Biological Services Program
FWS/OBS-80/29
October 1980
AN ECOLOGICAL
CHARACTERIZATION
OF COASTAL MAINE
Fish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Department of the Interior
Volume One
. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
:••:-■>■■.
AN ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF COASTAL MAINE
(North and East of Cape Elizabeth)
Stewart I. Fefer and Patricia A. Schettig
Principal Investigators
Volume 1
FWS/OBS-80/29
October 1980
The principal investigators wish to
gratefully acknowledge the excellent
guidance provided by the project's
steering committee; the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service National Coastal
Ecosystems Team; and the contributions
made by the many authors and
reviewers .
WHO
DOCUMENT
COLLECTION
Special recognition is warranted for
John Parsons, for his invaluable tech-
nical editorial assistance, and for
Beth Surgens, Cheryl Klink, and Renata
Cirri for their tireless attention to
production details throughout the
study period.
The study was conducted as part of the Federal Interagency Energy/Environment
Research and Development Program of the Office of Research and Development,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Tidal
Power Study; and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service National Coastal Ecosystems
Project.
Department of the Interior
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Northeast Region
One Gateway Center, Suite 700
Newton Corner, Massachusetts 02158
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF FIGURES XV1X
LIST OF TABLES xxxi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xlii
Volume 1
CHAPTER 1: ORGANIZATION OF THE CHARACTERIZATION 1-1
THE ECOSYSTEM LEVEL 1-2
THE SYSTEM LEVEL 1-2
Energy flow 1-2
Biogeochemical cycling 1-8
Biota 1-13
Abiota 1-14
THE SPECIES POPULATION 1-15
ORGANIZATION OF INFORMATION 1-15
REFERENCES 1-17
CHAPTER 2: THE COASTAL MAINE ECOSYSTEM 2-1
GEOGRAPHY 2-1
Region 1 2-3
Region 2 2-3
Region 3 2-4
Region 4 2-4
Region 5 2-4
Region 6 2-9
FORCING FUNCTIONS 2-9
Climate 2-9
Monthly mean temperature 2-13
Monthly mean precipitation 2-14
Cloud occurrence 2-14
Evaporation and relative humidity 2-14
Surface winds 2-22
Fog 2-23
Snow 2-23
Freeze penetration and the growing season 2-28
River and harbor ice 2-31
Storm occurrences 2-34
Geology 2-34
General physiography: bedrock control of
the coastal platform 2-37
Pleistocene glaciation, deglaciation, and
associated deposits 2-39
Holocene sea level rise 2-41
Erosion and sedimentation 2-41
Shoreline erosion 2-42
Surficial geology and soils 2-45
Hydrology 2-49
ii
10-80
Chapter 2 (continued)
Groundwater 2-49
Overburden thickness and bedrock surface topography .... 2-51
Potentiometr ic surface of bedrock wells 2-51
Ground and surface water contamination 2-51
Research needs in geology and hydrology 2-53
The Socioeconomy 2-54
Fisheries 2-55
Aquaculture 2-58
Forest industry 2-58
Agriculture industry 2-59
Mineral industry 2-59
Recreation industry 2-60
Sport fishing, hunting, and trapping 2-62
Economy 2-62
Transportation 2-65
Population 2-65
Land use 2-66
Freshwater supply 2-66
Socioeconomic research needs 2-66
REFERENCES 2-73
CHAPTER 3: HUMAN IMPACTS ON THE ECOSYSTEM 3-1
COMMERCIAL FISHERIES 3-3
FORESTRY 3-4
AGRICULTURE 3-7
Soil Erosion 3-8
Nutrient Runoff 3-9
Pesticides 3-9
Habitat Modification 3-13
MINERAL EXTRACTION 3-13
PORTS AND NAVIGATION 3-14
Dredging 3-15
TRANSPORTATION 3-19
TOURISM AND RECREATION 3-20
SPORT FISHING AND HUNTING 3-21
INDUSTRY AND POPULATION 3-22
Water Pollution 3-22
Bacterial pollution 3-23
Dissolved oxygen 3-23
Turbidity 3-27
Eutrophication 3-27
Heavy metals 3-27
Thermal pollution 3-30
PCBs 3-32
Air Pollution 3-33
Sulfur dioxide 3-34
Nitrogen oxides 3-35
Carbon monoxide 3-35
Particulates 3-35
Ozone 3-35
in
Chapter 3 (Continued)
Effects of atmospheric deposition on coastal ecosystem . . . 3-36
Acid precipitation 3-37
Oil Pollution 3-41
Dams 3-44
Effects of dams on marine and estuarine systems 3-44
Effects of dams on freshwater habitats 3-46
Construction 3-48
REGULATIONS GOVERNING HUMAN
ACTIVITIES IN THE BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS OF COASTAL MAINE 3-49
Regulations Pertaining to Palustrine,
Lacustrine, and Riverine Systems 3-50
Regulations Pertaining to Estuarine
and Marine Systems in Coastal Maine 3-54
Regulations Pertaining to Terrestrial Systems 3-55
REFERENCES 3-57
Volume 2
CHAPTER 4: THE MARINE SYSTEM 4-1
DATA SOURCES AND COMPILATION OF DATA 4-3
DISTRIBUTION OF THE MARINE SYSTEM 4-5
ABIOTIC FEATURES 4-7
Geology 4-7
Hydrography 4-11
Long-term temperature trends 4-11
Seasonal changes in temperature and salinity 4-13
Spatial variability of coastal waters 4-14
Water masses 4-17
Tides 4-18
Processes influencing coastal water 4-20
Climate 4-25
Wind 4-25
Heat budget and precipitation 4-28
Fog 4-28
Atmospheric pressure 4-29
Ice formation 4-29
BIOTIC FEATURES 4-29
Producers 4-29
Phytoplankton 4-30
Macroalgae and rooted vegetation 4-30
Benthic diatoms 4-31
Microbial producers 4-31
Consumers 4-32
Zooplankton 4-32
Benthic invertebrates 4-33
Squid 4-34
Finfish 4-34
Birds 4-35
Marine mammals 4-39
Decomposers 4-41
FOOD WEBS 4-41
IV
10-80
Chapter 4 (Continued)
PHYSICAL/BIOGEOCHEMICAL/BIOLOGICAL INTERACTIONS 4-42
Energy Cycles 4-42
Biogeochemical Cycles 4-48
Nutrient cycle 4-48
Organic matter cycle 4-50
Interactions Affecting the Productivity
and Distribution of Biota 4-53
Phytoplankton 4-53
Macroalgae 4-55
Zooplankton 4-55
Benthic invertebrates 4-56
Squid 4-57
Finfish, birds, and marine mammals 4-57
Decomposers 4-57
BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY 4-58
Primary Productivity 4-58
Secondary Productivity 4-58
CLASS LEVELS AND AN INTRODUCTION
TO THE SUBTIDAL AND INTERTIDAL SUBSYSTEMS 4-59
Introduction 4-59
The Subtidal Subsystem 4-59
Class: open water (water column) 4-61
Class: unconsolidated bottom 4-72
Class: rock bottom 4-74
The Intertidal Subsystem 4-75
Class: rocky shore 4-78
Class: sand beach 4-86
BEACH DUNE PLANT COMMUNITIES 4-96
RESEARCH NEEDS 4-97
REFERENCES 4-100
CHAPTER 5: THE ESTUARINE SYSTEM 5-1
DATA SOURCES AND COMPILATION OF DATA 5-11
DISTRIBUTION OF THE ESTUARINE SYSTEM 5-12
ABIOTIC FACTORS 5-14
Geology 5-14
Hydrography 5-18
Freshwater flow 5-18
Tidal exchange 5-18
Topography 5-20
Winds 5-20
General Hydrographic
Characteristics of Maine Estuaries 5-21
Casco Bay/Portland Harbor/Fore River 5-22
Presumpscot and Royal estuaries 5-22
Kennebec estuary 5-24
Sheepscot estuary 5-24
Hockomock, Montsweag, and Nubble Bays 5-27
Damariscotta River estuary 5-30
Penobscot River estuary 5-30
Union River estuary 5-33
Chapter 5 (Continued) c „_
Somes Sound 5-33
Narraguagus River estuary 5-33
Machias River estuary 5-33
Dennys River estuary 5-36
St. Croix River estuary 5-36
Passamaquoddy and Cobscook Bays 5-36
Climate 5-38
Wind 5-38
Heat budget and precipitation 5-38
Fog 5-39
Atmospheric pressure 5-39
BIOTA 5-39
Producers 5-40
Phytoplankton 5-40
Macroalgae and rooted vegetation 5-41
Benthic diatoms 5-41
Microbial producers 5-41
Consumers 5-41
Zooplankton 5-41
Benthic invertebrates 5-41
Fish 5-44
Birds 5-44
Marine mammals 5-47
Decomposers 5-47
FOOD WEBS 5-47
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES 5-52
Pl2Lit nutrients 5-52
Nitrogen 5-54
The Role of Flushing 5-59
Fore estuary 5-60
Presumpscot estuary 5-60
Kennebec estuary 5-62
Sheepscot estuary 5-63
Damariscotta estuary 5-63
Penobscot estuary 5-64
Pleasant, Narraguagus, and Union estuaries 5-64
Machias estuary 5-64
Cobscook Bay 5-64
St. Croix estuary 5-64
Organic Matter Cycle 5-65
INTERACTIONS AFFECTING
PRODUCTIVITY AND DISTRIBUTION OF BIOTA 5-67
Phytoplankton 5-67
Macroalgae 5-69
Zooplankton 5-70
Benthic Invertebrates 5-71
Decomposers 5-72
BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY 5-73
Primary Productivity 5-73
Secondary Productivity 5-76
CLASS LEVEL DISCUSSION WITH INTRODUCTION
TO THE SUBTIDAL AND INTERTIDAL SUBSYSTEMS 5-7 6
vi
10-80
Chapter 5 (Continued)
The Subtidal Subsystem 5-7 6
Subtidal water column 5-78
Subtidal unconsolidated bottom 5-81
Rock bottom 5-88
Subtidal aquatic beds 5-91
The Intertidal Subsystem 5-91
Intertidal rocky shore 5-94
Intertidal streambeds 5-95
Intertidal beach 5-95
Intertidal flats 5-98
Emergent wetland 5-107
RESEARCH NEEDS 5-132
REFERENCES 5-134
CHAPTER 6: THE RIVERINE SYSTEM 6-1
DATA SOURCES AND COMPILATION OF DATA 6-3
GEOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTICS 6-3
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS 6-3
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS 6-10
ABIOTIC FACTORS AFFECTING THE RIVERINE SYSTEM 6-10
Climate 6-11
Temperature 6-11
Precipitation and flow levels 6-11
Pollutant transport 6-12
Geology-Hydrology 6-12
Landform 6-13
Bedrock composition 6-13
Water Chemistry Parameters 6-14
Inorganic plant nutrients 6-14
Other inorganic ions 6-15
Organic matter 6-15
Dissolved gases 6-15
ENERGY FLOW 6-16
BIOTA 6-25
Producers 6-25
Consumers 6-2 5
Decomposers 6-26
NATURAL FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION 6-2 6
Water Chemistry 6-26
Light and Temperature 6-29
Current and Substrate 6-30
RESEARCH NEEDS 6-30
REFERENCES 6-31
CHAPTER 7: THE LACUSTRINE SYSTEM 7-1
DATA SOURCES AND COMPILATION OF DATA 7-2
DISTRIBUTION OF THE LACUSTRINE SYSTEM 7-2
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS 7-8
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS 7-9
Biological Characteristics 7-13
ABIOTIC FACTORS AFFECTING THE LACUSTRINE SYSTEM 7-13
vii
Chapter 7 (Continued)
Climate 7-16
Other Atmospheric Factors 7-16
Hydrology 7-17
Geology 7-17
Lake substrates 7-18
Lacustrine sedimentation 7-18
Soils 7-19
Morphometry 7-21
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES AND BUDGETS 7-22
BIOTA 7-22
ENERGY FLOW AND FOOD WEBS 7-24
Trophic Structure, Energy Flows, and Budgets 7-24
Food Webs 7-29
LACUSTRINE SUCCESSION 7-32
LAND USE 7-32
Recreational and Municipal Use 7-32
Dams and Water Control Devices 7-33
LAKE MANAGEMENT AND FISHERIES 7-33
RESEARCH NEEDS 7-34
REFERENCES 7-36
CHAPTER 8: THE PALUSTRINE SYSTEM 8-1
SOURCES OF AND COMPILATION OF DATA 8-2
DISTRIBUTION OF THE PALUSTRINE SYSTEM 8-6
CHARACTERISTICS OF PALUSTRINE WETLANDS 8-9
Wetland Development 8-9
Physical Characteristics 8-9
Peat bog stratigraphy 8-10
Chemical Characteristics 8-15
ABIOTIC FACTORS AFFECTING PALUSTRINE SYSTEMS 8-15
Climate 8-15
Hydrology 8-16
Geology 8-16
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES AND BUDGETS 8-18
BIOTA 8-19
Producers 8-21
Consumers 8-25
Decomposers 8-2 6
Food Webs 8-26
ENERGY FLOW 8-26
IMPORTANCE TO HUMANITY 8-27
Peat As A Commercial Resource 8-30
PALUSTRINE MANAGEMENT 8-30
RESEARCH NEEDS 8-31
REFERENCES 8-32
CHAPTER 9: THE FOREST SYSTEM 9-1
DATA SOURCES AND COMPILATION OF DATA 9-3
CLASSIFICATION OF FOREST SYSTEMS 9-4
DISTRIBUTION OF FOREST TYPES 9-4
Spruce-Fir 9-4
White Pine-Hemlock-Hardwood 9-6
viii
10-80
Chapter 9 CContinued)
Beech-Birch-Maple 9-8
SUCCESSION OF FOREST SYSTEMS 9-8
Secondary Succession 9-11
BIOTA 9-12
Primary Producers 9-13
Forest biomass 9-13
Primary productivity 9-16
Decomposers and Consumers 9-20
Decomposers 9-20
Rate of decomposition 9-20
Consumers 9-20
ABIOTA 9-24
Solar radiation 9-24
Temperature 9-25
Wind 9-25
Water 9-25
Soils 9-26
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES 9-27
PERTURBATIONS 9-29
Effects of Logging 9-30
Effects of Fire 9-32
INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER SYSTEMS 9-33
IMPORTANCE TO HUMANITY 9-34
RESEARCH NEEDS 9-35
REFERENCES 9-36
CHAPTER 10: AGRICULTURAL AND DEVELOPED LANDS 10-1
AGRICULTURAL LANDS 10-1
Plants and Animals 10-4
Abiotic Factors 10-5
Problems Associated with Agricultural Lands 10-6
DEVELOPED LANDS 10-6
Biota 10-7
Abiotic Features 10-7
Problems Associated with Developed Areas 10-9
OLDFIELDS 10-10
Succession 10-10
Plants and Animals 10-11
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES 10-11
RESEARCH NEEDS 10-13
REFERENCES 10-14
Volume 3
CHAPTER 11: FISHES ,
DATA SOURCES ,
THE MAJOR FISHES OF COASTAL MAINE ,
DISTRIBUTION ,
Seasonal Occurrence and Migration ,
Anadromous and Catadromous Fish Distribution
REPRODUCTION
11
-1
11
-2
11
-2
11
-6
11
-14
11
-14
11-
-15
IX
Chapter 11 CContinued)
Fecundity 11-15
Spawning Habits 11-16
EARLY LIFE HISTORY 11-20
Larval Populations 11-20
FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS 11-23
FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE 11-28
Water Temperature 11-28
Salinity 11-29
Competition 11-29
Predation and Harvest 11-31
Diseases and Parasites 11-31
Dams and Obstructions 11-31
Water Quality 11-32
Turbidity 11-33
Dissolved oxygen 11-33
Pathogens 11-33
Toxicants 11-33
Radioactivity 11-35
Nutrients 11-35
pH 11-35
IMPORTANCE TO HUMANITY 11-36
MANAGEMENT 11-44
RESEARCH NEEDS 11-46
CASE STUDY: SHORTNOSE STURGEON 11-48
Range and Distribution 11-48
Reproduction and Growth 11-48
Food and Feeding Habits 11-49
Predation 11-50
Importance to Humanity 11-50
REFERENCES 11-51
CHAPTER 12: COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT INVERTEBRATES 12-1
SOFT- SHELL CLAM (My a arenaria) 12-2
Distribution and Abundance 12-2
Life History 12-2
Habitat Preferences 12-3
Factors of Abundance 12-3
Human Impacts 12-4
Importance to Humanity 12-4
Management 12-5
BLUE MUSSEL (Mytilus edulis) 12-7
Distribution and Abundance 12-7
Life History 12-7
Habitat Preferences 12-8
Factors of Abundance 12-8
Human Impacts 12-9
Importance to Humanity 12-9
Management 12-9
SEA SCALLOP (Placopecten magellanicus) 12-10
Distribution and Abundance 12-10
Life History 12-11
10-80
Chapter 12 (Continued)
Habitat Preferences 12-11
Factors of Abundance 12-12
Human Impacts 12-12
Importance to Humanity 12-14
Management 12-14
AMERICAN LOBSTER (Homarus americanus) 12-14
Distribution and Abundance 12-14
Life History 12-15
Habitat Preferences 12-15
Factors of Abundance 12-16
Human Impacts 12-16
Importance to Humanity 12-17
Management 12-17
Rock Crab (Cancer irroratus) and JONAH CRAB (Cancer boreal is) . . 12-18
Distribution and Abundance 12-18
Life History 12-19
Habitat Preferences 12-19
Factors of Abundance 12-19
Human Impacts 12-20
Importance to Humanity 12-20
Management 12-20
NORTHERN SHRIMP (Pandalus borealis) 12-20
Distribution and Abundance 12-20
Life History 12-22
Habitat Preferences 12-22
Factors of Abundance 12-22
Human Impacts 12-23
Importance to Humanity 12-23
Management 12-23
MARINE WORMS 12-24
Bloodworm (Glycera dibranchiata) 12-24
Distribution and abundance 12-24
Life history 12-25
Habitat preferences 12-26
Factors of abundance 12-26
Sandworm (Nereis virens) 12-26
Distribution and abundance 12-26
Life history 12-27
Habitat preferences 12-27
Factors of abundance 12-28
Human Impacts 12-28
Importance to Humanity 12-28
Management 12-30
RED TIDES 12-30
Life History 12-30
Factors of Abundance 12-31
Importance to Humanity 12-31
Management 12-32
RESEARCH NEEDS 12-32
REFERENCES 12-34
XI
CHAPTER 13 : MARINE MAMMALS 13-1
DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE 13-2
Cetaceans 13-6
Pinnipeds 13-8
REPRODUCTION 13-11
FEEDING HABITS 13-11
FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE 13-14
Food Availability 13-14
Disease and Parasites 13-14
Predation 13-15
Pollutants 13-15
Organochlorines 13-16
Heavy metals 13-17
Petroleum 13-21
Habitat Disturbances 13-21
IMPORTANCE TO HUMANITY 13-23
History of Whaling 13-23
MANAGEMENT 13-27
RESEARCH PRIORITIES 13-2 9
REFERENCES 13-30
CHAPTER 14: WATERBIRDS 14-1
DATA SOURCES 14-2
WATERBIRD GROUPS 14-2
SEABIRDS 14-3
Historical Trends 14-9
Present Status of Seabirds 14-10
Breeding species 14-10
Nonbreeding summer residents 14-15
Winter residents 14-15
Migratory residents 14-16
Reproduction 14-17
Feeding Habits 14-18
Natural Factors Affecting Abundance 14-21
Predation 14-21
Food supply 14-21
Nesting habits 14-23
SHOREBIRDS 14-24
Historical Trends 14-29
Present Status of Shorebirds 14-29
Breeding summer residents 14-29
Winter residents 14-30
Migratory residents 14-30
Role of Shorebirds in the Ecosystem 14-35
WADING BIRDS 14-35
Historical Perspective 14-35
Present Status of Wading Birds 14-37
Breeding birds 14-37
Feeding Habits 14-38
HUMAN IMPACTS ON WATERBIRDS 14-41
Habitat Loss 14-41
XII
10-80
Chapter 14 (Continued)
Tidal Power 14-41
Environmental Contamination 14-42
Oil 14-42
Toxic chemicals 14-43
Heavy metals 14-44
Plastic and other artifacts 14-44
Other Disturbance 14-44
MANAGEMENT 14-45
RESEARCH NEEDS 14-4 5
REFERENCES 14-47
CHAPTER 15: WATERFOWL 15-1
WATERFOWL GROUPS 15-7
Resident Waterfowl 15-8
Breeding Species 15-9
Wintering Species 15-10
Migrants 15-10
WATERFOWL ASSESSMENT 15-10
Breeding Populations 15-14
Migration and Staging Areas 15-28
Waterfowl Habitat 15-31
Region 1 15-31
Region 2 15-32
Region 3 15-32
Region 4 15-32
Region 5 15-33
Region 6 15-33
Ecological Interactions 15-34
FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE 15-35
Natural Factors 15-35
Human Factors 15-37
POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES 15-38
Forestry Practices 15-38
Industrial or Urban Development 15-38
Oil Pollution 15-38
Tidal Power Development 15-38
Island Development 15-38
Non-consumptive Use 15-40
MANAGEMENT 15-40
DATA GAPS 15-42
CASE STUDY: THE BLACK DUCK 15-43
REFERENCES 15-47
CHAPTER 16: TERRESTRIAL BIRDS 16-1
DATA SOURCES 16-2
SEASONAL OCCURRENCE 16-2
HABITAT PREFERENCE 16-11
Outer Islands and Headlands 16-11
Shores of Lakes, Rivers, Ponds, and Streams 16-11
Palustrine 16-11
xm
Chapter 16 (Continued)
Open Fields and Wet Meadows 16-12
Old Fields, Edges, and Successional Habitats 16-12
Forests 16-12
Coniferous forests 16-18
Deciduous forests 16-18
Mixed forests 16-19
Rural and Developed Land 16-19
ABUNDANCE OF TERRESTRIAL BIRDS 16-19
Breeding Bird Survey 16-20
Christmas Bird Counts 16-23
ASPECTS OF MIGRATION 16-24
REPRODUCTION 16-25
Time of Nesting 16-25
Nest Type and Location 16-25
Nesting Cycle 16-27
FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE 16-27
Human Related Factors Affecting Abundance 16-28
Habitat alteration 16-28
Chemical contaminants 16-29
Accidental mortality 16-30
Hunting mortality 16-31
Other factors 16-31
IMPORTANCE TO HUMANITY 16-31
MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS 16-32
CASE STUDY: THE BALD EAGLE 16-33
Introduction 16-33
Status 16-33
Taxonomy 16-33
Historical distribution and abundance 16-33
Breeding population 16-35
Wintering population 16-38
Migration 16-41
Habitat 16-42
Characteristics of eagle habitat 16-42
Food Habits 16-42
Reproduction 16-43
Natural Factors of Abundance 16-43
Human-caused Factors of Abundance 16-44
Socioeconomic Importance 16-47
Management 16-47
Protection 16-47
Research Needs 16-49
REFERENCES 16-51
CHAPTER 17: TERRESTRIAL MAMMALS 17-1
DATA SOURCES 17-4
DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE 17-5
Regional Distribution 17-5
Habitat Preferences 17-7
ROLE OF MAMMALS IN THE ECOSYSTEM 17-12
FACTORS OF ABUNDANCE 17-15
xiv
10-80
Chapter 17 (Continued)
Natural Factors Affecting Abundance 17-16
Human Factors 17-21
Direct mortality 17-23
Environmental contaminants 17-28
IMPORTANCE TO HUMANITY 17-28
MANAGEMENT 17-31
REFERENCES 17-34
CHAPTER 18: REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS 18-1
DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE 18-3
HABITAT PREFERENCES 18-3
BREEDING HABITS 18-4
FOOD HABITS 18-6
FACTORS OF ABUNDANCE 18-7
Natural Factors 18-7
Human Factors 18-7
Agriculture 18-7
Pollution 18-7
Impoundments 18-8
Land, water, and forest disturbances 18-8
IMPORTANCE TO HUMANITY 18-9
MANAGEMENT 18-9
RESEARCH NEEDS 18-9
REFERENCES 18-10
CHAPTER 19: COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT FOREST TYPES 19-1
SPRUCE-FIR TYPE 19-4
Habitat Conditions 19-4
Reproduction and Early Growth 19-8
Management Methods 19-8
Management of uneven-aged stands 19-10
Management of even-aged stands 19-11
Natural Enemies 19-14
MAPLE -BEECH-BIRCH TYPE 19-14
Habitat Conditions 19-14
Reproduction and Growth 19-15
Management Methods 19-15
Management of uneven-aged stands 19-15
Management of even-aged stands 19-16
Natural Enemies 19-17
WHITE PINE -HEMLOCK-HARDWOOD TYPE 19-17
Habitat Conditions 19-17
Reproduction and Growth 19-18
Management Practices 19-18
FUELWOOD 19-22
Species Used 19-22
Silvicultural Methods 19-22
CHRISTMAS TREE PRODUCTION 19-25
RESEARCH NEEDS 19-25
REFERENCES 19-27
xv
CHAPTER 20: ENDANGERED, THREATENED AND RARE PLANTS 20-1
DATA SOURCES 20-10
ENDANGERED AND THREATENED PLANTS 20-10
The Estuary Monkey Flower 20-10
Ram's-Head Lady 's-Slipper 20-11
Auricled Twayblade 20-12
Pale Green Orchis 20-12
Ginseng 20-13
Orono Sedge 20-13
Long's Bitter Cress 20-13
RARE PLANTS 20-15
UNIQUE OR RESTRICTED PLANT COMMUNITIES 20-15
Coastal Plateau Bogs and Shrub Slope Peatlands 20-17
Outer Headlands and Outer Island Communities 20-17
Freshwater Intertidal Emergent Wetlands 20-18
Brackish Intertidal Emergent Wetlands 20-18
Atlantic White Cedar Forested Wetlands 20-18
FACTORS OF ABUNDANCE 20-19
PROTECTION OF ENDANGERED, THREATENED, AND RARE PLANT SPECIES . . . 20-20
MANAGEMENT 20-21
RESEARCH NEEDS 20-21
REFERENCES 20-23
Volume 4
APPENDICES
Volume 5
DATA SOURCE APPENDIX
Volume 6
ATLAS
xvi
10-80
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
1-1 The Maine Coast Characterization Area 1-3
1-2 Major ecological systems and species
groups comprising the ecosystems 1-4
1-3 Ecological systems of the Maine coast 1-5
1-4 The conceptual framework of the characterization 1-6
1-5 Food web in the marine system of eastern Maine
(Maine Research Associates, Ltd. 1978). The solid
line shows the direction in which energy flows 1-9
1-6 Conceptual energy flow model for a
generalized ecosystem 1-10
1-7 An explanation of the symbols used in
the energy flow model (figure 1-6) 1-11
1-8 The hydrological cycle (adapted from Caswell 1977) 1-15
1-9 Major groups of species of the Maine coast 1-16
2-1 Map of townships in Region 1 in the characterization area . . 2-5
2-2 Map of townships in Region 2 in the characterization area . . 2-6
2-3 Map of townships in Region 3 in the characterization area . . 2-7
2-4 Map of townships in Region 4 in the characterization area . . 2-8
2-5 Map of townships in Region 5 in the characterization area . . 2-10
2-6 Map of townships in Region 6 in the characterization area . . 2-11
2-7 Locations of weather stations in and near the coastal zone . 2-16
2-8 Summary of basic climate parameters at Eastport 2-17
2-9 Summary of basic climate parameters at Portland 2-18
2-10 Average monthly temperature summaries for eight
weather stations in or near the coastal zone 2-19
2-11 Average monthly precipitation summaries for eight
weather stations in or near the coastal zone 2-21
xvii
10-80
2-12 Locations of foghorn stations in the characterization area . 2-25
2-13 Seasonal fog occurrence along the Maine coast, by region . . 2-26
2-14 Average annual snowfall at 16 weather stations
in or near the coastal zone 2-27
2-15 Monthly average snowfall at Bangor 2-27
2-16 Bedrock geology of coastal Maine (Doyle 1967) 2-37
2-17 A chronological record of geological events and
their correlation with plant and animal evolution 2-38
2-19 Sea level curve for Addison, Maine, derived from radiometric
C dating of salt marsh peat (Thompson 1977) 2-40
2-20 Sea level rise at Eastport and Portland over the
past 40 years. Sea level is rising at a rate of
0.36 cm (0.14 inch) per year at Eastport and 0.22 cm
(0.08 inch) per year at Portland (Hick 1972) 2-43
2-21 The processes and interactions that contribute to
the transportation and deposition of nearshore
sediment (modified from Timson 1977) 2-44
2-22 Surficial deposits in the coastal zone (Doyle 1967) 2-46
2-23 Generalized cross section of surficial deposits in
the Kennebec River valley from Augusta
to Pittston (Thompson 1977) 2-47
2-24 Cross section of esker and glacial-marine delta
west of North Augusta, showing the internal structure
of the delta and the general profile of
the water table (Thompson 1977) 2-47
2-25 Cross section of several types of wetland
deposits on inland topographic depressions 2-48
2-26 Relationship between bedrock well yield and thickness
and type of surficial overburden in the coastal
zone (G.P.M. = gallons per minutes; Caswell 1977) 2-50
2-27 Generalized groundwater flow in unconsolidated
sediment systems (Caswell 1977) 2-50
2-28 Groundwater flow near the fresh water - salt water
interface and the effect of pumping a well (Caswell 1977) . . 2-52
2-29 Railways and commercial air service in
coastal Maine (Maine State Planning Office 1978) 2-68
xviii
2-3 Summary of basic climate parameters at Eastport 2-17
3-1 Areas in coastal Maine with critical water quality
problems (cross-hatched; U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, 1978) 3-24
3-2 Conceptual effect of a new tidal regime on a generalized
intertidal zone (Hodd 1977) 3-45
4-1 The Maine Coast Characterization Area Marine System 4-2
4-2 Hierarchical classification of the marine system
of coastal Maine (Cowardin et al. 1979) 4-4
4-3 Size distribution of sediment particles in marine
habitats of coastal Maine. Dots indicate dominant
size; arrows indicate range 4-7
4-4 Mean annual sea surface temperatures recorded at
Boothbay Harbor from 1906 to 1978 (a) and 5-year
moving average (b) (Garfield and Welch 1978) 4-12
4-5 The annual temperature and salinity cycle at
Boothbay Harbor (region 2; Garfield and Welch 1978) 4-15
4-6 Location of stations sampled for temperature and
salinity of sea water (Speirs et al. 1976) 4-16
4-7 Tidal levels and ranges 4-20
4-8 Coastal salinity (ppt) contours off the Penobscot,
Kennebec, and Sheepscot Rivers during May 1965.
Stippled areas have salinities <30 ppt (Graham 1970b) .... 4-21
4-9 Schematic representation of the summer nontidal surface
currents in the Gulf of Maine (Bigelow 1927) 4-24
4-10 Major features of nontidal circulation along the Maine
coast. Numbers 1 to 7 refer to table 4-4,
which follows (Graham 1970b) 4-26
4-11 Food habits of marine fishes 4-38
4-12 Food habits of marine mammals 4-40
4-13 Simple representation of the energetic relationships
between trophic levels 4-43
4-14 Marine food web for fishery centered on the southeast
Nova Scotian shelf. Values are kcal/m2/yr (adapted
from Mills and Fournier 1979) 4-44
xix
10-80
4-15 Generalized food web for the marine system of coastal Maine . 4-45
4-16 Energy flow model for the marine system in coastal Maine.
The top half of the model refers to interactions within the
water column and the bottom half to those that
occur on or in the bottom 4-46
4-17 Size distribution of organic carbon particles in
sea water (adapted from Sharp 1973) 4-51
4-18 Schematic diagram of the organic matter cycle
in the marine system 4-52
4-19 Physical conditions of the marine water column during
summer (stratified) and winter (well mixed) which affect
phytoplankton growth. Arrows indicate mixing; N= nutrients;
dots are phytoplankton (C.S. Yentsch 1977) 4-54
4-20 Comparison of the boundaries of the physical intertidal
and subtidal zones and the littoral (biological intertidal)
and sublittoral (biological subtidal) zone with increasing
exposure to wave action (adapted from Lewis 1964) 4-60
4-21 Seasonal variation in chlorophyll-a concentrations
at Boothbay Harbor (A, region 2), approximately
8 miles south of the mouth of the Sheepscot
estuary (B, region 2) and near Monhegan Island
(C, region 3; Yentsch, unpublished) 4-63
4-22 Contour map of surface chlorophyll concentrations
off Monhegan Island (region 3) during the 1976
dinoflagellate bloom (Yentsch and Glover 1977) 4-64
4-23 Relation of phytoplankton species diversity to
phytoplankton population size in marine and
estuarine waters (Hulbert 1963) 4-65
4-24 Mean seasonal volumes of zooplankton in Gulf of
Maine coastal areas in 1965 and 1966 (Sherman 1968) 4-69
4-25 Mean number (by season) of dominant copepod species
(per 100 m ) in Gulf of Maine coastal waters in
1965 and 1966. W= western, C= central, and
E= eastern (Sherman 1968) 4-70
4-26 Seasonal variation in percentage composition
of copepods and non copepods in Penobscot
Bay in 1974 and 1975 (Bertrand 1977) 4-71
4-27 Schematic representation of the intertidal zonation
patterns on exposed rocky shores in coastal Maine 4-82
xx
4-28 Percentage composition by taxa of invertebrates on sand
beaches in Maine (Larsen and Doggett, in preparation) .... 4-89
4-29 Geographic distribution of site groups sampled on
the coast of Maine (Larsen and Doggett, in press) 4-90
4-30 Distribution of a typical marine intertidal invertebrate
community in moderately exposed New England sand beaches
during winter and summer (from Crocker et al. 1975) 4-98
4-31 Relations among the major biotic components of the sand
beach class (adapted from Odum et al. 1974) 4-99
5-1 The major estuarine systems in region 1 of the characterization
area as listed in table 5-1 and as delineated by the National
Wetlands Inventory (Cowardin et al. 1979) 5-4
5-2 The major estuarine systems in region 2 of the characterization
area as listed in table 5-1 and as delineated by the National
Wetlands Inventory (Cowardin et al. 1979) 5-5
5-3 The major estuarine systems in region 3 of the characterization
area as listed in table 5-1 and as delineated by the National
Wetlands Inventory (Cowardin et al. 1979) 5-6
5-4 The major estuarine systems in region 4 of the characterization
area as listed in table 5-1 and as delineated by the National
Wetlands Inventory (Cowardin et al. 1979) 5-7
5-5 The major estuarine systems in region 5 of the characterization
area as listed in table 5-1 and as delineated by the National
Wetlands Inventory (Cowardin et al. 1979) 5-8
5-6 The major estuarine systems in region 6 of the characterization
area as listed in table 5-1 and as delineated by the National
Wetlands Inventory (Cowardin et al. 1979) 5-9
5-7 Hierarchical classification of the estuarine system
of coastal Maine (Cowardin et al. 1979) 5-10
5-8 Size distribution of sediment particles in estuarine
habitats of coastal Maine. Dots indicate dominant
size, arrows indicate range 5-14
5-9 Cross-sectional diagrams of generalized estuarine
types found in coastal Maine 5-19
xxi
10-80
5-10 Salinity (ppt) , flushing time (number of tides) ,
mean tidal velocity (km/hr) , and non-tidal velocity
(km/hr) as predicted by the Ketchum estuarine flushing
model for the Presumpscot estuary. Data are plotted from
the head of the estuary (0 km) downstream to the
point of predicted oceanic salinity 5-23
5-11 Salinity (ppt), flushing time (number of tides),
mean tidal velocity (km/hr) , and non-tidal velocity
(km/hr) as predicted by the Ketchum estuarine flushing
model for the Royal estuary. Data are plotted from
the head of the estuary (0 km) downstream to the
point of predicted oceanic salinity 5-23
5-12 Salinity (ppt), flushing time (number of tides),
mean tidal velocity (km/hr) , and non-tidal velocity
(km/hr) as predicted by the Ketchum estuarine flushing
model for the Kennebec estuary. Data are plotted from
the head of the estuary (0 km) downstream to the
point of predicted oceanic salinity 5-25
5-13 Salinity (ppt), flushing time (number of tides),
mean tidal velocity (km/hr) , and non-tidal velocity
(km/hr) as predicted by the Ketchum estuarine flushing
model for the Sheepscot estuary. Data are plotted from
the head of the estuary (0 km) downstream to the
point of predicted oceanic salinity 5-25
5-14 Surface and bottom salinity in the upper Sheepscot estuary
during a tidal cycle in June 1974 (Larsen, unpublished) . . . 5-26
5-15 Salinity over a tidal cycle in the upper Sheepscot estuary
in June 1974 (Larsen, unpublished) 5-26
5-16 Cross-sectional representation of lower Sheepscot estuary
and corresponding distribution of temperature, salinity,
and density isoclines during July 1976 (Garside et al. 1978). 5-28
5-17 Cross-sectional representation of lower Sheepscot
estuary and corresponding distribution of temperature,
salinity, and density isoclines during December
1976 (Garside et al. 1978) 5-29
5-18 Salinity (ppt), flushing time (number of tides),
mean tidal velocity (km/hr) , and non-tidal velocity
(km/hr) as predicted by the Ketchum estuarine flushing
model for the Damariscotta estuary. Data are plotted
from the head of the estuary (0 km) downstream to
the point of predicted oceanic salinity 5-31
xxii
5-19 Salinity (ppt) , flushing time (number of tides),
mean tidal velocity (km/hr) , and non-tidal velocity
(km/hr) as predicted by the Ketchum estuarine flushing
model for the Penobscot estuary. Data are plotted
from the head of the estuary (0 km) downstream to the
point of predicted oceanic salinity 5-31
5-20 Salinity (ppt), flushing time (number of tides),
mean tidal velocity (km/hr) , and non-tidal velocity
(km/hr) as predicted by the Ketchum estuarine flushing
model for the Union estuary. Data are plotted from
the head of the estuary (0 km) downstream to the point
of predicted oceanic salinity 5-34
5-21 Salinity (ppt), flushing time (number of tides),
mean tidal velocity (km/hr) , and non-tidal velocity
(km/hr) as predicted by the Ketchum estuarine flushing
model for the Narraguagus estuary. Data are plotted
from the head of the estuary (0 km) downstream
to the point of predicted oceanic salinity 5-34
5-22 Salinity (ppt) , flushing time (number of tides) ,
mean tidal velocity (km/hr) , and non-tidal velocity
(km/hr) as predicted by the Ketchum estuarine flushing
model for the Machias estuary. Data are plotted
from the head of the estuary (0 km) downstream
to the point of predicted oceanic salinity 5-35
5-23 Salinity (ppt) , flushing time (number of tides) ,
mean tidal velocity (km/hr) , and non-tidal velocity
(km/hr) as predicted by the Ketchum estuarine flushing
model for the Dennys estuary. Data are plotted
from the head of the estuary (0 km) downstream
to the point of predicted oceanic salinity 5-35
5-24 Salinity (ppt), flushing time (number of tides),
mean tidal velocity (km/hr) , and non-tidal velocity
(km/hr) as predicted by the Ketchum estuarine flushing
model for the St. Croix estuary. Data are
plotted from the head of the estuary (0 km)
downstream to the point of predicted oceanic salinity .... 5-37
5-25 Feeding habits of estuarine fishes 5-45
5-26 Simple representation of the energetic
relationships between trophic levels 5-48
5-27 Generalized food web for the estuarine
system of coastal Maine 5-49
XXlll
10-80
5-28 A comparison of the primary productivity (tons of dry
weight produced per acre per year) for different types
of terrestrial and aquatic systems in the world. Shaded
bars indicate general ranges (Teal and Teal 1969) 5-50
5-29 Simplified energy flow model for an
estuarine system in Maine 5-51
5-30 The relationship between depth of water and nitrate
concentration (a) , and the subsequent nutrient
character of the marine waters entering the marine
waters entering the Sheepscot and Kennebec
estuaries (b) (Garside, unpublished) 5-55
5-31 Nitrate concentration ( M) and salinity (ppt) in the
Sheepscot estuary in September 1976 (Garside et al. 1978) . . 5-56
5-32 Factors controlling flushing in seven Maine estuaries,
based on application of the model described on page 5-59
For example, in the Kennebec estuary 40% of the estuary's
volume is provided by river flow, about 28% by tidal
input, and 32% is residual at low tide 5-61
5-33 Generalized size distribution of organic carbon particles
in seawater (adapted from Sharp 1973) 5-66
5-34 Schematic diagram of the organic matter cycle in
the estuarine system 5-66
5-35 Physical conditions of the estuarine water column
during summer (stratified) and winter (well mixed)
which affect phytoplankton growth. Arrows indicate
mixing; N= nutrients; dots are phytoplankton (Yentsch 1977) . 5-68
5-36 Comparison of the boundaries of the physical intertidal
zone and the littoral (biological intertidal) zone with
increasing exposure to wave action (adapted from Lewis 1964) . 5-77
5-37 Monthly measurements of chlorophyll-a concentrations
(mg/m ) in upper Penobscot Bay for 1974 to 1975
(Bertrand 1977) 5-79
5-38 Relation of phytoplankton species diversity to
phytoplankton population size in marine and
estuarine waters (Hulburt 1963) 5-82
5-39 The comparative distribution of marine, brackish, and
freshwater species along a salinity gradient in a
German estuary (after Remane 1934) 5-86
xx iv
5-40 Number of marine and freshwater invertebrate
species from the mouth to the head of the Sheepscot
River estuary (Larsen and Doggett 1978b) 5-86
5-41 The process of salt marsh progradation
(adapted from Redfield 1972) 5-111
5-42 The process of salt marsh transgression 5-111
5-43 Salinity ranges of the bottom sediments underlying
the different marsh communities in New England
salt marshes (adapted from Chapman 1940a) 5-114
5-44 Cross section of an upland-to-bay sequence in a
New England salt marsh showing intertidal high and
low marsh (adapted from Miller and Egler 1950) 5-115
5-45 Succession of plant communities on New england
salt marshes (adapted from Chapman 1940b) 5-120
5-46 Monthly (June to October) density (number of shoots
per square meter) of cordgrass in the Causeway
marsh, Montsweag Bay, from 1972 to 1974
(Vadas et al. 1976; and Keser et al . 1978) 5-123
5-47 Energy flow in an estuarine intertidal emergent
wetland, showing the relationship between the
terrestrial, riverine, and estuarine systems 5-129
5-48 Protein enrichment of Spartina detrital particles
resulting from microbial colonization (after
Odum and de la Cruz 1967) 5-130
6-1 Hierarchical classification of the riverine
system of coastal Maine (Cowardin et al. 1979) 6-2
6-2 Cross-section of deposits filling the tidal portion of
the Kennebec River (adapted from Upson and Spencer 1964) . . 6-8
6-3 Organic matter processing in upper perennial stream
communities (adapted from Cummins and Spengler 1978) .... 6-20
6-4 Trends in the composition of invertebrate communities
along an upstream-downstream gradient
(adapted from Marzolf 1978) 6-24
7-1 Hierarchical classification of the lacustrine system
of coastal Maine (Cowardin et al. 1979) 7-3
7-2 Comparison of summer conditions of temperature, oxygen
and phosphate-phosphorus at different depths in
shallow and deep eutrophic lakes (fertile) and
oligotrophic lakes (infertile) 7-12
xxv
10-80
7-3 Lake zonation based on biological function.
Example given is a moderately deep oligomesotrophic
Maine lake 7-14
7-4 Factors and interactions that determine lake
characteristics (modified from Rawson 1939 by Cole 1975) . . 7-15
7-5 Idealized energy flow diagram for the pelagic
portion of a large, deep lake 7-27
7-6 Energy flow diagram for a particular lake. Generalized
relationships of the average energy flow in the pelagic
zone of Dalnee Lake, Kamchatka, USSR, during the month
of July. Data expressed in calories per square meter
per 30 days (from Wetzel 1975; Sorokin and
Paveljeva 1972) 7-28
7-7 Generalized pelagial plankton food web for a Maine lake
(based on Davis et al. 1978a; and Wetzel 1975) 7-30
7-8 Generalized food web for the littoral zone of a lake,
based on Cummins (1973), Pennak (1953), Wetzel (1975),
and R.B. Davis (unpublished) . Only certain species
of those taxonomic groups listed would be present 7-31
8-1 Hierarchical classification of the plaustrine
system in coastal Maine (Cowardin et al . 1977) 8-5
8-2 Distribution of palustrine wetland classes along a
continuum from the upland environment to deep water 8-6
8-3 Two patterns of palustrine succession in coastal Maine
(adapted from Wetzel 1975 and Dansereau
and Segadas-Vianna 1952) 8-11
8-4 Five peat bog types recognized by Cameron (1975)
as existing in coastal Maine 8-14
8-5 Development of palustrine wetlands on glacial
terrain (adapted from Heeley and Motts 1976) 8-17
8-6 Cycling of carbon in a plaustrine wetland (Moore
and Bellamy 1974) 8-18
8-7 Model of phosphorus and nitrogen flow
in the palustrine system 8-20
8-8 Food web of the forested, scrub/shrub, emergent
and open water palustrine wetlands 8-28
8-9 Model of energy flow in the palustrine system 8-29
xxvi
9-1 Geographic sampling units of the 1968 to 1970 forest
inventory in Maine (Ferguson and Kingsley 1972) 9-3
9-2 Approximate distribution of major forest types in Maine . . . 9-7
9-3 Patterns of primary and secondary succession under
different substrate conditions along the coast of Maine . . . 9-9
9-4 Generalized tropic structure of a forest system
showing major pathways of energy transfer (solid
lines are "grazing" pathways, broken lines are
"decomposer" pathways) 9-12
9-5 Major storage compartments and flows of nutrients within
the forest system (from Bormann and Likens 1979) 9-28
11-1 Diversity of fishes in Maine systems 11-13
11-2 Seasonal abundance of fish larvae in the upper
estuarine, lower estuarine, and offshore areas of
Boothbay region (Chenoweth 1973) 11-22
11-3 Feeding habits and food resources of fishes 11-22
11-4 The percentage similarity between the diets of ten
species of gadiform fishes in the Gulf of Maine
(numerical values given in the left half of the
matrix, ranges in the right half), Langton
and Bowman (1978) 11-27
11-5 A food partition plot indicating the major prey
of each of 15 predacious fishes of the Gulf of Maine.
Major prey is defined as any prey category comprising
>10% by weight of the diet for any one predator
(Langton and Bowman 1978) 11-27
12-1 Pound (x 105 , solid line) and dollar values (x 105 ,
dotted line) of clam landings for coastal Maine from
1968 to 1978. (December, 1978, data are estimated) 12-6
12-2 Pound (x lO*4 , solid line) and dollar values (x 10 ,
dotted line) of mussel landings for coastal Maine from
1968 to 1978. (December, 1978, data are estimated) 12-6
12-3 Pounds (x 101* , solid line) and dollar values (x 10^ ,
dotted line) of scallops landed in coastal Maine from
1968 to 1978. (December, 1978, data are estimated) 12-13
12-4 Pounds (x 106 , solid line) and dollar values (x 106 ,
dotted line) of lobsters landed in coastal Maine from
1968 to 1978. (December, 1978, data are estimated) 12-13
xxv ii
10-80
12-5 Correlation of lobster catch (thousands of metric tons)
and number of traps fished (hundred thousands) in
Maine, for 1897 to 1976 (Maine Department
of Marine Resources 1977) 12-18
12-6 Pounds (x 1CP , solid line) and dollar values (x 1CT ,
dotted line) of rock crab landed in coastal Maine from
1968 to 1978. (December, 1978, data are estimated.) .... 12-21
12-7 Pounds (x 1CP , solid line) and dollar values (x 10 ,
dotted line) of shrimp landed in coastal Maine from
1968 to 1978. (December, 1978, data are estimated.) .... 12-21
12-8 Pounds (x 1CT , solid line) and dollar values (x 10 ,
dotted line) of bloodworms landed in coastal Maine from
1968 to 1978. (December, 1978, data are estimated.) .... 12-29
12-9 Pounds (x 10* , solid line) and dollar values (x 10* ,
dottei line) of sandworms landed in coastal Maine from
1968 to 1978. (December, 1978, data are estimated.) .... 12-29
14-1 Trends in populations of nesting herring gull, eider,
black guillemot, and puffin in Maine since 1900
(adapted from Drury 1973 and Korschgen 1979) 14-11
14-3 Trends in populations of nesting great black-backed gull,
double-crested cormorant, arctic and common tern, and
razorbill auk in Maine since 1900 (adapted from
Drury 1973 and Korschgen 1979) 14-11
14-3 Timing of egg laying, incubation, and breeding of
seabirds in coastal Maine (crosshatch represents overlap) . . 14-18
14-4 Relative abundance and migration of the migratory
shorebirds of coastal Maine from April through November.
Band width reflects relative abundance for individual
species only (adapted from Morrison 1976a, McNeil
and Burton 1973, Palmer 1949, and Gobeil 1963) 14-31
15-1 The wildlife management units (large numbers, heavy
lines) and the characterization regions (small
numbers, light lines) in Maine (Maine Department
of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife) 15-11
15-2 Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife
winter waterfowl inventory units (large numbers,
dotted lines) and characterization regions (small
numbers, light lines) in Maine (Maine Department
of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife) 15-12
xxviii
15-3 Boundaries of coastal counties and characterization
regions (Maine Department of Inland Fisheries
and Wildlife) 15-13
15-4 Estimated numbers (x 100) of wintering black ducks
among the winter waterfowl inventory units of
coastal Maine for each year, 1952 to 1974 15-17
15-5 Estimated number (x 100) of wintering goldeneyes
among the winter waterfowl inventory units of
coastal Maine for each year, 1952 to 1974 15-18
15-6 Estimated number of wintering buffleheads among the
winter waterfowl inventory units of coastal
Maine for each year, 1952 to 1974 15-19
15-7 Estimated numbers (x 100) of wintering scaups among
the winter waterfowl inventory units of
coastal Maine for each year, 1952 to 1974 15-20
15-8 Estimated number (x 100) of wintering eiders among
the winter waterfowl inventory units of
coastal Maine for each year, 1952 to 1974 15-21
15-9 Estimated number (x 100) of wintering scoters
among the winter waterfowl inventory units of
coastal Maine for each year, 1952 to 1974 15-22
15-10 Estimated numbers of wintering old squaws among the
winter waterfowl inventory units of coastal
Maine for each year, 1958 to 1974 15-23
15-11 Estimated numbers (x 1000) of wintering ducks for
coastal Maine for each year, 1952 to 1974 15-24
15-12 Phenophase Diagram of the Monthly Activities of
the Male and Female Black Ducks in Maine 15-45
16-1 Urban, suburban, agricultural, successional, and
edge habitats and their associated bird species.
Horizontal lines indicate the range of habitats preferred . . 16-13
16-2 Generalized plant succession (from left to right)
and associated bird species in a spruce-fir forest
in Maine. Horizontal line indicate range of
preferred habitat 16-15
16-3 Generalized secondary plant succession and associated
bird species in a white pine (left half) and scrub
pine (right half) forest. Horizontal lines indicate
range of preferred habitats 16-16
xxix
10-80
16-4 Generalized secondary plant succession (from left
to right) and associated bird species in the deciduous
forest and mixed deciduous/coniferous forest.
Horizontal lines indicate the range of preferred habitats . . 16-17
16-6 Proposed bald eagle management programs of the
Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife 16-50
17-1 Relationship between wildlife management units
and the characterization regions in coastal Maine
(Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife 1974) . . 17-6
17-2 Habitat preferences of terrestrial mammals found
in the characterization area (after Godin 1977) 17-8
17-3 Food preferences of terrestrial mammals found
in the characterization area (Godin 1977) 17-13
17-4 Relationship between previous winter conditions
(based on the winter severity index) and the harvest
of white-tailed deer in the six regions, adjusted for
length of hunting season and number of hunters 17-20
19-1 Geographic sampling units in Maine
(Ferguson and Kingsley 1972) 19-7
19-2 Site hdex curves for eastern white pine in New
England (curves corrected to breast-height age of
50) (Frothingham 1914) 19-20
20-1 Comparison of the Three Types of Bogs Found Along
the Maine Coast (adapted from Daraman 1979) 20-1
XXX
LIST OF TABLE?
Table Page
2-1 Acreage and Percentage Contribution (parentheses)
of Wetland Systems and Subsystems to the Wetland
Habitat in the Characterization Area, by Region 2-2
2-2 Mean Temperature and Annual Precipitation at
Weather Stations in or Mear the Coastal Zone 2-15
2-3 U.S. Coast Guard Foghorn Stations
along the Maine Coast 2-24
2-4 Snowfall Statistics for Stations in or Near Coastal Maine . 2-29
2-5 Snow Cover Depths and Duration
for Stations in or Near Coastal Maine 2-29
2-6 Average Length of the Growing Season
at 11 Weather Stations in or Near the Coastal Zone 2-30
2-7 Air-freezing Index (32°F degree-days)
at 11 Weather Stations In or Near the Coastal Zone 2-30
2-8 Maximum Seasonal Depth of Frost for
an Air -freezing Index of 850 degree-days °F 2-32
2-9 Maximum Seasonal Depth of Frost for
an Air-freezing Index of 1300 degree-days °F 2-32
2-10 Maximum Seasonal Depth of Frost for
an Air -freezing Index of 1800 degree-days °F 2-33
2-11 Average Occurrence of Ihunderstorms at
Nine Weather Stations in or Near the Coastal Zone 2-36
2-12 Species Weight (pounds x 1000) and Values (thousands
of dollars (in parentheses) of Landing Between
1955 and 197 6 in Coastal Maine 2-56
2-13 Winter and Summer Populations in Regions
of Coastal Maine in 1970 2-61
2-14 Significant Recreational Beaches
of the Characterization Area 2-61
2-15 Employment Figures by Source of
Income in Coastal Maine in 1977 2-64
xxxi
10-80
2-16 Total Waterborne Commerce (short tons)
and Percentage of Change Between
1970 and 1975 in Coastal Maine 2-70
2-17 Population Density (persons/sq mi) and Total
Population Size (sq mi) in Maine Regions in 1974 2-71
2-18 Population Density in Major Towns and Cities of
Coastal Maine in 1974 2-71
2-19 Projected Population Sizes for the Coastal Counties
in 1977, 1980, and 1982 and Percentage of
Population Gain (parentheses) 2-72
3-1 Socioeconomic Activities in Coastal Maine
and Their Ecological Interactions 3-2
3-2 Pesticides Registered for Use in Maine and
the Crops for Which They Are Used 3-10
3-3 Amount (pounds unless stated otherwise) of Pesticides
Applied to Crop Land in Five Watersheds
in the Characterization Area 3-11
3-4 Summary of Federal Dredging and Disposal
Projects in Coastal Maine Since 1959 3-16
3-5 Critical Water Quality Problem Areas in Coastal Maine, 1978. 3-25
3-6 Major Thermal Discharges in the Characterization
Area from Combined Industrial and Municipal Point Sources . 3-30
3-7 Sources and Amounts (tons/year) of Volatile
Organic Compounds Causing Air Pollution in Maine 3-37
3-8 State Laws and Administrative Agencies
Regulating Use of Coastal Maine Habitats 3-51
4-1 Area (acres) of Marine Waters in Ea;h of the Coastal
Regions and Its Percentage Contribution to the Total .... 4-6
4-2 Composition, Formation and Primary
Abiotic Forces Affecting the Substrata
of the Estuarine System and Subsystem 4-8
4-3 Tidal Terms and Definitions 4-19
4-4 Movements of Coastal Water 4-27
4-5 Habitat, Abundance, and Seasonality
of Fish Inhabiting the Marine System 4-36
xxx ii
4-6 Dominant Taxa of Zooplankton
Found in the Characterization Area 4-66
4-7 Percentage Composition of Zooplankton Groups in Coastal
Waters of the Gulf of Maine in 1965 and 1966 4-67
4-8 Acreages and Percentages of Intertidal Marine Habitat
Types in the Regions of the Characterization Area 4-77
4-9 Species Found in all Habitats and at All Tidal Heights in
the Marine Intertidal Subsystem in the Characterization Area 4-78
4-10 Qualitative Assessment of Species Abundance Irish Moss
Zone at 12 Exposed Headlands on the Maine
Coast in August, 1977 4-81
4-11 Fauna of the Intertidal Zones on Exposed Bedrock Shore
on the Maine Coast based on Data from 13 sites 4-83
4-12 Species Composition of the Four Defined Faunal Communities . 4-91
4-13 Fauna of Sandy Beaches of Two Exposure Levels in
Decreasing Order of Relative Abundance 4-93
4-14 Mean Density, Range, Total Number of Species per Study, and
Range of Species Encountered per Study in Sand Beach
Investigations in Northern New England 4-94
5-1 Major Estuarine Systems of Coastal
Maine and Their Sizes (acres) 5-2
5-2 Acreages of the Estuarine System and Its Component
Subsystems and Classes in each of the
Characterization Area, by region 5-13
5-3 Composition, Formation, and Primary Abiotic Forces
Affecting the Substrata of the Estuarine
System and Subsystems 5-15
5-4 Estimate of Net Annual Primary Production (kgC/y X10 )
by Region and Percentage Contribution to the Total
Productivity of Producers Found in the Estuarine System . . 5-74
5-5 Relative Abundance of Major Zooplankton Species
in the Sheepscot Estuary (Montsweag Bay)
from January, 1975, to December, 1976 5-83
5-6 Average Density of Estuarine Invertebrates in
Unconsolidated Sediments of Temperate and
Boreal Estuaries and Bays 5-87
xxxiii
10-80
5-7 The Most Common Invertebrates Collected from, or
Recorded on, Subtidal and Rock Bottoms in
the Sheepscot Estuary 5-89
5-8 Invertebrate Species Common to All Estuarine
Intertidal Areas of Coastal Maine 5-93
5-9 Invertebrates Common to Gravel and Cobble Beaches in
Maine Estuaries and Relative Scores of Abundance 5-97
5-10 Numbers of Individuals/m Collected on Intertidal
Flats in Upper Penobscot Bay (Region 4) 5-100
5-11 The Relative Abundance of Invertebrate Species Commonly
Taken in Samples of Maine's Sand Flats, as Determined
by Rank Score Analysis 5-103
5-12 The Relative Abundance of the Invertebrate Species
Commonly Taken in Samples of Maine's Mudflats as
Determined by Rank Score Analysis 5-106
5-13 Inundation Patterns as a Function of Height Above Mean
Low Water (MLW) in a New England Salt Marsh 5-112
5-14 The Relationship of Vertical Range of the Three Principal
Salt Marsh Emergents in the Franklin and Salisbury
Cove Salt Marsh Near Ellsworth, ME 5-113
5-15 Emergent Vegetation Associated with Salt
Marshes in Maine 5-116
5-16 Net Aerial Primary Productivity (NAPP) g/m^/yr of
Species in Salt Marshes at Different Locations 5-125
6-1 Area (acres) and Percentage Contribution (in parenthesis)
of Riverine Subsystems and Classes in coastal Maine
and for each Region 6-5
6-2 Length (miles) of Riverine Subsystems in the
Named Riverine Systems of Coastal Maine, by Region 6-6
6-3 Drainage Area (square miles) and Discharge (cu . ft. /sec)
of Gaged Maine Streams at Most Downstream Gage Stations . . 6-7
6-4 Feeding Habits and Major Fauna in Different
Habitat Classes 6-17
6-5 Common and Scientific Names and Biological Characteristics
of Some Typical Maine Stream Fishes 6-22
6-6 Fishes Known to Occur in Some Maine Stream Systems 5-27
xxxiv
7-1 Area in Acres and Percentage Contribution (in parentheses)
of the Lacustrine System, for Each Region 7-4
7-2 Physical Characteristics of Named Coastal Zone Lakes .... 7-5
7-3 Sizes (acres) and Maximum Depths (meters) of Lakes in
Coastal Maine and Percentage of Total (in parentheses) . . . 7-6
7-4 Chemical Characteristics of Coastal Maine
Lakes from 1938 to 1978, by Region 7-7
7-5 Comparison of Trophic Indicators for Shallow ( 18m)
versus Deep ( 18m) Coastal Maine Lakes with
Low Water Color 7-21
7-6 Fisheries of Coastal Maine Lakes 7-25
8-1 Systems for the Classification of Palustrine Areas 8-3
8-2 Area (acres) and Percentage Contribution of Palustrine
Classes in the Palustrine System for Each Region 8-7
8-3 Number of Units of Palustrine Classes, Percentage
Contribution and Average Size (acres) in Coastal Maine . . . 8-8
8-4 The Contrasting Characteristics of Bog and Marsh 8-12
8-5 Common Plants Characteristic of Palustrine
Systems in Coastal Maine 8-22
8-6 Net Plant Productivity in Paulustrine System 8-24
9-1 Amount of Forest Land (thousands of acres) in
Coastal Maine by Forest Sampling Unit 9-2
9-2 Major Forest Types and Local Subtypes Found
within the Coastal Zone of Maine 9-5
9-3 Amount of Commercial Forest Land (thousands of acres)
in Maine's Coastal Units (percentage contributions to the
total in parentheses) by Forest Type 9-5
9-4 Tolerance Levels of Major Tree Species of Coastal Maine . . 9-10
9-5 Percentage Contribution of Major Tree Species to the Number
of Trees and Volume (in board feet) of the Total in
Three Units in Coastal Maine 9-14
9-6 Total Biomass (above and below ground) of Some
Representative Forest Communities in Maine 9-15
9-7 The Percentage Contribution of Commercial, Noncommercial
and Shrub Species to the Biomass of Maine Forests 9-15
xxxv
10-80
9-8 Volume (millions cubic feet) and Biomass (t/ha) of
Merchantable Timber in Commercial Forests in the Capital,
Hancock, and Washington Sampling Units 9-17
9-9 Percentage of Forest Land in Each Sampling Unit
by Stand Size Class 9-18
9-10 Productivity of Forests in Three Units Sampled
Along the Maine Coast 9-19
9-11 Foods of Forest Insect Orders 9-22
9-12 Percentage Contribution of Nutrients from Several
Sources in a New Hampshire Deciduous Forest 9-29
10-1 Total Area (acres) , Agricultural Area (acres) and
Percentage Contribution of Farmland Types to the Total
for Each County and for All Counties Combined 10-2
10-2 Area (acres) of Crops in the Coastal Counties of Maine . . . 10-3
10-3 Market Value (thousands of dollars) of Farm Products
Produced in the Coastal Counties of Maine in 1974 10-4
10-4 Average Length of Growing Seasons (days) and Mean
Frost Dates for Five Locations in Coastal Maine 10-6
10-5 Amount (acres) and Percentage Composition
(parentheses) of Developed Land in Each Region of
the Maine Coastal Characterization Area 10-8
10-6 Percentage of Different Types of Developed
Land in Coastal Maine 10-9
11-1 The Major Fishes of Coastal Maine
and Their Primary Realms of Importance 11-3
11-2 The Fishes of Coastal Maine: Their Seasonality,
Relative Abundance, Habitat and System
Preferences, and Distribution 11-8
11-3 Spawning Characteristics of Fishes of Coastal Maine .... 11-17
11-4 The Relative Abundance (expressed as percentage composition)
of Larval Fishes Inhabiting the Marine Offshore Gulf
of Maine, Lower Sheepscot Estuary and Upper Sheepscot
Estuary (Montsweag Bay) 11-21
11-5 Feeding Habits and Major Food Items of
the Fishes of Coastal Maine 11-24
xxxv i
11-6 Human Activities That Potentially Influence
Fish Abundance and Distribution 11-30
11-7 Landing Statistics (pounds and dollar values)
for Maine Fisheries, 1879 to 1976 11-37
11-8 Landings (pounds) and Value (dollars) of
the Major Commercial Fish Species in Maine in 1977 11-39
11-9 Landings (Pounds X 1000) of Major
Commercial Fishes from 1880 to 1977 11-40
11-10 Major Sport Fishes of the Characterization Area 11-43
11-11 Major Roles of Agencies Involved in Fishery Management . . . 11-47
13-1 The Habitats and Estimated Abundance
of the Cetaceans of Maine 13-3
13-2 The Habitats and Estimated Abundance
of Pinnipeds of Maine 13-5
13-3 Summary of Recorded Random Sightings of Marine
Mammals in the Six Regions of the Characterization Area . . 13-7
13-4 Distribution of Seal Haulout Sites Among
the Regions of the Characterization Area 13-10
13-5 Reproductive Characteristics of Marine
Mammals of Coastal Maine 13-12
13-6 Principal Food Items (expressed as percentages
in parenthesis) of Marine Mammals in Maine Waters 13-13
13-7 Organochlorine Residues (in ppm wet tissue) in
Blubber Tissues of Marine Mammals from the
Characterization Area and Some Surrounding Areas 13-18
13-8 Mercury Residues (in ppm wet tissue) in Liver
Tissue of Marine Mammals from the
Characterization Area and Other Areas 13-20
13-9 Reported Incidental Catch and Strandings of
Cetaceans in Maine Waters Since 1975 13-22
14-1 Common Seabirds of Coastal Maine. (Species breeding in
Coastal Maine are indicated by an asterisk.) 14-4
14-2 Common Shorebirds of Coastal Maine 14-5
14-3 Common Wading Birds of Coastal Maine 14-6
xxxvii
10-80
14-4 Seabirds Rare in Coastal Maine 14-7
14-5 Seasonal Occurrence and Relative Abundance of Seabirds
Regularly Occurring in Various Habitats in the
Characterization Area 14-8
14-6 Estimated Numbers (percentage contribution to the total
in parentheses) of Nesting Pairs of Seabirds (breeding
summer residents) in Each Region of the Characterization
Area in 1977 14-12
14-7 Percentage of Total Nesting Pairs of Seabirds Breeding
on 126 Major Islands in Coastal Maine During 1977 14-14
14-8 Feeding Habits of Seabirds Regularly Occurring
in the Characterization Area 14-19
14-9 Food Types of Seabirds Regularly Occurring
in the Characterization Area 14-22
14-10 Resident Status and Relative Abundance of the
Shorebirds of Coastal Maine 14-25
14-11 Major Feeding Areas of Shorebirds of Coastal Maine 14-26
14-12 Roosting Habitat Types of the Shorebirds of Coastal Maine . 14-27
14-13 Major Fall Migration Periods of the
Shorebirds of Coastal Maine 14-33
14-14 Resident Status and Relative Abundance of Wading
Birds in Coastal Maine for Regions 1 to 3 , and 4 to 6 ... 14-36
14-15 Estimated Number of Pairs of Wading Birds (number of
colonies in parenthesis) Breeding in Each Region
of the Characterization Area in 1977 14-38
14-16 Preferred Feeding Habitats of Wading
Birds in Coastal Maine 14-39
14-17 Preferred Food of Wading Birds of Coastal Maine 14-40
15-1 Resident Waterfowl Species in the Characterization Area . . 15-2
15-2 Breeding Waterfowl Species in the Characterization Area . . 15-3
15-3 Wintering Waterfowl Species in the Characterization Area . . 15-4
15-4 Migrant Waterfowl Species in the Characterization Area . . . 15-5
xxxviii
15-5 Estimated Number of Major Waterfowl Species in. the
Waterfowl Inventory Units of Coastal Maine in
the Winters from 1975 to 1979 15-15
15-6 The Percentage Composition of Breeding Waterfowl
Species, Based on Brood Counts, in Each Wildlife
Management Unit (6 to 8), for the Units Combined,
and Their Percentage Contribution to State Totals
as Compiled from Maine Department of Inland Fisheries
and Wildlife data from 1956 to 1965 and 1966 to 197 6 ... 15-25
15-7 Average Number of Broods of Ducks Per Acre Per Year
in Different Wetland Types for Each Wildlife Management
Unit (6 to 8) from 1956 to 1965 and 1966 to 1976 15-26
15-8 Acres and Numbers (in parentheses) of Different Wetland
Types for Wildlife Management Units 6 to 8 and
Contribution to the State Total (adapted from Maine
Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife
Wetland Inventory Files) 15-27
15-9 Comparison of the National Wetlands Inventory
Classification and Circular 39 Wetland Types Used
in the Maine State Wetland Inventory 15-29
15-10 Average Annual Number of Pond and Diving Ducks
Killed by Hunters in the Coastal Counties
of Maine from 1966 to 1975 15-41
16-1 Relative Abundance and Habitat Preferences
of Terrestrial Birds Found in Coastal Maine
Only During the Breeding Season 16-3
16-2 Relative Abundance and Habitat Preferences
of Terrestrial Birds Found in Coastal Maine Year Round . . . 16-7
16-3 Relative Abundance and Habitat Preferences
of Terrestrial Birds Found in Coastal Maine
Only During the Winter Months 16-9
16-4 Relative Abundance and Habitat Preferences
of Terrestrial Birds Found in Coastal Maine
During Spring and/or Fall Migration 16-10
16-5 Common Edge Species of Birds in the Characterization Area . 16-14
16-6 Average Number of Birds (in order of abundance)
Counted per Route for Each Forest Type in the Breeding
Survey for the Region of Coastal Maine in 1977 16-21
16-7 Indices of Relative Abundance for Birds
in Maine determined from the 1971-77 Breeding
Bird Surveys, (the 1976 Index was set at 100) 16-22
xxxix
10-80
16-8 Bird Species That Require Artificial Feeding for
Successful Overwintering in Coastal Maine 16-24
16-9 Index of Relative Abundance for Birds Counted
During Annual Christmas Bird Counts in the
Characterization Area from 1969 to 1977;
Indexes based on 1976 Index of 100 16-26
16-10 Historical (pre-1960) Breeding Sites of the Bald
Eagle in the Characterization Area 16-34
16-11 Bald Eagle Nesting and Fledging Recruitment in the
Characterization Area in 1962 to 1970 and 1972 to 1979 . . . 16-37
16-12 Regional Variation in Bald Eagle Nesting and Fledging
Recruitment in Maine between 1977 and 197 9 16-39
16-13 Number of Wintering Bald Eagles Counted and Percentage
Mature in Maine During Mid-January 1977, 1978, and 1979 . . 16-40
16-14 Contaminant Residue Concentrations (ppm wet weight, mean
and range) in Unhatched Bald Eagles Eggs, by Location
and Nesting Success in Maine between 1967 and 1979 16-46
17-1 Mammals Known to Occur Within the Characterization
Area, Listed by Order 17-2
17-2 Amounts (square miles, except shoreline) of Major
Habitat Types in Wildlife Management Units 6, 7, and 8,
Which Encompass the Characterization Area 17-3
17-3 Regional Distribution of Species of Mammals Not
Found in All Regions of the Characterization Area 17-4
17-4 Available Habitat, Species Densities, and Total Population
Estimates for Selected Species of Game and Furbearing
Mammals in Wildlife Management Units 6, 7, and 8 17-18
17-5 Average Annual Legal Harvest of White-tailed Deer
(1959 to 1977) and Black Bear (1969 to 1977) for
Each of the Six Regions in the Characterization Area .... 17-25
17-6 Annual Harvest (Number of Pelts Tagged) and Average
Price per Pelt (1976 to 1977 average) of 7 Species of
Furbearers in Coastal Maine 17-26
17-7 Number of Deer Killed by Causes Other than Legal
Hunting in Maine, 1969 to 1977 17-27
17-8 Number of Moose Killed by Causes Other than Legal
Hunting in Maine, 1969 to 1977 17-27
xl
17-9 Average Number of Man-days of Hunting Expended on
7 Species of Game Mammals in Wildlife Management
Units 6, 7, and 8 During 1971 to 1972 through 1976 to 1977 . 17-29
17-10 Average Number of Man-days (in parenthesis) of Trapping
for 11 Species of Furbearing Mammals for Wildlife
Management Units 6, 7, and 8 During the Period
1973-1974 through 1976-1977 17-30
17-11 Incidence of Rabies in Coastal Counties, Listed West
to East, of Maine from 1971 through 1977 17-32
17-12 Incidence of Rabies in Wild and Domestic Mammals
in Maine from 1971 through 1978 17-33
18-1 Habitats and Distribution of Herptiles in Coastal Maine . . 18-2
18-2 Herptile Breeding Seasons and Habitats 18-5
19-1 Common Commercial Tree Species
of the Characterization Area 19-2
19-2 Forest Types of the Characterization Area 19-5
19-3 Area (acres x 1000) of Commercial
Forest Types of the Characterization Area 19-6
19-4 Selected Silvical Characteristics of Important
Commercial Tree Species of the Characterization Area .... 19-9
19-5 Cubic-foot Yield/acre of Fully Stocked, Even-aged
Stands of Second-growth Red Spruce in the
Northeast by Stand kze, Site, and Stand Type 19-13
19-6 Yields, by Stand Age and Site Index, for Stands of
New England White Pine at the Upper Level of
Stocking, in Board Feet/acre and in Cubic Feet/acre .... 19-21
19-7 Approximate Weight, Mositure Content, and Available
Heat Units of Selected Woods, Green and Air -dry 19-23
19-8 Average Stumpage Price by Species for Sawtimber
and Pulpwood, March 197 9 19-24
20-1 The Scientific and Common Names, Habitat, and Status
of Endangered and Threatened Herbaceous Plant Species in
Coastal Maine, Listed by the Smithsonian Institution .... 20-2
20-2 Rare Plant Species of Coastal Maine 20-3
xli
10-80
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This report Is the result of a cooperative effort on the part of many individuals. Their names and contributions
are listed below.
The Organization of the Characterization
The Coastal 4aine Ecosystem
Human Impacts on the Ecosystem
The Marine System
The Estuarine System
The Riverine System
The Lacustrine System
The Palustri>ie System
The Forest System
Agricultural and Developed Land
Fishes
Commercially Important Invertebrates
Marine Mammals
Waterbirds
Waterfowl
Terrestrial 3irds
Stewart Fefer
Patricia Schettig
Stewart Fefer
Edward Shenton
Barry Timson
Dave Strimait is
Stewart Fefer
Norman Famous
Lawrence Thornton
Dr. Peter Larsen
Richard Lee
Dr. Peter Larsen
Lee Doggett
Dr. Chris Garside
Dr. Jerry Topinka
Dr. Tim Hague
Charles Yentsch
Toby Garfield
Dr. Ray Gerber
Dr. Peter Larsen
Lee Doggett
Dr. Chris Garside
Dr. Jerry Topinka
Dr. Tim Mague
Toby Garfield
Dr. Ray Gerber
Stewart Fefer
Patricia Schettig
Lawrence Thornton
Russell McCul lough
Stewart Fefer
Dr. Ronald Davis
Stewart Fefer
Meryl Freeman
Stewart Fefer
Dr. Craig Ferris
Dr. Craig Ferris
Patricia Schettig
Stanley Chenoweth
Beth Surgens
Lee Doggett
Susan Sykes
Patricia Schettig
Cheryl Klink
Norman Famous
Dr. Craig Ferris
Howard Spencer, Jr.
Dr. Kenneth Reinecke
John Parsons
Norman Famous
Charles Todd
Dr. Craig Ferris
Fish and Wildlife Service
Fish and Wildlife Service
New England Coastal Oceanographic Crcup
Mahoosuc Corporation
Environmental Research and Technology
University of Maine at Orono
N.J. Department of Environmental Protect ion
Bigelow Laboratories for the Ocean Sciences
Bigelow Laboratories for the Ocean Sciences
Bigelow Laboratories for the Ocean Sciences
Bigelow Laboratories for the Ocean Sciences
Bigelow Laboratories for the Ocean Sciences
Bigelow Laboratories for the Ocean Sciences
Bigelow Laboratories for the Ocean Sciences
Bigelow Laboratories for the Ocean Sciences
Bowdoin College
Maine Cooperative Fishery Unit, Orono
University of Maine at Orono
University of Maine at Orono
University of Maine at Orono
Maine Department of Marine Resources
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Bigelow Laboratories for the Ocean Sciences
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
University of Maine at Orono
xlii
10-80
Terrestrial Mammals
Reptiles and Amphibians
Commercially Important Forest Types
Endangered, Threatened, and Rare Plants
Atlas Introduction
Technical Guidance and Conceptual
Framework
Editor
Technical Editing
Artwork and Layout
Data Collection and Analysis
Word Processing
Data Source Appendix
Cartography
Production Manager
Dr. Craig Ferris
Dr. Craig Ferris
Sally Rooney
Dr. David Canavera
Norman Famous
Dr. Craig Ferris
Beth Surgen
Dean Johnson
Curt Laffin
Dr . James Johnston
Eileen Dunne
John Parsons
Kenneth Adams
Norman Benson
Carroll Cordes
Carolyn French
Wiley Kitchens
Martha Young
Eleanor Bradshaw
Nancy Perry
Lynn Bjorklund
Beth Surgens
Cheryl Klink
Renata Cirri
Peter Moberg
Terry McGovern
Porter Turnbull
Jean Garside
Veronica Berounsky
Linda Cummings
Renata Cirri
Ruth Walsh
Peg Colby
Teve MacFarland
Doris Dombrowsky
Dot Dimetriff
Joyce Aiello
Linda Cummings
Elaine McLaughlin
Dean Johnson
Beth Surgens
Eleanor Bradshaw
Lynn Bjorklund
Nancy Perry
Liam O'Brien
Carl Melberg
Mike Fantasia
Steve Gale
Renata Cirri
University of Maine at Orono
University of Maine at Orono
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Consultant
u.
s.
Fish
and
Wildlife
Service
u.
s.
Fish
and
Wildlife
Service
u.
s.
Fish
and
Wildlife
Service
u.
s.
Fish
and
Wildlife
Service
u,
,s.
Fish
and
Wildlife
Service
u.
,s.
Fish
and
Wildlife
Service
u,
,s.
Fish
and
Wildlife
Service
u
,s.
Fish
and
Wildlife
Service
u
.s.
Fish
and
Wildlife
Service
University of Maine at Orono
University of Maine at Orono
University of Maine at Orono
University of Maine at Orono
Bigelow Laboratories for the Ocean Sciences
Bigelow Laboratories for the Ocean Sciences
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Consultant
Bigelow Laboratories for the Ocean Sciences
Bigelow Laboratories for the Ocean Sciences
Bigelow Laboratories for the Ocean Sciences
Bigelow Laboratories for the Ocean Sciences
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Consultant
xliii
Chapter 1
Organization of the
Characterization
Authors: Stewart Fefer, Patricia Shettig
The purpose of an ecological characterization is to outline and describe the
major ecological elements and processes in a specific area. This characteri-
zation describes the approximately 4000-mile area of the Maine coast north and
east of Cape Elizabeth (figure 1-1). It attempts to clarify the current state
of knowledge of this ecosystem by synthesizing and integrating existing
biological, physical, and socioeconomic information. It provides information
on the natural resources of coastal Maine in an ecological framework designed
to guide resource management and coastal planning and to aid in the evaluation
of human impacts on the ecosystem.
An ecosystem is the sum of interactions between living organisms and their
environment. Organisms are influenced by each other as well as by the physi-
cal elements and processes surrounding them. People are an important part of
any ecosystem. We influence and are influenced by other elements and
processes in our environment. In order to manage and maintain natural
resources effectively, and to guide development generated by social and
economic demands, we must better understand how ecosystems function.
The Maine coast is a mosaic of solid bedrock and unconsolidated glacial depo-
sits overlain with recent sedimentary deposits and soil. It exhibits a large
variety of habitats, including intertidal flats, rocky shores, estuaries,
islands, rivers, streams, lakes, marshes, bogs, forests, and agricultural and
developed lands. These habitats support diverse communities of fish, wildlife
and plants. This ecosystem was selected for study because of its biological
diversity and its proximity to proposed energy development activities (oil and
gas production and refining and tidal power, hydropower, coal-fired power, and
nuclear power generation) that may affect its ecology.
The coast of Maine is described here from three perspectives: (1) the
ecosystem, the Maine coast as a whole; (2) the systems (marine, estuarine,
riverine, lacustrine, palustrine, forest, and agricultural and developed
land); and (3) the species that inhabit these systems (e.g., waterfowl,
1-1
10-80
fishes, and terrestrial mammals; figure 1-2). The major processes (e.g.,
energy flow and biogeochemical cycling) are discussed at each level: the four
levels are outlined below. For organizational purposes six regions were
delineated along the coast (figure 1-1). These regions are not necessarily
physiographically distinct but are subject to similar environmental forces,
such as geologic, hydrologic, and climatic.
THE ECOSYSTEM
Several major forcing functions operate throughout the ecosystem, including
climate, geology, hydrology, and the socioeconomy . The influences of these
factors are greatly interrelated. Climatic and geological events influence
the topography, soils, sediments, and hydrology of the entire coast. Changes
in substrata and hydrology affect vegetation, which in turn affects the fauna.
Socioeconomic activities both influence and are influenced by the physiography
of the ecosystem. Human activities can change in a short time what natural
processes have created over centuries. Chapter 2 describes the geography of
the Maine coast and examines the influences of these forcing functions on the
ecosystem. Chapter 3 discusses human impacts on the ecosystem.
THE SYSTEM
A system is a particular type of habitat that is influenced by a unique set of
hydrologicai , geomorphological , chemical, and biological factors. The clas-
sification of the Maine coast by system, subsystem, and class is based on the
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's (FWS) Classification of Wetlands and
Deepwater Habitats of the United States (Cowardin et al. 1979) and Maine State
Planning Office's Classification System For Land Cover in Maine (figure 1-3).
The systems are reviewed individually in chapters 4 through 10 and each is
described in terms of characteristic components, functions, and interactions.
To illustrate the functions of and interactions between systems, four major
aspects of the ecosystem will be examined:
1 . energy flow
2. biogeochemical cycles
3. biota
4. abiota
These do not function exclusively but overlap and complement each other. They
are outlined briefly below and illustrated in figure 1-4.
Energy flow
Ecosystems require energy to support life, and the ultimate source of energy
for all natural ecosystems is the sun. Through a process known as
photosynthesis, green plants capture solar energy and use it to transform car-
bon dioxide and nutrients into utilizable forms (carbohydrates). External
forces affecting this transfer of solar energy include hydrologicai factors
(currents, tides, and freshwater flows), climatic factors (wind, insolation,
and ice formation), geological factors (soil type and composition), and chemi-
cal factors (ionorganic and organic nutrients). Human activities (pollution,
habitat modification, and natural resource utilization) also affect energy
transfer.
1-2
1-3
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Figure 1-4. The conceptual framework of the characterization.
1-6
The process by which plants utilize and store solar energy in the form of or-
ganic substances is called "primary production." The rate at which primary
production takes place is called "primary productivity" (Odum 1971). The
total amount of organic matter created is called "gross primary production."
Roughly 20% to 50% of the captured energy is lost in plant respiration, yield-
ing a net primary production of roughly one-half the gross primary production.
This net production results in the creation of plant materials that eventually
may be consumed by animals (herbivores and detritivores) .
Energy is passed from producers to consumer organisms of different trophic
(feeding) levels through food webs. At the base of the food web are the pri-
mary producers: phytoplankton, benthic microalgae, and macrophytes (marsh
grasses, terrestrial plants, and macroalgae) .
Plant eaters, or herbivores, occupy the next position in the food web, the
primary consumer level. Carnivores, which eat the herbivores, form the secon-
dary consumer level; and other carnivores that feed on the secondary consumers
occupy the tertiary consumer level. Additional levels of consumers may exist,
as well as an intermediate level of omnivores that feed on more than one level
of the food web.
The following rules apply to energy transfer between trophic levels:
1. Within each level in the trophic structure, energy is used for main-
tenance and growth. It is stored in the form of carbohydrates, fats,
and proteins and eventually passes to the decomposers through excre-
tion and death.
2. Between one trophic level and the next, considerable loss (roughly
90%) of energy takes place. It is lost through consumption by organ-
isms in breathing, feeding, and reproducing, and in activities such as
migration, defense, burrowing, nest building, and courtship.
Decomposers (bacteria, fungi, insects, and invertebrates) return inorganic
substances to the pool of available nutrients by oxidizing dead organic
matter. Waste products from the ecosystem (dead animals and plants, detritus,
and feces) are colonized by a succession of decomposers. Decomposers break
down organic material metabolically and return valuable materials to the soil
or water column. Nutrients are then recycled by primary producers to form or-
ganic compounds via photosynthesis.
The flow of energy through the food web representive of a marine system in
eastern coastal Maine is illustrated in figure 1-5. The solid lines show the
direction in which energy flows. The sun (1), particularly during the summer
months, provides energy for the blooming of the phytoplankton. Phytoplankton
are the food of zooplankton (2), and both are the food of numerous species of
intertidal (3) and subtidal (4) animals, krill (e.g., euphausiids, mysid
shrimp; 5), and smaller fishes (6). Medium-sized fishes (7) feed on
euphausiids, mysid shrimp and smaller fishes, and all of these are food for
the Targer species, such as tuna and shark (8), whales, porpoises, seals (9),
people (10), and birds (11). When the larger animals die their bodies are ab-
sorbed rapidly into the system by scavenging starfish, urchins, sea fleas,
herring gulls, and other creatures. During life, all of the animals return
vital materials to the sea in feces. The nutrients (12) contained in feces
1-7
10-80
are vital to the growth of phytoplankton, macroalgae, and emergent wetland
plants, which are the basis of the food web of the coastal Maine ecosystem.
Energy flow through a system has been described by H. T. Odum (1966) using a
circuit language (energese) that he developed. Energy flow modeling by cir-
cuit language clarifies relationships among the climatic, biological,
hydrological, geological, and socioeconomical components of a system.
The flow of energy through a generalized ecological system is illustrated in
figure 1-6. The symbols employed are explained in figure 1-7. Photosynthesis
by producer organisms is controlled by certain forcing functions (e.g.,
sunlight) and the availability of stored compounds (i.e., nutrients).
Producers provide energy to consumers either directly, through herbivory, or
indirectly, through the feeding of some consumers on partially decomposed
plant material (detritus). These consumers, in turn, are preyed upon by
higher level consumers. Some energy is recovered through excretion and death.
Energy is lost at each transfer to heat (respiration).
In order to compare the relationships in a generalized ecosystem to those in a
natural community, the energy flow in an eelgrass community is examined brie-
fly below. The forcing functions that drive photosynthesis in eelgrass beds
are sunlight, currents, and salinity. Required nutrients are derived from the
water column or sediments. The eelgrass is consumed directly by herbivores
(e.g., snails and brant). Plant parts and dead eelgrass decompose through mi-
crobial action and are consumed by detritivores (e.g., clams). Secondary
consumers, such as fish and black ducks, feed on those primary consumers.
Nutrients are returned through excretion and death via the detrital-microbial
complex. When a system is impacted by functional change or by the addition or
elimination of a component, the effects on its energy flow are many and
complex. In the estuarine system, for example, if the characteristics of the
tides (height, frequency, and duration) are changed (tidal dams), then the
habitats that require the previous tidal regime (e.g., salt marshes, mud
flats, sand flats, eelgrass, and rocky shores) will change and the food webs
associated with those habitats will change.
Biogeochemical Cycling
As energy flow represents the transfer of energy along food chains, bio-
geochemical cycles illustrate the mode and direction of the transfer of
materials through systems. Biogeochemical cycles are closed and represent
continuous movement of materials (e.g., carbon, oxygen, water, and nutrients)
among the living and nonliving parts of the ecosystem. Many of these elements
are essential to living processes and structures.
Meteorological, geological, biological, and oceanographical forces or vectors
drive biogeochemical cycles. Wind, rain, snow, ice, fog, and gasses bearing
dissolved and particulate matter are meteorological vectors. Gravity (e.g.,
streamflow) is a geological vector. Tides and currents and changes in density
due to temperature and salinity distributions are oceanographic vectors.
Biota are biological vectors.
1-8
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Source
The circular symbol represents a source of energy such as the sun, fossil
fuel, or the water from a reservoir. Circular symbols can also represent
forcing functions such as tides, geologic events, and climatology.
Primary The bullet-shaped symbol represents the reception of pure wave energy
Producer such as sound, light, and water waves. In this module, energy interacts
with some cycling material producing an energy-activated state, which
then returns to its deactivated state,passing energy on to the next step
in a chain of processes. Green plants, which capture the sun's energy
to build carbohydrates from the earth's elements, are an example.
Storage The passive storage symbol shows location in a system for passive
Compartment storage, such as moving potatoes into a grocery store or fuel into a tank.
No new potential energy is generated, and some work must be done in
the process of moving the potential energy in and out of the storage by
some other unit.
Consumer The hexagonal symbol represents the combination of storage compart-
ment and work gate by which potential energy stored in one or more
sites in a subsystem is fed back to do work on the successful processing
and work of that unit. Autotrophic animals or consumers are repre-
sented by this symbol.
■J2
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Microbial
Complex
Work
Gate
This symbol is a combination of a storage compartment and a consumer
compartment. The storage compartment refers to detrital particles,
dead pieces of organic material which contain stored energy. The
microbial decomposers colonize on the detrital particles and consume
the stored energy within the particles for their own growth and main-
tenance.
The work gate module at which a flow of energy (J 2) makes possible
another flow of energy Uj). This action may be as simple as a person
turning a valve, or it may be the interaction of limiting fertilizer in
photosynthesis.
rigure 1-7. An explanation of the symbols used in the energy flow model
(figure 1-6) .
(continued)
1-11
10-80
Figure 1-7 (continued)
J3
J;<^> Jo
Two-way
Work
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This symbol represents a two-way module in which the flow of energy
U2) may proceed in either direction U7 or^) depending upon another
function.
Sequential
-±2X>~ Work
Gate
Heat
Sink
This multiple work gate implies that a variety of energy flow inputs are
required for a certain resultant transformation of energy flow to take
place.
A heat sink is required according to the second law of thermodynamics
for all processes that are real and spontaneous. All processes deliver
some potential energy into heat. Heat is the random wandering of
molecules that have kinetic energy, and it is this wandering from a less
probable to a more probable state that pulls and drives real processes
connected to such flews.
J
Economic Economic activity requires a transfer of energy for dollars through a
Activity transaction. Economic activity may be thought of as an artificial
forcing function imposed by man on a natural system.
h
Migratory A migratory switch requires the expenditure of energy for both export
Switch and import of energy to the system in the form of migrating animals.
Various switches are involved in triggering migrations such as temperature
and insolation.
1-12
Some nutrients limit growth and reproduction. In estuarine and marine
systems, nitrogen availability is of critical importance (see chapters 4 and
5, "The Marine System" and "The Estuarine System"). In palustrine,
lacustrine, and riverine systems, phosphorus is a limiting element. The most
important biogeochemicals , nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) and organic
matter, are discussed in the systems chapters (4 through 10).
People affect the distribution and content of materials in systems through in-
puts of water pollutants (industrial and municiapl wastes, domestic animal
manure, agricultural fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, heavy metals, and
oil), atmospheric pollutants (SO2 and NO2, which cause acid rains), habitat
alteration (e.g., construction of causeways in estuarine areas, which alters
tidal flow, flushing rates, and, therefore, concentrations of nutrients), and
by extracting or harvesting nutrients and other components (water, peat, fish,
and birds) of the system. These impacts are discussed in chapter 3, "Human
Impacts on the Ecosystem."
Biota
The biotic (living) component of an ecosystem is composed of a diverse group
of organisms that live in a variety of physical habitats. The biotic commu-
nity has three basic components: producers, consumers, and decomposers.
Producers are autotrophic organisms that manufacture food from inorganic sub-
stances using energy from the sun. All green plants are producers. In the
Gulf of Maine, phytoplankton are the major producers, while in nearshore
marine waters and in estuarine systems macroalgae and intertidal emergent
plants are also important. Nonpersistent rooted aquatic submergents (e.g.,
pond weeds), emergents (e.g., pickerel weed), and phytoplankton are important
producers in the lacustrine and riverine systems. Producers in the palustrine
system in coastal Maine include persistent nonvascular (e.g., mosses and
liverworts) and vascular plants (emergent herbs, shrubs, and trees). In the
terrestrial system vascular plants dominate.
Generally, three consumer levels are present in any system. In coastal Maine,
primary consumers in aquatic environments are represented by the herbivorous
zooplankton, benthos, birds, and fish, and in terrestrial systems by insects,
certain mammals (e.g., hares and hoofed mammals) and birds (e.g., geese and
finches). Secondary consumers (or carnivores) in Maine include certain
waterfowl, other birds, mammals, fish, and predaceous insects. Tertiary con-
sumers are carnivores that feed upon primary and secondary consumers. Large
predatory birds (bald eagles and osprey) , mammals (bobcats, harbor seals, and
people), and fish (Atlantic cod and Atlantic salmon), are examples of tertiary
level consumers in coastal Maine. Tertiary consumers usually have relatively
less biomass available to them as prey, exhibit greater mobility, have larger
home ranges, and require a greater diversity of habitat than primary or secon-
dary consumers.
Variations in these feeding habits also exist. Omnivores consume both plant
and animal material. Scavengers eat dead organic matter, for example, carrion
and refuse.
In the Maine coast ecosystem, the decomposers are fungi, heterotrophic
bacteria, and certain insects and other invertebrates. Decomposers process
1-13
10-80
plant and animal tissue, releasing compounds for reuse by plants, and convert
and store pollutants. Insects and certain aquatic invertebrates process
detritus and are themselves utilized as food in the system.
People affect the biota directly through activities that (1) alter the habitat
in which a species lives thereby impacting its population; (2) impact food
webs (through input into the ecosystem of heavy metals, biocides, and oil),
energy flows (e.g., siltation and obstruction of water flow), and biogeochemi-
cal cycles (nutrient depletion and eutrophication) ; and (3) result in the har-
vest of certain species (commercial fishing and shellfish harvest, sport
fishing, hunting, trapping, and timber harvesting).
The composition, distribution, and functional requirements of biota are
discussed by system in this characterization and detailed information can be
found in the chapters on the various systems (chapters 4 through 10). In
addition, chapters 11 through 20 present information on commercially and
ecologically important groups of species. Common names of species are used in
the text except where more than one or no common name exists. Taxonomic names
of most plants and invertebrates are given in the text to avoid ambiguity.
The taxonomic names of all species mentioned in the text are listed in the
appendix.
Abiota
The ecosystem of the Maine coast is dominated by its physical components, for
example, geology, climate, and hydrology. The geological and hydrological
forces form the physical structure to which the biotic components must adapt.
Geology and hydrology interact to determine the distribution and chemistry of
surface and ground waters (figure 1-8). Water circulates from the oceans to
the atmosphere and back to the oceans, either directly or via terrestrial
and/or aquatic systems, and transports life-supporting elements that are
released from rocks and soils by weathering.
Climate interfaces with both geology and hydrology and is a dominant forcing
function in Maine. The climatic factors of precipitation, temperature,
insolation, fog, storms, wind, humidity, and ice all affect the abundance and
distribution of biota.
People place stress on the abiotic aspects of the ecosystem through socioec-
onomic activities. The characteristic features of these forcing functions in
coastal Maine are detailed in chapter 2, "The Maine Coast Ecosystem."
THE SPECIES POPULATIONS
Major groups of species on the Maine coast are listed in figure 1-9. Species
populations, including those of commercially and ecologically important
species, and their interrelationships are discussed in chapters 11 through 20.
The seasonal status and distribution of groups of species, uses of habitat,
various life stages, reproduction, feeding habits, importance to humanity,
factors of abundance (natural and artificial), and management are examined.
Detailed studies of important species are included.
1-14
Evaporation
Figure 1-8. The hydrological cycle (adapted from Caswell 1977)
ORGANIZATION OF INFORMATION
Appendices to each chapter are grouped together in volume 4. A cross-
referenced list of information sources pertinent to the Maine coast, including
those used in this characterization, is contained in volume 5. An atlas, con-
taining maps of each region at a scale of 1:24,000, also accompanies the
characterization (volume 5). These maps are based on the most recent U.S.
Geological Survey orthophotoquads . Four classes of information are included
on the maps:
1. National Wetlands Inventory Data.
2. Land Cover Types (vegetative cover).
3. Geological, Physical, and Land Use Features.
Significant geologic features, surveyed peat bogs, marine geology,
mines and mineral prospects, quarries, watersheds, conservation lands,
point pollution sources, and natural landmarks.
4. Fish and Wildlife
Shellfish, marine worms, eagle nesting territories, osprey nesting
sites, important seal haulout sites, important seabird nesting areas,
wading bird nesting areas, important shorebird roosting areas, ana-
dromous and catadromous fish runs, historical herring weirs, deer win-
tering areas, wetlands and tidal flats important to waterfowl, exist-
ing dam sites, fishway locations, State designated critical areas,
rare plant locations and locations of coastal plateau bogs.
1-15
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REFERENCES
Caswell, W. B. 1977. Ground Water Guidebook for the State of Maine: Open
File Report. Maine Geological Survey, Augusta, Maine.
Clark, J. R. 1977. Coastal Ecosystem Management. A Technical Manual for the
Conservation of Coastal Zone Resources. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Cowardin, L. M. , V. Carter, F. C. Golet, and E. T. LaRoe. 1979.
Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats of the United States.
U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. , Biol. Serv. Prog., FWS/OBS-79/31 .
Likens, G. E., F. H. Bormann, J. S. Eaton, and N. M. Johnson. 1977.
Biogeochemistry of a Forested Ecosystem. Springer-Verlag, New York.
Maine State Planning Office. 1974. Standard Classification System for Land
Cover in Maine. Augusta, ME.
Marine Research Associates, Ltd. (A. T. MacKay, R. Bogien, and B. Well.)
1978. Bay of Fundy Resource Inventory: Lord's Cove, Deer Island, New
Brunswick, Canada. New Brunswick Department of Fisheries, Moncton, New
Brunswick, Canada.
Odum, E.P. 1971. Fundamentals of Ecology, 3rd ed. W. B. Saunders Co.,
Philadelphia, PA.
Odum, H.T. 1966. Primary production in flowing waters. Limnol. Oceanogr.
1:102-117.
Shelford, V. E. 1963. The Ecology of North America. University of Illinois
Press, Urbana, IL.
1-17
10-80
Chapter 2
The Coastal Maine
Ecosystem
Authors: Stewart Fefer, Edward Shenton, Barry Timson, Dave Strimaitis
The 300-foot (91.4 m) isobath in the Gulf of Maine and the inland limits of
the townships that enclose tidal waters are the boundaries of the
characterization area (T8SD, T9SD, T10SD, and Marion townships do not enclose
tidal waters but are included in the characterization area because they are
in close proximity to saline waters and are influenced by coastal processes).
The characterization area will be referred to also as the coast of Maine,
coastal Maine, and the coastal zone. The offshore and inland boundaries are
separated by distances ranging from 20 miles (32 km) to 90 miles (144 km) and
encompass an area of about 3740 sq mi (9686 km ), excluding nearshore subtidal
marine waters.
GEOGRAPHY
A diverse mixture of wetlands, uplands, and open wate
characterized by extensive areas of rocky shores, mudflat
ericaceous bogs, and coniferous forests. Approximat
(729,455 ha) of the coast is upland habitat and 563,766 a
wetlands. Palustrine wetlands comprise the largest area
systems (189,702 acres; 76,819 ha; 34%), followed by
acres; 68,953 ha; 30%) and estuarine systems (130,
Lacustrine wetlands systems comprise 57,537 acres (10%),
16,137 acres (6533 ha; 3%; table 2-1).
r, the Maine coast is
s, large embayments,
ely 1.8 million acres
cres (228,262 ha) are
of any of the aquatic
the marine (170,313
076; 52,662 ha; 23%).
and riverine systems
The terrestrial habitat is dominated by forests (85% of the land area) and
includes 9% developed land and 4% agricultural land. The types and acreages
of wetland systems and classes in each of the regions and towns in the
characterization area are listed in appendix A. Maps of the habitats of each
region are included in the atlas. The six regions of the characterization
area are described briefly below.
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Region 1
This region is the westernmost region in the characterization area. It
consists of approximately 250 miles (300 km) of shoreline (Casco Bay) and
167,330 acres (66,932 ha) of upland and fresh water. It has less freshwater
wetland than any of the other regions (table 2-1). The abundance and quality
of the intertidal habitat make the marine and estuarine environment of this
region important. The presence of many large shallow bays with intertidal
flats, mussel reefs, and eelgrass beds provide large acreages of many
habitats. Similarly, the occurrence of many nearshore islands (approximately
400) provide additional intertidal areas, as well as island habitats for
nesting waterbirds and rocky ledges for seals.
Forests in region 1 are dominated by white pine, pitch pine, oak, and other
hardwoods. Its terrestrial habitat includes a larger proportion of developed
land than other regions. This region is the most densely populated in the
characterization area. Portland is the largest port in Maine and has the
largest fish landings. The major oil shipping terminal in Maine is also in
Portland.
Region 1 includes nine coastal towns in Cumberland County (see figure 2-1 and
appendix B) .
Region 2
Region 2 contains approximately 650 miles (1040 km) of shoreline and 319,100
acres (127,640 ha) of upland and fresh water. It has a greater proportion of
estuarine and riverine tidal wetland than any other region (table 2-1). It
includes the estuaries of three major rivers, the Kennebec, Androscoggin, and
Sheepscot. This region contains what is in some ways the most unique
shoreline on Maine's diverse coast. The rolling, hilly terrain and drowned
river mouths produce a deeply indented, steep-sided, fjord-like coast. The
southward projecting fingers of land are often cut off from the mainland by
narrow guts and/or channels. Some areas are shallow, with extensive mud
flats, others are steep-sided, with navigable water at low tide. This region
also includes the greatest acreage of estuarine emergent wetland and the
greatest acreage of sand beaches among the regions. Region 2 encompasses
Merrymeeting Bay, a large freshwater tidal bay formed by the confluence of the
Kennebec, Androscoggin, Eastern, Cathance, Muddy, and Abagadasset Rivers. The
bay itself comprises about 8400 acres (3400 ha), with approximately 99 miles
(158 km) of shoreline. It is the largest freshwater tidal bay north of
Chesapeake Bay. The bay area is used extensively by migratory waterfowl. The
island complex in this region, like that in region 1, is important for
migratory, wintering, and breeding seabirds and waterfowl.
The uplands of region 2 are a mosaic of forests, pasture lands, and cultivated
fields, as well as developed areas. Forests in this region are predominantly
white pine-pitch pine and spruce-fir near the immediate coast and white pine,
beech, birch, and maple inland. Many features of historic, scenic, and/or
natural interest are present in region 2, a fact which is reflected in the
importance of tourism in the local economy. Most of the coastal towns in this
region have summer populations two or more times greater than the resident
population. Region 2 is the site of Maine's only nuclear power plant, The
2-3
10-80
Maine Yankee Power Company, located on the Sheepscot estuary in Wiscasset.
Boothbay Harbor in this region is a major port for fish landing.
Statutory divisions within region 2 include Sagadahoc County and parts of
Cumberland, Lincoln, and Kennebec Counties, which encompass 26 towns (see
figure 2-2 and appendix B) .
Region 3
This region contains approximately 550 miles (880 km) of shoreline and 188,592
acres (75,436 ha) of upland and fresh water. Region 3 includes a relatively
large proportion of estuarine habitat, including the Damariscotta , Medomak,
and St. George estuaries and Muscongus Bay. Rocky shorelines are a
conspicuous feature of this region. Islands are a dominant, physiographic
aspect of Muscongus Bay, which is an important nesting area for waterbirds.
The terrestrial habitat of the region is similar to the eastern portion of
region 2. The predominant forest types are spruce-fir along the immediate
coast and a mixture of pine, hemlock, spruce, and hardwoods in the interior
parts of the region. Industry in this area is dominated by tourism. This
region includes 13 towns of Knox County (see figure 2-3 and appendix B) .
Region 4
This region consists of approximately 1050 miles (1680 km) of shoreline and
approximately 559,075 acres (223,630 ha) of upland and fresh water. It is the
largest of the regions and also has the longest shoreline. Penobscot Bay
dominates this region. The bay contains a wide variety of marine and
estuarine habitats, as well as a large number of islands, and, for these
reasons, it is the most important waterbird breeding area on the coast. The
topography of this region is varied. A number of small mountains rise from the
coastline (Camden Hills and Blue Hill). The upland is characterized by
spruce-fir, white pine, and mixed hardwood forests.
The inland portion of this region contains the urban-suburban areas of Bangor
and Brewer, which are sharply contrasted by natural areas on the coast, such
as Isle au Haut in Penobscot Bay. Tourism also is an important part of the
economy of this region. Rockland is the major fish landing port in this
region.
Region 4 encompasses parts of Knox, Waldo, Penobscot, and Hancock Counties and
includes 34 towns (see figure 2-4 and appendix B) .
Region 5
This region occupies 650 miles (1040 km) of shoreline and 422,615 acres
(169,046 ha) of upland and fresh water. It is perhaps the most scenic region
of the Maine coast. Acadia National Park on Mt. Desert Island attracts 2.5 to
3.0 million tourists annually.
2-4
0 5 10 MILES
0 5 ±0 KILOMETERS
Figure 2-1. Map of townships in Region 1 in the characterization area.
2-5
10-80
10 MILES
10 KILOMETERS
Figure 2-2. Map of townships in Region 2 in the characterization area.
2-6
Figure 2-3. Map of townships in Region 3 in the characterization area.
2-7
10-80
t
V
10 16 MILES
6 10 16 KILOMETER8
Figure 2-4. Map of townships in Region 4 in the characterization area.
2-8
The Narraguagus River is the largest in the region. Narraguagus Bay is
characterized by a higly irregular shoreline, extensive intertidal flats, and
many islands. Uplands near the coast are dominated by spruce-fir and mixed
forests, while hardwood, mixed forests, and barrens dominate the inland area.
This region has extensive intertidal flats, which are important for shellfish,
to migratory shorebirds, and wintering black ducks. This region includes part
of Hancock and Washington Counties and encompasses 25 towns (see figure 2-5
and appendix B) .
Region 6
This is the easternmost region on the coast, consisting of 700 miles (1120 km)
of shoreline and 436,236 acres (174,494 ha) of upland and fresh water. This
region includes the largest amount of intertidal marine and estuarine habitats
including extensive flats and estuarine emergent wetlands (the latter
associated primarily with the Machias and Pleasant River estuaries). The
coastline along the western portions of this region is highly irregular, with
many bays, coves, islands, and estuaries. From Little Machias Bay (Cutler)
east to Lubec the coast is bold, rock-bound and, for Maine, fairly regular.
Migratory whales and seabirds are common to this area. From West Quoddy Head
through Cobscook Bay and northward to Calais, the tidal range may exceed 20
feet, 6 m, (22.8 feet, 7 m, at Calais). Within this area, the Cobscook Bay
complex of inlets, tidal creeks, and rivers in combination with strong tidal
flows create many areas of unique habitat. The extensive intertidal flats in
this region provide excellent habitat for shellfish and other invertebrates,
shorebirds, and black ducks.
The upland habitat is characterized by a low density human population, with
minimal industrial development relative to other areas of the coast. It is
dominated by spruce-fir forests, which play a major role in the coastal
economy. Eastport is the major fish landing port in this region.
Region 6 encompasses 24 Washington County towns (see figure 2-6 and appendix
B).
FORCING FUNCTIONS
The geography and habitats of coastal Maine result from the complex
interaction of geological, hydrological , and meteorological forces over
centuries. The socioeconomic activities of people are a powerful and
relatively recent forcing function. These forcing functions are examined
below.
Climate
Coastal Maine has a northern temperate climate with sufficient rainfall to
support large forests, extensive agriculture, and abundant fish and wildlife
resources. Mean annual temperature is approximately 44 F (7°C) and extremes
range from 100 to -30°F (38 to -34°C). Mean annual precipitation is 44 inches
(112 cm) and monthly rainfall ranges usually between 3 and 5 inches (8 to 13
cm) .
2-9
10-80
0 S^^l 0 MILES
0 10 KILOMETERS
Figure 2-5. Map of townships in Region 5 in the characterization area.
2-10
t
N
I
Q 5^^1 0 MILES
0 6 10 KILOMETERS
Figure 2-6. Map of townships in Region 6 in the characterization area.
2-11
10-80
Maine's climate is controlled by the same factors that control the weather
over much of New England, but temperatures and humidities of coastal areas are
modified by air masses flowing from offshore waters. A particular location is
affected by its distance from the ocean, its elevation, and its terrain. The
latter factors create three natural weather zones: coastal, southern
interior, and northern. Maine is noted for its rapidly changing weather
conditions and its severe winters.
The following are excerpts from a general discussion of Maine's climate by
Lautzenheiser (1972):
Maine lies in the "prevailing westerlies" - the belt of
generally eastward air movement which encircles the globe
in the middle latitudes. Embedded in this circulation are
extensive masses of air originating in higher or lower
latitudes and interacting to produce storm systems.
Relative to most other sections of the country, a large
number of such storms pass over or near Maine. The
majority of air masses affecting this State belong to
three types: (1) cold, dry air pouring down from
subarctic North America, (2) warm, moist air streaming up
on a long overland journey from the Gulf of Mexico and
from subtropical waters eastward, and (3) cool, damp air
moving in from the North Atlantic. Because the
atmospheric flow is usually offshore, Maine is influenced
more by the first 2 types than it is by the third. In
other words, the adjacent ocean constitutes an important
modifying factor on the immediate coast, but does not
dominate the climate statewide.
The procession of contrasting air masses and the
relatively frequent passage of storms bring about a
roughly twice-weekly alternation from fair to cloudy or
stormy conditions, attended by often abrupt changes in
temperature, moisture, sunshine, wind direction, and wind
speed. (However, there are) periods of time during which
the same weather patterns continue for several days,
infrequently for several weeks. (Consequently,) the same
month or season will exhibit varying characteristics over
the years - sometimes in close alternation, sometimes
arranged in similar groups for successive years. A
"normal" month, season, or year is indeed the exception
rather than the rule. .. .Hence , "weather averages" in Maine
usually are not sufficient for important planning purposes
without further climatological analysis.
Coastal storms or "northeasters" sometimes seriously
affect the coast. They generate very strong winds and
heavy rain or snow, and they sometimes produce glaze or
"ice storm conditions." They can produce abnormally high
wind-driven tides, affecting beaches and coastal
installations. In winter, these storms produce some of
the heavier snowfalls along the coast. Occasionally, in
summer or fall, a storm of tropical origin affects Maine.
2-12
Usually the storm will be similar to the northeasters.
But a few such storms may retain near or full hurricane
force ... .Fortunately, storms of tropical origin do not
affect Maine at all in most years. Two or more storms in
1 year should be expected about 1 year in 20.
Summarized climate statistics at stations within or near the characterization
area follow. Data on the five basic climatic parameters, precipitation,
temperature, cloudiness, wind, and relative humidity, are compared. Climatic
features such as fog, snow, ice, and storms are reviewed. Most data used have
been drawn from U.S. Government publications.
Information on the climate of coastal Maine has been assembled from data
gathered at 14 stations identified in figure 2-7. At least 30 years of
records underlie the data summaries of the majority of these stations [U.S.
Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
irregular] . Data on precipitation and temperature are complete and available
throughout the characterization area. A summary of mean temperature and total
precipitation for approximately the last 30 years is given in table 2-2.
Precipitation is generally greatest along the coast, mainly at Rockland, Bar
Harbor, and Machias. Eastport and Portland, which are also on the coast, have
less rainfall, however, so local conditions must account for some of the
variability. The range between the lowest (40.7 inches; 103 cm) and highest
(48.9 inches; 124 cm) precipitation totals is about 8 inches (20 cm) or
approximately 15% to 20% of the total.
Average temperatures show slightly less variability, ranging from 41.8°F (5.4
C) at Old Town to 46.0 F (7.7 C) at Rockland. Here much of the variability is
related to the station's distance from the coast, or northward location. The
coldest station is located well inland at Old Town, while the next coldest
stations are in region 6 at Eastport, Woodland, and Machias.
More information on the characteristics of basic climate parameters can be
gained from comparing the annual pattern of monthly means. Figures 2-8 and 2-
9 show the distribution of cloudiness, temperature, humidity, and
precipitation at Portland and Eastport. The only evaporation measurements
recorded near the coast were taken at New Gloucester and are therefore more
representative of Portland than Eastport. It is expected that the evaporation
pattern exhibited at New Gloucester will be similar at Eastport, although the
magnitude will differ.
Monthly mean temperature. Monthly temperature distributions in figures
2-8 and 2-9 show the range between mean high and low temperatures and the
record high and low temperatures observed at Eastport and Portland
respectively during the 30-year period. The marine influence appears to be
strongest in moderating the record low temperatures at Eastport during
winter. Otherwise, mean low temperatures at Eastport would be about 5 to 15°F
(3 to 8 °C) cooler and mean high temperatures would be 0 to 8°F (0 to 4°C)
cooler than those at Portland, because of Eastport' s northward location. The
average temperature at Eastport is 2 °F (1 °C) cooler than the average
temperature at Portland (table 2-2) . Temperature distributions at other
stations in the coastal zone are given in figure 2-10. Modest differences
2-13
10-80
between coastal and inland areas are discernable, in addition to the
temperature decline from south to north.
Monthly mean precipitation. Monthly precipitation means at Portland and
Eastport show that no dry or wet season exists (figures 2-8 and 2-9). The
most prominent feature of the distributions is a relative maximum that occurs
in late fall, preceded by a relative minimum in midsummer. Monthly means are
between 3 and 4 inches (8 to 10 cm) .
This precipitation pattern is general to the coastal zone. Distributions at
other stations are given by region in figure 2-11. Minor variations in
pattern and magnitude are not systematic and appear to be the result of either
local effects or variations in the length of record. Distributions of the
number of days per month with precipitation 0.1 inch are virtually constant
from station to station. Significant precipitation occurs during an average
of 6 to 8 days/month, with weak maxima in early spring and late fall.
While the average precipitation distribution favors particular months, it
should be emphasized that the wettest month in any particular year could be
any one of several. Variations in total annual precipitation seldom exceed
30% of the average and severe drought is very rare. Nonetheless, short dry
spells are common, usually occurring in the warmer summer months.
Cloud occurrence. Cloudiness is classified as either "cloudy" (80% to
100% cloud cover), "partly cloudy" (40% to 70% cloud cover), or "clear" (0% to
30% cloud cover). Cloudiness is measured during daylight hours only. In
Maine, cloudiness is nearly evenly divided among the three categories, with
cloudy conditions more prevalent at both Eastport and Portland (figures 2-8
and 2-9). Maine has no true dry or wet season, because of its location within
the midlatitude storm track. The clearest skies occur in midsummer and the
cloudiest in late fall. At Portland an additional cloud maximum occurs in
early spring. A cloud maximum of lesser magnitude occurs at this time at
Eastport. These data are consistent with the monthly precipitation records.
Eastport has fewer hours of cloudy skies and more hours of partly cloudy skies
in spring than Portland and, therefore, it appears that Eastport lies on the
northern fringe of many spring storms that pass through Portland.
Evaporation and relative humidity. Evaporation data are collected only
during May through October. As previously stated, the data shown in figures
2-8 and 2-9 are for New Gloucester (U.S. Department of Commerce 1963 to 1976)
and therefore are more representative of conditions at Portland than those at
Eastport. The data indicate that the months of greatest evaporation are in
midsummer, as might be expected. Total evaporation over the 6-month period in
the 14-year record averages about 30 inches (76 cm), or approximately two-
thirds of the total annual precipitation in the coastal region. Average
precipitation near Portland over the same 6 months totals about 18.5 inches
(47 cm) in the 30-year record. Periods with high temperatures, high
evaporation rates, and low rainfall sometimes necessitate agricultural
irrigation. The risk of fires in fields and forests also rises at this time,
because of the increased frequency of thunderstorms.
2-14
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2-17
10-80
CLOUD OCCURRENCE
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2-18
REGION 1,2
REGION 3,4
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1940-1970
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stations in or near the Goastal zone.
2-19
10-80
REGION 5
REGION 6
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1942-1972
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10-80
Relative humidity data at Portland and Eastport exhibit the greatest variation
among all the climate statistics for the two cities. Ranges shown in figures
2-8 and 2-9 represent the average span between afternoon humidities and
overnight humidities. The lower bound is determined by the afternoon values,
while the upper bound generally is determined by either the midnight or early
morning (0700) values. Since the Eastport record contains no midnight
observations, peak summer humidities there appear lower than those at
Portland. It is expected that these values otherwise would be nearly equal.
Significant differences in minimum humidity levels between Portland and
Eastport do occur reflecting small differences in distance from the coast.
Throughout the year aveage minimum humidity is higher at Eastport than at
Portland by 5% to 15% relative humidity.
Surface winds. Seasonal and annual wind patterns at five stations
throughout the region have been analyzed through wind roses. Data for four
of the recording stations (Portland, Brunswick, Augusta, and Old Town) were
obtained directly from the National Climate Center in Asheville, North
Carolina. Data for St. John's, New Brunswick, Canada, were obtained from the
Canadian Climate Center to represent the eastern coastal region. The latter
data differ from those of the other stations in that the wind speed was
recorded in miles per hour, rather than in knots. As a result, wind rose
categories at St. John are approximate. Qualitative analysis of the wind rose
data should not be hampered by this difference.
Wind roses for the four seasons and annual average statistics are given in
appendix C for Portland, Brunswick, Augusta, Old Town, and St. John. (Wind
records were obtained at a few additional sites but, because of their limited
period of record, were not included.) Annual average wind statistics are
similar at most stations along the Maine coast. Winds from the west dominate.
The true west wind is weakest at Brunswick and Augusta, where local topography
affects wind direction. Wind channeling along the major inlets from the sea
produces a north-south trend at Brunswick, while a weak northeast-southwest
alignment with local hills is seen in the Augusta record. A subtle wind-speed
distribution shift is seen also, with the lower wind-speed frequencies
decreasing with eastward progression along the coast and the higher wind speed
frequencies increasing.
Seasonal statistics provide further insight into the consequences of the
observed wind patterns. In winter most winds emanate from the northwest and
are associated with the frequent inflows of polar air from the interior land
masses of the United States and Canada. These winds are frequently strong and
usually are attended by a dry air mass. Winds from the sea account for only
10% of the winter winds in Maine, and these are dominated by the lowest three
wind speed classes. High wind speeds come from every sector, however, and
these are associated with storm activity. High seas during wind-driven
winter storms occasionally cause serious damage to the coast.
In spring, regional variations are more pronounced. Winds at Portland come
from the west (including the northwest and southwest) but the south winds
increase in frequency due to the onset of sea-breeze conditions. Channeling
effects at the other locations are more pronounced, again a result of the
increased frequency of south winds. Throughout the coastal region, the south
winds and north winds are equally prevalent. By summer, south winds clearly
dominate, especially at the stations closest to the shore. These winds,
2-22
caused by well-developed sea breeze conditions, transport sea fogs and
moisture inland. They also deposit salt over land. While sea breezes can
only penetrate about 10 miles (16 km) inland, storms can transport salt much
farther. Stronger south winds are less frequent.
Fall wind patterns resemble the annual average. Portland and Old Town retain
their western compass predominance, while some channeling modification is
present at the other locations.
Fog. Fog is prevalent along the coast of Maine and diminishes in
frequency of occurrence with distance inland. Thirty-year records at Eastport
and Portland show that heavy fog (visibility <0.25 miles ;< 0.4 km) occurs with
a frequency of 60 and 52 days/year respectively (U.S. Department of Commerce,
NOAA, irregular) . Data on Augusta are availble for only a 3-year period. A
15-day/year average is observed there. When the data are analyzed by season,
the extreme eastern and western locations of Eastport and Portland are found
to have similar frequencies in all seasons except summer, when Eastport
reaches a high of heavy fog on 1 day in 3 and Portland 1 day in 5. The season
for lowest fog frequency is winter, when heavy fog averages only 5 to 6 days.
Additional data at the U.S. Coast Guard foghorn stations along the coast
between the periods for 1950 to 1969 support the fog frequency observations at
Eastport and Portland. These stations are listed in table 2-3 and their
locations ar shown in figure 2-12. By law, the foghorns are required to
operate whenever visibility in adjacent waters is <3 miles (< 5 km). These
stations regularly log their hours of operation and a summary of their hours
of operation is used to compute hourly fog frequencies. The records of
foghorn stations in the characterization area are averaged by region in figure
2-13 (stations 1 to 4 are combined under region 6; stations 5, 7, 8, and 9 are
combined under region 5; stations 11, 12, and 14 are combined under region 4;
station 15 alone represents region 3; stations 16 and 17 are combined under
region 2; and 19 to 22 under region 1.) Hourly data on fog frequency along
the coast are similar for fall, winter and spring, varying from 10% to 13%
(about 1 hour in 10). In summer, however, fog incidence rises sharply,
doubling in regions 1 through 4 and almost tripling in region 6. The hourly
fog frequency along the coast of region 6 climbs to nearly 1 hour in 3 (33%)
in summer.
Inland fog frequency data exhibit much more variation. A high incidence of
fog follows the major waterways inland, but as the land mass broadens, fog
becomes intermittent. Wetland areas foster local fog generation, as well as
lengthen the duration of larger fogs.
Snow. The average annual snowfall along the coast varies from a low of
60 inches (152 cm) at Rockland to a high of 97 inches (246 cm) at Bangor (U.S.
Department of Commerce, NOAA, irregular) . The low annual snowfall near the
coast (Rockland) in comparison with that at the inland boundary of the
coastal zone (Bangor) is the most graphic example of a trend that is apparent
throughout the coast.
Data on average snowfall are summarized in figure 2-14. The three stations
closest to the coast are those with the three lowest snowfall amounts:
Eastport, Bar Harbor, and Rockland. Differences among the remaining stations
appear to be the result of local characteristics and distance inland.
2-23
10-80
Table 2-3. U.S. Coast Guard Foghorn Stations along the Maine Coast
Number Name
Latitude (N°) Longitude (W°)
1 W. Quoddy Head 44.82
2 Little River 44.65
3 Libby Island 44.57
4 Moose Point 44.48
5 Petit Manan 44.37
6 Mt. Desert 43.97
7 Egg Rock 44.35
8 Bass Harbor 44.22
9 Burnt Coat Harbor 44.14
10 Matinicus Rock 43.78
11 Owls Head 44.09
12 Fort Point 44.47
13 Manana Island 43.76
14 Whitehead 43.98
15 Marshall Point 43.92
16 The Cuckolds 43.78
17 Seguin 43.71
18 Doubling Point 43.88
19 Halfway Rock 43.66
20 Portland Light Ship 43.53
21 Cape Elizabeth 43.57
22 Portland Head 43.62
23 Wood Island 43.46
24 Goat Island 43.36
66.
95
67.
19
67.
37
67.
53
67.
87
68.
13
68.
14
68.
34
68.
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68.
.86
69.
,05
68.
,81
69.
.33
69,
.13
69
.26
69
.65
69
.76
69
.81
70
.04
70
.09
70
.20
70
.21
70
.33
70
.43
2-24
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Figure 2-13. Seasonal fog occurrence along the Maine coast, by region,
2-26
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2-27
10-80
Snowfall statistics at 11 weather stations in the characterization area are
summarized in table 2-4. Variability in snowfall depths from year to year can
be substantial at all stations. Minimum amounts vary from 24 inches (61 cm)
at Ellsworth to 46 inches (117 cm) at Lewiston, while maximum amounts range
from 106 inches (269 cm) at Augusta to 182 inches (462 cm) at Bangor. These
statistics generally apply to a period of 30 years. In an average year, the
number of days with snowfall >1 inch (2.5 cm) varies from 18 to 23, while that
for snowfall >4 inches (10 cm) varies from 5 to 8 days throughout the coastal
zone. Average snowfall >10 inches (25.4 cm) does not exceed 1 day/year at any
station.
Average monthly snowfall is highest in February at nearly all stations. The
greatest amount of snow falls between December and March. The snowfall
distribution at Bangor, shown in figure 2-15, is typical of the entire area,
although a greater amount of snow falls at Bangor. A comparison of snowfall
and total precipitation data for November and December indicates that most of
the precipitation during these months is rain. Consequently, natural water
storage areas are replenished at the start of most winters. The ensuing cold
temperatures will cause much of this water to be held as ice until the first
major thaws. This, combined with the melting of accumulated snowfall, results
in spring flooding of wetlands.
The period of maximum snowfall is also the period of maximum snow depth and
maximum continuous snow cover in coastal Maine. Maximum snow cover duration
averages about 50 days on the immediate coast and up to 70 or 80 days at the
inland boundary of the coastal zone. Yearly variability in snow cover is
high, with the shortest maximum duration averaging 7 days on the coast and 14
days inland. The longest average maximum snow cover duration ranges between
11 and 132 days. Average maximum snow depths range from 14 to 25 inches (36
to 64 cm). Although a significant amount of snow cover is present during most
winters, an abnormally clear season occurs approximately every 6 to 8 years.
Snow cover duration and depth at nine locations in the characterization area
are summarized in table 2-5.
Freeze penetration and the growing season. The length of the growing
season commonly is determined by the length of the average freeze-free period.
Some vegetation is damaged by temperatures 32°F (0°C). The mean duration of
the freeze-free period at 11 weather stations in coastal Maine is given in
table 2-6. The range is 131 to 174 days.
The four stations with the longest period of record are Eastport, Woodland,
Bar Harbor, and Lewiston. Woodland, near the inland boundary of the coastal
zone and the most northerly station, exhibits the shortest growing season and
Eastport the longest. Bar Harbor and Lewiston are in the middle of this range
but are closer to the Eastport value. These figures indicate that while
distances from the coast can be an important factor in the growing season,
other local effects may be equally important.
A measure of the severity of the winter season is the freezing index. This
index is based on the computation of degree-days. Degree-days are a measure
of the number of degrees below 32°F (0°C) of the average (of maximum and
minimum) temperature for a given day. For example, an average daily
temperature of 15°F (-9°C) yields a value of 17 degree-days. The air-freezing
index for a given freezing season is the number of degree-days between the
2-28
Table 2-4. Snowfall Statistics for Stations in or Near Coastal Maine3
Station
Record
Annual
Number
of daj
■s with
snowfall (:
Ave. Min.
Ln.)
Max.
snow gr
eater
than:
1"
2"
4"
6"
8"
10"
Eastport
1931-1960
67
29
132
19
12
5
2
1
0.3
Woodland
1931-1960
80
40
119
23
15
7
3
2
0.5
Machias
1940-1970
75
27
132
21
14
7
3
1
0.5
Bar Harbor
1951-1973
68
Ellsworth
1942-1972
94
24
115
23
15
6
2
1.3
1
Old Town
1951-1971
82
Bangor
1953-1970
97
33
182
23
15
7
4
2
1
Rockland
1940-1970
60
30
113
20
11
5
2
1
0.5
Augusta
1944-1960
77
29
106
23
15
8
—
—
1
Lewiston
1941-1970
78
46
145
21
13
6
3
2
1
Portland
1940-1976
74
31
142
18
—
6
—
1
—
aU.S. Depa
rtment of Comm
erce,
irregu
lar .
Table 2-5.
Snow
Cover Depths
and Duration
for Stations
in or
Near Coastal
Maine a
Station
Record
Max:
Lmum continuous
Average max .
duration
(days
)
depth (in.)
Ave.
Min .
i-Iax.
Eastport
1931-1960
50
7
112
14
Woodland
1931-1960
—
—
111
20
Machias
1940-1970
61
7
119
20
Ellsworth
1942-1972
71
14
132
22
Bangor
1953-1970
71
14
120
25
Rockland
1940-1970
52
8
107
19
Augusta
1944-1960
85
16
124
24
Lewiston
1941-1970
70
14
120
24
Portland
1940-1976
50
—
—
U.S. Dep,
artment of Commerce, irregular.
2-29
10-80
Table 2-6. Average Length of the Growing Season at 11 Weather Stations in
or Near the Coastal Zone3.
Station name Period of record Freeze-free period (days)
Eastport 1931-1968 174
Woodland 1931-1968 131
Machias 1954-1968 132
Bar Harbor 1931-1968 156
Bangor 1953-1968 156
Old Town 1948-1968 118
Rockland 1937-1968 143
Augusta 1945-1968 159
Brunswick 1952-1968 163
Lewiston 1931-1968 168
Portland 1941-1968 136
lU.S. Department of Commerce 1973b,
Table 2-7. Air-freezing Index (32 ° F degree-days) at 11 Weather Stations
in or Near the Coastal Zone .
r
r
Station name Years of record*3 Air- freezing indexc
Eastport 30 1150 1249 810
Woodland 2 5
Machias —
Bar Harbor 27 1071 1073 680
in 10
1 in 30
1150
1249
1627
1809
1363
—
1071
1073
1519
1865
1874
—
1103
1173
1458
—
1323
—
1386
1446
1227
1376
Mean
r
Bangor 23 1519 1865 1225
Old Town
Rockland 27
Augusta
Brunswick
Lewiston 30 1386 1446 990
Portland 30 1227 1376 910
aBigelow 1969.
bNominal 30-year record runs from 1938 to 1968, while all 10-year
records run from 1958 to 1968.
cl in 10 is the index value for the coldest season in 10 years anc^
1 in 30 is the index value for the coldest season in 30 years.
r
t
2-30
r
highest and lowest points on the curve of cumulative degree-days. The longer
the season and the colder the temperature, the greater is the freezing
index. The mean air-freezing index, the highest in 10 years, and the highest
in 30 years at weather stations in the coastal zone, are given in table 2-7.
These data clearly show the moderating effect of coastal waters on winter air
temperatures. The stations nearest the coast register indices between 1071
and 1227 degree-days, while those farthest inland record indices between 1519
and 1874 degree-days.
The ecological consequences of low temperatures during severe winters are
related primarily to the depth to which the ground freezes. This depth can
be estimated from the air-freezing indices and soil composition. Frost depths
are defined as the seasonal maximum penetration of the 32°F (0°C) isotherm.
Estimations of frost depths using air freezing indices involve heat transfer
theory and cannot account for local variability. An area's exposure to
sunlight and wind can have a marked modifying influence.
Sanger (1963) used frost-penetration curves and air-freezing indices to
estimate frost depths. He considers seven soil-composition grades and three
surface conditions. The results of applying the characterization area indices
to his curves are summarized in tables 2-8 through 2-10. Depths associated
with turf are the upper bound for most of the areas involved , with the 12-
inch snow cover as a lower bound. Areas nearest the coast frequently are not
covered with 12 inches of snow, however, so the turf values only should be
considered in those areas.
In an average year, with a coastal air freezing index of approximately 800
degree-days and an inland index of approximately 1300 degree-days, frost
penetration in similar soils is about equal if the "turf" category is used for
the coast and the "turf + 12 inches snow" category is used inland. Similarly,
the same result is obtained when the coldest season in 10 indices are used
(1300 degree-days near the coast, 1800 degree-days inland). Consequently,
average frost penetration in the inland regions may be less severe than might
be expected, since snow depths are greater and last longer there than in the
warmer coastal regions.
River and harbor ice. The formation of ice on the rivers and bays of
Maine's coastal region is a prominent though poorly documented characteristic
of the winter season. Many factors contribute to ice formation. Not only
does the salt content of estuarine water reduce freezing temperature, but
mechanical agitation from winds, currents, and tides also prevents the
formation of ice cover at temperatures below 32°F (0° C) . As a result, the
more isolated, brackish, and inland waters are most susceptible to ice cover,
and the salt water bays and inlets are least susceptible.
The annual reports of the U. S. Coast Guard on ice-breaking activities are the
most comprehensive summary of river and harbor ice occurrence in coastal Maine
(U. S. Coast Guard 1970 to 1978). Their activity reports on the Penobscot
River document significant ice formation from an inland river environment to a
coastal bay environment, and ice conditions in the Penobscot region are likely
to be indicative of ice conditions elsewhere in the coastal zone.
A second source of data on ice occurrence on the eastern coast is the
personal records of Mr. Richard Rhine of North Lubec, Maine (personal
2-31
10-80
Table 2-8. Maximum Seasonal Depth of Frost for an Air-freezing Index
of 850 degree-days °F
Soil type
Frost penetration ( jn . ")
Bare ground Turf Turf + 12 in.
Clay and damp top soil
Silt and sandy silt
Silty sand
Sand and silty sandy gravel
Gravel and sand
Glacial till
Well-drained, sandy gravel
21
30
36
40
46
50
56
13
20
24
26
29
33
37
9
14
16
18
21
24
26
Table 2-9. Maximum Seasonal Depth of Frost for an Air-freezing
Index of 1300 degree-days°F
Soil type
Frost penetration ( in . )
Bare ground
Clay and damp top soil
Silt and sandy silt
Silty sand
Sand and silty sandy gravel
Gravel and sand
Glacial till
Well-drained, sandy gravel
30
41
48
52
59
64
78
Turf
20
29
35
38
44
48
54
Turf + 12 in.
14
22
26
28
32
36
39
2-32
Table 2-10. Maximum Seasonal Depth of Frost for an Air-freezing
Index of 1800 degree-days°F
Soil type
Frost penetration (in.)
Bare ground
Turf
Turf + 12 in.
snow
Clay and damp top soil
Silt and sandy silt
Silty sand
Sand and silty sandy gravel
Gravel and sand
Glacial till
Well-drained, sandy gravel
38
50
58
65
73
78
99
27
38
44
48
56
60
71
20
29
34
38
43
48
53
communication; September, 1979), which span a 19-year period (1959 to 1978) in
the Eastport area. Mr. Rhine's observations, in combination with the Coast
Guard records, provide the only available record of ice occurrence along the
Maine coast.
Coast Guard records for the six winters prior to and including 1978 indicate
that sufficient ice forms on the Penobscot River to require breaking by the
first week of December. The latest breaking in the season occurred on 20
December 1973, whereas the earliest occurred on 3 December 1972. River and
harbor ice usually is a navigation problem through early March, varying from
12 February in 1976 to 17 March in 1974 and 1975. The last ice-breaking
operation of the year is usually in the Kennebec River, where flood control
requires the use of ice breakers in removing floating-ice buildup during the
main thaw. The average breaking period is 91 days.
Midwinter maximum ice thickness of the Penobscot River has varied from 6
inches (15 cm), broken and moving, to 12 inches (30 cm). Ice thickness at
pressure ridges and areas of rafting can vary from 24 to 36 inches (61 to 91
cm) . Protected waters of the river have average maximum thicknesses in excess
of 20 inches (51 cm). The ice jams in spring on the Kennebec reached a
maximum thickness of 15 feet (4.6 m) in 1978. Average ice thickness during
mild years is 1 to 4 inches ( 3 to 10 cm) on the Penobscot. In more severe
years the average has been 2 to 6 inches (5 to 15 cm). The upper Penobscot is
always more prone to freezing over than is the lower Penobscot.
2-33
10-80
Reported ice conditions for the eastern coast include the harbors and passages
between Eastport and Campobello Island. Ice in this area is made up of either
shore ice, floating ice chunks, or solid ice, and usually occurs in the
smaller bays and inlets. Of these three shore ice is the most frequent.
During high winds, shore ice tends to pile up on adjoining beaches.
From 1959 to 1978, shore ice was observed an average of 11 days/season.
Approximately 1 year in 5 was colder than average, with over 20 days of
observed shore ice, whereas 2 years in 5 were mild, with 4 days or less of
observed shore ice. Of the mild years, half had no significant amounts of
shore ice.
Freezing of harbors and small inlets is less frequent than the formation of
shore ice. More than half of the seasons show no ice cover, while roughly two
seasons in five record freeze periods in excess of 7 days. Half of these
have freeze periods lasting 2 to 3 weeks. The thickness of solid ice
generally remains less than 12 inches (30 cm), with isolated areas reaching up
to 24 inches (61 cm).
Little ice formation has been observed along the eastern coast in either
December or March. Ice formation begins in early January and may continue
through mid-February. This is in contrast to rivers and bays farther inland,
such as those along the Penobscot River, where significant ice formation
begins in early December and continues through early to mid-March.
Storm occurrences. Heavy ice storms ("glaze" or freezing rain) affect
people most directly through power losses (due to icing of power lines) or
dangerous driving conditions. They also may topple trees and thereby damage
buildings. Broken trees and shrubs in the wake of severe storms are the most
visible evidence of the impact of ice storms on the natural environment. The
institutions that have been most interested in collecting and analyzing ice
storm data are the transportation, power, and communications industries. The
most common measure of icing is the thickness of ice on power lines.
According to Bennett (1959) the thickness of ice deposits can vary
considerably over a small region, because of the inherent nature of the storms
as well as local meteorological conditions. The heaviest deposits occur in
areas having low temperatures and strong winds. Although concurrent wind data
are scarce, Bennett points out that moderate velocities (around 10 to 20 mph;
16 to 32 km/hr) are most common during ice storms. The Edison Electric
Institute (Bennett 1959) recorded data on ice storms across the nation from
1926 to 1927 and from 1936 to 1937 that show the thickness of ice deposits is
associated with high wind speeds. According to Edison Electric data from
Massachusetts, glaze on utility wires has a maximum duration of 55 hours, a
minimum duration of 3 hours, and an average duration of 20 hours. Similar
durations may be expected at the interior boundary of the Maine coastal zone,
with somewhat shorter durations on the immediate coast.
Bennett (1959) quotes two additional studies of ice storms: one by the
Association of American Railroads (1928 to 1937) and another by the American
Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T; 1917 to 1925). The first records a
total of approximately 22 storms in the southern third of the Maine coast, 13
in the central third, and 7 in the northern third over the 9-year observation
period. Approximately half of these storms deposited an ice layer -0.25
2-34
inches (0.6 cm) on power lines. Storms producing 0.5-inch (1.3 cm) ice layers
were observed on about six occasions on the southwest coast and three to five
occasions on the northeast coast. The greatest thicknesses observed in these
storms were 1.75 to 1.99 inches (4 to 5 cm) on the coast and 0.75 to 0.99
inches (2 to 3 cm) in inland regions. Similarly, the AT&T data show about 6
damaging storms, one every 3 years along the coast and every 6 years inland.
Data gathered by the U.S. Weather Bureau show that light freezing rain occurs
much more frequently than damaging ice storms. The mean annual number of days
with freezing rain ranges from 8 to 12 (U.S. Department of Commerce 1973a).
AT&T's 8-year study indicates that heavy ice storms may be expected on an
average of 1 day/year. As stated above, damaging ice storms may be expected
approximately every 3 years along the coast and every 6 years inland.
Therefore, areas that are stressed by heavy ice accumulations can expect
several "good" years between storms, whereas areas affected by thin ice
glazing must bear some losses every year, with greater damage occurring every
few years .
Due to the cooler air prevalent along the coast during summer, thunderstorms
are less frequent throughout the coastal zone than in central Maine. Average
frequencies along the coast vary from 14 thunderstorm days/year at Eastport to
18 thunderstorm days/year at Portland [U.S. Department of Commerce, (NOAA)
irregular ] . Total numbers of thunderstorms for individual years may range
from 6 to 30. Stations along the inland boundary of the coastal zone show
frequencies similar to those of the nearby shoreline stations. Woodland,
Bangor, Augusta, and Lewiston average 14, 17, 18, and 17 days/year
respectively. Available thunderstorm frequency data are summarized in table
2-11.
The period of greatest thunderstorm frequency covers the summer season, from
June through August. Since summer is also driest, fires caused by lightning
pose a serious threat. Associated hail damage is infrequent.
The historical record shows few effects of tropical storms on the
characterization area. Portland has not recorded any. Farther up the coast,
however, the probability of a tropical storm or hurricane in any 1 year is 7%
(Lautzenheiser 1972) . Absolutely no "great hurricanes" have been recorded for
the coast of Maine. Tropical storms lose much of their intensity before
reaching coastal Maine and so are reduced to heavy rain and moderate winds,
such as those in a "northeaster."
Geology
The geological component of an ecosystem is the substrate on and in which the
flora and fauna exist. The subtrate consists of exposed solid bedrock or
unconsolidated deposits underlain by bedrock.
To understand the function of geological processes in an ecosystem, it is
necessary to have a knowledge of the origin, composition, and surface
distribution of the different bedrock types, the nature and origin of the
unconsolidated deposits, and the processes and mediums that change bedrock to
unconsolidated sediments and that have transported them to their present
environments .
2-35
10-80
Table 2-11. Average Occurence of Thunderstorms at Nine Weather Stations in or
Near the coastal Zone.
Station name
Eastport
Woodland
Machias
Ellsworth
Bangor
Rockland
Augusta
Lewiston
Portland
Period of record
1931-
1931-
194 0-
1942-
1953-
1940-
1944-
1941-
1940
■1960
•1960
■1970
■1972
-1970
-1970
-1970
-1970
-1976
Average number of
storms/year
14
14
15
16
17
13
18
17
18
'U.S. Department of Commerce, irregular.
The geological elements that influence the activity, distribution, and
abundance of plant and animal populations include bedrock formation and
surficial and marine geological processes. Geological factors dictate the
chemical and physical properties of surface soil, which affects the vegetative
composition and the distribution of populations in the area and presents
opportunities and limitations to human culture. The response of geological
elements to both natural and artificial forces, such as dredging, sea wall
construction, dam construction, and filling, may be the initiation of
sedimentation and erosion, which changes the physical substrate and affects
the water column. Bedrock geology, glacial geology, sea level changes,
erosion, sedimentation, surficial geology, and hydrology are discussed below
as they apply to the Maine coast. Information on the geological
characteristics of each of the systems, including the formation and
composition of the systems and classes can be found in the appropriate systems
chapters (4 through 10) . A specific discussion on the availability of
geological information for each region can be found in appendix D. Marine
geology and unique geological features of coastal Maine are detailed on atlas
map 3.
2-36
General physiography: bedrock control of the coastal platform. The
geology of the Maine coast, characterized by deeply indented embayments ,
straight, high, rocky cliffs, broad mud flats, and numerous coastal islands,
is unique in the Eastern United States. Maine's complex shoreline
physiography is determined by the structured nature of the bedrock. The
bedrock determines the general shape of the shoreline and the shallow complex
bathymetry of the coastal waters. The Maine coast from Cape Elizabeth to
Eastport can be seen as three segments on the basis of bedrock geology (figure
2-16). Regions 1, 2, and 3 are included in the area characterized by indented
embayments. Regions 4, 5, and part of region 6 (east to Machias Bay) are
included in the island bay complex. The eastern area of region 6 is
characterized by a cliff shoreline.
Bedrock units are cut transversely by fault and fracture systems of varying
orientations and ages. The major fracture system that cuts coastal bedrock
units (generally from southwest to northeast) developed during the late
Devonian-Triassic time frame (180 to 350 million years ago). Fracture systems
in the bedrock exert major control over groundwater flow. A record of
geological events and their correlation with plant and animal evolution is
given in figure 2-17.
Eastern
Cliff
Shoreline
Island - Bay
Complex
Stratified Rocks
Om M DEVONIAN ■ MISSISSIPPI
0,. EARLY DEVONIAN
SILURIAN
ORDOVICIAN
Plutonic Rocks
Q PERMIAN TO CRETACEOUS VOLCANICS
flA granitic
{£•£> gabbfoic
MID- TO LATE DEVONIAN
Figure 2-16. Bedrock geology of coastal Maine (Doyle 1967)
2-37
10-80
NOTABLE EVENTS IN
EVOLUTION OF ORGANISMS
ERA
PERIOD
EPOCH
STAGES
0 ■
o
o
N
o
z
LU
o
Quaternary
{Recent*
Pleistocene
More than twenty
widely recognized
Man appears
Elephants, horses, large carnivores
become dominant
Mammals diversify
Grasses become abundant, grazing
animals spread
Primitive horses appear
Mammals develop rapidly
Dinosaurs become extinct,
flowering plants appear
Dinosaurs reach climax
Birds appear
Primitive mammals appear,
conifers and cycads become abundant
Dinosaurs appear
Reptiles spread, conifers develop
Primitive reptiles appear,
insects become abundant
Coal-formmg forests widespread
Fishes diversify
Amphibians, first known land
1 vertebrates, appear
Forests appear
Land plants and animals first
recorded
Primitive fishes, first known
vertebrates, appear
Marine invertebrate faunas
become abundant
Tertiary
Pliocene
Miocene
Ohgocene
Eocene
Pal eocene
60
(A
ec
<
LU
>
o
o
N
O
co
LU
2
Cretaceous
Two or more
in each system
About thirty
widely recognized
LU
O
Jurassic
MILLIONS
CO
o
Tnassic
PALEOZOIC
Permian
Many recognized
i
Pennsylvanian
(Upper
Carboniferous)
Mississippian
(Lower
Carboniferous)
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
600
Cambrian
PRECAMBRIAN
Complex assemblages of
rocks, largely meta
morphosed
Seas characterized by simple
marine plants
Figure 2-17. A chronological record of geological events and their correlation
with plant and animal evolution.
2-38
Covering the bedrock platform are unconsolidated deposits associated with the
Pleistocene period of glaciation, which began approximately 1 million years
ago and ended in coastal Maine from 12,000 to 13,000 years ago (Stuiver and
Borns 1975). Reworking of the glacially derived deposits by upland and marine
forces has created shoreline, intertidal, and shallow subtidal sedimentary
deposits that presently fill the low areas between the bedrock platform highs
along the coast (atlas map 3).
Pleistocene glaciation, deglaciation, and associated deposits. The
glacial deposits constituting the surface soils of the upland were laid down
by glacial ice or glacial meltwater processes during the last phase of
Pleistocene glaciation (i.e., the Wisconsin Age). Approximately 28,000 years
ago, a glacial mass covered all of Maine and extended out to the edge of the
present continental shelf at Georges Bank (Schlee and Pratt 1970). At the
bedrock-glacial ice interface two types of activity occurred: (1) thin (2 to
10 m thick; 6.5 to 33 feet) deposits of glacial till were laid down; (2) the
bedrock surface was scoured of all loose, unconsolidated cover.
Approximately 13,200 years ago, the glacier margin receded from its terminal
position on the Atlantic continental shelf to about the present position of
the coast of Maine (Stuiver and Borns 1975). The subsequent retreat of the
ice margin approximately 12,800 years ago to a position about 44 miles (70 km)
inland of the present shoreline left the coastal area exposed to subaerial and
marine erosica processes.
Because the earth's crust was depressed by the weight of the glacial mass, the
land surface (immediately after glacial recession) was about 400 feet (120 m)
below present elevations. This crustal depression allowed much of the land
surface to be inundated by marine waters from the Gulf of Maine. Along the
coast, the limit of marine incursion stands presently at elevations of 240 to
290 feet (973 to 88 m; Goldthwait 1949).
At higher elevations, meltwater from the receding glacier margin deposited
stratified sands and gravels into glacial landforms, such as kames, kame
terraces, moraines, eskers, outwash plains, and large deltaic complexes at the
shoreline (atlas map 3). Boulders, gravel, and sand on the surface of the
glacier were left as a blanket of coarse-textured till and in a few coastal
localities were reworked by proglacial climate wind into thin eolian deposits.
Clays and silts were transported to the ocean, where they settled to form
extensive blanket deposits of glaciomarine clay. This clay, ubiquitous at
lower elevations along the Maine coast, is called the Presumpscot Formation
(Bloom 1963). Late Pleistocene shoreline environments (beaches and spits) are
preserved on the upland. These separate till and stratified drift from the
marine clay found at lower elevations.
After the glacial margin receded, crustal uplift took place. By 12,000 years
ago, most of the submerged coastal lands were exposed to subaerial weathering.
Continued rebound of the land mass lowered sea level approximately 8500 years
ago to approximately 197 feet (60 m) below the present shoreline (Schnitker
1974; figure 2-18).
2-39
10-80
14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
Thousands of Years BP
Figure 2-18. The relationship of eustatic sea level rise,
crustal rebound, and subsidence to the geological
characteristics of the Maine coastline.
o
Years BP
3000
2000
1000
Figure 2-19. Sea level curve for Addison, Maine, derived from
radiometric C1U dating of salt marsh peat (Thompson 1977)
2-40
During the period from maximum submergence to maximum emergence, rivers,
streams, and other erosion agents dissected the coastal area upland and
generated a land surface topography similar to today's (atlas map 3).
Weathering and reworking of surficial glacial and glaciomarine sediments took
place during the period of sea level rise from 8500 years ago to the present,
creating the present shoreline. These processes have formed, and continue to
form, the coastal marine sedimentary environments along the present shoreline
(atlas map 3) .
Holocene sea level rise. Sea level has been rising for the past 8500
years. It occurs through a combination of eustacy (world-wide rise of sea
level due to the addition of glacial meltwater to the ocean's volume) and a
depression of the coastal New England region land mass (Grant 1968).
Using C radiometric dating of buried salt marsh peat, Thompson (1977) found
sea level rise 3000 years ago to be approximately 0.45 inch (1.15 cm) per
year. This relative rise decreased to a rate of about 0.11 inch (0.06 cm) per
year over the past 1000 years (figure 2-19).
Sea level rise rates for the past 40 years have been determined from tide-
gauge records along the Maine coast (Hicks 1972; figure 2-20). Apparent
trends of sea level rise at Portland and Eastport from 1940 to 1970 are 0.06
inch (0.16 cm) per year and 0.11 inch (0.34 cm) per year respectively (Hicks
1972). A minor portion of the present rise is due to eustatic sea level rise;
most of the rise is apparently due to crustal subsidence of the Maine coast.
The reason for this subsidence is unknown.
For the past 8.5 millenia, the sea has been advancing upon coastal regions.
Concomitantly, normal subaerial weathering, both chemical and mechanical, has
continually eroded the Maine upland region. The end result of upland erosion
is the delivery of riverborne and streamborne sediment to the shoreline or to
closed depressions (lacustrine and palustrine systems) on the terrestrial
landscape.
In summary, the geological framework of the Maine coast is a mosaic of two
geological elements: (1) a consolidated and unconsolidated complex outline of
bedrock and glacial deposits, and (2) recent sedimentary deposits on the
bedrock and glacial deposits. Both elements are being continually changed by
erosion and deposition resulting from coastal forces and a rising sea level.
Erosion and sedimentation. Rapid erosion and sedimentation of nearshore
environments alters the substrata and creates stresses on plants and other
organisms, including people, that utilize these substrates. Natural erosion
and deposition create beaches and dunes for human recreation, intertidal areas
for marsh and shellfish growth, and natural channels for navigation.
Fine-grained sediment is introduced to the nearshore zone by rivers
discharging into estuaries, by sediment reworking within the basin, and by
floor sediments from the inner Gulf of Maine. Sediment loads of rivers
discharging into heads of estuaries during normal discharge periods vary from
<0.9mg/l to about 12 mg/1 (U.S. Geological Survey 1976). Sediment loads after
spring freshets may be 40 mg/1. These loads correspond to daily suspended
sediment discharges of from 29 tons (26 t) per day to 3270 tons (2943 t) per
day. Calculations based on sediment yields from soil erosion indicate that
2-41
10-80
64,968 tons of sediment are delivered annually to the nearshore area northeast
of Casco Bay. Total organic carbon discharges as particulate matter range
from about 5 mg/1 to 12 mg/1 and do not appear to vary seasonally (U.S.
Geological Survey 1976). Schnitker (1974) reported that under normal
meteorological conditions suspended sediment concentrations entering estuaries
from the ocean are about 2 to 2.5 mg/1. During storm periods, this
concentration increases to 6 mg/1. Schnitker 's (1972) studies in Montsweag
Bay, the Sheepscot River estuary, indicate that sediments derived from within
the basin normally reach concentrations of about 6 mg/1. If the normal
discharge concentrations (about 1 mg/1) entering the estuary from rivers are
subtracted, it becomes evident that about 5 mg/1 of concentrate is derived
from within the basin. This sediment remains within the nearshore area as
redeposited material. Suspended sediment concentrations of bottom waters
within the estuary may exceed 10 mg/1 during and immediately after storm
periods. Schnitker (1972) reported that these values of sediment flux
resulted in a net deposition rate of 0.7 to 1.1 inch (1.9 to 2.8 cm) per year
in Montsweag Bay. These figures probably are applicable to most of the
intertidal nearshore area. The nearshore sedimentation of fine-grained
sediments, coupled with an ongoing sea level rise of approximately 0.08 to
0.14 inch (0.22 to 0.36 cm) per year (Hicks 1972) results in a sediment wedge
accumulating at the nearshore, which will migrate landward (figure 2-21).
Shoreline erosion. Shoreline erosion along the Maine coast has been
documented by Timson and Kale (1977). Erosion of unconsolidated shorelines is
dependent on several factors including: the amount of wave energy impacting
the shoreline, the type of unconsolidated sediment existing at the shoreline,
shoreline orientation, and the influence of people. Natural erosion of
unconsolidated shorelines is occurring at a rate of about 0.5 to 2 feet (15 to
61 cm) per year along the coast. Many beaches are eroding at greater rates,
primarily due to the influence of protective engineering structures and
navigation works. The highest rate of shoreline erosion occurs at Hunnewell
Beach, Phippsburg, at the mouth of the Kennebec River. Timson (1977)
attributes this high erosion rate to dredging in the Kennebec River estuary
between the river mouth and the city of Bath.
Acceleration of erosion rates, to recession rates of up to 90 feet (27 m) per
year, is caused by disruption of normal sand transport pathways by the removal
of channel bar sediment from the estuary floor. Offshore disposal or disposal
of sediment elsewhere within the estuarine system has disrupted the rate of
delivery of sediment to the Popham Beach area. Supporting evidence for this
disruption includes:
1. Hunnewell Beach was progradational until 1940. Dredging of the
Kennebec began in 1942 and recurred at intervals of 2 to 4 years.
Hunnewell Beach became recessional with the commencement of dredging.
2. The volume of sand lost from Hunnewell Beach from 1940 to 1974
approximates the amount of material dredged from the estuary during
the same time interval.
2-42
1910
1940
1950
1960
1970
Year
20
15 -
(0
0
-C
E
o
c
_o
•*^
4->
£
10
— .51
CO
I
Figure 2-20.
Sea level rise at Eastport and Portland over the past 40 years.
Sea level is rising at a rate of 0.36 cm (0.14 inch) per year at
Eastport and 0.22 cm (0.08 inch) per year at Portland (Hick
1972).
2-43
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2-44
Surficial geology and soils. The substrate of terrestrial habitats is
either bare bedrock or unconsolidated surficial deposits derived from glacial
drift. Exposed bedrock is predominant in the coastal zone in ridge tops,
coastal mountains, and islands. Bedrock surfaces constitute a substantial
portion of the terrestrial habitat in Lincoln, Sagadahoc, Knox, Hancock, and
Washington Counties. Exposed bedrock is obviously inhospitable to plant
growth and to most types of human activity.
The unconsolidated surface deposits, however, present a variety of substrate
surfaces by virtue of the variable characteristics of the glacial, glacial-
related, and postglacial deposits from which surface soil textures are
derived. Because deglaciation along the Maine coast was accompanied by marine
submergence and local glacial readvances (Stuiver and Borns 1975; and Bloom
1963) the distribution and stratigraphy of the coastal surficial deposits are
complex and varied. A generalized stratigraphy for the coast can be
recognized, however, and related to terrestrial topography.
Lower elevations on the upland are characterized by glacial till above
bedrock, covered by marine silts and clays of the Presumpscot Formation.
Unsorted and stratified tills in the form of moraines sometimes lie on and
within the fine-grained marine deposits (figures 2-22 and 2-23).
Elevations above 290 feet (88 m) and below higher ridge and mountain
elevations are characterized by basal till deposits overlain by stratified
glacial-stream deposits. At elevations from 240 to 350 feet (73 to 107 m) ,
late glacial beach, spit, and delta sands and gravels mark the highest
elevations of marine incursion (figure 2-24) .
Ridge flanks, coastal mountain tops, and most of the coastal islands are
characterized by bare ledge or thin glacial tills, both basal and ablation
(Thompson 1977) .
At all elevations, topographic depressions are filled and are filling with
wetland organic deposits (figure 2-25).
Coastal zone surface soils are derived from the bedrock or glacial-derived
inorganic deposits. Organic soils are classified according to parent
material, relief, and drainage (Bushnell 1942). Rourke and coworkers (1977)
recognize three major and four minor soil types present in the coastal zone.
The three major types and their characteristics are:
1. Peru-Marlow-Lyman. This soil association represents Spodosols:
mineral soils in which iron, aluminum, and organic matter have been
leached from surface soil horizons and accumulated in lower horizons.
The soils have formed in loamy glacial till and are distributed
throughout Cumberland and Washington Counties. Peru and Marlow soils
are deep, with restrictive, slowly permeable layers, and they occur on
ridge slopes. Lyman soils are thin (25 to 50 cm thick; 10 to 20
inches), lie over bedrock, and occur on ridge tops and steep slopes.
2. Hermon-Lyman-Peru. These soils are Spodosols developed on glacial
till. This association occurs in Washington and Hancock Counties.
Hermon soils are deep, well drained, and often bouldery and occur on
ridge tops and hillsides.
2-45
10-80
WISCONSIN DRIFT, OTHER THAN END MORAINES AND OUTWASH , CHIEFLY TILL
INCLUDES BEDROCK AND OLOER DRIFT.
ICE-CONTACT STRATIFIED DRIFT, MAINLY SAND ANO GRAVEL, OCCURRING AS
ESKERS.KAMES, KAME TERRACES, PITTED OUTWASH PLAINS, AND COLLAPSED
STRATIFIED DRIFT
OUTWASH SEDIMENTS, MAINLY SAND AND GRAVEL DEPOSITED BY
PROGLACIAL STREAMS
POSTGLACIAL MARINE SEDIMENTS, CHIEFLY CLAYS ANO SILTS, WITH
SOME BEACH FEATURES
Figure 2-22. Surficial deposits in the coastal zone (Doyle 1967)
2-46
Marine Silt and Clay Recent Alluvium
(Presumpscot Foimationj
Kame Till End
Gravel
Bedrock
Figure 2-2 3. Generalized cross section of surf icial deposits in the
Kennebec River valley from Augusta to Pittston (Thompson 1977)
North
South
o
(J
o
•a
3
O
t/5
400 i-
300
200
100 -
n
m
"- o
o 2
c m
O 3-
- C
Water Esker Sand
Table Segments and
Grave
Kettle
Miles
figure
2-24. Cross section of esker and glacial-marine delta west of
North Augusta, showing the internal structure of the
delta and the general profile of the water table (Thompson 1977)
2-47
10-80
Bedrock
Basin
Drainage
Obstructed
by Till
Kettle
Hole
Drainage Impeded
by Impprmeable
Marine Sediments
Bedrock
Surface
Swamp
Deposits
Figure 2-25.
Cross section of several types of wetland deposits on inland
topographic depressions.
3. Lyman-Scantic-Peru. This soil association occurs along the entire
coastal zone from Portland to Eastport. The Scantic soils are
Inceptisols, mineral soils that have weakly expressed zones of
alluviation. The Scantic soils develop on marine clays on low
elevation surfaces.
The minor soil associations are:
1. Lyman-Histosols-Rock Outcrop. Thin soils developed on bedrock, thin
till deposits over bedrock, and organic deposits. These soils develop
on steep slopes, ridges, mountains, and coastal islands.
2. Colton-Adams-Histosols . Colton and Adams soils have formed in coarse-
grained glaciof luvial sediments, are Spodosols, and are deep and
excessively drained. The Histosols in this association occur in
kettle holes and fringes of outwash deposits.
3. Buxton-Salmon-Nicholville. These soils have formed mainly in fine-
grained marine and lacustrine sediments in the Kennebec and
Androscoggin River valleys. Buxton soils are deep Inceptisols,
moderately well-drained to poorly drained. Salmon and Nicholville
soils, Spodosols, are deep, moderately well drained soils having
alternating layers of very fine sandy loam and silt loam.
2-48
4. Scantic-Buxton-Adams . Soils developed above the floodplain of the
Royal River. Adams soils develop in sand deposits and are deep,
excessively drained, and sandy. Adams soils are Spodosols.
Surficial deposits and their attendant surface soils provide physical
substrates capable of supporting a variety of elements: forests, wildlife,
agriculture, and other human activities. Information on the major coastal
soils is available from the U.S. Department of Agriculture Extension Agents in
coastal counties.
To maintain an optimum level of ecological suitability in soils, a balance
must be sustained between erosion and accumulation. Soils accumulate by
addition of material to the soil column surface or by the breakdown of parent
material at the column base. The latter mode of gain is extremely slow in
temperate latitudes. Soil gains are primarily restricted to addition of
organic matter as litter or decomposing vegetation in terrestrial
environments, organic growth and sedimentation in palustrine environments, and
inorganic sedimentation on alluvial floodplain soils. Rates of soil gain in
coastal Maine are unknown.
Soil losses can be attributed to natural surface erosion by sheet wash,
streambank erosion, and slope failure. People have upset the soil balance in
certain areas of coastal Maine by a variety of activities. Rates of soil loss
are discussed in chapter 3, "Human Impacts on the Ecosystem."
Hydrology
The distribution, chemistry, and movements of surface waters and groundwater
are important determinants of surficial deposits. Together these geological
and hydrological factors influence the development of plant and animal
communities and affect human land use.
Groundwater. The occurrence, movement, quality, and retrievability of
groundwater in the coastal zone are major driving forces of human, plant, and
animal population dynamics. In Maine, the abundance and availability of
groundwater are primarily determined by the level to which groundwater will
rise, the nature and distribution of unconsolidated surficial deposits, and
the distribution of bedrock fractures (Caswell 1977).
Aquifers are storage deposits for groundwater. They receive water from
precipitation or from surface water entering the substrate at the aquifer's
recharge area. The major aquifers in Maine are restricted to surficial
deposits of coarse-textured sand and gravel and to major fracture systems.
Recharge areas for aquifers are coarse-grained surficial deposits of large
areal extent.
Acquiring groundwater for human use, either municipal or commercial, without
disrupting wetland ecology requires knowledge of a region's groundwater
characteristics. This is necessary to prevent contamination of groundwater
supplies from surface waste disposal activities. Basic information about
groundwater in coastal Maine will be reviewed below. Regional data are
discussed in appendix D.
2-49
10-80
40
30
Q.
QJ
>-
10
Ice contact — sand and gravel,
Outwash sand
over clay
20 40 60 80 100
Overburden Thickness (Feet)
Figure 2-26. Relationship between bedrock well yield and thickness and
type of surficial overburden in the coastal zone (G.P.M. =
gallons per minute; Caswell 1977).
Predominantly
Discharge Area
Predominantly
Recharge Area
Predominantly
Discharge Area
Groundwater
Divide
Groundwater Divide
Figure 2-27.. Generalized groundwater flow in unconsolidated sediment systems.
(Caswell 1977) .
2-50
Overburden thickness and bedrock surface topography. The type and
thickness of the unconsolidated material that overlies the bedrock and the
corresponding yield of groundwater are depicted in figure 2-26. Thick,
permeable, and saturated overburden supplies groundwater to shallow wells and
recharges water to underlying bedrock aquifers. Figure 2-26 can be used in
conjunction with surficial geological maps to estimate the relationship
between the thickness and type of surface materials and water yield. Caswell
(1977) has found a strong correlation between types of overburden material and
bedrock well yield.
Because most water purification processes take place in the unconsolidated
sediments overlying the bedrock, local bedrock aquifers in thinly overburdened
areas are more susceptible to pollution from surface sources of contamination.
For this reason, waste disposal areas are least acceptable on thinly covered
bedrock.
Information about the distribution of bedrock surface elevation is used to
determine probable groundwater flow in the overburden just above bedrock.
Groundwater in overburden generally flows at right angles to the bedrock
surface contours.
Potentiometric surface of bedrock wells. The elevation to which
groundwater will rise in an artesian well drilled into the bedrock aquifer is
defined as the potentiometric surface. A map of this surface indicates the
potential for groundwater flow in the bedrock from any point to any other
point. The physical properties of bedrock vary from area to area and
groundwater flow has been shown to depend more upon bedrock fracture patterns
than upon bedrock characteristics. Potentiometric surface maps, available
from the Maine Geological Survey, represent ideal flow conditions showing that
high flow potentials occur at topographic highs and that low flow potentials
generally occur in topographic valleys (figure 2-27). Valleys tend to be
areas of groundwater discharge, while high elevations and slopes are recharge
areas. Groundwater divides generally coincide with topographic divides.
Potentiometric surface maps could be used to predict flow characteristics of
groundwater systems, taking into account the fact that fracture systems will
affect groundwater flow differently than the flow potential surfaces indicate.
A knowledge of the local fracture system is therefore necessary to determine
general groundwater conditions.
Ground and surface water contamination. Contamination of ground and
surface water supplies occurs through natural flux of particulates and
dissolved ion species, direct introduction of wastes into water bodies, and
introduction of contaminants through surface soil runoff.
Natural contamination of groundwater supplies has been documented by Caswell
(1977), who lists the following occurrences of contamination in the Maine
coastal zone:
1. Salt water intrusion in fracture-controlled aquifers occurring near
the ocean (figure 2-28).
2-51
10-80
2. Salt water contamination of wells penetrating possible Permo-Triassic
salt deposits or entrapped marine water originating during postglacial
sea-level stands.
3. Salt contamination of wells located in the proximity of heavily salted
highways during winter and spring months.
4. Mineral contamination of well water from dissolved ions originating
from the bedrock. These ions include high iron, sulfide, and calcium-
magnesium derived from schists and metamorphised limestones, radon
from high radium-bearing igneous granites, and toxic heavy metals
(e.g., copper, zinc, mercury) from ore-bearing rock bodies.
Toxic heavy metal concentrations occur in ground or surface waters where base-
metal ore-bearing rock bodies occur. The Union-Warren and Blue Hill-Cape
Rosier drainage areas exhibit relatively high concentrations of metals (e.g.,
copper; Hurst and Dow 1972) which may contaminate or be toxic to commercial
marine organisms in the estuarine areas that receive their discharge.
Other contaminants of water supplies and coastal waters are introduced through
direct application of solid and liquid wastes, pesticides, and sewage onto or
within surface soils. Leachates from solid waste disposal sites, settling
lagoons, individual septic systems, farm feed lots, and pesticide application
to agricultural and forested lands have all been documented as having
contaminated ground or surface waters (Caswell 1977; see chapter 3, "Human
Impacts on the Ecosystem").
WATER TABLE
WELL BEING PUMPED
CONE OF DEPRESSION
DISPLACEMENT OF INTERFACE
CAUSED BY PUMPING OF WELL
SALT WATER
INTERFACE BETWEEN
FRESH AND SALT WATER
Figure 2-28
Groundwater flow near the fresh water - salt water
interface and the effect of pumping a well (Caswell 1977)
2-52
Research needs in geology and hydrology. This discussion is limited to
geology as it is related to ecology; thus, gaps in the knowledge of the origin
of bedrock units are not discussed. Data gaps in bedrock, surficial deposits,
soils, marine and riverine sedimentation, and hydrology are assessed below:
1. Bedrock: The distribution of bedrock types within the characterization
area has been well defined with the possible exception of the composition of
the bedrock underlying the outer islands. Little is known about the submerged
bedrock platform extending to the seaward limits of the characterization area.
Of particular interest concerning the latter fact is the potential for
commercial mineral mining in the shallow subtidal areas. The mineral
potential of terrestrial bedrock is fairly well known.
The trace element content of plutonic rocks has been given much attention in
recent years, especially the radiogenic elements and the faults and fractures
(planes of separation and previous movement) that cut through consolidated
bedrock. The interest in the former centers around the amounts of radiogenic
material (available as uranium) and geothermal energy for power generation
and the amount of radon in the atmosphere. Radon in its gaseous form may be a
carcinogenic contaminant of groundwater supplies. Federally sponsored
research is now being undertaken to fill gaps in the data available on these
radiogenic elements, and some State and Federal research is being conducted to
answer questions on past fault movement during earthquakes and on the
influence of bedrock fractures on groundwater flow. More work, however, is
needed to meet knowledge needs in relation to seismicity and groundwater flow
through fractured bedrock.
2. Surficial deposits: Knowledge of the distribution of surficial deposits
is adequate. Knowledge of the three-dimensional nature of these deposits is
lacking, however. It is known that much of the coastal area consists of
glacially derived sands and gravels under marine clay deposits, but the
distribution, thickness, and lateral extent of these coarser deposits are
largely unknown, except where specific engineering evaluations have been
conducted.
Knowledge of these deposits is necessary in solid waste disposal, aquifer
identification and protection, evaluation of pesticide contamination of
surface and groundwaters, and location of future sand and gravel resources.
The extent and volume of peat resources have become significant because of the
energy potential of peat. The resource volume in coastal Hancock and
Washington Counties is known, but Waldo County has many bogs that have not
been investigated as yet. Much also remains to be learned of the growth rate
of peat and the hydrology of peat bogs.
3. Soils: Although the distribution of soils in the characterization area
and their general suitabilities for human activities are well known, the
knowledge of rates of formation and erosion are controversial. More
knowledge, especially on agricultural and forested soils, is needed.
4. Sedimentation: Sedimentation in marine, estuarine and riverine
environments is poorly known. A general knowledge of the behaviors of such
deposits in other areas has been acquired. Knowledge of suspended sediment
2-53
10-80
loads and bedload is needed in coastal rivers. Except for a few measurements
by the USGS (1978) virtually nothing is known about river sedimentation.
Substantial knowledge of riverine morphology and processes, especially those
of tributary streams that undergo changes in response to human activities,
also is lacking. Knowledge of suspended transport, deposition and erosion
rates, and bedload transport in estuaries is severely lacking. Such
information is valuable in evaluating impacts on dredging, aquaculture, and
commercial fishing. This also applies to marine sedimentation.
One of the most pressing geological problems within the coastal zone is the
problem of shoreline erosion. Recent attention to this problem has produced a
general knowledge of shoreline behaviors, but the predictability of future
erosions will require further investigation. More information on beach
sedimentation, especially transport budgets, will be required to properly
manage these valuable resources.
5. Hydrology: The viability of groundwater resources has become a major
concern, because of the increased volume requirements of industrial and
residential use and the increased knowledge of contamination possibilities.
While past activities of the MGS and USGS have given us a far better knowledge
of surface and groundwater hydrology than ever before, much more information
is required to fully understand the behavior of groundwater and its
relationships to surface water hydrology.
Further knowledge is needed in locating surface aquifers and discerning their
characteristics. Little is known about the transport rates and flow
directions of groundwater in bedrock fractures. Groundwater recharge and
replacement rates need study and more knowledge of regional and local
groundwater systems is necessary.
The Socioeconomy
Coastal Maine is a predominantly rural, forested area with a population
density that is low in comparison with the remainder of New England. The
coastal waters and physiographic features of the land have strongly influenced
the pattern of growth and development of the coastal zone. The inland areas
of the characterization area (northern parts of regions 2 and 4) are more
urban than coastal areas. The population centers of Augusta and Bangor are
located relatively inland in river valleys. However, Maine's largest urban
area, Portland, is located in the southwestern coastal region of the
characterization area (region 1). In general, the more populous areas are
located in the western part of the characterization area, whereas the
easternmost regions are the least populated and least developed.
In comparison with other areas, the demands placed on the Maine coast have
until recently produced only moderate changes. The small and generally
scattered population has had limited ecological impact. More recently, large
areas of the coast have begun to change rapidly. These changes and the
socioeconomic pressures on the coast are explored below.
Analysis of the socioeconomic characteristics of coastal Maine has been
hindered by a scarcity of information. In this characterization, the
boundaries of the study area coincide with the area of tidal influence. In
the State of Maine, socioeconomic data are usually collected by county or by
2-54
the State as a whole. Since the coastal counties in Maine usually extend
beyond the inland border of the characterization area, information specific to
the coastal area is not readily available. In addition, the data describing
each socioeconomic sector are not comparable: data for similar time periods
are not available for each sector, and available data were collected for
different purposes. As a result, the relative value (e.g., in dollars or
persons employed) of each sector (e.g., fishing, agriculture, and forestry) in
the coastal Maine economy is difficult to determine.
Commercial fishing, forestry, agriculture, mineral extraction, sport fishing,
hunting, and trapping are the socioeconomic sectors that directly harvest the
region's resources. Other socioeconomic sectors, including transportation,
industry, and recreation, alter habitats (wetlands impounded or filled or
forests cleared) and generate wastes (discharge effluents into the ecosystem).
The impacts of socioeconomic activities on the ecosystem are described in
chapter 3, "Human Impacts on the Ecosystem."
Fisheries . Fishing and shore-based fish processing industries constitute
a large portion of coastal Maine's economy. The Maine Department of Marine
Resources (MDMR) estimates that the total annual value of marine fisheries in
Maine is over $300 million (C. E. Maguire, Inc. 1978; includes the entire coast
from Eastport to Kittery) .
The landed weight of many species has declined over a 20-year period, while
the landed value (unadjusted for inflation) has continued to increase,
especially in the lobster and clam fisheries. A comparison of landed weights
and values during selected years over a 20-year period is shown by species in
table 2-12. The locations of areas important to fish and shellfish harvest in
coastal Maine are illustrated on atlas map 4.
Of approximately 14 species of fishes reported in the landings, sea herring
and ocean perch have comprised 70% of the total weight in recent years. These
and five other low value species account for 90% of all landed finfish by
weight. Highly valued species, such as cod, halibut, and haddock, amount to
only 5% of the total landed weight. Distance from major markets, lack of
adequate shore-side processing, and competitively lower prices elsewhere in
New England have contributed to the fishery's lack of growth (C.E. Maguire,
Inc. 1978).
Lobster is the most valuable fishery in coastal Maine. Lobster landings have
declined from 22 million pounds in 1955 to 19 million pounds in 1976, yet
their value has doubled from $16 million to $32 million (in 1977). In the
characterization area approximately 7000 lobster licenses were issued, 4600
boats were in operation, and approximately 650,000 traps were fished in 1976
(Maine Department of Marine Resources 1976).
The clam fishery is second in value to lobsters. Due to the extent of
intertidal habitat and the low pollution levels in flats in eastern Maine,
the clam industry increases in value progressively towards Washington County
(region 6), where nearly half of the landed soft-shelled clams are harvested.
Regions 5 and 6 accounted for 73% of the 1977 clam harvest (Maine Department
of Marine Resources 1977). However, according to the same source, a serious
decline was noted in clam harvest, especially in Hancock County (regions 4 and
5). As a result, conservation measures, such as town clam ordinances, have
2-55
10-80
Table 2-12. Species Weight (pounds x 1000) and Values (thousands of dollars;
in parentheses) of Landing Between 1955 and 1976 in Coastal Maine3
Species
1955
1965
Years
1970
1975
1976
Alewives
Bloodworms
Clams, hard -shelled
Clams, soft- shelled
Cod
Crabs
Cusk
Eels
Flounder
Haddock
Hake
Halibut
Herring
3779
(62)
3106
(67)
1623
(51)
3768
(134)
3395
(112)
2 03
(313)
770
(1165)
84 5
(1529)
638
(1779)
532
(1255)
499
(49)
3
(3)
8
(12)
8
(16)
3
(5)
2621
(1776)
1964
(1478)
5259
(3141)
6529
(5671)
7368
(7489)
2467
(264)
2629
(198)
5427
(449)
4560
(647)
3249
(590)
499
(49)
2530
(115)
1571
(113)
938
(79)
1152
(162)
603
(64)
286
(25)
266
(24)
721
(92)
862
(147)
33
(ID
52
(18)
38
(11)
154
(83)
191
(94)
3534
(460)
1648
(126)
1623
(177)
2711
(730)
3610
(1226)
4009
(517)
1881
(282)
1013
(232)
776
(273)
1357
(733)
2398
(193)
3849
(195)
1411
(94)
4560
(365)
5532
(601)
134
(69)
93
(49)
52
(31)
45
(48)
48
(60)
99,416
(2534)
70,180
(1791)
36,593
(822)
38,248
(1423)
70,233
(3053)
Maine Department of Marine Resources 1955-1976 and 1977
(Continued)
2-56
Table 2-12. (Concluded)
Species
Years
1955
1965
1970
1975
1976
Lobsters
22,718
18,862
18,172
17,017
19,001
(16,322)
(21,744)
(21,637)
(27,479)
(29,238)
Mackerel
1011
670
482
145
405
(148)
(65)
(27)
(22)
(81)
Mussels
105
32
301
612
1203
(5)
(5)
(81)
(197)
(344)
Ocean perch
67,685
60,307
46,688
21,503
25,783
(4827)
(3650)
(2860)
(1979)
(2604)
Pollock
5052
1093
811
5917
7717
(234)
(73)
(62)
(547)
(874)
Sandworms
179
739
747
748
698
(207)
(686)
(782)
(863)
(812)
Scallops
1114
414
180
1594
629
(1087)
(443)
(272)
(3019)
(1352)
Sea urchins
58
N.A.
60
42
36
(3)
(4)
(3)
(2)
Seaweed, moss
125
2895
2538
2330
4000
(5)
(78)
(96)
(93)
(160)
Shrimp
0
2075
17,004
7005
1361
(373)
(4417)
(1938)
(488)
Smelt
127
199
82
92
80
(72)
(70)
(23)
(28)
(28)
Tuna
26
91
62
167
72
(6)
(12)
(5)
(62)
(27)
Whiting
25,114
27,722
14,837
1198
408
(498)
(745)
(1490)
(72)
(29)
Total weight
243,509
204,090
157,693
122,026
158,925
Total value
$29,775
$33,456
$38,442
$47,642
$51,566
2-57
10-80
been enacted in an attempt to recover overdug areas (see chapter 12,
"Commercially Important Invertebrates"). The amount of clams harvested and
the value of specific clam flats is available from MDMR but most of these
data are not current. The locations of the major shellfish beds harvested in
coastal Maine are shown in atlas map 4.
Additional species of importance, in order of value, are: bait worms
(bloodworm and sandworm) , $2.0 million; scallops, $1.3 million; and mussels,
$0.3 million. In total, shellfish were worth $41.4 million, compared to $10.3
million for finfish at 1976 landed values.
The Department of Marine Resources has attempted to market and develop
interest in such species as spiny dogfish, mussels, squid, eels and elvers,
sea urchins, skate, quahogs, periwinkles, sculpin, pollock, and sea moss.
Some of these species may have local economic value.
Sea moss (Irish moss) forms the basis of an industry, Marine Colloids, Inc. of
Rockland, the world's largest producer of carrageen products (food
stabilizers). Much of the sea moss comes from the Maritime Provinces of
Canada. Little organized harvesting is done in Maine. Other related
industries are boat-building and repair, trap mills, shellfish transporters,
lobster cooperatives, and seafood wholesalers and retailers.
Aquaculture. Aquaculture and its commercial potential has received much
attention on the Maine coast following the efforts of several groups (Gaucher
1971) to stimulate experimental work. Emphasis was placed on the salmonid
fishes and oysters (Crassostrea virginica and Ostrea edulis). Although more
than a hundred potential sites have been identified by the Maine State
Planning Office (1977) only about ten active commercial projects exist in the
characterization area. Descriptions of the feasibility and success of several
of these projects are given by Merrill (1978), Mant (1974), and Hidu (1974).
Forest industry. The availability of useful data on the harvest and
value of forest lands in the coastal zone varies considerably. About one-
quarter of the State's commercial forest land, or 8,383,500 acres (3,394,120
ha), is in the coastal counties. Over 8484 million board feet of sawtimber,
pole timber, and other materials were produced in the coastal counties in
1974. The Maine Bureau of Forestry estimates that the annual value of
stumpage is approximately $245/acre in coastal Maine.
The forest industry owns 110,847 acres (44,610 ha) of land in Washington
County, which constitutes 23% of the county's coastal land. This land is owned
by five companies. In Hancock County, the only other coastal county in Maine
with a large area of forest industry-owned land, only 3.7% of the total land
in coastal towns is controlled by forest companies. Small woodlot owners
(<1900 acres; 770 ha) possess more commercial forest land than forest
companies possess. The only data on small woodlot ownership are from
Washington County, where about 34% or 163,300 acres (66,127 ha) of the coastal
towns are in small woodlots .
Despite the fact that only a relatively small portion of commercial forest
land is located in the coastal zone, the economic impact of the industry on
the coast is substantial. In Washington County, harvesting is a major source
2-58
of employment for the population. Accurate data on the extent of harvesting
operations are unavailable, partly due to the diversity of ownership. The
only major forest-product processing plant in the coastal zone is located in
Bucksport, and employs more than 1100 people. Plants in Westbrook, Topsham,
and Baileyville, which are located outside the coastal zone, employ residents
of the coastal zone. In addition, environmental impacts of processing plants
affect areas downstream and downwind in the coastal zone.
Forest products in the coastal zone are also used in lumber mills, lobster
trap mills, Christmas trees and wreaths, and related products. No data are
available on the extent of these uses. Chapter 19, "Commercial Forest Types,"
contains further information on forestry; chapter 9, "The Forest System," and
chapter 3, "Human Impacts on the Ecosystem," include discussions of the
effects of existing forestry activities on the environment.
Agriculture industry. Agriculture is a relatively small industry in
coastal Maine. Less than 10% of the land in the coastal zone is used for
farming. The percentage of land used for farming varies from 1.5% in Hancock
County to 13 . 7% of the coastal townships in regions 3 and 4. The market value
of farm products has been increasing in recent years. The size of the 3100
farms in coastal Maine in 1974 averaged 183 acres (74 ha). The gross farm
income was $241 million in 1974. The percentage of land used for farming has
decreased sharply during the past 30 years. In Washington County the number
of farms decreased from 591 with 160,898 acres (64,359 ha) in 1964 to 277
farms with 88,000 acres (35,200 ha) in 1974. The number of active farms
(cropland) in the county in 1979 was only 37, occupying 414 acres (166 ha;
personal communication from Richard Howard, U.S. Soil Conservation Service,
Machias, ME; March, 1979).
Agriculture in the coastal zone includes harvested crops (grain, vegetables,
potatoes, blueberries, orchard fruit, and hay) and livestock pasture. The
market value for farm production in the coastal counties of Maine in 1974 was
approximately $71 million. Blueberry agriculture in Hancock and Washington
Counties is important both in terms of crop yield and processing value. The
blueberry industry operates only during summer but is a significant part of
the coastal economy in regions 5 and 6. Based on the 1977 season, the value
of the blueberry crop in the coastal towns of Washington and Hancock Counties
was estimated to be $2.9 million. Chapter 10, "Agricultural and Developed
Land" presents further information on agricultural land, including acreages of
agricultural land and acreages of land occupied by individual crops.
Mineral industry. Mineral production on the coast, primarily in the form
of sand and gravel for building construction and roads, was valued at about
$37 million in 1975 and $42 million in 1977 (U.S. Department of the Interior
1978). In 1975, 9,875,000 short tons of gravel and sand were removed for
construction purposes. The islands and coastal areas were once famous for
quarrying of building stone, but most of these quarries have been abandoned,
with the exception of open pit mines of limestone in Thomaston (region 4) and
Portland (region 1). The most recent active copper mining operation (Blue
Hill, region 5) was closed in 1977 as prices for copper and zinc dropped.
Peat has been mined in coastal Maine, primarily in regions 5 and 6. In 1975,
4000 short tons of peat were removed at a value of $207,000. Peat harvesting
is expected to increase in the future. Reports are available describing the
size of the potential peat reserves in Hancock and Washington Counties
2-59
10-80
(regions 5 and 6 5 Cameron 1975; Cameron and Massey 1978). Atlas map 3
illustrates the location of surveyed peat resources in coastal Maine.
Recreation industry. Recreation forms an important part of coastal
Maine's economy. An estimated 6 million tourists enter Maine in a typical
year whereas the resident population is only 1 million. Tourists use the
coastal beaches, camping areas, and town recreation facilities.
Tourism and summer residency have long been an important part of the Maine
coastal economy. The only attempt to estimate the summer population was made
in 1972 by the Public Affairs Research Center (PARC) at Bowdoin College. The
study used 1970 U.S. census data and made the following assumptions: (1) that
all available accomodations were full; (2) that not all sleeping
establishments were known; and (3) that overlaps occurred in counts of
fleeping and eating establishments. This capacity, also known as peak
seasonal population, was an estimate of the capacity of each town to support
tourists. Estimates by the Maine State Planning Office (personal
communication from R. Sherwood, Maine State Planning Office, Augusta, ME;
February, 1979) indicate that an increase in seasonal population of 4.5% has
occurred since the PARC report of 1972. Data from the PARC study show the
differences in winter and summer populations by coastal regions. In general,
the summer population grows by 47% in the characterization area, from a low of
11% in region 1 to 175% in region 5 (table 2-13).
Thirty-six state parks and 19 memorial parks are present along the coast, 14
of which are developed and supervised and three of which have camping grounds
(atlas map 3). The Maine Bureau of Parks and Recreation (St. Pierre 1978)
cites 19 beaches from Cape Elizabeth to Lubec that are significant
recreationally (table 2-14). These facilities received over one million
visitors (day use) in 1976, doubling the day use of coastal State parks since
1965. Other campgrounds along the coast also have experienced rapid growth.
For example, Acadia National Park, Maine's only federally administered park,
recorded 2.7 million visits in 1976, a 23% increase in 10 years.
The traditionally popular coastal communities for summer tourists in the
characterization area include Boothbay Harbor, the Penobscot Bay area, and Bar
Harbor. Many of these areas were the sites of large hotels built during the
latter 19th century. These hotels have been replaced over time by motels,
cottages, and camping vehicles.
The Maine coastline ranks among the highest in the nation in terms of private
ownership of coastline with least public access. The actual amount of private
and public ownership varies according to definitions of private, public, and
"quasi public" lands. Shore land defined as public amounts to 139 miles (222
km) or 3.5% of the total on an acreage basis. The Maine State Planning Office
(1978) maintains that if quasipublic lands, or those held privately by
conservation groups that allow public benefit, were included, the figure might
reach 4.1% of the total. Nevertheless, the available land open for public use
and access is considerably less because of restrictive controls. Locations
of quasi-public, State, municipal, and Federal lands are shown on atlas map 3.
2-60
Table 2-13. Winter and Summer Populations in Regions of Coastal Maine
in 1970a
Region
Winter
Summer
Percentage
population
population
(peak seasonal)
increase
Region 1
120,000
133,000
11
Region 2
62,000
107,000
73
Region 3-4
40,000
62,000
55
(exclud
ing
Bangor-
Brewer
areas)
Region 5
25,000
69,000
175
Region 6
23,000
33,000
43
'Public Affairs Research Center 1972.
Table 2-14. Significant Recreational Beaches of the Characterization Area1
Beach
Municipality
Ownership
Accessibility
Crescent
Willard
Andrews
Little Chebeague
Seawall
Popham-Hunnewell
Re id
Pemaquid
Lincolnville
Pond Island
Sand
Sandy River
Roque Island
Roque Bluffs
Cape Elizabech
South Portland
Portland
Portland
Phippsburg
Phippsburg
Georgetown
Bristol
Lincolnville
Brooksville
Bar Harbor
Jonesport
Jonesport
Roque Bluffs
State
Municipal
State
State
Private
Private/State
State
Municipal
Private/Mun.
Private
Federal
Private
Private
State
Public
Public
Public (limited)
Public (limited)
Limited
Public
Public
Public
Public
Public
Public
Limited
Public (limited)
Public
St. Pierre 1978.
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10-80
Sport fishing, hunting, and trapping. The magnitude and value of sport
fishing and hunting are difficult to assess in coastal Maine, as hunting
harvest data specific to the characterization area are not collected and no
data on sport fishing are available.
A total of 231,542 hunting licenses were purchased in Maine in 1978.
Approximately 198,000 of these were sold to residents. No information is
available on the number of hunters utilizing the coastal zone. Information on
harvest of the game species of mammals is presented in chapter 17,
"Terrestrial Mammals."
Duck stamps are required of all waterfowl hunters over 16 years of age.
Current duck stamp sales in Maine average near 18,000. Another 1800 to 2500
persons under 16 also hunt ducks, which brings the total to 20,000 duck
hunters. The total recreation days enjoyed by waterfowl hunters approximates
100,000 annually in Maine. More than 75% of the annual harvest of waterfowl
in Maine occurs in the coastal counties. In coastal Maine, waterfowl hunters
generate about $2.75 million annually. Waterfowl harvest data in coastal
Maine are presented in chapter 15, "Waterfowl."
Statistics on salt water sport fishing are extremely difficult to obtain, as
no Federal or State licensing is required for this activity. According to the
Maine Department of Transportation (1977), a significant recreational fishery
exists in the Maine coastal zone. Twenty-seven vessels are registered as
carrying passengers for purposes such as saltwater sport fishing. These are
located primarily in Portland (region 1), Boothbay Harbor (region 2), Bar
Harbor (region 5), and Eastport (region 6). A much larger number of persons
fish from small private boats and bridges during times of active runs of
mackerel and bluefish.
During the period from 1968 to 1971, an average of 240,512 fishing licenses
were purchased in Maine, 145,678 of which were resident licenses. The
Atlantic salmon fishery, one of the most valuable in Maine, was nearly
destroyed in the recent past but is now being restored in a number of coastal
rivers (see chapter 11, "Fishes").
Approximately 4200 recreational trapping licenses were purchased in the State
in 1978. Information on the harvesting of the furbearer species in the
coastal zone is presented in chapter 17, "Terrestrial Mammals."
Economy. Employment figures (Maine State Planning Office 1978) record
only employees covered under the Federal Insurance Compensation Act. Because
of the provisions of this Act, fishery and agricultural employees are
underestimated and self-employed individuals are not included in the figures.
The earliest period of Maine's economy, beginning in 1600, was closely tied to
the development of natural resources, both for subsistence agriculture and
fishing, and, more importantly, for the export of raw resources of timber,
fur, and fish. Fish was the major export in the 17th century, followed by
white pine lumber for spars and masts for the Royal Navy. These uses of
natural resources paved the way for the subsequent development of industry,
when another coastal Maine resource, falling water, was harnessed during the
industrial revolution to provide inexpensive energy.
2-62
Most of Maine's industrial manufacturing has been concentrated in six major
industries. These are textiles, lumber and wood, transportation equipment,
food, paper, and leather. All of these industries began in the 19th century
and with the exception of leather experienced their greatest growth by 1930.
This maturing of the industries came about because of changing markets,
interregional competition, the depletion of raw resources, higher costs of
energy and transportation, and aging facilities. As a result, Maine's
employment has not kept pace with its population growth.
The coastal economy closely parallels that of the State as a whole. No
comprehensive studies exist on the economy of the coast as a distinct region.
Colgan (1979) has conducted a preliminary examination of the coastal economy
using data from State agencies. The coastal economy began to decline
following the Civil War, when the population growth rate declined and market
demand for natural resources, such as granite, salt, ice, and some farm
products, was altered by increased use of cement and refrigeration and by
competition from markets elsewhere.
The railroad and the steamship contributed to the growth of tourism which
became one of the most important elements of the coastal economy. Bar Harbor
(region 5), Rockport (region 4), Boothbay (region 2), and Portland (region 1),
all thrived as resort areas. Tourism grew rapidly after 1920, when the
automobile increased access to coastal peninsulas that rail service had not
reached.
The coastal economy was almost wholly built upon natural resources, which
were, for the most part, renewable and plentiful. These resources include
water, fisheries, wood, and minerals. The decline in Maine's industry that
began after the Civil War continued until World War II. The availability of
resources that were transported more easily and the decreased demand for
natural resources contributed to the decline of the coastal economy. For
example, in 1900 the demand for raw timber and lumber (which were exported
through the coast) declined and the demand for paper products increased. When
paper mills were built they were located inland, closer to the pulpwood
resource. Only the St. Regis Paper Company in Bucksport remained on the
coast. The shift in demand away from certain resources (e.g., granite, ice,
salt, and farm products) resulted in a greater dependence on fishing, tourism,
energy generation, and, to a lesser extent, manufacturing.
After World War II a trend toward trade and service and away from
manufacturing began on the coast. During this period the trade industry
became the largest employer and manufacturing fell to second place.
Presently, the trade sector is the largest employer in the coastal zone
(45,622 or 31.8%; table 2-15). Manufacturing industries now employ 25% of the
employed persons in the coastal zone.
2-63
10-80
Table 2-15. Employment Figures by Source of Income in Coastal
Maine in 1977
Sources of income
Number employed
Percentage
Primary
883
0.6
AgForFish
672
0.4
Mining
131
0.1
Construction
8353
5.8
Manufacturing
36,830
25.6
Food
5481
3.8
Textiles /Leather
10,512
7.3
Forest products
3378
2.3
Printing
2112
1.4
Chemical/Petroleum
1322
0.9
Stone, Clay, Glass
516
0.4
Primary metals
40
0.1
Metals/Machinery
11,667
8.1
Miscellaneous
653
0.4
Transport /Utilities
6656
4.6
Transportat ion
4347
3.0
Commun icat ions
830
0.5
Utilities
1935
1.3
Trade
45,622
31.8
Wholesale
10,505
7.3
Retail
35,117
24.4
b
FIRE
9573
6.6
Services
34,710
24.1
Tourism
15,055
10.4
Six major industries
22,498
15.7
'Colgan 1979.
FIRE- finance, insurance, and real estate.
2-64
The forest products industry is the third largest employer. Data (table 2-15)
do not include fishermen, timber workers, or farmers. However, Colgan (1979)
estimates that there are 14,000 full-time fishermen in coastal Maine, which
constitutes 10% of those employed. Additional data on numbers of fishermen
are given in C. E. Maguire, Inc. (1978). The trade, services, and tourism
industries in the coastal zone grew in terms of number of persons employed
between 1973 and 1977 (Colgan 1979). The average wage for employed persons in
coastal Maine was $9150 in 1977 (Colgan 1979) . Unemployment in the coastal
counties averaged 8.5% in 1976.
Transportation. Rail and air transport maps show existing routes and air
terminals (figure 2-29). There are five airports on the coast, with air
taxi services available to other smaller airports. No air service exists east
of Bar Harbor.
Portland, Searsport, and Bangor are the three major marine cargo ports in
coastal Maine. Five others are considered minor (see figure 2-29). During
the period between 1970 and 1975, the amount of cargo handled at Maine coastal
ports decreased by 7% (table 2-16)
Population. The first major settlements in Maine began along the
southern coast and spread gradually northward and eastward. By 1790 most
parts of the coast were sparsely settled and by 1860 the coastal towns were
well established. The populations of many Maine communities began to decline
by 1900 as colonization in the United States shifted westward. The overall
State population continued to grow during that period (figure 2-30) but less
rapidly after 1860. During the period between 1880 and 1970, Maine grew at an
average annual rate (0.4%) that was less than New England ( 1 . 4%) and the U.S.
as a whole (1.8%; Maine State Planning Office 1978).
Although no early coastal population data have been assembled at the county
level, an approximation of trends (figure 2-32) can be made. Washington and
Hancock Counties showed rapid growth from 1840 to 1860, during the boom in
shipbuilding, lumber and timber, quarrying, and fishing. Their populations
peaked between 1880 and 1900 and began to decline thereafter. This rise,
peak, and decline is best exemplified by Washington County but probably
occurred in most coastal counties at an earlier time.
Each county has begun a population increase following the decline that
occurred in this century. Washington County has been the last to follow in
this trend, with noticeable increases beginning there in 1970 (Bureau of
Census 1970) . Many coastal towns had much larger populations during the early
phases of the industrial age and are now, some hundred years later,
considerably smaller in population.
The Maine coast has an average population density of about 65 persons/sq mi
according to 1974 data. The range of densities in each region varies from
about 540 persons/sq mi in region 1 to about 35 persons/sq mi in region 6
(table 2-17). The range of coastal densities by town varies from 3400
persons/sq mi in metropolitan Portland (region 1) to 0.45 persons/sq mi in
Centerville in region 6. The ten most densely populated towns in the coastal
regions are listed in table 2-18.
2-65
10-80
Coastal population projections were made available by the State Planning
Office (1978) for the coastal counties (table 2-19). Since these projections
include the slower-growing and declining urban areas, the possible rapid
growth expected in smaller coastal towns is partially obscured. Although data
in table 2-19 show a projected growth rate for Hancock, Sagadahoc, and York
Counties of 7% between 1977 and 1980 and 4% from 1980 to 1982, Keeley (1979)
states that Hancock County is expected to grow by 8% between 1980 and 1990.
Portland, however, with slower urban growth, may increase only 1% or less
during this period.
According to population estimates between 1970 and 1975, the coastal counties
grew 7.3%, whereas growth for the State as a whole was only 5.5% (Maine State
Planning Office 1978). Recent data developed by Ploch (1976) appear to show a
definite trend of "in-migration" for the coast and inland areas. This group
is composed of young formerly urban residents, older retired persons, and
some natives of all ages who are returning to their home towns.
Land use. The terrestrial habitat of coastal Maine is dominated by
forests (86% of land area) and includes developed land (10%) and agricultural
land (4%). Atlas map 2 identifies land cover in coastal Maine, but
measurements of the extent of the habitat types are not available. Land use
varies regionally. In region 1, 28% of the land cover sampled was developed
land and 15% was residential (Cohen 1979). In regions 3 and 4, 10% of the
land was developed and 5% was residential (Cobb 1979). In region 5, 15% was
developed and 6% was residential (Keeley 1979). No data are available for the
other regions.
A projected land-use plan for the Portland area includes the seven coastal
towns in region 1. In region 1, 17% of the undeveloped land will be developed
by the year 2000 (Cohen 1979). In all, 43% of the land will be developed in
coastal towns in this region by that year.
Fresh water supply. The recent survey report on water supply in the
coastal zone (Caswell and Ludwig 1977) examines conditions in each coastal
town, describes water supply and quality problems, and projects further
demand. Demand is based on population growth, building starts, and increases
in numbers of commercial-industrial water users. Sources of potable water
exist throughout the coastal zone, often within town limits. Deterioration of
water quality due to artificial contamination is probably the single greatest
water supply problem in the coastal zone. The presence of algae, color,
turbidity, and coliform bacteria are typical indicators of this contamination.
Salt water intrusion, road salt, heavy metals, and petroleum products have
seriously affected local drinking supplies. Regional areas cited as problem
areas are Boothbay-Bristol , Western Penobscot-Belfast , and Milbridge. These
areas may be forced to turn to inland sources in the future.
Socioeconomic research needs. Much socioeconomic data on Maine are
available, but its form is not useful in evaluating the socioeconomic status
of coastal Maine as a distinct area. Many data categories (i.e., income,
value of products, employment, resource amount and value) are available only
at County aggregate levels, not at town or municipal levels.
Data were unavailable or aggregated at unusable levels for many resource
categories of which the following are examples:
2-66
1. Forestry: reporting areas too large, data old, hard to separate
coastal from inland data
2. Firewood use, value, and demand expectations
3. Gravel and sand: location, value, amount
4. Agricultural: coastal crops, value, accurate amounts (acreage) of
productive crop land
5. Fisheries: sport fish (salt water, migratory, and estuarine) , finfish
values by area caught and landed
6. Wildlife: accurate trap-tag data by species and town
7. Fresh water: fresh groundwater amounts for coastal areas.
All data based on the population census of 1970 are estimates and in some
cases are thought to be in error. This is especially true in Washington
County, where the 1970 census showed gains in the populations of nearly all
the towns after 70 years of losses. Information on net migration and the
growth of the coastal towns by in-migration is lacking and is of major
importance.
With the exception of Washington County, existing land-use data appear to be
available for the coastal zone, although the data are not comparable from
region to region. Projections for future demand of various uses and the
pattern or trend of these developments are lacking for regions 2 to 6.
No data are available on the numbers of people using recreation facilities or
the amount of money spent at nonsupervised, private or quasi public
facilities. Similar data are lacking for recreational boating and fishing.
2-67
10-80
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1800
1850
1900
1950
YEARS
Figure 2-30.
Population trends in Maine and in several coastal counties
between 1790 and 1980 (1980 estimated; Bureau of Census
1970; and iMaine State Planning Office 1978).
2-69
10-80
Table 2-16. Total Waterborne Commerce (short tons) and Percentage of
Change Between 1970 and 1975 in Coastal Maine3
Port
Short tons
1975
Percentage change
1970 to 1975
Portland Harbor
Penobscot River
(Bangor-Brewer-Bucksport)
Searsport Harbor
Lubec Channel
Eastport Harbor
Rockland Harbor
Stonington Harbor
Kennebec River
(Bath-Gardiner-Augusta)
All others
Total
27,
,565
,807
1.
,667
,833
1.
,365
,860
38
,083
19
,721
17
,760
4863
1985
29,899
30,694,051
-8
-7
+35
+38
+9
-41
-46
-40
-49
-7
Maine Department of Transportation 1977.
2-70
Table 2-17. Population Density (persons/sq mi) and Total
Population Size (Sq mi) in Maine Reeions in 1974a
Region
Size (sq mi)
Population
Density/sq mi
Region 1
Region 2
Region 3
Region 4
Region 5
Region 6
240
455
310
735
605
580
130,000
72,000
18,200
91,200
25,000
21.000
540
160
60
115
40
35
Maine State Planning Office 1978,
Table 2-1*
City
Population Density in Major Towns and Cities of Coastal
Maine in 1974a.
Size (sq mi)
Population
Persons/sq mi
Portland
South Portland
Bath
Bangor
Randolph
Rockland
Brewer
Cape Elizabeth
Eastport
Hallowtll
19
13
10
35
2
13
15
15
5
6
65,000
23,000
9990
33,000
2000
8800
9300
8000
2200
2700
3400
1700
1000
950
940
680
615
570
480
470
Maine State Planning Office 1978.
2-71
10-80
Table 2-19. Projected Population Sizes for the Coastal Counties in
1977, 1980, and 1982 and Percentage of Population Gaina
County
No. of
persons
1977
No. of
persons
1980
% pop .
gain
No. of
persons
1982
% pop.
gain
Cumberland
205,700
211,000
3
213,700
.1
Hancock
40,700
43,500
7
45,300
4
Kennebec
103,200
106,500
3
108,200
0.1
Knox
33,300
35,200
6
36,400
3
Lincoln
23,900
25,400
6
26,300
3
Sagadahoc
27,300
29,100
7
30,200
4
Waldo
27,400
29,300
7
30,400
4
Washington
33,600
35,200
5
36,200
3
York
126,000
132,300
5
136,200
3
Total
621,100
647,500
4
662,900
2
State total
1,080,900
1,117,100
2
1,137,200
1
*Maine State Planning Office (1978 )
2-72
REFERENCES
Bennett, I. 1959. Glaze, Its Meteorology and Climatology, Geographical
Distribution, and Economic Effects. Tech. Rep. EP-105. U.S. Army
Quartermaster Research and Engineering Center, Natick, MA.
Bloom, A.L. 1963. Late Pleistocene fluctuations of sea level and postglacial
crustal rebound in coastal Maine. Am. J. Sci . 261:862-879.
Bureau of Census. 1970. Census of Population, U.S. Department of Commerce,
Washington, DC.
Bushnell, T. M. 1942. Some aspects of the soil catena concept. Proc. Soil
Sci. Soc. Am. 7:466-476.
Cameron, C. C. 1975. Some peat deposits in Washington and southeastern
Aroostook Counties, Maine. U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 1317-C.
, and W. D. Massey. 1978. Some peat deposits in northern Hancock
County. Open File Report 15 pp. U.S. Geological Survey, Augusta, ME.
Caswell, W. B. 1977. Ground Water Guidebook for the State of Maine. Open
File Report. Maine Geological Survey, Augusta, ME.
, and S. Ludwig. 1977. Maine Coastal Zone Water Supply and Demand.
Survey Rep. Maine Geological Society, Augusta, ME.
C. E. Maguire, Inc. 1978. Towards a Fisheries Development Strategy for
Maine. Maine Department of Marine Resources, Augusta, ME.
Cobb, W. 1979. Socioeconomic Characterization of Coastal Knox and Waldo
Counties. New England Coastal Oceanographic Group, Cutler, ME.
Cohen, J. 1979. Socioeconomic Characterization of Coastal Cumberland County.
New England Coastal Oceanographic Group, Cutler, ME.
Colgan, C. S. 1979. The Structure and Dynamics of the Maine Coastal Economy.
Maine State Planning Office. Augusta, ME. In preparation.
Doyle, R. G. 1967. Preliminary Geologic Map of Maine. Maine Geological
Survey, Augusta, ME.
Gaucher, T. A., ed. 1971. Aquaculture: New England Perspective. New
England Marine Resources Information Program and The Research Institute of
the Gulf of Maine (TRIGOM) , South Portland, ME.
Grant, D. R. 1968. Recent submergence in Nova Scotia and Prince Edward
Island, Canada. Geol. Surv. Can. Pap. 68:162-164.
Goldthwait, L. G. 1949. Clay Survey - 1948. Pages 63-69 in Report of the
State Geologist, 1947-48. Maine Development Committee, Augusta, ME.
Hicks, S. D. 1972. On the classification and trends of Long Period sea level
Series. Shore and Beach:20-23.
2-73
10-80
Hidu, H. 1974. Co-operative oyster mariculture in Maine Renewable Marine
Resources Forum, Maine Maritimes Academy, Castine, ME.
Hurst, J., and R. L. Dow. 1972. Renewable resource problems of heavy metal
mining in coastal Maine. Nat. Fisherman 52(10).
Keeley, D. 1979. Socioeconomic Characterization of Coastal Hancock County.
New England Coastal Oceanographic Group, Cutler, ME.
Lautzenheiser , R. E. 1969. Snowfall, Snowfall Frequencies, and Snow Cover
Data for New England. Tech. Mem. EDSTM-12. U.S. Department of Commerce
Environmental Data Service, Silver Spring, MD.
. 1972. Climate of Maine. Climatography of the United States. No. 60-
17. U. S. Department of Commerce. Asheville, NC.
Maine Department of Marine Resources. 1955-1976. Maine Landings; 1955-1976.
U.S. Department of Commerce. Washington, DC.
. 1976. Statewide Comprehensive Lobster Management Plan. Augusta, ME.
. 1977. Maine Fisheries Values, 1976 preliminary summary. Augusta, ME.
Maine Department of Transportation. 1977. Maine Port Development Study Phase
1. Augusta, ME.
Maine State Planning Office. 1977. Maine Coastal Inventory Handbook.
Augusta, ME.
. 1978. The Maine Coast; A Statistical Source. Augusta, ME.
Mant, R. 1974. Callahan, Maine - aquaculture project. In Maine Renewable
Marine Resources Forum. Maine Maritime Academy, Castine, ME.
Merrill, S. 1978. Suitability of the Passamaquoddy Bay Area for Marine
Salmonid Culture. Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Canada. St.
Andrews, New Brunswick, Canada.
Ploch, L. A. 1976. Maine's New Pattern of In-migration. University of Maine
at Orono, Orono, ME.
Public Affairs Research Center (PARC). 1972. Seasonal Population Projections
for Maine. Bowdoin College, Brunswick, ME.
Rourke, R. V., J. A. Ferwerda, and K. J. Laflamme. 1972. The Soils of Maine,
rev. ed. Maine Agric. Exp. Stn. Misc. Pub. 676.
Sanger, F. J. 1963. Computations of Frost in the Ground. J. Maine Water
Utilities Association.
Schlee, J., and R. M. Pratt. 1970. Atlantic continental shelf and slope of
the United States, gravels of the northeastern part. U.S. Geol. Surv.
Prof. Pap. 529-H.
2-74
Schnitker, D. 1972. History of sedimentation in Montsweag Bay. Maine Geol.
Surv. Bull. No. 25.
1974. Postglacial emergence of the Gulf of Maine: Geol. Soc. Am.
Bull. 85:491-494.
St. Pierre, J. A. 1978. Maine's Coastal Sand Beaches: Recreation and
Conservation. Maine Bureau of Parks and Recreation, Department of
Conservation, Augusta, ME.
Stuiver, M. , and H. W. Borns, Jr. 1975. Late Quaternary marine invasion in
Maine: its chronology and associated crustal movement. Geol. Soc. Am..
Bull. 86:99-104.
Thompson, W. B. 1977. Surficial Geology Handbook for Coastal Maine. Open
File Report. Maine Geological Survey, Augusta, ME.
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Planning Office, Augusta, ME.
, and D. Kale. 1977. Maine shoreline erosion inventory. Open File
Report. Maine Geological Survey, Augusta, ME.
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First Coast Guard District, Boston, MA.
U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA). Irregular. Climatography of the United States, No. 20-17.
Asheville, NC.
. 1963-1976. Climatological Data, Annual Summary, New England.
Asheville, NC.
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Cooling Degree days 1941-1970. Climatography of the United States. No.
81. Asheville, NC.
. 1977a. Climate of Maine. Climatography of the United States, No. 60-
17. Asheville, NC.
._ 1977b. Local Climatological Data, Annual Summary with Comparative Data,
Portland, ME, 1976. Asheville, NC.
, Weather Bureau. 1963. Decimal Census of United States Climate -
Summary of Hourly Observations, Portland, ME. 1951-1960. Climatography of
the United States, No. 82-17. Silver Spring, MD.
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1976. Water Data Report ME-76-1. U.S. Geological Survey, Augusta, ME.
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2-75
10-80
t
t
Chapter 3
Human Impacts
on the Ecosystem
Authors: Stewart Fefer, Norman Famous, Lawrence Thornton, Peter LarsorW
Natural processes in the coastal zone interact with human activities, such as
(1) waste generation: release of solid, liquid and atmospheric waste into the
system; (2) habitat modification: forest harvest and burning, and wetland
impoundment, draining, and filling; and (3) natural resource exploitation:
harvest of fish, wildlife, and vegetation. These alterations of the
ecosystem set off complex and often detrimental environmental reactions. For
example, alterations of surface water flow by people, trigger chain reactions
that affect water supply, water quality, and fish and wildlife populations and
habitats. Some key interactions are highlighted in table 3-1. Additional and
more specific information can be found throughout the characterization,
including the atlas. For example, impacts on a species or group of species,
such as waterbirds, fish, or terrestrial mammals, are enlarged upon in
chapters 14, 11, and 17 respectively.
Most human impacts on the Maine coast are localized (e.g., contamination of
shellfish beds and modification of habitats by dams, roads, and other
facilities). However, the effects of some human activities are widespread and
are difficult both to measure (e.g., acid rain and cumulative impacts) and to
control. These may threaten the ecosystem in the future.
The purpose of this chapter is to alert the reader to potential environmental
problems on the Maine coast. It describes these problems and, in some cases,
suggest options for their solution, so that the integrity of the coastal
ecosystem can be maintained or improved by informed decisions in coastal
management.
State and Federal regulations are in effect to control or offset the adverse
environmental impacts of human activities. A summary of these regulations and
their enforcement is included at the end of this chapter.
For the most part, data on the threats to the coastal habitats of Maine are
based on findings or reports from other coastal states, since such data on
Maine are unavailable.
3-1
10-80
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3-2
COMMERCIAL FISHERIES
Excepting local harvest of eels and alewives in the riverine system,
commercial fishing in coastal Maine occurs only in the estuarine and marine
systems. Harvesting and processing of finfish and shellfish cause local and
regional ecological problems, through waste generation (from boats and
processing plants), habitat modification (piers, dockside facilities, and
processing plants), and reduction of populations.
Processing fish produces waste that may contaminate local intertidal flats and
the water column. Thirty-four fish-processing plants in coastal Maine possess
waste water discharge permits (regulated by Maine Department of Environmental
Protection as of March, 1979; see atlas map 3). The impacts of water
pollution are discussed below under "Population and Industry."
Commercial fish harvest, particularly the mechanized harvesting of scallops
and mussels, worm and clam digging, and lobster impounding, modifies the
marine and estuarine habitats and populations. Mechanized scallop harvesting
equipment traps and crushes benthic invertebrates in the trawls used to drag
for scallops. Drags also resuspend bottom sediments and nutrients, which
increases water turbidity, and results in (1) reduced light penetration, (2)
the smothering of benthic invertebrates, and, occasionally, (3) excessive
nutrient enrichment of surface waters. Worm and clam digging disrupt
intertidal flats and expose invertebrates to dessication, freezing, predation,
and physical damage. These effects may be most severe in winter when many
invertebrates burrow to deeper depths to escape the harsh surface conditions.
Impoundments for the storage of lobsters may (1) result in the loss of
intertidal habitats, (2) obstruct fish passage, and (3) alter sedimentation
patterns .
Commercial fish harvest may disturb seal breeding areas, seabird breeding
sites, and bald eagle nesting sites. "Marine Mammals," chapter 13,
"Waterbirds," chapter 14, and "Terrestrial Birds," chapter 16, discuss the
effects of human disturbance of breeding locations on reproductive success.
Fish weirs and stop seines may trap marine mammals (especially whales; see
chapter 13, "Marine Mammals"). Fish seines also may entrap and drown diving
seabirds. (No data are available on this problem in Maine but it has been
documented elsewhere.)
Fish piers, breakwaters, boat launches, and docks constructed by the fishing
industry have ecological impacts. These are discussed below under "Port and
Navigation." Certain harbors that are important in commercial fishing (e.g.,
Alley's Bay in region 6) are maintained through dredging operations, that have
adverse ecological effects (see "Port and Navigation" below, and atlas map 3).
Stocks of shrimp, haddock, sturgeon, and other fishes, are currently low in
comparison to historic numbers. Declines in abundance are often unnoticeable
statistically (e.g., through catch trend analysis) until the decline has
reached an advanced stage. Intensified fishing efforts and utilization of
more selective equipment tend to counterbalance catch shortages temporarily.
3-3
10-80
FORESTRY
The forest industry harvests and manages forests and processes wood products.
These activities generate waste (e.g., slash on site and effluents from
processing plants) and modify habitats (e.g., clear cutting and use of
herbicides). The forest industry primarily affects the terrestrial,
lacustrine, palustrine, and riverine systems; although the estuarine system is
affected locally by waste products from paper mills and wood products
industries (i.e., mills along the Presumpscot, St. Croix, and Penobscot
Rivers) and by receiving wastes that originate upstream.
Harvesting practices employed in Maine are discussed in chapter 19,
"Commercially Important Trees." Two major methods are employed: uneven-aged
management and clearcutting. Uneven-aged management employs a selective
harvest system, removing only selected, mature trees that normally would be
lost through natural mortality. This harvest system is best for regenerating
shade-tolerant tree species, because it maintains a closed canopy at all
times. Selective harvest usually does little damage to forest systems. Some
disturbance of the forest floor and understory vegetation by machinery and
road construction does take place, however. These disturbances could affect
threatened and rare forest plants (see chapter 20, "Endangered, Threatened,
and Rare Plants"). Opening the forest canopy may affect songbird density and
the species composition of wildlife (see chapters 16 to 18). Streams and
palustrine wetlands may be affected adversely by road construction, which
increases siltation and alters drainage patterns.
Clearcutting severely alters water and nutrient cycles, interrupting patterns
of productivity, biomass accumulation, decomposition, and mineralization.
Removal of the forest canopy increases solar radiation, raising soil and water
temperatures. Removal of trees curtails transpiration, thereby reducing the
rate at which water is removed from the soil and temporarily raising the water
table. Higher soil temperature and moisture levels promote accelerated
nitrification and decomposition of litter, which releases more nutrients into
the available nutrient pool. The forest vegetation no longer participates in
the flow of water through the systems, resulting in increased losses of water
to streamflow and higher peak runoff during storms. Increased runoff
aggravates the erodibility of the forest floor, which increases particulate
matter and nutrient loss in the local ecosystem. A detailed discussion of
the effects of wood harvesting on the nutrient cycle of a forest in New
Hampshire can be found in chapter 9, "The Forest System." Quantitative data
on Maine's forests are unavailable, but the results of the New Hampshire study
are generally applicable to coastal Maine.
The extent to which forest systems are affected by harvesting depends on the
care with which logging is carried out. Excessive disturbance of the forest
floor and residual understory vegetation by heavy machinery exposes the soil
to erosion and thereby delays forest regeneration. Threatened and rare forest
plants can be affected severely by clearcutting, especially if site-
preparation techniques are employed (i.e., bulldozing, burning, or use of
herbicides). Improperly placed roads can stimulate excessive (and avoidable)
erosion and cause soil compaction. Cutting too close to streams may cause
erosion of banks and exposes stream surfaces to the sun, which increases water
temperature. Significant changes in species composition (e.g., fish and
insects) in streams as a result of forest clearcutting and agricultural
3-4
activities have been documented in New Brunswick (Welch et al. 1977). Areas
that have been clearcut may be distant from a seed source needed for
regeneration (which is usually the case in Maine's spruce-fir stands; Frank
and Safford 1974). Cutting on steep slopes with shallow soils may lead to
erosion and delayed regeneration. The watershed approach to cutting patterns,
which allows only a certain portion of a watershed to be harvested at any one
time, is a wise method of management that can prevent serious downstream
impacts .
Negative effects of clearcutting practices on the lacustrine, palustrine, and
riverine systems include siltation, excessive nutrient enrichment, and changes
in water levels and/or water flow. The impacts of soil erosion, siltation,
and nutrient enrichment on coastal flora and fauna are discussed further below
under "Agriculture," "Water Pollution," and "Dredging."
Palustrine wetlands and small streams may be affected by the construction of
hauling roads and skid trails, which may alter surface runoff patterns.
During winter, skid trails of small logging operations often pass over open
and frozen bogs and emergent wetlands.
Skidding logs across streambeds , sphagnum bogs, and other wetlands disturbs
bottom sediments, which may result in downstream siltation. Cutting
vegetation immediately adjacent to streams has a similar effect. Skid trails
also disturb natural drainage patterns, altering stream flow and silt load.
Abandoned skid trails may continue to alter stream flows indefinitely if they
are not properly modified (e.g., cross-ditched) after active logging ceases.
Haul roads used to move wood to mills pose problems of drainage disturbance
and siltation similar to those caused by skid trails.
Maine rivers are affected adversely by bark and woody debris (from rafted logs
during historical log drives) that often cover the bottom and reduce
populations of invertebrates (important fish food) at least temporarily (Smith
1978; and Bond and DeRoche 1950). Decomposition of this material reduces
dissolved oxygen levels in bottom waters. Log debris also may block spawning
sites, interfering with trout and salmon reproduction. Under certain
conditions, log substrates provide fish cover and additional attachment sites
for invertebrates. This litter persists in streams where colder temperatures
(and faster moving water) slow decomposition. For example, the river bottom
and adjacent palustrine emergent wetlands along the East Machias River (region
6) are covered with undecayed logs, sawdust, and wood debris from saw mills
that were last active during the 1940s.
The removal of forests from coastal islands may affect eagles, ospreys, and
waterbirds that nest in trees (e.g., herons) or under trees (e.g., Leach's
storm petrels). Waterbirds nesting in open areas of forested islands may be
affected by the presence of wood cutters, tree-removal activities, and noise
during the breeding season. The effects of tree removal on eagles are
discussed further in chapter 14, "Terrestrial Birds," and its effects on
waterbirds are discussed in chapter 16, "Waterbirds." Culling of dead and
diseased trees may affect cavity-nesting species of waterfowl, terrestrial
birds, and mammals (see chapters 15, 16, and 17, "Waterfowl," "Terrestrial
Birds," and "Terrestrial Mammals," respectively).
3-5
10-80
Although growth exceeds removal of total growing stock, the growth-to-removal
ratios of merchantable northern white cedar, northern red oak, white ash,
yellow birch, white pine, sugar maple, and beech show over cutting. These
trends can be expected to continue because of the increased demand for
firewood. Projections of future timber supply show that if present removal
trends continue hardwood removals will exceed merchantable growth within 10
years, and softwood removals will exceed merchantable growth before the turn
of the century.
Old, mature trees are valuable to the forest system. The Maine State Planning
Office is currently evaluating existing stands of mature forests for
consideration as critical areas. Preserving mature forests helps perpetuate
an entire community of herbaceous species that do not tolerate repeated
disturbances, such as lumbering. Although trees are renewable natural
resources, replacement of very old trees requires many years, especially under
the conditions created by the short rotation (harvest) cycles currently
employed by the forest industry.
Clearcutting often results in the fragmentation of forests. The effects of
forest fragmentation on wildlife are not known fully. However, studies of
songbirds and mammals have shown that as the size of undisturbed habitats
(e.g., forests) decreases (1) the number of species dependent on those
habitats decreases, and (2) the number of species using only small areas of
those habitats decreases, also. For example, certain songbirds that inhabit
forest interiors in New Jersey and Maryland are not found in woodlots smaller
than 20 acres (8 ha), even though they may utilize only a few acres. This
relationship between species abundance and size of continuous habitat follows
island biogeography theory, which predicts that the number of species will
decrease as island size decreases or as distance from the mainland (major
population pool) increases. In terrestrial habitats on islands, large blocks
of continuous natural vegetation are analogous to the mainland.
Other practices associated with logging or regenerating the forest stands also
may affect the system. These include the spraying of herbicides and
pesticides and the piling and burning of slash. Herbicides are used in the
management of softwood (e.g., spruce-fir ) to kill deciduous trees, shrubs,
and herbaceous plants ( e.g., raspberry, cherry, birch, and aspen) that often
dominate clearcut sites for many years. These species prevail over the
commercially desirable softwood species at early serai stages in much of
Maine's forest land, and their dominance delays forest crop rotation.
Herbicides similarly affect endangered, threatened, and rare plant species.
Selective herbicides are used to kill these "weed" species when adequate
softwood regeneration is present or prior to planting softwood seedlings. The
long-term effect of removing these plants from regenerating forests is not
known. The effect of herbicides on the terrestrial system is discussed
further in chapter 9, "The Forest System."
Herbicides (through direct application and runoff) can affect riverine,
palustrine, and lacustrine systems by killing aquatic vegetation, changing
local aquatic habitats, and depleting oxygen (through the decomposition of the
dead material). Very high doses of herbicides can kill fish. The effects of
the relatively low amounts that are used currently by the forest industry are
unknown but do not produce observable effects.
3-6
The pesticides currently used in forest systems to control insect defoliators
(primarily the spruce budworm) , include Carbaryl or Sevine 1, Orthene, and
Dylox. These are short-lived and break down rapidly. Consequently, they do
not accumulate to toxic levels within food chains, as did some of the
persistent pesticides used in the past. DDT, a persistent pesticide, was used
in spruce budworm control in Maine from 1954 to 1967. Dylox is used primarily
near blueberry barrens along the coast, because of its low toxicity to
bumblebees, which pollinate blueberries. Orthene is used near lakes, ponds,
and rivers. Sevin has been used most extensively outside the coastal zone.
When used correctly at current concentration levels, these pesticides pose
little threat to the environment. The difficulties that do arise concerning
them are usually due to inadvertent overdosing, which results from drift
and/or imprecise positioning of aircraft during application.
No direct mortality among fish and birds has been reported for the above
chemicals at current spray levels in coastal Maine (Dube 1977). However,
significant deviations in acetylcholinesterase activity (an indicator of
nervous system functioning) have been documented in salmonids, creek chubs,
and suckers that have been subjected to Matacil, Sevin, Dylox, and Sumithion
respectively (Rabeni 1978). Nontarget insects may be killed by the spray, and
species that utilize insects as food, such as most birds, mammals, fish,
amphibians, and reptiles may be affected in this way. Reductions in standing
crops of invertebrates in Maine streams have been found after spraying with
DDT (Dimond 1967), Sumithion (Rabeni and Gibbs 1976), and Sevin (Courtemanch
and Gibbs 1977). Orthene and Sumithion also have been shown to affect
invertebrates by increasing drift (downstream displacement) , without causing a
detectable decrease in standing crop. Although these chemicals may not be
acutely toxic the effects of long-term exposure on reproduction and behavior
are unknown. The acute and chronic effects of forest spraying on songbirds
are discussed, in chapter 16, "Terrestrial Birds." The impact of pesticides
is also discussed below under "Agricultural Impacts."
The larger paper mills and, to a lesser extent, sawmills and wood products
industries are sources of air pollution and water pollution. Licenses are
required for operating these facilities and they are monitored by the Maine
Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) . The major water quality
problems associated with these operations are the discharge of heavy metals
(e.g., lead and copper) and organic materials. The effects of their waste
water effluent are described below under "Industry and Populations."
AGRICULTURE
Agricultural lands (croplands, pasture lands, and blueberry barrens) comprise
about 4% of the coastal zone. An additional 2% consists of abandoned
agricultural lands. Soil erosion and runoff from manure, fertilizers, and
pesticides sometimes pose ecological problems. According to
paleolimnological studies (Davis and Norton 1978) , agriculture has greater
effects on lakes in New England than any other activity. Agricultural
*■ Use of trade name does not imply government endorsement.
3-7
10-80
activities take place in areas that were formerly forests, barrens, or
wetlands .
Soil Erosion
High surface runoff from cleared agricultural land causes excessive erosion of
soil. Between 2000 and 7350 tons (1815 and 6670 t) of soil are eroded away
annually in each region of coastal Maine (U.S. Soil Conservation Service
1979). The most important factors causing soil erosion in Maine have been
identified as steepness and length of slope, poor rotation cycle, and
uphill/downhill cultivation (U.S. Soil Conservation 1979). Soil-type is
another contributing factor. Tolerable soil loss for Maine's soil, as
established by the Soil Conservation Service, is 3 tons (2.7 t)/acre/year .
Locally severe soil erosion problems are, however, possible at lower levels
than this. Knox and Lincoln Counties (regions 3 and 4) have the highest
average soil loss (12.8 tons; 12 t/acre/year) . Waldo County (region 4)
follows with 5.6 tons (5 t)/acre/year . Sagadahoc County (region 2) has an
average soil loss of 2.4 tons (2.1 t)/acre/year which is below tolerable
levels. Approximately half of the 2900 acres (810 ha) of cropland surveyed
for soil loss in the characterization area were above tolerable levels.
Eroded soil is deposited in streams, lakes, ponds, upland fields, and flood
plains. Two bodies of water in region 1 were found to receive approximately
30% of the total sediment that is in motion in their respective watersheds
during the year. Sediment carries pesticides and nutrients and excessive
sediment reduces water quality.
Excessive sediment deposits and turbidity can reduce the capacity of a pond or
stream to produce fish and other desirable aquatic organisms. Fish habitat
can be destroyed and juvenile fish can be killed by silt-laden water. Fine
sediment may clog the gills of finfish and other aquatic organisms. Turbid
water may affect the productivity of aquatic plants by reducing light
penetration. Silt deposits on the leaves of submerged aquatics have a similar
effect. Reducing the aquatic invertebrate species and aquatic vegetation
limits the primary foods and important cover of juvenile salmon, trout, and
bass. Over long periods of time fish become fewer and smaller.
Nutrient Runoff
Excessive runoff from animal manure and fertilizer pollutes the waters of
coastal Maine (U. S. Soil Conservation Service 1979). The most widespread
pollution of this kind in Maine is caused by improper storage of manure.
No specific data are available on the amount of manure spread on fields or the
number of improper storage facilities in the characterization area. Waldo
County (regions 3 and 4) has the highest number of animal units (30,100) and,
consequently, the highest production of manure (350,000 tons; 372 t/year).
[_\n animal unit is a standardized measure of livestock biomass and is
equivalent to 1000 lb (400 kg), live weight.] Following in decreasing order
of production are Cumberland (9250 AU in region 1), Knox and Lincoln (combined
5260 AU in regions 3 and 4), Sagadahoc (2010 AU in region 2), Hancock (1583 Au
in regions 4 and 5), and Washington (1325 AU in regions 5 and 6) Counties.
The greatest number of large farms (>1000 AU) is located in the Androscoggin
and Kennebec watersheds. Most are within 30 miles of the coastal zone. A
3-8
large number of farms >500 AU are located along the Penobscot River and its
tributaries .
The transport of agricultural fertilizer takes place by means of surface
runoff, spraying, soil erosion, and leaching. Most chemical fertilizers are
soluble and large quantities may be carried away by surface runoff. Since the
scarcity of phosphorus may limit plant growth in freshwater systems, additions
of phosphorus may accelerate growth. The scarcity of nitrogen limits plant
growth in estuarine systems.
Excessive nutrient runoff degrades water quality in the lacustrine,
palustrine, riverine and terrestrial systems, and in poorly-flushed portions
of estuaries and embayments. In most estuaries flushing is adequate to
disperse and dilute agricultural runoff.
The concentrations of animal-related nutrients actually reaching ground and
surface waters are difficult to determine. A study in Kennebec County
(immediately north of the characterization area) indicated that about 10% of
the animal-related phosphorus there reached lakes in that watershed,
approximately 1.4 lb (0.6 kg)/acre/year .
Fertilizer runoff into lakes, ponds, and even wells can cause public health
problems. Livestock and aquatic life also can be affected when large amounts
of fresh manure accumulate in water. Bacteria, viruses, protozoans, and fungi
are among the pathogens found in manure. Enrichment of lakes and ponds can
result in excessive growth of algae, which may cause taste, odor, and
discoloration in water and its recreational value (e.g., Pleasant Pond, region
2). Excessive algal growth accelerates the eutrophication process. The decay
of the excess plant material by microbes depletes dissolved oxygen supplies to
levels that are lethal to fish. In addition, oxygen-depleted water may cause
mortality of some aquatic insects. High levels of nitrate in groundwater used
for water supply can cause methemoglobinemia, a rare blood disorder in infants
(U.S. Soil Conservation Service 1979).
Pesticides
A wide variety of agricultural chemicals are now used within the
characterization area (table 3-2). Although little field research has been
conducted on the toxicity of agricultural pesticides in Maine, isolated
instances of pesticide damage to the environment have been observed. The
amounts of agricultural chemicals used within certain coastal watersheds are
shown in table 3-3. In comparison to other parts of the country, pesticide
use in Maine could be considered moderate to low (personal communication from
A. Julin, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Newton Corner, MA; February, 1980).
Agricultural pesticides are used mostly on corn and other vegetables, fruit,
hay and other forage crops in all regions except 5 and 6, where most spraying
is on blueberries. Approximately one-half of the 15,000 acres (6073 ha) of
blueberry barrens in regions 5 and 6 have been sprayed with Guthion . This
insecticide caused a fish kill at a fish hatchery in Deblois (Washington
County) in 1972; 10,000 brook trout and 11,000 eggs were destroyed through
careless aerial spraying. Fish kills have occurred in the past due to DDT in
the Pleasant (regions 5 and 6) and Narraguagus (region 5) Rivers.
3-9
10-80
Table 3-2. Pesticides Registered for Use in Maine and the Crops for Which They Are Used°
Crop
Herbicides
Trade name0 or commonly
used Generic name
Insecticides
Trade name
Generic name
Fungicides
Trade name Generic name
Corn
Fruit
Atrazine
Lasso
Bladex
Roundup
Banvel
Paraquat
alachlor
cyanazine
diacamba
paraquat
Furadan
Sevin
Malathion
Acaralate
Carzol
Cygon
Delnav
Dimecron
Di-Syston
Ethion
Guthion
Imidan
Kelthane
Malathion
Omite
Plictran
Sevir.
Systox"
Tedion'
Thiodan-
Y«ndex
Zolone
carbofuran
carbaryl
malathion
dymethoate
dioxathion
phosphamidon
disulf oton
azinophos-
methyl
phosmet
dicofol
propargite
cyhexatin
carbaryl
demeton
tetradifon
endosulfan
phosalone
Benlate
Captan
Cyprex
Dif olatan
Dikar
Fermate
Manzate D
Niacide K
Phaltan
Phygon
Polyram
Sulfur
Thylate
Zineb
benomyl
dodine
dicaptaf ol
f erbam
maneb
folpet
dichlone
metiram
thiram
Vegetables
Atrazine
Premerge dinoseb
Bladex cyanazine
Dow general
mixture
Sevin
Malathion
Methoxyclor
Guthion
Systox VI
Disyston 15G
Monitor
carbaryl
demeton
disulfoton
methamidophos
Manzate D maneb
Benlat= benomyl
Dithane M-45 mancozeb
Forage Crops
Blueberries
Eptam 7E
Balan
Tolban 4E
Butyrac 200
Butoxone
Premerge
Sinox PE
Furloe
Princep
Kerb
2,4-D
dinoseb
DNOC
chloropham
Simazine
pronamide
Diazinon
Guthion
aU.S. Conservation Service 1979.
DUse of trade name does not imply Government endorsement.
3-10
Table 3-3. Amount (pounds unless stated otherwise) of Pesticides Applied to Crop
Land in Five VatersbpHc in the Characterization Area3.
County/
Watershed
Crop
Chemical
Amount
per acre
Acres
Total:
Knox (Region 4)
St. George
Corn
Atrazine
2.5
River
Bladex
Lasso
2.5
4 qts
Blue-
Diazinon
4%
25
berries
Ferbam 7 .
Sevin 5%
,6%
15
20
Megunticook
Corn
Atrazine
2.5
River
Bladex
Lasso
2.5
4 qts
Blue-
Diazinon
4%
25
berries
Ferbam 7.
Sevin 5%
6%
15
20
100
600
78
256
250
250
400 .its
15,000
9000
12,000
195
195
312
6400
3840
5120
Lincoln (Regions 2 and 3)
Medomak
Corn
Atrazine
2.5
River
Bladex
Lasso
2.5
4 qts
Blue-
Diazinon
4%
25
berries
Ferbam 7,
Sevin 5%
,6%
15
20
Damariscotta
Corn
Atrazine
2.5
River
Bladex
Lasso
2.5
4 qts
Blue-
Diazinon
4%
25
berries
Ferbam
Sevin 5%
15
20
Sheepscot
Corn
Atrazine
2.5
River
Bladex
Lasso
2.5
4 qts
Blue-
Diazinon
4%
25
berries
Ferbam 7.
Sevin 5%
6%
15
20
200
400
120
175
69
69
500
500
800 qts
10, 00 u
6000
8000
300
300
480 qts
4375
2625
3500
173
173
276 qts
1725
1035
1380
U. S. Soil Conservation Service 1979.
3-11
10-80
In contrast to fertilizers, pesticides are usually insoluble in water and
reach waterways or groundwater by erosion, sedimentation, leaching through
soil, or by spilling. They degrade water quality and can be toxic to aquatic
organisms. The movement of pesticides on cropland is generally horizontal
rather than downward through the soil profile. Thus, the greatest threat of
pesticides is to surface water, although groundwater can be affected also. An
extended period of precipitation is needed to move pesticides deep into soil,
and it is unusual to find pesticides in the soil below 2 feet (0.6 m) . Local
groundwater contamination may result from improper disposal of pesticide
containers. Pesticides from containers buried in landfills sometimes seep
into groundwater.
A study on nonpoint agricultural pollution (U.S. Soil Conservation Service
1979) identified the watersheds of the Pleasant, Narraguagus, and Harrington
Rivers as susceptible to contamination by chemical pollutants. These rivers
drain the blueberry barrens in the southeast corner of Washington County
(regions 5 and 6). Schoodic Lake, a shallow spring-fed kettlehole lake in the
middle of the barrens, is vulnerable to any contamination that may occur
within its drainage area.
Little is known of the amounts of pesticides and defoliators that reach water
bodies in coastal Maine. Borns and coworkers (1971) showed that pesticide
levels in the groundwater supply in the Cherryfield area (region 5) after the
blueberry fields had been treated often have approached the maximum limits for
human consumption. Pesticides readily enter the groundwater supply through
the porous glacial till. This condition is most serious when heavy rains
follow pesticide applications.
During the last 10 years, a change has taken place from long-lasting
hydrocarbon pesticides (organochlorines) to more toxic but shorter-lived
pesticides (carbamates and organophosphates) that are known to have fewer
residual effects. This change, together with improved pesticide management
practices, has resulted in fewer fish kills. The latter fact may indicate
that direct environmental effects are being reduced.
The most visible result of pesticide contamination is fish and songbird
mortality. Fish kills are often the result of high concentrations of
chemicals entering a water body within a short period of time. They also can
occur after a rainfall that has been preceded by pesticide application, or
when chemicals are spilled or are sprayed into water accidentally. Songbird
dieoffs occur when pesticides with high bird toxicity are applied,
particularly when they are applied aerially. Examples are diazinon, fenthion,
carbofuran, and parathion.
Pesticides also may have a more subtle effect on aquatic ecosystems if present
at low levels for long periods of time or if frequent contamination occurs.
Fish behavior and reproduction may be affected by chronic toxicity. The
behavior and reproduction of insectivorous songbirds (95% or more of coastal
Maine breeding birds) may be affected by chronic toxicity and by severe
decreases in insect populations. Canopy-feeding species are generally the
most vulnerable. The effects of pesticides on songbirds are discussed in
chapter 16, "Terrestrial Birds." Biological magnification may occur with some
persistent pesticides, such as organochlorines, which degrade at a slow rate
and become concentrated in the tissues of organisms high in the food chain.
3-12
The effects of persistent pesticides used in the past on forests and farms
are still present in Maine. Although only traces or undetectable amounts of
these chemicals are now found in natural waters, chemicals applied from 1954
to 1967 still are concentrated in the food chain. A major example is the
harmful amounts of organochlorine chemicals still being found in bald eagles
and in their eggs. Reproduction of bald eagles has been limited seriously by
persistent pesticides (DDT and its degradation products) that are no longer in
use. The effects of pesticides on bald eagles are discussed in chapter
16, "Terrestrial Birds."
Most of today's pesticides are short-lived compared to chlorinated
hydrocarbons (i.e., DDT) but they are still extremely toxic. The potential
for damage to wildlife exists largely at the time of application.
Habitat Modification
Land-clearing modifies habitats to a greater degree than any other human
activity. Most of the land currently in agriculture has been farmed for many
years. The oldest farm sites were developed primarily in upland areas, where
the forests were cleared first. Abandoned agricultural land in Maine reverts
to oldfields and eventually to forest. However, suburban expansion has taken
over agricultural land in many of the more populated areas of the coastal zone
(regions 1 to 5) .
MINERAL EXTRACTION
The materials currently being extracted from coastal Maine are sand and
gravel, peat (regions 5 and 6), limestone (region 3), and granite (region 6;
see atlas map 3). Abandoned copper mines in the Blue Hill area (region 4) and
granite quarries along the coast (primarily regions 4 and 5) continue to
influence the local environment. Potential exists for future mining in
coastal Maine. Nickel may be mined and the extraction of sand, gravel, and
peat may be expanded in Knox County (region 4). Environmental impacts
associated with mining include the generation of waste materials (air and
water pollution) and the alteration of habitats.
Sand and gravel are extracted primarily from eskers (long sand or gravel
ridges deposited in the bed of subglacial streams), which are especially
numerous and well developed in Maine in comparison to other parts of the
United States. Eskers are unique features of high scientific interest. They
are valuable to geologists in interpreting glacial events. No estimates are
available of the total length of eskers in the coastal zone. However, there
are 1420 miles (2272 km) of eskers in Maine as a whole or about 0.8 cu mi
(3.3km3) in volume (Borns 1979). A relatively large number of Maine eskers
have been totally or partially removed for construction purposes and the rate
of removal has greatly increased in the last 15 years (Borns 1979). For
example, about 45% of the 37 miles (60 km) of eskers in the area encompassed
by the Bangor 15-minute quadrangle map has been extracted since 1955. These
trends are as high or higher in the Portland and Augusta areas (Borns 1979).
Commercial exploitation of eskers is the greatest threat to their continued
existence. The Maine State Planning Office is currently evaluating eskers of
high scientific and educational value for designation as critical areas (Borns
1979).
3-13
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Peat mining occurs in the eastern coastal areas of Maine (regions 5 and 6).
Potential peat reserves that have been inventoried in coastal Maine are shown
in atlas map 3. Peat reserves in some basins can be exhausted relatively
quickly and recovery of the bog may require 5000 to 10,000 years. Peat mining
may alter the quality of the water in bogs. Increased siltation and lowered
pH caused by bog runoff can affect the ecology of downstream waters. Fish
reproduction can be adversely affected by lowered pH, and siltation can
smother stream invertebrates, destroy spawning sites, and alter the aquatic
insect community on which fish and waterfowl feed. Smaller, poorly flushed
estuaries can be affected by siltation problems, as many harvestable peat bogs
are within 1 mile (1.6 km) of the coast. Snare Creek (Jonesport, region 6)
drains a large bog that is currently being mined . The exploitation of raised
bogs represents the loss of a unique coastal ecosystem. In the United States,
raised plateau bogs are found only in northeastern coastal Maine (regions 4,
5, and 6). These bogs have a unique morphology (plateau-shaped; Damman 1977)
and support a unique community of bog plants. In addition, several
associations of rare plant species are found in these bogs. (See chapter 20,
"Endangered, Threatened, and Rare Plants").
Hard-rock mining for limestone, granite, and mineral ores usually produces
large amounts of waste water and waste rock (tailings). Ponds are constructed
in mining areas to receive water pumped from the mine. These ponds usually
are of limited value as wildlife habitat because of their harmful water
chemistry, the presence in them of large amounts of sediments, and the high
level of disturbance in their vicinities. Some may provide useful habitat
when mining operations cease and succession has advanced to a point where
suitable vegetation exists for food and cover. Water pumped from large mines
can cause local increases in the level of the water table and can transform
upland forest to palustrine wetland. Waste waters from mineral-ore mining
also may acidify aquatic systems receiving them, as well as contaminate
aquatic food webs with heavy metals (copper, zinc, and iron). These minerals
have been actively mined in the Penobscot and Blue Hill Bay area (region 4) .
The Department of Marine Resources is concluding a study now in which
concentrations of eight metals were monitored in two macroalgae, two
polychaete, and three mollusc species. Experimental sites were established
near mines, with controls in mineralized unmined intertidal areas.
Preliminary results indicate that levels of three elements, Zinc (Zn) , Iron
(Fe), and Copper (Cu) , are elevated at the mined sites. The brown algae Fucus
vesiculosus exhibited mean Zn levels of up to 1288 ppm and the blue mussel
contained mean values of 200 to 300 ppm Zn and 400 to 900 ppm Fe at the
experimental sites, compared with control means of 79 to 80 and 500 ppm
respectively. Final results of this study will be available in the near
future. (See "Population and Industry" below.)
Open-pit mining of limestone (e.g., at Thomaston) produces dust that drifts to
adjacent areas, sometimes increasing the alkalinity of soils and waters.
PORTS AND NAVIGATION
The major impacts of port operations and navigation projects in coastal Maine
are associated with wharves, piers, dredging, and dredge spoil disposal
operations .
3-14
The principal impact of wharves and piers is loss of intertidal habitat. This
impact is significant in developed harbors, such as Portland (region 1),
Boothbay (region 2), Rockland (region 4), Lubec (region 6), and Eastport
(region 6) , where relatively large areas of the intertidal zone may be covered
by such structures. Piers can change local current patterns and may affect
the benthic fauna adversely by changing sediment distribution and types.
An additional impact of piers and wharves is lowered productivity of benthic
algae due to the shading of bottom sediment. Reduction in the productivity
of benthic algae may cause a local reduction in some species. Impacts of
waste water discharge associated with piers and wharves are discussed under
"Population and Industry" below. Dams and wharves may provide additional
substrata for epilithic algae, which may increase productivity locally.
Dredging
Dredging is the removal of land or bottom materials from wetlands, open water,
or other coastal habitats (1) to obtain sand, shell, or gravel deposits, (2)
to establish a commercial, industrial, or residential facility, or (3) to
create or maintain channels (Metzger 1973). Most of the dredging in Maine is
associated with the maintenance of commercial navigation channels and is
regulated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
The areas most frequently dredged during the past 20 years are Portland
Harbor, the Kennebec River, the Penobscot River, Rockland Harbor, and the
Royal River. Periods between dredging operations vary from 2 to 23 years.
Locations and dates of dredging projects, the cubic yards of material removed,
and locations of disposal sites are given in table 3-4. Other disposal sites
for private dredging exist (permits are required) and the specific coordinates
of these can be found in files of the regulatory branch of the U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers, Waltham, MA. Atlas map 3 depicts dredge removal and disposal
sites in coastal Maine. Disposal sites in Maine are usually deep oceanic
areas but are not restricted to such areas. Other disposal sites include land
areas, beaches, bays, and channels in estuaries and rivers.
The basic modes of dredging are mechanical and hydraulic. Mechanical dredges
generally employ a crane and a large bucket or a large power shovel to remove
sediment. The spoil is dumped overboard or into a barge that is then towed to
a disposal site. Hydraulic pipeline dredges pick up material by cutterhead
and transport it by suction-pipe to the disposal site (Clark 1977). Dredge
material (spoil) in Maine usually consists of sand, soft mud, and a small
amount of rock. In Maine mechanical dredges usually are employed in Maine due
to the relatively coarse nature and low volume of materials that are dredged
there.
The impacts of dredging operations can be classified into two major groups:
(1) those that are the result of the removal of material and (2) those that
are the result of material disposal. Impacts of material removal include the
loss of natural habitat, alterations of water circulation patterns, increased
turbidity, the release of trapped pollutants and organic matter, and the loss
of beach sediment supplies. Disposal of some dredged material (e.g., sand and
rock) results in new barren habitats in upland areas and increased
sedimentation on down-current substrates in open water.
3-15
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Table 3-4. Summary of Federal Dredging and Disposal Projects in Coastal
Maine Since 1959a
Region Project
Dates
Quantity
Disposal
location
dredged
area
(cu yd)
1979
1 Portland Harbor
7/9/70 to 7/25/70
448,000
Ocean
5/23/68 to 6/26/68
20,680
Ocean
1966
20,100
Ocean
0/65 to 6/66
2,345,000
Ocean
8/12/64 to 3/26/65
235,029
Ocean
10/62 to 3/63
225,000
Ocean
1959
2500
Ocean
Royal River
9/20/76 to 11/19/76
36,500
Land
12/68 to 6/69
—
Land
11/66 to 6/67
199,209
Land
2 Kennebec River
6/12/75 to 6/30/75
102,930
Channel
6/18/71 to 6/30/71
54,534
Sequin Island
6/68 to 7/68
32,070
River and ocean
6/26/68 to 6/30/68
20,000
River and ocean
7/1/67 to 7/10/67
64,200
River and ocean
8/65
14,400
River and ocean
9/64 to 12/64
9500
Ocean
7/59
26,183
River and ocean
3 St. George River
8/1/77 to 8/20/77
10,000
Land
New Harbor
12/65 to 3/66
28,961
Ocean
Carver Harbor
8/63 to 5/64
19,000+
Ocean
4 Isle Au Haut
1979
1000
Ocean (north of
(boulders)
Flake Island)
Rockland Harbor
9/10/73 to 1/30/74
80,400
W. Penobscot Bay
6/59 to 7/59
150
None
4/59 to 6/59
4500
Ocean
Belfast Harbor
7/70 to 9/70
35,786
Isle Au Haut, Ocean
Penobscot River
7/13/68 to 7/23/68
14,500
Ocean
6/10/67-to 6/30/67
—
Ocean
5/26/64 to 6/13/64
74,000
Ocean
8/15/61 to 9/11/61
114,000
Ocean
—
74,160
Ocean
aChase 1979
(Continued)
3-16
Table 3-4. (Concluded)
Re- Project
gion location
Dates
Quantity
dredged
(cu yd)
Disposal
area
4 Searsport Harbor
Camden Harbor
5 Frenchboro Harbor
8/11/64 to 11/26/64
4/60
6/77 to 8/77
4/76 to 7/76
6/75 to 12/75
487,500
27,860
1060
35,460
54,000
Ocean
Ocean
Ocean-John's Island
Ocean-John's Island
Ocean-John's Island
Winter Harbor
Narraguagus River
Bass Harbor
Southwest Harbor
6 Bucks Harbor
Machias River
Pig Island Gut
8/19/75 to 9/28/75
4/68 to 5/68
11/67 to 12/67
9/65 to 2/66
9/63
2/62 to 4/62
6/12/74 to 7/10/74
9/72
3/64 to 4/64
10/65
6/65
24,000
Winter Harbor Bay
10,960
Ocean
14,570
Ocean
48,200
Ocean
66,000 Ocean
( Rock removal) None
62,600 Machiasport Bay
7760
Ocean
500
None
60,181
Ocean
1878
rock
8200
Ocean
3-17
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Dredging results in the alteration or displacement of natural habitats. The
exposed areas may be nearly devoid of life and are often different from the
originals in physical and chemical properties (Copeland and Dickens 1974).
Since most dredging produces an unstable sediment configuration, further
deposition may occur and further dredging may be required. Repeated dredging
prevents a community of long-lived species from becoming established in the
dredged area.
Dredging also may alter the water circulation pattern. Changes in water
temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, and sediment distribution may result.
These changes are the most long-term impacts of dredging on benthic
communities (Kaplan et al. 1975). Marked changes in the composition of
species that have been associated with changes in sediment types resulting
from dredge and fill operations have been documented (Kaplan et al. 1975).
Dispersal of pelagic larvae that are carried by currents are also likely to be
affected.
Excessive turbidity is another common result of dredge operations. During the
operations, dredging disperses large quantities of silt into the water column.
This may have detrimental effects up to a half-mile from the site (Copeland
and Dickens 1974). The extent of turbidity depends largely on the type of
sediment being dredged, the method of dredging employed, and the local water
currents. As deposits disturbed by dredging resettle, a veneer of silt may
form a false bottom that is easily resuspended by tidal and wind-driven
currents. Suspended or resuspended silt may smother the sessile animals that
inhabit the bottom or it may foul the respiratory apparatus of filter-feeding
species (Copeland and Dickens 1974) .
Excessive turbidity also decreases the penetration of light into the water
column, thereby limiting plant growth and reducing primary production
essential to the support of the entire food web. Reduced light penetration is
of special concern in deep water, where light penetration may already be low.
Lowered primary production (photosynthesis) usually reduces the oxygen supply.
The dissolved oxygen levels may be depressed further by microbial activity on
suspended sediments and particulate organic materials in the water column
(Clark 1977). Low levels of dissolved oxygen have been responsible for
massive kills of benthic invertebrates and can place considerable stress on
benthic systems around dredge sites (Radash 1976).
Zooplankton are seriously influenced by the increased turbidity resulting from
dredging. Loosanoff (1961) and Loosanoff and Tommers (1948) reported that
clam and oyster larvae placed in a turbid environment were affected
significantly. At 0.75 g/1 of silt, the growth of oyster larvae was retarded.
Hoss and coworkers (1973) reported low mortality but high incidence of erratic
behavior in zooplankton exposed to low concentrations of effluents from spoil
disposal areas. Such altered behavioral patterns reduce reproductive success
among the affected organisms.
Dredging in a polluted area can cause the resuspension of heavy metals which
can be absorbed by plants and animals. When disturbed by dredging oxygen-
demanding substances held within the sediments can lower levels of dissolved
oxygen, a condition which may be lethal to many species (see "Water Pollution
and Heavy Metals," below).
3-18
Dredging may affect fish populations in a number of ways. Spawning sites may
be smothered with sediment, which either prevents spawning or covers the eggs
and larvae. Spawning sites also may be removed altogether, along with the
required vegetative cover. Increased sedimentation sometimes raises the
biological oxygen demand (BOD) of the water, potentially reducing available
dissolved oxygen to dangerously low levels. Mechanical destruction of gill
filaments may occur at high sediment levels.
The exchange and transport of different types of sediment also are affected by
dredging. Excavation upsets local sediment transport, when coarse-grained
sediments are removed from local environments. Excavations of a small volume
of material are generally inconsequential, but continued excavation of small
amounts, especially on small beaches, depletes beach sediment supply. (See
page 2-43, "Shoreline Erosion," in chapter 2.)
The disposal of dredge spoils is a serious environmental issue. The dumping
of dredge spoil on submerged bottoms may suffocate vegetated environments,
raise substrata to different intertidal heights, thereby affecting flora and
fauna, and smother benthic organisms. Fill deposits in the intertidal zone
are redistributed by tidal flow, increasing sedimentation on down-current
substrata. In addition, turbidity and the release of trapped pollutants and
organic matter may be additional problems. The U. S. Army Corps of Engineers,
in their Dredged Material Research Program, have studied some beneficial uses
of spoil, such as habitat creation.
The potential impacts on the food web in the areas near dredge and disposal
sites include changes in nutrients and in populations of phytoplankton
(producers) and benthos (consumers), which in turn affect fish, bird, and
marine mammal populations. Cumulative impacts of projects may have long-term
effects on species populations. Monitoring of these ecological consequences
in coastal Maine has not been undertaken.
TRANSPORTATION
Ecological effects of transportation in coastal Maine are associated primarily
with right-of-way corridors for railways, roads, and airports (see
"Socioeconomics," chapter 2. The impacts of ports and navigation and
construction activities are considered under "Ports and Navigation" above).
Some of the general impacts of roads and airports include altered surface
water drainage, restricted natural flow of waters, degraded air quality, and
loss of natural habitats. Runoff from impervious surfaces may include street
salt, sand, motor vehicle drippings, garbage, stagnant water, and other toxic
residues (Clark 1974). Roads may restrict the natural flow of water,
resulting in changes in habitat. In some instances, areas of forests may
become wetlands because of restricted flow of water. In other areas, the
restricted flow of water may result in altered sedimentation, which may
affect, for example, the benthic community in intertidal areas. Air-quality
impacts associated with the use of roads are primarily local in scope and
result from carbon monoxide and particulates. In addition, automobile travel
in Maine, particularly during the summer tourist season, contributes to an
ozone problem throughout the coastal zone (see "Air Pollution" under "Industry
and Population" below) .
3-19
10-80
Right-of-way corridors serve as habitat for a number of plants and birds.
They are also utilized frequently by deer, foxes, and coyotes. The density of
breeding birds in rights-of-way is usually less than it is in surrounding
woodland and shrub habitats. The effects of rights-of-way on terrestrial bird
populations is discussed further in chapter 16, "Terrestrial Birds."
Causeways builts on or over tidal areas restrict tidal flow to areas landward
of the causeways. Causeways may act as barriers; most culverts do not allow a
sufficient exchange of water. The alteration in drainage patterns may result
in changes in water temperature, salinity, sedimentation, and flushing rates.
These changes may affect primary production, benthic biota, and other
organisms such as migratory birds and fishes. The passage of migratory fishes
may be restricted by culverts. In extreme cases, the stagnation of water
along a causeway may cause low dissolved oxygen levels, which stress aquatic
fauna. Roads have caused siltation in lakes in coastal Maine (e.g., Upper
Hadlock Pond, region 5). An impact associated with dirt roads, logging roads,
and skid trails is soil erosion, which produces effects similar to those of
agriculture and construction activities.
Roads constructed in dune areas also may have harmful ecological impacts.
Construction of roads may prevent sediment from being naturally utilized as
beach sediment. Roads constructed on beach ridges conflict with the natural
landward migration of beach ridge material. Storms from the northeast, which
occur frequently in Maine during winter, cover the road surfaces with gravel
from beaches. Since the natural movement of sand is interrupted, the profile
of the beach as well as the habitat for many organisms will be altered.
Airports pose a unique problem for birds, primarily gulls and waterfowl.
Airports situated near dumps or along flight lines between dumps and rivers,
dumps and shopping centers, or near sources of solid waste can pose a serious
aircraft-bird collision hazard. Airports situated near waterbird
concentration areas pose similar collision problems. Herring and great black-
backed gulls, which feed and rest in open grassy habitats, are attracted to
some airports. Collisions between aircraft and birds are uncommon in most
areas in Maine.
Herbicides, used to control woody and herbaceous plants along rights-of-way
(especially railroads), may cause problems, especially if improperly handled.
Improper formulation of the herbicide and improper disposal of herbicide
containers may result in locally high herbicide concentrations. These
contaminants may, in turn, enter ground and surface waters. The long-term
effects of herbicides on plants and animals is uncertain (see "Forestry"
above) .
TOURISM AND RECREATION
Tourism and recreation in coastal Maine have a significant impact on the
environment, through (1) the discharge of wastes, (2) the disturbance of and
encroachment on sensitive species of wildlife, and (3) the alteration of
natural ecosystems. Seasonal residences and tourist facilities (motels,
hotels, and restaurants) add to the pressures of development on lands. Their
waste water and domestic sewage contribute to the seasonal and permanent
closings of clam and worm flats. The sanitary survey reports prepared for
each municipality by the DEP summarize the number of residential discharges
3-20
and include a list of the clam flats closed because of pollution from domestic
sewage (see "Water Pollution" under "Industry and Population" below).
Subdivisions of land allow human activities in areas that were previously less
disturbed. These impacts are discussed further under "Industry and
Population" below. Other impacts result from seasonal and localized
increases in population, which results in concentrated activity that may
degrade the natural environment. Mechanical equipment such as snowmobiles,
motor boats, and ski lifts contribute to this impact.
Power boating creates waves which may disturb birds nesting in rivers,
wetlands and lakes (e.g., loons). Power boating also creates short-term
suspended sediment concentrations and hydrocarbon deposits in the water
column. Snowmobiling, truck camping, and vehicular traffic on dunes and salt
marsh surfaces promotes devegetation and accelerated wind and current erosion.
The trampling of vegetation in fragile ecosystems, such as ericacious bogs,
salt marshes, islands and dunes, has effects for which the recovery process
requires many years. Continuous or unmanaged traffic in dune and marsh areas
promotes devegetation and, thus, erosion by winds and currents.
Rare plant collecting and the picking of wildfowers threaten many of the
aesthetically attractive rare plant species. (See chapter 20, "Endangered,
Threatened, and Rare Plants" for a more detailed discussion of recreational
activities that adversely affect rare plants.)
Bird breeding areas (i.e., bald eagle, osprey, common loon, seabird, and
shorebird) , shorebird roosting areas, and seal haulout sites are particularly
vulnerable to pressure from human recreational activities. Atlas map 4 plots
known important wildlife areas in coastal Maine. The impact of human
disturbance on breeding bald eagles is discussed in chapter 16, "Terrestrial
Birds," and on breeding seabirds and shorebirds in chapter 14, "Waterbirds . "
The latter chapter also discusses the impact of human disturbance on roosting
shorebirds .
SPORT FISHING AND HUNTING
The most important ecological effect of sport fishing and hunting is the
direct harvest of fish and wildlife. Other impacts may be significant
locally. Construction of fishing piers, boat launching ramps, and
recreational camps may result in localized pollution. The effects of piers
are discussed under "Ports and Navigation" above.
Vehicular traffic to inlet fishing areas devegetates salt marsh and dune
surfaces, promoting accelerated erosion. Continual emplacement of hunting
blinds on some marsh plots promotes salt panne formation or accelerated tidal
current erosion.
The use of lead shot may be a significant hazard to waterfowl, and to large
raptors which prey upon wounded waterfowl (i.e., eagles and peregrine
falcons). Lead pellets have been found to occur in significant quantities in
the sediment of Merrymeeting Bay (region 2). Analyses of gizzard contents of
ducks shot on the Bay revealed one or more lead shot in 8.1%, 6.1%, and 6.4%
of the black ducks examined in 1976, 1977, and 1978 respectively. Lead shot
causes lead poisoning, which can weaken, debilitate, and kill birds. A
3-21
10-80
carefully designed survey conducted just 2 weeks before the 1977 hunting
season began indicated that over 41,000 lead pellets per acre (101,000/ha)
were present in the top 2 to 4 inches (5 to 10 cm) of soil in the intertidal
area of Merrymeeting Bay (region 2; personal communication from J. R.
Longcore, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Orono, ME; April, 1979).
INDUSTRY AND POPULATION
The release of organic and inorganic wastes and the modification of natural
habitats are the most pronounced ecological stresses of industry and
population in coastal Maine. The effects of water pollution, air pollution,
oil pollution, surface water control, and construction are discussed below.
Water Pollution
The extent of water pollution in coastal Maine is difficult to describe
accurately, because comprehensive data on the number, types, and amounts of
substances discharged are unavailable. Licenses have not been issued for all
discharges for which they are required, and all of those licensed are not
monitored. Among those that are monitored, all components of the discharge
are not monitored. Most water pollution in Maine is in rivers and estuaries
below large towns.
Four classes of waste water discharges are monitored by the Maine DEP:
industrial, municipal, commercial, and residential. Industrial and municipal
dischargers produce the largest amount of effluent. The exact amounts of
effluent cannot be determined due to variations in effluent flow.
Furthermore, license data do not include inactive or expired licenses. Most
inactive licensed activities produce effluent seasonally (summer), and many
discharge facilities whose licenses have expired still are producing effluent
(personal communication from L. Fontaine, Maine Department of Environmental
Protection, Augusta, ME; December, 1979). Municipal and industrial
dischargers may have local impact and cumulatively may have impacts on lakes,
rivers, estuaries, and bays. Atlas map 3 shows the locations of permitted
industrial and municipal discharges. A list of these point sources is given
in appendix A.
Water pollution has a major impact on the clam industry, the State's second
most important fishery. Each year an average of 9658 acres (3910 ha), or 21%
of the State's clam flats, are closed due to bacterial pollution. Closures in
the characterization area vary from 9% in Washington County (region 6) to 71%
in Sagadahoc County (region 2; Maine State Planning Office 1978). This
situation has developed in coastal Maine because of the inadequacy of soil
(thin overburden and near-surface bedrock) for septic systems and the general
lack of centralized sewage treatment facilities. The impact is especially
acute in the summer, when the numerous cottages that line the shore in many
areas are occupied. A survey of residential point sources adjacent to
intertidal shellfish flats revealed that only about 56% were licensed by the
DEP (Winters and Fuller 1980) . The latter authors have prepared maps showing
waste-water discharge locations (point sources of pollution; primarily
residential) in each coastal community. Each report summarizes the pollution
status, size, production (in terms of bushels per acre), and cash value of
each currently producing shellfish area, by town. These reports are valuable
because they identify pollution problems, their causes, and economic impact.
3-22
Reports on all coastal towns west of Milbridge have been published. Reports
on all coastal towns east of Milbridge will be published in 1980.
All major rivers and streams, great ponds, and tidal waters have been
classified according to their water quality status (Maine Department of
Environmental Protection 1977). The classification of coastal Maine surface
waters is presented in appendix B.
Areas in coastal Maine with critical water quality problems have been
identified (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1978). Included are 15
sections of 13 rivers and estuaries in the characterization area (figure 3-1;
table 3-5). Critical water quality problem areas have such severe pollution
loading and/or minimal assimilative capacities that f ishable/swimmable water
quality will be below standard even after all point sources are under control.
The primary causes, either singly or in combination, for the critical water
quality problems remaining in coastal Maine are: combined sewer outflows (all
15 areas); municipal discharges (2 areas); industrial discharges (2 areas);
and low flow caused by flow regulation (1 area) .
Other related factors are nonpoint source loadings (agricultural and urban
runoff) and toxic substances. The amount of information available on toxic
substances is limited.
Water pollution has been traditionally, and continues to be, of concern in
coastal Maine. The ecological impacts of water pollution include bacterial
contamination of commercial clam flats, low dissolved oxygen, increased
turbidity, eutrophication, and temperature alteration in water bodies, and
pollution by oil, hazardous wastes, PCBs , and heavy metals.
Bacterial pollution. Bacterial pollution has accounted for the closure
of 56% of the clam flats in the State of Maine. It has a severe economic
impact on the clam fishery and a potential effect on public health. However,
effects of bacterial contamination on clams, invertebrates, and other
organisms in the food chain are not evident (personal communication from P. F.
Larsen, Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences, Boothbay Harbor, ME; February,
1980).
Dissolved oxygen. The utilization of organic wastes by microorganisms in
aquatic systems requires large amounts of oxygen (Clark 1977). An increase in
demand for oxygen because of organic wastes sometimes may lead to dangerously
low levels of oxygen in the sediments or in the water column above the
sediments (Clark 1977). If low levels of dissolved oxygen persist, most
animals die. Deoxygenated areas are recolonized by less desirable species
that are tolerant of low levels of oxygen (Grassle and Grassle 1974).
Serious oxygen depletion in sediments is often caused by effluents from pulp
and paper mills. The floating components of the effluent prevent light from
reaching the phytoplankton and thereby reduce the amount of oxygen that is
produced photosynthetically . During summer the biodegradation of the pulp
fibers, sawdust, wood chips, and other organic wastes of the wood products
industry can deplete the dissolved oxygen in the sediment and in the deeper
layer of the water column (Poole et al. 1977), adversely affecting fish,
invertebrates, and other aquatic organisms.
3-23
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Turbidity. Suspended and settleable solids resulting from sewage
effluent may increase turbidity. Decreased light penetration into water,
because of particulate loads, decreases primary production. On the bottoms of
water bodies, particulate loads can render surfaces unavailable for attachment
of plants and invertebrates.
Benthic invertebrates are affected by wastes containing settleable and
suspended solids. Silts and clays are a significant fraction of discharged
wastes. The impact of these particulates on benthic invertebrates is
discussed above under "Dredging."
Eutrophication. Input of nutrients to water bodies by municipal,
residential, and commercial dischargers has effects similar to those described
under "Agricultural Impacts" above. Nutrients may accelerate the growth of
algae and vascular plants in lakes. The resultant increases in decomposition
causes more oxygen to be consumed than lakes can produce. This situation
speeds up eutrophication, which can result in oxygen depletion and, in extreme
cases, fish kills. Annabessacook Lake, Pleasant Lake, and Togus Pond (region
2) are examples of eutrophic lakes.
Palustrine areas entrap nutrients in peat, thereby slowing the rate of
eutrophication in lakes downstream. Palustrine areas also export nutrients
and organic matter downstream. Excessive nutrients in a palustrine wetland
can accelerate plant succession.
Since stream and river waters are in motion, sewage-derived nutrients do not
remain in the vicinity of the point source for long periods of time.
Eutrophication, therefore, is normally less severe in streams than in standing
water (lacustrine and palustrine systems).
Sewage-derived nitrogen can lead to the production of excessive blooms of
phytoplankton in riverine, estuarine, and marine systems in the summer months
(Carpenter et al . 1969). The type of sewage treatment (primary or secondary)
influences the impact. Primary sewage is low in the form of nitrogen that is
readily usable by phytoplankton, but secondary sewage is high in this type of
nitrogen. The flushing characteristics of receiving waters is critical in
determining the consequences of point-source discharges of sewage.
Heavy metals. Although coastal Maine is not as industrialized as the
rest of the Eastern U.S., heavy metal concentration in the estuarine suspended
particulates, biota, and sediments appears to be comparable in some locations
to that in heavily industrialized areas (personal communication from L. K.
Fink, University of Maine, Walpole, ME; January, 1979). Of the aquatic
systems, the riverine and estuarine systems are affected most by heavy metals,
because most waste-water point sources discharge into these systems. The
terrestrial, lacustrine, and palustrine systems receive most of their heavy
metal input from particulate air pollution. In addition, they may receive
inputs from landfill sites, from oil pollution, and from herbicide
application. Courtemanch (1977) report that the use of a copper-containing
herbicide to reduce algal blooms in Silver Lake (region 4) caused severe
disruption of benthic fauna. Heavy metals commonly are introduced through
industrial and municipal outfalls, dumping sites, dredging sites, agricultural
and urban runoff, fungicides, germicides, heating or burning of fields, mining
operations, and oil discharges from ships. The discharge of sewage and sewage
3-27
10-80
sludge is considered a prime source of heavy metals (Clark 1977). In Maine,
pulp plants are major sources of heavy metals (Fink et al. 1976). Chromium,
lead, copper, and zinc are the principal metals discharged from these plants.
Also, naturally occurring sediments derived from metal ore deposits contain
toxic heavy metals, including chromium, manganese, cobalt, nickel, copper,
zinc, lead, arsenic, mercury, silver, cadmium, and vanadium.
Very little site-specific data on heavy metal concentrations are available for
coastal Maine waters. Fink and coworkers are sampling five Maine estuaries
for heavy metal contamination (personal communication from L. K. Fink,
University of Maine, Walpole, ME; January, 1979). Their data will establish
baseline levels for 10 metals. A Maine Department of Marine Resouces (MDMR)
study indicates that concentrations of heavy metals in macroalgae and
shellfish are elevated at sites near mining operations (see "Mineral
Extraction " above).
Fink's preliminary conclusions indicate that the heavy metals in coastal
waters are industrial in origin. Levels of five metals found by Fink and
coworkers (1976) in suspended particulate matter in the St. Croix River
estuary, which is subjected to paper mill effluent, are listed below:
Element Range (ppb) Mean(ppb)
Chromium 40- 373 117
Copper 21-2153 507
Iron 4-69 38
Manganese 139-1059 605
Lead 21-1799 324
Maine Department of Environmental Protection waste-water discharge licenses
specify the amounts of various heavy metals that a discharger may release;
these data are given in appendix A. The amount of heavy metal input from acid
precipitation is unknown. Acid precipitation is further discussed under "Air
Pollution" below. Heavy metals have been found to contaminate landfill sites
in Maine (Emmons 1978). Heavy metal levels in vascular plants are used to
measure contamination.
Concentrations of heavy metals approaching or exceeding EPA standards for
toxicity to several organisms have been found in several Maine estuaries that
are near metal ore bodies and mining operations (Hurst and Dow 1972) and that
receive pulp manufacturing effluent (Fink 1977).
Heavy metals tend to be associated with the organic fraction of estuarine
bottom sediments (Fink et al. 1976). Metals are transported through the
environment by sorbing (adsorbing and absorbing) onto the organic solids and
the subsequent sedimentation, resuspension, or current dispersion of the
particulate organics (Clark 1977). However, dispersal of heavy metals from
the source of input generally does not occur. Thus, little exchange of heavy
metals takes place between the estuarine and marine systems. However, the
movement of sediments in dredging operations may transport heavy metals from
estuaries to marine environments (see "Ports and Navigation" above). The most
frequently dredged areas in Maine receive drainage from the most
industrialized portions of the State.
3-28
Heavy metals are a major concern from the point of view of human health.
Since heavy metals may concentrate in the tissues of marine food organisms, a
person eating enough contaminated seafood or fish over a period of time could
develop heavy metal poisoning. For example, organic mercury has been cited as
the cause of minamata disease in Japan (Clark 1977).
The effects of heavy metals on marine and estuarine invertebrates are modified
by salinity, dissolved oxygen, temperature, pH, the presence of other
toxicants, the form of the metal, and the age and condition of the organism.
Laboratory experiments indicate that these factors owe their influence to the
variable rates at which metals are absorbed (Bryan 1971). No evidence of
damage to macroalgal communities by heavy metals has been documented.
Little information appears to exist on the accumulation effects of heavy
metals in sea grasses (Thayer et al. 1975). Barsclate and coworkers (1975)
found that dissolved copper may be removed from overlying water by eelgrass.
Mercury in North Atlantic zooplankton collections has been studied by Windom
and coworkers (1973), who collected samples from the New York Bight south to
Cape Hatteras. The species composition of the plankton varied considerably,
although most samples were composed of copepods and chaetognaths . The
concentration of mercury appeared to bear little relation to species
composition, but it was determined that nearshore zooplankton were higher in
mercury content than those offshore. Concentrations reached as high as 5.3
ppm in the New York Bight in contrast to values of 0.1 to 0.3 ppm in offshore
areas. Mercury appears to be concentrated to a similar degree by different
organisms in the plankton community. This may be due to passive rather than
active uptake.
Sublethal effects of heavy metals can be grouped into morphological changes,
inhibitory effects, and behavioral changes. Some effects of metals, such as
the bright green color of oysters that results from accumulated copper in the
tissues (personal communication from P. F. Larsen, Bigelow Laboratories, W.
Boothbay Harbor, ME; February, 1980), may be recognized visually. Zinc and
copper are metals necessary for normal growth but elevated levels can lead to
inhibition of growth. Abnormal structural morphology has been observed in the
larvae of sea urchins having slightly elevated concentrations of copper and
zinc (Bryan 1971). In addition to inhibiting growth, heavy metals may prevent
the settlement of larvae, delay or prevent sexual development, and inhibit
feeding. Although laboratory experiments usually are performed on hardy
species, abnormal behavior has been observed in invertebrates exposed to
concentrations of copper, silver, or zinc that are only one order of magnitude
higher than those of sea water. Larval forms may be affected at even lower
concentrations (Bryan 1971).
Although little is known about the effects of heavy metals on ecosystems, it
has been estimated that when metals such as copper, silver, and zinc reach a
concentration ten times that of sea water, serious detrimental effects may
occur (Bryan 1971). Suspension-feeding animals, such as clams, mussels, and
oysters, are extremely susceptible to accumulation of metals and, thus, are
valuable for monitoring ecosystems (Fink et al. 1976). Sediments retain high
levels of metals. These metals then may be taken up by organisms and passed
to higher trophic levels (Bryan 1971). For example, the Penobscot River has
been cited as having high levels of mercury. Also, eels from the Penobscot
3-29
10-80
have relatively high mercury levels. Eels, in turn, are fed upon by eagles,
directly or indirectly (eels serve as prey for common mergansers, which are
eaten by eagles). Recent mercury levels in bald eagle eggs are among the
highest ever recorded. Mercury contamination results in thinning of eggshells
and embryo mortality.
Thermal pollution. Heated waters, when discharged into the environment,
raise the temperature of the receiving water. The extent to which the
temperature is raised depends upon the amount of heated discharge, the amount
of diluting water available, and the mixing rate. Heated discharge may come
from sources such as nuclear power generation, oil power generation, heavy
machine operations, industrial operations, and even fish hatchery operations.
The magnitude of the thermal impacts depends on the location and frequency of
activity. Cold water may be discharged from large, deep impoundments.
Industrial point sources, including power generation, are the largest
contributors of thermal pollution in the coastal zone. Approximately 1
billion gallons of thermally treated water enter the characterization area
every day. Montsweag Bay in region 2 receives 85%, while Penobscot Bay in
region 4 and South Portland Harbor in region 1 receive 11% and 4%,
respectively (table 3-6).
Thermally treated water affects the physiological functions and behavior of
certain aquatic organisms (e.g., phytoplankton, benthic invertebrates, and
Table 3-6. Major Thermal Discharges in the Characterization Area from
Combined Industrial and Municipal Point Sources3.
Region Amount % of Receiving water body
(millions total and temperature range
gal/day)
1 47 4 S. Portland Harbor 100° to 210°F
2 927 85 Montsweag Bay 116° to 180°F
3 <1 <1 Medomak River 84° to 85°F
4 118 11 Penobscot River 60° to 120°F
5 0 0
6 <1 <1 E. Machias River 97°F
Total 1092 100
aMaine Department of Environmental Protection files
3-30
fish) by increasing their metabolic rates and by reducing the solubility of
oxygen. The accelerated biological activity demands increased oxygen, which
may result in low levels of dissolved oxygen. In general, water temperature
controls spawning and hatching of fish and aquatic invertebrates, regulates
their activity, and stimulates or suppresses growth and development (Jaine et
al. 1977). In addition, rapid changes in temperature can kill organisms.
Winter shutdown of a power plant is particularly likely to result in severe
thermal stress and possible mortality in organisms that have become acclimated
to warm conditions created by thermal discharge.
High volumes of thermal waste discharged into small bodies of water with
relatively little current may become the primary mixing force and increase
flushing rates, which could induce higher sedimentation. The effects of
increased sedimentation in estuarine systems are discussed under "Dredging"
above .
Small changes in water temperature changes (<5°C) probably have little or no
effect on phytoplankton populations, since temperature change is relatively
small after the heated water is mixed with riverine, estuarine, and marine
water. Mortality to phytoplankton due to entrainment was insignificant at
Maine Yankee Atomic Power Plant in Montsweag Bay (McAlice et al. 1978).
In recent years, Vadas and coworkers (1976) have produced a long-term data
base on growth and reproduction of Maine macroalgal populations before and
during exposure to heated discharges and in unexposed control areas. They
examined the effects of thermal discharges from Maine Yankee Atomic Power
Plant in Wiscasset (region 2). Compression of the intertidal macroalgae into
narrower and less dense bands was found in areas of heated discharge; this did
not take place in control areas (Vadas et al. 1976). The dominant intertidal
algae (Ascophyllum nodosum and Fucus vesiculosus) showed some rearrangements
and the growth of A. nodosum sometimes was stimulated in areas receiving
heated effluent. While floral composition may be altered extensively on some
coasts (North 1969; and Wood and Zieman 1969), no loss of macroalgal species
due to thermal loading was found in Maine.
The effects of thermal loading on eelgrass are poorly understood. Within
areas with restricted temperature limits, higher temperatures could stimulate
growth (Thayer et al. 1975). At higher temperatures, however, plants may
undergo heat stress. Available data suggest that in areas farther south than
Maine (Dillon 1971) eelgrass has a higher temperature tolerance (30°C; 86°F) ,
while populations on Mt. Desert Island (region 5) may undergo heat stress at
temperatures above 20°C (68°F; Setchell 1929).
The effects of power plants on zooplankton, including fish and shellfish
larvae, have been studied intensively. Planktonic organisms carried into
cooling systems by water intake mechanisms pass through the intake screens and
the condensers and are discharged into the plume. These organisms are not
only subjected to short-term elevated temperatures, but they may be killed by
mechanical devices, pressure changes, and exposure to chemicals as they pass
through the power plant. Studies have shown that zooplankton mortality from
passing through the cooling system varies considerably, from as low as 8% to
as high as 95% (e.g., Heinle 1969; Barnett and Hardy 1969; Brooks 1970; Johns
Hopkins University 1970; Hair 1971; Kelly 1971; Ryther et al. 1973; Carpenter
et al. 1974; Normandeau Associates 1974; and Nelson et al. 1976). Under some
3-31
10-80
conditions, this may have a significant impact on local fish populations.
Some adult fishes of many species suffer impingement, even though they can
swim against the flow of intake water (Marcy 1976) .
Changes in zooplankton populations in large bodies of water receiving heated
effluents have not been observed in two intensive studies in Montsweag Bay
(McAlice et al. 1970-1977) and in Pennsylvania (Schuler 1970-1976). These
studies suggest that, at least in the above areas, temperature increases from
power plant discharges are too small to have significant effects on the
zooplankton population. This may be a result of proper design and location of
the power facilities and discharge plumes studied.
According to Burton and coworkers (1976), the thermal effects on benthic
organisms either directly or indirectly are very localized and present little
change in species composition over large areas. Water temperature changes
(i.e., 2° to 5° C; 4° to 9° F) will have the most serious effect on species
that are living close to their thermal limit which is probably true of a few
Maine species (e.g., the quahog; Larsen, unpublished) . Benthos, which are
normally exposed to greater temperature variations in the intertidal and
estuarine environments, are more resistant than subtidal marine organisms to
the harmful effects of temperature fluctuations (Prosser 1973).
Benthic communities may be stressed by low dissolved oxygen levels caused by
high summer water temperatures and heated effluent.
Marked changes in number and composition of species have been associated with
areas receiving water heated 6 to 10°C (11 to 18°F) higher than normal (Logan
and Maurer 1975). However, these effects on benthos are minimized, since
heated water is less dense and rises as it moves away from the source
(Warinner and Brehmer 1966) .
Benthic studies of sedentary fauna in Montsweag Bay showed no evidence of
significant detrimental effects that could be attributed to the discharge of
thermal effluents from Maine Yankee Atomic Power Plant (Dean and Ewart 1978).
No major adverse effects have been noted on larval polychaetes entrained in
the cooling effluent of Maine Yankee Atomic Power Company; however, effects on
the other major taxa have not been studied.
PCBs. PCBs are long-lived organochlorines that are not soluble in water.
Once in a system, PCBs rapidly become bound to living or dead organic matter
or to bottom sediments. They are mostly industrial byproducts and still are
entering aquatic systems in the U.S. in large amounts (Ohlendorf et al. 1978).
Most PCBs enter the aquatic systems through industrial waste, sewage, sludge,
electrical transformers and conductors, and the burning of plastics. They
occur in highest concentrations around highly industrialized areas (Howe et
al. 1978).
PCBs are toxic to aquatic invertebrates and vertebrates (Duke et al. 1970; and
Hanson et al. 1974) and can be transferred and accumulated in food webs, which
may include people (Sayler et al. 1978). (Bioaccumulation is the accumulation
of a substance in an animal at a greater concentration than in its food or the
next lower trophic level so that the members of the highest trophic level
within a food chain have the highest concentration.) PCBs have been reported
3-32
to inhibit growth of phytoplankton populations (Fisher et al. 1973) and
interfere with protozoan chemotaxis (response to chemical stimuli; Walsh and
Mitchell 1974). They can stimulate and inhibit bacterial growth (Bourquin and
Cassidy 1975; and Keil et al. 1972). No evidence exists that bacteria in
their natural environment can metabolize and break down PCBs (Sayler et al.
1978).
PCBs can concentrate in the tissues of certain species directly from the
environment as readily as it bioaccumulates via food. Benthic invertebrates
and zooplankton bioconcentrate PCBs. PCBs pose a potential health hazard to
people because they accumulate in sediment where bioconcentration by
commercially important benthic species such as lobsters, soft-shelled clams,
and blue mussels, occurs (Edwards 1977).
A preliminary inventory in coastal Maine in the mid-1970s failed to show PCB
contamination in estuarine and marine sediments or in certain estuarine and
marine organisms (personal communication from J. Hurst, Maine Department of
Marine Resources, W. Boothbay Harbor, ME; April, 1979). More recently, PCBs
were detected in blue mussels from four locations along the Maine coast
(Council on Environmental Quality 1979). The levels measured at each site
were: 15 ppb at Blue Hill Falls (region 4); 80 ppb at Sears Island (region
4); 55 ppb at Cape Newagen (region 2); 60 ppb at Bailey Island (region 1); and
95 ppb at Portland (region 1). Also, PCBs have been found in eggshells
of bald eagles in Maine (see chapter 16, "Terrestrial Birds").
Studies in Scotland have shown that PCBs may accumulate in small amounts in
macroalgae growing in areas exposed to PCB pollution (Parker and Wilson 1975).
These may be transferred to grazers, such as limpets and sea urchins, which in
turn are prey for certain waterbirds (i.e., purple sandpipers, herring gulls,
and common eiders) . Bioaccumulation of PCBs in birds interferes with
reproduction. The effects of PCBs on seabirds, wading birds, bald eagles, and
marine mammals are discussed in chapter 14, "Waterbirds," chapter
l6,"Terrestrial Birds," and chapter 13, "Marine Mammals."
The resuspension and redistribution of PCBs by dredging can increase PCB
concentrations to critical levels (Maurer et al. 1974; see "Dredging" under
"Ports and Navigation" above) .
Air Pollution
Substances that pollute the air are released by factories, power plants, and
motor vehicles. Polluted air is also transported to Maine from other parts of
the country by winds. Control of air pollution in Maine includes cleansing
the local point sources and relying on other areas of the country to keep
their air pollution levels low.
Air pollution is greatest in and around large cities, where the automobile is
the chief polluter. In small towns, air pollution is derived mostly from
industrial point sources and from stationary fuel-combustion. In rural areas,
most of the air pollution is transported from more populated areas or arises
from large individual point sources.
Although the air quality in coastal Maine is generally good, areas exist that
do not meet the criteria set forth by the EPA in the National Ambient Air
3-33
10-80
Quality Standards (NAAQS) and that pose potential threats to the health of
organisms (including people) and to the environment (NAAQS and the Clean Air
Act and its application to coastal Maine are described in appendix C) . In
addition, areas exist that are unclassified; the quality of their air is not
known.
The Maine State Implementation Plan of 1979 identified (based on extant
ambient air quality data) those portions of the coastal zone that have not
attained safe levels of the five pollutants controlled by the Clean Air Act:
sulfur dioxide (SO2) , nitrogen oxides (N0X ), carbon monoxide (CO), total
suspended particles (TSP) , and ozone (O3). Ozone represents a particularly
serious problem as the entire coastal zone has unsafe levels of it. Several
areas have unsafe levels of TSP and CO. Coastal Maine has been classified as
having safe levels of N0X and unsafe levels of SO2. Maine suffers from acid
precipitation that is the result of long-distance transport of S02 and N0X
from other areas. Parts of region 4 and all of regions 5 and 6 were
classified as "nonattainment" with regard to SO2 in 1977, because of large
amounts released in Millinocket, Maine (in violation of NAAQS). Regions 4, 5,
and 6 are currently in "attainment." Part of region 4 and all of regions 5
and 6 will be reclassified with regard to ozone. Due to lack of data and a
change in NAAQS standards for ozone this area will be classified as
"unclassif iable . "
Attainment areas are classified by the EPA as class I, class II, or class III,
depending on the current quality of the air and the degree of deterioration to
be allowed for in these nondegradation areas. Maximum allowable increases in
ambient concentrations of pollutants have been set. Class I areas include all
national and international parks, national wilderness areas, and national
memorial parks >6000 acres (2429 ha). These areas are highly protected. All
other attainment areas in coastal Maine are class II.
The individual statuses of the five criteria air pollutants controlled by the
Clean Air Act and the biological effects of air pollution in coastal Maine are
discussed below.
Sulfur dioxide. Gaseous sulfur dioxide (SO2) is emitted primarily by
combustion in coal- and oil-burning power plants and to a lesser extent by
pulp mills and residential and commercial heat generators. Sulfur dioxide is
oxidized in the atmosphere to sulfuric acid, which is carried in precipitation
and causes rain water to be acidic. The mean residence time for sulfur in the
atmosphere is 2 to 4 days (Robinson and Robbins 1968). Consequently, SO 2 may
be transported more than 4375 miles (7000 km) before deposition occurs (Likens
and Bormann 1974) . Ecological damage to natural systems from acid rain has
been documented in New York, where many remote lakes have become devoid of
fish, due to low pH caused by acid rain. Similar problems were documented in
northern New England in 1979 (personal communication from T. Haines, U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service, Orono, ME; December, 1979). Recent studies (Davis et
al. 1978; and Norton et al. 1978) indicate that transport of SO 2 into Maine,
from sources as far away as the Ohio Valley, is causing ecological
deterioration (acidification), particularly in lakes.
The characterization area presently maintains an attainment rating for SO j-
State officials have indicated that total reduced sulfur, present in the air
as H2 S and other substances, is problematic chiefly due to its odor, and the
3-34
EPA has asked Maine to set a standard for existing sources by July, 1980.
This standard will affect paper and pulp mills (personal communication from
John Chandler and David Dumas, Department of Environmental Protection,
Augusta, ME; August, 1979).
Nitrogen oxides. Nitrogen oxides (NC^ ) are products of combustion (e.g.,
from automobiles and furnaces) and to a lesser extent commercial chemical
production. When oxidized in the atmosphere, nitrogen oxides produce nitric
acids, which contribute to the low pH or acidity of rain. Nitrogen oxides
are emitted in lesser quantity than sulfur oxides. The entire State of Maine,
including the coastal zone, has attained safe levels of for N0X . In fact,
the State has no standard for NO , since approaching the Federal standard has
not been difficult. The EPA expects no N0X increases in Maine in the near
future (personal communication from Norman Beloin, Environmental Protection
Agency, Lexington, MA; July, 1979). Nitrogen dioxide can be transported over
long distances.
Carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide (CO) is a gas produced by combustion.
The greatest source of carbon monoxide is the combustion products of gasoline
engines of automobiles. Carbon monoxide is a localized pollutant, most toxic
in the immediate vicinity where it is produced, particularly in areas of heavy
traffic and restricted air flow such as commercial areas, intersections, and
interchanges on specific streets.
Within the coastal zone only parts of Bangor presently have nonattainment
status with regard to carbon monoxide (Maine Department of Environmental
Protection 1979). In Bangor, violations of the 8-hour standard have totaled
159 from 1974 through 1977 in the downtown area (Maine Department of
Environmental Protection 1979). Portions of Augusta and Portland may have
unsafe levels of CO, because of the high volume of automobile traffic in
these cities (both cities currently are not monitored for CO). High volumes
of traffic in summer compound air quality problems.
Particulates . Particulates are defined as particles in the air,
including soot, mists, and sprays. Particulates may be nontoxic materials,
such as dirt and dust, or toxic materials, such as lead, asbestos,
hydrocarbons (which may be carcinogenic), suspended sulfates, nitrates, and,
possibly, radioactive elements. Particulates are measured as total suspended
particulates (TSP) and the major sources are road dust from traffic, rubber
tire wear, unpaved parking lots, tailpipe emissions, construction/demolition,
smelters, fertilizing processes, and power plants (U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency 1979). Emissions from wood-burning stoves also contribute
an unknown amount of particulate material to the atmosphere.
In Maine, five areas exist that have nonattainment status and four areas that
are unclassif iable for particulate emissions. Three of the nonattainment
areas, Augusta, Rockland/Thomaston, and Bangor/Brewer , are within the
characterization area. Bath is unclassified with regard to TSP.
Ozone. Ozone is not emitted directly into the atmosphere but results
from a reaction between nitrogen dioxide and hydrocarbons in the presence of
sunlight. Hydrocarbons, which are emitted as exhaust fumes from motor
vehicles and from industrial sources, are the most significant contributors to
3-35
10-80
ozone formation. Ozone and its precursors can remain in the atmosphere for
long periods of time and consequently are subject to long-distance transport.
Ozone and its transport into the State from large metropolitan areas to the
southwest is a significant problem in Maine. The entire coastal
characterization area has nonattainment status with regard to ozone. Ozone
transport into Maine is particularly severe in the warmer months of the year,
when the prevailing winds are from the southwest. Automobile travel in Maine,
particularly in the tourist seasons, contributes to the ozone problem. The
Portland area, with its large number of petroleum bulk stations and terminals,
contributes greatly to the ozone problem through the evaporation of volatile
organic hydrocarbons. Measurement of ozone concentrations did not begin until
1976, when violations in Portland were recorded. Subsequent sampling in 1977
demonstrated that (1) Maine's southwestern coastal areas (south of the
characterization area) frequently exceeded the NAAQS , (2) local sources of
ozone were at least partly responsible for the violations, and (3) standard
violations existed quite far inland and north of the Portland area (Maine
Department of Environmental Protection 1979).
Ozone is principally a public health concern. A growing concern exists that
ozone may be responsible for "tip burn" disease in eastern white pine. This
condition, which can lead to tree death, occurs at relatively low ozone
concentrations (i.e., lower than NAAQS requirements; personal communication
from R. Campana , Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Maine,
Orono, ME; January, 1980).
By studying data on Maine in close detail and in conjunction with data from
nearby States and by analyzing wind and other meteorologic factors, it was
determined that southern Maine is affected by transport of ozone from other
areas, most noticeably the metropolitan Boston area "urban plume" (Maine
Department of Environmental Protection 1979).
In 1978, sampling stations for ozone were set up throughout Maine at five
sites in five areas. Data gathered at three stations within the
characterization area indicated numerous exceedances of the new ozone standard
(0.12 ppm) in regions 1 to 4 but none in region 5. However, since more data
must be collected to ensure that regions 5 and 6 have reached attainment
levels, the State has requested that these regions be declassified.
In order to reduce ozone concentrations to compliance levels, it is necessary
to control the emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), the major
precursor of ozone. The major sources of VOC and amounts released per year in
Maine are listed in table 3-7. Information on methods of reducing VOCs have
been prepared by the Maine DEP (1979) for the Portland area (region 1).
Effects of atmospheric deposition on coastal ecosystems. Elevated levels
of air pollution can reduce the quality of life in the coastal zone. The
systems most affected by all forms of air pollution are terrestrial
(especially developed areas), lacustrine, riverine, and palustrine. The
lacustrine system is particularly sensitive to acid rain. The marine and
estuarine systems may be affected directly by heavy metals that enter them via
precipitation. Because of the high buffering capacity of salt water, the
marine and estuarine systems are not generally affected by the low pH of acid
rain.
3-36
Table 3-7. Sources and Amounts (tons/year) of Volatile Organic Compounds
Causing Air Pollution in Maine. a
Source
Tons/Year
Storage, transportation, and marketing
of petroleum products
Industrial processes
Industrial surface coating
Nonindustrial surface coating
Other solvent use
Miscellaneous sources (open burning, solid
waste disposal, and fuel combustion)
Mobile sources (e.g., highway vehicles)
10,600
905
2516
1512
2426
10,534
56,963
TOTAL
85,516
a Maine Department of Environmental Protection 1979.
Acid rain is the dominant destructive constituent of the human-induced
atmospheric pollution that affects natural systems in coastal Maine. Acid
rain influences natural systems in four ways: (1) by introducing toxic levels
of acidity into the environment, (2) by introducing heavy metals and PCB into
the environment (particularly near metal smelters and industrial areas), (3)
by introducing plant nutrients into the environment, (4) by introducing
organic molecules into the environment.
The response of natural systems to acid rain is poorly understood at present
but is under investigation. The focus of investigative effort concerning the
effects of acid rain on natural systems has centered on the impact of acidity
and the effect of heavy metals on natural systems. The impact of acid rain on
natural systems in coastal Maine is discussed below.
Acid precipitation. Over the past 30 years, scientists have noted an
increase in the acidity of rain in Europe and the United States (Likens et al.
1979 and 1972). In the United States, the most noticeable increases have been
measured in the Northeast. This trend is due to the rise in emissions of
sulfur and nitrogen oxides accompanying the rise in burning of fossil fuels.
The increase in acidity has already brought about changes in the ecology of
some Maine lakes (changes have not been studied in coastal lakes) and
threatens other natural systems. Acid precipitation tends to interfere with
critical ecosystem interactions. Changes in acidity accelerate or retard the
chemical release and transport of minerals, nutrients, and heavy metals
through biota, soils, and water courses.
A common measure of acidity is pH, which is the negative logarithm of the
concentration of hydrogen ions. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with 7
being the neutral point. Values lower than 7 are acidic. Since the pH scale
3-37
10-80
is logarithmic, a change in pH from 6 to 5 represents a ten- fold increase in
acidity.
Nitrogen and sulfur oxides enter the atmosphere from various sources. These
oxides are converted to strong acids in the atmosphere and transported to the
ground by rain and snow. Prior to the burning of massive amounts of fossil
fuels, the pH of precipitation in the United States was consistently above
5.0. The first recorded measurement of the pH of precipitation in the United
States was made in Maine in 1939; it was 5.9 (Likens et al. 1979).
Over the last few decades, the pH of precipitation over the Eastern United
States has slowly decreased to a point between 4 and 4.5. This represents at
least a ten-fold increase in acidity, an increase that is correlated with
increased concentrations of sulfate and nitrate oxides emitted into the
atmosphere over the past 20 years (Likens et al. 1979). Changes in acidity
already have caused environmental degradation, particularly in sensitive
freshwater systems (Davis et al. 1979; Johnson 1979; Hendrey et al. 1976;
Schofield 1976; and Gorham 1975). Since oxides may remain in the atmosphere
for a long period of time, local pollution may be transported many miles
before it is washed from the atmosphere by rain.
The vulnerability of natural ecosystems to atmospheric pollutants,
predominantly acid rains, is influenced by climatic, geographical,
topographical, morphometrical , biotic, and human inputs (Gorham and McFee
1978). Chief among the climatic factors are the amount and type of
precipitation, wind speed and direction, and seasonality. Rain and to a
lesser extent snow introduce acids and metals into the ground. Since Maine
receives about 40 inches (102 cm) of precipitation per year, ample opportunity
exists for atmospheric deposition. Although rain introduces acids relatively
quickly, snow cover tends to store acids, so that spring thaws can become
sudden pulsations of pollution into aquatic systems (Gorham and McFee 1978;
and Hornbeck et al. 1975).
Seasons and prevailing winds determine types of precipitation. Acidity of
precipitation at Hubbard Brook, New Hampshire, was found to be maximal in the
summer months, intermediate in the spring and fall and minimal in winter
(Hornbeck et al. 1975). The high summer levels are caused by the prevailing
winds that transport atmospheric pollution from the industrialized
northeastern and central States into northern New England. In cooler months,
northwestern prevailing winds bring air from less industrialized regions,
probably reducing the relative influence of acidity.
In many cases, geological factors influence the buffering capacity of natural
systems. Areas with granite and metamorphic silicaceous bedrock and thin
soils are most sensitive to acid rains because of their poor buffering
capacities. Soil texture, thickness, and structure can greatly influence the
effects of acids and heavy metals. The soils in coastal Maine are generally
thin and of granitic and metamorphic origin.
Biotic factors are important in altering acidity and in the uptake of heavy
metals and nutrients received from atmospheric deposition. Canopy of hardwood
forests can lower the acidity of rain effectively (Eaton et al. 1973).
However, the acidity of rain actually may increase as it passes through
spruce-fir forests.
3-38
Lacustrine, palustrine, and riverine systems are particularly sensitive to
acid deposition, due to their relatively poor buffering capacities and/or low
flushing rates. Many freshwater systems are underlain by types of bedrock
that resist weathering, so that the surface waters have few dissolved ions and
consequently are poor buffering solutions. Acids that fall into freshwater
systems become partially neutralized. Areas underlain with limestone, on the
other hand, neutralize the acid rain quickly. There are very few limestone
deposits at present in coastal Maine.
Although detailed studies have not been made of the effects of acid rain on
the structure, function, and diversity of freshwater systems, the general
effects are known. The lacustrine system has been studied in more detail than
the other systems, since the lower turnover rates and poor buffering
capacities of lacustrine systems render the effects of acidification on them
more obvious (Arnold et al. 1979). In general, lowland lakes, of which the
coastal zone has many, exhibit a higher acid-buffering capacity than high
altitude lakes. A study of 37 lowland lakes in 1978 (Davis et al. 1979)
indicated that all still maintained acid-buffering capacities. However, 32 of
the lakes showed decreases in pH.
One of the more measurable effects of acid rain has been the virtual
elimination of fish in acidified lakes, a particularly acute problem in the
Adirondacks of New York and the White Mountains of New Hampshire (LaBastille
1979). This effect has not been observed on the Maine coast. Several
effects of increased acidity contribute to the decrease in fish populations,
including the alteration of calcium levels, which affect reproduction in fish,
the alteration of gill functioning, and changes in sodium and chloride levels
in fish blood (Mitchell 1979; and Arnold et al. 1979). Survival of fish eggs
and larvae is much reduced in acidified waters.
Fish are not the only species affected by high acidity levels caused by acid
rain. Deleterious impacts of increased pH in water have been observed in
salamanders (Mitchell 1979), bacteria (Likens et al. 1979), zooplankton,
phytoplankton, neuston, and in the food web as a whole (Gorham 1978).
In riverine systems in New Hampshire relatively small drainage systems are
more affected by acid rains than larger streams (Johnson 1979). This
indicates an added buffering capacity by forest vegetation and soils in the
larger systems, which reduces the hydrogen ion concentration (Hornbeck et al.
1975). The biological effects of acid precipitation in low water streams have
received little attention. Bender (1978) found that pH affects the species
composition of periphyton algae.
The impact of acid precipitation deposition on palustrine and estuarine
wetlands is poorly understood. Since estuarine wetlands are buffered by the
bicarbonate system, most of the acid entering them in precipitation is
neutralized.
Palustrine wetlands systems have not been studied but, like the lacustrine
systems, they generally are not buffered highly. Many of the impacts on the
palustrine systems can be assumed to be similar to lacustrine systems.
However, further study of palustrine systems is needed. Many peat lands
already possess low pH (well below 5.6) and have little capacity to neutralize
strong acids and thus may be sensitive to acid rains.
3-39
10-80
Terrestrial vegetation is susceptible to acid precipitation. The potential
effects of acid precipitation on vegetation include (Tamm and Cowling 1975):
1. damage to protective surface structures, such as the cuticle ,
2. interference with normal functioning of guard cells,
3. poisoning of plant cells through diffusion of acidic substances
through the stomata or cuticle,
4. disturbance of normal metabolism or growth processes without necrosis
of plant cells,
5. interference with reproductive processes,
6. alteration of leaf-acid and root-exudation processes,
7. synergystic interaction with other environmental stress factors.
Likens and Bormann (1974) have suggested that the reduction in forest growth
in northern New England may be correlated with the concurrent acidification of
precipitation. Agricultural crops are impacted also and production may be
decreased by about 5% (personal communication from S. Norton, University of
Maine, Orono , ME; July, 1979). Numerous reports of sickness and death to
wildlife have been attributed to air pollution (Newman 1979). Soils are
greatly affected by acid rains (Maimer 1976; Tamm 1976; Norton 1976; and McFee
1978). Slow acidification of soils in general decreases plant production
(McFee 1978). The effects of acid precipitation in terrestrial habitats
include:
1. lowered soil pH,
2. accelerated leaching of plant nutrients and other ions,
3. changes in soil biota,
4. reduction in organic matter decay rates and associated release of
plant nutrients,
5. reduction in nitrification,
6. increased aluminum mobility and associated toxicity,
7. reduced availability of phosporus to plants,
8. increased mobility of some organic soil components.
Effects on the soil affect hydrology. For instance, acid precipitation
increases aluminum mobility and the aluminum transferred to the lacustrine
system has been shown to be toxic to lake fishes (Cronan and Schofield 1979).
In coastal areas, sea spray contributes significantly to the chemistry of
precipitation (Likens et al. 1979). Consequently, precipitation in coastal
areas affected by sea spray may be characterized as dilute sea water, since
the atmosphere there contains many of the ions abundant in sea water, the ions
Na+ and Mg+, the anion C1-, and to a lesser extent the cations Ca++, K+ , and
the anion SO4 (Likens et al. 1979). These ions tend to neutralize atmospheric
acids. Boyce and Butcher (1976), in studying the effect of a local source on
the composition of precipitation in south-central Maine, found a sharp
gradient of decreasing sodium concentration with increasing distance from the
ocean. Inland, high concentrations of sodium were associated with constant
east and northeasterly winds, which carry marine air into the region. The pH
levels in rain during periods in which these winds prevailed was 5.8, compared
with levels of 4.0 and 5.0 when the precipitation was not influenced by marine
air.
3-40
These limited data suggest that much of the effect of acid precipitation in
coastal areas is neutralized by marine and estuarine sea water and by marine
aerosols generated in the coastal atmosphere by sea spray and onshore winds.
Oil Pollution. Maine is dependent on imported petroleum. Presently, no
refineries exist in Maine, although during the past decade numerous proposals
have been made to site a major refinery in coastal Maine because of its deep-
water port facilities [e.g., Sanford (Portland), Machiasport, Eastport, and
Searsport ]. The Maine coast can be affected at present by any major spill
occurring on Georges Bank as a result of oil and gas development there. At
present, Portland Harbor (region 1) handles more commercial shipping (in
tonnage) than any other New England port whose major cargo is crude petroleum
and petroleum products. Tank farms with a capacity of 3.7 x 10 barrels (1.55
x 10 gal; 5.87 x 10 1) border the harbor, and their pipelines carry oil to
Canada. A proposal is active that would expand these facilities. Other
coastal areas with traffic in petroleum include Harpswell (region 1), Upper
Penobscot Bay (region 4), and Machias Bay (region 6).
Shenton (1973) and Hyland (1977) reviewed the incidence of oil spills along
the Maine coast from 1953 to 1976. Since 1976, the Maine DEP has documented
the occurrence of reported oil spills. Detailed statistical reports on the
occurrence, location, and magnitude of reported oil spills in Maine for each
year are available from the Maine DEP.
From 1976 to 1978, the Maine DEP reported 950 spills of 175,465 gal (665,012
1) of petroleum products in Maine, most of which were in the Portland (region
1) and Penobscot Bay (region 4) areas. Records of oil spills before this time
are not directly comparable. Oily wastes from developed areas are another
source of oil pollution entering aquatic systems through runoff into storm
sewers in many coastal towns and cities.
Three notable oil spills have occurred in coastal Maine (Hyland 1977): (1)
the Northern Gulf spill in Muscongus Bay (region 3) in 1963 [5510 tons (5000
t) of crude oil], (2)leakage in 1971 from a fuel storage facility at Long Cove
in Penobscot Bay [region 4; a minimum of 15 tons (14 t) of No. 2 fuel oil and
jet fuel]; and (3) the 1972 Tamano spill in Casco Bay [358 tons (325 t) of No.
6 fuel oil].
None of these spills has been assessed thoroughly from an ecological
standpoint. In the first two incidents, only effects on commercially
important shellfish were investigated. The Northern Gulf spill caused an
estimated loss of 66 to 230 tons (60 to 209 t) of soft clams and 17 tons (15.2
t) of impounded lobsters (Hyland 1977). Mayo and coworkers (1974) reported
crude oil concentrations of over 4000 ppm in Muscongus Bay 11 years after the
spill .
In 1973, clam transplantation studies were conducted at Muscongus Bay to
evaluate any continuing impact of the weathered oil (Dow 1975). Survival was
only 12.8%, compared to 78.1% survival in a control area. A decline of 65%
in the annual growth rate was noted.
The Long Cove spill was especially toxic. Within 2 weeks of the 6 March 1971
incident, an estimated 4.5 million commercial-sized clams died (Dow 1975). Of
the 165 tons (150t) believed to exist in the area at the time of the spill,
3-41
10-80
13% died by 30 March, 25% by 31 July, 55% by August, 1972, and 86% by August,
1974 (Dow and Hurst 1975). Additionally, surviving clams showed a high
incidence of gonadal tumors (malignant neoplasms; Barry and Yevich 1975). Up
to 26.6% of the individuals in some samples were afflicted. No tumors were
found in clams from control areas. Highest incidences correlated with areas
receiving the highest amounts of oil. Subsequent histopathological
examinations of clams from other parts of the State, including the chronically
polluted inner Portland Harbor, have revealed that tumors in clams are rare,
which may suggest that the jet fuel or some component of it is the causal
agent (personal communication from J. Hurst, Maine Department of Marine
Resources, West Boothbay Harbor, ME; January, 1980).
Further studies of Long Cove have confirmed and expanded the above results.
Gilfillan and coworkers (1977) concluded that 5 years after the spill "major
biological effects were still readily apparent" in the clam population. These
effects include absence of recruitment, continuing incidence of gonadal
tumors, and a significantly reduced growth rate. Growth rate reduction could
be related to the concentration of aromatic hydrocarbons in tissues. Sediment
analyses conducted in the summer of 1976 showed that many stations within the
cove still contained over 125 ppm weathered hydrocarbon material that was
similar to the spilled petroleum. These authors also report that for some
time after the spill marine bait worms (e.g., bloodworms) from the area showed
high mortality during shipping, and dealers ceased buying them.
It has been reported recently (Dow 1978) that clams have successfully
established themselves in Long Cove, in fairly clean sediments that have been
redistributed over areas of oiled sediments by winter storms. These clams
continue to survive and grow until they reach the size at which their burrow
intersects the oiled sediment horizon, at which time they die.
The impact of the 1973 Tamano spill on several components of the marine system
was investigated in July, September, and November of 1972 and again in August,
1973 (The Research Corporation of New England 1975). All groups of biota were
affected adversely; amphipods were completely absent from severely oiled
sites. The intertidal mudflats were most severely affected, followed by
intertidal rocky shores and subtidal benthic communities. Density and
diversity declined, and accumulations of petroleum hydrocarbons were found in
tissues. Waterbirds experienced high mortalities. By November and to a
greater extent by the next August, some recovery among waterbirds was noted.
However, severely oiled rocky areas were still void of biota in 1973, and
recruitment of shellfish to the oiled flats has not been observed.
The most important factor controlling the extent of damage to an intertidal
area from spilled oil is its exposure to wave-action (Owens 1978). On shores
of high-wave energy, the oil is dispersed quickly by the violent action of the
waves, whereas on shores of low-wave energy the oil may persist for years
(Keizer et al. 1978). The removal of most of the oil by natural agents after
a moderate oiling of an exposed rocky shore may take only 3 to 4 months (Smith
1968).
Approximately 1 year after the Nova Scotia coast was oiled severely, only
small amounts of oil remained on the rocky shores (Thomas 1973). Since much
of this oil was deposited in upper intertidal areas, where the least amount of
wave action is present, oil remained there for longer periods and delayed
3-42
recolonization of some biota. Oil deposited during spring tides is
particularly persistent. Small amounts of oil may persist for some time in
areas such as rock crevices, seaweed, barnacle, or mussel beds (Nelson-Smith
1973).
In combination with wave-action, the physical nature of a shore determines the
rate at which oil is dispersed. Rocky shores are cleansed naturally more
easily than sand beaches, and the cobble or gravel beaches are less easily
cleansed than the sand beaches. Sand and mud flats and salt marshes are the
least easily cleansed habitats (Owens 1978) .
The formation of sea ice or an ice foot, which may cover up to two-thirds of
the intertidal zone, is characteristic of estuaries and embayments of coastal
Maine. These formations sometimes trap oil between the sediment and the ice,
where the toxic element will remain until the ice breaks up. Through wave-
action oil also may become trapped between layers of ice or between layers of
sand, creating a source of dispersal over several months. These formations of
ice can serve as a protective covering to the underlying sediments until the
spilled oil is dispersed (Owens 1978).
Many species of bacteria, fungi, and yeasts are capable of degrading petroleum
hydrocarbons. Each species is limited in the types of hydrocarbon it may
attack. Although the rate of microbial degradation is related directly to
temperature (Nelson-Smith 1973), most investigators believe that the microbes
are limited most by dissolved oxygen, phosphates, and nitrates (Colwell et al.
1978). The activities of deposit-feeding benthic invertebrates have been
found to significantly increase the microbial degradation of petroleum
hydrocarbons in oiled sediments (Gordon et al. 1978). The very slow microbial
degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons on, in, or under a layer of ice may have
a considerable impact on the estuaries of Maine, which sometimes are covered
with ice during the greater portion of winter.
The effects of oil on the food chain in a habitat vary. The extent of damage
is a function of many factors, including the toxicity of the oil, the duration
of exposure, environmental conditions (including temperature), time of year,
the physiological state of the organisms, and the degree to which the
organisms are subjected to other forms of stress.
Toxic effects of oil on small benthic organisms include coating and
asphyxiation, ingestion, and the destruction of juveniles. Among the
sublethal effects are abnormal growths in soft-shelled clams, abnormal
development of barnacle and sea urchin larvae, delayed moulting of lobsters,
abnormal sexual behavior of fiddler crabs, interference with chemoreception in
lobsters, amphipods , and mud snails; interference with reproduction in birds,
and altered behavior in waterbirds (Snyder et al. 1973; and Butler et al.
1974).
Communities of organisms have been impacted by oil spills. At Chedabucto Bay,
Nova Scotia, Thomas (1978) found lower animal diversity at sites that were
oiled 6 years before the sampling than at control sites that were oil-free.
At West Falmouth, Massachusetts, the spillage of No. 2 fuel oil completely
decimated the benthic fauna at severely oiled sites (Sanders 1978).
3-43
10-80
The most damaging effects on the marine system are caused by the chronic low
level inputs of petroleum hydrocarbons. These remain in the sediments and may
be metabolized by or accumulated within the tissue of benthic species and
passed through the food chain to the commercially important species.
Fish, marine mammals, and birds are affected by spills through external oiling
(especially birds) and the ingestion of oil (through the food chain and during
preening). In addition, oiling significantly reduces the hatchability of bird
eggs (see Chapters 11, 13, and 14, "Fishes," "Marine Mammals," and
"Waterbirds" respectively).
Dams
A significant potential exists for low-head hydropower development in coastal
Maine. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1979), in a recent inventory of
potential hydropower sites, identified 276 dam sites in coastal Maine (see
atlas for locations), which constitutes 20% of all the dams in the State.
Most of these are on rivers or the outlets of lakes. The possibility also
exists for generating power at dams constructed in tidal waters along the
eastern coast. The impacts of impoundments are discussed below.
Effects of dams on marine and estuarine systems. Dams and impoundments
can have major effects on marine and estuarine systems (Copeland and Dickens
1974). These structures typically alter the volume and rate of freshwater
flow into estuaries. Alterations, in turn, can change the physical qualities
of the receiving waters, especially circulation, salinity, sedimentation,
temperature, shoreline erosion, flushing, ice-formation, and nutrient levels.
Impoundments also can act as settling basins, reducing sediment load and,
thus, reducing nutrient and sediment supply to intertidal areas and beaches.
Such changes in hydrography, geology, and chemistry can alter estuarine biota
significantly. The characteristics and magnitude of these changes depend on
the nature and duration of the induced alterations and on specific physical
and biological characteristics of estuaries receiving the modified inflow.
Tidal power projects are of two general types: dams utilizing both incoming
and outgoing tidal currents, and impoundments using incoming tides to store
water until power is needed later. Both types can alter tidal dynamics, water
temperature, wave action, surface and bottom currents, sedimentation, and
erosion patterns. These changes subsequently can influence aquatic biota.
For example, if the Fundy Tidal Power Project (Bay of Fundy, Canada) is built
the mean high water level in the bay would decrease 1.3 to 2.9 feet (0.4 to
0.9 m) . The low water level would rise so as rarely to fall below existing
mean low water, causing mean sea level to rise approximately 9 feet (2.8 m;
figure 3-2; Hodd 1977). These changes would cause a vertical compression of
the intertidal zone, halving the tidal excursion and thus changing intertidal
zonation. In turn, the latter change would bring about a partial displacement
of intertidal macroalgae, salt marsh and epibenthic algae, and associated
fauna. Much of the intertidal habitat would be altered and its productivity
would be impaired greatly. About half of the intertidal plant communities
would cease to be productive.
Numerous ecological changes also could take place in the impounded tidal
water, resulting in biological alterations. Decreased wave exposure along
impoundment fringes would favor Aseophyllum over Fucus (seaweeds) in rocky
3-44
CO
DC
LU
MUD FLAT
SUBTIDAL"
ZONE
EXISTING INTERTIDALZONE
<
>
LU
—I
LU
CO
<
CD
&&&>
*&)
SUBTIDAL-
ZONE
INTERTIDAL ZONE WITH IMPOUNDMENT FOR TIDAL POWER
FG - FRESHWATER GRASSLAND
ST -SHRUBS AND TREES
Sp-SPARTINA PATENS
Sa - SPARTINA ALTERNIFLORA
Figure 3-2. Conceptual effect of a new tidal regime on a generalized
intertidal zone (Hodd 1977).
3-45
10-80
areas and promote salt marsh development on finer substrates. Warmer water
temperatures would stimulate growth of some benthic plants and possibly
accelerate grazing by littorina snails and urchins in intertidal and subtidal
areas respectively. Increased sedimentation in impoundments would decrease
the rocky substrata available for macroalgae and increase the soft, elevated
substrata suitable for marsh grasses. Organisms would be displaced from
previously occupied heights to new levels. Benthic invertebrates would be
severely affected as portions of many populations would not survive the new
tidal regimes. As habitats were recolonized, more gradual changes in benthic
populations might result through sedimentation. Organisms up the food chain
potentially would be affected by changes in the benthic invertebrate
populations. Shorebirds, in particular, might be impacted greatly in feeding
areas (see chapter 14, "Waterbirds") •
Tidal power projects also could affect fish and wildlife populations directly.
Changes in riverine and estuarine conditions could result in decreased homing
of anadromous fishes. Fishways might be needed to allow for upstream passage.
Depending on the level of operation and equipment used, turbine mortality
might be a serious problem to fish and other aquatic life. Ice might form
more readily in an impoundment, resulting in decreased use by wintering
waterfowl populations.
Reduced tidal flushing behind a tidal dam could degrade water quality if large
amounts of untreated sewage or other pollutants accumulated in the
impoundment. This would be of special concern in relation to aquaculture
sites .
Effects of dams on freshwater habitats. Impoundments behind the
hydropower dams can affect the physical, chemical, and biological
characteristics of rivers severely. In Maine, where hundreds of small dams
have been built on rivers and their tributaries, impoundments are of
particular concern. Dams and their associated storage reservoirs frequently
alter flow and temperature regimes above and below the dam. They also may
create barriers to upstream and downstream movements of migratory fishes.
Dams and barriers on Maine streams are the major cause of the historic decline
of anadromous fish resources in Maine.
The magnitude of the impacts of an impoundment depend upon the size of the
dam, operating mode (run-of-river or store-and-release) , the flow rate through
the impounded area, turbine size and speed, and the retention time of water
within the impoundment. Generally, larger dams with relatively low average
flow rates, wide ranges in operating flows, and long retention times, will
have the most severe impacts on the stream and its biological community.
Since most Maine dams are relatively small, their impacts, while significant,
are probably not as severe as the impacts of larger dams might be.
Regardless of its size, any dam can be expected to have some impacts. After a
dam is built the area immediately upstream typically is inundated, converting
it from a running-water habitat to a standing-water habitat, with concurrent
changes in its biological community. Bottom fauna in a newly impounded area
are usually very unstable and frequently are dominated by chironomid midge
larvae (Hynes 1970). Gradually, biological communities stabilize, sometimes
resembling communities typical of lakes in the same area. In other instances,
floral and faunal assemblages never may be as stable as lacustrine areas,
3-46
because of large water-level fluctuations (drawdowns) caused by dam
operations, especially power generation. Shoreline habitat is particularly
endangered by water-level changes.
Reduction of peak flows downstream of a dam can reduce scouring and cause
organic detritus to accumulate (Ridley and Steel 1975). This in turn can
favor rooted aquatic vegetation and disrupt invertebrate and fish populations.
Reduction of peak flows also can interfere with environmental cues that
trigger fish migrations.
Impounded water usually warms slower in spring and remains warm longer in fall
than freely flowing water, resulting in a more even temperature regime
downstream (Ridley and Steel 1975). Hence, releases from impoundments can
change temperatures downstream and interfere with the normal timing of the
life cycle of some stream animals (e.g., smallmouth bass, Atlantic salmon, and
brook trout) . Similar changes also can occur in the impoundment itself and in
upstream areas.
Surface water released from an impoundment often contains more algae and less
silt than freely flowing water (Ridley and Steel 1975). This can change
biomass and sediment transport and buildup downstream, affecting vegetation,
macroinvertebrates , and fish. Increased transport of planktonic algae is
particularly important, because it can favor populations of filter feeders,
such as larval blackflies, which can then produce a significant nuisance
effect as adults emerge.
The most obvious and frequent impact of a dam is its interference with the
migration of fish. Studies in Maine and Canada show that at least 5% to 10%
of adult Atlantic salmon are unable to migrate past a dam, even where fishways
exist (DeRoche 1967). Of course, dams without operating fishways impede far
more fish.
Some fish are more likely to be impeded by dams than others. For instance,
salmon, which can clear obstacles 11 feet (3.4 m) high under favorable
conditions (Jones 1959) are much more likely to pass barriers than Atlantic or
shortnose sturgeon, which are sluggish swimmers, or American shad or striped
bass, which are not prone to leaping. In Maine, the only major anadromous
fishes that pass barriers and fishways easily are alewives and salmon. The
American eel, a catadromous fish, also passes barriers well (see chapter 11,
"Fishes").
Dams also can block downstream migrations of young fish. Most downstream
migrants swim along the bottom, so that many young fish fail to take advantage
of dam spillage and fishways. In the Androscoggin River, a 10% loss of river-
produced Atlantic salmon smolts would occur at each power dam encountered
during downstream migration and a 5% loss of tributary-produced smolts for
each dam encountered (DeRoche 1967). Higher mortalities, about 11% per dam,
could be experienced during unusually poor water years, when dam spillage is
nearly nil and water is passing mostly through turbines (Schoeneman et al.
1961).
Dams and stream pollution have been implicated as the major causes of the
reduction of anadromous fish runs in Maine to far below historical levels.
Striped bass virtually have been eliminated as a spawning population.
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Spawning populations of the American shad and sturgeon species also have been
greatly reduced. Atlantic salmon, whose runs were greatly reduced, are now
beginning to respond to intensive restoration efforts. Anadromous alewives
and rainbow smelt, although generally abundant, have experienced many local
disruptions. Migrations of nonanadromous resident fishes, such as trout and
landlocked salmon, probably also have been disrupted, although this situation
has received relatively little attention.
Dams are present at the outlets of many lakes in the coastal zone (a partial
list is given in table 3 in the appendix to chapter 7 , "The Lacustrine
System"). With few exceptions, these dams have been built on natural lakes
and have raised the maximum water levels. These dams serve, or once served,
purposes including ice production, powering of mills at outlets, controlled
release of water for recreation, and electrical power production. Water-level
manipulation at dam sites may affect lacustrine biota and fish spawning areas.
Potential adverse effects of hydroelectric dams exist at Branch Lake (region
5) and Toddy Pond (region 4). Numerous dams at lake outlets have fallen into
disrepair because the original purposes of the dams no longer exist and laws
are inadequate to enforce maintenance. These and the still-functional dams
are matters of State and local controversy. Conflicts in relation to desired
water levels exist between dam operators, boatsmen, fishermen, and shoreline
cottage owners.
Construction
Construction includes building activities associated with homes, walls, piers,
jetties, dams, industries, roads, parking lots, bridges, and walkways.
These developments exist in all regions of coastal Maine in varying extent and
generally relate to population density (see "The Socioeconomy" in chapter 2).
The impacts associated with construction are reviewed below. Impacts of the
various types of developments are covered by facility (e.g., piers and wharves
are discussed under "Ports and Navigation" above).
In all aquatic systems, the adverse effects of construction projects include
loss of habitat, altered stream flow, increased turbidity, and increased
sedimentation, which forms a layer of silt and resuspensed pollutants from
benthic sediments. The impacts of construction vary with the type of
development, degree of landscape and drainage pattern alterations, density of
individual development projects, proximity of the operation to the water, and
the basic ecological sensitivity of the area (Clark 1974). The short-term
impacts of construction projects on the food web are similar to those of
dredging. Construction often promotes erosion, blocks sediment flow, and
redirects wave energy.
The inevitable devegetation caused by construction in nearshore and adjacent
upland areas increases erosion. Erosion of cleared land usually results in
the introduction of a high load of sediment into watercourses. Palustrine and
lacustrine systems in coastal Maine are especially vulnerable to high sediment
loads, as water flow in these systems usually is restricted.
Soil erosion is a serious but controllable problem. Unvegetated soil is
unstable and erodes into adjacent waters, causing siltation and sedimentation.
Soil particles in suspension cause turbidity in water, preventing light
penetration and thereby hindering photosynthesis and plant production.
3-48
Siltation also clogs the gills of fish and the breathing apparatuses of
invertebrate organisms, which serve as food for fish and birds. Eroded soil
that has settled on the bottom of an aquatic system can smother food items of
bottom- feeding fish and may render the bottom unsuitable for certain bottom-
spawning fish.
Instream and nearstream construction activities may have substantial impacts
on riverine systems. Instream construction may involve the placement of dikes
of rock, timber, or other material within a stream with the objective of
modifying streamflow. Or it may involve construction of shoreline or
midstream structures, such as boat launching ramps, piers, or bridge
abuttments , which modify the stream environment. Nearstream construction
refers to any construction activity (e.g., home-building and road
construction) that occurs near enough to a stream to have discernable effects
on it.
Instream construction almost inevitably results in disturbance of stream
sediments. Most types of near stream construction involve earth-moving and/or
vegetation removal, which increases the soil's susceptibility to erosion.
Frequently, much of the eroded material from construction sites on or near
streambanks is washed into the stream. The increased movement of stream silt
or eroded soil particles increases the turbidity (cloudiness) of the stream
water. Frequently, plant nutrients, especially phosphorus, that are bound to
soil particles are released when the particles are eroded and carried into the
stream. This may result in eutrophication of the stream (see "Domestic
Sewage" above). Heavy metals, such as chromium (from tanneries) and mercury
(transported by air currents), may be found in some Maine soils and sediments,
as may certain pesticides and other toxic materials. These potentially
harmful materials may be released when soils and stream sediments are
disturbed.
In addition to sediment disturbance, instream construction may have direct
effects on the stream environment through the structures placed in the stream.
These structures frequently deepen channels by obstructing stream flow along
the streambanks (Yorke 1978). This may cause localized flooding, as high
flows that would otherwise be carried by the channel with no difficulty are
held up and spill over onto the floodplain. The placement of structures
within a stream often increases the diversity of stream habitats available,
thus having a potentially beneficial effect on the number and diversity of
stream organisms inhabiting the site. However, if siltation occurs in the low
water velocity pockets downstream of the emplaced structures, habitat
diversity in these areas will be reduced. Construction activities that remove
streambank vegetation alter the light penetration and temperature regimes of
the stream. This in turn affects the composition of stream biological
communities .
REGULATIONS GOVERNING HUMAN ACTIVITIES IN THE BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS OF COASTAL
MAINE
The regulations governing freshwater, (palustrine, lacustrine, and riverine
systems), tidal (marine, estuarine, and riverine systems) and terrestrial
habitats are summarized below.
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In addition to those pertaining to habitats, numerous regulations exist
concerning native species and their habitats (e.g., the Endangered Species
Act, Migratory Bird Conservation Act, and Marine Mammal Protection Act).
These laws, and their application to coastal Maine, are covered in the
discussion of the species or group of species involved (chapters 11 to 20). A
list of Federal laws and treaties that affect sport fish and wildlife is
included in appendix D. A summary of State laws and administrative agencies
pertaining to the regulation of activities in coastal systems is given in
table 3-8.
Regulations Pertaining to Palustrine, Lacustrine, and Riverine Systems
In Maine, limited direct Federal and State controls exist over palustrine,
lacustrine, and riverine systems. The federal agencies with direct regulatory
authority over Maine's freshwater aquatic habitats are the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE). The EPA
controls discharge of pollutants in all waters and wetlands of the United
States. The EPA can rescind a State program. Any activities involving the
discharge of dredged or fill material in United States waters, including all
adjacent wetlands, are under the permit authority of the COE.
Although it has no direct regulatory authority, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service (FWS) plays an important advisory role in the issuing of permits by
the COE and EPA. Under the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, the FWS
assesses the impacts on fish and wildlife of all water and water-related land
resource development projects that are funded by the Federal Government or are
constructed under a Federal permit or license. Federal permits for water-
related development are reviewed by the FWS to encourage avoidance of adverse
impacts on fish and wildlife and their habitat, particularly wetlands. Also,
under the Migratory Bird Conservation Program and the Land and Water
Conservation Program, the FWS can acquire habitat (significant migratory
waterfowl habitat, habitat for endangered species, important wildlife areas,
and recreational and wilderness areas) that may include wetlands and other
habitats. These acquisitions become part of the National Wildlife Refuge
System.
Other Federal agencies that play an indirect role in the regulation of
freshwater habitats in coastal Maine are the U.S. Forest Service (research and
management in relation to forest practices), Soil Conservation Service
(technical assistance programs in relation to resource conservation) , National
Park Service (acquisition and management), and U.S. Geological Survey
(research). In addition, Executive Orders 11988 (Floodplain Management) and
11990 (Protection of Wetlands) require each agency to take steps to minimize
impacts on, restore, and preserve floodplain and wetland areas.
On the State level, 11 laws exist to manage coastal resources by guiding
development and by conserving natural resources declared by the State
municipalities to be in need of protection. Of the 11 laws, eight pertain to
freshwater aquatic systems in organized townships and one pertains to these
systems in unorganized townships. The laws regulate uses of lakes, rivers,
streams, brooks, and wetlands adjacent to these habitats. Great ponds (lakes)
as defined by the State include natural lakes >10 acres (4 ha) and artificial
lakes >30 acres (12 ha) and owned by two or more parties. This legislation
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Table 3-8. State Laws and Administrative Agencies Regulating Use of
Coastal Maine Habitats
System Administrative
and law agency3
Palustrine, Lacustrine, and Riverine
Protection and Improvement of Waters BEP
Site Location of Development Act BEP and LURC
Solid Waste Management Act BEP
Oil Discharge and Prevention Control Act BEP
Stream Alteration Act MDIFW
Mandatory Shoreland Zoning Act SPO
Subdivision Law MPB and LURC
Land Use Regulation Law LURC
Great Ponds Act DEP
Estuarine and Marine
Site Location of Development Act BEP
Coastal Wetlands Act BEP and LURC
Mandatory Shoreland Zoning Act SPO
Protection and Improvement of Waters BEP
Oil Discharge Prevention and Pollution BEP
Control Act
Marine Resources Management Law MDMR
Land Use Regulation Law LURC
Terrestrial
Mandatory Shoreland Zoning Act SPO
Subdivision law MPB and LURC
Site Location of Development Act BEP
Solid Waste Management Law BEP
Land Use Regulation Law LURC
Protection and Improvement of Air Law BEP
aBEP = Board of Environmental Protection; MDIFW = Maine Department of
Inland Fisheries and Wildlife; SPO= State Planning Office; MPD= Municipal
Planning Board; LURC= Land Use Regulation Commission; DEP= Department
of Environmental Protection; and MDMR= Maine Department of Marine Resources.
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does not cover a significant number and acreage of small wetlands that do not
drain or connect with lakes or streams.
The Board of Environmental Protection (BEP) administers four of the seven
laws. These include: Protection and Improvement of Waters, Site Location of
Development Act, Solid Waste Management Act, and the Oil Discharge and
Prevention Control Act. Under Protection and Improvement of Waters, the BEP
has licensing authority over all discharges of waste waters into Maine waters
(this includes all aquatic systems except those that are confined and retained
completely upon the property of one party and do not drain into or connect
with any other waters of the State). Besides being licensed, any discharge
must receive "best practicable treatment" and must not lower the quality of
any classified body of water below its classification level or any
unclassified body of water below the classification level that the BEP expects
to adopt (see appendix B) .
The Site Location of Development Act requires the Board to "...control the
location of those developments substantially affecting local environment in
order to ensure that such development will be located in a manner which will
have a minimal adverse impact on the natural environments or their
surroundings." This includes projects >20 acres (8 ha) and those covering
more than 60,000 sq ft. This act requires persons proposing such development
in an organized township to obtain a permit from the BEP. The permit will be
either granted or denied depending upon several criteria, two of which are
that no adverse effect on the natural environment will occur and that the
proposed development will be built on soil types that are suitable to the
nature of the undertaking. The Land Use Regulation Commission administers
this law in unorganized townships.
Administered by the BEP, the Solid Waste Management Act includes certain
criteria developed to protect ground and surface water resources. The major
criteria include: (1) all refuse must be placed at least 5 feet (1.5 m) above
the level of groundwater, (2) site sloping must be less than 15%, (3) site
boundary limits must not be closer than 300 feet (92 m) to a classified body
of water, (4) site boundary limits must not be closer than 1000 feet (305 m)
to the nearest residence or potable water supply, and (5) surficial material
must consist of well-graded granular material containing from 15% to 40% fine
sands and must be relatively free of cobbles. This act is designed to protect
all freshwater aquatic habitats from runoff from solid waste in organized
townships .
The Oil Discharge Prevention and Pollution Control Act is designed (1) to
protect the coast of Maine from damage caused by oil spillage, by prohibiting
the unlicensed discharge of oil (coastal waters extending 12 miles, 19 km,
seaward), and (2) to regulate the manner in which transfers of oil are
conducted. Although the BEP holds the major responsibility for decision-
making with regard to licenses and conditions and violations of this act,
several other State agencies are involved in administering it. The Division
of Oil Conveyance Services of the Department of Environmental Protection is in
charge of administering licenses, cleaning up oil spills, and research and
development. Enforcement is the duty of the State Attorney General. The
Department of Marine Resources (MDMR) and U.S. Coast Guard must be consulted
for advice before any anchorage regulation is adopted.
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The Stream Alteration Act applies to freshwater aquatic areas. This act,
administered by Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife (MDIFW)
protects (through issuance of permits upon approval by the Commissioner) all
streams, rivers, or brooks or the adjacent land against any dredge, fill or
construction activities. Any palustrine wetland adjacent to or contained
within a stream, river, or brook is protected under this act. Certain lakes
also are protected, as this law applies to tributaries, of which lakes are
often a part. A large number and acreage of palustrine wetlands and some
lakes are not regulated under this act.
The Mandatory Shoreland Zoning Act, administered by the State Planning Office,
requires all organized towns to establish zoning controls on all navigable
ponds, lakes, rivers, and streams and ocean frontage (land 250 feet or 76 m
within the high water mark). Palustrine wetlands, steep slopes, and flood-
plains associated with these water bodies are classified as Resource
Protection Districts. Palustrine wetlands not associated with the above
types of water bodies may be zoned by individual towns as Resource Protection
Districts, but this is not a requirement of the law. Those towns that have
failed to comply with Mandatory Shoreland Zoning Act are under State zoning
jurisdiction.
The Subdivision Law requires all municipal authorities in organized townships
to assure that a proposed development meets certain standards. For approval,
the proposed development must have (1) a sufficient supply of water, (2) an
adequate method of sewage disposal, (3) must not cause undue air and water
pollution, soil erosion, or unsafe highway conditions, and (4) must not
interfere with scenery. All requests for subdivision (three or more lots
created within a 5-year period) approval must be reviewed by the municipal
planning board. The Land Use Regulation Commission enforces the Subdivision
Law in unorganized townships.
The Land Use Regulation Law promotes principles of sound land use planning in
unorganized areas. The Land Use Regulation Commission has planning and zoning
powers and development control over townships, plantations, and coastal
islands that are unorganized. The areas under its jurisdiction are divided
into protection, management, and development districts. Any activities within
"protection subdistricts" must be approved by the commission. Palustrine
wetlands may be zoned under four of these protection subdistricts (Unusual
Wetland, Fish and Wildlife, Shoreland, and Great Pond). Lacustrine and
riverine areas may be zoned under six of these subdistricts (Flood Prone, Fish
and Wildlife, Great Pond, Recreation, Shoreland, and Unusual Wetland).
The Great Ponds Act, which applies to lacustrine systems, prohibits
construction without a permit of causeways, bridges, marinas, wharves, and
other permanent structures, and filling and dredging in or on land adjacent to
Great Ponds [natural lakes >10 acres (4ha), and artifical lakes >30 acres (12
ha) owned by two or more parties]. The Great Ponds Act may apply to a limited
number of open water palustrine habitats that have been classified by the
State as Great Ponds. The DEP is the State agency responsible for
administering the Great Ponds Act. Most applications are reviewed by DEP
staff with recommendations from other State departments (particularly MDIFW)
and, in unorganized townships, the Land Use Regulation Commission.
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The Critical Areas Program of the State Planning Office influences the
regulation of aquatic habitats. This program registers the locations of
unique and critical areas, such as unique bogs, rare plants, colonial
waterbird colonies, and unusual plant communities.
MDIFW owns, protects, and manages palustrine and riverine wetland areas in the
coastal zone. Wetlands under MDIFW ownership are ensured protection.
MDIFW and the FWS (Moosehorn National Wildlife Refuge) have been involved in
marsh protection and management programs (palustrine, riverine, and lacustrine
wetlands) intended to improve habitats for waterfowl. In addition, these
organizations manage coastal wetlands and islands used by migratory birds (see
atlas map 3) .
Regulations Pertaining to Estuarine and Marine Systems in Coastal Maine
Several direct Federal and State controls exist over the estuarine and marine
systems in Maine. Federal agencies with direct regulatory authority over
these systems are the EPA, the U.S. Coast Guard, and the COE.
The EPA controls discharge of pollutants in all waters of the U.S., including
the estuarine and marine systems. Along with the U.S. Coast Guard, EPA
regulates spills of oil and hazardous substances that may occur in the
estuarine and marine systems. EPA and COE (COE has the permit authority to
regulate activities involving discharges of dredged or fill material in all
waters of the U.S.) provide the framework for reviewing proposed discharges of
dredged or fill materials to evaluate their physical effects and potential for
chemical contamination.
Although the FWS has no direct regulatory control over the estuarine and
marine systems, it plays a direct advisory role in regulatory practices.
Under the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, FWS must assess the impacts on
fish and wildlife of all water and water-related land resource development
projects that are funded by the Federal Government or constructed under a
permit or license. It provides information to Federal construction or
regulatory agencies and to permit applicants. Such involvement includes
analyzing and reporting on construction proposals and applications for dredge
and fill permits issued by the COE, ocean-dumping permits issued by the EPA,
bridge and causeway permits issued by the U.S. Coast Guard, license
applications submitted to the Federal Power Commission and Nuclear Regulatory
Commission, and any proposed Federal construction affecting living fish and
wildlife resources. FWS also plays a direct role in regulatory practices
concerning the estuarine and marine systems through its acquisition of
significant migratory waterfowl habitat (under the Migratory Bird Conservation
Act) and of habitat for endangered species (under the Endangered Species Act),
and recreation and wilderness areas (under the Water Conservation Act). All
acquisitions become part of the National Wildlife Refuge System.
The National Marine Fisheries Service's primary responsibility is to protect
and conserve the estuarine, marine, and anadromous fish resources. Twenty
Federal laws mandate NMFS involvement in fish habitat protection. NMFS also
has an advisory role similar to that of the FWS in evaluating Federal permits.
In addition, NMFS has primary responsibility in the designation and management
of marine and estuarine sanctuaries.
3-54
Other Federal agencies that play an indirect role in regulations concerning
the estuarine and marine systems in coastal Maine are the Soil Conservation
Service (technical assistance programs in relation to resource conservation),
National Park Service (acquisition and management), and U.S. Geological Survey
(research) .
On the State level, nine laws manage coastal resources found primarily in
tidal water, by guiding development and by conserving natural resources
identified by the State or municipality as being in need of protection.
(Seven of these: the Site Location of Development Act, the Protection and
Improvement of Waters Act, the Mandatory Shoreland Zoning Act, the Oil
Discharge and Pollution Control Act, the Land Use Regulation Act, the Critical
Areas Program Act, and the jurisdiction of the MDIFW in wildlife management
areas have been discussed previously, as they apply to freshwater aquatic
systems as well.) The Coastal Wetland Act and Marine Resources Management Law
pertain exclusively to tidal waters (estuarine, marine, and riverine).
The Coastal Wetlands Act ensures that dredging, draining, filling, or
construction of permanent structures on or over any tidal or subtidal land
does not (1) unreasonably interfere with existing navigational or recreational
uses, (2) cause unreasonable soil erosion, (3) unreasonably interfere with the
natural flow of any waters, (4) unreasonably harm wildlife or freshwater,
estuarine, or marine fisheries, or (5) lower the quality of any waters. This
law is administered by the BEP or by those municipal governments to which
permit authority has been granted by the BEP (e.g., Harrington and Southport) .
The Marine Resources Management Law, as administered by MDMR, protects any of
the renewable marine resources (including fish, shellfish, marine worms, and
marine plants) of the State through enforceable regulations of the time,
method, number, weight, length, and location a species is taken. Enforcement
is carried out by wardens of MDMR.
Regulations Pertaining to Terrestrial Systems
Federal regulations of land-based development primarily concern discharge of
pollutants (e.g., air, water, solid wastes, and hazardous wastes). If the
project is funded by the Federal Government or involves federally owned land,
an Environmental Assessment and/or an Environmental Impact Statement must be
filed in accordance with the National Environmental Policy Act.
On the State level, 6 laws have direct regulatory control over development.
(Four laws, the Mandatory Shoreland Zoning Act, the Subdivision Law, the Site
Location of Development Act and the Solid Waste Management Law, are described
above.) The applications of the Land Use Regulation Law and the Protection
and Improvement of Air Law to the terrestrial system are summarized below.
Individual towns may further control and guide development through municipal
zoning and local ordinances. Under the Land Use Regulation Law, the Land Use
Regulation Commission was created. This commission is instructed by the law
"to extend principles of sound planning, zoning, and subdivision control for
the unorganized. . .townships of the state..." The Commission thus exerts
considerable control over development within its jurisdiction. Through
zoning, development is directed to areas that have good soils and areas where
building has already taken place; and fragile areas that may be unsuitable for
construction are avoided.
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The Land Use Regulation Commission's jurisdiction is divided into protection,
management, and development districts in accordance with the following
standards :
1. Protection districts: areas where development would jeopardize
significant natural, recreational, and historical resources, including but not
limited to floodplains, precipitous slopes, wildlife habitat, and other areas
critical to the ecology of the State.
2. Management districts: areas that are appropriate for commercial
forestry or agricultural uses, for which plans for additional development are
not formulated presently, and in which additional development is not
anticipated.
3. Development districts: areas discernible as having patterns of
intensive residential, recreational, commercial, or industrial use, or
commercial removal of minerals or other natural resources. Areas that are
devoted to or suitable for intensive development.
The Commission may delineate such subcategories of the above classifications
as may be deemed necessary and desirable to carry out the intent of the law.
All major activities occurring within these major districts are under the
authority of the Land Use Regulation Commission.
The Protection and Improvement of Air Law is intended to control all air
emissions in order to protect public health, property, and natural resources.
This law prohibits open burning and specifies the circumstances under which
open burning may be conducted. (Agricultural burning, burning for the
disposition of materials generated by the demolition of a building, burning to
clear land prior to construction, burning to control or prevent disease, and
burning for training, research, and recreational purposes all require
permits.) Forest rangers or town forest-fire wardens may grant open burning
permits. All permits for burning carry a requirement that the environment,
public health, and property not be endangered.
The Clean Air Act (a Federal law) is summarized in appendix C.
3-56
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Precipitation on Pennyslvania Waters. U.S. Environmental Protection
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Barnett, P. R. 0., and B. L. S. Hardy. 1969. The effects of temperature on
the benthos near Hunterston Generating Station, Scotland. Chesapeake
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Barry, M. , and P. P. Yevich. 1975. The ecological, chemical and
histopathological evaluation of an oil spill site. Part III.
Histopathological studies. Mar. Poll. Bull. 6:171-173.
Barsclate, R. J., M. Nebert, and C. P. McRoy. 1975. Lagoon contributions to
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Bender, P. M. 1978. Studies on the periphyton communities of two infertile
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J. Dymond, Probable Effects of Acid Precipitation on Pennsylvania
Waters. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Corvallis, OR.
Bond, L. H. , and S. E. DeRoche. 1950. A Preliminary Survey of Man-made
Obstructions and Logging Practices in Relation to Certain Salmonid Fishes
in Northern Maine. Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife,
Augusta, ME.
Borns, H. W. 1979. Eskers in Maine. Planning Report No. 54. Maine Critical
Areas Program, Maine State Planning Office, Augusta, ME.
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