Economic value of the starling in the United States

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 868 as

Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey
E. W. NELSON, Chief

- Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER January 10, 1921

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING
IN THE UNITED STATES

a

By
E. R. KALMBACH and I. N. GABRIELSON

Assistant Biologists

CONTENTS

Page
Problems Raised by the Starling Food Habits in the United States—Contd.
_pources of Information ; Vegetable Food of Adults—Contd.
Distribution and Abundance F Small Grain
Description Garden Truck
Life History Wild Fruit
Economic Status in Other Countries. . . Miscellaneous Vegetable Food .
Food Habits in the United States .... _ Food of Nesitlings
Animal Food of Adults Observations from Blind ... .
Insects Stomach Examination
Millipeds Animal Food........... 2 Al
Spiders Vegetable Food
Mollusks Food Preferences at Different
Miscellaneous Animal Food . .
Vegetable Food of Adults Relation to Other Species of Birds . .
Cherries Natural Enemies
Berries Eradication of Roosts
Contro] Measures
Legislation
Summary of Evidence
Conclusion

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE’
1921 ~

Bul. 868, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PEATE Ie

A. HOEN & CO.

B1i289M

PLUMAGES OF STARLINGS.,

Adult male (spring). Young in juvenal plumage.

Adult female (spring). Adult, male and female (fall).

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

BULLETIN No. 868 ¢

Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey,
E. W. NELSON, Chief.

Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER January 10, 1921

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING IN THE
UNITED STATES

By E. R. Katmspacn and I. N. GABRIELSON, Assistant Biologists.

CONTENTS.
Page. Page.
Problems raised by the starling......--..---- 1 | Food habits in the United States—Continued.
Sources of information...............---.-.--- 2 Vegetable food of adults—Continued.
Distribution and abundance.....-...--..---- 3 SMa eE UL Fen fem ae Wi pale tech ee ee 34
1D) CS Crip LOIN a yee so ee a a ee Sa 8 Geinelem, habit co db oedosdacokcoasesoue 34
Wie pa SUOTY Aes scene Neiarte ee icls cei ers gc 08 9 Wall irri eee ssc Let ieee ya eae Spa 35
Economie status in other countries.-......--- 13 Miscellaneous vegetable food....-.-..-- 37
Food habits in the United States..........-- 15 Hoodtotmestlimngs ss eeseeseecer eee eae 37
Animalitoodotadulltsasc2- 42s. ne eee oe 15 Observations from blind....----.-.-..-- 39
TITAS CES ere ce Nee Cea agen Le 15 Stomach examination.......-..-....- 40
IVE DOG Seas ees ei le 25 yNraibaney vores Aenea sal Goageaupsosodon 41
SDL CLOTS eps rape oa tie eae ann SA ae 25 Vegetable food.....-..-...-------: ; 43
MIO S ssp 3 ae ee 26 Food preferences at different ages.. 44
Miscellaneous animal food.......-...- 26 | Relation to other species of birds....----..--- 46
Vegetable food of adults..............--- 26 | Natural enemies... ..- Pope pdcdaneodossecuneurr 53
Cherrlesrcas tive: eek ase ees 26h eb radi catloneotroostss- ss ss4s seen eee eae 54
IB CITVeSei ree ens Ae eee le 20h Controlemeas ules ese mse aaa a aver 56
AD WES be Sie tnaee Ss on cabeqppaaeceT ane 20h ele epislationets 2 ee bake sees hc hal 57
Pears and peaches. ...-.-..-----..-.- 30) | Summany of evidence 4) 403s 525s eee 57
Grapes....-----------+-+--2+2+2- 22+. SUR a@onclusionncs.s, 15 hm as gas see ee 59
Corniseay iets aces) eS oe 31

PROBLEMS RAISED BY THE STARLING.

INDFUL of the disastrous results that have attended the intro-
duction of exotic forms of wild animal life, farmers and bird
lovers generally have looked with apprehension on the introduction
and spread of the Kuropean starling in the United States. When
the destructive careers of such introduced forms as the brown rat,
the house mouse, and the English sparrow are considered, not to
mention the annual toll in millions of dollars now being paid to satisty
the appetites of numerous insect pests that have been unwittingly
brought from abroad, it is not to be wondered at that the deliberate
importation and liberation of a considerable number of another
species of bird that has since increased enormously in numbers
should produce discussion.
182334° 21-1

2 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, -

Criticism came first only from those who foresaw in the light of
previous experiences what might be the result of an unhampered
spread of the starling. For a number of years the birds were con-
fined to a small area about the place of importation, New York City,
and there they were of interest chiefly to ornithologists. Their
spread, however, in the early years of this century to the neigh-
boring suburban and farming sections of New York, New Jersey,
and Connecticut brought them more intimately in competition with
our native birds and in close contact with growing crops. The
starling was heard from immediately. Reports of its aggressive
tactics against native birds became frequent: Flicker nests were
said to be usurped by the wholesale; the houses of bluebirds and
wrens were sharing a similar fate; young robins were being dragged
from their nests and killed; and the food supply of certain native
birds was being seriously reduced by the ever-increasing flocks of
the foreigner. From farmers, too, came criticism: Cherries, ber-
ries, apples, and pears were reported damaged; in spring garden truck
suffered; and in midsummer sweet corn was attacked by the birds.
Even from the cities came complaints of the noise and filth connected
with the large roosts of late summer and fall, established usually in a
residential section. Few indeed had a good word to say for the new-
comer. The occasional words of praise, however, were significant.
Coming usually from careful observers, these appeared to indicate
that, despite its bad points, the starlmg was destroying terrestrial
insect pests at a rate surpassed by few, if any, of our native birds.

From such conflicting testimony it was apparent that an accurate
estimate of the starling’s worth could be secured only by extensive
field observation, supplemented by careful laboratory examination
of the contents of a large number of stomachs collected under diverse
conditions and representative of every month in the year. It was
imperative that this be done in order that an intelligent attitude
might be reflected in legislation enacted for the bird’s protection or
control. Such work the Bureau of Biological Survey began in the
spring of 1916, and the results of its investigation are discussed in
the following pages.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION.

In conducting field work it was planned to visit as many points
in the six States in which the starling was common in 1916 as one
season’s work by two investigators would permit.! Effort was

1 Field work in the States of Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts, as well as on Long Island,
New York, was conducted by I. N. Gabrielson; and in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York (except
Long Island), by E. R. Kalmbach. This involved continuous observation from the beginning of April
to the middle of October, a period in which all forms of damage of which the starling had been accuseg
could be investigated. The authors collaborated in the examination of the material collected and in the

' preparation of the manuscript.

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 3

made to visit places from which complaints had come, and enough of
these were investigated to give a good idea of the habits of the star-
ling in areas where it had acquired an unfavorable reputation. |

There were secured for this investigation a total of 2,466 well-
filled stomachs, probably a greater number than has ever before
been used for investigating the food habits of a single species of
bird. Of these, 309 were of nestlings. Approximately two-thirds
of the material was collected by representatives of the Biological
Survey, the remainder being secured from reliable collectors, who
at the same time submitted many economic notes of interest. Of
these stomachs 1,250 were collected in Connecticut, 814 in New
Jersey, 269 in New York, 62 in Pennsylvania, 43 in Massachusetts,
27 in Rhode Island, and i in Delaware. Besides these there were
gathered 160 additional stomachs only partially filled with food.
While these were not suited for estimating percentages, they fur-
nished considerable information concerning food items.

In response to a circular letter sent under date of June 15, 1915, to
numerous bird students, horticulturists, and practical farmers, 269
replies were received. The following questions, embodied in that
circular, will give an idea of the data obtained:

1. About what year did the starling appear in your neighborhood?

2. Isitnow common? When did it become so? Abundance as compared with
other species.

3. Is the bird destructive to fruits? State kinds and, if possible, the approximate
amount of damage.

4. Does the starling damage any other crops or property?

5. What are the relations of the starling to other birds?

6. Where plenty of nest boxes have been placed, has friction between the starling
and other species decreased?

7. At what time of year do starlings begin to flock? Are they more destructive
when in flocks than at other times?

8. Does the starling spend the winter in your locality?

9. From your observations do you consider the starling injurious or beneficial? -

Besides the replies to these requests, correspondence from other
sources has yielded many facts that have been incorporated in this

bulletin.
DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF THE STARLING. 2

The starling (Sturnus vulgaris) is native to all but the most north-
ern parts of Europe, and also occupies the same latitudes in the
western two-thirds of Siberia. Migration in fall takes the bulk of
the species to countries bordering on the Mediterranean, and a
portion to the warm latitudes as far east as Hindustan. Several
related species and subspecies of starlings occupy adjacent sections
and even portions of the same areas in the southeastern part of this

2 Most of the data here presented concerning the introduction and spread of the starling in the United
States prior to 1916 have been compiled by W. L. McAtee, of the Bureau of Biological Survey.

4 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

range. The starling has been introduced and established as an inte-
gral part of the fauna of Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, South
Africa, and the United States.

In North America attempts have been made to establish it at Cin-
cinnati, Ohio (1872, 1873); Quebec, Canada (1875); Central Park,
New York City (1877, 1887, 1890, 1891); Portland, Oreg. (1889,
1892); Allegheny, Pa. (1897); Springfield, Mass. (1897); Bay Ridge,
N. Y.; and a fey other localities. The bird gained a foothold at
Portland, but now is scarce or extinct in that vicinity. Apparently
the introductions of 1890 and 1891 into Central Park, New York
City, are the ones which resulted in the permanent establishment of
the species, and from this colony have been derived the thousands
of birds now scattered over the northeastern United States.

The starling has not spread with the rapidity characterizing the
English sparrow’s occupation of the country. One reason is that
this bird apparently does not travel in box cars; another, that it
has not been introduced into so many localities nor carried from
place to place by man. Nevertheless, it has steadily widened its
breeding range and each year performs more and more extensive
migrations.

For six years after its first successful introduction into Central Park
the starling did not breed beyond the limits of greater New York.
In 1896 it was confined as a breeding species to New York City,
Brooklyn, and Staten Island. By 1902 it had reached Norwalk,
Conn., and Ossining, N. Y., on the north; and Bayonne, N. J., on the
south. By 1906, territory as far north as Wethersfield, Conn., and
as far southwest as Trevose, Pa., was occupied. In 1908, Providence,
R. I., and Philadelphia marked the extremes of its breeding range;
and by 1913, Hadley, Mass., and Westchester, Pa., had been reached.
The bird bred not far from Washington, D. C., in the summer of 1916
and in the same season was found breeding as far north as the south-
ern boundaries of New Hampshire and Vermont, while toward the
northwest it had extended its breeding range as far as Oneida County,
N. Y. (see map, fig. 1). Inits post-breeding wanderings the starling
has been recorded from a much greater area, extending in 1916 from
southern Maine to Norfolk, Va. On November 10, 1917, one speci-
men was collected as far south as Savannah, Ga. Inland it has been
seen at Rochester, N. Y., Wheeling, W. Va., and in east central Ohio.

As a breeder the starling is by no means uniformly distributed
throughout its range. In the first place, it is decidedly partial to
thickly settled agricultural sections. It shows also a preference for
the vicinity of the coast and the larger river valleys, and in its spread
over the country lowlands are populated first. In the strip of terri-
- tory from New York City to New Haven, Conn., where the starling
in 1916 seemed to be the most abundant breeding bird, it was con-

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 5

fined to a narrow belt of low, flat, or rolling farm land within 8 or
10 miles of salt water, and, with the exception of the Housatonic

‘Prove
Wetherstie

Fic. 1—Breeding range of the starling at various periods from 1896 to 1916. Since 1916 this range has
been extended so little that it is not indicated on the map.

Valley, there were few birds inland. East of New Haven the
starling was restricted mainly to the shore. In most of the Con-

4

6 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

necticut River valley below Middletown, where it is narrow, with
wild, rough land reaching often to the water’s edge, the starling
was scarce; but north of Middletown, where the valley widens until
several miles of rich cultivated bottom land lie between the wooded
hills, the bird was very abundant. Up the river as far north as
Springfield, Mass., the starling was as common a breeder as the
robin. North of Springfield it was not present in great numbers,
although favorable conditions for food and nest sites prevailed.
According to a count made in 1916 by the bird club of Springfield,
that-city contained a breeding starling population of 5,000. Amherst,
Holyoke, Northampton, and Greenfield, Mass., had colonies of vary-
ing sizes, those of Amherst and Greenfield approximating 1,000 and
500, respectively. In eastern Massachusetts and in Rhode Island
the birds were only local in distribution. On Long Island a line
drawn from Oyster Bay on the north to Bay Shore on the south
roughly marked the eastern boundary of the region of abundance.
East of this line the birds were generally, but not abundantly, dis-
tributed on the north and south shores. They were absent from the
center of the island except for a few in cultivated clearings.

In 1916, the starling was extremely abundant in northeastern New
Jersey, where it had been established about the cities of Newark,
Paterson, Montclair, Elizabeth, and Plainfield for at least 15 years.
It was also quite generally distributed throughout Somerset, Middle-
sex, Hunterdon, and Mercer Counties. In the northern parts of
Monmouth, Burlington, Camden, and Gloucester Counties it was
locally abundant. There were very few, however, in the pine barrens
in the southeastern part of the State, or in the hilly sections to the
north, comprising all of Sussex and Warren Counties and parts of
Morris, Passaic, and Bergen Counties. Up the Hudson the starling’s
abundance was restricted to the vicinity of the larger towns, Peeks-
kill, Newburgh, and Poughkeepsie having the greatest numbers.
The narrowness of the valley prevented a general distribution along
the lower Hudson. In Pennsylvania the bulk of the starling popu-
lation was still confined to the vicinity of Philadelphia.

The familiarity of the starling with human abodes, and the daily
visits to a single feeding ground of the same post-breeding flock are
the two factors that have given many persons an exaggerated idea of
the abundance of the species. Few have attempted to estimate relative
numbers during the breeding season. It is believed that in all of Hud-
son County, most of Essex and Union Counties, and the southeastern
and southern parts, respectively, of Passaic and Bergen Counties,

New Jersey, the starling in 1916 had reached a state of maximum:

abundance, beyond which it will not increase as a breeder. The same
may be said of the area immediately to the east and northeast of

Brooklyn and New York City and extending along the Connecticut

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ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. — q

shore as far as Bridgeport. It is possible, of course, for the size of
post-breeding roosts and winter flocks to be further augmented in
this section by an increased breeding population in adjacent country.
Taking this area as a whole, the starling about equaled the English
sparrow as a breeder. In the residential sections of some of the cities
it outnumbered the sparrow, but it in turn was greatly outnumbered
about the freight yards, markets, business streets, and dumping
grounds; and even in many of the rural sections the sparrow predomi-
nated.

Beyond this area of maximum abundance, centers of starling
population, where the starling as much as equaled the English spar-
row as a breeder, were quite restricted and often isolated from other
colonies by many miles. Consequently, exaggerated ideas regarding
the average abundance of the starling throughout its range were also
held by persons living in the vicinity of localized colonies. A dis-
tance of but a few miles will at times reveal great differences in star-
ling abundance. At Bernardsville, N. J. (July 22-25), starlings were
too scarce to make collecting profitable, although at Mendham, only
6 miles to the north, the brood of the year was so abundant about
the farms close to the village that the birds inflicted severe damage
to the cherry crop. At Somerville, N. J. (June-5-8), only 10 miles
from Plainfield, a center of starling’ population, the same unfavorable
collecting conditions were met. At Freehold, N. J. (September 18-
October 1), the location of a roost in the town accounted for an
unusual abundance of starlings on the near-by farms, especially in
early morning and late afternoon. After the roost had been eradi-
cated, the starling could not be placed any higher than tenth in a —
list of birds of the surrounding country, arranged according to their —
abundance.

In 1916, there was a vast area along the borders of the starling’s
range where the bird was too scarce to be of any great economic sig-
nificance. This applied to most of Massachusetts and Rhode Island;
New York, north and west of Kingston; Pennsylvania and Delaware,
outside of a 30-mile radius of Philadelphia; and New Jersey, south
of a line drawn from Salem to Toms River. In this region many
farmers were wholly unacquainted with the bird and very few had
complaints to make. |

With a knowledge of the starling’s habitat and food preferences,
both in Europe and in this country, and of the bird’s ability to adapt
itself to new environment, some conjecture may be ventured as to
its ultimate distribution in the United States. Until 1916, the
Allegheny Mountains appeared to be an effective barrier against
progress to the west, but now that numbers have been reported at
points west of the divide, the spread through the low, fertile farm land
of Ohio and Indiana may be rapid. There appears no reason why

8 - BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the starling, once established in the Mississippi Valley, should not
readily extend its range as far north as the middie of Michigan, Wis-
consin, and Minnesota. To the south, it will probably go nearly, if
not actually, to the Gulf coast, though it may always be scarce as a
breeder in the southern part of this area. To the west, the Great
Plains with their scarcity of suitable nesting sites, and back of them
the Rocky Mountains with their high altitudes, will bar the starling
for many years from reaching the Great Basin or California by either
a northern or a southern route.

DESCRIPTION OF THE STARLING.

Even in areas where the starling has been long established uncer-
tainty exists as to its identification. Post-breeding flocks of red-
winged blackbirds are often called starlings, and the damage they
do is often attributed to the latter. The great differences between
the plumages of the young and of the adults, as well as the great
change in the appearance of the old birds from fall to spring, also lead
to confusion. The starling, however, bears several conspicuous
marks of identification, and when these are borne in mind, one will
have little trouble in recognizing the bird.

The adult starling is about 84 inches long, and its weight is about
equal to that of the robin; but its short, drooping tail gives it, when
at rest, a chunky, humpbacked appearance. From early spring
until the middle of June the adult bird may be singled out at a dis-
tance by its being our only black bird having a rather long, sharp,
yellow bill. In the male the base of the lower mandible is somewhat
- darkened with livid; in the female these parts are simply paler yellow.
After the breeding season, and coincident with the molt, the entire
bill darkens until it is nearly black. The molt is usually completed
by the middle of September and leaves the starling a much changed
bird. The feathers of the sides of the head, breast, flanks, and under-
parts have white tips, so that from a distance the bird has a gray,
mottled appearance. At close range, however, the starling is a
handsome bird in this plumage; the dark parts of the feathers of the
throat, breast, and fianks are resplendent with iridescent reflec-
tions of purple, green, and blue; while on the back, with its green
and bronze iridescence, the feathers are tipped with brown. The
tail and wings are dark, some of the feathers of the latter being edged
with brown. During winter most of the white tips to the feathers
on the breast and underparts wear off, leaving the bird dark below,
with the iridescent reflections still present. (See frontispiece.)

On leaving the nest the young are a uniform dark olive-brown on
the back, and below they are at first somewhat streaked with lighter
markings, but soon become unicolor; the throat 1s white or buffy.
The first molt begins about the same time as that of the adults.

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 9

The first new feathers appear on the sides of the breast, the flanks,
and the center of the back, while the plumage of the head is the last
to change. During July, August, and early September, young birds
in all stages of the molt may be found. When the plumage has
completely changed the young can not with certainty be distin-
guished from the adults, although they tend to have larger white
- tips to the feathers below.

In flight the starlmg may be confused with a few other species.
From its habit of sailing on fixed wings for considerable distances
it is often mistaken for the purple martin, but a little watching will
reveal the starling’s greater speed. When in flocks starlings may
be distinguished from other gregarious species with which they often
associate by the wonderful coordination of action between the in-
dividuals of the flock, their rapid wing beats, great speed, and ability
to alter direction instantly.

In searching for food the starling walks rather rapidly and with
little change in pace, keeping up a contimuous zigzag course when
on grassland, seldom hesitating unless to pick up food.

The contention of many bird lovers that the starling’s lack of song
is a good reason for not allowing it to supplant native songsters is open
to controversy. While its notes, outside of a clear whistle or two
and a coarse rasping note of alarm, are subdued and lack melody,
should one chance to be close to a male starlmg putting forth his
best efforts, the results will be as fascinating as the more celebrated
whisper songs of the catbird or of the brown thrasher. The starling
is a mimic par excellence and has the notes of a number of our
native birds already in its repertoire, a fact that has often led to
error in identification when the observer placed too much confi-
dence in notes alone. Perhaps the bird most frequently imitated
is the wood pewee, whose plaintive “‘pee-a-wee” is reproduced
with such delicate skill that it can not be distinguished from the
song of the woodland flycatcher itself. The mellow tones of the
bluebird’s call are given with almost equal fineness. In areas where
the bob-white is common its two-noted whistle is readily taken up
by the starlmg and executed in a way that closely resembles the
original. Notes of the red-winged blackbird, grackle, fieid sparrow,
flicker, blue jay, Carolina wren, and English sparrow also are given,
but less frequently. Young starlings have a harsh, hissing, or rasping
note, which seems to have its origin as a feeding call, but is given for
some time after leaving the nest.

LIFE HISTORY.
During the first week in April the wintering flocks of starlings

begin to decrease in numbers as the birds mate and wander off in
182334°—2 1——2

10 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

search of nesting sites. By the middle of the month this process is
completed, although the birds often return to the old roosts for the
night until nest building is started.

For nesting sites, old woodpecker holes, natural cavities in trees,
bird houses Gaecalty those intended Pe bluebirds, flickers, and
martins), and cornices or crevices about buildings are most poe
chosen, although nests have been found on fire escapes, hay tracks,
and barn doors, behind window shutters, and even in open boxes
erected for pigeons. In fact, any cavity, regardless of size of opening
or depth, may be utilized if the ae is able to enter it at all.
The nesting sites chosen are frequently soede protected from rain;
ponecqnentty the nests are foul and damp.

In the mere construction and occupancy of their ee stare
have been the source of some complaint. Being sturdy Eee and
equipped with bills well suited for tearing things to pieces, though
not especially adapted to chiseling healthy wood, they will at times
do damage to roofs not recently shingled. The clogging of hay
tracks or tracks of barn doors with their nests is occasionally a
source of trouble, and the infesting of the immediate vicinity of
their homes with bird lice is complained of when they build. about
water tanks, poultry houses, etc. The filthiness of their nests, due
to the great quantity of excreta deposited, is also a common com-
plaint, especially when the birds choose some spot immediately
above the doorstep for their breeding operations. This condition
prevails most often during the latter stages of the nestling life, when
the parent birds are unable to remove all the accumulation.

The height at which starlings nest is variable, the lowest nest cavity
observed being 2 feet from the ground and the highest fully 40 feet.
When they nest in trees the cavities usually range from 10:to 25
feet from the ground.

The nest itself is usually composed almost entirely of dry grasses
and is sufficiently large to fill the bottom of a cavity 3 te 4 inches
deep. The interior of the nest will approximate 3 inches in diameter.
A little green foliage, usually a few leaves taken from a near-by
branch, is dispersed throughout the grassy structure. The interior
is lined sparingly with feathers of domestic fowls. Straw, corn
husks, string, and cloth are other materials sometimes used in nest
building. Nesting sites used for several years in succession gradu-
ally fill up with a partly decayed mass of these materials. From one
nest in the cornice of a sawmill a good half bushel of material was
removed.

The eggs are of a pale-blue color and number from 3 to 6 to the set.
Incubation lasts about 12 days. The young remain in the nest
from 2 to 3 weeks, or until they are able to fly, which they do well
on their first attempt. This habit, combmed with the protected nest

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. . diet

sites, tends to reduce the mortality among young starlmgs much
below that of many other species.

Nestling starlmgs are fed by the parents largely on insects. For
the first week both parents take part in the feeding operations, but
in several nests that were under observation the female was left to do
all the work during the later part of the nestlmg period. When

3 or 4 days old the young are very noisy and give the feeding call in

lusty chorus in response to almost any sound. Later, they learn to
distinguish the approach of the parents and respond only to their
notes or appearance. Other noises or vibrations cause them to
crouch silently in the bottom of the nest, and no amount of coaxing
will persuade one of them to stir or make a sound.

Two broods are usually raised each year and sometimes there
are three. The first of these leaves the nest about June 1 and the
second late in July. Fledglings which may have been from either
a belated second or third brood just from the nest were collected as
late as September 12, at Bay Shore, N. Y.

As soon as the first brood leaves the nest small flocks of young

starlmgs can be found feeding on grasslands or roosting at night in

trees or buildings. These flocks grow rapidly in size and by mid-
July often number into the thousands. During the day no adult
birds are found in these early flocks and very few appear until after
the completion of the molt in September; both old and young, how-
ever, occupy the same nightly roost. These post-breeding flocks
usually select a roosting place in trees in the residential sections of
cities and are there the cause of much complamt. Occasionally a
roost will be formed in a cat-tail marsh or in a building, but this is
the exception rather than the rule.

At a roost in a marsh along the Hackensack River an opportunity
was afforded to watch the starlmgs congregating. As early as 3
o’clock in the afternoon flocks of a dozen or two could be found
gathering in the hayfields in the vicinity, or perching on dead chest-
nuts, singing and preening their feathers. Most of these were
juveniles with the molt extending up as far as the neck. They
would fly alternately to the hay stubble, which was heavily infested
with grasshoppers, and then to the tree tops when flushed. By 4
o’clock a flock of a hundred or more had gathered. in the scramble
for grasshoppers and crickets, one or more momentary conflicts .
between competitors would be almost contmuously im progress and,
as the flock progressed across the field, a rolling aspect was imparted
to it as birds in the rear would fly forward to new territory.

With the approach of evening the birds would rise and perform
numerous flight evolutions, in which they displayed wonderful
coordination of action. This was best observed when they would

‘fly in the direction of the sun, and the flashes of light coming from

12 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

their glossy backs appeared as coming from a single mirror instead
of from several hundred bodies acting independently but in perfect
unison. After a minute or two of such flight the flock would some-
times seem suddenly to lose this ability of coordinated action and the
individuals would spread out in a long wavering line, breaking up
into several groups before alighting. As dusk approached, the birds
had worked their way toward the Hackensack River, where they
gathered in compact flocks, smging in the tree tops along the bank.
(Pl. IT.) A few were seen feeding with a large number of red-wings
on the tidal flats along the edge of the marsh. When darkness
finally came the starlings in the tree tops sailed out over the marsh
and joined their relatives, perching on the cat-tail flags for the night.

The behavior of starlings at all cther roosts which came under
observation was much the same, except in one instance, at Glenn
Cove, N. Y. Here the birds went through the usual maneuvers and
settled in company with a great number of grackles in a grove on the
outskirts of town. Late in the evening the entire flock rose in a
body and flew to the permanent roost half a mile or more away,
behaving much the same as do crows in gathering at a winter roost.

These summer roosts are often inhabited by several species.
Grackles or starlings usually form the bulk of the occupants, but
there may be alsc numbers of cowbirds, red-winged blackbirds,
English sparrows, and robins. An unusual roost was established at
Washington, D. C., in August, 1917. At a point on the Mall, where
erackles had roosted for years and starlings had been found for several
seasons, a great mixed flock congregated, consisting of 8,000 or more
purple martins, about 1,000 grackles, 300 starlmgs, and afew swallows
(probably rough-winged swallows).

The birds from these summer roosts frequently have a definite
feeding route. For example, the starlings from the Glenn Cove roost
flew south and east for about a mile to commence feeding, and from
5 to 7 o’clock each morning could be found in almost the same
locality—an abandoned field. From here they worked in a well-de-
fined circle, appearing at 4 o’clock in the afternoon in an orchard
three-quarters of a mile north of the roost and feeding there and in the
surrounding fields until going to the trees for the night.

In October or November the starlings voluntarily abandon these
tree roosts and resort to church towers, barns, or other buildings for
shelter. Here they gather nightly until sprmg, when the flocks are
broken up by the mating impulse. A local estimate of the number
of birds in such a roost in a church tower in Norwalk, Conn., varied
from 10,000 to ‘‘a million,” but an approximate count revealed the
fact that not more than 1,000 birds were roosting there in April, 1916.

Although the starling remains in some numbers throughout the
breeding range during the winter, it exhibits a certain migratory

“_ ee ee

Bul. 868, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. - PLATE II.

¢

BI7290

STARLINGS AT HACKENSACK, N J., ROOST.

Photograph taken at about sundown while most of the birds were singing. A few moments
later these starlings, along with hundreds of others, sailed out over a near-by marsh, where
they roosted among cat-tails in company with many red-winged blackbirds.

pe

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. ee

movement. All the birds in one locality collect into a single roost,
but in addition to this there is a large increase in the flocks along the
seacoast and a considerable movement southward from the breed-
ing area. For three years a varying number of starlings appeared
in a fall roost in Washington, D. C., before breeding birds were first
found in 1917. Other localities south of the breeding range have
also reported wintering flocks for several years before the birds
have become permanent residents.

ECONOMIC STATUS IN OTHER COUNTRIES.?

While the behavior of the starling in its native home and in coun-
tries to which it has been introduced can not be interpreted as a
certain indication of its conduct under the new conditions it will
meet in this country, its activities elsewhere will serve to call atten-
tion to its capabilities for domg good or harm. Throughout most
of its breeding range in Europe, particularly in France, Germany, and
Hungary, the bird is held in great esteem and is encouraged, by the
erection of nest boxes, to breed about farms and gardens.

The chief German authorities, with one exception, have considered
the starling more beneficial than injurious. The birds there do consid-
erable damage to grapes and cherries, and to a smaller extent injure
various cultivated berries. On the other hand, they feed freely upon
injurious snails and slugs, beetle larve, caterpillars, maggots, and grass-
hoppers. Among their prey are such pests as ticks, gadflies, stable flies,
cockchafers, fern beetles, pine weevils, fir weevils, spruce moths, and .
field and mole crickets.

French authors mention damage by the starling to olives and
srapes, but are unanimous in declaring the species useful. It is
significant, moreover, that, although one of their articles was pub-
lished in a viticultural journal, damage to grapes, one of the greatest
points made against the starling, was not considered sufficient to
exclude the bird from the list of useful species.

In Belgium the starling is said to be very useful and its damage in-
significant, as it prefers an insect diet. It eats about the same pests
as in Germany, and in addition wireworms, grass moths, plant lice,
and oak leaf-rollers.

The late Otto Herman, distinguished Hungarian ornithologist,
asserts ‘ that, taking its feeding habits of the whole year into consid-
eration, the starling does a thousand times more good than harm and
richly deserves protection. * Starlings have rendered particularly
efficient service during locust plagues i Hungary.

The single Swiss author consulted gives the bird about as much
adverse criticism as praise; and a communication from Tunis states

8 The data presented under this topic were compiled by W. L. McAtee, of the Biological Survey.
4 Herman, Otto, Nutzen und Schaden der Vogel, Leipzig, p. 181, 1903.

14 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

~

that on isolated plantations migrating starlings sometimes take the
entire olive crop.

In 13 of 18 general articles on the starling in Great Britain it
is stated that the bird is more beneficial than injurious; one article
says that while the bird is valuable now, its habits are undergoing
a change for the worse, and four state that although very useful in
grasslands and forests, the starling is entirely too numerous for the
best interests of fruit growers. Exhaustive investigations of the
bird’s habits have been made by Gilmour, Newstead, Collinge, and
the national board of agriculture. After reviewing the whole question
of the starling’s economic status the board of agriculture concludes ®
that ‘‘on the whole * * * the information at present collected
goes to show that, in view of their great partiality for insect food,
starlings are, from the forest standpoint, entirely useful, whilst in

acriculture ad gardening their usefulness far more than ogee

the occasional harm done.”’

Summing up, it may be said thet j in Kurope the verdict on the star-
ling is distinctly favorable; of 35 works dealing in a general way with
the economic status of the bird, only 7 report adversely. It is note-
worthy, moreover, that the findings of all the thorough and more
scientific investigators have been in favor of the species, although
some authors admit that at present starlings are too numerous in
some localities.

In most countries where the bird has been introduced, the case is
. different. In Australia and Tasmania testimony concerning starlings
is generally unfavorable. Their great faults are driving away native
birds and preying upon fruits. They have by no means lost their
insectivorous tastes in their new home; in fact, they are credited

with suppressing plagues of grubs and crickets which destroy grain -

and grass. Their numbers have become so great, however, that after
the breeding season enormous flocks band together and at times
descend upon orchards, vineyards, or gardens, where they make
great havoc with the crops.

The introduction of the starling into New Zealand does not seem
to have resulted so unfavorably as in Australia. In 1907, just 40

years after the first importation, James Drummond published an

account of the activities of the species in that country.® His con-
clusions were based on the testimony submitted by many farmers who
had experience with the birds, and were to the effect that the starling
was one of the most valuable of insectivorous birds.

5 Board Agr. and Fisheries (London), Leaflet 45, Rev. ed., 4 p., June, 1905.
6 New Zealand Dept. Agr., Div. Biol. and Hort., Bull. 16, 1907.

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ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 15
FOOD HABITS IN THE UNITED STATES.’

Examination of 2,157 stomachs of adult starlings * showed that 57
per cent of the annual food was animal and 43 per cent vegetable.
During the months from April to November, inclusive, excepting
July, animal matter made up more than half the food, the maximum
being taken in April and May (91.22 per cent and 94.95 per cent,
respectively). In July, with the great abundance of mulberries and
cherries offermg an unlimited supply of luscious fruit, of the 52.67
per cent vegetable matter taken, nearly all, or 50.74 per cent of the
total, consisted of these two items. in February, animal food
dropped to the lowest pomt in the year, 28.17 per cent. The average,
however, for the four winter months from December to March was
31.5 per cent, a remarkable showing when circumstances are consid-
ered. The great majority of these winter stomachs were collected in
New Jersey and Connecticut, and in view of the usual climatic condi-
tions in these two States it seems noteworthy that starlings were able
to secure such a relatively high proportion of animal food.

ANIMAL FOOD OF ADULTS.
INSECTS.

Of the total yearly food of the adult starling, 41.55 per cent is
composed of insects, a greater proportion than is shown in the food
of most of our native birds of similar habits. The monthly per-
centages of insect food are as follows: January, 27.66; February,
23.81; March, 23.87; April, 32.61; May, 49.94; June, 52.26; July,
41.98; August, 56.92; September, 52.83; October, 57.8; November,
54.0; December, 25.2.

During winter many hibernating insects or the bodies of dead insects
which have been preserved by the season’s cold are eaten. Among
these, beetles, weevils, stinkbugs, grasshoppers, caterpillars, and
lepidopterous pupze are conspicuous. As the fields become more
thoroughly gleaned the percentage of insects eaten decreases, until
in February and March it reaches its minimum, 23.81 per cent and
23.87 per cent, respectively. In April, as insects begin to appear in
-numbers, the percentage rises, and during the months from May to
November, except in July, when the starling temporarily abandons
an insect diet to feast on wild fruit, over half the total food is insects.

As the character of the insect food of a bird is of vast importance ,
in fixing its economic status, the different groups of insects in the
food of the starling will be taken up in the order of their importance.

7 Graphic summaries of the food habits of adult and young starlings are presented in figures 2 and 3 (p. 38
and p. 45, respectively); and the relative proportions of the various food elements are set forth in percentages
in Tables II and III (p. 39 and p. 44, respectively).

8 Included with the stomachs of the adult birds here discussed are stomachs of juvenile birds that had
left the nest and were shifting for themselves.

16 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

It must be remembered that in ascertaining the economic worth of a
bird not all the insects eaten can be placed to its credit, as many are
of great value because of their predacious or parasitic habits.

CoLEOPTERA (Beetles).

Of the 41.55 per cent .of sect food consumed by the starling,
nearly half (19.59 per cent) consists of beetles. These are divided
among numerous families, but weevils, carabids, and ee
the order named, are of the greatest Importance.

The Rhynchophora, or weevils, a first among the Coleoptera
in the proportion of food furnished, 8.5 per cent of the starling’s
food being from this source. In feodnne on this group the poe
is doing a very useful work, as the snout beetles include some of
the most destructive insects with which man has to deal. Weevyils
are eaten every month in the year. The smallest quantity taken in
any one month was 3.13 per cent in October, and the largest, 20.16
per cent in a winter month, February. An examination of the
monthly percentage table (p. 39) shows that there are two periods
of the year in which weevils form over 10 per cent of the food. The
first is in July (13.36 per cent) and August (10.91), when many
species are emerging: and the second is in January (14.10) and Feb-
ruary (20.16), when the starlings are feeding on hibernating forms.

One of the most interesting food habits of the starling is in its rela-
tion to the clover leaf weevil (Hypera punctata), a European insect
which has long been introduced and acclimated in the United States
and which does serious damage to the clover crop in some seasons. It
is known that the starling habitually feeds on this insect in England,
but it apparently goes far beyond its normal habit in feedmg on it
in this country. Nearly half (1,125) of the 2,301 adult birds exam-
‘Ined had eaten clover leaf weevils, and 12 had taken their larve.
Of these no less than 54 had taken 10 or more weevils for one meal
and 106 had taken from 5 to 10 weevils. The largest number of
larve eaten was 49, taken by a bird collected in New Jersey in May.
These formed 38 per cent of the stomach contents. Twenty-six
was the greatest number of adults from one stomach, and these,

together with 6 other weevils, formed 95 per cent of the food. In

February, 288 of the 398 stomachs examined contained remains of
this beetle, and in January, 33 of 84. In July, 211 of 375 birds and
in August, 216 of 347 had taken this weevil.

In every month of the year the starling is searching the grasslands
and weed patches for the clover leaf weave The high percentage
revealed in January and February would seem to indicate that
_Hypera punctata hibernates in far greater numbers than has been
commonly believed, for it is scarcely conceivable that so many dead
insects would be left in as good condition as are many of these this

Bul. 868, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III.

B845M

Fic. |1.—STOMACH CONTENTS OF JUVENILE STARLING.

Nearly 95 per cent of this bird’s food consisted of the remains of 26 clover-leaf weevils, the heads,
thoraces, and wing covers of which may be seen at the left of the- picture. The large mass in
the upper right-hand corner is additional débris of the same insects; below it are parts of a
elowen toot weevil; and in the lower right-hand corner are fragments of the skin of a cultivated
cherry.

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FIG. 2.—STOMACH CONTENTS OF JUVENILE STARLING.

Except for afew bits of vegetable rubbish, shown in the extreme lower right-hand corner of the
picture, all of this bird’s food consisted of flies in one stage or another of development. There
were present 1 adult and 76 puparia of Muscidae, at least 85 sarcophagid larvae, and another
puparium. This bird apparently had been feeding in the vicinity of carrion or garbage.

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 17

late in winter. For example, one bird from Massachusetts in
January had eaten 14 of these weevils and 4 others, which made a
total of 26 per cent of its food. A Connecticut bird taken in the
same month had also eaten 14 of these weevils, which formed 32
per cent of the food. In these two months 14 of the birds had taken
more than 5 Hypera at a single meal. (PI. III, fig. 1.)

Another weevil eaten in considerable numbers is the lesser clover
leaf weevil (Phytonomus migrirostris). Seventy-three of the 2,301
adult birds had fed on this insect. The greatest number taken was
9 by each of 2 birds. The clover root curculio (Sitona hispidula),
the larvee of which feed on the roots of various species of clover, is
also a favorite article of diet, having been taken by 505 adult star-
lings. It was found most abundantly in the same months as the
clover leaf weevil, as 27 of 84 birds taken in January, 119 of 398
taken in February, 83 of 375 in July, and 86 of 347 in August had
eaten it. The birds frequently took numbers of this species, 36
having taken 5 or more. An August bird from Pennsylvania had
eaten 30 adult clover root curculios, and one from New Jersey had
taken 31. The closely related weevil Sitona flavescens, which has
similar injurious habits, is preyed upon to a less extent, only 33 of the
2,301 adults having eaten it. One of these, however, taken in
Connecticut durmg August, had devoured 17 of the weevils, and
several others had taken 2 or more.

Fhe strawberry crown girdler (Otworhynchus ovatus), the larve of
which feed on the roots of strawberries and other plants, had been
eaten by 60 adult starlings, and the closely related weevil (Otrorhyn-
chus sulcatus) known in Europe as the black-vine weevil, had been
taken 7 times. Barypeithes pellucidus, another weevil known to
attack strawberries and found in southern New England and adja-
cent States, had been taken by a single bird, which had made 75 per
cent of its meal on 167 individuals.

In point of numbers taken, Sphenophorus, a group of destructive
weevils known as billbugs, which bore into the seeds and stems of
erain, stands next to the clover weevils, as at least 225 starlings
had eaten them. Of these the ‘‘bluegrass billbug” (S. parvulus),
which had been eaten by 104 birds, was most frequently taken.
These insects sometimes do considerable damage to timothy. Five
other species of this genus, all of them injurious, were taken in
varying numbers by the birds. Phyzelos rigudus was found in 90
stomachs, one of which contained 13 individuals. ,

As the starling stomachs examined often contained several species
of these injurious weevils, a few of the more interesting ones are
mentioned here. In a July stomach from Pennsylvania 20 Hypera
punctata, 14 Sitona hispidula, and 2 Sphenophorus sp. formed 95

182334°—21 ——3

18 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

per cent of the contents. A New Jersey bird taken in the same month
had made 60 per cent of its meal on weevils, as follows: 3 Hypera
punctata, 9 Sitona hispidula, 1 Sitonaflavescens, 1 Phytonomus nigri-
rostris, 1 Sphenophorus parvalus, and fragments of one other weevil.
An August bird taken in Connecticut had eaten 13 Hypera punctata,
3 Phytonomus nigrirostris, and 1 other weevil, making of these 72
per cent of its meal. Another bird from the same State collected
in January had eaten 9 Hypera punctata, 2 Sitona hispidula, and 3
Sphenophorus parvulus, which formed 50 per cent of the total
stomach contents.

From the foregoing data it is evident that the starling is a very
effective enemy of such weevils as feed on grass or forage crops.
This is particularly noticeable in regard to the clover pests, and it
is safe to assert that the starling is the most effective bird enemy of the
clover weevil in America.

Tt seems natural that the Carabide, or ground beetles, being to a
large extent grass-inhabiting forms, should be present in the star-
ling’s food, of which they constitute 5.71 per cent. As this family
contains both beneficial and injurious insects it will be necessary to
consider it in some detail. During the months from April to October,
inclusive, carabids furnish a considerable portion of the food, varying
from 4.56 per cent in October to 13.02 in August. They are among
the first beetles to appear in spring, and are promptly sought for
by the starling. This is strikingly shown by their increase in the
food from 1.07 per cent in March to 7.31 per centin April. The maxi-
mum consumption of these insects is in August and September (13.02
per cent and 12.93 per cent, respectively, of the food). During the
other months the number taken is small and in no case forms much
more than 1 per cent. :

Inasmuch as ground beetles seldom occur in nature in as great
numbers as some of the plant-feeding beetles, their presence in star-
img stomachs is usually limited to a few individuals. They were
found, however, in moderate numbers in nearly every stomach col-
lected during the summer.

Comparatively few of the large predatory carabids of the genera
Carabus and Calosoma are captured by the starling, as, of 2,301 birds,
only 20 had eaten the former and 3 the latter. Pterostichus, a genus
of small beetles living largely on animal matter, was found more
frequently, 160 birds out of 2,301 having fed on it. One member of
this genus, P. lucublandus, a medium-sized beetle, was found in 102
stomachs. Thirteen birds had captured members of the genus Di-
celus, a highly beneficial group which feeds on insects, and 67 had
eaten various species of Platynus, beetles with somewhat similar food
habits. Ninety-five stomachs contained members of the genus

—s UL ee ie 7

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 19

Chlenius, also insectivorous, and in 36 were the remains of Casnonia
- pennsylvanica, a curious and easily recognized little carabid.

By far the greater part of the carabids eaten by the starling are
those that are known to be somewhat vegetarian in habits, notably
certain members of the genera Harpalus and Anisodactylus. These
beetles feed to a considerable extent on grass seeds and pollen and,
therefore, can not be classed among the more beneficial carabids.
Eight species of Harpalus were identified in the material examined,
and in 277 stomachs the identification could be carried down only to
the genus. Harpalus caliginosus, the largest member of the group,
was identified in 144 stomachs, and H. pennsylvanicus in 79. One
hundred and thirty-eight birds had eaten beetles referable to Ani-
sodactylus, but these could not be specifically identified. Of the
four species of this genus found im starling stomachs, A. rusticus,
identified in 65, was the most common. Carabids of the genus Amara,
that are to a considerable extent vegetarian in their feeding habits,
were eaten by 151 of the starlings examined; Scarites subterraneus
was found in 14 stomachs; and Agonoderus pallipes, which is injurious
to sprouting corn, in 3.

When feeding heavily on carabids, the starling usually secures a
number of species. For instance, a bird shot in New Jersey in
April, that had made 91 per cent of its meal on carabids, had eaten
1 Amara, 1 Anisodactylus, 1 Platynus cupripennis, and 1 Agonoderus;
while a June bird from the same State had taken 20 Amara penn-
sylvanica and at least 2 other carabids, these forming 75 per cent of
the stomach contents. A July bird from Connecticut that had made
13 per cent of its meal on beetles of this family had varied the menu
by taking 2 Pterostichus lucublandus, 1 Bembidium quadrimaculatum,
2 Harpalus sp., 2 Anisodactylus rusticus, and 1 other carabid. A New
Jersey bird taken in the same month had devoured 19 Amara, 3 Ago-
noderus, 2 Anwsodactylus, 11 Harpalus, and 2 other carabids, which
totaled 84 per cent of the food. A Pennsylvania bird collected in
Atigust had eaten 1 Harpalus caliginosus, 2 H. pennsylvanicus, 10 H.
erythropus, 5 Pterostichus lucublandus, 1 Anisodactylus, and 1 other
carabid—items which formed 72 per cent of the stomach contents.

It must be admitted that in its fondness for terrestrial carabids the
starlmg does some harm by consuming useful forms, but a study of
‘ the above data shows that only a small part of the Carabide eaten
are of the decidedly beneficial species.

The scarabeids, or lamellicorn beetles, follow the weevils and
carabids in the quantity of food furnished the starling, 2.24 per cent
coming from this source. Of these by far the most important are
the May beetles (Phyllophaga, adults of the notorious white grubs),
which furnish the bulk of the 2.24 per cent. Both adults and larve
are eaten, the former more frequently. No less than 11 species of

\

20 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

this genus were identified in the food of the starling, and from 4 to 8
individuals were frequently found in a single stomach. One bird
collected in June had eaten 12. Approximately 300 of the 2,301
adults had taken May beetles, most of them in May, when they
formed 11.04 per cent of the food. Dung beetles of the genera
Aphodius and Atznius were commonly eaten, and Canthon and
Onthophagus less frequently. Investigations conducted in 1919 to
determine the bird enemies of the recently imported Japanese
beetle (Popillia japonica) revealed the fact that the starling preys
also on this insect; 2 of 6 starlings collected at Riverton, N. J., in
August, had fed on it.

The Staphylinide (rove beetles), Chrysomelide (leaf beetles),
Elateride (click beetles), Tenebrionide (darkling beetles), and
others were taken in varying numbers. Most of these are small
forms, and a considerable number could be destroyed without
appreciably affecting the various percentages. Among the beetles
of these families which were frequently eaten were many of economic
interest, a few of which are here mentioned. Drasterius elegans, the
larva of which is a wireworm that feeds on the roots of corn and
other grains, had been eaten by 17 of the 2,301 adult starlings:
Agriotes mancus, a species of similar habits, by 4; and Colaspis
brunnea,-a small leaf beetle that attacks beans, strawberries, and
other cultivated plants, by 56.

Near Medford, N. J., it was stated that starlings had been seen
working through a potato patch picking up potato beetles. Corrob-
orative evidence was lent to this observation by finding the potato

beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) in the stomachs of 24 of 2,301 adult ©

starlings and in 15 of 325 nestlmgs. Several birds had taken 4 indi-
viduals, while two nestlings had been fed 6 and 7, respectively. Many
other chrysomelids, all of which are more or less harmful, are included
in the food of the starling, the genera Typophorus, Nodonota, Zygo-
gramma, Calligrapha, Gallerucella, Oedionychis, and Chztocnema ap-
pearing regularly, though in small numbers.

The only darkling beetle taken in numbers was Opatrinus notus,
found in the stomachs of 82 adults. Aside from these, a long list of
other beetles, a few beneficial but most of them injurious, were iden-
tified in small numbers. On the whole, it may be said that the evi-

dence obtained by a study of the starling’s destruction of Coleoptera °

is overwhelmingly in the bird’s favor.
ORTHOPTERA (Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Locusts).

While grasshoppers are not the serious pest in the Hastern States
that they sometimes become west of the Mississippi, they neverthe-
less exact a certaim annual toil from crops. A conservative estimate

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ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. rH ee

of. the annual loss in this country due to the grasshoppers is
$50,000,000. This would be much greater were it not for the con-
trolling influence of insectivorous birds. Some of these, among which
may be placed the starling, secure practically all of their insect food
during September and October from this source, stopping thereby the
depredations of millions of these insects and preventing the future
development of countless millions more.

Orthoptera, among which the shorthorned grasshoppers (Acri-
did) and crickets (Gryllide) predominated, constituted 12.41 per
cent of the annual food of the adult starlings examined. August to
November, inclusive, are the months of greatest consumption, the ~
percentages being 22.30, 30.75, 38.95, and 38.26, respectively. De-
cember and January are represented by 4.76 and 4.42 per cent, while
from February to July few Orthoptera are secured, a fact quite
logically explained by the life history of the insect. The extent to
which the adult starling resorts to this food is shown by the fact
that of the 2,301 stomachs examined over 800 contained the remains
of Orthoptera, and during the height of the grasshopper season, from
August to November, inclusive, 577 of 772 birds had fed on them.

When hay fields are being cut and raked in the latter part of August
and early in September, flocks of juvenile starlings secure practically
all their sustenance from these insects, supplemented with wild black
cherries (Prunus serotina) and elderberries (Sambucus canadensis).
Of a series of 20 birds collected in one hayfield near West Englewood,
N. J., 16 had fed on Orthoptera, including acridids and crickets of
the genera Gryllus and Nemobius. Still more remarkable is a series
of 138 stomachs collected from September 20 to September 28 in the
vicinity of Freehold, N. J.: All but 9 of these contained grasshoppers
-or crickets, and in bulk the insects formed 24 per cent of the food.
That Orthoptera are abundant and sought for faithfully in the cool
days of October is shown by a series of 11 stailings secured near
Meriden, Conn.: These insects had supplied food for all of these birds
and formed the sole content of 5 stomachs, and in bulk formed over
85 per cent of the total food taken. These 11 birds had destroyed
no less than 40 grasshoppers, 77 crickets, and 1 locustid; 24 of 25
starlings secured in the vicinity of Meriden, Conn., in November, had
also subsisted on Orthoptera to the extent of over 58 per cent of their |
food. In the stomachs of 6 of these, Orthoptera formed over 90 per
cent of the contents.

Individual stomachs frequently contained surprisingly large num-
bers of crickets and grasshoppers. Inasmuch as information on this
point is secured usually by counting the jaws of these insects, it often

9 Marlatt, C. L., The Food Bill of Destructive Insects of the United States, Reclamation Record, vol.
VIII, no. 9, p. 427, September, 1917.

22, BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

happens that the undigested remains of previous meals are recorded,
but from the rapidity of digestion observed in other passerine birds,
it seems highly probable that all particles of a starling’s meal -will
have either been digested or passed on to the intestines in the course
of a few hours. With this fact in mind, the significance of the fol-
lowing data may be appreciated:

A juvenile bird secured in September had eaten 7 short-horned
grasshoppers (Acrididze), 1 field cricket (Gryllus), and no less than 47
small striped ground crickets (Nemobius); a second bird from the
same flock had taken 5 grasshoppers, 2 field crickets, and 47 small
striped ground crickets; and a third, 6 grasshoppers, 1 locustid (X7-
phidium), 1 field cricket, and 42 small striped ground crickets. In
19 other stomachs the last-named insect numbered 20 or more
Even the larger acridids were at times taken in quantity: A starling
collected on September 2 had consumed 22, along with a locustid.

Another had taken i6 acridids, 3 locustids, and 2 field crickets. A

third ate 13 acridids, 3 locustids, 2 field tates. and 1 small striped
ground cricket.

Among the grasshoppers eaten by starlings were the red-legged
locust (Melanoplus femur-rubrum), the green-striped locust (Chor-
tophaga viridifasciata), and a number of the small grouse locusts (Tet-
tigine). Besides the field cricket (Gryllus pennsylvanicus) and the
small striped ground cricket (Nemobius fasciatus), a single specimen
of the mole cricket (Gryllotalpa borealis) was taken. Additional re-
lated species were also eaten by nestling starlings, a discussion of
whose relation to Orthoptera is presented on page 42.

LEPIDOPTERA (Mainly Caterpillars).

Lepidopterous remains in the food of the starling are composed
almost entirely of the larve, or caterpillars, the greater part being
consumed by nestlings (see p. 41). In the stomachs of adults these
insects constituted 6.04 per cent of the yearly food. May and June
are the months of greatest consumption, when such food forms 13.97
and 20.56 per cent, respectively, of the total. In September cater-
pillars formed less than 1 per cent (0.83) of the diet, while the remain-
ing months of the year are represented with quantities varying from
1.04 per cent to 5.69 per cent of the food.

Of the 2,301 stomachs of adult starlings examined, 538 contained
the remains of caterpillars; 20 contained pupe; and 30, adult Lepi-
doptera. In June, the height of the caterpillar season, over half
(115 of 205) of the adult birds used in this investigation had fed on
Lepidoptera in one form or another, while in the preceding month

1 of 133 had taken.such food.

Conspicuous among those birds which had fed extensively on

caterpillars is a series of 31 adults collected in the middle of June,

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 22

near Flemington, N. J. Only one had failed to eat such food, which
on the average formed 27.8 per cent of the bulk. In point of num-
bers, a starling collected at New Haven, Conn., takes the honors. In
this bird’s stomach were the remains of no less than 40 caterpillars,
which formed 98 per cent of the food.
_ The terrestrial feeding habits of the starling limit the variety of
caterpillars eaten, but this very restriction has permitted the bird to
distinguish itself as a most effective enemy of that notorious pest,
the cutworm. While caterpillar remains are not the most satis-
factory items for identification in stomach contents and only occa-
sionally are in condition for specific determination, the material in
fully two-thirds of the starling stomachs could be referred with a
fair degree of certainty to the family Noctuide.

Corroborative of what stomach examination has revealed is a bit
of testimony secured from field observations on a farm at Adelphia,
N. J., where starlings were observed doing exceptionally good work
on the army worm. A rather heavy infestation of this insect had
resulted in considerable damage, when a large flock of juvenile star-
lings started to feed regularly in the infested area; within a few days
the worms had practically disappeared from those fields.

That other terrestrial caterpillars may find an enemy in the starling
is recorded by an observer near Bloomfield, N. J., who, in the fall of
1915, witnessed starlings feeding on the larve of the cabbage butterfly.

In only a few instances were hairy or spiny caterpillars found in
stomachs of adults. Among these were the American tent cater-
pillar (Malacosoma americana), an arctiid, and a “silver spot”
(Argynnis cybele). One reason for not finding more spiny or hairy
caterpillars may be explained by an incident observed at Norwalk,
Conn., where a starling was seen to eat a tent caterpillar much after
the fashion of the Baltimore oriole, by forcing out the soft parts and
leaving the hairy skin hanging on the limb.

MISCELLANEOUS INSECTS.

Of other orders of insects from which starlings secure part of their
sustenance, Hymenoptera, including bees, wasps, and ants, is best
represented. This is of little importance, however, as the average
monthly percentage is only 1.75, a great part of which is composed
oi ants. Most of this food is consumed during the summer, the
monthly percentages from April to October inclusive being as follows:
1.11, 3.33, 3.41, 2.56, 2.14, 2.49, and 3.79. None of the late fall,
winter, or early spring months were represented by as much as 1
per cent.

Connected with the capture of Hymenoptera is one of the oddest
activities of the starling. While primarily terrestrial feeders, soon
after the first of August young starlings were seen catching insects on

24 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the wing, much after the fashion of true flycatchers. From a perch
on a dead upper limb the birds would spy insects several yards away,

fly out, and dexterously capture them. Later, after the first of Octo- -

ber, starlings changed their tactics, adopting methods similar to those
of swallows or martins in securing flying insects. The best illustra-
tion of these activities was furnished in northern New Jersey on a
calm day above a warm, sunlit meadow. Here a dozen or more star-
lings were sailing about and capturing insects at a height of about a
hundred feet from the ground. Under such conditions one not ac-
quainted with the starling would certainly have mistaken the birds
for martins, for, combined with a form which is quite similar, was this
flight evolution, which imitated the martins perfectly.

Many ants in the winged stage are captured by starlings in their
aerial evolutions, some are picked up on the ground, and others are
secured from the branches of trees. On September 5 a number of

juvenile starlings were noted diligentl , searching for and picking up

food from the upper branches of a spruce. To some extent their
actions imitated those of chickadees or warblers, though they were
not so sprightly. One of these birds was collected and its stomach
found to be filled with ants.

Ants of the genus IMyrmica are most frequently eaten by the star-
lings. Lasius, Formica, and Aphxnogaster also are taken. Bene-
ficial ichneumonoid Hymenoptera were found in over 75 of the 2,301
stomachs of adults, but in most cases only a single insect each. The
infrequent occurrence of bees and wasps in the food also indicates that
they, as well as the ichneumons, are picked up here and there, no
special effort being made by the starling to secure them.

Hemiptera, true bugs, form only an unimportant part (less than 1
per cent) of the food of the starling. March is the month of greatest
consumption, due mainly to the quantity of soldier bugs (Pentatom-
idz) eaten, these offensively odored insects forming over 2.5 per
cent of the food in this month. As both predacious and _plant-
feeding forms are found among these insects, the result of an indis-
criminate feeding on soldier bugs must be construed as neutral in its
effect. In fact, this same construction may be placed on all the
Hemiptera eaten by starlings. Among the plant feeders were found
the chinch bug (Blissus leucopterus), the squash bug (Anasa tristis),
and the tarnished plant-bug (Lygus pratensis); and among the pre-
dacious forms, the assassin bug (Sinea diadema and Melanolestes
picipes). ;

Diptera (flies and their larvee) were present in only a limited num-

ber of stomachs and formed a little more than 0.5 per cent of the ~

annual food. Much of this material is secured about garbage heaps
and in the neighborhood of cattle, with which starlings are familiar
associates. The birds have been seen picking flies from the legs of

a
RE eg ee eae TET Re ee ee ee

Re eee ee ee ee ey ee eee ere, ee ee ee

ee a ee? a?

SE eee eee ee ee Oey ee ee aT

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 25

cows and in a few instances actually alighting upon their backs with
the apparent intent of catching flies. In pastures starlings secure
maggots by visiting partially dried cow droppings, which they thor-
oughly riddle by puncturing with their bills. As this material dries
it becomes pulverized and scattered over several square feet of sur-
face. Under such treatment dipterous larve not actually eaten by
the birds soon die for want of moisture.

MILLIPEDS.

So far as known, no other bird in this country equals the starling
in the destruction of millipeds. These creatures form 11.71 per cent
of the adult bird’s yearly diet. In April they amount to 54.69 per
cent; in May, 42.19 per cent; and in June, 23.66 per cent; and, after
a falling off in the later summer months, they again rise to 7.64 per
cent in October. The fact that in April 119 adult birds of 132 ex-
amined, in May 133 of 140, and in June 146 of 215, had fed on milli-
peds, furnishes an idea of the persistence with which starlings search
for such food in spring and early summer. Fifteen of the birds col-
lected in April had taken nothing else, and 14 others had secured over
nine-tenths of their food from a lbpede.

At present the economic status of millipeds in hie country is not
fully understood. Were the theory accepted that was generally
entertained a few years ago that millipeds feed entirely on decaying
vegetable matter, the starling’s destruction of them would have to
be construed of neutral effect. In England, however, millipeds of
the same and closely related genera are decidedly destructive in
gardens, and recent investigations have shown that they have
similar habits in this country. Damage to beans, strawberries,
melons, cucumbers, radishes, and potatoes has been attributed to
one species (Julus ceruleocinctus) which is a favorite food, item of the
starlimg. The fullsignificance of the starling’s destruction of millipeds
will be known only when the habits of these animals are better un der-
stood. Whether their status be neutral or injurious, in feeding on
them the starling secures a much needed supply of animal food and
at the same time does not draw materially from the supply of other
birds, few of which have shown a preference for millipeds.

SPIDERS.

Spiders hold by no means the attraction for adult starlmegs that
they do for the nestlings (see p. 43). Of the 2,301 stomachs examined,
480 contained spiders, which formed 1.48 per cent of the annual diet.
In only one month did they constitute over 3 per cent of the food;
in December, 17 of 44 birds had eaten spiders to the extent of 3.48
per cent of their food. Most of the arachnids eaten were wolf
spiders (Liycoside), which are terrestrial in habits and generally

goa =o) 4

26 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

considered less distimetly beneficial than some of the other spiders
which secure many of the flying insect pests in their silken nets.

MOLLUSKS.

In contrast with the large numbers of injurious slugs secured by
the starling in some parts of its native home, particularly in England,
is the quantity and character of the molluscan food of the bird in
this country. Mollusks of various kinds, but mainly land snails,
formed less than 1 per cent (0.94) of its annual food. A large part
of this was secured in October, when 20 of the 108 birds examined
had fed on it. These 20 birds were collected along the Connecticut
shore, the snails eaten being mainly of the genus Melampus. In no
case was a land slug detected.

MISCELLANEOUS ANIMAL FOOD.

The remains of earthworms, fragments of a crab, a few beach fleas ©

(Orchestia), sowbugs (Porcellio), bones of a salamander (in one
stomach), and bits of fat, suet, or cartilage, secured apparently from
garbage dumps or at the winter feeding stations erected to attract
birds, fill out the varied animal diet of the starling. All these items
combined form only 1.32 per cent of the bird’s yearly food, and most
of them are secured during the winter and early sprig months.
That the bird’s desire for animal food is in a measure satisfied as soon
as the winter’s snow disappears in March is revealed by the quantity
of animal garbage consumed in that month, when it forms about 8
per cent of the diet. The main grievance against the starling for its
consumption of the foregomg food items is entertamed by bird lovers
whose generous supplies of suet put out for native birds soon dis-
appear when discovered by a flock of starlings.

VEGETABLE FOOD OF ADULTS.
CHERRIES.

One of the most frequent complaimts against the starling is in
connection with its fondness for cherries. From the economic
standpoint, this is undoubtedly its most objectionable habit. The
cherry is cultivated on a commercial scale in only a part of the
starling’s present range, but is grown as a home fruit, a tree or two
about the dooryard, throughout most of its habitat. This condition
renders the crop peculiarly susceptible to attack by robins and star-
lings, the two most abundant fruit-eating birds of the region.

In 1915, on a farm near Closter, N. J., trees that should have pro-
duced $50 to $60 worth of cherries yielded only $10 worth, a loss
largely due to starlings. At Bristol, Conn., a flock of about 300
starlings entirely stripped a single tree of its 1916 crop in less than 15
minutes. At Rowayton, Conn., six cherry trees were entirely stripped

}
Vp mat Tht = ferry em

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. ~ a7,

of their fruit by robins and starlings in 1916. These are but examples
of the many instances which came to the notice of the writers while
in the field of birds taking part or all of the fruit from isolated trees.

Of the 2,301 stomachs of adult starlings examined, 169 contained
cultivated cherries, which formed 2.66 per cent of the yearly food of
the species. Early cherries in June were eaten by 67 of the 215 birds
examined, while late varieties in July furnished food for 91 of 375.
In June, this fruit formed 17.01 per cent of the adult starling’s food,
and in July, 14.92 per cent.

Without attempting to mitigate the offense of the starling by calling
attention to another notorious cherry thief, some idea of the extent of
the starling’s activities may be gained by comparing its food habits
with those of the robin. Krom the examination of 1,236 stomachs of
robins, it has been found that this species feeds on cultivated fruit
to the extent of 8.63 per cent of its annual food, as against 4.41 for
the starling. During the months of June and July, the robins
obtained 24.58 per cent and 22.71 per cent, respectively, of their food
from cultivated cherries, quantities half again as great as those con-
sumed by starlings in the same months. Another matter of note is
the number of complaints against the robin as compared with the
number made against the starling for the same offense. This is n

part due to the different methods of feeding employed by the two
species. The robin is universally distributed and feeds in loose
flocks, individuals of which may be found maintaining an almost
uninterrupted procession to and from some favorite cherry tree for
entire days. At no time will a great number of the birds be found in
a tree, but the slow drain on the cherry crop is constant through all
hours of daylight. The birds are frequently feeding young at this
time and are carrying cherries to them. On the other hand, star-
lings, the young of which are the chief offenders, frequently gather in
large flocks, and, swooping down on a single tree, completely strip it of
fruit while other trees in the neighborhood may remain untouched.
As a result, while practically every cherry grower complains of the
robin, those who suffer from the more spectacular raids of the star-
ling are much more bitter in their complaints. This condition led
to an investigation at several points in Connecticut to determine
the relative damage caused by several cherry-eating species, and trees
were watched to determine as far as possible the number of birds
eating the fruit. The summary of the data obtained is presented in
Table I.

28 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE I.—Comparison of depredations by various species of birds on cherry trees in Con-
necticut.

Number of birds that came to eat cherries.

Date and length of time

spent at each tree. Eng- | Balti- Red-

lish | more| Cow- | winged
spar-| ori- |birds.} black-
rows. | oles. birds.

Chip-
Blue | ping | Total
jays. | Spar | birds.
rows.

Rose

| Cat- breast-
gros-

les. | Neaks.

June 26, 2 hrs., 15 mins.

June 26, 1 hr., 15 mins..| ©

June 27, 45 mins
June 27, 3 hrs
June 27, 10 mins

cee

June 29, 3 hrs., 30 mins.

July 4, 10 mins
July 5, 15 mins
July 10, 2 hrs

Totals

On examination of this table it is found that about half the birds
feeding on cherries were robins, less than a third were starlings, and
the others were of various species, none numerous enough to be of
any consequence. ‘This interesting bit of evidence is confirmed by
stomach analyses of robins and starlings. The stomachs of 11 robins,
collected while feeding in cherry trees, contained 10.27 per cent
animal matter and 89.73 vegetable matter, of which 85.73 per cent
was cultivated cherries. Forty-nine starlings, obtained under the
same circumstances, had fed on animal matter to the extent of 58.12
per cent of their food; and vegetable matter, 41.88 per cent; cultivated
cherries formed 36.72 per cent of the total.

It was the experience of the writers that shooting a few starlings
from cherry trees soon discouraged the survivors so effectually that
they seldom returned. The robins, on the other hand, were exceed-
ingly bold and paid no attention to any frightening devices placed
in the trees or to shooting. Frequently a starlmg or a robin was
shot from a tree without alarming other robins feeding.

From the above data it will be seen that the starling eats fewer
cherries, both individually and as a species, than the robin, although
his attacks are much more conspicuous. According to most ob-
servers, the robin, as well as the starling, increased considerably in
numbers in the decade following 1910 throughout the area covered
by this investigation, and both species are undoubtedly responsible
for the increasmg difficulties of cherry culture. Both species have
habits to recommend them on economic grounds, with the staring
in the more favorable position on account of its smaller consumption
of fruit and much larger consumption of noxious insects."°

_ 10 For a detailed record of the robin’s food, see Food of the Robins and Bluebirds of the United States,
by F. E. L. Beal, Bull. 171, U.S. Dept. of Agr., pp. 2-15, 1915.

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 29
BERRIES.

Some complaints of damage to strawberries have been made, but
the investigation failed to reveal extensive depredations by the
starling. A few farmers in New Jersey stated that the birds oc-
casionally ate berries, and one farmer in Connecticut shot 9 birds out
of a flock that started in on his berry patch. At the discharge of the
gun the starlmgs flew away and did not return. Little complaint
was made of damage to blackberries or raspberries, and as in most
places wild varieties are more abundant than cultivated ones there
is little danger of the starling domg much damage to such fruits.

APPLES.

Field work conducted in September and October was devoted
largely to investigating complaints about starlings damaging late
fruits, particularly apples. Extensive inquiries were made among
the farmers in those sections of New Jersey and Connecticut where
the starling was common, and no opportunity of collecting in orchards
was overlooked. Considering the time and attention given to this
phase of the subject, it must be stated at the outset that positive
incriminating evidence against the starling secured from personal
observation and stomach analysis is small.

Of the 2,301 stomachs of adult starlings examined, 45 contained
the pulp or skin of apples. Only 22 of the 45, however, vere among
those collected in September and October, the remainder having been
taken in winter and early spring, when the fruit eaten was manifestly
waste, left on the trees or fallen to the ground. In bulk, cultivated
_ fruit other than cherries, of which a large part was apples, formed
1.75 per cent of the total annual food. In September it amounted
to 2.19 per cent, and in October, 0.38 per cent. A large part of the
stomachs in which apples occurred were secured in small orchards
in the vicmity of Adelphia, Monmouth County, N. J., whence
several complaints had come.

On September 22, 1916, a flock of 200 or more juvenile starlings
were seen feeding on apples in a small orchard of middle-aged trees
near Adelphia. Only a few appeared to be eating the fruit, the
remainder being engaged in singing or preening their feathers. After-
wards the trees were inspected. The apples in the central top of the
trees were the ones sampled, and in many instances it was noted
that the birds had gone back to feed on fruit pecked open on previous
occasions. An opening an inch or two in diameter was pecked in the
skin and then a large portion of the pulp was eaten out through this
break (see Pl. IV, fig. 2).

On the following day a flock of birds was observed at work in a tree
of russet apples on a neighboring farm. Subsequent inspection of

30 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the fruit in the tree top showed that probably not over 5 per cent of
the apples had been pecked.

At Glen Cove, N. Y., a flock of about 100 starlings was noted
attacking the fruit in one tree of an orchard where damage had been
reported in previous years. On this occasion about one apple in
every five was damaged. The owner of this orchard, who was a keen
observer of birds, asserted that starlings had ruined 10 per cent of
his crop in 1915. Of 30 barrels picked, 3 had to be discarded.

Isolated apple trees, especially those standing in the middle of
hay fields where flocks of juvenile birds are accustomed to feed on
insects, are likely to have their fruit damaged. Such a tree at
East Norwalk, Conn., had nearly every apple pecked, and a similar
one was found near Farmington, N. J., but in neither case was the
crop of any value, and it was never harvested.

Late-maturing varieties are more likely to be attacked by star-
lings than those ripening at the height of the apple season, owing
possibly to the fact that the supply of wild fruit, as wild black cherry
(Prunus serotina) and sour gum (Nyssa sylvatica), has been mate-
rially depleted by that time. The starling’s taste for apples, com-
bined with its flocking habit, presents a condition which should be
watched because of the bids capacity for damage. At present,
however, the aggregate damage done is not great. On no farm
elven largely to fruit-raising, where the trees were thrifty and well
kept, was injury to apples observed or reported. The number of
extensive fruit raisers in areas of staring abundance who had no
complaint to make is legion. At present the bulk of the damage is
confined to old orchards and isolated trees. In many cases the
damaged fruit is on trees sadly neglected and of inferior quality.

PEARS AND PEACHES.

In only three stomachs was the pulp of pears found (twice in Sep-
tember and once in January) and field work also yielded little posi-
tive evidence that the starling damages this fruit. One report from
Ambler, Pa., asserted that in 1915 starlings had ruined a whole tree
of pears; additional reports of damage came from Bloomfield, N. J.,
but in none of these was the loss great. Injury to peaches is also
slight—one of the more specific reports came from a farmer of
Warren, R. I., who stated that in 1914 he had lost about 2 per cent
of his crop on account of starlings.

GRAPES.

To a limited extent starlings have exhibited in this country the
same habits that have made them unpopular during late summer
in the vineyards of France. Testimony on this point comes entirely

eT Pe oer a

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. ok

from outside observers. No grapes were found in the stomachs ex-
amined and noc damage of this kind was observed by representatives
of the Biological Survey. A farmer in the Brookdale section north
of Bloomfield, N. J., reported that starlings had severely damaged
grapes on a small arbor on his farm, and similar complaints came
from a number of farmers in the neighboring sections about Rich-
field, N. J. No damage was reported in the extensive vineyards
about Vineland, in southern New Jersey, but as the starling was not
yet abundant there this can not be looked upon as an indication of
its innocence. As in the case of apples, the injury to grapes is at
present trivial in the aggregate and is practically nil in extensive
grape-raising sections, but from the starling’s reputation in some
parts of Europe it will bear watching in these surroundings.

CORN.

Probably the losses to crops most keenly felt by the farmers living
in the intensively cultivated area in northeastern New Jersey, about
the cities of Hackensack, Bloomfield, Elizabeth, and Newark, are ~
those inflicted by grain-eating birds on sweet corn. During July
and August mixed flocks, sometimes numbering into the thousands,
of grackles, red-winged blackbirds, cowbirds, and, in recent years,
starlings, roam through the country, securing the bulk of their sus-
tenance from cornfields. Sweet corn, just ready for market, is torn
open, some of the juicy kernels eaten, and the ear either rendered
unsalable or its market value considerably reduced. In the agere-
gate such losses are very great and in the eyes of the farmers of
northeastern New Jersey, the starling is to blame for a large share of
the damage. However, as in the case of men, who are often judged
by their company, the starling has been accused of deeds perpetrated
largely by the species with which it associates. Not only were these
birds generally charged with eating as much corn as the grackles
and red-wings, an assumption which has been disproved, but many
farmers were uncertain of their identification, with the result that
flocks of juvenile red-wings were often called starlings and their
depredations charged against the latter. |

Of the total of 2,301 adult starling stomachs examined, 52 con-
tained corn, and this formed less than 1 per cent (0.77) of their yearly
food. Of the 1,059 starlings collected during the ripening and har-
vesting season of July, August, September, and October, only 14
had fed on corn, which constituted only 0.2 per cent of their food
during this period. In the planting and sprouting season of April
and May, 6 of 249 adult starlings had fed on corn, which formed 0.52
per cent of the food. By far the largest part of the corn eaten by
starlings is waste grain secured in winter and early spring. In Jan-

O2 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

uary corn forms 1.54 per cent of the diet, in February 2.03 per cent}
and in March 3.49 per cent, the largest proportion recorded for any
month.

While the result of the examination of so large and thoroughly
representative a series of stomachs refutes all the extreme accusa-
tions against the starling as a corn eater, a discussion of field obser-
vations made in this connection will emphasize this point and show
where the blame les. A number of complaints had come from the
vicinity of West Englewood, N. J. This section was visited in the
middle of August, when a survey of some of the most seriously dam-
aged fields was made. Much of the sweet corn had been harvested,
but there were still some fields of the late varieties in which
birds were at work, and in patches of early corn saved for seed a rec-
ord of their activities earlier in the season was found. A farmer of
West Englewood, who is familiar with the starling, reported that
starlings joined with red-wings in damaging his crop. A census of pa. *
of a seed patch on his farm showed that of 863 ears of sweet cor
examined, 231 had been injured by birds, a percentage of over Z
On another farm at Teaneck, N. J., fully 33 per cent of the se 1
corn had been damaged. Examination of a field at River Ed:
N. J., revealed 100 damaged ears out of 297 inspected. Several ot!
seed patches in this general vicinity were even more seriously dé
aged, in one case on several hundred stalks scarcely a single ear be
left noonleiagk

An insight of what species were doing such aoe and were p
ably also to blame for most of the injury to seed patches earlier, - ‘s
secured on a farm near West Englewood, N. J., on August 23. x)
a mixed flock of red-wings and grackles were feeding on a fiel of
sweet corn in which pickers were at work. The field was large ind
the birds would feed in parts distant from the pickers. The o ser
asserted that already he had 2,500 ears damaged, and that while
many of these were still salable they brought reduced prices, only
50 to 75 cents per 100 being paid instead of $2, the market value of
perfect ears at that time. A careful watch for several days in this
and surrounding fields failed to disclose a single starling feeding there,
while the red-wings and grackles spent little time elsewhere. Ju-
venile red-wings were generally considered starlings by the farmers
of this locality.

On a few occasions the investigators observed starlings actually
tearing down the husks of corn and feeding on the kernels, but in no
case were starlings in large-sized flocks seen inflicting serious dam-
age. Positive incriminating testimony has come, hcwever, from
other observers. A reliable observer of Glastonbury, Conn., has
- seen flocks, composed entirely of starlings, doing damage to the corn
crop in two fields to the extent of 25 per cent and 10 per cent, respec-

nS

Bul. 868, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.

BI7291

Fic. |.—SWEET CORN DAMAGED BY MIXED FLOCKS OF
STARLINGS AND RED-WINGED BLACKBIRDS.
Only a small portion of the corn in this patch, saved for seed, was

harvested, owing to the depredations of birds. Red-winged black-
birds were chiefly to blame.

Be42M

Fic. 2.—RUSSET APPLES DAMAGED BY STARLINGS.

These apples were from the tops of trees in an old orchard near Adelphia, N.J. Some of the damaged
fruit showed evidence that the birds returned to an apple opened on a previous visit.

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 33

tively. A resident of Rochelle Park, N. J., who is well acquainted
with the starling, asserted that for several years past these birds
had taken toll from his fields. Others also have seen the starlings,
while part of a mixed flock, actually feeding on the ears of corn.

Damage to field corn was reported less frequently than to sweet
corn, and the reports were subject to the same errors of identification
_of birds. On one farm west of West Caldwell, N. J., the starling was
bitterly criticized for its work on a 2 to 3 acre patch. Some time
was spent observing the bird visitants to this field, and it was found
that English sparrows were busily engaged in tearing down the
husks for an inch or two, as far as their strength allowed, and eating
the terminal kernels.

In the vicinity of Freehold, N. J., where a large starling-grackle
roost was located, flocks of starlings were common about the middle
of September in the near-by cornfields. Many of the birds would
perch on the top of the cornstalks and sing, fully as many would
be on the ground apparently in search of insects, and a few could
be noted pecking the ends of the ears. One field of several acres
appeared to be a favorite resort, and earlier in the year, when the
corn was in the milk, damage had been done there. The proprietor
asserted that early in August, when most of. the corn was dam-
aged, starlings in a large flock visited his field twice daily, morning

and evening. A count in part of the field showed that of the 522
ears examined 136, or more than 26 per cent, had been visited by
birds. Over half the opened ears, however, showed the unmistak-
able track of the corn worm. It is highly probable that the birds
often devoured the insects they exposed in tearing down the husk.
Another field, northwest of Freehold, which was visited by large
flocks of starlings in early morning and late afternoon, was carefully
inspected, and very little bird work was found, but a heavy infesta-
tion of corn worms had severely damaged the crop.

A comparison of the food habits of the starlings and grackles
occupying the Freehold roost in September was obtained from the
examination of material collected there. Six of the 116 starlings
had fed on corn, and in the stomach of one, this grain formed 94 per
cent of the contents, in another 60 per cent, in a third 12 per cent,
and in the remaining three only 1 per cent each, making an average
percentage of about 1.5 for the lot. Twenty of the 27 grackles shot at
the same roost had fed on corn, and in 11 this constituted the entire
stomach contents. The corn consumed by the 27 grackles formed
over 76 per cent of their food. With this was over 11 per cent of
other grain, principally oats.

To a limited extent starlings were accused of pulling sprouting
corn, both sweet and field varieties. At Mendham, N. J., it was -

182334°—21——_5

34 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

reported that starlings had pulled nearly an acre of corn in one field,
and at Spring House, Pa., it was asserted that starlings had pulled
corn so badly on a 10-acre field that it had to be replanted.

While laboratory examination shows that the starling is not an ex-
tensive feeder on ripening corn, field observation indicated that where
jocal conditions are favorable, as in the vicinity of roosts, the birds may
do damage. The aggregate loss to the corn crop which can be defi-
nitely attributed to the starling is not great. Many of the com- —
plaints against the starling have been based on a misidentification of
the species—red-winged blackbirds and grackles being more frequently
responsible. The aggregate loss to sprouting corn is trivial. The
fact that starlings are easily frightened by gunfire and will shun an
area after a day or two of shooting suggests effective preventive
measures, which have not proved successful in the case of the other
two species mentioned.

SMALL GRAIN.

The farmer has little need to fear the starling as a menace to small
grains. Twenty of the 2,301 adult birds examined had fed on small
erain, and of these 13 had eaten wheat, 6 oats, and 1 millet. In
bulk this formed 0.39 per cent of the food, and fully half of this was"
eaten at a time of year when it manifestly must have been waste.
The few complaints on this score were either so trivial in nature or so
widely separated that the aggregate injury is not important. The
complaints involved the picking up of newly sown oats, the “‘pull-
ing’’ of sprouting oats, and feeding on ripened wheat and millet.
At Sound Beach, Long Island, a flock of about 500 starlings was
noted feeding in a millet patch, the owner of which claimed that
the birds had eaten all the seed from a similar patch in the previous
year and that it appeared as if they would repeat the performance.

GARDEN TRUCK.

From the impossibility of satisfactorily identifying such food items
as chewed-up bits of lettuce and spinach leaves, tender pods of peas,
pulp of tomatoes, etc., it is apparent that stomach examination does
not satisfactorily determine the relation of the starling to garden
truck. In no case were such items positively identified in stomachs,
though reliable field observers have witnessed attacks on these and
other products of the garden at odd times. The depredations are
confined mainly to small city gardens, where the succulent green
foods are readily accessible to an unusually large number of star-
lings. In intensively cultivated truck-crop areas, as in the Brook-
dale section, north of Bloomfield, N. J., similar conditions sometimes
prevail. |

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 35

An observer of Stratford, Conn., has witnessed starlings pecking
holes in his tomatoes, and an extensive grower of tomatoes at Strat-
ford asserted that of the first three crates of tomatoes picked in 1917
one had to be discarded, owing to the work of starlings. A farmer
of Brookdale, N.J., has suffered losses to late tomatoes, and near-by
growers complained that starlings scratched out seeds of radish,
parsley, and spinach when these were sown under manure in winter
and very early spring. Similar complaints were heard in Richfield,
south of Paterson, N. J. At Demarest, N. J., a muskmelon patch
was inspected after starlings had been at work pulling the young
sprouts. Of about 15 hills of 3 or 4 plants each only 7 plants re
mained. On this same farm starlings took all of two plantings of
onion sets in a small garden near the house. On a farm west of Ora-
dell, N. J., sprouting lima beans shared the same fate, and in a small
garden in Hackensack, N. J., 150 young lettuce plants were “‘ pulled.”
A resident of Bay Shore, N. Y., had many of his green peas taken by
starlings.

These instances are typical of the damage starlings may do to
gardens. In the main their work is confined to small plots, and the
losses are most keenly felt by the city dweller who has painstakingly
tilled and planted a few square yards of soil. In the extensive
truck-crop sections the aggregate damage of this kind is not great.

WILD FRUIT.

The starling is essentially an insect-eating and fruit-eating bird,
_ and wild fruits form the largest single item in its yearly food (23.86
~~ percent). Both the quantity and variety naturally change with the

© season. In May, when millipeds, beetles, and other insects are abun-

dant, wild fruit disappears entirely from the diet. The first half of
June sees little change in the food habits, but as cherries begin to
ripen the birds begin to flavor their diet with fruit, wild as well as
cultivated; and mulberries (Morus rubra) and June berries (Ame-
lanchier) form practically all of the 1.1 per cent of wild fruit taken in
thismonth. In July, with the ripening of red and white mulberries,
the starlings enter on a veritable orgy of fruit eating, which continues
until well into October, as one species of fruit after another ripens.
In July, 35.82 per cent of the food consists of wild fruit, practically
all of which is mulberries and blackberries. A rather open country,
with occasional groups or single trees of mulberry or wild cherry,
furnishes an ideal feeding ground for the flocks of young starlings
which wander over the country during the summer and fall months.

Karly in August the chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), and later in-
the month the black cherry (Prunus serotina) and the elderberry
(Sambucus canadensis), supply the bulk of the 40.88 per cent which

36 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

represents the fruit consumption for this month. Other fruits taken
in small quantities give variety even in the fruit portion of the diet:

The 39.51 per cent of fruit consumed in September consists prin-
cipally of the black cherry, which holds over from the preceding month,
sour-gum berries (Nyssa sylvatica), Virginia creeper (Psedera quin-
quefolia), elderberry (Sambucus) and small quantities of many other
fruits which ripen at this season. |

By the first week in October many of the juicy berries are gone,
although Virginia creeper and sour gum still furnish a considerable
supply. These, however, soon disappear, and other sources of food
are found in the immense number of grasshoppers present at this
season and in bayberries (Myrica carolinensis). These dry, hard
berries furnish the bulk of the 23.76 per cent of wild fruit found in
the stomachs collected in this month, and supply a staple food
throughout the winter.

Wild fruit enters into the winter food in the following percentages:
November, 41.80; December, 36.44; January, 19.98; February, 32.90.
In all four ionths practically the cele fruits taken are the waxy bay-
berries and the seeds of the various species of Rhus, all of which are
dry and hard, thinly covered with fruit pulp and skin. The starling
apparently feeds on them only when unable to secure any other food.
Whenever snow is off the ground the birds commence to search for
insects and return to the sumac and bayberries only when compelled
to doso by afresh snowfall. In March, although there are few insects
available, the feeding on wild fruit shows a decrease of over one-half,
only 13.69 per cent of the month’s food coming from this source.
Garbage replaces it to a large extent, and it is apparent that the melt-
ing of the snow enables the birds to feed more on the ground and
depend less on the hard berries on which they had so largely subsisted
during the winter.

April, with its increasing abundance of early insects and millipeds,
shows a practical abandonment of fruit eating by the species. Only
0.34 per cent of the food for this month is fruit, and this consists of
a few seeds of Rhus and Myrica which escaped the winter’s gleaning
and have been picked up one or two at a time by different birds.

During the five months from October to February the starling
takes the seeds of poison ivy (Rhus toxicodendron) in quantities vary-
ing from 1.42 per cent in January to 7.77 per cent in December, and,
while this item forms only 1.71 per cent of the annual food, it is of
some economic importance. The seeds are eaten, as are all other
berries of a similar nature, simply for the thin outer covering of pulp
and skin, and the hard parts pass through the digestive tract or are
regurgitated, their germinating qualities uninjured. The starling
thus becomes an agent in their dissemination, but as the birds so
often roost over city streets or in buildings, part of these seeds are

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 37

deposited in places where they can not grow. In the actual spread
of this noxious weed, the starling is probably less responsible than
many of our native birds, which scatter most of their regurgitated
seeds where they have at least a fair chance for growth.

MISCELLANEOUS VEGETABLE FOOD.

Of the total annual food of the starling 13.57 per cent may be
classed as miscellaneous vegetable matter. This consists almost
entirely of refuse eaten during the winter months, as coffee grounds,
orange seeds, beans, parings of various fruits and vegetables, and
similar material commonly found on garbage piles. Mast and
various grass and weed seeds are also present in insignificantly small
quantities. Ragweed (Ambrosia artemisirfolia) and foxtail grass
(Chetochloa glauca) were most commonly found, and as the starling
habitually feeds in fields and pastures contaming an abundance of
these two weeds, it is not surprising that a few seeds are occasionally
taken.

The garbage eaten has no economic significance, even so indirectly
as the cutting down of the available food of native birds, as they
seldom resort to such food.

FOOD OF NESTLINGS.

From an economic standpoint, the food habits of nestling passerine
birds are, as a rule, more commendable than those of the adults, and
when one considers that during the nestling period the young birds of
many species outnumber the parents two to one, the importance of
knowing what they are capable of domg is manifest. Then, too, it
must be remembered that the food required for the young growing
bird is vastly more than that needed for its parent. During the
first few days of the nestling’s life, especially, it consumes enormous
quantities of food, estimated in the cage of some species to be on each
day a mass equal to its own weight. This demand for food, much of
which consists of injurious insects, is greatest durmg May, June, and
July, a time when growing crops are benefited most by a suppression
of their insect enemies.

BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 39

TaBLeE II.— Monthly percentages of the various items in the food of adult starlings (see

jig. 2).

Month-
Kind of food. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. |June. | July.| Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec. | ly av-
erages.
WieoVvils2- 2 ne sos 14.10 |20.16 | 7.97 | 4.35 | 4.31 | 7.39 |138.36 |10.91 | 3.93 | 3.13 | 5.33 | 7.00 8.50
Ground beetles....| 1.23 | U.42 | 1.07 | 7.31 | 8.76 | 7.96 | 9.11 |13.02 |12.93 | 4.56 | 1.16 | 1.12 Sevil
May beetles. ......| 0.14 |...--. 0.27 | 4.52 |11.04 | 3.28 | 4.08 | 0.45 | 0.38 | 2.60 | 0.10 | 0.05 2.24
Other beetles...._. Dera OFAG ae 2e SOF Ge 554 69204-4056 Poe) ete (09) Ondo lt 5 | 2a27 iF o25b4 3.14
Grasshoppers... ... 4.42 | 0.55 | 2.61 | 1.59 | 0.84 | 1.24 | 2.77 |22.30 |30.75 {38.95 |38.26 | 4.76 12. 41
Caterpillars. ...___- 3.88 | 1.04 | 5.24 | 5.56 |18.97 {20.56 | 4.57 | 3.69 | 0.83 | 2.16 | 5.69 | 5.26 6.04
Millipeds......:.-- 0.44 0.04 | 0.66 [54.69 142.19 |23.66 | 3.68 | 0.20 | 4.11 | 7.64 | 1.24 | 2.02 11.71

Miscellaneous ani- :
mal matter !..__. 3.91 | 3.07 | 6.23 | 5.26 |. 6.98 |10.80 | 5.71 | 5.56 | 3.56 |11.83 | 3.01 | 5.05 5.93
Garbage (animal)... 11569" 294071685 15,2139) 02632110532 (20235510532 |=.- =. 02233 \a=e— 0.36 1.32

Garbage (vege- |
EO) ea eas 140.56 |35.97 |41.25 | 6.76 | 4.58 | 1.04 } 1.49 | 0.34 | 0.54 | 3.61 |___.-- 26. 62 13052
Cultivated cherries |......|....--|..---- ese eae AONE AOD Ceo me deer al aes | ae eee | eee 2.66
Other cultivated | He SA mOnOOnI2s82 BO Onl = ses TO6s ee 0.50 | 2.19 | 0.38 | 0.96 | 5.78 aero
iSpy

Wild fruits... -.-.: Fe 98 32.90 {13.69 | 0.34 |_.._.- 1.12 |35.82 |40.88 |39.57 |23.76 |41.80 |36. 44 23.86
Grainss 3c. ose 4S 2 308 | 7605089241 0547-12 =. OF44>0204| 0846" |= OSLSy ines 1.16

1 Under this heading are included Hymenoptera, Hemiptera, Diptera, and other miscellaneous insects,
Spiders, and mollusks.

OBSERVATIONS FROM BLIND.

Few birds are more voracious than young starlings, and when
there are from 4 to 6 to feed, it requires the most strenuous efforts of
their naturally active parents to supply their constant needs. An
insight into the feeding operations was obtained near Closter, N. J.,
by means of a blind, from which a nestful of 5 young starlings could
be watched at close range. This blind was so placed that the opening
made for observation was within 2 feet of the nest cavity. This was
located about 6 feet from the ground in the hollow lmb of an apple
tree. In watching these birds, attempt was made to identify the
food brought m and to igusme the frequency of feeding.

Efforts at identification met with little success, as in no case could
an item be specifically identified, even though ee of the food was
carried in plain view at the tip of the bill of the parent bird and often
within 18 inches of the eyes of the observer. The alertness of the
bird prevented more than a momentary glance at the food it carried.
Such identifications as ‘‘cutworms,” ‘‘earthworms,”’ ‘‘grasshoppers,’
and ‘‘ground beetles’? were the best that could be made under the
circumstances; and then, since fully a third of the food of the star-
ling is carried where it is partially or wholly concealed at the base of
the bill or in the throat, this phase of the observations afforded few
facts of value—very little compared with the detailed data secured
from stomach examination. It was noted, however, that rainfall had
a distinct effect on the character of food brought to the young. Dur-
ing showery weather or on days succeeding rainy nights large quan-
tities of earthworms and cutworms were secured. The main source
of this supply was a near-by garden. A low meadow was a favorite

40 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

feeding ground during drier weather, and it was here that the birds
secured most of their beetle food.

Observations as to the frequency of feeding gave more satisfactory
results. Although the starling is extremely cautious in its feeding
operations, this characteristic was less pronounced in the pair used in
this observation, owing to the fact that the nest was situated within a
few feet of the crossing of two well-traveled roads, and frequently
the parent birds would sit calmly in the tree while several vehicles
and pedestrians would pass within 20 feet. Little concern was shown
over the presence of the blind, but of the two birds the male was by
far the more cautious and at times would be frightened away from
the nest by some cause or other, thus delaymg a feeding. It often
happened that the female would make several feeding trips while the
male was thus alarmed, and on one or two such occasions the female
attacked her mate, after which he would obediently visit the nest |
and feed the young. |

In nine days a total of 390 feedings were recorded, in 14 periods
varying in length from 30 minutes to 4 hours and 41 minutes. One
hundred and four of the feedings were by the male and 286 by the
female. An average of one feeding every 6.1 minutes was main-
tained for the whole period of observation, 31 hours and 10 minutes.
The highest rate was recorded on the morning of May 18, which was
probably the seventh day of the nestlings’ life. A feeding every 3.2
minutes was maintained for 4 hours and 41 minutes. The lowest
rate, once every 11.7 minutes, occurred on May 25, the day before the
young left the nest.

On the basis of one feeding every 6.1 minutes, and assuming that
the young are fed 12 hours a day, which is conservative, there would
be 118 feedings a day. As this brood left the nest on the sixteenth
day, which is probably several days short of the normal nestling
period of the starling, for the birds were disturbed considerably during
the latter days of their nestling life, a total of 1,888 feedings would
have been given to this brood of five, or 377.6 for each nestling.
When it is borne in mind that the parent birds would often bring in
three or four cutworms, earthworms, or grasshoppers, or an equal
bulk of miscellaneous insect food, at a single trip, one may gain an
idea of the quantity of food required to develop a brood of young
starlings.

STOMACH EXAMINATION.

For detailed study of food items an excellent series of 325 stomachs
of nestlings, collected in Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey
during May, June, and July, was available. Sixteen of these, how-
ever, contained so little food that they could not be used in estimating
percentages, leaving 309 for such purposes. Nestlings in all stages

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 41

of growth, from the blind, callow young of a day or two to the husky,
energetic fledgling ready to leave the nest, are about equally repre-
sented, with the result that the percentages of the various food items
may be considered to be fair averages for the entire nestling period.
Tt is well known that as nestlings grow older there is a gradual change
in food preferences. A discussion of the change of food habits in
‘the growing nestlings, based on this material, grouped according to
the age of the birds, will be found in Table III, on page 44.

ANIMAL FOOD.

Compared with the 338 stomachs of adult starlings collected in
May and June, it is found that the percentage of animal matter eaten
by nestlings is somewhat greater, 95.06 per cent in place of 82.36.
By far the largest animal item consisted of caterpillars, which, along
with a few moths and a cocoon or two, formed 38.21 per cent of the
food of young starlings and were present in 274 of the 325 stomachs
examined.

To very young birds caterpillars are especially attractive. Only
3 of the 79 nestlings estimated to be less than 6 days old had failed
to eat these larve. In the stomachs of 10 of these, caterpillars
formed over three-fourths of the food, while the average for the lot
was nearly half. In the case of two nestlings, apparently more
than 10 days old, caterpillars formed the entire stomach content.

A large part of the caterpillars eaten by the starling are cutworms,
a fact which may be attributed to the bird’s habit of searching for
insect food on the ground. Cutworms are chiefly nocturnal in
their habits, but their high percentage in the food of young starlings
indicates either that they are secured by the parents from beneath
the surface or, which is likely, that a part are picked up in the early
morning hours before the insects have secreted themselves for the day.

Beetles of various kinds constitute the next largest item (29.98
per cent) in the food of nestlings, of which nearly half (14.58 per
cent) are members of the family Scarabeide, in which is found that
notorious pest, the white grub, better known to the city dweller in
its adult form, the May beetle (Phyllophaga). During late May and
early June adult May beetles are favorite items of food with young
starlings. One brood of 4 nearly fledged young had been fed en-
tirely on these insects, at least 32 individuals being eaten, and another
brood of 4 had eaten 27, which constituted 82 per cent of their food.
As would be expected, the larve of these beetles are seidom eaten
unless the parent birds are securing food on newly plowed fields.
A few other phytophagous scarabeids of the genera Huphoria,
ligyrus, Cotalpa, Anomala, Diplotaxis, and Serica also were eaten,
but in no case were the insects of economic importance or the quan-
tity taken worthy of note. Nestling starlings eat by no means as

AQ BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

many coprophagous scarabeids as do their parents, who, in late
summer and in fall, capture numbers of the common small genera
on the wing. Of these, Aphodius appears to be the favorite for the
nestlings.

Ground beetles (Carabidz) formed a little more than 8 per cent
of the young starlings’ food, a proportion about equal to that taken
by the pdalies in May and fines They were found in two-thirds of
the stomachs examined, but in only one case was the quantity taken
more than half the stomach contents. Conspicuous among the
distinctly beneficial carabids eaten is the fiery caterpillar hunter
(Calosoma calidum). This insect was identified in 17 stomachs.
The large Harpalus caliginosus was present in 54 stomachs, Chlenius
tomentosus in 46, and members of the genus Anisodactylus in 76.
The presence of a considerable number of the last-named genus,
together with specimens of Amara, show that not all the ground
beetles eaten should be charged against the starling, as some of them
are distinctly vegetarian.

The young starlings’ consumption of weevils is nearly three times
as great as that of the adults during the same period, and while in
bulk the portion taken is small (8.26 per cent), it contains one item
of considerable interest, the clover leaf weevil (Hypera punctaia).
(See Pl. III, fig. 1.) This insect constituted by far the largest
portion of the weevil food. It was present in 53 stomachs, and the
larve occurred in 34. One brood of 3 newly hatched young had
been fed a total of 59 of these larve, which, together with 3 Sida
weevils of other genera, formed nearly 70 per cent of their food.
The best record for the destruction of adult weevils was made by a
brood of 4 half-grown nestlings that had consumed 30 individuals of
two other clover pests (Sitona hispiduia and Phytonomus nigrirosiris)
along with a number of billbugs (S phenophorus sp.).

The remaining beetle food, comprising 4.11 per cent, was divided
among a number of fie Leaf beetles (Chrysomelidz) and
rove beetles (Staphylinide) were best represented, but in no case
was the quantity eaten of importance.

As the nestling period is too early in the season to permit a heavy
consumption of grasshoppers, a large part of the orthopterous remains
found (11.31 per cent) was composed of crickets. These were present
in 134 stomachs, frequently associated with a grasshopper or two.
One brood of 4 young starlings about ready to leave the nest had
eaten 19 crickets and 4 pele which totaled over 81 per cent
of the food; another brood, just hatched, had been fed 13 crickets
and 7 grasshoppers, which fed over two-thirds of their diet; and
in the case of two other broods of 4 and 5, respectively, the orthop-
terous food constituted over two-thirds of the stomach contents.
Most of the crickets eaten by nestlings are the common field cricket

=o. ia cil alt ial ll RN

‘

P
s
,
4
P
3
7
q

CPN gee ‘
UP diy hahaha Wn tends alee

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 43

(Gryllus pennsylvanicus), while many of the grasshoppers belong to
the genus Melanoplus.

There is nothing of particular interest in the remaining insect
food of young starlings. None of the other orders were represented
by as much as 1 per cent. Among the Hymenoptera eaten, ants
were prominent, and of the Hemiptera, soldier bugs (Pentatomidz)
formed the greater part.

Of animal items other than insects, spiders are most conspicuous.
They were present in 182 of the 325 nestling stomachs examined
and formed 8.56 per cent of the food, compared with 1.28 per cent of
- that of adults for the same period. Spiders are especially acceptable
to nestlings of a day or two, as their thin-walled stomachs are unable
to assimilate hard food. ‘These creatures were found in the stomachs
of 71 of 79 starlings less than 6 days old, and brood after brood was
found in which every individual had been given one or more spiders.
In some instances upward of a hundred were found when an egg
sac filled with young spiders had been swallowed. A large part of
the spiders eaten belong to the family Lycoside, the wolf spiders,
which are terrestrial in habit and are generally considered less bene-
ficial than those species which- construct webs for the capture of
flying insect pests.

The greatest difference between the food habits of old and young
starlings is in the quantity of millipeds eaten. These form nearly a
third (82.95 per cent) of the sustenance of the adult birds during
May and June, but less than a twentieth (4.56 per cent) of the food
of the young. In the frequency also of feeding on millipeds the
nestling lags behind its parent. About 52 per cent of the nestling
starlings were fed on millipeds, while fully 78 per cent of the adults
had taken such food during the same time. It would seem, then,
that the parent birds in their search for food for the young either
deliberately pass up many a milliped or else devour them themselves
as they proceed.

Nothing of importance appeared in the remaining miscellaneous
animal matter, which formed less than 1 per cent of the food.

«VEGETABLE FOOD.

Of the vegetable food consumed, cultivated cherries are the only
item of importance. ~ This fruit was eaten by 30 of the 325 nestlings
collected and formed 3.18 per cent of the food, as compared with
8.01 per cent for adults during the same period. Most of the cherries
eaten by the nestlings are brought to them the last few days they
are in the nest, when they have acquired a dietary very similar to
that of their parents. During this short time, however, a hungry
brood of 5 or 6 can make away with considerable fruit. A nest box
which had been occupied by only one brood near Closter, N. J., con-

44 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

tained 114 stones of cultivated cherries: when cleaned on July 11.
The economic significance of the starling’s taste for cherries is fully
discussed under the food of the adults, on pages 26 to 28.

The remaining vegetable food, less than 2 per cent, is composed
largely of rubbish. Mere traces of corn, oats, and wheat were present
in a few stomachs.

FOOD PREFERENCES AT DIFFERENT AGES.

In order to reveal the changes that take place in the food prefer-
ences of the nestling starling from the time it receives its first meal
to the time it is ready to leave the nest and shift for itself, the nest-
lings’ stomachs were arranged in three groups, representing as nearly
as possible the first, second, and third periods of nestling life. These
groups include, approximately, (1) birds from 1 to 5 days old; (2)
those 6 to 10 days old; and (8) all above 10 days of age. Each group
was well represented, there being 79, 94, and 122 stomachs, respec-

tively. Fourteen additional nestling stomachs on hand could not be —

used, as definite data concerning their age was lacking. The infor-
mation derived from the regrouping of this material is presented in
condensed form in Table III and graphically represented in figure 3.

TaBLe II1.— Monthly percentages of various kinds of food eaten by nestling starlings,
showing the changing character at different ages (see fig. 3).

an
l | ae
| | Grass- | | Miscel Miscel-
May _ fhoppers! a.z,,. ny | SS ar. | Janeous
Age of nestlings. Grom beetles, Wee and | sie ae. Sader Ener one | Yege-
= | } matter. |
ets. | matter
2D ne eee CSRs eerie eer ees Po pr aeons eee More
LOO GAaySes 222-5 2.43 | 3.91 5.59 | 13.96 | 45.26 1.48 | 23.44 2.98 0.18 | 0.77
6 tod0 days. 2-222. 11.59 | 18.33 4.49} 41.23] 34.88 5.34 3.57 5.93 3.36 | 1.28
10 or more days..... | 7.69 | 18.25] 1.02] 8.98] 37.81| 6.38] 3.28] 7.61] 4.76 |) deo
so. |

It will be noticed that as the bird grows older there is a decrease
in its consumption of soft and easily digested foods. The bulk of
spiders eaten, for instance, is confined to the first few days of the
bird’s life. In the case of caterpillars the decrease is not uniform,
although it is apparent that the very voung birds are fed more than
those a little older. There is also a gradualJessening in the quantity
of crickets and grasshoppers taken. Under the heading ‘“‘ weevils”
a similar decrease is recorded, but instead of the hard-shelled adults
being so popular with young starlings, it is the larve of the clover
leaf weevil which forms the bulk of the food. In the case of ground
beetles and May beetles, as well as with millipeds, the younger nest-
lings are given smaller quantities. The same is true for the principal
vegetable item, cultivated cherries. Only two of the 79 starlings
less than 6 days old had been fed such fruit. 3

Se ee

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 45

From the foregoing detailed account of the food of nestling star-
lings and the comparisons made with the food habits of the parent
birds at the same time of year, it is apparent that the habits of the
young materially raise the starling’s economic status in the early
summer months. In the consumption of destructive caterpillars,
_ crickets and grasshoppers, and scarabeid beetles, three of the favor-
ite food items of starlings, the young birds excel, and in the destruc-

SS
QOS

Pt ond beers LEAT 2 OAS
MINNA Lees, CS eo = Borders

PRES Leeotyks eee - DPYWIIG/ (PIGIIL”
WS HAE QQOOS PC Nevwes

LES Cate lars MM 50 vesobbhe maller

Fig. 3.—Chart of food of 295 nestling starlings, showing its changing character during the three stages of
nestling life. In Table II, page 44, the sameinformation is presented in percentages. Explanatory
remarks on both chart and table are given on page 44.

tion of beneficial ground beetles and cultivated cherries they are not

so culpable as their parents. Correlated with this demonstrated su-
periority in food habits are the facts that, bird for bird, nestlings con-
sume more food than adults and that in the case of the starling they
outnumber the adults two to one. Confronted with such an array
of favorable testimony the worth of the young starling can be scarcely
overestimated.

46 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
RELATION TO OTHER SPECIES OF BIRDS.

The antagonism between starlings and other birds constitutes one
of the most frequently heard complaints against this species. This
is especially true in thickly settled regions where the natural nesting
sites of hole-nesting birds have been largely replaced with artificial
ones in the form of bird boxes. This fact in itself has a tendency to
bring to human attention most of such conflicts, as many of the bird
boxes are in dooryards where they are under more or less constant
observation. It must also be borne in mind that the driving out of
native species which have been induced by enthusiastic bird lovers
to take up sites in the dooryard, will be more keenly felt than the
molesting of breeding birds at a greater distance from the house and
with which there has been less intimate acquaintance. :

While particular attention was given to this complaint during the
breeding season, little antagonism was actually observed. However,
as acts of vandalism last for just a moment or two, it is not surprising
that more instances were not noted. It is apparent, then, from the
nature of the case that data of this kind must be secured largely -
from the notes of reliable observers. Those who have had the for-
tune to witness such activities report that bluebirds and flickers suffer
most, but martins, house wrens, robins, English sparrows, and a few
other wild species, as well as domestic pigeons, are also bothered in
their nesting operations.

Unrelenting perseverence dominates the starling’s activities when
engaged in a controversy over a nesting site. More of its battles
are won by dogged persistence in annoying its victim than by bold
aggression, and its irritating tactics are sometimes carried to such a
point that it seems almost as if the bird were actuated more by a
morbid pleasure of annoying its neighbors than by any necessity
arising from a scarcity of nesting sites. Tllustrative of this are the
experiences of a pair of bluebirds observed at Norwalk, Conn., build-
ing a nest in a cavity high in an elm tree. On April 8 two starlings
were seen sitting nearby, whistling and squealing. They were not
~ noted attacking the bluebirds, but the next afternoon the bluebirds
had disappeared and the starlings were carrying nest material into
the cavity. The next day the bluebirds tried to get into a wren box
haying an opening too small for their passage. A day or two later
four bird boxes were erected in the vicinity, and the bluebirds prompt-
ly began to build in one. This apparently aroused the displeasure of
the starlings; so they entered the box and removed the nest material.
The same performance was repeated at two of the other boxes, and it
was not until the bluebirds had taken up the last box, which was
provided with a 12-inch opening, through which the starlings could
not pass, that they were able to lay a set of eggs. That misfortune

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. AK 2

still attended the bluebirds was disclosed one morning when the male
was found dead beneath the nest and the eggs were deserted by the
female. There was no evidence, however, to connect the starlings
with the final disaster. Additional reliable evidence of bluebirds
being driven out by starlings was secured at Norwalk, Wilton, and
West Cornwall, Conn.; Groton, Mass.; Medford, Long Island, N. Y.;
and Adelphia, N. J.

In contrast with such actions was the situation presented in an
orchard at Norfolk, Conn., not far from the scene just described.
Here a pair of bluebirds and two pairs of starlings conducted their
family affairs peaceably 1 in close proximity to each other. At Hart-
ford, Conn., a pair of bluebirds and three pairs of starlings nested in
natural Ces in apple trees located in two adjacent city lots. The
owner of the property said he had watched the birds closely and did
not see any evidence of antagonism between the species. :

In contests with the flicker the starling frequently makes up in
numbers what disadvantage it may have in size. Typical of such
combats was the one observed on May 9, at Hartford, Conn., where a
- group of starlings and a flicker were in controversy over a newly
excavated nest. The number of starlings varied, but as many as 6
were noted at one time. Attention was first attracted to the dispute
by a number of starlings in close proximity to the hole and by the
sounds of a tussle within. Presently a flicker came out dragging a
starling after him. The starling continued the battle outside long
enough to allow one of its comrades to slip into the nest. Of course
the flicker had to repeat the entire performance. He did this for
about half an hour, when he gave up, leaving the starlings in posses-
sion of the nest.

On June 19, at Port Chester, N. Y., a controversy was observed be-
tween a pair of starlings and a pair of flickers, whose brood was about
to leave the nest, which was about 30 feet from the ground and within
25 feet of a house. When first observed one of the starlings was
perched a few feet from the nest, in the entrance to which was one of
the flickers. Whenever this flicker relaxed its vigilance for a moment
one of the starlings would immediately make a dart for the nest
opening. A scuffle would ensue in which both flicker and starling
would come tumbling to the ground and a few feathers would fly. In
the meantime the other flicker and starling would take up the wait-
ing gamein the tree top. This condition had prevailed for several
days, and after a day or two more of continuous conflict the flicker
succeeded in bringing forth its brood unharmed. The nest cavity
was not then taken over by the starlings.

At Gwynedd Valley, Pa., an observer told of the killing of two
broods of young flickers raetohed § in a tree in his dooryard. He had
prevented the starlings from nesting in this cavity by repeated shoot-

48 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ing early in spring, but was unable to prevent the destruction of the
young flickers, which were killed by being dragged from the nest and
dropped to the ground. At Closter, N. J., a similar conflict was re-
ported in 1915, but in the following year the tables were reversed,
for, in a dispute over a nest box only a few rods from the site of the
flicker tragedy of the former year, a starling engaged in a struggle for
a nest box met its death, apparently in a battle with a flicker. That
less serious outcomes sometimes result from starling-flicker feuds
was indicated by circumstantial evidence at a point near Hopewell
Junction, N. Y. A brood of starlings was occupying a nest cavity-
recently excavated by flickers in accordance with the approved princi-
ples of flicker architecture, the entrance being on the lower side of
the limb, protected from drainage. In a neighboring tree was found
a brood of 6 half-grown flickers located in a natural cavity, similar
to ones often chosen by starlings, a hollow limb with the entrance
exposed upwards and with an opening full 5 inches in diameter. All
circumstances seemed to indicate that the birds had simply exchanged
nesting sites. Additional reliable evidence of the starling’s agegres-
sive tactics against flickers, some of which involved the killing of
young as well as the usurping of nest sites, came in reports from
Hartford, Norwalk (2), West Cornwall, and Portland, Conn.; Woods-
town and Adelphia, N. J.; and Ambler and Maple Glen, Pa.

Purple martins suffer to only a limited extent from the starling’s
demand for nest sites. Throughout Connecticut and much of north-
eastern New Jersey the martin is not an abundant bird, so while
houses put up for martins in various localities were usually occupied
by starlings and English sparrows, there was little chance of their
having been tenanted with martins, even had they not been occupied
by the foreigners. One martin house at Norwalk, Conn., was oe-
cupied by a pair of sparrow hawks on one side and three pairs of
starlings on the other. At Hadlyme, Conn., a colony of fuily 50
pairs of martins conducted unmolested their nesting operations under
the close scrutiny of starlings that nested near by. An observer from
Adelphia, N. J., reported that he had witnessed an attack on martins

.whisyard. He had erected two martin houses of four compartments
each early in the year. One was occupied by starlings, and when a
pair of martins appeared and attempted to take up the other abode
a fight occurred. A starling was observed going into the martin
house, and after pulling out one of the inmates dragged out the nest
material. The martin was subsequently attacked whenever it ap-
proached and it finally left the premises. In this and in another
case at Adelphia the martins had come to the boxes for the first time.

The two most specific reports received, bearing on the relation of
starlings to wrens, are conflicting. In one, at Norwalk, Conn., a
pair of starlings flew to a wren’s nest, and pulled the bird out and

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 49

killed it; while in the other, at Ambler, Pa., 11 pairs of wrens
nested in peace in a yard of about an acre, although sane were
common in the breeding season.

The single record of starlings attacking a red-headed woodpecker
comes from Baltimore, Md., where a combat was observed over a
nest cavity in a telephone sails,

That the aggressions of starlings are not entirely restricted to
attacks on hole-nesting species is apparent from the fact that after
bluebirds and flickers, robins seem to be the birds most frequently
molested. Although no observation of this kind was made by the
investigators, reliable evidence has come from outside sources. At
Ambler, Pa., two nestling robins were killed by starlings, the victims
being dispatched by powerful pecks on the head. At East Norwalk,
Conn., a starling was seen to peck and break all the eggs in a robin’s
nest. At the bird sanctuary at Fairfield, Conn., the remains of a
robin’s nest destroyed by starlings was seen, the caretaker witness-
ing this act of vandalism; after the robins had rebuilt the structure
it was again destroyed, presumably by starlings. Other corrobora-
tive evidence on this point was secured at Gwynedd and Spring
House, Pa.; Adelphia, N. J.; Southampton, N. Y.; and Hadlyme,
Conn. Single attacks on a Baltimore oriole’s nest and the young of
a chipping sparrow were reported.

It was an almost universal observation throughout Connecticut
and New Jersey that the English sparrow is decreasing in numbers,
and many persons attribute this to the starling. No belligerent acts
between these two species, however, were witnessed in the field,
though several instances of the usurping of the nesting or roosting
places of English sparrows by starlings have been reported. In a
number of cases these two species were observed breeding in close
proximity, and under one water tank their nests almost touched.

A few instances of starlings attacking domestic pigeons were re-
ported. At Middletown, R. I., it was found necessary to wage con-
stant warfare on the starlings to keep them from nesting in one pigeon
loft, where they appropriated for their own domestic affairs the boxes
put up for the pigeons. They carried in so much material that they
filled the boxes and on one or two occasions dragged it in so rapidly
as actually to barricade the setting pigeons, which were entirely
unresisting. At Closter, N. J., it was reported that starlings had
entered a pigeon loft, dniren oa the adults, and then, dragging out
the squabs, had let chem fall to the ground, where ghee were killed.
Opposing testimony was presented from experiences on a squab farm
at Stanton, N. J. Here the starlings nested peaceably along with
the pigeons and the only trouble that the latter had occurred during
cold weather, when starlings in considerable numbers used the coops

=

50 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

for roosting places. Whenever a lantern was brought into the build-
ing at night the starlings flew about in great commotion and, fright-
ening the pigeons, caused some of the setting birds to leave their eges.
Starlings were reported on occasions to have driven pigeons even from
church towers. At Norwalk, Conn., and Newburgh, N. Y., however,
towers were found where pigeons wore successfully raising young in
the immediate presence of roosting starlings.

To determine whether a mere scarcity of nesting sites is the cause
of the antagonism between starlings and other species, 24 nest boxes
were erected, 12 in the vicinity of Closter, N..J., and 12 about Nor-
walk, Conn. These boxes were of a size commonly provided for
flickers, measuring approximately 43? by 53 by 16 inches (interior
dimensions) and fitted with a 24-inch hole, and so constructed that the
nests could be readily inspected by means of a removable front.
In some of these boxes the size of the hole was reduced by tacking
on the front small boards contaming circular openings, sone 13
inches and some 12 inches in diameter. These were used to determine
the smallest opening through which a starling can pass. The boxes
were occupied readily both by starlings and bluebirds; in most cases
this was not due to a lack of natural nesting sites, as there were many
to be had. In one orchard a pair of starlings showed such a marked
preference for a natural cavity that they raised two broods therein,
although 3 boxes were in the immediate vicinity, unoccupied at the
time their nest was started. Following is a summary of what trans-
pired at the 24 boxes:

Four boxes failed to have any bird activity connected with them;
18 had starling nests started; 14 had starling nests completed; 10
had starling eggs hatched Gn 3 other instances the eggs were removed);
8 had bluebird nests started, four of which produced young; and 1
had a completed nest of house wrens.

None of the 6 boxes with 13-inch opening was occupied by star-
lings; 5 of 7 boxes with 13-inch opening were occupied by starlings;
10 of 13 boxes with 24-inch opening were similarly occupied; and at
3 boxes bluebirds were driven away by starlings.

In summarizing the evidence bearing on the relation between the
starling and our native birds during the breeding season, it is apparent
that the bluebird and flicker suffer most. Both have no doubt to a
certain extent been driven away from the vicinity of the dooryard.
Regarding the seriousness of these attacks and the ultimate conse-
quences to the population of the species it is believed the fears of many
bird lovers are exaggerated. While instances such as those cited
are numerous and often have resulted fatally to the birds attacked
it must be borne in mind that this information is the compilation
of more than six months’ constant investigation, during which time

X\

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 51

no opportunity to secure data on this point was overlooked. Blue-
birds are common and generally distributed in the sections thickly
settled with starlings, and although observers have noted their dis-
appearance in small areas confined to a dooryard or two, it is the
opinion of those who are qualified to judge the general abundance of
these birds that in Connecticut and northeastern New Jersey blue-
birds have either held their own or increased in numbers in the last
few years. Since bluebirds will continue to nest commonly in locali-
ties away from human habitation where they have little to fear from
starlings, and since even in the dooryard, their nests, eggs, and
young may be protected by providing nest boxes having an opening
no greater than 14 inches in diameter, there is little danger of the race
as a whole being placed in jeopardy.

The flicker also will be driven from the vicinity of houses, but it,

too, will always find a refuge in wilder situations to which the starling
seldom goes. In those parts of Connecticut, New York, and New
Jersey where the starling has been a common bird and in competition
with the flicker for at least 15 years the latter still maintains as con-
spicuous a place in the bird world as it does in other parts of these
States where the starling is not yet common. The same can be said
of the robin, which in northeastern New Jersey and along the Connec-

_ticut shore is an extremely abundant bird. Martins are more abun-

dant in western, central, and southern New Jersey than in the center
of starling population, but such a condition of relative abundance
existed before the advent of the starling, and it can not be construed
as a result of starling aggression. Neither can the apparent decrease
in the English sparrow population throughout New Jersey and parts
of New England in the last 10 years be correlated with the spread
of the starling, as in many sections where the decrease of the sparrow
has been noted the starling has not yet arrived in numbers. As for
the other species at present known to be attacked by starlings, the
acts of vandalism are so occasional that the effect is negligible and the
situation is by no means as serious as that presented by the predatory

. habits of the blue jay, the grackle, or the crow.

A consideration of the economic significance of displacing certain
native species by the starling involves judgment of the relative
worth of the various species. A comparison of the merits of the
starling with those of its breeding competitors reveals that it is
certainly more valuable than the robin, flicker, or English sparrow;
that it has food habits fully as favorable as those of the house wren;
and that the bluebird and martin are the only species with which
the starling is in intimate competition whose economic worth might
be considered greater than that of the starling.

52 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Field observation sheds some light on the added competition for
food imposed upon native species by the presence of the starling.
During the breeding season, robins in suburban sections and meadow-
larks in the more open country are the species thrown most intimately
in contact with the newcomer. The robin finds its customary supply
of cutworms in the garden reduced by the diligent search of the star-
ling; earthworms, a favorite food of the robin in wet weather, also are
taken by the starling, but the supply of these appears to be ample
for both. In the case of the meadowlark, such items as cutworms,
clover leaf weevils, and other beetles constitute the food supply
most frequently sameint by both species.

After the breeding season the starling comes in n competition with
several additional species in its search for food. In feeding on
meadow and pasture land, its closest associate is the cowbird, and
a mixed flock of these two species is a common sight about dairy herds.
Contrary to expectation, however, the food habits of the two do not
seriously conflict at that time of year.. A comparison of the stomach
contents of cowbirds and starlings secured from the same flocks
showed that while starlings were feeding most heavily on grasshoppers
and crickets, cowbirds were satisfying themselves largely by picking
up seeds of ragweed and foxtail grass. Similar conditions existed
in mixed flocks of starlings, red-winged blackbirds, and grackles
roaming through cornfields. Ripening corn formed the major por-
tion of the food of the red-wings and grackles, while starlings ate
comparatively little. Probably the greatest influence exerted by
the starling on the food supply of other birds is occasioned by its
consumption of wild fruit during late summer and early fall. Wild
cherry and sour gum trees heavily laden with fruit are soon stripped
when a flock of several hundred starlings feeds continually in the
vicinity, and, although the total supply of this food is enormous,
instances were observed where locally such birds as robins, catbirds,
and cedar waxwings were compelled to seek other sources of food.
During winter starlings secure a certain portion of the food formerly
eaten by English sparrows, especially about dumping grounds of
cities. Where bird lovers have taken pains to attract native species —
they have often found the foreigner greedily consuming all the food
they could supply, with the result that the cost of attracting birds
rose almost to a prohibitive point.

Here again must judgment be given on the relative worth of the
species concerned before the seriousness of the starling’s consumption
of the former food supply of other birds can be understood. After
carefully weighing all the evidence available, it is safe to state that
in the area covered by this investigation the starling is economically

the superior of the robin, the catbird, the red-wing, the grackle, the

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 53

cowbird, or the English sparrow, and that in this competition for food
the fierce t is the only species whose added difficulty 1 im ‘sustain-
ing itself is to be deplored.

NATURAL ENEMIES.

Very little evidence is at hand regarding the natural enemies of the
starling. At Norwalk, Conn., a cat was seen carrying a freshly
caught fledgling; and it is probable that a number are thus captured,
as cats are numerous in the whole region. Far more robins, catbirds,
and other birds are destroyed in this manner, however, for starlings
are better protected in the nest and are also able to fly better when
they leave the nest than are many of our common native birds.

Hawks were several times noted flying with or about flocks of star-
lings without attempting to capture any of them. At Bay Shore,
N. Y., a curious performance was noted on three successive after-
noons. A pair of sparrow hawks used the dead tops of several large
locust trees as a lookout point for their hunting. Late in the after-
noons the starlings appeared in this locality on their way to roost.
As they passed, the sparrow hawks darted out, apparently in pursuit,
but they never struck a bird. Instead, both the starling flock and
sparrow hawks went through a series of intricate evolutions, appar-
ently alternating in the réle of pursuer and pursued. Occasionally
the performance would be varied by a starling swooping down on a
hawk as it perched on a limb, driving it off: then followed the same
evolutions as when the hawk was the ageressor.

At Freehold, N. J., a sharp-shinned hawk was seen diving into a
tree full of young seclnncs but the latter, rushing to the center of
the thick foliage, enpel home. At Glen Cove, N. Y., a Cooper
hawk was observed to dart from a tree into a passing flock af starlings
and, striking one, to carry it away. A young starling was found also
in a nest of a Cooper hawk at Wilton, Conn. These instances are
enough to show that the birds of prey have learned to take their toll
from the newcomer, but give little basis for any estimate as to their
effect in checking its increase and spread.

Many of the starlings collected were heavily infested with intestinal
parasites, but no evidence was secured as to the effect these might
have on the mortality of the birds.

Cold weather seems to have some effect in checking the increase of
starlings as in the vicinity of winter roosts it is common to find dead
birds. This is particularly true in northern New Jersey, the region of
their greatest abundance.

SS SS ar ed Sie foe we

ee

Co
belo.

BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ERADICATION OF ROOSTS.

Soon after the first brood of starlings begins to leave the nest, some-
times as early as the middle of June, one may find these birds resort-
ing to nightly roosts (see pp. 11-13). These may be in trees or in
church towers, barn cupolas, sheds, etc.; but up to the advent of
cold weather the greatest number of starlings gather in tree roosts.
Frequently these are established in the residential sections of cities,
where the noise in the evening and early morning,-with the attendant
filth and odor from their droppings, makes the starlings most unwel-
come birds. But by no means all of the nuisance should be attributed
to starlings, as in most roosts of any size grackles, robins, English
sparrows, cowbirds, red-winged blackbirds, and even purple martins
help to swell the numbers. Plainfield, Newark, Orange, Montclair,
and Glen Ridge, N. J.; Greenwich, Fairfield, and Hartford, Conn.;
Glen Cove, N. Y.; and Germantown and Ambler, Pa., are a few of
the places where roosts, in which starlings formed a large part of the
assemblage, have proved to be a distinct nuisance. |

The roost encountered at Orange, N. J., is a typical one. Here, as
in many other instances, the birds had selected tall elms and maples
overhanging roadways and dooryards. When visited on July 15,
1916, the ground beneath the larger trees was whitened with excre-
ment. Feathers from the molting birds and the bodies of those that
had died tittered the ground, and the offensive odor arising, espe-
cially in humid weather, permeated the whole neighborhood. 3

This roost was occupied by starlings, grackles, and a few hundred
robins. Observations made on the incoming birds indicated that the
ratio between the number of starlings and grackles was about 3 to 2.
During the early evening starlings greatly predominated, but as dark-
ness deepened the proportion of grackles increased, while the last to
enter the roost were robins. On July 17, during four minutes at the
height of the influx (6.56 to 7 p. m.) 900 birds entered the roost from
the south, and on the following night, during a period of 38 minutes,
3,100 were noted coming from the same direction. From these and
other observations it was estimated that the roost was occupied by
from 6,000 to 8,000 birds. During the entire process of assembling,
the birds that were already gathered kept up an incessant din—
the starlings with their variety of whistles and rasping notes and the
erackles with their monotonous ‘‘checks’’ and unmusical squeaking
calls. The clamor gradually lessened as darkness came, but a few of
the birds might be heard at odd times all through the night. At the
peep of day the gathered thousands would break out with a vol-
ume of song that terminated abruptly the slumbers of all light sleep-
ers in the vicinity. This accomplished, the birds would depart rather
suddenly on their daily search for food. |

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 55

_In previous years residents of the vicinity had undertaken meas- _

ures, more or less feeble, to remove the objectionable birds. Some
of these afforded temporary relief. Roman candles shot on one or
two nights drove the birds away for a short time. Three incan-
descent lamps placed in a tree in the center ef the roost gave relief
to that immediate vicinity. The ringing of a bell placed in another
tree served to drive away the birds in the early morning hours and

shorten their annoying daybreak serenade, and a little desultory -

shooting also had been done, but with no lasting results.

Operations with a view of testing some of these methods of roost
eradication were begun on July 17, at the Orange roost. A shotgun
was used in the early evening, and when darkness arrived a number
of Roman candles were discharged. Five successive nights of attack
removed the roost. During these operations two observations of
importance in connection with roost eradication were made. One
was that the firing of a gun early in the evening, just as the birds are
coming to roost, makes a more effective impression than one fired
after the colony has settled for the night. When there is still day-
light the frightened birds will fly for some distance before alighting,
while later in the evening the birds move only a few yards from their
former perch. It was also noted that in a mixed roost adult star-
lings were the first to take flight and young starlings were next to
leave; grackles were less easily driven away, while robins were prac-
tically fearless, few of them leaving the rocst even after five nights
of attack. The relief obtained, however, was but temporary. In
about 10 days the birds, not being further molested, reoccupied the
roost. On August 24, a second attempt was made to drive them
out, and after 6 nights’ shooting they left, not to return that season.

On the last 6 nights of September a starling-grackle-robin roost at
Freehold, N. J., was attacked with the shotgun only and com-
pletely removed. . The birds apparently chose a new roosting place
at some distance from Freehold, for when the roost had been eradi-
cated, comparatively few starlings could be found in the daytime
anywhere in the country surrounding the town, where previously
they had been common.

A single night’s shooting at a roost composed entirely of starlings
at Fairfield, Conn., during which 40 of the birds were killed, gave the
desired results.

A roost at Montclair, N. J., had been a source of considerable
trouble for several years and measures had been taken to eradicate
it. Roman candles had no effect, but four men using shotguns loaded
with blank cartridges for three consecutive nights succeeded in driv-
ing the birds away. However, they moved to a point in Glen Ridge,
N. J., where they became equally troublesome.

56 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Experiments were made by the municipal authorities of Montclair
in 1916 to determine the usefulness of a sticky substance applied to
the branches of the trees of the roost. This had no apparent effect
in deterring the birds, although six or seven trees near the center of
the roost had their branches well smeared with it. The sticky,
resinous gum used was applied with small paddles, the climbers using
a boatswain’s chair to reach the upper and outer branches. As in
several other cases the shotgun had to be used to bring relief.

At Hartford, Conn., several years ago, a roost of about 5,000 star-
lings and grackles was established on one of the principal residential
streets, where it became such a nuisance that the city authorities
took measures to remove it. Objection to the use of a shotgun was
made by local bird lovers, who volunteered to drive the birds away
by firmg Roman candles. Three nights’ work, in which from 3 to
15 men armed with Roman candles participated, removed the roost.

From present experiences it is apparent that neither the shotgun
nor the Roman candle, however, effects a lasting cure. Each one,
when used persistently, has served to remove roosts, but in either
case vigilance must be used to prevent the birds from reestablishing
themselves. In a few instances, as at Hartford, Roman candles did
the work effectively, but at other roosts such measures have failed.
A shotgun loaded with black powder shells, fired on 5 or 6 consecu-
tive evenings, will give more certain results. Such treatment can
be recommended for eradicating tree roosts of starlings and grackles
wherever State and local laws permit.

Starling roosts located in church towers, where they have some-
times become a nuisance on account of the attending filth, can be
abolished by the use of wire screen of a mesh of 14 inches or less.
This method is almost universally resorted to in places thickly popu-
lated with starlings.

CONTROL MEASURES.

Outside of the work done on roosts and the activities of caretakers
of a few bird preserves, few efforts toward reducing the numbers of
starlings have been made, but mention of some of these may be useful
to those desiring to control the birds where they are injurious either
to crops or buildings.

One fact connected with the behavior of starlings brought out re-
peatedly in field work is that the birds are easily frightened by gun-
fire and soon become exceedingly wary. A few gunshots are usually
sufficient to drive them away from the vicinity of crops upon which
they are feeding. This is especially true when they are eating
cherries.

Where starlings become objectionable about dooryards by reason
of the filth connected with their breeding operations, their activities

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 57

may be curtailed by closing all cavities which might be used for
nests, or reducing the diameter of the entrances to 14 inches or less.

While wholesale destruction of these birds, where extermination of
the species in this country is the object sought, can not be recom-
mended, occasion may arise where local overabundance will accen-
tuate some of the injurious habits of the species, and make a reason-
able reduction in their numbers justifiable. Raids on their fall and
winter roosts appear to be effective means of accomplishing this.
In church towers, especially, large numbers may be easily captured
at night. No poisoning method appears practicable in winter, but
trapping has met with moderate success on bird preserves. An ordi-
nary screen ash-shifter propped up on one side with a stick was used
to advantage in one case, and after baiting the area below it, the trap
was sprung by pulling a string attached to the supporting stick.

LEGISLATION.

The popular attitude toward the starling has been reflected in
State game laws. In all States where the bird is present even in
moderate numbers it has been placed in the list of exceptions to pro-
tection. These States are Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts,
Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
Delaware, and Maryland. In Maine, where, in the extreme south-
western corner, a few starlings have appeared, these birds have been
given protection, subject, however, to a provision in the State game
laws whereby any birds or mammals (save beavers) may be killed
when destroying crops.

SUMMARY OF EVIDENCE.

FOOD HABITS.

The food habits of a bird are of paramount importance in deter-

mining its desirability, and in the case of the starling knowledge on
this subject is available from evidence revealed from a larger series
of stomachs apparently than any heretofore used in the investigation
of the food habits of a single species, supported by extensive field
observation in areas in this country where the species is most abun-
dant. Following are the more important findings:

_ As an effective destroyer of terrestrial insects, including such pests
as cutworms, grasshoppers, and weevils, the starling has few equals
among the bird population of the northeastern United States.

The most serious objection to the starling on economic grounds arises
from its destruction of cherries. When its work is combined with that
of the robin, which is fully as destructive and much less easily fright-
ened, the chances for a successful crop of cherries, especially of early
varieties, are poor:

EL EE | RU Demag ras

am ~ anaemia

58 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The starling’s work on apples is confined largely to isolated trees
and to smali, old orchards. Late varieties suffer more than those
which mature at a time when there is still a great abundance of
wild black cherries available. In the aggregate the apple damage
is not great and is practically absent in young, well kept, produc-
tive orchards. Injury to peaches and pears is negligible, and the
damage to grapes is at present confined to small arbors—the large
vineyards suffering very little.

Contrary to the opinion of many farmers, especially in New Jersey,
the starling secures an extremely small portion of its sustenance
from either sweet or field corn. Its association with the actual
depredators of cornfields, the red-winged blackbirds and grackles,
accounts for its reputation. It is true that the starling, especially
in the vicinity of roosts, does inflict some damage on corn, but com-
pared with that done by the other species named this is ey little.
Its damage to small grain is negligible.

In the small city or suburban garden the starling’s fondness for

green stuff in spring and early summer has been the cause of some
complaint, but-in large truck-crop sections, where the bulk of such
produce is raised, the aggregate loss is sae.

An idea of the economic significance of the starling’ s food habits

is gained by comparison with the food habits of certain well-known
native birds, with some of which it frequently associates. A thorough
consideration of the evidence at hand indicates that, based on food
habits, the adult starling is the economic superior of the robin,
catbird, flicker, red-winged blackbird, or grackle. It is primarily a
feeder on insects and wild fruit—less than 6 per cent of its yearly
food being secured from cultivated crops. What damage it does
inflict is due not so much to the character of its food habits as to the

fact that the flocking habit has allowed some minor trait: to be.

emphasized to a point where local damage results. The decidedly
beneficial character of the food habits of one, two, or sometimes
three broods of nestlings, numbering 4 to 6 to the nest, adds mate-
rially to the favorable economic status of the species.

ERLE NOS TO OTHER SPECIES.

While the advent of the starling doubtless has had some effect
on native species nesting in the dooryard, it is not believed this
bird will jeopardize any species as a whole. Economically con-
sidered, the starling is the superior of either the flicker, the robin,
or the English sparrow, three of the species with which it comes in
contact in its breeding operations. The eggs and young of bluebirds
and wrens may be protected by the use of nest boxes with circular
openings 14 inches or less in diameter. This leaves the purple
martin the only species readily subject to attack by the starling,

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 59

whose economic worth may be considered greater than that of the
latter, but in no case was the disturbance of a well-established
colony of martins noted. In its search for food the starling also
comes in competition with neighboring species, most of which,
however, are the starling’s economic inferiors. The meadowlark
appears to be the only species which might be affected by this
competition for food whose added difficulty in sustaining itself is to
be deplored.
ROOSTS.

The objectionable habit possessed by the starlmg im common
with several other species, particularly grackles and robins, of
congregating in enormous roosts, usually in the residential section
of a city, is, next to the damage resulting from the bird’s food habits,
the source of the greatest economic loss. The persistent use of
firearms or Roman candles will remove these nuisances, but vigilance
must be employed to prevent the reestablishing of the roosts in other
places where they would be equally objectionable.

CONCLUSION.

_ It has been the purpose of this investigation to determine what
should be our attitude toward the starling, in order that a correct
judgment might be reflected by legislation governing the protection
of the bird. Most of the starling’s food habits have been demon-
strated to be either beneficial to man or of a neutral character.
Furthermore, it has been found that the time the bird spends in
destroying crops or in molesting other birds is extremely short
compared with the endless hours it spends searching for insects or
feeding on wild fruits. Nevertheless, no policy would be sound which
would give the bird absolute protection and afford no relief to the
farmer whose crops are threatened by a local overabundance of
the species. Consequently, the enactment of laws that afford
protection to the starling, except when it is actually doing or
threatening to inflict damage, appears to be the wisest procedure.
With its ready ability to adapt itself to new environments, the
starling possesses almost unlimited capacity for good, but it is
potentially harmful in that its gregarious habits may abnormally
emphasize some minor food habit which would be indulged in at
the expense of growing crops. The individual farmer will be well
rewarded by allowing a reasonable number of starlings to conduct
their nesting operations on the farm. Later in the season a little
vigilance will prevent these easily frightened birds from exacting an
unfair toll for services rendered.

60

BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLE IV.—List of items identified in the food contained in 2,626 starling stomachs
examined, and the number of stomachs in which each was found.

ANIMAL MATTER.

COLEOPTERA (GENUINA) (BEETLES). COLEOPTERA—Continued.
Unidentifiad adwlts25 2h ee 106 | Carabide—Continued.
Unidentified larvce ps ee eo ee 137 Cratacanthus dubius: .............-_.:--:- 11
Cicindelide (tiger beetles): Agonoderus pallipes:. .2: 5. 2-2. ee 3
Cicindola purpuréac- = = ssc 1 Agonoderus testaceus....................-. 1
Cicindola repandses- .'2 5322 5. Ss ase 1 Agonoderus SP. 2-22-2246 =k ee 5
Cicindela punctulataz= 2. <2.--2-- 2 - 9 Harpalus'dichrous: =. 5222 2-2 eee 1
Cieindela spss. 2.3352 Sasa eee ee 20 Harpalus erraticus. =. =. 2- 252. 225-22 ee fart
Ciemdela sp; larvis 4.0528 ee ee 1 Harpalus ealisinosus. 25 -2s252-¢-2)- ee 144
Carabid& (ground beetles): Harpalus faunuS_ 2-25-55. eo eee 9
Unidentificdl. 328. es ee ee 729 Harpalus pennsylvanicus..-..............- 82
Unidentificd lanvee2s—- 2 ee ee 3 Harpalus compar..... Cag tee reat 18
Omophron americanum................... 1 Harpalus erythropus...............-..-... 6
Carabus'sylvosus. sss a ee i Harpalus herbivagus =... =22:---21-2 2-2 = 2
@@ra bts SOLEAGUS = Ue ae ays oe aye sees 4 Harpalusisp. cae. oe See ee oe eee 318
Carabus VINCtUS 220s ee 19. Selenophorus pedicularius................- 1
Carabus nNemoralisss2. 2222 ee 2 Stenolophus conjunctus..........-- gees 5
Carabus Speti ison hae eee ee oe ott Stenolophus'Spi 2s: 2. ee ee ee 2
Calosomia Sayit c= s2s5 ee ee oe ee ee 1 Anisodactylus Fusticus=. 2225-2223 eee 89
Calosoma calidum.cc 42S eee 19 Anisodactylus carbonarius................ 1
Calosomaispscs ae cee 5 eas ee ke ee ee 8 Anisodactylus baltimorensis.........-.- oe Sees
Blapbrus fuliginosus = 252. so2.5- 2-22 1 Anisodactylus lugubris2 <2 -- 2-255 eae" pipes §
WIaphrEsispysves a. s seas ae ee 1 Anisodnctylus Spies. oe ee 224
Scarites subterraneus...................... 22 | Dytiscide (predacious diving beetles):
ScaritesSp sess 0 ese a eee ee 2 Agabus disintegratuss: <2 5.2.22. sassssene 1-
Bombidiint-Versicolobssa5=- 5-326) eee 2 | Hydrophilide (water scavenger beetles):
Bembidium quadrimaculatum ............ 1 ‘Tropisternus elabers == - ee ee 2
Bombidiunesp: s220. jos re eee ee 3 TYTODISLEINUS SPs25- seas ee 1
iPatrobus lONSICOFMISS" 32 2o-eceee a. see 2. Philhydrus spots a2 eos eee Bett 1
Pterostichus sayi-..-.....-.- Be pe ees se ae 4 Spheeridium scarabeeoides........-..------ 21
Pterostichus lucublandus.................. 121 Cercyon unipunctatum........-.-.-.------ 1
Pterostichus patruelis.............-..--.-- 2 Cercyon sp........ SP es 1
IPFOFOStICHUS SP cc2c ess 2-5 see 83 Cryptopleurum minutum...-.........-.-... 1
Evarthrus sigillatus.............-...------ 3 | Silphide (carrion beetles):
Var brus Sp nis! Ss a ee ee 2 Unidentified s:3- <.. 2.222 et eee 1
AMAPS AVIEA 22522 Seren ae ae te 3 Necrophorus Sp.'-2). —- - S223 0 3 a soe 3
Amara pennisylvamica- =. 222.5 2Ss 21 Silpha surinamensis._.............----+-n< 1
Amare impuncticollis-- 2-2-5. 2.-=--2--- 1 Silpha noveboracemsis..........-.--------- 3
AMASYS Pasilaris 2 = 58. eso. see a 3 Silpha americana..........-- «4. oc eee 1
Amare fallax - oot oo ose wanes sa eae 1 Silphaisp.:2. 5.2 2 eee 4
Amara museulus. . 22225522 52-2 se 2 | Staphylinide (rove beetles):
ATIRE SS Pisco aeons ro as ee eee ee 131 Unidentified :. 23002. See ee 155
Diewlnscloneatus-s 222-252 fe ee 1 Quedius molochinus: ..243. 9.02 a= ee 1
Diewlis Spee se eevee ose ss ee 20 Staphylinus maculosus.....-..-..----.---- 29
Platynus cupripennis.............-----..- 46 Staphylinus mysticus-..........----.----- 9
Platynus nutans 22 22) se. 2 J. 225-2 ne 1 Staph ylnus Spe s-<= 7... 4.5.2 eee 58
iPlatynus placidus -9.2<25. es ee 1 Philonthus politus:- 2522 2=2-3- 3-3 ee 1
Platynus crenistriatus...............------ 9 Philonthus hepaticus_ 2-52 222222.5--ee4 ase 1
Rigtyhus Spo. Sh eosin es Pen aga 15 Philonthus fusiformiss. 2222292. eee 1
Casnonia penmsylvanica..............----- 38 Philonthys micans=- 33 ss.t55- 26 see ee 1
Casnonia sp........--. Pee fete pee aan 32 Philonthus Spo:- 5: 55-42 oe 14
Clalerita janes. 7 ee ee. ee 1 Stenus Sp2e. 42 s.ccn eee Bp ae ee ee 3
Galorita Spi 222i fae ee eee 4 Cry ptobium sp. 52h SS eee 2
Lebis Srandis a7 eee ee ee 1 Hosperabiam: Sp.2s 2. 52. 2222458 te
TebDis Sp toe sous s case e.cew se oe Eee 1 Pedorus Httorariis:..< ssc. ee 2
Cymindis pilosa: <2. 2252.22 fe: SS eee 8 | Scaphidiide (shining fungus beetles):
Cymindis Sp. coi ahaee eee a ee ee 9 BeOcers Spx. 22: asst eee eee 1
Chigenius tricolor. 322: 222 o eee oes 2 | Coccinellidxe (ladybugs):
Chlaenius tomentosus..............--....- 72 Unidentified adults........... 32.05 eee 18
Chisentus Specs c ee ee eee 103 Unidentified larvee |<)... = 322-22 saeencaees 1
Anomoglossus emarginatus..............-- a! Mesilla maculata =. < si2sc2 225 = saeco ce ee 5

1 A total of at least 494 specifically different food items have been found in the food-of the starling.

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 61

TaBLE I1V.—List of items identified in the food contained in 2,626 starling stomachs
examined, and the number of stomachs in which each was found—Continued.

“ANIMAL MATTER—Continued.

COLEOPTERA—Continued.

Coccinellidee —Continued.

Hippodamia convergens..................- 4
Hippodamia 13-punctata...............--- 1
-Hippodamia parenthesis................-. 15
EE P POC AMT ays ree eee eee a ae 3
Coccinella 9=notataaecesssss sess =e eee 1
Coccinella speci sss sobs es ones 1
Adalia bipunctata......- SAI Ae Fete 2 Sie 2,
Scymnus americanus......-.-...-.----. pee eel
Erotylide (banded fungus beetles):
Wangunrianmozandie. saaee sees secise cece cel 2
Cucujidee (flat bark beetles): :
Silvanus surinamensis..........-.......... 3
Histeridee (shining carrion beetles):
Wai denbitled an We eerste ee ea 28
EIST OR IplagiabUSe¢ a. esas eee eee 1
Enistermharnrisites: --se a9 se 6 one es 1
Hister interruptus var. immunis.........-. 4
Hister abbreviatus.............-.--------- 1
Hister americanus. -....225..-----2-2----+- 5
IERISterpenrplexuse = 25 ss5s2655- 420-48 1
Hister subrotundus............--.-------..- 1
Hister sp....-------- py ae ere aR See aa 17
Nitidulidee (sap-feeding beetles):
Ipsrquadniguttatyse sss. se: ccc e ene 5
Trogositide (grain and bark-gnawing beetles):
Nenewriordes conticalise.- 2s... s sr. sea: 1
Pee NAOKIES Sos basseadusaunsscsessdeaus oA)
Byrrhide (pill beetles):
Wimidentilleds sys yon ass sae ae 60
Gy GilUSiSOniCCUSten eee ae eee ae 1
OylilusiSpisw wee oss see ee Bae eee one eae
BV ETMUS|SPiae areas soe) oS sce eee ees ae 4
Heteroceride (mud beetles):
IENCECTOCCTUSIS Dee sass seen oss Senn. cme ee 1
Elaterids (click beetles):
Unidentified adults..............-.-.....-- 303
Unidentified larve ......-.........--....-- 29
Adelocera discoidea......-.-.--..-.------- 1
Cryptohypnus abbreviatus......-...-..-..- 2
Monocrepidius lividus .................. se.
Monocrepidius vespertinus .........-..-- ae.
Monocrepidius auritus ...-..............-- 3
Monocrepidius bellus.........-.-....-- i ouacilks)
Monocrepidiusisp =. 2-2-2------ =... --25---- il
Drasterius elegans..-.....------------------ 17
RASHES: SPs ae eee we tetera ee 12
ASTIOUCSHMAMCUS 2625 020 cece eee ee 4
(MonioresipulbeSCeNSs<cses- 25s snc. sn-2 ssc. 5e 1
EON OUCSIS RCE oe eae eis ee Eee were i
Mio lamoOuUStSDeme ne faces seco se eee as 5
ATM OMUSVOTAS CUStae see cee see ee = 10
Limonius interstitialis .........-.-.-....-- al
WiMOMUUS LED eJUSs -se> 222 oe. ae Bose 2
CAM OMUISES Dee ae eee ee He era 7
Corymbites pyrrhos......--...--..------+-- 1
Asaphes memnonius..............---.----- 1
Buprestidze (metallic wood-borers):
Wimidenbified= 22 assess snc 5 ss. bee 2
IDICERCaODSCUTA = ee es ee 1
DiCGencaalinl Gave a ees seen nl

Deena eee

CoLEOPTERA—Continued.

Lampyride (fireflies):

Wmidentitied adultsi=: 330-3252 43.2 11
Unidentified larvee...................2.... 6
Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus........... 13
Chauliognathus marginatus..............-- 12
Chauliognathus sp....................----- 2
Telephorus carolinus...................-.- 4
Telephorus bilineatus.................-.-- 4
Relephorusispess=sace ses see eee eee 5
RolemmusiSpeese cs secees see eee eee 1
Cleridee (checkered beetles):
Chariessaspillosa's 24-2 seen eee 1
Scarabeeidee (lamellicorn beetles):
Unidentified adults........................ 104
Unidentified lanvees 222 42-35 2 eee 34
Cambthomilasyissvs eee see eee ee 2
Camthomn! Spee ee see eee Bree Sara ay: 2
Copmsamimutusse22e eee ae eee 1
COS WOUND coodsscscsuasossuseoscooods 6
CWOPTIS (SIO tases ea eye ea 1
Onthophagus nuchicornis. .....--...---..-- 9
Onthophagus hecate...-...- yet Somme eeies 9
Onthophagus pennsylvanicus...........-. 6
Onthophagus sp ees semen eee eee 6
Mteomius Cogmatus «sees: se 2 .- 19
AC GeR IID UISES Dicenevae eee as Seas ee 8
ANF ONOOYS WHOIS NOSSO. 5 Scadadocabasoossdoapacacs 9
Aphodiusiimvetantsssss=eeess= see ae eeee se 106
Aphogdius Sranarivisen vaso see see cesses eee 9
Aphodius inquinatus: 22-2222. = sece- =. eee 16
Aphodius stercorosus....-...---.---------- 1
AcplodiUsispe sso itiec Sa ere ees eee 25
Bolbocerosoma farctum....-.......--..---- 2
Odontaeus cornigerus....-...---.---------- 1
Geotrupes splendidus..........--.......... 2
GieOtRUPeS SP eee eases coe cee ees 1
Dichelonycha elongata. ..........-.------. 1
Serica weSpeLrblinaecc-cs ss. sasec oo see cee 2
SOLICONS Diets ce pete es ee oe eae eee 1
IDF OKOERIS HIDENNBIS. 5 Soscosunchcansosooccse 9
ID OIOWESIIS SOs ocacoaasasecsasosscocossocssc 13
Phyllophaga ephilida...........--...-.-..- 1
Rhylopharaduscas ols. no ee 30
Jel ohyAli volo) HODES «Ska aa gusouEccSeuccuads] 10
Phyllophaga gibbosa........--..--.......- 13
Phyllophaga micans.........--..--.......- 4
Phyllophaga fervida........-.........-.--- 3
Phyliophaga fraterna......-...-..........- 6
Phyllophaga hirticula .................... 55
Phylophaga forsteri............. Sage e eee 10
Phyliophagaicrenwlatas seas se ee ke 3
hvilophagartristisess= seep een a are 41
Jean Allo Owe SOc coscocuccscasuoooesuucoouse 162
moma aiucicolasee tne eee ee 7
INOOMNIE, S04 se Sedo sdoussuonsosoSsSae ences 31
Cotalpaslamigenascss sane et ee 6
Dyscinetus trachypygus.....-....-...----- 1
PISV RUS CD DOSUSssa eee es oe nee ae 10
IGN ARDS SOs a5 cae oae Gea nee noe am een 2
ID DIO NONE) TONIC, Ccscosacosauaosdasaceaues 1
Jd ONo mG) tho. 5 Bo Skee cesgososocuesscease 12

ERUIPNONIAIS Ps eas ve ee ee ee sos cee oes 8

62

BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLE IV.—List of items identified in the food contained in 2,626 starling stomachs.

examined, and the number of stomachs in which each was fownd—Continued.

ANIMAL MATTER—Continued.

CoLEOPTERA—Continued.

Cerambycidz (long-horned beetles):

Unidentified. ....--- 2 Sears Beare 9
Phymatodes variabi:is. - ......-.---------- 1
Monohammus scutellatus.....------------- 1
ie PUUFS CS GU CLChe == 32-2 oases ae ne 1
Tetraopes canteriator...-..---------------- 1
TOtrad POS SPa== - Sone See ea 1
Chrysomelide (leai beetles):
lind en tinied eos aes Se eee 311
DONACIA Spe Soak asa n oa ee ea See 1
Mematmlinestar sas a 2
CrIOGelIS ASPalael. = 3-2 ss sats eee 1
Chiamys plicata & 525-5 = ease eee 6
ChlaAMyS |SPzes52 6 ooo ao wa eee 1
SASS CUS Spt Be sik
Cryptocephalus venustus--.-...-..-..-.------ 8
Cryptocephalus calidus-..-..=..-.-+------- 2
Cryptocephalus Spi isaa-c = 225255 ees Se 6
Pachybrachys M-nigrum..........-.-.-..-- 1
Pach yVDLachyS Spaces ee ee ae ae 3
Diachus auratus: sas toss ta sae ae ese a
A POPHOFUS: Canlellys «422 cer saee ee 3
Typophorus quadrinotatus...-.--.-.------- 8
Ly POPHOrus AberewmMuUSs=. o.- 8 = senna 2
Typophorus eilvipes: == -2=- =-— = eae 1
DY POPHOEUS SP ae == Sone ae ee aera 27
Graphops pubescens....-.----------------- 3
GEaphops Marcassitus: === 2222 -e-=5-----=- 3
Gra phOpSIS Pacts ees ae ee ee 4
Colaspis DEINE CO) ase so = alee 52
Colaspis'Spe hs 90 ooo cae ee ee eee 31
INodonota, GhISHIS! = 2.25 as ee 1
Nodonota puncticollisa<. ss. --ssse so 7
iINadonota ClypealiSs sa. s22s---c asa 1
INDdOROLA SD oa sac ose ee ee 12
iMabidomera clivicollis=-2-< =< +h s- ee 1
Leptinotarsa 10-lineata......--.-..-------- 39
AYZOCTAMMA SULUTANS === = soso e ee eee 17
ZAYSOSPAIMINA SD .c5 sos oes as ee eee 3
Calltera phasimilis 2-2 <= 25 92 erences 10
Calligraphaclegans so5- ats 2 ee u
Calliera phatlimatassos se se = ee ee 2
Cablisraphasp=sa) sa 55see ee Se ee ie
IPlagiedera Viridis:o-* =o: 2a) =o Boe ae pe
Gastroides Poly gOnt == esas 2
GaStrOld ea Spice es ee eee a eee Te
Phy Hebrotica; Spec 223° 5 aac, es eee eae 1
Dia breties:)2-punctatas s- se) = ees 3
(Dia DLOLICa, ViEbt ata 22 ace es eee 1
IDISDEOLIER SP -secaa eee eee 2
‘Trirhabds GCansgensis— = ee ee 2
bestia ss 010 MG 0 yeeke ue aS Te eS ero ee 1
Galerucella amen canine === = - eee ee 10
Galerucellaisp 225.5 «2542235 Bees Pe eee 63
Monox!2: puncticollis = 23. ee 2
Oedionyehis vianSh-oss 2
@edionychis thoracieas = eee 2
@edionyehis fim briatal = sa 5
ISON ENS EreniCOMIS= 52) ee Bn ef:
iDisonycha carohinians-2 ae: sae eae 1
Disonyebs, trianzularts:<- =. ee 1
Disonycha xanthomelaena..---..-- je a 2

COLEOPTERA—Continued. -
Chrysomelidse—Continued. =
Disonyeha sp. >. S. ivera cass eee 2
Haltica ienitas 9-022: eee 5
Haltiea tulac a eee 1
Haltiea Spier. 252 ee eee rae |
Systena hudsonias:- <<... 2. Se eee 7
Systena Spt-- +2 Se ee eee 3
PhyHotreta wittata:.- = ese ee ee 1
Phyllotreta armoraciae .-......- pS oi 1
Chaetocnema denticulata................-- 13
Chactocnema minuta: 2222222222 & 2 i
-; Chactocnems Spec. 2s eee 20
‘Dibolta bores hSs= 2543-26 ee ee if
Microrhopala-wittata- 222 23-2 35
Microrhopala xerene. ».2. 2222. 22 - == Se 2
Microrhopala Sp cnc =a. 2 == 45 eee A See 43
Coptocyela: bicolor: 2-2. 1
Coptacycla phicata-._- | 1
Coptocycla spissa2 2 eee 4
Chelymorpha arsus:..2- = ee 16
Tenebrionids (darkling beetles):

Ss Unidentifieds(.0- eee 10
Penebrio OWSCULILSS. se eee 1
Opairinus notus. = See 106
Iba pStihus MOeShUSS.4. Soe eee ee 1
Blapstinus metailicus......--- = Shieeeae ee 1
Bis pstinus Sp-32 2 ee eee 31
HelopSiaereus <2 22 22 eee 1

Anthicide (antlike flower beeties):
Unidentified 352-1. ee eee 1
Meloide (blister beetles):
Untdentified::-2< ==. eee 2
Meloé americanus.3<*-2.. =. eee 1
Epicauta pennsylVanica. = 2-25 Ses =e 1
RHYNCHOPHORA (Weevils):
Anthribide (fungus weevils):
RuparluSsmarmQreuSs=--2s5- 25 ane 1
Curculionids (curculios, or weevils):
Unidentified 22 26.5523) ee 267
Bpicaerus bnbricatus-222—555- <2 2
Phryxclis rigidus.25i222 65-2 eee oe 93
Otiorhynchus suleatus..-....-..---.---=.-- 8
Otiorhynchus OVvatus-.. =.= 61
Otiorhynchus spss 2s. 22 eee 2
‘Tanymecus confertus; <--- ee 5
Barypithes pellucidus 2.222 en. 2 ea 1
SitOn2 DISpE Gules eee fr ee 510
Sitona flavescens. 2.2.-o5 =e ee 34
Sitona Spe 225. 3. Be eee 98
Hypera punctata: 2 <s.o2-- 25-566 eee 1244
Phytonomus meleS 2222 =~ 5 ee i,
Phytoncmus nigrirosiris .-.........--.----- 75
Phy tonomus spi --25- 05-2 eee ee 43
Listronotus inaequalipennis..-..........--- 1
Listronotus frontalis:...2.25=. see 1
Listronotus Sp: 2.2.02 ee 1
Hyperodes spies 222388. sao eee 37
Pachylobius picivorus... 224: - 325-5 see 1
Lixus Spiieic 5 sso one ee eee 2
Smicrony= comiculatus: -=--. <2 2.2.28. 1

Basous Sp sti we..cc fase a cee ee ee

Lag. gape dst parvaks

saiey

»
aansin’

ee

EP Oe ee Se mee ee ee Te

,
a hg i ee eel ie ae eet)

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING.

65

TaBLE IV.—List of items identified in the food contained in 2,626 starling stomachs
examined, and the number of stomachs in which each was found—Continued.

ANIMAL MATTER —Continued.

RHYNCHOPHORA—Continued.

Curculionide—Continued.
@onotrachelus Spee see cee eee
INGCAIIES SD nc i eee ee eee Set seees
' Tyloderma foveolatum. -.-- ee ee ee
Tyloderma aerea.....-.------ Pe eek etn are
AVIOGERINIA, SDeea = sr eat eee knits
Cryptorhynchus obliquus..-...--.---.-.----
Cryptorhynchus fallax. --..-. rEGacet are ea De
Cry ptorbynehusitristiss---4-se"4os=—-5- sie
Cryplornynehus Sps4.sceecesss25-- 2 ee
Centoriynchus:sp a-sssce eee ee
Rhinoneus: pyrrhopuss = =- 22-2 s2s22 =. ec.
RNTHONeUS TON SUIS se aa = a2 = See
FUNTION CLISIS Disease ses ee ee
Sphenophorus inaequalis................--
Sphenophoris pertinax.< -2 22.55. 222s 2.
Sphenophorus costipennis..-.._.........--
Sphenophorus melanocephalus..........--
Sphenophorus parvulus.....-..........----
SphenophOnusi7eaee sees =e ee ee
SDHENODMOLUSIS Pets sae oe ee ee

HYMENOPTERA (ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS.)

Unidentified hymenopterans..........------

Hymenopterous cocoons....-.---...--.--------

Tenthredinoidea (sawflies):
Winidentified’adults=2 222 ssce- aon es eee

PAX CIC] Clavlaseren secant cee scene ee
Schizocerus zabriskiei............----------
xaphydrnamaculatavasssos-sasscaee- see
Ichneumonoidea (parasitic wasps):
(Unidentified .2. cers see teee dese seece
Braconid (unidentified) ......-.......:-- 2s
A panttLeleStOrDeSiac2 sc seme tes et wa
MGECOLUS SPiincsaoa sco men eck. San aoe ee SS
Chelonelilaispi2ssc reat ee Rae ee
Aleiodes intermedius.......-..........-.--

Capllonivis’s Peeses oa ees et aes eee
Cymodusa.distincta sos 2.5.2. sce - ss Ssh:
Paniscus geminatus.........-.--.- ap aS
ERHEFIONSMON Osa sssaciise cess soe ee Ss Ss ae Sone
FLOMOG PELOPUS SP Ses: se sss Soc ae Secs Sees
SCHIMDUS SP 27sec See see Leet os
Pimplidiamedaliss e225 2S sis. ose
BLIMP MGA SD issaet ties sae Sat Oe Sener S
Ateplectis Cenguisitor=. 3.525.228. .2e
RUNSSaNS Disease eee ce ee Lae se eee ss Eee
ENEOLCS ATNOCMUS =esee ae See an ae os eee
Atamome xc MnPALS. <2 22 525.22.2 S222 toh sd
HiteeTt? OPLOKeS [ee eee Se Se
OPTED] OLDS Sy SS SS ee
PiyeadeuOn SP-ss2s2-.- ==. ee soe eee
RCUEE CIOS Ses ee eo ee
IBNRECOPENCS:SPscas sce eee os eee Se
Amiblytelesisp =e se eeere ee cee ee
Gran chnemmonssp sees cee ss. Se
iPterocormus seminiger! ==. 22222-2222.
ItCROCOLINUS SPs-sae = oe eee ee a
Pseudamblyteles suturalis........._- Se
iPseudamblyteles spi.ic2--s222---2--2---45-=

HyMENCPTERA—Continued.

Cynipoidea (galiflies):
RIPIEES SP ies Jeo eee cece See eee
Formicoidea (ants):
‘Unidentified 222-25. = aes a
Crematogaster lineolata.............-....--
A phaenoraster mane qae- cesar
Aphaenogaster fulva subsp---..---.---------
Aphaenogaster fulva aquia -...-.--.--.-----
AphacnosastersSpe . 2. -44 sees a eae ieres
Myrmicapunctiventris 2-2 22: sa aaa
Myrmica rubra scabrinodis...........-----
Myrmicaispis c=. 2540.0 Sa a
Lasius niger americanus............-..----
Lasius niger neoniger: == 52s see ee
asks um brabus mixtus = 255560 se
Lasius umbratus mixtus aphidicola.-.....-
Bastusiclaviger ..c2ctcc2-o. ee
Easiuslatipes. 28. sae eee. See eee
IMASIUS Spiga soe Scie dc caine eee ae eee
Formica truncicola integra-.........-------
Hormicaypallid e=fullva saan eee ee
Formica pallide-fulva var. schaufussi. ..---
Formica fusea subsericea.....-------------
HOrMGaiSpessetse: 2. osc c.= sa eee eee
Camponotus herculeanus pennsylvanicus. -
CAMPONObUS:SPisac=ee eect Saat eee
Chrysidoidea (cuckoo wasps): ©
Chnysisicaenulans=s ecm. sees see eee eee
HHOLOpPY£a SME sees seen Shae aster eee
Vespoidea (wasps):
‘Unidentified crs 24262 nee 2s eis
GonatopusisS pes sess oee aes eee ee eee
Ripnianweld enice cs eeeeeeac oe ee ee ee
‘Tiphiainormatae sae. sas -ease eee eee
‘Mphiaieerecia cc. gces-coe sek oe eno eat ees
Piphig TANS Versa son sees ose ae a ee
Riphia'Spass soe anew seas eee eae as
IDI D TYG Eereenea See eel os eee at a as ee eS
(PSaTRIMOCHALES Sees ses sietas Soe eee
Odymerusispss-2--2-5seee SS eee ieee
WMespilasmaculatac 2s oss5 ses soe
Wespulaivul caris= s--s.- eee
Mespulasmarcinatan.--) 52540 seen eae
Polistes pallipes.......-..-- Ess ese2 Sees
Sphecoidea (wasps):
Midineistexang =o sees eh as nae Semeee
GeECEFiS'SP SoS se i aes 2 see Sars ee
Halictus lerouxi....-..-- PA Ene eee Ee oe
Halictus'sp: 222233: s2s256 22 25s eee
Chioralictus pilosus*= 395-222 -2- eee
Chloralictus zephyrus...---- Sse eee
ChioralictysiobSCunus "see s=s== ene ee
Chioralichus:spssa---eessse eee eee
Ate ochil ora ConhiSasae-s—= nee eee
Auigochloraispesse gees ase er esee eee
Sphecodesispt sass S50 sew ae a eee eee
Piilandrenaskr eames sees eee ae eae eee
Andrena brunniventris rhodura.....-.----

64 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Taste 1V.—List of items identified in the food contained in 2,626 starling stomachs
examined, and the number of stomachs in which each was found—Continued.

ANIMAL MATTER—Continued.

HEMIPTERA (TRUE BUGS).

Unidentified bugsss. 222" ss5 5c eee See 92
Cydnidz (negro bugs):
‘THYTCOCOEIS ALORe2 2 ices ee 1
PhyTreccoris unicolols-2— <= =\--s) eee 1
MH YLEOCOlMS SPiece oe eee Se eee 8
Ammnestus spinifrons.............. ae epee 2
Pentatomide (stinkbugs):
Wanidoen tified: hee ke nhs re eens 320
Podops.cimetipes= =. - 95.255. See ee eee i
Brochymena sp.....-.. Sebaetar sire Shee 3
Mormides tngens 522-2 Eee 1
Euschistus Servus. . - -- ee Ee es oe ALE 1
Euschistus euschistoides.......-.-..--- gece
Euschistus variolarius. ........--.--------- et
WMuschistus'sp:. s325s4 ee so eee ee 9}
Copnusideliis cs 66 See ae eee 32
Thyanta custator..-.-.-- fee ere errr ee 1
IA crosternunuhnilaris? po 33 5- eee eeeee 1 |
SEIPOERUS all GHOLAGO8 sy a ee ee 1
MINGUS SUrLipes= = 3 ee eee 1
Podisus maculiventris..............--...-- if
Coreidz (squash bugs):
Unidentified. ..-..-. ee aia eena ee eee 3
IAMASA ULISUIS 22 ae = oe ee eee ese 1
ANAS TG POlbbalens= 5s Sse see Se eee 1
ALY GUSIGHTINGS: 223.50 ye see ee eee 3
ALY GUS SD :2 ce c28e Hossecte Se aa ae eos See
Lygzide (chinchbugs):
Unidentified.........-- see ers 39 |
IBlissSileweopLerus =42 22. =. 5 Soe eee 5
Isthmocoris piceus........-. Ebay ey te 12
TSEHMOCOTIS SPS ee ae Se ee 2 |
Phlegyasisp hes oc ce oe So ee 2 |
Myodocha serripes==2—. 22 -ss4 es Sees 9 |
His yrOCOLISISP Ss. cas. oe ee ee 1
IP GTIZGHESIS Dante eetea as os ee eae oe eee 1 |
_ Cryphula parallelogramma........._...... 1 |
Reduviide (assassin bugs):
Unidentified ........-. et ee Ree Acre OR em 16 |
Melanolestes picipes-..-....---.-------=---- 2
iMolanolestes!sp===22. 42) a ee ee 1
Acholla multispinosa . 2. == * 82552 See 2 |
Sinea diadema...... eae: eee 6 |
Sitieaisp ee see eee ae ee ee arg,
Nabids (damsel bugs):
Umitentined 24-2 Oe = pie oe 14 |
Pacasa fuspa. a0 Siena ee PEGS ote es $3) 583)
INabis'subcoleo pttaths=2---2 2-5 1 |
INS DIS'S Paes ae eee ase eee it
Cimicidz (bedbugs):
CiMexiSp See ae eee 1
Miridz (leaf bugs): |
Minis: do0lobratus-s---5- = ae panne 2
yous pratensis -. 22.25 24sce 3 eee zi
LYEUSISD sos t Sore eee eee 2
INGODOLUS SP 22. Ses Ste See ee 1

Cicadide (cicadas):
PiDICOIMS Ps. se See eee oe vi

HEMIPTERA—Continued.
Cercopid& (spittle insects):
Philenus Sp i202.) eee 1
Membracidz (tree hoppers): ;
Ceresaidicaros 2 25 ee See oe. 1
COresa SPt- Sa ese ee eee 1
Campylenchia latipes... es ek ane 3
Cicadellidz (leaf hoppers): ;
Unidentified 26457. eee > ae 56
Agaliia 4-puneiata 22 == seen a ee 1
Agallia sanguinolenta................------ 2
Agalliaisp se: 822 5 hts cus Sa eee 1
Draeculacephala mollipes..............---- 1
Gy POnaispe: ses ee eee 1
Xerophlcea viridis.........._..- 8 NEw eae 1
Acucephalus albifrons === 2.2 22> 22- ase 9
Deltecephalus Sp; === -s eee See gine
Fulgoridz (lanternfiies):
Unidentified 22-2222 eee 2s
ScolopS Sp. 2-222 2 a See ee ee ee 4
Acanslonia Divittatas=- =e = ee ee 1

ORTHOPTERA (GRASSHOPPERS, LOCUSTS, CRICKETS,

(Etc.)..
Unidentified adults... 3>s= 2 ee 16
Unidentified 629s .2.32 se ae ee ee 10
Forficulide (earwigs):
Unidentified! 5.222 ---2 5:5 ee 1
Acridide (short-horned grasshoppers):
Unidentified:22 65.522 eee 7
INOMOEEEEEXCrISEA GUS] 52 se ae sae 2
Nomotetti=e sp=--423- = em vl fase Sea 1
Nettie arenosus- 5 te eee i
Tettigidea Parvipentis-—-.--- - 25. sees if
Tettigidealateralis=2=3235-- 3 a ee i
Tettigidea lateralis var. polymorpha....... 1
Tettigidea sp._.._.... pos adeaeae. ace ei 8
Orphulellaohvaccas 2a eee 1
Stenobothrus curtipennis...............-... 1
IAT pia Sul phureas- == 2 = ee eee 1
Arphia xanthoptera.- 2 ee 1
Chortophaga viridifasciata...............-- 3
ERP pIscus spss pe et 1
Melanopluszemoratus: =.= 22-4-2- == 2
Melanoplus femur-rubrum............----- 24
Melanoplusiatianis: - =.= 5 = eee 1
Melanoplus Sp: 22. 2-22 SS ee 36
Locustide (green grasshoppers):
Unidentified: .2=.,2 4: 2855-0 oe eee 54
Orchelimum Spe. 6222s. ess 2
Conocephalus sp.-......--. Renee ea en 4
Gryllide (crickets):
Unidentified22= 23 ee 332
Gryllotalpa borealis 2... een eee 1
Nemobius fasciatus vittatus-......-..-.--- 2
INemobIUS!Sp.. - - 222.22 28 eee 312
Gryllus pennsylvanicus..--...--:------=--- 4
Gryllus spc. 622 22 See ae ee 223
Miogryllus Spoic0. es ee eee 2

" ven

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING.

65

TaBLe 1V.—List of items identified in the food contained in 2,626 starling stomachs
examined, and the number of stomachs in which each was found—Continued.

ANIMAL MATTER—Continued.

LEPIDOPTERA (MOTHS, BUTTERFLIES, CATER-
PILLARS, ETC.).

lWmidentificd ss sa2 es heen eo <6 GS
Unidentified eggs.......-.-- a Ra a ae EE 1
Unidentitied:caterpillarsss-- = 922 2-e--=>-- a2. oe 812
Wmidentiticd spupssstessae earner neces aoe 20
Nymphalide (brush-footed butterflies):

Argynnis cybele (caterpillar)............-- 1
Arctiide (tiger moths): 5

Unidentified caterpillar ..........--..---- neg ool
Noctuid (cutworms):

Unidentified caterpillars.-......--....-..- 24

Nephelodes violans (caterpillar)...-...-..--. 1

Nephelodes minians (caterpillars). ..-...-- 22

Cucullia asteroides (caterpillars) ......----. 2,
Lasiocampide (tent caterpillars):

Malacosoma americana (caterpillars) ...... 3

Malacosoma sp. (caterpillars) -.....-----.- 2

Deilephila lineata (caterpillar) ......-...-. i

DIPTERA (FLIES AND THEIR MAGGOTS).
TEROCIECRIM AOS B[Osoeoaccuconscceccasecescsoueac 1
Sarcophaga sp.......-. Sees oe wees eae ae 1
IPHORMIa LOrnse-NOVice |= 8. Seo eee ccs 1
INEESCAXGOIMESHICA erste weigher te cee 2
eR AGS Wie eave ee a wee ees ee i
GHBVSOPSISD Bese cress on a ene ees 1
IVP AS Occ ses Rea oa oan oees see beeen ada ae werees se 1
ARACHNIDA (SPIDERS, TICKS, ETC.).

IDrAassuUSMOPSlOChUSas ate ees eee ns oe 1
Rach yea nas peers eee nS ee ee i 1
Metracnathars Passes se ee eae. Sages 1
PRES ti CUSII CEA S setae is neo eee es 1
y,COSa Carolin GNnSISeems=e= a" = spore as eee 1
Ey COSasnellWO newest eee me ee ee 1
WV COSaDUNCUU At Ate = se eee ee 1

MYRIAPODA (CENTIPEDES AND MILLIPEDS).

Diplopoda (millipeds):

VEGETABLE MATTER.

WimidentifcdsbudSias eso oes ee eee ee 2
Winidemtiitiedsmas tessa sons cence seis 15
Wimidentifiedswildtpiuit ss seo 82522 eee 184
WMeretablecarbares 5 -- es ees Cen ss 528
Weretablenrbpish! eet a> Se ce ae rs 21
Pinacex: ‘ ;
Juniperus virginiana (red cedar)........... 13
TIMI ESnUS SPs QUALPEM sss 542 4- sees + 1
Graminee:
Unidentified grass seeds.............-....- 39
Andropogon sorghum (sorghum)...-...--- 2
Panicum miliaceum (millet).-.........--.-- 1
Panicum sp: (switchgrass) --.....-..------- 6
Chetochloa glauca (foxtail)...........-.---- 11
Cheetochloa sp. (foxtail)...........-------- 13
Eragrostis sp. (love grass)........-..---.-- 1
Anthoxanthum odoratum (sweet vernal
OT ASG) eraser ea ary Pras Sioiwisle Sete sie o eis 1
ZOMTU AVS (COD) bee seo Ae ase Pee ieee 59
Triticum vulgare (wheat).........-........ 15
AST CUBASE ENS (GENS) Sacasaccuéoccenauecoseas 6

Umidentificd!: 4s: es Si eal ne pera 913

INemasom anim tum eee eae eee 1

Julusicaerwlcocinchysessa see 10
Chilopoda (centipedes):

Unidentified centipedes................... 7

CRUSTACEA (CRUSTACEANS).

Isopoda (wood lice, etc.):

Winidentified? 223s 5 se eee eee 15

Orchestiayantll Sees eae 1

Orchestiais pst te ee ee ee 1

RorcelliglaeviSsss: nce s ss eee eee 2

Porcelliois pis enen ke ee eee 1

Armadillidiumispeses ss ee eee eee 1

MOLLUSCA (SNAILS, ETC.).

Wmnidentitiedimolluskss5. 4-64-65 e eee eee 71
Nasside (basket shells):

ihyanassaiobsoletaseesseee see eee eee 2
Zonitide (glassy snails):

ZONES AE DOLCUSS er aac 5

Gastrodonta suppressa..................-- 1
Testacellide (flesh-eating land snails):

Cochlicopalnbricassass s-e nee ance 1
Helicide (land snails):

Walloniaisp sa ascsem crcciesine tics eeecase seen 11
Auriculide (ear snails):

Melampusilimestus<-soa.ccacs- serene eeeeee 28
Littorinide (periwinkles):

WiGCORIN aT d1S ee eee 5
Pupillide (chrysalis shells):

Vertigo Ovaias- = Sook ee eee ee 1
Cyperacee:

lUmidentified'!sedgekssasso- ew acmeeceeesecee 4

Carexcspi(S6dgo)i sakso sce lcs cm oeeeene 6
Convallariacee:

Asparagus officinalis (asparagus)........... 1
Smilacee:

Smilax herbacea (carrion flower)........... “1

Smilax sp. (greenbriar)......-.----.......- 1
Myricaceze:

Myrica carolinensis (bayberry)..........-- 122
Betulacee:

ZAIMUS(Sps (Alden) saa se ese eeeeee Betas 1
Ulmacee:

Celtis occidentalis (hackberry)..........-- 9
Moracez:

Morus alba (white mulberry)........-.---- 45

Morus rubra (red mulberry).............-- 52

IMorus|sps (iu berny) sane eee eeeeee ee eee: 76
Polygonacee:

EU UIMNG XS es (CLOCK) een are a eee ee eee 8

Polygonum lapathifolium (smartweed).... 1

66 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLe I1V.—List of items identified in the food contained in 2,626 starling stomachs
examined, and the number of stomachs in which each was found—Continued.

VEGETABLE MATTER—Continued.

Polygonaceee—Continued.
Polygonum pennsylvanicum

Polygonum persicaria (smartweed).....-
Polygonum sp. (smartweed)..-..-..-.---

Chenopodiacee:
Chenopodium sp. (pigweed)............-

Amaranthacee:
Amaranthus sp. (amaranth)..-..........

Aizoacee:

Mollugo verticillata (Indian chickweed) -
Phytolaccacee: :

Phytolacca decandra (pokeweed)--.....--
Caryophyllacee:

Silene media (chickweed).............-.
Berberidacez:

Lauracee:

Sassafras sassafras (sassafras) -....-. ae
Brassicacez:

IBFASSTEA SPs: CHLUSEATC)) ssa ee
Grossulariacee:

Ribesisp= (Currant) 2-3 eae ee
Rosacez:

Fragaria sp. (strawberry).-.........-----

Rubus:sp- (blackberry) 2. == 5-25-05
Malacez:

Sorbus sp. (mountain ash).............-

Amelanchier sp. (June berry). .-.....---

Malus sp. (cultivated apple)...........--

IPVrus Sp (culitvated pean)=..4) =. ase re
Amygdalacez:

Prunus serotina (wild black cherry).....

Prunus virginiana (chokecherry). -..----

Prunus maritima (beach plum). .-....__.

Prunus sp. (cultivated cherry). ......_..

iPruanus:sp-:Cwild cherry) «2-22 == esa
Cassiacez:

Gleditsia triacanthos (honey locust).....

1

Fabace:

‘Trioliun: sp.,(clover) =o .422- 2.

Robinia pseudacacia (locust)..........-.
Anacardiaces: ~

Rhus glabra (smooth sumac)...........-

Rhus copallina (dwarf sumac)...__....-.

Rhus radicans (poisonivy)-....-.........

Rhus vernix (poison oak). .............-.

Rhus:sp.(sumlac)=- ee ee ee
Aquifoliacee:

Tlex verticillata (black alder)............
Celastracez:

Celastrus scandens (bittersweet)........-
Vitacez: .

Psedera quinquefolia (Virginia creeper)...

Ampelopsis sp. (?) (ampelopsis)........-

Vitis 'Sp:x(STape)ss— soo aes os ee ee
Cornacez:

Cornus florida (flowering dogwood)......

Cornus amomum (kinnikinnik)........-

Cornus asperifolia (rough-leaved dog-

WO0G) ine 2s ee ee

Cornus paniculata (panicled dogwood) - -

Cornus sp. (dogwood) .*..........-.------

Nyssa sylvatica (sour gum)...........--
Ericacee:

Gaylussacia frondosa (huckleberry). . ---

Gaylussacia baccata (huckleberry). ._---

Gaylussacia sp. (huckleberry)--......-.---

Vaccinium sp. (blueberry). .-...--..----
Solanacee:

Solanum sp. (nightshade).............-.
Plantaginacez:

Plantago lanceolata (ribgrass) - --.....--.

Piantacoisp=(plantain)s=5- == eee
Caprifoliaceze: —

Viburnum sp. (arrowwood)........-----

Sambucus canadensis (elder)..........--
Composite:

Ambrosia artemisiifolia (ragweed) - -.-- --

Taraxacum taraxacum (dandelion)...---

148

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PUBLICATIONS OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING
TO THE FOOD HABITS OF WILD BIRDS.

AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT.

The English Sparrow as a Pest. (Farmers’ Bulletin 493.)

Some Common Game, Aquatic, and Rapacious Birds in Relation to Man. (Farmers’
Bulletin 497.) -

Food of Some Well-known Birds of Forest, Farm, and Garden. (Farmers’ Bulletin
506.) :

Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer. (Farmers’ Bulletin 630.)

Common Birds of Southeastern United States in Relation to Agriculture. (armers’
Bulletin 755.)

The Crow in Its Relation to Agriculture. (Farmers’ Bulletin 1102.)

Propagation of Wild-duck Foods. (Department Bulletin 465.)

The Crow and Its Relation to Man. (Department Bulletin 621.)

Food Habits of Seven Species of American Shoal-water Ducks. (Department Bulle-
tin 862.)

FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING
OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C.

Fifty Common Birds of Farm and Orchard. (Farmers’ Bulletin 513, colored plates.)
Price, 15 cents.

Birds in Relation to the Alfalfa Weevil. (Department Bulletin 107.) Price, 15 cents.

Eleven Important Wild-duck Foods. (Department Bulletin 205.) Price, 5 cents.

Food Habits of the Thrushes of the United States. (Department Bulletin 280.)
Price, 5 cents.

Birds of Porto Rico. (Department Bulletin 326.) Price, 30 cents.

Food Habits of the Swallows. (Department Bulletin 619.) Price 5 cents.

Food Habits of the Mallard Ducks of the United States. (Department Bulletin 720.)
Price, 5 cents. .

Waterfowl and Their Food Plants in Sandhill Region of Nebraska: Pt. 1, Waterfowl
in Nebraska; pt. 2, Wild-duck foods of the Sandhill Region of Nebraska. (Depart-
ment Bulletin 794.) Price, 15 cents.

The Relation of Sparrows to Agriculture. (Biological Survey Bulletin 15.) Price,
10 cents.

Birds of a Maryland Farm. (Biological Survey Bulletin 17.) Price, 20 cents.

The Bobwhite and Other Quails of the United States in Their Economic Relations.
(Biological Survey Bulletin 21.) Price, 15 cents.

The Horned Larks and Their Relation to Agriculture. (Biological Survey Bulletin
23.) . Price, 5 cents.

Food Habits of the Grosbeaks. (Biological Survey Bulletin 32.) Price, 25 cents.

- Birds of California in Relation to the Fruit Industry. (Biological Survey Bulletin 34,
Pt. 2.) Price, 40 cents.

Food of the Woodpeckers of the United States. (Biological Survey Bulletin 37.)
Price, 35 cents.

Woodpeckers in Relation to Trees and Wood Products. (Biological Survey Bulletin
39.) Price, 30 cents.

Index to Papers Relating to the Food of Birds. (Biological Survey Bulletin 43.)
Price, 10 cents. ,

Food of Our More Important Flycatchers. (Biological Survey Bulletin 44.) Price,
20 cents. ;

Hawks and Owls from the Standpoint of the Farmer. (Biological Survey Circular 61.)
Price, 5 cents.

- Destruction of the Cotton Boll Weevil by Birds in Winter. (Biological Survey Cir-

cular 64.) Price, 5 cents.

ss ADDITIONAL COPIES
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