words in the reading lesson
proper ; and, if thought best to do so, the printed forms
may also be practiced on the slates, the children using
their books to copy from.
The teacher should explain that the script forms mean
exactly the same thing as the printed forms, and should
20 READING.
see that this is thoroughly clear to the pupils. Lest
there should be confusion on this point, many teachers
prefer to teach the writing of script only. With a little
care, however, there need be no confusion, and practice
on the printed forms certainly aids to fix them in the
child's memory. Care must be taken, however, to
advance very slowly at first. Do not introduce the
second word until the first is fairly learned. When all
the words are learned, they should be combined, and
a part of the reading lesson for each day should be
written on the slates, and then read aloud.
The script exercises throughout the Primer and Read-
ers are made up of only such words as have preceded
them in print. They present no difficulties, therefore,
except as exercises in writing and reading script. Let
them be used as copies for slate work.
Object Lessons and Composition. — As soon as the
children have learned a sufficient number of words to
make it practicable, have them compose sentences differ-
ing from those found in the book. The review lessons
in the Primer and Readers are constructed entirely from
words learned in preceding lessons, and the teacher can
readily make others of a similar nature. At first it will
be necessary to dictate sentences for the children to
write, or to put sentences on the board for them to
copy, but in a short time the children will be able to
compose their own sentences, and they should be en-
couraged to do this as early as possible, for children
should be led to think for themselves, and not merely to
imitate.
The illustrations of the Readers should be used as the
basis of object lessons, and short compositions should be
written about them. Before giving a lesson of this kind
AUXILIARY STUDIES. 21
to the class, have a talk with them about the picture
that is to be the subject. The field is a wide one, but
much depends upon the adroitness of the teacher in
making suggestions and developing ideas, so as to get
all the good possible out of the lesson.
Long experience shows conclusively that object lessons
are of little or no value except in connection with writ-
ing. The two branches should therefore be taught in
combination.
Do not confine the object lessons to the reader illus-
trations. A collection of familiar objects, such as pieces
of metal, wood, and flowers, felt and leather, etc.,
should be made for use in this connection. Occasion-
ally, let the children select their own subjects for compo-
sition in what they see about them in the school-room
or at home, at churches, art galleries, or museums, or on
their way to and from school. In short, let them write
about whatever interests them. Interest is the mainspring
of this form of study. Encourage it in every possible
way. Stir up a healthful spirit of rivalry among the
children as to who can see the most and describe it in the
best manner. Do not be too strict as to precise forms,
but stimulate freedom of expression. This exercise
trains the observation, gives the child fluency in using
the words he has learned, and is at the same time a drill
in expression and grammar, and in penmanship.
The exercises should be begun as early as possible, —
that is, just as soon as a child, without forcing, can ex-
press an idea in its written form, — and they should be
continued throughout the school course. As the child
takes up successively the studies of arithmetic, geog-
raphy, history, grammar, and natural science, his mind
develops and his ideas broaden ; nothing will assist this
20 READING.
see that this is thoroughly clear to the pupils. Lest
there should be confusion on this point, many teachers
prefer to teach the writing of script only. With a little
care, however, there need be no confusion, and practice
on the printed forms certainly aids to fix them in the
child's memory. Care must be taken, however, to
advance very slowly at first. Do not introduce the
second word until the first is fairly learned. When all
the words are learned, they should be combined, and
a part of the reading lesson for each day should be
written on the slates, and then read aloud.
The script exercises throughout the Primer and Read-
ers are made up of only such words as have preceded
them in print. They present no difficulties, therefore,
except as exercises in writing and reading script. Let
them be used as copies for slate work.
Object Lessons and Composition. — As soon as the
children have learned a sufficient number of words to
make it practicable, have them compose sentences differ-
ing from those found in the book. The review lessons
in the Primer and Readers are constructed entirely from
words learned in preceding lessons, and the teacher can
readily make others of a similar nature. At first it will
be necessary to dictate sentences for the children to
write, or to put sentences on the board for them to
copy, but in a short time the children will be able to
compose their own sentences, and they should be en-
couraged to do this as early as possible, for children
should be led to think for themselves, and not merely to
imitate.
The illustrations of the Readers should be used as the
basis of object lessons, and short compositions should be
written about them. Before giving a lesson of this kind
AUXILIARY STUDIES. 21
to the class, have a talk with them about the picture
that is to be the subject. The field is a wide one, but
much depends upon the adroitness of the teacher in
making suggestions and developing ideas, so as to get
all the good possible out of the lesson.
Long experience shows conclusively that object lessons
are of little or no value except in connection with writ-
ing. The two branches should therefore be taught in
combination.
Do not confine the object lessons to the reader illus-
trations. A collection of familiar objects, such as pieces
of metal, wood, and flowers, felt and leather, etc.,
should be made for use in this connection. Occasion-
ally, let the children select their own subjects for compo-
sition in what they see about them in the school-room
or at home, at churches, art galleries, or museums, or on
their way to and from school. In short, let them write
about whatever interests them. Interest is the mainspring
of this form of study. Encourage it in every possible
way. Stir up a healthful spirit of rivalry among the
children as to who can see the most and describe it in the
best manner. Do not be too strict as to precise forms,
but stimulate freedom of expression. This exercise
trains the observation, gives the child fluency in using
the words he has learned, and is at the same time a drill
in expression and grammar, and in penmanship.
The exercises should be begun as early as possible, —
that is, just as soon as a child, without forcing, can ex-
press an idea in its written form, — and they should be
continued throughout the school course. As the child
takes up successively the studies of arithmetic, geog-
raphy, history, grammar, and natural science, his mind
develops and his ideas broaden ; nothing will assist this
22 READING.
mental growth so materially as the practice of putting
into written words the facts learned and the thought
evolved. Geography, history, and science furnish an
inexhaustible supply of interesting topics ; arithmetic
develops logic, and grammar assists expression. Thus,
composition is a sure index to the intelligent teacher of
the mental development of the child ; whether he has
profited by teaching, and has acquired ideas, or simply
" words, words, words.' In fine, there is no more im-
portant study in the common school curriculum than
that of original composition. Unfortunately, there is no
study which is more neglected.
Spelling has to do with written language only. It
bears the same relation to the written word that pronun-
ciation does to the spoken word; and if there was no
such thing as writing or printing, there would be no
such thing as spelling. Spelling, then, is properly taught
in connection with writing. If taught orally only, it is
of but little use, and while children may appear to make
rapid progress in this department, and be able to spell
difficult and unusual words in a manner wonderful to the
casual visitor at the school, yet these difficult and
unusual words are forgotten, as a rule, as soon as the
drilling process is abandoned; whereas, the aim of spell-
ing is so to drill the child that in his after life, when
school days are over, he can write any word in his vo-
cabulary instantly, without a doubt or a thought as to
its spelling.
If the writing lessons suggested are performed in con-
nection with each day's reading lesson, the child uncon-
sciously learns to spell each word by writing it over and
over again, and if the teacher does his duty in the care-
ful correction of the object lessons and compositions of
A UXILIAR Y STUDIES. 1 3
his classes, there will be no need of formal spelling
lessons in the first years of school work. The spelling-
book has its proper place, and a valuable one, but that
place is not in primary classes. The practice of select-
ing words for spelling from the readers and exercises
should be continued in all grades, even when the spell-
ing-book is used.
II.
METHODS OF TEACHING.
READING naturally presents itself as the first
subject to be taught to young children. It is the
foundation upon which the education is built, the key
that unlocks all other branches of study. It is of the
greatest importance, then, that this first step in educa-
tion be taken in the proper manner and in the right
direction. It is possible, on the one hand, greatly to
interest the little child from the outset of his school life ;
and, on the other, to discourage him utterly, and so
disgust him with study that he presents to us anew
Shakespeare's picture of
"The whining school-boy, with his satchel
And shining morning face, creeping like snail
Unwillingly to school."
Properly conducted, the reading lesson may be made
a source of real pleasure to the child, and at the same
time a well-spring of information on many subjects.
Improperly conducted, it becomes a mere memorizing,
mechanical process, devoid of all interest, and burden-
some alike to teacher and pupil.
While the rapidity of advancement depends largely
upon the natural intelligence of the pupils, the thorough-
ness of the work and the real good accomplished depend
almost entirely upon the intelligence of the teacher and
the method of conducting the recitation.
(24)
METHODS OF TEACHING. 2$
Much has been said and written by experienced
teachers and others as to methods of teaching reading.
The Alphabet, Phonic, Phonetic, Word, and Script
methods, and perhaps others, — all have their warm ad-
herents, who claim that their particular method is the
only method by which reading can be taught properly ;
and yet we know that almost equally good results are
obtained by teachers who use different methods.
No doubt some methods are better than others, and it
is certain that some one well-approved method should
be adopted ; but we wish to warn the young teacher
especially of the danger that the method will become a
hobby unless he is careful, and that thus the end will be
lost sight of in attention to the means. Select your
method, and be consistent in its use, but do not allow
yourself to be bound by laws that will admit of no dis-
play of judgment.
Probably the three most clearly denned and distinctly
different methods are the Alphabet, the Word, and the
Phonic methods. The Alphabet Method is still used in
some of the best graded schools in the country; there-
fore, the Revised Eclectic Primer and Readers are so
prepared as to meet fully the requirements of this
method, should a teacher see fit to employ it. The
printed alphabets, large and small, may be found on
pages 4 and 5 of the Primer, and on page 4 of the First
Reader. The corresponding script alphabets are given
on page 5 of the First Reader. By this method, the
child is first taught the letters, then to combine the
letters into words, and finally to combine words into
sentences. No attention is paid in this method to dia-
critical marks ; and the names of letters are taught, not
the sounds.
E.M.— 3.
26 READING.
The Word Method teaches a child to recognize words
as wholes; and, where objects are used in illustrating- the
first steps, it is sometimes called the Object Method.
This method pays no attention to elementary sounds and
diacritical marks. After a number of words are taught
as wholes, the children are told the names of the letters,
and learn to spell.
By the Phonic Method, the child is first taught the
elementary sounds of letters ; he is then taught to com-
bine these elementary sounds into words. The sound is
first taught, and then the character which represents it ;
the spoken word is learned, and then its written and
printed form. This method pays no attention to words
as wholes until the elementary sounds composing them
are learned.
The Combined Word and Phonic Method first presents
the word as a whole, and after a number of words are
learned in this way, the elementary sounds composing
them are taught, with the characters which represent
them.
While McGuffey's Readers are prepared to meet the
demands of each of the recognized methods, they are
especially adapted to the Phonic Method and to the
Combined Word and Phonic Method, which are the two
methods most extensively used by successful teachers of
primary reading. It is suggested, therefore, that the
teacher select one of these methods of instruction. In
order that both may be fully understood, we give a
rather full description of their different principles and
processes.
The Combined Method aims to teach the child to read
just as he learned to talk. The child, before coming to
school, has learned to associate the spoken word with
METHODS OF TEACHING. 2J
the object, quality, action, etc., which that word repre-
sents. He knows nothing of the component parts of a
word ; he simply knows the sound of the word as a
whole. The Combined Method aims to continue the
child's mental development naturally from this point ; it
utilizes the child's knowledge of the spoken symbol to
teach him to associate the corresponding written or
printed symbol with the object, quality, or action repre-
sented by it.
The Combined Method contemplates the following
steps :
i. The object, or picture of the object, is first pre-
sented to the child, and its name called for ; then the
word is given, and written upon the board. Both object
and word are observed until the child instantly associates
the one with the other.
2. The word is impressed on the child's mind by
requiring him to write it, or to print and write it, over
and over again.
3. Words united into phrases and sentences are
taught in the same manner as single words; that is, the
idea is developed first. The child is led to express the
thought in words, and these words are then presented to
his eye and impressed upon his memory.
4. The child learns to use written words by combin-
ing them himself into phrases and sentences.
5. Words are analyzed, or separated into their ele-
mentary sounds.
6. The child learns the letters or combinations of
letters that represent these elementary sounds.
7. The child learns to combine the letters so as to
form new words.
8. The use of diacritical marks and of the marks of
28 READING.
punctuation are learned gradually by the association of
ideas.
9. Spelling is unconsciously learned by repeatedly
writing the words of the reading lesson.
This order is followed in the detailed instructions for
conducting the first lesson of McGuffey's Revised Primer.
See page 33.
The Phonic Method also aims to lead a child naturally
from the known to the unknown. The primary distinc-
tion between it and the Combined Method is that the
sense of hearing is first appealed to instead of the sight.
Long before a child can speak, he is able to distinguish
sounds. He recognizes the voices of his mother, father,
brothers, and sisters, and distinguishes each from the
others. It is claimed, therefore, by the adherents of
this method, that inasmuch as hearing is the sense which
is first developed, it should be used rather than the
sight in the preliminary steps. The following order of
teaching reading is in accordance with the principles of
the Phonic Method :
1. The child is taught the nature of sound.
2. The child is required to distinguish sounds of
different kinds.
3. The written characters w r hich represent the ele-
mentary sounds of our language are next taught, com-
mencing with the simplest sounds; that is, the short
vocals.
4. The elementary sounds are combined so as to form
written words.
5. Written words are combined into sentences.
6. A few words made up of difficult sounds should
be taught as wholes. The articles a, an, and the are of
this nature; and these are not only taught as wholes,
METHODS OF TEACHING. 2g
but must invariably be taught in combination with the
words following.
Note. — This, it will be seen, is not in conformity with a pure
Phonic method, but it is the course pursued universally by the
best teachers.
7. The children are now required to make the transi-
tion from script to Roman or printed forms.
8. The meaning of words is carefully developed.
9. The use of capital letters and the principal marks
of punctuation are taught gradually, as they are used in
the text.
10. The children are taught to spell orally and by
writing.
11. The children are led to discover the expression
through the thought.
By comparing the several steps of the Combined and
the Phonic methods, we note the following principal
differences :
1. The Phonic Method appeals first to the ear. The
Combined Method, to the eye.
2. The Phonic Method first teaches the elementary
sounds, and then combines them into words. The Com-
bined Method first presents the word, and then separates
it into its elementary sounds. In this step, the Phonic
Method is synthetic ; the Combined Method is analytic.
v
Note. — It will be observed that the Combined Method employs
synthesis later in requiring the pupil to unite the elementary sounds
into words.
3. The Phonic Method teaches the diacritical marks at
the beginning. The Combined Method does not teach
them until words are learned as wholes.
28 READING.
punctuation are learned gradually by the association of
ideas.
9. Spelling is unconsciously learned by repeatedly
writing the words of the reading lesson.
This order is followed in the detailed instructions for
conducting the first lesson of McGufTey's Revised Primer.
See page 33.
The Phonic Method also aims to lead a child naturally
from the known to the unknown. The primary distinc-
tion between it and the Combined Method is that the
sense of hearing is first appealed to instead of the sight.
Long before a child can speak, he is able to distinguish
sounds. He recognizes the voices of his mother, father,
brothers, and sisters, and distinguishes each from the
others. It is claimed, therefore, by the adherents of
this method, that inasmuch as hearing is the sense which
is first developed, it should be used rather than the
sight in the preliminary steps. The following order of
teaching reading is in accordance with the principles of
the Phonic Method :
1. The child is taught the nature of sound.
2. The child is required to distinguish sounds of
different kinds.
3. The written characters which represent the ele-
mentary sounds of our language are next taught, com-
mencing with the simplest sounds; that is, the short
vocals.
4. The elementary sounds are combined so as to form
written words.
5. Written words are combined into sentences.
6. A few words made up of difficult sounds should
be taught as wholes. The articles a, an, and the are of
this nature; and these are not only taught as wholes,
METHODS OF TEACHING. 2g
t
but must invariably be taught in combination with the
words following.
Note. — This, it will be seen, is not in conformity with a pure
Phonic method, but it is the course pursued universally by the
best teachers.
7. The children are now required to make the transi-
tion from script to Roman or printed forms.
8. The meaning of words is carefully developed.
9. The use of capital letters and the principal marks
of punctuation are taught gradually, as they are used in
the text.
10. The children are taught to spell orally and by
writing.
11. The children are led to discover the expression
through the thought.
By comparing the several steps of the Combined and
the Phonic methods, we note the following principal
differences :
1. The Phonic Method appeals first to the ear. The
Combined Method, to the eye.
2. The Phonic Method first teaches the elementary
sounds, and then combines them into words. The Com-
bined Method first presents the word, and then separates
it into its elementary sounds. In this step, the Phonic
Method is synthetic ; the Combined Method is analytic.
y
Note. — It will be observed that the Combined Method employs
synthesis later in requiring the pupil to unite the elementary sounds
into words.
3. The Phonic Method teaches the diacritical marks at
the beginning. The Combined Method does not teach
them until words are learned as wholes.
30 READING.
\
The detailed instructions for Lesson I of the First
Reader are in accordance with the Phonic Method. The
teacher should carefully compare these instructions with
those for conducting the first lessons of the Primer
before deciding which method he will use. It is of
course understood that, whichever method be adopted,
it must be used in teaching both the Primer and the
First Reader.
In the selection of a method, the teacher has simply
to consider by which one he can teach a child in the
shortest time to read simple sentences intelligently.
This is the chief aim in primary reading classes. After
a certain point, of course, no matter what the method,
the primary steps are abandoned as no longer necessary,
and the teacher must then bear constantly in mind the
two main objects in learning the art of reading.
The first object in reading, as we understand it, is to
apprehend properly the thought of the writer; and the
second object, that of oral reading, is to communicate
this thought to others clearly and in the author's exact
words. The word "thought," in this connection, is in-
tended to include, however, not only the exact words
of the writer, but also the mind or soul that inspired
the words. Without the latter, reading is unintelligent
and profitless. The constant care, then, should be to
see that the child grasps the idea fully before he
attempts to express it in words. "Ideas before words'
always, but in no study should this rule be more strictly
observed than in teaching reading. When a printed or
written word, phrase, or sentence evolves a clear idea in
a child's mind, he expresses it naturally ; or, in other
words, he reads exactly as he would speak, and this is
the proof to the hearer that the reader understands
METHODS OF TEACHING. 3 I
what he is reading. This is the chief use of oral read-
ing in the school-room. The teacher must not forget
that oral reading in after years will be very small in
comparison with silent reading ; therefore, the child
should be taught to gather, in silence and with rapidity,
the ideas from the printed page.
III.
McGUFFEY'S PRIMER.
THE use of this book in the series is optional with
the teacher, as the Readers have been constructed
independent of the Primer for the accommodation of
those who are very much limited as to time. It is,
however, strongly urged that the Primer be used where
it is possible to do so. The lessons are shorter and
simpler, and the gradation is less rapid than in the First
Reader ; hence, the first steps are easier alike for teacher
and pupil. The demand for ' ' more primary reading
matter ' is constantly increasing, and there are but few
schools where it will not be a positive advantage to use
both Primer and First Reader.
The plan on which the Primer is constructed is the
simplest and best known. It applies to the First,
Second, and Third Readers as well, and is as follows:
At the beginning of each lesson are placed all the
new words and all the new elementary sounds to be
found in that particular lesson, and no new word or ele-
ment is given in a vocabulary that is not found in the
particular lesson which it precedes. Omissions and
repetitions alike have been carefully avoided in these
vocabularies, and thus the teacher can tell, by a glance
at the vocabulary, exactly what new work is to be
mastered.
The articles a, an, and the, and the simplest words
possible are first presented in both the Primer and
(32)
McGUFFEY'S PRIMER. 33
First Reader. New words are introduced on a carefully
graded plan. The simplest elementary sounds (the short
vocals, etc.) are presented first. The more difficult
sounds, combinations, and substitutes are then gradually
interwoven, and, by the time the Primer is finished, all
the vocals, long and short ; all the diphthongs ; all the
aspirates; all the subvocals except z } as in azure; and
all the substitutes except i for e, as in police ; ch for sh,
as in chaise ; s for sh, as in sure; x for gz, as in exact;
pli for/, as in phlox; and qu for k, as in pique, have
been presented. It will be noticed that these excep-
tions invariably involve words of difficult spelling, which
should not be presented to the child until the end of
the first or the beginning of the second year of his
school course.
Lesson I. — Call the attention of the children to the
two illustrations accompanying this lesson, the cat and
the rat, and engage them in conversation about them.
Such questions as, Who has a cat at home ? What is
her color? Does she catch rats? etc., etc., will soon
awaken interest in the subject.
When the attention and interest of the children are
secured, revert to the illustration in the book, and re-
sume your questioning in some such way as follows:
Teacher. — Do you say that this is a cat? Can it run about?
Can it mew? Can it drink milk? Can it catch mice and rats
like your cat at home ? Is it a real cat, then ?
Children. — No.
Teacher. — Who can tell me, then, what this is ? [Pointing to the
picture of the cat in the book.]
If you do not succeed in drawing out the correct
answer, ask the class if it is a picture of a cat. When
34 READING.
the answer is satisfactorily given, proceed with the next
step.
Teacher. — You say this is a picture of a cat. It is not a real
cat, but when you look at it you know at once that it means a
cat. Who would like to see a picture of the word cat, that you
have just pronounced ? Pronounce the word cat again, all at
once. Now —
Children. — Cat.
The teacher should now place the word on the board.
When this is done, the teacher should resume, pointing
to the word on the board:
Teacher. — There, children, that is the picture that stands for the
word cat, just as this picture in the book stands for a real cat.
How do you pronounce this word? [Pointing to the board.]
Children. — Cat.
Teacher. — Now, who can find a picture of this word cat in the
book ?
As the word occurs several times in Lesson I, call up
several children, and see how many times each can find
the word in the lesson. Be reasonably sure that all in
the class are able to recognize the word at sight before
going any farther.
Next call attention to the picture of the rat, and
follow the same steps until the entire class is familiar
with the word rat also. Then place both the words cat
and rat on the board a number of times, and test the
individual members of the class, seeing that each can
readily pick out the right word when it is pronounced.
Vary the exercise by letting one child pronounce one of
the words for another to point out, and allow the entire
class to correct errors. It will be found that this calling
upon one member of the class to examine another will
add greatly to the interest taken in the recitation.
McGUFFEY'S PRIMER. 35
When the two words are quite thoroughly mastered,
it will be time to take up the combinations "a cat" and
"a rat." Turn to the illustration, and ask:
Teacher. — Of what did you say this was a picture ? Did you
say "picture of cat" or "picture of a cat?"
Children. — Picture of a cat.
[Note. — This is simply to draw out the combination "a cat."
In asking the question do not emphasize the a. \
Write "a cat" on the board, and teach the phrase
as you did the single word; also, the phrase "a rat. ' :
Be very careful, in pronouncing the phrase yourself, not
to give the a its long sound, "a rat," " a cat," and
do not allow the children to do so. The a should
have its obscure sound, as it has in ordinary conversa-
tion, when one says, ''This is a cat; that is a rat," or
as you would sound the a in along, around, about, etc.
This is quite an important point ; and, if neglected, the
children, from the very beginning, acquire a drawling
habit of reading that may take years to eradicate.
Drill the class on the phrases, so that they can readily
distinguish each from the other, and from the simple
words cat and rat.
We now come to the word and. Ask the children:
•' What are these animals we have been talking about?'
If they do not answer as you wish the first time, perse-
vere until they do, and you succeed in getting the
natural answer, "A cat and a rat." Repeat their
answer, and emphasize the and a little. Ask, " W r ho
can tell which word we have not studied? Listen while
I say it again: A cat and a rat." Give the answer in
case the class fails, and place the word and on the board.
Teach it as you taught the other single words. When
36 READING.
it is learned, and all the words and phrases can be dis-
tinguished instantly, it is time to combine the two
phrases, and the children should be able to read them
readily as printed in the book.
At the close of the first reading lesson, however short
it may be made, begin the first lesson in writing as
directed on page 13, and advance to the combination of
written words into phrases and sentences as rapidly as
the progress of the class will permit.
Lesson II. — In this lesson there are five new words
to be learned.
Begin, as in Lesson I, with a pleasant talk about the
illustration. Remind the children of the cat and rat in
Lesson I, and have them point out the cat and the rat
in the illustration of Lesson II. Make up a little story
from the illustrations of Lesson I and Lesson II ; or,
better still, have the children make up a story of their
own.
Ask who can point out the word cat in Lesson II ; the
word rat; the combination "a cat;" the combination
"a rat.' Proceed in the same manner as in Lesson I.
In teaching the phrases "the cat" and "the rat, "
care should be taken not to allow the children to drawl
out, "t-h-e c-a-t, " "t-h-e r-a-t. ' These phrases should
be pronounced as in ordinary conversation, "the cat,"
"the rat," giving the e, in the, its obscure sound.
Write all the words and phrases contained in both
Lessons I and II on the board promiscuously, and test
the thoroughness of the work so far accomplished by
having individual members of the class point out each
word and phrase as it is pronounced by the teacher
or by some other member of the class. Proceed as in
Lesson I.
McGUFFEY'S PRIMER. 37
It is not thought necessary to give detailed instruc-
tion for every lesson in the book. If we have suc-
ceeded in showing- in these first two lessons, and in the
"General Remarks,' Chapter V, the plan of instruction
by the Combined Method, we are confident that any in-
telligent teacher can use it successfully without further
aid.
Lessons III and IV. — These lessons present no diffi-
culties that need farther suggestions, except a new sound
of s in Lesson IV.
The teacher should call the attention of the class to
the difference between this sound of s and the s in Les-
son II. And it may be accepted as a general rule that
whenever a new sound of a letter is introduced, it should
always be compared with the sound or sounds of the
same letter already learned. In this way, the children
will soon become familiar with the force of the diacritical
marks. Always teach digraphs as such, and never as
two separate letters.
Lesson V. — Every fifth lesson in Jhe book (except
the fiftieth) is a review of the four lessons preceding;
and, as far as has been possible, the new words of those
four lessons are repeated in the review. These reviews
are valuable, therefore, as tests of the thoroughness of
the work done, and should be made the most important
lessons in the book.
Hesitation on the part of a number of the class on a
review lesson shows a fault somewhere ; either the work
has been pushed too rapidly, or some one lesson, per-
haps, has not been thoroughly mastered. A little
careful investigation will reveal the trouble, and the defect
can be remedied, and should be remedied thoroughly,
before proceeding with the next series of lessons.
38 READING.
Lesson VI. — In this lesson we have 's, the sign of
the possessive, introduced. Teach its force, and see
that the children fully understand it In succeeding
lessons, it is frequently used when the simple nomina-
tive is given in the vocabulary. The sound of 6 in dog
demands watchfulness. There is a tendency to pro-
nounce this word as though it were spelled dawg. The
words frog y doll, log, God, etc., are similarly mispro-
nounced by many persons. This is not the proper
sound of 6, and the same persons who mispronounce
the above words would never think of giving the same
sound to 6 in such words as fog, got, odd, or hod. In-
sist on the proper sound of 6 wherever it occurs.
Lesson XIX. — We would call attention to the sound
of a in fast. The sound of a is the most commonly
mispronounced of all the a sounds, and the error is
quite common, even among the best educated classes.
Many who know better give this a the wrong sound
through the force of habit and association and the lack
of early trainings The common error consists in giving
a as though it were a, as in fat, for example. How
many of your pupils make a difference in the a sound
in fat and fast? On the other hand, the extremely
broad a, as in fall, should be avoided. The word is
neither pronounced fast nor fast, but fast, about mid-
way between the two.
It would perhaps be well to make a list of the words
containing this sound of a as the class meets them, and
give a special drill on it from time to time.
Lesson XXII. — In this lesson, call particular attention
to the difference in pronunciation of the words of and
off. Both occur in the lesson. Refer to Lesson XIX
for the phonic spelling of of
McGUFFEY'S PRIMER. 39
Lesson XXIII. — In this lesson, one (wwi) needs par-
ticular attention.
Lesson XXV. Review. — The word doll has been
learned in Lessons XVI and XX. It is here given in
the plural form, dolls. Other plurals have been learned
by the pupils. If the class shows any hesitation over
the word, pronounce it and explain the difference be-
tween doll and dolls in simple language.
Lesson XXVII. — The use of the hyphen is illustrated
in this lesson as joining two separate words, mill and
pond, making a compound word. See that it is thor-
oughly understood. A test of this will be afforded in
reading the review, Lesson XXX, where mill-wheel
occurs, and also in Lesson XLI, where light-house is
given.
Lesson XXXIV. — With the close of this lesson, all
the small letters of the alphabet have been introduced.
If the capitals have been studied in connection with the
small letters, as suggested, and also the script forms of
both, this is the place for a thorough review of all the
alphabets.
Notice the fact that none of the words in the vocab-
ulary of this lesson, except we, are given in the follow-
ing review, and the lesson should therefore receive
particular attention.
Lesson XXXVI. — Explain the meaning of the quo-
tation marks, which are here met with for the first time.
Lesson XXXVIII. — The quotation marks in this les-
son need further explanation. Those in Lesson XXXVI
indicated a simple quotation ; these represent a dialogue
in progress.
Lesson XLIV. — Particular attention should be given
to the rather difficult words, said (sed) and once (wuns).
40
READING.
Lesson XLVIII. — Pay attention to been {bin).
Lesson XLIX. — The use of the apostrophe in 77/,
she '//, and don't demands careful explanation. Write
the words "I will," "she will," and "do not" on the
board. Rub out the letters wi in will, in each case, and
the o in not, and substitute the apostrophe, explaining
that the latter takes the place of the letters omitted, or
"stands for' them. This ocular demonstration will
make the fact clear to the children without much talk-
ing.
Lesson LI. — Explain the hyphen and the acute accent
in the word ago.
Lesson LII. — This lesson and Lessons XLVI and
XLIX may be used to advantage as exercises for mem-
orizing and speaking.
IV.
McGUFFEY'S FIRST READER.
IF the class has studied the Revised Eclectic Primer
before taking up this book, the teacher will find the
way clear for rapid advancement. The first ten lessons
of the Reader contain only three new words {fed, left,
and pan) not already studied in the Primer. In the next
seventeen lessons, about half the words are new; among
them, a dozen words of two syllables. These latter
should not offer any particular difficulty, as a few words
of this kind have been met with in the Primer. From
this point forward, the proportion of new words and
two-syllable words rapidly increases, affording an abund-
ance of material for advance work. Attention will be
called to any special difficulties that present themselves
under the directions for each particular lesson demanding
notice.
As before stated, the detailed instructions for the first
lessons of the First Reader are in accordance with the
Phonic Method. If a teacher prefers to use the Com-
bined Method, it is presumed that the instructions for
the first lessons in the Primer will be a sufficient guide
for work in the Readers. On the other hand, teachers
using the Phonic Method will be able, it is thought, to
follow that method very easily in the Primer after con-
sulting the following instructions for the First Reader.
As it can not be assumed that all teachers will use
both Primer and First Reader, the detailed instructions
E. M.— 4. (41)
4 2 READING.
for the latter have been made as full as though the
o
Primer had not been used. This fact will explain a few
repetitions.
If the Primer is not to be used, it will be well to
begin work with a few preliminary oral lessons, which
may be conducted as shown in the following pages. If
the teacher intends to use both the Primer and the First
Reader, and to teach by the Phonic Method, lessons cor-
responding to the following should precede the Primer,
and these lessons should be omitted.
Recognition of Sounds. — After the attention of the
children has been gained, the teacher taps the table with
a pencil, and explains to the children that what they
hear is called a sound.
After repeating the same sound several times, the
teacher tells the children to listen and he will make
another sound. This may be done by tapping a bell or
a piece of metal, and the children are led to distinguish
between the two different sounds.
After a little practice of this nature, tell the children
that the words which they hear and understand are
sounds. Ask them whether, if they heard two sounds,
one made by a dog, and one by a bird, they could tell
from the sounds which one was made by the bird and
which by the dog.
Tell them you are now going to try them, and see
whether without looking they can tell you the different
sounds you make. The children may shut their eyes,
or stand with their backs to the teacher, or the teacher
may make the different sounds behind the desk, asking
after each, "What sound did you hear?" Answers
like the following may be given: "The sound I heard
was a tap on a bell." "The sound I heard was a tap
McGUFFEY'S FIRST READER. 43
on a book.' "I heard a talk-sound.' "I heard a
sing-sound."
It will be found interesting and profitable to continue
this practice in distinguishing sounds, in connection with
the regular lessons, till the children catch the sounds
readily and accurately. Each succeeding lesson should
be a more severe test of the children's abilities than the
one preceding.
The Sound Represented by Short A. — In commenc-
ing to teach the elementary sounds in Lesson I of the
First Reader, select one of the short vowels. If you
select a, you should follow it by n and r; if you select
o, you should follow it by g and d ; that is, finish the
word with which you begin before taking up the sounds
of another.
Begin by asking the class to tell you some sounds they
can make with their mouths. "We can sing. " "We
can talk." "We can whistle." "We cry sometimes."
These may be some of the answers of the children.
The teacher says, "Now listen to me. I will make a
sound.' He gives the sound a. The children repeat it,
with the teacher, several times. Care must be taken
that the sound is made short and pure. Have the chil-
dren give the sound alone ; the boys alone ; the girls
alone ; the children in the front row ; any one who will
volunteer ; and, finally, each child should be required to
give the sound alone.
The teacher here explains that sounds can be heard
but not seen, but marks may be made to stand for
sounds. The teacher turns to the blackboard, and, be-
tween a head-line and a base-line, writes : *\ He
explains to the children that when they see this they are
to make the sound just learned. The children are
44 READING.
shown, next, how to make the character, and the
teacher asks, "How many will try to make this on their
slates ? ' Write the following copy carefully on the
board, and have the children, at their seats, imitate it
on their slates as well as they can :
yyy ^yy yyy yyy ^yyy
After practicing for a time, the children should exhibit
their slates to the teacher, who should point out the
faults carefully and delicately, and should give farther
explanations about writing, illustrating on the black-
board. See page 13.
The word "Ran." — Teach the sound of 11 as you
taught that of a. Contrast the two sounds repeatedly,
and see that the children can distinguish them readily
and can produce them.
Write the character n on the board as copy for a writ-
ing lesson. It may be practiced a part at a time, if
thought desirable, as follows :
/ / / y/y/y/ /y/y/y yy/yyy/yyy/y
When the children can give the sounds and write the
characters a and ?i, teach them to sound and write their
combination, an.
Teach the sound and form of r, and then the word
r&n as a whole.
The word " Dog." — Teach the word dog in the
same gradual way that you taught ran, and in the same
order, viz. : the sound of 6 ; its written character ; the
sound of g; its written character ; the sound of the com-
bination bg ; the written combination bg; the sound of
McGUFFEY'S FIRST READER. 45
d ; its written character; the sounds of dog, as a whole;
the written word as a whole.
The word "The." — Do not attempt to teach the
elementary sounds composing the, as the obscure sound
of e is too difficult to introduce at this point. It is ab-
solutely necessary to introduce the articles a, an, and the
early in the course on account of their constant occur-
rence in even the simplest sentences ; but they should
be taught, as before suggested, only in combination with
the words which follow.
After the word dog has been learned, teach by sound
the phrase, "the dog." Be very careful not to accent
the the, or to give the e its long sound, thus: "the'
dog,' but pronounce the words naturally, as you would
in enumerating "the dog, the cat, the rat," etc., giving
the e its obscure sound, and letting the accent fall on
dog. This is quite an important point, as the should
never be pronounced in combination in any other way
than that here laid down, and if the children are allowed
to hear or to pronounce the words "the' dog," etc.,
they will fall into the habit of drawling, which will be
very difficult to overcome.
Write the combination on the board with and without
the capital T, thus: "The dog, the dog." Pronounce
the phrase, and have the children pronounce it after you
correctly, both in concert and individually, as you point
it out on the board. Do not say any thing about cap-
itals and small letters at this point. Simply say that The
and the mean the same thing, and drill the children until
they can recognize each by itself and in combination
with the word dog. Have the pupils write the phrases
on their slates.
Finally, teach the complete sentence, "The dog ran."
46 READING.
Length of Lessons. — It is impossible to make any
arbitrary division of these preliminary lessons. Each
teacher must decide for himself as to the length of the
lessons, as circumstances dictate. But the caution may
be repeated not to attempt too much in one lesson ; at
the same time, introduce enough new matter to keep the
children interested. Each lesson in this preliminary
work should commence with a review of all that has
already been learned.
Lesson I. — The transition from script to the printed
forms usually presents but little difficulty to children.
After two or three lessons, they read one form as readily
as the other.
When the written characters of the several elementary
sounds and words of the first lesson are well learned by
the children, write the complete list on the board, and
under each written character and word make its corre-
sponding printed form, being careful to insert all the
diacritical marks in both forms. Drill the class on these
printed forms at first in connection with the written
forms ; then rub out the written forms, and drill on the
printed forms alone.
When the printed forms of all the characters and
words can be pointed out as soon as sounded, and
sounded as soon as pointed out, have the children open
their books and read Lesson I.
Correct drawling and hesitation at once. Do not let
a child say, "Th-e' d-aw-g\ Th-e' d-aw-g' r-a-a-n\"
See that each child says, "The dog\ The dog' ran\"
promptly and naturally, as they would in speaking, the
McGUFFEY'S FIRST READER. 47
moment the combinations are presented to the eye. It
is essential to enforce this point from the beginning.
There is a strong tendency in some localities to pro-
nounce the word dog as though it were spelled dawg.
The words frog, doll, log, God, etc., are similarly mis-
pronounced by many persons. This is not the proper
sound of o, and the same persons would never think of
pronouncing the words fog, got, odd, or hod, in the same
way. Insist on the proper sound of o from the begin-
ning, and wherever it occurs.
Lesson II. — In this lesson we have four new words
and five new elementary sounds.
Teach the new elementary sounds, words, and combi-
nations, as in Lesson I. The vocabularies invariably
contain all new words and sounds, so they will not have
to be sought for in the text.
Illustrate the use of the word on by placing your
book, pencil, etc., on the desk, on a chair, on your
hand, etc., and ask in each case where it is. When the
class understands the force and meaning of the word,
teach its written form in the usual manner.
When satisfied that all can recognize the printed new
characters and words at sight, have the lesson read from
the book.
Explain the interrogation point. Tell the children
that when they see that mark they may always know
that a question is asked. Have them read the question,
"Is the cat on the mat?' giving the proper rising in-
flection on the last word. Then have them read the
answer with the downward inflection at the close, and
with the proper emphasis on is. The proper expression
in this case, and in similar ones, can usually be elicited
from the children by a few well-put questions which
48 READING.
teachers call ''thought study;" as, "What is on the
mat?" "Where is the cat?" "Is the cat under the
mat?"
Do not allow a child to read the question and answer
in the painfully monotonous way so Qften heard in
primary classes, with pauses between each word, and
with the rising inflection on each word but the last, as
follows : ' ' Is' — the'— cat'— on' — the' — mat* ? " " The' —
cat' — is' — on' — the' — mat*.' Insist on having both ques-
tion and answer read in the same natural tones that the
child would employ in speaking. If the class fail to
read the question properly, have the books closed, and
select some pupil to ask the question and another to
answer it. Do not show them how to do it, and have
them imitate you. That is simply "parrot work," words
without thought, and the very worst of all bad methods.
Tell one pupil to ask another if the cat is on the mat,
just as though he really wished to know, and tell the
second pupil to answer, not by "yes" or "no," but in
full, either that the cat is or is not on the mat. When
this has been done properly, have the entire class ask
and answer the question, and then have it read in pre-
cisely the same tones. Constant attention to just such
points as this leads the children to think for them-
selves, and they soon become intelligent and agreeable
readers.
If spelling be taught orally at all, it should be con-
fined, in primary classes, to the words of the reading
lessons, and should invariably be combined with written
exercises on the same words (see page 22). Some
teachers prefer to use oral as well as written exercises in
spelling, claiming that the former assists some children
to remember the words they have learned. It also
McGUFFEY'S FIRST READER. 49
assists in articulation, by requiring the child to name the
letter and then give it its proper sound.
Word building, as suggested on page 59, should be
begun as soon as possible ; and, after some progress has
been made, it will be found interesting to the children
to write the thoughts in a lesson, sentence by sentence,
in their own words. This is a capital exercise, as it
soon teaches a child to use his vocabulary properly, and
to discover the expression through the thought.
When the class is far enough advanced to have the
reading lesson assigned for study before recitation, call
attention to such points as will be likely to excite
curiosity and interest. It is unwise to read the lesson in
full, as is sometimes done. The children should be left
to do as much work as possible for themselves. It is
hardly necessary to say, perhaps, that there should be a
daily review of each lesson of the preceding day.
The detailed instructions for Lessons I and II are pre-
sumed to be a sufficient guide for succeeding lessons.
In the latter, therefore, attention is called merely to
those points which demand particular instruction.
The " General Remarks," Chapter V, apply equally
to Primer and First Reader, and, usually, to the Phonic
as well as to the Combined Method. They should be
read before commencing work on the first reading lesson,
whether it be in the Primer or the First Reader.
Lessons III, IV, V. — Nothing demanding especial
attention is met with in Lessons III and IV. In Les-
son V, there is a new sound of e and a new sound of
s. Call the attention of the children to the short sound
of e, as in pen, Lesson III, and contrast it with the long
sound of e, as in see. Compare the sound of s, in see,
with the sound of s, in is, Lesson II.
E. M.-5.
50 READING.
Here, also, we have two words containing silent let-
ters, — Ann and see. These should be explained in very
simple language. Tell the children that Ann is pro-
nounced just as though it were printed An, and see just
as though it were printed se. Illustrate by writing the
two words on the board as they are properly spelled,
and then cancel the silent letters by drawing a line
through them.
The digraph eh should be taught as one element, and
we may give this instruction generally in regard to all
digraphs. Also, wherever a new sound of a letter is
met with, whether vowel or consonant, it should invari-
ably be contrasted with the sound or sounds of the
letter previously studied ; and in making these com-
parisons, the letters, with their diacritical 7/tarks, should
always be written or printed on the board. In this
way, the children will soon become familiar with the
force of the diacritical marks.
The exclamation point is first met in Lesson V. Call
attention to it, and teach its meaning.
Lesson VI. — There are three digraphs in the vocabu-
lary. Double o long has its peculiar sound, differing
from simple o long. It will not do to treat it, therefore,
as we did double e in Lesson V, where practically one e
is silent and the other has the identical sound of long e.
For the combination ow, here and in all other cases,
see "Suggestions to Teachers,' page 2 of McGufTey's
Revised First Eclectic Reader.
Lesson VII. — The silent g, in eggs, affords oppor-
tunity to review the instructions on this point, and to
test the understanding of the class.
Lesson IX.- — This is the first review lesson, and
should receive careful attention. All the words em-
McGUFFEY'S FIRST READER. 5 I
ployed have been given in preceding vocabularies. This
is true of every review lesson in the book. Hesitation,
therefore, on the part of any considerable number of the
class, on a review, indicates a fault somewhere. Either
work has been pushed too rapidly, or some one lesson,
perhaps, has not been thoroughly mastered. A little
careful investigation will generally reveal the trouble,
and the defect can be remedied, and should be, before
proceeding with the next series of lessons.
Lesson XI. — By the time the class has finished this
lesson, they have met with all the small letters of the
alphabet except q and z. As these two letters are but
little used, and are introduced very much later in the
book, it is suggested that at this point a thorough
review be given of the alphabets, large and small, printed
and script, excepting these two letters. If the teacher
so prefers, these two letters may also be taught in con-
nection with this lesson, which is quite a simple one.
If the class has previously studied the Primer, of course
this review cf the alphabets will be unnecessary.
Lesson XII. — Kitty is the first word of two syllables
in this book. The accent should be explained and vocal
illustration given. The combination ng is rather difficult
and needs especial care.
Lesson XIII. — Explain in simple language the use of
the 's as denoting possession. Drill carefully on ;/.
Lessons XVII and XVIII. — The lessons are intended
as especial drills on script. They should be wtiticn by
each member of the class as well as read. This instruc-
tion applies to similar lessons throughout the book.
Lesson XIX. — The sound of a is the most commonly
mispronounced of all the a sounds, and the error is
quite common, even among the best educated classes.
52 READING.
Many who know better give it the wrong sound through
the force of habit and association, and the lack of early
training. The error lies in giving a as though it were a.
On the other hand, the extremely broad a, as in fall,
should be avoided. The word is neither pronounced
grass, nor grass, but grass.
It would be well to make a list of the words contain-
ing this sound of a as the class meets them, and give a
special drill on it from time to time.
Lesson XXI. — Here we have a very unusual substitu-
tion of e for I in the word pretty, which is frequently
mispronounced pret'ty in place of przt'ty.
Lesson XXIV. — Teach in simple language the use of
the hyphen at the end of the first line of this lesson.
Lesson XXV. — The combination ai is not recognized
as a substitute for e. The word said is therefore re-
spelled in order to give its proper pronunciation. Teach
the use of the quotation marks, which are here intro-
duced.
Lesson XXVIII. — The word cant presents two diffi-
culties, — its pronunciation and the mark of abbrevia-
tion.
While the word can has the short a, it will be noticed
that in cant the a is pronounced like a in farm. The
proper pronunciation should be insisted upon as often
as the word is used by a pupil in the teacher's
presence.
To explain the abbreviation mark, write the words
"can not' on the board; then rub out the no of not,
and write the apostrophe in their place, explaining that
it stands for the omitted letters. Test the class in the
use of the hyphen in the line next to the last in the
lesson.
McGUFFEY'S FIRST READER. 53
Lesson XXX. — The word won't is a peculiar contrac-
tion of "will not" or " woll not" used colloquially.
In New England it is sometimes pronounced as though
spelled wunt. A full explanation of the derivation of
the word would probably not be understood by young
children. It will be sufficient to explain that the apos-
trophe stands for an omitted o, in the word not, which
helps form the compound. It will be noticed that the
quotation marks in this lesson are used to indicate a con-
tinued conversation, differing from previous cases in the
omission of tire person relating the conversation. See
that the children understand that two persons are speak-
ing, and when one ceases and the other begins.
Lesson XXXI. — The past tenses, called and jumped,
are the first words of their form that are presented.
They may be mistaken for words of two syllables.
Teach that the e in both words is silent. Attention
should be called to a new use of the capital letter at the
beginning of a quotation, as in paragraph seven: "Kate
said, ' Good old Ponto ! ' " Heretofore the capital has
been used only as the initial letter of a proper name
and of the first word of a sentence.
Lesson XXXII. — The word says is respelled, since ay
is not recognized as a substitute for e. The letter z is
first presented in this respelling. If it causes any diffi-
culty, substitute § for z, thus : ses.
Lesson XXXV. — Test the knowledge of the class on
the use of the apostrophe in I've. If no one can tell
for what letters it stands, write the words "I have" on
the board, and have some pupil erase the proper letters
without prompting. Assign compositions in which the
children are to use the abbreviations I've, I'll, I'd,
I'm, etc.
54 READING.
Lesson XXXVI. — This lesson presents another word
requiring respelling in order to show its proper pronun-
ciation. Been is often improperly pronounced ben.
Lesson XXXVII. — The word one needs particular
attention. The main difficulty with these words of
arbitrary pronunciation is in the spelling, but if the daily
writing exercises are conducted in the manner we have
advised, they soon become fixed in the memory, and
present little trouble.
Lesson XXXVIII. — Be careful about the word bets' -
ket ; it is generally mispronounced bds'ket or bds' kit.
Lesson XXXIX. — In the second line of this lesson we
have the compound word easy-cJiair. Its component
parts only are given in the vocabulary. Call attention to
this use of the hyphen, and illustrate with other words
on the blackboard ; for example, market-basket, derived
from the preceding lesson.
Lesson XL. — See that the quotation marks in this
lesson do not lead to confusion as to who is speaking.
The mother is speaking throughout the third, fourth,
and fifth paragraphs. The laws of punctuation require
that quotation marks should be placed at the beginning
of each of these paragraphs, but at the close of the last
one only. The danger is that the young child may
imagine that the person speaking changes with each par-
agraph, and confusion naturally follows.
This lesson affords a good opportunity for the teacher
to test the thinking power of the children. This should
be done by pertinent and searching questions.
Lesson XLIII. — In this lesson is presented an ex-
cellent drill on the different sounds of a. In the fifth
line, "At half past eight," we have first a in at, then a
in half, a in past, and e, a substitute for a, in eight.
McGUFFEY'S FIRST READER. 55
Drill on this phrase, and see that the four distinct
sounds of a are clearly given.
Test the class in the use of the hyphen in line six of
page 58. The words bed and time have been given sep-
arately in Lessons XXIV and XXIX.
Lesson XLIX. — See that often is pronounced of y n.
Both the / and the e are silent.
Lesson XLVIII. — The letter q is here introduced,
completing the alphabet. Teach that q is always fol-
lowed by u; the combination has two sounds: that of
kw y as in quiet, and that of simple k, as in pique.
Lesson XLIX. — Teach that underscored words in
writing mean the same thing as words printed in italics;
that is, both are to be emphasized in reading. By
careful "thought questions' on the part of the teacher,
the children can be led to discover the proper word or
phrase to be emphasized.
Lesson L. — Laugh' ing is rarely pronounced properly,
the a being given generally as a prolonged sound of
shorts; as, la-a-af'ing, or like a. Have it pronounced
like a in father. Illustrate by pronouncing the two
words a number of times alternately, dwelling a little on
the a in each case to impress the sound.
Lesson LV. — The word again is commonly mispro-
nounced. "Poetic license" is frequently taken with it,
even by many of the leading poets. Nevertheless, the
only proper pronunciation of the word is agen' . It
should never be pronounced agan* .
Lesson LVI. — The seasons, spring, summer, autumn,
and winter are frequently written incorrectly with a
capital. The opportunity for teaching the proper
method occurs in correcting the writing exercise accom-
panying this lesson. Do not teach or even say what the
$6 READING.
wrong form is, but if any pupil writes spring with a
capital, call him up quietly and point out his error.
Lesson LVII. — Call attention to the difference be-
tween the spelling, pronunciation, and meaning of of
and off.
Lesson LIX. — Here we have the unusual occurrence
of two silent letters in one syllable, making whistle a
little difficult to spell.
Lesson LXII. — Really is the first word of three sylla-
bles presented to the children.
Lesson LXIII. — Be careful about the word par' ents ;
it is frequently mispronounced pa'rents.
Phonic Chart. — The chart is presented for the pur-
poses of drill, and can be used at the discretion of the
teacher as time and circumstances dictate. It is sug-
gested that the entire school, either as a body or in
separate classes, spend from three to five minutes in
exercising on the elementary sounds. It will be time
well spent.
V.
GENERAL REMARKS.
GREAT care must be taken not to attempt too much
in any one lesson. Here the teacher must be
guided by his judgment as to the intelligence of his
class, and no specific directions can be laid down. In
general, we would say, do not wait until you see the
class becoming weary and the interest flagging. Stop
while all are fresh and zealous. It is much better to err
on the side of brevity than of its opposite.
It is well to be thorough, and to make sure of one
step before taking another, but do not make the mistake
of going to the opposite extreme, and dwell on one topic
or one lesson until the children are weary and disgusted
with it.
Analysis. — If you are using the Combined Method,*
when the class has made some progress, say at the end
of the first review, Lesson V of the Primer, begin the
work of analyzing into their elementary sounds the words
already learned and fixed in the mind.
At first this work may prove quite difficult, and the
results discouraging, but patience and perseverance will
accomplish wonders in a few lessons properly taught,
and it will be found that children take great interest in
this branch of their study. The great trouble in the
-'The Phonic Method is synthetic, and does not admit of exer-
cises under this head.
(•57)
58 READING.
teaching of Phonics is that many teachers are themselves
unable to do what is required of the children : they
adopt an unnatural tone, and distort the word under
study so that, as a matter of course, the children fail to
recognize the most familiar words. The teacher, then,
should give the subject careful attention, and not attempt
to teach a class until he is certain of his own ground.
If understood, the subject of Phonics is very simple and
very easily taught ; moreover, it is of great assistance to
the child in acquiring new words, and should therefore
not be neglected.
We here introduce the method of treating the words
found in Lesson I. Commence by pronouncing for the
class the word cat rather slowly, in a perfectly natural
tone, and with very distinct articulation, giving each
letter its full value. Ask the class what the word is. It
will, or should be, recognized at once. Pronounce it
more slowly and with the same care, and have the class
imitate you. Repeat the word a number of times, each
time more slowly than before, the class always imitating
you, until you have in this manner separated the word
as nearly as possible into the elementary sounds c f a, t.
Care must be taken that the c and t are not slighted,
and the a prolonged into a drawl, thus : c-a-a-a-a-a-t.
Dwell equally on the c, the a, and the /, and insist on
the class doing the same thing. Call up individuals
until you are sure that all have the idea ; then say,
"Listen carefully, children, while I pronounce the word
cat as you have just done, and see who can give me the
first sound that I make."
Pronounce the word, making almost an entire separa-
tion between the c and the a. If all fail to recognize
it, give the c sound alone and have the class imitate
GENERAL REMARKS. 59
you. Follow the same plan with the a and /, and drill
until the class is familiar with the three elementary
sounds. Now have the children pronounce the word
very slowly, as before, and tell them that you will write
on the board the letters that stand for the sounds as
they give them ; then, as they pronounce c-a-t, write the
word with the diacritical marks. Reverse the process,
and have the children give the sounds as you write the
letters.
Treat rat and and in the same way. The class should
now be able to give all the elementary sounds of the
first lesson. The characters representing these sounds
are given in the vocabulary at the head of the lesson.
Drill the class on these until the characters and their
sounds are instantly associated in the minds of the
pupils, so that when a sound is given they can at once
point out its character, and when a character is pointed
out they can at once give its sound. Continue these
exercises throughout the book.
Synthesis. — When the children have grasped the
idea of analysis, and can readily resolve simple, familiar
words into their elementary sounds, teach them how to
reverse the process, and build up new words from the
sounds they have learned.* This will afford interesting
and profitable occupation for them at their desks. For
example, from the elements given in the first four les-
sons of the Primer can be formed the following simple
words not found in the vocabularies : Mat, that, map,
rap, mad, had, Sam, pat, than, nap, tap, pad, ham, fat,
pan, lap, sap, sad, ram.
* Exercises in word-building may be commenced at once when
the Phonic Method is employed.
Ou READING.
Show the children how to build these words in phonic
order. Thus, the word cat is given in Lesson I.
Write it on the board, and have the class pronounce it.
Then, rubbing out the c, ask: "Now, children, who
can tell me what sound to make to change cat to pat?"
Pronounce the word pat several times, giving the p
sound emphasis, until some of the class indicate that
they recognize the sound necessary to make the
change. Select one of the pupils to give the sound of
p. When it is given correctly, write both cat and pat
on the board, at one side. Form fat and that in the
same way, and write them in the column under cat
and pat.
Then, taking the words ran, in Lesson II, and cap
and lad, in Lesson IV, as bases, form than, pan, map,
nap, lap, rap, tap, sap, mad, pad, sad, and had. Write
these words on the board in columns as they are formed,
putting each under its proper base word. The remain-
ing words are more difficult, for although the elements
forming them are given, we find no word in the vocabu-
laries to take as a basis, as we did in forming the other
words. However, this will not be necessary after a few
lessons, and the children will in time be able to form
new words without the teacher's assistance. The new
words thus formed must be those which belong to the
ordinary vocabulary of the child. The children will
recognize them at once as familiar, and will join in the
exercises with zest. The spirit of competition as to who
can make the most new words will arouse the interest
of the class, and every new lesson will broaden the field,
so that work in this direction will never grow monot-
onous.
Place the new words formed in each lesson on the
GENERAL REMARKS. 6 1
board, and have the children use them by combining
them into phrases and sentences, which should be
written on their slates and read aloud.
Diacritical Marks. — This is the proper place to
begin the study of the diacritical marks. They should
be used in the work of analysis every time the teacher
or a pupil puts a word on the board, and the pupils
should be required to use them in such slate exercises
as are given them to perform under this head.
The accurate knowledge of the power of all the dia-
critical marks, as well as the mastery of all the sounds
of the letters representing them, is necessary for the
intelligent use of the Dictionary and the acquirement
of a correct and elegant pronunciation.
Note. — The elementary sounds of the English language are fre-
quently represented by characters other than the primary ones
which give them name ; thus, long a is represented not only by a,
but also by e. A list of the ordinary substitutes, as recognized by
Webster, will be found on page 96 of the First Reader; but unusual
substitutes are sometimes encountered ; as, for example, e or ee for
1, as seen in England and been. Often, too, combinations of letters
are met with which seem to represent the elementary sounds. On
examination, these combinations are frequently seen to consist of
the primary character, or one of its substitutes, and silent letters.
For example, the only substitute given for a, in the list on page 96,
is e ; but we have the sound of a in they, sleig/i, vazh, gazzge,
br^ak, maj/, ga^l, boque/, etc. If we analyze the above combina-
tions, we find that in every instance either a or e really represents
the sound, and that the other letters of the combination are simply
not sounded. We have marked the silent letters in the examples
quoted by making them italics. In boquet, the second tc is in com-
bination with q to form the sound of k, and is therefore not marked
silent.
Unusual substitutes and silent letters in combination are often
confusing, and for the convenience of teachers we here insert a
table for reference, presenting a complete list of the characters
62 READING.
representing the elementary sounds, both primary characters and
their substitutes, with Webster's diacritical marks, and also the
ordinary combinations of silent letters with the various sounds.
The character or several characters representing each sound are
italicized, as also are the silent letters used in combination with
those characters. Other silent letters are unmarked in this way to
avoid possible confusion. Only one example of each substitute
and combination is presented.
Vowels.
a, as in hate. — Break, ]ai\, gaol, gauge, may, feint, sleigh, they,
bouqiu'/, cafe,
a, as in cat. — Plazd.
a, as in ask.
a, as in what. — Substitute for 6.
a, as in harm. — Ah, aunt, guard, hearth, sergeant.
a, as in ball. — Haul, groat, or, bought.
a, as in care. — Fair, prayer, be'ar. heir, e'er, thtre.
e, as in be. — Co'sar, leave, quay, see, seize, belief, people, hey,
mach/ne, physz'que.
e, as in srt. — Any, saz'd, says, feather, h^z'fer, l^pard, frzVnd, bury,
guess.
e, as in thtre. — Substitute for a.
e, as in feint. — Substitute for a.
e, as in ^rr. — .Earnest, hauttvzr, sir, worm, journey, burn, myrtle,
co/onel, av#zrdupois.
Remark. — Webster makes a slight difference between e, as in
err, and u, as in burn, or y, as in myrtle. The e is a compromise
between e and the u or y sound in the examples quoted.
e as in cafl. — Substitute for a.
I, as in mz'ce. — Aisle, height, vie, eye, choir, guide, sigh, fly, buy.
i, as in hz't. — Btvn, pretty, sieve, vv^men, tortoise, cha.rn.ois, busy,
guinea, myth,
i, as in mach/ne. — Substitute for e.
I, as in sir. — Substitute for e.
o, as in fold. — Beau, hautboy, chevaz/.r-de-frise, foam, yeoman, hoe,
floor, shoulder, sew, low, owe.
GENERAL REMARKS. 6$
6, as in nod. — What, knost'ledge, ct^ntime, mademoiselle.
o, as in worm. — Substitute for e.
6, as in son. — Substitute for u.
6, as in or. — Substitute for a.
o, as in to. — Substitute for oo.
o, as in wolf. — Substitute for do.
oo, as in soon. — Rheum, dxew, cano<?, mano<?wvre, denoz^ment,
groz/p, through, to, two, rzzde, xue, recr«/t, ticdozdozzr^.r.
do, as in foot. — Wolf, would, put.
u, as in cz/be. — Beauty, feudal, pew, lieu, view, cue, suit, you, ewe.
Remark. — Care must be taken not to pronounce u like oo. It
is cube, not coob ; tube, not toob ; tune, not toon.
u, as in hut. — Son, doos, porpo/se, blood, touch.
u, as in bz/rn. — Substitute for e.
u, as in rz/de. — Substitute for oo.
u, as in pzzt. — Substitute for ob.
y, as in nV. — Substitute for I.
y, as in myth. — Substitute for I.
y, as in myrtle. — Substitute for e.
oi, as in bo/1. — Poz^-nant, oyster.
oi, as in loir. — Substitute for wa.
ou, as in out. — Plough, owl.
ow, as in low. — Substitute for o.
Consonants.
b, as in bad. — ~Bs.be.
€, as in oat. — Substitute for k.
c, as in oede. — Substitute for s.
ch, as in o/zurch. — Righteous, na/ure, ques/zbn, oit'erone.
eh, as in o/zorus. — Substitute for k.
ch, as in o/zaise. — Substitute for sh.
d, as in dot.
Remark. — This letter is never silent except in Wednesday and
handkerchief.
f, as in y*ate. — Phx7s.sc, sapph'xxe, draught.
g, as in ^et. — Ghost.
64 READING.
g t as in ^em. — Substitute for j.
gs. — This combination is represented by 5, as in e;rist.
h, as in he. — Who.
hw. — This combination is represented by wh, as in what.
j, as in Jack. — c7em, ra^, soldier.
k, as in £ite. — Cat, chorus, sick, antique, hough.
ks. — The combination is represented by x, as in ^.rpect.
kw. — This combination is represented by qu, as in queen. — C//oir.
1, as in /ight. — Fe//.
m, as in more.
n, as in nine. — Knee.
n, as in linger. — U«cle, li«k.
ng, as in singer. — ¥>ring.
fi, as in canon (Spanish). — Substitute for (n) y.
p, as in pup. — Idiccough, diphthong.
q is always followed by u, and the combination qu is a substitute
for kw or for k, as queen, antique.
r, as in red. — Ore, wrong, poorer.
Remark. — The middle r of poorer has a double sound.
s, as in rame. — Cede, tra^, chintz.
§, as in wa{. — Substitute for z.
sh, as in shut. — Oceanic, Asia, negotiation, ocean, so<rz'al, nauseous,
tension, parent, nqirzbus, sure, passion, luxury, chaise, cont-
entious, conscience.
t, as in /one. — Hiss^, 77zomas, phthisic.
th, as in thing.
th, as in With. — Eiste^fod.
v, as in 7/ane. — Leave, of, Stephen.
w, as in wet — Assuage.
wh = hw, as in what.
x = ks, as in ^rpect.
5 = gs, as in <?;rist.
y, as in yon. — Familzar, hallelu/ah, canon.
z, as in .sone. — Was - , says, clothe, mu^, sacrifiV,?, discern, jtan-
thic.
zh. — These letters are never written together, but the sound of the
combination is heard in a^ure, menagerie, bi/ou, rouge, measure,
transi/zbn.
GENERAL REMARKS. 65
Note. — Some words differ so radically in their written charac-
ters, and the sounds which compose them, that their pronunciation
can be indicated most readily by respelling them : as, for exam-
ple, once {wuns). Words of this class are therefore respelled in
the vocabularies of the Readers.
Script Exercises. — In copying the script exercises,
and also in writing the regular reading lessons, see that
the children use capital letters wherever they appear in
the books, and that they insert the proper punctuation
marks. It is a mistake to allow young children to
write without attention to both these points. If they
are required to observe them from the beginning, the
rules governing them will be readily understood when
the proper time comes to study them.
Capital Letters. — The rules for capital letters are
simple, and the principal ones should be taught orally
early in the course. See Harvey's Revised English
Grammar, pages 14-17, Rules I, IV, V, VI, VII, IX,
X, XI, and XV.
Punctuation. — The subject of Punctuation is a very
difficult one to understand in all its bearings, and no
attempt should be made to teach -'its formal rules in
primary classes. A few of the marks, such as the
period, interrogation point, exclamation point, hyphen,
and quotation marks should be explained briefly, and in
simple language, as they are met with in the text. The
semicolon and comma, especially the latter, involve
many rules, exceptions, and exceptions to exceptions.
The consequent complications are understood by very
few teachers, and it is absurd to try to teach them to
little children. It is sufficient to answer, should the
children ask what they mean, that they are marks used
to help us understand the meaning of the writer.
E. M.-6.
66 READING.
Many teachers seem to have no idea that this is the
purpose, and the only purpose, of punctuation. They
seem to think that the various marks are used to indicate
rhetorical pauses, and make the children pause and
count one for a comma, two for a semicolon, three for a
colon, and four for a period. It would be just as sensi-
ble if they continued the "system,' 1 and counted five
for an interrogation mark and six for an exclamation
point. This counting is not only ridiculous, but it aids
to defeat the very object of the reading lesson. It dis-
tracts the child in his endeavor to grasp the meaning of
the sentence he is reading ; whereas, he should be left
perfectly free to concentrate his mind on this one point,
and when he does get the meaning of the sentence
clearly, its proper expression will follow naturally with-
out artificial aids.
Constant attention should be paid to articulation and
pronunciation. Do not allow a child to say fas for fast,
goen for going, agin or agdn for again (agen), etc.
Daily drill on the Phonic Chart (pages 95 and 96 of
McGuffey's Revised First Reader) will accomplish more
in this direction than many teachers seem to imagine.
This exercise need not take more than from five to ten
minutes of each day, and the entire school may be
drilled together. Only one or two sounds should be
studied at a time.
Do not carry preciseness in articulation and pronunci-
ation to the extreme of interfering with a child in his
endeavor to grasp the thought of what he is reading,
however, for the latter is the important aim, and should
take precedence of all others. If a child makes an
error in articulation or pronunciation while reading, do
not interrupt him yourself, or allow him to be inter-
GENERAL REMARKS. 6y
rupted by other pupils, until he has finished ; then call
his attention to the mispronounced word, and have him
give it correctly.
Correct all errors the children make in pronunciation
in all conversational exercises. To pronounce correctly
is of even greater importance than to spell well, for
where one word is written many are uttered in conversa-
tion. A correct pronunciation is counted as a mark of
culture.
If the class shows a tendency to read in a monotonous
manner or in an unnatural tone, have the books closed,
and set the children to talking- about the lesson. Lead
them to express a sentence in the words of the book ;
then have the same sentence read from the book. In
this way, the children may be led to see for themselves
the difference between a natural and an unnatural man-
ner of reading.
Where the Combined Method is employed, the use
of the illustrations in the language lessons preliminary
to a reading lesson should be continued until the chil-
dren have acquired the faculty of associating new words
and the ideas they represent without such aid. It is a
mistake to continue this method after it has ceased to
be necessary, as it then retards rather than assists. Just
when the method should be dropped, depends largely
upon the intelligence of the class, and each teacher
must use his own judgment in the matter.
It is probable that you will find some pupils in the
primary classes who have already had some instruction
in reading by the alphabet or spelling method. These
will be very apt to stop in their reading to spell doubtful
words. This should be stopped at once. Neither
should a child be allowed to guess at a word. Both of
68 READING.
these faults show plainly that the word recalls no definite
idea to the child's mind ; that is, that the idea and its
symbol are not instantly associated, as the fundamental
principles of all correct methods demand that they
should be.
Before the children are called upon to read the lesson,
the teacher should have reasonable assurance that the
new words have been studied by the children. This is
necessary to avoid hesitation, and hesitation is the
source of many bad habits.
VI.
McGUFFEY'S READERS.— CONCLUDED.
McGuffey's Second Reader.
WITH the completion of the Primer and First
Reader, the children have acquired a vocabu-
lary of more than seven hundred words ; and if the drill
on phonics has received proper attention, they should
be able to read new matter composed of simple words,
with little hesitation. In the Second Reader, therefore,
another feature is introduced. It will be noticed that
each lesson is in itself instructive, either intellectually or
morally. The domestic virtues, morals and manners,
letter-writing, natural history, and physics, receive much
attention, and open a wide and very interesting field for
object lessons and original compositions. The intelli-
gent and conscientious teacher will not neglect the
opportunities afforded for imparting much useful infor-
mation in connection with these lessons ; but it should
be borne in mind that the fast object is to lead the chil-
dren to think for themselves, and to produce as much
original work as possible. This work should then be
supplemented by the teacher: wrong ideas should be
carefully corrected, and such additional instruction given
as the teacher may think within the understanding of
the class. Care must be taken as to the last point.
Keep on the safe side, and never talk ' ' over the heads "
(69)
70 READING.
of the little ones, otherwise your time is thrown away,
and interest is lost.
The same attention should be given to phonics and
the diacritical marks as heretofore, and to articulation,
expression, and the daily writing of a portion of the
reading lesson. Paper and lead pencil, or pen, may be
introduced in place of the slate. The teacher who con-
tinues these writing lessons as suggested, will be well
repaid in finding that the class fall naturally into the
proper spelling of words, and the proper use of capitals
and the various punctuation marks, without special drill
upon these subjects. Then, as before stated, when the
proper time comes to study the formal rules, they will
be readily understood and remembered.
It is suggested that the teacher, in drilling on pronun-
ciation, write each day's vocabulary on the board, with
the proper syllabication, diacritical marks, and accentua-
tion, and have each word pronounced by the class in
concert and individually, distinctly and correctly. After
a short drill of this nature, write the words without divi-
sion into syllables, and without diacritical marks or
accents, and again have the words pronounced as before.
The teacher should always explain to the class the
meaning of any words which he thinks may possibly be
misunderstood before assigning an advance lesson to be
studied, and the class should be carefully questioned on
these words when the lesson is recited. Making sen-
tences from given words is a valuable exercise to secure
the proper use of words. . It is a good test of the child's
comprehension of their exact meaning.
Lesson I. — The abbreviations Mr. and Mrs. are intro-
duced in this lesson. As suggested in the preface, these
should be carefully explained, not only as to their mean-
McGUFFEY'S SECOND READER. J I
ing and use, but as to the reason for their use. Write
the words Mister and Mistress on the board; explain
that the latter came in time to be shortened to Missis,
and that it is now customary to write Mister, Mr.;
and Missis, Mrs.
Lesson II. — This lesson will afford a good opportunity
for an object lesson on the various colors. The teacher
should provide himself with a prism, and, if it is a
bright sunshiny day, throw the colors on the wall, where
they can be pointed out. He should also have a small
brush, and the water-colors red, blue and yellow ; then,
by mixing red and blue, blue and yellow, and yellow
and red, he should illustrate how the secondary colors,
violet, green, and orange, are formed. Teach that the
absence of all color makes an object black, and that
when all the colors are combined in proper proportions
they produce white.
Note. — A very interesting and simple experiment will illustrate
this. Cut out a circle of card-board, and paint the seven colors of
the spectrum, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet
upon it, in their order, giving each color the same space proportion-
ally that it occupies in the spectrum formed by the prism. Bore
two small holes either side of the center ; insert a string through
these; twist the string into a spiral ; and then, by alternately pulling
and relaxing it, cause the card to revolve back and forth as a boy
does his miniature circular saw. When the card is in rapid motion,
the colors blend and the card appears nearly white [the imperfec-
tion of the several colors prevents absolute purity] ; when it stops,
the colors re-appear.
Several other experiments may be found in almost
any good book on Physics or on Object Lessons which
will serve to interest the class, and at the same time
give valuable information.
72 READING.
Teach that complementary colors are any two colors
which, combined, will produce white ; thus, green and
red, blue and orange, violet and yellowish green, violet
and orange yellow are complementary colors; that is,
the one complements or fills out what is lacking in the
other to make white.
Lesson III. — Have this letter copied on slate or
paper. It may be used as a guide for future lessons on
letter-writing. By the time they are ready to leave the
common school, the children should know how to ex-
press themselves naturally, clearly, and concisely in
either a business or a friendly letter. Letter-writing in
its perfection is a rare art attained by few, but children
can not begin at too early an age to learn its rudiments,
and few things that they learn in the school-room will
prove of greater practical utility in their after lives.
Teach them gradually how to date a letter properly, and
why it should always be dated ; where and how to write
the various proper forms of introduction ; to arrange the
various topics about which they are to write in order,
and to commence each new topic with a separate para-
graph ; where and how to write the various proper
forms of conclusion and signature ; how to fold a letter
properly; how to insert it in the envelope properly;
how to direct the envelope properly ; where to place
the stamp, and when to use more than one stamp.
A good exercise for the children is to change any of
the lessons, or parts of them, into the form of a letter.
Also, when a child asks for a particular favor, the
teacher may grant it if the child will put his request in
the form of a letter.
The abbreviation o clock, for "of the clock," should
be explained.
McGUFFEY'S SECOND READER. 73
Lesson IV. — Stories about the stars are almost as in-
teresting to most children as fairy tales. A judicious
selection of some of the most important of the simple
truths of Astronomy should be made. If opportunity
offers, teach the school which is the north star, and how
to find it by means of the "pointers" in the "Great
Dipper."
See that this lesson is read naturally. The proper
expression can be attained only by leading the children
to apprehend the true meaning.
Lesson V. — Care must be taken with the pronuncia-
tion of min'utes (min'tts) and New 'found-land '. The in
the latter is of course silent. The word is often im-
properly accented and pronounced New-fownd' laiid.
This is an excellent lesson to be put in the form of a
letter for composition drill.
Lesson VI. — In the script exercises in this lesson and
elsewhere in the book, varied forms of the capital letters
are presented simply that children may become familiar
with them and recognize them, as they will have to do
later in life in reading different styles of handwriting.
To this same end children should be required to read
each other's written exercises. Neither compel the
pupils to follow the exact forms in the book, nor criti-
cise them if they do. A legible, smooth, regular, and
rapid handwriting is the point to be aimed at. Aside
from the qualities mentioned, individual characteristics
should not be interfered with. Individuality should be
encouraged rather than condemned.
Lesson VII. — It is not presumed that every teacher
of a district school is the possessor of a microscope.
If, however, you are so fortunate as to own one, or can
borrow one, this lesson can be made intensely interest-
E. M.-7.
74 READING.
ing and very instructive, and the object lessons can be
extended to various familiar insects, plants, etc.
Lesson VIII. — Utilize this lesson by the introduction
of a few striking and authentic stories illustrating the
instinct of animals. Have the children write and hand
in stories of their own. A selection of the best of
these may be read aloud in the class.
Lessons XII and XIII. — In regard to these and similar
lessons of a moral nature, it is well to bear in mind
what is said by Mr. Sweet in his work on teaching:
"One of the most effective ways of giving moral lessons
is through the medium of well-selected stories. ' A
moral lesson,' says Bain, 'may be wrapped up in a tale
and brought home with an impetus. Stories of great
and noble deeds have fired more youthful hearts with
enthusiasm than sermons have.' 'To hear about good
men,' says Richter, 'is equivalent to living among
them. For children there is absolutely no other
morality than example, either seen or narrated.' When
you read a story or fable, let your pupils draw their
own inferences and do their own moralizing. It is not
best for you to spoil the effect by drawing conclu-
sions."
Lesson XXIV. — This lesson may be made the basis
of object lessons on the varied occupations of the
farmer, and on the different kinds of cloth, cotton,
linen, etc.
Lesson XXV. — Teach how the clouds are formed.
The rising mists of morning are familiar to almost every
child who lives in the country.
Lesson XXIX. — See that tl'ny is properly pronounced
as indicated by the diacritical marks. It is frequently
mispronounced tin'y or te'ny.
McGUFFEY'S THIRD READER. 75
Lesson XXXIII. — Be careful as to the pronunciation
of saving. There are two verbs, sew {su) } which have a
very different meaning from sczv (so).
Lesson XXXVI. — Against should be pronounced
a-genst' and not a-gdnst' .
Lesson XL. — Explain the abbreviation ne'er.
Lesson XLII. — See that pupils in writing this lesson
do not use capitals in writing the words summer and
autumn. Tell the children that this story is an allegory.
Explain in simple language what an allegory is, and
what this allegory teaches.
Lesson XLVII. — The word landscape will probably
need careful explanation.
Lesson LVIII. — Explain what a dialogue is. See
Webster's Dictionary. This lesson may be memorized
and acted by two pupils.
Lesson LIX. — Explain when did'st takes the place of
did, and see that its articulation is distinct.
Lesson LXIII. — Why are Spring and Winter spelled
with capitals in this lesson? (Harvey's Revised English
Grammar, Art. 240, 3).
McGuffey's Third Reader.
In this book, lessons of the same instructive character
as those in the Second Reader are continued, but the
thought is usually deeper, keeping pace with the de-
velopment of the child's mind.
It is not thought necessary to tabulate new words in a
vocabulary beyond the middle of this book. By this
time, the children should be able to pronounce at sight
such new words as are introduced. In place of the vo-
76 READING.
cabularies, therefore, definitions of the most difficult
words in each lesson are given, with diacritical marks to
aid in pronunciation. These definitions are necessarily
not exhaustive, — that definition only is given which is
applicable to the word in connection with the context.
The teacher should not confine the class to the words
defined in the Reader, but should teach the class how
to use the dictionary, and require pupils to consult it
in studying their lessons whenever a word is encountered,
the meaning of which is not perfectly clear.
As recommended in the Preface, there should be a
daily drill on articulation, and exercises for this purpose
are presented in the Introduction.
It is thought unnecessary to give detailed instructions
as to particular lessons in this book. It will be seen
that the lessons furnish abundant opportunities for
practical composition work, which should be kept up
till the end. How suggestive for composition, for ex-
ample, is Lesson XXXI.
McGuffey's Fourth Reader.
Sixteen pages of the introductory matter of this book
are devoted to exercises in articulation and vocal culture.
These exercises should not be "gone over' once and
then dropped, but vocal culture should have a place in
each day's exercises. A critic, in writing of this point,
says: " Nearly all teachers in our common schools teach
reading, but the training is confined chiefly to the eye.
Something is done in expression, but it is incidental,
and few ever attempt any thing that looks to the de-
velopment of the voice. ' : While it is not necessary
McGUFFEY'S FOURTH READER. J 'J
that a teacher himself should be a skilled elocutionist in
order to attempt such development, yet he certainly
should have correct ideas of the vocal organs and of the
proper way to train them. Murdoch's Analytic Elocu-
tion, which contains the best method known for this
purpose, ought to be studied by every teacher of read-
ing who is deficient in a knowledge of the art of elocu-
tion. Work in the dark often does more harm than
good, for good reading, like good singing, becomes an
impossibility with a poorly trained voice. Particular at-
tention is directed to what is said on page 250 in regard
to making reading a healthful exercise.
Continue the plan recommended for the Third Reader
in regard to dictionary work. In this connection, the
study of synonyms should be introduced. Occasionally
have the class write the reading lesson of the day, sub-
stituting synonyms for every word defined in the book,
and for any others that may possibly be not fully under-
stood. Again, in reading a lesson, have one pupil read
a sentence, and require another to repeat the exact idea
in his own words. Carefully correct all sentences so
rendered, whether written or spoken, which are ungram-
matical, tautological, or otherwise clumsy and ungrace-
ful. This study of synonyms will prove very beneficial
in extending the child's vocabulary, and in giving him
a good command of language. It should be continued
through all the advanced classes.
The questions at the close of the selections, under
the head of " Exercises, " are intended to be merely
suggestive. The object aimed at is to be certain that
the children fully grasp the ideas of the author, and also
to enforce attention on the part of the class to what is
being read, and thus to train the memory. A good
?8 READING.
exercise in the same direction is to have the books
closed after the lesson has been carefully read, and then
have the pupils repeat the lesson in their own words,
giving the substance of every paragraph as completely
as possible. If time is too pressing to conduct this
exercise orally, have each member of the class write the
lesson from memory. It is not proposed to have the
children memorize the exact words of the author, but
to render the exact ideas of the lesson as completely
as possible in their own language.
Short biographical sketches are given of nearly every
author where his name first appears in the book. These
sketches may be supplemented by the teacher to advan-
tage whenever he happens to know any additional inter-
esting facts in regard to the lives or writings of the
authors.
Have the class bring in short selections of their own
choosing from the writings of the most celebrated
authors mentioned, and supplement the regular reading
lesson from time to time by having these selections read
aloud. In this way a taste for good literature may be
cultivated early in life, and good seed may be sown in
fertile soil, which, if neglected, will produce nothing but
weeds.
The children in this Reader should be required to do
certain work in connection with the reading lesson pre-
paratory to studying the text-book on grammar. They
may be taught here to classify words. Have them make
lists of the names of objects, actions and qualities. Teach
the use of pronouns as substitutes, and the correct posi-
tion of words and phrases in sentences. Have the chil-
dren observe words so closely as to be able to tell what
they modify. Also, to classify sentences as to their use,
McGUFFEY'S FIFTH AND SIXTH READERS. 79
as declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclama-
tory. This kind of work ought to be continued until
the children are properly prepared to begin the formal
study of grammar.
McGuffey's Fifth and Sixth Readers.
In these two books, the character of the selections
again undergoes a decided change. In the choice of
matter composing them, two objects dominated : first, to
present typical selections from the writings of as many
of the foremost authors in the English language as pos-
sible ; and second, to afford as much good material for
elocutionary drill as possible within the limits of a
school reader. The Sixth Reader is especially rich in
selections adapted to elocutionary needs ; it contains as
good a selection as can possibly be made for this pur-
pose, and, in fact, is used in many schools in place of a
"Speaker." Both books contain ample instructions
and exercises for vocal drill in their Introductions, which
can be and should be used with good effect.
Biographical sketches of all the authors represented
are given where the author's name first appears. Use
these sketches simply as a basis or outline to be filled
out in the composition work of the class.
The teacher should lead his pupils, not only to com-
prehend the thought of what he reads and to give it
utterance in his own words, but also to observe and to
criticize intelligently the form of expression. The words
and phrases of the text, as well as the historical and
biographical notes, should be studied with attention.
The teacher himself should make a careful study of
80 READING.
every selection in the Fifth and Sixth Readers, and
should make marginal notes in his private copies of the
books for his own use, calling attention to figures of
speech, well turned phrases, examples of forcible and
beautiful language, etc., etc. This kind of work is
essential if a teacher would make the reading lessons
useful as specimens of the best English.
Benjamin Frankin, in his autobiography, tells how he
materially improved his style of writing, and his exam-
ple is well worthy of imitation. He used to read a por-
tion of the "Spectator" carefully; then, laying it aside,
he would try to write what he had read, as nearly as
possible, in the words of the author. He would then
compare his writing with the original, and note the dif-
ferences of expression. After studying his errors care-
fully, he would again write the selection from memory,
and again compare his production with the original, and
so on, time after time, until he attained a satisfactory
result. He pursued this plan until he formed a most
excellent style of his own, modeled on that of the best
writers of the English language. Probably no better
way of improving one's style could be devised, and
Franklin's plan would prove most useful in the school-
room.
Be careful not to allow children to copy what they
read. Make them write from memory, compare with
the original, and rewrite. In these exercises, originality
of expression is not to be condemned, but rather
encouraged, provided the original expression is perfect
in all respects. At the same time, awkwardness of ex-
pression, the wrong use of terms, redundancy, omission
of words necessary to clearness or force, the improper
transposition of words or phrases, etc., etc., may be
McGUFFEY'S FIFTH AND SIXTH READERS. 8 I
pointed out, and thus the children will rapidly learn to
recognize what constitutes a good and what a bad
style.
There is one danger about composition work and lan-
guage exercises which should be carefully avoided : that
is, in the attempt to impart elegance to language, all
vigor and interest may be smoothed out of the writing.
Vigor and interest are of vastly greater importance than
even grammatical expression or spelling, and elegance
should be made to take its proper place as a mere orna-
ment. It is important only in the sense that the polish
on a piece of rich furniture is important ; and, as the
quality of the wood is much more to be considered than
the finish which is given it, so the thought displayed in
a composition should receive more consideration than its
outward form.
Matters of weighty import should not be lost sight
of in attention to petty details. The proper place for
the study of the latter is in the primary classes in com-
position work. In the higher classes they should call
for no more thought on the part of a pupil than does
the way he holds his pen.
Harvey's Grammar should be used as a book of refer-
ence to learn the correct use of figures of speech, and
the dictionary should be constantly used to study the
proper use and choice of words. Synonyms are, as a
rule, by no means identical in meaning, and yet very
frequently pupils are allowed to use indiscriminately, as
though they were identical in meaning, such words as
recollect and remember, inference and conclusion, attachment
and affection, attain and obtain, infections and contagious,
etc., etc. The dictionary and the grammar should be
used as books of reference in connection with the study
82 READING.
of the reading lessons more than is now the custom.
The proper kind of study in this direction can not fail
to impress upon pupils the value of a good grammar
and a good dictionary, and the necessity of their careful
study if accurate and elegant diction is ever to be ac-
quired.
If supplementary reading be desired, you can go into
no better field of literature than that of the authors
here represented. Encourage the pupils to read as
much as possible at home, giving them hints as to the
best works of each author. There is no room for the
study of English Literature, unfortunately, in the ordi-
nary common school, but if the Fifth and Sixth Readers
are studied and used as they should be, they will go
very far towards taking the place of a regular text-book
on that subject.
The Publishers realize that many schools and many
homes are without the books of reference necessary to a
proper understanding of some of the selections, should
the text alone be given. In all cases, therefore, where
it seemed there could be a possible want in this direc-
tion, notes have been added at the close of selections
which give all the information necessary for intelligent
reading.
SPELLING
VII.
McGUFFEY'S SPELLING-BOOK.
Note. — The teacher is referred to what has been said in regard
to this subject on page 22.
WHILE the Spelling-book is thought to be use-
less in primary classes, it is on the other hand
quite essential in the higher classes, even if the only
object be to give pupils the thorough command of a sim-
ple practical vocabulary ; for it is not to be presumed
that any one set of Readers presents a complete list of
the words which are used in every-day life, or that it
presents a sufficient number of words of any particular
class in such a way that they may be recognized easily
as a class, and that the rule for spelling all words of that
class may thus be deduced. This is the particular prov-
ince and use of the Spelling-book.
Children below the Fourth Reader class are, as a rule,
not old enough to understand the laws which govern
Spelling, or to reason about the analogies of words ;
hence, work in spelling, up to this point, should be con-
fined to the words included in the reading lessons and in
the various written exercises. This work is of course
general in its nature, and necessarily without plan, ex-
cept that the simpler words are encountered in the read-
ing lessons at an earlier period than those which are
more difficult.
(85)
86 SPELLING.
If the teacher has been careful to correct all errors, —
that is, to accept nothing short of perfect spelling in all
written work, — the children, by the time the Fourth
Reader is reached, will have acquired a fair vocabulary
of simple words, and will be prepared to begin the in-
telligent study of the Spelling-book.
The work now becomes specific in nature. Words
are to be considered in certain well-defined classes, and
carefully analyzed, compared, and contrasted. The
general laws of spelling and pronunciation are thus best
learned and remembered, while the peculiarities of un-
usual spellings and pronunciations are brought out and
impressed upon the mind.
In teaching the Spelling-book, have every lesson
written as well as spelled orally. By this plan, each
member of the class is compelled to spell every word of
the lesson ; the diacritical marks are learned more thor-
oughly and more readily ; and, finally, the children learn
how to spell sooner and more accurately than they pos-
sibly can do should the work be confined to oral spell-
ing alone.
If spelling exercises in addition to those in the book
are given, the teacher should be careful not to burden
the minds of the children with long lists of unusual and
difficult words. Work of this description is time thrown
away: first, because the chances are that the child will
never have occasion in all his life to write these unusual
words ; and second, if he ever should have occasion to
write them, after any considerable lapse of time, he
probably will have entirely forgotten how to spell them.
And, presuming that such words are remembered, what
advantage are his spelling lessons to one who can spell
PJiytelepJias or Phthisipneumonia readily, but constantly
USE OF THE SPELLING-BOOK. Sy
writes loose, meaning lose, and makes no distinction be-
tween dessert and desert, or bass and base, or relict and
relie, or choir and quire f The time of the spelling
lesson should be devoted especially to those words which
are liable to occur in ordinary composition, and not to
useless puzzles in orthography ; but words occurring in
lessons in geography, and scientific terms in common
use, should be spelled in connection with the recitations.
In the English language, difficulties in spelling arise
chiefly from two causes: (i) the presence of silent let-
ters, or letters whose sounds are not heard in the spoken
word, and (2) the use of substitutes, several characters
often representing the same sound, and the same char-
acter often representing different sounds. (See pages
61-65.) In order to accomplish effective work, words
should be studied with especial reference to these two
chief causes of difficulty. The Eclectic Spelling-book is
particularly well adapted to the study of these points.
All silent letters are cancelled by a light line, and the
proper diacritical mark is given to every letter that de-
mands one. In writing spelling lessons and dictation
exercises, children should be required to cancel the
silent letters, and to give each one that is sounded its
proper diacritical mark, as indicated in the book.
Each accented syllable also should be marked. As
elsewhere stated, pronunciation is even more important
than spelling, since many more words are spoken than
written. It is in this connection that oral spelling has
its chief value, and the teacher should require that every
word which is spelled orally should be pronounced prop-
erly and distinctly.
McGuffey's Eclectic Spelling-book, Revised Edition,
may be divided to advantage into a three-years' course,
88 SPELLING.
extending through the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Reader
classes.
First Class. — If this plan be followed, the work of
the First Class should include the first fifty-eight lessons.
Begin with Lesson I, and drill on the sounds and
diacritical marks. The identification of the simple ele-
mentary sounds with the characters that usually repre-
sent them is the first step to be accomplished, and
should be mastered before even the slightest difficulties
of spelling are presented. If pupils have been drilled
properly on diacritical marks in the Readers, the first
three lessons of the Speller will require no especial
attention. In Lesson 4, substitutes and silent letters are
first presented. Gradually new sounds, new marks, and
new combinations of silent letters are introduced, and,
by the time the children have finished Lesson 57, they
will have been drilled upon all the distinctive diacritical
marks used in Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
The remarks at the beginning of lessons are put there
for a purpose, and should not be neglected. Usually
they explain the particular point which the lesson imme-
diately succeeding is intended to illustrate. Each lesson
should be studied with reference to its accompanying
remark, and in those instances where the remark sets
forth a rule of spelling or pronunciation, the children
should memorize and recite it, — as, for example, the
remark at the beginning of Lesson 32.
Second Class. — The work of the second year should
extend to Lesson 171. Especial attention is to be given
this year to homophonous words, the proper accent of
words of more than one syllable, and to suffixes and
prefixes, but exercises on the diacritical marks and silent
letters should not be abandoned.
CLASSES. 89
Explain carefully what the word homophonous means,
and in each lesson on homophonous words require the
pupils first to spell and define the words orally, and
then to write sentences, each of which shall include one
or more words of the lesson. Brevity should not be
encouraged at the expense of clearness. Each sentence
should be of such a nature as to show that the pupil
understands perfectly the meaning of the word used, and
pupils should be made to rewrite every sentence that is
ambiguous in this respect.
Third Class. — The work designed for the last year is
devoted principally to pronunciation, but many lessons
are interspersed on " Words which require care in
Spelling." The latter lessons contain, for the most part,
words of every-day use, such as one may be called upon
to spell at any time. A very few lists only are given of
long and unusual words, and no words are presented as
mere puzzles.
Lesson 201, on synonyms, is suggestive of other les-
sons of like character. The pupils should write sen-
tences showing the fine distinctions between the various
synonyms, and also when they are interchangeable and
when not. Exercises of a similar nature have been sug-
gested in connection with the reading lessons. These
exercises, if properly conducted, will give pupils, a fine
command of language.
E. M.-8.
WRITING
VIII.
ECLECTIC SYSTEM OE PENMANSHIP.
WRITING is second in importance only to read-
ing - . It has been urged under the instructions
for teaching reading that lessons in writing should go
hand in hand with the former from the very beginning.
Indeed, as Mr. Thompson well says in his preface to the
Hand-book to the Eclectic Penmanship: " Neither
writing nor spelling should be regarded as distinct
branches of learning. They are only a necessary part
of language teaching, and the method of teaching them
should be adapted to the best methods of teaching read-
ing and language in general."
Writing has for its object the expression of thought
in written words, in order that this thought may be con-
veyed to the minds of others through the eye. There-
fore, the first aim in writing should be legibility. No
matter what other qualities writing may possess, if it is
illegible it is useless. The next aim should be rapidity
of execution. "Time is money,' and if a man's busi-
ness demands that much time be devoted to writing,
rapidity is of but little less importance than legibility.
Next, but a long way after these points, comes beauty.
The first two may be considered the necessities, and the
latter the luxury, of penmanship.
The Eclectic System of Penmanship is founded upon
these principles. The style of the letters is severely
plain and simple, and the method of instruction sug-
(93)
94 WRITING.
gested aims at legibility first, and then at rapidity and
beauty. We can not give a better idea of what this
method is than by quoting in full from the author's
Preface to the new edition of the Hand-book :
"The New Eclectic Penmanship, and the accompany-
ing Hand-book, are the result of a thorough revision
and reconstruction of Thompson and Bowler's Eclectic
System of Penmanship by L. S. Thompson.
"When the system was first published, in 1870, the
present author had practiced for years the plan of giving
whole letters and whole words as the first lessons in
writing for little children, in opposition to the then pre-
vailing method of first teaching lines as elements, then
principles or parts of letters, then letters, and finally
words.
"This word, thought, or language method of teach-
ing writing to beginners has only lately found favor in
the East, as an adjunct to the " Quincy Method,'' but
it has been practiced in several western cities for the last
twelve or fifteen years.
"The New Eclectic Penmanship claims superiority in
its adaptation to the advanced methods of teaching other
subjects.
"The writing or the spelling of columns of unmean-
ing words must always be distasteful. The writing and
the spelling of words should be taught in sentences
which embody a thought within the capacity of the
child, at the very outset of the course.
"The analysis of letters is not the first step in learn-
ing to write, any more than an analysis of words is the
first step in learning to talk. The first step is mere
imitation. Analysis comes at a later period, and it
should always be as simple and natural as possible.
DESCRIPTION OF THE BOOK'S. 95
"Capital letters should be introduced early in the
course, because children need them in their daily exer-
cises.
For the benefit of those teachers who are not familiar
with the Eclectic Penmanship, we here give a brief
description of the several books of the regular course.
No. 1 is in large hand, and contains all the figures,
all the small letters but two, and over one hundred
words. Each letter is given once separately, but almost
all the drill is required in simple words, the longer ones
generally being built up from the shorter ones. A very
simple explanation of each letter is suggested at the
head of each page, but no rigid analysis is attempted in
this book.
No. 2 introduces the capitals in classified order, and
about ninety new words, some of them being quite
short, and others longer. The long words are generally
derived from the short ones by means of prefixes and
affixes, thus giving a valuable drill in the derivation of
words as well as in writing. The analysis is still general,
as in No. 1.
No. 3 contains about forty-five connected phrases and
short sentences. The capitals are classified according to
difficulty in execution, and a closer analysis into the
elements of the figures, small letters, and capitals, is in-
dicated by the use of small figures.
No. 4 contains forty-six phrases and sentences, graded
as to length. The size of the writing is a medium
hand, or standard business size, the short letters being
about one tenth of an inch, or two and a half milli-
meters in height. In this book, the head-lines are
used only about one third of the distance down the
page.
g6 WRITING.
Nos. 5 and 6 are books of still longer sentences than
those in No. 4. The capitals are still arranged in clas-
sified order. These two numbers are duplicated in
smaller hand for girls for the accommodation of teachers
who prefer for them copies in a smaller hand.
These six numbers are all that are necessary in order
to teach a good, plain, and serviceable handwriting ; but
where time and circumstances allow, the higher num-
bers, 6^, 7, 8, and 9 should be used, especially if
pupils are to be trained for mercantile life. The higher
numbers are as follows,:
No. 6}4 contains twenty-four double line copies ex-
tending clear across the page. Merely writing short sen-
tences and single lines once across the page can never
produce a free, corresponding, business style. The
copies in this book give short and concise rules for the
use of punctuation marks in writing.
No. 7 is a book of commercial and other useful forms,
and definitions of commercial terms. Copies 1, 2, 3, 6,
8, 10, and 18, define Note, Maker, Endorser, Order, Re-
ceipt, Day-Book, and Draft, respectively, while copies 4
and 5 are forms for notes ; 7, an order for goods ; 9, a
receipt in full; 11, a day-book entry; 12 and 13, the
face of a cash-book; 14, a ledger heading; 15, a due-
bill; 16 and 17, an invitation and a reply; 19, a sight
draft ; 20, a poetical quotation ; 2 1 and 24, prose quota-
tions ; 22 and 23, advertisements. No. 7 is not dupli-
cated in smaller hand, for the reason that business
writing should not be contracted below the standard
size.
No. 8 is a book of words in medium hand, designed
to exhibit a great variety of capitals. The Eclectic Pen-
manship is based on one simple business style of writing,
WRITING MATERIALS. 97
and this book is made only for the accommodation of
those who prefer a variety of forms for capitals and small
letters.
No. 9 is a book of bold, off-hand writing, and German
Text, Old English, and Marking Letters.
The Exercise-book. — Besides the regular copy-books,
each child should be supplied with an Exercise-book
prepared to accompany this series. The Exercise-book
is one of the most important of the series, and contains
more than seventy different exercises for developing the
various movements. Each class of exercises is explained
in the Hand-book. It is adapted to all grades, and
should be used daily in connection with the other books ;
for which purpose it is made larger than the others, and
with a thick cover, so that the copy-book may be kept
inside of it when not in use.
Writing Cards. — Every teacher should have a set of
Writing Cards ; and from these, so far as the form of
letters is concerned, the lesson should be given. As
each letter is analyzed and a full printed explanation
given, any one can teach the forms of the letters from
these charts as well as the boundaries of states from
maps. The Writing Cards, seventy-two in number,
contain but a single letter, figure, or exercise on each
side, large enough to be seen across the largest school-
room. The analysis is indicated by figures, and the ex-
planations are printed in large type under each letter.
They are indispensable to teachers who do not write
well on the blackboard.
Pens, for school use, should have smooth, even
points, fine enough to make the delicate hair-lines, and
sufficiently elastic to make the shades even and clear.
Teachers should keep a supply of pens, and not allow
E. m.— 9.
98 WRITING.
pupils to write with large, coarse ones, designed only for
writing on coarse paper. Most new pens, being more or
less oily, should be wet and wiped dry before using,
that the ink may flow more freely. None but the best
pens should be put into the hands of pupils. The
Eclectic Pen meets all requirements of the school-room.
Pen-holders should be light and plain, holding the
pen firmly. About one third of a medium-sized pen
should be inserted in the holder.
Good black ink is the best; it should be dark
enough to enable the pupil to see the delicate hair-lines,
and sufficiently fluid to flow freely. Common writing-
fluid and cheap preparations are not fit for the school-
room. When evaporation causes ink to thicken, it
should be diluted with soft water or cold tea. The ink-
wells should be covered when not in use, replenished
every week, and often thoroughly cleaned.
In taking ink, the pupil should be careful not to allow
the pen to touch the inkstand, dipping it only to the
shoulder, and slowly removing it. If it is removed too
quickly, the attraction of the fluid will leave too much
ink on the pen ; if too slowly, only a small quantity of
ink will remain on the pen.
Pen-wipers. — Every pupil should be provided with a
suitable pen-wiper ; and after the pen is used, it should
be wiped dry. One made of dark cloth will answer
every purpose. A very cheap one can be made of
black cloth cut in a circular form, and folded twice,
making it a quarter circle of four leaves. By stitching
four such pieces together at their right-angular points,
a pretty and serviceable wiper will be formed, and the
inside folds can be kept free from dirt, grease, etc. They
may be kept with the other materials, as common prop-
WRITING CLASSES. 99
erty to be distributed at each lesson, or the pupils
may be allowed to have them at their desks.
Blotting-paper. — Every pupil should also be pro-
vided with a piece of thick blotting-paper, about three
inches wide and six inches long. This may be used,
not only for absorbing blots, but as a rest for the right
hand, to prevent soiling the paper. It should be kept
in the copy-book.
Habits of neatness should be required in wiping the
pen and in taking care of materials, as well as in the
care of the copy-book.
Classification. — In ungraded schools, the pupils
should be classified in writing as well as in reading or
arithmetic. To do this, at the commencement of the
term the teacher may pass each pupil a slip of paper,
and on it require him to write his name, the month, and
day, and after this the slips may be collected and ex-
amined.
Place the best writers in the first division, and the
poorest, and those who have never written, in the
second division, never having more than two classes in
the same room. Select such a book for each class as is
best adapted to the largest number of pupils in it; and
while giving out the books, pens, etc., and teaching
position, pen-holding, and giving movement exercises,
the two classes may be instructed together; but when
the regular copy is taught, proceed with each class sepa-
rately, so far as instruction is concerned.
After explaining the copy that the first class is to
write, direct the pupils to practice it, and, while they
are doing this, explain the copy for the second class
and set them to practicing it. Then inspect the writing
of the first class, illustrate the errors, and direct them
IOO WRITING,
to practice again. Now give attention to the second
class, and so on, keeping both classes at work together,
that you may economize time, and that a part of the
school may not be engaged in other affairs liable to jar
the desks of those engaged in writing.
When and how Long to Write. — Any time may
be taken for the writing lesson that suits the convenience
of the teacher, except the first few minutes of the
session, when the hand is unsteady from walking or
play, and the last half hour in the day, when the pupils
are apt to be too weary to pay attention, and the light
may be inadequate.
The lengtJi of the lesson should usually be about half an
hour daily ; but, as the hand of the beginner soon tires,
it is better to give young pupils shorter lessons, and
have them more frequently, than to require them to
practice when weary or in an incorrect position. With
older pupils, who have formed the habits of sitting in a
correct manner and of moving the pen freely and easily,
the lesson may be continued an hour if desired.
Awakening an Interest. — The mere matter of im-
parting instruction is not the only work of the true
teacher. He will awaken and keep up an interest ; he
will be full of enthusiasm in his work, infusing life and
energy into the minds of his pupils ; he will awaken and
foster a spirit of emulation. This he can do in various
ways, and if he is thoroughly alive to his work, he will
not be content until he has learned some means of ac-
complishing it. But, to aid the inexperienced, we will
give a few of the many ways that have proved suc-
cessful :
At the commencement of the term, the pupils may
be directed to write their names, with the year, month,
, . ' . . ,
> . ' 1 1
A WAKENING AN INTER E -T. I O I
and day, or some motto, verse, or sentence on a slip of
paper, which is to be filed away, and at the end of the
term the same is to be written again, and compared with
the first. These specimens, filed away term after term,
serve as milestones to mark the progress of the pupils,
and will be exhibited with pride by the successful
teacher.
Another way is to have the class write several groups
of letters, words, and sentences out of school, each one
trying his best. Several of the finest specimens, with
a number showing the greatest effort, may be selected
and neatly pasted in a blank-book, with the pupil's name
attached. These specimens may be ornamented with
circles, squares, scrolls, or figures of different designs,
made with a ruling pen, using inks of different colors.
In one instance, where this plan was followed, every
pupil whose name appeared in the book asked to carry
it home to show to his parents, and this increased the
interest and enthusiasm to such an extent that soon
books were produced containing specimens from every
pupil.
By another method, great freedom and rapidity, as
well as accuracy, may be obtained. The teacher gives
out some word or sentence, and directs the class to
write it as many times as possible within a given time,
and write it well. Careful attention to form, height,
slant, width, spacing, and movement should be required,
never allowing the writing to degenerate into scribbling.
Soon the rules will become habits, requiring muscular
rather than mental effort.
For full details as to the methods of conducting the
writing lesson, a description of the letters and figures,
and how to teach shading, spacing and form, the teacher
'IC^2 WRITING.
is referred to the "Hand-book to the New Eclectic Pen-
manship.' It is important that every teacher who uses
the copy-books should make a careful study of this
Hand-book in order to accomplish the best results.
Speaking of this point in his Introduction, Mr. Thomp-
son says :
"That the results obtained in Penmanship, in most
of our public schools, are not what they should be, is
evident from an inspection of the examination papers of
most of the graduating classes, and from the oft-repeated
remark of merchants, that, when boys come from the
public schools to the counting-room, their handwriting is
impracticable, and soon undergoes an entire change.
"The fault lies in the bad arrangement and adapta-
tion of books, in the incorrect methods of teaching-
which they inculcate, and in the fact that many of the
best teachers in our common schools have had no oppor-
tunity to fit themselves properly for teaching Penmanship.
' ' There is, therefore, a demand for something better,
and it is believed that there will be great improvement
in the results obtained if the plan of the Eclectic Series
is carried out as directed in the Copy-books, and in this
little Hand-book, which has been prepared to aid those
who wish to qualify themselves to teach this branch
most advantageously.
"The best penman may be a very poor teacher; and,
on the other hand, the most successful teacher may be a
very ordinary writer ; and, as ' a lame man may be able
to point out the way, though unable to walk therein, '
so it is believed that any one who has sufficient ability
to teach other branches successfully, can teach writing
well by becoming thoroughly acquainted with its princi-
ples, and insisting on a strict adherence to them."
ARITHMETIC
I
IX.
ARITHMETIC— First Year.
THE subject of Arithmetic is usually considered easy
to teach, probably because it seems to possess a
more definite aim than most of the common branches.
But, nevertheless, it is a subject in regard to which the
young teacher is liable to make serious errors of judg-
ment, both as to the method adopted and the manner
of conducting recitations under that method.
It has become somewhat the fashion to adopt new and
fanciful ideas in teaching, and many young teachers are
misled into thinking that unless a method is new it can
not be the best. It should be borne in mind, however,
that cJiange is not necessarily progress. Any and every
method must be subjected, first, to the laws of common
sense as applied to the development of a child's mind ;
and, second, to the test of actual experience in the
class-room, before it can be proclaimed the best, or even
a good, method.
The method presented in this Manual is neither purely
nor partly theoretical in nature, but is the method of
practical, successful teachers of long experience. It has
stood the test of the school-room for years, and has
witnessed the growth and failure of many other methods,
some of which attained a wide but short-lived popu-
larity, while others are at work to-day, befogging the
minds of little children, or converting them into mere
(105)
106 ARITHMETIC.
figure-making machines, and in either case creating a
life-long distaste for mathematics.
It is difficult, not to say impossible, to lay down an
arbitrary rule as to how much work shall be attempted
in any one year in ungraded schools, since the condi-
tions, — such as the length of the school year, the
amount of time that can be devoted to arithmetic, the
number, intelligence, and age of the class, etc., — differ
so widely in the numerous schools. The divisions of
work recommended in this Manual are not to be con-
sidered as arbitrary, therefore, but only as meeting the
average requirements of common schools. They are to
be used simply as a guide, and should be modified at
the discretion of the teacher as circumstances may
demand.
The first step should be to examine the entire school
carefully, and find out, if possible, just how thorough
the instruction of the more advanced pupils has been.
Then classify the pupils according to their knowledge
of the subject, entirely irrespective of age or of the in-
equality of numbers in each class.
The work that is here presented under the heads
" First Year' and "Second Year' should be thor-
oughly "mastered, whether it requires one year, two
years, or three years. If the entire school be suffi-
ciently advanced, the instruction here suggested for the
primary classes may be omitted altogether, but the
teacher should be thoroughly satisfied on this point
before assigning pupils to higher classes.
Older pupils, whom it may be necessary to place in
the primary classes at first, will naturally be able to
advance more rapidly than the younger ones, and
should be transferred to higher classes as they show
FIRST YEAR COURSE. 107
themselves capable of such advancement. By having
such pupils recite in both a higher and a lower class for
a time, these transfers need not disturb in the least the
daily routine of the programme.
In the first class, besides those who have never studied
Arithmetic, put all who have been poorly trained in the
elementary processes. It will be economy of time and
labor to do this, even if you have to include the entire
school in this division for a time; for, in arithmetic,
above all other studies of the common school course, it
is of the utmost importance that one step shall be
thoroughly understood before the next is attempted.
The first two years' training is of more importance than
all the rest the child receives.
Do not attempt to have the cJiildren use a book in the
primary class. — A book should not be used, because no
book contains, and no book can be made to contain, the
kind of instruction necessary the first year.
Do not teach the figures in the first lessons, and do not
allow the children to do any written work ; but teach orally,
illustrating every operation, at first, by means of various
objects. — The instruction should be entirely oral, and
should deal altogether at first with concrete numbers.
The little child can not grasp abstract ideas. It is true
you can teach him to repeat, "2 and 2 are 4;' "2
from 4 leave 2;" "2 times 2 are 4;' and "4 divided
by 2 equal 2." But, without the proper preliminary
work, these words can not possibly convey any clear mean-
ing to his mind. This kind of instruction in a primary
class is simply machine drilling on abstract numbers and
words which convey no ideas, or at best a mere jumble
of ideas to the child's mind. It is one of the worst,
and at the same time one of the most common, faults
1 08 A RITHME TIC.
in the teaching- of arithmetic, and it is one which is very
apt to disgust pupils with the subject from the outset.
On the other hand, if the proper method of teaching is
pursued, which may properly be called the object
method, the children are taught to think ; they will be
interested at the very beginning, and they will be kept
interested by this method until they are successfully
carried to the point where the object method is no
longer necessary, and their minds are ready to grasp
the abstract, through careful preliminary drill on the
concrete.
Begin the teaching of arithmetic, then, with objects, —
blocks, balls, marbles, sticks, books, kernels of corn,
apples, shells, pebbles, etc., etc. The more varied your
assortment of objects the better. The numeral frame
and other mechanical devices are useful, but should not
be used exclusively, or the work will become monot-
onous and tiresome.
Teach the concrete digital numbers in regular order, from
one to teii inclusive, illustrating each number by correspond-
ing groups of objects. — The first step is to teach number-
ing ; that is, so to train the child that he can instantly
give the number of any group of objects not exceeding
ten, at sight, and without counting. Experience has
proved that nearly every child old enough to commence
school has at that time a very good knowledge of the
numbers 1 and 2. It is therefore unnecessary to spend
much time on these numbers. However, the class
should be thoroughly tested on them before proceeding
to take up the number three. The average child com-
mencing school is unable to recognize at sight, without
counting, the number of a group of objects exceeding
three, and from this point the successive steps towards
FIRST YEAR COURSE. IO9
ten must be made slowly and carefully. Do not take
up a new number until the class has proved itself per-
fectly trained on all that precedes. Each day's work
should include a review of all the previous work, so as
to keep the different numbers fresh in the mind.
Do not allow a child to count by ones to find Jioiv many
objects there are in a group, but teach him to recognize the
group as a whole. — Teach what three means by re-
peatedly combining two and one, and one and two, into
groups of three apples, three blocks, three marbles,
three books, three pencils, three lines, three dots, etc.,
etc., and then immediately separating these groups again
into their component parts, two and one, or one and
two, apples, blocks, etc. When the group three in-
stantly suggests the idea three to the entire class, teach
four in the same manner by combining and separating
one and three, three and one, and two and two objects.
Make all the possible combinations and separations of
integers forming each number, using as wide a variety
of objects as possible. As soon as the class is suffi-
ciently advanced, have the children do the combining
and separating of objects for themselves.
If you begin by teaching a child to count, he is very
apt to get an erroneous idea by considering the group
of objects individually instead of collectively ; and, as he
points them out, — either actually or mentally, — "one,
two, three, four, five," his three means the third object
enumerated, and his five means the fifth ; so that five,
to his mind, really means one particular object — the
fifth — in place of a group of five objects, irrespective of
order or individuality. Not until the child has learned
to associate a number with its group, should he be
taught to count the objects in that group. If the child
1 1 ARITHME TIC.
once forms the habit of counting by ones in order to
answer such a question as, "How many blocks in this
group ? ' it will be almost impossible to correct his
error. In place of adding figures at sight, when that
step of the work is reached, he will stop to count on his
fingers to obtain the result, and will probably never be
able to add rapidly and at the same time accurately.
Therefore, we would suggest that counting be deferred
altogether until the class can satisfactorily number any
group including ten or less. When you do teach the
class to count, have a group of objects counted forward
and backward, and in promiscuous order. In this way,
you will avoid the danger of having the number associ-
ated with one particular object.
Teach Addition a>id Snbtractio?i together. — The one is
the reverse of the other, and when taught together they
help the child to understand each process more readily
than if they were taught separately. It is not necessary
to teach the signs until abstract numbers and written
work are commenced.
Do ?iot teach Multiplication and Division i?i tJie primary
class. — They do not help in the understanding of addi-
tion and subtraction ; but, on the contrary, are apt to
confuse the child by the number of different processes
presented to his mind at once.
Teach the concrete digital tiumbers without objects. —
When, by the use of objects before the eyes of the
class, you have taught all satisfactorily to number groups
at sight, and to add and subtract all the possible combi-
nations within the limit of ten as a total, the children
are ready to take the next step. From combining and
separating objects they can see, lead them to combine
and separate groups of objects that they can not see,
FIRST YEAR COURSE. Ill
but can readily imagine, such as animals, houses, trees,
tools, toys, or any objects with which they are familiar.
Repeat the same processes that were used with the ob-
jects before the class in combining and separating, and
in the same order. Give numerous exercises on each
number, with constant reviews, until the entire class
can perform each operation with great accuracy and
rapidity.
Teach the abstract digital numbers orally. — When you
are satisfied with the results of the work thus far, take
the next step by simply dropping the names of the
objects, and teach the abstract digital numbers orally in
the same order that you taught the concrete. Accuracy
and rapidity are the important aims, and the children
should be drilled until they can jjive the answers to all
the possible combinations and separations instantly, and
apparently without stopping to think.
Teach the digital figures, and the use of the signs plus and
minus and the sign of equality. — During the last part of
the first year, when the children are thor-
oughly proficient in the preceding steps,
teach them the written characters that
stand for the numbers which they have
learned to use orally. Write the corre-
sponding words and figures on the board
in two columns, as in the margin, and
explain that we use figures in arithmetic
in place of words for the sake of con-
venience and rapidity. Exercise the
class in making the several figures on
their slates and on the board, at first sep-
arately, and then in simple problems involving both con-
crete and abstract numbers.
One,
I
Two,
2
Three,
3
Four,
4
Fiic,
5
Six,
6
Seven,
7
Fight,
8
Nine,
9
Ten,
IO
112 ARITHMETIC.
To teach the signs, write on the board an example
similar to the following:
4 and 2 are 6.
4 plus 2 equal 6.
4 + 2=6.
Explain that in place of the word plus, the sign + is
commonly used, and that it is to be read plus; thus,
4 + 2 is read "4 plus 2.' ! In the same way explain
that the sign =, called the sign of equality, stands in
place of the words "is equal to," or equals; thus, 4 +
2 = 6, is read: "4 plus 2 equals 6." Teach that the
sign — , called the minus sign, is used in place of the
word less or minus, thus :
6 — 5=1, is read
6 less 5 equals 1, or
6 minus 5 equals I.
Have the class practice with the signs until they are
used as readily in reciting as the words for which they
stand.
The following table will be found useful for slate and
board exercises. Have the class fill out the blanks. It
may also be used for oral drill, and at the close of the
year children should be able to give the answers in-
stantly.
I -f- l = ; therefore, 2 — 1 =
2+1 or i|2= ; therefore, 3 — I =
3 + 1 or 1 + 3 = 5 therefore, 4 — I = ; 4 — 3 =
2-f 2= ; therefore, 4 — 2 =
FIRST YEAR COURSE.
113
4+1
or 1+4 =
; therefore,
5—1 =
; 5-
-4 =
3 + 2
or 2 + 3 =
; therefore,
5-2 =
; 5-
-3 =
5+i
or 1 + 5 =
; therefore,
6— 1 =
; 6-
-5 =
4 + 2
or 2 -(- 4 =
; therefore,
6 — 2 =
; 6-
-4 =
3 + 3 =
; therefore,
6-3 =
6+1
or i-|-6 =
; therefore,
7- 1 =
7-
-6 =
5 + 2
or 2+5 =
; therefore,
7 — 2 =
; 7-
-s--
4 + 3
or 3 + 4 =
; therefore,
7—3 =
; 7-
-4 =
7+i
or 1 + 7 =
; therefore,
8—1 =
8-
-7 =
6 + 2
or 2 -f- 6 =
; therefore,
8 — 2 =
8-
-6:
5 + 3
or 3 + 5 =
; therefore,
8-3 =
; 8-
-5 =
4 + 4 =
; therefore,
8-4 =
8+1
or 1 4- 8 =
; therefore,
9—i =
9-
-8z
7 + 2
or 2-f 7 =
; therefore,
9 — 2 =
9-
-7 =
6 + 3
or 3 + 6 =
; therefore,
9 — 3 =
9-
-6z
5 + 4
or 4+5 =
; therefore,
9—4 =
9-
-5 =
9+1 or 1 + 9 =
; therefore,
10 — 1 =
; 10-
-9
8 + 2 or 2 + 8 =
therefore,
IO — 2= ;
10-
-8
7 + 3 or 3+7 =
therefore,
r o— 3= ;
10
-7
6 + 4 or 4-J-6 —
therefore,
[O — 4= ;
10-
-6
5 + 5= ;
therefore,
10— 5 =
This is the extent of the work that should be at-
tempted in the primary class; and if the instruction is
as thorough, and the reviews are as frequent as they
should be, this amount of work will occupy the full
year. It is granted that much greater apparent advance
can be made in this time, and that children can be
taught the names of numbers as high as a hundred or
E. M.-10.
I 1 4 ARITHME TIC.
more, and to write the figures representing them ; but
the learning of names and the making of figures do not
of themselves imply the gaining or developing of ideas,
and classes forced too rapidly over the preliminary
ground without thoroughly understanding each step as
they advance, will sooner or later show the bad effects
of this method of teaching.
X.
ARITHMETIC— Second Year.
THE class should now be prepared to commence the
study of Ray's New Primary Arithmetic. If the
teacher prefers to do so, the first six lessons on numer-
ation and notation may be omitted until the close of
Lesson XXXVII.
Lessons VII, VIII, and IX are a review of the first
year's work, and the advance work begins with Lesson
XL Teach each number from 1 1 to 20 inclusive, just
as you taught the numbers from 1 to 10, using the
tables and examples in the book as supplementary to
the oral drill.
If the first year's work has been thoroughly done, the
advance from 10 to 20 will be comparatively easy and
rapid. But the work should still be exhaustive, and
should include counting by ones, twos, threes, etc.,
forward and backward ; also, all the possible combina-
tions and separations with a total of 20 or less.
Lesson XI introduces the new number, 1 1. To teach
11, take a group of ten objects, such as pencils, blocks,
sticks, or cards, and tie them in a bunch for convenience
of handling. Before doing this, however, be sure that
the entire class recognizes the fact that there are ten
objects in the group or bunch. Then, holding up
the bunch, ask: "How many sticks are in this
group?" Holding up one stick, ask: "How many
sticks do I now hold up?" Holding up one bunch and
(115)
1 1 6 A RITHME TIC.
one stick, ask: "How many sticks are ten sticks and
one stick? Now, if I take away one stick (illustrating),
how many sticks are left?"
Continue the illustration of this number with various
objects, and by means of dots, lines, crosses, etc., on
the blackboard, until the children are familiar with
eleven as composed of one (group of) ten and one unit.
Teach the class the characters that stand for eleven,
writing both the word and the figures on the board,
thus: Eleven, n. The class are now prepared to take
up Lesson XI in the book.
Preface each of the succeeding lessons by similar oral
work, illustrating 12, 13, 14, etc., up to 20, as these
numbers are introduced, constantly reviewing with each
lesson the numbers already learned.
If the class have not already been taught the reading
and writing of numbers up to 100, Lessons II to VI
inclusive should here be introduced, and the drill con-
tinued until the class are perfect.
The different values attached to a figure by its posi-
tion in the order of tens or in the order of units, may
be illustrated in the following manner, so as to be easily
understood and remembered :
Hold up one bunch of ten objects, and ask: "How
many objects in this group?' When the question is
answered, write the number 10 on the blackboard.
Hold up one bunch and one object, and ask: "How
many (sticks) do I now hold up?' When the answer
eleven is given, reply "Yes, and eleven is made up of 1
ten and 1," holding up the bunch and the single object.
"Now I will write the figures that stand for one ten and
one" writing the number 11 on the board under the
number 10, as you say "one ten and one." Continue in
SECOND YEAR COURSE.
117
this way with the consecutive numbers up to 20,
illustrating with objects, and writing the corresponding
figures in the column on the board. Then show the
children, again illustrating each number with objects,
that, in the combination 10, the 1 stands for 1 (group
of) ten, and the o, which means nothing, or naught,
stands for no ones or units. That in the combination 1 1
the first 1 stands for 1 (group of) ten, and the second 1
stands for one unit. That 12 stands for 1 ten and 2
units, etc. Finally, that 20 stands for 2 tens and no
units.
There will be no difficulty in illustrating 21, 22, 23,
etc., 31, 32, 33, etc., in the same manner, by means of
the tied bunches of ten, up to ten tens, or 100. The
children should then understand clearly, without a for-
mal statement, that the figure in the second order from
the right tells how many tens, and the figure in the first
order how many ones, there are in a number.
The following tables can be used to advantage as
review exercises, both in oral and written work, having
the children fill the blanks:
10+ I
or
1 + 10= ;
therefore,
11 — 1 = ;
11 — 10
94-2
or
2+ 9 =
<
11 — 2 =
11 — 9
8+3
or
3+ 8 =
<<
ii—3 =
11 — 8
7 + 4
or
4+ 7 =
(I
11—4 =
11— 7
6+5
or
5+ 6 =
a
n-5 =
11 — 6
u + i
or
1 + 11 =
therefore,
12 — 1 =
12 — 11
10 + 2
or
2 + 10 =
a
12 — 2 =
; 12 — IO
9 + 3
or
3+ 9 =
1 i
12 — 3 =
; 12 — 9
8 + 4
or
4+ 8 =
1 <
12 — 4 =
; 12 — 8
7 + 5
or
5+ 7 =
6+ 6 =
(1
it
12 — 5 =
12 — 6 =
12 7
n8
ARITHMETIC.
12 -f I or i -j- 12
II -}- 2 or 2 4- ii
10 + 3 or 3 -f io
9 + 4 or 4 + 9
8 + 5 or 5 + 8
7 + 6 or 6 + 7
13+ I or I + 13
12 -j- 2 or 2 -(- 12
11+3 or 3 + 1 1
10 -(- 4 or 4 + IO
9 + 5 °r 5 + 9
8 + 6 or 6 + 8
7+ 7
14 -f I or 1 -|- 14 =
13 + 2 or 2+13 =
12 + 3 or 3 + 12 =
II + 4 or 4 -(- 11 =
10+5 or 5+ 10 =
9 -f- 6 or 6 + 9 =
8 + 7 or 7+ 8 =
15+ 1 or 1 + 15:
14 + 2 or 2 -j- 14
13 + 3 or 3+ 13
12 -}• 4 or 4 + I2
II + 5 or 5 + II:
10 -j- 6 or 6 -(- 10 :
9 + 7 or 7 + 9
8-4- 8
16 -\- I or I -f 16
15 + 2 or 2+15
14 + 3 or 3+14
13 + 4 or 4+ 13
12+ 5 or 5 + 12
therefore,
13—1 =
; 13 —
12
it
13 — 2 =
13 —
1 1
a
13—3 =
13 —
10
«
13 — 4= ;
13 —
9
<«
13-5= .
13 —
8
(«
13-6 =
13 —
7
therefore,
14—1 =
14 —
13
a
14 — 2 =
14 —
12
a
14 — 3 =
14 —
1 1
(<
14 — 4 =
14 —
10
(<
14-5= .
14 —
9
(<
14 — 6 =
14 —
8
(«
14 — 7 =
therefore,
i5 — i =
; 15-
14
<«
l5--2 =
; 15 —
13
(<
i5-3 =
15-
12
c«
15—4 =
15 —
11
<<
i5-5 =
15 —
10
<<
15-6,
15 —
9
n
15 — 7 =
15 —
8
therefore,
16 — 1 =
; 16 —
15
a
16 — 2 =
16 —
14
1 1
16-3 =
; 16 —
13
it
16 — 4 =
: 16 —
12
a
16-5 =
; 16 —
11
it
16 — 6 =
16 —
10
<<•
16 — 7 =
16 —
9
<(
16 — 8 =
therefore,
17-1 =
17 —
16
a
17 — 2 =
17 —
15
(C
17 — 3 =
17 —
H
«(
i7 — 4 =
17 —
13
((
i7-5 =
17 —
12
SECOND YEAR COURSE.
1I 9
11 -f- 6 or 6 + 11 =
10 -f- 7 or 7 -f 10 =
9 + 8 or 8 -f 9 =
17 + 1
or
1 +
17
16 + 2
or
2 +
16
15 + 3
or
3 +
15
14 + 4
or
4+14
13 + 5
or
5 +
13
12 + 6
or
6 +
12
11 + 7
or
7 +
1 1
10 + 8
or
8 +
10
9 +
9
8+1 or I + 18
7 + 2 or 2+17
6 + 3 or 3 + 16
5+4 or 4+ 15
4+ 5 or 5 + 14
3 + 6 or 6+ 13
2+7 or 7+12
1 + 8 or 8+ 11
+ 9 or 9+10
9+1 or 1 + 19=-
8 + 2 or 2 + 18 =
7 + 3 or 3+ 17 =
6 + 4 or 4 + 16 =
5 + 5 or 5+ 15 =
4 + 6 or 6 + 14 =
3+7 or 7+13 =
2 + 8 or 8 + 12 =
1 + 9 or 9 + 1 1 =
10 + 10 =
; therefore,
17 —6 :
(<
17- 7:
«<
17-8 =
; therefore,
l8— I :
<<
l8 —2:
<<
18-3 =
c«
l8 — 4:
<<
18-5 =
<<
18 — 6 =
<(
i8-7 =
a
18 — 8,
(<
18 — 9 =
; therefore,
19—1 =
<«
19 — 2 -
K
19 — 3 =
<<
19— 4 r
(<
19 — 5 =
««
19 — 6 -
«(
19 — 7 =
<«
19 — 8.
<<
19 — 9 =
; therefore,
20 — 1
• («
20 — 2
<<
20—3
(<
20 — 4
<<
20—5
i<
20 — 6
««
20 — 7
<<
20—8
««
20 — 9
(«
20 — 10
17 —
11 =
17 —
10 =
17 —
9 =
18-
17 =
18 -
16 =
18 —
15 =
18 —
14 =
18 —
13 =
18 —
12 =
18 —
11 =
18 —
10 =
19 —
18 =
19 —
17-
19 —
16 =
19 —
15-
19 —
14 =
19 —
U-
19 —
12 =
19 —
11 =
19 —
IO :
20-
" 19
20-
- 18
20 -
-17
20 -
- 16
20 -
- 15
20-
- 14
20 -
13
20-
- 12
20 -
- II
Do not attempt to teach the combinations and separa-
tions in this complete way beyond the total of 20 at
120 ARITHMETIC.
this point. The class should be drilled, however, before
taking up the subjects of multiplication and division,
on adding and subtracting the digital numbers to and
from all numbers within the limits of ioo.
Special drill in addition should be given to those
combinations by which the addition of the digit carries
the total into the ten next higher than the number to
which the digit is added ; as, for example, in the fol-
lowing table :
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19
_l_i_3_J:_5_^__7_j?_9
18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
J2._^_4_5_6_7_8_9
17 17 17 17 17 17 17
-1 A _5 _5 _7 _§. _9
16 16 16 16 16 16
-A _5 _6 _7 _8 _9
15 15 15 15 15
56789
14
6
14
_7
14
8
14
_9
13
7
13
8
13
9
12
8
12
_9
1 1
9
SECOND YEAR COURSE. 121
Similar tables for each ten numbers, 21 to 29, 31 to
39, etc., up to 91 to 99, should be written on the
board, and the class should be drilled on them until all
can give the results instantly without counting.
Drill the class also in adding columns of digital num-
bers whose totals shall be 100 or less; and teach the
pupils to write the totals at the foot of the column
properly, with the unit figure of the sum directly under
the column added.
Commence with a few numbers at a time, and extend
the columns to greater and greater length as the class
advances in proficiency.
In adding a column, — for example, the one in 3
the margin, — do not allow a child to say, "6 2
and 8 are 14; 14 and 4 are 18; 18 and 1 are 5
19," etc.; but teach him to speak the results of 7
his mental additions only, thus: "6, 14, 18, 9
19, 28, 35, 40, 42, 45." 1
Drill on similar examples until the class can 4
add long columns rapidly and accurately. Have 8
the columns added both from bottom to top and 6
from top to bottom. By changing the top and 45
bottom figures only, an entirely new set of com-
binations are formed, whichever way the column may be
added. In this way, the teacher can present a very
large number of blackboard exercises for the class with
a comparatively small expenditure of time and labor on
his own part.
In the business world, the accountant is called upon
to use addition more frequently, as a rule, than all the
other fundamental processes combined. It is there-
fore of the utmost importance that proficiency in this
respect should be strictly demanded, and practice in
e. m— 11.
1 2 2 ARITHME TIC.
the addition of columns of figures should commence as
soon as the child is able to combine numbers. If the
drill on the primary combinations in addition has been
thorough, the children should be able, in a very short
time, to add long columns accurately as fast or faster
than they can utter the consecutive additions aloud.
The only way to learn to add accurately and rapidly is
through much practice ; therefore, it is necessary to
continue this class of exercises for some time, and even
after taking up other steps.
The only difficulty in teaching the subtraction of digits
from the numbers between 10 and ioo will be found in
cases where the digital number exceeds the figure in
the unit's place of the minuend. This difficulty can be
readily overcome by continual practice on such subtrac-
tions. Teach the children in such cases to add ten to the
units of the minuend before subtracting the digit num-
ber, and to subtract one from the tens of the minuend to
obtain the tens of the answer. To familiarize this rule,
give a long series of exercises, retaining first the same
units' figure, and then the same tens' figure, of the min-
uend throughout, while varying the tens in the first case
and the units in the second, and using as a subtrahend
the digital numbers in succession. The following exam-
ples will serve as a guide for this work :
21 31 41 5 1 61 71 81 91
22222222
22 32 42 52 62 72 82 92
_3^_3_^_J_3_3_3_3
Etc., etc., etc.
SECOND YEAR COURSE. 1 23
21
2
22
3
23
4
24
5
25
6
26
7
27
8
28
9
31
2
32
3
33
4
34
5
Etc.,
etc.,
35
6
, etc.
36
7
37
8
38
9
Tables similar to the following, embracing 30 to 38,
40 to 48, etc., up to 90 to 98, should be written on the
board and used as a drill exercise in subtracting. These
tables may be learned in regular order, but promiscuous
exercises on them should also be given.
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
22
22
22
22
22
22
22
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
23
4
23
5
23
6
23
7
23
8
23
9
24
5
24
6
24
7
24
8
24
9
25
6
25
_7
25
8
25
_9
26
26
26
_7
8
_9
27
8
27
_9
28
9
124 ARITHMETIC.
Drill also on adding and subtracting by tens to and
from each number within the limits of 10 and ioo.
Up to this point, the children have been taught to
consider numbers as parts to be combined and separated.
They are now to study the same numbers in their rela-
tions as factors. In introducing these new processes of
multiplication and division, the principle of developing
ideas before words should control, and the knowledge
already gained should be used as a stepping-stone to the
acquisition of the new ideas. For example, the child
already knows that 2 + 2 + 2 = 6; also, that 3 + 3 = 6.
With this knowledge as a basis, it is very easy to show
him that three times 2 are 6, and that two times 3 are
6. Thus, the child's knowledge of addition is used in
teaching him multiplication. This seems much more
rational than at once plunging into the multiplication
table, and, by dint of incessant repetition, memorizing
the combinations of a host of factors and products. By
the first method, the child learns how the product is
formed, and why 3X2 or 2X3 = 6. By the second
method, he simply remembers — if he can remember —
the formula.
It is not to be disputed that the multiplication table
should be memorized, so that any two digital factors
being given, the product shall be given instantly and
without adding; but this mastery of the table should be
a gradual process, and each successive product should
be properly analyzed and introduced. If this plan of
teaching be adopted, it will be found that the children
understand what they are studying, that they learn more
rapidly, and that they remember the tables better after
they are learned.
We submit the following method of treating Lesson
SECOND YEAR COURSE. I 25
XXXIX, and suggest that each of the succeeding les-
sons in multiplication be taught in a similar manner:
Illustrate the work by practical demonstrations before
the eyes of the class, using the numeral frame and
various objects, as in teaching addition and subtraction.
At first, use the denominations balls, apples, shells,
blocks, etc., illustrating with the objects themselves;
then use denominations without illustrating ; and, finally,
use the abstract numbers simply, thus :
How many are 1 ball and 1 ball? {Illustrating with balls.)
How many are 1 horse and 1 horse ?
How many are 1 and 1 ?
How many are two i's? One 2?
How many are two times 1 ? One time 2 ?
Use a number of different objects in illustrating this
step ; and when the answers are instantaneous, write the
final ones on the board, as they appear in the table of
Lesson XXXIX, thus :
1 time 2 is 2 ;
2 times 1 are 2.
Then proceed by the same steps to form the next
product :
How many are 1 block, 1 block, and 1 block ? {Illustrating.)
How many are 1 doll, 1 doll, and 1 doll ?
How many are 1 and 1 and 1 ?
How many are three i's ? One 3?
How many are three times 1 ? One time 3 ?
Place the final answers in the column on the board, as
before :
1 time 3 is 3 ;
3 times 1 are 3.
1 2 6 ARITHME TIC.
In a similar way, lead the children to form the entire
table, writing each successive product on the board as it
is formed.
If a pupil hesitate in giving a product, he should be
indulged at first, and allowed to work out the answer in
his own mind by addition ; in other words, to exercise
his reasoning powers. But, as soon as possible, put a
stop to the necessity of adding in order to find a
product. This can be done only by constant drill on
the table until it is thoroughly memorized. Addition is
useful in leading children to see how the products are
formed, but it should be borne in mind that the final
aim in teaching multiplication is to train the child's
memory so that, any two digital factors being given, the
product will instantly come to his mind without adding.
More exercises are required for purposes of drill than
can possibly be crowded into a primary text-book,
which should be used only as a guide. The teacher
should therefore supplement largely the exercises in the
book under each table.
Division is simply the reverse of multiplication, and
as such may be easily taught by utilizing the child's ac-
quired information as to the latter process. For exam-
ple, you taught the child that 3X2 or 2X3 = 6 by
presenting to his eye three 2's and two 3's, thus:
2 + 24-2 = 6;
3 + 3 = 6.
It is very easy, then, to lead him to see by inspec-
tion that there are three 2's in 6, and two 3's in 6, and
he will readily answer the questions:
How many times 2 in 6?
2 in 6 how many times ?
SECOND YEAR COURSE. \2J
How many times 3 in 6?
3 in 6 how many times ?
We would suggest, therefore, that in teaching the
successive lessons in division, the tables of the corre-
sporfding lessons in multiplication be used as a basis.
For example, in forming the table of Lesson LIII,
use the table of Lesson XL as a basis.
As in teaching multiplication, the processes should be
illustrated by means of the numeral frame and objects
of various sorts, at the first step, then concrete numbers
should be used, and finally abstract numbers. The fol-
lowing is the method suggested for treating Lesson
LIII:
How many are 2 times 1 ball? (Lesson XL.)
How many times 1 ball in 2 balls ?
How many times 2 balls in 2 balls ?
How many are 2 times 1 house ?
How many times 1 house in 2 houses ?
How many times 2 houses in 2 houses ?
How many are 2 times 1 ?
How many times 1 in 2 ?
How manv times 2 in 2 ?
J
It is not thought necessary to form the table of i's
in division ; therefore, write only the answer to the last
question on the board, thus :
2 in 2, 1 time.
Proceed in the same manner to find the next quotient :
How many are two times 2 gloves ?
How many times 2 gloves in 4 gloves ?
How many are 2 times 2 farms ?
How many times 2 farms in 4 farms ?
How many are 2 times 2 ?
How many times 2 in 4 ?
128 ARITHMETIC.
Write the answer under the preceding one, thus :
2 in 4, 2 times.
In the succeeding steps, use both factors as divisors
in forming the division table, thus :
How many are 3 times 2 pencils ?
How many are 2 times 3 pencils ?
How many times 2 pencils in 6 pencils ?
How many times 3 pencils in 6 pencils ?
How many are 3 times 2 wagons ?
How many are 2 times 3 wagons ?
How many times 2 wagons in 6 wagons ?
How many times 3 wagons in 6 wagons?
How many are 3 times 2 ?
How many are 2 times 3 ?
How many times 2 in 6 ?
How many times 3 in 6 ?
Write the last two answers on the board, thus :
2 in 6, 3 times ;
3 in 6, 2 times.
Proceed in like manner to complete the table of 2's
and the succeeding tables of division. It will not be
necessary to memorize the division tables if work on the
multiplication tables has been thorough. For, if the
latter have been mastered, when a product and one of
its factors are given, the children should be able to give
the other factor instantly after they have learned the
simple process of division.
As in multiplication, the exercises under each lesson
in the book should be supplemented by others until
every step of the table is thoroughly learned and im-
pressed on the memory.
SECOND YEAR COURSE. I 29
For convenience in written exercises, the signs of
multiplication and division may be taught as soon as
those subjects are taken up.
The Review Lessons from LXII to LXXVIII in-
clusive should receive careful attention, and no child
should be allowed to go into an advanced class whose
work on review is unsatisfactory. It follows that he
does not fully understand his work thus far, or that he is
insufficiently drilled, and in either case it is folly to give
him more difficult work to do, and work that presumes
thoroughness in what has gone before.
Lesson LXII, except the table, and Lessons LXIX
and LXXI embrace what is commonly known as
"lightning calculations." They should be extended at
the discretion of the teacher, and the four processes of
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division should
be included. It is well to vary the order of the pro-
cesses in different examples. In schools where the
teacher is pushed for time, in place of reciting these
exercises orally, they may be used as slate or board
exercises. Commence the work by pausing after each
process a few seconds. Make these pauses shorter and
shorter as the class becomes skilled, and have only the
final results uttered or written. If a class is sent to
the board to work, number the pupils in consecutive
order as they stand at the board, and give the odd num-
bers one example and the even numbers another, in
order to prevent copying or prompting.
In teaching the tables in Lessons LXXIX to
LXXXVIII inclusive, the teacher should supply him-
self, so far as possible, with the actual measures of
value, weight, etc., and demonstrate before the class, for
example, that "2 pints make 1 quart' by filling the
1 30 ARITHME TIC.
pint cup twice, and pouring its contents into the quart
cup. A very good plan in teaching many of these tables
is simply to teach the names of the different measures,
and have the children find out for themselves by actual
experiment in the class-room how many of one measure
it takes to make the next higher. The tables taught in
this way will be learned with interest and will be remem-
bered. Whereas, if simply made a matter of rote, they
are apt to convey but little information ; consequently,
they are devoid of interest and are speedily forgotten.
XL
ARITHME TIC— CONCL UDED.
Third Year.
EFORE beginning the advance work of the third
year, give the class a thorough review of the
Primary Arithmetic. It will be sufficient, ordinarily, to
have the children perform the work of the regular
review lessons of that book, which are to be found on
pages 23 to 26, 38 to 40, 52 to 55, 66 to 83, inclusive,
and on page 94. As before stated, pupils who find any
difficulty in solving the problems contained in these
review lessons are not prepared to advance, and should
be kept in the Primary Arithmetic class until they are
thoroughly proficient. Bear in mind that, in the study
of Arithmetic especially, one step must be mastered
before another is attempted. Progress is necessarily
slow, and the golden rule is, "Make haste slowly. "
Mental and Written Arithmetic should be taught to-
gether to save labor and time. Therefore, after com-
pleting the review of the Primary, as suggested, have
the class begin work in both the New Intellectual and
the New Practical Arithmetics. Let the mental and
written instruction alternate, and, as far as possible,
have the work in the Intellectual Arithmetic precede
work on the corresponding subject in the Practical
Arithmetic. It is proposed to complete the work in
both books as far as the subject of fractions during this
Third Year.
131)
I 3 2 ARITHME TIC.
A clear understanding of the terms used in arithmetic
is absolutely necessary, and all definitions should be
carefully memorized. Principles and rules should also
be required as they are given in the book, because these
can not be given clearly in fewer words. The thought,
of course, must be explained with great care to avoid
" parrot work," caution against which can not be re-
peated too often. But, after the thought is grasped,
demand exactness of expression, which is one of the
most important aims in the study of arithmetic.
Before beginning the third year's work, the children
are supposed to understand the four fundamental pro-
cesses, and to be able to solve simple problems within
the limits of ioo. They are now supposed, also, to
have arrived at an age when they may properly be re-
quired to analyze the different processes ; that is, to
state clearly and concisely each step of a solution.
In teaching analysis, care must be taken not to allow
repetitions, or indeed any unnecessary verbiage. Wordy
analyses not only involve a waste of time, but they
obscure the reasoning rather than make it clear. The
old method of requiring a child to separate his analysis
into four formal steps, two of which were usually need-
less repetitions, has been abandoned by all advanced
teachers, who have adopted in its place the simplest and
most concise form of statement consistent with clear
reasoning. The Model Solutions in the Intellectual and
Practical Arithmetics give all the steps necessary to a
thorough understanding of a problem, and give them as
concisely, perhaps, as can well be done. The children
should be required to follow these models in their exer-
cises in analysis.
Exercises in analysis should not be confined to work
THIRD YEAR COURSE. 1 33
in mental arithmetic. The written work should be
analyzed in the same way. The latter differs from the
former only in that it requires mechanical work (the
operation) in addition to the mental work. Both forms
of work are useful, and each has a particular purpose.
The tables of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division in the Intellectual and Practical Arithmetics,
carry the work a few steps beyond the corresponding
tables in the Primary book. All of these tables should
be learned and recited, but the multiplication table
should be memorized so that each product, up to 12 X
12 = 144, can be given by every member of the class
the instant that the factors are presented,
Prepare for the class as large a number and variety
of original exercises, both mental and written, as you
possibly can. Such original exercises are far better in
certain respects than those given in any book ; for, de-
spite every caution, answers to the latter are liable to
be copied from keys, or marked in the old books, and
thus the object of the exercises is defeated.
It is unwise to assign work in arithmetic to be per-
formed by the children out of school hours, for almost
invariably those children who most need the exercise
will procure assistance in place of endeavoring to do the
work themselves, and again the object of the exercises
is defeated. The consequence is that the class develops
very unevenly ; some of the pupils making rapid mental
progress, and others dragging behind hopelessly. Much
supposed natural incapacity may be suddenly removed
by the discovery that those "naturally incapable' are
neglecting their work. The teacher should therefore
carefully watch them, and see that they actually perform
the work assigned them.
1 3 4 ARITHME TIC.
Fourth Year.
In the Fourth Year, the class should continue alter-
nate recitations in mental and written arithmetic, and it
is suggested that the work be extended to the subject
of ratio in the Intellectual, and to percentage in the
Practical, Arithmetic. That is, the arithmetical work
of the entire year is devoted to the study of fractions,
both common and decimal. This includes the work
ordinarily performed in graded schools during the fifth
year.
In teaching fractions, illustrate by actual objects, as in
the first steps in teaching whole numbers. Show the
class that there are two halves in one whole apple by
dividing an apple into two equal parts. Demonstrate
the importance of the word equal by dividing an apple,
or other object, into two parts which are not equal.
Neither part, in this case, will be a half.
Illustrate \, \, ^, ^-, etc., in the same way. By this
method, the class at once gain a clear, accurate idea of
fractional parts. They see that -|, -§-, f, etc., make one
whole, or unit, without waste of words.
The difference between a proper and an improper frac-
tion should be practically illustrated, and the reason for
so naming the latter will be immediately apparent.
Continue to illustrate each step by objects as you
advance.
Before giving Lesson XXVII of the Intellectual Arith-
metic to the class, illustrate with objects the fact that
the same fractional part of a unit can be expressed in a
variety of terms; that is, by a variety of numerators
and denominators (see definition of "terms, ' : page 47,
Intellectual Arithmetic). Thus, \ of an apple can be
FOURTH YEAR COURSE. I 35
divided into two equal parts, and the \ becomes \\ or,
it can be divided into three equal parts, and the \ be-
comes -| ; divided into four equal parts, \ becomes f ,
etc. The class will readily see that \, f, -§-, |, etc., all
express the same quantity; i. e. y l of one apple. Con-
tinue the illustration by the division of \, J, \, etc., into
two, three, four, etc., equal parts. When the children
understand this, they can easily understand, also, what
is meant by "reducing a fraction to its lowest terms."
The use of objects should be abandoned whenever the
teacher finds that it is no longer necessary to a clear
understanding of the subject, but it may be found advis-
able to resume this method occasionally when any un-
usual difficulty presents itself.
It may occur to some teachers that there is too great
disparity in the amount of work assigned for the third
and fourth years. It is true that, as far as the number
of pages covered in the Practical Arithmetic is con-
cerned, there is a disparity ; but it must be borne in
mind that the work assigned for the third year is very
largely a review and an extension of principles taught in
the two preceding years. Whereas, the subject of frac-
tions opens an entirely new and quite a difficult field ;
and the work assigned for the fourth year will be found
ample, even under the most favorable circumstances, to
occupy the time.
Fifth Year.
Percentage and its applications are made the special
objects of study this year. The subject of ratio is in-
troduced in the Intellectual before percentage; but, if
thought best, it may be omitted until that subject is taken
136 A RITHME TIC.
up in the Practical Arithmetic, at the beginning of the
Sixth Year.
It is true that the study of percentage, and its appli-
cations, possesses peculiar value for those pupils who
intend to follow certain mercantile pursuits ; but a fair
knowledge of the subject is valuable to men of almost
every occupation, and should therefore receive careful
attention.
The subject is so fully treated in the Practical Arith-
metic that additional explanation here seems uncalled
for. Lessons in the Intellectual Arithmetic, as before
suggested, should precede the corresponding lessons in
the Practical Arithmetic.
Unless the subject of ratio be postponed, the In-
tellectual Arithmetic should be finished this year.
Sixth Year.
The work of this year, from ratio to the close of the
Practical Arithmetic, with the exception of arithmetical
and geometrical progression, is essentially practical in
nature, and a knowledge of the subjects treated is
useful, if not necessary, to all.
The number of examples given in the book is neces-
sarily limited, owing to the number of subjects treated,
and to the condensed form demanded in a school text-
book. The examples in the book should be largely
supplemented by the teacher, and the latter should en-
deavor to make his original exercises as practical as
possible.
It has been frequently suggested that teachers should
supply exercises for their classes in addition to those
SIXTH YEAR COURSE. 1 37
given in the several text-books. Many teachers may
find it impossible to devote the time necessary for the
proper preparation of such exercises ; and, unless the
exercises are most carefully prepared and graded, they
will usually be found of little service. To such teachers
the use of "Ray's New Test Examples in Arithmetic'
is recommended, which will furnish them the necessary
number and variety of exercises to supplement the work
of each year. The exercises of this book are practical
in their nature, all mere puzzles having been excluded.
We can not give a correct idea of the book in any
better way than by quoting from the preface of its
author, Mr. B. O. M. DeBeck, formerly a teacher in the
public schools of Cincinnati. He says :
' ' No example has been introduced which the average
pupil can not solve without assistance, and no solid
progress can be expected unless this is required.
' ' The examples in each article have been carefully
graded, the first few being suited to very young pupils,
while the last half would furnish work for advanced
pupils whose time is limited.
"Attention is called to examples occuring in pairs,
where a slight variation in statement changes the nature
of the problem.
"In each article, the number of examples presented
is made to depend upon the difficulty and importance
of the particular subject presented."
The book covers the entire ground of Ray's New
Practical Arithmetic, and is bound in two forms, — with
answers and without answers. The latter, if so desired,
may be placed in the hands of the pupils ; while a copy
with answers, in possession of the teacher, will save him
much time and trouble.
E. M.— 12.
.138 ARITHME TIC.
B OK-KEEPING.
If the older pupils have the time and the inclination
to extend their mathematical course beyond the ordinary
limits of the common school, they can do so in no way
that will afford a better return for the time and labor
expended than by taking a short course in book-
keeping.
In many cities and towns, book-keeping is made a
requirement in the regular course of the public schools ;
but the necessity of the study is fully as great in the
country schools, owing to the fact that there is a very
general lack of information on the subject in country
neighborhoods.
A knowledge of book-keeping can be turned to prac-
tical account by every man and woman, no matter what
his or her vocation may be. Few professional men,
farmers, artisans, or tradesmen are able to keep a set of
books for themselves, and few are willing or able to pay
a clerk for the purpose of having their accounts accu-
rately kept, even if such a clerk were easily obtained.
Therefore, these classes of men are notoriously poor
*' business men.' They rarely know exactly what their
financial condition is. Debts accumulate unexpectedly;
collections are overlooked ; and notes fall due at the
most inconvenient times, without any preparation having
been made to meet them. Confusion in financial mat-
ters usually results, sooner or later, in disaster, and all
for the lack of a little system and order, which could
readily be secured by a knowledge of rudimentary book-
keeping, and a very limited expenditure of time and
trouble.
Even those whose affairs can be managed well enough,
B OK-KEEPING. I 3 9
in their opinion, without the trouble or expense of
book-keeping, must appreciate the value of fully under-
standing the accounts of the store-keeper and others
against themselves. Thus, a knowledge of book-keeping
is useful to nearly every one, whether the books kept
are his own or another's.
Not only the accounts of the profession, the farm, and
the trade should be accurately kept, but also the
accounts of the living expenses of the household, for in
no way are economy and thrift more certainly made
possible and encouraged. With the figures before you,
it is comparatively easy to see where there has been un-
necessary outlay, and where you can most readily cut
down expenses. The wife, daughter, or son can and
should keep these household accounts, rather than the
head of the family, whose time, generally, is too fully
occupied with other affairs to give these proper atten-
tion.
Women, too, in the present day, are gradually mak-
ing their way into the book-keeping situations of busi-
ness houses in our cities and towns. In the cities they
are regularly educated for these positions, and a respect-
able girl who is so educated often obtains a situation
which provides a comfortable living for herself, and per-
haps for her family as well, in place of being forced by
a lack of such knowledge to accept a miserable pittance
of two or three dollars a week as an overworked shop-
girl or seamstress. It therefore behooves both boys and
girls to add a knowledge of book-keeping to their store
of useful acquirements whenever it is made possible to
do so.
A knowledge of book-keeping does not involve, as
some seem to think, the necessity of a two or three
1 40 ARITHME TIC.
year's course at a business college. It is true that if a
man intends to become a professional book-keeper, — an
expert, — such a course is advisable; but one may learn
all that is necessary to be able to keep an ordinary set
set of accounts in a perfectly accurate and clear manner
by a few months' careful study of a manual especially
adapted to this purpose. The Eclectic Complete Book-
keeping is just such a manual. The few necessary
terms, such as debit, credit, etc., the classification of
accounts, and the titles of accounts are carefully and
lucidly explained. The various books necessary are de-
scribed, and sample pages of each are shown. Then,
four illustrative sets of transactions are given, two of
which are accompanied by the corresponding pages of
the Day-book, Journal, Ledger, Cash-book, etc., with
the various transactions of the two sets properly
"written up." With these models before him for refer-
ence, the student is required to write up properly the
transactions of the two remaining sets, and also certain
particular problems, which are accompanied by particular
instructions. Various suggestions are made where there
is a choice between different methods of entry, and the
entire subject is made so clear and simple that its
thorough understanding presents but little difficulty to
an ordinary mind.
Samples are given of the various forms of commercial
paper, just as they actually appear, in script, including
notes, drafts, acceptances, checks, etc.
The business of joint stock companies is briefly and
clearly explained, and sample pages of the Installment
Scrip Book, Certificate and Transfer Book, and the
Capital Stock Ledger are presented.
Special accounts and books, such as a Pay Roll, Phy-
BOOK-KEEPIXG. 141
sician's Diary, Farm Accounts, Farm Record, Farm
Register, and Family Expense Account receive brief
treatment, but ample to enable a pupil to understand
each thoroughly, and to keep the accounts if it should
become necessary to do so.
The entire book contains less than 150 pages of sub-
ject-matter, and can be thoroughly mastered, with care-
ful teaching, in a few months' time. The manual is
accompanied by a key, which will enable any teacher to
master the subject and to teach it without the least
difficulty. There is also a complete set of book-keeping
blanks, consisting of a Day-book, Journal, Ledger, Cash-
book, and Bill-book. These blanks, which are in book
form, have been expressly prepared to accompany the
manual. They are of sufficient size, and are properly
ruled for the use of students in writing up the work re-
quired by the manual.
GEOGRAPHY
XII.
THE ECLECTIC ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY.
COMPLAINT is justly made that children ordinarily
receive but little benefit from the study of geog-
raphy in our common schools. Pupils are confused by
unintelligible statements about "imaginary lines,' the
earth's "turning over," "zones," and many similar
terms and expressions, the simple statements of which
convey no information whatever to a child's mind. The
pupils are hurried confusedly through mathematical,
physical, and political geography, and are compelled to
memorize the words of many definitions concerning
which they may not have a single clear idea. They are
then crammed with the names and localities of places —
many of them so unimportant that they are never
heard of outside of the school-room — and with endless
statistics of areas, populations, and crop productions im-
possible to remember. Why wonder that a child so
taught has a vague idea that "the equator is a lion
running around the earth," a definite conviction that
Maine is yellow and New Hampshire red, and a grave
uncertainty as to whether the population of the United
States is 50,000,000 or 5,000,000!
The reason such poor results are obtained from teach-
ing geography is because many teachers blindly follow
whatever text-book may be in use, sticking persistently
to the book, and never offering the slightest assistance
E. M.-13. (145
146 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY.
to their classes in the way of illustration or explanation.
Thus, even if the book happens to be a good one, it is
not used, as it should be, to the best possible advantage.
The teacher should make the subject a study, first, to
decide what and how much to teach ; and second, how
to teach it with the greatest probability of successful
results. By successful results, we mean so that children
will retain a store of information which will be useful to
them in after life. No matter what text-book is used,
it should be used only as a guide, and its subject-matter
should be supplemented or cut down as, in the teacher's
judgment, necessity requires. Text-books are made to
answer the general demand, but each teacher must be
a law unto himself as to what to teach and how to
teach it.
We repeat the warning given as to other subjects, —
not to talk over the children's heads. By this, how-
ever, it is not meant that you should not attempt to
develop ideas, although these ideas involve facts beyond
the clear appreciation of any human mind. For exam-
ple, the idea of the revolution of the earth on its axis
involves the fact that we are whirling about a center at
the rate — at the equator — of more than a thousand miles
an hour. And while we are entirely unable to perceive
the latter fact through our senses, yet this should not
prevent our endeavor to give the children a clear idea
of the revolution of the earth once in twenty-four hours.
Astronomical distances are still more inconceivable, but
that fact should not prevent instruction as to the yearly
journey of the earth around the sun, and the consequent
change of seasons. It is not to be expected that chil-
dren will fully comprehend all that is involved in the
science of geography, but they can be taught in simple
PRIMARY TEACHING. 1 47
language, and by means of practical illustration, to un-
derstand the simple facts at the basis of the science.
The subject of geography opens up a wide and
interesting field for composition work, and should be
thoroughly utilized in this direction. The two branches
mutually assist in adding to the interest of the class in
both studies, and information put into writing is apt to
be remembered, while that which is the result of the
mere memorizing of a text-book is usually soon for-
gotten.
The teacher can add very much to each day's recita-
tion in geography by reading or narrating to the class
little incidents or interesting facts gleaned from history
or authentic books of travels, and connected with cities
or localities. This plan, in addition to aiding the
memory, relieves the subject of monotony.
At first the teaching of geography should be oral.
Many facts properly included under this head should
receive preliminary treatment in object lessons, such as
facts concerning the different kinds of soils and minerals,
the vegetable and animal worlds, etc., etc. These facts,
if properly classified and taught, prepare the way for
the study of geography proper, which should not be
begun until the child is ten or twelve years of age. It
is useless and injurious to crowd a multiplicity of sub-
jects on the young child ; and, up to the age named,
reading, writing, and arithmetic, with attendant language
and object lessons, will be ample to occupy the time
profitably.
Teach primary geography objectively as far as possible.
A large school globe is desirable, but if it is not to be
had, a ball or orange may be made to answer fairly
well. Molding-sand can be used to advantage for
148 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY.
certain purposes. Walks in the country, with talks
about the hills and the valleys, the flow of the streams,
the vegetation and the soil,' the state of the weather and
the season of the year, the fog and the rain, the heat
and the cold, — all should be used to illustrate the sub-
ject and to interest the children. These are things that
can not be put in a text-book, but on their proper use
depends to a large extent the success of every teacher.
The training of the imagination is one of the most
useful purposes of geography, and this faculty must be
called into active play in this study from the very be-
ginning. The knowledge of things seen must be
utilized to develop correct ideas of the unseen. Thus,
a globe or a ball is used to develop the idea of the
great round world ; a little creek, or even a gutter, may
be used to illustrate a great river ; a level field, to give
an idea of many miles of a plain ; a small hill or ridge,
to illustrate the mountain peak or range, etc., etc. For
example, in teaching the opening lesson in the Eclectic
Elementary Geography, illustrate the fact that the earth
is a great ball moving, unsupported, through space, by
means of soap bubbles floating in the air. Blow the
bubbles, and let the class watch them as they move.
Now, tell the children that the earth does not move first
this way and then that, as the bubbles are apt to do,
but that it journeys steadily on in the same direction,
year after year, its path making a circle about the sun.*
* Do not confuse small children by mincing scientific terms. It
is not necessary at this stage that a child should know the earth is
a spheroid, and not a sphere, or that the earth's orbit is an ellipse,
and not a circle, since the ellipse is so nearly a circle that it
would take a miscroscope to detect the difference on a plan i !
which the radius of the circle is 10 feet.
ILL US TRA TIONS. 1 49
To illustrate this last statement, pass a wire or stick
through a ball, orange, or apple, and use a candle or
lamp to represent the sun. Walk about the lamp with-
out interposing your body between the lamp and the
ball or between the ball and the class. Be sure to walk
in the right direction, keeping the lamp on your left
side. Explain that the circle of the earth about the
sun, thus illustrated, is so large that it takes a year for
the earth to complete it. Have each child in the class
carry the ball about the lamp in the same way.
When the class seems to have a clear idea of the mo-
tion of the earth about the sun, tell them that while the
earth is making this yearly journey it is also spinning
around like a top. Illustrate the movement by whirling
the wire in the fingers while you are walking about the
light, thus showing both movements in operation at
once. Tell the class that the earth is such a big ball
that it takes a whole day to turn completely around
once, although it is spinning fast.
In explaining what the axis is, be careful the children
do not get the absurd idea that there is a rod similar to
the wire extending through the earth. Illustrate by
spinning a coin on the desk ; this shows the line of the
axis very clearly ; but to give the idea of a sphere spin-
ning about an axis in the same way, follow the coin
illustration with the ball spun on the desk without the
wire inserted.
In illustrating day and night, it is well to darken the
room entirely, except from the light of the lamp or
candle used to represent the sun, explaining that the
sun is practically the only source from which the earth
receives light. Then, by holding the ball close to the
light, and turning the former slowly on the wire, the
150 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY.
class readily sees that one half of the globe is dark and
the other half light ; also, that the movement of any
given spot on the globe — except within the polar circles,
which, however, should not be mentioned at this stage —
is constantly and steadily proceeding from darkness to
light and from light to darkness. Bring out both of
these points clearly: the equal division of darkness and
light on the globe, and the constant movement from one
to another, but develop only one idea at a time. The
large illustration on page five of the book may be used
also in showing the daylight and the darkness on the
earth, and the school globe may be carried about the
lamp in the manner suggested for the ball or the
orange. Always give two or three different illustrations
of the same point when it is possible.
Be careful always to turn the ball or the globe in the
same direction, from left to right, otherwise you will
lead to confusion when you come to illustrate the direc-
tions of the compass. To explain the latter, fix on your
orange or ball a little image of a man with his arms
extended, and his right hand pointing in the direction
toward which the ball is to revolve. You can readily
carve a rough little figure to answer the purpose, or you
may use two pieces of match-sticks, etc., to represent a
man with his arms extended ; in this case, you should
blacken or otherwise mark the part representing the
face. Attach your figure to the ball in the proper posi-
tion. Call the attention of the class to the fact that the
axis of the earth always points in the same direction.
Illustrate as before, carrying the ball about the light,
with the axis properly inclined.
Call attention to the figure, and ask who can answer
the following questions: "As I turn this ball slowly
DIRECTIONS OF THE COMPASS. 151
around {suiting the action to the word), where is the light
first seen, at the right or at the left hand of the figure?
Where is it last seen ? ' Let the child who is being
questioned come close to the ball, as you hold it in po-
sition, and have him stand so that his right hand is in
the direction of the right hand of the figure ; or, in
other words, station him facing the light with the ball
directly between his eyes and the light. This point
needs care in illustration, but if the directions are fol-
lowed, — if the pupil stands facing the light; if the ball
is held between his eyes and the light, with the axis
pointing to the north star ; and if the ball is then re-
volved in the proper direction, from left to right, — the
pupils should have no difficulty in answering the ques-
tion. If there should be any difficulty, persist patiently
until all the children see clearly that the light always
appeal's on the right and disappears on the left of the
figure. When this fact is fully realized of one point in
the orbit, carry the ball about the light as before, and
show that the fact is true of every point of the orbit.
Do not use the word orbit, or any scientific terms,
but lead the children to realize the fact by ocular
demonstration, and with as few w T ords as possible. Now
explain that the great earth also turns always in one
direction, so that the sun, like the lamp, invariably
appears in one direction and disappears in the opposite
direction. Next, teach that the direction in which the
sun appears, or ' 'rises," is called East, and the direction
in which it disappears, or "sets," is called West. Ask:
"Who can point to the direction in which the sun first
appears in the morning? In which direction is east?
Who can point to the direction in which the sun sets in
the evening? In which direction is west? Stand with
1 5 2 ELEMENTAR Y GEO GRAPH 'Y.
your arms extended, with the right hand pointing to the
east and the left hand pointing to the west. Now, chil-
dren, when you stand in that position, with your right
hand pointing to the east and your left hand pointing to
the west, the direction directly in front of you is called
North, and the direction directly behind you is called
South. Now, who can tell me which direction is in
front of you ? In which direction is north ? Which
direction is behind you ? In which direction is south ?
Lower your hands. Point to the north ; to the east ; to
the south ; to the west. Face the east ; the west ; the
north; the south," etc., drilling until the four directions
are perfectly familiar.
In explaining the compass, by all means have the in-
strument itself to show the class. Carry it with you on
your walks, and teach the children to use it by locating
the different cardinal points in various localities.
In teaching the lines of the earth, a globe should be
used. If the school does not possess one, use a ball or
an orange, and draw the equator (a thread will serve for
a mark), the parallels, and the meridians upon it. Be
sure the children do not get the erroneous idea that
these lines are actually marked on the earth's surface
as they are on the globe or ball.
By means of a globe or a ball properly marked, it is
very easy to show a child that a degree of longitude at
the equator is much longer than a degree of longitude
at the arctic circle, although they are measured by the
same meridians. But by merely memorizing the state-
ment of this fact in a book, few if any children will
have the remotest idea of what is meant or how such a
thing could be.
Explain with the globe the statements in the book re-
USE OF THE SCALE. I 5 3
garding north and south latitude, and east and west lon-
gitude. When the children understand the terms fully,
drill them by having various points found on the globe
when the latitude and longitude are given.
The different divisions of land and water should be
illustrated, as far as your particular locality admits of it,
by pointing out to the children an actual cape, hill,
bay, spring, etc. Few localities present many of the
divisions, but, as before suggested, those which are
accessible may often be used to develop correct ideas
of those which are not. A tray full of molding-sand
will enable you to form all the land divisions, and the
banks of any little creek will afford you material for
illustrating the definitions of both land and water divi-
sions in miniature. This kind of work will interest the
children, and they will remember the definitions so
taught much more readily than by merely studying the
statements in the book. Have the children themselves
do as much work of this kind as may be necessary to
fix the several definitions in their minds.
In teaching what maps are, have the children make
maps, first of the school-room, then of the school-yard,
then of the neighborhood of the school, and of different
familiar localities, etc. Begin by showing them what a
scale of distances is, and why one is necessary to under-
stand a map rightly. Thus, show them that while you
can not draw a map of the school-room floor on the
blackboard, making the map of the same size as the
floor, yet, by measuring the latter, and representing
each foot of the floor by a distance of one inch on the
board, you can draw a map having the exact shape of
the floor, with all the benches, desks, the stove, etc., in
the right positions, so that a person who had never seen
154
ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY.
^
^
i
"S
the room could form a very clear idea of its
size, shape, and arrangement by simply look-
ing at the map and consulting the scale on
which it is drawn.
To show why it is necessary to know the
scale on which a map is made, draw two
maps of the room floor on the board, using
for the first a scale of one inch to the foot,
and for the second a scale of half an inch to
the foot. Draw the scales on the board, as
in the margin, placing each scale under its
proper map. Explain that the two maps
represent the same floor ; but, if it were not
for the scales, we might think the maps rep-
resented different floors, one of which was
much larger than the other. Again, draw a
map of some imaginary room, and, without
showing any scale, ask how wide a room or
how long a room it represents. As it is impossible to
answer these questions, the children will at once per-
ceive the necessity of having a scale given in order to
determine size or extent.
Next, give the children as much practice as possible
in measuring actual distances and reducing them to
various scales. As they are presumed to be able to
work problems in ratio and proportion by this time, the
mathematical part of the work should present no diffi-
culty.
When they show themselves proficient in reducing
simple lines to a scale, have them employ the lines of
length and breadth in figures representing certain simple
areas, such as the school-room, school-yard, their own
farms or places, etc., as before suggested.
MAP TEACHING. I 55
The important aim of this work is to accustom chil-
dren to view a map in its proper light : namely, as a
mere representation in miniature of a certain extent of
country. Children should have sufficient practice in this
kind of map-sketching to fix firmly in their minds the
correct idea of what a map is before the maps in the
book are made a subject of study.
Before taking up the map of the world on pages 1 1
and 12, you should use the school globe, if you have
one, in teaching the hemispheres, the grand divisions,
the principal islands, the oceans, and the seas. The first
point to be made, and a most important one, is to have
the children fully comprehend that the globe is simply
a miniature representation of the world on which we
live. Let it be your constant effort in teaching geog-
raphy to carry the minds of the children from the rep-
resentation to the thing represented, from the map of a
country to the country itself, and from the descriptive
text to what is described. Do not allow the globe to
be studied simply as a wooden ball covered with paper,
on which various colors, lines, and names are printed.
Picture to the child's imagination, as vividly as you can,
the great round earth, made up of land and water, with
the continents and islands raised above, or, as it were,
standing out of the oceans. When the children have
this picture in their minds, tell them that the globe is
made to represent the earth, just as a very small toy
house could be made to represent accurately the outside
of a great palace.
Point out on the globe, first, the continents, and then
each of the grand divisions. Have the children point
them out as they are named, and name them as they
are pointed out, repeatedly, until all are perfectly
156 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY.
familiar both as to name and locality. Next, the oceans
should be pointed out on the globe, and their locations
with reference to the continents should be learned as
well as their names. Drill as on the continents and
grand divisions. The principal islands, seas, etc., may
be taught in the same manner. Teach that the map on
pages 11 and 12 is simply another way of representing
the surface of the round world, and that all other maps
in the book are representations of only portions of the
earth's surface drawn on a larger scale than this first
map. Illustrate by contrasting North America, as rep-
resented on pages 11 and 18. Follow this by contrast-
ing the United States on pages 18 and 22, 23 ; then
contrast your own state as shown on pages 22, 23, with
the sectional map of the state given in the book. In
this way the child is led to look at a sectional map in
the right light as representing a portion of the earth's
surface. He will not be so apt then to study it as a
mere isolated conglomeration of colors, lines, and names.
It is suggested that each map be traced back in this
manner through the decreasing scales until the portion
under study is located on the map of the world or the
globe, and that the children be taught to bear this
location in mind while studying the larger map.
Relief globes and maps, and moldings in sand, are
used by some instructors in teaching the structure of
continents, but there is, we think, a very grave objec-
tion to their use, as they must necessarily give most
erroneous ideas of elevations of land as compared with
continental distances. We think it is a fact conceded
by all teachers that it is better to develop no ideas at
all than to develop wrong ones. First impressions are
notably strong. Why, then, should children be taught
RELIEF MAPS. I 57
the monstrous absurdities portrayed on relief globes and
maps, and by moldings of continents, only to be com-
pelled to fight against these first impressions for the
remainder of their lives? Few teachers seem to realize
how great the distortion generally is on a relief map or
globe. For example, the highest mountain in the world,
Mount Everest is about 29,000 feet high; and when you
reduce our world — about 7,900 miles in diameter — to
the size of a school globe 2 feet in diameter, Mount
Everest would be represented properly by a speck not
■^q of an inch high. Again, let us consider the proper
proportions of a section extending across the United
States on the parallel of Mount Whitney, the highest
mountain in the United States. This mountain is nearly
15,000 feet high, and on its parallel the continent is
about 2, 500 miles wide. If, then, we represent the
mountain by an elevation one inch in height, our section
must be made 1,056 inches, or 88 feet in width. Now
consider the distortion of the ordinary molding in relief
of the United States — say, with the mountains elevated
at least an inch above sea-level, and with a breadth of
continent not more than 40 inches. This would either
represent Mount Whitney as 62^ miles high, or the
continent as only 1 14 miles broad. Does not such
teaching inevitably do more harm than good? It seems
to us a much better plan not to bring these widely
differing extensions into comparison until the child has
arrived at an age when he can realize to a certain extent
the vast difference between them.
We do not mean to imply that relief should not be
taught at all in primary classes. On the contrary, it
can be very successfully taught. Show a child a hill ;
tell him its height, and then contrast this with the
158 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY.
height of a mountain. He will readily follow you, and
you have taken one step in teaching the relief of the
globe. Again, show him a sloping field crossed by an
abrupt ridge, and you can easily lead him to imagine
the long gradual slope from the Mississippi River to the
Rocky Mountains, and so on with other continental
features, until the child can see in his mind the conti-
nent as a whole, with its mountain ranges, river valleys,
and coast plains, probably in a much truer light than
that presented by distorted piles of sand, etc. We
believe in teaching relief, but we do not believe in
teaching wrong ideas, or in attempting to teach propor-
tions impossible of conception.
The use of molding-sand should be confined to the
formation of the geographical forms usually defined. It
is easy to teach the children to make an island, a prom-
ontory, a cape, a plain, a plateau, a hill or mountain,
a mountain chain, an isthmus, etc., but this method of
illustration is not well adapted to teaching the forms of
continents or their structure, neither is it sufficiently
exact in ordinary use for teaching those facts usually
acquired from maps. Molding-sand can not take the
place of globes, maps, or books on geography.
Great care must be taken that the children, ,in study-
ing maps, do not get erroneous ideas of directions.
North is almost invariably toward the top of a map ; but
do not allow the children to gain an idea, because of
this uniformity, that north means up and that south
means down. There is danger of this, especially when
wall maps are constantly used. A case is on record
where a school visitor asked the children to point to the
north, and the entire school pointed directly over their
heads. With correct and careful teaching, such a blun-
ZONES. 159
der would have been impossible. North means in the
direction toward the north pole, and south means in
the direction toward the south pole ; up means in the
direction toward the zenith, or overhead, and down
means in the direction toward the center of the earth,
or underfoot. These latter definitions are not arbitrary,
of course, for up also means from a lower to a higher
place, and down means the reverse. Thus, down from
the top of a hill may be in every direction of the com-
pass ; and, from the base of the hill, you may be able
to go up in every direction of the compass ; but, from
either top or bottom of the hill, there is but one north
direction and but one south direction. We dwell upon
this point because it is important that the distinction
between the various terms should be impressed upon
the minds of the children before they commence to
study maps.
In teaching the zones in the elementary class, it is
undesirable to go into any explanation of how the
boundaries of the different zones are determined, as the
subject is considered too difficult for the comprehension
of young children. This explanation is treated fully
under the corresponding head in the Complete Geogra-
phy ; but in the Elementary, only so much is said about
the zones as is necessary for a clear understanding of
the succeeding topics of climate, plants, and animals ;
the races of men, their manner of living, and their oc-
cupations.
In teaching climate, ask: "Who can tell from the
definitions in the book in which zone we live?' If this
question can not be answered at once, draw out the
fact by a series of questions until the children realize
that they must be living in the temperate zone. Then
1 60 ELEMENTAL Y GEO GRAPHY.
point out the different zones on the globe, or, if the
school does not possess one, on the map of the world,
and show them as nearly as possible the spot where
they live.
In teaching plants, illustrate the subject as far as you
can by specimens of the various plants, bits of woods
of different kinds, etc., etc. Have the class bring you
as many specimens as possible of the vegetable products
of their zone, and incite them to secure a wide variety.
If any important products of the temperate zone are
not to be obtained in your neighborhood, make a list
of them, and teach the children any interesting facts
you may know about them.
While the illustrations on page 13, and similar illus-
trations throughout the book, are exceedingly useful,
yet the lessons they teach should be supplemented
where it is possible by showing the children the living
animals. A zoological garden or a good menagerie is
a most useful and intensely interesting means to this
end ; but the children should be accompanied to such
places by a person who is competent to tell them the
names of the animals, where they live, their habits,
their uses, etc.
The manner of living and the occupations of men
depend largely upon the zone in which they live ; thus,
agriculture and manufacturing could not be carried on
in the frigid zone. By judicious questioning, and by
explanation where necessary, show how different coun-
tries, or parts of countries, are peculiarly adapted by
nature to certain pursuits. Also, demonstrate the im-
portance of commerce, showing that by this means it is
possible for almost any place to be supplied with the
products and manufactures of the entire world.
WHAT TO TEACH. l6l
It will be observed that the maps of the Elementary
Geography are exceedingly simple. Except on the
sectional maps of the United States, only those rivers,
mountains, cities, etc., are shown which, it is consid-
ered, should be taught to every child, and in such a
way that he will be able to locate them promptly as
soon as they are mentioned. The sectional maps of the
United States are fuller in detail, as children should be
more fully instructed in regard to their own state than
any other. The less important cities of the section not
in the child's own state may be omitted in map work at
the discretion of the teacher.
The text of the Elementary Geography is absolutely
free from statistics, from unimportant details, and from
repetitions. Therefore, all that is given should be
learned, and the teacher can not go wrong in demanding
that the entire text shall be learned thoroughly.
In reviewing, it will be well to bear in mind the rela-
tive importance of the topics as presented in the book.
Ask only general questions on the geography of the
world as a whole. Let the questioning be a little fuller
on the grand divisions. That on the different political
divisions should be graduated in accordance with the
importance of the several nations as related to our
country and their own importance in the history of the
world. The geography of the United States should
receive careful attention, and your own state especially
should have full treatment, the questions embracing all
that is given in the book, both on the map and in the
text.
E. M.— 14.
XIII.
THE ECLECTIC COMPLETE GEOGRAPHY.
THIS book has been so arranged, by the use of two
sizes of type, that, if the time is limited, a short
course, complete in itself, can be adopted. The full
course includes the entire text, embracing both the
large and the small type. Much of the explanatory
matter, and the less important particulars, are put in
small type, and may be omitted without interfering with
the arrangement or connection of the large type. -The
latter used alone constitutes the short course. The
questions on the text are confined to the short course.
The matter in small type, however, should in no case
be disregarded entirely. Even where the short course
is adopted, and this small type is not recited, the
teacher should suggest that the pupils read it carefully.
It contains much interesting and valuable information,
and in many cases will assist materially in understanding
the accompanying text in large type.
The preliminary treatment of mathematical, physical,
and political geography should be taught in a manner
similar to that suggested for these subjects in the Ele-
mentary Geography. In the Complete, the treatment
is, of course, much fuller than in the Elementary, and
is somewhat more difficult to understand. Every state-
ment that admits of it should be fully illustrated. Have
the children themselves perform all the illustrative ex-
periments, such as showing the two movements of the
(162)
EXPLANA TIONS. 1 63
earth in combination ; how the directions east, west,
north, and south are determined; the changes of season,
how the zones are formed, etc., etc. In reviewing the
preceding day's lesson, select some pupil to make the
necessary explanations to the class, just as you made
them on the previous day. Nothing will impress the
facts on a child's memory so indelibly as this class of
exercises.
The statements in a text-book of this nature are nec-
essarily very concise. Do not limit your instruction to
these concise statements, however, where a development
of the ideas they set forth seems desirable. For exam-
ple, on page five, under mathematical geography, article
2 (a), explain the statement, ''This would not be the
case if the surface were flat,' by telling explicitly what
would be the case, and ivJiy the masts would disappear
before the hull. If you can draw these explanations
from the pupils themselves by judicious questioning, so
much the better ; but, at all events, the full explana-
tions should be made in one form or another. The
pupils should not be allowed to stumble along in the
dark as to the meaning of what they study, simply
memorizing words.
Show by experiment in the sunshine, or with a light
of some kind, that a sphere is the only body whose
shadow is always round, using a half sphere, a coin,
and various objects besides a sphere.
In teaching directions of the compass, pursue the
same plan as in this elementary class. The two classes
may be given the lesson together.
In teaching the circles of the earth, show by experi-
ment, using an orange or wooden ball properly cut, that
the circle which divides a sphere into two equal parts
1 64 COMPLETE GEOGRAPHY.
must pass through the center of the sphere, that all such
circles are of the same size, and that any circle which
does not pass through the center of the earth is smaller
than one that does.
Explain with the globe why meridians are only semi-
circumferences, while the parallels extend entirely
around the globe.
Explain why the meridian of Greenwich is taken as
the prime meridian rather than that of London. The
national observatory is at Greenwich.
Exercises in finding points on the globe when the lat-
itude and longitude are given, should be continued long
enough to assure the teacher that the entire class under-
stands the meaning and use of parallels and meridians.
The motions of the earth should be illustrated as in
the Elementary Geography by means of a ball transfixed
by a wire, the sun being represented by a light of some
kind.
Show what is meant by the sun being "over* any
meridian, illustrating with a light and a revolving globe.
The simple diagram on page 166 may be readily
drawn upon the board, and will be found of great assist-
ance if used in connection with the revolving ball and
lamp, in explaining how the limits of the zones are de-
termined, the changes of seasons, the longest and
the shortest days of the year, etc.
Explain, in the first place, what is meant by the in-
clination of the earth's axis 23^° from a perpendicular
to the plane of the ecliptic, using the diagram on page
7, second column, and the sketch on the opposite page
of this book, which should be drawn on the board.
Refer to article 15, page 6, in explaining what deter-
mines the length of a degree.
LENGTH OF DA VS.
I6 5
23 H°
IM \
- - ? \
/ \
Plane of
/ Elliptic 1
/
\ 1 •
^ /
a, /
To illustrate and explain the longest and shortest
day of the year, carry the globe around the light, hav-
ing the axis properly inclined and
kept constantly pointing in the
same direction. Ask the children
to note carefully at what point of
the circuit the north end of the
axis leans most directly away from
the lamp, and at what point it
leans directly toward the lamp.
When they have recognized these
two points, tell them that these two positions are rep-
resented by figures No. 1 and No. 3 in the diagram on
the board (see page 166). Darken the room, except from
the light representing the sun, and show the class that at
point No. 1 there is more darkness as compared with the
light north of the equator than at any other point in the
entire circuit, while at No. 3 there is more light as com-
pared with the darkness north of the equator than at
any other point in the circuit. This means, in other
words, that when the earth is at point No. 1 it is the
shortest day and the longest night of the year north
of the equator, and when the earth is at point No. 3
it is the longest day and the shortest night of the year
north of the equator. Tell the class that the earth is in
position No. 1 on the 21st of December, which is
accordingly the shortest day of the year north of the
equator; and that it is in position No. 3 on the 21st of
June, which is therefore the longest day of the year
north of the equator. South of the equator the condi-
tions and facts are simply reversed.
Now tell the class that the rays of the sun, when the
earth is in these two positions, fix the limits of certain
1 66
COMPLETE GEOGRAPHY.
No. 2.
Spring
March 22nd.
No. 3,
Summer
June 21st.
Nol.
Winter
Dec. 21 st.
s No. 4.
Autumn
Sept. 22 nd.
belts or zones, known as the north and south frigid
zones, the torrid zone, and the north and south temper-
ate zones.
Hold the globe in position No. I, and indicate with a
pencil the points a, b, and c. The first two points
mark the northern and southern limits of the sunlight
on this day ; c marks the point on which the vertical
rays of the sun fall on this day. With the pencil at
each of these points in turn, have a pupil revolve the
globe, and the pencil will describe the arctic circle at a,
the antarctic circle at b, and the tropic of Capricorn at
c. Then, in the same way, with the globe at position
No. 3, the pencil describes the arctic circle at a, the
ESTABLISHMENT OE ZONES. 1 67
antarctic circle at b, and the tropic of cancer at c.
Question the class, and draw out of the pupils the exact
statements of how the limits of the torrid and frigid
zones are determined, thus: "What determines the
limits of the frigid zones?' Answer: "The frigid zones
are bounded by the parallels which mark the extreme
limits of the earth's surface touched by the sun's rays
on the longest and shortest days of the year." "What
determines the limits of the torrid zone?" "The torrid
zone is bounded by those parallels which mark the
extreme limits of the earth's surface touched by the
vertical rays of the sun on the longest and shortest days
of the year." Explain that the surfaces between the
frigid zones and the torrid zone are called the temperate
zones. Thus we have the five distinct zones in order:
the north frigid zone, the north temperate zone, the
torrid zone, the south temperate zone, and the south
frigid zone.
Hold the globe in position No. 1, and have the class
note that on Dec. 21st, which is called our winter sol-
stice, the entire north frigid zone is in darkness ; that
is, at no point in the north frigid zone does the sun
appear or "rise" that day. Again, at this time in the
south frigid zone, the sun is visible from every point ;
that is, it does not "set" on that day.
These facts, and the relative lengths of day and night
in different quarters of the globe on this day, are illus-
trated by the light and shaded portions of the diagram
on the board ; but they should also be illustrated by
actual experiment with the light and the globe.
Explain that as the earth journeys on in its orbit from
Dec. 2 1st, that the point a gradually advances toward
the north pole, and the point b recedes towards the
1 68 COMPLETE GEOGRAPHY.
south pole until at a certain point in the orbit these two
points and the poles of the earth coincide ; that is, at
this point, represented by figure No. 2 in the diagram,
the sun's rays touch the north and south poles at the
same time. It is apparent from the figure that at this
point exactly one half of each zone is light and the
other half dark ; or, in other words, the days and nights
are equal in all parts of the world. Illustrate with the
globe and lamp as before, and tell the class that the
earth reaches this point in its orbit which is known as
the vernal equinox, on the 22d of March.
The globe should be carried slowly from position No.
I to position No. 2, and the class required to notice the
gradual change of light and darkness in the two frigid
zones. Demonstrate with the light and globe the
changes that occur in each quarter from 2 to 3, 3 to 4,
and 4 to 1, asking such questions as will lead the class
to find out the facts for themselves.
Have the class notice that at every point in the orbit
one half of the equator is in the light, and the other
half in darkness ; that is, at the equator the day and
the night are always equal, and each is one half of 24
hours, or 12 hours, long.
Have the class notice also that the sun first appears
at the north pole on March 2 2d, and does not again
disappear until September 22d; that is, the day is there
six months long. After disappearing on September
22d, the sun does not appear again at the north pole
until March 22d ; that is, the night is there six months
long. This is also true at reverse periods for the south
pole ; that is, the day and night are equal at the poles,
and each is six months long.
The explanations, illustrated by the globe and light,
WAVES AND TIDES. 1 69
the diagram on the board, and the diagrams in the
book, ought to render the causes of all the phenomena
of day and night, and the seasons, apparent to any in-
telligent child who is old enough to study the Complete
Geography.
Teach the use of globes, maps, and scales as sug-
gested for the Elementary Geography.
In teaching physical geography, even those defini-
tions that are repeated from the Elementary should be
illustrated as far as possible, but especial attention
should be paid to such definitions as may be new to the
children. For example, illustrate the statements regard-
ing the Land and Water Hemispheres, page nine, article
13. Place the school globe in such a position that the
diameter through the land and water centers, or
" poles," will be perpendicular to the floor, turning first
one pole on top and then the other. This will show at
a glance the preponderance of water surface.
If possible, secure a piece of unpolished coral to
show of what material the coral islands are built. The
more illustrations you have of this nature, the more in-
teresting the subject will be.
To show the motion of waves, page 12, article 36,
use a rather long and heavy piece of rope. By shaking
one end of this up and down, the children can follow a
wave as it travels along from the hand to the other end
of the rope. By this experiment the child learns that
the wave travels, while the material or substance of
which it is composed has little if any horizontal motion ;
the wave travels, the rope does not ; in the same way
the wave of water travels forward, while the water itself,
unless disturbed by other influences, simply rises and
falls with each succeeding wave.
E. M.— 15.
170 COMPLETE GEOGRAPHY.
As stated in article 37, the tide moves like a wave.
Do not let the children get a wrong impression, from
the sweeping in and out of tide waters in river mouths,
harbors, etc., that the waters of the open ocean have
this same regular horizontal flow back and forth. There
the tides are not appreciable at all; that is, there is
almost no horizontal motion of the water itself, and the
slow, gradual rise and fall of the great body a few feet
twice in twenty-four hours can not be perceived. It is
only when the tide approaches the shore and meets with
resistance from the shoaling bottom that the waters
attain appreciable height and a horizontal motion.
Speaking of this point, and of the variation in the
height of the tides at different places on the same coast,
J. E. Hilgard, ex-superintendent of the United States
Coast Survey, says : ' ' When the movement reaches
shallow water, in approaching the shores, the horizontal
motion [of the wave, not of the watcr\ is partly trans-
lated into vertical motion upon the sloping bottom, and
it is thus that the tides attain sensible vertical height.
Now, where a bay or indentation of the coast presents
itself, opening favorably to the tide-wave thus devel-
oped, and decreases in width from its entrance toward
its head, the tide rises higher from the mouth upward.
This is due to the concentration of the wave by the
approach of the shores, and to the gradual shoaling of
the bottom."
You should explain how the vapor, mentioned on
page 12, article 41, is formed. Illustrate by the vapor
rising from a wet shoe when held near the fire.
To show the class that the same number of sun's rays
are distributed over a greater space nearer the poles
than at the equator, page 13, article 58, draw the
HEAT AND COLD.
I/I
accompanying diagram on the board. The columns x
and y contain an equal number of sun's rays, and it is
very evident that the distance cd on the earth's surface
near the pole is much greater than the distance ab near
the equator ; that is, the rays that fall near the poles are
more widely distributed than those which fall near the
equator. Another way of
stating the case would be
that more rays fall in the
same space at the equator
than at the poles, and
consequently the space re-
ceiving the most rays is
the hottest. To show this,
lay off the space ce at the
pole equal to the space
ab at the equator. It is evident that more rays fall in
the space ab than in the space ee } and consequently ab
is hotter than ce.
The subject of minerals, treated on page 15, article
97, and more fully on page 17, article 16, may be made
extremely interesting. Specimens should be obtained
if possible, showing the various minerals in their native
state. Many interesting books and articles have been
written in reference to the formation of coal, salt, and
petroleum. The entire subject opens a wide field for
instructive composition lessons.
The subject of the "Surveys of the Public Land,"
treated on page 26, is an important one, and should be
thoroughly learned, especially in those states where the
land has been surveyed in the manner described. In all
such states, children should know where the base-line
and principal meridian for their state are situated, and
1/2 COMPLETE GEOGRAPHY.
should be drilled until they can locate any tract of 160
acres in the state.
It will be noted that in the text of the Complete
Geography comparative statements are usually made in
regard to areas in addition to the actual figures. It is
more important that these comparative statements
should be learned than that the statistics should be
memorized ; for if relative sizes are clearly defined in
the mind, approximate areas at once suggest themselves
when the area of the basis of comparison is known.
Thus, a child in Indiana is taught the exact area of his
own state in figures thoroughly. Knowing this, he learns
that the United States would contain one hundred states
the size of Indiana (page 21, article 3); and this fact,
which at once gives him approximately the area of the
United States, is easily retained in the memory. The
same method should be used in teaching the comparative
areas of different states in our own country, and the
areas of the principal countries of the world as com-
pared with the United States. That the eye may assist
the mind effectively, the different sectional maps of the
United States have been drawn on a nearly uniform
scale, so that states in different sections can be thus
brought into direct comparison as to size.
In the map work, due attention should be given to
the prominent places in corresponding latitudes which
are given on the side margins. There is an astonishing
amount of ignorance on this subject, even among per-
sons who consider themselves well educated; and there
are few persons, perhaps, who will not be surprised at
their own erroneous ideas, as developed by some of the
facts brought to light by this feature of the study.
Contour lines, both in the sea and on land, should re-
ADDENDA. 1 73
ceive attention, especially those which appertain to your
own state. The teacher should explain carefully to the
class that those on the land represent lines of equal alti-
tudes above the surface of the sea, and that those in the
water represent lines of equal depths below the surface
of the sea.
Map drawing is important as a great aid in fixing the
shapes of countries in the memory. It should be com-
menced with the study of the maps, and every pupil
should draw all the maps that are given in the Com-
plete Geography. The teacher may use his discretion
as to the reproduction of minute details, but outlines,
topographical features, and principal cites should be re-
quired in all cases.
Particular attention is called to the table of definitions
of foreign geographical terms on page 102. As maps
of foreign countries are studied, this table should be
consulted, and the more important translations should
be memorized.
The general review questions on page 100 cover the
ground thoroughly, and every child that is supposed to
have "finished" geography should be able to answer
every question on that page. An examination on these
questions without special preparation will test the
thoroughness of the work accomplished.
GRAMMAR
XIV.
HARVEY'S ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION.
GENERAL REMARKS. —Harvey's Elementary
Grammar and Composition is a text-book in which
the topics relating to technical grammar and analysis are
arranged in the order in which they should be studied
by beginners. It contains carefully prepared illustra-
tions of the method of instruction to be employed in
teaching these topics. In the preparation of this manual
for teachers, it has not been thought necessary or ad-
visable to do much more than (i) to designate the
parts of the course of study to which special attention
must be paid in order to secure the most desirable
results ; (2) to suggest the introduction of supplementary
exercises where they can probably be used with advan-
tage ; (3) to point out the sections that need only to
be read and made subjects of conversation ; (4) to em-
phasize by repeated statement the advice, ''never to
define a term or enunciate a principle without first pre-
paring the mind of the pupil to grasp and comprehend
the meaning and use of the term defined or the prin-
ciple enunciated."
The "sentence-making" exercises may be supple-
mented indefinitely and used in all parts of the course.
At first all the words to be used in the construction of
a sentence should be given ; then, a part of them, the
pupils supplying those necessary for a complete state-
(177)
178 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.
ment. When they have learned to do this readily, they
should be taught that groups of words are sometimes
used like single words. Single words and groups be-
ginning with prepositions may then be written on the
blackboard, and the pupils required to arrange them
into sentences without changing the order of the words
in the groups. The use of the clause can be taught in
a similar manner. In an elementary course, the terms
phrase and clause ought never be used, but each combi-
nation of words should be called a group, and be re-
garded as a single thing not to be separated into its
parts. Pupils taught in this manner soon become apt
critics of their own language and that of their com-
panions.
The value of picture lessons in "composition" can
hardly be overestimated. The manner in which they
should first be given is illustrated on pages 22 and 23.
As soon as pupils can dispense with the assistance of a
teacher in the use of pictures, they may be taught to
describe what is to be seen through windows or doors,
to write stories suggested by pictures, and to describe
scenes with which they may be familiar. Excellent
results can be secured by work of this kind in high
schools, as well as in schools of lower grade. To an
observant teacher or pupil, the pictures that adorn the
walls of so many of our school-rooms will suggest inter-
esting themes for compositions. Any intelligent, pains-
taking teacher, by using the method recommended, can
make this a most interesting and attractive part of the
course of study. In schools in which many different
branches are taught and the number of classes is large,
the recitation in technical grammar should be omitted
occasionally and the time devoted to instruction and
GENERAL REMARKS. \Jg
practice in composition. Much will be gained and little
lost by this ''departure' from the "old way."
Having been trained in sentence-making, in picture
lessons, and in writing descriptions of real or imaginary
events, pupils may be required to read a description of
a single object several times, then to lay the book or
paper containing it aside, and reproduce its leading facts
from memory. The description should never be re-
ferred to while writing, either for facts or forms of ex-
pression. Work similar to this should be done until
the reproduction of a description becomes an easy task.
Pupils may then be required to describe familiar single
objects, at first using " plans" prepared by the teacher
or given in the text-book. The teacher should talk
with the pupils about objects to be described, criticize
"plans' submitted to him for examination, and assist
in obtaining desired information, but he should insist on
each pupil's using his own language in his descriptions.
The description of single objects, especially of manu-
factured articles, buildings, etc., is excellent work for
pupils in the lower classes of high schools.
The definitions of technical terms ought to be re-
peated in parsing exercises until they can be given
without hesitation ; they may then be dispensed with or
given only in occasional reviews. Grammatical rules are
usually statements of facts — repetition helps to fix them
in the memory. Too frequent repetition, however, is
wearisome and unnecessary.
Refer to the rules for the use of capital letters and
marks of punctuation, as they are needed in sentence-
making and composition. Pupils will thus learn the
practical application of rules at the time they are learn-
ing their formal statement in technical language.
180 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.
PART I. — Elementary Course.
Objects. Definitions. — Talk with the pupils about the
senses, objects, words, language, spoken language,
written language, and grammar, but do not require
them to commit to memory the definitions on pages
7 and 8.
The Sentence. — Teach the subject in the manner indi-
cated in the text. Require pupils to learn and recite
the directions to be observed in writing sentences.
Sentence-making. — In developing the idea of each kind
of sentence, use many illustrations in addition to those
in the text. Observe the direction given on page 10.
Use this lesson quite frequently as a review.
Quotation Marks. — As an additional exercise, require
pupils to write sentences in which one states what
another says without using his exact language. The
pupil will thus learn how to write both direct and in-
direct quotations.
Parts of Speech. — The object of this lesson is to show
that words can be divided into classes. Use the same
word with different meanings, and in different parts of
sentences, to illustrate what is meant by the terms
meaning and use. "I saw a drove of cattle." "He
drove the cattle over the bridge." "Gold is a metal. "
"Mary has a gold pencil," and similar sentences may be
employed for this purpose.
The Noun. — Do not neglect to teach that a noun is
the name of an object and not the object itself. Show,
also, that by placing the, this, that and other definitive
words before a common noun, a particular meaning is
given to it without making it a proper noun. Do not
omit any of the exercises. Be thorough in teaching
EL EM EN TAR Y CO URSE. 1 8 I
how to form the plurals of nouns. Illustrate each rule
in assigning it as a part of a lesson.
Abbreviations and Contractions. — Require pupils to pay
particular attention to the use of capital letters and the
period in writing abbreviations, and to the writing of
words in which the apostrophe takes the place of
omitted letters. Examine critically the written exercises
of pupils, and see that the work required is done cor-
rectly.
Elements of a Sentence. — Develop the idea of each
part of a sentence before permitting pupils to learn its
definition. Prepare oral exercises to supplement those
given on page 20. Require pupils to analyze sentences
orally before using diagrams.
The Verb. — Pupils should be required to fill all the
blanks with appropriate words. Develop the idea of
the objective element before attempting to teach the
classification of the verb. Read the remarks carefully in
assigning lessons, but do not require pupils to commit
them to memory. Observe the directions given in the
text of this and succeeding lessons.
Incorrect Language. — The "cautions' in the Ele-
mentary Grammar need not be committed to memory.
Refer to them in correcting the exercises in the text-
book as well as the language of the pupils in conversa-
tion and sentence-making.
Sentence-making. — Be thorough in teaching the appli-
cation of the two rules given on page 29. See that the
blanks in the exercises are filled with appropriate words,
and that the pupils make no mistakes in the use of the
comma.
The Adjective. — Require pupils to make separate lists
of quality-words, pointing-out-words, and number-words
1 82 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.
before permitting them to learn the definitions. Refer
to the dictionary for definitions of the words descriptive
and definitive. Do not introduce the subject of com-
parison in a formal way, but use adjectives in the com-
parative or superlative degree without referring to their
forms. Tell the pupils that the articles the, a, and an
are usually classed among the definitive adjectives.
Sentence-making. — The teacher should supplement the
exercises in the lesson on page 34 by others prepared
by himself. Pupils should not be permitted to slight
the work required in this part of the course. Examine
all written work with care, and see that pupils observe
the directions given in preceding lessons.
The Participle. — Do not hurry in developing the idea
of this part of speech. Show by a large number of
illustrations in what particulars the participle resembles
the verb and the adjective. In teaching the definitions,
call attention again and again to the fact that the present
participle denotes continuance, and always ends in ing,
and that the perfect participle always denotes completion.
Be sure that the pupils learn how the compound parti-
ciple is formed.
The Pronoun. — Teach the definition in the manner in-
dicated on page 42. It is not necessary that the pupil
should learn the definitions of the kinds of pronouns at
this time.
The Adjective Element. — Pupils generally learn readily
how to distinguish this element from the others. Be
careful in teaching the application of the terms posses-
sive and appositive. Teach that possessives and apposi-
tives are usually nouns or pronouns, although they are
used like adjectives as modifiers of nouns. The rules
for the formation of the possessive case should be
EL EMENTAR Y CO UXSE. 1 8 3
learned, but no attempt made to develop the idea of
case. Use sentences written by pupils as supplementary
exercises in analysis and parsing.
Kinds of Pronouns : 1.. Personal Pronouns. — Be careful
to teach the subject of pe?'Son before attempting to teach
the definition of the term personal pronoun. The exer-
cises on page 49 are specially important, and none of
them should be omitted.
2. Possessive Pi^onouns. — Do not fail to make the pupil
understand that a possessive denotes a possessor only,
while a possessive pronoun denotes both the possessor and
the thing possessed.
3. Relative Pronouns. — Develop the idea of a relative
clause by the use of oral illustrations. Supplement the
exercises on pages 54 and 55 by sentences prepared by
teacher or pupil.
4. Interrogative Pronouns. — As additional exercises in
analysis and parsing, use sentences written by pupils.
These sentences should contain both interrogative pro-
nouns and interrogative adjectives.
The Adverb. — Do not omit any of the exercises on
page 58. In developing the idea of the adverb, as well
as that of the adverbial element, use oral illustrations.
Require pupils to substitute adverbs for the adverbial
clauses, when practicable, in the exercises on page 60.
The Prepositio7i. — Require pupils to point out the
groups of words used as modifiers in the exercises on
page 63 ; then teach them that each group begins with
a word that shows the relation between the words it
connects. Call this connective a Preposition, and the
modifying group of words a Phrase. The definitions of
the two terms may then be learned and the exercises
analyzed.
1 84 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.
The Infinitive. — Pupils should be made to understand
the difference between expressing action and affirming it
before being permitted to commit the definition of the
infinitive to memory. Use oral exercises to supplement
those given on page 66.
The Conjunction. — The definition should be taught in
the manner indicated in the oral lesson on page 67.
Show by illustrative examples in what respects conjunc-
tions differ from prepositions and relative pronouns.
Compound Elements. — Require pupils to commit to
memory the directions for writing compound elements.
Use sentences written by pupils as exercises in analysis.
Simple and Compound Sentences. — Require pupils to
write sentences, each containing a part common to the
others, and then to combine them into single sentences ;
also, to write many compound sentences, and, when
possible, to separate them into simple ones.
Complex Sentences. — Call attention to the remarks on
page 74, and teach that a sentence in which a clause is
used as subject or predicate, is complex, one of its ele-
ments containing a subject and a predicate. Use many
sentences, in addition to those on pages 76 and 77, as
exercises in reducing and enlarging sentences.
Review. — Review Part I thoroughly before beginning
Part II. In this review, sentence-making and composi-
tion should not be neglected. They are more important
exercises than analysis and parsing.
PART II. — Advanced Course.
Gender, Person, and Number. — Use oral illustrations in
teaching the definitions, and use the sentences required
ADVANCED COURSE. 1 85
to be written as exercises in analysis. As soon as the
idea of a property is developed and the definition
learned, require the term to be used in parsing exer-
cises. Do not require the rules for the formation of the
plurals of nouns to be committed to memory and recited
in the order in which they are arranged in the text, but
let pupils refer to them until they can write correctly
the singular and plural forms of nouns in common use.
Case. — Use the illustrations on page 83 in showing
that the term case is used to denote the relation of a
noun or a pronoun to other words, and oral illustrations
in showing the use of the same term to denote the. form
of a noun or pronoun. Call attention to the fact that
nouns have only two case-forms, — the nominative and
the possessive, — the nominative case-form being used in
the nominative, objective, and nominative-absolute cases.
Review the lesson on pages 43 and 44 thoroughly, and
require pupils to write a large number of sentences con-
taining nouns in the possessive case singular and plural.
Properties of the Pronoun: 1. Personal Pronouns, — Refer
to the remarks on page 89 occasionally in parsing exer-
cises, and require pupils to state the substance of each
remark in their own language.
2. Possessive Pronouns. — Teach that in parsing a pos-
sessive pronoun by the first method, no attention what-
ever should be paid to the name of the possessor, the
part to be parsed being the name of the thing possessed.
This part may be in any case except the possessive.
Teach, also, that in using the second method, one of
the two words into which the pronoun may be sepa-
rated, may be owning, having, or possession.
3. Relative Pronouns. — Teach orally how to distinguish
a relative from a personal pronoun. Be patient, and do
E. M.— 16.
1 86 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.
not hurry in this part of the course. Each paragraph
following the description of " double relatives" on page
93 may be made the subject of a separate lesson.
4. Interrogative Pronouns. — Require the remark on
page 95 to be studied carefully, and be sure that the
pupils understand the meaning and use of the term sub-
sequent. In review lessons, show how interrogative pro-
nouns are used in indirect questions.
False Syntax. — Do not require the "Cautions" to be
learned in teaching pupils how to correct examples in
false syntax. Refer to them as occasion may require.
The Adjective. — Review definitions already learned.
Teach that more, most, less, and least, in such expres-
sions as more careful, most carefiil, less careful, and least
careful, are adverbs. The lists of pronominals need not
be committed to memory, and no technical terms
should be employed in parsing, except those given in
the "Order of Parsing."
Properties of the Verb. — Review as directed on page
103.
1. Voice. — Require the verbs in given sentences to be
changed from the active to the passive voice, or from
the passive to the active voice. At first, let the pupils
point out the parts of each verb in the passive voice.
2. Mode and Tense. — Having taught the definition of
the indicative mode, teach the subject of Tense. Do
not assign long lessons. To teach a single mode
thoroughly may require all the time usually set apart
for several recitations.
3. Number and Persojt. — Refer to Rules XIII, XIV,
and XV as occasion may require.
4. Conjugation. — The paradigms need not be com-
mitted to memory; but pupils should prepare synopses
ADVANCED COURSE. I 87
and write sentences containing verbs in any required
form, voice, mode, tense, number, and person.
The Adverb. — Review the lessons on pages 57, 58, 59,
and 60. Do not require pupils, in parsing exercises, to
tell to what class an adverb belongs.
The Preposition. — Require the statements made on
page 127 to be studied carefully. Let the pupils state
the substance of each paragraph in his own language.
In written exercises in analysis and in diagrams, use the
symbol to indicate the omission of a preposition.
The Conjunction. — Review the lesson on page 67, and
teach the definition on page 129; then review pages 68,
69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, and 77.
Ellipsis. — Let the pupils supply the words omitted in
their reading lessons and in sentences used as drill exer-
cises. Write on the blackboard a series of elliptical
sentences to show that any part of a sentence may be
omitted except the part that will suggest the rest.
Abridgment. — Require pupils to change many complex
sentences to simple ones by abridging their subordinate
clauses ; also, to write sentences containing abridged
propositions. Let the pupils state in their own lan-
guage the substance of the three parts of the remark
on page 134. Refer to this remark in parsing the nouns
or the pronouns in abridged propositions. Teach that
the noun or the pronoun on which an infinitive depends
is called the subject of that infinitive.
XV.
HARVEY'S REVISED PRACTICAL GRAMMAR.
GENERAL REMARKS.— In Harvey's Elementary
Grammar and Composition, the arrangement of
the topics relating to technical grammar and analysis
corresponds to the order in which they should be studied
by beginners. In his Practical Grammar, the topics are
arranged in a different manner — those relating to the
same subject or division of a subject being grouped to-
gether.
In many schools, the Practical Grammar is used in
teaching classes of beginners. To secure the best re-
sults in such schools, the topics properly belonging to
an elementary course of instruction should be studied in
an order similar to that indicated in this manual. Hav-
ing mastered this course, pupils can pursue, easily and
profitably, the study of those more difficult topics usu-
ally regarded as belonging to an advanced course.
In mastering this elementary course, pupils will learn
(i) to identify words as belonging to fie'tain classes,
called parts of speech ; (2) to analyze sentences, or to
separate them into their principal and subordinate ele-
ments ; (3) to define the technical terms employed, and
to use them intelligently ; (4) to express thoughts in
properly constructed sentences ; (5) the correct use of
capital letters, marks of punctuation, etc.
In teaching classes of beginners, omit the definitions
on page 7 and all of Part I. When necessary in sen-
' (188)
GENERAL REMARKS. 1 89
tence-making and composition, refer to the rules and
remarks on the use of capitals, small capitals, etc., in
Part I, but do not require pupils to commit them to
memory.
In an advanced course, reference should be made to
Part I for definitions of terms used in orthography, and
it may be advisable to have occasional drill exercises in
the analysis of syllables and words ; but systematic in-
struction in orthography need not be made a part of
the course.
The "Cautions' should be studied carefully, and
pupils required to correct the examples in false syntax.
Frequent reference should be made to these cautions in
correcting the spoken and written language of pupils.
It is by no means necessary that they be learned and
recited memoriter.
In assigning lessons, the teacher should designate the
"Remarks" to be studied, and refer to them frequently
in conducting recitations. Pupils may occasionally be
required to state in their own language the substance of
remarks assigned as a part of a lesson.
The "Rules' may be learned when they are needed
in parsing exercises. In some instances, the whole or a
part of a remark may be used instead of a rule — as in
parsing a noun or a pronoun changed from the nomina-
tive to the objective case in abridging a proposition, or
a noun or a pronoun in the nominative case after a par-
ticipial noun in an abridged proposition. (See Remark
3, page 198, and the second part of Remark 1, page
182.)
In all written exercises, require pupils to observe the
rules for the use of the marks of punctuation. In drill
exercises in punctuation, use the methods recommended
I9O PRACTICAL GRAMMAR.
in the "Note to Teachers" on page 252. The exer-
cises in the text-books should be studied until the appli-
cation of each rule and remark is understood.
The subjects under the heading of "Figures of Lan-
guage ' may be referred to for the definitions of such
technical terms as pupils may have occasion to use in
literary exercises. Refer to these terms and their defini-
tions when appropriate illustrations occur in reading les-
sons.
At least one third of the time usually set apart for
recitation should be spent in sentence-making and com-
position. It is to be regretted that in many schools no
attention whatever is paid to these important exercises.
Pupils must know how to analyze a given sentence
before they can intelligently represent its analysis in a
diagram. The proper use of diagrams, therefore, is to
supplement oral or written analysis.
As a rule, pupils should not begin the study of tech-
nical grammar before they are ten years old.
Elementary Course.
( The references are to Harvey's Revised Practical Grammar.')
The Noun: definition. — Page 7. In teaching the defi-
nition, use the first paragraph of the oral lesson on page
29.
Analysis: definitions. — Lesson I, page 136. Do not
require or permit pupils to commit the definitions to
memory before they have learned the uses of the terms
to be defined. Do not omit any of the exercises in
sentence-making on page 137. Rule I, page 245, to be
observed in writing.
ELEMENTAR Y CO URSE. 1 9 1
Analysis. — Lesson II, page 137.
The Noun. — Use the second and third paragraphs of
the oral lesson on page 29 in teaching the Common Noun
and the Proper Noun. Require pupils to point out the
nouns in their reading lessons, and to tell whether they
are common or proper.
Model for Parsing. — "John is an orphan." John is
a noun: it is a name; proper: it is the name of a par-
ticular person.* Orphan is a noun; (why?) common: it
can be applied to any one of a class or kind.
Analysis. — Lesson III, page 138, and the classification
of sentences with respect to use on page 144.
The Adjective. — Use the first four paragraphs of the
oral lesson on page 42 in teaching the definition. Do
not omit any of the exercises on page 26.
The Adjective. — Use the last three paragraphs of the
oral lesson on page 43 in teaching the definitions of the
two kinds of adjectives. Require the pupils to classify
the adjectives as descriptive or definitive in the exercises
on page 26.
Model for Parsing. — "Ripe apples are in that box."
Ripe is an adjective: it is a word used to describe a
noun ; descriptive : it describes a noun by denoting some
quality. That is an adjective; (why?) definitive : it de-
fines without expressing any quality.
Hie Pronoun. — Use the first paragraph of the oral
lesson on page 56 in teaching the definition. Require
pupils to point out the pronouns in the exercises on
page 26 and in their reading lessons.
Model for Parsing. — "Who came with you?' : Who
is a pro?ioun ; it is a word used instead of a noun. You
is a pronoun; (why?).
Analysis. — Lesson IV, page 138. Analyze all the ex-
I92 PRACTICAL GRAMMAR.
ercises, and require pupils to point out and classify all
the nouns and adjectives. Use these diagrams:
1. Apples are ripe. 2. Birds fly.
Apples I are : ripe. Birds | fly.
1 r~
The Verb. — Teach the definition in the manner indi-
cated on page 26, and in the first paragraph of the oral
lesson on page 73. Require pupils to write sentences
containing verbs denoting action.
Analysis. — Lesson V, page 139. Use this diagram:
Children love play.
Children | love | play.
i
The Verb. — Use the last three paragraphs of the oral
lesson on page 73 in teaching the definitions of the
three kinds of verbs. Use oral exercises in drills on
the application of the terms transitive, intransitive, and
copulative.
Models for Parsing. — 1. " Pupils recite lessons. ' : Re-
cite is a verb; it denotes action; transitive: it requires an
object to complete its meaning. 2. "The horse runs."
Runs is a verb; (why?) intransitive: it does not require
the addition of an object to complete its meaning. 3.
" Liberty is sweet." Is is a verb; (why?) copulative: it
is used to connect a subject and a predicate, and to
make an assertion.
Analysis. — Lesson VI, page 140. Do not omit any
of the exercises in sentence-making. Use sentences
written by pupils as additional exercises in analysis.
Require pupils to point out the nouns, pronouns, and
ELEMENTARY COURSE.
J 93
adjectives in all the exercises. Be patient, a?id do not
hutry. Use these diagrams:
I. Cold winter comes. 2. The man reads his paper.
| reads | paper.
winter
comes.
man
Cold
The
his
The Participle. — Teach the definition in the manner
indicated on page 27. Call attention to the difference
between a participle and a verb.
Teach the classification and definitions as given on
pages 7S and 79. Require pupils to point out and
classify the participles in the exercises on pages 81 and
82. Use the model for parsing on page 81.
Analysis. — Lesson VII, page 141. Teach orally the
use and the definition of the term subordinate element.
Use these diagrams :
1 . The wind blows violently.
wind I blows
2. Very loud reports were heard.
reports | were heard.
The I I violently.
loud
Very
The Adverb. — Use the oral lesson on page 115 in
teaching the definition.
Model for Parsing. — " He acted wisely.' 1 Wisely is
an adverb; it is used to modify a verb.
The Phrase. — Teach the use of a prepositional phrase,
calling it a "group of words." Let pupils point out
the phrases in the exercises following the definition of
the preposition on page 28. Use this diagram :
The weary soldiers rested at noon by the roadside.
soldiers I rested
E. M.-17.
weary
at noon
The
by roadside.
the
194 PRACTICAL GRAMMAR.
The Preposition. — Use the oral lesson on page 121 in
teaching the definition. Define the term plirase (see
page 162).
Model for Parsing. — "The horse ran over the hill."
Over is a preposition ; it shows the relation between its
object and some other word : it shows the relation be-
tween hill and ra?i.
Analysis. — Teach the definition of the term simple
sentence given on page 145. Use sentences written by
pupils as drill exercises in analysis. Many of these sen-
tences should contain phrases used as adjective or ad-
verbial elements.
The Pronoun. — Teach the classification of the pro-
noun, using the oral lesson on page 56. Illustrate the
use of the terms first person, second person, and third
person before teaching the classification.
Models for Parsing. — 1. "I have seen him.' / is a
pivnoun ; it is a word used instead of a noun: personal;
it shows by its form that it is of the first person. 2.
"That book is hers." Hers is a pronoun ; (why?): pos-
sessive; it represents both the possessor and the thing
possessed. 3. "I am he whom ye seek." Whom is a
pronoun; (why?): relative; it represents a preceding word
to which it joins a limiting clause. 4. "Who goes
there?" Who is a pronoun ; (why?): interrogative; it is
used in asking a question.
Analysis. — Teach the definition of the term Complex
Sentence given on page 145. Require pupils to point
out the principal and subordinate clauses in the exer-
cises. Use the exercises on page 146, and the first six
exercises on page 166 as illustrations. Do not analyze
the subordinate clause in a complex sentence, but teach
its use as an element. Require pupils to write many
ELEMENTARY COURSE. 1 95
sentences containing subordinate clauses. Analyze these
sentences, using these diagrams :
I. He who studies will 2. Flowers will bloom when spring
learn. cojnes.
He | will learn. Flowers | will bloom
who studies | when spring comes
TJie Conjunction. — Use the oral lesson on page 127,
and the exercises on page 29. Teach the uses and the
definitions of the two kinds of conjunctions.
Model for Parsing. — "Eli and Silas will improve if
they study." And is a conjunction; it is a word used to
connect words : it connects the words Eli and Silas. If
is a conjunction ; it is a word used to connect clauses: it
connects the clauses Eli and Silas will improve and they
study.
Analysis. — Teach the definition of the term simple
element given on page 168. Use any appropriate exer-
cises in preceding lessons as illustrations.
Analysis. — Teach the definition of the term compound
element, using exercises on page 174. Use these dia-
grams
1. John and Seth read well. 2. They run swiftly and gracefully.
John and Seth | read They | run
well. swiftly and gracefully
Analysis. — Teach the definition of the term Compound
Sentence given on page 146, using oral exercises. In
analysis, use this diagram :
Talent is something, but tact is every thing.
Talent \ is : something, but tact J is : thing.
every
I96 PRACTICAL GRAMMAR.
The Interjection. — In analyzing a sentence containing
an interjection or any attendant element, use this dia-
gram :
Hark! some one comes.
Hark!
one I comes.
some
Review. — Review thoroughly the instruction given in
this course, requiring pupils to prepare most of the
exercises used in analysis and parsing.
Advanced Course.
The Noun. — Review the definitions already learned,
and teach the use and definition of the term participial
noun. Show by illustrative examples that the words
the, this, that, these, those, etc., give a particular mean-
ing to common nouns when placed before them, but do
not convert them into proper nouns; as in the sentence,
" The horse is in that stable. ' ; Do not require pupils to
commit any of the remarks to memory, but refer to
them when necessary in assigning lessons or conducting
recitations.
Properties of Nouns: 1. Gender. — Refer to the remark
following the definition, and to other remarks as occa-
sion may require.
2. Person. — Note particularly Remark 2.
3. Number. — Write on the blackboard lists of nouns
in the singular number, and require pupils to write their
plural forms on slate or paper. The rules for the for-
mation of the plural of nouns can be learned much more
ADVANCED COURSE. 1 97
easily by writing well-selected illustrations than in any
other way. Require pupils to write the singular and
plural forms of nouns found in reading lessons; also,
the plurals of the names of common objects.
4. Case. — Show that the term case denotes (1) the re-
lation of a noun or a pronoun to other words, and (2)
the form of a noun or a pronoun. Require pupils to
write the possessive singular and possessive plural of
nouns, referring to the remarks when necessary. Do
not neglect to teach the meaning and use of the terms
direct object and indirect object (see page 38, Section 32,
Remark). Teach, also, that in the cases referred to
in Remark 3, page 154, the object denoting rank,
office, occupation, character, or species may be called an
Attributive Object. Use these diagrams :
1. I gave him an apple. 2. They have chosen Mr. Ames speaker.
hi" 1 /Mr, Ames
I I gave apple. They | have chosen | <^ speaker .
an
In showing that nouns and pronouns in the possessive
case or in apposition are adjective elements, use this
diagram :
-;=>'
Mr. Oldroyd, my lawyer, is Henry s uncle.
Mr. Oldroyd | is : uncle.
lawyer, Henry's
my
The Adjective. — Review definitions already learned.
Teach the definitions of the three kinds of pronominal
adjectives, but do not require pupils to commit the lists
to memory. Refer to the words in these lists in
I98 PRACTICAL GRAMMAR.
parsing and composition exercises, and in correcting
false syntax. The adverbs more y most, less, and least,
when used in the comparison of adjectives, may be re-
garded as adverbial elements. Do not neglect to teach
the correct use of the pronominals.
The Pronoun : 1 . Personal Pronouns. — Show that the
term case denotes the form of a personal pronoun as
well as its relation to other words, and that it may be
used to denote the form only ; — as its, when not used in
connection with other words in a sentence, is a personal
pronoun in the possessive case ; and Jiim, when used in
a similar manner, a personal pronoun in the objective
case. Teach that it, when used to introduce a sentence
in a peculiar way, may be called an apparent subject, be-
cause it requires the verb following it to be in the third
person and singular number, although the real subject,
which is placed after the predicate, may denote plu-
rality ; as, ' ' It was pleasant to see the man and to hear
him talk." Refer frequently to the remarks on pages
59, 60, 202, and 203.
2. Possessive Pronouns. — Point out the difference be-
tween a possessive pronoun and a personal pronoun in
the possessive case. Show that the former represents
the possessor and the thing possessed, while the latter
represents the possessor only. Teach that in parsing a
possessive pronoun by the first method, the name of
the thing possessed is the part considered, and that no
attention whatever is paid to the name of the possessor;
also, that in using the second method, owning, having,
or possession may be one of the two words into which a
possessive pronoun may be separated.
3. Relative Pronouns. — Ascertain that the pupils know
how to distinguish a relative from a personal pronoun.
ADVANCED COURSE.
I 99
Show why a relative pronoun is never found in a prin-
cipal clause. Refer to the remarks on pages 65, 66, and
202 in parsing compound relatives and the words zvhat
and that. In analyzing, refer to remarks on page 176.
4. Interrogative Pronouns. — Require pupils to study
Remark 1, Rule IX. Teach the use of the interrogative
pronouns in indirect questions used as objective ele-
ments. Use the following diagrams in analyzing sen-
tences containing relative or interrogative subordinate
clauses :
1 . The vessel which you see
yo7ider is a sloop.
vessel I is : sloop.
The
YOU
see
a
which
yonder
2. I do not know who is in the
garden.
I I do know
who I is
in garden.
the
not
The Verb: I. Classes with respect to use. — Review
definitions of these classes. Teach pupils how to ascer-
tain from its meaning and use, or by referring to a dic-
tionary, whether a verb in a given sentence is transitive,
intransitive, or copulative. In class drills, use the exer-
cises following the remarks.
2. Classes with respect to form. — Teach that when the
sound represented by the vowel or digraph in the simple
form of the verb is changed in the past indicative and
perfect participle, the verb is irregular ; as, hear is an
irregular verb, because the sound of the vocal element
in the simple form is changed in Jieard, the past indica-
tive and perfect participle.
Properties of the Verb: I. Voice. — Require pupils to
study carefully the exercises following the remarks.
200 PRACTICAL GRAMMAR.
2. Mode and Tense. — Teach the use and definition of
the indicative mode ; then teach the subject of tense,
referring to the remarks for illustrations and explana-
tions. Develop the idea of each mode, and ascertain
that all the pupils have a clear conception of it before
permitting them to learn the definition. Omit none of
the exercises. Teach the form and use of the strength-
ened copula, then analyze the exercises on page 165.
3. Number and Person. — Refer to the remarks on page
94, and those under Rules XIII, XIV, and XV, as oc-
casion may require.
Forms. — Pupils should write sentences containing ex-
amples of these forms. Special attention should be paid
to progressive and passive forms. See that pupils can
tell without hesitation which participle is used in each
form. Use the sentences written by pupils as exercises
in analysis and parsing.
Conjugation. — Pupils need not commit the paradigms
to memory, but they should prepare synopses and write
sentences, each containing a verb in any required voice,
form, mode, tense, number, and person, until they can
identify any verbal form at sight, and use it readily in
sentence-making and composition. (See " Exercises, ,;
page 106.)
Infinitives. — In teaching the infinitive mode, require
the pupils to study the remarks on page 87, and those
following Rules XVI and XVII. For models for the
analysis of sentences containing infinitives, see pages
164 and 165. The infinitive in a strengthened copula is
always an adverbial element modifying the finite verb ;
but, in analyzing, it is not necessary to separate such a
copula into its parts. Use the diagrams at top of next
page.
ADVANCED COURSE. 201
I. To hear is to obey. 2. James likes to work.
To hear | is: to obey. James | likes | to work.
i i
3. Clarence seems to be busy. 4. That apple is not good to eat.
Clarence | seems to be : busy. apple | is : good
In at I not to eat
5. He has wheat to sell.
He I has I wheat
to sell.
The Adverb. — Require pupils to enlarge sentences by-
substituting phrases or clauses for adverbs. Although
an adverbial phrase may be parsed as a single adverb, it
is sometimes advisable to parse each word in such a
phrase. (See Remark 9, page 216.) Refer to the
"General Remarks' as well as to the "Cautions' in
correcting false syntax. In analyzing a sentence con-
taining an adverbial clause, use this diagram:
He defends himself when he is attacked.
He I defends | himself
he I is attacked.
when
The Preposition.— -Remark 5, page 122, and Remark
1, page 200, should be studied very carefully. Use
Model XX, page 164, in analyzing a sentence containing
a noun or a pronoun in the objective case without a
governing word, — also this diagram:
The weary traveler will reach Chicago to-morrow.
traveler | will reach | Chicago
weary | ] to-morrow.
The
202
PRACTICAL GRAMMAR.
The Conjunction. — Do not require pupils to learn the
classifications given in the remarks, or to use the terms
employed in them in parsing exercises. When neces-
sary, refer to the remarks on pages 219 and 220. Use
these diagrams
I. He came and we7it like
a pleasant thought.
2. Give me neither poverty nor
riches.
He | came and went
[thou] | Give
me /neither
I
ys poverty
like thought.
\. nor
pleasant
a
3. He learns because he is studious.
He I learns
(because) he | is : studious.
I
Ellipsis. — Require pupils to supply words omitted in
reading lessons and in elliptical sentences selected to be
used as drill exercises. Use these diagrams :
1. Build me here seven
altars.
me
[ye] I Build
altars.
2. He spake as one having
authority.
He I spake
here
(as) one | [speaks]
seven
having | authority.
Abridgment. — Require pupils to abridge subordinate
clauses, and ascertain that they can always distinguish
between abridged propositions and elliptical sentences.
They should also be required to state in their own lan-
guage the substance of the three parts of Remark 1,
page 182. Refer to appropriate parts of this remark in
ADVANCED COURSE.
203
parsing nouns and pronouns in abridged propositions.
Use these diagrams :
1 . / know him to be a
sailor.
I I know
him
to be — sailor.
2. I was not aware of his being
my enemy.
I I was : aware
not
of being — enemy.
his
my
3. The shower having passed,
we pursued our journey.
we I pursued | journey.
shower
our
The
having passed,
4. His being a convict was not
then known.
being — convict
His
Li
was known.
then
not
A noun or a pronoun on which the infinitive depends
in an abridged proposition is called the subject of the
infinitive. In parsing it, many prefer to use the follow-
ing rule: "The subject of an infinitive is in the ob-
jective case."
HISTORY
XVI.
THE ECLECTIC HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.
TT is much to be regretted that the study of history,
which can be made so interesting, should so often
prove unprofitable drudgery ; and that children, with a
natural love of narrative, should become so thoroughly
disgusted with the subject as to retain, as long as they
live, a dislike for historical reading.
In the vast majority of cases, these unhappy results
are due entirely, or in large part, to bad methods of
teaching. To attain the best possible results, three
things are essential :
1. The teacher must be properly prepared to handle
the subject.
2. He must take into careful consideration the age
and capabilities of his pupils, the resources of the
neighborhood, and the time he is able to give, in con-
nection with other branches, to this subject.
3. He must adopt a method in conformity to these
conditions, and must plan his work carefully in advance
in accordance with this method.
The Teacher's Preparation. — There are few teach-
ers, perhaps, in our common schools, who have made
a specialty of the study of history, and yet the limited
resources of the ordinary country school and neigh-
borhood in the way of books of reference, demand that
the teacher be thoroughly well-read in the history of
the United States in order to supply as far as possible
(207)
208 THE ECLECTIC HISTORY.
this deficiency. We do not mean to imply that a teacher
must be a student of history in the way of making
original research, — although this kind of work would
certainly add to his usefulness as a teacher, and, as is
elsewhere suggested, should by all means be engaged in
so far as local history is concerned, — but we do mean
to say, that, if a teacher wishes to make his instruction
in history interesting and profitable, he must give the
subject more than casual attention, and must not limit
his class to any text-book on the subject. In many
cases, the children's only source of information will be
the text-book. The teacher, therefore, must store his
mind with historical events, incidents, and anecdotes not
to be found in the ordinary text-book, and be able to
present them to his class in a manner so interesting as
to create a taste for the study of historical literature.
It will readily be understood that a text-book of
history must necessarily use the fewest words that will
serve to give an outline of great events, and must there-
fore leave out many incidents of the liveliest interest,
but of no great historical importance. These incidents,
however, are to the text what the juice is to an orange,
and a large supply of them should be at the command
of every teacher who aims to do valuable work in this
field of study. This necessitates reading, on the part
of the teacher, of some of the standard authorities, such
as Bancroft, Hildreth, etc., and the wider the range of
his reading the better. A very full list of such works
may be made from the references at the close of chap-
ters in the Eclectic History of the United States. It is
not supposed that all the works mentioned can be ob-
tained and read by every teacher of history, but a very
full list is given with the expectation that at least some
THE TEACHER'S PREPARATION. 2O9
of the books will be within the reach of every teacher,
and that he will consult as many of them as time and
circumstances will permit.
Again, it is not supposed that a teacher will endeavor
to impart all the information he gains in this way to
his class. The teacher is, on the contrary, called upon
to exercise the most careful judgment as to when to
confine himself to the text-book and when to add to
the information it presents. The facts of history are
not all of the same value. Certain great events stand
out in bold relief, giving form and shape to the whole.
It is these great events that should be dwelt upon and
emphasized, and impressed upon the minds of the
pupils. To do this, the teacher must make them inter-
esting by attractive and forcible narration, and must
present them again and again in different lights as
viewed by different authors.
Sometimes the teacher will need to illustrate the
general condition or state of a certain period by partic-
ular instances. Again, he will wish to emphasize
some great character, such as Washington, Hamilton,
or Lincoln, by striking passages from other histories or
biographies. Or the attention of the class must be di-
rected particularly to some important battle or some
great principle. It will be seen that this kind of work
demands thorough knowledge of the subject, sound
judgment, and a careful planning of work before teach-
ing is commenced.
Restricting Conditions. — The principal obstacles en-
countered by an enthusiastic teacher of history in coun-
try district schools, are the limited time usually allotted
to the study and the meager resources of the neighbor-
hood in books of reference. In many schools, history
E. M.— 18.
2 1 THE ECLECTIC HISTOR Y.
is crowded into one or two terms, and a year at the
utmost is considered a full allowance. We would urge,
if it can possibly be managed, that at least two years be
given to the subject, as, in our opinion, that amount of
time is necessary in order to obtain the best results.
Two or three recitations a week, for two years, will be
found preferable to a daily recitation for one year. The
former plan gives both teacher and pupil the requisite
time for outside reading and the proper preparation of
the lesson. Each teacher, however, must be his own
judge as to whether this plan is practicable in his par-
ticular school, and must modify his method of teaching
accordingly.
Where the locality is without books to which the chil-
dren can be referred, the teacher must exert himself to
supply as much extra valuable and interesting informa-
tion as possible from his own store of knowledge. The
difficulty of obtaining this kind of information is fully
appreciated, and much valuable and interesting detail, —
which hardly has a place in the text proper, but which
could not be obtained by pupils without a larger library
of reference than most neighborhoods afford, — has there-
fore been condensed in the notes of the Eclectic His-
tory. But the teacher should not depend upon these
notes alone. He should bear in mind the fact that the
more reading he does, and the greater variety of little
incidents and fresh facts he can tell the class, the more
life and interest will he infuse into the recitations.
The restrictions of age and capability are also im-
portant. The teacher must be warned against treating
the subject in such a way as to discourage pupils by
presenting difficulties too great for their minds to grasp.
Pupils should certainly be incited to effort, but it is best
METHODS OF TEACHING. 211
to keep well within the limits of their understanding and
capacities, especially in the early part of the course.
While the limitations of the ordinary district school
are thoroughly comprehended, it is of the utmost im-
portance that the aims of the teacher should be high ;
we therefore make the following suggestions as to the
method of teaching on the supposition that the time
necessary for effective work will be taken, and that the
teacher will exert himself to secure the requisite books
of reference for his pupils. If this can not be done in
all cases, at least the teacher can approach as near as
possible to what he knows to be the correct method of
teaching.
As has been remarked in regard to other studies, it
is not claimed that the method here advised is the only
correct method of teaching the history of the United
States, but it is the one urged because it is believed to
be the most profitable and the most interesting method
to pupils.
Methods of Teaching. — In selecting a method of
teaching history, one must consider not only the capa-
bilities of pupils and the resources available, but also
the objects to be accomplished, and how he can best
accomplish them.
The primary object in teaching this subject, as usually
and perhaps fairly considered, is to give the pupil a
clear and tolerably comprehensive view of the history of
the United States from the earliest records to the
present day. But there is a secondary object of but
little, if any, less importance, which should be kept
constantly in view, and which should modify very
largely the means to be adopted in attaining the first
object.
2 1 2 THE ECLECTIC HISTOR Y.
This secondary object, which is by many high author-
ities considered the primary one in importance, is to
arouse in the pupils a love and an enthusiasm for the
study, which they will carry with them into after life,
and which will give a most valuable bent to their future
individual study and reading.
The teacher who simply takes any given text-book,
and gives out lesson after lesson, from page to page, or
from such a paragraph to such a paragraph, and re-
quires the pupil to repeat the words of the book, or
even the ideas of the book in his own words, limiting
his instruction merely to this, is teaching a book ; he is
not teaching the history of the United States in a way
that will be in the least likely to prove either interest-
ing or of any lasting benefit to his pupils. To be sure,
this is the easiest method for the teacher, but it is also
a method that means sure death to all interest on the
part of both teacher and pupil. It may properly be
called the text-book method, and usually consists in
cramming the children with what must be to them a
mere mass of dry-as-dust statements of events, facts,
and dates, strung along in chronological order, with the
dead-level monotony of balls on a numeral frame. This
method may teach children history ; it certainly will
teach them to dislike it, and will unavoidably prejudice
them against all historical reading forever after.
The text-book method is probably the most common
of all bad methods ; but, on the other hand, it would be
just as absurd and profitless to go to the opposite
extreme, and treat children twelve to fifteen years of age
as though they were college students ; that is, discarding
the text-book altogether, to attempt to teach by lectures
alone, requiring the children to take notes, and hand in
THE GERMAN METHOD. 213
written themes on topics clearly beyond their compre-
hension, such as "The Protective Tariff,'' ''The Mon-
roe Doctrine," etc.
In Germany, history is taught more successfully, per-
haps, than in any other country in the world, and while
the German method, pure and simple, is entirely inap-
plicable to the common schools of America as at present
conducted, yet it is so thorough and rational that we
give a brief account of it, intending to refer to it in the
method we shall suggest for adoption.
In Germany, the teacher of primary history is pre-
pared for his work by a special course of study, and
confines his teaching to this one branch of education.
He has a most thorough knowledge of his subject, and
is an expert teller of stories. The children are started
in their historical course at nine or ten years of age,
and the first two years are employed with biographical
sketches of prominent historical characters, presented in
the form of interesting and impressive stories, to which
the children listen with absorbed attention. This course
covers the ground of universal history. The next three
or four years, the children are taken over the same
ground, but from a different point of view : they now
listen to the description of events, and have their atten-
tion directed to the causes, purposes, and results of his-
torical movements. The children are now fifteen or
sixteen years of age, and have completed two distinct
views of universal history. It will be noticed that thus
far the children have simply listened — the teacher has
done all the talking. This method is based upon the
idea that children up to this age are incapable of the
unremitting application necessary to the profitable study
of a text-book ; while, on the other hand, they are per-
2 1 4 THE ECLECTIC HIST OR Y.
fectly capable of acquiring the information imparted by
the teacher in the form of entertaining stories. It is
held that this method is a true economy of time, and
that by its use children are thoroughly interested instead
of being worn out and discouraged.
After completing the two courses of lectures de-
scribed, the pupils take up some special topic or
period, — perhaps the history of their own country, — on
which they spend three or four years of study, and are
then ready for the higher and more philosophical course
of the university.*
American teachers, however, must adapt their methods
to the requirements of American schools, and though
the German method is admirable in its results, it is un-
fortunately beyond our reach at present. While neither
the text-book method, the college method, nor the
German method should be attempted in our common
schools, yet it is believed that, by a judicious combina-
tion of certain features of each of these methods, the
very best results possible may be obtained, taking into
consideration the restrictions of our schools.
The text-book is without doubt indispensable. It
should be used, however, simply as the outline of the
great picture, which must be filled in and colored by
both pupil and teacher. Children should be encouraged
to consult as many books as possible, and thus be freed
from the idea that history is a book, or that it is the
* For a full exposition of the German method, and for much
valuable information on methods of teaching history, especially in
advanced schools and colleges, the teacher is referred to " Methods
of Teaching and Studying History," published by Ginn, Heath
& Co.
THE COLLEGE METHOD. 21 5
product or summary of any one person's thoughts and
opinions. At the same time, the text-book must be
used very largely as a guide. If properly compiled, as
in the case of the Eclectic History, it will show at a
glance the relative importance of characters and events,
and will thus indicate the features which demand especial
attention. The danger is, not that the text-book will
be used too little, but that it will be used improperly.
The German idea of imparting information to young
children by means of interesting stories is extremely
valuable, and this plan should be followed to the utmost
possible limit. It is at this point that the ordinary
teacher in American common schools is particularly
weak. As before stated, the teacher is called on to
exercise good judgment in selecting his material. He
should make a careful study of the entire subject, and,
viewing the field as a whole, grade the various events in
the order of their importance. Those of the first rank
must, of course, receive the greatest amount of atten-
tion in the way of extraneous information. The teacher
should strive to make his lectures, or rather his stories,
as interesting as possible from the child's point of view,
and must never forget that it is to children, and not to
adults of mature mind, that he is addressing himself.
The college method, as usually followed in our lead-
ing institutions of learning, includes, not only lectures by
the professor, but also the writing of themes by the
students. Different topics are assigned to students for
their personal investigation and study, and they are re-
quired to draw their own conclusions, after reading
various authorities on the subject, and then to present
these conclusions in the form of a written theme. Here,
again, we receive a hint of practical value. If books
2 1 6 THE E CL EC TIC HIS TOR Y.
of reference are at all available, it will prove a source
of great interest to children to read upon properly se-
lected topics, and to write their discoveries in the form
of compositions. This work will not only prove inter-
esting, but it will also serve to fix facts more firmly in
the mind than any other method of teaching.
Great care must be taken in assigning these subjects
for composition. In the first place, the teacher is nec-
essarily restricted by the resources of the neighborhood
in books of reference. In assigning topics for composi-
tion work, find out definitely, if you can, just what
books on the subject are available, and then direct the
children where to look for information. General direc-
tions to children to read all they can find about a topic
will be of little value. See to it, also, that compositions
on historical subjects are in the child's own language.
The copying of passages from books, word for word,
should not be allowed, except, of course, the per-
fectly proper use of short quotations, acknowledged as
such.
The teacher should review the entire field as he did in
selecting material for stories, and should assign only
topics of real importance. He should be especially
careful, in this part of the work, not to over-estimate
the capabilities of pupils, and assign to children topics
and the discussion of questions which are food for
statesmen's minds. It is eminently proper to direct the
attention of children — those who are old enough to
study history at all — to causes, purposes, and results,
provided the topics under discussion are within their
comprehension ; but it is absurd to try to make them
understand, or to interest them in, grave questions of
Political Economy, International Law, and abstruse
LOCAL HISTORY. 2iy
points of statesmanship generally. Let them deal in
their composition work with the biographies of the most
eminent historical characters, and with interesting and
important facts rather than with theories.
Local History. — Begin your work by awakening a
sense of reality in the mind of the pupil, and make him
sure that the persons, places, and events of which he
reads were as vivid and actual as any that he has seen.
The question immediately arises, How is this best ac-
complished ?
It has been well said by an eminent professor, in
writing on this subject, that "History, like charity, be-
gins at home ; ' and certainly local history, which has to
do with scenes, and perhaps persons, familiar to the chil-
dren, possesses a peculiar charm and interest, and im-
parts to the mind a vivid sense of reality. For this
reason, local history should be made the introduction to
the general text-book. You thus accustom the child
to associate spoken or printed descriptions with actual
scenes and events. In other words, the child learns to
realize the actual existence in the past of that concern-
ing which he is studying to-day. The habit of viewing
history in this light must be formed at the outset, and
then interest in the study will be maintained to the
close. This is a point of vital importance, and should
not be undervalued.
The teacher should make a careful, searching study
of all the local history of his neighborhood, township,
county and state, as contained in old official documents,
private papers, legends, or traditions. Any thing that
will throw light on the local history, and at the same
time be likely to prove of value or of interest to the
class may properly be used, and there is hardly a state
E. M.— 19.
21 8 THE ECLECTIC HISTORY.
in the Union that is not replete with material of this
character.
When you have your material together, arrange it in
the form of stories suitable for children. The stories
concerning the immediate neighborhood should come
first in the order of telling, and, so far as possible, the
children should be taken to see all the localities to
which your stories refer. If any characters at all prom-
inent in history are associated with your neighborhood,
short biographical sketches of these should also be
given, and the teacher will probably be able to obtain
better material for these sketches in the documents,
letters, etc., of the neighborhood than is afforded by
any book published. By all means tell these stories,
rather than read them, if you would make vivid and
lasting impressions on the children.
After taking up the text-book, continue to make
much of familiar places and natural objects so far as
they are mentioned in the history, or can be connected
appropriately with the text. The tiny brook that runs
through the meadow by the school-house may have a
pre-Revolutionary history which will portray vividly to
the child's mind the general condition of danger and
hardship of that period. The states of the Atlantic
coast, "The Dark and Bloody Ground," and "The Ter-
ritory North-west of the Ohio River,' 1 afford the ambi-
tious and energetic teacher an almost inexhaustible field
for labor in this direction. This work of original inves-
tigation demands both time and trouble, but it is also a
kind of work that should possess a strong interest for
the teacher himself. If patiently persisted in, it will in
the end prove a pleasure rather than a labor ; or if a
labor, at least one which returns a rich reward.
MAPS AND DIAGRAMS. 219
Maps and Diagrams. — When we consider how much
the physical features of a country have to do with its
progress,, we appreciate how closely geography and his-
tory are connected, and how essential a knowledge of
the former is to a proper understanding of the latter.
A barren and rocky soil, or a richly productive one,
determines the pursuits, and in a large measure the
character of the inhabitants of different localities. A
mountain barrier here and a navigable stream there de-
termine the advance of civilization, — and so on. It is
essential, then, to the understanding and interest of the
pupils that they should be thoroughly instructed in the
geography before undertaking the history of the United
States.
But the teacher should go farther than this ; he should
require that history be studied in direct connection with
geography, thus combining events and localities so that
one is inevitably associated in the mind with the other ;
and this method of teaching should be carried through-
out the work from beginning to end. With this object
in view, the Eclectic History is well supplied with
full, accurate maps and diagrams ; but no text-book
can possibly be made so full in this respect but that a
teacher should add maps and diagrams of his own for
further and more explicit illustration. Moreover, the
children themselves should be called upon to make
sketch-maps and diagrams, either on the board or on
paper, of the particular locality under study in any
given lesson.
Assigning Work for the Class. — In assigning ad-
vance work for the class, the teacher should give the
pupils all the assistance he can towards making their
lessons interesting and profitable. Young children es-
220 THE ECLE CTIC HIS TOR Y.
pecially need to be guided into proper channels of
thought, reading, and study.
Assign lessons by topics. It is not meant by this
that all topics can be finished in one lesson, or that one
topic is always sufficient for a lesson. That, of course,
depends upon the topic; and one of the chief objects of
this method is to lead children to consider the relative
importance of topics, which will be impressed upon
them by the amount of time and study given to each.
When you assign a lesson in the text-book, always
read over the advance with the class, explaining any
thing that demands your help, and directing attention
to the most important events. Explain why these
events are important, and direct the thought of the
class particularly to causes, purposes, and results of the
great events in our history. Use your discretion in
assigning certain topics merely as subjects for reading,
and others for written work. Some teachers find an
advantage in giving extra merit-marks or "honors' for
additional items of information brought to the class con-
cerning the characters and events of the lesson. These
items will usually be collected from books of reference,
but sometimes from unauthentic sources, — newspaper
articles or the tales of the village Rip Van Winkle.
The teacher should be careful to sift the true from the
false in all such contributions; and it will nearly always
be advisable to direct children where they can find inter-
esting facts, rather than trust to their blind groping in
the dark.
Dates. — While quite a full list of dates' is presented
in the Eclectic History, the young teacher should be
warned against attaching too much importance to chro-
nology. Dates should be viewed in their proper light.
TEACHING DATES. 221
They are simply the mile-stones on the journey of
progress ; as such they are extremely useful, but they
are not of more importance than the surrounding
scenery.
Dates should not be taught in a list, in chronological
order, as though one event was as important as another.
Select ten, fifteen, or twenty of the most important
dates in the history — as your judgment dictates — and
teach these thoroughly. Now, if the text be properly
taught, the relative times of minor events will be re-
membered easily, and their dates will group themselves
naturally about the prominent or focal dates with-
out much apparent effort of memory. For example,
the date of the Declaration of Independence may be
taken as one of the focal dates, which must be fixed
thoroughly in the mind. If the text be taught as it
should be, the pupils will have no difficulty in remem-
bering the relative times of the various events that
cluster about this focal date ; and there will be no neces-
sity of cramming them with the exact figures of such
dates as those of the battle of Bunker Hill and the
evacuation of Boston, on the one side, or of the arrival
of Lord Howe in New York and the battle of Long
Island on the other.
Many schemes have been devised for assisting the
mind to recall dates. In our opinion, diagrams made
on the blackboard or on paper by the scholars them-
selves are far better than stereotyped charts. If a black-
board can be permanently spared for the purpose, let it
be divided by perpendicular lines into six sections, the
extremes to right and left being much broader than the
rest, while the fourth and fifth are broader than the
second and third. A large sheet of bristol-board or of
222 THE ECLECTIC HISTORY.
paper will answer the purpose if a blackboard is not
available, but it, too, should be kept before the eyes of
the class for reasons which will shortly appear.
Over the first section, on the left, write :
America before 1492.
In the center of this left hand section, leaving margins
on four sides, draw a square and write within it :
Co lofty in Greenland, ....
A. D.
985-
Visit of Lief to New England, .
A. D.
1000.
Icelandic Settlements
A. D.
IOOJ.
Over the other five sections respectively write the
numbers of the centuries, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, as shown
in the diagram on the opposite page. Under these let
a pupil note briefly, by the direction of the rest of
the class, the most important events and dates of each
day's lesson as it is recited. The blank spaces will be a
reminder of how much is yet to be learned, while the
filling up of the sections will be a record of progress.
The events of the fifteenth century are of course very
few, as related to America, and the 4 ' Discovery of
America by Columbus ' should be written as large as
its importance demands. This is the focal date of that
century, but a few dates may be added, if thought de-
sirable, from Notes 1-4 of Chapter III. If other than
the focal dates are thus recorded, the latter should be
made prominent by being written larger than the others,
by being underscored, or in the best manner that may
suggest itself to the teacher.
TEACHIXG DATES.
223
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224 THE ECLECTIC HISTORY.
A moment or two will be well spent before each reci-
tation in reviewing from this chart the items, if any,
noted on the previous day. At the end of the week,
let all the events so far learned be read from the chart,
or recited, with their dates, until each of the six main
divisions of the book has been thus learned and re-
viewed chronologically.
Prejudices. — Neither author nor teacher should allow
his personal prejudices to appear in his educational
work. A text-book is not a brief, nor is a teacher a
lawyer employed to argue a case. A properly prepared
text-book aims to present facts, not opinions, as exactly
as they can be ascertained from the most reliable sources
of information. It is the teacher's duty to perform his
share of the work in the same impartial spirit. How-
ever strong the personal feelings may be in the matters
of religion and politics, neither author nor teacher
has the right to obtrude such personal feelings in the
school-room, w r here children, whose parents may be of
widely different opinions and feelings in such matters,
meet for instruction.
The public schools of America should present nothing
needlessly offensive to Jew or Gentile, Protestant or
Catholic, Republican or Democrat. At the same time,
the truths of history should be fearlessly set forth by
both author and teacher, regardless of the fact that the
truth can not always be universally agreeable. For ex-
ample, it can not be a source of pride for inhabitants of
New England to learn the events of the ''Salem witch-
craft," or of the persecution of the Quakers and others
by their forefathers ; nor for Protestants to learn of the
persecution of the Catholics in Maryland, nor for Cath-
olics to read of the massacres of the Huguenots. The
PREJUDICES. 22 5
results of the battles of Bull Run and Gettysburg can
not be equally pleasant reading to one who is prejudiced
on either side. But the statement of many such facts is
absolutely necessary to history, and it seems almost
needless to say that it would be radically wrong to dis-
tort or suppress such facts when they have a direct
bearing on historical results. All such facts should be
stated by both author and teacher fearlessly but impar-
tially.
The author of the Eclectic History has taken the
greatest pains to make that book absolutely impartial in
all statements which necessarily touch upon the religious
or political sentiments of its readers. The highest pos-
sible compliment that could be paid to the author's
discrimination in this respect consists in the fact that
the book has been assailed only by fanatics and extrem-
ists, and by fanatics and extremists of opposing factions.
The teacher is urged to conduct his recitations in the
same intelligent and unpartisan spirit. He must not
allow himself to be led into a partisan or sectarian dis-
cussion by questions which his pupils may sometimes
ask. He will often find it necessary to exercise a
spirit of liberality and self-control.
The most difficult part of the history of the United
States to teach, in this particular, is of course that part
which treats of the Civil War, fought to conclusion
more than twenty years ago. It is time that the educa-
tors of the present day were doing all in their power to
allay the bitter feelings aroused in that sad time, and,
whether Northerner or Southerner, teach the facts of
that war as they are now obtained from the official
records of both sides. It is believed that the Eclectic
History presents these facts as impartially as it is possi-
226 THE ECLECTIC HISTORY.
ble to be done. Teach them as impartially as they are
presented. If you are a Northerner, avoid teaching on
the assumption that every one who fought on the
Southern side was necessarily a scoundrel and a villain.
If you are a Southerner, be equally liberal towards the
opposing ranks of twenty years ago.
Prejudice nearly always involves the distortion of the
truth ; therefore, the stronger your feelings are on any
subject, the more carefully should you guard against
their leading you astray. Especially should this fact be
remembered by one whose duty it is to enlighten the
minds of coming generations.
XVII.
THE ECLECTIC HISTORY.— THE APPENDIX.
THE Appendix of the Eclectic History of the
United States should by no means be neglected ;
nor should the matter it contains be considered of
trivial importance because it is placed in an appendix,
and not included in the text proper. It seems neces-
sary to make these remarks, owing to the fact that
many teachers are in the habit of paying no attention
whatever to an appendix simply because it is an appen-
dix, totally disregarding the possible importance of the
information to be derived from its careful study.
The matter in the appendix of the Eclectic History
may be used as a basis for two distinct courses of
study, embracing information especially valuable to
pupils of country schools, from the fact that it is not
usually elsewhere accessible to such pupils, while at the
same time it is information they certainly should possess.
The two courses may be formally divided as follows :
1. The acquisition and transfer of territory, and the
growth and development of the United States.
2. The political history and form of government of
the United States.
As stated, the matter in the tex>book is intended to
be used merely as a basis of instruction ; it should be
supplemented by lectures or talks by the teacher. Both
courses of study demand work, however, on the part of
the pupils, which it is thought will prove interesting as
well as profitable.
227)
228 THE ECLECTIC HISTORY.
Acquisition and Transfer of Territory. — Growth and
Development.
The map following page 360 of the Eclectic History,
and the explanations accompanying it, are to be used as
a basis for the first part of this course of study. It will
be necessary for the teacher to procure, also, a small
blackboard, say three or four feet square, on which
should be painted in white an outline of the United
States, including Alaska. The materials for constructing
this board and map are probably within reach of every
teacher. One or two pine boards, a little black and less
white paint, and a few hours' work are all that is re-
quired. This base-map, as it may be called, which is to
be used throughout the course, should show simply the
outline of the United States as it exists at present, the
principal streams, and the meridians and parallels. The
latter will be found very useful aids in locating the
different interior boundary lines, which are to be filled
in with chalk as occasion demands. The present boun-
dary lines of states should not be painted on the base-
map, as they would detract from the clearness of the
work to be performed.
Having prepared your base-map, proceed to trace the
acquisition and transfers of territory of the United
States from the Revolution to the present day, using
the map in the book, as a guide for the interior boun-
daries. This work requires the greatest care, otherwise
serious blunders will be made, and your instruction may
do more harm than good.
The first thing to be done is to show the boundaries
of the United States as established by the treaty of
THE BASE- MA P. 229
Versailles (see Article 309), and the boundaries of the
thirteen original states. Have the pupils open their
books at page one of the Appendix, and, reading the
explanations there, tell you where to draw the outlines
of the several states in order. If you can procure
colored crayons — two or three colors will be sufficient —
it will add materially to the clearness of your map to
shade adjoining states in different colors. It will be
observed that many of the states extended from the
Atlantic coast to the Mississippi River, at this period,
while Massachusetts and Connecticut were divided into
eastern and western portions, with other states lying be-
tween them. The northern and eastern boundary of the
present state of Maine was not settled until 1842 (see
Article 436), but may be laid down as forming part of
the boundary line of the United States at this time.
When the map is completed, put the proper title and
date, 1783, on it, and have the class copy it on bristol-
board; or, better still, in a book, and mark it "No. 1."
As will be seen, there is to be a regular series of these
maps drawn, and the children should be req.uired to pre-
serve the set in some neat form.
The first change of boundary lines occurred, we find,
in 1784, when Virginia ceded her western lands to the
United States. This was followed rapidly by similar
cessions of other states, until in 1790 the changes be-
came so great that a new map is called for, showing the
boundaries at that date. Trace the boundaries for this
map as you did those for Map No. 1, requiring the pupils
to study the key and give you instructions how to lay
the boundaries down. Insert on this map the date of
the several cessions, following the map in the book as a
guide. Give the map its title, "The United States in
230 THE ECLECTIC HISTORY.
1790," and mark it "No. 2." Have the children copy
and preserve this, as before.
Make a map for every decade, 1800, 18 10, etc., and
also a map of the country at the time of the several
accessions or limitations of territory in 1803, 18 19, 1842,
1845, 1846, 1848, 1853, and 1867, marking on each
map the changes, with their dates, that have taken place
since the date of the map preceding.
As each of these maps is completed, that portion of
the text of the Eclectic History which bears directly
upon the changes noted should be read over by the
pupils with the map before their eyes. Many facts are
thus impressively brought out and stamped on the
memory. For example, a study of the map of 1820
will at once show the importance of the contest over
the admission of Missouri, etc.
When these maps are completed, each pupil will have
a valuable portfolio showing the gradual territorial de-
velopment of the United States. Moreover, they will
have a knowledge of the subject which they could gain
probably in no other way, and which they will always
retain.
In addition to showing the territorial development of
the United States, the base-map can also be used to do
excellent service in showing graphically the growth of
the population and the distribution of the various lead-
ing mineral and agricultural products of the country.
It is a recognized fact that the graphic method of
presenting facts of this nature is immeasurably superior
to mere statistics and dry statements. Moreover, the
amount of work required from the teacher is merely
nominal. For example, the accompanying maps show
the areas of the United States in 1790 and 1880, re-
INCREASE OF POPULA TION.
231
AREA INHABITED IN
1880.
TOTAL POPULATION 50,155,783
spectively, inhabited by a population of more than one
person to the square mile. These two maps show at a
glance the tremendous stride of the country, in less than
a century, far more forcibly than could be done by any
amount of verbal description. It will take the teacher
232
THE ECLECTIC HISTOR Y.
but a few moments to shade his base-map after these
copies, and the children should be required to copy
and compare the two maps.
To show how the base-map should be used for dis-
playing the distribution of the agricultural and mineral
products of the country, let us take the corn crop, for
example. The statistics of the United States Census
Report for 1880 give the total corn product of the
United States at 1,754,591,676 bushels. Of this
amount, eight states produced about 72 per cent, as
follows :
CORN.
Toial Production, U. S. Census 1880, 1,754,591,676 Bushels.
1 ■
RANK.
LEADING STATES.
PRODUCTION IN BUSHELS.
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Illinois .
Iowa . .
Missouri
Indiana .
Ohio . . .
Kansas . .
Kentucky
Nebraska
325,792,481
275,014,247
202,414,413
115,482,300
111,877,124
105,729,325
72,852,263
65,450,135
72 Per Cent.
1,274,612,288
Now shade the states on your base-map, graduating
the shading roughly to the production, as in the ac-
companying map (page 233), and what do we see? The
great corn-belt of the United States at once starts forth
and impresses itself on the mind as perhaps it never
has done before ; and we see, also, by a glance at the
TEACHING STATISTICS.
233
E. M.— 20.
234
THE ECLECTIC HISTORY.
map, that the heart of this belt is the heart of the
Mississippi Valley.
With a very little expenditure of time or trouble, the
teacher can show in a like manner the distribution of
the other leading products. For the convenience of
teachers the statistics of a number of products are pre-
sented below.
The maps of this series should be reproduced by the
pupils, each one marked appropriately "Wheat,'
"Corn," etc., and preserved for reference. If it is
thought desirable, pupils can be supplied with the signal
service weather maps of the United States. These cost
only fifteen to twenty cents a dozen, are easily procured,
and answer the purpose capitally. They will save the
pupils the labor and time of drawing a complete map of
the United States for each product displayed.
WHEAT.
Total Production, U. S. Census 1880, 459,483,137 Bushels.
RANK.
LEADING STATES.
PRODUCTION IN BUSHELS.
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Illinois . .
Indiana . .
Ohio . . .
Michigan .
Minnesota
Iowa . . .
California .
Missouri . .
Wisconsin .
51,110,502
47,284,853
46,014,869
35.532,543
34,601,030
31,154,205
29,017,707
24,966,627
24,884,689
70 Per Cent.
324,567,025
A GKICUL TURAL ST A TISTICS.
235
OATS.
Total Production, U. S. Census 1880, 407,858,999 Bushels.
RANK.
LEADING STATES.
PRODUCTION IN BUSHELS.
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Illinois
63,189,200
• 50,610,591
37.575.5 6
33,841,439
32,905,320
28,664,505
23,382,158
20,670,958
Iowa ....
New York . .
Pennsylvania
Wisconsin . .
Ohio ....
Minnesota . .
Missouri . .
71 Per Cent.
290,839,677
BARLEY.
Total Production, U. S. Census 1880, 43,997,495 Bushels.
RANK.
LEADING STATES.
PRODUCTION IN BUSHELS.
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
California ....
New York . . .
Wisconsin . . .
Iowa
Minnesota . . .
Nebraska . . .
Ohio
Illinois ....
12,463,561
7,792,062
5,043,Il8
4,022,588
2,972,965
1,744,686
1,707,129
1,229,523
84 Per Cent.
36,975,632
2$6
THE ECLECTIC HISTORY.
RYE.
Total Production, U. S. Census 1880, 19,831,595 Bushels.
RANK.
LEADING STATES.
PRODUCTION IN BUSHELS.
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Pennsylvania
Illinois . . .
New York . .
Wisconsin . .
Iowa
New Jersey . .
Kentucky . .
Missouri . . .
3,683,621
3,121,785
2,634,690
2,298,513
1,518,605
949,064
668,050
535.426
78 Per Cent.
15,409,754
RICE.
Total Production U. S. Census 1880.
RANK.
ONLY STATES PRODUCING.
PRODUCTION IN POUNDS.
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
South Carolina
Georgia . . .
Louisiana . .
North Carolina
Mississippi
Florida . . .
52,077,515
25,369,687
23,188,311
5,609,191
1,718,951
1,294,677
8lO,889
62,152
Alabama . . .
Texas ....
Total in U. S. . .
110,131,373
A GRIC UL TURAL ST A TIS TICS.
237
BUCKWHEAT.
Total Production, U. S. Census 1880, 11,817,327 Bushels.
RAN1C.
LEADING STATES.
1
PRODUCTION IN BUSHELS.
I
2
3
New York ....
Pennsylvania . .
New Jersey . . .
4,46l,200
3.593.326
466,414
L
72 Per Cent.
8,520,940
COTTON.
Total Production, U. S. Census 1880, 5,755,359 Bales.
RANK.
LEADING STATES.
i
PRODUCTION IN BALES.
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Mississippi. .
Georgia . .
963,111
814,441
805,284
699,654
608,256
522,548
508,569
389,598
330,621
Texas . . .
Alabama . .
Arkansas . .
South Carolina
Louisiana . .
North Carolina .
Tennessee . .
98 Per Cent.
5,642,082
HEMP.
Total Production, U. S. Census 1880, 5,025 Tons.
RANK.
LEADING STATE.
PRODUCTION IN TONS.
I
—
Kentucky, 91 Per Ct.
4.583
2 3 3
THE ECLECTIC HISTORY.
SUGAR AND MOLASSES.
Cane.
Total Production, U. S. Census 1880.
RANK.
ONLY STATES.
HOGSHEADS OF
SUGAR.
GALLONS OF MO-
LASSES.
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
Louisiana . .
Florida . . .
Georgia ....
171,706
4.951
1.273
60I
229
94
18
11,696,248
810,605
1,029,868
1,565,784
138.944
795,199
536,625
South Carolina .
Alabama . .
Mississippi
Total, United States,
178,872
16,573,273
Sorghum.
Total Productio7i, U. S. Census 1880: Sugar, 12792 Lbs ; Molasses, 28,444,202 Galls.
RANK.
LEADING STATES.
POUNDS OF SUGAR.
. j
GALLONS OF MO-
LASSES.
I
Missouri ....
300
4,129,595
2
Tennessee
265
3,776,212
3
Kentucky . .
554
2,962,965
4
Illinois ....
1,801
2,265,993
5
Iowa ....
1,031
2,064,020
6
Indiana ....
1,141
1,741,853
7
Kansas . . .
805
1,429,476
8
Ohio ....
270
1,229,852
6,167
19,599,966
A GRICUL TURAL ST A TISTICS.
239
Maple.
Total Production U. S. Census 1880: Sugar, 36,576,061 Lbs.; Molasses, 1,796,048 Galls.
RANK.
LEADING STATES.
POUNDS OF SUGAR.
GALLONS OF MO-
LASSES.
I
2
3
4
5
6
Vermont ....
'New York ....
Michigan ....
Ohio
Pennsylvania . .
New Hampshire .
II,26l,077
IO,693,6l9
3,423,H9
2,895,782
2,866,OIO
2,73 I ,945
128,091
266,39C
131,990
495.839
140,667
79,712
33,871,582
1,242,689
TOBACCO.
Total Production U. S. Census 1880, 472,661,157 Pounds.
RANK.
. LEADING STATES.
PRODUCTION IN POUNDS.
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Kentucky . .
Pennsylvania
Ohio ....
Tennessee . .
North Carolina
Maryland . .
Connecticut . .
Missouri . .
Wisconsin . .
171,120,784
79,988,868
36,943,272
34,735,235
29,365,052
26,986,213
26,082,147
14,044,652
12,015,657
10,608,423
93 Per Cent.
441,890,303
240
THE ECLECTIC HISTORY.
FARM PRODUCTS.
Total Production, U. S. Census 1880: Vahie, $2,212,540,927.
RANK.
LEADING STATES.
ESTIMATED VALUE OF
ALL FARM PRODUCTIONS.
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Illinois ....
|203,980,I37
178,025,695
156,777,152
136,103,473
I29,760,476
II4,707,082
95,912,660
91,159,858
New York . .
Ohio ....
Pennsylvania .
Indiana . . .
Missouri . . ,
Michigan . .
50 Per Cent.
$1,106,426,533
COAL.
Total Production, U. S. Census 1880, 71,067,576 Tons.
r ■ ■■ ■ —
RANK.
LEADING STATES.
TONS OF 2,000 POUNDS.
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
t-> 1 • f Anthracite
Pennsylvania \ „ • ,
3 { Bituminous
Illinois
Ohio
28,640,819
18,425,163
6,H5,377
6,008,595
2,228,917
1,839,845
I,46l,Il6
1,454,327
946,288
Maryland
Iowa
Indiana
Kentucky
94 Per Cent.
67,120,447
IMPORTANT MINERALS.
241
PIG IRON.
Total Production, U. S. Geological Survey 1882, 5,178,122 Tons.
R A NK.
LEADING STATES.
.. ■"
NET TONS.
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Pennsylvania
Ohio . . .
New York . .
Illinois . .
Michigan .
New Jersey
Tennessee .
Missouri
Alabama .
2,449,2 56
698,900
416,156
360,407
210,195
176,805
137,602
113,644
112,765
90 Per Cent.
4,675.730
GOLD.
Total Production, U. S. Census 1880: Value, $33,379,663.
RANK.
LEADING STATES AND TER.
VALUE OF PRODUCT.
I
California ....
$17,150,941
2
Nevada
4,888,242
3
Dakota
3,305,843
4
Colorado ....
2,699,898
5
Montana ....
1,805,767
6
Idaho
I,479, 6 53
7
Oregon
1,097,701
97 Per Cent.
$32,428,045
Other gold producing- States and Territories, in the order of their
productions, are : (8) Utah. (9) Arizona. (10) Washington. (11)
North Carolina. (12) Georgia. (13) New Mexico. (14) Wyoming.
(15) South Carolina. (16) New Hampshire. (17) Virginia. (18)
Alaska. (19) Maine. (20) Tennessee. (21) Alabama.
E. M.--21.
242
THE ECLECTIC HISTORY.
SILVER.
Total Production, U. S. Census 1880: Value, $41,110,957.
RANK.
LEADING STATES.
_
VALUE OF PRODUCT.
I
2
3
4
5
6
Colorado ....
Utah
Montana ....
Arizona (estimated)
California ....
$16,549,274
12,430,667
4.743.087
2,905,068
2,325,825
1,150,887
97 Per Cent.
$40,104,808
Other silver producing States and Territories, in the order of
their productions are: (7) Idaho. (8) New Mexico. (9) Dakota.
(10) Oregon. (11) Michigan. (12) New Hampshire. (13) Maine.
(14) Washington. (15) Georgia. (16) North Carolina. (17) South
Carolina. (18) Alaska.
MANUFACTURES.
Total Production, U. S, Census 1880: Value, $5,341,838,890.
RANK.
LEADING STATES.
1
VALUE OF PRODUCT.
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
New York . . .
Pennsylvania
Massachusetts .
Illinois ....
$1,080,696,596
744,818,445
631,135,284
414,864,673
348,298,390
254,380,236
185,697,211
165,386,205
Ohio ....
New Jersey .
Connecticut .
71 Per Cent.
$3,825,277,040
POLITICAL HISTORY. 243
Political History.
Professor Moses Coit Tyler, of Cornell University,
says: "I teach American history not so much to make
historians as to make citizens and good leaders for the
state and nation." This should certainly be the aim,
also, of every teacher in our common schools. Every
boy in America should learn to appreciate thoroughly
American political institutions, and should be so trained
that when he grows to manhood he will be able to use
his franchise intelligently.
If time admits of a brief course in political history,
the teacher should organize the older boys into a class
for this purpose. The course need not occupy much
time, and will certainly be most valuable. It should
consist largely in oral instruction on American institu-
tions, and should treat briefly the following three
points :
1. Our form of government compared with others
now existing.
2. The origin and growth of our political institutions.
3. The organization and methods of local, state, and
national government.
The teacher should describe, in a general way, the
various forms of government of the great European
powers, and compare them with our own, showing
where they are alike, where similar, and where and
how they are different. Particular attention should be
devoted to the English government, on which our own
is so largely based.
The origin and gradual growth of our political institu-
tions should next be traced. The different forms of
colonial government should receive brief treatment ; the
244 THE ECLECTIC HISTOR Y.
causes of the Revolution should be reviewed from the
Declaration of Independence (page viii of the Appen-
dix) ; and the changes in local government brought
about by the Revolution noted. This should be fol-
lowed by a short account of the rise and fall of the
various political parties since the Revolution, with an
outline of their principles.
On taking up the subject of modern political institu-
tions, commence with instruction in regard to the minor
political divisions, first of your own state, and then of
the United States generally. It will probably prove of
interest to pupils to find that there are three distinct
classes of these minor divisions which differ essentially
in organization; namely, the "town' system, which is
confined to New England; the "county" system, which
exists in all the southern states — except Virginia and
North Carolina — and in Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada,
Oregon, and California; and the "compromise,' 1 or
combined county and township system, which exists in
the remaining states of the Union. The compromise
system has two forms, very nearly alike, one of which
is seen in New York and the other in Pennsylvania.
The states adopting this system are quite evenly divided
between the two forms.
Mr. S. A. Galpin, writing of these minor divisions for
"Walker's Statistical Atlas of the United States,' 1 says:
' ' The two which differ most widely from each other,
not only in their general characteristics, but also in their
location throughout the country, are the ' town ' system
of New England and the ' county ' system of the south.
Both of these were firmly rooted in their respective sec^
tions before the Declaration of Independence, and
passed through the successive transfers of sovereignty
POLITICAL HISTORY. 245
growing out of the war of the Revolution without any
material change. " *
That system which prevails in your own state should
receive full treatment ; that is, the class should be in-
structed as to its minutest details. It will be sufficient
to give a simple outline of the other systems, showing
their chief points of difference from your own.
Next in order comes the state government, which
should also receive full treatment, including a study, or
at least a reading, of the state constitution.
Finally, the class should carefully study the constitu-
tion of the United States, which is given on pages xi-xx
of the Eclectic History, and should be examined thor-
oughly as to their knowledge of the subject by means
of the "Questions' on the two succeeding pages.
* For full and authentic information on these systems, the
teacher is referred to the very interesting article, " The Minor
Political Divisions of the United States," from which the above is
an extract.
PHYSIOLOGY
XVIII.
PHYSIOLOGY.
THE importance of Physiology as a study in the
common schools has grown, year by year, until it
has attained its proper place, and is now considered a
necessary part of education. It is only strange that it
has not always been so considered ; for health is recog-
nized by all as the prime requisite for a happy life, and
we should therefore feel a moral obligation to instruct
the young in the fundamental laws of health, and to
give them such a knowledge of the human body that
they can not violate any of these laws through igno-
rance.
The study of the text-book on physiology should be
deferred until the pupils are old enough to understand
and appreciate it; but there are certain laws of health
that should be taught to the entire school, and certain
requisites demanded by those laws should receive the
unremitting attention of every teacher. It is impossible
to give a complete list of all the things that should and
all that should not be done, but we mention a few of
the most important matters which should receive atten-
tion.
" Cleanliness is indeed next to godliness," and it is
the teacher's duty, not only to the individual, but to the
school at large, to insist on cleanliness of person on the
part of each member of the school.
(249)
250 THE ECLECTIC PHYSIOLOGY.
Position. — When pupils are reciting, see that they
stand squarely on both feet, with the heels together,
shoulders back, and head erect. When at their desks,
see that pupils do not lounge or sit in a cramped posi-
tion. It is not necessary to act the martinet in this
matter, but a little care will probably save many little
children from strained eyes, weak lungs, round shoul-
ders, and ungraceful habits.
Voice and Lungs. — When children are reading or
speaking, whether in ordinary recitation or in vocal ex-
ercises, individually or in concert, see that they use
their voices and lungs properly. The voice should be
pitched in its natural conversational key, neither higher
nor lower. The tones of the voice should always be
distinct and resonant, but never loud. The manner of
breathing is of the greatest importance, in vocal drills
especially. Two points should be insisted upon : first,
the breathing should be carried on as much as possible
through the nose, and not through the mouth ; second,
the inspiration should distend the abdomen and the lower
part of the chest. The shoulders and upper part of the
chest should never be raised, in taking breathy under any
circumstances.
The celebrated Dr. Lennox Browne, of England, and
Professor Emil Behnke, in their joint work, "Voice,
Song, and Speech," lay much stress upon the impor-
tance of correct breathing. We quote a few passages
from their book which bear directly on school training
in this particular :
1 ' The criterion of correct inspiration is an increase in
the size of the abdomen and the lower part of the chest.
Whoever draws in the abdomen and raises the upper
part of the chest breathes wrongly.
VOICE AND LUNGS. 25 I
"While we urge the importance of nose breathing for
full inflation, which is an act to be performed slowly,
steadily, and gradually, we do not deny that for rapid
half-breaths occasionally demanded by singer or speaker,
inspiration by the mouth is not only justifiable but un-
avoidable. Habitual practice, however, in mouth-breath-
ing can only lead to great discomfort, if not to actual
and direct mischief of the throat, windpipe, and chest ;
and such is very probable to result in the foggy and
and cold-damp weather of spring, autumn, and winter.
. . . It may be added that even asthma and other
serious chest diseases are induced from this cause, and
that purity and resonance of all vocal tone is diminished
or destroyed in proportion to the amount of closure [of
the nasal passages].
"It is not out of place here to mention that respira-
tory exercises, and subsequently lessons in reading, re-
citing, and singing are oftentimes of the greatest use in
strengthening a weak chest ; and, indeed, it is not too
much to say in arresting consumption."
Temperature and Light. — In regard to temperature
and light, the teacher is largely governed by circum-
stances beyond his control, but he can always make the
best possible out of those circumstances. The school
room ought to be thoroughly well ventilated and well
lighted, free from drafts, and protected by proper cur-
tains or shades from the direct glare of the sun. The
heating apparatus should be such as to preserve a proper
and uniform temperature. Every school room should
be supplied with a thermometer, which should be hung
in such a place as will best show the average tempera-
ture of the room. It should not be hung more than
four feet above the floor, near a window or heater, nor
252 THE ECLECTIC PHYSIOL OGY.
on an outside wall. A thermometer properly hung
should not be allowed to vary much from yo° Fahrenheit.
If all these conditions can not be obtained, do the
best you can to approximate to them. Do not allow a
child to sit too near a register or a hot stove, nor in a
draft. Neither should a child be allowed to work with
the direct sunlight falling upon the paper before him,
and dazzling his eyes.
Wet Clothing. — Do not allow children to sit in
school with wet feet or clothing. If they live too far
away to be sent home to change their garments, they
should at least be compelled to dry both feet and cloth-
ing thoroughly before taking their seats. If this is im-
possible, it is far better to send them home for the entire
day than to have them run the risk of serious illness.
Exercise in the open air and sunlight is a necessity
to health, and the younger children especially need
abundance of time for this kind of relaxation. The
teacher, however, should regulate the exercises, if pos-
sible, and warn the children of the dangers of violent
exercise, both from over-exertion and from over-heating,
and then suddenly cooling, the body.
The entire school should be exercised in light gym-
nastics at least once each day, and oftener if possible.
Simple apparatus, such as wooden dumb-bells, rods, and
rings, are desirable, but not essential.
If it is possible to do so, employ a few minutes each
day with military drill. The excellent effect of this
species of drill is well seen in the superior carriage of
soldiers and of boys who attend military schools. A
very little study of any manual of tactics will give the
teacher all the information necessary to conduct this
drill, and the results will be found well worth the time
THE TEA CHER' S PREPARA TION. 253
and trouble bestowed. When the weather will permit,
the drill should be conducted in the open air on the
playground.
The Eclectic Physiology.
Physiology is usually a very interesting subject to
pupils, and it is not a difficult subject to teach thor-
oughly if it is properly treated.
The Teacher's Preparation for conducting his class
in their study is of supreme importance. The teacher
needs to be familiar with the subject-matter of the
science, and his knowledge must be fresh ; hence, he
should study the subject as thoroughly as circumstances
will permit, and not confine himself to the text-book
used by the class ; and if he has made a thorough study
of the subject in times past, but is somewhat "rusty"
in his knowledge, he should review the entire subject
thoroughly before entering upon class-work.
In addition to this general knowledge of the subject,
it is of great importance that the teacher should have a
special knowledge of the text-book in use. He must
understand the aims of the author, the scope of the
work, and the plan of arrangement, including the order
of topics and the dependence of the various parts of the
treatise. Moreover, each day's lesson in turn should
receive the teacher's careful attention in advance of at-
tempting to conduct the recitation.
The Purpose of the study of physiology is two-fold :
1. To give the pupils valuable information.
2. To discipline the minds of the pupils by encourag-
ing the habit of sound and systematic thought.
The value of the knowledge gained depends upon the
254 THE £ CLECTIC PHYSIOL OGY.
impressiveness of the lessons in hygiene, whereby the
pupils should learn to take proper care of their bodies,
that they may most effectively maintain good health and
avoid disease and weakness.
The disciplinary value of physiology depends upon an
intelligent and systematic method of instruction upon
the part of the teacher, and a corresponding method of
study on the part of the pupils.
The Plan of instruction should conform to the two
purposes just stated. The hygienic features of the
science are of paramount importance, and therefore
demand the greatest share of attention. Only so much
of anatomy and physiology need be learned as will
form a basis for intelligent instruction in hygiene. In
other words, the pupils are not to be taught as if
they were to become surgeons and physicians, but in
such manner as will best prepare them for healthful,
every-day life.
Errors to be Avoided. — The teacher who sees clearly
from the beginning the chief importance of hygiene,
will be likely to avoid three great errors that are quite
common with teachers of physiology :
1. Giving too much attention to the details of
anatomy.
2. Making too little practical application of the
science to the common affairs of life.
3. Teaching facts in a disconnected and unrelated
manner.
Aids. — In the study of the human body, the pupil
needs to be thoroughly impressed with the fact that he
is studying about his own body, — not some body repre-
sented in the pictures of his book, or on the charts, but
his own, living, throbbing body. To secure this great
AIDS. 255
end, the teacher must constantly require the pupils to
refer to their own vital processes. They can examine
the skin, can notice the breathing, can feel the pulse
and heart beat, can examine the eye, and can feel the
bones and muscles. They know, also, what hunger and
thirst are, what food is, what pain and sickness are,
what each special sense gives them. Let the children
commence work by considering such facts concerning
their own bodies, and their own vital processes ; then
the lessons of hygiene which they learn will come very
close to them, and they will be likely to apply such
lessons to their actual experiences.
To aid in creating an interest in the mechanism of
the human body, and in giving a clear idea of it, the
teacher should use good charts, from which the pupils
may more readily see the structure and relation of the
parts. Plain, simple charts are valuable aids, because,
on the one hand, we can not perform dissection in the
school room ; while, on the other, purely verbal descrip-
tions are usually feeble as compared with pictorial rep-
resentations.
In the absence of charts, the teacher, by some effort
and practice, may draw many figures upon the black-
board, illustrating the parts of the body. The pupils
will usually be much interested in making such draw-
ings for themselves.
In addition to what has already been suggested, the
teacher may obtain interesting material from slaughtered
animals with which to show the character and arrange-
ment of the similar parts of the human body. A hog's
heart resembles the human heart very closely. By cut-
ting open the hog's heart, the structure and arrangement
of the human heart may be studied objectively. In like
256
THE ECLECTIC PHYSIOLOGY
manner, the teacher may show the class the structure
of the lungs, liver, kidneys, intestines, bones, joints,
eyes, etc., etc. The use of such material for illustra-
tion intensifies the interest and impresses the mind far
more forcibly than either verbal or pictorial representa-
tions.
Time of Recitations. — It would be well for the class
in physiology to recite daily. A short lesson each day
is to be preferred to longer lessons on alternate days.
In a mixed school, in which the teacher has many
classes each day, the lesson in physiology need not
exceed twenty-five minutes in length.
Proper Division into Lessons. — A class of ordinary
pupils can complete the Eclectic Physiology in one
school year of five or six months. A strong class
might possibly complete the work in sixteen weeks or
less. Nevertheless, it is urged that the teacher aim at
thoroughness rather than rapidity.
Seventy-five lessons may be considered the average
number for a strong class, and certainly no fewer than
fifty lessons should be attempted under any circum-
stances. If fifty lessons are all that can possibly be
given the subject, the following division may prove of
value to the teacher in assigning lessons:
Introduction
Bones
Muscles
Skin
Food
Digestion
Circulation
Respiration
Excretion
General Nervous System
Two lessons.
Three lessons.
Three lessons.
Two lessons.
Two lessons.
Three lessons.
Five lessons.
Five lessons.
Two lessons.
Five lessons.
SUBDIVISION OF TOPICS. 2$ J
Touch, Taste, and Smell
Sight ....
Hearing
Sanitary Science .
Effects of Alcohol
Reviews and Examinations,
Three lessons.
Three lessons.
Three lessons.
Two lessons.
Two lessons.
Five lessons.
Total, Fifty Lessons.
If seventy-five lessons can be given, the teacher
should divide the subjects proportionately to the above
list.
The teacher should decide before commencing work
exactly how many lessons he proposes to give, make
out his schedule accordingly, and then hold firmly to
his plan. If he adopt this method, he will find that the
pupils will complete the subject within the allotted time,
and that, at the same time, the topics in the latter part
of the text will receive as full consideration as those
treated in the beginning. If this method be not
adopted, there is danger of dwelling too long on certain
portions of the text at the expense of others.
Subdivisions of Topics. — After the teacher has ex-
amined the text-book carefully, and has decided both as
to the length of time that is to be given to the study,
and as to the number of lessons into which the subject
is to be divided, as above suggested, he must next de-
termine definitely the exact limits of the subdivisions to
be made, else the lesssons designed to treat of any divi-
sion of the text may not cover the ground they are
intended to include. To illustrate this point, the five
lessons assigned for the study of circulation must divide
that subject properly. It is supposed that the class has
just studied the subject of food and the process of
digestion. As the food makes blood, it would seem
E. M.— 22.
258 THE ECLECTIC PHYSIOL OGY.
proper that the class should take for its first lesson in
circulation the subject of blood. Certain facts are to be
learned about the blood : for example, what the blood
is, its importance, its uses, its composition, etc. To
learn these facts, the pupils must study articles 66 to 71
inclusive, and must read carefully notes 1, 2, and 3.
The second lesson should include the organs of ch'cnla-
tion. These are treated of in articles 72 to Jj inclusive,
and notes 4 and 5. The third lesson should trace the
circulation^ as taught in articles 78 to 81 inclusive, and
note 6. The fourth lesson should include the remaining
articles of the chapter, and the teacher should pay par-
ticular attention to the hygiene of circulation. The
fifth lesson should review and unify the whole chapter.
In a similar manner the teacher should divide each
chapter of the book into lessons of appropriate length,
taking carefully into consideration both the time allotted
to a recitation and the total number of lessons that must
include the entire subject.
Advantages of System. — Let us repeat that all this
planning should be closely studied by the teacher before
commencing work at all. If the suggestion be heeded,
the teacher will find that this definite planning of work
will materially add to the efficiency of his instruction in
physiology. It aims to accomplish the following ex-
cellent results :
1. The orderly presentation of matter.
2. The due division of time among the several parts
of the subject.
3. Systematic and intelligent study on the part of the
pupils.
4. Topical and methodical recitation of the lessons
thus learned.
ADVANTAGES OF SYSTEM. 259
Lead pupils to study with the idea of orderly arrange-
ment of topics constantly before the mind. If the
teacher requires pupils to recite in an orderly manner,
they will naturally learn to prepare their work in that
way.
Bear constantly in mind that the two important aims
in the study of physiology are to have the pupils
acquire a valuable knowledge of the subject, and to
train the mind in systematic and forcible action. Both
of these aims are to be attained most readily by the
classified form of study and recitation.
But beware of bare outlines. The danger in the use
of outlines in class-work is that the teacher may use the
outline merely as a skeleton, and not put upon it the
necessary flesh in which the skeleton should be im-
bedded. Classification learned simply as such is of very
little use, and teachers should guard carefully against
teaching in this way.
On the Conduct of Recitations. — Let us suppose
that the teacher has assigned a lesson in physiology, and
the time has arrived for the recitation. It is supposed
that the pupils have been definitely informed as to what
to study, and that they know what is to be the plan of
recitation. It is not necessary, therefore, for the teacher
to ask where the lesson is, and to proceed to ask question
after question, to which the pupils give answers. He
may direct one of the pupils to state the lesson, and to
proceed to recite the first portion of it. At a suitable
time the teacher should excuse the first pupil, and ask
another to continue the recitation. Passing from one to
another in the class, the lesson is soon recited. The
omissions made by those pupils who have recited may
now be supplied by other pupils. Criticisms may be
260 THE ECLECTIC PHYSIOLOGY.
made on the recitations by both pupils and teacher.
Questions may be asked to still farther test the pupils
in their understanding of the matter recited.
Specimens may be examined illustrating the subject
under consideration. Recitations may be made from the
charts, in which case the pupils point out the represen-
tation of the parts described. The pupils may ask ques-
tions about any points of particular interest to them, or
about such parts as they do not well understand. The
notes which refer to certain parts of the lesson may be
read aloud. The pupils may write out an outline of the
lesson upon the blackboard.
The connection between the present lesson and the
new lesson that is to be assigned, may be stated by the
teacher, and he may call special attention to important
and interesting features of the new lesson. Whatever
will tend to deepen the interest of the pupils in the
study of the subject should be done. Encourage the
pupils to converse and to ask questions about the sub-
jects studied.
To illustrate still more fully, suppose the class is just
beginning the subject of respiration, and that the lesson
is articles 85, 86, and 87. Here are certain important
points to be brought out in the recitation : The constant
demand for air by all living things. The air must enter
the blood and be circulated, — no other want is more
urgent. How plants breathe. How fishes get air.
How the higher animals breathe. What respiration is.
What the uses of the air are. W T hat the general plan
of respiration is. How the air enters the blood.
The ten points just enumerated cover the matter in-
cluded in the articles, and might form the topics for the
recitations to be made by the several pupils of the class.
RECITATIONS. 26 1
The teacher might ask such questions as the following
to test any member of the class : What are the pur-
poses of respiration ? How does the need of air com-
pare with the want of food ? How do trees breathe ?
How do water animals breathe ? How do land animals
breathe ? How do we breathe ? Why do all living
things need air?
Let it be supposed that the class is to recite the first
lesson of Chapter XIV, — "Sight." The topics in this
lesson would include the matter contained in articles
! 35> J 36, 137, 138. The chief topics are as follows:
Sight, what it is. What we learn from the sense of
sight. The eyes, what are they? Description of the
eyes. The protecting parts of the eyes. Tears, what
are they ? Their origin and purpose. How the eye-
balls are supported. How they are moved.
When the pupils have recited these topics, the teacher
may test them by many questions, such as the follow-
ing: What is it that comes into the eye from the
objects we see ? What do we learn by seeing any
thing? Why are the eyes placed as they are? How
do the orbits protect the eyes? Of what use are the
brows and lashes ? What glands are connected with the
eyes? Whence do the tears come? How are the eye-
balls kept clean ? How do we turn the eyes ?
In connection with this lesson and the one that fol-
lows it, the teacher should dissect an eye for the class,
as described in note 1. Each pupil may learn much
by looking at the eye of another person, and by
touching and examining his own eye. If the teacher
can secure the use of a convex lens, he may perform
many interesting experiments with it that will show the
action of the lens of the eye.
262 THE ECLECTIC PHYSIOLOGY.
It only remains to say that while physiology is usually
a very interesting study to children, yet no subject can
be made very interesting to a class by a teacher who is
himself devoid of interest in that subject. On the other
hand, the more real interest the teacher can put into
the work, the more enthusiastic will his class be in the
study of the subject. The more impressive the lessons
of hygiene are, the more valuable will the information
be to the pupils.
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