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BRITISH ASTRONOMICAL ASSOCIATION

THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE
1900

riSH ASTRONOMICAL ASSOCIATION

TOTA'D

SOLAR ECLIPSE

ANIZED, BY
SOCIATION
IPSE

V-XI3

.R.A.S.

BRITISH ASTRONOMICAL ASSOCIATION

THE

TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE

1900

REPORT OF THE EXPEDITIONS ORGANIZED BY

THE BRITISH ASTRONOMICAL ASSOCIATION

TO OBSERVE THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE

OF 1900, MAY 28

EDITED BY

E. WALTER MAUNDER, F.R.A.S.

lonfton
KNOWLEDGE" OFFICE

326, HIGH HOLBORN, W.C.
1901

. oo

'"'NERAL

PRINTED BY

WITHERBY AND CO.

326, HIGH HOLBORN, LONDON

CJ?

PEEFACE.

THE British Astronomical Association has been now sufficiently
before the public for its methods and objects no longer to
require detailed explanation. Founded in October, 1890, it now
numbers nearly 1200 members, and its meetings are held month
by month, not only in London, the headquarters of the Asso-
ciation, but also at the seats of the branches — Manchester,
Glasgow, Edinburgh, Sydney, and Melbourne. A sixth branch
is now being opened at Birmingham. As its chief purpose
has been the association of observers for mutual help, and
their organization for the work of astronomical observation,
its operations have not been confined to its " sections," dealing
with the study of the sun, moon, planets, comets, meteors, etc.,
but have extended to the occasional phenomena of astronomy,
amongst which total eclipses of the sun are the most striking and
important. Three such events have happened since the Association
was strong enough to attempt to deal with them, viz., the
eclipses of 1896, August 9 ; of 1898, January 22 ; and of 1900,
May 28. A large party proceeded under the auspices of the
Association to Vadso, in Lapland, to observe the first of the
three, but their efforts were entirely frustrated on this occasion
by cloud. Two parties were organized to go to India, to observe
the second, and were rewarded with complete success; and the
results of their observations have appeared under the title of
" The Indian Eclipse, 1898." The present volume is the report
of the Association on the most recent of these three eclipses,
which was observed by the members at a great number of
different stations, in the United States, at sea, in Portugal, in
Spain, and in Algeria.

The meetings of the Association are held on the last Wednesday
of each month, except July, August and September, at Sion
College, Victoria Embankment, E.G. All enquiries should be
made of the Assistant Secretary, 26, Martin's Lane, Cannon
Street, JE.C.

133449

CONTENTS

CHAP. PAGE

I. INTRODUCTORY ........ 1

II. WADESBOROUGH, NORTH CAROLINA ... 6

III. AT SEA 18

IV. PORTUGAL ........ 26

V. MID-SPAIN . .31

VI. MANZANARES . 40

VII. ELCHE . 48

VIII. ALGIERS 57

IX. TIME OBSERVATIONS 75

DURATION OF TOTALITY AND TIMES OF

CONTACTS ....... 75

NOTE ON THE ECLIPSE AT MAZAFRAN CAMP . 83
NOTE ON THE PROBABLE REASON OF THE OVER-
ESTIMATE OF THE DURATION OF TOTALITY
IN THE " NAUTICAL ALMANAC " . . .84

X. THE CORONA 88

THE CORONA SEEN OUT OF TOTALITY . . 92

DRAWINGS OF THE CORONA . . . .93

XI. THE CORONA AS SEEN IN THE TELESCOPE . .114
XII. PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE CORONA .... 126

THE CORONA OF 1900 FROM THE PHOTOGRAPHS 126
LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS TAKEN DURING TOTALITY 128
DARK MARKINGS IN THE SOLAR CORONA. . 133
THE CORONAL EXTENSIONS ON THE PHOTO-
GRAPHS . . . . . . . 140

LIST OF PLATES EXPOSED DURING THE PARTIAL

PHASE 142

PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE PARTIAL PHASE . 143

Vlll CONTENTS.

CHAP. PAGE

XIII. BRIGHTNESS DURING TOTALITY . . 147

TWILIGHT ILLUMINATION .... 153

INTEGRATING PHOTOGRAPHS . .154

XIV. THE PRISMATIC OPERA-GLASS 156

XV. THE SHADOW BANDS . ... 164

XVI. BAILY'S BEADS .... ... 178

APPEARANCE OP THE Disc OP THE MOON. . 184

XVIL STARS AND PLANETS VISIBLE DURING THE ECLIPSE 186

XVIII. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS .... 192

XIX. COLOURS ON LAND AND SKY ..... 199

SHADOWS DURING THE PARTIAL PHASE . . 204
THE SHADOW OF THE MOON .... 205

XX. EFFECTS ON PLANTS AND ANIMALS .... 208

XXI. PLACES OF INTEREST VISITED .... 216

XXII. SUMMARY OF RESULTS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR

FUTURE WORK . . . . . 220

SUMMARY OP RESULTS ..... 220

SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK . 221

OF TH?-

UNIVERSlTY

THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, 1000,

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE course of Total Eclipse Expeditions, like that of true love,
seems never to run smooth. Of the three which the British
Astronomical Association has organized, the first was baffled
by cloud, the second was hampered but not thwarted by plague,
and the third was hindered but not beaten by war.

The expedition to Vadso, in 1896, had been so exceedingly
enjoyable, that in spite of the adverse fortune on the day of
the eclipse itself, a large number of members of the Association
had been anxious that one should be arranged on similar lines
for the eclipse of 1900. The desirability of such an arrange-
ment, if possible, was obvious, for the association together, on
a sea voyage of a, large body of observers, offers opportunities
for organization and co-operation in work, which are not easily
secured in any other way, and the experiences of 1896 showed
that a high amount of efficiency could be secured under such
conditions. The Eclipse Committee, therefore, of the Associa-
tion, turned their first attention to chartering a steamer which
should carry the observers and their instruments to Alicante
and Algiers, calling on its way at Oporto or Lisbon, and at
Cadiz for the convenience of those observers who wished to
watch the eclipse from some place in Portugal, or in the interior
of Spain. Negotiations were accordingly opened with the Royal
Mail Steam Navigation Company for the chartering of a ship,
and the Company, which met all the requirements of the Com-
mittee with the utmost liberality and courtesy, offered their
newest and best equipped vessel, the " Tagus," for the expedition.
About 140 applications for berths had been received, and
arrangements were almost complete when 011 March 5th, the
Secretary of the Company notified the Committee that both the
" Tagus,'' and an alternative vessel the " Nile," had been
requisitioned by the Government as transports for South Africa,
and that in consequence the Directors were no longer able to

2 THE TOTAL SOLAR, ECLIPSE, I QOO.

guarantee a ship to the Association. An effort was then
made to obtain a steamer from some other quarter, but the
demands of the war rendered this very difficult, the only vessels
available being much smaller than the " Tagus." The majority
of the members who had applied for berths on the" Tagus "
were unwilling to travel by a much smaller boat, and the project
of the Association engaging a steamer for the sole use of its
Members necessarily fell through.

Under these circumstances it was clear that members would
in general select their own routes to the zone of totality, and
accordingly a number of little parties were arranged, travelling
in different directions, and for the most part without seeking
any assistance from the Eclipse Committee. Messrs. T. Cook
and Son, however, approached the Committee to know what
arrangements would be most likely to meet the needs of astro-
nomers going out to observe the eclipse, and arranged two
tours in consequence, the one to Talavera. and Navalmoral, and
the other to Algiers, both of which were joined by several of
the members, and were found most convenient by them.
And the Orient Steamship Company, and the owners of the steam
yacht " Argonaut," formerly th'e " Norse King," both ran
excursions intended to help those who wished to watch the great
sight.

On the day of the eclipse, then, the members of the
Association found themselves distributed for some 5000 miles
along the belt of totality. The first party to be enveloped in
the flying shadow, as it swept across the earth's surface with a
speed of 2000 miles an hour, was that accompanying the Rev.
J. M. Bacon, M.A., F.R.A.S., and which was stationed at
Wadesborough, North Carolina, U.S.A. Totality was over for
more than two hours with Mr. Bacon's party before the shadow
reached the next observer, Col. E. E. Markwick, F.R.A.S.,
whose station was a moving one (if a somewhat Irish expression
may be allowed), being on the deck of R.M.S. " Austral " of the
Orient Line. Reaching terra fir ma again, the first town in the
shadow belt was Ovar, where Mr. G. F. Chambers, F.R.A.S.,
Mr. W. B. Gibbs, F.R.A.S., and Mr. F. Lys Smith had taken
their place. The Rev. Augustin Morford also observed from
Ovar, and the Rev. H. P. Slade from Estarreja, six miles further
south. Crossing the frontier into Spain, the shadow next passed
over Plasencia, where three little companies of members of
the Association were staying. The first of these was an Irish
contingent, nine in number, but two only, Dr. and Mrs.
A. M. W. Downing, report to this volume, the remaining
members of the party having come out in connection with the
Royal Irish Academy and the Royal Society of Dublin, and
reporting to those bodies. The other two parties in the
immediate neighbourhood of Plasencia were, one headed by
Mr. T. Weir, Secretary of the N.W. Branch, and the other
composed of Mr. T. W. Backhouse and Mr. Irwin Sharp. At
Navalmoral a considerable party came down by train from

INTRODUCTORY. 3

Madrid, arriving on the ground just after the partial phase
had commenced. Of the work of this party, seventeen in total
number, including two who stayed at Talavera, Mr. C. T.
Whitmell, M.A., F.E.A.S., President of the Leeds Astronomical

PHOF. C. A. YOUNG AT WADESBOKOUGH, X.C.

Society, has sent in a most careful and well-arranged report.
Manzanares, in the country of Don Quixote, was occupied by
three observers, Mr. H. Keatley Moore, Mr. F. Gare, and
Captain Alfred Carpenter, R.N., D.S.O., F.R.Met.Soc. ; whilst
the last station in Spain, Elche, was selected by an exceedingly

4 THE TOTAL SOLAll ECLIPSE, I QOO.

well-organised and capable party, eight in number, who report
through Mr. E. W. Johnson. Crossing the Mediterranean to
Algeria, the shadow passed over the City of Algiers, where by
far the largest number of our members were stationed. Of
these a large party, under the leadership of Mr. E. Walter
Maunder, made the Hotel de la Regence at once their home
and their observatory. A smaller party took up their residence
at the Hotel Continental, in Mustapha Superieur, most of them
observing the eclipse from the roof of the hotel, but a few
going to the house of the Vice-Consul for that purpose. S.S.
" Argonaut " arrived in Algiers on the morning of Sunday,
May 27th, and its passengers divided into two principal parties,
the one under the leadership of Colonel A. Burton-Brown,
R.A., F.R.A.S., encamping on Cemetery Hill, above the town,
and the other steaming across to Cape Matifou, the N.E. horn
of the Bay of Algiers, where totality was about three seconds
longer than in the city itself. The general observations from
this party were collected and sent in by Mr. H. Krauss Nield.

Every arrangement must necessarily be exposed to the draw-
backs of its conditions. Thus in the Lapland Expedition, of
1896, we had thoroughly appreciated the immense advantages,
for the purposes of organization, which our being all together,
on a single vessel, and at the same station, conferred upon us.
But we also felt that we were running a serious risk, a risk
which, however, we could not avoid, in thus resting all our
chances on the weather at a single spot, and our apprehensions
were realised when the weather at our selected station proved
hopelessly cloudy. In 1900, we were so widely scattered that we
had no fear at all of the weather proving bad in every case; but
as by most unusual good fortune it was everywhere exceedingly
fine, the disadvantages attending our scattering have been rather
more apparent. There was no possibility of arranging the whole
scheme of work on a single plan ; the best that could be done
was for each separate party to make as efficient a distribution
of the observations within their reach as they could. This was
done, and in several instances with most conspicuous ability
and success, but it was quite out of the question to arrange a
common programme for the whole. It resulted, therefore,
that there was necessarily a great deal of repetition between
various reports, and it was impossible to print these as they
stood, excellent though they were as records of the work of the
separate stations. It has been, therefore, thought well, whilst
giving the actual narratives of the several parties, one by one,
to combine their results under the various lines of work.

In the previous Eclipse report of the Association — "The
Indian Eclipse, 1898 " — a short historical sketch was given of the
principal lines of eclipse research ; there is no need, therefore, to
repeat these facts in the present volume.

It is interesting to remark that beside the members who
have contributed to this report, not a few of the most distin-
guished members of the Association observed the eclipse of

INTRODUCTORY. O

1900 in connection with the expeditions of other" learned bodies.
Without giving an exhaustive list, we may mention Professors
Barnaa-d, Burckhalter, Hale, Pickering and Young amongst
American astronomers; Mr. F. W. Dyson at Ovar; the Irish
astronomers, Sir Howard Grubb, Dr. A. A. Kambaut, and Mr.
W. E. Wilson, at Plasencia; at Santa Pola, Dr. Kalph
Copeland, Mr. A. Fowler, and Mr. T. Heath; in Algeria, Herr
Archenhold, Herr Leo Brenner, Mr. John Evershed, Major
Kingsley Foster, Mr. H: F. Newall, Prof. P. Tacchini, Prof.
H. H. Turner, and Mr. W. H. Wesley.

One feature of our various eclipse expeditions, a feature
common, to them all, it is impossible to pass over without
recognition. They took place at a time when there was not a
little irritation and stress between Great Britain and many
other nations. The Continental Press in general, and to a consider-
able extent that of America also, was full of unfriendly
remarks upon us; nor were the replies of our own newspapers
always above criticism. If we had formed a,n opinion of the
state of international feeling from these and similar political
writings, we should have concluded that we had little to expect
in the way of assistance or kindness from those with whom
our expeditions would bring us into contact. But our actual
experience was the very reverse of this. The record of our
Members at each and every station, whether it was in the
United States, in Portugal, Spain, or in the French colony of
Algeria, was that they received in every case the fullest and
most considerate courtesy; indeed, much more than that, the
most liberal and generous help. To our many friends, there-
fore, official and private, in these different lands to whom
we are so deeply indebted, we offer our wannest remembrances,
and our most grateful acknowledgments of their kindness.

CHAPTER II.

WADESBOROUGH, NORTH CAROLINA*

OUR good fortune began with our outward bound boat. It was
something to be on board the largest ship afloat in all the world,
two only excepted, to have a deck to walk on approximately
a furlong in length ; to have as a floating home the finest vessel
that has ever entered London water, and perhaps the steadiest
that has ever crossed the Atlantic. Such was the " Minneapolis,"
in which we were allotted the first pick of cabins by priority
of booking. And here again was something to be proud of —
viz., that a party of amateur astronomers, seven in all, had been
fired with zeal enough to anticipate the inevitable crush that
the Paris Exhibition would cause, and to bespeak berths out and
home again many months ahead, to map out a journey of
some 9,000 miles extending over more than seven weeks, and
all merely to gain somewhat better conditions for witnessing
an Eclipse which all other European astronomers were content
to obsei've from their own side of the Atlantic.

But an increased probability of clear sky, the gain of 20 or
30 seconds in the duration of totality, and greater altitude were
in our case strong temptations, and so it came about that the
early days of May saw us in the full enjoyment of an ideal
voyage, discussing and preparing for the work before us through
long luxurious days, and at night under the broad moon
watching the prow ploughing its silent path through the black
water on into the west.

But at last there came a check; somewhere south of New-
foundland, where we entered the track of icebergs and where
soundings showed in place of mud a. shifting bed of sand. Here
we entered fog, deep and darkening fog, so that ere Sandy Hook
was reached, we had to drop anchor and lay to till better times
should come.

It was then we began to fairly realise the game of hazard we
were playing. There were but nine clear days before the
Eclipse, in which brief space we should have to convey ourselves
and our heavy instruments 1,000 miles over land to a retired
spot far down in the Southern States a,nd virtually unknown
to the world at large. Moreover we were made to feel that our
mission was, as far as any practical work was concerned, doomed

* By the Rev. J. M. BACOX, M.A., F.E.A.S.
6

WADESBOROUGH, NORTH CAROLINA. V

to complete failure if during the critical 90 seconds of time
the sun should be covered with but a thin veil of such vapour as
was now blotting out the sky.

Fogs, however, are often subservient to a certain magic
influence, and this proved to be so in our case. Some sudden
change presently took place in atmospheric conditions. The
slight breeze went about and intruded itself unexpectedly
through an opposite porthole. Someone, supposed for the
moment to have lost his senses, cried that he had caught a
glimpse of land, and then all in five minutes a broad stretch
of the American coast was outlined ahead, and the steam
capstan was already at work grinding up the anchor.

An hour later all our bulky instrument cases — save one of which
more anon — were ranged along the Custom House stage where
an altercation took place which the officials concerned would
have done well to have dispensed with. By a special act of
courtesy on the part of the U.S. Government I was possessed
of authority to have all scientific instruments freed of the
Customs ; yet someone in office that afternoon insisted that
the cases should be opened and scrutinised in the usual manner.
This caused a delay of some precious hours, and also a visit to
the British Consul on Monday morning, when after three hours
of hard work in interviewing officers, making statements and
getting signatures I repaired accompanied by the Vice-Cons ul
himself to the obdurate Custom House agent, only to find that
that official had come to a better frame of mind and had passed
everything without inspection that morning by break of day.

But the railway authorities more than made up for the un-
warrantable annoyance and delay caused by the ministers of
red tape. With frank and ready generosity, for which I have
no adequate words of praise, the Pennsylvania Railway Com-
pany regarded us in the light of a scientific party engaged on
a duly recognised mission. As such we were to be privileged
individuals and worthy cf being accorded that courtesy and
kindly reception which nowhere on the face of the globe can
be shown with greater open-handedness than in America.

I record it with equal gratification and gratitude that by
nightfall of the second working day after landing, my daughter
and myself, as pioneers, were berthed on the fastest train going
south with the whole of our heavy freight on board, and the
whole of it booked free of all charge whatsoever right to our
destination in far N. Carolina.

Never shall I forget the luxurious feeling of relief and refresh-
ment as the night express steamed away from New Jersey, and,
gathering speed, caught the cool night wind through the
sleeping fragrant country.

At Washington we were joined by our chief colleague, Mr.
Nevil Maskelyne, F.R.A.S., to whom a terrible mischance had
occurred. He was the designer of the kinematograph telescope,
the film of which had been mysteriously stolen when, in my

THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, 1 900.

custody at the last eclipse in India, and now by another
strange fatality the optical part of the same instrument was
missing, having by an oversight never been shipped in London,
and thus a second time this novel instrument seemed for the
moment doomed to failure.

But our unrivalled mechanician, whose genius is so well known
to every frequenter of the Egyptian Hall, had already deter-
mined on the Herculean task of manufacturing an adequate
telescope and fittings from selected photographic lenses, and of
completing the work within the three or four working days that

Mr. and Mrs. Maskelyne.

Miss Bacon.

Mr. Dixon.

Miss Woolston. Miss Dixon Kev. J. M. Bacon.

13. A. A. PAKTY AT LUNCH, KLOXUYKE HOTEL, WADESBOHOUGII.

at most would be at his disposal. The endeavour was like that
of a sailor attempting single-handed to rig a jury mast under
stress of weather when his main mast had gone by the board;
but our friend faced it, and so, having caught us up, was hurry-
ing down to the front with a jaded look, in sooth, but with
set purpose in his eye.

That night I saw a strange sight. We were running through low
lying forest land in Southern Virginia, already 800 miles nearer
the Equator, where the air had grown palpably hotter and more
sultry, and multitudes of frogs were croaking round with a
strange rattle in their throats. The stars were beginning to
grow bright and many, when suddenly in the sky from about

WADESBOROUGH, XORTH CAROLINA.

the region of Scorpio I saw a burst of meteors twisting in
erratic courses much as I had seen them in fewer numbers on a
memorable occasion from a lofty balloon in the early morning
of the last Leonid shower. I shouted this intelligence aloud
that all the Pullman car might hear, meeting, however, only with
a rebuke from our dusky and amused conductor, " Dem are
lightning bugs, sar !'' Of course they were, but I must be held
blameless, for this was the first time that I had seen a fire-fly.

At six o'clo'ck on the morning of the second day our train
pulled up at our destination, a little forest clearing, where there
was a modest range of wooden sheds. There, however, was
nothing to indicate that we had arrived at a spot of any conse-
quence, and yet in truth this was the railway station of

1?. A. A. C'AMT, WAIXESUOKOVUH, X.C.

Wadesborough, N.C., a little township which, for the time being,
was exalted to one of high importance in all the States, and this
fact was soon impressed upon us. A steady climb of a mile
by pine woods and cotton fields now brought us to our hotel,
where we found ample accommodation reserved for all our party
and breakfast already waiting.

Half-an-hour later we received a personal visit from Professor
Young, and then at last we began to realise the extent of our
good fortune, and how much true kindness and hospitality was
being lavished upon us. On the opposite side of the little street,
drawn up under the shade of the wooden houses, was a pair-
horse carriage, which by an act of extreme generosity on the
part of the residents had been engaged to be at our disposal
through the whole of our stay. For the rest, Professor Young
assured us we should learn more if we came to his camp after

10 THE TOTAL SOLAH ECLIPSE, 1900.

breakfast. And this was certainly so. We learned that every-
thing had been thought out by the Professor himself for our
benefit and comfort ; that a portion of his own specially selected
site had been reserved for us, and that a carpenter was already
in attendance to receive our instructions for the erection of a
suitable shed.

I shall have to say so much more about Professor Young
before I have done that I had better give some description of
his observing station in which we found him already fairly
established. This occupied the highest ground around, being
a field well removed from habitations, and open to the south-
west, in which direction an uninterrupted view was obtained
over a broad valley sloping upwards to the distant sky-line.
A substantial wooden building had been erected for photo-
graphic purposes and to house the larger instruments brought
from the Princeton Observatory, while the rest of the extensive
equipment was ranged without on the southern front. It was
all a fair sample of what American astronomers could and would
do on their own soil, but we were to see more.

A quarter of a mile away in another enclosure was the station
occupied by the chiefs of the Smithsonian and Yerkes Obser-
vatories. Professor Langley had not yet arrived, but Professors
Barnard, Hale, Abbot and others had for a long while been at
work on preparations which were being carried out on a giant
scale, and it was easy to credit, what Professor Young claimed,
that no such equipment had ever been brought together at any
one station to serve in the observation of a Total Solar Eclipse.
They do things smartly in America. On arriving at Wades-
borough Station we found that, notwithstanding the rapidity with
which we had made our long journey, our heavy instruments
had already arrived before us, and now it was our only care
that they should be conveyed promptly up the long slope that
led to our chosen ground. How would it be done ? we asked,
for our packages were awkward and heavy. At this our car-
penter stepped forward and asked if they were more than seven
tons, for he had already conveyed that weight of precious
instruments for the American party. When I replied that they
were less than seven cwt., our friend promised that they should
bs delivered in half-an-hour, and he was as good as his word.
And next, by some magic not surpassed in the days of Aladdin,
our observing hut sprang into existence while our backs were
turned, and we had only, so we thought, to knock the lids off
our cases and set all shipshape.

But in this we were wrong. We had forgotten to reckon with
the heat. It was late May in the Southern States, and the sun,
in lat. 35° N., blazed down in a way we dreamed not of. Pro-
fessor Young warned us that we should not at once get accus-
tomed to the heat, adding for our comfort that several out of
the various camps had already knocked up and been in the
doctor's hands.

PRINCETON OBSERVATORY CAMP, \VADESBOitorGir, Jf.C.

YKHKKS OBSERVATORY CAMP, WADESBOROUGH, N.C.

WADESBOROUGH, NORTH CAROLINA. 13

But in spite of little twilight there were daylight hours early
and late when work could and did get on apace, and when two
days later the rest of the party joined us preparations were
fairly advanced. Mr. N. Maskelyne was still slaving at his
stupendous task which was eventually crowned with complete
success. Mrs. Maskelyne kindly took over the management of
a clock-driven actinometer which at my desire her husband
had designed. Miss Woolston elected to confine her attention
to photographing the Corona, Miss Dixon took charge of the
opera glass spectroscope, the same instrument that she had used
at the eclipse at Buxar, Mr. G. Dixon, whose skill as an operator
is second to none, essayed single handed to take photographs
of the Corona with a three inch o.g. by Dollond, and with a
tele-photo camera. My daughter was provided with a battery
of four cameras, with which she proposed to photograph the
outer extensions, using Dallmeyer and other lenses ranging from
f/6 to fjl 2. I myself was using the same telescopic camera of
4.1 o.g. with which my son had successfully photographed the
inner Corona at Buxar. Other work of a minor character was
also undertaken, and the day before the Eclipse our camp
unexpectedly received the addition of Mr. Hadden, an American
member of the B.A.A., using a three inch equatorial refractor.

But our occupation was not all work. Recreation and social
intercourse claimed their share. All the principal residents not
only called but seemed to vie one with another in showing all
hospitality and loading us with every kindness. Special enter-
tainments were got up among the ladies, and prospective
pic-nics and other convivial gatherings were arranged for our
benefit.

In acknowledgment of these many acts of kindness the astro-
nomical party generally, as visitors, agreed on inviting all the
residents to a gathering in the Opera House, at which the
entertainment should be an astronomical lecture followed by
speeches from the platform by representatives of the various
camps. This entertainment mooted at a late period of our stay
was only finally decided on during the morning preceding the
Eclipse, so that it became necessary that it should take place
that same evening. But this is notice enough for a successful
gathering among the hearty genial and united Southerners.
Judsre Bennett, principal among the inhabitants of Wadesboro',
kindly consented to preside, and then the telephone was put
in requisition, with the result that at 8 p.m. the hall was filled
to overflowing with a representative and enthusiastic audience.
It is needless to say that the lecture improvised by Professor
Young was one of great ability and interest, after which Judge
Bennett and Professor Hale addressed the meeting, and it fell
to mv own lot to speak on behalf of the English visitors.

Of Wadesboro' itself little need be said. It possesses 2000 souls
and is a thoroughly typical township of the Southern States,
high and healthy, with clean and busy streets, and picturesque

14 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

houses mostly wooden. The coloured natives are cheery, good-
natured willing folk, and as servants most attentive and
obliging. Some too would seem to relish the opportunity of
waiting on English visitors, the more so when they chance to
be members of an Eclipse party, or (in their vernacular)
" Clippers." The dusky but excellent chamber-maid who waited
on the ladies of our party, was overheard in enthusiastic colloquy
in the passage with a bare-footed laundress ; at length, incapable
of repressing her feelings, she threw open the bed-room door
exclaiming, "See my ladies! Aren't they sweet!"

The work of the Eclipse day and its results are sufficiently
treated of elsewhere. Weather conditions were wholly in our

CAMP OF THE SMITHSOMAX INSTITUTE, WADESBOUOUGH, N.C.

favour; a sky brilliantly clear, and a steady atmosphere with
almost entire absence of wind. Special trains from far afield
arriving early brought an immense concourse of visitors, and
every vantage ground became occupied with crowds of eager
observers. The admirable arrangements, however, made by
Professor Young secured perfect privacy to ourselves, and
barring slight accidents which did not affect the general success
all things worked smoothly and well. In spite of our extended
horizon the shadow was not seen by ourselves either on earth
or sky, nor had we leisure to look for shadow bands. The
Coronium line was also missed, but other observations were
satisfactory, and the photographic results very successful. The
total phase appeared lighter even than at Buxar, and this may
in part account for the absence of any prolonged extensions

WADESBOROrGH, NORTH CAROLINA.

as observed or photographed. Mercury and Venus were of
course well seen, but looking for visible stars did not enter into
our programme.

The Eclipse over, the work of dismantling the various
observatories went on with amazing expedition. Farewells,
many and hearty, were exchanged, and in two days we were once
again pursuing our travels intent on seeing as much as could
be seen of the New World in the space of three weeks.

But our experiences from the astronomical point of view
were not yet ended. Yielding to an invitation urged upon
us with unexampled kindness by Professor Barnard, our whole

MR. HAUDEX, F.R.A.S., WADESBOROVGK, X.C.

party, Miss Dixon only excepted, proceeded to Williams's
Bay, where under the Professor's hospitable roof we enjoyed
two days, perhaps the happiest of all we spent in America.
It might be difficult to decide whether, out of all that impressed
us most in our travels, Niagara must stand first or the Yerkes
Observatory. Somehow at night the sight of the big dome
outlined against the stars appealed to one somewhat as did the
Taj at Agra, perhaps arousing kindred feelings.

But our view of the Yerkes Observatory was not restricted
to the outside. For one very precious hour we were privileged
to see through the great telescope some of the wonders that
its peerless glass reveals, objects to see and dream of ever

THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

after, nebula; and clusters ending up with Messier 13. Perhaps
what strikes the visitor most about the great observatory is its
completeness — the many departments where provision is made

PROF. AM) illiS. r.ARNAKI) AT 1IO5IK, AVlLLIAM's 1JAV, WISCONSIN.

for experimental and mechanical work of all kinds ; the photo-
graphic rooms, the library, the laboratories and workshops, and,
not least, the power house with its monster engines whose might
is so wondrously manifested about the telescope. At the touch

WADESBOROTJGH, NORTH CAROLINA. 17

of a handle the huge dome starts whirring round. Again, a
lever is depressed, and, as with a convulsion of nature the entire
floor, ninety feet across, with all upon it, goes mounting
skyward.

All this will long dwell in our recollection, but our most abiding
memory will be of the home where at the hands of Professor
Barnard and his charming English wife we learned all that true
Southern hospitality means. Here is an ideal retreat, for one
whose whole life is given up to his work; — a luxuriant garden
of Nature's own planting, where the sumac is the undergrowth,
and flowers, prized in English borders, grow as weeds. On the one
side stretches the wide reach of Big Foot Prairie, on the other,
far below, lie the blue waters of Lake Geneva. I cannot recall
the scene without picturing a calm, clear evening with the light
of the after-glow already fading in the west, and in the distance
the retreating figure of a man, nearing middle life, yet hurrying
with all the activity of vigorous youth across the grass to his long
night's labour.

J. M. BACON.

CHAPTER III.

AT SEA. *

IT was with some little trepidation that I decided on viewing
the total eclipse of the sun from the deck of the R.M.S.
" Austral " of the Orient line, which was duly advertised to sail
from Plymouth on the 26th May, and to be so navigated as to
be on the centre line of the shadow track at the right time.
The arguments inducing hesitation, that is to say, " con," were :
chance of delay in the ship's getting away ; chance of fog or
rough weather while on the voyage which might cause delay ;
chance of a slight error in the navigation of the ship ; and,
finally, chance of a cloudy sky at a critical time. The last
objection of course applies equally to terra firma. I do not add
impossibility of using a telescope on board ship as an argument
against going, as I purposed viewing the eclipse in its entirety,
by means of naked eye or binocular only.

On the other hand, the arguments " pro," or in favour of
going, were : — an assurance from the Orient Company that,
barring accidents or fog, they saw no difficulty whatever in carry-
ing out their programme ; the comfort of observing from the
splendid promenade deck of a liner ; the facility with which I
could embark at Plymouth within an hour from my own house ;
an invitation from a brother officer to spend a few days at
Gibraltar, where I should await the next steamer back to
England ; and, finally, I may add, economy, as compared with
the cost of a trip overland to Ovar, Algiers, or other points on
terra firm a.

My wife thought I was embarking on a " wild goose chase,"
but even this form of sport sometimes results in success. So I
made up my mind to risk it, as even if I saw nothing, a short
sea trip after a long spell of worrying official duties would do
one no harm, to say the least of it.

The complete success of my trip, as it turns out, has, I think,
justified me in my venture, for " nothing succeeds like success,"
and I may be congratulated on the good luck and management
which attended the voyage. My chief object was to see as much
as I could of the Corona in a good binocular, without encum-
brance from any routine work whatsoever.

*By COLONEL E. E. MARKWICK, F.K.A.S.

AT SEA. 19

The steamer arrived well up to time in Plymouth Sound,
and I embarked at 2 p.m. under a lovely sky, when the surround-
ings of the vicinity, Mount Edgcumbe, Staddon Heights, etc.,
looked their very best in their delicate spring greenery.

Before leaving, I obtained a copy of the excellent " Nautical
Almanac Circular, No. 17," from which I deduced the circum-
stances of the eclipse for the position : —

Long. W. 9° 27'
Lat. N. 41° 3'

these being the co-ordinates of the point at which I assumed
the ship's course, as ordinarily taken, off the coast of Portugal,
would intersect the centre line of totality. I then calculated
the times of the different phases from the formulae given at p. 8
of the above mentioned circular. Also I got them graphically
from the map therein given, taking the data for the positions :
(1) Near Ovar, and (2) S.W. of Talavera de la Reina, and by
rule of three working them for (3), the ship's position. Taking
the mean of these results, which agreed to a minute, I got the
following : —

b. in. s.

Eclipse begins 2 41 24

Totality „ 4 0 24

ends 4 1 55 G.M.T.

Eclipse „ ... 5 12 21

Duration of totality ... 0 1 31

On arriving on board I soon found that only one other amateur
astronomer had come by the ship, namely, Mr. W. Broadbent,
of Huddersfield, a member of our Association. Under the free-
masonry of astronomy we became at once fast friends. Such is
the power and influence exercised by the B.A.A. and its excellent
Journal, for I had never seen him before.

My business now was to interview our courteous and able
commander, Capt. A. J. Goad. I found we agreed exactly as to
the longitude of our point of observation, and he at once accepted
my figures for the latitude. I subsequently found from the
rigorous positions given at p. 3 of the " Circular " for G.M.T.
4h. Om. and 4h. 2m. that the latitude given above ought to be
increased by perhaps 1^', but the correction was not applied, I
believe, and the ship was worked to the position given above,
which could not in any case have been more than 1| miles out.
I also communicated to the captain the time of the eclipse as
above worked out, as he had no accurate data on this point.

Soon after leaving Plymouth the sky became overcast, and we
passed through a fog in the night, when sleep was rendered im-
possible for a time by the sounding of our fog horn, and the
reply from another boat not far off. Up to then the chances
looked unfavourable; next day, however, we gradually worked
out of the fog, and the sky later on in the day lifted and gave
a good promise for the morrow.

20 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

The 28th turned out a really " perfect " day, both in a meteoro-
logical and astronomical sense; the sky deep blue, with a few
" mare's tail " clouds about, all of which kept near the horizon,
as if fearing to insult his majesty the God of Day, by inter-
fering in the least with our vision of him. The sea was " deeply,
darkly, beautifully " blue, and more, so steady, that we were on
an even keel, and there really seemed little or no excuse for
anyone to be ill. During the whole of the eclipse the sky in
the immediate vicinity of the sun was perfectly clear of the
slightest trace of cloud or mist, and, therefore, it was seen under
the best possible conditions.

In the morning we passed the time by looking at Venus in the
eastern sky. I found a tube formed by rolling up a number of
" Knowledge," an excellent guide to others in catching the tiny
white speck. The ship was so steady, I held this tube against
a stanchion so that others could see the Planet " in the centre
of the field " (rather approximately). The Orient Company
had thoughtfully provided a considerable number of very con-
veniently sized pieces of good thick plate glass about
2 in. x 3£ in., and these were all duly " smoked " and distributed
I know of no piece of astronomical apparatus, however com-
plicated it be, that fulfils its purpose better than the time-
honoured " smoked glass." The very inequality in the distri-
bution of the carbon on its surface allows a person to vary the
brightness (or dulness) of the solar image exactly to his or her
liking, and also (if necessary) to the varying state of transparency
of the sky.

My apparatus was simple ; in addition to my eyes I had one
of the pieces of glass aforesaid, a dark solar eyepiece cap (be-
longing to a telescope) slightly smoked, one binocular magnifying
5 diameters with eyepieces smoked inside, another good binocular
power about six, in its natural clear state, a deck watch, 5s. slow
on G.M.T., note book and pencil. These were laid out on a
ti-avelling rug secured to one of the ship's seats on the open
forward part of the promenade deck.

A gentleman (not of the B.A.A.) intended to take some photo-
graphs with a hand camera, and I agreed to call out " Now " in
a loud tone just when totality had begun, so that he should not
spoil a plate by beginning too soon. Another shipboard acquaint^
ance promised to look on the deck for shadow bands, and he
did so, but saw nothing of them.

As far as I could judge, the first indentation in the sun's limb
was noted (just at the calculated point) almost exactly at the
time given above. I soon discarded my smoked binocular and
piece of glass for the solar cap, which, slightly smoked, gave me
a perfectly sharp clear image of the sun, of a cool grey-green
tint, but of course not magnified.

When we got to the time that half the sun's diameter should
have been obscured, my friend of the shadow bands observed
that he thought I was " too soon with my figures," as the half

AT SEA.

diameter did not look quite obscured. This is an optical
illusion, as was at once seen by a rough diagram drawn by the
aid of a penny in my note book, and which I reproduce here,
drawn more carefully to scale. Through irradiation and the
peculiar shape of the crescent, it looks as if the dark body ought
to be a little further upwards to the left, to bisect the solar
diameter. Such is not the case, and, as it turned out, my figures
for totality agreed within a few seconds with the observed times.
Hence the above remark does not seem to have been justified.

So things went on, until the crescent got thinner and thinner,
and when the last ray of sunlight flashed out, I called out

SUN'S DIAMETER HALF OBSCURED.

Br AN OPTICAL ILLUSION THE OBSCURED PART LOOKS LES* THAN
TUE BRIGHT.

" Now," and seized the clear binoculars. How can I describe
what I saw, when it was so really celestial, and the time so
short?

Very roughly the Corona was like a band or ribbon of light,
stretching from left of up to right of down, about the same width
as the sun's diameter, with comparatively tiny aigrettes shooting
out at the solar poles. The band extended in the direction of
the sun's equator, as far as I could judge from a rough sketch
which I made a few minutes after totality was over. This sketch
was made without a knowledge of the position of the sun's
equator. At a glance I saw it corresponded very fairly indeed
with the type predicted at p. 86 of the Eclipse Volume of the
B.A.A. But the detail which my glass showed me was really

22 THE TOTAL SOL ATI ECLIPSE, IQOO.

too entrancing. I cannot of course remember it all, or even any
part accurately. What struck me most was an exquisitely
shaped ray proceeding from the N.W. limb, and forming the
principal N. boundary of the W. extension of the Corona. This
was shaped like the boundary of one side of a hyacinth bulb, or
an old-fashioned salad oil flask of glass. From the S.W. limb
proceeded another ray, not quite so marked, but of the same
general hyacinth bulb shape, forming the S. boundary of the
W. extension. These two rays with the included Corona formed,
roughly, the figure of the flame issuing from a grenade, worn as
a badge by officers of the Royal Artillery. The rays of the E.
extension seemed straighter generally, and did not exhibit at all
so markedly the bulb-like form. Hence the " synclinal " groups
of Ranyard would appear to have been more in evidence on the
W. extension.

The short aigrettes or jets of the poles were very pretty, and
with more time one could easily have located the solar poles
with accuracy, as they divided in different directions over them,
just as a man's hair does off his " parting," when parted in the
middle of the head.

There was a brilliant prominence, principally white, with a
touch of pink on the lower limb, that is, a little S. of the W.
point. There were also smaller prominences which I had no time
to note specially, but speaking generally the light all round the
moon's limb was so bright I could hardly bear it in the binocular.

A wealth of detail was apparent all through the Corona, wisps
and rays interlacing, which would have occupied one, say, a
couple of hours, to draw carefully. Its general effect was far
more tenuous and delicate than what I was expecting from the
pictures and photographs I have seen. The general hue was pure
white or greyish white ; the sky was blue all round the sun, and
the effect of the silvery Corona projected on it, was beyond any-
one to describe. .1 can only say it seemed to me what angels'
wings will be like. The time of totality seemed to me less than
H minutes, but one quite loses count of time, in looking at one
of the Arcana of the Creator from which the veil is withdrawn
for a few minutes. The sunlight flashed out, and the exquisite
vision passed, — a vision which will be treasured up in the
writer's memory as long as he is permitted to consider the
heavens.

As my intention was to be a spectator rather than an observer,
I did not note by the watch how long totality really lasted.

During totality I withdrew my eyes from the binocular to
study the effect of the eclipse on the sea. It looked a dark
indigo, or indigo grey, showing up very sharp on the horizon
against the sky. The latter for some degrees above the horizon
was to me a tawny yellow, with the " mare's tail " clouds inclin-
ing to ruddy. Othei-s called the tint of the sky lemon yellow, but
to me it was distinctly warmer and richer — more approaching
to Indian yellow. A gentleman who was watching for the

AT SEA.

shadow bands said that he observed the sea to change suddenly
to a dark indigo a moment or so before totality.

I attempted to note the shadow advancing over the sea, but
my attention was principally directed to watch the thinning
crescent of the solar light, and I did not see anything of it.

PROMENADE DECK OF S.S. " AUSTRAL" DURING THE PARTIAL PHASE.

Neither did my friend just referred to above. It enveloped us
suddenly without any direct visible evidence of its approach.

Mercury to the right and just below the sun was a blazing
star ; quite bearing out his character as I have often seen him
in tropical or semi-tropical climes. Aldebaran and Sirius were
seen by some on board, but I did not notice them, my attention
being pretty well ri vetted on the sun.

I have never seen a total eclipse before, but I should imagine

24 THE TOTAL SOLATl ECLIPSE, IQOO.

that this was a, very bright one ; that is, supposing the general
illumination within the shadow does vary at different eclipses.
However, a gentleman said he had great difficulty in making out
the labels on his photographic plates during totality.

During the increasing and diminishing phases the bright
crescents, or images of the sun, were studied on the deck, by
crossing the fingers of the two hands, and allowing the sunlight
to pass through the interstices. It was a curious and pretty
effect, but was seen much better on a sheet of paper, the sun's
image being thrown through a pinhole in another sheet. The
sharpness and clearness of the tiny crescent was remarkable.

The temperature during the eclipse was observed to fall from
66° to 63° Fahr. The instrument used was not a very accurate
one, but I should not suppose there would be an error of more
than one degree in this determination.

I made the following rough notes: — At 32m. before totality
there was a noticeable diminution in the light generally on the
sea ; also the temperature was thought cooler.

At 28m. before, it was distinctly cooler.

At 26m. before, the sea was getting a dusky purple tint.

At 23m. before, the crescent looked " uncanny."

At 22m. before, Venus easily seen.

At 18m. before, the sky looked a greyish blue, and the sea
greenish grey, or greyish blue, according to different observers.

At 6m. before, the sky was lurid all round.

Totality was noted as over at 4h. 2m. 20s. G.M.T., it having
ceased some seconds before.

Two or three gentlemen on board took photographs with hand
cameras, and the instructions and information contained in the
Eclipse Volume (taken by the writer as likely to be of use for
reference, and much studied by him) gave them a good idea of
what exposure to give, as they were not well versed in astrono-
mical photography.

A lady on board, who had witnessed the eclipse of 1896 in
Norway, informed me she was much disappointed with the
Corona this time, as compared with what she had seen in
Norway. It was neither so large nor so bright. This no doubt
was due to the different types of Coronse seen on these respective
occasions.

I am inclined to the opinion that a total eclipse would, as a
rule, be brighter on the ocean than on land, for the reason that
outside the shadow spot on the sea there are no inequalities such
as mountains and valleys which might to a certain extent dim
the general light of the landscape surrounding the shadow on
land. I fancy there are not many in a position to verify the
correctness of this idea, as astronomers do not often go to sea for
an eclipse. Yet I am very glad I did, and can never hope to
have a more pleasant astronomical trip. For one thing, I am
sure that the binocular gives a much better general view of the
Corona than any telescope except a very small one would ever do,

AT SEA. 25

and my faith in the little instrument after years of work with
it is more confirmed than ever.

Before leaving Gibraltar I had the pleasure of meeting Sir
Norman Lockyer, Dr. Copeland, Messrs. Fowler, Heath and
others, who had returned from Sta. Pola per H.M.S. " Theseus,"
and were following on to England per R.M.S. " Cuzco."

And on my return voyage home from Gibraltar I was so lucky
as to fall in -with Messrs. Keatley Moore, Gare and Captain
Carpenter, who were returning from Madrid. The composite
drawing of the Corona produced by this party seems a great
advance on what has been done before in this line.

E. E. MARKWICK.

CHAPTER IV.

PORTUGAL.

Two small parties proceeded to Portugal. For the first of these
Mr. W. B. GIBBS, F.R.A.S., gives the following report: —

The expedition to Portugal consisted of Mr. G. F. Chambers,
Mr. F. Lys Smith, and myself. The Rev. Mr. Joyce, the port
chaplain at Southampton, a friend of Mr. Chambers, also accom-
panied us. We left Southampton for Lisbon on the llth of
May, in the R.M.S. " Clyde/' which had on board the
Astronomer Royal's party, and also Mr. Backhouse who observed
in Spain. We arrived at Lisbon on the 14th, and there found
a Government tender with Lieut. Pellen, who had been deputed
by the Portuguese Government to meet us, and afford us any
assistance we might be in need of. Our baggage and instruments
were passed free through the customs, and also through the
octroi, both at Lisbon and elsewhere, and railway season tickets
over the whole railway system of Portugal were given to us.

We spent two days in Lisbon visiting the chief places of
interest, amongst which we may notice particularly the church
and monastery of Belein, erected as an expression of gratitude
for the successful expedition of Vasco da Gama, whose tomb is
within its walls. We then left for Leiria so as to visit Alcobaca,
Aljubarotta, and Batalha, where in the magnificent chapel is the
tomb of Prince Henry the navigator.

On arriving at Oporto several members of the English colony
there afforded us splendid hospitality, and Lieut. Pellen informed
us that Dr. Huet da Bacellar would be glad to receive us at
Ovar, to stay at his house before and during the eclipse, but as
we had several days to spare we took the opportunity of visiting
Braga, the third city in the kingdom and the see of an arch-
bishop, and Bom Jesus, a famous place of pilgrimage in the north
of Portugal. On our return we paid a visit to Ovar, and arranged
with Dr. Bacellar to view the eclipse from his garden, whence
we had an unobstructed view. As excursion trains had been
run to Ovar; and the town was full of holiday makers, we
appreciated verv much the facilities which had been afforded
us. We had the pleasure of meeting there Dr. Jost, of the
Heidelberg Observatory, who, during the eclipse, paid special
attention to Mercury. Mr. G. F. Chambers and Mr. F. Lys
Smith observed with small refractors. I had a Zeiss
prismatic field glass, fitted with a photographic grating of about

PORTUGAL.

14,500 lines to the inch, which performed splendidly. On
the day of the eclipse the sky was fairly clear ; there were a few
very light cirrus clouds about, and a large halo round the sun,
which from time to time broke up.

About a quarter of an hour before totality, the blue colour of
the sky had sensibly deepened, and the brownish red on the
inside of the broken portions of the halo appeared much more

VILLA XOVA, ox THE SOCTH BANK OF THE Dovuo, OPPOSITE OPORTO.

vivid than in full sunlight. The shadows of the observers as
cast upon the ground, notwithstanding their faintness, appeared
very sharp, owing to the absence of penumbra. The darkness
during totality was about the same as that of the Indian eclipse,
and much less than that seen in Norway in 1896.

After the eclipse was over our party broke up, Mr. Chambers
visiting the north of Portugal, Coimbra, and Busaco, whilst
Mr. F. Lys Smith and I returned to Lisbon and embarking on
the " Magdalena," arrived at Southampton on the 4th June.

28 THE TOTAL SOLAB ECLIPSE, IQOO.

Before closing this report I may perhaps be permitted to say
that we were greatly struck with the richness of the Portuguese
flora, which appeared to be a worthy. rival of that of the Swiss
Alps. The different species of mesembryanthemum, cistus, and
lithospernum were in great profusion, and made a most brilliant
show. The public gardens, and such private gardens as those of
Viscount Cook, at Montserrat, and the Baron de Soutellinho, at
Oporto, were filled with the most beautiful specimens of tropical
vegetation.

Our best thanks are due to the Portuguese Government, to
the Geographical Society of Lisbon, to Senhor Marianne da Car-
valho, to the Portuguese Astronomer Royal, to Lieut. Pellen, to
Dr. Huet da Bacellar, to the Baron de Soutellinho, and to Mr.
and Mrs. Amyas Wiarre and Mr. John Warre fox the help and
hospitality they so willingly afforded to all the members of our
party.

W. B. GIBBS.

At the same station, Ovar, were the Rev. AUGUSTIN MORFORD
and Mr. NIELSEN, whilst the Rev. H. P. SLADE also observed
the eclipse in Portugal, but from a station a little to the south
of Ovar, — Estarreja, — and more nearly on the central line. Mr.
Slade writes: — I arrived at Lisbon on Saturday, May 26th,
in company with Mr. E. C. Boden, solicitor, of Ilkley, and found
it unusually' cold for the time of the year, much rain having
fallen in the northern districts during the week. Happily the
skies cleared, and we had a splendid view of the eclipse from
Estarreja, six miles south of Ovar, where the terraced roof of one
of the principal houses in the village had been kindly secured for
us by the Administrator, Senhor Manuel Marques Tavares, who
together with the other local officials, rendered us all the assist-
ance which lay in their power.

We selected Estarreja for two reasons, viz., to escape the
crowd flocking to Ovar, and because Mr. Boden believed that
the totality at the former station would be greater than at the
latter, a surmise which proved correct, 92 seconds being recorded
by us as against 84| by Mr. Christie, the Astronomer Royal of
Greenwich, as we are informed upon apparently good authority.
Not being in telegraphic communication with the Lisbon Royal
Observatory, we had to find time by means of sextant observa-
tions. The eclipse began with us at 2h. 43m. 18s., and ended at
5h. 12m. 55s. Greenwich mean time. During the partial phase
a few cirrus clouds at a great height threatened to interfere with
the spectacle, but fortunately, at the critical moment, these passed
over, and left the eclipsed sun in a blue sky. The appearance to
the naked eye seemed to be annular, but on using the binoculars
this was seen to be due to the inner corona extending all round
the moon's disc in a perfectly even ring, shining like highly-
burnished silver in an intensely brilliant light. From this, and

PORTUGAL.

radiating approximately in the plane of the sun's equator, were
four beautiful fasces, or sheaves of light, the lowest extending
nearly as far south as Mercury, which planet was conspicuously
bright.

During totality there was no darkness, but a resplendent
twilight which covered earth and sky with fine chromatic effects.
It was well worth coming 1000 miles to see.

On the whole the phenomena, although so beautiful, will not
from its shortness bear comparison with many others of the same

FOVXTAIX AT OVAR, PORTUGAL.

kind. The corona., too, was not so striking as in many past
eclipses, the sun having reached one of its periods of minimum
solar spot activity, and being, therefore, in a comparatively
quiescent state. Only three very small spots were observed on it,
and the protuberances were consequently few and small, and the
fasces did not extend any great distance from the sun's limbs.

In closing these notes we desire to express our warmest thanks
to the Portuguese Government. They gave us a magnificent
reception, franking all our instruments, lending army tents,
railing off spaces for the various observing parties, a,nd telling off
guards to see to their general comfort and preserve privacy.

30 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

And, finally, they gave us first-class free passes over all the
lines in Portugal, available for some days before the eclipse,
and up to the middle of June. At Estarreja we were feted
and escorted to the station by the officials, and my friend Boden
came in for a warm Portuguese embrace. We cheered them,
and they cheered us, and the memories associated with the eclipse
of May 28th, 1900, will not readily be forgotten.

II. P. SLADE.

CHAPTER Y.
MID-SPAIN.

No fewer than five small parties took advantage of the railway
line running eolith-west from Madrid, and passing through
Talavera and Plasencia. Commencing with the most westerly
station, Plasencia, Dr. A. M. W. DOWNING, M.A., F.R.S.,
reports : —

We had fixed on Plasencia, in the Province of Caceres, as the
place from which to observe the eclipse, both because it is a
place where cloudy skies in May are the exception, and because
we had learnt that the astronomers of the Madrid Observatory
had arranged to go there, and their presence would carry with
it certain advantages, such as a reserved enclosure — far from the
madding crowd — and the communication to us of accurate
Madrid tims. My wife and I reached Plasencia on Sunday morning
(May 27), and went to an inn to rest and have some refreshment.
And such an inn ! We were seriously considering the advisa-
bility of returning to Madrid, in the most expeditious manner
possible, when we received a most courteous message from a
Spanish nobleman — the Marques de Mirabel — placing his palacio
in Plasencia at our disposal during our visit. The Marques, who
was at his town residence in Madrid at the time, had heard that
there was a lady in our party, and, thinking that the posadas
in Plasencia were scarcely fit for a lady to stay in, had, with the
most hospitable kindness, sent us his invitation, which we
accepted with alacrity and gratitude. We were thus relieved
from all anxiety as to matters of cuisine and accommodation,
which necessarily press on the traveller in out>of-the-way places
in Spain.

The observing camp was on the top of a hill called Berrocalillo,
about a mile and half out of the town, which we affectionately
called the " Mountain," it was such a pleasure climbing up to
the top of it on a really hot afternoon ! Here we found the
British and Spanish astronomers amicably placed side by side.
Here were Sir Howard Grubb, the world-renowned astronomical
instrument maker of Dublin, and his son, Mr. Rudolf Grubb.
Here also we found Dr. Rambaut, the Radcliffe Observer at
Oxford, Mr. W. E. Wilson, of Daramona, Prof. Joly, the Royal
Astronomer of Ireland, Prof. Bergin, of Cork, and Mr.
Geoghegan, of Dublin. In all there were nine Irish observers,

THE TOTAL SOLAK ECLIPSE, IQOO.

including the lady of the party, on the mountain. Senor
Iniguez, the Director of the Madrid Observatory, accompanied
by Senor Ventosa, and other members of the staff of the
observatory, were busily employed, up to the last moment, in
erecting and adjusting their various instruments.

On the afternoon of the eventful day we toiled up the
mountain, under a blazing sun shining in a cloudless sky, with

PLASEXCIA, AND BRIDGE OVER THE RIVER JKRTE.

the thermometer standing at 83° in the shade, so that we were
pretty warm by the time we arrived at the top, and the first
thing to be done was to rest and eat oranges. We then all got
into position at our instruments, and had a couple of drills,
going through the operations that were respectively to occupy
us during the precious eighty-two seconds during which the total
eclipse lasted. The first contact of the limbs of sun and moon
was duly observed at 2h. 34m. Madrid time. Then we waited
quietly for the great event. As the darkness increased the sky

MID-SPAIN.

and landscape assumed the weird appearance peculiar to a total
eclipse of the sun, though there was more of a roseate hue pre-
valent on this occasion than is generally noticed. At one minute
before totality a dog trotted past quite nonchalantly, but just
afterwards a donkey commenced to bray vociferously, as if he
thought that something strange was happening.

At 3h. 50m. the totality was upon us, but it was not possible

MILL AND MILL-STREAM, PLASEXCIA.

to see the moon's shadow travelling towards us either on the
ground or on the sky. In a few seconds, I, to whom the duty
had been assigned, and who was watching with an opera-glass
spectroscope, called " Go," as a signal to the photographers that
they might commence exposing their plates. Then the corona
burst on our sight, and Mercury was seen shining brightly near
the sun's western limb, and so close as to obscure, to some extent,
the view of the corona in that particular part. The corona was
brighter than might be anticipated for an eclipse occurring

34 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

during the period when sun-spots are fewest, and any kind of
aitificial light for making notes at the time was unnecessary.
The light was certainly considerably greater than that given by
a full moon, but was, of course, of quite a different character.
Before we could well realise that the eclipse had commenced I was
reluctantly compelled to call " Close," as a signal to the photo-
graphers, and the total eclipse of May 28, 1900, was over. The
corona was on this occasion of the general form observed in
eclipses during times of sun-spot minimum. The great extensions
v/ere in the directions of the sun's equator, both on the eastern
and western side, the former extension was bifurcated, but the
latter could be traced further from the sun's limb, to a distance
o? about three lunar radii. Two large prominences were seen
near the western limb.

The remainder of the day was devoted to social recreation.
The Governor of Caceres — a most courteous gentleman — accom-
panied by his secretary, had come to Plasencia for the day, and
gave us the pleasure of their company, both at dejeuner and at
dinner. During the latter function a band played in the court-
yard of the palacio, and added greatly to our enjoyment.

But the crowning festivity of the day was the " English tea,"
given by my wife to the Governor, the Spanish astronomers,
the British astronomers, and others. This was a great success,
and excited the greatest interest amongst the Spaniards — the
Governor, in particular, watching the process of making the
tea, which had, of course, to be done by the lady herself, with
the keenest enjoyment. We left Plasencia for Madrid the same
evening, carrying with us a most vivid impression of the polite-
ness and courtesy of the Spanish people.

A. M. W. DOWNING.

Two other parties of our Members observed the Eclipse from
the neighbourhood of Plasencia. Mr. T. W. Backhouse, F.R.A.S.,
and Mr. Irwin Sharp, viewed the eclipse from the summit of
a hill named Santa Barbara, about 2.6 miles E.S.E. of Plasencia,
an admirable point of view for seeing the effect on the landscape,
being one thousand feet above the town, 2207 feet above the sea.
Mr. Thomas Weir, F.R.A.S., .and his party selected their station
on the east coast of the town.

Mr. WEIR'S account is as follows : —

Clouds and rain on the Coast of Norway spoiled our view of
the solar eclipse of 1896, and the remembrance of that experience
contributed largely towards our deciding that the eclipse of 1900
ought to be observed from an inland station. Plasencia was,
therefore, decided upon. Plasencia is a quaint walled town
dating from medieval times, with a,bout 7000 inhabitants,
pleasantly situated in the higher mountainous district of mid-
Spain. It stands on the Jerte, a sub-tributary of the Tagus, and

MID-SPAIN. 35

lying about half way between Lisbon and Madrid can be reached
conveniently by rail from either city. We preferred going by way
of Lisbon, and when there had the pleasure of calling on the
Portuguese Astronomer Royal, Senhor Frederico Oom, who
received us in a most kindly manner, and showed us over his
observatory. The principal telescope, a 14 inch refractor, is a
fine serviceable instrument, iand so also is the transit circle
which is provided with a chair ingeniously contrived to adjust
itself to any desired position of the body. By order of the
Government, Senhor Oom had issued an illustrated handbook
on the eclipse, which was being sold at a nominal price through-
out Portugal.

The special courtesy of the Astronomer Royal was represen-
tative of the general consideration shown us by the customs,
military, and other authorities with whom we came into contact.
Our passport, and also a certificate from Mr. Maw, the president
of the Association, which would doubtless have been of good
service in case of necessity, were never opened ; the magic word
"Eclipse" or "Astronomer" sufficing to dispel all difficulties.
In this connection one could not help thinking of the cosmo-
politan character of science, and that if opportunities akin to the
present were of more frequent occurrence, they would prove a
not unimportant factor in the removal of jealousies and in the
cementing of fnendships between nations.

On arriving at Plasencia we found several members of the
British Astronomical Association already there, and unwilling
to disturb existing arrangements, decided — in company with an
amateur astronomer from Madrid — to observe independently,
selecting as a site the spur of a mountain, a few hundred feet
in height, on the eastern side of the town. The day of the
eclipse proved extremely favourable, being almost cloudless, and
the sun, high in the heavens, was pouring down rays of intense
heat, when we took up our position. We were not equipped for
making observations of an original character, our main object
being to witness personally, if not the most wonderful, certainly
the most magnificent and most impressive, of celestial phenomena.
We had in addition made provision for photographing the
eclipsed sun, using a camera with 2| in. lens; also, by means
of a specially delicate thermometer to take the variations of
temperature, and still further to watch for shadow bands, and
photograph them should they appear.

The calculated time of first contact for Plasencia was
2h. 48m. 15s. p.m., Greenwich time, and ten minutes later it was
apparent to the unassisted eye that the moon had encroached
over the edge of the solar disc. No perceptible change of appear-
ance in the landscape, however, occurred until about 3.15, when
it was evident that comparative dulness had supervened and
was gradually increasing. At 3.30 Venus was clearly seen and
remained visible throughout the eclipse. 3.45 saw the duskiness
advancing rapidly, and by 4 o'clock, or 5m. 27s. before the com-

THE TOTAL SOL AH ECLIPSE, IQOO.

mencement of the total phase, only a slender crescent of the sun
remained, and things had assumed an uncommonly weird appear-
ance. Notwithstanding our favourable situation," the passage of
the lunar shadow was not detected by us, though we were
conscious of being immersed in it : the semi-darkness, for there
was no real blackness, came on suddenly, and during totality,
computed to last 1m. 28s., everything terrestrial took on a cold

La Guidara. G. Jackson-Smith.

C. T. Whitmell. W. F. Stanley. Dr. Stokes. J. Buckley.

GrRorp OF OBSERVERS, NATALMORAL.

iron hue, altogether different from the gloom of evening. The
distant town and more distant mountains were almost blotted
out from view, whilst in the heavens above round the moon's
black disc, as if by the touch of a magician's wand, there
flashed out the corona in grandeur of form and of pearly
whiteness. Mercury, too, in close proximity, shone with the
brilliance of a miniature sun, and enveloping the whole was a
halo of soft white light; a spectacle whose unique beauty word1?
fail utterly to describe.

T. WEIR.

MID-SPAIN.

The next station after Plasencia travelling eastward which
was occupied by members of the British Astronomical Associa-
tion, was Navalmoral. Hither a party of seventeen in number,
under the leadership of Mr. C. T. WHITMELL, F.R.A.S.,
came by a tour arranged by Messrs. T. Cook and Son ; and to
the willing and efficient services of Mr. La Guidara., their con-
ductor, the party is largely indebted.

Navalmoral, a Spanish village of about 3800 people, is situated

E. Howarth.
WINESHOP NEAR NAVALMORAL.

120 miles W.S.W. of Madrid, in the valley of the Tagus, at an
altitude of 984 feet. To the south the ground swells into low hills.
On the N.W., N., and N.E., rises a lofty range (8730 feet) the
Sierra de Credos — the summits of which were patched with snow,
although the shade temperature on the plain was nearly
90° Fahr. The ridge of the range on the N.W., at its nearest
approach, is distant about 20 miles. To the W. and E. the
country is open, and on the N.W., and N.E., there is a consider-
able stretch of low ground extending for perhaps 12 miles to
the foot of the Sierra.

38 THE TOTAL SOLAR^ ECLIPSE, 1 900.

The conditions for observing the eclipse were in every respect
favourable. The sky was clear of cloud in the morning, nor
did the few light patches of cirro-cumulus which formed later
in the day at any time pass in front of the sun, which shone
uninterruptedly all day, with a penetrating heat that was some-
what discomforting to the travellers from more northern climes.
Punctuality is not one of the virtues of the Spaniard, not even
when the inexorable march of the planets permits no procrastina-
tion to those who wish to witness their movements. Though not
surprising, it was certainly very tantalising to find that the
train in which the observers travelled from Madrid was rather
more than an hour late in starting, this being chiefly due to
the very large number of Spanish people who wished to travel
by it to see the total phase. It was some consolation for the
delay to note the widespread interest aroused by the eclipse.
The distance from Madrid to Navalmoral is about 120 miles in
a south-westerly direction, and owing to many stoppages it
became a matter of some anxiety, before the journey was ended,
as to whether they would arrive before totality began. Fortunately
they were in ample time, though the first contact occurred
whilst they were still in the train. Ten minutes before the
calculated time of first contact, Mr. Howarth watched the sun
through smoked glasses from the open window of the railway
carriage, and at 2h. 48m. 40s. G.M.T. he noticed a slight flatten-
ing of the limb of the sun on the western side near to the lower
edge. When the train, arrived at Navalmoral at 2h. 55m. the
indentation caused by the moon on the sun's face could be plainly
seen.

The majority of the party proceeded along the railway line till
quite clear of the crowd, and took up their position in a field
close to the line, and just below the village. The two large
sheets for the shadow bands observations were spread on the
north-western side of the railway track, which was raised some
eight or ten feet above the surrounding ground, the railway
metals running directly towards the then position of the sun.
On the north-western side of the railway line the plain extended
without any break in its surface to the base of the Sierra de
Credos, giving thus an uninterrupted view in the line of the
shadow's approach.

Many thousands of Spaniards streamed out by excursion trains
from Madrid, and grouped themselves about the hilly ground
near Navalmoral, in order to watch the eclipse. Even a bull-
fight would hardly have secured a larger attendance. As the
brilliant sun was blotted out, and darkness descended, an intense
silence came over the assembled multitudes, awe-stricken at the
weird solemnity, the incomparable grandeur, of the sublimest of
celestial phenomena. Pent up feelings were relieved by the
loud cheers which hailed the dazzling spark of reappearing sun-
light.

Two members of the party, Mr. and Mrs. Constable, observed

MID-SPAIX. 39

the eclipse at Talavera? a considerable town 40 miles east of
Navalmoral.

On 26th May, whilst travelling by train from Toledo to Madrid,
the sky being perfectly clear, I had an unusually good view of the
earth's shadow. The sun set about 7h. 30m. p.m. to the N. of
W. I observed carefully the disappearing disc, but saw no sign
of the " green flash."

Turning after sunset to watch the eastern horizon, where
Jupiter had just become visible, a slaty blue-grey segment of a
circle appeared opposite to the sunset point, and rapidly increased
in width and height. Its rising was, of course, consequent upon
the falling of the now invisible sun. Fringing the segment was
a rosy purple annulus, due to our atmosphere. This beautiful,
but little known, phenomenon, is the Earth's Shadow. It re-
mained in sight for, perhaps, half-an-hour.

From near Madrid, at 8 p.m. on 29th May, we saw for a few
minutes, close to the western horizon, a very thin crescent moon,
about 29 hours old. The geocentric elongation of the moon from
the sun was nearly 15|°, so that only l/55th of her illuminated
area was visible, the broadest part of the crescent measuring
only some 34". Doubtless irradiation made it look larger.

C. T. WHITMELL.

CHAPTER VI.

MANZANABE8*

THE earnest follower of any pursuit must early accustom himself
to disappointment and failure : and of all pursuits he who
follows astronomy : and of all branches of astronomy he who
aspires to no higher rank than that of the humble eclipse
sketcher : or so it seemed. For, when I undertook to organise
a sketching party, the Association had a noble steamer at its
command, and we started gallantly with a nucleus of four, two
ladies and two gentlemen, to whom doubtless many more would
have added themselves as soon as we met on board the " Tagus."
But when war-necessities had robbed us of the " Tagus," and
the Association was unable to carry through a fresh arrangement,
all those probable accessions disappeared ; and when the gentle-
men determined to strike for the middle of Spain, the ladies'
courage failed them; and the sketchers finally resolved them-
selves into two, Captain Alfred Carpenter, K.N., F.R.Met.Soc.,
and myself. For two men it seemed a heavy task, seeing
that each would have to sketch his half of the corona in a
minute. Capt. Carpenter, however, had had considerable prac-
tice in sketching coast lines on service in the East, and I had the
advantage of experience of eclipse work. Since no photograph,
except the famous Indian " long-tailed " one of Mrs. Maunder, has
ever succeeded in giving a fair representation of the whole corona,
it seemed necessary to make a serious attempt at sketching, even
v/ith such limited resources : so we bought white chalk and blue
paper, and started. With us also went Mr. Francis Gare, whose
photometric apparatus for measuring the intensity of the coronal
light we took to India in 1898, where Mr. Ernest W. Johnson
was very successful with it. Mr. Johnson was also working with
it on this occasion at Elche, near Alicante, as well as Mr. Gare
himself with us. Besides our sketching and our photometry we
proposed to observe shadow bands and meteorological pheno-
mena. It also seemed advisable, as we had the necessary materials,
and knew how slight is the dependence to be placed on Spanish
geographical accuracy, to ascertain the true position of our ob-
serving station. After some hesitation, we had fixed upon
Manzanares; for excursions were running to the neighbouring

* By H. KEATIEY MOOBE.

MANZANARES. 41

Argamasilla la Alba from Madrid, and though Manzanares
was not quite on the central line we sacrificed a few
seconds to obtain that freedom and quiet which would have been
impossible in the circumstances at the ever-famous birthplace of
Don Quixote, and the prison of his creator.

We left London on 17th May in the " Britannia" (P. & O.),
and had a delightful trip to Gibraltar. Here the contests with
sharks, who disguise themselves as boatmen, dimly recalled those
terrible Kulis in India. Our acquaintance with Spanish was
only a few weeks old ; and though it sufficed us to puzzle through
a newspaper, it had an awkward way of breaking down on
emergencies. We crossed to Algeciras, and went on the same
clay (21st) to romantic Honda, through cork forests, aloe hedges,
and the most lavish display of exquisite wild flowers that any
of us had ever seen. It was night before we reached the glorious
amphitheatre of mountains in which that ancient stronghold
of cutthroats and smugglers is situated, now, alas, " fallen from
its high estate, and weltering in " .... respectability. Venus
and Gemini in the west were exactly balanced by Jupiter and
Scorpio in the east. Presently, in nautical phrase, Venus was
observed to starboard, and Jupiter to port, and the whole world
reeled in uncertainty. Examination by compass showed that we
were in truth, as the planets indicated, steering due south ; and
at last kindly natives helped us out of our confusion by explain-
ing that the mountain-peninsula of Honda is only approachable
from the north. It was for the moment, however, a trial of
faith to make a steep up-hill journey true north and find oneself
at the end of the day spinning down-hill due south !

The end of the next day saw us in the Alhambra, amidst all
the magic of that unequalled place. The wealth of nightingales
in the elms of the Alameda (whose planting we were glad to
owe to the great Duke of Wellington) consoled us in the evenings
when the architectural glories due to Yusuf and Muhammad V.
were closed to us. The skies were spotlessly clear, the snows
of the Nevada gleamed silver, and Venus nightly threw well-
marked shadows across the path as we walked by the towers of
the red palace (Alhambra) down the Cuesta del Rey Chico, or
amidst the clipped cypresses of the grounds of the Generalife.
We stayed, as probably all men do, to the last available moment :
and when we left promised ourselves a longer stay " next
time." Saturday, 26th, saw us amongst the narrow Moorish
streets of Seville (where a stork adorning the pinnacle of a
church was irresistible to our photographer), and very early on
Sunday morning we were walking in Don Quixote's land of
La Mancha, along the dusty road towards the country-town of
Manzanares, unknown to the unknown. Two other members of
the Association (Mr. David G. Simpson, F.R.A.S., and his son,
Mr. D. C. Simpson), who had come out with us from England,
parted company with us here, and went on in the train, bound
for Toledo. We did not meet again till Gibraltar on the home-

THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

ward journey. The mozo who carried our simple traps told us
that there was but one inn at Manzanares, but that was irre-
proachable. When we came to it we were rather taken aback
by its exceeding simplicity, in spite of his warm recommendation
— hotel-keeping was here reduced to the prime elements. There
were, however, three guest-chambers, of a sort, opening one out
of the other. We boldly entered the first, but hurriedly retired
as a swarthy hidalgo threw back his bare brawny arms to raise
his head on the pillow that he might check the intruders on his
rest. Urged by the chambermaid, and accepted by the hidalgo,
we advanced : but we felt unfeignedly glad that our ladies had
remained in England. Everything was equally rough, but it
was clean; and the people were most kind in their endeavours

" EQUAL ALTITUDES," MAXZANAKES.

to ascertain our wants, and to supply them, however queer they
evidently were to them. Sometimes we ran aground, as for
instance, in the article of butter. " Manteca de vaca?" (cow-
butter) — there was none to be had for love or money; but
" manteca de cerdo," now, would that do? We agreed; only
to find it simple lard (pig-butter). He who had most Spanish
amongst us, armed with a dictionary, carefully dictated the com-
ponents of each next ensuing meal : but what came of his daring
endeavours invariably filled us with surprise, it was so totally
unlike the intention. Still, while to some extent obliged to
endorse the warnings of discomfort in country places in Spain
which had so alarmed our ladies, we only suffered such humorous
privations as formed materials for a good laugh; and, on the
other hand, the genuine courtesy and friendliness of it all quite
disarmed criticism, so that we left our rugged hostelry with

MANZANARES.

regret. On that Sunday morning, as soon as the inward and the
outward man were refreshed, we sallied forth in search of the
Alcalde of the town, Senor Don Pedro Antonio Caleros y
Carrascosa. Every one in Manzanares seems to have a double-
barrelled name, but curiously enough, one never hears it : for
the particularly pleasant form of address in use hereabouts limits
itself to the Christian name only. Not once was the Alcade
addressed as Senor Caleros; he was always "Don Pedro," to
the humblest of his subjects. The British Embassy at Madrid
had kindly caused word of our purpose to be sent to

TUB " B. A. A." OBSERVATORY AT MAXZANAHES (LA MAXCHA).
CASTILLO DE PILAS HORHAS.

From a Water Colour Sketch by H. KEATLEY MOORE.

Manzanares, and we bore also about with us a large envelope
with a huge seal, containing an authenticating letter from
the Spanish Ambassador in London. Between the two,
therefore, "Don Pedro " felt it necessary to summon
the Town Council and see what he could do for us.
They duly assembled, such as were not at church, and we en-
deavoured to converse, but with such embarrassing difficulty that
until mass was over and there arrived amongst the rest of the
council a professor of French to facilitate matters, we did not
make much progress. When we at length obtained our honorary
interpreter we were invited to state every possible requirement;

44 THE TOTAL SOLAE, ECLIPSE, IQOO.

and the more we asked the more we were pressed to ask. The
Alcalde promised to obtain for us the use of the Castillo de Pilas
Horras, a detached old Moorish castle in the outskirts of the
town, now used as a granary or storehouse — and we all went to
see if it would serve our purpose. It was a great square tower
with walls of massive strength, about 50 feet high, with a parapet
surrounding a flat paved roof, giving uninterrupted views in
every direction. There was some fun in the difficulties which
beset the stoutest of us, as the whole council and its visitors
ascended the narrow and ruinous stair passages in the thickness
of the walls, but even the Alcalde arrived safe and dusty on the
summit. Nothing could be better for our purpose. We observed
some factory chimneys not far off, and spoke about their possible
smoke on the eventful Monday. " They shall not smoke," averred
the courteous Don Pedro : and — how it was contrived we did
not know — they certainly did not. One hears of French polite-
ness, but it is nothing to the politeness of the Spaniard when
he sets his mind to it. Everything in Manzanares seemed to
be at our service; half a dozen members at once invited us to
make a home of the local club, a police escort watched to see our
observations were not interfered with, a capital band of guitars
came and serenaded us, every one was pressing us to pay visits
and make excursions, and the general regret that our work
necessitated so many refusals seemed quite genuine. One visit
we paid to the wine-factory of Senor Quevedo was extremely
interesting. The somewhat heady red wine drunk as via
ordinaire throughout Southern Spain (Val de penas) is grown
in this district. It is stored below ground in huge jars of old
Moorish pattern, each of which stands in an alcove dug out of
the solid rock: and of these double files of jars there are inter-
minable corridors full. The wine presses, the great stacks of
" husks " (skins, stalks, and seeds) the mighty metal tanks of
spirit, all were on a colossal scale astonishing to see. The whole
wound up with a charming al fresco supper in the twilight, with
all kinds of tempting cakes and sweetmeats, and of course count-
less tastings of various wines and liqueurs made in the factory.
Some of these were delicious, and some strong withal. Yet not-
withstanding the national fondness for wine, and keen apprecia-
tion of it; drunkenness seems rare in Spain. We did not see one
drunken person in Manzanares — and what was far more astonish-
ing to any one travelling in Spain, not one beggar either. We
pressed Don Pedro for an explanation of these phenomena. His
reply was curiously convincing. There was no one in Manzanares
who was so bitterly poor or so degraded as to beg : and as for
drunkenness they had no time for such nonsense, he said : all
the working folk had little vineyards of their own round
Manzanares; and festivals and holidays, instead of being spent
in drinking, served them as their only chance of a day's work
on their own land now and then. Their regular occupation was
with Quevedo or some of the other great vine-growers or wine-

CHURCH AND MABKET PLACE, MAXZAXARES.

CASTILLO DE SAX CEUVAXTES OUTSIDE TOLEDO.

MANZANARES. 47

makers of the district. But he was evidently very proud of the
industry and sobriety of his town being such as to strike even
the casual stranger. Manzanares is well supplied with electric
light and with good water, both municipal undertakings; and
we were condoled with because we were too soon for the opening
of the Plaza Toros (Bull-ring) which was just being completed.
Hitherto the bull fights have been held outside the church in
the market place : and the only balconies available (beyond
those of the houses round the space) were those which were
erected two storeys high against the wall of the church, the
buttresses of which were brought forward to serve as walls for
them, a very quaint service for church buttresses to fulfil. We
left Manzanares in a procession of the curious and extremely
uncomfortable country carts (than which a Hindu ekka alone
is more springless and backbreaking), the whole of the ayunta^
miento coming with us to see us off. Our modest expenses at
the inn were found to be already paid when we asked for
the bill.

Our work at Manzanares, sextant observations, etc., usually
brought a crowd round us. They seemed to think we were
uncanny folk, biit they never annoyed us in the slightest degree :
more perfectly polite crowds were not possible. On eclipse day
we were alone on our tower, save for four Spanish friends, every
one respecting our request for quiet. Our observations are else-
where recorded in this volume, and need not therefore be re-
capitulated here.

At Madrid, where we spent a few days, we did a little work
with Senor Ventosa of the Observatory : and from him also we
received great kindness and personal attention, still further
emphasising the fine politeness which so characterises Spain.
We managed to find time for a day at Toledo, and for another
on our homeward way at Cordova : and we wound up brilliantly
at Gibraltar with a visit to the Mediterranean Squadron, where
Captain Henderson entertained us on the " Isis." We little
thought when peacefully lunching in his comfortable quarters
that in a few weeks he would be hurrying his fine ship at full
speed towards China, in the hope of saving British lives in
deadly danger.

H. KEATLEY MOORE.

CHAPTER VII.

ELCHE*

WHEN the " Tagus " trip was suggested, I had proposed with my
friends making Alicante our port of landing in Spain, for Elche,
about 12 miles to the south, and almost on the central line of
Eclipse; and in spite of the " Tagus " expedition eventually
falling through, we still adhered to our original plan and decided
upon Elche as our Eclipse Station : in fact we had already
engaged rooms at the only Fonda in the place early in February.

Leaving England on the 10th May, on board R.M.S. " Egypt "
— a ship familiar to many of us who went to India in 1898 —
our party consisted of only three members, Lady McClure,
Miss Jessie McRae, and myself, but amongst the passengers were
some who would observe the Eclipse at other places in Spain.
We made the acquaintance of Mr. Franklin Adams, one of
Professor Copeland's party, who was in charge of some of the
instruments, and was to meet the remaining members of the
Scotch camp, as well as Sir Norman Lockyer and his party, at
Gibraltar. Here the cruiser " Theseus " was in readiness to
convey them with all their instruments to Santa Pola, near
Alicante, where we saw Mr. Adams again two days before the
Eclipse.

After a, pleasant and quick passage, Gibraltar was duly
reached on 14th May, and here all the Eclipse passengers dis-
embarked and separated to their several localities ; our own
party going first to Honda, passing en route most beautiful
scenery through the famous Cork Woods, and two days later to
Granada.

At Granada we stayed at the Washington Irving Hotel, on
the Hill of the Alhambra, and close under the inner walls
of that romantic pile, and here we met Mrs. Colman Willis and
her family; one of her sons, Mr. E. C. Willis, being a member
of the B.A.A. As they were also bound for Elche for the
Eclipse, we decided to join forces and make one party.

During all this time we were somewhat dismayed at the
weather, which had been most unsettled ever since we landed
in Spain. Every day we had rain at some time, and generally
in the afternoon at about the hour when the Eclipse would take
place. At Gibraltar we were told by one of the inhabitants

* By E. W. JOHNSON.

I 5

a 3

>> w

1 5

^ S

•' 7*

UNIVEIr SITY

ELCHE. 51

that even then, fourteen days beforehand, the Eclipse was
exerting an evil influence upon the weather ! ! The wind was
very boisterous, and the rain came down in heavy torrents
for a short time every day, but the long intervals were bright
and sunny.

From Granada we visited Seville and Cordova; at the latter
place spending much time in the famous mosque of Moorish
origin, a building that might well be ranked amongst the
wonders of the world.

From Cordova we travelled to Alicante via Alcazar Junction,
and arrived at Elche on Thursday, 24th May. This being
Ascension Day, the inhabitants were all taking holiday, and as
we approached the station through groves of palms, we noticed
a vast crowd of people on the platforms, people who with
nothing much to do, had come to see the train arrive and
depart. Everywhere in Spain, in fact, the railway station
seems to be the general meeting place for gossip of all sorts.

Elche is an exceedingly picturesque little Moorish town of a
distinctly Oriental type, with white, flat-roofed houses, and sur-
rounded with palm trees. These are the date palms, which here
find a light sandy soil to suit them ; they grow to a great height
and afford pleasant shade, and amongst them run some swift
streams where the women come to do their washing.

Our first concern at Elche was to find a suitable observing
station, and after wandering about outside the town in search
of a quiet spot, we appealed to our landlord to help us. He
suggested a roof, but could not lend us the roof of his hotel
as it was already bespoken by a Russian astronomer, but almost
opposite the hotel was a Cafe Restaurant, with a large flat roof,
and this we at once engaged, with a stipulation that no one else
should be allowed thereon. This eventually proved to be a
wise precaution, as several strangers on Eclipse day tried to gain
access to it.

Having secured our roof we at once began preliminary obser-
vations by ascertaining the points of the compass, noticing
the weather conditions and the position of the sun at the
appointed hour, and by planning out our different stations,
so that all might work smoothly on the eventful day. At one
end of the roof was a white wall, nearly due north and south,
which afforded us an excellent surface for " shadow band "
observations. At sunset we used the roof as an observatory,
where we could watch the shadow of the earth rising in the
east, and the Zodiacal Light in the west, which, however, was
not so clearly defined as we saw it in India in 1898. We also
paid particular attention to the constellation Scorpio and the
neighbourhood of the planets Jupiter and Saturn, which seemed
to us a specially rich region of the heavens, and a region which
we cannot observe to advantage in our northern latitudes.

On Saturday, 26th May, we drove to Santa Pola, a distance of
about 8 miles from Elche, and on the coast, where were

THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, 1 900.

established the two British Eclipse Camps, that of Sir Norman
Lockyer and that of Professor Copeland.

Hiring an Elche pony carriage we started about 9 o'clock, and

PALMS AT ELCHE.

expected to be back by the middle of the day, but our plans
were much altered for us as the day advanced.

Long before reaching Santa Pola we descried H.M.S.
" Theseus " riding at anchor in the Bay, and after driving

ELCHE. 53

through the town we found our way to the sea-shore, where Sil
Norman Lockyer had all his apparatus set up.

Sir Norman received us very cordially, and explained to us
the working of some of his instruments, and invited us to return
at 4 o'clock to witness his Eclipse drill.

We then visited the Scotch camp about half a mile distant, and
here we renewed our acquaintance with Mr. Franklin Adams,
who introduced us to Professor Copeland, and who kindly
invited us to lunch and made arrangements for us to visit
H.M.S. " Theseus " afterwards.

Whilst we were at the Scotch camp the Governor of the
Province of Alicante arrived and was shown the instruments
by Professor Copeland. Here was the large telescope which was
a familiar object to all of us who went to Vadso in 1896.

Another object which attracted our attention and which -fe
duly admired was a large wall close by, which had been freshly
whitened by the bluejackets of the " Theseus," and was to
serve for the observation of shadow bands. After being most
hospitably entertained at luncheon we were escorted by one of
the officers to the quay, where a steam launch met us and took
us to the " Theseus," a mile or so out in the Bay. Most of the
officers, including the captain, were on shore, but one of the
junior officers showed us every possible attention, and conducted
us over the ship, explaining the working of the guns and
torpedoes.

At 3.30 we returned on shore, just in time for Sir Norman
Lockyer's Eclipse drill. The apparently simple way in which
it was all gone through showed how thorough had been the
previous drills, and we felt that, as Sir Norman said, they were
quite ready for the Eclipse if it should come a day too soon !

Shortly afterwards, bidding farewell and wishing our friends
every success on Eclipse day, we drove back to Elche, feeling
that this day would rank as one of the most interesting in every
way during our whole trip. It enabled us to correct the error
of our watches, and Mr. Heath very kindly supplied us with the
times of the Eclipse worked out for Elche; for all of which
we were very thankful.

On returning to Elche we soon learned of the arrival of
Mrs. Willis and her family, thus making our Eclipse party
complete. We were now able to make our final arrangements
for the Eclipse, which consisted of —

(1) Photographs of the Corona,

(2) Observations of shadow bands.

(3) Gathering gloom photographs.

(4) Meteorological observations.

(5) Sensitometer photographs.

On Sunday, 27th May, we had a rehearsal of our several
undertakings, which proved most beneficial, and we were glad
also at last to notice the afternoon absolutely unclouded at the

54 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

appointed hour, which fine weather repeated itself on Eclipse
day, whereas the day following there was slight cloud about.
Thus, so far as the weather was concerned, we had all that
could have been desired, and we rejoiced later on when we heard
that all along the line of the shadow track other observers had
also been equally fortunate.

The morning of the 28th broke cloudless, and as the Eclipse
would not begin till nearly 3 o'clock, we had plenty of time in
hand. Close outside the hotel and quite early in the day our

A LOCAL FORECAST OF THE ECLIPSE, ELCHE.

attention was directed to some large pictures being exhibited
in the streets, representing comets and stars, with dragons and
monsters, besides scenes of naval battles, etc., all evidently in-
tended to impress the ignorant peasant**, and perhaps deceive
them about the great event of the day. The day was kept as a
general holiday, and during the morning great numbers of
people flocked into the town from all the country round.

The resources of our little Fonda were taxed to the utter-
most to find accommodation and food for the hundreds who
demanded them ; in fact many who would have been glad of its
hospitality were forced to go elsewhere.

ELCHE. 55

Shortly before the Eclipse began, it was a curious sight to
see the roofs, which until then had been deserted, suddenly
teem with life, being crowded with the excited populace. Some
days previously several foreign astronomers, including M.
Flammarion, had arrived, and had made their headquarters a
little distance outside the town.

We all kept quiet and cool through the morning, and by 2 30
took up our positions on the roof, when at 2.58 first contact
was announced by gun fire. Being all of us provided with dark
glasses there was no difficulty in watching the gradually
diminishing disc of the sun.

At 3.38 Mr. J. H. Willis first announced the appearance
of Venus almost vertically overhead. At 20 minutes and 10
minutes before totality I called the times to Lady McClure to
make exposures of 10 seconds each for " Gathering Gloom "
photographs; I also making identical sensitometer exposures
as arranged beforehand with Mr. Gare.

Soon after the second of these exposures I was able to call
the attention of Miss McRae to the rapidly moving shadow
bands, and she then made special notes with reference to them.

Time was now very close to the critical moment of totality,
to which our attention was now completely given, and I was able
to see the Corona, as it were, unfold itself some few seconds before
a second gun shot announced totality. During totality a series
of photographs of the Corona were taken by Lady McClure,
Miss Willis, Miss Edith Willis, and Mr. E. C. Willis, by means
of ordinary half-plate cameras.

Miss McRae noted the appearance of planets and stars. I
had a sensitometer exposure to make of 30 seconds duration
as arranged with Mr. Gare, and reported upon by him else-
where; I was also able to spare a few seconds to look away at
the shadow band sheets, but could see no bands of any kind.

My sensitometer exposure being complete, and having some
opera glasses handy, I was able to observe the Eclipse itself,
and especially noted the polar rays, and was finally rewarded
with a splendid sight of Baily's Beads.

Mercury was a resplendent object, close to the termination of
the longest of the coronal streamers, and like Venus in the Eclipse
of 1898. would seem to suggest that perhaps the planets exert some
attractive influence over the Solar Corona. A second or two of
valuable time was lost to us at second contact by someone on a
neighbouring roof sending aloft an air balloon which dropped
fireworks as it descended, consequently distracting our attention.

After totality, shadow bands were again noted, and further
departing gloom and sensitometer photographs undertaken,
besides photographs of our party in a group on the roof, after
which we all returned to the hotel to tea, eagerly talking over
together the wonders of the beautiful spectacle we had seen.

Mr. J. H. Willis undertook the whole of the meteorological
work with most painstaking care and skill, and his report will

THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, 1 900.

be found elsewhere. Leaving Elche the next day, we travelled
from Alicante to Madrid with Dr. Lockyer and Mr. W. L.
Wyllie, A.R.A., from Santa Pola; and that same evening
•about 7.40 we saw the young moon, then only 27£ hours old,
and presenting a very beautiful and slender crescent.

At Madrid we met Mr. Keatley Moore, Mr. Gare, and
Captain Carpenter, who had observed the Eclipse at Manzanares.
We were glad to compare notes with them and to learn of their
success.

After visiting Toledo and the Escorial, we proceeded io

THE 13 JUDGE AT ELCIIK.

Biarritz and Paris, and at the latter place included a special
visit to the great telescope in the Exhibition, where our fellow
member, M. Antoniadi, gave us every assistance possible. Thence
we went to London, thus concluding a very pleasant Eclipse
excursion, with, let us hope, some results in the interests of
science, which we now lay before the Members of the British
Astronomical Association.

E. W. JOHNSON.

CHAPTER VIII.

ALGIERS*

THE observers choosing Algiers as their station were far more
numerous than those going in any other direction, the ease with
which the journey could be made, and the high probability of a
clear sky and transparent air, proving a great attraction. But
having arrived at their destination, the observers were almost
necessarily broken up into several parties. Of these, one mads
their headquarters the Hotel de la Regence, in the Place du
Gouvernement, a second established themselves at the Hotel
Continental, in Mustapha Superieur, and of these a contingent
observed the eclipse from the roof of the house of Mr. Drummond
Hay, the British Vice-Consul. The passengers by the
" Argonaut " divided into two chief sections, the one selecting
Cemetery Hill, the other Cape Matifou, as their positions. The
observers, thus coming by many different routes, arriving on the
scene of action at different times, and occupying different stations,
no concerted action, except of the slenderest kind, was possible.
Still having been in direct communication with members of
every section, and having been kindly furnished with informa-
tion as to the doings of each, I have tried as far as possible
to give in one single account a sketch of the work in Algiers.

The party with which I was more immediately connected,
consisted at starting of Mr. and Mrs. Crommelin, my wife and
two daughters, and myself. On the steamer from Marseilles to
Algiers we were joined by Mr. C. L. Brook and his sister Mrs.
Arthur Brook, and a day or two after our arrival at Algiers
the Rev. C. D. P. Davies, Miss C. O. Stevens, and Miss L.
Martin-Leake joined us.

There is a curious experience to which an over-sea journey
renders one liable, namely, the sudden interruption of one's
usual sources of information as to passing events. Thus, just
as I went on board in the expedition to the West Indies in
1886, we got the exciting news of desperate street fighting in
Belfast, and we left England with vague apprehensions of
troubles which might take a very serious form. For a fortnight
we heard nothing, and when at length we were again in tele-
graphic communication with Great Britain, we heard no more
of the event which had loomed so large at our departure, for

* By Mr. E. WALTER MAVXDER, F.R.A.S.

58 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

the Belfast riots had run their course as a nine days' wonder,
and had become stale and forgotten. So, in starting to Algiers,
we were somewhat similarly tantalized, for whilst we had been
buckling the last straps on the last portmanteaux late in the
evening of May 18th, in preparation for our early start for Algiers
on the following morning, we heard the deep, vibrating roar
that had seemed first devised on the night that Kimberley was
relieved ; and we looked at each other and said, " Mafeking is
safe." The desired hours of rest were shortened at both ends
by the process of " mafficking," but at London Bridge next
morning Mr. Crommelin made the appalling announcement that
the report of the relief was not " official," and that it possibly
was not true, and we had to pass into France, a land utterly
ignorant of and uninterested in the event that meant so much
to us. We enquired that night in Paris if it were true, we
asked again at Marseilles, we sought again and again for in-
formation when we got to Algiers, but it was not till the third
or fourth day after our arrival that we got full confirma-
tion of the news.

On Saturday night, in Paris, we went with Mr. and Mrs.
Crommelin and M. Antoniadi to the Exhibition, to see the great
telescope that M. Antoniadi was engaged in getting into adjust-
ment. First we paused in the theatre, where a lecturer was
showing on the screen some very beautiful photographs of the
moon, the finest we have ever seen. The lantern was placed
in the line of the optical axis of the leviathan, whose eye-end
was immediately behind it, and we fear that many of the
audience believed that the beautiful pictures they beheld were
given directly by the great telescope; indeed, almost every
published description leads this to be inferred. It must be
confessed that the lecturer did not state that these lunar presen-
tations were directly from the moon shining on the siderostat,
and thence reflected through the giant telescope directly on to
the screen; but the placing of the instruments would suggest
this inference, and we wondered how many of the audience
speculated as to what quality or virtue there could be in an
aperture of 49 inches that could persuade the moon to go through
its phases with such rapidity. Then we watched a number of
workmen raising by chains and pulleys the plate glass cover
from the mirror of the siderostat, and with other sightseers we
examined the slow motions and controls situated in the mounting.
Here M. Antoniadi stayed with an assistant workman to set
the circles and bring the star into the field. Going upstairs
to the gallery, level with the leviathan tube, we met M. Deloncle,
the owner of the great instrument, and being " des astronomss ''
he took us into the hedged enclosure round the eye-piece, where
the lay and the profane are not admitted. Mdlle. Klumpke
and M. Mathieu were a,t this end, aiding M. Antoniadi in the
adjustments, and we watched them with a delightful sense of
irresponsibility. M. Antoniadi moved the circles, his assistant
kept his ear to the telephone, M. Mathieu gave directions at

UNIVERSITY

ALGIERS.

the other end of the telephone wire, and Mdlle. Klumpke beside
him, watched the star as it shot across the ground glass. A
parti-coloured flare of light hovered on the edge of the field ;
" plus a droite," called M. Mathieu through the telephone; the
flare shot right across, brightening as it passed through the
centre and fading as it passed off on the right edge of the field ;
an irresistible impulse forced Mdlle. Klumpke to make a grab
at the flying world. " Top/' cried M. Mathieu, but the star was
gone, and only returned to make a frantic rush across the field
to the left, and so da capo. It seemed to us that it would have

B. A. A. OBSERVING PARTY, HOTEL DK LA REGEXCE, ALGIERS.

been a great improvement if the observer at the eye-end could
have been able to electrically control and move the instrument,
directly himself, but apart from this criticism, we could have
nothing but admiration for the size, the finish, the mounting
and effectiveness of the great siderostat itself. It was a feat of
engineering, as well as of ingenious mechanism.

Monday afternoon saw us on the " General Chanzy " in
Marseilles harbour, and here we were united to several members
of our party and other eclipse pilgrims. Bound to the same
bourne .as ourselves were Mr. C. L. Brook and Mrs. Arthur
Brook, Mr. Wesley was going to Bou-Zarea, to the equatorial
coude of the Algiers observatory, the domes of which we could

62 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

see silhouetted against the sky on the brow of the hill to our
right as we entered the Bay. Major Kingsley Foster also was
on his way to Bou-Zarea to assist Prof. H. H. Turner, and Mr.
Lucas and Mr. Crawford were intending to take part in the same
duty. On board were also M. Stefan, director of the Marseilles
Observatory, and three Swiss astronomers, Professors Gautier,
of Geneva, Riggenbach, of Bale, and Wolfer, of Zurich, the
three latter intending to join Prof. Tacchini at his station near
Menerville, some 30 miles from Algiers.

Very striking looked Algiers, the " White City," as we
approached it, its white houses, climbing terrace after terrace
up the steep sides of the hill, and flashing with dazzling points
of light where the sun was reflected back from glass window
or conservatory roof. Very striking also was it on a nearer
approach, when having passed within the mole, the latter dis-
figured by a huge inscription indicative of the deplorable
" Judenhatze " that has made Algiers and its mayor notorious,
we reached the landing stage, a kaleidoscope of races and cos-
tumes. The crowd, the shouting, the ceaseless bustle reminded
us forcibly of our arrival at Bombay, two years before, but
here we had no anxiety about the landing of our instruments,
for these had arrived before us, and thanks to the courtesy of
the French Government had been immediately handed over on
our behalf to Messrs. Cook's representative, Mr. Gould, without
the slightest delay or examination at the Custom House.

Our hotel was in the very centre of the city, facing its chief
Place, a site which in a northern clime would not be ideal for
an observing station, but which here in smokeless, fireless, sub-
tropical Algiers, had few drawbacks and not a few advantages,
whilst our landlord, M. Marty, saw to it that we wanted for
no help or convenience that we desired for our astronomical
preparations. The hotel was chosen by Mr. Gould after careful
examination, and consultation with M. Bulard, formerly the
director of the old Algerian observatory, both gentlemen having
taken much trouble to ascertain that its roof was thoroughly
well adapted for our requirements in an observing station.

The roof of the hotel formed a rectangle of about 100 feet
long by 60 broad, and was almost exactly oriented. Its centre
was occupied by the inner quadrangle of the hotel, and by
two rows of small chambers, several of which were put at our
disposal as instrument rooms.

On the afternoon of the eclipse, the observers were arranged
as follows : — The western side of the roof was occupied by
Mr. T. Thorp, Mr. W. Andrews, with telescope and camera,
Miss Martin-Leake with a three-inch telescope; Mr. and Mrs.
Crommelin with several instruments ; and at the south-western
corner, Mr. Hodge with a camera. Along the southern side
were Mr. Ellis and Miss Edith Maunder, who were acting as
time keepers ; Mr. Roger Du Camp who was photographing the
harbour during the " Gathering Gloom " ; Mrs. Maunder with

ALGIERS.

a four-inch equatorial telescope, kindly lent by Mr. W. Coleman,
F.R.A.S., which was made to carry a pair of cameras, to
which Miss C. O. Stevens gave the exposure; the Rev. C. D. P.
Davies, with clock-driven equatorial and camera; Miss Irene
Maunder with a four-inch photographic telescope, rigidly fixed •
myself with a pair of small cameras mounted on the Waters
equatorial; and in the south-eastern corner, Mr. C. L. Brook,
with a meteorological installation, and Mrs. Arthur Brook, with
a prepared sheet for the observation of shadow bands. The Rev.
Dr. Quilter, Mr. Vallack and Mr. Edmonds each provided with
a small telescope were ranged along the eastern side.

Mr. Alleu.

Mrs. Allen, Mr. Roberts, Jr.
Mr. Roberts. Miss Allen.

GROUP OF OBSKRVKRS, TToTF.L CONTIXEXTAL, AUUKRS.

It will be seen that most of us were engaged on one or both
of two divisions of work, namely, photographing the corona or
examining portions of it in the telescope. We were unable to
arrange for a complete sketching party of four or five members,
but fortunately possessed in Miss Stevens an artist who was
able, in the 48 seconds between the uncovering and closing of
Mrs. Maunder's cameras, to gather the very faithful impression
which she has preserved in her drawing. But if we had only
one sketcher engaged in naked-eye work, the other Algerian
sections of the party paid special attention to it, and at Cemetery
Hill, Cape Matifou, the Vice-Consul's house, and the Hotel

64 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

Continental, combined drawings were given a very prominent
place in the programme.

The outlook from the roof was a varied one. On the west,
north, and east we looked on the flat roofs of the neighbouring
houses, and as our occupations kept us there through any and
every hour of the day and night, it must have seriously interfered
with the privacy of the " purdah " ladies. Especially towards
the west, where the houses covered the hill rising up to the
Kasbah, the roofs seemed to lie so close to each other that we
could not divine where there was roadway or path lying between
them. This was the Arab quarter, and the highways were
stepped paths of a few feet width at their lowest and widest,
and narrowed above to a cubit's breadth by the overhanging
stories of the houses, so that the ancient edict forbidding the
passage of horso and carriage seemed unnecessary, not to say
ironical. The south side of the hotel formed, with the
Mosque de la Pecherie, two sides of the Place du Gouverne-
ment, where seemed to be gathered representatives of all the
nations of the earth. Out beyond, the Djur-Djurra mountains
cutting off the horizon, lay the Bay of Algiers, ending in the
promontory of Cape Matifou.

Those of us who had larger instruments, needing time and
stars for their adjustment, installed ourselves in our selected
places on the roof as soon as the telescopes arrived from the
Custom House. The great point of doubt and difficulty was the
weather. We had been disturbed to hear that for two or three
days before our arrival there had been incessant storm and
rain. The day we came was very fine but not perfect, the
next day was not so good, the day after was bad, and Friday,
May 25th, was as dull and cold and cloudv as any autumn day
in England. Of the weather Mr. Crommelin says : — " We must
confess to some disappointment on the whole with the Algiers'
sky. It was seldom of the intense deep blue which we had
been led to expect; there was generally a distinct milky veil
over it. The eclipse day was fortunately the very best during
our stay, but even then though there were no clouds and no haze,
there was a suspicion of milkiness in the blue, arising perhaps
from scattered dust in the upper air." I cannot, however, quite
agree with this, and one or two observations seem to me to
indicate that the atmosphere after May 25th was in reality
singularly free from dust. Thus on the morning of Saturday,
May 26th, at about 10 o'clock in the morning, Mr. Brook saw
the thread-like crescent of the moon only two days before it
became new, in broad sunlight, with the unassisted eye, and
pointed it out to several others of the party who also plainly
discerned it. This is surely almost an unique observation, and
points to great clearness of the atmosphere. Venus, too, was
repeatedly picked up even at noon, but this is often done even in
England. Again, on the day of the eclipse, at the instant of
second contact, my wife who was observing Mercury in a four-
inch telescope, saw that the general illumination of the field

ALGIERS.

disappeared completely and at once with the last spark of sun-
light, pointing to the fact that there was no appreciable dust or
haze in the atmosphere to scatter light and cause glare.

Mr. Crommelin took charge of our time department, he having
one deck-watch kindly placed at his service by the Hydrographer,
whilst a second had been lent me by the courtesy of Messrs.
Usher and Cole. The error and rate of the deck-watches had
been ascertained at Greenwich before our departure, and on the
day after our coming to Algiers, Mr. Crommelin went to compare
them with the standard clock at the Observatory at Bou-Zarea.
He described the Observatory as beautifully situated at the top

MB. EVERSHED OBSERVING WITH THE SPECTROSCOPE,
PONT MAZAFRAN, ALGIERS.

of the hill of Bou-Zarea, 1100 feet high, behind the town of
Algiers, and commanding an unrivalled view of land, sea, and
sky, the coast line being visible for 40 miles or more in each
direction, whilst the blue rugged peaks of the Atlas made a
magnificent background in the south.

On Thursday afternoon I went with Mr. and Mrs. Crommelin
to visit Mr. Evershed, at his station on the River Mazafran, by
the noisy little steam tram that the French say they are going
to run on, some day, to the Congo. At present it only extends
just to the south bank of the Mazafran, some twenty miles
from Algiers. Mr. Evershed's encampment was immediately to
the north of the river, on rising ground, which commanded a
good view of the sea, the river, and the hills of Le Sahel. Mr.

66 THE TOTAL SOL ATI ECLIPSE, IQOO.

Evershed and his brother had set up their hut on the ground of
M. Alvado, a wine-grower of this district. The hut was at once
bedroom, living-room, and observatory; more than half its
scanty area being occupied by the great reflecting spectrograph.
The light of the sun was reflected into this instrument by a
coelostat placed just outside the hut, nnd the spectrum produced
by it was one of magnificent brilliancy and proportions. A
four inch telescope was also mounted near the coelostat outside
the hut, and carried a small spectroscope. This was provided
with a circular slit, which could be fitted to the sun's limb, and
thus a large arc of the chromosphere could be seen at one time
in the light of the C-line of hydrogen. M. Alvado had taken
a great and decidedly intelligent interest in Mr. Evershed's
instruments and their management, though they were necessarily
utterly unlike in purpose and design anything of which he had
had any experience. He passed one criticism on the spectroscope
with which spectroscopists will be apt cordially to agree. As
he noted the numerous and delicate little adjustments which
the instrument required, he summed it up by observing that
it was " a stack of fidgets." Mr. Evershed showed us some
considerable prominences in this spectroscope, and kindly
promised to send us a telegram on the morning of the eclipse
giving the positions of the principal prominences in the order of
magnitude. His telegram was of great service to us and to
several of the party, as it enabled us to direct our attention
without loss of time to the selected prominence.

The nights of Friday, Saturday, and Sunday were very fine,
and we made full use of them. The background of the sky
was a deep black, and the Milky Way stood out with almost
disconcerting vividness, for from its unfamiliar position we
did not always recognise at the first glance what it was, and it
looked perplexingly like cloud. Mr. Crommelin was especially
struck with the constellations of Centaurus, Scorpio and
Sagittarius, the larger portions of which are unseen in the
northern latitudes of England. The waiters in the hotel took a
deep interest in our doings, considering that they had a personal
property in the success of the eclipse. One evening when we were
engaged by the help and light of the stars in making some final
adjustments, they formed a deputation to know " if the eclipse
were coming off to-night?" There was one point, however,
in which Nature lamentably failed to accord with their patriotic
sense of the eternal fitness of things, and for which we could
offer no excuse or consolation. " It could not surely be true" ;
" Was it indeed true that the eclipse came to Spain before it
passed through Algeria., and that it was total longer there?"
We tried to comfort them, and succeeded in a measure by
pointing out that Tripoli was in a, still worse case, and that
Algiers possessed the unique distinction of being the one and
only place with a fixed observatory over which the shadow
passed.

From Thursday on we had many visitors to see how the pre-

parations were getting on; Mr. and Mrs. Allen, Mr. Roberts
and his son, Mrs. Bevan and Miss M. A. Orr, all of whom were
staying at the Hotel Continental, came at intervals to report
progress. Herr Archenhold was at our hotel, but his telescope
and camera had taken upon themselves to go on an independent
journey, and he beguiled his enforced idleness by turning his
hand to aiding in any adjustment where he might prove useful.
Herr Leo Brenner and his wife were at the Hotel de FOpera,
and raised our envy by his account of his beautiful Istrian
skies. On Sunday morning the " Argonaut " came into harbour,
and many of her passengers called that afternoon to ask advice as
to what stations they should take up. A little later in the
same day the Princess Amelie of Schleswig-Holstein, aunt of the
Empress of Germany, and sister-in-law of Princess Christian, who
was staying at our hotel, invited my wife and myself to visit
her to explain the circumstances of the eclipse, and then came
up to the roof to examine our instruments and arrangements.

On one point our visitors were all agreed, that we had very
useful astronomical accessories in the great chimney stacks
that rose up to a height of about five feet from the roof, and
that we turned them to good account. They made most useful
piers or stays for the telescope stands, and their most serious
defect was in the presence of the vent,, down which it was so
easy to drop eye-pieces and screws and other useful or indis-
pensable articles. Mr. Hodge turned even this defect to a good
use by making the flue serve as a drop for his telescope weight.

Our station on the hotel roof afforded us a unique effect.
We were isolated, entirely so, from the spectators around; they
could not approach us or interfere with us in any way. But
the entire city was in full view, and north, south, east and west
every housetop, as the eclipse wore on, became crowded with
people. There must have been twenty or thirty thousand within
our sight.

The other sections of Algerian observers were thus distri-
buted. At an early hour in the Hotel Continental, Mr. Roberts
arranged his telescope on the roof, his son, Mrs. Allen and Miss
Allen took up their positions for drawing quadrants of the
corona; Mr. Allen fixed his camera, and white sheets and poles
were placed ready for the observation of the shadow bands.

Another contingent took their way up the hill to the villa
of the British Vice-Consul, Mr. Drummond Hay. This consisted
of Mrs. Bevan, who settled herself in one corner of the roof
with drawing materials ; Mrs. Crewdson, who took her star maps
to another; Miss Orr, high up among the chimneys, watch in
hand gave the time; Miss M. A. Orr, who used a three-inch
telescope; and Mr. Crewdson, who fixed his camera on the
stone parapet. Venus was seen early in the partial phase, and
was welcomed by Mrs. Crewdson as a guiding star in her search
for lesser lights. The minute of totality seemed the shortest
ever experienced; and to Mrs. Bevan the streamers appeared

68 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, 1 900.

much fainter than in the Indian Eclipse. Both Mrs. Bevan
and Miss M. A. Orr agreed that the landscape effects were more
weird and wonderful in Norway.

One party from the " Argonaut " went to Cemetery Hill under
the leadership of Col. Burton-Brown. With him were the
Rev. A. E. Brisco Owen, Mr. J. Levick, Mr. Thompson, Mr.
and Mrs. Kirkham, Dr. and Mrs. Connel, Mr. Robinson and
others, who kindly helped in setting up the instruments,
arranging the photographic table to 29° for cameras, and taking
charge of the spectroscopic work and the camera obscura, formed
by one of the telescopes equatorially mounted with an eyepiece
projecting an image of the sun on to the ground glass about
3^- in. diameter on a 9 in. field, so that all present might watch
the progress of the earlier part of the eclipse. At totality Col.
Burton-Brown himself took charge of the camera obscura, in
which he hoped to get an enlarged picture of the corona at
mid-totality, but which unfortunately was imperfect owing to
vibration during exposure.

The other contingent from the " Argonaut " went nearer the
central line of totality, to Cape Matifou, where it again divided
into two parts. Of these parties Mr. Krauss Nield has furnished
the following account: — "At 11 a.m. we set off for Cape Matifou
in a specially chartered steam launch, with about 40 or 45 lady
and gentleman observers. We had a pleasant 10 mile trip across
the bay, and on arrival at Matifou left our instruments1 in
charge of two or three volunteers, and set out to select a suitable
station for our observations. The first likely place we saw was the
village washing shed, and Dr. Whichello and I went, much to the
embarrassment of the inmates, to survey this, but although
suitable in almost every other way, the front was at rather
too great an angle to the direction which would be required.
After this we noticed the village school, the playground of
which seemed to contain all that we desired, and we at once
started making enquiries. Dr. Whichello's French being vastly
superior to mine, he acted as spokesman. He first of all asked
some little children if the schoolmaster was in : ' No ; ' ' When
will he be in?' 'Never.' 'What do> you mean?' 'There is
no schoolmaster.' 'Who is in, then?' 'The schoolmistress.'
After this we found the schoolmistress, and an obliging lady
she proved to be. She said that we could use the playground
and veranda of the school with the greatest of pleasure, and
that she would send the children home early, so that they should
be out of our way. The place was ideal for sketching and for
the kinematograph, there being a shed, forms and desks in
abundance, and a large level stone slab on which to place the
instruments. There was only one serious drawback, and that
was that those who were sketching had very little chance of
seeing the general effect of the eclipse on the landscape. But
it was, probably, impossible to have every advantage in one
place, and the comfort of desks, together with the necessity of
plumb lines, outweighed other considerations, and a large portion

INSCEIPTION ON THE MOLE, ALGIERS HAEBOTTK.

ALGIERS FROM THE HILL BEHIND THE CITY.

ALGIERS.

of the party decided to stay in this station. About a dozen or
more, however, went further up the hill to the edge of the
cliffs, where they would have a chance of seeing the shadow
coming across the sea. We were thus divided into two parties
on the Cape, and each party observed the eclipse very comfort-
ably and successfully. The party on the hill consisted of
Mr. S. Evershed, who observed the " flash-spectrum/' and was
so enabled to call the exact instant of totality; Mr. E. Dickson,
the time-caller; Mr. T. A. Dickson, who has obtained some very
successful photographs ; Mr. J. E. Pearce, who saw the corona

Mr. F. W. Longbottom. Mr. H. Hassall. Miss Jaiieway.

Mr. W. E. Cooper, F.E.A.S. Dr. H. Wliichello. Miss Ward.

Mrs. Hassall. Dr. Heywood Smith, M.D.

SKETCHING PAKTY, CAPE MATII-OU, ALOIERS.

for some time after totality; Mr. Kipling Booth,. Dr. E. P.
Smith, Mr. E. B. Vignoles, and several others. Among those
at the school were the following: — Mr. C. M. Hepworth, with
his kinem atograph ; Mr. F. W. Longbottom, who has obtained
some good though small scale photographs of the corona; Dr.
Heywood Smith, Dr. H. Whichello, and Mr. W. E. Cooper,
F.R.A.S., who together with myself devoted the time to sketching
the corona. There were several ladies in both parties who
helped not a little in the general work, and the following handed
me carefully drawn quadrants of the corona : — The Misses
Janeway, E. Slater, J. Slater, and K. Slater, E. Statham,
E. Thorold, C. Ward, and L. Vignoles."

72 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, 1900.

To return to our own party at the Hotel de la Regence,
the hours immediately before the eclipse seemed more than
sufficiently filled by putting finishing touches of lamp black on
the inside of cameras and of telescope tubes, and in the cleaning
of lenses, and the definite work of observation began with my
wife and myself at first contact, for we wished to take a series
of photographs right through the partial phase.

As we were thus occupied Mr. Crommelin very kindly under-
took to watch the eclipse through this earlier phase, and to
give warning to the observers five minutes, one minute, and
ten seconds before the commencement of totality, whilst I,
taking up the watch at the ten seconds signal, was to call at
the instant when totality was complete. I, therefore, give the
account of the progress of this portion of the eclipse in Mr.
Crommelin's own words : — " The first contact and the progress
of the eclipse were observed by projection through the telescope
on a sheet of cardboard to avoid fatiguing the eye. Mr. Brook
kindly gave assistance in noting the time of first contact. The
exact point of contact was marked on the card, and at 3h. 5m. 14s.
Greenwich time a small but perfectly definite encroachment was
observed which rapidly increased. True geometrical contact
must have occurred a few seconds before the time noted. There
were two small spot groups on the sun, and the times of
disappearance of some of the spots were noted. The largest
spot began to disappear at 3h. 29m. 7s., and was com-
pletely covered 39 seconds later. We used a paper screen
over the telescope to shield the cardboard sheet from
direct sunlight, and we noticed that the light through a small
aperture in this screen produced a crescent-shaped image of the
sun on the cardboard — a miniature of that formed by the
telescope itself. At 4h. 4m. we noticed a very decided decrease
in the illumination of the landscape ; the colouring also seemed
to have undergone a change and to be rather more yellow
than ordinary sunlight, but this may have been fancy. An
examination of the relative brightness of different regions of the
sky, showed that the sky near the horizon was a light blue, the
sky to thei west of the zenith a darker blue, and that to the east
of the zenith darkest of all.

" It was now nearly time for the first of the three signals
which I had arranged to give — viz., five minutes, one minute,
and ten seconds, before the commencement of totality. No
great precision was required in the first two of these, so it was
sufficient to go by the predicted time of the beginning of totality.
But it was desirable that the ten-second signal should not be
more than a second or two in error. This was secured by
calculating beforehand the length of the diminishing crescent,
and marking this length on the cardboard screen. It was found
practicable to determine this instant pretty accurately, and
the call of ' Ten ' was just 9£ seconds before the last ray dis-
appeared, and Mr. Maunder shouted ' Go.'

" The five and one minute signals were made by ringing a

ALGIERS.

large bell belonging to the hotel — a long ring for the first, and
a short sharp ring for the second. Between the two bells we
devoted our attention to the aspect of the town — roof rising
behind roof up the steep slope, nearly all crowded with sight-
seers, as was also the Place du G-ouvernernent at our feet. The

STREET LEADING TO THE AEAB QUARTER, ALGIERS.

These streets are about 12 feet wide, with the gutter down the middle. This
street leads up to the Kasbah.

crowd at first seemed somewhat flippant, and the first bell was
greeted with derisive jeers from a group across the street. But
the onward swoop of the darkness had a sobering effect, and
just before totality a deep swelling murmur of wonder, admirar
tion and fear arose from the entire city."

74 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, 1900.

Another observer, Miss Irene Maunder, describes the effect
of totality : — " A bell rang and we all hurried to our places, for
we knew there were but five minutes to totality. Another
bell, — but one minute more. The sky was deep purple, while
over the sea was a strange light on the horizon, a compromise
between a thunderstorm and a sunset. The colour faded
from, the sea and trees, a shouting and wailing arose from the
square below, the light was fading; suddenly the moon slipped
over the sun and the eclipse was total. ' Go !' shouted a loud
voice; a metronome began to beat seconds, and as its bell rang
at each sixth stroke, my sister called the time. ' One ! Two !
Three ! Four ! Five ! Six !' There ! my photographs were
taken, and now I could look up ! I shall never forget the
sight. A deep purple sky, a black globe, surrounded by a
crimson glow, and above and below it a milk-like flame stretch-
ing its long streamers away into the purple. The darkness,
the cold wind, the silent workers around me, and the shouting
crowd below all tended to make this strange and glorious sight
still more impressive, and I found myself stretching out my
arms to that exquisite corona in a perfect ecstasy. Suddenly
the moon slipped off the other side of the sun, and out he
shone in a blaze of light, or so it seemed in comparison with
his eclipse. An Englishman cheered. Some Frenchmen
clapped. Totality was over !"

CHAPTER IX.

TIME OBSERVATIONS.

UNTIL comparatively recently, until in fact the great eclipse
of 1868, when the spectroscopic method of observing the pro-
minences in full sunshine was first brought into actual operation,
the chief observations made at an eclipse were those of the
times of contacts. And these were very useful, as they afforded
the means for correcting the Tables of the sun and of the moon,
and for ascertaining the diameters of both bodies. In more
recent years the greater interest attaching to the physical
observations possible in an eclipse — the study of the corona and
prominences; the spectrum of the "Flash"; — have pushed
contact observations rather into the background ; and on many
occasions they have been more or less neglected by professional
astronomers. It is much to be regretted that this is so, and it
is to be hoped that the experience of the late eclipse will lead
to the restoration of contact determinations to the position of
an essential item in every eclipse programme. The precise
determination of the longitude and latitude of the observing
station must necessarily accompany such observations.

Mr. C. T. WHITMELL has carefully collected in the annexed
Report all the observations of contacts or duration of totality
that were available, with the result of showing clearly that
the duration of totality was less than that predicted by the
British "Nautical Almanac" ; Mr. H. EVERSHED adds a brief note
with reference to the failure of the eclipse to become total at
his station on the Mazafran ; and Mr. A. C. D. CROMMELIN
explains the probable reason of the over-estimate, in the
" Nautical Almanac," of the duration of totality.

DURATION OP TOTALITY AND TIMES or CONTACTS.*

THE following Table contains such particulars of times of contacts
and duration of totality as I have been able to obtain. Green-
wich longitude and mean time are used throughout. Some of
the data have been taken from Spanish, French, American, and
English publications; others have been kindly communicated to
me by the observers, for whose help I am very grateful.

*By C. T. WHITMELL.
75

THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

"§.

Observer.

Predicted, N.A.
Predicted, Am. E
A. Flint

E. Markwick

Predicted, N.A.
W. Christie
A. Morford
C. Nielsen

H. Slade

F. Miranda

Predicted, N.A.
A. Downing
T. Weir

Predicted, Madri
Sr. Ventosa
Sr. Puente

Predicted, N.A.
C. Whitmell and

others
Predicted, N.A.
J. Valle

L. De Hoyos
C. Gomez

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78 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, 1900.

Senor Iniguez, of the Madrid Observatory, and the Koyal
Geographical Society (through Mr. W. H. Wesley), have cour-
teously sent me the longitudes and latitudes of several of the
localities. I wish also to thank Dr. C. A. Young for the
" Princeton Bulletin," with an account of the observations at
Wadesboro', N.C., U.S.A., and M. le Comte de la Baume
Pluvinel, for his very useful chart of the region of total eclipse
in the Iberian Peninsula.

It will be seem that the Table is far from complete. For many
of the stations I fear that the longitudes and latitudes may
require some correction. It is obvious also that only in very few
cases can the observed times be regarded as absolutely correct.
But the difference between the times of second and third contact,
i.e., the duration of totality, is probably very near the truth.

In some instances, observers in Spain have not stated what
time they used, so in these cases I have assumed the time to be
that of Madrid. For the future I hope that all observers will
endeavour to give full and accurate information as to their
observing stations, and the times of contact.

With regard to the longitudes and the times of commencement
of totality, there are some anomalies which I cannot explain, e.g.,
Nos. 19 to 23. These may be due to watch errors.

It will be noticed that in every case for which the predicted
and the observed duration of totality are given, the latter falls
short, sometimes considerably short, of the former. The
" Nautical Almanac " predictions were accompanied by a caution
to the effect that the predicted duration might be as much as
three seconds too long. It was thirty seconds too long for
Mazafran, for the shadow never got there.

No. 3, Wadesboro'. — According to Prof. C. A. Young's obser-
vations, first contact occurred at Oh. 36m. 2s., and fourth contact
at 3h. om. 40s., the discrepancies, in his opinion, being due to
errors in the lunar tables.

No. 11, Plasencia. — For the Palacio de Mirabel, Senor Iniguez
gives longitude 6° 5' 36" ; latitude 40° 1' 47".

No. 13. — Mr. Weir informs me that he is not sure of the
duration of totality. He gives 84s. and 88s. as limits, with an
inclination to consider the latter as probably the more correct.

Nos. 13s and 13c, Berrocalillo. The following note is a
translation of a passage from a most interesting pamphlet on the
eclipse, by Senor Iniguez: — The manifest contradiction between
the times assigned for the second contact by the two observers,
results from the method used by each. Sr. Ventosa gives, as
the commencement of totality, the moment when the lunar disc
showed itself as a complete circle ; Sr. Puente, when he saw
disappear the last ray glancing from the last bead of light. It
should not be forgotten that the moon's border is not perfectly
smooth, but is serrated, owing to great lunar mountains, and it
is precisely in this eclipse that many observers have pointed out
the existence of marked inequalities in that lunar border
which entered first on the sun. By all accounts, observation

TIME OBSERVATIONS.

indicates for this eclipse a duration somewhat, though but little,
less than that calculated. A thorough discussion of the cir-
cumstances, accompanying the phenomenon, will show to what
causes are to be attributed this difference."

No. 32, Mazafran. — Mr. Evershed writes as follows : — " From
accounts of observers at my station, and from a careful examina-
tion of the series of photographs obtained, I find that at mid-
eclipse one small point of sunlight was shining. This point
appeared at position-angle 195°, at least 45 seconds before mid-
eclipse, and persisted in the same place until it was merged in the

MR. AXD MRS. CROMMELIX, HOTEL DE LA EEGENCE, ALGIERS.

reappearing arc of sunlight, a second or two after mid-eclipse.
Now this point, appearing on the western side of the sun before
mid-eclipse, must have been due to a very deep valley in the
moon ; but, according to Beer and Miidler's map, the general level
of the moon's south limb is higher than the average, that region
being occupied by the Leibnitz mountains. Whether the bottom
of the valley, which let in the sunlight, is above or below the
mean level of the lunar surface, it is impossible to say, but it
just prevented the eclipse being total at my camp. The actual
edge of the moon's shadow was clearly seen upon the sea, and
it struck the coast very close indeed to my station, within a

80 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

quarter of a mile on the north side of it, according to a trust-
worthy observer."

By computation. Mr. Evershed's camp should have been If
miles within the southern boundary of the shadow.

No. 15, Navalmoral. — For this station I computed the following
additional data, based upon the "Nautical Almanac": — Sun's
altitude at totality, 39°; azimuth, 3° south of west. At
2h. 57m. G.M.T. the moon's geocentric distance was about
233,087 miles, and her synodic velocity about 2191 miles an hour.
The observer's velocity, along the parallel of latitude at Naval-
moral, is 795 miles an hour. At totality the apparent semi-
diameter of the moon was 16' 6"-0, and that of the sun 15' 46"'6,
the difference being only 19"'4.

The diameter of the umbra, projected into a circle upon a
plane through Navalmoral, perpendicular to the shadow-axis,
measures about 43 miles. But, upon the surface of the ground,
this umbra was really a kind of oval with its longest diameter
lying nearly W. and E., and considerably exceeding 43 miles,
being probably about 67 miles. The velocity of this shadow
along the surface was about 42 miles a minute. The shadow
path made an angle of about 20°, N. of W. and S. of E., with
the observer's parallel, and, on the assumption of 87s. for totality,
that diameter of the oval, actually traversed by a spectator upon
the earth's surface, would be about 61 miles. We possessed no
means of obtaining Greenwich time with accuracy, but Mr.
Howarth had with him a rated watch, and by this he estimates
the beginning of totality at 4h. 6m. 56s., and the end at
4h. 8m. 16s. G.M.T. If these times are to be relied upon, totality
began 44s. later and ended 37s. later than the predicted times.
The corresponding Madrid times would be 3h. 52m. 11s., and
3h. 53m. 31s. Navalmoral time is 7m. 31s. earlier than Madrid,
and 22m. 16s. earlier than Greenwich, the difference between
Greenwich and Madrid being 14m. 45s. About 2h. 49m. p.m.,
first contact had been noted from a carriage window of the train
that brought us from Madrid. I pass on to consider the duration
of totality. Observing the solar spectrum with a spectroscopic
opera-glass, to be described hereafter, I gave the signals " go,"
and " gone," to Dr. Stokes, who> had an accurate stop watch,
made for estimating races. The duration was exactly 80 seconds,
or 7 seconds less than that predicted by the " Nautical Almanac."
Precisely the same duration was noted by three other observers,
Mr. Howarth, Mr. Southall, and the Rev. S. J. Johnson, using
only the unaided eye.

Assuming the orbital path of the moon, and the N.A.
diameter of the sun, to be correct, there are two possible explana-
tions of the loss of 7 seconds; (1) the N.A. diameter
of the moon may be too large; (2) the adopted position of
Navalmoral may be incorrect, so that it was not really on the
central line. If the error is due entirely to (1) I compute that
the moon's diameter was 3^ miles (3" at mean distance) too
large, and this seems unlikely. If the error is due entirely to

TIME OBSERVATIONS. 81

(2), then Navalmoral was about 8^ miles off the central line,
and this also seems improbable.

If we reduce the predicted duration to 83s., the error in the
moon's diameter is reduced to 2 miles (1"'7 at mean distance), and
the loss of the remaining 3 seconds could be accounted for, if
Navalmoral were supposed to be about 5^ miles off the central
line, the position, error being mainly in latitude. The diameter
of the projected umbra would now be only 41 miles. The sun's
own circumference has not a sharp geometrical boundary, and
it is possible that the real diameter of the visible photosphere
varies slightly. Irregularities in the lunar limb may also account
for something.

The factors connected with a solar eclipse at a given place
are : —

(1) The semi-diameter of the sun.

(2) The semi-diameter and distance of the moon.

(3) The direction and velocity of the moon's movement.

(4) The earth's place in her orbit, and the observer's position
on the earth.

(5) The direction and velocity of the observer's movement.

If (1), (4), (5) are assumed to be correctly known, then errors
in (2) and (3) can be determined by accurate observations of
the times of contact at the various stations. Hence the import-
ance of such observations.

It is generally supposed that the discrepancies between pre-
diction and observation, which come out so plainly in the case of
the present eclipse, are due mainly to some error in the assumed
semi-diameter of the moon.

The present values of the geocentric mean semi-diameters of
the moon, used in computing eclipses, are as follows : —

American "Ephemeris, 15' 31"'76; British "Nautical Almanac,"
15' 32"-65; French "Connaissance des Temps," J5' 32"'83. For
this eclipse, the respective values, at the time of E.A. con-
junction, were : American Ephemeris, 15' 55"'0; British "Nautical
Almanac," 15' 55"'89; French "Connaissance des Temps," 15' 55"'9 ;
the American value being thus 0"'89 smaller than the British.

It is to be hoped that the records of this eclipse, imperfect as
they are, may lead to more accurate predictions in the future.

In conclusion I may add that this was an eclipse of somewhat
brief totality. The maximum duration (about 134s. by N.A.
data) occurred, unfortunately, far out in the Atlantic, near longi-
tude 45° 1' W., and latitude 44° 57' N. The time was about local
noon (2h. 57m. G.M.T.).

C. T. WHITMELL.

No. 20, near Manzanares. — Mr. KEATLEY MOORE in his report
gives the following additional particulars as to the time deter-
minations made there :— •" Every care was taken to check the
rating of the chronometer carried by the party — first bv

THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

daily comparisons with the chronometers of the ' Britannia '
(P. & O.), on, the way out to Gibraltar, then at Madrid by com-
parison with the obsiervatory clock (by Dent), with the courteous
help of Senor Ventosa, and finally on returning to Gibraltar, by
comparison with the chronometers of H.M.S. ' Isis.' This chrono-
meter was found to be an excellent instrument, maintaining a
very even rate; from first to last it altered its rate only 1.3
seconds. It was lent to the party by Messrs. Bowman, its makers.
It was of course of the first importance to know the local time
correctly in order to check the computed G.M.T. times of the
eclipse. Equal altitudes of the sun were therefore taken, by

Miss EDITH MAVXDEB CALLING TIME, HOTEL DE LA KEGENCE, ALGIERS.

sextant and artificial horizon, on both 27th and 28th May, at
M'anzanares.

Being able to place dependence on these observations the party
had the presumption to supply the Madrid Observatory with a
correction of the position of Manzanares, which is mapped about
1\ miles too far south, and 3£ miles too far west, taking the fine
church ' Parroquia de la Asuncion ' in the market place, as the
centre of the town.

Longitude, really 3° 19' 12" W., not 3° 22' 23" as mapped at
Madrid.

Latitude, really 39° 2' 3" N., not 38° 50' 39" as on the map of
the Royal Geographical Society, London.

The limit of error in each case is + 30".

TIME OBSERVATIONS.

The longitude and latitude of our tower were 3° 18' 54" W and
39° 1' 50" N.

" These discrepancies materially altered both the anticipated
times and the anticipated duration of the eclipse."

NOTE ON THE ECLIPSE AT MAZAFBAN CAMP.*

MONS. ALVADO, whom we asked to observe the duration of
totality, was observing the sun through the sextant telescope

MR. EVERSHED'S CAMP, PONT MAZAFBAN, ALGIERS.
Showing Coelostat and Camera-end of Reflecting Spectrograph.

furnished with a red shade on the eyepiece. He had a watch
in his hand, as had several other onlookers. At the moment
when only as much light as a " pin head " remained, Alvado
called out " contez" but no sooner had he pronounced the word,
when it began to get light again. He stated that the remaining
spot of light was red, but this was no doubt due to the shade
glass of his telescope. His wife called it " a speck of yellow
light."

Mons. Laurence, Maire de Kolea, and Mons. le Directeur des
Contributions, both confirmed Alvado's statement. The latter

*By H. EVERSHED.

84 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, 1 900.

stated that had we been 200 metres further north-east we should
have had totality, for he saw the shadow passing over the sand
dunes in that direction.

Mons. Alvado stated further that when he glanced down
at the moment when the eclipse was almost total he observed a
curious streak, as of moonlight, " qui frappe sur la mer," in a
line from our hut to a point 20 or 30 metres south of the mouth
of the Mazafran River. All to the right of this streak was
dark.

In the evening the Arabs sat talking with Alvado of the
event, and Bel Kadir the berger declared that some little piece
at El Simpsli remained, as much he said as a " garro " (cigarette).
This statement was contradicted by the other Arabs (our neigh-
bour Larbi and others). These men were hoeing maize 500
metres north-east of our hut, and they all declared that the
whole sun was obscured for a moment.

The farmer (Alvado) joined in the conversation, and told me
what the Arabs were arguing about, and it seems the berger
that day had taken his cattle: south of the Mazafran Bridge to
a point about 500 metres south of our hut and near the river
bank.

The postmaster of Zeralda (a village 3f kilometres north-east
of our camp) was also requested by us to observe the duration
of totality, and he with the help of the letter carrier, a stop
watch, and smoked glass, determined the duration to be 9
seconds. This observation he said we could absolutely rely upon
as being correct.

[This observation, if correct, would make our camp about
two kilometres outside the shadow, but it is not confirmed by
the durations found at Algiers and Cape Matifou. The argument
of the Arabs would show, too, that the actual limit of the
shadow must have passed very close to the camp. It is perhaps
a little tantalizing to know that a small plantation of olive
trees to the north-east, which we originally chose as a good
camping ground, and afterwards abandoned, was actually just
within the zone of totality. — J. EVERSHED.]

NOTE ON THE PROBABLE REASON OF THE OVER-ESTIMATE OF THE
DURATION OF TOTALITY IN THE " NAUTICAL ALMANAC." *

THE experience of all the observers, both in India in 1898 and
at the recent eclipse, showed that the duration of totality was
shorter by four or five seconds than that predicted by the
" Nautical Almanac."

A probable explanation of this fact occurred to me a short
time ago. It is a matter of common knowledge that the moon's

* BA- A. C. D,

TIME OBSERVATIONS.

limb is exceedingly irregular, being broken by mountains and
valleys. I was greatly struck with this irregularity at the recent
eclipse. Twenty seconds before totality the disappearing crescent
began to be broken into segments by the lunar mountains, and
a few seconds before totality there was really no semblance of

DIAGKAM ILLVSTKATING ON AN EXAGGERATED SCALE THE IRREGfLAlUTIES ON
THE MOON'S LIMB.

The diameter of the middle circle is that deduced from occultations.

The diameter of the inner circle is that which is effective for producing total
eclipses of the Sun.

a crescent left, but irregular patches and beads of light. The
lost ray of the disappearing sun would shine through the deepest
valley that there happened to be on the moon's limb near the
point of disappearance.

In the diagram I have drawn three circles, the outermost
drawn through the highest mountains on the moon's limb,

THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

the innermost through the deepest valleys, and the third
half way between these.

Then it seems clear that the discussion of a large number
of occupations of stars at various points of the limb will give
a diameter corresponding very approximately to that of the

STBEET i>* THE AEAB QUARTER, ALGIERS.

These arc narrower than those lower down, and goods are carried there by
donkeys with a pack on each side. The streets are so narrow that it is difficult
for two laden donkeys to pass in them. The photogi-aph shows a woman at a
fruit and milk stall, stooping to escape the camera, and in the background is
seen one of the smaller mosques.

middle circle. Now the mean diameter of the moon used for
eclipses and occultations in the " Nautical Almanac/' viz.,
31' 5".30, was deduced by Dr. L. Struve, from a discussion of
the occultations of a large number of stars during the lunar
eclipses of 1884 and 1888. Hence we may assume that this
diameter corresponds to the middle circle on the diagram.

TIME OBSERVATIONS. 87

But since we do not call the eclipse total so long as any portion
of the sun is visible, even through a lunar valley, it seems clear
that the effective diameter for producing a total eclipse will be
less than Struve's value, and will approach more or less closely
to the inner circle, according to the depth of the valleys near the
points of second and third contact. Mr. Seabroke has pointed
out that we do not see a valley on the limb of its full depth,
unless it is pointing straight towards the earth. But out of the
numerous valleys that exist there are probably a few that point
thus. Moreover, a depth of 5000 feet below the mean level is all
that is required to produce the observed phenomenon; and
when we consider the great irregularity of the moon's surface,
and the great height of some of its mountains, it appears quite
probable that some valleys may be much deeper than 5000 feet,
so that even when their apparent depth is reduced in the
manner indicated by Mr. Seabroke, it would still amount to the
necessary quantity.

The American ephemeris uses 3L' 3". 52 as the moon's mean
diameter for eclipses and occultations. And the predictions of
this ephemeris have been very nearly accurate both in 1898
and 1900. Had Mr. Evershed gone by it instead of the
" Nautical Almanac," he would have placed himself two* miles
further north, and would have obtained several seconds of
totality.

Considering the great importance of predicting the duration
and boundaries of totality with all the accuracy possible, I
would suggest that the diameter of the American ephemeris
(or even a slightly smaller value for perfect safety) should be
used by the " Nautical Almanac " in the prediction of total
eclipses. Both the above ephemerides use the same value for
the sun's mean diameter, viz., 31' 59". 26, deduced by Prof.
Auwers from heliometer measures, which is probably very near
the truth.

Curiously enough the American ephemeris for 1902 and
subsequent years uses 31' 5". 10 as the moon's mean diameter for
eclipses and occultations. I regard this as a distinctly retrograde
step as regards total eclipses, though it is probably an improve-
ment as regards occultations.

A. C. D. CROMMELIN.

CHAPTER, X.

THE CORONA.

IT is curious how the centre of interest in eclipses has shifted in
the course of time. As noted elsewhere, our forefathers were
chiefly impressed by the darkness, and by the appearance of
stars in the daytime. When we come to the earlier eclipses of
the present century, we find that the " Red Flames " monopolised
almost all the notice ; and it is only within the last forty years
or so that the corona, which is to us to-day emphatically the
feature of the eclipse, has received much study. How it was
that the few stars, faintly shining, or the prominences, so much
smaller than the corona, drew all eyes, whilst the corona, so
beautiful, so mysterious, so unique, hardly obtained any record,
is very difficult to explain. But the king has come to his own
at last, and this truly royal splendour is now the chief object
of study and of admiration, on each occasion that the complete
withdrawal of sunlight permits it to be se'en.

Though the entire length of time during which the corona
has been visible, since eclipses first began to be studied with any
degree of scientific precision, has but little exceeded a single hour,
yet that study was very soon rewarded by a most striking dis-
covery, the full significance of which we have still to seek. In
1 878, it was first suggested, and every eclipse since has confirmed
that suggestion, that the form of the corona changes in sympathy
with the greater or less development of solar spots. This
relationship has been so completely accepted, that M. Hansky,
after the successful Russian expedition to Novaya Zemlaia in
1896, did not hesitate to forecast the form which it would present
in 1900, as may be seen in the accompanying plate. The fore-
cast did not, of course, go much into detail, but is substantially
correct. It shows two great arms, directed east and west, in
the line of the sun's equator; the eastern arm showing a ten-
dency to taper, whilst round the north and south poles, were a
number of distinctly separated plumes or aigrettes.

Such were, indeed, the chief features of the corona of 1900.
In technical language it was " of a pronounced minimum type " ;
as was to be expected when the spots on the sun's surface had
shrunk to something like one-twentieth of the area which they
had covered at the maximum, seven years before.

From a great number of descriptions we may select a short
one by Prof. MOVE (Elche) : " To the naked eye and opera-glass
the moon was perfectly dark and black, surrounded by a circle

THE

UNIVERSITY I

THE CORONA. 91

of silvery white, almost dazzlingly bright, and recalling the
text-book diagrams of an annular eclipse. It was the inner
corona. To the right and left of the sun, two immense
streamers, pearly as to tinge, were seen, tolerably bright and
fading away gradually at their edges. They were on the ecliptic,
or very nearly so, their length was two or three solar diameters ;
the western streamer being noticed nearly up to Mercury, 2°
from the sun. The ogival form of the streamers was very
conspicuous; each seemed to consist of two curved rays with
a central rift. Round the sun's pole there were only faint and
short plumes; — a typical form of a minimum year."

The estimates as to the colour of the corona varied consider-
ably. Mr. KEAUSS NIELD, for the party at Cape Matifou,
says : —

The corona appeared to me to be almost if not quite colourless,
the rays had a silvery glow which was particularly delicate and
difficult to describe. At an exhibition a little while ago, I saw,
just before twilight was over, a long ray from a powerful
search-light, and it struck me at once, that here, toned down by
the daylight that still remained, was reproduced more nearly
than in anything else I had ever noticed, the exact tone of the
colour of the corona. Most of the members of our party described
it as either " silvery and colourless," or " very pale blue."

Col. BURTON-BROWN (Cemetery Hill) reports that " the corona
was pearly white, but not so pearly as in December, 1870. The
main corona was visible .about a moon's radius round it, pretty
regularly grading off from the limb outwards; it was rather
brighter on the apparent right side near the moon during the
whole time. The streamers and, in a slighter degree, the outer
corona appeared slightly tinted with a peacock green colour.

" The sky was perfect. Every anticipation as to Algiers being
an ideal station was verified, and the glorious phenomenon more
than ever confirmed the impression which I expressed to Sir
G. B. Airy after the total eclipse of 1870, "That the sun
appeared like an enormous electrical machine, emitting a flow
of luminous electricity into space from every part of it, and if
brighter round one part of the moon than round another part,
it seemed due to th» brightness of the radiating surface, and
partly to extra energy therefrom."

Mr. WALTER MAUNDER (Hotel de la Regence, Algiers), recalling
the eclipses of 1886 and 1898, considered, that all three coronae
were white in colour, but that whilst the two earlier eclipses
were white, and somewhat of the tendency to a steely blue which
we see in the electric arc, the present corona was rather of the
whiteness of ivory, a somewhat warmer tone with a slight
tendency to yellow being noticeable. This impression was con-
firmed by Prof. H. H. Turner, who had seen the same three
eclipses, but, on the other hand, the observers at Manzanares
considered that the whiteness of the corona tended distinctly to
the bluish side and away from the yellowish side. " If we were
not afraid of indicating too pronounced a colour, we might say

92 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

that it had an exceedingly faint amethystine tinge. The
returning sunlight looked magnificently orange-yellow at its first
appearance, by contrast : proving the tendency towards amethyst
of the coronal light. Mr. Moor© who was in India in 1898
judges this corona to be of precisely the same colour as that
seen in India; and the yellowness of the returning sunlight was
equally marked there."

Other observers varied greatly as to their estimate of the
colour. Thus at Navalmoral^ Mr. HOWAETH called the corona
" a circle of soft silvery light," Mr. LA GUIDARA, " dazzling
silvery light " ; Mr. SOUTHALL, " intense white, the streamers
appeared of a creamy tint " ; Mr. BUCKLEY, " close to its rim
the sun was encircled by a yellow light " ; Mr. W. F. STANLEY
found " the moon dark red or brown, a sharp, clear aureola
surrounded it about 2' in width, this had a slightly yellow
tone, the corona was distinctly bluish " ; Mr. and Mrs. CON-
STABLE at Talavera, " the moon, as in a total lunar eclipse,
appeared like transparent copper, with a lighter tone near its
limb, the bright shafts of the corona had a, yellowish tone near
the sun."

At Ovar, the Rev. A. MORFORD thought the colour of the corona
had to the naked eye a violet tinge; and Mr. GIBBS at the same
place calls the corona " pearly white," and speaking of the
brightness of the inner corona, uses the same simile as Prof.
Moye, that it almost gave the idea that the eclipse was not total
but annular.

On the whole it is clear that the corona may properly be
described as " white " ; the slight creamy tinge being perhaps
most noted by those1 observers who paid most attention to the
inner region, the slight bluish tinge by those who observed
rather the outer extensions.

THE CORONA SEEN OUT OF TOTALITY.

A FEW observations were made of the corona, either before
totality was complete, or after it was over. In most cases it
could only be traced for a few seconds ; Mr. Weir's observation
being a most remarkable exception. As it stands it appears
perfectly definite, but the length of time out of totality is so
considerable that it seems safer to suppose that the appearance
was due to some reflection in the camera.

Mr. WEIR (Plasencia) : When adjusting the camera for
photographing the total phase, quite ten minutes before
totality — fully three-fourths of the sun's diameter being
obscured — we were astonished, on closely pbserving the
image on the focussing screen, to find on the south-western
side lines of light which evidently proceeded from the
sun. Although aware of the delicate nature of the coronal

THE CORONA. 93

rays, we could imagine this to be nothing less than early indica-
tions of the corona itself, and were thus prepared for the form
assumed by that section of the corona when totality came on.
Our conjecture may or may not have been correct, but the facts
were clear. The rough note taken at the time, and written out
immediately after, reads, " Saw the appearance of the corona
at underside of sun quite ten minutes before totality — fuzzy
appearance witii lines of light." This seems to show that given
the requisite conditions, viz., a suitable atmosphere and the
moon favourably placed relative to the stronger coronal rays,
these may be seen even if the eclipse be not total.

Mr. BACKHOUSE (Plasencia) : When totality was over a com-
plete continuous ring continued visible round the moon, the
brightest part of the corona being visible I should think three
or four seconds afterwards. I believe I saw the ring complete
also before totality actually commenced.

Mr. J. E. PEAECE (Cape Matifou) observed the corona with a
binocular, and hiding the bright crescent of the sun with part
of the instrument, saw the corona from eight seconds before
the commencement of totality until 4h. 20m. 20s., G.M.T., or
1 minute 47^ seconds after the sun's light had reappeared.

DRAWINGS OF THE CORONA.*

OBEYING the wish of the Editor, though I unfeignedly regret
the work was not given to more capable hands, I have carefully
studied the very numerous sketches he has sent me, and venture
to make a few observations upon them. From the whole mass,
since all could not be published, I have selected for reproduction
eleven which seem fairly representative. Of these, Miss Stevens's
beautiful sketch, much softer and more beautiful in the original
than in the reproduction, having already appeared as a full-page
illustration in " Knowledge/' is inserted here by kind permission
of the proprietors of that journal ; and Mr. Moore's sketch
(possibly imbued with the perverseness of its author) refused
to come into line with the rest : these two, therefore, are printed
by themselves. The remaining nine have all been brought to
one size by the photographer — that is to say, the diameter of
the moon is made f inch in each case. I have rotated to the
left all the eleven sketches from the position as seen in the sky,
and drawn by the sketchers, so as to bring the sun's axis vertical,
and I have added Mercury, at 7.3 lunar radii from the moon's
centre, to each sketch alike. One or two sketchers have
blackened the moon (even Miss Stevens was guilty of this
heresy), whereas one of the most remarkable things in a solar
eclipse is that the moon does not seem dark : there is, as it
were, a hole in the corona, and the sky as seen through that

* By H. KEATLEY MOORE.

94 THE TOTAL SOLAH ECLIPSE, IQOO.

hole is precisely of the colour of the rest of the sky.*
Other sketchers have sent in a black pencil outline on white
paper. To bring these all to the same level as the rest, for
convenience of comparison, I have had the black moons
neutralised in the reproductions, and I have lightly pencilled a
filling-in to the reproductions of black outline sketches. These
last have then been reversed in photography, black for white,
so that they now appear as if drawn in chalk on a blackboard,
the original lines clearly showing on the faint white background
added by myself. It will be seen that no real alteration of the
sketches has been made in reproduction, and of course the
valuable originals are not touched. It seemed better to say
exactly what has been done ; and it is hoped that the necessity
of these slight re-arrangements may seem as imperative to
the readers as it did, after some weeks of experiment, to the
writer.

It is evident, from the above, how great an advantage it
would be if sketchers would agree to use one medium of ex-
pression and one scale. The plan adopted by that distinguished
artist, the late N. E. Green, a former president of the Asso-
ciation, seems the best, and at the risk of wearisome repetition
it may here be restated. Take purplish-blue paper, not too
dark, and draw on it with white chalk ; the chalk should be
pointed at one end, and broadly flattened at the other, so that
lines of varying force and thickness, and surfaces of even tint
may easily be given ; and by thus drawing in white upon blue,
nearly in the natural colours of the object, the awkward and
very dangerous translation of white upon blue into black upon
white, as in a pencil drawing, is avoided — a great advantage.
A half-crown supplies a disc of very convenient size, and is
always available, at all events at this period, only halfway
through the journey. The position of a planet (as Venus in
1898, or Mercury in 1900) should be marked beforehand; and
sketchers should have previously practised as often as possible,
always working strictly to time, and from a distant drawing,
comparing their sketches afterwards with the original in terms
of the moon's radius, and not using the same original twice in
succession. It is highly desirable not to attempt more than one
quadrant in actual eclipse-sketching, and when there are at least
five in a party, the leader of the party (or the most rapid
sketcher) should make a rough outline of the whole corona to
guide him in making the composite sketch. Mr. Krauss Nield
has sent in his own rough outline, which is very clever and
valuable, and was done during totality; and this must have
been of great help in producing the combined drawing of his
party from their partial sketches. Some parties who did not
make their own combined drawing have given a little needless

* The Editor must confess himself as to some extent an heretic on this point.
To his eyes— and to those of not a few other observers— the moon, though far
from being black, is distinctly darker than the surrounding sky; and most
certainly this conclusion is supported by not a few of the photographs.

THE CORONA. 95

trouble by not marking their partial sketches clearly. " Top
left, top right, bottom left, bottom right," might be suggested
as a set of names for quadrants quite free from confusion.

The first thing that strikes one in critically comparing these
drawings is the large general resemblance of most of them. It
must be the case that there is in a large number of people
accidentally coming together in this way, every possible variety
of skill, from the quite feeble beginner to the accomplished and
rapid sketcher, and all shades of nervousness, from the highly-
strung youth whose awe-struck emotion prevents his rightly
estimating angles and dimensions and such trivialities in the
presence of the most divinely wonderful thing he ever saw, up
to the cool old veteran of two or three eclipses who is able to
keep his nerves well in hand, and attend to his work almost as
steadily as at one of the usual practices. Consequently it is
necessary to compare a large number of sketches, paying, of
course, greater attention to those which are themselves com-
binations of partial sketches. Every sketcher of any practice
feels his own work to be the precisely true representation of what
he saw, and if another sketch differs from his, bv but a hair's
breadth, so much the worse for the other sketch ! We who sketch
are so made, that we can no more help feeling the other man
is all wrong (even if, as an Irishman might say, the other man is
a lady or a camera) than we can fly. But when an editor
demands a critical comparison common sense comes into play,
ancl artistic self-consciousness must bow to the decision of the
majority.

The sketches shown are — (1) By Miss C. O. Stevens, at Algiers;
(2) by H. Keatley Moore (combined from sketches of hemi-
spheres by self and Captain Carpenter), at Manzanares; (3)
by Colonel Markwick, director of our Variable Star Section (at
sea, on an Orient liner, which he skilfully assisted the captain
to place exactly on the line of totality at the critical moment),
off Ovar ; (4) by C. T. Whitmell (combined from sketches of
quadrants by his party), at Navalmoral; (5) by T. W. Back-
house (aided by a field-glass), at Plasencia; (6) by W. F. Stanley,
at Navalmoral (a wonderful piece of chalk drawing to be pro-
duced in one minute, but actually untouched) ; (7) by Thomas
Weir, at Plasencia; (8) by Monsieur Marcel Moye, one of our
French members, at Elche; (9) by Colonel Burton-Brown (com-
bined sketch, of importance from the large number of persons
taking part in it, several of them being competent sketchers, and
many having practised together on the voyage out), at Algiers
and vicinity; (10) by Andrew C. D. Crommelin, director of our
Cometary section, at Algiers (drawn from memory ten minutes
after totality); and (11) by H. Krauss Nield (com-
bined sketch, of importance from the number and careful prac-
tisings of those who sketched quadrants, so that at least two
excellent drawings of each quadrant were obtained), at Cape
Matifou, Algiers. In the case of this last sketch (No. 11) the
combined sketch was drawn in pencil on tracing paper over the

THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, TQOO.

quadrants, and when agreed to as correct was placed, as if it
were a negative, on a piece of glass and printed out with
ordinary photographic paper. From the positive thus obtained
the present reproduction is directly taken. Mr. Krauss Nield's
party also having been sufficiently blessed with this world's
goods to muster half-a^crown between them, the result comes to
hand in a most available form, with a half-crown moon and
a combined drawing as nearly untouched by the compiler's in-
dividuality as possible. That is why I have ventured to give the
details of his ingenious device.

The drawings not produced here closely resemble one or the
other of these eleven; and sketchers must not, therefore, feel
that their labour, so valuable to themselves, has been valueless
to others. Thus Mr. Howarth's sketch (Navalmoral) may be
taken as a variant of Mr. W. F. Stanley's (No. 6, Navalmoral),
but with the S.W. streamer extended to 5 radii. Mr. Nielsen's
sketch (Ovar), which indicates, by the way, three red promi-
nences in the middle of the west side of the corona, as visible
to the naked eye is just Colonel Markwick's (No. 3, at sea off
Ovar), but with to£nuTg|w}icand under boundaries of the west
side much more m*arly< straights: Mrs. Bevan's combined sketch
(Algiers), and Mr. TQ/AJ^.^^Ro^Dterts junior's combined sketch
(Algiers), are bo\h slight vfi^antspf Mr. Krauss Nield's (No. 11,
Algiers), the main difference being that Mr. Roberts has the
lower boundary of th^^jtesfosuj^curved almost as much as that
of Colonel Markwick (NoT 3^an,d so on with others. It is at
least worthy of remark that in each unpublished case named
the nearest published sketch is that from the same district.
Navalmoral resembles Navalmoral ; Ovar, Ovar ; Algiers, Cape
Matifou, i.e., Algiers. As regards prominences visible to the
eye it is interesting to note that Colonel Markwick and Mr.
Backhouse exactly support each other in noting a fine one
a little below the equator on the western limb.

There is one feature common to all the sketches, and as this
is also to be found in Mr. Wesley's most beautiful combined
drawing (compiled from many photographs by Mr. and Mrs.
Maunder), it may be taken as proved. I mean the upward lift
of the western upper boundary of the corona. The " angel's
wing " outline of this boundary, with a special brightness at the
crest of the curve, which Mr. Wesley shows, is found very
markedly in the Manzanares and Ovar sketches. The same
outline, but without the special brightness, is distinctly though
less markedly shown in the Cape Matifou sketch, and still less
markedly in the Plasencia sketch (No. 7). In the Elche sketch
this boundary finishes early, but if the sketcher had seen it
further I think it not unlikely that it would have proved to be
of this type ; both the Navalmoral sketches tend towards it, while
there is nothing inconsistent with it in some of the Algiers
sketches (Nos. 9 and 10), which have not this boundary at full
length. On the other hand, Miss Stevens (Algiers) and Mr.
Backhouse (Plasencia) are either straight or slightly convex.

•

**<

3. At sea, off Ovar. (By Col. E. E. MARKWICK, E.A., F.R.A.S.)

4. Xavahnoral. (By CHAS. T. WHITMELL, M.A., F.R.A.S.)

5. Plaseneia. (By T. W. BACKUOVSE, F.R.A.S.)

(i. Xavalmonil. (By AV. F. STANLEY, F.R.A.S.)

7. Plasencia. (By THOMAS AVEiii, F.E.A.S.)

8. Elclie. (By MARCEL MOVE, LL.D.)

9. Algiers. (By Col. ALEX. BUKTOX-BKOWX, K.A., F.R.A.S.)

10. Algiers. (By ANDREW C. D. CROMMELIX, F.R.A.S.)

11. Cape Matit'ou, Algiers. (By H. KHAVSS ^>"IELU.

THE CORONA. 109

The length of this " angel's wing " was fortunately fixed by
Mercury. At Algiers, Manzanares, Cape Matifou (where Dr.
Harold Whichello specially observed this point), and Navalmoral,
the corona was distinctly seen to extend a little beyond and
above Mercury (7.3 lunar radii from the moon's centre). This
then is a point abundantly proved by many independent
sketchers. The fact that others did not see it is probably due
to less fresh or less skilled eyesight; it is unfortunately only
too easy to watch a little too often the interesting partial phases
before totality, or to endeavour to catch Baily's beads, etc., with
the inevitable result of cutting thousands upon thousands of
miles off the extent of the corona. And this I say daringly, for
the wrath of many indignant sketchers awaits me ; but it is
disastrously true, like many other unpleasant things in this
world, that you cannot eat your cake and have it. At any rate
this one result is ample justification for refusing ever to depend
solely upon the camera to the neglect of the older, simpler, and
rougher method of hand and eye. Here at least we sketchers
have scored a point.

The lower western boundary is also shown by Mr. Wesley to
be curved, and with him (following his originals, the Maunder
photographs) it is cut off by one of those deeply interesting
black lines we think so much and know so very little about.
Manzanares, Ovar, and Elche, and perhaps one of the Algiers
(No. 10) tend to corroborate this dark line in the definite way
the western lower boundary runs right up to the moon's limb.
In all other cases it melts into the inner corona vaguely. The
curved outline is a little over estimated perhaps in Ovar, and a
little under estimated in Navalmoral (No. 4); very well shown
in two of the Algiers (Nos. 9 and 10) and in Elche, though in
this last (the whole division being far too narrow) it unfortu-
nately runs up almost to form a point with the upper boundary.

Still using Mr. Wesley's remarkably beautiful transcription
of the photographs as our standard of comparison, we observe
that the general features of the great western division of the
corona comprise a very decided northern ray, broad at the base
and tapering gradually to a point; a less decided southern ray,
broader at the base and tapering much more gradually (alto-
gether blunter in shape than the former), and between these a
beautiful brush-work with two or perhaps three rays or groups
of rays extending beyond it, but the whole of much less extension
than the great north and south rays on this side, say roughly
of half their length. The outline on the extreme west (if we
may use an absurdly harshly-defined term, where the actual
appearance was that of an exquisite imperceptible melting away)
is hollow; so that with the definite north and south boundaries
the whole figure of the western division has a rough similarity
(parvis componere magna) with a herring's tail. This last feature
is common to all the eleven sketches except No. 10. No. 3 is
not very definite, but does not wholly disagree. I hold that
No. 7, who has failed to see more than the roots of the great

110 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

streamers, yet quite agrees so far as he goes; and No. 8 clearly
means the middle to be less extensive than the boundaries. The
herring's tail feature may therefore be regarded as fixed.
• Then as to the great upper ray all but No. 10 clearly have
it, some to the full extent visible to the naked eye, others to a
less extent; No. 9 omits the tapering effect, Nos. 3 and 8
exaggerate it, because of the narrowness of their base. But the
consensus is so marked as abundantly to prove it. Next as to
the great lower ray; three of these sketches make it shorter than
the upper ray, namely, Nos. 1, 5, and 6. But Nos. 2, 3, and 4
make it longer, and Nos. 8 and 9 at least equal, or even slightly
longer. Judging from the slowness of its tapering in Mr.
Wesley's drawing, and remembering that it grew much more
rapidly faint as it proceeded than did its more striking " angel's
wing " brother, I am inclined to think it was longer, and that
Manzanares and Navalmoral (No. 4) are justified. On the other-
hand, this lower ray is clearly more definite throughout its
length than Manzanares makes it, a feature whieh only No. 10
omits.

The middle portion of this western division, with its fine brush-
work, and emphasised rays, shows clearly in No. 1, is too vague
and probably a little over extended in No. 2 (or not sufficiently
softened off, we may say), and is one of the best drawn parts in
Plasencia (No. 7). It is abundantly shown by every one.

The parts around the north and south poles of the sun have
with Mr. Wesley much less importance. The South Polar fine
faint rays (including the dark ray) radiate fairly well from the
sun's centre, but the rays at the North Pole spring from a
radiant point near the limb, and extend less than those at the
South Pole.

The sketches are still in agreement with this. The South
Polar rays are shown as longer in nearly all the sketches, and
where there is a difference in power are also fainter than those
at the North Pole. The excentric effect of the northern rays
is indicated in Nos. 3, 5, 7, and 11; but only slightly, as the
sketchers were intent upon the more striking equatorial regions.

Finally, passing to the Eastern division of the corona we find
in Mr. Wesley's drawing a fine streamer with a base extending
from below the equator nearly to the pole, and visible, tapering
steadily, and towards a point a little above the sun's equator, to
a length nearly equal to either of the western streamers. Above
this is a short roughly parallel ray, about a third of the length
of its companion, radiating from the elevated radiant point
affected by the other North Polar rays, and its root balancing
the root of the " angel's wing." Below "the great eastern streamer
are three others, all rapidly decreasing in brilliancy as they
advance, and all shorter than the great streamer; the lowest
of these, with its great markedly curved root, balancing very
closely the " dark ray " which bounds the lower western ray.
As these three lower Eastern features are not very different
in length from the rays of the South Polar region, a roughly

THE CORONA. Ill

circular margin, parallel with the moon's limb, is felt in the
photographs, ranging from the greater lower Western ray to the
great Eastern ray.

These Eastern features are not so well produced by many of
the sketchers. It is of course known to every one who handles
a pencil that it is more difficult to draw to the left of a line
than to the right, simply because we use the right hand, and
the natural play of the hand is towards the right, as indeed the
direction of our writing admirably evidences. Therefore a priori
I should expect left-hand features occasionally to be stinted by
unwary sketchers, and in marshalling my forces should put most
of my best troops on that dangerous side. Nevertheless Nos. 2,
4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, show as great or nearly as great an extension
on the east as on the west, and while No. 3 falls a little short
No. 10 even extends further. No. 6 touches the edge of his
paper, and leaves it a little uncertain how much further he
meant to go. Only No. 1 has an Eastern side very greatly
subordinate to the Western, and as this sketcher was working
alone there are many practical reasons to account for this short-
coming. I regard it as proved that the great Eastern ray was
nearly as long as the great Western rays.

Both the great Eastern ray and the smaller (excentric) ray
are admirably shown in Mr. Backhouse's drawing, Plasencia
No. 5; nothing could be better in general effect, and we only
want it a little extended. Very good also is No. 9 on this point,
but the magnificent base has not been sufficiently well felt. Mr.
Krauss Nield is also, as usual, successful; his great ray only
wants to be redrawn parallel to its present position but a little
higher up the paper, it is very good in direction and general
effect; and this would also bring the smaller ray, clearly
indicated, nearer to the pole, as it should be. No. 7 has also
got his great Eastern ray pointing below instead of above the
equator. Every one has felt the tapering effect of this ray,
Manzanares less than most. Its form, extent, and general
position are abundantly proved.

Then as to the rest of the Eastern division, Nos. 1, 5, 7, 10, 11
show two of the three smaller streamers1 below the great one,
and Nos. 2, 3, 6 generalise. Nos. 4 and 9 only show one of the
streamers, so that it becomes over prominent by isolation. No. 8
alone shows none. The balance of both upper and lower main
curving boundaries of Eastern and Western divisions is exag-
gerated in No. 8, but the very exaggeration shows how promi-
nent was the effect to that sketcher. No. 7 is the only one to
feel nothing of this balance; for in No. 11, though not well
apparent as it stands, the correction suggested in the last paia-
graph would bring it out quite clearly ; but many do not realise
the bounding curves so well as they have done on the Western
side, no doubt led by the straight boundaries of the main
feature, the great Eastern ray. Looking at both upper and
lower boundaries of Nos. 6 and 9, I observe the same effect
indicated which has been overdone in No. 8, and this point also

112 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, 1 900.

seems to be proved. In general, the sketching seems to me rather
poorer, and less accordant on the Eastern side than on the
Western.

Looking at the corona as a whole the tilt upwards to the
right and downwards to the left is excellently marked through-
out. But I feel convinced that Nos. 4, 5, and 6 are right in
the upward axis of their great Eastern ray, so that if the whole
corona is turned so as to stand upon the " fish-tail " as a base,
this great ray will trend to the right hand (as Mr. Wesley says
it should do), and not, as in Nos. 1 and 2 and several others,
rather to the left. And the last observation that I shall make
is that except Manzanares (which I do not for a moment say is
correct in result, though I commend the attempt) no one tried
to mark definitely the limits of the " blaze " of the inner corona.
Mr. Stanley (No. 6) told me that to save time he stuck a white
ring on to his dark paper, as is apparent if the original is
examined, and most of the others have treated the inner corona
as a tolerably regular circular blaze. Colonel Burton-Brown
(No. 9) is successful in getting the general effect of this feature,
but I saw a much more irregular and more definite outline than
he gives. And though I frankly admit that, the Manzanares
outer edge (of the inner corona) is too hard, yet there is a very
great difference between inner and outer, and Nos. 2, 6, 8, and 9
have rightly emphasised this. There is of course a danger in
looking too much at the inner corona (and I think No. 7 is a
proof of it) as it is so dazzlingly bright that it tends to look
bigger than it really is, and to blind the eye for the far fainter
long extensions of the outer corona. My own plan is to take it
last, on this account.

Perhaps it comes from my reproducing the poetical name of
" angel's wing," given to the great N.W. streamer by a gifted
friend, that I yield to a suggestion in high quarters, and like a
fool " rush in where angels fear to tread." At all events it
has been thought desirable to embody in an imaginary sketch
(No. 12) all the points which I consider to have been proved
in the foregoing article. As this sketch will differ from every
one of the actual sketches my fate will lie between Actseon and
Marsyas, unless my indignant colleagues pause to remember that
while it differs it also agrees (in some points) with every one.
Speaking as a sketcher myself, and shaking off the critic, I am
quite sure that No. 12 is extremely wrong in every point where
it deviates from No. 2. I cannot therefore grumble if, changing
the latter number, my brother sketchers echo this sentiment.

But, to end seriously, I really think that every one who
carefully and without prejudice examines this group of
sketches, the production of only about a minute's work, and
therefore necessarily containing many errors, will be surprised to
find the large number of points in which a majority is found to
agree, and will come to the conclusion that sketching still
remains an indispensable and very valuable means of recording
an eclipse. At the same time we must endeavour to get more

THE CORONA.

113

practice before another eclipse, as it is clear that, in the immortal
words of Goldsmith's cognoscento (" Vicar of Wakefield "), " the
picture might have been better if the painter had taken more
pains."

H. KEATLEY MOORE.

The following diagram will enable the position of the sun's
axis and equator to be recognised on the drawings. Mercury,
shown on each of the sketches, was situated at the time of
mid-totality for the centre of Spain, at position angle 271°
from the N. point of the disc, reading in the direction N.E.S.W.,
and at a distance from the sun's centre of 2° 2' or^ 7.3 lunar
radii.

VERTEX

DIAGRAM OF THE SUNS DISC MAY 36, 1900

CHAPTER XI.

THE CORONA AS SEEN IN THE TELESCOPE.

ONE department of observation, to which attention was given in
this eclipse, was the detailed examination of the inner corona by
the aid of telescopes of considerable power. Chief amongst these
observers who undertook this department was Mr. W. H. WESLEY,
who was sent out to Algiers by the Council of the Royal
Astronomical Society, in order that science might have the benefit
of his artistic skill, and absolutely unique acquaintance with
coronal structure as shown on photographs, directed to the study
of the corona itself, as seen in a fine refractor. In Mr. Wesley's
own words, given in " Comptes Rendus," 1900, July 23, and
translated in " The Observatory," of 1900, September, " As I had
had occasion to study minutely the form and structure of corona as
photographed during eclipses since 1870, it seemed desirable to
compare the aspect of the corona as photographed and as observed
visually. There was a probability that the eye would see details
not shown in the photographs. My attention had been recently
directed to the point in a letter from Prof. Langley on the eclipse
of 1878. In his 'Report to the Superintendent of the United
States Naval Observatory,' he says : —

'Xow \vliat I saw in this brief view was a surprisingly definite filamentary
structure somewhat coarser and decidedly more sharply defined than I have
ever seen filaments in the photosphere, not disposed radially or oily so in
the rudest sense, sharpest and much the brightest close to the disc, fading
rapidly away into invisibility at a distance of five minutes of arc or more
(possibly in some cases of ten) Interesting as may be the photo-
graphs of the interior structure of the corona which have been recently
obtained, this structure has not been completely studied, even on the best
photographs I have seen ; the means at our disposal, at present, perhaps do
not permit us to do it. T hope that at the next eclipse this interior structure
will be a subject of special study on the part of every party possessing the
necessary photographic outfit, and I submit that wherever possible
telescopic study should be made.'

In photographs taken near the maximum of sun-spots (notably on
the photographs of 1871 and 1893), I have found a great amount
of complicated detail in the lower regions of the corona. The
photographs taken near the period of minimum sun-spots in
general show little detail."

Since the eclipse of 1900 took place at a time when the sun was
least spotted — and the event showed the corona to be markedly of
the minimum type — it seemed a peculiarly fitting occasion on which

THE CORONA AS SEEN IN THE TELESCOPE. 115

to put to the test the alleged superiority of the eye over the camera
for detail in the iuner portions of the corona. Mr. Wesley was,
moreover, especially favoured in his telescope, as M. Trepied,
Director of the Algiers Observatory, placed at his disposal
the powerful equatorial coude — probably the most powerful
instrument as yet employed visually on the solar corona.
The following is Mr. Wesley's own description of the visual
structure of the corona: — "At the instant of disappearance I
commenced observing, and perceived at the first glance a corona of
symmetrical shape, with broad, well marked polar rifts, extend-
ing a considerable distance to the N. and to the S. These rifts

Miss L. MARTIX-LEAKE, HOTEL BK LA REGEXCE, ALGIERS.

were filled with delicate rays, which I could follow to the edge of
the disc. They were straight and in a direction nearly radial in the
central portion of the rifts ; then towards the extremities of the
rifts they diverged more and more from the straight form and from
the radial direction. They recalled in a striking manner the rays
seen in many former eclipses, particularly that of 1889. The
equatorial regions were, in general, of a uniform density all along
the limb, and here I could not certainly find any trace of rifts
reaching right up to the lunar disc. I looked especially for traces
of arched or interlaced forms near the limb, but I could see none ;
I could only suspect some arched rays around the large prominence
in the S.E. The details seen in the lower equatorial regions

i 2

116 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

consisted entirely of ill-defined masses, not more than one-fourth
the lunar diameter in altitude. These masses faded off in a manner
nearly imperceptible, and presented no definite contour .... I
cannot believe that the non-appearance of arched or interlaced
structure to which I principally directed my attention was due to
bad definition, since the polar rays were defined with extreme
clearness."

Mr. Wesley's observation emphasises two points: — (1) The
solar corona varies in complexity throughout the progress of the
sun-spot cycle, being richest in detail when spots are most
abundant ; and (2) As much detail can be seen in a photograph
sufficiently exposed and developed, or rather in a series of
photographs obtained with different exposures and suitable
developments, as with the eye. On this point Mr. Wesley
says: — "I do not believe I saw more details than are shown
in the photographs, and now feel convinced that good photographs,
taken on a sufficiently large scale, are capable of showing all the
details which can be distinguished by the eye at the telescope. I
make this statement with the more confidence since it disagrees with
my preconceived ideas. I had expected to see detail of a more or less
complex nature, and my attention was especially directed to this
point. At the same time, the sky was absolutely transparent,
and the instrument which 1 used was, without doubt, better than
any hitherto employed for visual observation of an eclipse."

Five members of the party stationed on the roof of the Hotel
de la Ecgence, Algiers, took up this question of the detailed exami-
nation of the structure of the corona, in the telescope. Of these,
Miss LILIAN MARTIN-LEAKE, observing with a 8-inch refractor,
and a power of about 50, made an exceedingly careful drawing of the
corona in the S.W. quadrant, paying especial attention to the region
surrounding the prominence, situated about position angle 236°.
Miss Leake has given her observations in the form of a key-sketch
to her drawing with notes upon the several structures shown, thus
enabling the reader to reproduce and follow the details which she
saw in the field of her telescope with great exactness.

Mr. CKOMMELIN, who was armed with a refractor of 3 inches
aperture, selected the same general region as Miss Leake, and paid
special attention to the neighbourhood of the prominence at 236°,
that is to say, the large double one shown in Miss Leake's
picture. Besides his drawing, Mr. Crommelin supplies the follow-
ing notes : —

" As soon as the 'Ten Seconds' ' signal was given I removed the
cardboard screen, placed myself at the eyepiece of the telescope, and
slightly changed the focus, so that I was ready to commence observing
when Mr. Maunder gave the signal ' Go.' I directed my attention to
the largest prominence (position angle about 236°) which was seen
at once to be a magnificent double one, the left hand member being
straight, while the right hand one was bent sharply to the left.
The coronal light was of course pretty bright near the moon's limb,
and for some seconds I could not make out any detailed structure
in the restricted region I was examining, but presently I made out

THE CORONA AS SEEN IN THE TELESCOPE. 117

three bright projections— one rising pretty symmetrically between
the two large prominences — another on the right side of the bent
prominence, and the third to the left of these. I feel pretty
confident of the existence of these brighter regions, but they were

COHOXAL DETAIL ROUND LARGEST PROMINENCE.
(Position Anglo about 236°.)

Sketch made at Algiers with 3 in. Telescope during totality, by A. C.
1). Cromnielin.

so difficult to see that their positions in the drawing may be some-
what in error. An outline sketch was made during totality, and a
more finished drawing immediately after, while the appearance was
still fresh in the memory. These have since remained unaltered,
and the accompanying drawing is made from them."

118 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

The Rev. C. D. P. PAVIES employed a refractor of 2 inches
aperture and 30 inches focal length, the micrometer No. 2
(Sheepshanks 3) in No. 29 of the R.A.S. collection of instru-
ments lent by that Society, forming the eye-piece. This gave a
power of about 60, and was used in conjunction with an un-
silvered diagonal. Mr. Davies describes the polar aigrettes as
follows : —

" My photographic programme would not permit of my
lingering more than about a second and a half to gaze on the
vision, but the impression produced in that all too short moment
is one that I can never lose. The picture before me in intricacy,
wealth of detail, and pure beauty utterly transcended any de-
scription that I had ever met with either in drawing, photo-
graphy, or language. It was a most glorious sight. That which
first of all arrested attention, and in fact quite startled me, was
the evident perspective in which the streamers were viewed.
No photograph or drawing of a celestial object that I have ever
seen looks otherwise than as a representation of a plane
superficies, unless it be that of a partial phase of the moon.
Certainly all pictures of a total eclipse have to me looked
perfectly flat. But here were the streamers manifestly viewed
as rank behind rank, like stems of trees in a dense orchard, or,
better still; at least as illustrating their form more nearly, like
blades of yucca planted singly but thickly on a lawn. Their
colour seemed steely blue or possibly a trifle paler, not altogether
unlike that of the nib end of a quill pen, as it gleams with
reflected sunlight. Besides the perspective appearance of the
streamers bending one behind another as in a forest, there
were at least two other ways in which the visual appearance
put photographs out of court. First as regards colour : This is only
to be expected, and is a mere matter of course. In the second par-
ticular one might a priori have expected otherwise. In all photo-
graphs of total eclipses that I have seen the streamers, however
rectilinear may be the general direction of them in part or even
in the whole of their length, their edges are always more or less
ill-defined, giving one the impression of their being a tongue of
mist; whereas when I saw them they looked more like our old
friend, " a yard of pump-water." As regards at least the inner
portion of the corona, I imagine that there can be little doubt
that the appearance of haze in the photograph is produced by
the superposition on one another of the bases of innumerable
and separate streamers, and is a frantic attempt on the part of
the negative to supply that very appearance of perspective in
which it so sadly fails. The mention of the pump-water above
suggests just one more illustration of the appearance of the
scene. It was as if one were looking along the surface of a
sheet of water from which numberless jets were spurting up.
many of them gracefully bending over at the top, but cut off
before coming down again, some longer, some shorter, some
thicker, some more slender, and the whole glistening in sunlight."
Mr. EDMONDS, using like Miss Leake a 3-inch telescope with a

THE COROXA AS SEEN IN THE TELESCOPE. 119

power of 60, made no drawing, but examining the same region as
that chosen by Miss L. Leake, selected the neighbourhood of
the straight prominence for special study. Mr. Edmonds had set
himself to answer the three following questions: — (I) Whether
the corona consisted of broad diffused masses of light, or of
filaments ? (2) If filamentous in character, whether such filaments
were radial, tangential to the limb, or inclined at an angle to the
radius ? (3) Whether or no the corona seemed to avoid the neigh-
bourhood of prominences, as if repelled by them ? Mr. Edmonds'
replies to the questions were : — (1) The corona seemed to me to
consist of filaments. (2) These filaments were radial. (3) They
did not appear to avoid the edge of the prominence.

Mr. W. ANDREWS observed with a much smaller aperture and
larger field, and his results are comparable with those which would
be given by a view in a opera-glass. It will be noted that he gave
his attention chiefly to the outer streamers, that is to say, to
a region outside that which was studied by Mr. Wesley and the
three foregoing observers. " I had long wished to witness a total
eclipse of the sun, and with that intention accompanied the
expedition to Vadso in 1896. This year I went to Algiers. I
used a small telescope, of 1-inch aperture, on a stand, and an
inverting eye-piece giving a magnifying power of 7 diameters only,
but with a field of view of 4 degrees = 8 diameters of the sun.
Also a small camera to expose one plate only. Avoiding looking
at the sun I centred it in the field of view by projecting the image
on my sketch paper, and the moment totality commenced looked
through the telescope. The eclipse was in the middle of the field.
Neglecting any prominences my attention was directed solely to the
corona, and I was at first struck with what seemed to be the
extraordinary complication of it. The field was covered with
streamers, the longest of which reached to the boundary, or in
other words they were 3 diameters of the sun in length. After
a few seconds, however, I judged that the phenomena could be
divided into two quite distinct portions, namely :—

1. The inner corona.

2. The streamers.

The inner corona seemed to go all round the sun, and its depth
seemed to be equal to about one-fourth of the sun's diameter. It
appeared to be unequal or irregular in density or texture, and was
very bright in places, and looked as though it were in a state of
disturbance. Neglecting now the inner corona I turned my atten-
tion only to the streamers, and commenced to sketch their main
outlines. In the middle of the totality 1 removed the cap from
the camera lens, replacing it after three seconds, and continued the
sketch, but the totality only lasted one minute and the time was
all too short. From pictures of previous eclipses I had expected
to see the streamers in long curved rays, but rather to my surprise
the rays were absolutely straight. The streamers were composed
of bundles of bright fine rays, hundreds in number, and very
strongly resembled beams of sunlight traversing our lower atrnp-

120 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

sphere through openings in the clouds above. I came to the con-
clusion that no sketching could possibly do justice to the details of
the streamers, and that photography must be relied upon. On
the small negative which I obtained I can trace the streamers to a
length of about 2 diameters only from the sun on the upper or
eastern side, and 1| diameters on the lower or western side.
This indicates that the light from the extremities of the streamers
must be very feeble."

The general appearance of the corona as Mr. Andrews saw it,
was such as in his opinion, might be presented if the inner
corona, whatever its nature, was a structure not thoroughly
transparent which covered the sun all over to a depth of about
half a solar radius. Then, if we imagine the corona to be
irregular in texture and density, and to contain gaps and rifts,
the sunlight streaming through its weak places, would light up
the cosmical dust, which we may imagine surrounds the sun in
all directions. In other words, the streamers resembled in Mr.
Andrews' view, those bright rays, seen when the sun is shining
from behind a cloud on a moisture-laden atmosphere; or when
the sunlight, streaming in through a narrow aperture into a
partially darkened room, reveals to us the " motes in a sunbeam."

Mr. Andrews encloses a sketch of the corona, composed en-
tirely of rectilinear lines. It reproduces very fairly well the
general effect of the corona as presented by the consensus of
photographs and drawings. But it fails in one^ important
particular; the characteristic double curvature of the roots of
the great western extension — " the angel's wing " of Col.
Mark wick — was quite missed by Mr. Andrews. That it was
easy to miss, where attention had not been specially directed
to it, several of the naked-eye drawings abundantly show, but
of the actuality of this curvature, one of the most characteristic
of coronal forms^ there can be no doubt whatsoever. This
" hyacinth bulb " or " Florence flask," or ' leaf-shaped " outline
is always seen in the prominent lines of the corona, and it is
most important as showing to us that we are not dealing with
matters distributed, like meteors in a,n orbit. Such an orbit
must necessarily be one of the conic sections, and a conic section
however presented is always a conic section. The graceful
double curves of the synclinal rays cannot therefore be explained
in this way, any more than, they can be explained by Mr.
Andrews' simile of dust illuminated by sunbeams. Further,
though many of Mr. Andrews' rays are like those in the region
studied by Mr. Edmonds, radial in direction, many again are
as evidently tangential. Now whilst a ray which appears to be
radial may in reality be tangential, the reverse cannot possibly
happen; whilst lines of illumination, streaming out through
gaps in a partially opaque screen, would necessarily be nearly
radial in direction.

Rev. AUGUSTIN MORFORD (Hotel Pain£a, Ovar) " was furnished
with a refractor of 109-mm., by Secretan, Paris, ocular wide
angle, power 70. The instant after the light of the photosphere

THE CORONA AS SEEN IN THE TELESCOPE, 121

had disappeared, the arc of the chromosphere shone out with a
bright glow, orange-red rather than rose-coloured. It was a
thin layer, unequal, almost serrated. In an instant it was
covered and the corona shone out in all its magnificence. At
this moment I took two photographs returning to the telescope
afterwards. The field of the ocular measuring 52 minutes, was
filled with the inner corona. Bright, narrow silver rays as far
as I could see evenly distributed like the spokes of a wheel;
the interspaces filled with a soft radiance, silvery with a tint
of violet; blended but not mixed with a pale-green like sea-
water. I feel I am trying to describe the indescribable. The
colours were not of earth, and nothing I ever saw resembled
them. But immediately after totality, trying to put my vivid
impressions into words, this was the closest description I could
find. Close to, if not upon, the eastern end of the sun's equator
were two prominence-like forms — I judge 1J to 2^ minutes in
length — of an extraordinary brilliant white. They were slightly
curved towards each other, and stood out from the background
of the corona as if they belonged to the moon's disc instead of
the sun's. I cannot say if they were visible before I left the
telescope to photograph, but they caught my eye the instant that
I returned to it. They were the brightest and most striking
object of the whole phenomenon. Before I thought it possible
the second side began to brighten, the limb seemed rapidly to
turn orange ; the chromosphere seemed to glow like tire for a
second or two ; a drop of light burst forth and scattered into
Baily's Beads, and totality was at an end. It had lasted 88.4
seconds by my chronograph watch instead of 93.1."

This telescopic study of the corona was practically a new
feature in eclipse observation, and the amount of success secured
under all the drawoacks of the late eclipse, is a matter for the
greatest congratulation. One poor minute, and indeed in Mr.
Crommelin's case, it was not so much, is terribly short for the
study of such an object as the corona. Yet one result of
very great interest, though it may seem rather negative than
positive, has been put on record. No man whatsoever has so
full a knowledge of the corona from photographs as Mr. Wesley ;
and, as he himself said3 never before had mortal ma.n such a
superb view of the corona itself as was aiforded to him in the
equatorial coude of the Algiers Observatory. And his verdict
was, that the corona he there saw, was a familiar object; he
saw no structure nor detail which had not been made known to
him by some one of the many photographs, which in the course of
years have passed under his scrutiny.

But the corollary to this result is not that such telescopic
examination was either useless this time, or will be useless here-
after. In spite of the diffusion of photography, it may well be
that in the future from time to time an observer may find him-
self at a total eclipse with a telescope but without photographic
appliances. There will be still work for him to do in such a

122 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

case; and in any case we cannot assume until we have both
telescopic scrutiny and photographic records throughout all the
varying phases of a complete solar cycle, that the more complex
and elaborate structure of the corona at the sunspot maximum
may not give to telescopic examination greater minuteness of
detail than any but the most exceptional photographs can supply.
In spite of the increasing importance of photographs of Jupiter
direct observation holds its own in the delineation of planetary
detail, and is far from having been completely driven out of
the field in the examination of the surfaces of the sun and moon.
So, though the extreme brevity of eclipses gives photography an
especial advantage over eye work, it is to be hoped that the ex-
periment made this year will be followed on future occasions to
the fullest possible extent, and that great use will be made of
expert and artistic ability in the examination of coronal detail
with considerable telescopic power.

S.W. Quadrant of the Corona. (By Mis;* LILIA.N MAKTIX-LKAKE.)

CORONA. Streamers 7 in number noticed.

1. Outline, very sharply defined, of whole coronal mass of light seen in
telescope. Probably southern edge of equatorial extension at root? I did not
notice any coronal light to left of (1), it must have been very faint relative to
light of (1), if present.

2. Outline springs from close to base of prominence C (equatorial side) and
makes a sweeping curve away from C toward equator. Xot nearly as sharply
defined as (1).

3. Outline about as sharply defined as (2), seems to spring from between
prominences A and B close to B and curving from behind B (apparently)
towards (2).

4. Outline nearly as sharply defined as (1), more so than (2), and 3 originates
between prominences A and B very close to A, and curves beyond tip of A in
direction roughly parallel to (2) ; further defined in length than 3.

5. Outline fainter and shorter than any of others; curves towards (4).

6. Outline only roughly noticed ; more sharply defined and longer than (3) ;
roughly parallel to (3) ; originates close to Equator.

7. Outline about as sharply defined as (4) ; last streamer to right noticed, but
coronal light quite bright beyond it.

REGIOX OF COROXA between and on either side of prominences A and B
shows much disturbance. There are short faint streaks to left of B curving
towards it from moon's limb, and space between A and streamer 5 is streaked.
Space between A and B seemed to contain no chromosphere flames, and to be
quivering with light, yellow and white rather than red, and to be marked with
dark streaks impossible to see definitely in the very short time. The bases of
streamers (3) and (4) could be traced right up to moon's limb.

PROMIXKXCKS. Position angles, A 236° ; C 216° (?)

A and B close together. A seemed almost at Vertex Line.

A. Longest of all; conical, tapering to a fine point; strongly defined spiral
markiiigs all up it. Bed in colour. Radial.

B. Thick radial stem, with strongly defined spiral markings; bends towards
A sharply .almost at right angles about f length of A up ; the tip is blunt with
curved outlines and markings like wreaths of smoke, hazy at edges. Colour :
stem red like A, tip orange to bright yellow.

C. Scarcely £ length of A; conical, tapering to fine point; spirallv marked.
Radial.

]). A very small one; conical.

125

CHAPTER XII.

PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE CORONA.

FOUR different subjects arising out of the photographs of the
corona, secured in the recent eclipse, present themselves for
consideration. I. — The structure and form of the corona.
II. — An unexpected feature which certain of the photographs
have brought into evidence, namely, the existence of dark
markings. Mr. W. H. Wesley has very carefully studied the
photographs with respect to these two subjects, and contributes
a note on each of them. He has also prepared two composite
drawings, the one from a study of all the negatives sent in,
the other chiefly from negatives supplied from Mr. and Mrs.
Walter Maomder. III. — The coronal extensions as seen on
the photographs ; and IV. — Photographs of the corona during
the Partial Phase. Mr. and Mrs. Walter Maunder report on
the last two enquiries.

THE CORONA OF 1900 FROM THE PHOTOGRAPHS.*

A LARGE number of photographs were taken during this eclipse,
by members of the Association, who have kindly placed the
original negatives in my hand for examination and comparison.
A detailed list of the negatives examined is given at the end of
this report, and from these photographs a combined drawing has
been prepared, which forms the frontispiece of the present
volume.

The general aspect of the corona, as shown on the photographs
is that of a. wind-vane, being somewhat broad and spreading
on the west side, and pointed on the east. On the west side it
has the least extension in the equatorial region, while on the east
the greatest extension is only a little north of the equator. The
corona has thus a fish-tail form on the west, remarkably like its
eastern side during the eclipse of 1898.

The four groups of so-called " synclinal " structure which were
very distinct in 1898 are by no means so clear in 1900. One of
these groups can be seen to the north-west, much inclined from
the radial in an equatorial direction, with a well marked curve

* By W. II. WESLEY.
126

PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE CORONA. 127

of double curvature on its northern edge, where it is sharply
bounded by a remarkable dark streak. The ray terminates about
two diameters from the limb, in a point somewhat in the direction
of the planet Mercury. The southern edge of the western half
of the corona is, like the northern, bounded by a dark streak.
There is here no double curvature, and the extension is somewhat
less than in the north-west. The western equatorial region is
filled with more or less parallel rays running approximately in a
westerly direction, giving to this part of the corona a " combed
out " appearance.

As is so frequently the case the corona on the east side is
strikingly different in character from its western aspect. On
the east the only mass that seems synclinal in character is a
great conical group of rays, the northern edge of which is nearly
tangential to the limb. The base of the cone extends for 70°
or 80° along the limb, and it runs out to more than a diameter
and a half, with an approach to double curvature on each of its
sides, forming the point of the " wind vane." To the north of
this cone, and between it and the north polar rift, is a tuft of
rays curving somewhat towards the cone, and to the south, adjoin-
ing the south polar rift, are two similar tufts of rays, curving
decidedly northward towards the cone. None of these rays have
nearly so great an extension as the cone itself.

The north and south polar rifts are wide, extending along the
limb 40° and 50° respectively ; they are very symmetrically
placed with regard to the sun's axis, and much alike each other
in character. Each of the rifts is filled very evenly with rays of
the usual polar type — straight and radial in the centre, and more
curved and inclined from the axis as they approach the extremi-
ties of the rift. Between some of the south polar rays are singular
dark streaks, similar to those which bound the north and south
edges of the western equatorial extension.

The corona of 1900 shows a much nearer approach to the tvpe
which has been usually associated with a minimum period of
sunspots than that of 1898. In its most general form it most
nearly resembles that of 1889, Jan. 1, but the eastern and western
coronal rays are not so much depressed towards the equator as
was the case during that eclipse ; still less does it resemble in
this respect the extreme type shown in 1878. It accords, how-
ever, with other coronas at times of sunspot minimum in its
generally simple and apparently quiescent character. There are
no rays which curl over or branch, and none of the indications
of perturbation which were so marked in 1896. The main rays
in 1900 run out east and west, generally tending towards parallel-
ism with the solar equator, and there seems comparatively little
detail in the lower parts of the corona. Its most interesting
feature appears to be the occurrence of the dark rays or streaks,
to which attention is more fully called in another place in this
volume.

Among the photographs submitted to me for examination were
negatives taken at such distant stations as North Carol inai and

128

THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

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(Photographed at Algiers, by Mr. Walter Maunder ami party. Exposure

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plate. Aperture 4 inches. Focal length 3-i inches.)

SECOND CONTACT, 1900, May 28th.

(Photographed at Wadesborough, U.S.A., by Mr. J.
3'5-inch kinematograph.)

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Exposure 0'3 second; Sandell "Triple" plate.

Exposure 0'3 second; Ilford "Special Rapid" plate.

THE COKOXA, 1900, May 28th.

(Photographed at Wadesborough, U.S.A., by the Rev. J. M. Bacon. Aperture
4'1 inches. Focal length 58 inches.)

PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE CORONA. 133

Algiers; I have, therefore, especially examined them for any
evidence of change in coronal forms. With this view I made a
careful outline from the Algiers photographs, and another, quite
independently, from the American negatives. On reducing
these to the same scale and superposing them, I found the out-
lines of all the features, that were sufficiently definite to be out-
lined with certainty, in perfect agreement. The photographs
examined appear, therefore, to afford no evidence of coronal
change during the two hours and a half of the passage of the
shadow from North Carolina to Algiers, although considerable
changes occurred in the forms of the principal prominences
as shown on the photographs.

W. H. WESLEY.

DARK MARKINGS IN THE SOLAR CORONA.*

EVERYONE who has examined a series of photographs of total
solar eclipses is familiar with dark rifts or gaps in the corona.
Most conspicuous at times of sun-spot minimum are the polar
rifts, which at such periods open widely and occupy a consider-
able portion of the sun's polar regions. Rifts, more or less
dark, also occur in other parts of the corona, sometimes sharply
cutting into the densest portions. There can be no doubt that
these rifts are merely interspaces between coronal rays. They
show the extremely irregular manner in which the corona is
distributed over the sun's surface. In view of the fact that the
corona, whatever it may be, is not flat, as it appears during
an eclipse, but is an object possessing three dimensions, it is
obvious that a sharply defined rift, cutting into a dense portion
of the corona, and traceable to the sun's limb, represents a
gap of most singular form.

But striking as are these coronal rifts, there is a still more
interesting class of dark markings that in many cases cannot
be explained as mere interspaces among the bright rays. Unlike
the ordinary rifts these dark markings are only occasionally
seen. A close examination of the original negatives is often
necessary to detect them, and as a rule they are lost in any
photographic reproduction.

The first instance of their occurrence of which I know was
in 1871. On the eastern side of the corona, in the equatorial
region, there appears on the photographs a small dark spot
about 9' from the sun's limb. It does not occur near the
crossing of any coronal rays, in which situation such an object
might possibly be simply an interspace, but appears to encroach
on bright rays. Moreover, it is the centre of three arcs of
circles, concave towards the sun, with radii of 3', 6', and 10'

* By W. H. "\VESLKY. (Reprinted from KXOWLEEGE for October,' 1600.)

134

THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, 1900.

respectively, the middle one being fairly strong, while the others
are excessively faint. These singular appearances were thought
by Mr. Ra,nyard to indicate the existence of a comet, showing
as a dark object on the background of the corona; but as to
this I pass no opinion. If it was a comet, its appearance was

FIG. 1. — Diagram of Markings on the Corona of 1871.

unique, for the comet on the negatives of the 1882 eclipse, and
the much fainter one found by Schaeberle on his photographs
of the eclipse of 1893, were both bright objects. But in any
case it seems impossible that the dark spot and concentric arcs
on the corona of 1871 can be interspaces between rays, for the

Prominence ••

FIG. 2. — Diagram of Markings on the Corona of 1896.

arcs actually cut through several coronal rays almost at right
angles, partially obliterating them. The whole appearance is
extremely difficult to see, but I have traced the dark spot and
the arcs on several negatives of two different series, and am
certain of their existence.

The next example of dark markings occurred in the corona
of 1896, the eastern side of which exhibited features of a

PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE CORONA. 135

different kind from any I have examined. I will, however,
refer only to those bearing on the subject in hand. Almost
at the sun's equator is a bright double-headed prominence,
which is distinctly outlined by a strong dark line, following all
its contours. A little to the north is a small hooked coronal
ray about 2^' high, apparently springing from a small promi-
nence. This ray is also outlined in the same manner. But by
far the most extraordinary appearance is that of a dark roughly
elliptical ring, about 2^' in its longer axis, which stands on
the top of the bright prominence. From the summit of the
ring springs a fah-ly bright, fine ray, which would probably be
traceable further down towards the limb but that its base
seems cut off by the ring. There are many other dark streaks
in this part of the corona, but we may confine our attention
to the most striking features — the outline to the prominence
and the ring. They are clearly seen on at least two of the
negatives taken by Mr. Shackleton in Sir G. Baden-Powell's
expedition to Nova Zembla, and, unlike the markings on the
corona of 1871, they are quite easy to see under suitable con-
ditions of illumination. A little reflection will convince anyone
that the outline can be due to no known photographic effect.
The image of a bright object (such as a bright prominence)
may spread itself on the plate, and thus appear enlarged, or
it might conceivably be surrounded by a halation ring, though
I feel sure that the exposures during eclipses (except when
a portion of the sun's surface was photographed) have never
been nearly sufficient to cause such a ring round a prominence.
But neither of these well-known photographic effects will
explain the appearance in the least. Had an observer drawn
the dark outline surrounding the bright prominence, we should
have concluded at once that it was a mere effect of contrast, but
the camera is fortunately not influenced by contrast. Is it
possible that the prominence had edges enormously brighter
than its centre, so that the dark outline is a phenomenon of
reversal? This is improbable in the last degree, in view of the
small aperture of the instrument and its considerable focal
length; there was also slight hazy cloud, and the plates
generally show no signs whatever of over exposure; their
definition is admirable. There are many instances of reversal
of the images of prominences in 1882, 1893, 1898, and 1900.
In 1882 their centres were reversed, but there has been no case
of reversal of their edges. Besides, the hooked coronal ray is also
outlined, and that was certainly not bright enough for reversal,
so this explanation breaks down. Then we have the elliptical
ring, for which there seems absolutely no explanation, except
that it is really a dark marking of some kind. It is surely
absurd to suggest that it can be a mere space between coronal
rays ; we should have to imagine a tunnel cut through the body
of the corona, directed precisely in the line of sight, and a plug
of coronal matter lying along the centre of that tunnel but
not touching its sides.

136 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

It will be seen that in the above cases the argument for the
objective existence of dark markings is based upon the form
and character of the markings, and not upon their actual dark-
ness. Neither in 1871 nor in 1896 are they nearly as dark- as
the sky ; but have we any instances of markings in the corona
that are actually darker than the sky? If so, it appears to me
that their objective existence is proved beyond a doubt. I
believe we have such evidence, but here great caution is
required, for although the camera is, as has been said, unaffected
by contrast, the eye which examines the photographs is much
affected by it, and we may be very easily deceived.

I have before me two negatives of the eclipse of 1898, taken
by Mr. F. Bacon at Buxar, near Benares; they are rather
over-developed, the lower portions of the corona are extremely
dense and opaque, but the focus is excellent, and the outer
portions well shown. The scale is a little over half an inch
for the moon's diameter. On first looking at these I was struck

Fro. 3.— Diagram of Markings on the Corona of 1898.

by the unusual sharpness of definition of some of the rays of
the great southern rift; but on more careful examination with
various illuminations it seemed possible that this sharp defini-
tion is due to nothing less than to two or more fine dark rays
(of course bright on the negative) lying between some of the
bright polar rays near the western boundary of the polar rift.
There is nothing unusual or extraordinary in the position of
these dark rays. I at first considered them to be merely spaces
between the ordinary polar rays, but I now think that they are
slightly darker than the sky or than the faint light which forms
their background. The development has been carried far
enough for the light of this background to impress itself on the
plates; but for this fact the markings would appear simply as
interspaces, but on these plates I think I can just see the ends
of the rays, terminating at about two-thirds of a lunar diameter
from the limb. They cannot be traced to the limb, as they
are lost among the mass of bright rays, and they are lost in
long exposure negatives. These markings are far more difficult
to see than those in 1896, but if they are darker than the sky,

PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE CORONA. 139

we seem to have taken a considerable step towards proving
their objective existence.

We now come to the negatives taken by Mr. Maunder at
Algiers during the eclipse of May last. On two negatives
taken on Sandell plates with very long exposures, and on a
series of negatives exposed by Miss Maunder with ^ sec.
exposures in a stationary camera, are certain dark streaks of
much the same character as those of 1898, but unlike these,
they are most easily seen; in fact on some of the plates they
strike the eye at once. One of them forms a sharp boundary
to the northern edge of the western equatorial streamer, and
one bounds in the same manner its southern edge, whilst another
radiates from the limb near the centre of the great southern rift ;
there are several others that may be suspected. The only point in
doubt is whether they are unusually definite spaces or rifts be-
tween bright rays, only seeming dark by contrast, or whether they
are actually darker than the sky. If they are darker than the
sky we seem forced to admit that they are real, however im-
possible it may be to offer any physical explanation for their
existence. We cannot isolate these fine, narrow dark streaks,
so as to avoid the effect of contrast. They are visible on all
the six plates of the short exposure series, and the dark mark-
ings forming the north and south boundaries of the western
portion of the corona are very strikingly shown on the long
exposure negatives. These dark rays bounding the coronal
extension are extremely remarkable, and it seems impossible
to regard them as effects of contrast. For while on the one
side they are each bounded by the edge of the coronal streamer,
there is apparently no ray bounding them on the other side,
and they appear to extend beyond the coronal streamer itself
If this is so, they are obviously darker than the sky, or the
faint nearly uniform lierht which forms their background.*
The dark marking bounding the southern edge of the western
coronal extension is the most conspicuous.

The narrow, slightly curved dark ray near the centre of the
southern rift is well shown on the short exposure negatives.
It has a distinct termination at a distance of about half a
lunar diameter from the limb — a termination in fact more
definite than those of the bright coronal rays. It seems
decidedly darker than its background of sky or faint coronal
light. If this marking is merely a rift, or interspace, it must
be a rift closed at its outer extremity, which appears a most
improbable supposition.

I am quite unable to offer any explanation of such features as
these, but I think we cannot resist the evidence of their reality.
As Mr. Maunder has said, they must be caused " by the inter-

* It is probable, as Mr. Maunder has pointed out (KNOWLEDGE, August, 1900),
that there is a considerable amount of diffused coronal light beyond the limits of
the detailed corona. This appears to be borne out by Prof. Turner's photometric
measures of the negatives of the eclipse of 1893.

140 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

position of actual dark absorbing matter between ourselves
and the general diffused coronal glow"; so that the corona
appears to be " not wholly an emission, but partly an absorp-
tion effect." The nearest analogy to them are the black rays
in the prominences to which Trouvelot drew attention, and
which I believe Mr. Evershed has confirmed.

I have also 'examined some excellent negatives taken by
Miss Bacon at Wadesborough, U.S.A., which clearly show the
dark markings visible on Mr. Maunder's plates.

W. H. WESLEY.

THE CORONAL EXTENSIONS ON THE PHOTOGRAPHS.*

INASMUCH as the pair of photographs to which, in the Indian
Eclipse, the longest exposure was given, showed the coronal
streamers to the greatest distance from the sun, and, as of any
two comparable photographs, the one which had the longer
exposure showed the streamers to the greater length, it seemed
clear that the duration of the exposure was a determining
element ; and it left undecided the question whether the limit of
effective exposure had been reached. We, therefore, resolved to
give as long an exposure in the eclipse just passed as its conditions
permitted, and it had been our hope to have made these exposures
equivalent to 400 seconds with f/15. Circumstances obliging us
to proceed to Algiers instead of Elche we had to cut down this
exposure to 48 seconds with f/6, corresponding to 300 with f/15.
The result was that so far from obtaining longer streamers than
in 1898, the longest ray photographed was barelv half the length
of the great ray seen in the Indian Eclipse. Further — and this
is important — the ray is traceable to almost the same distance
upon other photographs which we took with exposures relatively
but l/48th as long, and they are seen to fully as great an extent
on photographs taken by Mr. C. Davidson under the Astronomer
Royal's direction, at Ovar, with an exposure equivalent to but
l/7th of our own.

The question is as to the cause of the failure to register the
extensions as far as — not to say further than — two years ago.
So long as lengthened exposure meant lengthened ray, so long
failure to show a streamer beyond a certain point might simply
mean that there was more ray beyond, but that it was too faint
to record itself in the time given. But since in the past eclipse
photographs with such widely different exposures agree in
placing the termination of the ray practically at the same point,
and that point just where the eye also placed it, it seems fair to
conclude that this was where it actually ended so far as we are
concerned. The termination, however, might be due to more
than one cause ; it might be due not only to the matter of the
ray coming to an end ; it might be that further out it was too

* Bv ME. and MRS. WALTER MATT\DF.R.

PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE CORONA.

faint to be perceived through the veil of our atmosphere; or it
might be overpowered by the glare due to the scattered light in
our own atmosphere. There can be no doubt that there was
more of this diffused illumination in the late eclipse than in 1898 ;
necessarily so; as the eclipse was a shorter one; the breadth of
the shadow track was narrower; and at mid-totality less of the
brightest portions of the corona were concealed. All observers
concur in saying that it was a very bright eclipse — there was no
real darkness. As to whether the air was as clear this year as
two years ago, it seems exceedingly improbable that the con-
ditions were the same at all the stations ; at Algiers, at any rate,
there was little cause for complaint. The observation recorded
on p. 150 shows that there was no appreciable sky-glare in the
neighbourhood of Mercury; nor was there the slightest trace of
the great coronal streamer within the telescopic field which had
Mercury as its centre.

It will be noted in Mr. Wesley's description of the corona from
the photographs, that he points out that the synclinal rays were
less strongly marked in 1900 than in 1898. But the rod-like
rays, first photographed in the former year, are majiifestly the
terminations of the synclinal curves ; we may expect then that
when the synclinal structure is feebly marked, the rod-like rays
will be relatively short and faint. Further, these rays are
evidently very irregularly distributed round the sun, and we
cannot expect them to be always at right-angles to the line of
sight; on the contrary, they must be presented to us under
every variety of foreshortening.

The next eclipse, that of May 18th, 1901, should, if weather
conditions be favourable, give a specially good opportunity for
settling this question. Being a large eclipse, it will probably be
a dark one, since the shadow track will be wide, and the amount
of the inner corona which will be covered at mid-totality will
be considerable. It seems desirable, therefore, that every variety
of exposure should be given, including some for the whole length
of time available ; that is to say, for the whole time that the
chromosphere as well as the sun itself is covered.

E. WALTER MAUNDER.
A. S. D. MAUNDER.

142

THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, 1 900.

Exposures.

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PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE CORONA. 143

PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE PARTIAL PHASE.*

BESIDE our attempt to photograph the long coronal streamers,
one great object with us in the recent eclipse was to push a
little further the experiment which we had made in India in
photographing the corona out of totality. For this purpose we
took in all some forty photographs during the partial phase,
with varying instruments and exposures, and our experiments
have been very strikingly supplemented by the work which Mr.
Nevil Maskelyne, F.R.A.S., carried on with his kinematograph
in America. Mr. Maskelyne's instrument had an aperture of
3^ inches, which was stopped down before and after totality to
an aperture of 3/8th of an inch. The instrument was run for
about 5 1 minutes, commencing some 25 seconds before totality,
and running for nearly 4 minutes after totality was ended. In
all 1187 exposures were made, 87 before totality, 299 during
totality, and 801 after. The corona is seen very definitely on the
first exposure, and can be traced right away to number 841,
that is to say, to number 455 after the return of sunlight.
Allowing 0.29 seconds for the mean interval between the middle
of one exposure and that of the next, this gives us for the last
photograph showing the corona, the time 2m. 12s. after the
return of sunlight. This duration is worked out by assuming
that the duration of the photographic eclipse was the same as
that of the visual, the latter having been observed by Prof. Flint
with a 3-inch equatorial, at the same station of Wadesborough.

The principal exposures which we ourselves made for this work
were in three sets of twelve each, taken with the three following
instruments: — 1st, a photographic lens, aperture 4-inches,
stopped down to 1£ inches, and focal length 34 inches. 2nd,
the Dallmeyer stigmatic lens of 1£ in. aperture, and 9 in. focus;
3rd, a pin-hole camera, that is to say one without a lens,
aperture 1/32 of an inch, and distance of plate from pin-hole,
15| inches. A deep yellow glass was placed immediately in front
of the sensitive plate with this last camera. The use of a colour
screen materially altering the wave-length of the light most
effective upon the plate, should theoretically alter the distance of
best definition, but in practice, so far as our experiments upon
the sun were concerned, we did not find any great difference.
The theoretical distance for an aperture of 1/32 inch is 16 inches,
and the diameter of the pin-hole may easily have been slightly
in error. Double the aperture would of course have required
four times the distance, and consequently four times the exposure.
We concluded, therefore, that whilst a smaller aperture would
give so small a distance that the resulting image would be too
small to be of value, a much larger aperture would be open to
the equally serious drawback of requiring too long an exposure.

One instrumental precaution, the necessity for which we had
fully foreseen, we were not able to take. This was the provision

* By Mr. and Mrs. WALTER MAUNDER.

THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, 1 900.

of a diaphragm, so arranged, as to prevent any of the direct light
of the sun falling upon the plate ; but our cameras were on too
small a scale, and our guiding telescopes not sufficiently rigid for
this to be possible. We, therefore, made no attempt to provide
such a screen, and our experiments were made with the image
of the sun itself falling on the plate.

MR. E. HODGE, HOTEL DE LA KEGEXCE, ALGIERS.

It will be seen that this radically altered the conditions of the
problem before us. If the sun itself could be screened from the
plate, then, the problem of photographing the corona resolves
itself into one of detecting a very minute difference of brightness
in a very high light. For this purpose, there is no particular
advantage, but rather the reverse in using a multi-coated
plate. The exposure evidently should be of the very
briefest, so that the action of sky-glare alone may be
hardly effective, whilst the conjoint actions of sky-glare

PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE CORONA. 145

and corona may be just appreciable. In such a case
there would be no question of keeping down the effect
of a very brilliant light whilst a faint light is enabled to make
itself felt. Our idea, therefore, would be, in conjunction with
such a diaphragm, to use a somewhat slow single-coated plate
of fine grain. As it was, we were obliged to allow the sun to fall
upon the plate, and therefore used, as in India, the Sandell
triple-coated plate. All we could expect to gain was a know-
ledge of the kind of exposures which were most effective in giving
the corona in the face of a small amount of sunshine, with the
possibility of our tracing it further into the partial phase than
we did in India. We introduced a pin-hole camera into our
battery of instruments in order to gain if possible some light
on a third question, namely, the influence of aperture in securing
the corona, both absolute aperture and aperture relative to focal
length. As regards the first and third of these points, our photo-
graphs still require much further examination before we can
report upon them, but we have been able to record the presence
of the corona very considerably further from totality than we
did in 1898. As to the use of the coloured screen, we consider
our experiments as so far inconclusive. Our hope had been that,
cutting off the rays of short wave-length, which are those most
effective in sky-glare, due to scattering by small particles, we
might have brought the corona into a little greater relative dis-
tinctness ; but of course the practical efficiency of such a screen
will depend entirely upon the question as to the kind of rays
in which the corona is richest. Our attempt was in no sense
on the lines of Mr. Shackleton's ingenious and hopeful suggestion
of photographing through screens which should only allow light
of the quality of the green coronium line to pass through. This,
could it be achieved, and could the distribution of coronium
round the sun be thus ascertained, would be a most notable
advance, one by all means to be desired, but it would not be,
in the strict sense, photographing the corona itself.

Another point upon which we hoped to get some light, but for
which the present experiments were not sufficient, was in relation
to the principle laid down by Prof. F. L. O. Wadsworth, as to
the effect of the diminution of aperture in diminishing the
relative action on the plate of sky-glare. This was especially in
our minds when we decided to use the pin-hole.

Mr. Maskelyne's kinematograph film is of special interest by
the way in which it enables us to trace the gradual fading of the
corona in the face of the increasing sunlight. The aperture was
the same with all the film photographs — after the diaphragm was
put on, — the exposure was the same in all cases, the only
variable was the increasing arc of sunlight. The exposure was
equivalent to about l/60th of a second with f/15, and the film
may be considered as about as quick as an ordinary " rapid "
plate. It is very instructive of the conditions of the problem to
note how quickly, after the first bead of sunlight is seen, the outer
corona fades and disappears; and also that when the aperture

146 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, 1900.

is cut down, diminishing the exposure almost to l/90th of what
it was when the aperture was full, the corona is almost lost
at first, but reappears, and for some little time becomes stronger
as the sunlight strengthens, fading again when the sky-glare
becomes too strong for that exposure and aperture. There can
be no doubt that could the exposure have been gradually
shortened as the sunlight gradually increased, the corona would
have been traced on the film further still.

The appearance of the corona in the partial phase is not
specially coronaJike. The evidence that the faint, nearly uniform
ring of light is the corona, is to be found in the fact that the
disc of the moon is to be seen dark against it, its outline clearly
defined.

Several other observers took photographs of the partial phase ;
in particular we may mention a very beautiful little picture
taken by Mr. E. C. Willis about 30 seconds before the commence-
ment of totality with f/12i, and exposure \ second. Two
others taken respectively 8 minutes and 4 minutes before
totality are even more interesting; for whilst the latter shows
no trace of the moon's outline, the former, when the sunlight
was so much stronger, shows, though very faintly, the whole
of the moon's limb.

Many partial phase photographs show some bright, straight
rays proceeding from one or both cusps of the sun. They are
very well shown in a photograph taken by Mr. Hodge. These
same rays are also seen on photographs taken here in England,
where the eclipse of course was only partial. They are necessarily
not coronal, as they are not seen in totality, and they appear to
be due to some sort of reflection from the plate itself, as they do
not seem to be shown on films. They are also shown on some of
the photographs taken with the pin-hole camera, but here they
are less strongly marked.

To sum up, we learn from Mr. Maskelyne's film, that to secure
the inner corona from half-minute to one minute after totality is
over, a.n exposure of about one-hundredth of what is necessary for
a full representation of the corona in totality is required. Earlier
the exposure should be somewhat longer for best effect, later it
should be diminished. In this way Mr. Maskelyne has followed
the corona two minutes and twelve seconds after totality on a
single coated film, and we have increased our Indian record of
thirty-nine seconds to five minutes, very faintly shown on a
Sandell triple-coat, and this again is extended to eight minutes
by Mr. Willis's photograph. The advance made is a real advance
indeed, but exceedingly small as compared with the full magni-
tude of the problem. Indeed our progress is rather towards a
truer appreciation of its difficulties than towards its solution.

E. WALTER MAUNDER.
A. S. D. MAUNDER.

CHAPTER XIII.

BRIGHTNESS DURING TOTALITY.

THE observers at every station without exception noticed how
bright the eclipse was even during totality. This was of course
chiefly due to the fact that the eclipse was a very short one;
the excess of the moon's diameter over that of the sun was but
slight, so that the most brilliant regions of the corona were
exposed in mid-totality. It appears certain that the general
illumination was greater than in the Indian Eclipse, 1898, but
it does not therefore follow that the corona itself was brighter
than in that year, that is to say, intrinsically brighter; indeed,
Prof. YOUNG ( Wadesborou^h, U.S.A.) is distinctly of opinion
that it was not so bright, but that a larger area of its brighter
regions was exposed to view at any time.

Mr. WHITMELL supplies the summary of the observations at
Navalmoral on this question : —

At totality the light decidedly exceeded that of a bright
full moon, and was of quite a different quality, being warm like
a twilight illumination, and not like the cold green-grey of
moonlight. The large luminous corona, and the small excess
(19".4, or more probably 18". 5) of the moon's semi-diameter
over that of the sun, made this eclipse a bright one.

Mr. BUCKLEY : Light seemed about equal to that of a full
moon, but different, and more like a very late summer twilight.

Dr. STOKES : The light was sufficient to sketch the corona by
without any difficulty.

Mr. E. HOWAETH: Very little diminution in the light was noticed
until the sun became quite a thin crescent. At totality the
change was marked and instantaneous, though there was still
light enough to enable the dial of a watch to be distinctly seen.
As light flashed out at the close of totality, it was very striking
to notice what an enormous difference a small portion of direct
sunlight produced. Almost immediately after totality, Mercury
disappeared, the corona died out like a flash, and the landscape
almost at once assumed the aspect of day. In ten minutes,
though a large portion of the sun was still covered, the aspect
was that of a broad sunlight day, and all interest in the eclipse
was over.

Mr. LA GUIDARA : It was as dark as when the first shadows of
night fall on our landscapes. [I may add that Mr. Guidara was

147 T 9

148 THE TOTAL SOL.UI ECLIPSE, 1900.

good enough to call out during totality the seconds from a watch,
and that he found it easily readable.]

Mr. W. F. STANLEY : There was light enough to distinguish
the grain in a piece of grey granite.

Rev. C. J. STEWARD : Light enough to sketch by, and to read
thermometers.

Miss W. FOSTER : The return of light seemed more rapid than
the oncoming of darkness.

Miss L. FOSTER : No inconvenience in pencil sketching.

Mrs. CONSTABLE (at Talavera) : Plenty of light to read and
sketch by, far more than moonlight would give.

Mr. E. HOWARTH, in his account of his work, supplements his

SITXSET NEAR ELCHE, MAY 2GTK.

note, given above, as follows : — I was specially desirous of
observing the approach of the shadow across the earth and sky,
and therefore gave careful attention to the light on the north-
west side, the landscape along there being flat and open. As
the shadow advanced over the sun, there was a perceptible and
welcome cooling of the air, though the diminution of light
was not very marked. A photograph of the landscape to the
north-west, with the Sierra de Gredos in the distance, taken on
arrival, sliows all the details in the foreground, though the
distant mountains can scarcely be seen on it. From this time
onwards there was a very decided darkening of the landscape
on the north-west&rn side, and it was distinctly lighter on the
south-eastern side. Another photograph was taken of the

BRIGHTNESS DURING TOTALITY. 119

landscape towards the Sierra de Gredos at 3h. 48m. G.M.T., and
although in this the general features can be made out there is a
total absence of the detail shown in the same view taken about
half-an-hour earlier. In this later photograph, however, the
distant hills can be seen more plainly than in the earlier one,
though in neither of them are they prominently shown. Another
exposure made about two minutes before totality showed nothing
whatever on the plate. Just at this time, too, the fading light
assumed a different tone, becoming decidedly rosy in colour, in
marked contrast to the darkening grey just previously prevailing.
This change of colour was strikingly emphasised in the few
patches of cloud to the west, whose whiteness became richly
diffused with a red glow. Up to the very moment of totality
I was very much impressed with the great power of the direct
sunlight, for when even the thinnest perceptible portion of
the sun was still uncovered, it was possible to see the objects
round about with perfect ease. The actual moment of totality
was unmistakable, and, as a means of comparison, seemed to
me like the .switching off of an electric light. I immediately
looked at the watch I had brought with me to note the time —
this being a Kew certificated watch — and the actual time of the
beginning of totality was 4h. 6m. 56s. G.M.T. This time was
noted independently of any one else. Venus had been visible
some minutes before, and now Mercury flashed into view below
the lower western limb. During totality I carefully observed
the sun, both with the naked eye and with a pair of opera-
glasses, but saw no trace of a comet or any planet inside the
orbit of Mercury. The end of totality was quite as unmistak-
able as the beginning, the great change in the light being almost
startlingly rapid, and it occurred at 4h. 8m. 16s., G.M.T. , the
total phase lasting exactly 80 seconds. During totality the light
was strong enough to show the dial of a watch without any
difficulty, and the near landscape could all the time be dimly
seen. As soon as totality ended, the corona and Mercury all
disappeared, with no appreciable interval between, and the light
so quickly increased that I took a photograph of our party
about fifteen minutes afterwards, which came out quite
distinctly.

M. MOYE (Elche) : The obscuration was not intense, all sur-
rounding objects were distinctly seen ; a newspaper, the divisions
of a watch could be read without artificial light. The general
illumination was very much greater than given by the full
moon.

Mr. WALTER MAUNDER (Hotel de la Regence, Algiers) : This
was much the brightest of the four eclipses at which I have
been present, and the darkness never approached that of a
bright night at the full of the moon.

But though the illumination during totality was thus very
considerable, it must be remembered that the change from even

150

THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

the last speck of sunlight to complete totality is very great
indeed, as the following observation will show.

Mrs. WALTER MAUNDER (Hotel de la Regence, Algiers) had
two photographic cameras mounted upon a 4-inch portable
equatorial, kindly lent by Mr. W. Coleman, F.R.A.S. " As the
equatorial had ro driving clock, I proposed to direct the telescope
upon Mercury, and bringing it to the cro<sswires in the centre

Miss Stevens. Mrs. Maunder. Mr. H. Ellis.

EOOF OP THE HOTEL DE LA ESSENCE, ALGIEES.

of the field, to follow by hand driving. I had found by practice
that I could turn the right ascension tangent screw with great
regularity and smoothness for a much longer time than the
period of totality. Mercury was picked up without the slightest
difficulty, and brought to the cross-wires early in the partial
phrrse. and for the last two or three minutes before second
contact I followed by it, driving by hand, without any difficulty,
the spider-lines being easily seen against the background of the
illuminated sky. But the instant that the eclipse became total,

BRIGHTNESS DURING TOTALITY.

151

that instant the field of view of my telescope became dead black,
as if a shutter had fallen. But for the bright shining of
Mercury I might have thought that some one had put the cap on
the telescope. There was no gradual fading out of the light as
second contact approached; the general illumination of the
field in the telescope did not seem sensibly to diminish during
the last few minutes of the partial phase ; at the moment of
second contact it went out entirely and at once."

THE LIBRARY, YEUKES OBSEUVATOBY.

The photograph in the centre of the picture is from Mr. W. H. Wesley's
drawing of the Corona of 1886, from the photographs taken at Grenada and
Carriacou by Dr. Schuster and Mr. Maunder.

Similarly at the end of totality the appearance of the first
point or fragment of the sun's disk makes an instant and
enormous difference to the light. It must be remembered that
speaking roughly, and in round figures, the sun is, area for area,
100,000 times as bright as the brightest region of the corona.
The results of the Indian Eclipse seem to show that the corona
can be traced both visually and photographically to a distance,
where its brightness is scarcely 1/1, 000th part as great as that
of the corona close to the sun. In other words we pass in one
short minute from the observation of a body whose intrinsic
brilliancy we may put as 100,000,000, to one, portions of which

152 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, 1900.

have a brightness no greater than unity. Need the moral be
drawn, that those who intend in an eclipse to draw the faint
coronal extensions, will be wise not to watch the progress of the
partial phase?

The light therefore diminishes suddenly at the beginning of
totality; it increases again suddenly at the end. The question
arises, Do both changes proceed at the same rate? To the eye,
the effect certainly is of a much greater rapidity in the recovery
of the light than in its loss; but this may easily be a mere
psychological effect. It becomes important, therefore, to have
some photographic evidence on the subject. Miss Bacon, tor
this purpose, in 1898 in India, conceived the plan of taking
a series of photographs of the landscape at regular and equal
intervals, before and after totality, giving precisely the same
exposure to all the plates, and developing them at the same
time and under the same conditions. The result then obtained
seemed to show most conclusively that the return of sunlight was
actually, as it appears visually to be, much more rapid than its
withdrawal ; the light five minutes after the end of totality
being very much greater than that five minutes before, and,
indeed, almost equal to that fifteen minutes before.

Miss Bacon's example was very widely followed during the
eclipse just passed ; not only English astronomers but also those
of other countries following her lead. Thus a very successful
series of exposures of this character were obtained by the
astronomers of the Madrid Observatory at Plasencia, and by
M. Leroux a,t Bou Zarea, Algiers.

The work of taking these " Gathering and Departing Gloom
Photographs " was undertaken by the members of the Asso-
ciation at three stations, namely, by Miss BACON at Wades-
borough, by Lady McCujRE at Elche, and by M. ROGER Du
CAMP at the Hotel de la Regence, Algiers, who also exposed
photographs for the same purpose on behalf of Mr. Walter
Maunder. These last proved to be systematically over-exposed,
the extremely actinic qualities of the Algerian sunlight having
been much under-estimated. They seem, however, to point to
considerable variability in the rate of progress of the change ;
thus of a series of eighteen exposures six pairs give the post-
totality light as greater than the corresponding light in pre-
totality ; whilst the others — that is to say three pairs — give the
pre-totality light as the greater. Miss Bacon found a similar
discrepancy, but on the whole her Indian results were reversed,
the recovery of light appearing to proceed more slowly
than its loss. Four extremely beautiful photographs, taken by
Lady McClure, at ten and twenty minutes before and after
totality, also give the following anomalous result: —

20min. before totality less light than 20 min. after totality.

lOmin. before totality greater light than lOmin. after totality.

It appears, then, that the question has assumed a complexity
which renders it deserving of very careful attention in future
eclipses.

OF T»F

UNIVERSITY

•#
,,-"«^

BRIGHTNESS DURING TOTALITY.

153

TWILIGHT ILLUMINATION.

AFTER the eclipse of 1898, two members of the Association, quite
independently, and in ignorance of what the other was doing,

POLAR AND DECLINATION AXES OF THE GREAT YEBKES 40-ixcii REFRACTOH.

attempted to estimate the time at which the general illumination
after sundown corresponded to that during mid-totality. The
results were much more accordant than might have been
expected, and in consequence several observers tried the same

154

THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

experiment during this eclipse. Of the six observations made on
this occasion, two stand out, but the other four, which were
entirely independent, are in the most remarkable agreement.
This may perhaps be mere coincidence, but it is desirable
that an observation, so easily made, should be repeated on every
possible occasion. It seems quite possible that a really careful
observer may make this observation so well as to render it a most
convenient method of comparing between the illumination at
different eclipses. On the present occasion, it is perhaps not
safe to say more than that the results point to 1898 not having
been quite so bright as 1900; and that the general illumination
corresponded to that of twilight when the sun is between 6°
and 7° below the horizon.

TWILIGHT ILLUMINATION JUDGED EQUAL TO THAT OF TOTALITY.

Observer.

Place.

Date, 1900.

G. M. T.

Interval.*

Sun below
Horizon.

Remarks.

Roberts

Algiers

May2S

h. in.
7 30

in.
37i

6'8

As dark as totality.

Brook

Algiers ,, 28

7 32

395

6-4

>i » u

Carpenter, Gare ,
and Moore >

Manzanares

„ 28

7 52

27J

» » »

Backhouse

Salamanca ,, 30

8 34

52|

Darker than totality.

Sharp

Pobladura „ 30

16 10

45f

6'9

As dark as totality.

Backhouse

Vigo June 1

8 42

6-5

The similar observations made after the eclipse of 1898, January 22, in India,
are added for comparison : — •

Observer.

Place.

Date, 1898.

G. M. T.

Interval.

Sun below
Horizon.

lie marks.

h. m.

111.

Backhouse

Benares

Jan. 23

0 36J

34J

7'4

As dark as totality.

Backhouse and )
Sharp j

Benares

,, 24

0 32\

30J

6'4

» ,. ,.

Maunder

Nagpur

„ 26

0 56£

30J

After geometrical sunset or before geometrical sunrise.

INTEGRATING PHOTOGRAPHS.

MR. F. GARE at Manzanares, and Mr. E. W. Johnson at Elche,
proposed to repeat and extend the experiments which had been
made at Buxar, in 1898, for measuring the total photographic
radiation of the corona, by exposing sensitive plates to its general
light under a set of graduated screens. Good results have been
obtained from the plates exposed to the corona during totality.
A comparison of these with plates since exposed by Mr. Gare
and Mr. A. II. Johnston to the light of a standard candle at a
distance of one metre give the corona as six times the bright-
ness of the candle; so that the recent eclipse would seem to

BRIGHTNESS DURING TOTALITY. 155

have been between 30 and 40 per cent, brighter than the one
of 1898 at Buxar, and about ten times as bright as the Full
Moon.

Plates were also exposed at both stations to the partially
eclipsed sun before and after totality, but these are all much
over exposed. These plates were exposed at 20, 15, 10, and 5
minutes before and after mid-totality, with an exposure of 10
seconds, and in every case the light has penetrated the whole
of the screen, and the plates are consequently of little use for
purposes of measurement. A comparison of the density of the
deposits does not, however, appear to confirm the difference
between the light before and after totality apparent in photo-
graphs taken at the eclipse of 1898.

CHAPTER XIV.
THE PRISMATIC OPERA-GLASS.

CHAPTER V. of " The Indian Eclipse, 1898," contained a short
summary of the history of spectroscopic observations as applied
to total eclipses of the sun, and descriptions of the chief forms of
spectroscopes used in eclipse work, so tbat there will be no need to
recapitulate. In the eclipse of 1900, several members of the
Association took out with them an important spectroscopic plant,
and much exceedingly valuable work was done. Thus in America,
Prof. C. A. Young and Prof. G. E. Hale; in Portugal, Mr. F. W.
Dyson ; in Spain, at Plasencia, Sir Howard Grubb, Dr. A. A.
Rambaut, and Mr. W. E. Wilson, and at Elche, Mr. A. Fowler;
in Algeria, Mr. H. F. Newall at Bou-Zai'ea, and Mr. J. Evershed
at Pont Mazafraii; all made spectroscopic work the chief item
in their programmes, and took powerful instruments for the
purpose. But these observers, having been equipped or sent out
either by Government or by some learned body other than the
Association, do not report in this volume. Their objects were chiefly
to register by means of photography that spectrum of bright lines
which is seen for some two seconds just at the beginning and end
of totality, and which is now so well known as the " Flash," and
also the spectrum of the corona itself during totality. The types
of instruments employed have already been described on pages 61
and 62 of the " Indian Eclipse," the forms which were most preferred
being those of -the " prismatic camera " and of the " analysing
spectrograph." Mr. Evershed's chief instrument was, however, quite
a novel form of prismatic camera, inasmuch as he used a train of
two large prisms in connection with a silver-on-glass reflector,
instead of a camera of the usual kind. The experiment was most
successful ; the mirror, of course, bringing all the rays, no matter
what their ref rangibility, to the same focus ; the lines, therefore, on
his photographs are in perfect focus throughout.

But there was one spectroscopio instrument, though but of
humble size, that was made use of by several Members in the
different expeditions of the Association. This was the " prismatic
opera-glass " ; that is to say, a binocular, one tube of which was
furnished with some arrangement for producing a spectrum. In
India, in 1898, Mr. Walter Maunder had such a binocular, fitted
with a small direct- vision prism before the eye-piece, and the same
arrangement was used in 1900, by Miss Dixon, at Wadesborough,
in North Carolina. But our ingenious Member, Mr. Thorp,

156

THE PRISMATIC OPERA- GLASS.

157

having devised a means of reproducing gratings on celluloid,
arranged a more efficient instrument, by providing " prismatic
gratings" to be placed before one of the object glasses of the
binocular, and it was such an arrangement that was most generally
employed by our Members in the past eclipse. The observation,
which offered a spectacle of extreme beauty, had, like most of those
undertaken with far more powerful and pretentious instruments,
a two-fold purpose: — (1) To note the moment at the beginning and
end of totality, when the continuous spectrum due to sunlight has
disappeared, and the constellation of innumerable bright lines of
every colour, which we know as the " Flash," has for an instant

Mr. T. THORP ; HOTEL DE LA REGEXCE, ALGIERS.

taken its place. This observation is most useful, in order to enable
the watcher to signify to other workers around that the total phase
has actually commenced, and the reverse observation as the Sun is
about to emerge enables him to give warning that it is about to
end. (2) During totality the one tube of the opera glass would
give an actual view of the corona itself, the other would show its
spectrum. In this second case we should have an image of the
corona, depicted in light of several colours, each colour representing
a line in the spectrum of some coronal gas. The chief line of the
corona is one in the green, known for many years as " 1474K,"
since the position of the line when first discovered was supposed
to correspond with the reading " 1474," on the scale of Kirchoff's

158 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

spectroscope. The position was shown by Mr. Fowler and Mr.
Evershed, in the Indian eclipse, to be considerably in error, but the
name is still likely to cling to the line. At present we know
of no element, accessible to us here on earth, which gives the same
green line, and, therefore, we know nothing of the properties of the
gas which produces it. For the sake of distinctness, however, the
name of " Coronium " has been bestowed upon it. Such an
instrument as the " prismatic opera-glass " enables an observer to
compare, at once, and with particularity, the shape of the corona
as given by the coronal line " 1474K," with the corona as seen
directly ; in other words, to ascertain at a glance the distribution
in the corona of this strange and foreign gas, " coronium."

Dr. A. M. "W. DOWNING (Plasencia). — The instrument used by me
was a binocular, to one of the object glasses of which Mr. Thorp
had fitted one of his transmission gratings. I was able, therefore,
to observe the spectrum of the corona through one tube of the
binocular, and through the other to observe the corona directly.

I noticed that the coronium arc was much broader and more
diffused than the neighbouring arcs of magnesium and helium,
which were visible in the spectroscope at the same time. I
estimated the average breadth of the coronium arc to be about one-
eighth of the diameter ; but at a special part it was very much
broader, being approximately one-fifth of the diameter. This part
corresponded to a position angle of about 270°, and the observation
would tend to show that this additional amount of coronium was
present in the corona near the base of the great coronal extension
on the sun's western limb. According to this observation, there-
fore, the general height of coronium in the corona on this occasion
was a little over 100,000 miles; but at this special part, near the
base of this branch of the corona, it extended to about 180,000
miles.

Two of the party at Navalmoral used prismatic opera-glasses,
viz., Mr. C. T. Whitmell and Mr. O'Callaghan. They report as
follows : —

Mr. WHITMELL. — I observed with a low-power Galilean binocular,
the right object glass of which was fitted with one of Mr. Thorp's
excellent diffraction gratings attached to a prism. The binocular
was so held that the length of the spectrum was parallel to the
moon's movement, the violet end lying in the direction towards
which the moon was going. The left tube of the binocular
remained as usual, so that the actual corona might be seen
through it. A sliding wedge of neutral-tinted glass was in front
of the right eyepiece, and an ordinary dark sunglass in front of
the left one. These were removed just before totality.

The changes in the spectrum enabled me to give the signals of
the beginning and the ending of totality.

As the solar area diminished, the curved black Fraunhofer lines,
indicated at 3h. 50m., G.M.T., by a few shadowy bands, narrowed
rapidly, increased greatly in number, and grew sharply defined, the

THE PRISMATIC OPERA-GLASS.

159

D sodium line becoming distinctly double just before totality. The
concavity of these dark lines was turned at first towards the right
lower quadrant. Besides the dark D lines, I saw the dark lines
C and F of hydrogen, three magnesium lines in the green, and

EVE-EXD OF THE GREAT YfiKKES 40-INCH REFRACTOR.

many lines in the blue. The spectrum was, in fact, crowded with
dark lines.

I found some difficulty in estimating the exact moment of second
contact — the beginning oE totality — but the ordinary spectrum
suddenly seemed to vanish. I cannot say that I definitely saw
the flash spectrum. I now looked at the corona without the binocular.

160 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, 1 900.

There was a bright silvery ring round the dark moon, and, outside
this ring, were irregular extensions of fainter light — the streamers.
To me these were of a colour inclined to steely blue.

Eesuming observations with the binocular — the eclipse being
now total — I saw a faint general spectrum crossed by four bright
arcs, the concavity of which was now directed towards the left
upper quadrant.

These arcs corresponded apparently to C of hydrogen, D3 of
helium, to coronium, and to F of hydrogen. They were coloured
red, yellow, green, and bluish green, respectively. On the lower
part of the red C arc appeared a brilliant star-like point of red
light, due to a prominence. I do not clearly remember whether a
similar point appeared on any of the other arcs, but I think that
there was a yellow star on the helium arc. I did not notice any
prominences by direct vision. Third contact — the close of totality —
was unmistakably indicated by a very narrow, but brilliant, strip of the
ordinary solar spectrum shooting centrally lengthwise through the
dim coronal spectrum. It is impossible to give any adequate idea
of the exquisite beauty of the foregoing phenomena. They were
truly a poem in colour.

Mr. O'CALLAGHAN. — I used an opera-glass with a Thorp
diffraction grating in one of the eyepieces. The length of the
spectrum was parallel to the moon's movement, with the red
end towards the left. As second contact approached, I saw a few
of the curved dark lines. Just at second contact the narrowed
spectrum split up into lines of light along its length, and then, as
it faded, four bright arcs appeared, one in the green, one on the
blue side of the green, and two on the red side of it. These arcs
seemed all nearly equally persistent, and 1 watched them for
probably twenty-five seconds.

Before mid-totality, I left the spectroscope, my sight much
weakened by previous exposure to sunlight. Looking now
through a telescope (a small refractor 1| inch) I did not see the
streamers of the corona (perhaps because the field of view was
narrow), but, before direct sunlight re-appeared, I distinguished
many bright prominences on the S.W. limb, near the position of
third contact.

[It may be of interest to state that Mr. O'Callaghan was the
only member of the Navalmoral party who had previously seen a
total solar eclipse, he being fortunate enough to witness the Indian
one of 22nd January, 1898.— C. T. W.]

Colonel A. BUBTON-BKOWN, R.A. (Algiers, Cemetery Hill).— I
reserved to myself three instruments: — (a) A camera obscura,
formed by one of the telescopes equatorially mounted, with eyepiece,
projecting an image of the sun on to the ground glass, diameter
of image about 2^ inches on a 9-inch field, so that all present might
note the progress of the eclipse till totality. During totality
I hoped to get an enlarged picture of the corona with this instru-
ment, but I regret to say it was imperfect, owing to vibration
during exposure. (I) A tube containing a photographic lens, with

THE PRISMATIC OPERA-GLASS.

161

a negative lens for enlarging, associated with a deep green positive
lens and spectroscopic prisms, with which I hoped to get more
prominently the corouium line. («) A powerful binocular, to one
object glass of which one of Thorp's grating prisms was fitted.

As the crescent of the sun slowly diminished, many of the
party, as well as myself, saw in the camera obscura most perfectly
the appearance of " Baily's Beads," which seemed to linger for an
unusual time. I then raised my binocular, in which I also saw
them for a second, but to be immediately followed by the most
marked reversal of the black lines in the spectrum it has ever

THE HORSE-SHOE FALLS, NIAGAEA.

baen niy good fortune to witness. The coloured lines did not
appear at once, but seemed to run along the field of view as the
spectrum lighted up, and remained in the field what appeared to
be three or four seconds, so that, in my mind, there is no necessity
to go to the edge of the shadow to prolong them. I consider this
grating of Mr. Thomas Thorp a great success. At the moment of
reversal I called time, and the camera and spectroscopic and eye
observers commenced operations 4h. 17m. 25s. I was not able to
detect with any certainty the 1474 line on the corona in any part,
or on the streamers. The structure of the coronal streamers was
marked in the instrument "a," but no satisfactory photograph
was obtained, and, owing also to an accident to the worker of " b "
with the green lens, the result is not altogether satisfactory.

162 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, 1900.

Mr. W. B. GIBBS (Ovar). — I was observing with a Zeiss
prismatic binocular, the object glasses of which were of one- inch
aperture. Over one of these Mr. Hilger had fitted for me a
prismatic photographic grating of 14,500 lines to the inch. At
the eye end of the other tube, to protect my eye from the sunlight,
I was using a coloured solar wedge belonging to a larger telescope.
The instrument was mounted on a tripod stand.

At twelve minutes before totality the light from the thin solar
crescent was still so strong that a very dark portion of the wedge
had to be used, and I could not look into the spectroscope tube
without protection to the eye. At about three minutes before
totality I could use the spectroscope tube without any dark glass,
and I noticed a crescent-like disposition of the colours. This soon
changed into an ordinary solar spectrum, with the principal
Fraunhofer lines plainly visible and clearly defined, but, of course,
curved. These then became bright lines, and, whilst scrutinizing
them, a smaller spectrum appeared in the middle composed of
many more bright lines, which quickly disappeared, leaving only
the longer bright arcs. I specially noticed that the outer or
serrated edge of these bright arcs was not nearly equal in height
to the inner corona as seen through the other tube of the instru-
ment, and that there was no trace of any faint extension of the
matter giving rise to the green line into the outer or fainter portion
of the corona. The serrated edge seemed to have a sharp and
definite outline, and did not fade away gradually.

At the end of totality the small interior bright line spectrum
appeared for a few seconds.

Mr. SYDNEY EVEESHED (Algiers, Cape Matifou). — I am afraid
my observations will not be of much value, because I went to
Algiers rather more from motives of curiosity than with the inten-
tion of observing any particular phenomenon, but I took with me
a grating attached to one object-glass of a field-glass by Goertz,
as I had a great curiosity to see the " Flash " spectrum, and as
the flash spectrum gives the beginning and end of totality very
exactly, I was asked by those of the party who had cameras to
give them these times. The times taken from me were noted by
Mr. Dickson, and they made the time of totality 67'5 seconds. This
observation depends on two persons, so that it cannot be expected
to be particularly accurate. So far as my observations went
I found it quite easy to determine the exact instant when
totality began, because the disappearance of the last streaks of
the ordinary solar spectrum is so gradual that the mind is prepared
for the instant at which they disappear entirely. I am quite
accustomed to accurate time observations, and although I had
never previously seen a total eclipse I feel sure that the time I gave
was within one-tenth of a second. The end of totality was not so
easily noted ; the total duration of totality not being known
exactly before hand, the re-appearance of the flash spectrum takes
one by surprise, and it is on that account more difficult to give the
instant of re-appearance of the continuous spectrum with the same

THE PRISMATIC OPERA-GLASS. 163

accuracy as the determination of its disappearance. I think I
may have been as much as 0'25 seconds late in giving the
re-appearance of the spectrum. The errors of observations at the
beginning and end of totality are of the same sense, so that to
some extent they cancel each other.

CHAPTER XV.

THE SHADOW BANDS*

ONE of the most interesting of the attendant phenomena of a
total eclipse of the sun is that of the " Shadow Bands." These
are strange pulsations of alternate light and shade which move
swiftly, though with wavering motion, across the landscape
at the beginning and end of totality. One of the earliest obser-
vations; of them recorded was in the annular eclipse of 1820,
when Goldschmidt remarked them some three or four minutes
before the moon had completely passed on to the sun's disk. A
completely total eclipse therefore is not necessiary for their pro>-
duction; indeed, in the eclipse of 1870, December 22, Signer Sayar-
Moleti remarked them in Messina, which was just outside the
zone of totality. In appearance they resemble the ripples of light
and shade reflected from moving water. Thus, in " The Indian
Eclipse, 1898," the following similes are used: — "If the sun's
rays reflected from the waves of a, calm sea pass through the
glass of a port-hole window r,nd fall upon the farther wall of a
cabin, the faint flickering shadows will, in some degree at least,
resemble these mysterious shadow bands." " Only," cautions
another observer, " the shadow bands were far less brilliant,
smaller, more regular, and much less beautiful, but the tremulous
rippling movement was similar." The same observer gives as
her own description: — "As for the shadow bands, I should
rather call them shadow ripples. They reminded me of the
figures I have seen while bathing in the Channel Islands, when
the image or shadow of the ripples on the surface of the clear
water dances on the shingly bottom below."

In order to secure, a,s far as possible, uniformity of plan
amongst the different expeditions going out to the recent
eclipse, I prepared a number of directions for the guidance of
observers, with a code of questions for them to answer, based
upon my experiences in 1898, at Buxar, in India, and I havs
been favoured with the following reports of the results
obtained : —

ELCHE. — A careful watch for shadow bands was kept by Mr.
Johnson, Mr. E. C. Willis, and myself on the roof of a house at
Elche, and for the purpose two sheets, marked with black bands

* By Mr. E. W. JOHNSON.
164

THE SHADOW BANDS. 165

exactly one foot apart, were provided, one of which was fixed
on a wall, and the other was laid flat on the roof.

The first trace of the shadow bands was seen by Mr. Johnson
4J minutes before totality, when they were very faint, but they
rapidly increased in density, and were almost at once well
defined.

About the same time as the first appearance of the shadows
there was a remarkable change in the light; a deep blue shade
seemed to come over everything, as if the red and yellow rays
were withdrawn, and the darkness increased very rapidly.

The shadows did not appear as " bands " at all, but as
irregular ripples which merged one in the other. A few seconds
after their first appearance one batch rushed over the sheet at
an indescribable speed, but immediately afterwards they came
uniformly and very much slower.

The direction before and after totality was precisely the same,
from S.S.E. to N.N.W., the wind being from S.S.E. There was
very little breeze • what there was came in light puffs or gusts.

The appearance of the shadows after totality was exactly
the same as before, but they were not seen for more than two
minutes, and they became very faint a few seconds before their
final disappearance.

None were visible during totality. (JESSIE McRAE.)

ELCHE. — Observations of shadow bands at Elche were made
on a wall facing almost due west. The shadows, first seen
six minutes before totality, became somewhat more distinct as
totality approached, and they were again seen upon the return
of sunlight. They appeared to be made up of innumerable
ripples, which were oval in shape, about ten inches long and a
quarter that in width. All of them were parallel, and each one
was partly merged in those surrounding it. The shadows were
moving at about seven miles an hour, in a direction parallel to
the shorter axes of the ripples. The line of motion was towards
the north end of the wall and downward, making an angle of about
40° with the horizontal. There was also an irregular merging
and dissolving movement of the various ripples into each other.
As a result of this, new ones were continually being formed
whilst the old ones were lost sight of. It was, in fact, impossible
to follow any of them for more than a few inches. This merging
movement was exceedingly rapid, and perhaps chiefly in a
direction parallel to the general motion.

An attempt to photograph the shadows was unfortunately
frustrated by the non-arrival of a shutter ordered for the
purpose. The opinion, however, was formed that they were a
phenomenon which it would have been quite possible to photo-
graph with the aid of suitable apparatus. (E. C. WILLIS.)

ELCHE. — For the observations of the shadow bands at Elche
I was seated on a corn-threshing floor, perfectly level, and
commanding a large view of country. About three minutes

166

THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, 1900.

before totality I saw the bands. They were regular, with the
appearance of sinuous curves ; they were not clearly denned, but
greyish and faint on the ground. However, their intensity was
sufficient to attract the attention of two Spanish policemen who
were on my left. The width of the bands was two inches, the
distance apart being from one foot to one and a quarter. Their
motion, uniform, it seemed, was as quick as a man walking.
At first the motion was maintaining precisely the same direction,
east to west, but one minute before totality I saw a remarkable
phenomenon, not observed before, I believe. Besides the first
system already described, there was suddenly a second system
of bands, showing the same general appearance, but the motion

Mr. E. W. JOHNSON AT WORK.

of which was distinctly in the opposite direction, viz., from
west to east. I am satisfied myself of the reality of the thing,
which was borne witness to after totality by several neighbouring
persons.

I must say that the wind, moderate in force, was blowing
during all the eclipse from the same direction, E.S.E.

(M. MOVE.)

ALGIERS (HOTEL DE LA EEGENCE). — The apparatus which my
sister (Mrs. Arthur Brook) and I had at Algiers for making
observations of shadow bands was simply a white sheet,
12 ft. x 9 ft. in area, which we laid flat on the red-tiled roof of
the hotel, and two black rods, six feet long, to place parallel

THE SHADOW BANDS. 167

to the bands before and after totality, so as to enable us to
determine the direction of motion. We had also sewed on the
middle of the sheet two concentric circles of black tape, two feet
and four feet in diameter respectively, for the purpose of viewing
the bands tangentially to the circles from whatever point of the
compass they might happen to come; we hoped in this way to
count the number of bands in a given distance, but were dis-
appointed owing to the character of the shadows.

The word " bands " is not at all applicable to what we saw ;
we spent at least four minutes after totality in critically
examining the structure of the shadows, and we came to the
conclusion that there was no real linear arrangement, much less
single bands of definite breadth stretching across the sheet;
ripples raised on water by a light breeze represent best what
may be termed the structure of the shadows; they all move in
the same direction, each ripple element is linear in character
but retains its individuality only for a moment, appears to
dissolve away and others take its place. We chanced some days
afterwards to see a very common occurrence which closely re-
sembles the shadows in appearance, though much coarser and
less delicate in grain, so to speak; a large field of grass about
half a mile off, ready for the scythe, blowing across it a
moderately strong wind, causing lights and shades to traverse
the tops of the grass, all in one direction, but no definite portion
of light or shade remaining the same for more than a moment;
they were constantly altering in shape, disappearing, and fresh
ones appearing.

The direction in which the whole phenomenon was moving
was perfectly plain, and very easy to be distinguished,
namely, from 30° or thereabouts west of north to 30° east of
south both before and after totality, though I think after
totality the ripples came slightly more from the west. Once
after totality I watched the direction of motion recede consider-
ably to the west, but only for a short time, say 15 seconds or
so. The pace was quite slow enough to have allowed of their
being counted, if they could have been individualized, and I
estimated the speed at 1J yards a second.

Further, my sister alone saw at the end of totality what she
describes in a note below as very dark, oblong patches on a
grey ground; this was quite a separate phenomenon from the
ripples already mentioned, and lasted only a few seconds. The
general direction of the wind during the eclipse was north,
very light.

It seems to be generally accepted that these faint grey shadows
are due to atmospheric irregularities, and I think there can be
hardly any doubt of this; at the same time it must not be
assumed that these atmospheric irregularities are necessarily
near the earth's surface ; they may be at any height up to at any
rate the level of the highest clouds, say 25,000 feet. In a book
called " Cloudland," by the late Mr. Clement Ley (pages 12, 53,
and others), there are suggestions made with reference to the

168 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, I QOO.

formation of certain kinds of clouds which may be found to
have some bearing on the origin of these shadows.

He imagines two layers of air, differing in velocity and tem-
perature and humidity, in contact with each other ; owing to
the difference of velocity friction will arise at the contact surface
which will cause ripples and waves ; where a ripple of the warmer
and moister current is forced up into the cooler current, a small
cloudlet will appear owing to condensation, while the spaces
between, where the cooler current is mingled with the warmer
will remain clear, thfus producing dappled or wavy clouds
which he calls Cirro-macula or Stratus-maculosus, according to
the height above the earth's surface. (These are the same forms
of cloud which Howard calls Cirro-cumulus.)

Now if we imagine this process to be going on, but of insuffi-
cient intensity to result in actual clouds, we shall have an
irregular or rippled plane of contact between two strata of air
of different density, at which the light coming from a thin strip
of the uncovered sun will be unequally refracted, causing
variations in the amount of light falling on any surface in a
direct line with the sun and the two strata of air; further, the
air ripples, and therefore the shadows, will in general move in
the direction in which the faster of the two currents is moving,
just as ripples on water move in the direction of the breeze
producing them. Where, however, the two currents are moving
in directions inclined to one another, the ripples would move
in some direction intermediate between the two, and thus the
actual direction of the wind either at the earth's surface or in
the higher atmospheric strata may have no direct relation to
the movement of the shadow ripples at an eclipse. May not
also a similar cause account for the wavy or pulsating shadows
seen crossing a star disc put much out of focus, even on a very
clear night where there are no visible clouds, but much bad
seeing? (C. L. BROOK.)

NOTE BY MRS. ARTHUR BROOK ON THE " SHADOW PATCHES. "-
Immediately after Miss Maunder gave the word " Stop," which
denoted that 60 seconds of totality were past, I dropped
my glasses and looked at the sheet. Instead of being white the
sheet, owing to the absence of sunlight, was of a dull grey hue.
The surface appeared to be covered with dark blotches of
shadow, and these were apparently in a state of violent agitation ;
the patches of dark shadow were dancing about and coursing
one another rapidly over the grey ground. These shadows could
not be said to be in definite wavy lines, nor do any of the pictures
of shadow bands represent the appearance I saw. The patches
seemed to be irregular ovals in shape, about 9 inches by
6 inches, and to be arranged in rows in the direction from N.E. to
S.W. (The actual direction as shown by the position of the
black rod was from 42° east of north, to 42° west of south.)
The rows themselves appeared to be passing slowly from N.W.

THE SHADOW BANDS.

169

to S.E., while at the same time the patches chased one another
along the rows much more rapidly, the whole effect being of a
rapid undulating motion from N.E. to S.W., with a slow motion
from N.W. to S.E.

This appearance lasted seven or eight seconds, jand dis-
appeared instantaneously, giving place to the faint, flickering

SHADOW PATCHES OBSERVED AT ALGIERS, BY MRS. ARTHUR BROOK.

This phenomenon lasted about 7 or 8 seconds about the end of totality.
The patches vanished suddenly, leaving on the sheet the ordinary shadow ripples,
which were observed for some minutes before and after totality.

shadows upon a white ground, which my brother and I saw
both before and after totality.

As I continued to observe the sheet before totality up to,
or nearly up to, the moment Mr. Maunder gave the word " Go,"
that is nearly up to the commencement of totality, I think these
shadow patches were not visible before. (RUTH MARY BROOK.)

170 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

ALGERIA (CAPE MATIFOU). — The only one of our party who
observed the shadow bands was Mrs. Hassall, and she saw them
both before and after totality. It is doubtful whether sufficient
points were noted to make the observations valuable, but it
may happen that there is no other record of the shadows
being seen on a vertical plane whose orientation was exactly
similar to that of the white wall which served as a background
for Mrs. Hassall's observations.

The azimuth of the wall was 114°, or, in other words, a line
drawn at right angles to the wall pointed 24° west of south,
and the shadow bands were seen about 12 inches broad and the
same distance apart, travelling horizontally from the eastern to
the western end, in a direction at right angles to their length.

Mrs. Hassall describes them as uniform and almost straight,
and from her description I judged the velocity to be about eight
miles per hour.

During the eclipse the air was quite calm, with occasional
light gusts of wind which never attained a> velocity of more than
ten miles per hour.

One or two of our party saw the moon's shadow coming over
the sea, but not with that distinctness which we had been led
to expect. (H. KRAUSS NIELD.)

MANZANARES. — Shadow bands were observed on two large
sheets spread side by side upon the fairly even pavement of
the old Moorish tower kindly lent to us for observations, and
roughly oriented to the points of the compass. A foot width
was marked off as a gauge by two parallel straps. The direction
of the waves was1 indicated, when observed, by two other straps,
whose position was accurately noted, at leisure, after totality.

The bands were not seen until within two minutes of totality.
They then travelled at six or seven miles an hour, twenty were
counted in two> seconds, they moved in nearly straight, parallel
and equidistant lines, with a quivering motion; the bands were
about three inches wide, and the light intervals between them
also about three inches wide.

The direction of motion was from N. 64° E. to S. 64° W.
(true), and the bands lay at right angles to the direction of
their motion.

About twenty seconds before totality Captain Carpenter, who
had turned round to reach the straps wherewith to mark the
direction of motion, was surprised when again turning towards
the sheet to observe that the direction of motion had changed to
S. 26° E. — that is, at right angles. Almost at once after this the
bands ceased to be visible. All agreed to the position of the straps
as placed by Captain Carpenter, but to Mr. Gare and myself,
who had not moved and saw no change, they indicated the waves
themselves, whereas to Captain Carpenter they indicated the
direction of motion. Could there be an alternating vibration in
two opposed directions, without motion of translation, like the
vibration of a sounding bell?

THE SHADOW BANDS. 171

Immediately before the shadow bands came, a peculiar narrow
well-defined black shadow, in shape like a bough of a tree, with
a backward projection, as of a broken fork, about the middle,
and roughly concave in the direction of its motion, moved
across the sheet nearly east to west, which is a little more west
than the direction in which the shadow bands moved imme-
diately afterwards. We thought it likely to be the shadow of
a bird, but did not look up as the shadow bands were appearing.
Senor Ventosa, of the Madrid Observatory, points out that the
thin slice of sunlight at this time would be likely to give a
narrow, well-defined shadow.

We did not watch for shadow bands after totality.

(H. KEATLEY MOORE.)

PLASENCIA. — At Plasencia observations were made by means
of four sticks, about five feet in length, which were laid on a
large white cloth spread upon the ground. Two of the sticks
indicated respectively the position and direction of motion of
the bands before totality ; the remaining two indicated the same
particulars after totality.

Mr. Geoghegan, who kindly undertook to look for the bands,
saw nothing of them until two minutes before totality. He was
then able to see them distinctly enough to place the sticks in
position. Similarly after totality, the bands were visible for
about two minutes.

By means of a compass I found that before totality the
direction in which the bands lay was about 10° north of east,
and the direction of motion was south-east by south. After
totality the direction in which the bands lay was north-east, and
the direction of motion was south-east. All these bearings are
magnetic. The declination of the needle for the station is
15° west.

The wind was north, light before totality, freshening to
moderate afterwards. (A. M. W. DOWNING.)

PLASENCIA. — I find it impossible to answer categorically, as
suggested, the questions on shadow bands, as the shadows did
not look to me at all like " bands," but resembled the undefined
nature of the shadow (or whatever it may be called) of a wave
in shallow water running over sand or some light coloured
bottom.

The line of the crest of the waves seemed to be a wavy line
with, I estimated, between five and six inches pitch (i.e., from
crest to crest) and an inch height of wave.

The crest of the waves was nearly in a straight line, and the
distance between each wave was about three inches; the speed
of progression I estimated at about one foot per second, and
the waves did not, I think, come in batches, but uniformly.
The time the shadows were visible seemed about two minutes
before totality, and an equal time after.

172 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE,

I may remark that the sheet was not at all flat, as it was laid
upon grass, and the ground was not level. I did not measure
the shadows, which from their nature would have been difficult,
and I could only estimate the distances. (S. GEOGHEGAN.)

NAVALMORAL. — At Navalmoral a white sheet was laid on the
ground, but no shadow bands were observed by Mr. Buckley or
by Mr. Jackson Smith, who undertook to watch for them. The
Rev. C. J. Steward, observing another white sheet on higher
ground, was also unsuccessful.

Shadow bands appear to be due to disturbances in the re-
fractive power of the air brought about by alterations in tem-
perature and density. We may perhaps expect such changes to
be accompanied by sensible air movement or wind. At Naval-
moral there was during totality complete calm. Upon optical
principles the bands will be clearly denned only when the solar
crescent is very narrow. (C. T. WHITMELL.)

ALGIERS (HOTEL CONTINENTAL). — With regard to the shadow
bands or patches, they came on with a kind of rippling move-
ment from a north-westerly direction, at intervals some five
minutes before totality ; the general direction in which they
seemed to lie being from about N.E. to S.W. As the eclipse
advanced the shadow bands appeared to swerve round towards
the south, and some three minutes after totality they were
observed to be travelling away towards the west, i.e., they
appeared to be moving in an almost opposite direction after
totality to that in which they were moving before totality,
although the general direction or parallelism of the bands or
patches themselves remained much the same after the eclipse as
before, viz., about N.E. to S.W.

The general impression produced upon my mind by them
was that they are a purely atmospheric effect, rendered visible
by the reduced light area at the time, much in a similar way
as an image is focussed through the slit of a spectroscope. It is
noticeable also that these bands or patches appear at a time
when presumably the air currents are rendered more active by
decrease of temperature as the eclipse advances, and by subse-
quent increase of temperature as the sunlight returns. The
bands or patches proceeded rapidly with an undulatory motion,
and owing to their faintness and rapidity, anything like accurate
counting or timing seemed impossible. (RICHARD F. ROBERTS.)

ESTARREJA. — I had previously arranged a large sheet, and
also had the side of a white house to observe the bands upon.
Just before totality — perhaps a minute — I arranged my camera
for the side of the house, and sat with my back to the sun
watching. I cannot tell how long before Baily's Beads the
shadow bands appeared, but it must have been only a very few

THE SHADOW BANDS.

173

seconds. At first I detected them very faintly, but they steadily
and rapidly increased in intensity, and I took a snapshot. . . .
To me when I first detected them they did not appear as bands,
but exactly as the Portuguese book on the eclipse described
them — reflection from rippling water under a bridge — but they
soon assumed the appearance of definite bands, wavy lines, with
dark blotches of shadow upon them, and moving very rapidly —
about eight inches apart, as near as I can guess — from my right
lower corner to my upper left, at an angle of 45°. As I had my
back to the sun they would move almost at right angles to the
path of the moon over the sun's disc. The rate at which they

ABOVE THE FALLS, XIAGAKA.

moved I can liken to standing in a railway station, and seeing a
train pass through at the rate of about thirty miles an hour. I
stood about eight yards from the white wall. (J. N. MARSDEN.)

ALGIERS (CEMETERY HILL). — The shadow bands were generally
observed about six inches or so apart, the movement being
apparently about at right angles to their length.

(Col. A. BURTON BROWN, R.A.)

Miss EDITH MAUNDER (ALGIERS, HOTEL DE LA REGENCE),
who was acting as timekeeper, and who was seated at a table
facing the eclipse, saw the shadow bands moving over the flat

174 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

roof, and passing over herself and the table before her, and
seemed to feel them as if they were a slight fluttering current of
air.

Miss IRENE MAUNDER, at the same station, saw the bands just
before second contact, moving over the ground from N.W.
to S.E.

From the reports which have come to hand from various ob-
servers it would seem that the shadow bands at this eclipse
varied considerably at different places, and the details given
bear out the idea that they are influenced to a very great extent
by the wind.

My own observations, in which I was assisted by Miss
Jessie McKae and Mr. E. C. Willis, being made on a high roof
at Elche, exposed to every breath of wind, correspond very
closely to those of Mr. Brook and his sister, Mrs. Arthur Brook,
which were made on the roof of the Hotel de la Kegence, at
Algiers, while Professor Moye, who was observing on a corn-
threshing floor at Elche, presumably sheltered from the wind,
saw the bands in quite a different form. To us on the roof at
Elche they appeared, not as bands at all but as ripples, which
travelled at a moderate speed but changed continually in form,
one ripple merging into another.

They were well denned, but owing to their ever changing
form no accurate estimate could be made of their width, though
it did not seem ever to exceed two inches, while the light spaces
were often more than twice that width. The real shadow of
the moon was sweeping across Spain from slightly north of west
to a little south of east, but the direction of the shadows was
from S.S.E. to N.N.W., the wind blowing faintly from S.S.E.,
and from the comparatively slow movement of the shadows and
their broken appearance, the supposition is that their normal
direction would have been from the north-west, but they were
met and forced back by the wind.

Professor Moye reports seeing regular curved bands of two
inches in width and about a foot apart, which travelled from
east to west ; and that one minute before totality another system
of bands was visible, showing the same appearance but travel-
ling in exactly the opposite direction, namely, from west to
east. It would seem that the second system of bands might be
due to absence of wind, since it so often happens that at
totality there is a complete calm. Keports of this perfect still-
ness have been received from no less than three observing
stations at the recent eclipse.

Mrs. Brook's observations of dark patches immediately before
the return of sunlight after totality, are of quite a new character,
and no reports of their appearance have been received from any
other observers, though no doubt this phenomenon is closely
connected with the shadow bands or ripples. Never having

THE SHADOW BANDS.

175

been observed before it is impossible to form any definite
opinion on the subject, as for this comparison is needed, but it
may be that this is the climax of the density of the shadows,
and if so they might be visible for the first few seconds of

GATE OF THE WINDS, NIAGARA.

totality, immediately after the withdrawal of the actual rays of
the sun, as well as for a few seconds before the end of totality.
In any case they should be most carefully looked for at future
eclipses.

When I first observed the shadow bands at Buxar, in January,
18983 the wind, what little there was, travelled in the same

176 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

direction as the moon's shadow, and there were produced clearly
denned parallel bands, which on that occasion were estimated
at a speed of from 8 to 12 miles an. hour. Based upon the obser-
vations then made, some questions and hints were drawn up with
a view to assisting observers at the late eclipse, but owing to
the different appearance of the shadows it has been hardly
possible in some cases to answer the questions as they stand.
Below will be found tabulated the questions with answers
received from five different observing parties. From these it
would appear that conditions varied very much, ,and in one
other instance, namely, at Navalmoral, Mr. C. T. Whitmell
reports that notwithstanding a special look out being kept by
three observers, no shadow bands were seen at all. Careful
watch for the approach of the moon's shadow was kept at Elche
by Mr. J. H. Willis, who undertook all the meteorological
observations, but it was imperceptible, neither was anything
seen of its departure.

The code of questions submitted to the several observers was
as follows. Their answers are given in tabular form.

QUESTIONS.

1. How long before totality did the bands appear?

2. What number of bands were visible say in ten seconds? '

3. What was the direction of motion?

4. Were they inclined to the direction of motion?

5. What was the direction and force of the wind?

6. Did they come uniformly or in batches?

7. What was their speed ?

8. What was the width of the bands?

9. What was the distance apart of the bands?

10. Were they very faint, or clearly denned?

11. Was their direction after totality the same as before?

12. How long after were they visible?

13. Did you see any bands during totality?

E. W. JOHNSON.

THE SHADOW BANDS.

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CHAPTER XVI.
BAILTS BEADS.

THE earliest notice which we have of this phenomenon appears to be
due to Halley, afterwards second Astronomer Royal. In his observa-
tion of the total eclipse of 1 71 5, the only total eclipse of the sun that has
ever been visible from Greenwich Observatory, he notes "about two
minutes before the total immersion, the remaining part of the sun
was reduced to a very fine horn, whose extremities seemed to lose
their acuteness, and to become round like stars ; and, for the space
of about a quarter of a minute, a small piece of the southern horn
of the eclipse seemed to be cut off from the rest by a good interval
and appeared like an oblong star rounded at both ends." But they
have become familiar to all students of astroromical literature since
the year 1836, when Francis Baily, observing the annular eclipse of
May 15th, of that year, was greatly struck with their appearance,
and gave so full and striking an account of them, that they have
always been looked for since, and have borne the name of the
man who first made them generally well known. His account is as
follows : —

" When the cusps of the sun were about 40° asunder, a row of lucid
points, like a string of bright beads, irregular in siZe and distance from each
other, suddenly formed round that part of the circumference of the moon
that was about to enter, or which might be considered as having just entered,
on the sun's disc. Its formation indeed was so rapid, that it presented the
appearance of having been caused by the ignition of a fine train of gunpowder.
This I intended to note as the correct time of the formation of the annulus,
expecting every moment to see the thread of light completed round the
moon, and attributing this serrated appearance of the moon's limb (as others
have done before me) to the lunar mountains, although the remaining
portion of the moon's circumference was comparatively smooth and circular
as seen through the telescope. My surprise, however, was great on finding
that these luminous points increased in magnitude, some of the contiguous
ones appearing to run into each other like drops of water; for the rapidity of
the change was so great, and the singularity of the appearance so fascinating
and attractive, that the mind was for the moment distracted, and lost in the
contemplation of the scene, so as to be unable to attend to every minute

occurrence I cannot describe these phenomena (or rather this

phenomenon, for it was one continuous appearance) more correctly than by
supposing, for the moment, that the edge was formed of some dark glutinous
substance, which by its tenacity adhered to certain points of the sun's limb,
and by the motion of the moon was thus drawn out into long threads, which
suddenly broke and wholly disappeared. After the formation of the
annulus' thus described, the moon preserved its usual circular outline during
its progress across the sun's disc, till its opposite limb again approached the
border of the sun, and the annulus was about to be dissolved, when all at

178

BAILY S BEADS.

179

once (the limb of the moon being some distance from the edge of the sun) a
number of long, black, thick, parallel lines, exactly similar in appearance
to the former ones above mentioned, suddenly darted forward from the moon
and joined the two limbs as before, and the same phenomenon was thus
repeated, but in an inverse order. For, as the dark lines got shorter, the
intervening bright parts assumed a more circular and irregular shape, and
at length terminated in a fine curved line of bright beads (as at the com-
mencement), till they ultimately vanished and the annulus consequently
became Avholly dissolved."

This description can scarcely be improved upon, but it should be
noted that in an annular eclipse as was that of 1886, the two phases
of the phenomenon occur in the reverse order to that seen in a total
eclipse. Iii other words, it is at second contact, at the beginning of

REV. C. D. P. DAVIES, HOTEL DE LA REGEXCE, ALGIERS.

totality, when but a thin arch of sunlight still remains, that the long,
black, thick, parallel lines suddenly dart forward from the moon,
and reach across to the limb of the sun, thus breaking up the thin
bright arch into a row of beads. Whilst it is at the third contact,
the end of totality, that the " row of lucid points like a string of
bright beads " form around that part of the circumference of the
moon that is about to enter upon the sun's disc.

In this Eclipse of 1900 several of the members of our various
parties gave considerable attention to Baily's Beads, two of them,
Mr. Crommelin and Mr. Chambers, by no means according in
their explanation of the causes to which the phenomenon should
be ascribed.

Mr. CROMMELIN (Algiers, Hotel de la Regence).— The progress
of the eclipse was observed by projection on a sheet of cardboard

180 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

to avoid fatiguing the eye. About twenty seconds before totality
Baily's Beads began to form. The appearance was as of the
sudden leaping outwards of dark projections from the moon
across the light crescent. They were first seen near the cusps, and
gradually spread, so that at the ten seconds signal the whole
crescent was thus broken up.

The beads had the appearance of absolutely straight perfectly
black cuts out of the bright crescent ; but it seems quite clear that
they are simply caused by the lunar mountains, and that their
peculiar aspect is due to the widening of the solar crescent through
irradiation. Thus, nineteen seconds before totality, the width of the
crescent in the middle was 8", tapering off to nothing at the cusps.
Now, on the "scale of the projection on the cardboard, about four
inches to the sun's diameter, this would be equivalent to Jg- of an
inch at the widest part ; but owing to irradiation it gave one the
impression of being quite TV of an inch, and even near the cusps it
seemed to have a very sensible width. The beads in the crescent,
due to the lunar mountains, would necessarily undergo a like
seeming magnification, and hence would be produced those curious
appearances of broad, black, straight bands. But for irradiation
they would have appeared in their true form as serrated and
irregular mountain peaks. It is a somewhat similar phenomenon
to the " Black Drop " in transits of Venus.

Mr. Gr. F. CHAMBERS (Ovar). — I took with me a 2i-in.
refractor, mounted on a tripod stand, and provided with a wedge
solar eye-piece of neutral tint glass, made for the occasion by Mr.
3. H. Steward. Not having previously seen any total solar eclipse,
I studied carefully the warnings of observers with previous
experience against undertaking too much, and I decided to confine
my attention to (1) visual observation of Baily's Beads ; (2) the
Red Flames ; (3) the outline of the outer Corona ; (4) the passage
of the Eclipse Shadow ; (5) the Shadow Bands ; and (6) the
visibility of neighbouring stars.

My observations of the last three items may be said to have
failed. Besides Mercury and Venus, I only saw two or three stars
at the most, and I did not see either the passage of the Eclipse
Shadow or any Shadow Bands. On the other hand, I made a
successful pencil sketch of the outer corona ; saw a very beautiful
and extensive display of prominences in the form of carmine
coloured light extending through 80° or 90° around the sun's
circumference, and the " Baily's Beads."

As regards the outer corona and its extensioiis, I would only
remark that the outlines were fairly well defined, but, owing to the
general darkness of the sky being far less than I expected, there
was not the contrast of light between the corona and the sky
which I had anticipated.

As regards the prominences, I would say that I did not notice
any particular development of them in jets or outbursts outwards ;
the display of carmine colour was truly magnificent, but the outline

BAILY'S BEADS.

181

seemed of fairly even width through the whole extent, which, as'I
have said, was something less than 90° of arc.

I look upon my observations of " Baily's Beads" as the most

THE ALCAXAH, SKVILLE.

successful feature of my day's work. I saw them sharp and clear,
both at the beginning and at the end of the total phase ; and I feel
firmly convinced that they are not due, as commonly supposed, to

182 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, 1 900.

the serrated character of the moon's limb. I agree very much
with Mr. Lewis Swift's remarks, made in connection with the
American Eclipse of July 29, 1878 : —

" The beads (which are luminous, and thus unlike the ' Black Drop ')
began to form from each end simultaneously, and in less than a half second
were completed. They were nearly square, and increased in size from each
end of the crescent to the centre, which was the largest in exact
mathematical ratio. So symmetrical were they that if half of them had
been superimposed on the other half they would have agreed in number,
curvature, shape, and distance. They were visible but a short time — say
two or three seconds — when, giving a few pulsating tremors, they vanished
altogether. When I take into consideration the exact uniformity of their
formation as to size, shape, &e., I cannot subscribe to the dogma that they
are only the sun's light shining through the interstices of the lunar
mountains. In this case part of the moon's contour, where they were
formed, was smooth, while the other was exceedingly rough, yet the beads
were the same in both localities ; and those formed at the beginning are
precisely similar to those at the close of totality, and those of one eclipse
just like those of all — total and annular — that have occurred since they
were first described by Baily. The assertion seems justifiable that the cause
of Baily's Beads is still enshrouded in darkness."

I can thoroughly confirm Mr. Lewis Swift's words as to the
practical uniformity of the beads in " size " and " shape."

Mr. WALTER MAUNDER (Algiers, Hotel de la Kegence). — Quite
five seconds before Mr. Crommelin gave the warning " Ten
seconds," the thin arch of sunlight, which yet remained, had been
crossed by at least two black ligaments ; one at each end of the
arch, but not placed with perfect symmetry with regard to it.
Five seconds after that warning had been given, the bright arch,
now worn down to a thread of extreme thinness, was broken by
black intervals, in, I should say, at least eight or ten places. I
did not venture to count them, for fear of distracting my attention
from noting the exact moment of totality, since it had been
arranged that I was to give the word " go " immediately second
contact was complete. The arch of tiny bright images, which I
had now before me, did not seem to me to correspond entirely
with Francis Baily's famous description ; the " beads " were not
circular spots of light, for their length was greater than their
breadth. But the last stage in the phenomenon seemed to take
place with extreme slowness. The impression on my mind was as
if the moon had ceased to move over the face of the sun ; the ends
of the arc of light, and the breadth of the " beads " shrank so
imperceptibly. Then when I began to fear that my friends
around would think I had forgotten my engagement to give the
signal, so slow had the final changes seemed, the arc of light
collapsed all over, and was gone ; just nine and a half seconds
from Mr. Crommelin's " ten seconds' " signal.

I observed with a Cooke refractor of 2^-inches aperture, and
magnifying power of 25. The dark glass was a very dark
neutral-tinted one, and I ascribe the want of apparent circularity
of the " beads " to the depth of the dark glass. The glass was

BAILY S BEA.DS.

183

too dark to allow any trace of the corona to be seen through it
during totality. The " beads " were not looked for at third
contact.

Rev. AUGUSTIN MORFORD (Ovar). — I looked both before and
after for the moon's black disc outside the cusps, but never saw it.
The cusps drew in rapidly. About one minute before totality the

MOORISH WELL, EOXDA.

inferior cusp was cut off by a lunar mountain about !£' from its
point. The parts separated rapidly disappeared, beginning from
the point. I am quite certain of this observation. " Baily's Beads "
showed well, both before and after (better before). Separate
beads were flattened oval in shape, rather than round.

Col. A. BURTON-BROWN, R.A. (Algiers, Cemetery Hill). — These
were beautifully seen by myself and many of my party just before
totality, and during a much longer time than is usual, pro-

184 THE TOTAL SOLAR, ECLIPSE, IQOO.

jected on to the ground glass of a camera attached to one of my
telescopes on which several also saw the corona.

" Baily's Beads " were also noticed by Miss M. A. OBR (British
Vice-Consul's house), by Mr. RICHARD ROBERTS (Algiers, Hotel
Continental) ; by the Rev. C. D. P. DAVIES (Algiers, Hotel de la
Regence) ; and by the Rev. H. P. SLADE (Estarreja). Mr.
ROBERTS noted expressly the rugged outline of the moon's preceding
limb as it advanced across the sun. This ruggedness of outline
was perhaps scarcely surprising considering the great altitude of
the mountains in the neighbourhood of the moon's eastern limb,
some of which would probably represent nearly 4" of arc.

Mr. SYDNEY EVERSHED (Algiers, Cape Matifou), observing with
a grating attached to one object-glass of a field-glass by G-oertz, of
course did not see "Baily's Beads" as such, but noticed the break-
up of the continuous spectrum into streaks as the lunar mountains
stretched across the remaining thread of the sun's disc. " I should
guess that this time — the time that elapses from the moment
when the continuous spectrum breaks up into streaks, to the
instant when the last streak vanishes and leaves a pure bright-line
spectrum — at certainly not less than one second ; indeed, just after
the eclipse I estimated this time at two seconds."

APPEARANCE OF THE Disc OF THE MOON.

IT is of course perfectly well known that the moon during a total
eclipse of the sun, although it usually appears much blacker than
the sky, is yet strongly illuminated by earth-shine. Still there
does not appear to be any record until the recent eclipse of the
details of the lunar surface having been made out. The Rev.
C. D. P. DAVIES, however, saw the surface rough, some parts
darker and some brighter, and he adds the following description
of the appearance of the lunar disc as seen in his telescope.

" During the progress of the partial phase it had steadily
maintained its black, featureless, and apparently flat
appearance, as w.} all know it so well in partial eclipses.
But within the space of a second or two its limb
became weirdly illuminated with a white ashy light. It was
palpably a globe — not a mere lacuna in the disc of the sun —
a thing of itself; a thing plainly on this side of the sun. Its
surface looked white and dusty, its craters lying ghostly in the
pearly rays. The only illustration that I can imagine — I have
not tried it — is to put a thin coating of paste on an india-rubber
ball, and pepper it over with fine white wood ashes. Shut the
shutters, and suspend it at such a distance from them that
a beam of sunlight through a fine hole is just large enough to
envelop the ball. Then view it some little way off, and very

BAILY'S BEADS. 185

nearly behind it. The appearance spread well within the limb,
say a sixth of the moon's apparent diameter."

This observation is of importance as showing from direct
observation what we know theoretically to be the case, viz.,
that the moon though apparently so nearly black during an
eclipse of the sun, yet is really under a by no means insensible
amount of illumination.

Several other observers remark on the apparent relief in which
the moon was seen; as a sphere, not as a flat disc. Thus the
Rev. F. W. QUILTER saw "the body of the moon as a globe of
ebon blackness, and just before totality the spherical form of
our satellite was as distinctly seen as a ball would be if suspended
on a string within a few yards of one's vision."

CHAPTER XVII.

STARS AND PLANETS VISIBLE DURING THE
ECLIPSE.

" The stars rush out
At one stride comes the dark "

is Coleridge's vivid description of the brevity of tropical twilight.
But it might well serve as a paraphrase for half the descriptions of
total eclipses which have come down to us from ancient times.
Thus in the eclipse of the year A.D. 840, May 5, we are told "there
seemed no difference from the reality of night, that the stars shone
out without any sensible diminution of light " ; and again in that of
1140, March 20, the Saxon Chronicle relates, " In the Lent the sun
and the day darkened, about the noontide of the day when men
were eating, and they lighted candles to eat by." William of
Malmesbury adds that the people " went out and beheld the stars
around the sun." Clavius declares of the eclipse of 1560, August
21, " There was darkness greater than that of night, no one could
see where he trod, and the stars shone very brightly in the sky."

Yet, in all the accounts which have come down to us from
antiquity there are only two or three instances in which the corona
is referred to, and even such references are doubtful. Whereas
since eclipses have been made the subject of real and careful
observation, the corona has stood out on every occasion as an object
which could by no means be overlooked, as being, indeed, in its
beauty, brightness, extent and mysteriousness the one feature of
the eclipse beyond all others ; whilst the stars, which have been
unmistakably detected and identified, have been very few indeed.
Especial interest therefore attached to the eclipse of May last, since
the sun was in an unusually rich portion of the heavens, and the
great leaders of the heavenly host, Sirius, Procyon, Capella,
Aldebaran, and the stars of Orion and the Twins, were all near at
hand, and the search for stars was made a special object by several
of our members. The results, though not numerous, are sufficient
to show that the old accounts as to the numbers of stars seen were
not wholly imaginative. For it must be remembered that in 1900
the sun was entirely hidden but for a very short time, and the sky
illumination was always very great. In an eclipse of longer dura-
tion, the darkness at mid-totality would have been much increased,
and, by consequence, a far greater number of stars would have been

186

STARS AND PLANETS VISIBLE.

187

recognised. The observation is one which should always be under-
taken, as it affords a very full and unmistakable index of the

STREET SCENE IN CORDOVA.

general sky illumination during the eclipse, and of the conditions
of observation.

The fullest report in this section is from Mr. C. L. BROOK
(Algiers, Hotel de la Ecgence) : In the pure sky of the

188 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, 1 900.

Mediterranean, Venus was a fairly easy object to see at any time,
the only difficulty lay in picking her up ; I succeeded, however, in
doing so every day from 22nd to 28th May inclusive, sometime
between the hours of 11 a.m. and 3 p.m.

Pollux and Castor were very near Venus, and having thus an
excellent guide to their places, I decided to try and get the exact time
they appeared. I picked up Venus at 1.44 p.m., Greenwich mean
time, on the day of the eclipse, and tried to point her out to several
observers, but most of them failed to see her; at 3.27 p.m., Greenwich
mean time, many of them began to see her, showing that already,
22 minutes after first contact, the sky was becoming darker.

Seme ten minutes after this I noticed a sudden jump in the
illumination ; perhaps this was an illusion, but the impression was
the same as if, being in a room with four or five lighted candles,
one had suddenly been extinguished.

About two minutes before totality, I fixed my eyes on the place
where Pollux ought to appear, and saw the star become visible at
65 seconds before totality, just before the minute bell sounded ; I
then turned round to look for Arcturus, but failed to find it, and
my eyes being attracted to the colouring of the sky to the S.E., I
noted as follows : — Next the horizon a band of orange red perhaps
ten degrees broad, above this a band of primrose yellow of about
the same breadth, this merged into blue, which in turn became
indigo violet, and at and round the zenith the sky was the most
intense indigo purple I have ever seen.

I then looked for Castor (about twelve seconds before totality)
and found it fairly easy, and have little doubt I could have seen
it thirty seconds earlier.

On the evening of the 27th and 28th, I noted the time of the
appearance of Pollux as 7h. 19m., Greenwich meantime, or 7h. 31m.,
Algerian time.

My sister and 1 tried to estimate the darkness of the eclipse with
reference to the twilight on the same evening ; we failed in this, but
from the appearance of the white sheet, she judged that at 7h. 44m.,
Algerian time, the light was about equal to two or three seconds
after totality.

I glanced at Pollux and Castor during totality and found them
shining like third magnitude stars.

I saw Aldebaran during totality, and Mercury also, shining
brighter than I have ever seen it before, except once during the
great frost of 1895.

My sister notes that she saw with the binoculars s Tauri
(magnitude 37 Oxford Photometry) in the same field with Aldebaran
during totality, also that at 4h. 1m., Greenwich mean time, the
swifts began hovering round just as they did on several evenings
in the twilight.

My impression is that during totality I could have seen all second
magnitude stars, or even 2^ magnitude stars, provided they had been
some distance above the horizon, and provided also there had been
some means of directing the eye exactly to the right place. Many
stars escape being seen because there is no time to search for them.

STARS AND PLANETS VISIBLE.

189

The observers at Naval moral report under this head as
follows : —

Mr. C. T. WHITMELL. — I saw Venus for some time after totality.
She appeared nearly overhead, though her actual altitude was 72°.
The azimuth was 40° S. of W. Mercury was 2° (about four
diameters) from the sun's centre, on a line passing through the
lower right quadrant of the disc. He became invisible almost
directly after totality ended. A bright star in the S.W. was, I
believe, Sirius, which at totality had an altitude of 30°, and an
azimuth 24° W. of S.

Mr. HOWARTH. — Mercury was brilliant and almost touching the
corona. Sweeping the sun with an opera-glass, no other planet or

TOLEDO.

star was visible near it, though further away, Venus and many
fixed stars came into view.

Mr. BUCKLEY. — After the sun, the most striking object was
Mercury, shining with a bright red gold tint, about two degrees
from the right lower part of the sun. A few stars were visible,
flashing out suddenly at totality. Aldebaran, Sirius, and the
planet Venus, were the most conspicuous.

Mrs. BUCKLEY. — Observed with the greatest interest the quick
shining out of various stars and planets. Venus overhead was
particularly fine, and Mercury, magnificent. Aldebaran, Betel-
geux, and Rigel, were also seen.

Dr. STOKES. — Mercury was distinctly seen, and was extremely
brilliant. No other body of the nature of a planet or comet was
seen.

190 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

Miss PETHERICK. — Many stars were visible. Venus was par-
ticularly bright.

Rev. C. T. STEWARD. — Had only time to see Mercury.

Misses L. and W. FOSTER. — Venus and Mercury/ the former
some minutes before totality.

The Manzanares party record that "Venus was seen distinctly and
with ease at 3.50 p.m., Greenwich mean time, and would have
been seen much earlier if looked for. We were occupied in other
matters, and our attention was drawn to Venus by the murmur
of the crowd beneath.

" Mercury was a very brilliant object during totality. It appeared
as bright against the light ' eclipse ' sky as Jupiter had appeared
the previous night against the clear dark night sky in the same
place. The close proximity of the corona would of course further
lessen the apparent brightness of Mercury, so that it is evident
that Mercury really greatly exceeds Jupiter in brilliancy.

"Mars was seen by the Spanish gentleman with us on our tower.
They also saw Aldebaran, Sirius and Capella, and correctly
described their positions to us."

Miss McR,AE (Elche) reports seeing Venus, Mercury, Mars,
Sirius, Capella, and Betelgeux with the naked eye. M. MOTE, also
at Elche, saw no star except Sirius. Of course Mercury was very
bright, whilst it is needless to say that Venus was dazzling over-
head. C. NIELSEN (Ovar) reports the same three objects —
Mercury red-golden brown in colour. No other planets or stars
were seen, though carefully looked for in their proper positions.

At Plasencia, Dr. DOWNING returns Venus as first seen at
3h. 28m., Madrid mean time, Sirius as first seen at 3h. 47m.,
Madrid mean time, the time of mid-totality being 3h. 51m.,
Madrid mean time.

During totality Mrs. DOWNING detected, by the aid of her
opera-glasses, s Tauri and u Tauri. These stars were identified by
means of a chart giving the positions of the principal stars in the
neighbourhood of the sun at the time of the eclipse.

Mr. WALTER MAUNDER (Algiers, Hotel de la Regence), though
not including the search for stars in his programme, found Sirius
and Rigel, as well as Mercury and Venus, too bright and con-
spicuous to be overlooked.

Mrs. MARY CREWDSON (Algiers, House of the British Vice-
Consul) saw with the naked eye : —

At the time of partial eclipse — Venus.

At totality, in the following order : — 2. Mercury ; 3. Sirius ;
4. Eigel ; 5. Capella.

At half time — 6. Aldebaran.

At half time and one second — 7. Epsilon in Taurus.

STARS AND PLANETS VISIBLE. 191

Search was made for some seconds after this for the " Pleiades,"
but they were not seen. Was surprised to see a very small star
between Aldebaran and the sun, and made sure by repeated looks
that there was a small one visible. From its position it was
identified afterwards as " Epsilon " in Taurus.

P07iux

Froeyon* .

1 Siri

STARS AND PLANETS ABOUND THE SUN, 1900, MAT 28.

CHAPTER XVIII.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

THE fullest report received on the meteorology of the eclipse
is from Mr. C. L. BROOK (Hotel de la Regen.ce, Algiers),
and is to the following effect: — I took out with me
the following instruments: A hydrograph, or wet and
dry bulb continuously recording thermometers, by Richard
Freres, Paris; dry and wet bulb thermometers of the ordinary
pattern, in order to keep a check on the above; a Stevenson
thermometer screen; a black bulb thermometer in vacuo for
the sun's radiation; I had also a makeshift wind-vane consisting
of a 16 ft. fishing rod and a piece of tow, which answered very
well.

The flat roof of an hotel is not an ideal place for exposing
thermometers, but after some hesitation I chose the S.E. corner,
overlooking the Place du Gouvernement, as being the least
objectionable, and, considering the conditions of the weather,
and the cool breeze prevailing on May 27th and 28th, I believe
they were scarcely, if at all, affected by the glare of the sun on
the tiles.

The chief points to be noted are : —

(1) The extraordinary flatness of the curve of the temperatures
in the stand; the maximum on the 27th did not exceed 68.0 F.,
and the minimum did not go below 61.0 F.; on the 28th the
corresponding figures were 69.5 F. and 61.8 F. ; the range thus
not exceeding 8.0 F. on either day.

(2) The constant struggle between the sun and the slight,
but cool breeze during the day time, which caused the trace to
show innumerable small variations corresponding to slight
variations in the force of the wind, which, however, never
exceeded Force 2 on Beaufort's scale.

(3) The extreme smoothness of the trace during the evening
and night when there was no sun to affect it; during many
hours of the night the temperature remained constant at from
61.0 F. to 62.0 F.

(4) During the time of the eclipse the trace shows the same
smoothness with slight interruptions.

(5) The fall of temperature, as shown by the dry bulb was,
in the screen only 2.5 F., from 69.0 F. at 3.35 to 66.5 F. from
4.20 to 4.40; the lowest temperature thus taking place about
15 minutes after totality.

192

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

193

(6) The humidity, as shown by the dry and wet bulbs, rose
distinctly though not to a great extent during the eclipse; it

COVET OF THE LIONS, ALUAMBKA.

was 62 p.c. at the commencement; rose to 70 during and after
the total phase, and fell again to 67 at 5 o'clock.

(7) The extremely rapid fall of the black bulb thermometer
from 123 F. at 3.5 p.m., to 67.5 at 4.25 p.m., the lowest point

194

THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, 1 900.

TEMPEEATTTBE OBSERVATIONS,

Made by Mr. C. L. Brook, 1900, May 27th and 28th, at the
Hotel de la Kegence, Algiers.

METEO110LOGICAL OBSERVATK^S.

195

TEMPERATURE OBSERVATIONS,
Made during the Eclipse of 1900, May 28th.

196 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

observed, or 55.5 F. in. 80 minutes; here also the lowest point
was probably slightly after the total phase.

(8) The wind during the eclipse showed a tendency to back
from N.N.E. to N.N.W., but it was very light all the time, and
I do not think that it is at all certain that this was more than a
coincidence.

(9) There were no clouds except a few cumuli some 30 miles
away over the hills to the south.

The direction of the wind was on May 27th N.N.E., veering
slightly to N.E. occasionally, and its force was very light. At
8.35 there were cumulus clouds round the horizon, and at 9.50
detached stratus overhead moving from the north. These dis-
appeared, and from noon cumulus clouds were seen over the hills,
but these by 3.35 were going so that at sundown the sky was
practically cloudless.

On May 28th, the wind kept the same general direction, N.N.E.
to N. until 3.5 p.m., when it was N. — N.N.W. Till 4 p.m. it
came from N., and a,t 4.5. p.m. it was N.N.E. At 4.35 it was
N.N.W., and for the rest of the afternoon from N. The force
of the wind was 1 and 1 — 2 during the hours of passage of the
moon over the sun.

From 1.35 — 3.5 there were small cumulus clouds over the hills
to the southwards, but these were almost gone at 4.5, and from
4.30 on there were absolutely no clouds.

I am not quite sure of the value of thermometer observations
during an eclipse; they do not seem to have much bearing on
eclipse phenomena ; another time, however, it might be advisable
to have a recording solar radiation thermometer ; on a clear day
the fall is so rapid that some relation might be established
between the temperature and the amount of the sun's disc
obscured.

C. L. BROOK.

The temperature readings at Algiers were markedly different
from those at the other stations where such observations were
taken. The stations in Spain and Portugal all show a very
much higher shade temperature before the eclipse began, and a
much deeper drop at totality. The accompanying diagram
shows the readings obtained at four different stations, the times
being reckoned before and after mid-totality. Oporto, as shown
in the note communicated by Mr. G. F. Chambers, was much
hotter even than Plasencia before the commencement of the
eclipse, and the drop at totality was more marked. The obser-
vations at Plasencia were communicated by Mr. T. WEIR; those
at Navalmoral were made by the Rev. CHARLES J. STEWARD, the
thermometers being exposed to the air under the shade of an olive
tree at the height of four feet from the ground; and those at
Elche by Mr. J. H. WILLIS. Mr. Willis adds:— The greatest fall
in the temperature was as follows : —

"In the sunshine, 11.8. Lowest at totality.

" In the shade, 6.5. Lowest about one minute after totality.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 197

" The records are of little value for showing the actual decrease
of temperature during the eclipse, as the state of the weather was
not similar throughout. Just before the first contact the tem-
perature was lowered by a light cool southerly breeze, which died
down unsteadily to an almost dead calm towards totality; after
which it rose slightly for some twenty minutes, being then
south-easterly."

Cape Matifou, though so near Algiers, corresponded rather
to the Spanish conditions.

Dr. HEYWOOD SMITH, who was one of the sketching party who
observed from the village school at Matifou, used a Casella's
maximum and minimum thermometer, and having previously set
the instruments, he found when the eclipse was over the following
readings: — Maximum, 79.7 F., minimum, 63.7 F., i.e., a differ-
ence of exactly 16°. Mr. E. DICKSON, who observed from the
hill some 40 feet higher up, and about a quarter of a mile away
from the school, gives these different readings (height of record-
ing station 127 feet above the sea level), viz. : —

Temperature, 3.10 p.m 75° F.

4.17 p.m 63° F.

4.20 p.m 63£0 F.

Giving a range of only 12°. This difference in the variation of
the temperature at the two stations so near to each other was
certainly real ; the fact that the school was protected from wind
and cold by other houses, by rising ground in front, and by trees
in the distance, easily accounts for the apparent discrepancy,
especially when one bears in mind that the higher station was
open to the sea and air in almost every direction, and would
thus naturally be the cooler station under most circumstances. It
is interesting to note, however, that the minimum readings are
practically the same in both these oases as at the Hotel de la
Regence.

Mr. G. F. CHAMBEBS supplies the following communication: —
Mr. Tait at Ovar, and, I may add, I myself also, and several
persons at Oporto, noticed that the wind freshened considerably
during the progress of the eclipse up to totality, and fell off
again after totality. This is indeed confirmed by the automatic
record made by the anemometer at the Meteorological Obser-
vatory at Oporto, which showed that between 2.0 — 3.30 p.m. the
velocity rose from 14 kilometres to 34 kilometres per hour ; and
fell between 3.30 — 4.30 p.m., from 34 kilometres per hour down
to 20.

The following observations were made during the eclipse at
155 Entre Quintas, Oporto, by Baron DE SOUTELLINHO : — The
thermometers used were avitreous clinical ones certified at
Kew. The thermometer exposed to the sun was placed on a
table covered with a white cloth, at a height of two feet above

198

THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

the ground. The thermometer in shade was on a shelf under
the table, and eight inches above the ground. It was screened
on two sides, and open on the other two sides, the table being a
square one.

Temperature in Shade
92°
88
85
83
82
80
77
77
77i
76*
76*

79
79
80

It is noticeable that about the time of totality the exposed
thermometer fell rapidly to a point some degrees beloiv that
reached by the shaded thermometer.

In Oporto the morning was hot and sultry, and it seemed as if
a thunderstorm was brewing. This heat continued till the eclipse
became total, when suddenly a cool fresh feeling came over the
air, reminding one of a bright early morning or a fresh spring
evening in the mountains. As the sun again became clear, the
air again became hot, though not so sultry as before.

Hour

Temperature in Sun.

2.20 P

M. ... ... 105°

2.40

102

2.55

, ... ... 95

3.05

, ... ... 90

3.20

, ... ... 82

3.25

3.31

3.33

3.35

3-40

(about totality 72

3-47

4.00

4.07

4.12

4.20

4.25

4.30

CHAPTER XIX.

COLOURS ON LAND AND SKY.

THE impress! veness of a total eclipse of the sun does not rest
solely or even chiefly in the revelation of the corona, wonderful
and unaccustomed though its appearance is. The daylight
turned to darkness is much more the cause of awe ; and the
darkness, being so different from that caused by a mist or fog,
and distinguishable too from the gloom of a great storm cloud,
has an unwonted effect which seems therefore to partake of the
supernatural. And this effect is heightened by the strange
colouring seen on land and sky. Every tint that seems to speak
of life or warmth in the objects around fades out, and is replaced
by the ghastly hue of decay. The flowers all look withered, the
grass and trees exchange their living green for lead, the faces
of the watchers lose all trace of health and become not merely
wan hut livid. Whilst above, the blue of the sky has changed to
a deep almost black funereal purple, and round the horizon,
where the light is much the strongest, there is a glow of an
angry gold, a sulphur-light not untinged with red.

The longer the total phase, the more pronounced are these
effects, and the deeper and more awe-inspiring the gloom. A
short eclipse, therefore, like that of 1900, is not a specially good
one in which to watch them. Indeed, of the three expeditions in
which the British Astronomical Association has taken part, the
one which offered the best opportunity for noting chromatic
effects on land and sea, and in which the colouring would seem
to have been the most vivid, was that to Lapland in 1896, which
we are apt to think of as having been fruitless. That the
weather was cloudy and the total phase was not seen at all,
was from the standpoint of this particular observation an advan-
tage not a drawback, since observers unable to see the corona-
and prominences, were free to turn their undivided attention
to the very striking atmospheric effects which were produced.
And the Association were the more fortunate in that the observers,
who had undertaken the duty of sketching the corona without
telescopic aid, were under the direction of so eminent an artist and
keen and experienced judge of colour as the late Mr. N. E. Green,
F.R.A.S. At a general meeting of the passengers on the
" Norse King," held on the day after the eclipse, and whilst
the recollection of what had been seen was fresh in the minds of
all, the subject was discussed in very great detail; and the

199

200 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

suggestion of Mr. Green, that the brilliant colouring which we
had seen on the horizon, and in spaces between the clouds, was
in truth only the same effect that we perceive at sunset, was
generally felt to fully accord with our recent observation.
During a total eclipse as seen from a station near the centre
of the shadow track, the light on the horizon necessarily comes
from regions beyond the zone of totality, and exhibits colour
effects analogous to those of a sunset. In the eclipse just
passed, by far the most attention was given to this question by
the observers at Navalmoral ; though Mr. Whitmell, who reports
on their behalf, is inclined to ascribe the effects rather to
illumination by the chromosphere than to any action by our
atmosphere.

REPORT FROM NAVALMORAL.
" Mille traliens varies adverso sole colores." — Virgil.

Mr. BUCKLEY : Appearance of landscape before totality very
weird : dark twilight rapidly approaching ; pale green and
yellow lights. The Sierra de Gredos presented for some time
the charming rose-flush seen during Alpine sunsets.

Mr. SOUTHALL : All round the horizon, to an altitude of
perhaps 10°, was a ring of subdued light resembling dawn. To
the N., over the Sierra, some thin clouds showed, towards the
end of totality, a tint of orange yellow.

Mr. HOWARTH : At totality some clouds on the N.W. horizon
took on a red glow like that of sunset. The atmosphere was
rosy.

Rev. C. J. STEWARD : A purple light on the plains, and
purple with a tinge of red on the snow of the Sierra, as totality
approached. The sky was purple-blue, as if seen through a red
glass. The purple light came just before totality, and vanished
suddenly when this was over.

Miss W. FOSTER : A faint purple haze, becoming deeper and
richer as totality progressed. The mountains looked pinkish
just before totality.

Dr. STOKES : Just before and early during totality, there was
a distinct rosy glow on the clouds to the N. This was very
beautiful, and seemed to be diffused through the atmosphere on
the right. As totality proceeded, the rosy glow on the moun-
tains to the right was succeeded by a bluish cast.

Mr. LA GUIDARA : In the distance at totality the mountains
assumed a remarkable dark blue-black inky colour, forming a
pronounced contrast to their soft rose-tinted snowy peaks. On
the horizon a few fleecy clouds seemed ablaze with a deep
orange-red glow. Previous to totality the sky was an immaculate
sheet of blue.

Miss PETHERICK : A dark shadow was creeping over the
mountains, and their snowy tops appeared of a lovely softened
golden tint. The sky looked like what is often seen in Alpine
regions, gold, with dashes of pink.

COLOURS ON LAND AND SKY. 201

Miss L. FOSTER : Observed sky colour, only between first and
second contact. It gradually assumed a purplish blue tinge. The
only clouds visible were some small streaks, low down near the
horizon and above the Sierra. As totality came on, these turned
from white to cream colour, deepening into sandy orange. With
the rush of darkness the mountains suddenly became dull purple
grey, the sky behind appearing of a pale, indefinite yellow tint —
the general effect in that part of the sky being much the same
as that seen after a sunset.

Rev. T. PITTS : White fleecy clouds, seen over the ridge of
the Sierra, became suddenly golden orange when totality began.
Before totality, when about five-sixths of the sun's disc were
obscured, the remaining lune of the sun appeared deep red,
when viewed through plain smoked glass. The same glass
caused the ordinary unobscured sun to appear reddish yellow.

[As Mr. Pitts was observing not the chromosphere, but a
lune of the sun, it seems to me that the curious alteration in
hue was probably due to the fact that there is a qualitative as
well as a quantitative difference between light from the sun's
centre and light from near the limb. The light from the latter
is not only less bright, but is also relatively poorer in the more
refrangible rays — hence the increased redness. — C. T. W.]

Mr. and Mrs. CONSTABLE (at Talavera) : Light failed slowly,
but ended abruptly. Red glass gave a much better view than green
glass. [This, I think, was to be expected from the nature of the
light of the chromosphere, etc. — C. T. W.] To call the effect moon-
light would hardly be right, as the shade was warmer and more
weird. For painting the scene raw umber would be truer than
the colour used for the green tones of moonlight. The horizon
became deep burnt sienna and orange colour, the sky shading
up into a dark tone of nightrblue, purple, and raw umber
towards the sun. The distant mountains became deep blue-
purple. Clouds on the horizon were reddish yellow.

It will be noticed that observers mention in connection with
totality the appearance of red, orange, purple, rose, and pink
colours on the landscape, or in the sky. As the sun's altitude
was 39°, I attribute these warm colours to illumination by the
chromosphere. It seems hardly reasonable to suppose that mere
diminution in the quantity of sunlight could produce these
colours, and, obviously, the differential action of our atmosphere
could not come into play, because the altitude of the sun
remained practically unaltered.

C. T. WHITMELL.

Beside that from the observers at Navalmoral, brief reports
have been received from other stations as follows : —

Mr. C. NIELSEN (Ovar) notes that the light disappeared very
gradually towards second contact, making surrounding objects,
such as the pine trees, human faces, etc., ashen-grey and livid.
At the moment of totality the light round the horizon changed
into gold, and from thence up to 45°. From thence up to the

202

THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

zenith it was violet-purple. After totality the light increased
very much more quickly than it had decreased before, even
allowing for subjectivity.

Mr. T. W. BACKHOUSE (Plasencia) : As regards the landscape
and sky effects these were most magnificent. This part of the
phenomenon we missed in India, since we were on a plain,
and there were no clouds. I did not observe it particularly
before or during totality, but could not help seeing it more or
less. The colours were somewhat like sunset colours, though

THE LANDING STAGE OF THE COMPAGNIE TEANSATLANTIQUE, ALGIERS.

not exactly; I did not notice any red, it was more the earlier
stage of sunset colouring, but in quite a different combination.

When totality was passing away from us, the colouring was
much the same, the foreground being bright and orange, which
colouration rapidly spread to the more eastern parts of the hill ;
beyond, in the shadow, was dark blue; the sky in the distance
was orange low down, fading upwards into yellow, etc., and
finally into dark blue above.

4h. 8|m. G.M.T. — The distant mountains to E.S.E. are in the
shadow, and dark blue.

4h. 9m. G.M.T. — The mountains are now all illuminated,
but the shadow is still visible in the sky reaching from them up
to an altitude of perhaps 1° above them.

COLOURS ON LAND AND SKY.

The middle of totality would be at 4h. 6m. 21s. G.M.T.,
according to calculations, so that the last observation would be
about 2m. after the end of totality.

Mr. IRWIN SHARP (Plasencia) : The darkness seemed about the
same in intensity as it was in India, but of a different nature.
There it was simply a diminished light with a softness like
moonlight, but here I felt a gloom hanging over me, which I
cannot exactly describe. I did not notice the shadow stalking
over the land at 40 miles a minute ; but after totality we could

THE OLD HARBOUR OF ALGIERS.

This photograph shows the old Moorish building formerly occupied by the
harbour master of the time and now used by the French Admiralty, with the
torpedo station attached. Above and behind it is seen the modern lighthouse
which marks the harbour from the sea.

gradually see the more distant parts in the plain getting lighter
one after the other.

The mountains looked as they do after sunset, but the clouds
on the horizon were not so bright.

In one direction they were of a lemon yellow colour, and in
the opposite direction they were more of an orange hue.

For some time before the eclipse became total, there was an
increasingly soft " evening '' light, and as the light of the sun
grew less, it made the shadows of the flowers stand out with
startling clearness.

204 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, 1900.

Mr. H. KEATLEY MOORE (Manzanares) : The colour of the sky,
which before the eclipse was intensely blue, paled gradually, and
was of a gentle twilight gray during totality.

The colours of the landscape dulled during the eclipse, as if
looked at through gray glasses of increasing tints. On the
cessation of totality the distant hills became beautifully coloured,
as in a fine dawn, with roseate and yellowish hues.

Mr. E. W. JOHNSON, in his record of observations of the party
at Elche, gives a note by Miss McRAE to the effect that at 3.50
there was a marked difference in the light, a weird look came
over everything, the palm trees looked purple, and faces ghastly.
Simultaneously with the appearance of the corona came wonder-
ful sunset colours round the horizon ; pale apricot colour below,
shading to amber and red above. The corona appeared to be
of the purest silvery white, one of the equatorial extensions,
that towards the planet Mercury, being seen to more than three
lunar diameters from the sun's centre. It was noticed by several
that the light apparently returned more quickly than it had
disappeared.

M. MOYE (Elche) reports that during totality the sky was
dim, the blue was become an ashy grey ; round all the horizon a
large zone of a golden-yellow hue, with rosy and lilac streamers,
produced a, very artistic effect. The landscape was as if drowned
in a dull grey, the colours died out of the objects, the appearance
was grand and rather sorrowful.

Col. BURTON-BROWN (Cemetery Hill, Algiers) noticed some
ten minutes before totality a marked yellowish haze, and a little
later a ghastly look spread over things. This greenish yellow
haze was much observed by one of our party, who went high up
into the mountains on the central line, 100 miles from Algiers,
sketching; he mentions this haze as being seen everywhere.

Dr. HEYWOOD SMITH, M.D. (Cape Matifou) : The general effect
on the landscape seemed more pronounced during the last few
seconds before totality and its on-coming, for the waning light
held all in a dusky glcom, not twilight; then the hills got dark
purple, and the darkness came on at the end quite suddenly;
the last point covered was about N.W.N. It was a different sort
of obscurity from the light of the full moon, more diffuse and
soft, and just light enough to sketch on white paper. The colour
of the sky seemed to be a deep purple, not so dark as an hour
or so before dawn in an Alpine night at a height of about
10,000 to 12,000 feet up.

SHADOWS DURING THE PARTIAL PHASE.

As the portion of the sun still visible grows smaller and smaller
with the approach of totality, so the shadows necessarily
become sharper, since the source of illumination has a smaller
area. This is clearly seen in the accompanying photograph (p. 206),

COLOURS ON LAND AND SKY.

205

of the harbour of Algiers taken a few minutes before second
contact, and also in the photograph of the promenade deck of the
"Austral," on p. 23. Another curious shadow effect is described
as follows by Mr. H. KRAUS NIELD : —

As a matter of curiosity I took a photograph, about twenty
minutes before second contact, of the shadow, on a vertical wall, of
one of the plumb-lines. I reproduce below on a larger scale the
appearance of this shadow on the print. It is, of course, perfectly
natural and easily explained owing to the crescent shape and
oblique direction of the source of the light at the time, but it
nevertheless looked very curious and remarkable when we first
saw it.

Shadow of a Plumb-line
20 ruin, before Totality.

String.

WALL

EXPLANATION.

THE SHADOW or THE MOON.

THE coming and passing of the shadow of the moon was looked
for at almost every station, but was seen as a definite outline,
at three only. Mr. G. F. CHAMBERS reports that the shadow was
seen by his friend, Mr. A. F. WARRE, from the roof of the Serra
Convent, Oporto; and at Pont Mazafran, Algeria, where Mr.
EVERSHED was stationed, the people in the neighbourhood said
that they saw a distinct line of demarcation out at sea between
the zone in complete shadow, and that where the eclipse was
only partial. Col. BURTON-BROWN, at Cemetery Hill, Algiers,
though he did not see the approach of the shadow himself, says
that several observers in his party saw it coming over the
Bay at the rate of about | of a mile per second. The observers
at Navalmoral, who were very well placed for seeing the shadow,

206

THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, 1900.

looked specially for it, but saw nothing definite. Mr. JOHNSON'S
party at Elche also failed to see it; Mr. NIELSEN at Ovar, Mr.
WEIR at Plasencia had the same negative result, and of several
observers at Cape Matifou, who went to higher ground, largely
in the hope of seeing the shadow, not one was satisfied that he
had seen it with that distinctness which had been expected.
At the Hotel de la Regence, Algiers, at the instant of third contact
Mr. CEOMMELIN states: — "I immediately ran to the south wall
of the hotel, where I had placed a hand camera in readiness for

THE PLACE DU GTOUVERNEMENT, ALGIEES, DURING THE PARTIAL ECLIPSE.
THE " ARGONAUT " IN THE HARBOUR.

attempting to photograph the retreating shadow in the sky. I
saw at once, however, that the attempt was really hopeless;
there was a murky yellow glow towards the south-east, and it
was plain that the distant mountains were still in the shadow,
but absolutely no outline to the shadow could be traced on
either sky and land. I exposed the plate, however, but, as I
expected, it only showed a uniform diffused light all over, and
is consequently of no interest."

Mr. C. L. BROOK at the same station also " turned to observe
the receding shadow, but failed to see it; all that can be said
is that some few seconds after totality was over, the land across

COLOURS ON LAND AND SKY. 207

the bay to the S.E. brightened up rapidly, while the Djur-
Djurra mountains, some 30 miles or more distant, were still
shrouded in gloom, their outlines only being barely, if at all,
discernible; there was at no time any appearance of a definite
boundary line between the shadow and the sunlight. "

On the other hand, the Rev. F. W. QUILTER, also at the same
station, was much impressed by the shadow, his success in
detecting it being probably due to the fact that he gave more
undivided attention to the watch for it than did the other
observers. " The moon's shadow, like a curtain let down from
the zenith to the surface of the Mediterranean, appeared to be
drawn along the sea by an invisible hand. The spectacle of an im-
material shadow seen in mid-air, and not reflected on a solid
substance, had a novel and supernatural appearance."

Still, the failure of so many observers to see the shadow at
all would seem to show that, for some reason or other, it must
have been much less dark and definite at this eclipse than it
has been at some others.

CHAPTER XX.

EFFECTS ON PLANTS AND ANIMALS.

THERE is one astronomical observation which lies within the
scope of even animals and plants ; they notice the change from
night to day and from day to night. Sunrise and sunset are
felt by them, and they respond to their influence. It has been,
therefore, a point of great interest to notice how they are affected
by an event which, coming upon them out of the ordinary course
of nature, and unexpectedly, reproduces so nearly the circum-
stances of the great diurnal change.

Considerable attention was paid to this department of obser-
vation during the late eclipse, and in particular we owe the
following full report to Mr. GT. F. Chambers, who has collected
several important notes from observers in Ovar and Oporto.

Mr. G. F. CHAMBERS' REPORT. — Having received offers from
several competent students of nature to observe the behaviour
of animals and plantsi during the eclipse of the sun, I thought
it would be interesting to possess such a record. Mr. W. TAIT,
of Oporto, sent me the following notes, which I reproduce as
nearly as may be in his own words : —

" I took down to Ovar on the morning of May 28, in pots, two
sensitive plants (Mimosa Pudica), a, silver wattle (Acacia Deal-
bata), a Sazania Splendens, and a Mesembryanthemum Poly-
anthutn. My place of observation was the garden at the back
of the house of Dr. G. H. Bacellar. On unpacking my plants
they showed of course the effects of the long and shaky railway
journey, and deprivation of light. The leaves of the sensitive
plants and of the silver wattle were closed. The flowers of the
Mesembryanthemum were also closed, but the flowers of the Saiania
(called by the Portuguese " Boas Noites," or the " Good Night "
plant, from its habit of closing its flowers in the evening)
appeared to have been but little affected by the journey. It is
possible that this may have been owing to the fact that the
plant had been transplanted only four days previously, and to
the flowers being rather old. Dr. Bacellar had in his garden
some specimens of this same species of Sazania, but these were
placed so that just as the eclipse began the shadow of a neigh-
bouring building fell on them, and this would have caused them
to close their petals independently of the eclipse.

" On placing my plants in the sun, which was shining through
a thin haze, the leaves of the sensitive plants, of the silver wattle,

208

EFFECTS ON PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 209

and the flowers of the Mesembryanthemum, gradually re-opened
and remained open for some time, although the first contact had
taken place and the eclipse had begun. At 3.6 p.m. the
flowers and leaves were still open, but the air was sensibly cooler,
the wind being about N.N.W. At 3.17 I heard all the cocks
crowing vigorously; ring doves in a cage were cooing softly;
the sky had assumed a peculiar lurid grey hue with a strange
reddish purple tint; the plants were still open. Two minutes
later I noticed a great change. The sky had become much
darker. The flowers of the Mesembry anthem um and the leaves
of the sensitive plant had become partly closed, though the
silver wattle seemed to be but little affected. The swifts were
Hying much lower than previously, but I did not hear the shrill
screams which they so often utter when chasing each other in
the evening. After totality the sun re-appeared with great
suddenness, like an electric arc-light hastily turned on. In another
ten minutes there was plenty of light everywhere. I was much
surprised to notice that though the sensitive plant had com-
menced to re-open its leaves the flowers of the Mesembryanthe-
mum were still closed, and did not re-open during the half hour
that elapsed before I left the garden to visit the party which
accompanied the Astronomer-Royal. They told me that
the domestic fowls in an enclosure in their garden went to roost
when the darkness came on. Unfortunately I did not notice
until too late that Dr. Bacellar had near his house an aviary,
containing several species of birds and some rabbits, or I might
have conducted my researches on a larger scale. I heard
sparrows chirping during an eclipse, and in any case the
explosion of the dynamite rockets would have sufficed to startle
all the birds within half-a-mile of Ovar, and to render them
restless for a long time, though the discharge of the rockets was
made to stop at 3 p.m.

" I may supplement what I saw myself by mentioning some
things noticed by my wife and by friends who remained at
Oporto. My wife saw a bat flying about during totality, as it
would have done at night. No special effect was produced on
our domestic fowls, turkeys, and ducks. A Mesembryanthemum
of the same species as that which I took over to Ovar partially
closed. The Escholt-ias which were in the shade closed a little,
but those which were in the open and unshaded were not
appreciably affected."

Miss EMILY Dow, speaking of a pair of ducks, says: — "At
3.30 they got out of their large tank, went up a flight of stone
steps and through the garden to their roosting-hut, taking their
usual drink at a small tank on their way. They went to sleep
in their hut with their heads tucked under their wings. When
forcibly ejected some minutes later they made for the dining-
room window, and waited there as if expecting their usual break-
fast of bread, it being customary for them to go there regularly
every morning to be fed, and apparently they thought that
morning had come again."

210

THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

The observations of Mr. Tait and Miss Dow were confirmed
by Mr. A. NUGENT, who, speaking of an Escholtzia in flower,
said that " At 2.38 the curling of the petals preparatory to
closing was quite manifest, and it appeared as if one could see
the actual movement. The operation of closing continued till
about 4, though the eclipse was over and the sunlight greatly

INTERIOR OF THE ARCHBISHOP'S PALACE, ALGIERS.

restored. In point of fact re-opening did not begin till about
5. It seemed as if the operation of closing having once begun
must go on till completed, and that not till then could re-
opening begin." Mr. Nugent reports the case of a Scotchman
who, beincr in the habit of taking whisky and water every evening,
was so affected as the totality approached that, thinking it was
night, he was seizjed with an irresistible impulse, and rushed to

EFFECTS ON PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 211

get his usual evening drink. [Mr. Tait casts doubts upon the
authenticity of this statement, but I do not see why he should
have done so. — G. F. C.]

Dr. CERQUEIKA SOMES, observing the eclipse at Oporto from
the Crystal Palace Gardens, which overlook the Douro, saw
before the eclipse many gulls flying about over the river. As
the eclipse came on before totality they disappeared, subsequently
reappearing after the eclipse was over. Dr. Somes, speaking of
certain pigeons habitually fed every afternoon, states that their
feeding was delayed on the afternoon of the eclipse until darkness
distinctly came on in order to see what might happen. The
pigeons were much disturbed and alarmed, and ceased to eat,
stretching their necks upward to the sky as if apprehensive of
the approach of some bird of prey. When the sun reappeared,
they recommenced eating.

Senhor BAEBOSA noticed the disappearance of the gulls at
Oporto before totality, and their reappearance after. He saw
pigeons go to roost, and monkeys in the Crystal Palace Zoo-
logical Department climb to the top of their cages, and take
refuge in the boxes where they were accustomed to sleep. As
the darkness came on a peacock ran screaming across the grounds
as if frightened by some wild animal being after it. The
rapidly growing darkness had evidently moved it into seeking
its usual roosting-place.

Regarding Man as an animal, the following report by Mr.
ARTHUR DAGGE may be said to belong to this section. He says
that he saw a country-woman who was on her knees praying
aloud suddenly seize a handful of earth and put it into her mouth.
It would have been interesting to have inquired of her the
meaning of this nasty performance, and from whence she
borrowed the idea. A native spectator who was in the Crystal
Palace Gardens was affected in quite a different manner. As
the sun burst forth after the total phase, he cried out —
" Bis ! bis !" (the equivalent of " encore ") as though he were
pleased with the performance and wished for a repetition of it.

The following observations were made at 155 Entre Quintas,
Oporto, by the Baron DE SOUTELLINHO : — The plants chosen
were — Escholtzia, growing in the ground in a sunny situation ;
and Mimosa Pudica, Acacia Mclanoscylon, Acacia Farnesiana,
Acacia Acanthocarpa, all in pots.

Escholtzia —
At 2.20 Fully open.

2.40 White and pale yellow ones began to close. Orange
ones not affected.

3.5 White and pale yellow ones one-third close. Orange
ones beginning to close.

3.30 White and pale yellow ones quite closed. Orange ones
closing rapidly.

3.40 All closed.

4.30 Four or five flowers re-opened; the remainder re-
mained closed for the rest of the day.

212 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, TQOO.

Bees. — There were two hives of bees under observation,
and in front of the hives were some plants of borage.
At 2.20 The bees were lively at the hives and on the borage.

3.5 Still lively.

3.30 Crowding into hives and leaving the borage.

3.32 No bees on borage, a few still entering hive.

3.40 Bees rushing in crowds out of hive.

3.50 Borage again covered with bees.

The Baron said that the effect on birds was less than he
expected; though fowls looked uneasy, and some of them flew
into trees to roost, yet they never became silent. Wood doves
cooed all the time of the eclipse, and other birds continued
singing. The nurse frog (Alytes Obstetricans), which usually
begins to pipe at sun-down, did not pipe during the eclipse
but ignored the phenomenon.

G. F. CHAMBERS.

Our members in Portugal gave especial attention to this
subject, and at Ovar the Rev. AUGUSTIN MORFORD gives the
following notes : — We were able to see, and especially to hear,
something of the effects of the eclipse on the animal creation.
The sparrows were twittering about the roofs, just as they do
before settling down for the night. About a quarter of an hour
before totality the swallows were flitting as at twilight. A few
minutes later they had disappeared, and I did not see them again
till long after. The ants returned from their journeys, and
collected round their holes ; they did not all enter.

The fowls in the garden kept up a perpetual uneasy crowing
and cackling. Mansel tells me that near totality they roosted,
some in the trees, some in the fowl-house. Shortly after the
lights returned they came back, and set up a triumphant
crowing.

The effect on the people was diverse. I had only to do with
the more intelligent, who followed every detail with the highest
interest. Mansel, who can neither read nor write, helped most
intelligently, and observed for himself with surprising exactness
and memory. He described quite correctly the positions of
Mercury and Aldebaran before seeing the chart. Our hostess,
a fairly rough specimen of a peasant woman of these parts, and
the inn servants could not find words to express their admiration.
On the other hand, the clockmaker, who "had been to the sea
vainly trying to see the moon's shadow advance, had come across
an old woman, weeping and lamenting bitterly, and another
trying to comfort her by assuring her that the worst was past,
and no harm had been done.

Mr. C. NIELSEN, also at Ovar, reports swallows that had been
flying over the pinewood in their normal way, got very con-
fused as darkness came on, and during totality uttered plaintive
cries and flew about, evidently in greatest bewilderment. Older

EFFECTS ON PLANTS AND ANIMALS.

213

peasantry and fisher-folk, much perturbed, crowded into church
crossing and prostrating themselves; the younger (and wiser?)
generation were flippant, and loudly applauding as if demanding
an encore !

From Estarreja the Rev. H. P. SLADE remarks : — Some of
the effects upon the world of life are worth recording. Senor

GOVEBXOB'S SUMMER PALACE, MUSTAPHA SVPEBIECB.

Goncalo Sampio, a botanist of Poroto, has from observations
at the Botanical Gardens, deduced the following: — (1) Several
of the plants were manifestly sensitive to the influences of the
eclipse, presenting phenomena similar to those produced by the
common irregular variations of the sun's light and heat, and
those of twilight. For instance, the sensitive plant Minium

214 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

Pudica closed at totality. (2) The influence upon flowers was
the greatest of all. (3) The influence was more marked upon
plants growing in sunny localities than on those in the shade.
(4) In plants and flowers of the same time the youngest were
the most sensitive.

During totality the birds ceased singing, the swallows flew
low, bats suddenly appeared, and the nightingale was heard.
Animals did not appear unduly excited, but upon the lower
classes of the community there fell a great dread, and in
Estarreja a number of peasant women sought the refuge of
the church as totality drew on, and gave vent to their
fears in prayer on their knees. In the country many work-
people and farm labourers were afraid to leave their houses
for the fields, and those who were bold enough to do so
gathered at some convenient rendezvous to encourage one another
as semi-darkness set in. We understood the priests had informed
them that something strange was to happen in the sky, which
was not the least dangerous, and consequently their faces
bore the expression of suspicion rather than dread. One who
was abroad early on the morning of th^e eclipse solemnly
affirmed that he read in the sky, " Go on pilgrimage to Rome."
It appears that a pilgrimage to Rome was now going on, and that
several persons who ought to have gone had not done so, and
this celestial exhortation was evidently meant for tbem. In
Portugal there are only 20 per cent, of the population who can
read, and we are not surprised to find that among many of
these the eclipse was associated with the end of the world.
One old woman said, " I have seen a moon eclipse when I was
husking maize, and when the moonlight came again it was ill (i.e.,
appeared of a sickly cast). The world will finish one of these
years. If it finishes to-day I'll not see it, because I'll shut mine
eyes till to-morrow."

At Plasencia Mr. WEIR says that during the oncoming of the
darkness it was noticeable that the birds in our neighbourhood
were disturbed, flitting rapidly about, as if frightened, while
the insects made more than their accustomed noise; and both
birds and insects seemed to feel relieved when the eclipse was
over.

At Santa Barbara, near Plasencia, Mr. IRWIN SHARP remarks
that whilst waiting for the eclipse to begin we noticed that
the bees were keeping up a perpetual hum as they went from
one flower to another, growing here in rich profusion.

During the totality and for a little while before and after
they ceased their humming, no doubt being led astray by the
gathering gloom.

The cuckoo was very busy before and after, but I cannot say
whether he too ceased his note or not. Immediately after the
direct sunlight recommenced the humming-bird hawk moths
were hard at work on the honeysuckle flowers, but the butter-

EFFECTS ON PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 215

flies (two sorts of swallow tail, clouded yellows, marble whites
and various others) did not recover their equanimity for some
time.

The notes of the observers at Navalmoral are as follows : —

Mr. SOUTHALL : As totality approached an awful stillness
fell upon the scene. Two or three small birds were fluttering
about apparently seeking to hide themselves. No other living
creature was heard or seen. The absolute quiet was marvellous.

Rev. C. J. STEWARD : At 4h. 5m., G.M.T., birds observed
flying as if in terror. At 4h. 13m., birds flying as if rejoicing
at the return of light.

Dr. STOKES : Perfect stillness obtained at totality, a stillness
accentuated by the previous and subsequent activity noticed
in the crickets, ants, and lizards, in the neighbourhood.

Miss W. FOSTER : Perfect silence during totality.

Mr. and Mrs. CONSTABLE at Talavera : As darkness increased,
and the temperature fell, hawks collected, and ascended some
400 feet, sailing around in small circles, and repeatedly calling
as if alarmed. At totality a most extraordinary stillness came
over everything.

The Manzanares party supply the following note: — Swifts
were flying in considerable numbers round our tower, screaming
in, their usual manner, at the commencement of the eclipse.
They had all disappeared 20 minutes before totality.

The Alcalde of Manzanares (who noted the times of totality
by a good watch, and confirms our observation that it lasted
precisely 60 seconds) noticed the animals in his garden during
totality. Numerous small birds fluttered in a frightened way
to and fro; and several clung by their claws to the face of a
rough wall, trembling greatly. Bats came out, and fluttered
round him. The domestic cock led off his hens to roost.

Few observations upon either plants or animals were made
by any of the Algerian parties. The observers on the roof of the
Hotel de la Regence noticed — indeed it was impossible to
overlook — the excitement and apparent distress of the swifts
and martens, as the eclipse drew on towards totality; and the
passengers on the " Argonaut " were impressed by the same
circumstance. In general birds seemed far more affected by
the change in the light than quadrupeds, and Mr. KRAUSS
NIELD at Cape Matifou says that from his position during
totality a goat was observable, but like the tonga ponies men-
tioned by Mr. Henry Cousens, at Jeur, in 1898, it displayed a
total want of appreciation of the event, or at any rate, it was
doing so at the moment when a hurried glance could be spared.

CHAPTER XXI.

PLACES OF INTEREST VISITED.

BESIDE the drawings and photographs which have a direct scien-
tific bearing on the eclipse, and the photographs of the several
stations, of the observers and of their instruments, some illus-
trations have been added, representing some of the places visited
in the course of the expeditions. This is following the precedent
set in the Indian Eclipse Report, in which it met with general
approval, although one or two critics seemed to take the view
that astronomers should have no appreciation of beauty in nature
or art, or interest in historical associations. Against so sombre
a doctrine we protest. But apart from this, we would point out
that much of our work in the late eclipse was of the nature of
hand-drawing or of photography, and that the photographs we
give, besides their value to ourselves and our friends, as records
of the places visited, afford some evidence that those who took
them possess both artistic perception and photographic skill.

INTERIOR OF THE ARCHBISHOP'S PALACE, ALGIERS (p. 210). —
This shows the gallery of the quadrangle of a palace built by
one of the old Deys for his son. All the Moorish buildings are
in this style, and in the large houses, such as this is, a great
quantity of marble is used which makes these quadrangles
beautifully cool. The tiles of blue and white are also a feature
of the architecture. None of the Moorish houses have any
windows in the outer walls, but there are in some instances
small barred casements. The casement in the top centre of the
picture is a good sample of these, although this one happens to
be facing inwards.

GOVERNOR'S SUMMER PALACE, MUSTAPHA SUPERIEUR (p. 213). —
Mustapha Superieur is a suburb of Algiers, where all the modern
villa residences a.nd best hotels are situated. It is two or three
miles to the east of the town. The palace is charmingly situated
overlooking the town and bay, with the Atlas mountains bound-
ing the horizon to the south and east. It is a fine specimen of
Moorish architecture, parts are old, and additions have been
made after the original style in recent times. The grounds are
full of various kinds of palms and other trees, which grow to
great perfection. On the right of the picture is a fine group of
banana trees.

216

PLACES OF INTEREST VISITED.

217

QUADRANGLE IN THE TRAPPIST MONASTERY AT STAVUELI
(p. 217). — This monastery is between two and three hours drive
from Algiers. Many years ago it was used as barracks by the
French, but in consequence of the heavy mortality from disease
which occurred among the soldiers, it was evacuated by them
and given to the monks, who, by their appearance and longevity
seem to have managed matters as regards health better than

QUADRANGLE !>' THE TRAPPIST MONASTERY AT SlAVUKLI.

the men of war. The monks have a large acreage of land under
vine cultivation, and carry on an extensive trade in wine and
liqueur.

There is a fine library with a good collection of coins and
curios. The rule as to " silence " is not carried out to the
extent that is generally imagined, as the monks are permitted
to converse with visitors in many parts of the building and with
each other by permission of the abbot. There is a beautiful
garden in the quadrangle full of various flowers of gorgeous

218 THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, IQOO.

colours. Ladies are not admitted further than an outer hall,
where visitors are supplied with a good and varied vegetarian
repast. The monk who showed our party over was very proud
of being a British subject; he was born in Malta.

STREET SCENE IN CORDOVA (p. 187). — The narrow and dull
streets of Cordova are enlivened by such scenes as that shown in
the photograph, but they have a curiously deserted appearance
on the whole. The exteriors of most of the houses are dreary
and plain, though there are pleasant glimpses of cool, shady
patios through the beautifully wrought iron doors. The city
boasts of a picturesque Roman bridge over the Guadalquiver,
but the centre of interest is undoubtedly the famous Moorish
mosque, with its endless vistas of columns and arches.

COURT OF LIONS, ALHAMBRA (p. 193). — This photograph shows
the most beautiful and most characteristic work in the Alhambra,
bringing in as it does the slender marble columns, the graceful
arches, the lace-like filagree stucco with the innumerable Arabic
inscriptions, and the roofs with the rounded, many-coloured
tiles.

At the side of the Court is shown the entrance to the Hall of
the Abencerrages, where, according to tradition, several of the
illustrious nobles of this name were treacherously murdered by
order of Boiabdil, the last King of Granada.

It may be well to remind our readers that the Alhambra
occupies a prominent position on a hill overlooking the city of
Granada, its outer walls enclosing an area of about 35 acres ; it
was originally built as a fortress. Not much now remains but
the palace, with the mosque and several towers.

Granada was the final stronghold of the Moors in Spain, and
it was not until the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, that their
power was completely broken, and Boabdil surrendered in the
year 1492.

THE ALCAZAR. SEVILLE (p. 181). — Next to the Alhambra, this is
the most perfect specimen of Moorish work left in Spain. It
was the Royal Palace, and a considerable part of it is in a
wonderfully perfect state of preservation. The walls and mosaics
are brilliantly coloured, and the pillars are all of precious
marbles.

MOORISH WELL, RONDA (p. 183). — The well shown in this photo-
graph is in the patio of a ruined Moorish palace, which is now
inhabited by a family of peasants. Ronda has many Moorish
remains, and is a very picturesque town about six hours by rail
from Gibraltar, built on a high rock, and almost surrounded
by the River Guadalvin. The streets are narrow and steep,
and the old town is divided from the new by an immense ravine
or chasm, called the Tajo, which is spanned by two bridges.
The steep sides of this ravine are covered with luxuriant vege-
tation, and a profusion of wild flowers.

TOLEDO (p. 189). — The ancient capital of Spain and one of the
oldest cities in Europe. It stands on a hill, and is surrounded
on three sides by the Tagus; the other side is defended by two

PLACES OF INTEREST VISITED. 219

walls, the inner one having been built in the 7th century. As one
approaches the city, its first appearance is bare and stern, but
this is soon foi'gotten when once inside the gates; here every-
thing is full of interest — the gateways, the churches and mosques
(all bearing traces of the Moorish occupation) and above all the
magnificent cathedral of pure Gothic architecture, with superb
Flemish glass in the windows.

The streets are extraordinarily narrow and tortuous, and in
very few is there room for two carriages to pass. The building
on the summit of the hill is the Alcazar, or Royal Palace, lately
converted to a military academy.

Toledo has gradually declined since the time when Philip II.
moved the Court to Madrid in 1560. This city, more than any
other in Spain, is worth a lengthy visit.

CASTILLO DE SAN CERVANTES, TOLEDO (p. 45). — Not far from
the railway station of Toledo stands the fine ruinous castle of
Saint Cervantes, on the great rocks which form the left bank of
the Tagus, here flowing in a gorge. It guards the Alkantarah
Bridge, by which alone can the city be reached on this side.
Hence its name " Servando ); (guardian) for Cervantes is a cor-
ruption, unfortunately, and has no relation with the immortal
creator of Don Quixote. From the castle, looking across the
river, deep below, one has what is perhaps the best view of
Toledo, perched upon the precipitous rocks of the right bank,
the road zigzagging steeply up to the great Moorish city from
the bridge foot.

CHAPTER XXII.

SUMMARY OF RESULTS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR
FUTURE WORK.

EVERY eclipse has its own peculiar difficulties, and since in 1900
the members of the Association were distributed into so many
different parties, and over so great a length of country,
it was necessarily a matter of great difficulty to arrange for
thoroughly concerted work. Yet the success obtained has been
on the whole certainly not less than in 1898, and much experience
has been gained which will be valuable on future occasions.

The results of the Indian Eclipse were briefly summarized
under fourteen heads. Of these four related to the spectro graphic
work of Mr. Evershed, who in the late eclipse was observing
under the auspices of the Joint Permanent Eclipse Committee,
and who, therefore, reports to that body and not to this Asso-
ciation. But apart from the absence of work of the nature of
Mr. Evershed's from the programme of the Association, its
results in 1900 show a distinct advance on those of 1898, as will
be seen from the following summary : —

SUMMARY OF RESULTS.

1. A much larger number of drawings of the naked eye appear-
ance of the corona were made than in 1898; indeed, a far larger
number than were ever made before upon a concerted plan in any
single eclipse.

2. These drawings have been carefully collated and discussed
by Mr. H. Keatley Moore; this again is a new feature in eclipse
work.

3. Several studies have been made of the structure of
limited portions of the corona as seen in the field of a telescope.
This is the first time that anything like a combined attempt
has been made to draw the corona as seen under moderate
telescopic power.

4. More attention was paid to meteorological observations in
1900 than in 1898; and Mr. Brook's report at Algiers was
especially full and complete.

5. A very complete seines of shadow-band observations was
arranged for and successfully carried out in accordance with the
programme drawn up by Mr. E. W. Johnson.

220

SUMMARY OF RESULTS. 221

G. In the course of the shadow-band work Mrs. Arthur Brook
detected a peculiar phase of the phenomenon, apparently not
previously noted.

7. The three following enquiries started in 1898, have been
successfully repeated in 1900 : —

(A) The total illumination given by the corona has been

measured in several independent ways.

(B) The comparison of the brightness of the eclipse before

totality with that after totality, by means of photo-
graphs of the landscape, has been attempted at several
stations.

8. Mr. Thorp's modification of the prismatic opera-glass has
proved to be most successful ; his prismatic grating used before
the object-glass proving more suitable for the purpose than a
direct-vision prism in the eye-piece.

9. A much larger number of photographs of the corona have
been taken than during the Indian Eclipse ; most of these being
secured with fixed cameras, which proved quite suitable for the
purpose.

10. Exposures relatively more prolonged than those given in
India were given in several instances.

11. The discovery made in 1898 that the synclinal curves
terminated in rod-like rays, has been confirmed. But though
the exposures were longer than in India, these rays could not be
traced to anything like the same distance from the sun.

12. Dark markings have been shown in the corona in some of
these photographs.

13. A kinematograph record of the eclipse has been success-
fully made by Mr. Nevil Maskelyne.

14. The corona has again been definitely photographed during
the partial phase, and in a much greater amount of sunlight
than in 1898.

15. Increased attention was given to the detection of stars and
planets during totality.

16. The contact observations show distinctly that too large a
value for the lunar diameter is used in computing the duration
of eclipses in the British " Nautical Almanac."

SUGGESTIONS FOE FUTURE WORK.

A comparison of the work actually effected in this late eclipse,
with the suggestions which concluded the report on the Indian
Eclipse, and those which were published in the " Journal " of
the Association, Vol. X., No. 4, leads to the gratifying conclusion
that these suggestions were in the main well attended to, and
with good success. The following points seem, however, to require
emphasis : —

1. Naked eye drawings of the corona. It is very much to be

222

THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, 1 900.

desired that these should always be made upon the same scale.
Mr. Keatley Moore's suggestion that a circle drawn round a half-
crown, should always be employed for the black body of the moon,

BURGOS CATHEDRAL.

Burgos, the principal city in the north of Spain, Tvas formerly the capital of
Old Castile, and, alternately with Toledo, the Royal residence. The cathedral is
one of the finest specimens of 13th century Gothic architecture in Spain.

is a very simple and convenient one, and might with advantage
be universally adopted. As to the drawing materials, Mr. Green's
suggestion of white chalk on purplish-blue paper has not been
bettered.

SUMMARY OP RESULTS. 223

2. Photographs of the corona. The suggestion that where
equatorial mountings and driving clocks were not available, photo-
graphs might yet be taken with fixed cameras and with short
exposures, has been freely acted on and with good results. But
the tendency has been in these cases to employ cameras of far
too short focal length, and to give too long exposures. It is
clear that where the focus is very short, and the image conse-
quently very small, it is not possible to get much detail. The
proper employment of such cameras would rather appear to be
in the photographing the outer rays or streamers of the corona;
but for this considerable exposures are required, and these involve
clock driving. The focal length for a fixed camera should be at
least two feet, and for f/15 the exposure should not much exceed
half a second, with an "extra rapid " plate, and some exposures
should certainly be taken much shorter than this. The exposures
which are most desirable, and which are proportionately least
frequently given, are those from l/10th to l/3rd of a second;
remembering always that the longer the duration of totality, i.e.,
the greater the, magnitude of the eclipse, the less there will be
of the brightest portions of the corona exposed, and consequently
that the exposures may then be slightly increased, without risk
and with good effect.

3. It is much to be desired that triple-coated plates should
be tried on photographs of ample scale, and with comparatively
short exposures. It should not be impossible to obtain by their
help on a single plate both the details of the bright inner corona
and a very considerable amount of extension. Normal develop-
ment for about eight or ten minutes might be used.

4. The eclipse of 1901 being one of exceptionally long duration,
is one which, so far as this feature is concerned, will be most
favourable for the attempt to photograph the extreme outer
extensions of the corona. We may expect that it will be essen-
tially a dark eclipse, so much of the brightest part of the inner
corona being covered at mid-totality.

As, however, to see the eclipse it will be necessary to travel
to Mauritius, the East Indian Islands, or New Guinea, and as
for the eclipse of 1904 we should have to go further still — to the
Pacific — there seems little likelihood that the Association will be
strongly represented at any eclipse until that of August 30th,
1905, when again the shadow track will pass across North
America, the Atlantic, Spain, and North Africa, giving a
totality of over 3| minutes in Spain, and passing over a city of
such renown and so accessible as Burgos.

Let us look forward, then, to a strong muster of our members
along the shadow track in 1905. And may neither cloud, as in
1896, nor plague, as in 1898, nor war, as in 1 900, intervene to
thwart our efforts or hinder our preparations ; but, instead, may
onr expeditions be furthered by the kindly influences of Clear
Skies, Health, and Peace !

INDEX.

ABBOT, Prof., 10.
Acacias, 208, 211.
Adams, Franklin, 48, 53.
Airy, Sir George, 91.
Alameda, 41.
Alcaraz, 77.
Alcazar, 181, 218.
Aldebaran, 23, 188, 189, 190, 212.
Algiers, 1, 2, 4, 57, 59, 62, 69, 84, 105,
109, 114, 128, 133, 140, 142,
154, 177, 195

„ Observatory, 115, 121.
Alhambra, 41, 218.
Alicante, 1, 51, 77.
Allen, Miss, 63.

„ Mr., 63, 67.

„ Mrs., 63, 67.
Alvado, M., 66, 83, 84.
Amelie de Schleswig - Holstein,

Princess, 67.

American Ephemeris, 81, 87.
Andrews, W., 62, 119, 120, 128.
" Angel's Wing," 22, 109, 112, 120.
Animals, Effect on, 208.
Antoniadi, E. M., 56, 58.
Ants, 212.

Archbishop's Palace, Algiers, 216.
Archenhold, Herr, 5, 67.
Arcturus, 188.
Argamasilla, 76.

" Argonaut," 2, 4, 57, 67, 68, 215.
Astronomer Royal, 26, 28, 76, 140, 209.
" Austral," 2, 18.
Amvers, Prof. A., 87.

BACELLAK, Dr. H. da, 26, 28, 208, 209.
Backhouse, T. W., 2, 26, 34,93, 95, 96,

101, 111, 154, 202.
Bacon, Fred, 136.

Miss, 128, 140, 152.

Rev. J. M., 2, 6, 17, 128, 131.
Baden-Powell, Sir George, 135.
Baily's Beads, 55, 121, 161, 178, 179.

Baily, Francis, 178.

Barbosa, Sig., 211.

Barnard, Prof. E. E., 5, 10, 15, 16, 17.

Bats, 209, 214.

Bees, 212, 214.

Bel Kadir, 84.

Benares, 154.

Bennett, Judge, 13.

Bergin, Prof., 31,

Berrocalillo, 31, 76, 78.

Betelgeux, 189, 190.

Bevan, Mrs., 67, 96.

" Black Drop," 180.

Boden, E. C., 28.

Booth, Kipling, 71.

Bou Zarea, 61, 65, 77, 152, 156.

Bowman, Messrs., 82.

Brenner, Ilerr, 5, 67.

Brightness during totality, 27, 147, 221.

British Embassy at Madrid, 43.

"Britannia," 41, 82.

Broadbent, W., 19.

Brook, Mrs. Arthur, 57, 61, 63, 166, 168,

169, 174, 177, 221.
„ C. L., 57, 61 , 63, 64, 72, 77, 154,

168, 174, 177, 187, 192, 194, 206,

220.
Buckley, J., 36, 92, 147, 172, 189, 200.

„ Mrs., 189.
Bulard, M., 62.
Burck halter, Prof., 5.
Burgos, 222, 223.

Burton-Brown, Col. A., 4, 68, 91, 95,
105, 112, 160, 173, 183, 204, 205.
Busot, 77.
Butterflies, 214.
Buxar, 13, 136, 154, 155, 175.

CACERES, Governor of, 31, 34.
Cadiz, 1.

Caleros y Carrascosa, 43.
Capella,'l86, 190.

Carpenter, Capt. A., 3, 25, 40, 56, 95,
99, 154, 170, 177.

•225

226

INDEX.

Carvallio, Senor, 28.
Castillo tie Pilos Horras, 43, 44.
,, San Cervantes, 45, 219.
Castor, 188.
Cemetery Hill, 4, 57, 63, 68, 91, 173,

204, 205.
Centaurus, 66.
Chambers, G-. F., 2, 26, 179, 180, 196,

197, 205,212.
Chromosphere, 121, 200.
Clavius, 186.
" Cloudland," 167.
" Clyde," 26.
Coad, Capt. A. J., 19.
Coelostat, 83.
Coleman, W., 63, 150.
Coleridge, Samuel T., 186.
Colour of Corona, 91, 92.
Colours on Land, Sea, and Sky, 22, 72,

199.

" Comptes Eendus," 114.
" Connaissance des Temps," 81.
Coimel, Dr. and Mrs., 68.
Constable, Mr., 38, 92, 148.

Mrs., 38, 92, 148, 201.
Contact Observations, 75, 221.
Cook & Son, 2, 37, 62.
Cooper, W. E., 71.
Copeland, Dr. E., 5, 25, 48, 52, 53.
Cordova, 51, 218.
Coria, 76.
Corona, 88.

,, as seen in the Telescope, 1 14.
„ Drawings of, 93.

out of Totality, 92.
„ Photographs, 109, 122, 126,

128, 129, 131, 137,221, 223.
Coronal Extensions, 140, 141, 221.

„ Eifts, 133.
Coronium line, 14, 145, 156, 158, 160,

161,221.

Cousens, Henry, 215.
Crawford, F., 62.
Crewdson, Mr., 67.

Mrs., 67, 190.

Crommclin, A. C. D., 57, 58, 62, 64, 65.
66, 72, 75, 77, 79, 84, 87, 95, 105,
116, 117, 121, 128, 179, 182, 206.
Crommelin, Mrs., 57, 58. 62, 65, 79.
Cuckoo, 214.
" Cuzco," 25.

DAGGE, Arthur, 211.

Dark Markings in the Corona, 133,

139, 221.

Davidson, C., 140.
Davies, Eev. C. D. P., 57, 63, 77, 118,

128, 142, 179, 184.
Deloncle, M., 58.

Dent, Messrs., 82.

Dickson, E., 71, 128, 162, 197.

T. A., 71, 77.
Dixon, George, 13.

„ Miss, 13, 15, 156.
Djur-Djurra Mts., 64.
Doves, 212.
Dow, Miss E., 209.
Downing, Dr. A. M. W., 2, 31, 34, 76,

158, 171, 177, 190.
Downing, Mrs., 2, 190.
Du Camp, E., 62, 152.
Ducks, 209.
Dyson, F. W., 5, 156.

ECLIPSE Committee, 1.
Eclipse of 840, 186.
1140, 186.
1560, 186.
1715, 178.
1820, 164.
1836, 178.
1870, 114, 164.
1871, 114, 133, 1 34, 135, 136.
1878, 114, 127, 182.
1882, 134, 135.
1886, 57, 151.
1889, 115, 127.
1893, 114, 134, 135.
1896,14,24,53,68,88,119,

127, 134, 136, 199.
1898, 40, 51, 55, 67, 91, 92,

127,135,156,140,141,

145,147,152,154,155,

156, 175.
1901, 141, 223.

1904, 223.

1905, 223.

Edmonds, Mr., 63, 118.
" Egypt," 48.

Elche, 3, 40, 48, 49, 51, 52, 54, 56, 77,
95, 96, 103, 109, 128, 142, 148,
152, 154, 156, 165, 174, 176, 177,
195, 204, 206.
Ellis, H., 62, 160.
Eqimtorial Coude, 121.
Escholtzias, 209, 210, 211.
Estarreja, 2, 28, 76, 172.
Evershed, H., 66, 75, 83.

J., 5, 65, 66, 77, 78, 84, 156,

158, 205, 220.
S., 71, 140, 161, 184.

FLAMMARION, M., 55.
" Flash " Spectrum, 156, 162.
Flint, Prof. A., 76, 143.
Foster, Major Kingsley, 5, 62.

INDEX.

227

Foster, Miss L., 148, 190, 201.

„ Miss W., 148,190.
Fowler, A., 5, 25, 77, 156, 158.
Fowls, 208,212.
French Government, 62.
Frogs, 212.

GAMA, Yasco da, 26.

Gare, F., 3, 25, 40, 55, 56, 154, 170,

177.

Gathering Gloom, 55, 62, 152.
Gautier, M., 62.
Gemini, 41, 186.
" General Chanzy," 61.
Geoghegan, S., 31, 171, 172, 177.
Gibbs, W. B., 2, 26, 28, 92, 162.
Goldsmidt, 164.
Gomez, C., 76.
Gould, Mr., 62.
Governor's Summer Palace, Mustapha

Superieur, 216.
Granada, 48, 51.
Green, X. E., 94, 199, 222.
Green flash, 39.
Grifol, C., 77.
Grubb, Kuclolf, 31.

„ Sir Howard, 5, 31, 156.

HADDEN, D., 13, 15.
Hale, Prof., 5, 10, 156.
Halley, Edmund, 178.
Hansky, Prof., 86.
Hassall, Mr.,71.

Mrs. 71, 170.
Hav, Mr. Drummond (Vice-Consul),

' 4, 57, 63, 67.
Heath, T., 5, 25, 53.
Helium, 160.
Henderson, Capt., 47.
Henry the Navigator, Prince, 26.
Hepworth, C. M., 71.
Hilger, 162.

Hodge, R,, 62, 67, 128, 142, 144, 146.
Honnorat, M., 77.
Hotel Continental, 4, 63, 64, 67, 172.

„ de la Regence, 4, 57, 61, 72, 77,
79, 116, 144, 174, 192, 194, 206.

„ dc 1'Opera, 67.

„ Klondyke, 8.

„ Painca", 120.
Howarth, E., 37, 38, 80, 92,96, 147,

148, 189, 200.
Hoyos, L. De, 76.
Hydrogen lines, 66, 159, 160.
Hydrographer, The, 65.

"INDIAN ECLIPSE, 1898," 4, 21, 24,

156, 216, 220.
Iniguez, Signer, 32, 78.
Integrating Photographs, 154.
" Isis," 47, 82.

JACKSON-SMITH, G., 36, 172.

Janeway, Miss, 71.

Jerte, 32, 34.

Joly, Prof., 31.

Johnson, E. W., 4, 40, 48, 49, 56, 77,

154, 164, 166, 176, 177, 204,

206, 220.

Rev. S. J., 80.
Johnston, A. II., 154.
Joint Permanent Eclipse Committee,

220.

Jost, Dr., 26.
Joyce, Rev. Mr., 26.
Jupiter, 39, 41, 51, 122.

KASBAH, 64.

Kinematograph, 7, 128, 143, 145, 221.

Kirkham, Mr. and Mrs., 68.

Klumpke, Mdlle., 58, 61.

" Knowledge," 20, 93, 133, 139.

LA GUIDAEA, 36, 37, 92, 147, 200.

Langley, Prof., 10, 114.

Larbi, 84.

Laurence, M., 83.

Leeds Astronomical Society, 3.

Leibnitz Mts., 79.

Leroux, M., 152.

Levick, J., 68.

Ley, Clement, 167.

Lisbon, 26.

Lockyer, Dr., 56.

,', Sir Norman, 25, 48, 52, 53,

77.

Longbottom, F. "W., 71.
Lucas, F., 62.

MADEID, 3, 25, 31, 76, 80, 82.

,, Observatory, 152, 171.
Mafeking, Relief of, 58.
" Magdalena," 27.
Magnesium lines, 159.
Malmesbury, William of, 186.
Mansel, 212.
Manzanares, 3, 40, 42, 44, 45, 47, 76,

81, 82, 91, 95, 99, 109, 110, 111,

112, 154, 170, 177.
Marco, J., 77.
Markwick, Col. E. E., 2, 18. 25, 76, 95

96, 101, 120.

228

INDEX.

Mars, 190.

Marsden, J. N., 173.

Martin-Leake, Miss L., 57, 62, 115, 116,

118, 124, 125.
Marty, M., 62.

Maskelyne, J. N., 7, 13, 128, 129, 142,
143, 145, 146, 221.
Mrs., 13.

Mathieu, M., 58, 61.
Matifou, Cape, 4, 57, 68, 77, 84, 91, 93,
95, 96, 105, 109, 128, 170, 197, 204,
206.

Maunder, E. Walter, 4, 57, 63, 91, 96,

126, 128, 139, 140, 141, 142,

143, 149, 151, 152, 154, 156,

169, 182.

„ Mrs., 40, 57, 62, 63, 96, 126,

128, 141, 142, 143, 150.
„ Miss E., 57, 62, 77, 82, 168,

173.
„ Miss I., 57, 63, 73, 128, 139,

142, 174.
Photographs, 109, 129, 137,

139.

Mauritius, 223.
Maw, W. H., 35.

Mazafran, 65, 77, 79, 83, 84, 156, 205.
McClure, Lady, 48, 49, 55, 128, 152.
McEae, Miss Jessie, 48, 49, 55, 165,

174, 177.

Menerville, 62, 77.

Mercury, 15, 23, 33, 36, 55, 64, 91, 93,
94, 109, 127, 141, 149, 150, 151,
188, 189, 190, 204.
Mesembryanthemum Polyanthum,

208, 209.
Meteorological Observations, 24, 55,

192, 220.

Mimosa Pudica, 208, 211, 214.
Mirabel, Marques de, 31.
Miranda, E., 76.
" Minneapolis," 6.
Moon, Diameter of, 81.
„ Disk of, 184.

„ Shadow of, 14, 23, 36, 73, 205.
., Thin Crescent of, 39, 56.
Moore, H. Keatley, 3, 25, 40, 43, 47,
56, 76, 81, 92, 93, 95, 99, 107, 113,
154, 171, 177, 220, 222.
Morford, Rev. A., 2, 28, 76, 92, 120,

128, 183, 212.
Moths, 214.

Moye, Prof. M., 88, 92, 95, 103, 149,
166, 174, 177, 204.

NAGPITR, 154.

Nautical Almanac, 19, 75, 76, 77, 78,

80, 81, 84, 86, 87.
Navahermosa, 76.

Navalmoral, 2, 36, 37, 38, 76, 80, 81,
92, 95, 96, 101, 103,109, 110, 147,
158, 172, 176, 195, 196, 201.

Newall, H. E., 5, 156.

New Gruinea, 223.

Niagara, 15.

Meld, Mr. Krauss, 4,68,91,94, 95,96,
105, 111, 179, 205.

Nielsen, 28, 76, 96, 201, 206, 212.

Nightingale, 214.

" Nile," 1.

" Norse King," 199.

North Carolina, 133.

North Western Branch, 2.

Nova Zembla, 135.

Nugent, Mr., 210.

" OBSERVATORY," The, 114.

O'Callaghan, Mr., 160.

Oom, Senhor, 35.

Oporto, 1, 26, 27, 196, 205, 211.

Orient Steam Ship Co., 2, 18.

Orion, 186.

Orr, Miss M. A., 67, 184.

„ Miss, 67.

Ovar, 1, 2, 5, 26, 29, 76, 92, 95,96, 101,
109, 120, 128, 140, 162, 201, 296.
Owen, Rev. A. Brisco, 68.
" Oxford Photometry," 188.

PARIS EXHIBITION, 6, 56, 58.

Partial Phase, 143.

Peacock, 211.

Pearce, J. E., 71, 93, 128.

Pellen, Lieut., 26, 28.

Petherick, Miss, 190, 200.

Pickering, Prof., 5.

Pigeons, 211.

Pinhole Camera, 146.

Pitts, Eev. T., 201.

Plants, Effect on, 208.

Plascencia, 2, 5, 31, 32, 33, 34, 76, 78,

92, 93, 95, 96, 101, 103, 110, 111.

128, 156, 158, 171, 177, 195, 196,

202, 203, 206.
Pleiades, 101.

Pluvinel, Count de la Baume, 78.
Pobladura, 154.
Pollux, 188.
Portugal, 26.

Portuguese Government, 26, 28, 29.
Prieto, F., 77.

Princeton Observatory, 10, 11.
Prismatic Opera-glass, 156.
Procyon, 186.
Puente, Sr., 76, 78.

INDEX.

229

QrBTEDO, Seuor, 44.

Quilter, Rev. Dr., 63, 185, 207.

Quixote, Don, 41.

RAILWAY, Pennsylvania, 7.
Rambaut, Dr. A. A., 5, 31, 156.
Ranyard, 22, 134.
Rigel, 189, 190.
Riggenbach, 62.
Ringdoves, 208.

Roberts, R, F., 63, 67, 77, 172, 184.
R. R, Junr., 63, 67, 96, 15*.
Robinson, Mr., 68.
Rodriguez, 76.
Ronda, 41, 48, 218.

Royal Astronomical Society, 114, 118.
Royal Geographical Society, 78, 82.

„ Irish Academy, 2.

„ Mail Steam Navigation Co., 1.

,, Society of Dublin, 2.

SAGITTARIUS, 66.

Salamanca, 150.

Sampio, G-., 213.

Sandell Plates, 139, 145, 146.

Santa Barbara, 34.

Santa Pola, 5, 48, 51, 52, 56, 77.

Saturn, 51.

Saxon Chronicle, 186.

Saya-Moleti, 164.

Sazania Splendens, 208.

Schaeberle, 34.

Schuster, Prof. A., 151.

Scorpio, 41, 51, 66.

Scotchman, 210*.

Seabroke, G-. M., 87.

Senante, E., 77.

Sensitive Plants, 209.

Seville, 51, 217.

Shackleton, W., 135. 14.",.

Shadow, 204.

Bands, 164, 180, 221.
of the Earth, 39.
„ Patches, 169.
Sharp, Irwin, 2, 34, 154, 203.
Sierra de Gredos, 37, 38, 148, 149, 200,
Simpson, D. C., 41.
D. G., 41.

Sirius, 23, 186, 189, 190.
Slade, Rev. H. P., 2, 28, 30, 76, 213.
Slater, Miss E., 71.

„ Miss J., 71.

„ Miss K., 71.
Smith, Dr. E. P., 71.

„ F. Lys, 2, 26.

„ Dr. Heywood, 71, 197, 204.
Smithsonian Institution, 10, 14.

Socuellamos, 77.

Somes, Dr., 211.

Sonseca, 76.

Soutellinho, Baron de, 28, 197, 211,

212.

Southall, Mr., 80, 92, 200.
Spanish Courtesy, 47.
Sparrows, 208, 212.
Spectrograph, 83.
Stanley, W. F., 36, 92, 95, 96, 103,

112, 148.
Stars and Planets visible during the

Eclipse, 186.
Statham, Miss E., 71.
Stefan, M., 62.
Stevens, Miss C. O., 57, 63, 93, 95, 96,

97.
Steward, Rev. C. J., 148, 172, 190, 196,

200.

Stokes, Dr., 36, 80, 147, 189, 200.
Struve, Dr. L., 86.
Suggestions for Future Work, 221.
Summary of Results, 220.
Swallows, 212, 214, 215.
Swift, Lewis, 182.
Swifts, 215.
Sy, M., 77.
Synclinal Groups, 22, 126, 127, 221.

TACCHINI, Prof. P., 5, 62.

" Tagus," 1, 2, 40, 48.

Tait, W., 197, 208, 211.

Talavera, 2, 3, 39, 76, 92, 148, 201.

Tauri, s, 188, 190, 191.

„ v, 190.
Tavares, Senhor, 28.
" Theseus," 25, 48, 52, 53.
Thompson, Mr., 68.
Thorold, Miss E., 71.
Thorp, Prof. T., 62, 156, 157, 160,

161, 221.
Toledo, 218.
Tramblay, G., 77.
Trappist Monastery, 217.
Trepied, 77, 115.
Trouvelot, 140.

Turner, Prof. H. H., 5, 62, 77, 91, 139.
Twilight Illumination, 153.

U. S. GOVERNMENT, 7.
Usher & Cole, 65.

VADSO, 1, 53, 119.
Vallack, Mr., 63.
Valle, J., 76.

230

INDEX.

Ventosa, Sr., 82, 47, 76, 78, 82, 171.
Venus, 15, 20, 24, 35, 41, 55, 64. 67,

94, 188, 189, 190.
Vignoles, Mr. E. B., 71, 128.

„ Miss L., 71.
Vigo, 154.
Villa Nova, 27.

WADESBOROUGH, 2, 6, 8, 9, 13, 76, 128,

129, 131, 140, 142, 143, 147, 152,

156.

Wadsworth, Prof. F. L. O., 145.
Ward, Miss, 71.
Warre, Mr. Amyas, 28, 205.
,, Mrs. Amyas, 28.
„ Mr. John", 28.
"Waters' Equatorial, 63.
Weir, T., 34, 36, 76, 78, 92, 95, 103.

128, 196, 206.
Wellington, Duke of, 41.
Wesley, W. H., 5, 61, 96, 109, 110,

112, 114, 115, 116, 119, 121, 126,

133, 137, 140, 151.
Whichello, Dr., 68, 71, 109.

Whitmell, C. T., 3, 36, 37, 39, 75, 76,
81, 95, 101, 147, 158, 160, 172,
176, 189, 200, 201.
Willis, Mrs. Colman, 48, 53.

Miss, 49, 55.
„ Miss E., 49, 55.

Mr. E. C., 48, 49, 55, 128, 142,

146, 165, 174, 177.
„ Mr. J. H., 49. 55, 176, 196.
Williams Bay, 15.
Wilson, W. E., 5, 31.
Wolfer, M., 62.
Woolston, Miss, 13.
Wyles, H., 77.
Wyllie, W. L., 56.

YERKES Observatory, 10, 11, 15, 151,

153, 159.
Young, Prof. C. A., 3, 5, 9, 10, 14, 78,

147, 156.

ZERALDA, 84.
Zodiacal Light, 51.

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Full text of "The total solar eclipse, 1900; report of the expeditions organized by the British astronomical association to observe the total solar eclipse of 1900, May 28"

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