Skip to main content

Full text of "The economy of farming"

See other formats 


3l^obt.oas77a^sb 


&^t^ 


^w-<V: 


LIBRARY 


OF  THE 


SPECIAL 
d  ARCHJVES 

MASSACHUSETTS 
AGRICULTURAL 


NO.. 


& 


s 

517 
souRCE_/   G3B8 


uri-d 


THE 


ECONOMY   OF  FARMING, 


TRANSLATED  FROM  THE  GERMAN  OF 


J.  BURGER, 


PEOF.  OF  AGRICULTURE,  AND  MEMBER  OF  THE  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETIES  OF  VIENNA, 
MUNICH,  BRUNN,  GOERZ,  GRAZ,  KLAGENFURT,  LAIBACH,  PRAGUE,  &;c.  ; 


WITH    MANY    ADDITIONAL    NOTES    FROM    THE    GERMAN    OF 


THAER,  VEIT,  SCHWERTZ,  SPRENGEL,  PETRI,  &c. 


AND    A    COPIOUS    INDEX  I 


E.   GOODRICH    SMITH 


"  The  golden  middle  path,  which  leads  the  inquiring,  active  farmer  through  the  midst 
of  fields  of  grain  and  fodder,  and  cultivated  pastures,  to  the  true  proportion  of  the  fruits 
necessary  to  be  cultivated,  and  teaches  him  the  need  of  the  requisite  beasts  to  be  kept,  is, 
therefore,  always  the  best ;  by  which  we  may  reach,  if  not  hastily  and  easily — as  we  have 
often  dreamed  in  our  youth — yet  finally,  though  laboriously,  but  with  profit,  the  end 
proposed,  in  the  nearest  degree  in  proportion  to  our  extent  of  ground,  and  the  power 
employed  on  it." — A.  K.  Block. 


NEW    YORK: 

LEAVITT    &    TROW,    194    BROADWAY. 

BOSTON  :    CROCKER  &  BREWSTER. 

PHILADELPHIA:  GEO.  S.  APPLETON. 

1843. 


4  3  o 

ago 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1843,  by 

E.  GOODRICH  SMITH, 

in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  Southern  District  of  New- York. 


TO  HON.  H.  L.  ELLSWORTH. 

COMMISSIONER  OF  PATENTS. 

Sir: 

Personal  considerations  might  induce  me  to  inscribe  this  work  to  your- 
self. You  knew  of  the  undertaking  at  its  beginning,  favored  its  progress, 
and  approved  of  its  execution,  when  submitted  to  your  inspection. 

I  am  also  indebted  to  you  for  many  a  kindness  received  at  your  hands, 
which  will  ever  be  remembered  with  deep-felt  gratitude.  But  aside  from 
all  this,  to  no  one  could  a  work  on  Agriculture  be  more  fitly  dedicated  than 
to  you,  to  whose  known  devotion  to  its  great  interests  and  enthusiasm  In 
its  success,  the  whole  Agricultural  community  of  this  nation  are  under  so 
great  obligations.  The  valuable  services  you  have  rendered  them  through 
the  public  office  you  hold,  are  entitled  to  their  warmest  acknowledgments. 
An  equal  regard  generally,  on  the  part  of  those  high  in  station,  would  do 
much  to  diffuse  information,  and  promote  this  great  interest  of  our  common 
country.  Permit  me,  then,  to  tender  you  this  tribute  of  gratitude  and 
expression  of  my  respect  for  your  patriotic  endeavors  to  aid  useful  industry, 
and  benefit  the  hardy  yeomanry  of  our  land. 

With  the  highest  esteem, 

Yours, 
E.  GOODRICH  SMITH. 

New- York,  July,  1843. 


PREFACE. 

While  engaged,  for  the  last  two  winters,  at  Washington,  in  preparing  the 
Agricultural  Statistics  for  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Patents,  I  be- 
came acquainted  with  Charles  L.  Fleischmann,  Esq.,  one  of  the  Draughtsmen 
in  the  Patent  Office,  distinguished  for  his  versatility  of  talents,  and  an  accom- 
plished scholar  in  the  polite  arts  as  well  as  in  science.  This  gentleman  is  a 
native  of  Bavaria,  and  was  educated  at  the  Royal  Agricultural  Institution  of 
Schleisheim,  then  under  the  charge  of  Professors  Thierl,  Schonleutner,  and 
Veit,  scientific  men  and  practical  agriculturists.  Mr.  F.  took  so  high  a  rank 
in  his  studies,  that  he  not  only  gained  the  first  premiums  of  his  class,  but  was 
also  selected,  at  the  early  age  of  nineteen,  to  be  the  Adminstrator  or  Director 
of  the  Estate  of  Count  Joseph  Erkinger  Von  Leinsheim,  situated  on  the 
Danube,  and  which  comprised  not  less  than  twenty-four  villages,  containing 
numerous  farms,  mills,  brewery,  &/C.  In  this  office  of  high  trust  and  respon- 
sibility, Mr.  F.  remained  for  eight  years,  during  which  time  the  Estate,  which 
had  previously  run  down,  became  greatly  improved  by  his  management. 
Shortly  after  the  death  of  the  old  Count,  he  left  for  the  purpose  of  travel, 
with  letters  of  high  recommendation  to  Count  Lasteyie,  President  of  the 
Board  of  Agriculture,  and  other  distinguished  men  of  Science  in  Paris;  and 
afterwards,  led  by  the  love  of  liberty,  came  to  this  country,  where  he  was  for 
some  years  engaged  in  business  at  the  West.  He  has,  therefore,  had  an  op- 
portunity to  compare  the  modes  of  agriculture  practised  in  different  countries. 
After  my  acquaintance  with  him,  he  frequently  expressed  a  wish  that  I  would 
translate,  for  publication,  some  German  Agricultural  works,  which  his  own 
comparatively  limited  knowledge  of  the  English  language  prevented  him 
from  doing.  His  letter  to  myself,  which  I  have  taken  the  liberty  to  subjoin, 
will  explain  his  views  on  this  subject,  and  his  appreciation  of  the  work  now 
presented  to  the  agriculturists  of  our  country : 

"  Washington,  March,    1843. 
"  Dear  Sir,^ 

"The  interest  which  I  feel  for  the  promotion  of  Agricultural  knowledge, 
induces  me  to  make  you  a  proposition  by  which  you  could  render  the  agricul- 
tural community  a  very  important  service — I  mean  by  translating  that  part  of 
Burger's  Manual  on  Land-wirthschaft,  which  relates  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
Household  or  the  Economy  of  Farming. 

*'  I  have  not  seen  any  French,  Italian  or  English  works  on  Agriculture, 
which  contain  the  important  information  to  which  I  allude.  In  perusing  this 
work  you  will  find  it  not  only  highly  interesting  for  the  matter,  but  you  will 
also  be  pleased  with  its  systematic  arrangement,  and  to  see  how  it  leads,  step 
by  step,  to  the  ultimate  result — to  obtain  the  highest  and  lasting  profit  from 
agriculture. 

"  Burger  himself  is  a  gentleman  of  education  and  a  practical  farmer ;  he 
has  filled  the  Chair  of  Professor  of  Agriculture  for  so  many  years,  his  exten- 
sive correspondence,  his  journeys  in  all  parts  of  Europe  for  the  purpose  of 


vi  PREFACE. 

acquiring  information,  his  acquaintance  with  the  works  of  so  large  a  number 
of  distinguished  writers  on  Agriculture,  of  which  you  will  have  the  evidence 
in  his  pages,  have  enabled  him  to  produce  a  work  that  contains  much  im- 
portant knowledge,  not  only  to  the  learner,  but  to  the  practical  farmer.  These 
volumes  of  his  have  already  passed  through  nine  editions  in  Germany,  and 
have  been  translated  into  other  European  languages. 

*'  The  results  of  practical  experience  and  of  scientific  experiment  well 
applied  together,  cannot  fail  to  give  the  best  success ;  but  there  are  some 
practical  questions  of  the  highest  importance  which  must  be  fully  understood 
before  we  can  attempt  to  apply  any  of  the  sciences,  and  these  simple  practical 
questions,  unfortunately,  cannot  be  answered  by  the  mere  practical  farmer 
who  boasts  that  he  has  held  the  plough  all  his  life — even  those  simple  questions 
upon  which  his  whole  business  is  based.  He  works  his  farm,  perhaps,  after 
the  rules  which  were  handed  down  by  his  ancestors,  with  the  loss  of  time  and 
money  ;  and  if  circumstances  should  change  some  of  these  conditions,  he  is 
not  able  to  remedy  them  for  want  of  information. 

"  Ask  a  farmer,  in  your  part  of  the  country,  who  seems  to  be  most  acquainted 
with  the  general  principles,  how  many  cattle  he  requires  to  work  a  given 
number  of  acres?  or  what  kind  of  field  husbandry  will  be  required,  in  the 
given  circumstances  ?  or  how  much  manure  he  needs  to  keep  the  field  in  a 
good  condition?  or  how  many  head  of  cattle  he  must  procure  to  obtain  the 
required  amount  of  manure  ?  or  how  much  food  his  cattle  require  ?  and  a 
great  many  such  purely  practical  questions,  and  I  assure  you,  not  one  will  be 
answered  according  to  the  rules  laid  down  by  experiment.  He  will  merely 
give  you  rough  conjectures. 

'*  This  kind  of  questions  are  among  the  first  and  most  important  in  the  be- 
ginning of  all  farming  operations  ;  for  farming  is  not  like  the  business  of 
manufacturers,  where  your  article  may  be  improved  the  next  day  when  spoilt 
in  the  last  operation.  No !  here  a  year's  work  is  required,  and  your  plan  in 
the  beginning  is  hardly  laid  out ;  not  only  that  year  is  lost,  but  all  succeeding 
ones,  and  the  final  result  is  inevitable  ruin. 

"  I  recommend  to  you  also  the  works  of  Thaer,  Veit  and  Schwertz,  on 
Agriculture,  in  which  you  will  find  a  great  many  valuable  data  for  your  work. 
I  have  no  doubt  of  your  full  success  with  regard  to  the  translation,  and  to  the 
manner  in  which  you  will  enrich  your  work  with  notes ;  I  shall  be  happy  to 
assist  you  in  any  difficulties  of  technical  words,  and  hope  that  your  work 
will  be  appreciated  as  well  as  that  of  Liebig,  which  has  given  much  informa- 
tion to  the  farmers  of  this  country. 

"  With  high  esteem.  Yours,  &lc., 

"  Chas.  L.  Fleischmann." 

"  Rev.  E.  Goodrich  Smith." 

On  examining  the  volumes  which  Mr.  Fleischmann  brought  to  my  notice,  I 
felt  that  his  appreciation  of  the  work  was  not  undeserved,  as  it  was  evidently 
that  of  a  master  hand.  The  promise  of  my  friend,  too,  was  amply  redeemed  : 
he  kindly  lent  me  many  valuable  works  in  the  German  language,  and  by  ex- 
amining my  manuscript,  relieved  me  from  any  misgivings  I  had  as  to  the  ren- 
dering of  particular  passages.  Sogreat  indeed  is  the  difficulty,  often,  of  trans- 
lating German  idioms  and  technical  terms  into  English,  that  but  for  his  aid  I 
could  hardly  feel  assured  that  I  had  always  given  the  exact  sense  ;  but  situated 
as  I  have  been  in  this  respect,  I  feel  quite  confident  that  there  can  be  no  ma- 
terial errors. 

The  plan  of  the  original  work  is  thus  announced  by  the  Author  :  "  It  was 
written  to  supply  some  existing  deficiencies,  to  furnish  a  text-book  for  teach- 
ers, a  manual  for  scholars,  and  a  guide  for  the  farmer." 

It  is  composed  in  the  form  of  propositions,  followed  up  by  illustrations.   The 


PREFACE.  vii 

Author  is  distinguished  for  his  clear,  philosophical  mode  of  treating  his  sub- 
jects, and  has  brought  to  bear  upon  them  a  mind  well  stored  with  the  fruits  of 
long  experience,  close  study,  and  diligent  research.  The  present  volume 
does  not  do  him  entire  justice,  as  in  order  to  render  it  more  useful,  I  have 
introduced  a  variety  of  additional  matter  in  the  form  of  Notes  from  different 
portions  of  his  volumes,  and  from  other  German  writers  of  high  repute.  This 
destroys  in  some  degree  the  unity  of  the  work,  and  yet  I  trust  these  additions 
will  not  be  thought  irrelevant.  I  might  indeed  have  placed  them  in  an  Appen- 
dix, but  I  have  chosen  to  throw  them  in  where  they  appear  as  most  corres- 
ponding with  the  design  of  the  work.  Yet  many  of  them  would  have  been 
unnecessary  here,  as  belonging  rather  to  another  portion  of  the  work,  had  the 
whole  Manual,  of  which  this  forms  a  part,  been  published.  My  notes  and 
extracts  are  inclosed  in  brackets,  thus  [  ],  and  are  marked-  by  a  Tr.  at  the 
end.  I  may  have  overrated  the  value  of  the  work  I  have  translated,  from  my 
own  comparative  ignorance  of  many  of  these  practical  details;  I  do  not  pre- 
tend to  say  that  all  of  them  are  of  equal  value  for  the  farmer  ;  but  I  have  felt  Mr. 
Fleischmann's  judgment  to  be  a  correct  one,  and  that  much  valuable  matter, 
even  for  our  farmers,  is  comprised  in  the  following  pages  1  am  confident  that 
nowhere  in  our  own  country,  and  perhaps  not  in  the  English  language,  can 
there  be  found  a  book  of  the  same  moderate  size  which  contains  an  equal 
amount  of  estimates  of  proportions,  &c.,  relating  to  farming,  and  which  may 
be  relied  on  as  from  the  best  authorities.  I  am  also  confirmed  in  my  opinion 
of  the  work,  by  those  editors  and  others  who  have  examined  it. 

The  great  distinction  in  German  Agriculture,  compared  with  our  own,  is 
economy.  The  question  is  not,  whether  a  great  crop  can  be  produced,  or  a 
fine  story  can  be  told,  what  large  animals  can  be  raised,  &c., — but  what  is  the 
whole  cost,  the  expenditure  of  labor,  of  land,  of  manure,  &c.  For  this  reason 
computations  have  been  made,  and  the  proportion  of  all  the  parts  and  processes 
has  been  fixed.  Economy  compels  them  to  weigh  and  measure  their  fodder. 
The  minutest  details  have  been  entered  into,  the  most  difficult  points  exam- 
ined, and  the  results  brought  out. 

Thaer's  great  book  in  four  quarto  volumes  is  a  beautiful  specimen  of  a  philo- 
sophical arrangement  and  discussion  of  the  subject.  Judge  Buel,  in  his  Farm- 
er's Companion  refers  several  times  to  Thaer.  He  speaks  of  him  as  one 
"  who  has  not,  perhaps,  his  superior  in  the  practical  and  scientific  business  of 
farming  anywhere."  The  Author  of  The  British  Husbandry  says  of  him, 
**  whose  practical  knowledge  cannot  be  too  highly  appreciated,"  also,  "  whose 
great  practical  experience  and  deep  science,  added  to  the  candor  with  which 
his  remarks  are  imparted,  stamp  an  inestimable  value  on  his  works  on  hus- 
bandry." He  quotes  always,  however,  from  the  French  Translation  of  Baron 
Crud  called  Principes  Raisonnes.  Thaer  was  along  time  at  the  head  of  the 
Agricultural  school  of  Mogelin  in  Prussia,  where  many  experiments  were  tried 
on  the  various  points  of  husbandry  under  his  own  eye ;  and  the  results  em- 
bodied in  his  numerous  works  and  contributions  to  Scientific  Journals. 

ScHWERTZ,  also,  was  Director  of  Experiments  and  Professor  of  Agriculture 
in  the  King  of  Wurtemberg's  Agricultural  institution,  and  resided  in  the  year 
1837,  at  the  age  of  77  years,  in  Coblentz.  He  travelled  as  an  Agriculturist  in 
various  parts  of  the  continent ;  and  is  the  Author  of  a  number  of  works  on  the 
Agriculture  of  Alsace,  Hofwyl,  Westphalia — some  of  which  were  published  in 
Thaer's  Annals  of  Agriculture.  His  reputation  is  high,  and  he  is  frequently 
quoted  by  the  most  distinguished  writers  on  Agriculture,  in  Germany.  His 
Practical  Agriculture  is  contained  in  three  large  volumes,  to  which  a  fourth, 
drawn  from  his  papers,  was  to  be  added  by  a  friend. 

Veit  was  Professor  of  Agriculture  in  the  Royal  institution  of  Bavaria,  and 
his  work  is  full  of  results  of  experiments  and  calculations  at  that  seat  of  Agri- 
cultural Science. 


viii  PREFACE. 

Petki  was  also  an  honorary  and  corresponding  member  of  many  societies, 
and  Agricultural  Counsellor  of  the  Prince  Von  Lichtenstein,  and  his  valuable 
work  on  Sheep  forms  part  of  the  German  Farmer's  Encyclopedia. 

Of  Carl  Spremgel,  the  Botanist,  Mineralogist,  and  Chemist,  it  is  less  ne- 
cessary to  speak,  as  he  is  probably  more  known  in  this  country.  He  was,  in 
1837,  Professor  of  Agriculture,  and  Editor  of  an  Agricultural  Journal  of  great 
celebrity,  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  his  works  exhibit  much  research, 
as  well  us  clear  intellect  and  discriminating  judgment. 

A  necessity  exists,  where  these  works  are  published,  for  much  of  the  infor- 
mation contained  in  them  beyond  merely  aiding  the  farmer  in  tillage.  These 
calculations  are  the  basis  of  a  standard  of  valuations  of  land,  &-c.,  for  the  as- 
sessment of  taxes.  A  soil  or  product  ranks  at  a  fixed  rate,  and  with  this  all 
are  compared  and  valued,  and  the  computation  readily  made.  All  therefore 
feel  it  important  to  possess  such  information,  and  were  there  a  like  discrimina- 
tion in  our  own  country,  in  preparing  the  assessments,  much  of  the  present 
hap-hazard  estimate,  so  productive  of  unequal  justice,  would  be  prevented. 

Our  farmers  are  slow  to  believe  the  importance  of  these  things;  yet  much  is 
doing  by  Agricultural  Societies  and  works  among  us  to  instruct  the  people. 
A  few  in  every  section  of  the  country  are  laying  the  results  of  their  experi- 
ence and  knowledge  before  the  public,  and  a  great  advance  has  been  made 
within  a  few  years. 

The  subject  of  manures  has  engaged  the  attention  of  many  scientific  and 
practical  men,  and  a  new  field  of  mysteries  has  been  brought  under  the  hand  of 
experiment,  by  which  the  most  interesting  and  striking  results  are  developed. 

Analyses  of  the  soils  have  been  made,  and  the  theory  of  growth  and  decay 
brought  out  and  illustrated  with  great  beauty  and  simplicity.  The  same  is 
the  case  as  respects  the  materials  for  fodder,  and  it  was  melancholy  to  read, 
the  past  winter,  of  so  many  cattle  starving  in  Ohio  and  Michigan,  when  by  a 
slight  knowledge  of  the  many  substitutes  and  modes  of  preparation,  their 
owners  might  have  avoided  the  loss. 

As  to  the  present  volume,  it  is  true,  that  many  of  its  details  do  not  apply 
with  exact  accuracy  to  this  country,  as  our  habits,  manners,  and  modes  of 
farming,  implements  used,  products  and  prices  of  labor,  and  standards  of  weight 
and  measure,  are  so  widely  different  from  those  in  Continental  Europe.  Still 
I  doubt  not  that  even  these  details  may  answer  a  valuable  purpose,  by  suggest- 
ing the  application  of  similar  rules,  and  that  they  may  be  so  modified,  that 
even  as  practical  results  they  may  be  most  useful.  The  weights  and  meas- 
ures are  mostly  reduced  to  the  English  standard,  and  tables  from  the  best 
authorities  are  added,  by  which  any  one  may  further  verify  them.  I  have 
added,  too,  an  Index  which  may  render  the  use  of  the  work  more  easy,  and  thus 
enhanced  its  value. 

Should  this  work  meet  with  favor  from  the  public,  I  hope,  by  availing  myself 
of  several  other  valuable  treatises  not  to  be  found  in  our  language,  to  render 
future  portions  of  Burger's  Manual  yet  more  deserving  of  patronage  by  the 
friends  of  Agriculture.  There  is  a  mine  of  riches  on  this  subject,  on  which 
the  first  stroke  has  scarcely  yet  been  struck. 

New-York,  July,  1843.  THE  TRANSLATOR. 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 


SECTION    I. 

MEANING  AND  NECESSITY  OF  THIS  BRANCH  OF  INSTRUCTION. 

1.  The  doctrine  respecting  the  Household,  is  called  its  Or- 
ganization, or  Rural  Economy. 

[The  German  word  here  translated  Household,  "  Hausehalt,"  is  not  limited  as  is 
our  word  Household,  to  the  family,  or  the  conduct  of  domestic  affairs  ;  but  embraces 
the  whole  in-door  and  out-door  establishment ;  and  more  especially  in  the  present 
treatise,  the  farming  operations.  The  word  translated  Rural  Economy,  "  Landwirth- 
Bchaft,"  might  perhaps  be  more  definitely  expressed  by  Land-Husbandry.  I  shcdl 
sometimes  use  either  term. — Tr.] 

2.  It  shows  the  amount  and  proportional  employment  of  the  different 
powers  and  means  requisite  for  the  conduct  of  that  business,  so  as  to 
derive  from  it  the  greatest  gain  in  the  given  circumstances. 

The  object  of  farming  is  that  of  all  kinds  of  business,  viz.,  by  means  of  labor  and 
money,  judiciously  employed,  to  produce  gain,  or  to  acquire  money: — in  other 
words,  for  one  so  to  employ  his  labor  and  capital  as,  by  the  management  of  his 
affairs,  to  secure  the  highest  income. 

In  order  to  reach  this  object,  it  is  necessary  for  a  person  to  know  not  merely — on 
which  it  depends — how  to  rear  up  plants  and  animals,  but  also  the  expense  of  the 
powers  and  means  of  aid  demanded  for  this  purpose  ;  so  as  neither  to  make  too  great 
an  outlay  for  the  given  circumstances  of  his  business — in  which  case  he  will  not  be 
repaid  by  his  probable  profit — nor  too  small  a  one,  which  would  keep  the  whole  en- 
terprise in  a  crippled  state, 

[In  Vol.  I.,  sec.  i.,  of  his  work,  to  which  he  here  refers,  our  author  defines  Land- 
Husbandry  to  be  "  that  science  which  teaches  us  how  to  raise  up  and  employ  use- 
fully plants  and  animals,"  and  says  that  "its  object  is  douh\e^  general  a.nd  special ;  the 
first,  on  account  of  which  land-husbandry  is  generally  carried  on,  is  the  production  of 
animals  and  plants,  serving  for  the  food,  clothing,  and  other  conveniences  of  men  ;  the 
particular  or  special  is,  by  the  conduct  of  land-husbandry  as  a  business  to  use  the  cap- 
ital thus  employed  to  the  greatest  advantage."  He  also  observes,  that  "  it  is  not  the 
greatest  possible  production  of  plants  on  a  given  space,  or  the  rearing  of  the  largest 
and  finest  animals,  which  is  the  object  of  the  farmer  in  the  last  point  of  view,  but 
how  the  capital  may  be  employed  in  agriculture,  and  in  rearing  animals,  to  the 
greatest  advantage — that  is,  so  as  to  yield  the  highest  income."  This  particular,  it  is 
believed,  is  often  lost  sight  of  in  the  account  of  very  large  crops,  or  animals  raised, 
which  are  found  in  our  Agricultural  Journals.  With  the  Germans  it  appears  to  be 
carried  to  a  great  nicety  of  calculation,  as  many  of  the  following  pages  will 
ehow.— Tr.] 

3.  Land-Husbandry  consists  in  the  connection  of  the  production  of 
plants  with  the  rearing  of  cattle. 

4.  The  essence  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Household  (See  1.)  is  to  unite 
Agriculture  with  the  breeding  of  cattle,  so  as  thus  to  obtain  the  greatest 
gain. 

[With  respect  to  the  whole  subject  embraced  in  the  preceding  section,  Thaer,  in 


2  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

his  Grandsatze  der  Rationellen  Landwirthschaft,  (Elements  of  Rational  Land-Hus- 
bandry,) Vol.  I.,  p.  62,  observes,  "By  the  word  Economy  we  understand,  in  reference 
to  the  doctrine  of  Land-Husbandry,  the  doctrine  of  the  proportional  relations,  and 
of  the  management  and  employment  of  those  powers  by  which  production  is  chiefly 
obtained  ;  and  therefore  it  treats  of  the  procuring,  maintaining  and  management  of 
the  laboring  force ;  of  the  proportion  of  the  stock  of  cattle,  or  much  more  of  fodder 
and  manure  to  Agriculture  ;  of  the  divisions  of  the  field  founded  thereon,  or  the 
system  of  operations  in  reference  to  the  most  perfect  possible  attainment  of  the  object 
of  this  business,  according  to  each  locality ;  the  highest  possible  consequent  pure 
profit  out  of  the  whole  of  the  business,  and  finally  of  the  direction  of  the  business, 
and  its  exhibition  in  books  and  accounts."  Veit  also,  in  his  Handbuch  Landgueter- 
Verwaltimg,  (Manual  of  the  Administration  of  Landed  Estates,)  vol.  i.  p.  12,  thus  ob- 
serves on  the  same  subject :  "  The  chief  object  of  this  business  is  the  highest  possi- 
ble surplus  of  the  receipts  of  the  business  from  vegetable  and  animal  production, 
over  the  outlay  for  the  same.  The  knowledge  of  the  conditions  of  that  highest  and 
best  production,  or  the  knowledge  of  production,  lies  in,  and  will  be  set  forth  in  the 
branch  of  instruction  concerning  the  special  raising  of  plants  and  animals;  the 
aim  now  is  to  learn  to  know  the  means  on  which  rests  that  highest  production,  their 
efficacy,  cost,  necessity,  mode  of  acquiring  and  employing  them.  But  of  the  means 
of  production,  it  is  desirable  that  they  may  give  the  highest  possible  efiicacy  for  a 
certain  amount,  on  which  the  surplus  of  the  results  over  the  expense  of  production 
may  be  the  greatest  possible.  The  highest  development  of  the  powers  dwelling  in 
the  means  of  production,  will  follow,  if  they  are  employed  at  the  right  time,  in  the 
right  measure,  and  in  the  right  mode."  "  To  know  how  so  to  place  proportionately, 
and  unite  together  reciprocally  all  the  branches  or  parts  of  the  organization  of  busi- 
ness, that  every  one  may  be  in  a  situation  to  repay  the  proposed  expense  with  a 
corresponding  profit,  and  all  together  in  their  common  direction,  be  able  to  reach 
the  highest  object  of  business,  is  called  the  Knowledge  of  the  Organization,  or 
THE  Direction  of  the  business  of  Land-Husbandry." — Tr.] 


SECTION   II. 

DIVISION  OF  THE  DOCTRINE  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

1.  The  Household  is  divided  into  the  outer  and  inner, 

2.  The  otiter-Kousehold  teaches  the  knowledge  and  suitable  connec- 
tion of  the  relations  between  Agriculture  and  the  breeding  of  cattle. 

3.  The  mner-Household  teaches  the  arrangement  of  the  occupations ; 
their  general  oversight  and  accounts,  as  well  as  the  reciprocal  duties  of 
the  different  members  of  a  well-ordered  Household. 


SECTION   III. 

OF  THE  OUTER  HOUSEHOLD  AFFAIRS. 

1.  In  conducting  farming  operations,  the  labor  of  men  and  beasts  is 
requisite,  as  also  articles  of  food  for  the  support  of  men,  beasts  and  plants. 

Though  we  find  tracts  of  land  in  rare  places  which  need  no  manure,  yet  even  there 
beasts  are  necessary  for  the  cultivation  of  such  lands ;  and  if,  too,  there  are  some 
regions  where  no  agriculture  is  carried  on,  but  only  the  raising  of  cattle ;  yet  in 
Germany  at  least,  winter-fodder  for  the  cattle,  and  the  cultivation  of  meadows  are 
necessary. 

[The  importance  of  having  a  diversity  of  articles  of  food  for  cattle,  has  been 
shown  during  the  past  winter  and  spring  in  many  parts  of  Ohio  and  Michigan, 
where  we  are  told  that  many  cattle  have  died,  and  many  more  have  been  killed,  in 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  3 

consequence  of  too  scanty  a  supply  of  hay,  and  for  which  the  farmer  had  neglected 
to  provide  substitutes. — Tr.] 

2.  The  labor  of  men  is  required  as  well  in  the  rearing  of  animals, 
as  in  the  cultivation  of  plants.  Without  the  aid  of  beasts  of  labor  we 
can  indeed  manage  the  garden,  but  not  the  cultivation  of  the  field  ;  and 
so  too  without  a  sufficiency  of  manure,  the  culture  of  plants  will  not 
repay  the  labor  bestowed  on  them. 

3.  The  doctrine  of  the  outer  Household,  therefore,  is  divided  into  two 
parts  ;  the  first  of  which  shows  the  amount  of  animal  powers,  the  num- 
ber of  laboring  men  and  beasts,  required  for  the  management  of  the 
household  [or  farming  operations ;]  the  second^  the  quantity  of  manure 
needed  in  agriculture,  and  how  it  may  be  provided  at  the  least  cost,  and 
employed  to  the  greatest  advantage. 


A. — OF    LABOR. 

1.  Land-Husbandry  requires  the  labor  both  of  men  and  beasts  ;  but  in 
a  variety  of  circumstances,  they  will  repay  only  a  definite  amount  of 
labor  ;  hence  we  must  first  of  ail  know  what  men  and  beasts  will  ac- 
complish in  a  given  space  of  time,  before  we  fix  on  any  particular  mode 
of  farming. 

2.  Where  the  land  is  cheap,  but  labor  is  dear,  an  extensive  method  is 
most  profitable  •,  where  the  reverse  is  the  case,  and  land  is  dear,  but  labor 
cheap,  it  is  best  to  practise  the  intensive  mode  of  carrying  on  business. 

The  extensive  mode  of  farming  is  that  where  the  product  depends  more  on  the 
extent  of  land ;  the  intensive  on  the  degree  of  labor.  The  Dreifelderwirthschaft 
and  the  Egartenwirthschaft  are  examples  of  tlie  extensive  mode  ;  the  Wechsel- 
wirthschaft,  without  fallow  and  meadow,  is  one  of  the  intensive  method.  The  in- 
crease of  production  is  always  connected  with  the  increase  of  labor ;  only  the  degree 
of  increased  production  reaches  to  a  certain  height  in  an  inverse  ratio  with  the  in- 
crease of  labor.  To  determine  the  height  to  which  the  powers  and  means  of  aid 
of  husbandry  must  reach,  so  as  to  derive  the  greatest  profit  from  the  increase  of  the 
product  in  given  c^cumstances,  is  the  most  important  acquisition  for  the  calculating 
land-holder. 

[The  terms  Dreifeldenoirthschaft,  Egartenwirthschaft,  and  Wechselwirthschaft  are 
applied  to  different  methods  of  carrying  on  farming,  common  in  Germany.  The 
Dreifelderwirthschaft,  or  the  three-field  or  the  Triennial  system,  as  it  is  sometimes 
termed,  is  where  the  land  is  divided  into  three  parts,  and  one  part  is  left  fallow,  one 
part  cultivated  with  winter-grain,  and  the  remaining  one  with  summer-grain.  (See 
further  on,  B.  6. 24.) 

The  Egartenwirthschaft  or,  Koppelwirthschaft  is  where  the  field  is  left  to  its  wild, 
natural  growth  of  grass,  for  two  or  more  years,  and  is  used  as  meadow  or  for  graz- 
ing. (See  B.  6,  7,  27.)  It  is  also  sometimes  called  Drischfelder,  or  Dreeshweiden. 
The  Wechselwirthschaft  is  the  system  of  the  rotation  or  succession  of  crops.  (B.  6, 
7.  10.)  As  the  terms  are  convenient  for  use,  Avith  this  explanation  they  will  be  used 
hereafter  without  translation. 

On  the  subject  of  the  extensive  and  intensive  modes  of  husbandry,THAER  in  Vol.  I. p. 
63,  remarks  ; — "  This  relation  of  the  price  of  labor  to  the  price  of  the  ground  and  soil, 
lies  at  the  foundation  of  many  different  systems  of  agriculture.  In  their  extremes  we 
may  call  these  the  extensive  and  the  intensive.  Where  the  soil  is  cheap  but  labor  is 
dear,  there  a  person  must  seek  to  produce  a  certain  amount  of  products,  on  a  larger 
extent,  but  with  the  least  possible  labor.  Where,  on  the  contrary,  the  price  of  the 
soil  is  high,  but  labor  is  to  be  had  in  sufficient  quantity,  and  at  an  easy  price,  there 
one  must  endeavor  to  raise  on  a  less  extent  of  ground,  the  same  value  in  products — 
as  this  is  always  possible — by  increased  employment  of  labor.  Whoever  wishes  to 
employ  a  fixed  capital  in  agriculture,  must  in  the  former  of  these  cases,  purchase  a 


4  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

large  extent  of  land  even  if  he  retains  only  a  little  for  the  employment  of  labor.  He 
must  practice  the  extensive  method  with  the  least  employment  of  labor.  In  the 
second  case  he  must  purchase  only  a  small  extent,  not  only  because  the  land  is 
dearer,  but  also,  because  he  must  retain  a  greater  capital  for  the  payment  of  more 
labor  to  be  employed."  The  extensive  system  prevails  comparatively  more  in  our 
country  than  the  intensive,  though  it  cannot  be  doubted,  that  many  of  our  farmers 
would  find  their  advantage  in  tilling  a  smaller  extent  of  land  than  they  do  to  a  higher 
degree.  It  is  sometimes  the  case,  and  our  author  does  not  seem  to  have  noticed  it, 
that  both  land  and  labor  are  dear,  as  in  some  portions  of  our  older  states.  In  this 
case  the  intensive  system  would  seem  altogether  the  preferable  one. — Tr.] 

3.  Ifwe  know  what  is  the  proportional  product  of  the  field,  under 
given  circumstances,  to  the  various  outlay  of  labor  and  manure,  and  also 
the  cash  value  of  labor  and  of  vegetable,  and  animal  products  ;  we  have 
then  the  requisite  data  from  which  to  estimate  the  gain  or  loss  of  any- 
proposed  method  of  husbandry. 


A. — OF   THE   LABOR   OF   MEN. 

1.  The  laborers  in  farming  operations  are  divided  into  domestics^ 
(Dienstboten,)  day-laborers^  laborers  by  the  job,  and  soccage-men. 
(Froehner.) 

[For  the  explanation  of  the  term  Froehner  or  soccage-men,  see  below,  12.— Tr.] 

2.  Domestics  (Dienstboten,)  are  those  laborers  who  engage  to  work 
for  their  board  and  certain  wages  for  a  whole  year. 

3.  They  receive  their  board  either  at  the  common  table,  or  they  have  an 
allowance  of  provision  for  their  support,  and  themselves  take  the  charge 
of  preparing  it.  The  first  mode  is  usual  in  smaller,  the  latter  in  larger 
farms. 

Though  the  allowance-system  has  apparently  great  advantages  for  the  man  who 
hires  lab'orers,  because  he  can  thus  form  an  easy  and  correct  estimate  in  his  farming  ac- 
counts, and  also  avoids  the  discontent  of  laborers,  as  to  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
food ;  yet,  on  the  other  hand,  it  has  the  disadvantage  of  the  loss  of  labor,  since  one 
man  can  easily  cook  for  thirty  others  ;  but  in  the  preparation  o|  the  allowance  not 
more  than  five  or  six  are  joined  together,  and  there  will  thus  be  more  men  engaged 
in  cooking  a  great  part  of  the  day  ;  and  so  this  portion  will  be  lost  to  labor  in  the 
field,  &c. 

[Thaer,  Rat.  Landwirth.— Vol.I.pp.  88,  89,  speaks  of  the  Dienstboten,  whom  he 
calls  Gesinde  as  "  those  who  have  hired  out  their  services  exclusively  for  our  busine^, 
and  whom  we  board  and  pay  wages."  These,  he  also  says  "  dwell  either  in  the  farm- 
house, are  there  boarded,  and  in  all  respects  provided  for,  and  such  are  unmarried  ; 
or  they  receive  a  certain  allowance  (Deputat,)  for  their  support,  and  dwell  then,  for 
the  most  part,  in  separate  buildings,  and  are  married.  The  former  mode  is  unques- 
tionably the  most  profitable  in  respect  to  the  cost,  and  the  closer  oversight  one  can 
have  over  the  men.  The  greater  their  number  so  much  the  more  will  the  board  of 
each  one  be  lessened,  while  with  respect  to  their  lodging,  fuel,  light,  and  even  food, 
with  a  greater  number  more  may  be  spared.  Where  the  number  of  servants  are 
but  few,  it  is  probably  more  advisable  to  give  to  all  an  allowance."  "  In  most  coun- 
tries, some  day  of  the  week,  or  time  of  the  year,  and  many  holidays  they  have  their 
particular  food,  and  the  people  would  not  be  contented  unless  they  have  on  such 
days  what  they  probably  do  not  eat  on  ordinary  days." 

Veit,  also,  Vol  I.  p.  134,  gives  a  similar  account  of  the  system  in  Bavaria.  Un- 
der the  head  of  laborers  who  condition  their  power  of  labor  on  a  definite  time,  and  for 
this  receive  wages  and  board ;  he  makes  the  following  divisions  :— 

"  1.  those  who  dwell  in  the  farm-house  where  they  receive  board  and  yearly  wages. 
These  are  termed  Dienstboten,  and  are  usually  unmarried  persons. 

2.  Such  as  dwell  in  separate  houses,  or  in  particular  parts  of  the  farm-buildings 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  5 

and  in  place  of  board  receive  a  certain  quantity  of  means  oi  support,  with  a  year's 
wages,  who  keep  their  own  stock,  and  for  the  most  part  are  married.  The^.e  are 
called  gebroedte  Dienstleute^  or  Deputatists. 

3.  Those  who  dwell  in  the  farm  buildings,  and  receive  yearly  wages,  but  instead 
of  board,  have  daily  an  equivalent  in  money. 

4.  Those  who  have  board  and  day's  wages  but  do  not  dwell  in  the  farm-house. 

5.  Those  who  receive  a  year's  wages  and  money  for  support  but  do  not  dwell  in 
the  farm-house. 

6.  Those  who  dwell  in  the  farm-house,  and  have  board,  but  instead  of  a  year's 
wages  have  only  day's  wages,  and  are  reckoned  with  every  week,  according  to  the 
number  of  their  day's  work." 

Leaving  out  the  sixty-eight  Sundays  and  feast  days,  and  also  shrove-tide,  passion- 
week,  the  anniversary  of  the  consecration  of  tlie  church,  harvest-home,  and  cases  of 
sickness,  at  least  seven  other  days  5  there  remains,  says  Veit,  only  two  hundred  and 
ninety  days  for  labor,  in  the  year.  The  wages  of  the  Dienstboten  are  usually  paid 
once  in  a  quarter,  and  vary  according  to  their  occupations,  but  the  general  average 
is  about  forty-five  florins,  or  about  twenty-three  dollars  a  year.  The  cost  of  board 
also  varies  in  different  countries.  Veit  has  given  some  estimates  on  this  subject, 
which  may  he  added  as  acquainting  the  reader  with  the  condition  of  the  laborers 
abroad.     He  says  "  in  many  farms  it  is  usual  to  allow : 

For  breakfast  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  a  maas,  (a  maas  is  nearly  a  quart)  of  skim- 
med sour  milk,  with  barley  meal  at  the  rate  of  one  pound,  (nearly  a  pound  and  a  quar- 
ter English.)  for  8  persons  ;  or,  with  bread  in  place  of  meal,  porridge,  or  water  gruel 
with  black  bread,  half  a  pound  per  head. 

For  dinner — dumplings,  (Rohrnudcln)  of  wheat  flour,  two  persons  to  two-thirds  of  a 
pound,  or  boiled  balls  or  dumplings  of  wheat  flour,  barley  meal,  and  white  bread, 
with  sldmmed  milk,  or  baked  pellets  of  a  portion  of  rye  meal,  from  one-half  to  three- 
quarters  of  a  pound  of  meal  to  a  head,  and  half  a  pound  of  wheat  bread  with  pulse, 
peas,  potatoes,  plums,  beets,  cabbage,  &c.  If  meat  is  given  three-quarters  of  a  pound 
is  reckoned  to  a  head,  with  pulse,  with  bread,  cither  with  or  without  soup,  or  meat 
dumplings  of  white  bread,  and  one-third  of  a  pound  of  meat  to  the  head." 

Howitt,  in  his  Rural  and  Domestic  life  in  Germany,  mentions  the  peasants  near 
Heidelberg,  dining  under  the  trees  in  the  fields,  and  says — "  The  dinners  seemed 
principally  contained  in  two  large  pans  or  dishes,  one  of  soup,  and  one  of  small 
puddings  called  noodles,  (Kncedel.)  floating  in  sauce,  or  something  of  a  pudding  kind 
in  a  fluid  state.  Some  of  these  puddings  were  little  balls  of  flour  and  potatoes,  dotted 
with  little  lumps  of  fried  black  bread,  and  which  to  a  lanciful  eye  looked  like  raisins." 

For  supper. — Meal  soup  in  skimmed  milk  to  two  pounds  of  wheat-meal,  for  ten 
head  ;  then  one-half  to  three-quarters  of  a  quart  of  skimmed  milk,  and  about  a 
pound  and  a  half  of  potatoes  to  a  person  ;  or  water  gruel  and  potatoes  ;  or  a  soup 
of  skimmed,  sour  milk,  with  black  or  white  bread,  also  a  spoon-meat,  or  meat  one 
quarter  to  one-half  a  pound  the  person. 

On  a  feast  day,  for  the  evening  meal,  also,  usually  broiled  pork  or  veal,  one  poimd 
to  a  head,  with  sallad  and  a  quart  of  brown  or  white  beer." — Tr.] 

4.  As  many  domestics  (Dienstboten,)  are  necessary  in  a  household  as 
can  be  constantly  and  usefully  employed  by  the  business  of  the  farm 
throughout  the  year. 

5.  Those  kinds  of  occupations  only  are  exclusively  fitted  for  the  domes- 
tics (Dienstboten,)  which  continue  the  same  throughout  the  year,  to  which 
belongs  the  care  of  beasts  of  labor,  and  other  domestic  animals 

The  foddering  and  careful  attention  to  the  beasts  necessary  for  the  management 
of  husbandry,  is  a  species  of  labor  which  remains  the  same  throughout  the  whole 
year,  which  keeps  busy  always  in  the  same  manner  the  laborers  appointed  to  it :  on 
which  account  in  England,  where  there  is  a  surplus  of  day-laborers,  or  in  any  coun- 
try where  the  whole  labour  of  a  nobleman's  estate  is  performed  by  soccage  men, 
(FrOhner)  domestics  are  employed,  particularly  in  taking  care  of  domestic  animals. 

6.  The  whole  household  will  be  carried  on  by  domestics  (Dienstboten,) 
where  the  soccage  principle  does  not  prevail,  and  the  land  is  not  divided 
into  too  Icirge  or  too  small  possessions. 


6  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

In  England,  all  estates  that  are  larger  than  what  a  single  family  can  take  care  of, 
are  cultivated  by  day  laborers,  and  men  who  work  by  the  job  : — in  the  South  of  France 
and  in  Italy  the  land  is  so  divided  that  Dienstboten  are  rarely  found,  and  the  small 
farms  held  by  lease  are  cultivated  simply  by  the  family  of  the  lessee.  But  in  Germany, 
where  the  division  is  not  carried  so  far  as  in  the  two  last  countries,  and  where  we  do 
not  usually  meet  with  such  large  estates  as  in  the  first  of  them,  agriculture  in  ail  the  es- 
tates which  are  not  cultivated  on  the  soccage  principle  is  carried  on  by  tiie  Dienstboten. 

7.  The  number  of  persons  in  service  (Dienstvolk)  depends  on  the 
mode  of  husbandry  adopted  ;  on  the  amount  of  labor  which  one  can  ac- 
complish by  day-laborerSj  and  those  who  work  by  the  job  ;  and  on  theii 
diligence. 

In  the  Egarten  and  Dreifeld  modes  of  husbandry,  with  a  fallow  which  must  first 
be  broken  up  in  June,  one  needs  the  least  number  of  hands,  but  he  also  produces  the 
least.  In  such  circumstances  we  allow  eight  men  to  one  hundred  yokes  (about  one 
hundred  and  forty-two  acres)  of  plough-land,  if  we  call  in  extra  help  of  day-laborers, 
for  mowing  the  meadows  and  threshing.  In  the  system  of  rotation  of  crops,  the 
number  is  not  unfrequently  doubled. 

In  Upper  Austria  in  a  very  well-managed  husbandry  of  one  hundred  yokes  of 
plough  land,  and  thirty  yokes  of  meadow,  I  have  found  four  hostlers,  one  house  ser- 
vant, two  boys,  four  day-laborers,  and  seven  maids ;  thus  allowing  thirteen  men  to 
one  hundred  yokes  of  plough-land.  The  rotation  is,  1  Fallow,  2  Wheat,  3  Barley, 
4  Clover,  5  Wheat,  6  m^ixture  of  Vetches,  Oats  and  Barley,  &c.  The  people  were 
very  industrious. 

In  Carinthia  it  is  otherwise.  There  they  number  more  people  for  service  because 
they  cultivate  a  greater  variety  of  fruits,  have  no  fallows,  and  because,  too,  the  la- 
borers are  of  a  more  indolent  disposition.  It  is  sometimes  quite  usual  to  employ  on 
the  estates  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  men  and  women,  Dienstboten,  on  one  hundred 
yokes  of  plough-land,  Avith  which  are  connected  from  forty  to  fifty  yokes  of  meadow- 
land.  The  cutting  of  the  grain  is  here  done,  in  a  great  measure,  by  day-laborers, 
and  those  who  labor  on  the  soccage  principle,  (Froehner).  The  rotation  is,  1  Po- 
tatoes, Millet,  Corn  or  Maize,  2  Wheat,  3  Rye,  4  Barley,  manured,  5  Clover,  6 
Wheat,  7  Rye.  The  farms  of  the  peasantry  (Bauern)  in  Carinthia  are  small,  from 
ten  to  twelve  yokes  of  plough-land,  and  three  to  four  of  meadow.  On  these  are 
usually  the  peasant,  his  wife,  and  three  laborers.  Schwertz  found  the  proportion 
similar  in  Alsace,  for  he  says  that  they  number  on  the  great  farms  as  many  laborers 
as  they  have  horses.  But  he  mentions  elsewhere,  th^t  for  fifteen  and  a  half  acres  is 
allowed  one  horse,  which  is  1S.6  for  one  hundred  yokes.  Farms  of  forty  acres,  =  13.8 
yokes,  have  four  horses  and  also  four  laborers. 

That  a  man  in  land-husbandry,  as  in  any  manufacture,  needs  so  much  the  fey/er 
laborers  in  proportion  to  its  extent,  and  that  great  farms  on  this  account,  must  yield 
the  greatest  pure  profit,  because  the  cost  always  lessens  of  management  and  culti- 
vation, without  necessarily  injuring  the  quality  of  tlie  work,  is  a  fact  universally 
acknowledged,  and  easily  seen. 

[It  is  difficult  to  reduce  the  German  measures  to  English  measures.  A  yoke 
(loch)  of  land,  which  is  a  common  measure  in  Austria,  is  equal  to  about  1.422  acre 
English  measure,  from  which  the  computations  above  given  m.ay  be  reduced  to  their 
value  in  our  measure.  Thus  one  hundred  yokes  of  land  are  equal  to  one  hundred 
forty-two  and  two  tenth  acres.  It  will  be  convenient  sometimes  to  retain  the  terms 
employed  for  measure,  without  translation,  though  in  tlie  more  important  c^es  the 
equivalent  will  be  given  in  our  modes  of  computation.  There  are  many  estimates, 
both  in  Thaer  and  Veit,  of  the  number  of  laborers  required  for  the  different  species 
of  labor.     Some  of  these  will  probably  be  given  hereafter. — Tr.] 

8.  The  cash  value  of  a  day's  work  of  a  Dienstboten,  may  be  obtained 
by  computing  the  cash  value  of  his  cost  or  board,  lodging,  clothing  and 
wages,  taken  together,  and  dividiiig  the  sum  by  the  number  of  days' 
work. 

That  tlie  day's  work  of  a  Dienstboten  must  be  higher  or  lower  according  to  the 
different  countries  and  years,  must  be  seli-evident.    Podewill,  has  examples  of  such 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  7 

estimates,  Mayer  also.    Haser  in  Thaer's  Annals  of  Improvements,  Luerzer  Moel- 
linger,  &c.,  &c. 
[According  to  Veit's  estimates,  the  cost  of  keeping  a  Dienstboten  in  Bavaria,  are  :— 


Besides  wages.  For  the  year.  For  the  day. 


$cts. 

1.  Not  including  the  expense  of  keeping 

a  cook,    -    -    - -        86  florins  =  41,28 

Including  that  expense,  -----      98       "  47,04 

2.  With  wages  of  45  florins,  =  $21,06, 

average  per  head,  without  the  cost 
of  keeping  a  cook,    -----      131      "  62,98 

Including  that  cost,    ------    143       "  76,64 

3.  With  cost  and  wages  for  290  days 

work,  not  including  the  cost  of  a 
cook,  ---------- 

Including  that  cost, 


cts. 


14    kreutzers  =  10.5 
16  »  12 


21.5       "  16.2 

23.5       «  17.6 


27  «  20.25 

29.8       "  22.12 

Some  things  which  enter  into  his  estimates  of  the  cost  of  board,  are  affected  by 
the  question  whether  the  articles  supphed  are  bought  or  are  furnished  on  the  estate, 
&c.— Tr.] 

9.  Day-laborers  are  those  who  work  by  the  day  ;  job  or  piece-laborers, 
are  those  who  agree  to  do  a  piece  of  work  for  certain  wages. 

10.  Where  the  latter  are  found,  the  practise  of  flirming  is  much  easier 
and  cheaper,  for  one  can  lay  hold  of  any  work  with  greater  force,  and 
complete  it  in  a  proportionate  tim^ ;  and  their  own  profit  urges  the  job 
laborers  to  work  quicker,  so  that  their  labor  is  always  cheaper  than  that 
of  one's  own  serving  people  (Dienstleute)  or  the  day-laborers. 

11.  That  work  is  particularly  adapted  to  day-laborers  which  cannot  be 
so  well  let  out  by  the  job  ;  as  hay-making,  weeding,  hoeing.  For  piece 
or  job-work,  the  cutting  of  grain,  threshing,  getting  wood,"(&c 

In  England  nearly  all  kinds  of  work  are  hired  out  by  the  job.  They  employ  in 
their  husbandry  but  few  serving  people,  (Dienstboten)  ;  only  as  many  as  the  fodder- 
ing of  the  domestic  animals  makes  necessary.  All  other  kinds  of  labor,  even  plow- 
ing and  harrowing,  are  performed  by  day-laborers  or  those  who  work  by  the  job. 
Begtrup  relates,  that  Mr.  Green  in  Suffolk,  with  whom  he  resided  for  a  time,  on  a 
farm  of  plough  land  of  one  hundred  forty-three  and  a  half  yoke,  with  a  herd  of 
twenty  cows,  some  oxen,  and  forty  sheep,  employed  only  two  servants  and  two  boys, 
and  m  the  summer  two  maids,  in  the  winter  but  one.  The  harvesting  and  tlireshing 
were  done  by  men  who  work  by  the  job. 

These  people  have  such  skill  that  for  a  small  sum  they  will  agree  to  hoe  or  harvest 
a  particular  extent,  and  gain  a  support  by  it. 

[The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  different  kinds  of  labor  above  men- 
tioned are  considered  by  the  various  German  authors.  Thus  Thaer  Rat.  Landwir. 
Vol.  I.  p.  88,  says  : — "  Whether  a  person  should  employ  more  laborers  of  the  first  or  the 
second  class  will  differ  according  to  the  circumstances  of  the  place,  which  often 
leave  no  choice,  often  also  a  very  limited  one,  and  seldom  one  entirely  free. 

For  domestics  (Gesinde  or  Dienstboten)  there  is  the  advantage  of  attachment, 
participation,  and  fidelity  which  one  may  expect  from  them  as  members  of  his  family, 
(but  not  always  freely  rendered,)  also  the  safety  with  which  a  person  may  count  on 
unretarded  and  daily  advancing  work,  the  closer  inspection  which  they  are  brought 
under,  the  dependence  and  obedience  which  he  may  justly  demand  of  them,  and 
their  responsibihty  for  any  business  entrusted  to  them.  Day-laborers,  and  those  who 
work  by  the  job,  demand  on  the  other  hand  less  care  ;  can  be  engaged  and  dismissed 
again  when  one  wishes,  as  the  work  and  their  industry  may  require.  Their  activity 
is  greater,  since  they  have  to  take  care  of  their  famihes,  and  if  they  do  not  perform 
their  work  well,  they  will  lose  all  their  reputation." 

Veit,Vo1.I,  p.  135,  after  mentioning  that  the  Dienstboten  are  employed  as  host- 
lers, to  take  care  of  ox^,  &c.,  says,— "But  it  belongs  to  the  character  of  tlieir  service 


8  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

that  they  must  also  be  employed  in  other  services,  and  out  of  the  time  commonly 
fixed  on  for  the  usual  day-laborer.  They  reside  in  the  farm  house,  are  under  the  do- 
mestic oversight  of  the  proprietor,  and  with  suitable  treatment  will  do  more  for  him, 
and  the  interests  of  his  husbandry,  than  the  other  laborers.  If  they  will  bat  use 
their  collective  force  and  time,  their  exertion  will  far  outweigh  that  of  all  other 
laborers. 

But  three  things  he  heavy  in  the  opposite  scale,  and  in  many  cases  counterbalance 
these  advantages : — 

1.  The  almost  universal  corruption  of  morals  common  among  them,  and  which 
renders  the  regulation  of  the  household  difficult. 

2.  The  great  burden  of  care  in  providing  for  them,  and 

3.  The  difficulty  of  keeping  them  at  work  for  the  whole  year." 

Of  day-laborers,  Veit  also  remarks,  p.  146,  "  This  kind  of  laborers  possess  great 
advantages  where  one  can  have  them  according  to  his  need,  in  any  number  and 
time,  and  can  dismiss  them  at  his  pleasure,  if  he  wishes  for  their  service  no  longer. 
Since  the  greatest  part  and  most  important  labors  of  farming  are  dependent  on  the 
state  of  the  weather,  therefore  they  are  very  unequally  divided  as  to  time  and  neces- 
sity. In  favorable  periods  of  time  for  sowing  and  harvesting,  all  kinds  of  labor  press 
together  into  a  few  days,  whilst  with  sudden  unfavorable  weather,  or  in  time  of  rest, 
scarcely  no  labors  are  undertaken  in  the  field. 

It  is  indeed  charged  on  day-laborers  that  they  spare  themselves  more  in  work  than 
other  laborers,  seek  to  cut  short  the  time  in  every  possible  way,  and  daily  labor  only 
a  certain  number  of  hours,  whilst  often  the  pressure  of  work  calls  for  all  the  powers 
of  labor  the  whole  day,  in  order  to  use  the  favorable  moment  offered ;  in  which  case, 
also,  either  the  employment  of  day-laborers  over  the  usual  time  of  labor  must  be 
reckoned  at  a  higher  rate,  or  every  moment  in  part  must  be  lost" 

Of  the  men  who  work  by  the  job,  called  by  Veit,  accord-arbeiter,  or  accord-la- 
borers, he  observes,  p.  151,  "In  order  to  give  out  labor  by  the  job  so  as  not  to  suffer 
injury  by  determining  the  time  of  completion,  one  must  accurately  knoAV  the  expen- 
diture demanded  if  it  were  to  be  performed  by  day's  works. 

For  such  an  agreement  those  works  are  usual,  the  results  of  which  especially  de- 
pend on  the  amount  of  labor  to  be  performed  in  a  certain  time,  as  is  the  case  in 
harvesting.  The  advantage  of  the  gain  of  time  here  is  especially  important  to  the 
husbandman ;  because  the  security  of  the  fruits  are  so  much  the  more  necessary, 
the  shorter  time  in  which  the  works  dependent  on  the  state  of  the  weather  may  be 
completed." 

"  One  may  either  make  as  a  condition  the  time  of  completing  a  particular  work,  or 
the  particular  quality  of  work  to  be  done  in  a  certain  time." 

"  The  advantage  of  the  gain  of  time  by  the  earlier  completign  of  any  work,  is  not 
only  for  the  advantage  of  the  proprietor,  but  also  to  the  man  who  works  by  the  job, 
because  the  shorter  the  time  in  which  he  completes  the  work  undertaken,  so  much 
tlie  earher  can  he  go  upon  another." 

"  The  eminent  advantage  of  job  work  over  others  consists  in  the  peculiarity  of  its 
nature,  according  to  which  the  advantage  of  the  laborer  increases  with  the  increased 
profit  of  the  employer,  and  this  gives  a  spur  to  this  species  of  labor  for  wages,  and 
not  by  outward  burdensome  means,  as  by  oversight,  &c. ;  consequently  the  most 
difficult  task  in  the  employment  of  labor,  namely,  to  be  able  to  put  the  engaged  la- 
borer to  the  best  use,  is  accomplished." 

The  amount  of  wages  for  a  Dienstboten  in  Germany,  has  already  been  given. 
The  w^ages  by  the  day  will  of  course  vary  according  to  circumstances.  Among  the 
causes  affecting  it,  Veit  enumerates,  as  enhancing  it: — 

Neighbourhood  of  wealthy  farmers ;  of  cities  and  manufactories ;  thinly  settled 
regions ;  countries  where  the  price  of  means  of  living  is  high ;  labors  which  require 
unusual  strength ;  longer  time  for  the  day's  work,  &c.  Among  those  causes  which 
contribute  to  lessen  wages,  he  mentions : — 

Vicinity  to  poor  places ;  where  there  are  many  who  engage  to  work  by  the  year, 
&c. ;  where  the  necessary  means  of  living  are  cheap,  &c ;  where  there  are  few  per- 
sons who  prefer  to  employ  day  laborers. 

The  usual  time  of  labor  for  a  day-laborer  he  gives  in  Germany  on  most  estates : — 
"  in  the  Summer,  or  from  the  24th  of  April  to  the  29th  of  September,  from  5  to  11  A. 
M.,  and  from  12  M.  to  6  P.  M.,  and  in  time  of  harvest  even  till  8  P.  M. 

In  Winter,  or  from  the  12th  of  November  to  the  end  of  February,  from  7  or  7^  to 
11  A.  M.,  and  from  12  M.  to  4  l  or  5  P.  M. 

In  the  intervening  periods,  from  the  1st  of  October  to  the  12th  of  November,  and 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  9 

from  the  1st  of  March  to  the  24th  of  April,  from  6  to  11  A.  M.  and  from  12  M.  to 
5|  or  6  P.  M. — In  many  regions  it  is  customary  in  the  summer  and  winter  to  have  a 
resting  time  or  bread  hour  (brod-stunde)  as  it  is  called,  from  8  to  8|  A.  M.  and 
from  3  to  3 1  P.  M. 

The  average  of  a  day's  wages  of  many  parts  of  Bavaria,  according  to  the  duration 
of  time — is  for  the  mean  number  of  hours,  in  summer  24  to  40  kreutzers  (about  13 
to  30  cents)  ;  in  winter  18  to  22  kreutzers  (about  13^  to  16^  cents)  ;  females  receive 
about  3  or  4  kreutzers  (2  or  3  cents)  less.  For  an  hour  over  in  the  morning  or  even- 
ing they  are  allowed  3  or  4  kreutzers  (2  to  3  cents)  ;  of  course  the  labor  is  higher 
where  the  greater  skill  is  required,  as  in  different  branches  of  artisanship  connected 
with  farming  operations. 

The  general  results  of  his  experiments  Veit  sums  up  in  the  following  principles  to 
be  adopted : 

"  1.  All  those  kinds  of  work  which  from  their  nature  can  be  given  out  by  the  job, 
should  be  set  over  to  the  accord  or  quota  or  share-laborers. 

"  2.  All  other  work  which  cannot  be  so  performed ;  or  those  which  especially  depend 
on  the  state  of  the  weather,  require  no  peculiar  skill,  and  can  be  easily  overseen, 
should  be  performed  by  day-laborers,  when  these  can  be  had  for  easy  wages,  and 
engaged  or  dismissed  at  necessity  or  pleasure. 

'^  3.  The  number  of  domestics  (Dienstboten)  for  taking  care  of  the  domestic  beasts 
required  for  the  farming  operations,  should  be  engaged  either  with  wages,  but  with- 
out cost  (or  board)  ;  or  this  last  charge  be  not  assumed  if  there  is  any  option."  "A 
distinction,"  says  Thaer,  p.  67,  "  is  to  be  made  between  the  price  of  wages  and  the 
price  of  work ;  the  power,  activity  and  skill  of  men  is  very  different,  and  is  governed 
frequently  by  the  nourishment,  and  mode  of  life.  A  laborer  for  40  kreutzers  per  day 
can  often  perform  twice  the  work  of  another  for  20  kreutzers  per  day." 

It  is  very  evident,  that  many  of  the  above  remarks  apply  less  to  the  state  of  things 
in  this  countr}^ ;  but  still  the  principles  on  which  the  calculations  are  founded,  and  the 
results,  are  not  unimportant  even  with  us. — Tr.] 

12.  Those  laborers  are  called  Fr5hner,  or  Roboter,  who,  either  real,  or 
emancipated,  or  modified  bondmen  of  their  masters,  or  of  the  estate  itself, 
must  perform  either  a  definite  or  undefined  amount  of  labor  without  wages, 
or  for  a  very  small  compensation. 

[Veit  thus  describes  this  class  of  laborers,  p.  152  :  "  There  are  yet  some  estates  on 
which  many  stand  in  the  relation  of  subjects  to  their  lords,  and  are  under  obligation 
for  a  certain  number  of  days  in  the  year  to  labor  at  the  call  of  the  lord  of  the  estate, 
either  with  or  without  a  team,  for  no  compensation  or  for  very  small  wages,  or  only 
for  their  keeping."  FrOhner,  FrOhnden,  or  Roboter,  therefore  appear  to  be  a  kind 
of  serfs,  who  are  bound  to  the  lord  of  the  manor  by  a  feudal  service,  or  on  the  princi- 
ple of  soccage.  This  tenure  of  property  is  scarcely  known  in  our  country,  and  is 
gradually  disappearing  on  the  continent  of  Europe. — Tr.] 

13.  Since  the  Frohner  can  be  made  to  work  only  by  compulsion,  and 
has  not  the  least  interest  to  perform  it  well  and  rapidly,  therefore  the  pro- 
duction of  all  estates  cultivated  by  means  of  such  laborers  is  the  least  and 
worst.  But  because  the  labor,  bad  as  it  always  is,  is  disproportionately 
less  costly  in  cash-value,  such  estates  yield  a  large  nett  profit. 

This  feudal  tenure  (FrOhne),  is  the  original  reason  why  the  products  of  the  culti- 
vated land  in  a  very  large  part  of  Europe  is  so  small.  The  estate  of  the  lord  of 
the  manor  is  cultivated  in  the  most  wretched  manner,  and  the  peasant's  own  land  as 
badly  in  the  (Nebentagen)  days  in  which  he  works  for  himself  The  coarse  inso- 
lence of  the  one  ;  the  poverty,  stupidity,  and  indolence  of  the  other,  in  a  great  degree 
proceed  from  this  feudal  relation. 

[Similar  to  the  above  arc  Veit's  observations,  p.  152 :  "  The  effect  of  the  labor  of 
this  kind  of  laborers  is  usually  small,  rarely  worth  the  smallest  wages.  The  feudal 
service  (FrOhn-Dienst),  of  certain  feudal  laborers  (FrOhn-Arbeiter)  bound  to  the 
State,  is  either  changed  into  a  fixed  sum  yearly,  or  is  wholly  remitted." — Tr.] 

14.  He  who  mubt  employ  the  Frohner,  will  do  well  to  cause  every 
species  of  work  in  which  he  can  receive  damage,  either  to  be  executed  by 


10  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

his  own  people  and  teams,  or  to  agree  with  the  Frohner,  as  to  the  quahty 
of  the  work,  and  recompense  them  for  the  greater  exertion  of  their  powers 
by  lessening  the  day's  work.  Less  important  work  must  be  done  by  them 
until  a  just  legislation  has  broken  these  bonds. 

[In  the  preceding  division  of  laborers,  our  Author  has  not  mentioned  slaves  held 
as  the  property  of  their  masters,  of  which  there  is  so  large  a  class  among  the  labor- 
ing force  in  our  country.  There  are  also  other  species  of  laborers,  such  as  inden- 
tured ones ;  which,  with  the  exception  of  wages,  and  the  usually  longer  term  of 
residence,  seem  to  resemble  the  Dienstboten,  as  in  some  respects  do  the  slaves  of 
our  country,  except  that  the  Dienstboten  are  freemen.  There  is  another  mode  of 
labor  which  may  fall  under  the  class  of  those  who  work  by  the  job,  or  the  Stiick- 
arbeiter  of  our  Author.  I  refer  to  those  who  cultivate  land  on  shares,  or  who  under- 
take to  gather  the  harvest,  or  perform  any  other  piece  of  work  on  the  same  principle. 
The  common  mode  of  hiring  laborers  in  our  country  is  by  the  day,  the  week,  month, 
or  year  ;  and  as  in  Germany,  either  with  or  without  board.  Those  who  are  inden- 
tured are  usually  taken  at  an  early  age,  and  are  bound  over,  as  it  is  termed,  by 
certain  indentures  to  the  master  ;  at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  they  are  at  liberty  to  go, 
and  if  they  have  not  broken  their  indentures  by  bad  conduct,  are  usually  entitled  to 
receive  money  or  clothing,  as  the  agreement  may  be.  It  is  frequently  part  of  the 
stipulation  where  this  practice  prevails,  that  the  boy  shall  go  to  school  a  portion 
of  his  time  in  his  earlier  years.  They  are  also  usually  entitled  to  good  treatment, 
instruction  in  the  business  of  the  farm,  and  their  support  and  clothing  while  the 
indentures  last ;  though  in  this  last  respect  there  is  a  difference  of  practice.  The 
exchange  of  labor  among  farmers,  can  perhaps  hardly  be  considered  as  a  particular 
mode  of  labor. — Tr.] 

15.  If  we  know  the  amount  of  labor  which  domestics  (Dienstboten)  and 
day-laborers  can  perform  in  a  given  case,  their  number  in  the  household  can 
be  easily  fixed  beforehand. 

16.  If  horses  are  used  for  labor,  for  every  team,  if  it  consist  of  two  ani- 
mals, one  domestic  is  necessary  ;  though  this  one  can,  not  only  fodder  but 
also  plough  with  and  drive  the  same.  Should  the  team  consist  of  four  or 
more  animals,  one  domestic  will  still  answer  for  foddering  and  taking  care  of 
them,  as  well  as  for  driving  them,  but  he  needs  an  assistant  in  ploughing  and 
harrowing. 

[Veit  says : — "  For  taking  care  of  horses  for  labor,  one  domestic  is  necessary  for 
four  or  five  head,  who  likewise  performs  the  day's  work  with  a  team.  The  prepara- 
tion and  weighing  of  hay,  bundles  of  straw  for  the  horse,  and  the  chopping  of  straw, 
&c.,  are  usually  assigned  to  another  who  works  by  the  job,  or  for  a  smaller  number 
of  horses  is  done  by  the  man  himself"  He  elsewhere  gives  as  a  computation,  that 
one  man  can  in  a  day  bind  and  weigh  out  hay,  in  the  usual  bundles  of  10  or  12  lbs., 
about  from  15  to  25  cwt,  or  from  150  to  250  bundles,  equal  to  from  1800  to  3000 
lbs.— Tr.] 

17.  If  oxen  are  kept  for  labor,  it  is  reckoned  that  one  man  should  pre- 
pare the  fodder  for  from  16  to  20  oxen,  and  could  suitably  attend  to  the 
same.  In  ploughing  with  2  oxen  only,  one  man  is  needed  ;  with  4  or  6 
oxen,  2  men  are  necessary. 

[Veit's  estimate  respecting  the  number  of  oxen  differs  somewhat  from  the  pre- 
ceding one ;  he  says,  p.  156,  "  Of  working  oxen,  one  man  can  usually  attend  eight 
head,  who  is  likewise  employed  during  the  day  with  a  one-yoked  team.  If  there  are 
12  to  20  head  or  more,  one  assistant  is  needed  to  take  care  of  them,  who  also  is  en- 
gaged with  one  spare  team  during  the  day.'  As  with  the  working  horses,  so  too  it 
is  profitable  with  working  oxen,  if  one  can  so  divide  them  among  a  suitable  number 
of  men  for  the  care  and  employment  of  them  in  labor,  that  the  good  keeping  and 
safety  against  injuries  may  be  placed  under  the  special  responsibility  of  the  same 
man  who  usually  labors  with  them."     Thaer  says,  p.  89,  "  For  working  oxen  on  some 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  11 

farms,  lads  are  kept,  and  only  for  24  to  30  oxen  oYie  herdsman,  if  there  is  one  boy 
beside."--TR.] 

18.  If  horned  (or  black  cattle)  are  pastured  according  to  the  different 
locality  of  the  pasture,  one  man  can  take  care  of  from  50  to  100  head  of 
cattle. 

[With  respect  to  pasture,  Veit  observes,  p.  157,  "  As  to  the  herdsmen  on  the  pas- 
ture^ it  must  depend  on  the  condition  of  the  pasture.  In  enclosed  grazing  fields,  one 
persoa  can  take  care  of  a  great  herd.  In  open  unencumbered  extended  pastures, 
oa-e  lierdsman  can  take  care  of  from  50  to  100  head,  and  with  one  assistant  from  200 
to  300  head.  In  wood  pastures  not  enclosed  or  of  narrow  limits  and  not  surrounded 
with  cultivated  fields,  or  on  field-pastures  divided  into  portions,  one  herdsman  with 
only  a  herd  of  from  30  to  40  head  needs  an  assistant." 

So  Thaer,  p.  89,  says,  "  One  cowherd  will  answer  for  from  50  to  60  head  of  cows 
not  only  in  the  pasture — where  with  the  assistance  of  a  good  hound  one  can  keep 
200  head  in  order — but  also  in  the  stall,  if  in  the  cutting  of  straw,  &c.,  in  winter  he  has 
some  help,  and  in  summer  too,  but  in  this  last  case  the-  green  fodder  must  be  mowed 
and  brought."— Tr.] 

19.  In  stall-foddering  in  the  summer,  for  100  head  of  horned  cattle, 
cows  and  oxen  of  the  middling  kind,  three  men  and  one  team  are  required 
to  cut,  gather,  and  carry  home  the  fodder,  and  also  to  litter  and  clean 
out  the  stalls. 

If  one  head  of  full  grown  catde  needs  every  day  in  the  summer  100  lbs.  of  clover, 
for  the  whole  100  head,  100  centners,  or  cwt.  are  daily  necessary ;  this  is  five  or  six 
double-spanned  cart-loads,  which  would  employ  one  team  the  whole  day.  Now  if 
we  suppose  that  of  clover  and  vetches,  of  a  fourth  of  a  klafter,  12  lbs.  of  green  fodder 
should  be  obtained ;  then  one  needs  for  100  cwt.  883  square  klafters,  for  which  a  half 
day's  work  for  mowing,  and  for  raking  and  loading  another  half  day's  work  would 
be  required.  A  third  man  therefore  must  be  fully  occupied  in  httering  and  foddering 
and  cleaning  out  the  stalls. 

[A  klafter  is  about  4^  square  yards,  so  that  883  klafters  are  equal  to  3973  square 
yards,  nearly  1000  yards  less  than  an  acre  of  English  measure.  One  centner,  or 
cwt.,  is  equal  to  about  123  lbs.  English  avoirdupoise  weight. — Tr.] 

20.  In  winter-foddering  it  depends  on  the  kind  of  fodder  whether  a 
greater  or  less  number  of  persons  must  be  employed.  Where  we  fodder 
out  hay  and  uncut  straw,  few  men  are  needed  ;  where  chopped  straw,  &tc. 
(Hacksel)  is  fed  out,  a  greater  or  less  number  of  people  will  be  required 
according  to  the  fineness  of  the  chopped  fodder.  See  Special  Breeding  of 
Cattle,  A.  c.  21. 

{Our  Author  here  refers  to  a  previous  portion  of  his  Manual,  mostly  included  further 
on  in  the  present  treatise :  he  there  says,  "  Hay  as  a  shorter,  thinner  and  moister  body 
is  not  usually  cut ;  and  whoever  fodders  hay  in  the  winter,  as  is  the  case  in  Italy,  in 
many  parts  of  Switzerland,  and  Holland,  has  the  least  trouble  in  taking  care  of  his 
beasts.  Straw  should  always  be  cut,  in  order  to  mix  it  more  easily  with  hay,  and  to 
spare  the  beasts  the  breaking  to  pieces  of  the  long  stalks.  In  our  mountains  in 
Upper  Stiermark,  Tyrol,  and  Salzburg,  where  the  breeding  of  cattle  is  the  principal 
object  of  husbandry,  straw  constitutes  a  very  essential  part  of  the  winter-fodder  of  cattle. 
It  is  cut  from  one  to  two  inches  long,  which  causes  trouble  that  one  must  count  on.  Ge- 
ricke  estimates  that  one  man  in  8  hours  can  cut  31^  metzen  of  Hacksel  at  8|  lbs.: — 
[a  metzen  in  Austria  is  about  1.69,  bushel]  In  Bohemia,  it  is  estimated  that  in 
8  hours  the  fodder-chopper  will  prepare  300  lbs.  of  long  straw  ready  for  seething. 
In  Mecklenburor,  one  herdsman  must  take  care  of  24  head  of  oxen  or  cows,  and  cut 
the  necessary  Hacksel  for  them,  which  must  be  not  longer  than  a  half  an  inch.  An 
industrious  man  who  works  by  the  job  there,  can  cut  in  the  shortest  days  45,  and  in 
Februnry  and  March  60  metzen.  But  the  Hacksel  machines,  driven  by  water  will 
give  in  1  hour  315  lbs.,  f  of  an  inch  long."  See  p,  27. 

21.  For  milking  ten  heifers,  an  hour  is  allowed  ;  of  larger  ones  which 


12  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

give  more  milk,  not  more  than  seven  or  eight  can  be  milked  in  an  hour. 
Hence  the  necessity  of  men  for  this  work  may  be  estimated  accordingly. 

We  usually  assign  one  milkmaid  to  10  cows,  who  can  be  occupied  only  part  of 
the  time,  and  will  therefore  be  at  hand  for  other  work  of  the  household.  In  the  great 
milk  establishments  of  Lombardy,  one  man  is  allotted  to  15  cows,  who  milks 
them,  takes  care  of  their  fodder  or  pastures  them,  and  keeps  the  stall  clean.  Cheese- 
making  is  assigned  to  another,  and  in  this  country  is  a  separate  business  or  pro- 
fession. 

[In  the  Bath  papers.  Vol.  V.,  Art.  VI.  p.  73,  some  experiments  of  Dr.  Anderson 
are  mentioned,  by  which  it  appears  that  the  last  of  a  milking  or  "  afterings,"  "  strip- 
pings,"  or  "  stroakings,"  as  they  are  termed,  contain  more  cream  than  the  first,  in 
the  proportion  of  in  some  cases  sixteen  to  one,  and  never  less  than  eight  to  one ; 
thus  showing  the  great  importance  of  the  cows  being  thoroughly  milked.  Besides 
the  difference  in  quantity,  also  the  difference  in  quality  was  still  greater,  and  the 
same  was  the  case  of  the  milk  remaining  after  the  cream  had  been  separated  from 

it.-TR.l 

22  The  care  of  young  cattle  requires  less  labor,  because  one  man  can 
oversee  a  greater  number  of  them  at  pasture  ;  and  in  stall-foddering  less 
food  is  necessary  than  for  full-grown  cattle. 

23.  Sheep  cause  the  least  labor,  because  they  pasture  all  the  summer, 
and  in  the  winter  the  clearing  out  of  their  stalls  is  not  necessary.  One 
shepherd  with  one  hand  can  easily  tend  500  sheep,  and  will  also  be  suffi- 
cient in  the  winter  if  he  has  an  assistant  at  the  ewing  time. 

So  small  is  the  profit  which  a  single  sheep  yields,  that  it  is  usual  to  have  only 
large  flock  which  gives  a  considerable  profit,  because  pastures  on  fields  left  as  fal- 
low, on  the  common  and  on  the  Alps,  costs  little ;  and  because  too,  in  proportion  to 
their  size,  they  need  less  hay  in  the  winter  than  cows,  and  so  few  men  are  required 
to  take  care  of  them.  If  the  rams  are  foddered  at  home,  or  separate  inclosed  pas- 
tures be  allotted  to  them,  a  single  shepherd  can  tend  the  whole  flock,  even  if  it 
exceeds  500.  If  the  pasture  ground  is  not  too  bushy,  he  might  with  a  dog  keep 
even  700. 

[On  the  subjects  above-mentioned,  the  following  remarks  from  Thaer,  Vol.  IV., 
pp.  272,  273,  may  be  quoted :  "  The  quantity  of  hay  which  is  given  (to  sheep)  is 
very  different.  In  poor  sheep-folds  it  is  considered  much  to  allow  3000  or  4000 
lbs.  of  hay  to  100  sheep  for  a  wintering.  In  better  conducted  ones  7500  lbs.  is 
considered  the  minimum  for  100  sheep :  3^  lbs.  of  dry  fodder  for  a  sheep  daily  are 
necessary,  and  the  greater  proportion  of  this  in  nutritious  hay,  compared  with  dry 
straw  the  better.  Where  hay  is  not  plenty,  it  is  usual  to  have  recourse  to  grain-fod- 
der ;  oats,  rye,  and  barley  are  equally  good  ;  where  peas,  beans,  vetches  are  largely 
cultivated,  these  may  be  used.  The  grains  are  given  them  either  threshed  or  un- 
threshed ;  more  frequently  they  have  the  rough  grain  mixed  with  chaff  and  some- 
what moistened.  It  is  customary  also,  especially  with  the  kernels  of  the  leguminous 
fruits  to  soak  them ;  others  prefer  to  fodder  with  the  pods  strewed  on  Hacksel,  &c." — 
"  Sheep  which  have  daily  If  lbs.  of  hay,  and  1  lb.  of  potatoes,  or  1  lb.  of  hay  and 
2  lbs.  of  potatoes,  and  straw  enough  with  it,  can  be  kept  in  a  well-fed,  wool  and  milk- 
producing  state." — "  Acorns  and  horse-chestnuts  give  a  very  nutritious  fodder  for 
sheep  afllicted  with  the  rot.  They  are  given  1  lb.  a  day,  either  raw  or  after  being 
soaked  some  days,  and  then  dried  in  a  bake-oven,  when  their  shell  cracks  off  and 
they  lose  their  sharp  taste." 

Burger  in  p.  2S4  of  his  2d  volume  says,  "In  summer  stall-foddering,  one  sheep  of 
80  lbs.  weight  must  have  12  to  14  pounds  of  clover-grass  or  vetches."  "  In  winter- 
foddering,  we  reckon  for  the  same  animal  2  lbs.  of  hay,  or  its  equivalent  in  other 
means  of  fodder.  The  experiments  of  Schlieffen  made  Avith  fodder  of  hay  and  rye- 
straw,  potatoes  and  straw,  and  potatoes  and  hay,  prove  that  sheep  produce  as 
much  wool,  if  they  have  I'f  lbs.  of  hay  and  straw,  or  If  lbs.  of  hay  and  straw 
Hacksel,  and  0.11  metzen  (about  l^gall.)  of  potatoes.  Petri  gave  a  sheep  in  the 
morning  If  lb.  of  barley-straw ;  at  noon,  1  lb.  of  hay ;  and  in  the  evening  1^  lb. 
of  r^^e  or  wheat  straw.  According  to  his  latest  experiments,  he  holds  that  33  lbs. 
of  hay,  and  66  lbs.  of  straw  chopped  fine,  with  half  a  metzen  (about  27  quarts)  of 
clover,  and  a  half  metzen  of  oats  and  1  lb.  of  salt,  is  sufficient  daily  for  100  sheep 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 


13 


gelded  sheep  also  should  have,  with  100  lbs.  of  chopped  straw  (Hacksel),  18  lbs.  of 
corn-meal  and  1  lb.  of  salt.  In  most  sheep-folds  they  reckon  100  to  150  lbs.  of  hay- 
to  a  head  for  winter  fodder,"  (beside  other  fodder,  to  be  supplied  by  straw  or  husk- 
fruit.) 

Veit  also  gives  similar  statements.  He  says,  Vol.  I.  p.  157,  "  One  shepherd  can 
take  care  of  200  to  300  full  grown  ewes  with  their  lambs,  or  4  to  600  gelt  sheep,  with 
the  foddering  of  the  same  with  hay  and  straw.  But  if  it  consists  in  part  of  roots 
and  Imob-plants,  which  must  be  cleaned  and  made  finer,  he  needs  for  such  a 
number  of  sheep  one  assistant  The  size  of  a  sheep-fold  depends  on  the  pas- 
ture for  them,  its  condition,  and  on  the  species  of  sheep.  In  inclosed  or  large, 
connected,  wholesome  pasture,  one  shepherd  with  a  well-trained  dog,  can  keep  500 
to  700  sheep,  easier  than  he  could  keep  200  or  300  head  on  narrow  ways  and 
divided  pastures,  between  unfenced  cultivated  fields  and  meadows,  or  in  pastures 
with  many  places  endangering  the  sheep." 

In  Vol.  II.  p.  481,  he  says,  "  The  need  of  fodder  is  proportioned  to  the  live-weight 
of  the  sheep,  and  two  and  a  half  pounds  of  the  value  of  hay  is  required  daily 
for  every  100  lbs.  live-weight,  to  keep  the  animal  in  a  profitable  state.  Hence  tlie 
following  amount  of  fodder  is  required: — 

Need  of  Fodder,  i     Of  which. 


Live  wt.  of. 

Daily. 

Yearly. 

In  Summer. 

Ih  Winter. 

For  a  long  wool  German  sheep,    . 

100  lbs. 

2.5  lbs. 

912  lbs. 

532  lbs. 

380  lbs. 

Do.  rich  wool  infantado,  ) 
"      with  coarse  wool,     ^ 

88  " 

2.2    « 

803  « 

473  " 

330  « 

"        "     moderately  fine,     . 

80  « 

2       « 

730  « 

426  " 

304  « 

"        "     electoral  species, 

75  " 

1.87  « 

682  " 

402  " 

280  « 

"        "     Escurial  electoral, 

62  « 

1.55  " 

566  " 

334  « 

232  " 

«        «     8th  electoral,     . 

66  " 

1.65  " 

602  « 

355  " 

247  " 

On  p.  490,  he  observes :  "  One  person  will  wash  clean  in  one  hour  5  to  6  full- 
grown  merinos,  and  6  to  7  coarse  German  sheep  ;  therefore,  in  a  day  of  9  hours,  of 
the  first  kind  45  tq  54,  and  of  the  latter  from  54  to  63  head.  In  shearing,  on  an  aver- 
age, one  person  without  particular  skill  will  shear  of  merinos  in  a  day :  of  lambs,  35 ; 
yearlings,  30  ;  full-grown,  20  to  25." 

Burger's  estimate  for  shearing  is  not  as  high  as  Veit's,  as  he  says,  "  It  is  esti- 
mated that  a  practised  man  can  shear  daily  20  common  or  15  merino  ewes,  and 
half  as  many  full-grown  rams  or  wethers." 

Petri's  valuable  work,  "  The  keeping,  care,  and  breeding  of  Sheep,"  (Die  War- 
tung,  Pflege  und  Zucht  der  Schafer,)  a  portion  of  a  German  Farmer's  Encyclopedia, 
to  which  Burger  refers  above,  contains  much  information  on  the  subject  of  sheep. 
As  to  the  value  of  the  different  kinds  of  fodder,  he  enumerates  not  less  than  252 
plants  which  sheep  seek  out  and  eat,  also  39  others  which  are  injurious  to  them. 
The  capacity  of  nutriment  of  various  kinds  of  fodder  for  sheep,  he  gives  in  the  fol- 
ing  table  of  equivalents  : — 

Nutritions  matter. 

100  lbs.  of  aromatic  meadow  hay  100  lbs.  of  which  contain    50  lbs. 


are  equal  to  90 
90 
90 
360 
500 
ISO 
200 
200 
200 
200 
190 
200 
190 
300 
180 
200 
200 
200 


clover  hay 

(( 

tender  vetch  hay 

u 

tender  lentil  hay 

u 

wheat  straw 

u 

corn  straw 

it 

barley  straw 

u 

oat  straw 

ti 

pea  straw 

u 

lentil    straw 

u 

vetch  straw 

u 

millet  straw 

u 

horsebean  straw 

« 

artichoke  stalk 

(( 

heath  straw 

« 

chaff 

(( 

potatoes 

u 

cabbage  turnips 

u 

yellow  turnips 

u 

55f 

55f 

55  i- 

14 

10 

27-1 

25 

25 

25 

25 

2QS 

25 

26,^ 


25 
25 
25 


are  equal  to  400 

(( 

white  turnips 

300 

(( 

beets 

500 

(C 

white  cabbage 

82 

(( 

maize 

82 

ii 

wheat 

55 

u 

rye 

61 

(( 

barley 

64 

li 

buckwheat 

71 

u 

oats 

54 

u 

peas 

54 

(( 

vetches 

54 

u 

horse  beans 

83 

a 

wheat  bohl.  (chaff?) 

86 

a 

rye         « 

105 

a 

wheat  bran 

109 

u 

rye  bran 

14  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

NntritioQS  matter. 

100  lbs.  of  aromatic  meadow  hay,  100  lbs.  of  which  contain        50  lbs. 

«  12| 

"  16f 

«  10 

«  95 

«  95 

«  90 

<<  82 

«  73 

«  70 

«  93 

"  93 

«  93 

«  60 

«  58 

«  48 

«  46 

Petri  gives  the  following  as  examples  of  average  of  fodder  for  an  old  sheep  in  the 
month  of  January,  when  the  ewing  time  commences  in  March: 

1.  In  the  morning,  |  lb.  of  good  oat  straw. 

noon,       ^    "   of  good  hay  or  clover, 
evening,  ^    "  of  good  winter  or  barley  straw. 

2.  morning,  f   "  of  millet  straw. 

noon,       2  "  of  potatoes  with  4  oz.  (8  loth,)  of  straw  Hacksel,  and 

8  loth  (4  oz.)  of  oats. 
evening,  I  "  of  straw.    (Barley  straw.) 

3.  morning,  |   "  of  hay. 
noon,        I   "  of  hay. 

evening,  1  "  of  straw,  (wheat,  corn,  oat,  barley,  or  buckwheat  straw.) 

4.  morning,  |   "  of  summer  straw. 

noon,        I  "  of  straw  Hacksel,  with  6  loth  (3  oz.)  oats,  and  6  loth, 

(3  oz.)  of  bran  or  groats,  moistened  with  water, 
evening,  f   "  of  winter  straw. 

5.  morning,  |  "  of  hay. 

noon,        2  "  of  potatoes  with  ^  lb.  of  HackseL 
evening,  f   "  of  v/inter  straw. 

6.  morning,  f   "  of  hay. 
noon,  as  in  No.  4. 
evening,  1   "  of  straw. 

In  the  early  lambing  time,  Petri  also  gives,  as  fodder : 

1.  Morning,  f  lb.  of  hay,  or  second  mowing. 

About  iO  A.  M.,  ^  lb.  of  potatoes  (or  substitute,)  mixed  with  ^Ib.  of 

Hacksel  of  straw. 
About  2  P.  M.,  I  lb    of  hay,  clover,  or  second  mowing. 
Evening,  f  lb.  of  good  straw  fodder. 

2.  Morning,  ^  lb.  of  good  mixed  fodder. 

About  10  A.  M.,  2  lb.  of  potatoes,  with  ^  lb.  of  Hacksel,  or  mixed  wiUi 
clean  oats. 

About2P.  M.,  fib.  ofhay. 

Evening,  ^  lb.  of  winter  straw. 
3*  Morning,  |  lb.  of  millet  straw. 

AboutlO  A.M.,  fib.  ofhay. 

About2P.  M.,  f  lb.  ofhay. 

Evening,  f  lb.  of  winter  straw. 
4;  Morning,  |  lb.  of  hay. 

About  10  A.  INI.,  2  lb.  of  potatoes,  with  HackseL 

About2P.M.,  |lb.  ofhay. 

Evening,  1  lb.  of  winter  straw. 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 


15 


5,  Morning,  |  lb.  of  hay. 

About  10  A.  M.,  I  lb.  of  Hacksel,  with  8  loth  (4  oz.)  of  oats,  and  8 

loth  of  bran,  or  groats  moistened  with  some  water. 
About  2  P.  M.,  I  lb     of  hay. 
Evening,  1  lb.  of  straw. 
He  has  likewise  given  p.  89.  the  following  table  of  Variations  of  Fodder,  which  may 
be  practised  successfully  with  sheep : 


Loth, 

1          Loth, 

iLoth.  , 

Day.  Lbs. 

equal 

Morning. 

jLbs  equal 

Noon. 

Lbs. 

eauiil 

Evening. 

h  oz. 

1           i  oz. 

ioz. 

1 

21 

hay 

21 

hay 

21 

hay 

2 

1 

1 

rye  straw 

1 

22 

hay 

1 

1 

rye  straw 

3 

23 

bean  straw 

26 

vetch  hay 

23 

bean    " 

4 

1 

wheat    " 

1 

sainfoin 

1 

wheat  straw 

5 

1 

6 

oat         « 

21 

hay 

1 

6 

oat          " 

6 

1 

6 

artichoke  stalk 

1 

19 

red  clover 

1 

6 

artichoke  stalk 

7 

1 

8 

turkey  wheat 

1 

12 

luzerne 

1 

8 

turkey  wheat  str. 

8 

1 

8 

b'kwheat  straw 

1 

16 

hay 

1 

8 

b'kwheat  straw 

9 

1 

6 

oat               " 

7 

horse  beans 

1 

6 

oat                " 

10 

19 

red  clover 

19 

red  clover 

19 

red  clover 

11 

18 

sainfoin 

18 

sainfoin 

18 

sainfoin 

12 

1 

6 

millet  straw 

1 

6 

millet  straw 

1 

6 

millet    straw 

13 

30 

lentil  straw 

21 

hay 

30 

lentil             " 

14 

30 

pea  straw 

21 

hay 

30 

3ea               " 

15 

30 

Ijarley    straw 

1 

artichoke  stalk 

30 

mrley          " 

16 

1 

10 

horse  bean  " 

1 

10 

horse  bean  straw 

1 

10 

horse  bean  " 

17 

1 

1 

rye                " 

1 

11 

oat                   " 

1 

1 

rye               « 

18 

1 

3 

wheat           " 

1 

9 

a                        a 

1 

3 

wheat          " 

19 

1 

6 

rye                " 

1 

turkey  wheat 

1 

3 

u            u 

20 

1 

6 

oat                « 

1 

(t          a 

1 

6 

oat               " 

21 

1 

3 

wheat           " 

1 

22 

artichoke  stalk 

1 

6 

U                             li 

22 

30    lentil             « 

30 

vetch  straw 

30 

lentil            « 

23 

1 

6 

oat                "     . 

1 

6 

wheat    " 

1 

6 

oat               " 

Petri  allows  on  an  average  to  a  sheep,  of  hay,  3  to  3^  lbs.  per  head,  and  says : 
"In  the  winter  a  full  grown  sheep  of  70  lbs.  live  weight,  eats,  in  fattening-fodder,  3 
lbs.  of  hay,  or  with  some  hay  3  to  4  lbs.  potatoes,  or  14  to  18  lbs.  of  cabbage  leaves, 
by  which  he  weekly  gains  1^  lbs.  of  flesh  and  wool."  "  The  following  example,  of 
a  slaughtered  sheep  weighing  116  lbs.,  gives  the  proportions  of  the  parts  : 

.       54  lbs. 


Flesh  and  tallow 

Fat  taken  from  the  entrails 

Liver,  lights,  and  milk 

Blood 

Head;  paunch,  and  other  entrails 


5    " 

3    " 

42|« 

112 


Leaving  for  blood  and  waste      4 

Total  116 

24.  Few  swine  are  kept  on  the  usual  farms  which  have  not  marshy  or 
woody  pastures,  or  breweries  or  distilleries,  and  only  then,  when  the  num- 
ber of  full  grown  year-old,  or  more,  of  swine  amount  to  thirty,  beside  pigs, 
will  a  man  be  occupied  the  whole  day  in  feeding  and  taking  care  of  them. 

Our  Author  in  the  2d  vol.  p.  327,  speaks  thus  of  the  mode  of  feeding  swine ;  "The 
summer  feeding  of  swine  consists  either  in  pasture,  or  in  stall-foddering  with  green 
fodder  plants  (soiling),  or  slops  from  the  dairy, brewery  and  distillery." — And,  "If 
swine  only  gain  sufficient  nourishment,  as  they  run  wild  in  the  pastures,  they  must 
grow  well ;  and  they  need  water,  a  pool  in  wdiich  they  can  roll  themselves  in  hot 
weather."  "  If  there  are  no  pastures  for  them,  or  not  sufficient,  they  must  be  foddered 
in  their  yards  with  young  clover,  luzerne,  vetches,  and  buckwheat."    "  Where  they 


16  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

are  nourished  only  with  slops,  their  number  must  be  limited  to  the  quantity  of  tliis 
food  given." 

Veit,  Vol.  I.  p.  158,  says:  ''In  most  cases,  only  so  many  swine  are  kept  as  may 
be  fed  from  the  slops  of  the  dairy,  kitchen,  garden,  and  brewery,  and  can  be  taken 
care  of  by  the  domestics  of  the  kitchen  or  of  milch-cow-stalls.  With  a  greater  ex- 
tension of  this  kind  of  stock,  a  keeper  is  needed  for  from  30  to  50  half-grown  and  full- 
grown  swine,  and  with  an  assistant  he  can  keep  from  60  to  100.  For  pasture,  one 
swine-herd  according  to  the  quality  of  the  same,  can  drive  20  to  40  and  yet  more 
head."  He  says  also,  on  p.  516  of  Vol.  II. ;  "  In  respect  to  the  quality  of  fodder, 
one  head  of  swine  for  100  lbs.  of  live-weight,  uses  3  lbs.  of  hay-value  to  retain  his 
present  state  or  as  conservative-fodder ;  therefore  3.7  to  4.5  lbs.  remains  of  the 
corresponding  results  of  its  use  for  the  gain,  and  6  or  7  lbs.  are  operated  on  with 
profit."— Tr.] 

25.  The  amount  of  labor  which  is  required  in  the  culture  of  plants,  has 
already  been  mentioned  in  the  General  culture  of  plants.  Every  person 
who  has  a  rotation  of  crops  can  compute  how  many  domestics  (Dienst- 
leute)  he  needs,  and  what  will  be  the  cost,  when  he  knows  what  amount 
of  labor  the  sowing,  hoeing,  hilling,  harvesting,  threshing,  cleaning,  mow- 
ing, drying,  and  carrying  home  of  the  different  kinds  of  plants  for  grain, 
for  fodder,  or  for  trade  demand. 

[Veit,  Vol.  I.  p.  163,  has  a  large  number  of  particular  estimates  on  the  number  of 
laborers  and  time  required  for  certain  quantities  of  land  supposed  to  be  tilled.  &c., 
some  of  which  it  may  be  useful  to  subjoin :  "  For  breaking  woodland  with  a  single 
or  double  yoke,  one  man  can  scarcely  prepare  -|  a  morgen  in  a  day.  (A  Bavarian 
morgen  is  about  |-  of  an  acre.)  On  newly  broken  up  land  one  can  go  over  with  a 
roller  from  6  to  8  morgen  (5  to  6  j  acres)  in  a  day.  In  harrowing  it,  he  can  accom- 
plish 3  morgen  (2^  acres)  per  day.  Digging  w^ith  a  spade  ^  to  1  foot  deep  in  loose 
soil,  1  morgen  (f  acre)  w41l  require  30  to  40  days'  work:  in  a  tight  soil  40  to  50 
days'  work :  For  digging  land  to  the  depth  of  two  spades'  length,  or  one  and  a  half 
to  two  feet,  it  will  at  least  double  the  labor ;  hoeing  up  with  a  potato-hoe,  to  the 
depth  of  four  to  six  inches  for  a  morgen,  will  take  from  16  to  20  days'  work.  To 
prepare  holes  for  trees,  &c.,  according  to  the  firmness  of  the  soil  and  the  depth 
and  circumference,  but  of  the  depth  of  two  schuh  (not  quite  t^vo  feet  English  mea- 
sure), and  one  and  a  half  to  two  and  a  half  schuh  diameter,  30  or  40  of  them  is 
a  day's  work.  In  paring  turf  to  the  depth  of  two  to  two  and  a  half  inches,  a  laborer 
with  a  paring  spade  can  do,  for  a  day's  work,  5000  to  6000  square  feet.  With 
a  common  harrow,  a  man  will  go  over  in  a  day,  of  average  soil  6  to  7  morgen  (5  to 
51  acres).  Of  manure,  one  can  break  up  with  a  beetle  about  1  morgen  (or  |  acre) 
per  day. 

In  mowing,  in  an  even  situation,  one  man,  in  a  day,  of  10  hours  work,  will  mow 
1|  to  2  morgen  (1^  to  If  acre),  in  a  richer  grow^th  or  on  uneven  surface,  or  with 
interruptions,  f  to  1  morgen,  (f  to  f  acre) :  In  spreading  hay,  one  person  can  spread 
in  a  half  a  day,  what  three  men  can  mow  in  a  day :  for  turning  the  same  ^  day's 
work  is  necessary ;  for  raking  it  up  and  putting  it  in  heaps  a  ^  day's  work ;  for 
opening  it  ^  day's  work ;  for  spreading  it  out,  4  to  I  day's  work  ;  for  raking  up  ready 
for  loading,  f  day's  work ;  for  a  lesser  growth  usually  three  swaths  are  raked  up 
in  a  row:  for  this  for  1  morgen  (or  |  an  acre)  there  is  needed  for  raking  up  and 
dividing  the  swaths  |  day's  work ;  for  turning,  \  to  f  day's  work ;  for  raking  in  win- 
rows  and  cocking  it  f  ;  for  spreading  it  out  again  5  ;  for  raking  up  for  loading  5  to  | 
day's  work. 

The  labor  of  loading  depends  on  the  hay,  whether  it  is  long  or  short.  It  is  cus- 
tomary to  have  two  persons  for  pitching  up  the  hay,  and  two  for  placing  it  on  the 
load,  and  two  to  rake  after,  for  each  cart.  These  should  load  one  cart-load  of  hay, 
from  18  cwt.  to  20  cwt.,  in  a  good  harvest,  in  45  minutes ;  in  a  moderate  one 
in  1  hour ;  in  a  smaller  one  from  1  hour  12  minutes  to  1  hour  15  minutes.  If  only 
half  the  force  is  used  it  will  take  from  1^  to  If-  of  an  hour.  The  number  of  loads 
carried  must  depend  on  the  distance,  &c.,  close  by,  12  to  16  in  a  day,  at  a  moderate 
distance,  8  to  12,  yet  further  off,  6  to  7  loads. 

In  unloading,  much  depends  upon  the  height,  &c.  If  it  is  to  be  placed  on  a  high 
loft,  there  must  be  two  men  to  unload  18  cwt.  to  20  cwt.,  of  heavy  hay  in  4  to  45 
minutes,  or  if  there  be  but  one  man  he  will  unload  it  in  from  50  minutes  to  1^  hour, 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  17 

whilst  on  a  mow  or  high-raised  floor  two  men  will  unload  1  cart-load  in  20  to  25 
minutes,  and  one  man  will  do  it  in  from  25  to  40  minutes.  For  stowing  away  the 
hay  and  making  it  in  bundles  and  binding  it,  tour,  six,  ten  and  yet  more  persons  are 
needed.  If  it  is  thrown  oh"  into  a  mow,  two  or  at  the  highest  three  persons  are  suffi- 
cient for  the  purpose.  Of  well-arranged  heaps  of  short-prepared  manure,  one  man 
can  easily  load  in  a  day  12  cart-loads  of  1800  to  2400  weight ;  of  that  which 
consists  oi"  long  straw,  scarcely  from  9  to  10  cartloads.  The  labor  of  carrying  it 
out  nmst  depend  on  the  distance,  &-c. ;  near  by  10  or  12  cart-loads  of  one  yoke 
can  be  carried  in  a  day  ;  at  a  moderate  distance  6  to  8  cart-loads;  or  6  to  SOOO  feet 
off,  3  to  4  cart-loads,  b'or  unloading,  one  man  can  unload  30  to  45  loads  in  a  day, 
when  he  can  keep  steadily  engaged  in  this  labor.  If  the  manure  is  placed  in  rows 
20  feet  from  one  another,  and  the  heaps  in  each  row  the  same  distance  from  each 
other,  and  there  be  8  heaps  to  a  20  cwt.  load,  there  will  be  100  heaps  on  a  morgen, 
or  12-^-  loads  or  250  cwt."  (It  is  mentioned  in  the  British  Husbandry  that  of  heaps  of 
manure  there  are 

,at  5  yds.  distance,  193  per  acre.  at  7  yds.  distance,  98  per  acre, 

at  5^  yds.       "         160  per  acre.  at  7^  yds        "  86  per  acre, 

at  6  yds.         "         134  per  acre.  at  8  yds.         "        75  per  acre, 

at  6. J  yds.  "  114  per  acre. 
Allow  a  cubic  yard  to  contain  the  solid  contents  of  27  bushels,  and  the  computation  ia 
easily  made.)  '  To  spread  these  heaps  of  short  manure,  one  person  will  spread  in  a 
day  14  to  18  two-yoked  cartdoads,  and  of  the  less  perfectl)^  prepared  strawy  or  cloddy 
kind,  10  to  12  cart  loads.  Of  compost,  marl,  and  earthy  manure,  on  account  of  the 
greater  weight,  there  is  needed  for  one  morgen  as  many  as  25  to  30  two-yoked  cart- 
loads. One  person  will  load  in  a  day  8  to  10  cart-loads,  and  spread  about  S  loads. 
Of  the  dust  or  powdery  kinds,  as  gypsum,  ashes,  lime,  &c. — which  must  be  spread 
broadcast — a  man  w^ill  spread  4  to  6  morgen  (.=  3^  to  5  acres).  If  stall  manure  or 
compost  is  to  be  laid  in  holes  made  for  seed,  there  will  be  from  10  to  16  000  holes  for 
1  morgen  (or  ^-  of  an  acre),  and  for  this  two  and  a  half  to  three  and  a  half  persona 
are  requisite  in  a  day.  For  fd'ing  water-vats  or  holes  by  pumps  one  laborer  is 
allowed  for  75  to  100  eimcrsin  a  day  (one  eimer  is  about  15  gallons).  A  vat  full  of 
water  containing  from  10  to  12eimersror  a  one-yoked  load  weighs  14  to  10  cwt.,  and 
one  of  16  eimers  for  a. two-yoked  load  20  to  23  cwt. 

''  For  laying  potatoes  in  planting  five  or  six  persons  are  required  for  three-horse 
ploughs ;  for  ox-ploughs  which  are  less  expeditious,  four  to  five  persons  are  suffi- 
cient for  the  same  purpose.  One  person  in  laying  potatoes  will  average  1  morgen 
(■}  of  an  acre)  with  2^  to  4  schiiifel  of  potatoes  (  a  schaffel  in  Bavaria  lis  about°6| 
bushels).  One  person  makes  the  holes,  another  drops  the  potatoes,  and  the  first 
covers  them  :  two  persons  in  this  way  will  plant  0.4  morgen  (^  an  acre),  or  five  per- 
sons one  morgen  (  =  4  acre).  Of  the  seeds  of  maize,  beets,  poppy  and  sunflower, 
laid  in  holes  made  with  the  hand-hoe  and  manured  with  compost,  three  to  four  per- 
sons will  sow  in  one  day  1  morgen  (=  |  acre).  In  sowing  the  usual  grains,  one 
man  will  sow  in  a  day,  with  a  cast  of  suitable  breadth,  say  of  from  14  to  16  schuh 
(=  about  as  many  feet),  from  12  to  16  morgen  (=  10  to  13|  acres)  with  6  to  9 
schaflel  r=  37  to  56  bushels) ;  on  10  or  12-furrowed  beds  with  a  cast  of  7  to  10  or 
12  schuh,  9  to  12  morgen  (=  7^  to  10  acres),  with  5  to  8  schaffel  (=31.115  to  49.8 
bushels)  ;  at  a  less  cast  7  to  9  morgen  (5:^  to  7j  acres)  with  4  to  7  schaflfel  (=  25 
to  43^'  bushels\  and  with  less  sized  seed,  as  of  turnips,  clover,  cabbage,  &c.,  broadcast, 
8  to  10  morgen  (=  6j  to  8^  acres).  In  marking  out  the  breadth  of  the  casts  one 
man  will  mark  out  in  a  day  from  30  to  40  morgen  (=  25  to  33^  acres).  In  hocino- 
plants  with  a  hand  hoe  in  a  day  six  to  eight  persons  are  necessary  for  1  morgen 
(=  c  acre). 

"  If  plants  that  were  sown  broadcast  require  to  be  weeded,  sixteen  to  twenty  persona 
are  needed  for  1  morgen  ( -  acre)  in  a  day.  If  in  rows  of  fallow  fruit  or  such  aa 
are  to  be  weeded  in  only  particular  parts,  four  to  eight  persons  will  be  sufficient  for  a 
morgen  (\  acre).  Thinning  out  grain,  one  person  in  a  day  can  do  from  1  to  2  mor- 
gen (^  to  1,"  acre).  In  rea]dng  with  a  sickle,  one  person  can  cut  in  a  day  with  hin- 
derances  during  his  work,  from  its  being  lodged  or  in  a  very  thick  state,  or  when  the 
grain  falls  out  easily,  0.25  to  0.30  of  a  morgen  (i  to  ^  of  an  acre) ;  and  in  a  pro- 
per state  of  the  grain  without  hinderances,  6.50  to  0.75  -,^.-  to  ^  of  an  acre  ;  on  an 
average,  0.40  to  0.50  morgen  (^  to  ^o-  of  an  acre).  To  1  morgen,  therefore  (5- 
acre),  are  required,  at  the  least  rate,  1^,  at  the  highest 4,  and  on  an  avernge  2^ 
reapers.  With  a  scythe,  in  one  day,  a  nnwer  for  grain  must  be  allotted  to'' from 
1^  to  1|  morgen  (l-^^^-  to  If^  acres.).     Of  the  leguminous  fruits,  peas,  vetches  and 

3 


18  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

lentils,  one  man  cannot  mow  in  a  day  more  than  0.75  of  a  morgen  (f  of  an  acre). 
Of  the  harvest  of  grain,  one  person  in  a  day  can  turn  on  an  average  3  morgen 
(2^  acres).  In  binding  the  sheaves,  if  one  person  braids  the  bands,  eight  persons 
in  1  hour  can  make  up  240  sheaves,  and  thus  in  a  day  of  10  hours'  labor,  2400 ; 
and  one  person  can  make  up  300,  or  5  shocks  of  60  sheaves  each.  The  bands  are 
usually  made  of  winter  rye,  (which  is  best  and  longest,)  and  for  want  of  this,  of 
summer  rye  or  wheat  straw.  One  person  in  a  day  can  prepare  from  15  to  20  shocks, 
and  from  each  shock  of  rye-straw  can  be  made  bands  for  30  to  40  shocks  =  1800  to 
2400  bands.  In  setting  up  7  to  9  sheaves  together,  and  covering  with  a  larger  sheaf, 
binding  the  whole  with  a  band,  one  person  can  set  up  400  to  600  sheaves,  or  6  to  10 
shocks  in  a  day  ;  or  imveather-housing—i.  e.  laying  sheaf  on  sheaf  horizontally,  with 
the  stubble-end  westward — 10  to  20  or  more  together,  covered  with  an  out-spread 
sheaf;  or  in  cross-heapiriir,  laying  it  crosswise,  so  that  the  ears  of  the  sheaf  may  be 
always  towards  the  middle,  and  covered  one  by  another,  and  protected  on  top  by  a 
sheaf— one  man  can  arrange  thus  in  a  day's  work  from  600  to  800  sheaves.  In 
stacking  up  the  sheaves  regularly,  200  to  300  sheaves  so  arranged  will  make  one 
day's  work.  In  loading  up  grain,  1  cart  with  two  persons  to  pitch  on  and  two  to  place 
the  sheaves  received  on  the  cart,  from  5  to  6  cart-loads,  or  650  to  780  sheaves  are  a  day's 
work.  In  carrying  in,  according  to  the  distance  of  the  field  from  the  barn,  8, 12, 16  cart- 
loads of  from  120  to  150  sheaves  may  be  considered  a  day's  work.  For  unloading 
grain,  12  to  15  cart-loads  can  be  unloaded  by  one  person  in  a  day.  For  threshing, 
including  cleaning  and  storing  away  the  grain,  allowing  8  to  9  hours  for  work  per 
day,  one  man  may  prepare  of  winter-wheat,  vetches,  summer-wheat,  or  rye,  or 
millet,  or  buckwheat,  2  to  3  metzen:  (as  a  metzen  of  Bavaria  is  1.037,  or  a  little 
more  than  1  English  bushel,  therefore  equal  to  2  or  3  bushels  ;)  of  winter-speltz,  from 
8  to  9  metzen  ;  of  winter-barley,  summer  do.,  peas,  3  to  4  metzen  ;  of  oats,  3  to  4^ 
metzen  ;  of  lentils,  1^  to  2^  metzen  ;  of  beans,  4  to  5  metzen  ;  of  maize  or  Indian 
corn,  from  6  to  8  metzen ;  of  rape-seed,  5  to  6  metzen."  Loudon  says,  that  one  man  will 
thresh  in  England  from  1  to  1^  of  a  quarter  of  barley,  from  1^  to  2  quarters  of  oats, 
or  about  2  in  a  day.  This  probably  does  not  include  cleaning,  &c.,  and  the  amount 
of  labor  of  a  laborer  in  a  day  in  England,  is  greater  than  in  Germany.  It  is  also  pos- 
sible that  the  metzen  above  referred  to,  is  the  Austrian  one,  equal  to  If  bushel. 
The  above  computations  of  labor  have  been  m^ade  by  persons  of  great  accu- 
racy, from  numerous  experiments,  and  show  the  degree  of  labor  required  in  Ger- 
many in  the  economical  conduct  of  their  farms,  where  this  forms  a  branch  of  the 
science  of  husbandry ;  but  they  may  not  be  entirely  accurate  for  this  country, 
where  the  implements  of  labor  are  more  perfect,  and  the  physical  power  as  well  as 
skill  are  considerably  greater.  I  have  been  unable  to  find  in  Loudon  or  other  Enghsh 
works  at  my  command,  scarcely  any  similar  estimates,  though  they  form  a  part  of 
all  the  German  agricultural  Manuals.  Loudon  speaks  of  their  utility,  but  furnishes 
next  to  none.  Thaer  includes  in  his  estimates  females,  who  are  also  out-door  laborers  in 
Germany.  Thus  he  says.  Vol.  I.  p.  92 :  "  In  spreading  manure,  one  woman  will  spread 
daily  -fg-  to  -fV  of  a  yoke  (about  f  to  f  of  an  acre),  one  man  |  to  |^  of  a  yoke  (f- 
to  1^  acres).  One  man  will  sow  daily  6|  to  7  yokes  (9^  to  10  acres).  In 
harvesting,  one  person  will  mow  1^  yoke  (equal  to  1  ,\-  acre),  and  one  woman  will 
gather  and  bind  4  yoke  (equal  to  about  1^  acre).  With  a  sickle,  one  person  will  reap 
on  an  average  ^  of  a  yoke  (equal  to  |  of  an  acre).  In  mowing  clover,  if  the  ground 
is  even,  one  man  will  mow  1^  yoke,  (equal  to  l-,^y-  acre),  which  another  can  make 
into  hay  at  the  rate  of  1|-  yoke  (equal  to  2^  acres)  per  day."  It  should  be  recol- 
lected that  in  these  estimates  neither  the  minimum  nor  the  maximum  is  attempted 
to  be  given,  but  the  general  average  which  may  be  considered  an  economical  expen- 
diture of  labor. — Tr.] 

26.  The  amount  of  labor  which  the  support  of  fences  requires,  is  very 
different  according  to  the  kind  of  fencing,  as  well  as  that  of  the  procuring  of 
litter,  if  taken  from  woods,  bogs,  or  heather. 

[In  Germany  much  of  their  land  is  unfenced,  the  lots  being  separated  only  by  lines 
or  spaces  marked  out,  or  by  the  different  crops.  This  is  owing  in  many  places 
to  the  want  of  proper  material ;  in  others  it  is  adopted  from  choice.  Their  writers 
have  discussed  the  disadvantages  and  advantages  of  fencing,  in  an  economical  point 
of  view.  Thaer,  gives  the  former,  in  substance  as  follows:  1.  They  take  up  some 
room,  which  on  a  good  soil  is  worth  considerable.  2.  They  hinder  the  drying  of 
the  soil  and  cause  that  it  be  less  early  planted.     3.  They  occasion  snow-drifts  in 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  19 

winter,  which  remain  long  and  hinder  cultivation.  4.  They  furnish  a  bed  for 
weeds,  which  cannot  be  eradicated  under  them,  and  thus  are  propagated  in  the 
fields.  5.  They  furnish  a  resting-place  for  insects  and  birds,  &c.  6.  They  are  in 
the  way  of  cultivation  in  ploughing,  &c.  7.  They  hinder  the  passage  from  one  field 
to  another,  so  that  often  a  great  circuit  must  be  made  to  get  at  fields  bordering  on 
them.  8.  If  made  with  ditches,  they  are  often  injurious  from  the  standing  water,  &c. 
On  the  other  hand  he  points  out  the  benefits  :  i.  Universal  experience  shows  that 
inclosed  fields  have  the  greatest  fertility ;  this  is  owing  to  a  number  of  reasons ; 
fences  keep  in  the  warmth,  &c.  2.  They  protect  cattle  as  well  as  plants  from  rough 
winds.  3.  They  retain  moisture,  which  is  more  beneficial  than  prejudicial.  4.  The 
space  they  occupy  as  hedges,  is  more  than  counterbalanced  by  furnishing  wood,  &c. 
The  result  of  the  comparison,  he  states  to  be : — 1.  In  moist  soils,  the  soil  may  be  injured 
by  fences,  from  the  long  retention  of  moisture  ;  for  all  dry  sandy  soils  they  are  very 
advantageous.  2,  If  the  land  is  to  be  continually  kept  under  the  plough  and  yearly 
planted,  their  advantage  is  less,  and  may  be  overbalanced  by  the  lodgment  they 
give  to  weeds,  &c.  3.  If  the  field  is  to  be  used  as  a  pasture  or  fodder-field  for  a  rmmber 
of  years,  their  advantages  far  outbalance  their  disadvantages,  as  they  protect  the 
cattle,  &c.  The  different  kinds  are  living  and  dead  fences  :  dead,  are  walls  in  whole 
or  part  of  stone  or  earth,  rails  and  posts,  &.c. ;  hving  fences,  are  hedges,  trees  planted 
and  rails  inserted,  &c.  Various  plans  have  been  suggested  as  to  fencing  the  prairie 
lands  of  our  country  most  economically,  both  as  regards  outlay  of  labor  and  money, 
&c.,  but  none  seems  to  promise  equal  success  with  that  proposed  by  the  Hon.  H.  L. 
Ellsworth,  Commissioner  of  Patents,  and  described  in  his  last  Report,  for  the  year 
1842.  By  this  plan,  there  is  a  great  saving  of  timber,  and  the  mode  practised  is  one 
which  requires  no  peculiar  skill,  while  the  implements  are  simple  and  cheap.  It  has 
also  been  tried  and  found  to  answer  the  purpose. — Tr.] 

b. —  OF   THE    LABOR    OF    BEASTS. 

1.  Our  usual  beasts  of  labor  are  horses  and  oxen ;  less  so  hulls  and 
cows. 

Why  bulls  are  rarely  employed  for  labor,  and  in  what  circumstances  they  may 
serve  for  this  purpose,  we  have  already  indicated  while  treating  of  the  use  of  horned 
cattle.  Asses  are  sometimes  indeed  employed  in  Germany  on  farms,  but  nowhere  for 
the  cultivation  of  land,  but  only  for  drawing  or  carrying  moderate  loads. 

[Our  Author's  remarks,  to  which  he  alludes,  in  Vol.  II.  p.  252,  are  as  follows :  "  Be- 
sides being  employed  for  breeding  and  for  her  milk,  the  cow  is  also  used  for  draught, 
but  only  as  a  helper  in  need,  and  not  for  any  length  of  time  ;  the  laboring  cow  must 
have  more  fodder  than  others,  and  will  give  less  milk."  "  The  employment  of  the 
cows  for  ploughing  and  other  labors  of  draught,  appears  to  be  profitable  only  in 
very  small  farms,  which  beside  two  cows  are  able  to  keep  no  other  cattle ;  there  the 
loss  of  the  milk  may  be  made  up  by  the  labor  afforded,  but  the  labor  must  be  reck- 
oned higher  than  on  great  farms,  because  horses  or  oxen  must  be  hired,  and  they 
are  not  always  to  be  procured  when  desired."  Of  the  bull  also  he  speaks  on  p. 
253 :  "  The  bull  cannot  be  used  to  advantage  as  a  beast  of  draught,  because  in  the 
early  period,  when  employed  as  a  coupling  bull,  he  is  too  young  and  too  weak  for 
hard  work  ;  but  later  when  no  more  employed  as  a  coupler,  he  might  render  good 
service  as  a  beast  of  draught,  being  first  castrated  to  make  him  tamer,  and  easier  af- 
terwards for  fatting.  The  bull  is  usually  of  a  very  lively,  and  if  not  used  with  care 
and  kept  tame,  of  a  wild  temperament,  which  cannot  be  yoked  and  will  not  be 
guided  at  pleasure." 

Ho  WITT,  in  his  Rural  Life  of  Germany,  as  well  as  other  travellers,  speaks  of  the 
employment  of  the  cow  as  a  beast  of  labor.  Veit.  in  Vol.  II.  p.  404,  says,  "  Cows 
are  employed  in  Bavaria  for  work  only  on  farms  which  are  too  small  to  keep  and 
employ  fully  a  single  yoke  of  cattle  for  labor.  In  Austria,  they  are  used  for  labor  on 
many  large  farms  with  the  best  results.  They  perform  not  much  less  than  working 
oxen,  and  in  respect  to  the  loss  ofmilk,  by  being  strengthened  in  labor,  it  is  of  far  less 
consequence  than  many  imagine,  and  not  less  or  not  much  less  than  is  the  case  on 
remote  or  lean  meadows  without  labor,  if  otherwise  they  have  the  necessary  indul- 
gence, and  food,  and  care  ;  especially  if  they  are  used  m  a  team  which  is  changed, 
and  as  far  as  possible  for  the  lighter  kinds  of  work." 

2.  Whethei  it  is  better  to  use  horses  or  oxen  in  prosecuting  the  business 


20  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

of  the  farm,  one  can  determine  for  himself,  if  he  knows  the  cost  of  their 
keeping,  and  the  amount  of  labor  which  they  will  perform  in  a  given 
time. 

3.  Those  beasts  of  labor  are  for  the  time  the  most  profitable  which 
yield  for  the  business  of  the  household  the  necessary  labor  at  the  least 
expense  of  keeping  them. 

4.  Since  ths  support  of  horses  and  oxen  occasion  not  equally  great  ex- 
pense, and  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  climate  is  better  adapted  sometimes 
to  one  and  sometimes  to  the  other  kind  of  beast,  therefore  it  is  most  profita- 
ble sometimes  to  keep  horses  and  sometimes  oxen. 

5.  In  dry  plains,  where  there  is  less  growth  of  grass,  no  pastures,  or 
poor  ones,  or  short  grass,  and  only  a  few  sour  meadows,  it  is  more  profita- 
ble to  use  horses  than  oxen. 

[By  smir  meadows,  are  meant  those  where  the  water  saturates  the  soil  without 
covering  its  surface,  and  where  instead  of  sweet  grasses  the  coarse  bog-grass, 
&c.,  ta!<es  their  place ;  and  that  hay  which  thus  grows  on  bog-Ian  J  is  called  sour 
hay.— Tr.'J 

6.  Whore  the  growth  of  the  grass  is  favored  by  the  climate  and  soil, 
with  a  sufficient  extent  of  pasture  and  meadow,  the  labor  of  oxen  costs  less 
than  that  of  horses. 

Horses  will  do  well  on  sour  hay,  but  oxen  poorly :  horses  need  only  some  sweet 
hay,  if  they  are  also  furnished  with  straw  and  grain ;  oxen  require  a  greater  quan- 
tity, and  where  hay  is  costly,  to  feed  them  in  the  stall  over  the  summer  with  fodder, 
as  regards  the  labor  it  requires,  is  dearer  than  that  of  horses.  Where  one  has  suita- 
ble pTistures,  and  the  oxen  can  be  kept  cheaply  on  them  after  the  spring  sowing,  or 
where  one  has  suilicient  meadows,  and  the  raising  of  plants  for  fodder  yields  a  sure 
and  great  product,  oxen  will  furnish  the  given  labor  at  the  least  cost. 

[In  regard  to  the  points  embraced  in  the  preceding  paragraphs,  and  the  question 
of  the  comparative  cheapness  of  horses  for  labor,  there  seems  considerable  diversity 
among  ditlerent  writers.  The  amount  of  labor  is  a  subject  which  will  be  considered 
by  and  by,  as  also  the  difference  of  original  cost,  &c.  The  cost  of  keeping,  &c.,  has 
been  examined  closely  by  Thaer,  Veit,  and  others.  The  points  here  are.  Which 
requires  the  most  costly  food  in  kind,  which  the  greatest  amiount,  and  which 
the  most  care  and  labor  in  feeding?  &c.  I  shall  quote  somewhat  largely  on 
these  and  collateral  points  from  these  authors,  and  the  more  so  as  they  have  never 
been  translated  into  English,  and  many  of  their  experiments  have  been  unknown 
among  the  farmers  of  our  country.  With  reference  to  the  keeping  of  horses, 
Thaer,  Vol.  I.  p.  76,  says,  "In  respect  to  the  cost  of  keeping  the  horse,  the  ibl- 
iowing  things  are  to  be  considered.  The  usual  grain-fodder  is  oats,  and  many  hold, 
that  ifonly  will  answer.  But  it  is  certain  that  any  other  grain,  given  in  the  proper 
way,  in  proportion  to  its  nuiritiousness,  is  useful  and  healthful.  The  husk-fruits,  peas, 
beans,  and  vetches,  are  unusually  well  adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  horse,  and  sur- 
pass, on  account  of  their  preferable  nutritiousness,  even  the  grains.  The  most  profit- 
able fodder  for  horses,  therefore,  is  that  which  in  proportion  to  its  nutritious  power  is 
cheapest  at  any  given  time.  They  stand  in  the  following  proportions :  Oats  =  5 ; 
barley  =  7  ;  rye  =  9  ;  wheat  =  12 ;  husk  fruits  =  10  or  11.  Together  with  grain, 
horses  should  have  hay,  which  is  very  nutritious,  and  chopped  straw,  which  serves 
only  for  tlie  demand  of  mastication  and  filling  the  stomach,  but  in  a  dry  state 
very  little  for  special  nutriment.  Accordingly,  as  the  hay  is  increased,  the  grain 
may  be  diminished,  and  vice  versa.  In  more  rapid  and  stronger  labor,  an  in- 
crease of  grain  fodder  compared  with  hay  is  desirable:  but  in  more  enduring  labor 
an  increase  of  hay,  according  to  experience,  is  more  profitable.  In  the  whole,  grain 
makes  the  horse  stronger,  hay  makes  him  more  fleshy.  A  moderate-sized,  common 
working-horse,  needs  on  an  average  through  the  whole  year,  daily  9}  lbs.  or  2^ 
messen''(=  about  7f  quarts)  of  good  oats.  Together,  with  this  he  requires  9^  lbs. 
of  hay,  in  order  to  keep  him  in  usual  strength  for  contiimous  labor.  Further,  straw- 
hacksel  is  given  between  the  grain,  which  one  increases  or  diminishes  according 
as  he  gives  more  or  less  hay. 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  21 

The  yearly  fodder  therefore  is : 

62  metzen  of  oats,  =  105  bushels. 
3330  lbs.  of  hay. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  a  horse  may  be  kept  in  full  power  without  any  grain  by  such 
means  of  tbdler  as  cost  the  farmer  less;  in  the  summer,  with  green  clover,  vetches, 
&c. ;  in  the  winter,  wit-h  potatoes,  carrots,  and  other  dirferent  nutritious  root-plants. 
Tlie  success  oi'this  method  of  feeding  is  by  many  great  experiments  placed  beyond 
all  doubt;  and  according  to  its  introduction  the  question  between  oxen  and  horses 
will  probably  become  the  more  important." 

Again  Vol.  IV.  p.  2S6  he  says  on  the  same  subject:  "The  most  common  and 
principal  food  for  horses  is  grain,  and  usually  oats  is  the  most  suitable.  When  otlier 
grains  are  fed  out  in  proportion  to  their  nutritiousncss  with  fine  Hacksel  which  ta!<es 
the  place  of  pulse  with  oats,  a  careful  observer  cannot  see  the  slightest  ditference. 
Most  usually  rye  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  oats.  The  unground  barley,  is  decried 
by  some  because  it  is  in  a  great  degree  voided'  undigested;  but  by  others  it  is  very 
much  praised.  Wheat,  we  rarely  meet  as  food  for  horses,  and  some  have  Ibund  it 
very  injurious  where  they  have  been  forced  to  use  it  but  on  closer  investigation  this 
appears  to  me  to  be  ov/ing  to  their  not  using  it  mixed  with  Hacksel,  without  which 
indeed  it  very  easily  sticks  up  (verkleistert)  the  stomach.  I  have  ^ed  it  out — but 
mixed  with  Hacksel— with  t'le  best  results."  -  With  good  o  its  for  a  firm  horse  of 
moderate  size,  we  reckon  daily  3  miVssl  (^=  9|  quarts)  or  8  lbs,  of  oits  if  he  has 
also  7  lbs.  of  hay ;  and  this  on  an  average  will  keep  the  horse  in  a  fair  condi.'ion  :  in 
unusaal  labors  it  must  be  increased ;  smaller  horses  need  only  2  massl,  and  a  large 
one  at  least  4  or  5  miissl  (or  nearly  13  to  17  quarts)." 

'•  The  greater  part  of  horses  have  hay  with  grain  feed  and  some  hay  entirely." — 
*'  For  the  most  part  we  consider  7  lbs.  of  hay  equal  to  one  massl  (or  3 1  quarts) 
of  oats,  and  so  as  to  weight  they  are  as  8  :3." — "  The  very  nutritious  low-meadow 
hay,  •  as  also  young  clover,  luzerne,  and  sainfoin-hay,  is  doubtless  stronger, 
and  is  as  7:  3;  the  coarse  stalk  as  9 :  3.  But  it  is  generally  observed  that  if  corn- 
fod  ler  is  supplied  by  more  hay,  the  horse  will  be  in  better  fl^sh  and  more  enduring 
for  labor."  -  Whether  green  stall-fodder  of  clover,  &c..  is  good  for  a  horse  all  do 
not  agree. — I  am  convinced  that  if  properly  managed  the  horse  will  be  Icept  sound 
and  in  full  power.  The  change  from  dry  to  green-fodder  must  be  gradual.  At  first 
clover  must  be  cut  up  with  straw,  one  portion  a  day.  then  two  portions  given  in  the 
place  of  oats,  then  clover  if  it  is  in  full  blossom,  as  much  as  he  will  eat,  anvl  withdraw 
the  grain  altogetlier.  To  give  grain  between  green-fo.hler.  is  very  poor  manage- 
ment, because  it  is  voided  without  being  digested.  If  any  one  wishes  to  connect 
grain  as  food  with  green-fod.ler.  it  should  be  given  the  first  thing  in  the  morning; 
and  during  the  whole  forenoon  give  him  nothing  green  and  no  more  grain  during 
the  day." — '•  The  most  suitable  and  beneficial  root-fodder  for  horses  are  r^arrots, 
which  have  been , washed,  and  pounded  or  cut  coarsely  at  the  rate  of  12  massl 
(equal  to  39  quirts),  with  about  7  lbs.  of  hay  per  day.  and  sufficient  straw." 

Veit's  opinions  are  found  in  his  2d  volume,  pp.  334-333.  &c.  He  says:  '-To 
decide  tlie  relative  value  of  the  domestic  beasts  for  farming  operations  their  indivi- 
dual peculiarities  must  be  estimated  in  respect  to  tlieir  y  ossible  performance  for  the 
objects  of  the  liusbandman.  and  on  the  condition.^  or  requirements  of  their  corres'-ond- 
ing  Hunpo-t.  because,  from  their  peculiarities  are  derived  their  use  and  necpssity ; 
and  frequently  their  nature  is  opposed  to  the  locahties  of  the  farm  ;  hence  observa- 
tion must  be  directed  partly  to  emploj?-  the  natural  peculiarities  of  the  beasts  acconl- 
ing  to  the  highest  use  of  the  demands  of  the  husbandman,  and  partly  to  modi'V  them 
accorling  to  the  same;  therefore  to  find  the  medium  course,  or  the  most  r^roft^ible 
relation  between  the  highest  result  of  their  use  and  the  least  expensp."  *'  The  nour- 
ishment of  horses  demands  the  greatest  expense  because  the  cost  of  the  fodder  com- 
prises the  larijest  part  of  the  expense  of  the  keeping  of  the  domcsti:".  anininls.  and 
rjecause  es])ecially  horse-fodder  is  very  costly  on  account  of  the  usual  choice  of  the 
grain-tluits." 

"  By  means  of  his  masticatory  organs,  indeed,  the  horse  can  work  over  and  rr^^^^e 
for  digestion,  t'le  nutritious  matter  in  the  mouth  more  than  the  ruminating  nrimnls; 
but  he  USPS  also  for  it  more  saliva  to  the  richpr  spcretion  of  which,  thereforp.  the 
more  solid  materials  of  fool  must  be  provided  for  the  horse,  durinq-  the  masti^nt.ion 
of  v/hich  the  salivary  sflnnds  o^the  mouth  furnish  the  nep.essary  snliva  for  mi'^frling 
with  the  food.  Too  moist  and  especially  too  wntprv  arti-^-les  of  fo.llpr  dimi'^ish  the 
excitement  of  the  salivary  elands,  antl  too  great'y  dihite  the  other  iui-^ps  of  the  orjans 
of  digestion.     B'odder  with  too  great  volume  agrees  least  of  all  with  him,  because  the 


22  ECONOMY  OF  FARxMING. 

stomach  of  the  horse  is  in  proportion  smaller  than  in  the  ruminating  animals,  and 
because  in  consequence  of  their  natural  eagerness  to  take  all  the  means  of  nutri- 
ment, the  more  voluminous  and  harder-digested  materials  of  fodder  have  not  time 
for  digestion.  Hence  it  is  that  such  fodder  is  little  prepared,  and  goes  off  again  as  the 
excrements  show.     Of  the  different  materials  of  fodder,  the  preference  is  given  to, — 

1.  The  Grains,  because  they  are  nutritious,  easily  digested,  solid,  and  have  a  small 
volume.     Among  these  are  highest, 

(a.)  Oats,  the  sohd  husk  of  which  requires  a  stronger  grinding,  and  which  contain 
httle  a(ih;>-\  e  substance,  is  therefore  more  easily  digestible,  and  possesses  a 
pecuhar  aiia  acceptable  taste. 

(b  )  Beans, 

(c.)  Vetches  and  lentils.     Less  usual  are 

(d.)  Barley,  buckwheat,  maize  and  rye. 

2.  Hay,  must  be  given  with  the  richer  grain-fodder  to  fill  the  stomach.  Yet  rarely 
is  the  whole  need  of  fodder  obtained  from  hay,  because  the  volume  therein  for  nutri- 
ment is  too  great  for  the  stomach  of  the  horse.  To  the  voluminous  materials  of 
fodder  must  be  given  at  least  a  third  part  of  fodder  of  the  value  of  hay  in  less  volu- 
minous grains,  or  juicy  plants. 

3.  Since  the  nourishing  power  of  straw  is  contained  in  a  greater  volume  than  in 
hay,  and  it  is  also  hard  to  dissolve,  therefore,  as  contrary  to  the  peculiarity  of  the 
organs  of  digestion  of  the  horse,  it  should  rarely  be  given  for  the  principal  fodder, 
but  always  as  an  auxiliary  fodder,  cut  small  (Hacksel)  with  hay.  Where  the  grain 
is  good  and  the  hay  has  not  sufficient  consistency,  the  straw  Hacksel  serves  especially, 
for  establishing  the  requisite  proportions  of  the  solid  and  voluminous  nutritious  matter, 
to  the  moist  and  more  powerful  with  less  volume.  How  hardly  otherwise  the  horse 
digests  straw  his  excrements  show,  in  which  the  straw  Hacksel  is  very  often  found 
unconsumed.     Of  the  different  straw,  oat  is  best. 

4.  The  green  fodder  has  opposed  to  it  the  disadvantage  of  the  large  volume-,  the 
want  of  consistency,  and  the  long  time  which  working  horses  need  to  take  a  sufii- 
ciency  for  their  nourishment.  But  as,  if  it  consists  of  meadow  grass  and  clover,  it 
belongs  to  the  cheapest  materials  of  fodder,  therefore  one  employs  Tvith  tlie  i?reatest 
advantage  f  to  f  of  the  demand  for  nutriment  of  it  with  Hacksel,  and  makes^up  the 
remainder  with  cheap  grains,  and  old  hard-stalked  hay. 

5.  The  root  and  knob-plants,  have  in  common  with  the  green  fodder  the  peculi- 
arity of  too  great  wateriness,  and  the  want  of  consistency,  but  prove  a  valuable  aid 
in  the  mixture  of  nourishing  stuff  of  opposite  qualities,  and  they  can  in  a  dry  state 
supply  the  place  of  the  grains,  and  are  cheaper.  Their  employment  as  fodder  de- 
serves therefore  the  notice  of  all.  Carrots  are  the  most  useful  and  agreeable  to 
horses.  Yellow  Swedish  turnips  follow  next,  then  beets,  then  white  Swedish  tur- 
nips, then  white  turnips.  Potatoes  foddered  green  to  horses  are  not  so  agreeable 
on  account  of  their  sharp  taste,  as  turnips,  but  in  a  dry  state,  and  then  coarse  broken, 
or  soaked  and  mixed  with  Hacksel,  &c..  they  are  very  nutritious  and  acceptable.  A 
strong,  sound  horse,  and  kept  daily  at  work,  uses  much  fodder.  Luzerne  hay  is  three 
times  cheaper  than  oats,  and  one  may  give  of  it  f ,  of  turnips,  mixture  of  grains,  len- 
tils, or  maize  ^,  of  the  fodder  needed  in  the  worth  of  hay ;  then  the  horse  fodder 
is  not  only  suitable  but  also  cheap,  scarcely  20  kr. — 15  cts.  per  cwt. 

It  follows  from  the  above  explanations,  that  the  fodder  for  horses  must  be  easily 
digestible,  not  too  voluminous,  of  proper  consistency  and  made  fine,  that  it  must  also 
be  masticated,  so  that  it  can  be  easily  and  soon  swallowed  and  digested,  and  will 
not  fill  the  stomach  too  much.  Accordingly  the  grain  should  be  ground  coarse, 
hay  and  straw  cut  to  Hacksel  as  fine  as  possible,  roots  and  knobs  made  fine  and 
dried  or  moistened  or  baked.  But  the  most  successful  digestible  and  powerful 
fodder  for  the  horse,  is  bread  which  is  made  out  of  meal  of  grains  and  potatoes,  and 
from  bran  baked,  broken  fine  and  fed  out.  If  a  person  chooses  for  such  a  purpose 
the  cheaper  grains,  this  species  of  food  will  be  very  cheap.  The  mixture  of  the  dif- 
ferent materials  of  food  must  be  so  made  that  the  more  solid  shall  stand  in  corres- 
ponding relation  with  the  moist,  the  juicy  with  the  dry,  and  the  more  nutri- 
tious with  the  less  nutritious,  so  too  that  the  better  cannot  be  sucked  out  from 
the  less  so,  or  the  light  be  blown  away  from  the  heavier ;  and  so  that  especially  the 
cheapest  possible  fodder  may  be  obtained  by  the  mixture. 

According  to  the  before  determined  quantity  of  fodder  for  the  different  domestic 
animals  on  the  farm,  a  horse  of  moderate  strength  with  a  live-weight  of  11  cwt.  must 
have  as  his  need  of  nutriment,  i.  e.  conservation-fodder.  2}  lbs.  for  every  100  lbs., 
therefore  in  a  day  30  lbs.  worth  of  hay,  and  in  a  year  109.5  cwt. 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 


23 


This  need  of  fodder  can  be  provided  for  out  of  different  materials  of  fodder,  as 
follows : 


NECESSITY    OF    FODDER. 


Quantity. 


Worth  in  Hay.        Cost. 


With  the  usual  fodder, 
of  oats.  .... 

«  hay, 

"  straw,      .     .     . 

With  much  cheaper 
fodder,  of  a  mixture 
of  maize,  lentils, 
vetches,  then  roots 
and  knobs,     .     .     . 

of  hay,  .... 

"   straw 


In  a  day. 


lbs. 

7 

13.5 
5 


5 

16.5 
2 


In   a  year. 


Daily. 


SchafTel. 
14,  or 
87  bush. 


cwt. 
25.55 

49.27 

18.25 


lbs. 
14 

13.5 

2.5 


93.07 

18.25 

60.2 

7.3 


30 

12.5 

16.5 

1.0 


85.75  I  30 


Yearly. 


Per  cwt.  ol 
worth  of  hay. 


cwt. 

51.1 

49.27 
9.12 


fl.  kr.      cts. 
—  50  =  37  J- 


—  22 

—  40 


16J- 
30 


109.5 

45.62 

60.22 

3.65 


-36.5=27 

30  =  22^ 
22  =  W 
40=30 


In   the 
whole. 

fl.    kr. 
42    35 

=  $20,43 

18fl.   3kr. 

=  $8,66 

6fl.  4kr. 

=   $2,91 

66fl.42kr. 
=  $32,00 

22fl.48kr. 
=  $10,92 
22fl.  4kr. 
=  $10.59 
2fl.26kr. 
=  $1.03^ 


109.5 


25.9  =  18i 


The  Schaffel  is  6.223  bushels  Enorlish. 


47fl.  18kr. 
=  $21,69^ 


According    to  a   five  years'  average  of  foddering  horses,  from  the  year  1825 
to  1829,  the  following  quantities  are  required  to  a  head: — 


Weight. 


Worth  in 
I     Hay. 


I  Hdcksel  of  5  parts 
1  Hay,  and  3  Straw. 


Of  Hay.   Weight. 


Worth  in 
Hay. 


Worth  of  whole 
in  Hay. 


Work  horse  for  a  heavy  team, 
u      w         u      light       "    . 

Stallion, 

Chaise  horses, 

3  —  4  year  old,     .... 

2  —  5     "       "      .     .     .     . 

1  —  2     "        "       .     .     .     . 

*  —  1     "        "     .     .     .     . 


lbs. 
10 

7.5 

6.5 

6.5 

4-L 

3.75 

2.5 

2 


lbs. 

20 

15 

13 

13 

9 

7.5 

5 

4 


lbs. 

12 

10 

10 

10 

10 

8 

7 

5 


lbs. 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

3 

3 

2.5 


lbs. 
H 

n 

2 


lbs. 

35i 

23| 

26i 

26i 

224: 

18 

141 

11 


Litter,  rye  straw,  cut  twice  or  thrice,  for  a  work-horse  which  requires  30  lbs. 
worth  of  hay  in  a  day,  3  to  5  lbs.  daily,  and  in  a  year  11  to  18  cwt. 

The  pound  here  is  that  of  Bavaria. 

Burger  also  makes  the  following  remarks  on  the  kind  of  food  for  horses :  "  Where 
a  man  requires  much  and  hard  work  of  horses,  drj*  hay  and  green  or  dry  fodder 
plants  are  not  sufficient,  but  grain  must  also  be  given.  What  grain  shall  be  given 
must  depend  on  the  price,  compared  with  their  nutritious  power.  In  the  North  of 
Europe,  it  is  usual  to  take  oats  as  the  universal  grain  for  horses,  because  this  is 
cheapest  proportionately.  But,  because  this  is  fed  out  so  universally,  the  belief  has 
spread  abroad,  that  oats  only  will  answer ;  and  if  at  any  time  any  one  feed  out  other 
grain  and  the  horse  should  be  sick,  it  is  attributed  to  this  food.  Yet  we  see  in  a 
great  part  of  Italy,  maize,  in  the  East,  barley,  in  England,  beans  are  used  as  food  for 
horses  with  the  best  success.  I  have  fed  out  beans,  maize  and  rye  the  year  long  to 
my  horses,  when  these  kinds  of  grain  were  cheaper,  and  have  incurred  no  damage. 
I  must  here  observe  that  a  very  experienced  farmer  has  informed  me  that  the  oil 
cake  of  beech-nuts  is  deadly  to  horses.     Farm  horses  need  daily,  of  dry  stall  fodder, 


24  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

12  lbs.  of  hay,  of  oats  3  massl  (=:10  quarts,)  of  which  the  bushel  weighs  50  lbs.,  and 
3  lbs.  of  chopped  mixture  of  rye-straw  and  clover.  Loach  l.orstb  nceu  10  ILs.  oi  hay, 
and  a  like  quantity  ol'  oats  and  choppeu  mixture  ;  sad  le  Ixorses.  b  lbs.  of  tiay,  auvi  a  like 
quantity  of  oats:  horses  ibr  carrying  loads  with  15  lbs.  oi  iiay,  UhC  b  to  o  n.afcsl  ^  = 
20  to  2b  quarts,  i  of  oats  if  they  urag  daily  12  to  15  cvvt.  4  n)ilcs  ^  12  Knghsi.  miles. 
DicKS0x\  says,  that  a  man  must  give  his  \\orking  horses  <.aily,  10  lbs.  of  hay  5  anu  lor 
the  week  1.16  metzen  of  oats  (=^ about  1  bushels,^  and  mucii  as  cLojiea  mixture. 
Gericke  gives  for  a  work  horse  |  metzen  of  oats  (:=  buthel,)  meizen  ol  1  acl.iiti  o.  oat 
and  rye-straw  (=-r  bushel:,  and  4  to  5  lbs  of  hay  uaily.  .Cue  h(,r^e  r  tion  in 
the  Austrian  army  consists  of -•■  metzen  of  oats  (=-0.72  quai-.t;  anil  b  to  10  lbs.  oi  hay. 
Cavahy  horses  have  8  lbs.,  and  drag  horses  10  lus.  of  nay."  Loulon,  \o1.  11..  yp. 
974  975,  has  some  remarks  respecting  the  horse  which  are  not  iiu\\  ]  rojriate  to  ti.is 
place :— "  The  horse  has  one  stomach  only,  and  that  a  very  siiiall  tne.  The  situa- 
tion of  the  stomach  is  immediately  contiguous  to  tlie  (haphragm  or  great  breathing 
muscle  ;  from  which  we  are  at  no  loss  to  under.- tand  why  a  very  luli  meal  obstrUv  ts  re- 
spiration, and  why  it  is  so  very  imprudent  to  galiojj  a  hor.:,e  very  haj-J  aikr  urinKing  or 
eating  very  freely."  "  It  is  evident  that  too"^iull  fceiiing  must  derange  it  (the  stom- 
ach),liot  only  by  keeping  it  constantly  distended,  and  thus  weakening  its  capaci.y.  Lut 
by  entrenching  too  much  on  its  secreting  office,  and  rt  quiring  an  inorairatc  quiainty 
of  gastric  juice  to  saturate  an  undue  qviantity  of  farin.  ceuus  natter."  -  The  exeriiot;s 
of  Ihe  horse  require  that  he  should  tat  largely  and  mitriiiously  :— a  horse  will  (at  2 
or  3  pecks  of  corn,  or  10  lbs.  of  hay  at  a  meal  and  yet  in  a  natural  slate  his  stomach 
will  not  hold  half  of  either.  As  an  aninail  destined  ibr  cuii^k  as  Vvcll  as  great  ( xer- 
tion,  his  wants  prompt  him  to  take  in  a  moderate  portion  of  !bod  only  at  a  tinie.  which 
his  peculiar  digestive  powers  peculiarly  fit  him  to  convert  into  nutriment  quickly  a'  d 
efficaciously."  °  On  p.  1005,  he  says:  '  Hay  should  never  be  jjiven  in  large  quantities 
at  a  time;  horses  breathe  uion  it,  become  disgusted  ami  waste  it."  '  As  b\u  i~1i;utes 
for  hay  the  straw  of  wheat  barley,  oats  and^rye  are  used;  but  these  are  nai;  h  I  ss 
nutritive,  and  rather  serve  to  excite  mastication  by  mixing  lliem  with  otkn-  nat- 
ters, than  are  to  be  depended  upon  for  animalization."  Cats  is  saivi  to  contain  748 
parts  of  nutritious  matter  out  of  1000.  Among  the  pulse  nsentioned.  beans  tire  never 
to  be  given  alone  on  account  of  their  heating  or  ;: stringent  quidilies,  but  ;ire  to  be 
mixed'vvith  straw  or  hay  cut  into  chalT.  either  whole  or  bro!  en.  /  mong  the  roots, 
carrots  stand  deservedly  high,  are  highly  nutritious,  genernte  good  fitsh  are  favora- 
ble to  the  action  of  the  lungs,  and  frequently  a  course  of  them  will  remove  the  most 
obstinate  cough.  ParsnipsT  Swedish  turnifs  and  beets  ak^o  are  good.  Of  nnxed 
food,  one  of  the  best  is  of"  a  chaff  made  of  one  part  ot'  the  best  meadow  or  clover 
hay.  and  two  parts  of  wheat  stra\v  ;  to  3bushels  of  this  mixture  add  one  of  oals.  The 
importance  of  bruising  or  flattening  the  oats  is  very  gre;it."  Corn  (grain)  sliould  be 
bruised  when  used  alone.  •'  A  horse  in  full  work,  of  whatever  kind  w  ill  require  according 
to  his  size,  a  peck  of  sound  oats  in  twenty  hours."  "  Tlie  quantity  of  hay  required  for 
saddle  horses  which  are  corn-fed,  is  from  6  to  8  lbs.  in  24  hours.  For  wagon  and 
flirin  horses,  from  15  to  20  lbs.  may  be  requisite."  '■  ]t  sbonld  be  divided  into  4  por- 
tions, the  largest  portion  both  of  hay  and  corn  (grain)  slsould  be  given  at  night,  the 
next  largest  in  the  morning,  the  other  two  txt  noon  and  evening."  On  p.  101 1 :  -'  Tlie 
general  management  of  farm  horses  in  tlie  improved  districts  of  the  North,  may  he 
presented  as  a  good  exam]ie.  There,  for  about  4  months  in  sumnjer,  horses  are  led 
in  pastures,  or  on  clover  and  rye-grass  and  tares  cut  green,  and  brouglit  homie  to 
the  stable  or  fold-yard  ;  the  latter  method  being  by  fir  the  most  economical  tmd  ad- 
vantageous. For  the  other  eight  months,  they  are  kept  on  the  stra\y  of  oats,  beans 
and  peas,  and  on  clover  and  rye-grass  hay.  As  soon  as  the  grtiss  lails.  toward  the 
end  of  Autumn,  they  have  hay  for  a  few  wee]  s;  and  when  the  days  become  so  short 
as  to  allow  of  no  more  than  from  6  to  8  hours' work,  they  are  very  generally  fed  with 
different  kinds  of  straw,  according  to  the  circumstances  of  tlie  f.irm  ;  in  the  month  of 
March,  they  arc  again  put  to  hay  till  th.e  grass  is  ready  for  being  cut.  Througlsout 
all  the  year  they  are  allowed  more  or  less  corn  (grain)  when  constantly  worked,  and 
during 'the  time  they  are  on  dry  fodder,  ptirticularly  when  on  straw,  they  have  pota- 
toes, yams,  or  Swedish  turnirs".  once  a  day.  sometimes  boiled  barley,  and  in  a  few  in- 
Btances  carrots.  A  portion  of  some  of  these  roots  is  ofg-rrat  imrortance  to  the  health 
ol  horses,  when  succulent  herbaore  is  first  exchanered  for  hay  at  the  end  of  Autunm, 
and  it  Is  no  less  so  towards  the  latter  en;1  of  Srring.  when  "htiy  has  become  sapless 
and  the  labor  is  usually  severe."  "Such  horses  are  fed  with  oats  sorretimes  with 
beans,  3  times  a  day  for  about  8  months,  and  twice  a  day  f'>f  the  other  four  when  at 
grass,  and  at  the  rate  of  S  feeds  a  bushel  each  horse  will  eat  15  quarters  =  120  bushels 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  25 

in  the  year.  Wlion  on  hay  he  will  require  22  Ihs.  daily,  ami  5  lbs.  more  if  he  does 
not  gel  roots.  One  Eaglisii  acre  of  clover  and  rye-grass  and  tares  may  be  neces- 
sary lor  4  months'  soiling,  and  a  quarter  of  an  -icre  of  potatoes,  yams,  or  Swedish 
turnips  during  the  eigiit  months  he  is  fed  with  hay  and  straw."  "The  expense  of 
feeding  a  horse  throughout  the  year  may  therefore  be  estimated  in  regard  to  quantity 
as  follows: 

"Oats,  13  quarters  =120  bushels :  Soiling  1  acre  of  clover  and  rye-grass  and  tares: 
Hay,  part  of  October  and  November  March,  April  and  May,  1^  ton:  Straw,  for  4 
other  months  half  the  price  of  hay:   Potatoes,  yams,  or  Swedish  turnips,  5  acre." 

On  the  subject  of  feeding  horses,  we  find  in  the  British  Husbandry,  a  work  of 
acknowledged  merit  the  tbllowing  statements,  Vol.  I.  p.  12G :  '-The  late  Mr.  Cur- 
w.^N,  who  tried  more  experiments  than  most  men  in  feeding  cattle,  kept  nearly  100 
of  his  colliery  and  farm  horses  during  the  winter  upon  equal  quantities  of  cut  straw 
and  potatoes  stoamed  together,  in  lieu  of  hay ;  and  found  that  some  which  were 
worked  in  the  same  manner,  but  fed  with  hay  instead  of  potatoes  were  not  in  equal 
condition  with  the  others."— (See  Hints  on  tlie  Economy  of  Feeding  Stock,  by  J.  C. 
Curwen,  M.  P.)  His  mo  le  of  feeding  as  detailed  by  the  Carron  Company,  who 
have  adopted  his  plan  is  thus :  "  They  have  three  tubs  steaming  at  a  time  ;  two  of 
potatoes  and  one  of  chop])ed  straw,  chaff  or  dusting  seeds  ;  they  empty  one  tub  of 
potatoes  into  a  large  mish  tub  by  way  of  bottom  layer;  then  the  tub  of  chopped 
straw,  and  last  the  remaining  tab  of  potatoes  ;  the  wliole  is  wrought  u]i  and  mixed 
with  a  large  woo  len  i^estle  ;  and  to  this  they  atld  a  small  quantity  of  salt.  A  bucket 
is  brought  for  each  horse  with  his  feed  of  corn  (bruised  oats)  in  the  bottom,  and  his 
proportion  of  the  mash  is  filled  in  above ;  when  it  is  emptied  into  the  manger,  the 
corn  is  of  course  u]">permost,  and  the  horse-feeder  puts  his  hand  through  to  mix  it. 
They  feed  warm.  The  quantity  of  food  and  calculation  of  expense  are  as  follows: 
(which  may  be  reduced  to  federal  money  at  the  rate  of  22  cts.  for  Is.) 

FARM    HORSES. 

1^  stone  of  potatoes  at  3d. Os.  4^d. 

=  21  lbs. 
7  lbs  of  cut  straw      Id. 
and  cutting  Id. 


0     2 


Steaming  0     0^ 

7  lbs.  long  straw 1 

8  lbs.  of  oats  0    8 


1    4    nearly  30cts. 


COLLIERY    HORSES. 


8  lbs  of  hay  and  8  lbs.  of  straw  cut  together       .        .  Os.  S^d, 

Cutting  0     1 

7  lbs.  of  steamed  potatoes 0     1.}- 

6  lbs.  of  carrots      • 0     2.ir- 

12  lbs.  of  oats 10" 


After  several  years  experience  of  the  comparative  merits  of  steamed  potatoes  and 
Btraw  or  hay,  Mr.  Curwen  gave  a  deciiled  preference  to  the  former."  It  is  also 
mentioned  in  the  same  work,  on  high  authority,  that  "  working  horses  have  been 
kept  throughout  the  winter  entirely  on  steamed  potatoes,  to  every  300  lbs.  of  which 
there  was  advled  half  a  pint  of  salt  and  occasionally  a  small  portion  of  sulphur,  and 
that  "fed  in  this  mannertheyperformed  with  the  grreatest  ease  all  the  common  labor, 
of  the  farm  without  either  hay  or  oats."  The  ditrerence  of  expen.se  of  a  team  of  5 
horses  during  half  a  year,  calculating  the  potatoes  as  worth  40s.  (=to  about  $9) 
per  ton,  and  hay  and  oats  respectively  at  £3  (=  about  $13)  per  load,  and  24s.  (=: 
to  about  $6  per  quarter  of  8  bushels — would  stand  thus : 

HAY    AND    OATS. 

5  horses,  1S2  days  at  24  lbs.  hay  21  840  lbs.,  or  lOf  loads  at  £3.  £32    10s.  Od. 
Ditto  26  weeks  at  2  bushels  each  of  oats,  32^  quarters  at  24s.        29      0     0 

£71    10    0  =  §315 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 


POTATOES. 


5  horses,  182  days  at  50  lbs.  each,  45  000  lbs.,  or  18  tons  at  40s.  X36      Os.  Od. 
Washing  and  steaming  at  2d.  per  100  lbs 3    15     0 

3  bushels  of  salt  at  2s 0      6     0 

Sulphur, 026 

£40      4    6  =  $177 
71    10    0 

Balance  in  favor  of  potatoes,        .        .        .        X31      5    8  =  $138 

Another  estimate  is,  that  42  lbs.  of  potatoes  and  about  10  lbs.  of  straw  without  any 
oats  is  sufficient,  except  when  the  horses  are  employed  on  the  road. 

Respecting  carrots  as  a  food  for  horses,  Mr.  Curwen  says  that,  "  when  from  8  to 
12  lbs.  of  oats  are  allowed  to  a  work-horse  per  day,  according  to  its  employment, 

4  lbs.  may  be  deducted  for  5  lbs.  of  carrots,  and  the  spirit,  condition,  and  ability  of 
the  horse  be  improved  by  the  same."  "  Other  accounts  state  a  bushel  of  carrots  to 
be  given  daily  instead  of  oats."  Again,  elsewhere,  "  horses  are  fed  on  carrots  with 
sometimes  hay,  and  sometimes  corn,  and  sometimes  with  only  straw  ;  viz., 

6  horses  ;  2  loads  of  40  bushels  per  week,  no  corn,  and  little  hay. 

"       "  1  load  with  corn  in  the  spring-time,  and  little  hay, 

"      "       72  bushels  per  week,  no  oats,  and  half  the  usual  allowance  of  hay. 

The  horses  are  said  to  be  in  a  superior  condition  than  when  fed  on  oats."  "  In  Sur- 
rey, where  carrots  are  extensively  cultivated,  a  team  of  4  good  horses  gets  about  60 
bushels  per  week  until  Christmas,  with  plenty  of  chaff  or  clover-hay  but  no  corn,  and 
after  that  40  bushels  are  given  with  2  bushels  of  oats,  and  a  sufficiency  of  chatf."  A 
mixture  of  4  lbs.  of  boiled  potatoes  and  4  lbs.  of  bran,  at  each  feed  is  also  recom- 
mended. 

As  respects  the  boiling  or  steaming  food,  its  importance  is  seen  from  the  fact,  that 
"  it  takes  a  horse  from  three  to  four  hours  to  masticate  one  stone  of  hay,  but  a  mash 
of  potatoes  of  double  that  weight  may  be  eaten  in  40  minutes."  Potatoes  it  is  said 
lose  about  -^  of  their  weight  by  the  evaporation  of  the  water  when  steamed,  or  about 
I  if  kiln-dried  or  baked.  It  is  even  said  that  it  has  been  ascertained,  that  a  bushel 
of  oats  boiled  will  maintain  a  horse  in  better  condition  than  two  in  the  common  way. 
In  another  instance,  the  estimate  for  horses  is  daily  in  winter  15  lbs.  of  haj^  10  lbs. 
of  straw,  and  8  lbs.  of  oats,  and  after  every  feed  a  bucket  of  water  richly  whitened 
with  rye  or  oatmeal.  The  cavalry  allowance  for  horses  in  barracks  in  the  British 
army  daily,  is  stated  to  be  12  lbs.  of  hay  and  10  lbs.  of  oats ;  but  it  is  said  that  a 
common  cart-horse  required  not  less  than  28  or  30  lbs.  of  the  same  food.  The  fol- 
lowing is  recommended,  the  ingredients  being  divided  into  4  classes,  as  food  for 
horses : — 

4th. 

Bruised  or  ground  beans,  peas,  or  v^rhite  corn,     .      5  lbs.     5  lbs.     10  lbs.     5  lbs. 

Hay  cut  into  chaff 

Straw"     «        "    . 

Steamed  potatoes 

Malt  dust  or  ground  oil-cake 

Brewer's  grains      .  .  .  .  .      6    "    —  —        — 

Bran _         _  _  7    c« 

And  2  oz.  of  salt  to  each.  30         30  30         30 

The  following  food  is  said  to  answer  well  for  8  horses  daily :  1  bushel  of  beans  ; 
1  bushel  of  oats  ;  1  bushel  of  hay  and  straw,  cut  into  chaff.  Of  several  farm-horses 
also  it  is  stated,  "  When  no  beans  are  grown,  their  winter  food  is  oat-straw  or  hay ; 
but  in  all  other  cases,  bean-straw  alone  forms  their  winter  provender,  from  grass  to 
grass  ;  with  a  mess  every  night  of  bean-chaff,  potatoes  or  turnips,  and  a  little  small- 
corn,  all  boiled  together  and  seasoned  with  salt,  and  two  feeds  of  oats  per  day,  but 
only  when  hard  worked." 

Mr.  Stephens,  Editor  of  the  Gluarterly  Agricultural  Journal,  and  Author  of  the 
Farm-Book,  mentions  that  a  large  coach-proprietor  in  Edinburgh,  supports  his 
coach-horses  on  8  lbs.  of  chopped-straw,  and  16  lbs.  of  bruised  oats  ;  and  that  another 


1st. 

2d. 

3d. 

5  lbs. 

5  lbs. 

10  lbs. 

7    " 

8    " 

10   " 

5    " 

10   " 

10   " 

5    « 

5   " 

— 

— 

2   « 

— 

ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  27 

person  gives  10  or  12  lbs.  of  chopped  hay,  and  16  lbs.  of  bruised  oats  to  large  horses; 
and  the  following  mixture  is  also  given  as  a  good  one,  by  yet  anotlier : 

(  8  lbs.  of  bruised  oats,  C  22  lbs.  of  steamed  potatoes, 

In  the  day  ^3   "    of      "       beans,  At  r^in-hf  <     1^  "  of  fine  barley  dust 

(4   «    of  chopped  straw.  ai  m^ni  ^    2     «  of  chopped  straw, 

^ 2  oz.  of  salt. 

15  lbs.  251  lbs. 

The  advantages  of  the  entire  provender  as  manger  meat,  are  the  followino-: 

1.  It  requires  more  mastication,  and  thus  assists  digestion,  and  promotes  the  nutri- 
tion of  the  animal. 

2.  It  consumes  less  time. 

3.  By  mixture,  an  equal  consumption  of  the  whole  is  secured ;  part  of  which  if 
separately  given,  might  be  refused. 

4.  It  may  be  more  readily  weighed  and  measured,  and  thus  avoids  the  injury  done 
by  unlimited  allowance. 

5.  It  prevents  waste ;  the  saving  is  estimated  as  high  as  ^,  or  even  by  some  |  of 
the  rack  meat;  but  probably  these  are  too  high,  and  it  may  fairly  be  put  at 
about  -^. 

Respecting  the  utility  and  comparative  advantage  of  soiling,  we  find  it  stated  in 
the  same  volume,  that  it  consists  in  a  more  economical  consumption  of  grass,  whether 
natural  or  artificial,  than  by  grazing ;  in  the  accumulation  of  manure  ;  in  the  quiet 
and  coolness  which  cattle  enjoy  under  sheds,  or  in  the  stable,  and  in  their  beino- 
always  ready  when  wanted. 

"  A  medium-sized  farm-horse,  at  customary  labor,  consumes  from  84  lbs.  to  100  lbs. 
of  green  food  daily,  with  the  usual  allowance  of  corn  or  grain ;  20  horses  have  been 
supported  for  three  months  on  6  acres  of  tares  or  vetches  ;  51  head  of  horses,  cows 
and  oxen,  on  15^  acres  of  mixed  herbage,  equal  to  ^  a  perch  per  day ;  in  another  in- 
stance, about  I  of  a  perch  per  day  is  allowed  for  each.  As  to  soiling  on  luzerne,  2 
horses  have  been  kept  at  hard  work  on  I  of  an  acre,  for  4  months ;  and  again,  25 
horses  for  20  weeks  on  11  acres ;  and  yet  again,  3  roods  have  kept  a  horse  19  weeks. 
In  Holland  and  Flanders,  where  soiling  is  conducted  to  great  advantage,  the  usual 
estimate  is  half  an  acre  of  meadow-grass,  from  the  middle  of  May  to  the  middle  of 
June,  and  from  that  time  to  the  end  of  August,  ^  of  an  acre  of  clover  is  added,  with 
2  lbs.  daily  of  beans. 

Thus  much  with  respect  to  feeding,  as  regards  horses. 

On  the  other  side,  as  regards  oxen,  we  may  also  quote  from  the  same  authors : 
Thus  Burger,  Vol.  II.,  p.  256,  says:  "  The  ox  does  not  bear  the  heat  well,  and  needs 
more  time  for  eating  than  the  horse,  because  he  ruminates.  In  great  heat,  oxen  tire 
unusually  soon.  One  must  therefore  work  with  them  in  the  cool  time  of  the  day,  or 
change  them  often.  In  Friuli,  in  the  summer  from  2  past  midnight  till  8  in  the 
morning,  they  frequently  plough  with  lanterns.  In  the  great  farms  of  North  Ger- 
many, they  change  the  oxen  every  4  hours.  Since  the  ox  is  a  ruminating  animal, 
he  must  have  time  not  only  to  eat,  but  also  to  ruminate  the  fodder  given  him.  At 
labor  the  ox  must  have  more  nutritious  food,  not  only  because  he  uses  more  strength, 
but  also  because  with  food  not  so  nutritious,  he  loses  more  time  of  the  day  for  eating. 
In  winter,  the  ox  will  be  satisfied  with  straw,  mixed  with  a  little  hay.  He  labors  not 
at  all  or  little,  and  can  take  his  time  for  eating,  ruminating  and  digestion.  But  when 
he  labors  much  in  the  summer,  he  needs,  to  be  strong,  much  and  strong  nourish- 
ment ;  and  because  he  cannot  have  much  time  for  eating  and  rumination,  the  nutri- 
tious parts  must  not  be  contained  in  too  great  a  volume  ;  that  is,  not  be  mixed  with 
too  great  a  portion  of  unnutritious  substances.  While  employed  at  labor,  therefore, 
the  ox  must  either  have  a  very  good  rich  pasture,  or  sufficient  green  clover,  vetches, 
&c.,  in  stall-foddering,  or  a  sufficiency  of  good  hay,  or  in  heu  of  all  these,  salted- 
chopped-mixture,  with  grain." 

Of  fodder  he  says,  as  partly  quoted  on  p.  11 :  "  The  winter  fodder  of  cattle  consists  of 
hay,  straw,  roots,  plants,  with  knobs  and  grain.  The  earlier  these  materials  of  nutriment 
are  cut  fine,  or  are  made  easily  digestible  by  scalding  or  boiling,  the  more  successfully 
can  they  be  given  to  animals  and  the  less  of  them  will  be  needed.  Hay  as  a  shorter, 
thinner  and  moister  body  is  not  usually  cnt,  and  whoever  fodders  hay  in  the  winter, 
as  is  the  case  in  Italy,  in  many  parts  of  Switzerland  and  Holland,  has  the  least  trou- 
ble in  taking  care  of  his  beasts.  Straw  should  always  be  cut  in  order  to  mix  it  more 
easily  w^th  hay,  and  to  spare  the  beas's  the  breaking  to  pieces  of  the  long  stalks.  In 
our  mountains,  in  Upper  Stiermark,  Tyrol,  and  Salzburg,  where  the  breeding  of 


23  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

cattle  is  the  principal  ohject  of  liusbaa:lry,  straw  constitutes  a  very  essential  part  of 
tii2  vvinLUi-  ib  I  bi-  o,"  cattle.  It  slioul.l  be  cut  from  I  to  2  inches  long,  which  causes 
tDu'jle  th  it  0  13  muit  expect.  Guericke  estimates  that  one  man  in  8  hours  can  cu 
31  •  m3tzii  o'  Hi3<s3l  at  8^  lbs.  In  Bohemia,  it  is  estimated  that  in  8  hoars  the 
fo  I  Isr  c  i,).)per  will  prepare  33J  lbs.  of  long  straw  ready  for  seething.  In  Mecklen- 
ba.-gh,  oie  herds.im  must  take  care  of  24  head  of  cows,  and  cut  the  necessary 
H:i3<sel  Wk  tlie^n,  which  must  not  be  longer  than  ^  an  inch.  An  industrious  man 
w  10  w  )i'"ts  by  th'3  job  there  can  cut  in  the  shortest  days  45,  in  February  and  March, 
69  metzea.  But  the  Hacksel  machines  driven  by  water,  will  give  in  one  hour  315 
lbs.,  4  of  ai  iich  long. 

'•  Tiiat  0  le  s'.i  3 al  1  w  ish  an  1  cut  up  roots  and  knobs  before  giving  them  out  to  cattle, 
is  evi  leit  to  aiy  oie:  e|uilly  needful  also  is  it  to  reduce  grain  to  meal  and  boil 
it  befa/3  it  is  ted  out ;  whether  it  is  best  to  steam  Hacksel,  and  boil  roots  and 
knobs,  not  oily  i'or  swine  but  also  for  cattle,  many  doubt,  partly  because  it  occasions 
too  great  expeise  of  wool  and  kettles^  as  well  as  labor,  partly  because  it  makes  the 
aniiTils  too  edemiiate  aid  hable  to  .sickness.  As  to  the  first  objection  this  is  well 
groailed  ii  re^iois  where  there  are  but  i'ew  laborers,  or  where  the  means  of  fuel 
are  dear ;  as  for  the  other,  I  have  found  that  neither  with  cows  in  the  mountainous 
couitries  of  Soath  Gernixny— as  also  it  appears  from  Schwertz's  account  of  the 
Netherlands  -w  lieh  are  fed  Avith  steamed  fodder,  nor  with  sheep  which  are  fed  with 
sLe  ime  1  potatoes,  has  any  injury  resulted. 

'•To  folder  to  milch-cows  in  the  winter,  Hacksel  soaked  with  warm  or  even  with 
coll  w  iter,  ail  whi^-h  had  lain  in  the  vat  in  a  warm  place  3  days,  I  have  always 
found  pro'itible.  More  recently  it  has  been  found  to  be  a  great  sparing  of  fodder  to 
let  the  Ha  iksel  lie  in  a  well-closed  tub,  exposed  to  the  steam  of  boiling  water  some 
hours,  whereby  the  straw  is  rendered  much  more  digestible  for  the  beasts,  and  thus 
a  sm  iller  quantity  is- required  for  the  same  nutriment." 

Veit  observes  oi  this  subject:  "The  particular  labor  of  preparing  fodder,  is  for 
the  most  part  limited  to  the  cutting  of  Hacksel.  In  a  smaller  number  of  cattle  than 
occupies  the  keeper  constantly  it  is  customary  to  have  him  prepare  the  Hacksel  but 
in  a  nnirter  where  he  is  fully  busied  in  taking  care  of  them,  it  is  customar}^  to  have 
the  HiVcsel  cut  by  the  job.  Of  the  usual  sliort-chopped  stud'  for  horses,  one  man 
can  cut  ii  a  day  7  to  8  cwt.,  and  of  a  longer  kind  for  cattle,  10  cwt.  which  allowing 
23  to  21  kreutzers  (or  from  13  to  13  cts.  )  for  a  day's  work.  Avould  give  the  cost  of  labor 
in  cutting  of  1  cwt. ;  for  horses,  at  3  kreutzers  (or  about  2|  cts.),  and  for  cattle  from 
2  to  2  kreu'zers  But  this  work  is  usually  assigned  to  one  man,  and  in  a  week  for 
1  horse  at  8  lbs.  Haeksel  lor  a  day  or  56  lbs.  for  a  v/eek,  it  amounts  to  from  1|  to 
1 .  kreut-^ers  per  w^ek :  for  a  working-ox  at  20  lbs.  of  Hacksel  per  day  or  110  lbs.  per 
week,  it  cones  to  2|  to  3  kreutzers  per  week."  Speaking  of  the  different  kinds  of 
straw  as  miterials  of  fodder,  he  also  remarks  that  they  should  be  ranked  in  the  fol- 
low! 15  Of  ler : 

'■  1.  The  straw  of  the  usual  leiinmiumi.9  frvifff,  and  especially  of  lertils,  vetches, 
and  neas.  is  more  nutritious,  than  the  straw  of  seed-clover.  The  greener  the  tips 
are,  the  less  it  is  lo  Ige  1  the  better  can  it  be  dried  and  brought  in.  the  more  nourish- 
ing it  is.  The  straw  of  lentils  and  seed-clover  is  the  most  preferable.  The  fine  stalk 
vetc'i  straw  is  also  very  nutritious,  behind  which  stands  somewhat  the  pea-straw,  with 
its  thicker  stalk.  All  straw  of  leguminous  fruit  is  parti :'Ailarly  a  welcome  fo.lder  to 
shceo  on  wlii:h  account  therefore  it  is  greatly  prized  by  many  sheep-owners,  and 
considered  equal  to  hay. 

"  2.  O  if  and  'm/V^v  straw,  is  the  straw  for  fodder  of  the  cereal  fruits.  Oa/-straw  is 
most  agreeable,  and  also  most  nutritious,  on  account  of  its  peculiar  taste  for  all  spe- 
cies of  cattle,  because  on  the  tins  of  the  rtanicles  are  usually  found  unripe  grains,  and 
oats  are  generally  cut  before  they  are  fully  rine.  Baiieii  straw  has,  on  account  of  its 
moisture,  an  1  short  perio  1  of  veiretation.  a  high  value  as  fodder,  and  other  things 
being  equ a'  is  as  nutritinns  as  oat-straw,  if  it  were  not,  as  is  the  case,  fully  ripe  before 
reaping.  Yet  it  is  more  liable  to  iniure  than  oat-straw,  because  after  reaping  it  im- 
bibes more  moisture  from  the  air  and  soil. 

"  3.  Straw  of  .s"/..;;.>7^r-?r//^a/,  annrmer-^npllz.  and  aymmfr-ryp,  for  fodder,  stands 
after  oat  and  barley-straw ;  but  in  many  firms,  where  the  straw  of  the  usual  species 
of  winter-grains  suonlies  the  need  of  litter,  it  is  emnloyed  for  csjiecially  the  moister 
straw  olsuTim'^r-wheat  an  1  summer-sneltz.     That  of  summer-rye  is  less  nutriMous. 

"4.  The  s7 <■/''.•  of  nuii.zp  (Indian  corn)  contains  much  sac^'.harine  matter,  and  there- 
fore is  very  nii';ri-inns  use  1  ^ne.  an  1  agreeable  to  all  kinds  of  cattle.  The  cob.s.  after 
the  corn  has  been  taken  oIT,  ground  u  •,  are  likewise  a  very  nutriduus  fodder,  and  tlie 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 


29 


hard  stalks  may  be  chopped  up  for  the  purpose.  Taking  all  those  things  into  view, 
it  stands  next  to  the  straw  of  summer-rye  in  value  as  tbider. 

"  5.  Millal-strdw  lias  a  hard  stalk,  but  contains  at  least  as  nnich  nutritious  matter 
as  the  straw  of  the  winter-cereals,  at  the  same  time  that  millet  is  cut  l»elbre  it  is  iully 
ripe. 

'•6.  B'icl.-iclteat,  on  account  of  its  quantity  on  a  field  of  less  fertility,  and  if  of  fine 
stalk,  in  which  case  its  value  as  fodder  from  its  straw  being  ricii  witli  leaves,  is  en- 
hanced, is  as  good  as  the  straw  of  the  winter-grain. 

"7.  The  straw  of  the  usual  wiiitei-;Lr/<iiii  truits,  as  of  barley,  wlicat.  spcltz  and 
rye,  has  less  value  as  fodder,  and  is  therefore  employed  more  lor  litter,  llye-straw  is 
the  least  valuable  for  fodder  of  the  straw  of  all  the  cereals. 

"8.  i5ea'/-straw,  in  case  its  leaves  have  not  fallen  oif  or  arc  decaye  1,  and  the 
ends  of  the  stalk  are  green  when  it  is  cut,  as  many  experiments  have  shown,  have 
a  much  higher  value  as  fodder  than  is  usually  supposed.  11' the  very  harvl  stalks  are 
chopj^ed  fine,  and  scalded  with  juicy  fodder  mixed  with  it  the  nutritious  quality  of  it  is 
little  inferior  to  that  of  the  straw  of  other  leguminous  phmts.  The  average  of  many 
experiments  as  to  the  proportion  of  straw  to  the  grain  of  the  usual  straw-fruits,  is  to 
100  lbs  of  straw  and  grain  as  follows: 

"Winter-wheat  47  lbs.;  winter-rye  40  lbs.;  summer-wheat  55  lbs.;  summer-rye 
45  lbs.  ;  oats  63  lbs. ;  barley  66  lbs. ;  peas  43  lbs.  ;  vetches  43  lbs.  ;  beans  42  lbs." 

Thaer  has  given  some  estimates  of  the  comparative  amount  of  nutritious  matter 
in  dilterent  ^(bstances  used  for  feeding  cattle  which  may  be  suitably  introduced 
here :  He"  says  that  according  to  experiments,  it  has  been  found  that  100  parts  of 
good  hay,  contain  50  parts  which  may  be  reckoned  as  easily  adapted  for  nutriment. 
'•Of  100  parts  of  potatoes  reduced  to  the  same  degree  of  dryness  as  the  hay,  there 
are  dry  30  parts,  of  which  25  are  nutritious  ;  therefore  94  lbs.  of  potatoes  are  equal  in 
nutriment  to  47  lbs.  of  hay.  Beets  have  8  per  cent.,  which  a  person  may  consid.er 
certainly  nutritious,  and  4  per  cent,  of  harder  digestible  fibre  ;  their  nutritious  power 
may  therefore  be  set  down  at  lOper  cent— Ruta  baga  contains  12  per  cetit.  nutritious 
matter,  and  3  per  cent,  of  more  difficult  fibre.     The  same  is  the  case  with  turnips." 

Veit,  Vol.  I.  p.  260,  has  also  some  tables  showing  the  equivalents  of  many  plants, 
&c.,  to  hay,  by  which  it  appears  from  many  experiments  that  the  following  ratio  exists : 


NAME    OF   MATERIALS    OF    FODDER. 

100  lbs.  of  hay  are  equal  to —  100  lbs.  of  hay  are  equal  to — 


I. 

MeaJij  Grain  Fruits. 
1.  Good  kernels — 
a.  Of  the  usual  (jrain  fruits — 


lbs 

Wheat, 

. 

30 

Speltz,     . 

•        •        . 

45 

Rye,      . 

.        . 

40 

Barley.     . 

.        . 

44 

Oats.    '. 

•        . 

50 

Maize,  or  Indian  corn 

. 

36 

Millet,  . 

. 

36 

b.  Of  the  leguminous  fruits. 

Pease, 

. 

50 

Vetches  or  tares. 

. 

36 

Lentils, 

.    *    . 

33 

Beans, 

. 

40 

Buckwheat, 

>        .        . 

50 

2.  After-grains. 

Wheat, 

. 

50 

Rve, 

*    .    *   . 

60 

Barley, 

•        •        » 

64 

Oats. 

70 

Lcgumi.nous  ruits, 

. 

50 

II. 


Root^  Kiioh  and  Cabbage  Plants 

Potatoes, 200 

Artichoke,  ....  230 

Red  Beet,       .         .  .         .  300 

Swedish  turnips  or  cabbage  turnips,  300 

Carrots, 270 

W^hite  turnips,     ....  400 

Cabbage cOO 

Stalks  of  root  and  knob  plants  in  a 

green  state,     ....  500 

III. 

Fodder-  Plants  and  Grasses. 

Luzerne  sainfoin  red  clover,  and 
all  kinds  of  clover,  with  vari- 
ous species  of  grain  and  legu- 
minous p.lants  used  green  for 
fodder.  ....        90 

Good  meadow-hay,         .         .         .100 

Moss-hay,  and  other  poor  kinds  of 

hay,' 150 

Grassc.<  and  herbaceous  cabbage 

plants  in  a  green  state,        .        450 


30 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 


100  lbs  of  hay  are  equal  to— 
IV. 
Straw  with  Chaffs  of— 


Winter  wheat,  ") 
"      speltz,      I 

"      rye,  r 

"      barley,    J 

Summer  wheat,  l 
"  speltz,  > 
"  rye,  ) 
'        barley, 

Oats, 

Maize,  or  Indian  corn, 

Millet,     . 

Peas, 

Lentils,  . 


Beans, 

Buckwheat, 

Seed  clover,    . 

Rape, 

Mustard, 

Gold  of  pleasure, 

Poppy,       I 


Sunflower, 


lbs. 
300 


230 


200 

275 
300 
190 
160 
ISO 
400 
300 
150 

400 


500 


100  lbs.  of  hay  are  equal  to — 

lbs. 

Chaff  and  husks,  without  straw,  of — 

Wheat 150 

Rye,  speltz,  and  barley,        .        .     170 

Oats, 150 

Rape, 200 

Gold  of  pleasure  and  mustard,  .        230 

Seed  clover, 100 

Flax  seed, 130 

Leguminous  plants,  as  peas, 

vetches  and  lentils,        .        .        .     150 


V. 

Refuse  in  business. 
After  meal. 
Wheat  bran,   > 
Rye        "        ^       •        • 
Oil-cake,  from  poppy,  flax,  rape  seed. 
Skimmings  of  barley  in  ' 

preparation  of  malt, 
Malt-shoots  of  barley,    .  0 
Barley  beer  refuse,     . 
Brandy  refuse. 


50 
75 
60 
60 


Sour  milk,     .... 
Whey,         .... 
From  the  forest. 
Acorns,  chestnuts,  beech  nutSj 


.     125 

300 
900  maas, 
121^  gall. 
200lbs. 

350 

.    75 


A.  K.  Block,  who  is  referred  to  by  Schwertz  as  a  very  distinguished  writer 
gives  the  following  table  of  equivalents : — 
600  lbs.  wheat  straw, 

u        u     j.ye  " 

«       «     oat  « 

580     "    barley,     " 
560    "    seed  clover  straw. 

rye  or  barley  chaff. 

pea  straw. 

wheat,  pea  or  barley  chaff,  or  vetch  straw. 

clover,  2d  mowing :  usual  meadow  hay,  2d  mowing. 

clover  hay  in  blossom. 

best  meadow  hay. 

best  clover  hay,  before  blossom. 

oat  grain. 

barley  " 

rye        " 

yellow  peas. 

wheat  grain. 
2  lbs.  of  grain  straw  is  worth  as  much  as  1  lb.  of  usual  meadow 


500 
480 
326 
300 
280 
250 
118 
100 
100 

89 

80 
Consequently 


hay,  or  1  lb.  of  clover  hay,  mowed  in  the  blossom,  &c. 

We  find  the  following  table  of  equivalents,  in  some  English  papers,  which  is 
inserted  by  way  of  comparison  : — 


100  lbs. 

of  good  hay 

=    90  clover-hay,  made  when  fully  blossomed. 

(( 

« 

"    88             "           "     before  it  blossoms. 

(C 

(( 

"    98  clover,  2d  crop. 

C( 

(( 

"    98  luzerne  hay. 

(C 

(C 

"    89  sainfoin    " 

(( 

(C 

"    91  tare           « 

« 

(( 

"  146  clover. 

C( 

(( 

"  410  green  clover. 

« 

(C 

"  467  vetches  or  tares,  green. 

ECONOMY    OF  FARMING. 

100  lbs.  of  good  bay 

=  275  green  Indian  corn. 

4( 

u 

"  541  cow-cabbage  leaves. 

(( 

u 

"  374  shelter- wheat  straw. 

(( 

li 

"  442  rye  straw. 

(( 

u 

"  164  oat  straw. 

u 

t( 

"  153  pea  stalk. 

u 

11 

"  159  vetch     " 

It 

C( 

"  201  raw  potatoes. 

(( 

(C 

"  175  boiled      " 

{( 

(C 

"  339  mangel  wurtzel. 

(C 

(( 

"  504  turnips. 

(( 

(( 

"  276  carrots. 

(t 

« 

"  308  Swedish  turnips. 

(( 

(( 

"  305      do.          do.     leaves  on. 

tc 

(( 

"     54  rye. 

(C 

u 

"     46  wheat. 

(( 

li 

"     59  oats. 

« 

u 

"    50  vetches. 

(( 

(( 

"    45  peas. 
«    45  beans. 

cc 

(( 

(C 

(( 

"    64  buckwheat. 

(( 

(C 

"     57  Indian  corn. 

(C 

(( 

'•     68  acorns. 

<c 

tt 

"     50  horse  chestnuts. 

(C 

u 

•«     62  sunflower  seed. 

(( 

(C 

"     69  linseed  cake, 

It 

(( 

"  105  wheat  bran. 

a 

« 

"  109  rye  bran. 

11 

(C 

"  167  wheat,  pea  and  oat  chaff. 

u 

(C 

"  179  rye  and  barley              " 

16  lbs.  of  raw. 

,  or  14  lbs. 

of  boiled  potatoes,  will  allow  a  diminution  of  8 

«l 


lbs.  of 

An  ox  requires  2  per  cent,  of  his  live-weight,  m  hay,  per  day  :  if  he  works,  2^ 
per  cent.  A  milch  cow,  3  per  cent.  A  fattening  ox,  5  per  cent.,  at  first ;  4  per 
cent,  when  half  fat ;  and  4  when  fat,  or  4|  average.  Sheep,  when  grown,  3^  per 
cent,  of  their  weight  in  hay,  per  day. 

Much  is  said  in  the  German  works  oi" artichokes,  as  a  food  for  cows.  Schwertz 
gives  the  result  of  several  experiments  on  this  subject,  which  it  may  be  useful  to  quote 
here.  He  says,  Vol.  II.,  p.  620 :  "  100  lbs.  of  stalks  in  a  green  state  are  equal  to 
Slf  of  hay ;  in  a  dry  state  chopped  up  fine  and  mixed  with  other  fodder  16  lbs.  of 
stalks  are  equal  in  value  to  10  lbs.  of  hay."  Thaer  also  says  of  the  stalks  in  a  green 
state,  "  This  stalk  appears  to  us  to  be  for  sheep  more  valuable  than  for  cows.  They 
are  to  be  laid  before  sheep  in  September  when  they  come  home  from  the  pasture. 
Their  desire  for  it  w^as  so  great,  that  they  ran  up  to  the  stable  in  expectation  of  it." 
The  knobs  or  roots  are  also  most  valuable  for  milch-cows ;  24  lbs.  of  them  with  10 
lbs.  of  clover-hay  and  3  lbs.  of  ground  rape-seed  caused  a  cow  to  give  as  much  milk 
as  with  24  lbs.  of  potatoes.  The  yield  both  in  leaves,  stalks  and  roots,  is  very 
large. 

Veit,  Vol.  II.  pp.  386,  423,  gives  us  the  following  estimates  of  the  consumption  of 
fodder  for  a  cow  and  for  an  ox : 
For  a  cow: 

in  summer-stall-foddering  for  120  days : 

green  fodder  at  18  lbs.  worth  of  hay  daily  (=23  lbs.  English) 
for  winter-fodder  for  245  days : 

10  lbs.  worth  of  hay,  6  lbs.  of  straw,  10  lbs.  of  potatoes  daily 
if  pastured:  summer  pasture  150  days— equivalent  to 
18  lbs.  of  hay  daily. 

winter  fodder  daily,  for  215  days,  as  before. 
For  an  ox : 
in  summer-foddering,  120  days : 

green  clover-fodder  =  to  18  lbs.  of  hay,    J 
long  meadow-hay,  5  lbs.        "        >  daily, 

ground  or  bruised  grain,     1  lb.  "       ) 


22  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 


e-wt. 

1000  to  1200 

<.'. 

990  to  1200 

u 

1000  to  1400 

(( 

700  to    800 

u 

500  to    GOO 

(.(. 

60  to      SO 

(C 

80  to    110 

(( 

40  to      CO 

u 

140  to     180 

a 

50  to      80 

h-qmrc 

feet. 

140  to 

ICO 

85  to 

95 

90  to  100 

70  to 

85 

40  to 

50 

10  to 

12 

-8  to 

10 

6  to 

8 

-40  to 

50 

15  to 

20." 

in  winter-foJ  'cr,  for  215  days. 
Imy,  14  lbs.  ^ 

straw-fodder,  8  lbs,   >  daily, 
potatoes,        14  lbs.  ; 
The  extent  of  pasture  required  for  different  animals  during  a  summer  is  given  by 
Thaer  us  ibllows: 

"  i^  or  i  cow.  \^  yoke,  — .  to  nearly  2  acres.  For  1  horse,  2  yoke,  =  2  -  acres. 
For  1  drauglit  or  laboring-ox,  1  j  yoke  ==  2^  acre,  nearly.  For  a  sheep  or  swine,  -^^ 
of  a  yoke,  3  acre." 

Fl'iri  says:  -'In  general,  ivc  may  allow  any  amount  of  pasture  to  be  proportioned 
as  Ibllows  ;  the  same  space,  ibr 
12  cows,  or 

8  horses. 

9  team  oxen. 
IC  coUs. 

21  young  cattle. 

10  large  and  small  swine  who  get  their  whole  food  from  it. 
120  head  of  sheep  so  as  not  to  sutler  want  of  food." 
The  extent  of  stall-room  for  ditlcrent  animals  accordincr  to  Veit,  is : 

For  a  horse  weighing  hve-wt.    1000  to  1200    lbs., 
"      working  ox, 
"      fatting      " 
"      cow, 
"      a  bullock, 
"      ewe, 
"     wether, 
"    yearling  sheep, 
"     sow, 

"     a  young  boar, 

Thaer,  Vol.  I.  p.  77,  says :  "  The  fodder  of  oxen  is  very  differently  orderi  d  in  its 
quality  and  quantity.  In  common  farms,  where  one  uses  oxen  only  part  of  the  year, 
and  wlicre  there  is  a  deficiency  usuall}^  of  winter-fodder,  it  is  extremely  scanty. 
They  use  in  the  winter  months  straw%  and  only  in  the  spring  wdien  labor  commences 
is  hay  given,  which  is  reckoned  at  i2,  at  the  highest  16  cwt.  per  head."  "  When 
oxen  are  kept  in  a  good  state,  they  must  have  in  dry  fodder  daily  on  an  average  20 
lbs.  of  hay,  and  consequently  40  cwt.  must  be  reckoned  for  one  ox  yearly."  "In 
farms  where  so  much  hay  cannot  be  given,  it  must  be  supplied  by  grain,  and  best 
ground  or  broken  up.  One  metzen  of  oats  (1.69  bushel)  is  as  much  Ibod  as  1\  cwt. 
of  good  hay,  or  1  lb.  of  oats  is  equal  to  2  lbs.  of  hay.  If  therefore  3  lbs.  of  oats  are 
given  daily,  then  6  lbs.  less  of  hay  may  be  given,  and  the  ox  remain  in  equal,  pro- 
bably greater  strength.  The  most  profitable  fodder  for  winter  without  doubt  is  with 
potatoes,  or  other  nutritious  roots.  If  an  ox  has  daily  2  massl,  (about  6|  quarts) 
with  1 1  lbs.  of  hay,  he  will,  according  to  much  experience,  keep  in  full  strength.  In 
the  summer,  oxen  must  be  cither  kept  at  pasture,  and  then  one  reckons  1^-  usual 
extent  of  cow-pasture  to  an  ox  ;  or  the  ox  is  foddered  in  the  stall  with  green  clover, 
(soiling)  vetches,  or  other  fodder-plants.  A  strong  laboring-ox  requires  then  daily 
on  an  average  5|  square  klafters  of  red  clover  (=  25  square  yards),  in  two  cuttings — 
consequently  for  the  season  ,\  of  a  yoke  (=  about  f  of  an  acre)."  "Numerous  ex- 
amples have  proved  that  oxen  remain  in  perfect  strength,  and  abler  to  work  than 
by  going  to  pasture,  if  this  fodder  is  properly  managed.  The  cost  of  an  ox  there- 
fore, according  to  the  different  species  of  fodder,  may  be  reckoned  at: 
(a.)  40  cwt.  of  hay.— Summer  pasture. 
(b.)     200  days,  hay  at  15  lbs.  =  30  cwt. 

'j    "       oats,  7  metzen  =  12  bushels. 
165    "      pasture. 
(c.)     hay,  18  cwt. 

daily,  2  massl  of  potatoes,  is  21  metzen  =  36  bushels. 
(d.)     Stall  foddering. 
Hay.  18  cwt. 

daily,  2  mjissl  of  potatoes,  =21  metzen  =  36  bushels, 
green  clover. 
Veit  divides  the  fodder  of  an  animal  into  ^^  cnnserrat  io7i-fo(ld  rr,\vh\ch  is  the  quan- 
tity necessary  to  keep  the  animal  alive  in  his  present  state,  and  melioration-fodder^ 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  33 

the  quantity  necessary  to  be  employed  in  improving  his  condition.  Thus  an  ox  of 
600  lbs.  of  flesh  or  dead  weight,  uses  in  a  month  600  lbs.  of  hay,  or  20  lbs.  daily  to  b© 
retained  in  his  present  state,  wherefore  his  dead  weight  is  to  his  living  as  55  to  100, 
and  therefore  his  live -weight  is  1090  lbs.,  consequently  his  daily  need  of  nutriment  as 
conservation-fodder  is  1.85  to  100  lbs.  of  live-weight.  If  now  there  is  proportioned  to 
100  lbs.  of  his  live  weight  daily  3  lbs.  of  hay ;  then  in  the  whole  live-weight  there 
would  be  32.7  lbs.,  so  that  the  surplus  12.  7  lbs.  would  be  employed  as  melioration- 
fodder,  and  assimilated  for  the  formation  of  fat  and  flesh,  &c.  Hence  the  conser- 
vation-fodder bears  to  100  lbs.  of  Uve-weight,  in  cattle  or  kine  1.85  lbs.,  in  sheep  1.85, 
horses  2  lbs.,  swine  3  lbs." 

Veit,  also,  in  Vol.  II.  p.  420,  thus  expresses  himself  on  the  subject  of  fodder  for 
cattle  :  "  The  solid,  more  dry  than  too  watery,  juicy,  and  moist  materials  of  fodder, 
correspond  more  to  the  object  of  usefulness  consisting  in  the  performance  of  labor, 
because  by  strengthening  the  working-animal  in  labor,  the  organs  of  digestion  are 
put  into  greater  activity,  whereby  the  easily  decomposed,  and  rapidly  assimilating  mate- 
rials of  food,  quickly  gather  to  themselves  those  that  are  not  lasting,  and  therefore  the 
duration  of  the  process  is  shortened.  The  most  suitable  principal  article  of  fodder  in 
the  winter  is  hay,  partly  uncut,  partly  cut  with  good  straw  for  chafl'  (Hacksel).  In  ad- 
dition also  may  be  used  root  and  knob-plants,  broken  grain,  &c.  If  a  greater  quantity 
of  juicy  articles  of  fodder  are  used,  it  should  not  be  omitted  after  each  feeding  to 
give  for  an  after-food  for  each  head  2  lbs.  of  long  hay.  Besides,  let  them  drink  as 
they  wish,  and  in  sufficient  quantity,  which,  especially  in  warm  weather  and  with  hard 
labor,  is  indispensably  necessary,  and  yet  is  so  easily  neglected.  In  the  summer, 
green  fodder  usually  forms  the  principal  article  of  food.  By  itself  only  it  is  not  suffi- 
ciently lasting.  In  such  a  case,  it  is  to  be  cut  on  the  Hacksel-board,  and  mixed  with 
Hacksel  from  hay  and  straw,  or  at  each  time  of  feeding  2  to  3  lbs.  of  long  hay,  to 
be  given  alone.  Care  must  likewise  be  taken  to  make  an  addition  of  bruised  grain 
at  short  periods,  in  the  greatest  pressure  of  labor.  The  working-ox  is  more  suscep- 
tible with  respect  to  the  weather  than  the  horse,  does  not  bear  great  heat  or  cold^ 
drought  and  wet  so  easily,  and  must  therefore  be  employed  at  work  with  care :  espe- 
cially is  the  working-ox  injured  by  too  great  fatigue  in  a  hot  day,  as  well  as  by  too 
hard  driving  and  urging  forward  at  a  distance,  or  in  returning  home  from  work." 
"  The  yearly  expense  of  the  articles  of  fodder  of  a  working-ox  in  Bavaria  is — 

1.  In  summer  fodder  from  1st  of  June,  to  the  end  of  September,  120  days: 
green  clover-fodder  in  the  worthof  hay  daily,  at  18  lbs. 

=  2160lbs.at23kreutzers(=16:|:cts.)percwt.  =  8  florins  16  kreutzers  =$3,96 
long  meadow-hay,  at  5  lbs.  =   600  lbs.,  at  22  kr. 

(=16cts.)      -------     2     "        12         «        =1,05 

bruised  grain  1  lb.  =  120  lbs.  in  the  worth  of  hay, 

240  1bs.  at40kr.  (=30cts)         -        -        -        1     «        36        "        =0,75 

2.  For  winter-fodder  through  245  days : 

hay  per  day,  14  lbs.  =  3430  lbs.  a  22  kr.  -         12     «        34        '^       =  5,49 

straw  for  fodder  8  lbs.  daily  =  1960  lbs.  at  16  kr. 

(=  12  cts.)   -------         5    "        13        «       =  2,50 

potatoes  14  lbs.  daily  =  3430  lbs.  in  worth  of  hay 

=  1715  lbs.  at  30  kr.  =  22  cts.       -        -    ^    -        8     "        34        "       =4,09 

for  91  cwt.  of  the  worth  of  hay  in  the  whole  at 

25  25  kreutzers,        -----  38    "        25        "  =  $18,54 

Respecting  the  feed  of  oxen,  Sir  John  Sinclair,  in  his  Scottish  Husbandry,  men- 
tions the  case  of  Mr.  Walker,  whose  bullocks  never  tasted  any  other  food  during 
winter  except  turnips  and  straw,  with  perhaps  a  handful  of  hay  while  the  ploughmen 
were  eating  Iheir  dinner  under  the  hedge,  that  they  were  never  spared  a  day's  usual 
work ;  and  that  he  had  ascertained  that  thus  fed  one  ox  was  equal  to  the  work  of 
two  on  hay  alone.  There  is  quite  a  difference  in  the  nutritive  matter  of  turnips  of 
diflferent  varieties.  The  Swedish  turnip  appears,  from  a  comparative  estimate  given 
in  the  British  Husbandry,  to  be  the  most  nutritive,  as  30  tons  yields  216  cwt.  of  nu- 
tritive matter.  The  quantity  of  water  in  turnips  and  potatoes  is  said  by  good  autho- 
rity to  vary  in  different  kinds,  so  that  100  tons  of  turnips  contain  sometimes  only  9 
tons  of  dry  feeding-matter,  and  sometimes  more  than  20  tons,  and  potatoes  some- 
time"  only  20,  sometimes  30  tons. 

In  the  Annates  de  I'Agriculture  Frangaise,  Dec,  1828,  mention  is  made  of  a  kind 
of  sourcrout  used  in  Prussia,  and  which  is  prepared  by  "putting  cabbages  into  large 
stone  receptacles,  after  chopping  them  and  sprinkling  tliem  wi^  salt    The  mixture 

5 


34  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

is  then  allowed  to  ferment  The  peasants  of  Swabia,  also  preserve  the  leaves  of 
cabbage,  beet,  an  1  other  roots  for  ieeding  their  cattle.  After  throwing  them  into 
boiling  water,  they  heap  them  up  in  deep  casks  or  boxes  5  or  6  feet  square,  fixed  on 
posts.  Every  Sth  day  they  add  new  layers  of  leaves,  which  they  take  care  to  salt. 
The  whole  tlien  becomes  sour,  and  when  preserved  for  winter  use  it  Ibrms  excellent 
food." 

I  have  taken  occasion  to  introduce  the  above  views  and  calculations  in  this  place, 
as  they  seem  most  appropriate  here,  and  will  be  found  useful  to  the  intelligent 
farmers  of  our  country,  though  some  of  them  of  course  must  need  modification,  as  the 
price  of  iiay  and  labor  is  generally  so  much  higher  with  us  than  in  Germany.  The 
further  points  of  the  question  respecting  the  comparative  advantages  of  horses  or 
oxen,  will  be  presented  hereafter. — Tr.J 

7.  Besides  the  difference  of  the  cost  which  the  support  of  oxen  or 
horses  occasions,  we  must  also  take  into  view,  the  difference  of  expense 
of  their  purchase,  the  unlike  depreciation  in  value  by  use,  the  different 
hazards,  their  value,  either  wholly  or  partially  lost  after  death,  their 
harness,  he. 

Horses  m  the  first  purchase  cost  almost  double  what  oxen  do  ;  their  value  is  di- 
minished in  a  like  ratio  ;  they  grow  old  after  six  years  ;  defects  of  beauty  have  an 
important  influence  in  the  sale  of  them  ;  their  harness  and  shoeing  is  more  expensive  ; 
and  if  they  happen  to  receive  an  injury  which  disqualifies  them  for  work,  their  whole 
value  is  lost,  because  after  they  are  dead  they  can  be  put  to  no  use :  whilst  oxen,  by 
the  same  amount  of  labor  do  not  equally  depreciate  in  value,  even  if  they  are  old,  in 
12  years;  faults  of  beauty  have  less  influence  in  sinking  their  value  ;  their  harness  is 
as  simple  as  it  is  cheap,  and  their  being  shod  when  used  in  tillage,  is  unnecessary  ; 
and  when  killed  they  answer  for  food  ;  the  working  ox  too,  unfit  for  labor  by  being 
fatted,  is  made  of  great  value,  and  even  in  the  event  of  some  misfortune,  if  killed  in  a 
leaner  condition,  his  value  is  only  partially  lost. 

[On  the  subject  of  fattening  oxen,  our  Author,  in  Vol.  II.  p.  258.  has  the  following 
observations :  "  To  fatten  oxen  simply  on  hay  can  only  be  profitable  where  there  is 
great  natural  growth  of  hay,  and  the  hay  has  no  higher  value  than  it  holds  in  fatten- 
ing one's  own  cattle.  The  greatest  experiments  concerning  the  fattening  Avith  hay, 
are  related  by  Count  Podcwill,  in  his  Wirthsch.  Erfahrungen  II.  Th.  58.  (Agricul- 
tural Experiments,  2d  part,  p.  58.)  From  the  year  1784  to  1800,  he  had  1497  Polish, 
and  226  country-breed  oxen,  fatted  on  hay.  Late  in  Autumn,  they  pastured  on  the 
meadows,  after  the  second-mowed  crop  was  brought  home,  and  were  stalled  about 
the  1st  of  November.  They  were  fed  only  on  hay,  and  were  slaughtered  in  small 
divisions,  from  the  end  of  December  till  the  middle  of  June ;  on  an  average  they 
were  foddered  20  weeks.  Each  ox  received  weekly,  on  an  average,  187;^  lbs.  daily, 
26 1  lbs.  of  Vienna  weiaht,  CI  lb.  =  to  about  1|  lb.  English.)  of  good  sweet  hay, 


W. 


For  fattening  one  ox,  3745  lbs.  were  required.  How  much  they  gained  in  weight 
in  fattening  is  not  given,  but  only  how  much  they  gained  in  value  :  and  from  this  the 
conclusion  is  drawn,  as  to  the  increase  of  flesh,  which  is  not  the  correct  mode.  A 
Polish  ox  cost  in  the  purchase,  58  florins  53  kreutzers,  Conv,  gold,  (=  $28,25.) 
and  was  sold  for  75  fl.  45  kr.  (=  $36,33) ;  there  was  Iherefbre  a  gain  of  16  fl. 
52  kr.  (=1  $8.08)  ;  but  since  for  housing  and  fodder,  for  interest  on  purchase  capital, 
implements,  &c.,  there  must  be  deducted  on  each  head,  3  fl.  16  kr.  (=  $1,50),  so 
3745  lbs.  of  hay  must  be  reckoned  at  13  fl.  36  kr.  (=  $6,52)  if  the  straw-litter  is  made 
to  balance  the  manure,  as  Podewill  does.  One  hundred  weight  of  hay  here  for  fattening 
costs  21^  kr.  (=16  cts.)  According  to  Table  IV.  (in  his  work),  the  mean  of  the  fatted 
oxen  slaughtered  in  the  house,  was  in  flesh  376  lbs.,  and  45  lbs.  of  tallow.  But  ac- 
cording to  Table  38,  the  Polish  oxen  weighed  in  flesh  and  fat  only  397  lbs.,  the 
country-breed  ones  359  lbs.  The  pound  Vienna  of  flesh  is  put  at  6.71  kr.  (about4cts.), 
a  pound  of  tallow  at  15.65  kr.  (about  12  cts.).  and  the  hide  at  6  florins  (  =  $2.88).  The 
cwt.  of  flesh,  according  to  Table  IV.  is  reckoned  at  15  fl.  54  kr.  (=  $7,60|  cts.)  and 
Bince  the  gain  of  sale  over  the  purchase,  on  a  head,  was  16  fl.  52  kr.  (^  $8.08).  it  had 
in  140  days  gained  only  a  little  more  than  1  cwt,  and  the  gain  was  very  small,  if  we 
bring  not  into  the  account  also  the  bettering  and  raisin tr  the  value  of  the  mass  of 
flesh  of  the  whole  stock  of  cattle.  Thaer  assumes,  but  I  know  not  from  what  expe- 
riments, that  an  ox  of  700  to  750  lbs.,  to  which  is  daily  given  40  lbs.  of  good  hay, 
will  daily  gain  about  2  lbs.    If  the  wortli  of  a  pound  oif  fat  flesh  is  2  groschen  (about 


econo:nIY  of  farming.  35 

4  cts.),  then  230  ll^s.  of  hay  will  be  reckoned  at  23  groschen  (=  56  cts.),  or  100  lbs. 
at  10  o-roschen  (=^20  cts.),  which  indeed  is  not  too  much  lor  many  regions,  but  yet 
is  a  sufficiently  good  reckoning  of  hay  used.  The  fattening  with  turnips,  cabbage- 
turnips,  but  especially  with  potatoes,  spares  much  hay,  and  effects  the  object  in  a 
quicker  time.  Cabbage-turnips,  according  to  many  experiments  in  the  fdtiening  of 
oxen,  deserves  great  regard ;  since  the  beasts  eat  these  roots  better  than  potatoes, 
and  with  a  similar  quantity  of  hay,  are  soon  fatted.  Of  equal  value  too  are  beets, 
as  the  experiments  of  Dombasle  prove.  Thaer  maintains,  that  if  a  man,  in  place  of 
30  lbs.  of  hay  give  only  10  lbs.,  and  supply  the  other  20  lbs.  by  60  lbs.  of  potatoes, 
the  ox  will  be  better  fed  and  sooner  fatted,  which  is  very  clear ;  since  thus  3  lbs.  of 
potatoes,  or  indeed  1  lb.  of  dry,  and  in  a  great  measure,  mealy  substance,  is  given 
instead  of  1  lb.  of  hay. 

"  Fattening  with  grain  produces  the  greatest  effect  in  the  shortest  time.  This 
should  be  given  either  whole  or  ground  to  meal,  and  mixed  w^ith  Hacksel,  or  given 
with  their  drink  in  a  raw  or  in  a  fermented  state.  Grain  broken  up,  or  coarse  meal 
mixed  with  some  salt,  strewed  over  chaff-mixture  (Hacksel),  is  the  most  common 
method  of  feeding,  I  have  found  in  many  of  our  farms,  that  for  fattening  they  make 
a  certain  quantity  of  meal  mixed  up  with  salt  water,  into  paste-balls  of  the  size 
of  large  apples,  of  which,  after  the  oxen  have  eaten  hay  or  Hacksel,  they  give  them 
by  piecemeal  twice  a-day.  Arthur  Young  found  the  same  practice  in  Provence,  and 
it  seems  to  me  that  it  is  far  preferable  to  giving  meal  with  salt  to  the  beasts  without 
Hacksel.  To  mix  a  portion  of  grain-meal  with  water,  and  make  it  thus  agreeable 
to  the  beasts,  is  indeed  as  suitable  as  it  is  profitable ;  but  to  employ  all  the  meal  in 
this  way  is  unprofitable,  because  the  dry  fodder  without  meal  is  less  acceptable,  and 
will  not  be  eaten  by  the  beasts  in  sufficiently  large  quantities.  To  mix  up  a  certain 
quantity  of  meal  with  water,  and  set  it  into  fermentation  by  leaven,  and  then  give  it 
in  a  dilute  state  to  oxen  as  drink,  produces  a  greater  effect  than  when  the  meal  is  in 
an  unfermented  state.  That  one  may  fatten  swine  v.'ith  fermented  meal-drink  is 
known  ;  but  that  fatted  oxen  may  be  fed  in  this  manner  is  less  known,  although  it  is 
evident  that  what  will  make  svv^ine  fat  must  also  have  the  same  effect  on  oxen.  In 
the  South  of  France,  Arthur  Young  found  this  practice.  It  is  not  unknown  also  in 
Alsace  (see  Schwertz  Alsace  Husbandry.  91) ;  as  also  in  some  regions  of  Upper 
Steirmark,  fermented  meal-drink  is  used  as  fattening  food,  and  it  is  maintained  by 
the  farmers  of  these  regions,  that  it  produces  considerably  greater  effects  than  raw 
meal  or  common  meal  drink.  I  must  here  mention  in  passing,  the  mixture  of  one 
part  of  meal,  and  two  parts  of  boiled  or  steamed  and  broken-up  potatoes,  which  are 
suffered  to  go  into  acid  fermentation,  and  then  fed  out ;  of  Avhich  I  have  given  a  more 
particular  notice  under  the  Fattening  of  Swine.    See  Vol.  II.  p.  336." 

"  A  small  piece  of  usual  leaven  is  mixed  up  with  tepid  water,  in  a  vessel  full  of 
meal,  to  the  thickness  of  a  dougrh,  and  this  is  set  in  a  warm  place  to  ferment;  in  this 
one  obtains  leaven  enough  to  ferment  rapidly  half  a  metzen  (0.S5  bushel)  of  meal. 
This  meal  is  placed  in  a  large  vat,  with  tepid,  but  not  hot  water,  and  with  that  vessel 
full  of  leaven  made  into  a  thin  paste,  by  which  it  soon  ferments.  While  this  is  going 
on,  a  metzen  (1.69  bushel)  of  potatoes  is  steamed  or  boiled,  and  broken  up,  and  in  a 
hot  state  thrown  into  the  fermented  dough,  and  well  mixed  together.  The  vat  needs 
only  to  be  f  full,  because  the  mass  swells  by  fermentation.  The  greater  quantity 
one  prepares  at  once,  the  more  acid  it  is.  so  much  the  more  do  swine  love  it,  and 
so  much  the  more  useful  it  is  for  them.  The  addition  of  a  handful  of  salt  produces 
an  admirable  effect.  In  feeding  it  out  this  thick  dough  should  be  thinned  with  water, 
or,  what  is  better,  with  sour  milk,  and  given  three  times  a  day. to  swine." 

"How  much  grain  must  be  given  to  beasts  in  fattening  them,  depends  on  their  size, 
on  the  greater  or  less  capacity  for  nourishment  of  the  grain ;  also,  whether  it  be 
given  whole,  broken  up,  ground  into  meal,  raw  or  soaked,  or  fermented.  Of  the  pro- 
gress of  fattening,  we  must  judge  by  weight,  measure,  and  handling  the  beasts. 
Strachniss's  rule  is  to  multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter  of  the  beast  measured 
behind  the  shoulders,  by  the  lencrih  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  to  the  end  of  the 
rump,  divide  this  sum  by  54.  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  slaughter  weight  of  the 
beast.  He  mentions  also,  two  commitations  with  sv^ine  and  a  Vv^cther,  where  this 
formula  gave  the  flesh-weight  tolerably  correct.  My  friend  Sollner  after  many  ex- 
periments, fixed  upon  67.5  as  a  divisor,  and  w^ith  oxen  and  cows  which  weigh  more 
than  200  lbs.,  this  formula  ffives  the  slaughter-weight  very  correctly,  but  not  with 
lesser  animals.  In  proof  how  correctly  the  rule  answers,  I  subjoin  the  following 
proof;  taken  at  tlie  excellent  farms  of  Karlsberg  and  Krug. 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 


Measure  i 

n  Inches. 

Flesh 

Wt.  at! 

laughter 

Year  and  'i""  "^  elnmrhtpr. 

Kind  of  Beasts. 

weight 

Circumf. 

Length. 

given. 

Flesh. 

Tallow. 

inches. 

inches. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

1827, 

Dec.  23, 

Cow,  9  years  old, 

72 

54 

420 

402 

50 

1828, 

Jan.  11, 

u      7     «        u 

70 

51 

375 

390 

50 

(( 

"     30, 

Ox,     6     "      « 

73 

57 

455 

459 

(( 

u        u 

U             U        U            (( 

75 

53 

447 

436 

u 

Dec.  28, 

Calf,  3     «      « 

62 

50 

288 

290 

1829, 

Sept.  30. 

Ox,     5    «      " 

75 

52 

438 

419 

53 

1830, 

Feb.  30: 

Calf,   3     "       « 

66 

50 

326 

326 

1831, 

Dec.  13, 

Cow,  age  unknoAvn, 

64 

50 

305 

323 

1833, 

Jan.     9, 

Bull,  4  years  old. 

90 

61 

740 

772 

40 

«  ' 

Feb.  23, 

Cow,  age  unknown, 

68 

53 

366 

381 

60 

li 

April  3, 

u        a                u 

74 

53 

434 

372 

40 

(( 

"     16: 

Ox,  5  years  old. 

81 

57 

575 

566 

19 

1834, 

Feb.  6, 

Cow,  4  years  old, 

70 

55 

404 

411 

50 

(( 

Nov.  24, 

u       Y      a        u 

67 

50 

343 

316 

20 

({ 

Dec.  21, 

u       6      u        » 

66 

51 

328 

330 

20 

1835, 

April  10, 

"     age  unknown, 

76 

56 

484 

460 

80 

(( 

u         u 

((        a                u 

71 

55 

416 

381 

56 

(( 

Dec.  13, 

"    11  years  old, 

67 

49 

336 

321 

60 

1836, 

Jan.  30, 

Bull,  5    «      " 

80 

57 

546 

620 

40 

(i 

March  16, 

Ox, 

82 

56 

565 

524 

75 

U 

u            u 

80 

80 

56 
56 

1072 

1016 

150 

9657 

9583 

From  a  great  variety  of  experiments,  it  appears  that  100  lbs.  of  live-weight  of  a 
beast,  not  fattened,  yet  not  lean,  gives  52-54  lbs.  of  flesh-weight,  and  if  the  fat  is 
reckoned,  56-59  lbs.;  of  the  half-fattened,  54-60  lbs.  of  flesh,  and  with  tallow  59-63 
lbs. ;  and  entirely  fattened,  61-64  lbs.,  and  with  tallow  70  lbs.  100  lbs.  of  flesh  give, 
with  lean  beasts,  6-8  lbs.  of  tallow;  with  half-fattened  ones,  9-12  lbs. ;  but  with  fat- 
tened ones,  13-27  lbs.  The  fleshy  parts  of  less  value,  as  entrails,  head  and  feet, 
are  to  pure  flesh  in  the  4  quarters  in  a  lean  beast,  as  20-22 ;  in  half-fattened,  as  15- 
20  ;  in  fattened,  as  8-12  to  100  lbs.  From  this  it  appears  how  much  more  profitable 
it  is  for  the  butcher  to  buy  fat  cattle,  even  if  considerably  dearer,  than  lean ;  because 
with  the  absolute  weight  of  the  beast  he  obtains  more  fatty  parts,  which,  as  tallow, 
is  often  doubly  more  dear  than  flesh ;  because  he  obtains  a  better  price  for  the  fat- 
tened animal ;  because  the  head  has  a  higher  proportionate  value,  and  because  there 
is  muchless  weight  of  such  flesh,  as  frequently  has  only  half  the  value  of  better  flesh." 

In  the  2d  volume  of  the  British  Husbandry,  p.  392,  it  is  stated.  "  The  stock-bailiff 
of  the  late  Mr.  Curwen  always  calculated  from  his  experience,  that  the  dead-weight 
was  equal  to  -^^.^^^^,  that  is  to  say  ^ths  of  the  live  weight."  The  following  rule  is 
also  given :  "  The  girth  is  taken  by  passing  a  cord  just  behind  the  shoulder-blade, 
and  under  the  fore-legs  ;  this  gives  the  circumference  ;  and  the  length  is  taken  along 
the  back,  from  the  foremost  corner  of  the  blade-bone  of  the  shoulder,  in  a  straight 
Ihie  to  the  hindmost  point  of  the  rump,  or  that  bone  of  the  tail  which  plumbs  the  line 
with  the  hinder  part  of  the  buttock.  The  girth  and  length  are  then  measured  by 
tlie  foot  rule."  Tables  have  been  constructed  by  different  persons,  calculated  on  the 
stone  of  14  lbs.,  "by  multiplying  the  square  of  the  girth  by  the  length,  and  this  pro- 
duct by  a  decimal,  which  may  be  assumed  as  nearly  .238  for  the  live-weight;  the 
dead-weight  is  ascertained  by  multiplying  the  live-weight  by  the  decimal,  .605  ;  thus 
-1^0*0^  will  give  the  product  of  the  four  quarters."  Mr.  Renton.  however,  states  that 
for  a  half-fattened  ox,  must  be  deducted  1  stone  for  20  from  that  of  a  fat  ox :  for 
a  cow  which  has  had  calves,  1  stone  must  also  be  deducted,  and  another  if  not 
properly  fat."  "Mr.  McDerment  proposes  that  in  case  of  very  fat  animals  A-  or  -\ 
part  should  be  added  to  the  weight  obtained  by  measurement,  and  when  below  the 
ordinary  state  of  fatness,  the  same  proportion  should  be  deducted.  Old  milch  cows 
which  have  had  a  number  of  calves  should  have  ^  or  -^^  of  their  weight  de- 
ducted." 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  37 

The  following  results  are  given  as  thus  measured  alive,  and  the  weights  Eia 
having  been  IbunJ  nearly  accurate  when  the  animals  were  killed,  14  lbs.  being 
allowed  to  I  stone  in  live  weight,  and  8  lbs.  for  dead  weight. 

GIRTH.         LENGTH.     RENTON's  TABLE.  m'dERMENT's  DO.  CARY's  GAUGE. 

ft.  in.                   ft.  in.  st.  lbs.  st.  lbs.  st. 

5     0                    3     6  21     0  20  11  21 

4    0  24    0  23  11  27 

5  6                    3    9  27     1  27  0  27 

4  9  34    4  34      2  34^ 

6  0  4    6  •     3S     8  '33      8  38| 

5  0  43     1  42     12  43 

6  6  4    6  45    9  45      3  45^ 

4    9  48    0  47     10  48 

7  0  5    6  64    6  64      2  64* 

6  0  70     5  69     13  70^ 

8  0  6    6  99     8  99      0  99| 

7  0  107     5  106      9  109^ 
"Mr.  Douglas's  mode  of  calculating  is,  By  decimals  square  the  girtliinto  itself  and 

multiply  the  leagtii  into  the  square  of  the  girth;  if  the  beast  is  fat.  multiply  by  the 
deciiiial  .21:.  it'  only  half  tat,  by  .23.  The  tbregoing  rule  is  very  accurate,  if  cattle 
are  divided  into  claases,  and  tiie  multiplying  decimal  proportioned :  thus  if  what  ie 
technically  termed, 

Justkillable,  multiply  by  .22, 
Fair  beet;  •'  -  .23, 

Fat,  "  "  .24, 

Very  fat,  "  "  .25, 

Extra  tat,  «  ''-  .26." 

The  average  of  five  different  breeds,  carcass  and  offal,  are  given 

Oi"  carcass,  to  10  stone  of  live- weight,  nearly  6  stone, 
Of  oifal  3-^  to  10  stone  of  the  carcass. 
Thaer  in  Vol.  IV.  p.  240,  gives  the  following  formula  as  one  used  in  England, 
by  Proctor  Anderson:  -  Take  half  the  live-weight;  add  f  of  the  same  to  it,  and 
divide  by  2.     Thus  an  ox  weighs,  live-weight,  700  lbs., 

^  is  350, 
tof7C0  ••  400, 

750.  divided  by  2  gives  375  lbs. 
20  lbs.  live  Aveight  therefore,  gives  10  flesh  weight."  Thaer  says  that''  with  some- 
wh  t  fitter  oxen  20  b^s.  will  give  11  lbs.,  and  v*'ith  fully  fattened  ones,  12  to  12|  lbs." 
On  t'lic  su  ject  of  summer  f  ittening,  he  says  there  are  two  kinds,  pasture  and 
stall-feeding;  pasture-feeding  is  on  rich  pastures,  which  hence  are  called  tUt-pas- 
tures.  "  In  the  m  rshes  of  the  lower  Elbe,  it  is  customary  to  pasture  the  grr.ss-land 
once,  and  to  mow  it  once.  A  tcnced  lot  or  one  separated  by  ditches,  is  appropriated 
to  the  fattening  ottle  in  the  spring,  and  a  crop  of  hay  is  taken  from  another,  then 
the  c  ^ttle  pass  from  th.tt  to  this,  and  that  is  now  sp  ired  and  mowed.  In  these  regions 
they  reckon  for  gre  t  m  irsh  oxen,  which  have  a  flesh  weight  of  900  lbs.,  a  marsh 
morgen  of  430  squ^ire  roils.  containing  sixteen  feet  each,  which  makes  1'-  of  a  yoke, 
(=  2 3  of  an  acre)."  ''Green  st  dl-foddering  is  not  often  practised  for  fattening 
cattle,  I  know  however  many  examples  where  it  has  resulted  well.  Oxen  can  be 
made  very  fit  with  green  clover  if  it  is  given  in  suitalde  quantity.  An  ox  eats  180 
to  225  l*)s.  of  green  clover  in  a  day,  with  which  he  must  have  good  straw,  which  he 
may  e  t  at  interv  ds.  If  one  could  give  part  of  his  food  in  hay  or  dried  clover,  his 
green  fodder  wouKl  no  doulit  be  more  successful.  A  drink  of  flax-seed  cake  has 
been  used  with  particularly  good  effect,  towards  the  close  of  the  f  ittening  period." 
*'The  winter  f  ittening  with  hay  only  in  regions  rich  in  hay.  is  sometimes  practised. 
An  ox  wliich  Vv'ill  weigh  630  to  675  lbs.,  and  daily  uses  36  lbs.  of  good  hay  gains 
daily  1  lbs.  or  weekly  12.  lbs."— •  If  an  ox,  in  place  of  27  lbs.  of  hay,  has  daily  54 
lbs.  of  potatoes  and  9  lbs.  of  hay,  or  weekly  363  lbs.  of  potatoes  and  63  lbs.  of  hay, 
accor.ling  to  numerous  experiments  among  us,  he  will  be  in  a  better  state  and 
stronn-er.  If  the  fattening  time  lasts  16  weeks  an  ox  gains  201  lbs.  of  flesh  and  fat. 
He  consumes,  if  fed  on  hay  only  4702  lbs.,  if  on  potatoes  also,  1018  lbs.  of  hay,  and 
67  mpt.'^en  IS  lbs  of  potatoes  (probably  the  Austrian  metzen,  which  is  1.69  bushel, 
therefore  67   metzen  =  113,,-o^V  bushels).    If  the  fattening  time  lasts  20  weeks, 


38  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

the  ox  must,  in  hay-fodder  consume  50r0  lbs.  of  hay ;  or  with  potatoes.  1272  lbs.  of 
hay,  and  84  metzsn  of  potatoes  (  =  nearly  146  bushels)." 

Veit  is  also  full  on  this  subject.  Yet  as  bis  authority  is  high,  I  will  quote  him 
somewhat  at  large.  He  examines  the  subject  with  reference  to  the  choice  of  articles 
of  fooJ,  the  quantity,  and  modes  of  preparation  See  Vol  II.  p.  432.  On  grass- 
pasture,  he  says :  "  This  mode  of  fattening  can  be  used  only  in  rich  lowlands,  or 
natural  or  artificial  fat  pastures,  and  on  moist,  w-arin.  grassy  mountainous  regions. 
Such  rich  pastures  produce  the  cheapest  fodder  and  hence  the  highest  profit  if  the 
grasses  and  plants  on  them  possess  sufficient  nourishment  to  make  the  beasts  fat. 

"  Green  fodder,  clover-grass,  and  mixture  of  fodder.  Cattle  readily  eat  and  fatten  on 
these  kinds  of  green  fodder ;  but  butchers  complain  of  the  want  of  the  firmness  and 
productiveness  of  the  fat ;  and  here  it  is  usual  to  addat  every  feeding-time,  especially 
in  the  last  period  of  iattening,  ground-grain  or  other  nutritive  articles  of  food. 

"  Hay  of  all  sorts.  Good  meadow  and  clover  hay,  is  very  common  as  a  principal 
fattening-fodder,  at  least  in  the  first  and  second  periods  of  fattening,  and  with  or 
without  juicy  fodder  ;  and  only  in  the  third  period  of  the  commonly  diminished  ac- 
tivity of  the  digestive  power,  is  this  voluminous  fodder  lessened,  and  instead  of  it,  a 
loss  voluminous,  richly  nutritious  and  easily-digested  kind  given  in  a  proportionate 
quantity. 

"  Knob  and  root-plants.  These  are  used  in  very  many  farms,  as  the  principal  article 
of  feeding;  because  their  volume  is  small,  they  can  be  easily  mixed  with  all  other 
kinds  of  fodder-stuffs  ;  the  most  suitable  proportion  between  tlie  nutritive  power  and 
the  volume,  between  the  watery  and  dry  parts  can  be  so  easily  regulated  ;  and  the 
tlirinaceous  and  saccharine  principles,  as  the  two  most  efficacious  constituents  of  a 
corresponding  fattening  food,  exist  in  them  in  a  great  quantity,  and  in  an  easily-dis- 
solved state.  Of  these  the  fattening-cattle  can  take  g  to  i  of  the  daily  need  of  nutri- 
tive substance,  in  hay-value. 

"  Grains.  These  operate  the  most  profitably  in  the  production  of  flesh  and  fat  in  a 
great  quantity,  and  of  the  best  quality,  and  are  tlierofore  the  nios-f  p:i('t^lh)it  fattening 
fbod.  But  their  volume  is  too  small  to  fill  the  belly  sufficiently  ;  and  hence  they  must 
be  mixed  with  more  voluminous  fodder-stuff. 

"  Of  particular  efficacy  is  the  ground  grain  fermented  like  bread-dough,  and  for  this 
purpose  mixed  with  boiled  potatoes  is  made  into  a  thick  dougli  Avhich  after  24  hours 
is  stirred  up  in  its  fermenting  or  fermented  state  in  lukewarm  water,  and  is  used 
partly  as  a  drink,  and  pardy  mixed  wnth  cbafl'  ''or  Facksvl).  Eut  among  A\  the  arti- 
cles of  food  ,  the  grain-fruits,  malted  and  baked  into  bread,  produced  tlie  greatest 
effect. 

"Of  the  grain-fruits,  it  is  usual  to  give  ^,  at  the  highest  ;',  of  the  reed  of  fodder  in 
hay  value ;  the  less  quantity  in  the  beginning,  and  the  orea-er  towards  the  end  of  the 
fattening.  In  an  economical  point  of  view,  the  grains  belong  to  tl'e  dearest  materials 
of  fodder,  unless  their  cultivation  especially  is  so  carried  on,  as  to  produce  them  with 
the  least  cost.  Whoever  in  fattening  will  employ  the  sfreatest  euantity  of  \he 
grains,  must  above  all  give  his  attention  to  the  cheapest  possible  production  of  the  same. 

"Of  the  kinds  of  straw,  one  should  choose  only  a  good,  rot  entirely  ripe  straw  of 
op.ts,  barley,  lentils,  vetches  and  peas,  which  should  be  produced  by  the  proportion  of 
his  husbandry  in  large  quantities,  and  for  the  most  part  only  for  the  purpose  of  filling 
up  and  extending  the  paunch  in  the  first  period  of  fattening,  and  to  prepare  it  for  the 
reception  of  greater  masses  of  food. 

"Oil-cake,  of  rape-seed,  flax-seed,  bran;  the  remains  in  the  starch  and  b.^Pt-sugar 
manufactare;  whey,  sour  milk;  horse-chestnuts,  acorns;  in  short,  all  articles  of 
food,  which  possess  much  nutriment  in  a  small  volume,  and  can  be  obtained  cheaper 
than  grain,  are  valuable  aids  in  fattening". 

.  "  Salt  belongs  to  the  most  excellent  aids  to  keep  the  digestiv^e  organs  in  crrnnior  ac- 
tivity, to  increase  the  srrow^th  of  fit  but  especially  to  imrrove  the  ouality  of  the  flesh 
and  fit.  This  should  be  given  in  sreater  Quantity  towards  the  end  of  the  fattening 
period.  Only  with  the  soured  ("pickled )  fodder,  l^ss  salt  need  be  given.  Amonn-  the 
most  efficacious  aids  to  digestion,  are  reckoned  bruisod  o-entian-roofs.  iunirer-berty 
beer,  and  horse-chestnuts.  They  are  mixed  with  salt.  bran,  and  malt-shoots;  let  this 
mixture  be  given  ^  hour  before  the  morning  feedinsr.  in  the  first  period  twice  a  week  ; 
in  the  second  4  times,  and  in  the  last  daily.  This  mixture  has  a  particularly  profita- 
ble influence  in  sickly  and  lean  beasts. 

A  principal  question  in  foddering-  fattening  cattle  is.  How  much  fodder  can  he  em- 
ployed to  advantage?  All  experience  afrrees  in  this; — that  it  is  only  the  rapid  fat- 
tening which  gives  the  highest  results.     The  more  fodder  one  can  give  to  the  fatten- 


ECONOMY   OF  FARMING. 


39 


ing  cattle  in  a  definite  time ;  so  much  the  more  mehoration-fodder  will  be  derived 
from  it ;  and  so  much  earlier  will  the  fattening  be  completed.  The  quantity  of  fodder, 
so  far  as  it  can  be  perfectly  prepared,  and  assimib.ted  by  the  organs  of  digestion,  has 
its  limits.  For  a  surplus  on  the  one  hand,  occasions  a  limitation  of  the  powers  of 
digestion,  and  on  the  other,  a  waste  of  the  fodder ;  whilst  with  too  little  fodder,  the 
fattening  is  protracted  too  far,  and  becomes  too  costly. 

"  Universal  experience  shows,  that  an  ox,  in  his  last  period  of  fattening,  must  have 
double  his  conservation-fod  ier,  (1.85  lbs.  of  hay-value  to  100  lbs.  of  hve-weight) ; 
therefore  daily  3.7  to  4  lbs.  of  hay-value  to  100  lbs.  of  his  live-weight.  In  the  last  period 
of  fattening,  the  digestive  activity  of  the  fattening  beast  is  evidently  circumscribed. 
But  since  exactly  in  this  period,  the  most  nutritious,  and  most  easily-digested  articles  of 
fodder  may  be  reached  ;  so  they  are  able  to  take  of  them  still  more  than  in  the  earlier 
period  they  can  of  the  more  voluminous  means  of  nutriment.  For  the  first  fattening 
period  then  we  fix  upon  about  21  lbs  ;  for  the  2d,  3  to  3^  lbs,,  and  for  the  3d,  3^  to 
4  lbs.  in  hay-value  to  the  100  lbs.  of  live-weight,  as  the  daily  conservation-fodder. 

"  Usually  cattle  need  to  be  fed  3  times  in  the  day;  when  fed  4  times,  the  beasts 
have  too  little  time  for  rest,  and  to  ruminate  their  food.  If  fed  twice  a  day.  such  daily 
fodder  is  first  laid,  in  which  the  voluminous,  coarse  fodder  forms  the  chief  fattening- 
fodder,  and  therefore  also  the  slower  fattening  is  chosen  as  the  most  suitable.  In  this 
case,  the  beasts  enjoy  a  long,  unbroken  rest,  as  the  cheapest  means  of  improvement, 
and  thus  use  up  perfectly  the  nutriment  given. 

"Among  the  most  essential  conditions  of  success  is  the  order,  in  which  the  materials 
of  fodder  should  be  given  at  each  feeding,  and  the  interchange  of  the  different  kinds 
of  fodder. 

"At  first,  we  give  the  more  voluminous  means  of  nutriment,  Hacksel  of  hay  and 
straw,  with  juicy  fodder,  roots  and  knobs,  &c. ;  in  the  second  period  of  fattening  less 
of  the  voluminous,  or  hardly-digested,  and  more  of  the  easily-digested  and  stronger, 
in  greater  interchange,  and  in  increased  quantity  ;  and  in  the  last  period,  the  most 
easily-dissolved,  nutritive  and  most  efficacious  for  forming  flit,  as  well  as  the  most 
palatable.  In  this  last  period,  great  care  is  required  to  keep  up  tlie  already  declin- 
ing digestive  activity  by  tempting  anew  the  sinking  appetite,  and  thus  introduce  so 
much  food,  and  sustain  the  organs  of  assimUation  in  such  efficiency,  that  either  the 
increase  of  weight  of  the  animal  or  the  perfection  of  the  mass  of  flesh  and  fat  may 
pay  sufficiently  for  the  increased  expense." 

"  The  3  periods  of  fattening  are  usually  so  divided,  that  the  last  shall  be  the  shortest, 
because  the  most  costly  ;  in  which  there  is  the  least  increase  of  weight,  only  the  mass 
of  flesh  and  fat  is  perfected.  If  at  the  time  of  beginning  of  the  fattening,  the  oxen  are 
in  a  good  condition,  not  in  a  lean,  but  in  a  sound  state,  they  can  fat  up  ten  the  lesser 
ones  weighing  from  8 1  to  9^  cwt..  in  two  months,  and  others  weighing  from  10  to  12  cwt. 
in  3  months.  Most  commonly  we  allow  3  months  to  the  former,  and  5  months  to  the 
latter,  and  in  the  longer  fattening,  where  more  of  voluminous  coarse  fodder  is  given, 
than  of  the  nutritious,  the  period  reaches  to  6  or  8  months.  In  the  first  and  second 
period,  the  fattening  cattle  gain  the  most  flesh ;  in  the  third  the  most  fat.  and  grow 
better,  especially  as  to  the  flesh.  Very  fat  animals,  therefore,  towards  the  end  of  this 
period,  may  show  no  increase  of  weight  on  the  scales,  but  yet  with  stronger  appe- 
tite to  consume  their  fodder,  stand  in  a  profitable  condition,  on  account  of  bettering 
the  quality  of  the  flesh  and  fat.  Whether  the  half  (to  the  middle  and  end  of  the 
second  period  of  fattening,)  or  the  whole  fattening,  be  the  most  profitable,  depends 
especially  on  the  state  of  the  market,  and  on  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  materials 
of  fodder  provided." 

As  to  the  amount  of  fodder  consumed,  the  following  table  may  be  taken  as  a 
specimen  of  many  furnished  by  Veit  : — 

PERIODS    OF    FATTENING. 


FODDER-MATERIAL   CONSUMED. 
I.              1             II.             1            III. 

Averasfo  of  the 
3  periods. 

Hay  value. 

Hay  value. 

15.31bs. 

5.5 

6.14 
10.76 

Hay  value. 

18  21bs. 
2.4 
102 
123 

Hay  value. 

Hay, 

Straw, 

Grain 

Juicy  fodder,          .... 

13.31bs. 
7.7 
2 
9.1 

15.5 
5.2 
611 

10.7 

32.1 

37  7 

43.1 

37.5 

40  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  results  summed  up  by  Veit.  There  were  5 
experiments  :  the  first  with  28  ;  the  second  with  16 ;  tlie  third  with  4  j  the  fourth 
with  60  ;  and  the  last  with  13  cattle.      The  averages  were  as  follows  : 

"  1.  Average  live- weight  at  the  purchase,  .        .        .  1080  lbs. 

2.  "  "  "         sale,  .        .         .  1397 

"  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of 

3.  "                                    fattening,      ....  1238.6 

4.  "      increase  of  weight  in  the  whole  time,          .         .  317 

5.  "  daily    "                "              "        .         .         .         .  2.9 

6.  Duration  of  fattening,  5.4  months,  or  23  weeks,  or  162  days. 

7    Average  value  of  fodder  consumed  in  a  day,  at  hay  value,     37.5 

8.  Of  this  for  conservation-fodder,  19.9 

9.  "        ♦'       melioration-fodder,  .         .        .         17  6 

10.  Average  amount  of  fodder  for  one  ox,  ...        5548 

11.  "        of  this  as  conservation-fodder,  .         .         .     3213  4 

12.  "  "         "   melioration  "...        2334.6 

13.  "         quota  of  fodder  on  100  lbs.  live-weight  per  day,        3 

14.  "  conservation  fodder  "       '•  "  "  1  85 

15.  "  increase  "       "     hay- value  of  entire  fodder,    5  57 

16.  "  "  "       «  '^     melioration  fodder,  12 

17.  Average  price  of  oxen,  each,  at  purchase,        .        72  florins  =  $34.56 

18.  "  •'  "       at  sale 134  fl.         =  '64^32 

19.  "  surplus  to  cover  cost  of  keeping  the  whole  time.  62  fl.       =    29,76 

20.  "         •'        for  the  day '        21    kr.    =   18 

21.  «•  cost  of  purchase  of  1  lb.  live-weight,         .        .        4.04  kr.    =     3.03 

22.  "  amount  of  nett  proceeds.    "         "        .         .         .  6  kr.    ==     4.5 

23.  "  entire  cost  of  one  ox  per  day,         ....    13.2  kr.  =  10 

24.  Of  this  foi  the  fodder  per  day, 9  7  kr.  =     7.2 

25.  '•      "       "  "         «    cwt 26.24 kr.  =  197 

26.  Proportion  of  cash  value  of  fodder  to  a  cwt.  of  hay  value,  54.6  kr.  =   40  8 

27.  "  "        "  "        for  the  week,  2  fl.  22  kr.  =1,12 

28.  "  «        "  «  «       day,  20  3  kr.  =   16 

29.  Clear  profit  in  the  whole,  each,  .         .         .        26  fl.  33  kr.=12,72 

30.  "        "      on  the  1  cwt.  of  hay  value,        .        .  28.56  kr.  =    22** 

On  page  455,  he  says  : 
"  The  hve-weight  is  to  the  dead  weight  in  the  following  proportions  : 

IN    100    POUNDS  LIVE    WEIGHT — 


Fle.sb. 

T.i!Iow. 

ToE^efhor. 

Of  lean  animals, 

43-46 

3—4 

46—50 

''    half  fattened, 

50—53 

5-7 

55-60 

"    fattened. 

54-60 

7—10 

61—70 

And  100  lbs.  of  flesh  give. 

of  tallow: 

In  lean  animals. 

4-7  lbs. 

"  half  fattened, 

9—12 

*'  fattened, 

14—20 

The  fleshy  parts,  of  less  worth,  as  entrails,  head  and  feet,  are  to  the  flesh  of  the  4 
quarters  : 

In  lean  cattle,  18—22 
"  half  fattened,  15—20 
"  fattened,  8—12  to  100  lbs. 

The  weight  of  the  head  is  to  100  lbs.  of  flesh  9—18  lbs.  ;  with  smaller  rattle,  the 
larger,  and  with  greater  ones  the  lesser  of  these  weights ;  or  in  small  animals  of  a 
live  weight  ol  6—8  cwt,  40—50  Ihs. ;  with  middle  sized  of  from  9—10  cwt,  55—70 
lbs.:  and  with  great  one.s.  of  11—16  cwt.,  80—100  lbs.  The  price  of  fattened 
ox-flesh,  on  an  average  of  many  years,  is  from  8—11  kreutzers,  =  6—9  cts.  :  of 
the  cow  1^  to  2  kr.  cheaper." 

The  following  are  the  results  of  the  increase  of  weight  in  the  case  of  a  fattening 
ox  weighing,  live-weight.  12  cwt 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 


41 


Duily  need  of 

Daily 

Incre.is'^ 

of  weight. 

lOf  the  Vitlue  of  the  increase 

.a 

fo(l(ior  reckon- 

Of this  as 

inctease  of 

1    proportion  to  100 

of  weigiit  proportioned  to 

3    U.«> 

ed  in  iidv  Vj.- 

weigiit. 

pounds 

of 

100  Ids. 

•^i^2. 

lue. 

■   B-'^ 

On  100 
lbs.    live 
weight. 

On 
the  12 

CvVt. 

Conser 
vatioii 
fodder. 

Meliora- 
tion      Am't. 
fodder. 

Value,  at 
5krs.  nearly 
4  cts.  pel  lb. 

Collect'd 
fodder. 

Meliora- 
tion 
fodder. 

Collected 
fodder. 

Meliora- 
tion 
fodder. 

Is 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

kreutzers 

lbs. 

lbs. 

fl. 

krs. 

fl.     krs. 

cts. 

2-L 

30 

22.2 

7.8 

0.75 

42 

2.3 

8.9 

— 

13  8 

— 

53.4 

40 

=  3^cts 

=10c. 

— 

— 

— 

1,0 

6. 
=  4i« 

3.3 

12.8 

— 

19  8 
=14i 

1 

16.8 

60^ 

3 

36 

22.2 

13  8 

2.0 

12.0 
=^9    " 

5.5 

144 

— 

33.0 
=25c. 

1 

26,4 

67^ 

— 

— 

— 

— 

2.5 

15.0 
=  1U« 

6.9 

18.0 

— 

414 

=:31C. 

1 

48.0 

84 

3J- 

42 

22.2 

19.8 

3.2 

19  2 

7.6 

16.1 



45  6 

1 

36.6 

75 

=^14  " 

=34c. 

— 

— 

— 

— 

4. 

24. 

=  18  " 

9.5 

20.0 

— 

570 
=42c. 

2 

— 

96 

4 

48 

222 

25.8 

4.5 

27.0 
=  20  « 

9.3 

17.4 

— 

55  8 
=41|c 

1 

44.4 

81 

" 

~ 

— 

~ 

5. 

30. 

=  22^« 

10.0 

19  3 

1 

=48c. 

1 

55.8 

90 

According  to  all  experience  it  follows,  as  to  the  increase  of  weight  from  all  the  given 
quantities  of  fodder: 

1.  The  daily  increase  of  weight  for  the  before-mentioned  weight  of  a  fattening 
ox  is  0.75  to  5  lbs.  / 

2.  On  the  100  lbs.  of  the  entire  fodder,  (conservation  and  melioration-fodder)  it  is 
2,  3  to  10  lbs. ;  and  on  100  lbs.  of  melioration-fodder,  on  the  other  hand  9  to  20  lbs. 

3.  The  weight  of  the  beast  and  the  cash-product  of  the  increase  rises  with  the 
increase  of  melioration-fodder  in  so  profitable  proportions,  that  even  the  dearest 
means  of  fodder  themselves,  as  melioration-fodder,  show  themselves  so  much  the 
more  lucrative,  as  exactly  the  richest  in  nourishment,  and  also  animalize  themselves, 
and  therefore  pass  into  direct  usefulness  the  sooner,  and  with  an  unlike  greater  part 
of  their  natural  weight,  than  the  other  voluminous  materials  of  fodder. — Tr.] 

8.  Finally,  we  must  take  into  consideration  the  amount  of  labor  which 
horses  and  oxen  can  perform,  in  a  given  period,  if  we  would  decide  re- 
specting the  one  or  the  other. 

Because  horses  perform  more  in  the  same  time  than  oxen,  and  are  better  adapted 
for  many  kinds  of  work;  so  it  not  rarely  happens  that  labor  is  carried  on  cheaper 
with  horses ;  a  person  gains  more  in  the  less  number  of  the  horse-teams  and  the 
men  required  for  them,  compared  with  the  greater  number  of  the  ox-teams,  than 
the  cost  of  their  keeping,  and  the  interest  of  the  out-lying  capital. 

If  the  ox-team  in  a  given  time  performed  as  much  work  as  the  horse-team,  it 
would  unquestionably  be  cheapest  to  use  them  for  all  the  work  of  the  farm,  and  quit 
the  use  of  horses  wholly  ;  but  because  oxen  are  much  slower  in  drawing,  and  a  yoke 
of  them,  if  they  are  strong  and  well-trained,  will  accomplish  in  favorable  circum- 
stances only  4  or  +  of  what  a  good  span  of  farm-horses  will;  therefore  if  the  keeping 
of  oxen  is  not  unusually  cheap,  on  account  of  the  increased  number  of  teams  and  of 
men  required  to  take  care  of  them,  there  will  be  greater  expense  with  oxen,  than  with 
horses. 

[This  question  has  been  much  discussed  by  different  writers  in  Germany.  Thaer, 
Vol.  I.  p.  71,  thus  states  the  substance  of  the  arguments  for  and  against. 

"  ffarfies  have  an  undeniable  preference  in  the  following  particulars : 

"They  are  suitable  for  all  and  every  kind  ofwork  of  land-husbandry,  in  all  ways,  and 
in  al!  weathers.  One.  therefore  when  he  keeps  only  horses,  is  not  obliged  to  choose 
out  work  for  them,  but  can  use  his  whole  team  for  any  business  that  occurs,  and  leave 
no  part  of  it  to  stand  still. 

"  They  accomplish  every  kind  of  work  more  rapidly,  and  are  more  constant.     One 

6 


42  ECONO^^IY  OF  FARMING. 

can,  therefore,  not  only  complete  the  work  in  the  same  time  more  promptly,  but  also 
require  a  longer  cl;iy'.s  work  of  them.  Thus  the  wagon  will  acconiph^h  more  with 
an  equal  nunuer  ot  horses  than  with  oxen  ;  although  with  the  usual  draught  of  a 
load,  tiiey  exert  not  more  power  than  oxen,  yet  they  overcome  by  their  rapidity  of 
motion  and  energy,  many  a  short  resistance  before  wnich  oxen  stand  still. 

'•  In  favor  oi'Duan.  are  the  following: 

"Tuey  perform  the  greater  part  of  the  works  on  a  farm,  as  ploughing,  and  the  near 
carrying  oi' loads,  as  well  as  horses  do  ;  and  one  can  in  a  usual  day's  work,  if  tiiey 
are  well  fed,  expect  nearly  as  much  from  them.  They  perform  the  work  of  plough- 
ing in  a  certain  degree  better  than  horses. 

'•  Tiie  cost  of  them  is  considerably  less.  Their  purchase,  on  an  average,  is  not  near 
so  high  ;  their  harness  is  much  cheaper,  their  food  costs  much  less,  and  consists  in 
such  tilings,  as  on  account  of  its  transportation,  are  not  so  marketable  as  the  grain, 
on  which  horses  are  kept. 

'•  VV^hat  is  an  important  particular  is  :  that  if  they  are  weh  taken  care  of,  and  not  too 
long  kept  at  work,  they  lessen  not  as  much  in  value,  but  improve  for  the  most  part; 
so  tnat  they  olten  sell  for  more  than  they  at  first  cost,  and  thereby  soon  pay  the 
interest  on  the  standing  capital ;  whereas,  on  the  other  hand,  the  value  of  the  horse 
Boon  sinks  to  nothing,  and  the  capital  is  wholly  exhausted.  They  are  also  subject 
to  fewer  hazards  and  casualties. 

"  Tney  demand  less  attention,  as  one  ox-herd  can  take  care  of  30  oxen,  if  others 
work  with  them  by  change. 

''  Finally,  they  give  a  greater  quantity  of  excrement,  which  in  general  affords  a 
more  productive  manure  than  that  of  horses.  Such  horses  and  oxen  must  be  com- 
pared, the  relation  of  v/hich  in  respect  to  their  condition  and  care,  are  not  unlike,  &c. 

'•  There  can,  therefore,  be  no  doubt,  that  those  labors  which  can  be  proportionally 
well  performed  by  oxen,  will  be  done  cheaper  with  oxen  than  with  horses.  If  a  farm 
had  ordy  such  work  to  be  done  as  is  convenient  for  oxen,  and  it  could  be  executed 
with  allowing  time  to  rest,  &,c.,  then  oxen  should  be  used.  But  if,  according  to  recent 
experiments,  another  fodder  can  be  iatroduced  for  horses  than  corn,  and  thus  the 
expense  be  lessened,  then  the  question  between  horses  and  oxen  would  probably 
Btand  ditlerendy." 

Veit.  has  also  discussed  this  question  with  his  usual  philosophical  accuracy  and 
practical  skill ;  and  presents  us  with  the  following  views  in  his  2d  Vol.  pp.  527.  &c. 
After  alluding  to  various  experiments  by  which  the  cost  of  a  day's  work  of  a  horse 
was  found  to  be  from  21.45  kr.  to  2S.8  kr.  (=  18'.  to  21.6  cts.),  while  that  of  the  ox 
was  20  kr.  (=  15  cts.) ,  he  proceeds  to  compare  the  two. 

In  furor  oHior^ies  compared  with  o.?-e;?,  he  says: 

'•  1.  The  horse  performs  about  one-third  more  labor  in  a  day  than  the  ox ;  (a  horse 
can,  with  good  treatment,  work  10  hours  in  a  day,  and  in  a  year  250  to  290  days'  work, 
and  his  age  endure  to  16  or  20  years  •, ,  and  in  the  pressure  of  work  and  unfavorable 
circumstances  of  the  weather,  may  more  certainly  be  strained  without  danger  on 
account  of  the  unusual  performance,  than  can  the  laboring  ox;  which  is  to  be  reck- 
oned highly,  because  at  the  time  of  sowing  the  seed  in  the  spring,  and  in  harvesting, 
a  greater  part  of  the  results  not  rarely  depend  on  the  despatch  of  the  team  at 
work. 

"  2.  On  account  of  their  power  and  continuance,  horses  also  can  be  used  a  greater 
number  of  years  and  of  days  in  the  year,  for  labor,  than  working  oxen. 

"  3.  They  can  be  employed  in  bad  open,  stony,  uneven  ways ;  in  more  unfavor- 
able, wet  weather ;  in  greater  heat ;  in  winter  ;  and  for  more  remote  and  more  rapid 
carrying  of  loads,  where  o^;en  cannot  be  used  to  advantage,  because  these  go  more 
slow,  have  not  so  hard  a  hoof,  and  show  themselves  more  affected  by  the  influences 
of  the  weather. 

"4.  Horses  may  be  used  for  many  kinds  of  work  in  the  cultivation  of  plants,  for 
drawing  sowing-machines,  shovel  and  hilling-plough :  for  treading  out  grain  of  differ- 
ent fruits,  &c..  for  which  oxen  cannot  be  used. 

''5.  If  one  has  occasion  to  avail  himself  of  horses,  or  provides  himself,  at  the  out- 
set, with  young  strong  animals,  then  they  would  hold  out  a  long  course  of  years  in 
work,  whereby  the  danger  of  loss  would  be  avoided,  or  very  greatly  diminished; 
which  the  frequent  change  of  the  team  occasions. 

"Oil  the  other  hand,  the  following  are  the  disudvcuilages  of  keeping  horses,  or  in 
favor  o'i  oxer, : 

"  1.  The  outlay  of  capital  is  important;  greater  by  one-half  than  that  of  working- 
oxen. 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  43 

"  2.  A  working-horse  uses  more,  and  better  fodder,  than  the  working-ox,  which 
increase  of  the  quantity  and  quaUty  of  fodder,  other  circumstances  of  tlie  value  of 
fodder  being  equal,  is  at  least  a  third  part  of  tlie  food  of  an  ox,  which  in  time  of 
necessity,  is  satisfied  with  the  smallest  quantity  and  of  ditierent  quality, 

"  3.  The  other  costs,  of  keeping,  team-harness,  appurtenances  oi"  carriage,  shoeing, 
care,  repairs  of  apparatus  and  buildings,  &c.,  are  higher  in  the  same  proportion,  than 
for  wor  ing-oxen. 

"  4.  The  horse  has,  if  no  more  used  for  labor,  no  value  for  use  ;  therefore,  the  pur- 
chase-capital nmst  be  recovered  iVom  the  number  of  years,  whilst  the  laboring-ox, 
after  his  performance  of  labor,  ca;i  be  fattened  with  great  profit. 

"  5.  On  account  of  their  temper  tinent,  horses  especially,  in  case  of  the  care  of 
them  being  neglected,  are  exposed  to  many  inflammatory  complaints.  The  risk, 
therefore,  is  so  much  the  greater,  as  they  are  of  no  value  after  they  ar3  dead.  On 
the  contrary,  oxen  are  exposed  to  fewer  illnesses,  and  for  the  most  part  of  the  asthenic 
kind,  of  longer  duration,  in  consequence  of  which,  if  danger  threatens,  they  can  yet 
be  slaughtered. 

"  6.  The  working-horse  gives,  though  he  needs  more  fodder,  less  manure  than 
the  working-ox." 

''  Hence,  from  these  results  the  following  rules  follow  : 

"  1.  That  in  farms  where  cows  are  used  for  the  conunon  team-labors  of  husbandry, 
Bone  or  kw  oxen  should  be  kept ;  on  the  contrary,  more  horses,  and  particularly  for 
all  those  kinds  of  work  which  can  be  performed  neither  by  cows  nor  oxen  with  equal 
profit. 

"  2.  That  in  countries  where  horses  can  be  procured  to  advantage,  and  many  and 
remote  carriages  are  to  be  made  over  the  land,  and  many  grounds  lie  at  a  distance 
from  the  farm-house,  the  roads  and  ways  are  in  a  bad  condition,  &c.,  more  horses 
should  be  kept  than  oxen. 

"3.  That  on  the  contrary,  where  fattening-fodder  is  easily  produced  or  obtained, 
and  the  fattening  of  cattle  is  profitable  ;  or  where  the  proportionate  fodder  for  oxen  is 
easier  raised  than  that  for  horses,  more  oxen  should  be  kept  than  horses ;  and  of 
these  latter,  only  so  many  as  those  labors  demand,  which  cannot  be  performed  by 
other  kinds  of  working-cattle." 

Veit  gives  also  the  following  as  the  rate  of  insurance  of  the  different  animals 
mentioned,  which  may  show  how  the  hazards  of  exposure  to  death  are  viewed  by 
those  who  have  been  at  pains  to  ascertain  these  things : 


Oxen 

at  1.3  per 

ct. 

Cows 

12     " 

u 

Three  year  old  kine 

1.0     " 

(( 

Two  year     "      " 

1.1     " 

ii 

One      "        "      " 

2.0     » 

(( 

Cows  of  different  kinds 

on  an  average  1.2    " 

u 

Horses 

4.9     " 

ii 

Sheep 

7.7     " 

ii 

Swine 

2.9     " 

ii 

The  losses  by  fatal  accidents  are  difforent  according  not  only  to  the  different  spe- 
cies of  cattle,  but  to  different  ages :  as  the  following  table  shows : 


LOSS    ACCORDING   TO    PER    CENTAGE 

OF    VALUE. 

Horses. 

Ki 

ne  or  Cattle. 

Sheep. 

Swine. 

From  their  birth  to  their  weaning,        5 

3 

10 

12 

"      weaning  to  1  year  old,                  4 

2 

8 

6 

"      1—2  years,          _        _        -        3 

2 

7 

3 

'•      2-3    /•         -        -        .        -     3 

1.5 

5 

3 

During  the  time  of  being  used     -        5 

2 

5 

4 

Loudon,  quoting  from  the  Gentleman  Farmer,  has  the  following,  among  other  ob- 
servations, deserving  consideration  on  this  subject,  Vol.  II.  p.  782.  "Another  objec- 
tion is,  that  an  ox-team  capable  of  performing  the  work  of  two  horses,  even  such  kind 
of  work  as  they  can  perform,  consumes  the  produce  of  considerable  more  land  than 
the  horses.  If  this  be  the  case,  it  is  of  no  great  importance,  either  to  the  farmer  or  the 
community,  whether  the  land  be  vinder  oats  or  under  herbage  and  roots.  The  only 
circumstance  to  be  attended  to  here  is,  the  carcass  of  Ihe  ox  ;  the  value  of  this  in  sta- 
ting the  consunnntiTn  of  pro  lu33  must  be  ad  led  to  the  value  of  his  labor.  He  con- 
sumes from  his  birth  till  he  goes  to  the  shambles,  the  produce  of  a  certain  number  of 


44  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

acres  of  land  ;  the  return  he  makes  for  this  is,  so  much  beef,  and  so  many  years  labor. 
The  consumption  of  produce  must  therefore  be  divided  between  these  two  articles. 
To  find  the  share  that  should  be  allotted  to  each,  the  first  thing  is  to  ascertain  how 
many  acres  of  grass  and  roots  would  produce  the  same  weight  of  beef  from  an  ox, 
bred  and  reared  for  beef  alone,  and  slaughtered  at  three  or  four  years  old.  What 
remains  has  been  consumed  in  producing  labor.  The  next  thing  is  to  compare  this 
consumption  with  that  of  the  horse,  which  produces  nothing  but  labor.  By  this  sim- 
ple test,  the  question,  viewing  it  upon  a  broad  national  ground,  must  evidently  be 
determined.  Every  one  may  easily  make  such  a  calculation  suited  to  the  circum- 
stances of  his  farm  ;  none  that  could  be  ofl'ered  would  apply  to  every  situation.  But 
it  will  be  found,  that  even  if  three  oxen  were  able  to  do  the  work  ot  two  horses,  the 
advantages  in  this  point  of  view  would  still  be  on  the  side  of  the  horses;  and  the  first 
objection  (as  to  being  unfit  for  a  variety  of  labor,  exposure  to  the  weather,  &c.)  ap- 
plies with  undiminished  force  besides." 

Respecting  the  comparative  advantages  of  horses  and  oxen,  in  the  British  Hus- 
bandry, it  is  given,  on  high  authority,  that  the  work  of  107  oxen  may  be  done  by  65 
horses — and,  in  some  parts  of  England,  it  is  said,  that  5  or  6  oxen  are  equal  to  4 
horses.  Another  person  quoted  in  the  work  estimates  the  number  of  oxen  necessary 
as  compared  with  horses  as  3  to  2  on  a  hght  soil,  or  2  to  1  for  heavy  soils.  Bailey 
and  CuLLEY,  in  their  Comparative  Estimate,  to  which  the  author  of  British  Hus- 
bandry attributes  great  weight,  give  it  as  the  result  of  their  conclusions,  that  2 
horses  are  equal  to  6  oxen  in  regular  work,  and  to  8  during  the  first  year.  In  the 
decision  of  this  question,  in  respect  to  the  national  value  of  either  animal,  Messrs. 
Bailey  and  Culley.  also  saj'',  that  a  working  animal  is  generally  supposed  to  con- 
sume the  produce  of  four  acres  of  good  land  annually ;  and  as  an  ox  eats  ^  more 
in  weight  than  the  horse,  his  food  is  equal  to  five  acres ;  but  as  he  can  be  partly  fed 
on  straw,  he  might  be  maintained  on  2^  acres  a  year,  while  at  work;  and  1^  acres 
will  be  required  to  fatten  him  for  the  market.  B'arm  horses  average  for  work  12 
years ;  and  in  that  time  will  wear  out  four  team  of  oxen  used  only  3  years  each ;  and 
supposing  1  horse  to  be  equal  to  2  oxen,  the  land  required  will  be, 

1  horse  till  fit  for  work        -        -        -        -        6  acres 
12  years'  Avork,  at  4  acres      -        -        -        -  48      " 

54  acres 

2  oxen  till  fit  for  work,  at  5  acres         -        -      10  acres 

3  years'  work,  at  2]  acres      -        -        -        -  15      " 
fattening,  1^  acres  each      -        .        -        .         3      " 

This  amount  4  times  in  12  years,  28  =  112  acres. 

The  difference  then  would  be  58  acres ;  but  eight  fat  oxen  would,  in  this  time,  have 
been  brought  to  market. 

The  practice  which  prevails  in  this  country,  as  is  well  known,  is  different  in  differ- 
ent sections.  In  many  cases  both  horses  and  oxen  are  used  ;  indeed  this  is  usually 
the  case  where  the  farms  are  of  a  moderate  size ;  as  persons  need  horses  for  their 
travel  from  one  part  of  the  state  or  country  to  another.  Horses  are  more  exclusively 
used  in  the  middle  and  southern  States ;  oxen  more  so  in  the  Eastern  or  New  Eng- 
land States.— Tr.] 

9.  Teams  of  oxen  or  horses  are  two  or  more  spanned. 

10.  The  number  of  animals  required  for  a  team,  must  be  determined  by 
the  difference  of  the  strength  of  the  animals,  and  the  burden  or  weight  they 
have  to  overcome. 

11.  Most  kinds  of  labor  of  the  household  (Hausehalt)  demand  no  greater 
exertion  of  strength  than  2  stout  oxen  or  horses  can  supply  ;  and  since  2 
beasts  costs  less  to  keep  than  4,  and  one  man  only  is  needed  to  take  care 
of  them  ;  therefore  it  is  self-evident,  that  the  use  of  the  two-spanned  team 
is  preferable  to  that  of  more. 

[By  a  span,  the  author  means  a  single  animal ;  thus  two  span  is  with  us  a  one- 
yoked  team  ;  four  spanned,  a  two  yoked  one,  and  so  on.  Sometimes  3  are  used  to- 
gether, 2  ntarest  the  plough  or  cart,  and  1  before  them;  this  is  called  a  three 
spanned  team. — Tr.] 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  45 

12.  Hence  is  clear  the  necessity  of  providing  a  good,  strong,  and  well- 
fed  team,  which  costs  more  at  the  first,  and  must  he  better  fed  ;  but  which 
also  gives  a  greater  profit  by  its  greater  labor,  and  by  the  saving  in  the 
number  of  beasts  and  men,  than  a  weak,  small,  and  poorly  fed  one. 

Where  the  breed  of  the  beasts  of  labor  is  small,  but  the  soil  heavy  nnd  binding, 
there  indeed  it  is  necessary  to  use  4  or  6  or  more  span  before  the  plough ;  we  often 
find  4.  6,  and  yet  more  yoked  together,  even  when  the  beasts  are  large  and  strong, 
or  the  soil  easy  and  mellow  ;  and  then  there  is  a  waste  of  power,  and  greater  means 
are  applied  to  the  attainment  of  the  object,  than  are  necessary.  In  many  countries 
it  belongs  to  respectal>ility,  and  is  thought  to  be  a  mark  of  being  well  oftj  to  plough 
with  and  drive  4  stout  horses,  or  4  and  6  great  oxen,  and  it  is  considered  mean°to 
have  only  2 ;  so  that  for  the  sake  of  this  satisfaction,  one  is  contented  to  sacrifice  a 
portion  of  the  profits  of  his  farm.  There  are  few  kinds  of  work  which  cannot  be  per- 
formed with  2  good  beasts  of  draught,  either  horses  or  oxen.  Such  exceptions  are, 
the  breaking  up  of  clover,  or  those  lands  which  have  lain  fallow  for  a  number  of  years, 
in  clayey  soil,  and  the  driving  the  plough  to  an  unusual  depth.  All  other  kinds  of 
work  can  be  performed  with  2  span.  When  it  is  thought  that  4  beasts  paired  work 
as  quick  as  2,  because  each  one  has  to  overcome  less  resistance,  this  is  an  error.  The 
4-span  goes  somewhat  quicker,  it  is  true,  in  the  furrow,  but  does  not  double  so 
quickly ;  and  since  the  turning  about  of  a  4-spanned  team  needs  more  time  than  a 
double  span,  so  the  quickness  of  the  former,  compared  with  the  latter,  is.  on  the  whole, 
by  no  means  greater ;  it  is  often  less.  Arthur  Young  laid  a  wager  with  Lord 
Egremont  that,  with  2  oxen  and  one  man,  he  would  plough  more  in  a  day  than  his 
competitor  could  do  with  6  oxen  and  two  men  ;  and  he  won  (Begtrup  A.  a.  C.  II.  Th. 
39) ;  though  we  would  not  maintain,  that  in  all  circumstances,  a  person  with  2  oxen 
would  be  in  a  situation  to  plough  up  a  greater  extent  of  ground  to  the  same  depth. 
Mr.  Young  probably  had  a  pair  of  ten  year  old,  well-trained,  and  very  powerful 
beasts,  an  able,  trusty  man,  well  acquainted  with  his  oxen,  with  a  suitably  construct- 
ed, sharp,  cutting  plough,  whilst  his  competitor  had  a  less  skilful  ploughman,  or  a 
badly  made  plough.  The  turning  about  of  a  6-span,  on  account  of  the  greater  cir- 
cuit that  must  be  made,  requires  much  time  ;  and  with  6  beasts,  their  stopping  to 
urine  must  be  double  that  in  the  case  of  two  only. 

13.  If  a  man  has  a  pair  of  good  horses  in  ploughing,  and  the  plough  is 
well  made,  and  conveniently  arranged,  he  will  plough,  in  a  moderately 
tight  soil,  in  9  hours  one  yoke  (==  1.422  acres),  if  the  plough  goes  no 
deeper  than  4  or  5  inches,  and  the  furrow-slices  are  not  made  narrower 
than  10  or  11  inches,  and  the  beds  are  12  to  14-furrowed.  If  the  soil  is 
binding,  he  can  only  plough  ^  of  a  yoke. 

14.  In  like  circumstances,  one  may  plough  in  the  same  time  with  an 
equal  number  of  oxen  i  to  i  less. 

If  a  person  labors  with  a  change  of  oxen,  he  might,  as  may  be  easily  conceived, 
plough  as  much  in  a  day,  as  with  horses,  indeed  probably  more  ;  since  if  he  changes 
the  ox-teams  once  in  the  day,  he  could  labor  more  time  with  the  two  teams  than  if 
the  same  team  were  kept  yoked  up  through  the  whole  forenoon  and  afternoon ;  and 
at  least  there  are  10  hours  in  which  one  works  with  two  teams.  Since  the  same  are 
more  rested  they  are  fresher  and  stronger. 

If  the  change  is  three  times,  then  a  man  labors  from  12  to  14  hours,  and  ploughs 
somewhat  more  than  with  one  pair  of  horses.  But  that  with  a  given  number  of  oxen, 
one  must  plough  more  in  a  given  time  if  he  works  them  with  changes  of  teams  instead 
of  one  team  and  without  change,  we  need  not  believe ;  much  more  certain  is  it  that 
a  man  ploughs  more  if  he  makes  each  team  work  9  hours,  than  if  he  works  them  only 
4  to  5  hours;  though  in  this  time  he  is  somewhat  fresher.  The  advantage  of  tlie 
change  of  oxen  consists  in  the  sparing  of  men  and  in  the  better  condition  of  the 
working-oxen,  on  leaving  off;  since  if  the  team  is  not  changed  the  man  labors  at  the 
plough  together  with  the  driver  only  8  or  9  hours  in  the  day ;  whereas,  with  the 
change  of  team,  the  oxen  are  brought  to  them  and  both  continue  in  the  field  from 
early  dawn  till  nightfall,  during  which  time  the  plough  is  constantly  going.  It 
eeems  to  me,  therefore,  that  this  saving  may  be  over-balanced  by  the  greater  neces- 
sity of  working-oxen,  even  if  I  alloWf  that  the  beasts  after  the  time  of  ploughing  may 


46  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

look  better  than  if  they  are  not  so  changed  The  correctness  of  this  position  will  be 
ehown  most  admirably  by  a  comparison  of  the  number  of  cattle  for  teams  required  in 
Brandenburg,  where  they  change  with  three  oxen  at  the  plough  three  limes— with 
tliat  of  Thuringia  where  they  labor  with  the  same  team  all  day.  See  Thaer's  An- 
nals, Vol.  IV.  pp.  660. 

1.5.  If  the  field  is  already  ploughed  and  has  not  yet  become  hard,  or  if  a 
person  makes  furrows  of  only  3  to  4  inches  depth,  one  might  easily  plough 
up  more  land  in  a  day. 

The  FrOhner  in  some  parts  of  Austria  and  Hungary,  are  obliged  to  plough  up 
with  their  poor  horses  2000  square  cords  (klafters) ;  the  peasants  in  Prussia  1800  square 
cords  in  a  day.     How  such  furrows  look  may  be  easil}'-  imagined. 

[As  a  square  klafter  is  1600th  part  of  a  yoke,  2000  square  klafters  are  equal  to  some- 
what more  than  1|  acres,  and  1800  klafters  equal  to  1}  acres  Enghsh.  On  p.  11,  a 
klafter  was  computed  at  4^  sq.  yards ;  it  is  however  nearer  5  sq.  yds.  English. — Tr.J 

16.  The  longer  the  field  is,  the  more  can  be  ploughed  of  an  equal 
depth  of  furrow,  because  a  man  loses  less  time  in  turning  about.  The 
narrower  the  beds  of  the  field  are,  the  more  can  one  plough  up,  because  a 
greater  space  of  the  field  between  the  furrows  of  the  beginning  of  the  field 
(Anfangs-furchen)  is  left  unploughed,  than  if  the  beds  are  broad  ;  and  a 
man  can  work  over  more  land  with  a  Hacken  (another  kind  of  plough), 
than  with  a  common  plough,  because  the  furrows  made  by  the  Hacken  are 
12 — J  4  inches  broad,  and  only  a  part  of  the  land  is  turned  over. 

If  the  field  is  100°  (klafters)  long,  then  16°  breadth  will  give  a  yoke  (1.422  acres). 
If  the  furrows  be  made  11  inches  broad,  and  a  person  plough  in  a  24-lurrovv'ed  bed, 
there  will  be  4.354  beds.  Should  a  man  plough  the  field  wholly  even  v/ith  with  a 
Norisch,  or  hill-side  plough,  then  104  furrows  would  be  necessary.  But  because  here 
for  each  bed  tvvo  furrows  are  to  be  deducted,  which  lie  as  unploughed  land  in  the 
centre  of  the  bed  ;  so  there  would  be  needed  to  be  made  only  95.3  furrows.  For 
every  turning  about  on  an  average  one  minute  at  least  must  be  allowed,  partly  lo 
make  the  circuit  and  partly  to  allow  the  beasts  to  urine,  to  right  the  plough,  &c..  by 
which  95  minutes  are  lost.  The  day's  work  consists  of  9  hours ;  there  remains 
therefore  for  forming  the  furrows  7^  hours,  and  since  95.3  furrows  each  100  klafters 
(=  about  600  feet)  long,  contain  9530  klafters,  and  7h  hours  contain  25,800  sec- 
onds, therefore  the  beasts  must  proceed  at  the  rate  of  a  klafters  length  (about  6  feet) 
in  2.7  seconds.  If  a  man  plough  in  4-furrowed  beds,  there  are  then  on  a  breadth  of 
66  inches,  only  4  furrows,  i.  e.  -Jr  of  the  plough-land  is  not  ploughed,  and  from  104 
furrows  34  :  must  be  deducted  ;  there  remains  then  to  be  ploughed  only  69^  furrows  ; 
i.  e.  7133  klafters  furrow-length,  which  with  equal  activity  of  the  beasts  a  person  can 
plough  in  5 9  hours.  If  for  the  same  space,  7 1  hours  are  taken;  then  the  beasts 
should  go  about  -^  sloAver  and  employ  3^  seconds  on  the  length  of  a  klafter  (about  6 
feet);  or  should  \hey  go  as  rapidly^  they  Avould  plough  about  -^  more,  i.  e.  2133 
square  klafters. 

[The  fields  under  cultivation  by  the  plough,  &c.,  in  Germany,  are  most  generally 
divided  into  beds,  and  as  they  are  successively  ploughed  up,  what  one  year  was  the 
centre  of  the  bed,  the  next  year  becomes  the  edge  of  one,  while  the  edge  of  the  pre- 
vious year  becomes  the  centre  of  the  next.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  in  the  centre 
of  each  new  bed  there  will  be  two  furrows'  width,  which  will  be  covered  over  by  the 
furrows  turned  on  them  from  opposite  si<les;  for  each  bed  then,  as  our  Author  says, 
there  must  be  deducted  2  furrows'  width,  and  as  by  his  supposition  of  24-furrowed 
beds  there  were  4  beds  and  a  fraction  over  in  the  104  furrows,  he  deducts  above, 
the  width  8  and  a  fraction,  from  the  104  furrows.  As  the  estimates  by  klafters  in 
the  preceding  statement  is  merely  proportional,  the  reduction  to  our  measure  did  not 
seem  always  necessary ;  the  data  are  furnished  in  the  Translator's  Note  under  15, 
and  also  in' the  Table  of  Weights  and  Measures,  subjoined  to  this  work. 

On  the  subiects  embraced  in  the  preceding  paragranhs  numbered  9 — 16.  there  are 
some  particulars  gathered  from  Veit.  Thaer.  and  others,  which  may  be  introduced 
here.  With  reference  to  the  day's  work  of  a  span,  Veit  says  tliat  "  according  to 
the  rule"  of  economical  management,  &c. 


ECONOMY  OF  Fx\RMI:;G.  47 

"In  the  summor  it  should  be:  in  the  forenoon,  from  G — 11  ;  afternoon,  from  11 — 6. 
ill  the  winter  from  7  or  7~l  to  11  A.  M. ;  and  from  1  to  4|  or  5  P.  M." 

The  exception  is  in  the  time  of  pressing  work.  He  also  says  that  in  plou-rhing  in 
very  dilficult  circumstances  a  one-horse-span  can  plough  in  a  day  ^  to  ^  of  amorgen 
(=  -^^r  to  ^  acre),  and  a  one-ox-span  t"  ^o  i  (="'r  to  ,^-  acre),  and  in  circum- 
stances w^hich  lighten  or  accelerate  the  labor  of  ploughing,  a  one-horse-span  can 
plough  in  a  diy  1|  to  1}  of  a  morgen  (=  1  J-^  to  about  li  acres),  and  an  ox-span  | 
to  1|  of  a  morgen  (==  4  to  l-\  acres).  '"Where  the  field,  as  is  the  case  in  most 
parts  of  Bavaria,  is  ploughed  in  4-furrowed  beds  other  things  being  equal,  the  labor 
of  ploughing  is  more  assisted  than  in  broader  beds  ;  of  this  portion,  the  first  two  fur- 
row-slices are  laid  together  by  the  so-called  bordering  of  the  furrows  upon  each 
other,  whereby  these  furrows  are  left  unploughed.  With  a  one-horse  span,  therefore, 
a  man  can  plough  1|-  to  2  morgen  (=  1^^  to  Ij  acre)  and  by  employing  the  double 
plough  tor  divi  ling  the  ridge,  one  of  the  usual  4  furrows  will  be  saved." 

Thaer  says:  'Opinions  are  very  difterent  as  to  how  much  a  plough  can  perform 
daily.  Some  say  only  f  of  a  yoke,  (flf  of  an  acre)  others  1  and  even  1^  (1.422  to 
nearly  2  acres),  according  to  their  experience.  Each  one  is  grounded  on  experience, 
but  a  man  must  weigh  the  circumstances  whereby  he  comes  to  his  conclusion.  The 
breadth  of  the  furrow-slices  makes  an  important  ditference.  If  on  a  bout  of  60  klafters 
rSGO  feet)  broa.l  I  cut  olf  6  inch  furrows,  I  have  to  make  720  furrows :  but  if  10  inch 
furrows,  only  432  furrows.  I  will  suppose  such  a  bout  of  60  klafters  (360  feet)  long, 
then  a  span  in  ploughing  the  same,  in  the  first  case,  goes  over  10  -  geographical 
miles,  but  in  the  second  case  only  6_|  miles  without  the  turnings.  The  labor  which 
a  plouorh  can  perform  in  a  day,  then  must  stand  in  an  inverse  ratio  wnth  the  breadth 
of  the  furrows,  which  a  man  must  closely  examine.  In  the  usual  mode  of  ploughing 
on  soil  of  average  kind,  9-inch  furrows  are  used ;  and  the  plough  in  21  yokes  ( 3.2  acres) 
goes  over  2?,800  klafters  (172,800  feet  =  30  miles),  or  7^  geographical  miles.  Ac- 
cording to  the  breadth  of  the  piece  compared  with  the  length,  the  turns  are  more  or 
less  frequent  and  stronger  or  weaker ;  yet  they  must  for  the  most  part  be  so  per- 
formsil  that  we  must  suppose  71  miles.  When  therefore  a  plough  with  tliis  breadth 
of  furrows,  ploughs  daily  1}^  yoke  (1.6  acres),  the  team  and  the  man  go  3|  miles  (about 
17  English  miles) ;  and  one  could  not  desire  more  in  labor,  enduring  the  wdiole  day. 
But  if  a  man  make  smaller  furrows,  he  must  expect  less,  and  can  only  demand  more 
where  the  furrows  are  broader." 

In  forming  the  estimate,  he  mentions  as  nece.?sary  to  be  regarded,  also,  the  quality 
of  the  soil,  the  depth  of  the  furrow,  the  situation  on  a  level  or  on  hilly  ground, 
the  kind  of  plough,  the  time  of  the  year  on  account  of  the  length  of  the  days, 
&c.  The  result  of  many  experiments  shows  that  a  plough  with  a  share  of  5  inches 
broad,  is  a  half-hundred  weight  harder  for  draught  than  7  inches  broad.  Loudon 
says  :  "  With  respect  to  ploughing  relatively  to  time,  in  the  strongest  lands,  a  pair  ol 
good  horses  ought  to  ploug:h  f  of  an  acre  in  9  hours  ;  but  upon  the  same  land,  after 
the  first  ploughing,  on  friable  soils,  one  acre,  or  an  acre  and  a  quarter  is  a  common 
day's  worlc.  Throughout  the  year  an  acre  a  day  may  be  considered  as  a  full  average 
on  soils  of  a  medium  consistency.  The  whole  series  of  furrows  on  an  English  statute 
acre,  supposing  each  to  be  9  inches  broad,  would  extend  to  19,360  yards,  and  adding 
12  yards  to  every  220  for  the  ground  travelled  over  in  turning,  the  Avhole  work  of  an 
acre,  may  be  estimated  at  20,416  yards,  or  11  miles  and  nearly  5  furlongs." 

In  the  Supplement  to  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  it  is  stated  that  a  two-horse 
plough  may  on  an  average  Avork  an  English  acre  a  day  throughout  the  year,  and 
in  general  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the  labor  previously  bestov/ed  upon 
it.  a  pair  of  horses  in  ploughing  may  travel  daily  10  to  15  miles,  overcoming  a  degree 
of  resistance  equal  to  from  4  to  600  weight. 

Sir  John  Sinclair,  in  his  Code  of  Ag;riculture,  also  furnishes  some  interesting 
statements  on  this  subject.  He  says:  "A  gentleman  who  has  paid  much  successful 
attention  to  several  branches  of  husbandry,  calculates  that  the  number  of  yards 
travelled  in  ploughing  an  acre  and  a  half 

with  a  farrow-slice  of  9  inches,  is  29.040  yards 
"  8         "  32,640     " 

The  fouovrino-  Tables  arc  given  from  the  same  authority,  founded  on  the  above 
principle  of  calculation. 


48 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 


Tables  showin-^  the  Quantity  of  ground  ploughed  according  to  the  different  breadths 
oT  the  furrow  slices  and  the  rates  of  the  horses'  walking. 


Rate    per 
hour. 

liength  of 
the  wny 
tnivell'din 
ploughing. 

c 
R'ds. 

ground 
ploughed. 

Inch 

Length  of 

the  way 

tnvell'd  in 

ploughing. 

.^2 

s  o 

Inch 

Mis. 

Fur. 

Yards 

Poles. 

Mis. 

Fur. 

Yards. 

R'ds. 

Poles. 

8 

1 



11144 

2 

24 

8 

2 

— 

28.168 

5 

7 

9 



14.157 

2 

37 

9 

— 

— 

28,193 

5 

33 

10 





14  148 

3 

11 

10 

— 

— 

28.188 

6 

21 

11 

— 

— 

14.157 

3 

22 

ind 

11 

— 

— 

28,215 

7 

5 

The  rate  of  walking  being  one  mile 

The  rate  of  walking  being 

half  a  furlong. 

three  miles. 

8 

1 

i 

14.960 

2 

36 

8 

3   1     —     :     42.296 

7 

31 

9 

15  004 

3 

4 

9 

—   1     —    I     42  350 

1 

30 

10 





15,012 

3 

19 

10 

—        —     j     52,336 

9 

32 

11 

— 

— 

15,048 

3 

32 

11     1  —   1     —     '     42,273 

10 

27 

The  rate  of  w.<lklng  being  one 

The  rate  of  walking  bei 

ng 

mile  four  furlongs. 

four  miles. 

8 

1 

4 

2i,2H5 

3 

36 

8 

4  1    —     ,     56.336 

10 

14 

9 

21,120 

4 

14 

9 

—  1    —     i     56.386 

11 

26 

10 





21,168 

4 

35 

10 

—   i    — 

56,376 

13 

2 

11 

21.186 

5 

14 

11 

—   '    — 

i     56,430 

14 

10 

It  is  supposed  that  in  England,  in  general,  the  common  breadth  of  the  furrow-slice 
is  about  9  inches ;  but  the  generality  of  the  farmers  in  Norfolk,  for  various  reasons, 
prefer  having  their  furrow-slices  full  11  inches  broad,  so  that  the  quantity  of  the 
o-rouml  stirred  in  the  same  number  of  hours  worked  by  them,  must  be  considerably 
more  than  farmers  in  other  districts  can  do,  where  the' nature  of  the  soil  requires  to 
have  the  furrow-slice  of  a  narrower  breadth.  The  effect  of  short  ridges,  and  conse- 
quently of  frequent  turnings,  is  most  strikingly  exemplified  in  the  following  table, 
drawn  up  by  the  same  gentleman  from  actual  experiment. 


h 

S) 

2  S 

»j 

.5 

B     . 

ii 

■  t. 

•£.2 

■St: 

3   00 

^  s 

Names  of  the  Fields. 

PS 

0  £ 

Is 

11 

jji 

£  E 
S 

^ 

n 

cs 

h" 

^.s 

Yards. 

Feet. 

Inches 

H.  M. 

H.  M. 

H.M. 

7.  South  Gubbet 

78 

186 

8 

279 

4.39 

3.21 

8.0 

3.  East  Loch 

149 

98 

— 

147 

2.27 

5.33 

8.0 

11.  Harperhill 

200 

73 

— 

109 

1.49 

6.11 

8.0 

2.  South  Muir 

212 

69 

— 

103 

1.43 

6.17 

8.0 

17.  Lons  Bog  Croft 

274 

53 

— 

79 

1.19 

6.41 

8.0 

Thus  it  appears,  when  ridges  are  78  yards  in  length,  that  no  less  a  space  of  time 
than  4  hours  and  39  minutesls  spent  in  turnings,  in  a  journey  of  8  hours  ;  whereas, 
when  ridges  are  274  yards  long,  1  hour  19  minutes  is  sufficient  in  the  same  length  of 
time." 

The  following  estimntes  as  to  amount  of  land  which  can  be  ploughed,  &c.,  are 
taken  from  the  British  Husbandry.  The  author  of  that  work  says,  that  according  to 
the  common  calculation  for  the  year  round,  1  acre  of  average  soil  may  be  ploughed 
in  a  day ;  1^  acres  is  the  utmost  with  a  common  furrow  on  any  soil,  and  an  average 
of  1  acre  to  1^  in  summer,  and  ^  of  an  acre  in  winter  is  a  fair  day's  work  with  a 
team  ;  elsewhere  also  he  gives  ^  of  an  acre  as  a  fair  average  daily.  As  to  the 
ground  gone  over  in  plousrhing  an  acre,  he  asserts  that  with  a  broad  furrow-slice  it 
equals  about  11  miles,  or' with  one  of  8  inches  12  miles  and  3  furlongs,  exclusive  of 


ECONOMY   OF  FARMING.  49 

turnings ;  and  a  team  walking  at  different  rates  of  1^  to  2  miles  per  hour  will  plough 
to  the  depth  of  5  inches  the  following  quantity  in  9  hours : 

acre.      rood.  poles. 

Rreadth  of  furrow  8  inches  at  1-J-  mile  per  hour        1        —  — 

u  u       9      «       a  an  I        20 

«  "       8      "  2  «  11  10 

«  «       9      «  u  «  12  0 

The  distance  at  a  slow  pace  is  only  12,  while  at  a  quicker  rate  it  is  16  miles. 

In  relation  to  ploughs,  Burger  in  Vol.  I.  p.  216,  quotes  from  Arthur  Young's  An- 
nals of  Agriculture,  a  series  of  experiments  to  determine  the  necessary  power  which 
needs  to  be  employed  with  different  ploughs.  The  experiments  were  made  under 
direction  of  a  Committee  of  Agriculture  of  the  London  Society  of  the  Arts. 

"  1.  With  the  Rotherham  plough  which  weighed  96.6  lbs.  with  a  share  of 
7.71  inches,  on  a  clover-field  in  a  heavy  clay  soil  at  the  depth  of  5.78  inches  and 
9.63  inches  breadth,  good  work,  the  power  requisite  was  498,3  lbs. 

"2.  With  the  same  plough  at  the  depth  of  3.85  inches,  with  equal  breadth, 
good  work,  385  lbs. 

"  3.  With  the  same,  with  a  share  of  only  4.81  inches,  at  9.63  inches  breadth  and 
5.78  inches  depth,  very  bad  work,  because  the  share  was  so  small,  498.3  lbs. 

"  The  experiments  1  and  3  differ  only  in  the  breadth  of  the  share,  and  prove  the 
advantage  of  the  larger  breadth. 

"  4.  Brand's  iron  plough,  full  weight  129^  lbs.  The  furrows  were  5.78  inches 
deep  and  9.63  inches  breadth,  good  work,  546  lbs. 

"5.  Arbuthnot's  red  plough,  weighing  118  lbs.  needed  in  similar  circumstances 
475  lbs. 

"  6.  The  same  plough  loaded  with  10.8  lbs.  in  order  to  render  it  like  No.  4,  in  the 
same  circumstances,  430  lbs. 

"  A  proof  that  the  share  of  the  plough  does  not  always  hinder  its  advance.  But 
how  the  same  plough  loaded  with  10.8  lbs.,  with  like  depth  should  require  less 
power,  I  cannot  conceive,  and  suppose  that  here  must  have  been  an  error  of  the  ob- 
servation. 

7.  The  usual  Surreyer  plough  weighing  125  lbs.  The  share  is  forwards  6.26 
inches,  behind  12  inches  broad.  The  breadth  and  depth  of  the  furrows  as  No.  1,  3, 4, 
5,  6.     The  furrows  were  not  cut  up  on  the  ground;  power,  611  lbs. 

8.  The  same  loaded  with  4^  lbs.  in  like  circumstances  566  lbs. 

9.  Arbuthnot's  blue  plough  weighing  108.7  lbs.  Necessary  power  in  like  circum- 
stances, 430  lbs. 

10.  The  same  plough  loaded  with  25.3  lbs.,  in  like  circumstances,  needs  475  lbs. 

11.  Ducket's  cutting  plough  weighing,  with  appurtenance,  240.9  lbs. ;  the  furrows 
were  7.71  inches  broad,  and  5.71  inches  deep:  power,  588  lbs. 

12.  Arbuthnot's  blue  plough  (No.  9),  loaded  with  132.2  lbs.  to  make  it  equal  to 
Ducket's,  in  9.63  inches  breadth,  and  5.78  inches  depth  of  furrows,  needed  453  lbs. 

From  these  experiments  it  is  clear  how  much  cultivation  depends  on  the  plough, 
that  one  in  like  circumstances  demands  more  power  than  another.  With  Arbuth- 
not's plough  No.  9,  not  loaded,  with  a  breadth  of  furrow,  of  9.63  inches,  only  430  lbs. 
power  were  required;  the  same  loaded  with  132.2  lbs.  required  453  lbs.  for 
equal  breadth  and  depth,  whilst  Ducket's  plough,  with  a  less  breadth  of  furrow  of  0.92 
inches,  required  588  lbs.,  therefore,  about  158  lbs.  more  than  the  first.  If  we  reckon 
200  lbs.  to  a  horse,  this  is  a  waste  of  power  of  158  lbs.  =  to  0.79  of  a  horse.  That 
the  same,  if  loaded,  demanded  more  power,  is  shown  by  this  experiment. 

I  take  this  opportunity  to  mention  tRe  experiments  of  Dombasle,  concerning  the 
influence  of  the  weight  of  the  plough  on  the  necessary  power  required  for  its  progress, 
which  he  found  wholly  insignificant,  since  the  Dynamometer  showed  no  difference 
when  the  same  plough  weighing  107-114  lbs.  was  gradually  loaded  with  89  to  133 
lbs.  if  the  weight  was  always  laid  on  the  point  of  weight  of  the  plough. 

The  greatest  part  of  the  resistance  which  the  plough  opposes  to  the  animals  is 
occasioned  by  the  pressing  in  of  the  share  and  the  coulter  into  the  earth,  that  is,  the 
cutting  off  the  furrow-slice  of  earth  ;  since  the  resistance  would  only  be  slightly  di- 
minished, were  the  mould-board  in  the  same  plough  wholly  thrown  away.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  power  is  used  if  the  plough  is  joined  to  the  mould-board,  to  heave  up 
the  loosened  clods  of  earth,  to  shove  them  aside  and  to  turn  them,  and  here  will  take 
place  a  friction  between  the  clods  of  earth  and  the  different  parts  of  the  mould-board, 
which  takes  off  part  of  the  moving  power.    But  since  this  motion  advances  from 

7 


50  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

below  upward,  hence  it  is  impossible  to  conceive  how  the  weight  of  the  plough  can 
serve  for  this  purpose  to  increase  the  resistance  which  proceeds  from  it.  Of  experi- 
ments of  my  own : 

1.  In  an  easy,  sandy  soil,  in  turning  over  a  stubble  field  of  rye,  the  breadth  of  the 
furrows  uniformly  11  inches : 

With  the  Norisch  (a  hill-side  plough),  depth  4^  inches,  required  290  to  309  lbs. 
u  «  "5^      "  "        328  "  340    « 

Plough  in  common  use        .  .        "      6        "  "        430  " 

In  the  comparison,  was  then  taken  the  Hacken  (another  kind  of  plough),  since  it 
would  answer  to  show  the  difference  of  power  and  effect  between  these  two  instra- 
ments. 

The  Hacken  required  on        .        .44:  inches  depth  340  lbs. 

"        "  "        .        .        .        .  4f        "        "       362  " 

u        a  u  ...       b'i        "        "       445—485      " 

2.  In  a  moist,  sandy  marl  soil,  similar  experiments  were  also  tried: 

The  plough  required  in  .        .        .  5^  inches  depth,  435  lbs. 

«        «  « 8        "  "        645   " 

«        «  " 10        "  "        790   " 

The  Hacken      '♦ 5f      "  «       518   « 

"        "  "...,.        7        "  •'       545   " 

The  ploughs  here  mentioned  were  rather  imperfect  and  therefore  needed  more 
power  than  was  required  in  the  first  English  experiments  on  a  fallow  field." 

The  ploughs  in  Germany  are  poor  compared  to  those  of  England  and  in  this 
country  :  various  experiments  have  been  tried  in  this  country  in  different  places  to 
determine  the  merits  of  many  of  the  ploughs  which  lay  claim  to  public  favor  ;  the  re- 
sults of  which  have  been  published  in  the  Agricultural  Journals.  I  have  quoted  the 
above  on  account  of  the  deductions  our  Author  makes  from  them.  The  Hacken 
above  alluded  to,  he  describes  to  be  a  plough  which  forms  a  complete  wedge,  its 
share  being  an  isosocles  triangle,  or  with  two  equal  sides,  which  must  always  turn 
furrow  slices  one  over  the  other,  in  the  same  direction,  and  hence  its  share  cuts  on 
both  sides,  and  it  has  two  strickles  or  strike-boards,  which  work  alternately.  The 
Norisch  plough  has  a  small-mould  board  that  hangs  on  the  sole,  and  seems  to  be  a 
hill-side  plough  as  it  derives  its  name  from  the  old  Noricum,  a  mountainous  region 
where  it  is  in  use. 

In  Wilkinson's  Agricultural  Mechanics,  p.  161,  it  is  stated,  that  the  strain  of  the 
draught  upon  a  plough  is  calculated  according  to  the  square  of  whatever  portion  is 
under  ground ;  thus  where  only  3  inches  are  buried,  the  pressure  will  be  only  9 ;  but 
if  the  furrow  be  carried  to  the  depth  of  6  inches,  it  will  be  36. 

The  following  result  of  the  trial  of  several  ploughs,  given  in  the  Agricultural 
Transactions  of  the  Essex  Co.  Society,  Mass.  for  1842,  is  confined  to  ploughs  by 
two  manufacturers : 


No         Description  of       Power  applied. 

Depth  of 

Width  of 

Earth  turned 

Result. 

Earth  turned  by  100 

Plough. 

furrow. 

furrow. 

lbs.  of  horse  power. 

1.  Prouty  &  Co.  A. 

35 

6^ 

12| 

80 

2  28 

18i 

2.        "          "      B. 

33 

6 

12 

72 

2.19 

17. 

3.        "          "      C. 

31 

6 

10 

60 

1.94 

15. 

4.        "          "      C. 

36 

b% 

10 

58 

1.61 

13 

5.        "          "      A. 

34 

6 

13 

78 

2.30 

18i 

6.        '•          "      A. 

37 

6 

13i 

80 

2.16 

15 

«        ((          «      « 

44 

H 

13 

94 

2.14 

17 

Ruggles  &  Co.'s 

7.              Sward  C. 

33 

6 

12 

72 

2.19 

17^ 

8.        "         " 

40 

n 

13 

94 

2.35 

m 

"        «    Eagle 

33 

6 

11 

66 

2.00 

16 

9.        "    Sward  D. 

33* 

6 

Hi 

69 

2.06 

16^ 

10.      «    Eagle 

33 

6 

10^ 

65 

1.99 

151 

The  ploughing  was  by  oxen;  the  numbers  in  the  column  of  power  applied,  indicate 
the  8ths  of  100  lbs.  The  number  of  square  inches  of  earth  turned,  is  ascertained  by 
multiplying  the  width  and  depth  of  the  furrow  together,  and  the  proportionate  result 
is  ascertained  by  dividing  the  quantity  of  earth  turned  by  the  power  applied." — Tr.] 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  51 

17.  If  for  ploughing,  oxen  are  more  adapted  on  account  of  their  steady, 
uniform  draught,  than  spirited  and  impatient  horses  ;  yet  the  latter,  on  ac- 
count of  their  more  rapid  movement,  are  much  better  fitted  for  harrowing, 
because  not  only  the  pressure,  but  also  the  jog  of  the  instrument  must  here 
operate. 

If  the  harrow  is  slowly  drawn  over  the  field,  the  clods  of  earth  lying  on  the  surface 
will  be  pushed  one  side  by  the  teeth  of  the  harrow,  and  only  the  deeper  earth,  or 
the  larger  masses  be  broken  up.  But  let  the  harrow  be  drawn  quickly,  its  jog  will 
effect  more  than  its  pressure  for  reducing  the  clods  and  masses. 

18.  According  to  the  difference  of  the  compactness  of  the  soil,  and  the 
depth  to  which  one  wishes  to  loosen  the  surface,  sometimes  more,  some- 
times less  time  and  power  will  be  requisite  in  harrowing. 

It  is  usual  to  harrow  with  one  horse,  or  two  or  more  horses  or  oxen,  according  as 
the  soil  is  mellow  or  binding ;  according  to  the  time  that  has  elapsed  since  it  was 
ploughed :  and  whether  the  field  is  to  be  loosed  deeply  or  not 

19.  When  the  harrow  only  goes  once  in  the  same  line,  one  can,  with 
horses,  in  a  not  very  binding  soil,  or  not  filled  with  weeds,  harrow  up  4^ 
yokes  (6.39  acres)  in  9  hours. 

The  above  given  (See  16)  yoke  of  land  was  16  klafters  broad ;  and  since  the  one- 
spanned  harrow  is  3  schuh  (not  quite  3  feet)  broad,  we  need  only  make  32  streaks 
to  harrow  over  the  field  once.  If  we  reckon  32  turns  to  one  minute,  and  the  line  of 
draught  of  3200  klafters'  length  at  the  rate  of  1 .]  seconds  for  a  klafter  (6  feet),  because 
the  harrow  can  be  drawn  twice  as  swift  as  the  plough,  we  shall  need  for  harrowing  one 
yoke  of  land  (not  quite  1^  acres),  taking  in  also  the  turns  1  hour  and  52  minutes,  in 
round  numbers,  2  hours  time.  If  we  use  a  double  or  more  spanned  harrow  in  a 
similar  field,  according  to  the  proportion  of  the  breadth  of  the  instrument  and  less 
resistance  Avhich  is  taken  away  from  the  animals,  we  could  probably  go  over  6  yokes 
(8^  acres)  once  in  9  hours. 

One-spanned  harrows  can  only  serve  in  heavy  soil  for  covering  over  the  seed,  but 
in  loose  soil  in  the  same  time  for  harrowing  up  the  ploughed  field.  More  than  two 
beasts  are  needed  only  with  the  great  harrow,  which  has  the  slope  of  the  teeth 
pointing  forwards. 

[Thaer,  speaking  of  harrowing,  says:  "  The  difference  is  greater  in  this  than  in 
ploughing.  This  arises  from  the  degree  of  carefubiess  and  the  character  of  the 
instrument  with  which  this  important  work  is  done.  The  round  harrowing  is  the 
most  difficult  kind,  and  of  this  a  4-span  can  perform  at  the  highest  7  yokes  (nearly  10 
acres).  On  binding  and  grassy  soils,  one  must  content  himself  with  6  yokes  (8^ 
acres).  If  we  refer  to  even  harrowing  and  not  the  breaking  up  of  the  clods,  one 
might  accomplish  9  yokes  (12.8  acres).  If  tlie  harrow  is  merely  drawn  along  once, 
with  4 horses  in  a  day  a  man  might  go  over  11  to  12|  yokes  (15.6  to  17.8  acres)." 

Veit  reckons  for  harrowing  about  4  morgen  on  an  average  (3-^  acres)  per  day. 
As  Veit's  estimate  is  for  one  beast,  it  does  not  differ  much  from  Burger's.  Else- 
where he  says ;  "  With  the  usual  harrow,  a  man  will  go  over  in  a  day  5  to  6  morgen 
(4-J-  to  5  acres)." 

Sir  John  Sinclair  says :  "  In  Norfolk  it  is  the  custom  to  walk  the  horses  against 
the  rise  ff  any,  and  trot  them  back  again  in  the  same  place.  The  quantity  done  in 
this  way  is  about  7  acres  per  day.  In  Scotland,  a  man  and  a  pair  of  horses  will  do 
a  single  tine^  as  it  is  called,  to  the  extent  of  10  acres,  and  if  a  double  line  only  5 
acres  per  day." — Tr.] 

20.  With  the  three-shared  extirpator,  or  the  hilling  plough,  two  men 
will  hoe  with  1  horse  a  yoke  (nearly  1.;  acres)  in  3  hours.  With  the 
straight  eleven-shared  extirpator  in  easy  soil  2,  and  in  heavy  soil  4  beasts 
and  two  men  will  loosen  up  a  yoke  in  2  hours,  but  with  the  oblique  seven- 
shared  extirpator  for  2  horses,  3  hours  are  required  for  a  yoke. 

[Veit  says,  that  with  a  nine-shared  extirpator  with  4  oxen  and  two  men,  on  a  soil 
not  very  binding  or  weedy,  in  a  day  they  may  hoe  5  morgen  (4|  acres)  per  day. 


52  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

On  a  close  weedy  soil,  it  will  take  them  the  same  time  to  do  3  to  4  morgen  (2^  to  3  J 
acres). — Tr.] 

21.  The  labors  of  carrying  out  manure,  of  the  harvest,  of  going  for 
wood  and  to  market,  cannot  be  estimated  in  general,  but  are  very  easily 
so  for  a  given  case  ;  because  the  distance  of  the  fields,  meadows,  and 
woods  as  well  as  the  market  from  the  farm-houses,  the  condition  of  the 
roads,  the  even  or  mountainous  locality,  &ic.,  determine  the  length  of  time 
which  must  be  employed  for  this  purpose. 

[The  labor  of  a  horse  in  a  day  according  to  Professor  Leslie  is  commonly  reckoned 
equal  to  that  of  five  men,  but  he  works  only  8  hours,  while  a  man  easily  continues 
his  exertions  for  10  hours.  The  power  of  traction  of  horses  seldom  exceeds  144  lbs., 
but  they  can  carry  inore  than  6  times  as  much  weight.  The  pack-horses  in  York- 
shire transport  loads  of  420  lbs.  over  a  hilly  country  ;  but  in  many  parts  of  England 
the  mill-horses  will  carry  to  a  short  distance  910  lbs.  This  is  about  the  same  that 
the  porters  of  Constantinople  are  said  sometimes  to  carry.  According  to  experienced 
carters,  in  a  load  of  20  cwt,  5  cwt.  but  not  morejmay  be  made  to  rest  on  the  back  of 
the  horse  by  means  of  the  traces,  chain  and  saddle.  In  the  Supplement  to  the  En- 
cyclopedia Britannica,  it  is  said,  "  On  a  well  made  road,  two  horses  will  draw  about 
a  ton  in  a  two-wheeled-cart  for  20  or  25  miles  every  day." 

Veit's  estimates  respecting  labor  in  carrying  manure,  the  harvest,  &c.,  have 
already  been  given,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred  on  pp.  15 — 18.  For  carrying 
wood,  and  other  fuel,  Thaer  says :  "  We  usually  reckon  at  from  1  to  1^  miles  (4^ 
to  6|  English  miles)  distance,  1  klafter  of  wood  for  a  4-spanned  load  ;  at  a  greater 
distance  only  ^  klafter  ;  at  the  distance  of  half  a  mile  2  loads  daily."  A  klafter  of 
wood  is  6  feet  long,  6  feet  broad  and  3  feet  high,  consequently  108  cubic  feet.  A 
German  mile  is  4|  miles  English. — Tr.] 

22.  The  number  of  beasts  of  labor  necessary  for  conducting  the  house- 
hold (Hausehalt),  therefore  depends  in  every  farm  on  the  kind  and  na- 
ture of  the  same  ;  on  the  mode  of  husbandry  ;  on  the  nature  of  the  soil  ; 
on  the  various  parts  of  husbandry  taken  collectively  ;  and  on  the  climate. 

23.  One  needs  more  oxen  than  horses  ;  more  small  or  weak  than  great 
and  strong  cattle  ;  more  teams  are  required  where  one  cultivates  a  great 
variety  of  fruits,  especially  of  fruits  that  must  be  tilled  by  the  Hacken  ; 
less  on  the  three-field  (Dreifeld)  system,  still  less  on  the  natural  grass- 
growth  (Egarten)  husbandry  ;  more  in  clayey  soils,  less  in  the  sandy  ; 
more,  too,  when  the  fields  and  meadows  are  wide  apart  from  each  other, 
than  when  near  together  ;  and  where  the  climate  limits  the  sowing  of  the 
winter-grain  to  6  weeks,  a  man  must  use  one  half  more  teams  than  where 
there  are  12  weeks  for  the  same  nurpose. 

If  anyone  will  examine  the  actual  state  of  the  beasts  of  labor  in  different  countries 
and  in  different  circumstances,  he  will  find  these  propositions  to  be  true. 

In  a  farm  of  mellow  soil  which  has  no  fallow,  and  where  they  devote  the  6th  or 
8th  part  of  their  fields  to  fruit  to  be  cultivated  by  the  Hacken,  in  which  moreover  is 
raised  on  stubble  ground  of  winter-wheat,  buckwheat,  turnips  and  mixed  fodder,  we 
usually  reckon  with  us  8  moderate  sized  horses  for  100  yokes  of  pbugh-land  (=: 
142.2  acres),  but  if  the  climate  is  colder  and  no  stubble-crops  are  cultivated,  10  or  12 
horses  or  the  same  proportion  of  oxen,  must  be  kept. 

The  Hungerborn  estate  in  Carinthia  on  60  yokes  (85|  acres)  of  plough-land,  and 
30  yokes  (42 1  acres)  of  meadow,  had  2  horses,  6  oxen,  and  2  three-year  old  oxen. 

Krug  had  on  54  yokes  of  plough-land  (76  acres)  and  30  yokes  (42 1  acres)  of  meadow, 
8  oxen,  and  2  three-year  olds.  A  moderately  mountainous,  cool,  moist  situation  and 
a  mellow  soil. 

Karlsberg,  on  90  yokes  of  plough-land  (nearly  128  acres),  and  40  yokes  of  meadow- 
land  (56  i%^u  acres),  had  4  horses  and  8  oxen.    Marly  soil,  warm  exposure. 

Wiesenau,  on  75  yokes  (lOOi'^g^o  acres)  of  plough-land,  and  45  yokes  of  meadow 
(64  acres),  kept  2  horses  and  10  oxen.     Soil  mellow,  situation  cold. 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  53 

Rogeis,  in  Steirmark,  on  100  yokes  (142.2  acres)  of  plough-land  and  12  of  meadow 
(17  acres),  had  4  horses,  6  oxen.     Mellow  soil,  warm  exposure. 

In  the  Netherlands,  says  Balsamo,  quoted  by  Schwertz,  they  allow  for  conducting 
agriculture,  on  an  average  5  Bunder,  equal  to  11|  yokes  (from  15  to  16  acres)  for  a 
horse.  In  Tournay,  a  farm  of  112^  yokes  (159|  acres)  had  10  working  horses.  In 
Ath,  on  135  yokes  192  acres),  there  were  12  horses;  another  farmer  held  6  horses 
necessary  for  30  Bunder,  equal  to  67^  yokes  (96  acres).  The  farm  of  Von  Lille,  at 
Voorde,  had  8  horses  for  40  Bunder,  equal  to  90  yokes  (128  acres).  In  the  region  of 
Contigh,  they  allow  for  10  Bunder  of  plough-land,  equal  to  22 i-  yokes  (32  acres)  2 
horses. 

The  peasantry  farms  in  South  Germany,  in  Alsace,  and  also  in  the  Netherlands, 
where  they  have  no  fallows,  keep  a  proportionally  greater  number  of  cattle  for  teams 
than  the  larger  estates.  In  Alsace  (Alsace  Husbandry,  p.  47),  Schwertz  reckons 
one  horse  to  5^  yokes  (7  3^  acres;.  In  Carinthia,  hi  the  warmer  parts  of  the  country, 
for  10  yokes  ( 14.22  acres)  of  plough  land,  there  are  2  oxen  and  1  horse ;  and  in  the  cold 
regions,  and  with  natural  grass  growth  (E  gar  ten)  husbandry,  and  numerous  pastures, 
they  reckon  4  oxen.  But  where  fallowing  is  practised,  few  cattle  are  found.  In 
Marchfield,  in  Austria,  on  an  average  there  are  2  horses  to  24  to  30  yokes  (34  to 
42f  acres).  So,  too,  in  Bohemia,  on  30  to  35  yokes  (42  j  to  nearly  50  acres)  of  plough 
land,  there  are  only  2  horses,  although  the  peasants  when  they  hold  the  whole  fiel 
must  give  up  two  tiays  in  Austria,  and  in  Bohemia  3  days  of  the  week  as  FrOhner,  or 
to  soccage  service. 

In  England  they  have,  in  the  similar  circumstances,  more  team-cattle  than  in  Ger- 
man3^  because  the  climate  allows  of  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  nearly  the  whole  year, 
and  a  greater  part  of  their  fields  are  temporarily  used  for  meadow  and  pasture. 

Mr.  Bloomfield,  in  Norfolk,  had,  on  563^  yokes  of  plough-land  (793  acres)  only 

16  farm  horses;  but  Mr.  Hunter  of  Tynnefield,  in  Scotland,  had  16  on  405-9 
yokes  (434  acres) ;  he  could  plough  through  the  whole  winter,  and  sow  winter 
wheat  in  the  clover  stubble  field,  from  the  middle  of  January  to  the  12th  of  March.  In 
the  vicinity  of  London  they  allow  on  70  yokes  (100  acres)  of  plough-land,  and  a 
proportional  quantity  of  meadow,  as  with  us,  6  horses. — (Begtrupll.  p.  161.) 

Dickson  quotes  many  estimates  as  to  how  many  team-cattle  one  requires  in  differ- 
ent descriptions  of  farming.  With  2  horses  and  4  oxen,  often  70,  often  140,  and  more 
yokes  ( 100  or  200  acres)  of  plough  land  are  cultivated. 

Thaer,  in  his  estimates  of  labor  on  an  assumed  extent  of  444  yokes  (621|  acres)  of 
plough-land,  and  62^  yokes  (85  acres)  of  meadow,  and  133  yokes  (189-,Vo-  acres)  of 
pasture,  cultivated  on  the  threefield  (Dreifield)  system,  allows  15  horses  ;  on  100  yokes 
(142  2  acres)  3f  horses.  In  the  8-division-Koppel  system,  he  reckons  for  552^ 
yokes  of  plough-land  (787^  acres),  66 1  yokes  of  meadow  (85  acres)  and  44.4 
yokes  of  pasture  (62  acres),  12  horses  to  be  sufficient,  or  on  100  yokes  of  plough- 
land  (142.2  acres),  2|  horses,  and  for  the  same  extent,  on  the  system  of  the  rota- 
tion of  crops  in  7  to  11  divisions  which  is  connected  with  stall-feeding,  he  considers 

17  horses  to  be  sufficient,  wdiich  is  for  100  yokes  ( 142.2  acres)  3  i  horses,  and  thus  less 
in  number  than  on  the  threefield  (Dreifield)  system. 

It  appears  to  me  impossible,  with  so  Uttle  team,  to  manage  plough-land  in 
Germany. 

I  regret  that  I  cannot  give  from  my  own  experience  a  closer  estimate  of  the  number 
of  team-cattle,  on  a  cultivated  extent,  because  my  particular  circumstances  make  a 
greater  number  of  horses  necessary  than  the  conduct  of  a  farm  requires.  But  I  am  en- 
tirely convinced  I  could  succeed  now  with  7  horses  on  100  yokes  (142.2  acres)  of  plough- 
land,  with  30  yokes  (42 1  acres)  of  meadow,  although  I  should  cultivate  the  5th  part 
of  the  field  that  required  to  be  tilled,  with  a  Hacken :  as  maize  (Indian  corn),  potatoes, 
Swedish  turnips,  and  on  the  stubble  of  winter  rye,  buckwheat,  turnips,  maize,  and 
mixed  fodder.  But  the  soil  is  very  easy,  loamy  sand,  and  the  fields  and  meadows 
are  near  the  house. 

[It  may  be  well  here  to  introduce,  for  the  sake  of  comparison,  a  few  estimates  re- 
specting the  subjects  above  mentioned,  from  the  British  Husbandry:  they  include, 
also,  the  number  of  men,  &c. : — 

On  150  acres  were  4  plough-horses,  1  hack-horse,  two  ploughmen,  one  common  or 
jobbing  laborer,  two  laborers,  one  boy,  two  women. 

On  another  of  200  acres,  6  draught-horses,  2  young  ones,  2  draught-oxen,  2  steers, 
four  men  constantly  employed,  two  boys,  and  two  women,  and  extra  laborers  in  time 
of  harvest. 

On  500  acres,  in  Scotland,  as  appears  from  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agricullure, 


54 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 


14  draught-horses,  1  saddle-horse,  nine  men  regularly  employed,  nine  women  150  days, 
two  domestic  servants,  and  extra  laborers  in  the  harvest. 

On  650  acres  of  arable  land,  7  pairs  of  horses,  and  a  pair  of  mares  in  foal,  and  1  pair 
of  young  horses. 

Again  it  is  said,  that  one  team  is  usually  sufficient  for  from  40  to  50  acres  of  heavy 
soil,  or  50  to  60  acres  of  lighter  soil.  Elsewhere  on  150  to  200  acres  of  plough-land, 
there  were  12  to  16  oxen ;  and  on  a  farm  of  150  to  200  acres,  4  horses,  and  of  Irom  50 
to  60  acres,  about  3  horses. 

It  is  also  said,  p.  122  of  Vol.  I.  of  the  same  work:  "Each  plough-team  must  have 
a  ploughman,  if  4  horses,  or  a  proportionate  number  of  oxen,  be  used  together  j  and 
they  must  have  a  driver ;  if  in  pairs,  two  ploughmen ;  but  in  the  former  case,  one 
man  and  boy  are  sufficient ;  and  in  the  latter,  two  men  are  required,  a  carter  and 
ploughman,  and  his  mate.  These,  with  a  constant  day-laborer,  and  a  boy  to  every 
100  acres  of  arable  land,  will  be  generally  sufficient  for  the  regular  work  on  that,  and  a 
due  proportion  of  the  meadow ;  but  on  large  holdings,  where  grazing  and  dairy  forms 
part  of  the  system,  flocks  and  herds  require  separate  attendants." — Tr. 

24.  The  cash  value  of  a  day's  work  of  a  beast,  for  a  team,  may  be 
calculated,  if  we  add  together  the  value  of  the  fodder  and  straw  which  the 
beast  needs  during  the  whole  year,  the  interest  of  the  purchase-capital,  the 
deterioration  of  the  beast,  of  the  harness,  and  farming  utensils  used  by  him  ; 
then  deduct  from  this  sum  the  value  of  the  manure  obtained  from  him,  (B. 
3.3),  and  then  divide  the  remainder  by  the  number  of  days'  work. 

The  value  of  fodder  which  has  no  market  price,  consists  in  the  proportion  of  the 
nutriment  it  contains  to  grain.  Those  materials  for  Utter  which  are  not  produced  on 
the  fields,  should  be  reckoned  to  the  animals  according  to  the  cost  of  obtaining  each 
of  them. 

[According  to  Dr.  Playfair,  the  principles  of  food  necessary  for  the  two  great 
processes  of  life,  Nutrition  and  Respiration,  are  these : 


Elements  of  Nutrition :  Vegetable  Fibrine, 
"        Albumen, 
"        Casein, 
Animal  Flesh, 
"         Blood. 


Elements  of  Respiration :  Fat, 

Starch, 

Gum, 

Sugar, 

Wine, 

Spiritfl, 

Beer, 


The  following  table  gives  the  analysis  of  various  kinds  of  food  of  cattle  in  their 
fresh  state  : 


lbs. 

00 

Peas, 

(C 

Beans, 

(( 

Lentils, 

(( 

Oats, 

(( 

Oatmeal, 

(( 

w 
u 
a 
11 

Barley  meal, 
Hay, 

Wheat  straw, 
Turnips, 
Swedish  turnips, 
Mangel  wurtzel, 

White  carrot, 
Potatoes, 

(( 

Red  beet 

li 

Linseed  cake, 

(( 

Braji, 

Water. 

Organic  matters. 

Ashes 

16 

80i 

'Al 

14 

82| 

n 

16 

81 

3 

18 

79 

3 

9 

89 

2 

15^ 

82] 

2 

16 

76i 

n 

1. 

79 

3 

89 

10 

85 

14 

89 

10 

87 

12 

72 

27 

89 

10 

17 

75 

n 

14^ 

80:1 

5 

The  following  is  also  a  table  of  the  equivalent  value  of  several  kinds  of  food,  with 
reference  to  thf;  fo-mation  of  muscle  and  fat;  the  albumen  indicating  the  muscle' 
forming  principle ;  the  unazotised  matters  indicating  the/a^forming  principle: 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  5$ 

100  lbs.  Albumen.  Unazotised  matter. 

Flesh,  25  0 


Blood, 

Peas,     . 

Beans, 

Lentils, 

Potatoes, 

Oats, 

Barley  meal. 

Hay,      .        . 

Turnips, 

Carrots, 

Red  beet, 


29  0 

29  51^ 

31  52 

33  48 

2  24^ 

10^  68 

14  68 

8  684 

1  9 

2  0 
li  8^— Tr.] 

B. -OF    MANURES. 


1.  Since  manures  are  the  nourishing  material  of  plants,  and,  other  things 
being  equal,  the  higher  profit  of  the  fields  depends  only  and  alone  on  the 
greater  easily-extracted  quantity  of  the  same  found  in  the  soil  ;  therefore, 
the  more  accurate  knowledge  of  this  substance,  its  preparation,  proportional 
use,  and  how  it  may  be  procured  on  a  farm  in  sufficient  quantity,  and  with 
the  least  cost,  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  husbandman. 

2.  The  knowledge,  preparation,  employment,  and  proportionate  value 
of  the  substances  used  as  manure,  has  already  been  shown  in  Chemical 
Agriculture  ;  only  how  much  of  it  is  necessary  in  a  farm,  and  how  it  may 
be  procured  at  the  least  expense,  will  now  be  attempted  to  be  shown. 

[The  present  Treatise,  it  will  be  recollected,  forms  only  a  concluding  portion  of  a 
much  larger  work,  embracing  the  whole  range  of  topics  connected  with  Farming.  Of 
course  the  Author  finds  it  unnecessary  to  repeat  what  he  has  already  said,  and  there- 
fore merely  refers  to  his  previous  discussions  ;  but  separated  as  it  now  is  from  the 
whole  work,  it  may  be  useful  to  incorporate  as  much  of  these  portions  with  it  as  the 
space  will  allow.  Yet  it  will  be  impossible  to  enter  very  largely  on  so  extended  a 
subject,  important  as  it  is.  There  are  many  admirable  things  in  the  Authors  I  have 
already  quoted,  which  were  I  to  subjoin,  would  no  doubt  be  of  great  practical 
utility,  and  add  much  to  the  value  of  this  work ;  but  this  would  be  to  swell  it  beyond 
all  reasonable  bounds  for  the  object  prescribed.  I  must  therefore  reserve  these  valu- 
able materials,  for  the  most  part,  for  the  whole  work  to  be  published  hereafter,  if  the 
success  of  the  present  essay  shall  seem  to  justify  so  much  more  difficult  an  undertak- 
ing. Without,  therefore,  embracing  every  topic,  I  shall  now  simply  cull  out  such 
remarks  as  may  seem  most  appropriate  to  the  points  just  suggested  by  the  Author,  on 
the  knowledge,  preparation,  and  proportionate  value  of  the  manuring  substances. 
Burger's  remarks  on  this  subject  are  embodied  in  a  series  of  propositions,  followed 
by  illustrations  of  the  principles  advanced,  similar  to  the  mode  of  the  present  Trea- 
tise. Some  of  these  I  shall  quote  in  full,  and  in  the  words  of  the  Author ;  of  others  I 
may  give  only  the  substance,  interweaving  also  such  things  as  may  seem  proper,  from 
Thaer,  Veit,  Schwertz,  and  others. — His  remarks  may  be  found  on  pp.  90,  &c. 
of  Vol.  I. 

"By  manure^  we  understand  in  general  those  bodies  which  directly  conduce  to  the 
nourishment  of  plants." 

"  Plants  are  nourished  only  by  sucking  in  the  nutritious  substance,  in  a  fluid  or 
gaseous  form,  out  of  the  earth  or  air,  by  means  of  their  roots  or  leaves.  Nourishing 
substances  must  therefore  be  soluble  in  water ;  and  if  a  substance  is  thus  insoluble,  it 
must  first  be  dissolved  by  the  agency  of  some  other  substance,  and  in  its  new  combi- 
nation become  soluble  in  water  before  it  is  to  be  considered  as  nourishment  or  manure. 

"  Such  materials  only  can  be  considered  as  the  nutriment  of  plants,  the  elements  of 
which  we  find  in  them  on  their  decomposition. 

"  The  dead  organic  matter  contains  all  the  constituents  out  of  which  the  living  of  the 
same  kind  is  combined.  It  is  therefore  the  most  excellent  nourishment  of  beasts 
and  plants. 


56  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

"  The  organic  substances  contain  not  all  the  elementary  materials,  and  their  propor- 
tion of  combination  is  very  different.  In  this  consists  their  more  rapid  or  slower 
decomposition,  and  their  greater  or  less  facility  of  affording  nutriment. 

"  Those  organic  substances  are  most  rapidly  decomposed  which  are  combined  from 
the  greatest  quantity  of  elementary  substances,  and  give  a  perfect,  satisfactory  and 
rich  nutriment,  because  all  the  constituents  of  the  material  exist  in  them,  out  of 
which  the  living  bodies  are  renewed  and  fashioned. 

"Organic  substances,  which  are  combined  of  only  3  or  4  elementary  substances,  are 
harder  to  decompose,  especially  if  their  connexion  is  firm.  Hence  it  is  that  flesh  and 
animal  substances  generally  are  so  nutritious  for  beasts  and  plants,  as  they  are  com- 
bined from  hydrogen,  carbon,  oxygen,  sulphur,  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  lime,  potash ; 
and  hence  also  the  less  capacity  of  nutriment  in  wood,  which  is  combined  only  of 
hydrogen,  carbon  and  oxygen,  of  alkaline  bodies  and  earths,  and  besides,  is  of  strong 
cohesion. 

"  As  we  find  silex,  alumine  and  magnesia,  iron,  manganese,  sulphur,  phosphorus, 
lime,  alkaline  salts,  and  many  other  salts  in  the  analysis  of  the  organic  substances, 
we  must  therefore  justly  conclude,  that  these  bodies  also,  since  they  are  essential 
constituents  of  the  organic  substance,  are  to  be  considered  as  directly  nutritive. 
Experience,  too,  shows  that  all  these  bodies  do  aid  the  growth  of  plants. 

"  Their  efficacy  as  manures  must  be  much  less  than  of  the  organic  substances,  since 
they  contain  only  one  or  two  materials  in  themselves  which  go  to  the  nutriment  ot 
plants.  They  are  also  less  because,  too,  these  substances  only  aid  plants  in  a  small  mass. 

"  The  organic  bodies  are  divided  into  two  great  classes — animals  and  plants.  As 
animals  are  consumed  in  so  great  a  degree  by  other  animals,  only  a  small  portion  of 
them  goes  directly  to  the  benefit  of  plants  as  nutriment.  Plants  afford  not  only  a 
large  portion  of  the  nourishment  of  animals  but  of  other  plants,  since  the  following 
stock  lives  on  the  remains  of  the  preceding  one.  The  nutritious  material  found  in 
the  humus  of  the  soil,  or  which  is  brought  to  the  field,  consists  in  a  great  part  of 
vegetable  and  only  a  small  portion  of  animal  substances." 

Humus,  which,  according  to  Liebig,  is  the  decayed  fibre  of  wood,  is  characterized 
by  Thaer  as  "  a  mould,  not  properly  an  earth,  but  a  powdery  substance,  in  a  greater 
or  less  degree  found  in  the  soil.  The  fruitfulness  of  the  soil  depends  on  its  proportions, 
as  likewise  it  is  the  only  thing  in  the  soil  that  gives  nutriment  to  plants :  it  is  the 
remains  of  vegetable  and  animal  putrefaction — if  dry,  black  and  powdery  ;  if  moist, 
it  has  a  smooth,  fatty  feeling ;  it  is  different  according  to  the  bodies  out  of  which  it  is 
formed,  but  it  has  certain  general  peculiarities  or  properties  in  which  it  is  essentially 
alike.  Humus  is  a  form  of  organic  power,  a  combination  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
nitrogen  and  oxygen,  and  also  in  lesser  quantities  of  sulphur,  phosphorus,  and  various 
salts — gives  nourishment  to  organism  ;  the  more  life  there  is,  the  more  humus ;  and 
the  more  humus,  the  more  life. 

"Humus  has  less  oxygen  but  more  carbon  and  nitrogen  than  the  plants  of  which  it 
is  composed  ;  it  differs  also  as  there  is  more  or  less  water  or  air  :  as  it  is  in  a  free  or 
confined  state,  it  is  liable  to  changes,  and  forms  a  substance  indissoluble  in  water 
called  extract  or  extractive  matter :  if  it  has  not  access  to  air,  carbonic  acid  and 
extract  is  produced.  Salts  exist  in  a  mp.ss  in  humus — humic  acid  by  itself  is  unfruitful 
and  injurious  to  vegetation.  Humus  differs  as  it  is  formed  from  animal  or  vegetable 
bodies.  The  animal  has  more  nitrogen,  sulphur  and  phosphorus,  as  is  perceivable 
by  the  smell  it  emits  when  burning." 

ScHWERTZ  also,  says  that  "  the  nourishing  substance  of  plants,  to  which  we  give 
the  name  of  humus,  has  the  appearance  of  a  powdery  and  usually  a  brown  or  dark 
gray  loose  substance,  in  which  can  no  more  be  discerned  its  original  condition.  It 
burns  in  the  fire,  and  is  soluble  in  water,  especially  after  an  addition  of  alkali.  It  is 
not  every  decayed  substance  that  is  humus,  and  not  every  species  of  humus  is  in  a 
condition  for  the  fertility  of  plants.  It  forms  itself  from  the  soil  more  or  less  rapidly, 
according  to  the  organic  substances  from  which  it  is  derived,  the  firmer  or  the  less 
firm  its  texture  is,  the  less  or  more  earthly  parts  it  contains ;  and  as  the  circumstances 
of  temperature  and  soil  exert  a  stronger  or  weaker  influence  on  the  humus."  He 
mentions  both  the  acid  and  the  astringent  humus. 

Our  Author  himself,  in  Vol.  I.,  under  the  head  of  Agrinomie,  p.  40,  after  giving 
similar  characteristics  of  the  appearance,  &c.,  of  humus,  observes :  "  It  will  hold 
nearly  double  its  weight  in  water  without  losing  a  drop,"  and  says  that  "  Schubler 
found  that  100  parts  of  humus  would  retain  190  parts  of  water.  Korte  also,  of  a 
humus  formed  from  the  wild  chesnut  wood,  found  it  would  hold  239  per  cent,  of 
water  while  a  loamy  clay  only  held  45  per  cent.  It  loses  the  water  also  very  slowly. 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  57 

According  to  Schubler,  of  10,000  parts  of  water,  108  evaporated  from  humus  in  the 
same  time  that  245  escaped  from  313  of  garden  earth.  He  fixes  the  power  of  liumus 
to  retain  warmth  at  0  49,  while  Crome  sets  it  down  at  0.72.  It  has  httle  cohesive 
power ;  if  set  out  in  the  open  air,  of  all  the  integral  parts  of  the  soil  it  absorbs  the 
most  moisture.  AccortUng  to  Schubler.  1000  grains  of  humus  in  48  hours  absorbed 
110  grains  of  water.  According  to  Korte,  in  4  weeks  it  absorbed  6  times  as  much 
moisture.  Of  all  the  constituents  of  the  soil  it  is  most  easily  decomposed  in  the  air, 
and  absorbs  a  great  portion  of  its  acids.  According  to  Schubler,  in  a  moist  state, 
of  0.21  of  oxygen  existing  in  air,  it  absorbed  |  in  30  days. 

"  Humus,  combined  with  oxygen,  is  soluble  in  water ;  and  a  portion  of  the  carbon 
of  humus  unites  itself,  with  the  oxygen,  to  carbonic  acid  gas.  It  becomes  warm,  when 
set  out  in  the  sun,  very  rapidly  and  strongly ;  but  it  also  very  rapidly  loses  its  acquired 
warmth :  it  is  especially  found  in  the  upper  strata  of  the  earth." 

The  combinations  of  humus  with  ditferent  soils,  clayey,  sanJy,  &c.,  deserve  the 
attention  of  the  agriculturist,  but  the  subject  is  too  extensive  to  be  entered  on  in 
these  brief  notes. 

Liebig,  speaking  with  reference  to  the  action  of  humus  on  plants,  says:  ''The 
opinion  that  the  substance  called  humus  is  extracted  from  the  soil  by  the  roots  of 
plants,  and  that  the  carbon  entering  into  its  composition  serves  in  some  form  or  other 
to  nourish  its  tissues,  is  so  general  and  firmly  established,  that  hitherto  any  nev7  argu- 
ment in  its  favor  has  been  considered  unnecessary ;  the  obvious  difference  in  the 
growth  of  plants,  according  to  the  known  abundance  or  scarcity  of  humus  in  the  soil, 
seemed  to  afford  incontestable  proof  of  ils  correctness.  Yet  this  position,  when  sub- 
mitted to  a  strict  examination,  is  found  to  be  untenable,  and  it  becomes  evident,  from 
most  conclusive  proofs,  that  humus,  in  the  form  in  which  it  exists  in  the  soil,  does  not 
yield  the  smallest  nourishment  to  plants."  He  enters  into  such  an  examination,  and 
proves  that  the  carbon  of  plants  must  be  derived  exclusively  from  the  atmosphere, 
where  it  only  exists  as  carbonic  acid,  and  of  course  in  combination  with  oxygen. 
He  also  shows  that  the  carbon  of  the  atmosphere  is  more  than  adequate  to  all  these 
purposes.  The  influence  of  humus  upon  vegetation,  he  states  to  be,  that "  humus  does 
not  nourish  plants  by  being  taken  up  and  assimilated  in  its  unaltered  state,  but  by 
presenting  a  slow  and  lasting  source  of  carbonic  acid,  which  is  absorbed  by  the  roots, 
and  is  the  principal  nutriment  of  young  plants  at  a  time  when,  being  destitute  of 
leaves,  they  are  unable  to  extract  food  from  the  atmosphere." 

In  reference  to  humus  and  to  soils,  Sprengel  remarks  in  his  most  able  work  on 
soils  (Die  Bodenkunde),  p.  133,  "  To  the  growth  of  plants  18  or  19  elementary  sub- 
stances belong,  and  as  whilst  frequently  one  plant  needs  more  of  this  or  that  substance 
for  its  success  than  another,  so  a  soil  may  be  poor  for  this  plant  while  it  is  rich  for 
another,  according  to  the  rule  that  a  soil  is  the  richest  or  most  fruitful  for  our  cultivated 
plants  which  contains  the  most  humus,  and  much  easily  dissolved  humic  acid ;  whilst 
that  is  the  poorest  or  most  unfruitful  which  contains  little  humus,  and  from  which  few 
or  scarcely  any  other  bodies  than  silicious  earth  allow  themselves  to  be  withdrawn 
by  water." 

A  distinction  has  been  supposed  to  exist  between  a  rich  and  a  fruitful  soil.  "By 
a  rich  soil  is  understood  such  a  one  as  contains  a  great  quantity  of  humus  or  organic 
remains,  whether  already  prepared  or  not  for  the  nutriment  of  plants.  By  a  fruitful 
soil  we  understand,  on  the  contrary,  that  in  which  the  humus  is  already  fully  prepared, 
or  in  a  soluble  state  for  the  nutriment  of  plants."  This  view  Sprengel  pronounces 
not  wholly  correct,  since  it  is  derived  from  an  incorrect  representation  which  is 
generally  made  of  humus  and  the  nutriment  of  plants  generally.  The  peat  soil,  for 
instance,  he  says,  contains  much  humus  soluble  in  water,  and  is  lor  the  most  part 
very  unfruitful.  Among  his  analyses  of  soils  we  find  two  of  portions  of  very  fruitful 
soil  from  near  the  Ohio  river.     These  may  be  interesting  to  some  of  our  readers. 

1.  "  From  the  low  alluvial  soil  on  the  Ohio  river,  distinguished  for  extraordinary 
fertility 

Parts  by  weight. 

100,000  parts  by  weight  of  the  earth  consist  of 

Silicious  earth  and  very  fine  quartz  sand, 79,538 

Alumine,            7.3O6 

Oxyde  of  iron  and  oxydulated  iron  (oxydul) — much  magnetic  iron  sand, —  5,824 

Oxyde  of  manganese, 1,320 

Calcareous  earth, 0,619 

Magnesia, 1,024 

Potash — a  great  part  of  it  in  union  with  silicious  earth —     .        .        .  0.200 

8 


58  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

Parts  by  weight. 

Natron  or  soda, 0,024 

Phosphoric  acid  united  with  iron  and  calcareous  earth,  i.  e.,  phosphates 

of  iron  and  hme, 1,776 

Sulphate  of  iron, 0,122 

Chlorine, 0,036 

Humic  acid, 1,950 

Organic  bodies  containing  nitrogen, 0,236 

Wax  and  resin,      .        .                ...*....  0.025 

100,000 

2.  From  uplands,  near  the  Ohio,  also  distinguished  for  extraordinary  fertihty. 

100,000  parts  by  weight  of  the  earth  contain 

Silicious  earth  and  fine  quartz  sand, 87,143 

Alumine, 5,666 

Oxyde  of  iron  and  oxydulated  iron, 2,220 

Oxyde  of  manganese, 0,360 

Calcareous  earth, 0,564 

Magnesia, 0,324 

Potash  united  with  siUcious  earth, 0,120 

Natron  or  soda, 0,025 

Phosphoric  acid, ^ 0,060 

Sulphuric  acid, 7 0,027 

Chlorine, 0,036 

Humic  acid, 1,304 

Humus,             1,072 

Carbonate  of  lime, 0,080 

Organic  bodies  containing  nitrogen,          .......  1,011 

100,000 

3.  The  sub-soil  of  this  soil  consists,  in  100,000  parts  by  weight,  of 

Silicious  earth  and  quartz  sand, 94,261 

Alumine,  1,376 

Oxyde  of  iron, 2,336 

Oxyde  of  manganese, 1,200 

Calcareous  earth, ^        .        .        .        .        0.243 

Magnesia, .  0,310 

Potash  and  soda  united  with  silicious  earth  (silicate  of  potash),  .        0,240 

Phosphoric  acid, slight  traces 

Sulphuric  acid 0,034 

Muriate  of  soda,  slight  traces 

100,000 
The  conclusion  at  which  he  arrives,  after  170  analyses  of  soils  is,  that  "  according 
to  close  inspection  of  all  these  chemical  analyses,  we  must  conclude  that  a  soil  which 
is  very  fruitful,  besides  clay,  calcareous  earth  and  humus — which  have  heretofore 
been  considered  necessary — must  contain  also  a  considerable  quantity  of  iron,  man- 
ganese, magnesia,  potash,  soda,  chlorine,  phosphoric  acid,  sulphuric  acid,  and  bodies 
containing  nitrogen." 

Sprengel  also  mentions,  as  points  to  be  regarded  in  deciding  the  value  of  soils  for 
the  purposes  of  culture ;  their  position  as  inclined  or  horizontal,  high  or  low,  exposed 
more  to  the  north,  south,  east  or  west,  and  near  the  sea  or  lakes  and  rivers,  &c. ;  their 
climate,  warm  or  cold,  moist  or  dry,  &c. ;  their  relations  or  circumstances  near  woods 
or  islands,  &c. ;  mountains,  marshes,  cities  or  towns,  manufactories  of  various  kinds, 
which  may  afford  materials  for  manure,  market,  &c.  The  worth  of  soils  also  may 
be  judged  of  by  certain  visible  marks,  as  the  wild  plants  which  are  found  on  them. 
Of  these  he  gives  a  list  which  he  classes  as  (the  bodenstete)  those  set  in  the  soil, 
natural  to  it ;  (the  bodenholde)  those  friendly  to  it;  and  (the  bodenvage)  those  which, 
though  not  natural  to  it.  are  sometimes  found.  By  the  two  first,  the  former  of  them 
especially,  the  character  of  tlie  soil  is  determined.  The  color  too,  taste,  mixture,  the 
stones  great  or  small,  looseness  or  firmness,  friability,  insects,  worms,  moles,  birds,  and 
many  things  of  this  kind,  should  be  taken  into  account  in  forming  tlie  judgment 


ECONOMY   OF  FARMING. 


59 


Thaer,  Vol.  II.,  109,  110,  gives  the  following  table  of  the  value  of  soils,  which 
may  be  introduced  here : 


No. 
1 

2 
3 
4 
6 
6 
7 
8 
9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 


Systematic  Name 

. 

Usual  Name. 

Humose  clay 

soil 

Strong  wheat  soil, 

Strong  humose 

u 

U              U                 (C 

U                  li 

(( 

:(          ((             (( 

Rich  marly 

« 

((           u              u 

Humose,  loose 

(( 

Mead,  or  green  pasturage  soil, 

"          sandy " 

Strong  barley  soil, 

Rich  clay 

(( 

Strong  wheat    " 

Marly 

C( 

Wheat                « 

Clay 

u 

C(                             u 

Loamy 

(( 

u                     u 

u 

(( 

U                               ti 

(( 

(( 

1st  class  barley  " 

(C 

(( 

2d    «        "        « 

Sandy  loam 

(C 

((        ((            ((            u 

a          « 

(C 

Oat                    « 

Loamy  sand 

(C 

«                        u 

((               u 

(I 

Rye                  « 

Sandy 

ii 

U                                        (( 

(C 

u 

Six  years'  rye    " 

(( 

u 

Nine  years'  «     « 

Clay 

Sand 

Hum. 

Lime 

pr.  ct. 

pr.  ct. 

pr.  ct 

pr   ct. 

74 

10 

H 

Ill 

81 

6 

4 

Sf 

79 

10 

4 

6^ 

40 

22 

36 

4 

14 

49 

10 

27 

20 

67 

3 

10 

58 

36 

2 

4 

56 

30 

12 

2 

60 

38 

p 

2 

48 

50 

m 

2 

68 

30 

•^ 

2 

38 

60 

05 

3 

2 

33 

65 

£- 

2 

28 

70 

S 

2 

23^ 

75 

H 

18^ 

80 

? 

H 

14 

85 

'^ 

1 

9 

90 

o 

1 

4 

95 

1 

2 

97^ 

i 

VaL 
100 

98 
96 
90 
? 

78 
77 
75 
70 
65 
60 
60 
50 
40 
30 
20 
15 
10 
5 
2 


Burger  divides  the  manuring  bodies  into  the  organic  and  mineral ;  and  says  that 
"  all  that  is  of  organic  origin,  and  is  soluble  in  water,  or  gradually  by  contact  with 
the  same  and  the  air,  must  be  considered  as  a  means  of  manure :"  and  of  the  sub- 
stances, "  those,  which  as  compound  bodies  contain  the  constituent  parts  of  organic 
matter,  and  under  the  operation  of  the  water,  heat  and  air  are  rendered  capable  of 
enteriag  into  combination  with  the  constituent  parts  of  the  soil,  or  dissolved  in  water, 
are  taken  up  by  plants."  The  organic  materials  are  animal  and  vegetable.  Under 
the  animal  are  mentioned,  besides  excrements,  particularly  bones.  These  contain  of 
gelatine,  an  important  principle  of  nutriment:  of  oxen,  0.50-0.55 ;  of  horses,  0.36—0.40 ; 
of  swine,  0.48—0.50.  An  important  consideration  in  reference  to  animal  excrement  is, 
that  it  has  no  other  value  practically  except  as  manure.  According  to  Thaer's  and 
Einhoff's  analysis,  it  appears  that  the  excrements  of  cattle  are  specifically  heavier 
than  water  104.5,  and  consist  of  71|^  water  and  28^  of  soHd  substance.  3840  grains 
of  fresh  dung  contained  of 

Probably  accidental  sand,  .  .  45  grains,  =  0.011 
Juices  of  plants,  ....  600  "  =  0.156 
•  Animal  matter  soluble  in  water,  .  90  "  =  0.023 
Insoluble,  probably  vegetable  matter,  360  "  =  0.093 
Water, 2745      «'       =  0.714 


3840 
According  to  Dr.  Dana,  100  lbs.  of  cow-dung  contain : 

Organic  Matter. 
Water,        .  .  .  . 

Hay, 

Bile  and  resinous  and  biliary  matter, 
Albumen,  .... 


Silica, 

Sulphate  of  potash, 
Geate  of  potash. 
Muriate  of  soda, 
Phosphate  of  lime, 
Sulphate  of  lime. 
Carbonate  of  lime, 


Salts. 


=  1.000 


83.60 
14.60 
1.275 
.175 

.14 
.05 
.07 
.08 
.23 
.12 
.12 


Loss, 


99  86 
0.14 

100.00 


60  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

By  Morin's  analysis  100  parts  contain : 

Water,         ......  70. 

Vegetable  fibre,            .....  24.08 

Green  resin  and  fat  acids,              .            .            .  1.52 

Undecomposed  biliary  matter,               .            .            .  0.60 

Peculiar  extractive  matter,               .            .            .  1-60 

Albumen,                        0.40 

Biliary  resin,             .....  1.80 

100.00 

Dr.  Dana  observes  also  that  in  100  parts  of  cow-dung  there  are  of 

Nitrogen,      ......  .506 

Carbon, 201 

Hydrogen,  .....  .824 

Oxygen,  .  .  .  .  •  .4.818 

So  that  100  parts  of  fresh  cow-dung  will  afford  0.614  or  |  of  a  pound  of  pure  ammonia, 
or  about  2  lbs.  2  oz.  of  carbonate  of  ammonia  of  the  shops. 

The  urine  of  the  cow,  according  to  Brand,  contains : 

Acid,  salts,  potash,  and  ammonia,         .  .  =  0.015 

Sulphate  of  potash  ....  =0.006 

Carbonic  acid,  .  .  .  .  =  0  004 

Uric  acid, =0.004 

Phosphate  of  lime,        .  •  .  .  =  0.003 

0.032 

The  urine  of  the  horse,  according  to  Fgdrcroy  and  VAuauELiN,  contain : 
Benzoic  acid  with  natron  or  soda.  .  .  0.024 

Carbonic  acid, 0  009 

Acetate  of  potash,  ....  0.009 

Uric  acid, 0.007 

Carbonate  of  lime,  ....  0.011 


0.060 


According  to  Veit,  also,  the  analysis  of  the  dung  of  some  of  the  domestic  animalfi 
furnishes  us  with  the  following  result: 

a.  The  constituents  of  excrements,  in  a  dry  state. 

1.  Juices  of  plants,  with  remains  of  food, 

2.  A  mud-like  green  powder,  with  coagulated  albumen,  and 
bowel-slime,      ...... 

3.  Gall  stuff,  with  extractive  matter, 

4.  Gall  sugar  with  soluble  salts, 

b.  The  ashes  of  the  excrements,  amount  to 
And  contain,  of  silicious  earth,  phosphate  and  carbonate 

of  hme,  .  .  .  .  .  . 

Carbonic  acid,  phosphoric  acid,  and  acetate  of  natron    . 

c.  The  absorption  of  the  acids  of  the  atmosphere,  and  the 

formation  of  carbonic  acid  gas  corresponds  to  the  pro- 
portions,     ...... 

d.  Excrements  in  a  moist  state,  contain  of  water. 

Of  vegetable  manures,  there  are  a  great  variety  in  leaves,  straw,  weeds,  ferns,  pond- 
mud,  &c.  &c.,  green  plants,  &c.     So  of  mineral  manures:  sulphur,  hme,  potash,  &c. 


Of  100  parts. 
Cattle.        Horse. 

Sheep. 

56.5 
1 

65.0 

44.0 

33.5 
4.35 
4.46 

20.5 
5.6 
6.5 

40.0 
6.1 
7.5 

6.0 

6.0 

9.6 

1.2 
0.2 

09 
0.5 

2.0 
1.6 

17.8 

15.8 

23.0 

75.0 

69.0 

68.0 

ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  61 

The  proportion  of  ashes  and  of  potash  in  a  variety  of  substances  are  thus  given  by 
Burger : 

Of  Ashes.  Potash. 

100  lbs.  of  Elm  or  Maple  gave         .    2.4     lb.  0.39  lb. 


Oak, 
Poplar, 
Box, 
Fir, 

«      •'        Vine, 
«       "        Fern, 

((         u 
U  (( 


1.35    "  0.155 

1.23    «  0.075" 

0.584  «  0.145  " 
0.341  « 

3.379"  0.55    " 

5 «  0.626" 


Maize  stalks. 
Wheat  straw, 
*'        Oat  straw,        ...        .     5.6      «  0.87    ♦' 


8.3      "  3.6      « 

4.3      «  0.39    « 


Ib  Thaer  and  Schwertz  are  also  many  valuable  remarks,  most  of  which  must  be 
omitted  for  want  of  room ;  and  they  are  less  necessary  since  the  publication  and  more 
extensive  circulation  of  the  works  of  Liebig,  Johnston,  Dana  and  others,  on  this 
subject.  Thaer  defines  the  object  of  all  manures  to  be  twofold:  to  nourish  plants, 
and  to  help  decompose  other  nutriment  for  them. — Tr.] 

3.  Because  the  fertility  of  fields  in  most  farms  depends  on  the  manure 
from  the  stalls,  and  other  substances  used  as  manures,  must  be  considered 
as  extraordinary  ;  therefore,  the  present  remarks  will  relate  more  particu- 
larly to  manure  of  the  stalls  ;  and  in  case  other  kinds  of  manure  are  used, 
they  must  be  reduced  to  their  value  according  to  the  same. 

4.  As  stall-manure  consists  of  the  dung  of  animals  and  different 
vegetable  substances  mixed  therewith,  so  it  is  the  product  of  beasts  kept  on 
the  farm  for  labor  and  other  uses,  of  the  fodder  furnished  them,  and  of  the 
litter  laid  for  them  to  lie  upon. 

5.  The  nourishment  of  beasts  and  men  depends  on  the  culture  of 
plants,  and  the  culture  of  plants  on  the  labor  of  beasts,  and  the  quantity 
and  quality  of  manure  they  produce.  The  production  of  beasts  and  plants 
is  therefore  reciprocal. 

6.  To  bring  the  cultivation  of  land  into  a  convenient  proportion  with  the 
rearing  of  cattle,  in  any  given  case,  the  husbandman  must  know  : 

1.)  How  much  manure  he  needs,  in  order  to  retain  a  given  amount  of 
field  in  a  fruitful  state,  and  in  what  proportions  the  manure  is  taken  from 
the  fields  by  the  production  of  plants? 

2.)  What  beasts  will  produce  manure  in  any  given  case  at  the  cheapest 
rate? 

3.)   How  great  must  be  the  number  of  these  beasts  ? 

4.)  What  is  the  proportion  of  the  weight  of  fodder  consumed,  together 
with  the  litter  employed,  to  the  weight  of  the  manure? 

5.)  In  what  proportions  the  production  of  plants  for  fodder,  and  materials 
for  litter,  must  stand  to  the  grains  and  plants  for  the  purposes  of  trade  ? 

6.)  How  the  different  plants  cultivated  on  the  fields  must  follow  one 
another,  so  that  the  necessary  supply  of  fodder  and  litter  may  be  produced, 
and  be  coupled  with  the  greatest  possible  production  of  plants  for  grain,  oi 
for  trade,  without  the  fields  being  thereby  over-worked,  or  run  to  waste,  oi 
any  extraordinary  improvement  being  required  ? 

7.  In  the  solution  of  these  questions  consists  the  greatest  and  most 
essential  part  of  the  doctrine  of  the  organization  of  Land  Husbandry  ;  and 
a  correct  tsystem  of  farming  adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  the  climate 
and  other  local  respects,  can  then  first  be  established,  if  one  knows  what 


62  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

beasts  and  plants  are  adapted  to  a  given  case,  what  powers  and  means 
their  support  requires,  what  the  procuring  them  will  cost,  and  what  result 
one  may  promise  himself  from  the  profits  of  the  beasts  and  plants. 

[Thaer,  Vol.  I.  p.  186,  remarks:  "It  is  a  desirable  object  to  be  gained  by  the 
farmer,  to  obtain  for  himself  animal  manure  in  sufficient  quantity  for  the  highest  pro- 
duction of  vegetable  substances  in  the  cheapest  manner  possible,  and  with  the  least 
possible  sacrifice  of  marketable  crops  in  the  production.     This  may  be  effected : 

1.  When  he  produces  the  greatest  possible  quantity  of  nutritious  fodder  on  the  least 
.  extent  of  his  land. 

2.  When  he  does  this  with  the  least  outlay  of  work  and  money. 

3.  When  he  obtains  fodder  on  that  portion  of  his  land  where  there  is  the  least  in- 
terruption in  the  cultivation  of  other  fruits. 

4.  When  he  so  arranges  the  cultivation,  and  his  choice  of  the  means  of  fodder,  that 
by  cultivation  itself  he  puts  in  a  fit  state  the  field  for  the  production  of  other  fruits ;  i.  e. 
that  the  labor  expended  may  be  for  the  advantage  of  the  successive  fruits. 

5.  When  by  the  fodder  itself  he  produces  the  greatest  quantity  or  value  of  animal 
products. 

6.  When  he  so  keeps  his  cattle  that  the  collected  dung  produced  by  them  will  be 
the  most  suitable  manure  for  his  fields  and  fruits,  and  in  the  end  be  appUed  in  the  best 
mixture,  locality,  and  fermentation. 

7.  When  he  uses  the  manure  obtained  as  quick  as  possible  for  the  raising  of 
marketable  products,  or  such  as  will  furnish  manure  again,  and  as  much  as  possible 
hasten  the  progress  on  his  farm  from  the  earth  into  vegetables,  from  vegetables  into 
the  bodies  of  animals,  and  from  these  again  back  to  the  earth. 

These  objects  may  be  obtained  in  the  most  perfect  manner  by  a  system  of  cultiva- 
tion regarding,  and  as  much  as  possible  corresponding,  to  the  situation  of  the  farm." 
— Tr.] 

1.    HOW   MUCH   MANURE    IS    NEEDED,    IN  ORDER  TO  RETAIN   A  GIVEN  AMOUNT  OF  FIELDS 

IN   A    FRUITFUL    STATE? 

1.  The  greatness  of  the  growth  of  plants,  other  things  being  equal, 
stands  in  exact  proportion  to  the  amount  of  soluble  substance  found  in  the 
soil,  adapted  to  be  the  nutriment  of  plants. 

2.  When  the  quantity  of  this  substance  which  is  taken  away  from  the 
soil  by  the  harvest,  is  restored  in  like  measure  by  manure,  then  the  power 
of  the  same  remains  as  before  ;  and  in  an  average  of  many  years,  though 
the  influence  of  extraordinary  weather  may  alter  it,  we  can  obtain  the  same 
harvest.  If  more  is  given  back  to  it  than  is  taken  away  from  it,  the  rich- 
ness of  the  soil,  and  its  productive  power  will  be  increased  ;  but  if  more  is 
taken  away  than  is  given  back,  then  the  amount  of  its  product  is  lessened 
in  the  same  proportion. 

3.  It  is  therefore  of  great  importance  to  ascertain  the  proportion  of  the 
consumption  of  manure  by  different  plants,  according  to  the  difference  of 
the  soil  and  climate,  in  order  always  to  carry  out,  at  a  suitable  time,  a 
quantity  of  manure  adapted  to  the  field,  that  its  capacity  of  production 
may  be  kept  in  that  degree  which  we  consider  best  suited  to  its  circum- 
stances. 

4.  A  field  requires  more  manure  to  yield  the  same  product,  if  it  is  loose, 
and  too  little  strengthened  by  clay ;  because  it  then  not  only  needs  the 
humus  for  the  nourishment  of  plants,  but  also  for  absorbing  vaporous  atmos- 
pheric particles,  and  for  a  greater  retentiveness  of  the  moisture  of  rain  ; 
and  the  humus  decomposes  sooner  in  a  loose  soil,  and  is  earlier  evaporated, 
before  the  roots  of  the  plants  can  suck  it  in. 

[The  theory  of  our  Author,  here,  is  evidently  the  old  one  ;  and  consequently,  his 
language  needs  some  modification  to  make  it  conform  to  the  more  recentviewof  Liebio, 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  63 

before  mentioned,  that  the  great  effect  of  the  humus  is  to  furnish  a  supply  of  carbonic 
acid  to  the  plants,  though  Liebig's  theory  is  disputed  by  some — Tr.  j 

5.  The  same  quantity  of  manure  produces,  therefore,  in  the  course  of 
the  time  of  its  decomposition,  a  greater  product  of  plants  in  a  clayey  than 
in  a  sandy  soil,  provided  the  warmth  of  the  climate  is  in  a  suitable  propor- 
tion to  the  tightness  of  the  soil. 

Herein  consists  the  essential  cause  that  the  product  of  the  sandy  soil  is  every- 
where so  small,  and  that  a  clayey  soil,  with  an  equal  cost  of  manure,  yields  a  greater 
product.  II  a  person  would  raise  grain  on  a  sandy  soil  continuously  with  profit,  he 
needs  extraordinary  aids  ;  either  such  a  rotation  of  crops  in  which  a  certain  extent  is 
devoted  to  the  culture  of  plants  for  fodder,  or  ii^  the  field  is  only  sown  with  grain,  then 
are  large  pastures,  foreign  materials  for  litter,  and  much  meadow  requisite.  If  a  man 
has  not  these,  the  product  of  the  field  will  diminish  from  year  to  year,  and  finally,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  let  a  part  of  the  field  lie  fallow,  in  order  to  hold  at  his  com- 
mand the  requisite  aid  to  keep  the  other  under  cultivation,  or  he  must  lay  out  artificial 
pastures,  and  try  the  Koppel-system  of  husbandry.— (See  6 :  7,  9,  27,  below.) 

6.  In  a  cold  climate  we  generally  use  for  the  production  of  the  same 
crop  more  manure  than  in  a  warmer,  and  more  in  a  heavy  tiian  in  a  mellow 
soil  ;  because  the  dissolution  of  the  humus  is  less  favored  in  the  former  of 
these  cases,  and  the  cold  soil  must  be  warmed  by  the  greater  quantity  of 
manure. 

The  manure  does  not  itself  directly  warm  the  soil,  for  the  decomposition  goes  on 
in  the  field  so  slowly  that  the  warmth  which  is  thereby  occasioned  is  imperceptible  : 
it  only  takes  place  indirectly,  because,  not  reflecting  back  the  sun's  rays,  it  absorbs 
their  warmth  and  imparts  it  to  the  surrounding  earth.  Hence  the  reason  that  one 
notices  no  extraordinary  accumulation  of  humus  in  the  oft-manured  fields  of  high  and 
coldly-situated  countries,  must  be  ascribed  to  their  inclined  position  on  the  mountains, 
in  which  a  greater  part  of  the  dissolved  manuring  substances  is  carried  away  by  the 
rain.     On  the  plains,  we  always  observe  an  accumulation  of  black  mould. 

7.  By  how  much  the  more  the  humus  is  rendered  easy  of  decomposition 
by  the  repeated  ploughing  and  loosening  of  the  earth,  by  so  much  the  more 
easily  it  gives  itself  out  of  the  soil. 

When  a  more  excellent  grain  grows  after  an  unmanured  fallow  than  one  obtains 
with  such  fallow  preparation,  the  reason  of  this  is  partly  from  the  green  manure  which 
exists  there,  often,  indeed,  in  a  small  quantity,  and  in  a  great  measure  from  the 
dissolution  of  the  old  humus,  which,  by  the  repeated  upturning  of  the  soil  in  all 

fiarts  of  the  strata  of  the  earth,  is  brought  into  connexion  with  the  air,  and  heat  and 
ight.  But  we  always  observe  that  those  farms  which  lie  fallow  three  years,  and  the 
fallow  field  is  wholly  manured,  as  well  as  those  which  lie  fallow  twice  in  six  years, 
and  are  only  once  manured,  produce  less  in  proportion  to  the  manure  expended  on 
them  than  those  which,  with  like  amount  of  manure,  are  not  suffered  to  lie  idle  ;  from 
which  we  may  undoubtedly  conclude,  that  a  great  part  of  the  humus  evaporates 
uselessly  by  the  labor  on  the  fallow.  If  the  plants  are  hoed  and  hilled,  they  give, 
unquestionably,  a  greater  product  than  if  these  labors  of  culture  are  neglected,  since 
thus  the  dissolution  of  the  humus  is  aided,  and  it  is  brought  by  the  hilling  into  the 
nearest  vicinity  of  the  plants.  But  because  at  the  hilling  the  plants  are  in  their 
greatest  growth,  therefore  all  the  dissolved  nutriment  is  for  their  benefit  which  cannot 
be  in  the  case  of  a  fallow,  since  in  the  same  years  when  the  field  is  often  tilled  with 
the  greatest  care,  and  is  manured  already  in  the  summer,  the  seed  first  comes  into  it 
in  the  autumn,  and  all  the  manuring  substances  which  were  dissolved  in  the  first 
years,  can  only  in  a  small  part  be  sucked  in  by  the  tender  plants,  and  must  therefore 
evaporate  uselessly.  Fruit  that  is  hoed  gives  a  greater  product,  but  in  a  larger  pro- 
portion draws  nourishment  from  the  soil,  than  that  which  is  not  hoed ;  because  by  this 
loosening  a  great  part  of  the  humus  is  evaporated  before  it  is  sucked  in  by  the  roots 
of  the  plants.  The  proportionally  greater  need  of  manure  there  is  in  those  farms 
which  cultivate  much  hoed  fruit,  is  therefore  not  only  to  be  ascribed  to  the  larger 


64  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

crops  which  are  there  obtained,  but  in  part  also  to  the  earUer  and  more  rapid  evapo- 
ration of  the  humus. 

[On  the  subject  embraced  in  the  preceding  paragraphs,  Veit  observes :  "  By  the 
working  over  of  tlie  soil,  the  operation  of  atmospheric  influences  is  aided,  and  tiius 
its  activity  is  increased.  The  more  the  soil  is  cultivated,  and  the  more  the  nourish- 
ment of  plants  is  found  in  a  dissolved  state  in  the  pulverized  soil,  so  much  the  greatej- 
quantity  of  the  same  evaporates."  "  The  greatest  evaporation  of  material  for  nour- 
ishing plants  is  when,  long  before  the  sowing,  the  already-dissolved  stall-manure  is 
carried  out  and  ploughed  under,  and  the  so-manured  soil  is  worked  over,  by  repeated 
ploughing  and  harrowing,  till  the  time  of  sowing.  Then,  indeed,  the  manure  mixes 
itself  intimately  and  proportionately  with  the  pulverized  soil,  and  is  dissolved  in  a 
great  part  up  to  the  putting  in  the  seed,  and  the  seed  following  after  comes  to  the 
full  enjoyment  of  the  given  nutriment.  But  the  greatest  part  of  the  manure,  there- 
fore, falls  to  the  account  of  the  harvest,  whilst,  for  the  succeeding  crop,  there  usually 
remains  only  a  small  portion  of  the  manure  in  the  soil. 

"  This  method  those  observe  who  cultivate  on  the  three-field,  or  three-shil't  (Drei- 
feld)  system,  with  pure  fallows ;  who,  in  the  course  of  the  months  of  May  and  Jime, 
in  the  period  after  the  spring  seed-time  to  the  harvest,  bring  the  manure  produced  in 
the  winter  on  the  field  in  a  well-dissolved  state  for  the  next  winter  fruit,  plough  it 
under  and  work  over  the  field  many  times,  with  plough  and  harrow,  till  the  time  of 
sowing.  So,  exactly  at  that  time  when  the  atmospheric  powers  exert  the  most  activity 
in  the'^decomposition  of  the  organic  matter  in  the  soil,  will  the  greater  part  of  the 
manure  be  uselessly  evaporated,  until  the  seed-time  and  its  nourishment  begins.  Even 
of  the  old  power  of  the  soil  will  the  greater  part  be  consumed  during  the  warm  period 
of  the  year,  by  the  strong  working  over  of  the  open  and  unshadowed  soil :  then  the 
mutual  effects  of  the  substances  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  soil,  are  carried  on  espe- 
cially at  the  expense  of  the  organic  matter  of  the  soil,  the  dissolution  of  which,  by 
the  loosening  and  pulverizing  of  the  same,  will  be  yet  more  favored." 

"  The  more  the  climate  and  soil  lavors  the  putrefaction,  so  much  the  earlier  will  the 
organic  matter  be  decomposed,  and  in  so  much  a  shorter  time  will  the  power  of  the 
soil  be  exhausted.  In  a  warm  climate  in  a  warm  season— in  a  soil,  the  prevaiUng 
constituents  of  which  attract  and  retain  nuich  warmth,  or,  decomposing  the  same,  ope- 
rate on  the  organic  matter— in  an  iron-charged  ochrey  soil  (called  a  manure-exhaust- 
er)—in  loose  kinds  of  soil,  the  particles  of  which  are  easily  penetrated  by  liie  atmos- 
pheric influences,  or  which  is  dry,  with  a  gravelly  base,  letting  the  water  tiirough  it, 
&c.,  the  nutriment  of  plants  will  be  decomposed  lar  more  quickly,  and  parity  brought 
to  the  roots  of  the  plants,  partly  carried  off  by  evaporation,  or  downwards  by  the 
water,  and  hence  earlier  withdrawn  from  the  soil,  than  in  a  cold  or  moist  climate,  or  in 
a  wet  or  cold  summer,  in  tight,  moist  kinds  of  soil,  with  a  deeper  upper  layer,  or  with 
a  base  which  lets  the  water  through." 

"Might  the  amount  of  power  which  is  earlier  dissolved  in  an  active  than  a  less  ac- 
tive soil,  come  independently  to  the  benefit  of  the  plants  cultivated,  then  the  result  of 
the  same  would  be  greater  on  the  active  soil,  while  it  secures  the  same  interest  of 
manure-capital  in  a  shorter  time  than  the  less  active.  But,  on  the  one  hand,  the 
plants  cannot  take  up  the  great  quantity  of  manuring  substances  which  offer  them- 
selves to  them  during  the  period  of  vegetation;  and  on  the  other,  the  rapid  decompo- 
sition of  the  manure  goes  on  in  the  period  from  the  harvest  of  the  last  fruit  to  the 
sowing  of  the  next.  Of  an  equal  quantity  of  manure,  consequently,  a  far  greater  part 
v^ill  be  lost  on  an  active  soil  than  on  a  less  active  one.  We  then  give  the  necessity  of 
manure  a  shorter  period. 

"Besides,  it  is  an  evil  that  the  active,  dry,  heated  kinds  of  soil  usually  possess  less 
capacity  for  the  materials  of  the  principal  components  of  manures;  therefore,  on  the 
one  hand  they  consume  more  manure,  and  on  the  other,  yield  less  material  for  its 
production. 

"  In  less  active  kinds  of  soils,  if  indeed  the  manure  is  to  be  longer  retained,  it  must  be 
employed  in  an  undissolved  state,  in  order  to  favor  the  operation  of  atmospheric  influ- 
ences by  loosening  them.  Partly  from  this  and  partly  from  the  proportionate  work- 
ing over  of  the  tough,  cold  soil,  will  the  result  of  the  manuring  be  more  certain  than 
on  the  over-active  kinds  of  soil,  and  especially  the  success  of  the  usual  fodder-plants 
be  more  assured." 

Sprengel,  in  his  valuable  work  on  soils  before  quoted,  pp.  134,  135,  thus  charac- 
terizes them  in  respect  to  their  affinity  to  manures :  "  We  name  a  soil,  in  reference 
to  its  relation  to  manure,  consuming,  hungry,  or  needy. 

"A  soil  is  co7isw7m?2^  when  the  manure  is  soon  consumed  by  the  plants,  rapidly 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 


65 


changed  into  humus,  and  the  humic  acid  so  existing,  not  connected  with  a  base,  but 
by  water,  is  sucked  in  or  evaporates,  sutiering  a  more  extended  decomposition.  But 
it  is  also  consuming,  in  that  all  the  salts  already  found  or  first  existing  in  the  manure, 
are  soon  carried  deeper  by  water.  To  those  soils  which  are  consuming,  belong  the 
dry,  gravel,  and  sand  soils,  and  in  a  lesser  degree,  also,  the  chalk  and  lime-stone  soils. 
The  sand,  and  yet  more  the  gravel  soil,  loses  easiest  of  all  soils  the  bodies  existing 
by  the  rotting  of  the  manure,  and  which  serve  as  nutriment  for  plants,  and  therefore 
requires  an  often-repeated,  but  only  weak  manuring. 

"A  soil  is  hungry,  when  it  requires  much  manure  to  make  it  fruitful.  To  this  class 
belong  all  kinds  of  clay  soil  containing  much  iron,  especially  if  they  are  moist.  Sim- 
ilar kinds  of  soil  particularly  require  much  manure,  in  that  the  humic-acid  arising 
from  the  decomposition  of  the  manure  is  chemically  connected  with  much  alumine 
and  oxyde  of  iron,  and  that  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  decomposition  of  the  exist- 
ing humic  acid  salts  (humate  of  alumine  and  oxy-humate  of  iron),  the  humic  acid 
is  drawn  from  the  plants." 

On  p.  288  he  says :  '•  The  soil  of  the  earth  contains  water  in  two  different  forms, 
viz.,  in  a  chemical  combination,  as  water  of  crystaUization,  (as  hydratic  water) 
and  in  a  free  state,  or  as  capillary  water  (hygroscopic  water)." 

'•  The  quantity  of  water  chemically  combined,  depends  principally  on  the  quantity 
of  humic  acid,  humates,  free  alumine,  and  oxyde  of  iron,  as  these  bodies  contain  much 
water  in  chemical  union.  Besides,  also,  there  is  some  hydratic  water  in  silicious 
earth,  in  gypsum  and  many  other  salts.  It  is  in  the  highest  degree  probable  that 
plants  need  no  water  in  chemical  union,  since  their  roots  have  no  power  to  draw  out 
the  hydrates. 

"  The  power  of  the  earth  to  take  up  and  hold  back  more  or  less  water  mechanically 
in  its  pores,  is  of  the  greatest  importance  for  vegetation,  not  only  because  the  vyater 
in  and  of  itself  contains  the  life  of  the  plants,  but  especially,  also,  because  it  carries  to 
them  means  of  nutriment  from  the  soil.  In  the  luant  or  excess  of  moisture,  we  frequently 
must  seek  the  cause  of  the  unfruitfulness  of  the  soil.  The  ease  of  the  soil  to  hold  mois- 
ture, but  especially  the  decompositions  and  combinations  which  take  place,  are  of 
importance,  since  the  decomposition  of  the  organic  remains  may  be  presented  either 
from  the  excess  or  the  want  of  moisture. 

Professor  Schubler,  who  tried  many  experiments  as  to  the  power  of  the  earth 
with  reference  to  the  taking  up  water  in  its  pores,  found  the  following  results: 


A  cubic  foot  Paris 

Kinds  of  Earth. 

Power  according 
to  weight. 

of  moist  earth 

contains  of 

water, 

per  cent. 

lbs. 

Quartz  sand 

25 

27.3 

^> 

Lime        "      (aggregated  hme  and  sand) 

29 

37.8 

1^ 

Gypsum,  of  an  earthy  form    . 

27 

27.4 

5§ 

Carbonate  of  hme,  in  powdery  form  . 

85 

47.5 

^c^" 

"          "  magnesia    "          " 

256 

62.6 

££-  J^  -^ 

Stratified  clay 

40 

38.8 

0    3° 

Loamy         " 

50 

41.4 

P    g    «• 

Pure  gray   " 

70 

48  3 

'£> 

Humic  acid  .        .        .        . 

181 

50.1 

S    3 

Loam  soil 

52 

40.8 

°?  s 

"  The  humic  acid  has  therefore  the  greatest  power  after  magnesia ;  still  greater  is 
this  power  in  the  peaty  soil,  since  100  parts  by  weight  will  take  up  300  to  360  parts  by 
weight  of  water  in  its  pores,  if  it  has  been  first  artificially  dried  out." 

"By  many  experiments  it  has  been  ascertained,  that  most  soils  serving  for  the  culti- 
vation of  grain  possess  a  power  of  taking  water  into  their  pores  of  40  to  70  percent. 
If  this  power  is  much  less  or  greater  than  these,  the  soil  is  more  suitable  for  pines 
and  such  like  trees,  and  for  grass  cultivation. 

"  To  judge  of  the  value  of  a  soil  in  this  respect,  Ave  must  regard  the  climate,  the 
mean  quantity  of  rain  fallen,  and  the  temperature ;  as  the  same  soil  in  one  region  may 
be  fruitful,  while  in  yet  another,  under  different  circumstances,  it  is  not  so.  A  clay  soil, 
with  great  power  of  taking  water  into  its  pores  (very  porous),  is  desirable  in  a  ho^ 

9 


66  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

dry  climate,  while  it  is  worth  little  in  a  cold,  moist  climate.  A  loose,  sand-soi],  is  worth 
little  ill  a  dry.  hot  climate,  while  it  is  more  valuable  in  a  moist  one,"  &c. 

As  to  the  power  of  the  soil  to  retain  moisture,  he  says,  p.  291 :  "Next  to  the  power 
of  a  soil  for  takinof  up  water  into  its  pores,  the  greatest  importance  for  vegetation  is, 
how  long  it  will  hold  the  moisture  so  taken  up.  Many  soils  soon  lose  the  water  by 
evaporaSon :  others,  on  the  contrary,  very  slowly.  Sand,  lime-stone,  gravel,  and 
slaty  kinds  of  soils,  dry  up  the  quickest,  and  on  that  account  form  the  so-called  hot 
soils,  while  clay,  which  holds  water  long,  is  named  a  cold  soil." 

Professor  Schubler  found,  by  many  experiments  on  the  power  of  soils  to  retain 
water,  the  following  results : 

KINDS    OF    CARTH  EASE    OF    DRYING   UP. 


Of  100.0  parts  of  water  absorbed, ]Of  100.0  parts  of  water  absorbed, 
was  evaporated  at  15"  Reaumur  90.0  parts  evaporated  at  15'  Reau- 


=  67"  Far.  in  4  hours. 


Q,uartz  sand        .        .        .        . 

Lime        "       .        .        .        . 

Gypsum  in  earthy  form 

Stratified  clay 

Loamy        "       .        .        .        . 

Pure  gray   "    . 

Carbonate  of  Ume  in  a  fine  state 

"        '•    magnesia  "       " 
Humic  acid 
Loamy  soil       .... 


88.4  parts. 

75.9 

(( 

7L7 

(( 

52.0 

(( 

45.7 

c 

31.9 

u 

28.0 

(I 

10.8 

(C 

20.5 

(( 

32.0 

(( 

mur  =  67°  Far.  in 


Hours. 

Min. 

4 

4 

4 

44 

5 

1 

6 

65 

7 

52 

11 

17 

12 

51 

33 

20 

17 

33 

11 

15 

"  On  the  drying  up  of  the  deep  layers  of  the  soil  in  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  the  dif- 
ferent looseness  or  consistency  of  the  upper  soil,  has  also  an  important  influence  ;  the 
Jine  clay,  for  example,  at  2  inches  thickness  strata,  has  a  moist  surface  long  after  the 
surface  of  the  peaty  soil  at  the  same  depth  is  dried  up. 

The  power  of  the  soil  to  retain  water  in  all  depends  on  :  1,  The  quality  of  the  sub- 
soil; 2,  The  quality  of  the  upper  soil ;  3.  The  degree  of  warmth  by  the  sun  ;  4,  The 
atmospheric  pressure,  and  the  degree  of  the  change  of  the  atmosphere.  The  atmos- 
pheric pressure  has  great  influence  on  the  evaporation  ;  and  on  this  account  a  soil 
dries  up  so  much  the  more  rapidly,  by  how  much  higher  it  lies,  and  the  more  it  is 
struck  by  the  wind,  especially  the  east  wind. 

"  If  a  soil  contains  many  salts  which  attract  moisture  from  the  air,  this  has  great 
influence  also  on  the  evaporation,  as  these  by  night  absorb  again  the  water 
evaporated." 

Respecting  the  property  of  the  earth  to  attract  moisture  from  the  atmosphere,  he 
also  observes,  p.  294 : 

"  Besides  quartz-sand,  all  the  earths  which  constitute  the  soil  have  the  property, 
BO  far  as  they  are  dried  to  a  certain  degree,  more  or  less  to  attract  moisture  from 
the  air,  which  is  naturally  of  high  importance  for  the  growth  of  plants.  In  the 
strongest  degree,  generally,  this  affinity  for  moisture  in  the  atmosphere  shows  itself 
in  the  clay  soil,  especially  if  it  contains  much  humus ;  since  these  bodies,  of  all  the 
constituent  parts  of  the  soil,  attract  the  most  moisture  from  the  air ;  the  kinds  of  humus 
indeed  are  somewhat  differently  proportioned  ;  the  heath-humus,  for  example,  be- 
cause it  contains  so  much  carbonized  humus  (or  humic  carbon)  and  resinous  wax, 
attracts  not  so  much  moisture  from  the  air  as  the  mellow  humus,  which  in  a  great 
measure  consists  of  humates  or  salts  of  humic  acid. 

"All  earths  attract  more  moisture  by  night  than  by  day ;  they  also  give  back,  through 
evaporation  in  the  sun-light  the  moisture  absorbed  by  night. 

"  From  the  capacity  of  the  soil  to  attract  more  or  less  moisture  from  the  air,  we 
might  likewise  form  a  conclusion  as  to  the  degree  of  its  fertility,  yet  we  can  thereby 
come  to  no  certain  result,  as  a  leaner  clay  soil  absorbs  more  moisture  than  a  richer 
loam  soil. 

"  In  order  to  ascertain  hov;  much  moisture  one  kind  of  soil  will  absorb  from  the  air, 
we  laid  a  certain  quantity  of  finely  pulverized  and  fully  dried  earth  on  a  plate,  which 
was  put  under  a  glass  bell  made  water-tight  and  left  it  to  lie  there  12,  24,  to  43 
hours,  in  a  moderate  temperature  (12°  to  15"  Reaumur,  =59°  to  about  67°  Far.)  and 
then  weighed  it  The  addition  of  weight  exhibits  the  quantity  absorbed  in  watery 
vapor." 


3 

3 

3 

1 

1 

1 

31 

35 

35 

76 

80 

82 

26 

28 

28 

30 

34 

35 

42 

48 

49 

97 

110 

120 

22 

23 

23 

ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  67 

Here  also  we  are  reminded  of  Professor  Schubler's  numerous  experiments  of  tliis 
kind.     He  found  the  following  results : 

100  parts  in  weight  of  dry  earth  spread  on  a  pane 
beneath  a  glass  bell,  water-tight,  absorbed  in 
Kinds  of  earth.  12  hours,      24  hours,      48  hours,      72  hours, 

(iuiirtz-sand, 0  parts.  0  parts.  0  parts.  0  parts. 

Lime-sand, 2 

Gypsum  of  earthy  form.  .  .  .1 
Carbonate  of  hme,  in  the  form  of  powder,  26 
Carbonate  of  magnesia,  in  powder,  69 

Potters'  clay, 21 

Loamy  clay, 25 

Pure  gray  clay,         ....        37 

Humic  acid, 80 

Plough-land,  loam  soil,     ...         16 

"  As  to  gypsum,  we  see  that  it  attracts  scarcely  no  water  from  the  air.  But  it  is  usu- 
ally believed  that  gypsum,  employed  as  a  manure,  especially  promotes  vegetation,  in 
that  it  attracts  moisture  from  the  air,  which  it  transmits  to  plants.  Thus,  theories 
which  are  written  down,  often  fall  to  nothing  when  tested  by  experiment." 

Speaking  of  the  absorption  of  oxygen  from  the  air,  to  which  acid  he  attributes  an 
important  part  in  vegetation,  he  remarks,  p.  296,  that  ''  the  working  over  of  the  soil 
has  this  benefit,  that  thereby  new  strata  of  the  earth  always  come  in  connexion  with 
the  air,  and  thus  absorii  much  oxygen,  by  which  they  are  more  and  more  fertilized. 
Other  gases  also,  as  carbonic  acid,  nitrogen,  hydrogen,  are  absorbed."  The  decrease 
of  the  volume  of  different  earths,  by  being  dried.  Professor  Schubler  found  to  be 
the  following : 

1000  cubic  lines  1000  parts  by  weight 

Kinds  of  Earth.  diminution  of  diminished  there- 

volume  in  fore  in  its  volume 

auartz  sand,        ....  0— C.  L.                                 0— 

Potters'  clay,    .                 .        ,  940       "                                  60 

Loamy  clay,         ....  911        "                                  89 

Pure  gray  clay,        ...  817        «  183 

Humic  acid,          ....  800        "  200 

Carbonate  of  lime,  as  powder,  950       '♦                                  50 

Plough-land  loam  soil,         .        .  880        "  120 

From  this  table  it  is  evident  that  the  degree  of  the  decrease  of  the  volume  of  the 
earth  stood  in  no  direct  proportion  with  its  power  of  retaining  water." 

"  The  property  of  some  kinds  of  the  soil,  especially  marl,  by  moisture  and  then  by 
being  dried  again,  to  fall  into  small  pieces  and  become  crumbly,  is  sufficiently  explained 
by  the  great  difference  of  the  decrease  of  their  volumes,  which  the  constituents  of 
the  soil  undergo,  as  clay,  lime,  humus,  &c. ;  since,  be  the  soil  or  marl  ever  so  inti- 
mately mingled,  yet  their  constituent  parts  always  only  lie  near  together.  But  the 
particular  parts  change  by  the  shrinking  together,  in  different  proportions,  of  their 
volumes,  which  naturally  produces  their  separation,  and  soon  their  decomposition." 

"According  to  Schubler's  experiments  (see  Sprengel,  p.  301)  the  following  are 
the  results  as  to  the  capacity  of  different  earths  to  retain  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time 
the  warmth  they  have  received : 

Po 

Kinds  of  Earth. 

Limestone  sand,        .... 

duartz  sand, 

Gypsum  earth,  .... 

Potters'  clay, 

Loamy  clay 

Pure  gray  clay,  .... 

Ciirbonate  of  magnesia  finely  powdered, 
Carbonate  of  lime  "  " 

Humic  acid, 

Plough-land  loam  soil, 

"  Hence  it  appears  that  the  sandy  kinds  possess  tlie  orreatest  power  of  retaining 
warmth,  if  the  earths  are  compared  in  equal  quantities.    Have  the  sandy  soils  reached 


verof  retaining  warmth, 

Length  c 

if  the  time  which  30 

that  of  limestone  sand 

cubic  inches  of  earth  need. 

being  fixed  at  100.0. 

at  a  te 

mperature  of  13°  R. 

=  62  Far.  to 

cool  from  50" 

=  145F  tol7«R.=: 

70  Far. 

100.0 

in  3  hours 

,30 

min. 

95.6 

3 

u 

20 

u 

73.8 

2 

(( 

34 

(( 

76.9 

2 

u 

41 

u 

71.8 

2 

a 

30 

c 

66.7 

2 

u 

19 

(( 

38.0 

1 

(C 

20 

C( 

61.0 

2 

({ 

10 

(C 

49.0 

1 

(( 

43 

(C 

70.1 

2 

u 

27 

(C 

68  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

a  certain  temperature,  they  retain  it  considerably  longer  than  most  other  kinds  of 
soil.     The  less  amount  of  moisture  which  they  retain  is  the  ground  wherefore  they- 
grow  cold  so  little. 

"  Humus,  next  to  carbonate  of  magnesia,  has  the  least  power  of  retaining  warmth. 
A  moist  soil,  rich  in  humus,  gradually  warms  itself  in  the  sun,  because  the  evapora- 
ting water  is  chemically  combined  with  much  warmth.  Dry  soils,  very  rich  in  humus, 
waTm  themselves  on  this  account  gradually;  because,  on  account  of  their  great 
porosity,  they  hold  shut  up  much  air,  and  are  the  poorest  conductors  of  heat.  From 
Schubler's  experiments  we  obtain  the  following  conclusion  :  the  mote  mass  the  earth 
possesses  in  the  same  volume,  or  the  greater  is  its  absolute  weight,  so  much  the 
greater  generally  is  its  retentive  power  for  heat ;  so  that  from  the  absolute  weight  of 
an  earth  we  can  judge  with  tolerable  accuracy  as  to  its  greater  or  less  power  of 
retaining  heat." — Tr.] 

8.  All  plants  draw  humus  from  the  soil  in  proportion  to  the  length  of 
time  they  remain  in  the  same. 

Winter-wheat,  therefore,  for  an  equal  quantity  of  product,  requires  more  humus 
than  barley,  and  oats  more  than  buckwheat:  vetches  or  tares  suck  in  more  humus 
when  they  are  left  to  ripen  than  when  they  are  mowed  while  green.  That  the  peren- 
nial increase  of  the  soil  be  not  weakened,  the  dying  portions  of  the  plants  must  be 
left  to  be  incorporated  in  the  soil ;  otherwise,  the  increase  is  arrested.  If  one,  there- 
fore, takes  away  the  fallen  leaves,  together  with  the  fruit,  from  young  groves,  and 
applies  it  in  the  stalls  as  litter,  the  trees  sicken,  remain  crippled,  and  grow  but  poorly. 

[Veit,  in  treating  of  the  exhaustion  of  the  power  of  the  soil  according  to  the 
properties  of  plants,  considers  the  subject  in  reference  to  the  nourishing  mass  of  their 
products ;  the  thicker  or  thinner  state  of  the  fruit ;  the  quality  of  the  leaves  and  stalks ; 
the  quality  of  their  roots ;  the  amount  of  the  organic  mass  remaining  in  the  soil  after 
the  harvest ;  the  duration  of  vegetation,  and  the  degree  of  the  ripeness  of  the  fruits. 

He  remarks ;  "  the  greater  the  nourishing  mass  of  a  plant,  so  much  the  greater, 
other  things  being  equal,  is  its  need  of  nourishment.  '  The  exhausting  power  of 
different  grains,  according  to  their  volume,'  Thaer  says,  '  are  in  the  following  pro- 
portion :  wheat  13,  rye  10,  barley  7,  oats  5.'  The  longer  a  plant  takes  from  the 
soil,  from  the  time  of  the  sowing  the  seed  till  the  time  of  its  ripening,  so  much  the 
more  nourishment  will  it  draw  to  itself,  other  things  being  equal.  Thus  the  winter- 
fruits  consume  more  power  of  the  soil  than  the  summer-fruits  of  the  same  species. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  exhaustion  of  powers  is  so  much  die  smaller,  the  shorter  the 
period  of  the  vegetation  of  a  plant  is,  unless  other  properties  produce  an  exception. 
The  period  of  the  vegetation  of  different  plants  cultivated  on  the  farm  vary  : 

"  For  buckwheat,  summer  rape,  small  maize,  flax  and  white  turnips.  12  to  15  weeks. 

"  For  summer-rye,  early-ripe  oats,  spring  barley,  millet  and  hemp,  from  16  to  17 
weeks. 

"  For  summer-wheat,  late-ripe  oats,  larger  barley,  lentils,  transplanted  beets,  maize, 
early-ripe  turnips,  about  18  weeks. 

"  For  potatoes,  artichokes,  late-ripe  turnips,  beets,  &c.,  22  to  24  weeks. 

"  Winter  rape-seed  vegetables  in  the  autumn  of  the  seed-year,  at  least  10  weeks, 
and  in  the  following  year  of  its  fruit  about  18  weeks  ;  together,  therefore,  28  weeks. 

"  Winter  barley,  winter  speltz,  winter  wheat  and  winter  rye,  ripen  indeed  3  weeks 
later  than  winter  rape,  but  they  are  also  sowed  as  much  later,  and  have,  therefore, 
with  themselves  an  equally  long  period  of  vegetation." — Tr.] 

9.  The  greater  the  organic  product  which  plants  produce  is,  the  greater 
also  is  the  weight  of  the  humus  which  they  employ  for  this  purpose. 

Rich  harvests  require  rich  manure.  If  a  person  wishes  always  to  raise  on  the  same 
soil,  hemp,  maize,  or  head-cabbage,  in  equal  quantity,  it  must  every  year  be  richly 
manured.  If  he  omits  to  do  this,  the  product  of^  the  second  year  is  very  considerably 
less  ;  a  proof  that  the  great  production  of  the  first  year  has  appropriated  the  greatest 
part  of  the  humus,  and  that  the  small  quantity  of  the  same  soluble  in  the  second  year, 
IS  no  longer  sufficient  for  as  great  production. 

10.  Plants  that  are  taken  from  the  fields  earlier  than  their  grain  or  fruit 
is  developed,  as  well  in  an  absolute  as  in  a  relative  respect,  need  less  humus 
than  those  which  not  only  produce  leaves  and  stalks,  but  also  flowers  and 
fruit. 


ECONOMY   OF  FARMING.  69 

If  some  suppose  that  plants  for  the  production  of  leaves  and  stalks  need  only  air 
and  water,  they  may  convince  themselves  of  the  contrary  in  gardens  and  fields  if 
they  will  observe  salad,  cabbage  and  other  leguminous  plants,  that  are  planted  partly 
in  manured  and  partly  in  exhausted  beds.  The  consumption  of  manure  of  green 
plants  artd  those  lipe  tor  gathering  is  very  different,  as  we  observe  by  the  dillerent 
power  which  the  fields  exert  in  case  half  of  the  field — when  the  whole  is  sown  with 
vetches,  rye,  or  any  other  plants — is  mowed  green  and  the  other  half  suffered  to 
ripen.  The  cause  of  this  appearance  lies  in  part  in  the  longer  time  which  the  plants 
of  the  last  half  remain  in  the  field,  of  which  we  have  already  spoken  (8) ;  in  part  it 
must  be  ascribed  to  the  different  necessity  of  organic  nutriment  which  the  plants  need 
for  tlie  formation  of  their  different  parts ;  and  if  they  require  less  humus  for  the 
formation  of  leaves  and  stalks,  yet  more  is  necessary  for  the  formation  of  the  grain ; 
thereJbre,  if  we  see  in  poor,  yet  not  wholly  exhausted  fields,  in  favorable  weather,  that 
the  crops  are  often  as  large  as  in  stronger  fields,  this  shows  the  dependence  on  the 
humus  for  the  formation  of  the  grains,  which  under  such  circumstances  are  less 
numerous  and  smaller  in  size.  Peas  in  poor  fields  grow  in  moister  and  warmer 
weather,  always  showy  enough  indeed,  as  to  stalks  and  leaves,  but  the  pods  remain 
mostly  empty.  Finally,  the  greater  exhaustion  of  the  soil  by  the  production  of  grain, 
especially  ot  the  griiss  kind  of  plants,  must  be  sought  herein  that  the  leaves  begin 
to  dry  up  as  soon  as  the  blossoming  is  over,  and  are  unfitted  for  the  absorption  of  air 
and  vaporous  nutriment  when  the  grain  is  formed,  which  in  a  great  degree  must  be 
produced  by  the  nourishment  mounting  from  the  roots  through  the  stalk. 

1  1.  Plants  do  not  require  for  that  which  they  have  produced  from  the 
6eld,  and  which  has  been  taken  away  from  thence,  an  equal  addition  of 
manure  ;  because  they  possess  the  power  to  appropriate  organic  matter  in 
unequal  degree,  and  the  quantity  of  organic  remains  which  they  leave  in 
the  fields,  as  decaying  leaves  and  roots,  is  very  different. 

12.  The  pod-bearing  vegetables  need  generally  less  manure  than  the 
plants  of  a  grass  kind  ;  for,  in  a  given  soil,  and  in  a  given  time,  they  pro- 
duce more  organic  matter  than  do  the  latter  ;  because  they  absorb  a  greater 
quantity  of  atmospheric  and  mineral  substances. 

We  have  already  proved  the  correctness  of  this  opinion  in  the  Special  Culture  of 
Plants    §  III.  B.  p.  76),  and  refer  to  those  remarks. 

[The  observations  to  which  our  Author  here  refers  are  the  following:  "Plants  can 
take  so  njuch  the  more  moisture  from  the  air  as  the  surfece  of  their  leaves  collectively 
is  greater,  or  as  they  have  more  absorbing  vessels,  or  hair  upon  their  surface.  They 
dry  less  easily  the  thicker  their  leaves  are.  and  the  moisture  shut  up  between  them  is 
more  slimy  or  viscous ;  and  if  the  plants  are  connected  with  many  thick  or  strongly- 
haired  leaves  and  roots  pressing  deep  into  the  soil,  they  all  of  them  must  mostly 
draw  a  great  part  of  their  nourishment  from  the  air,  and  also  resist  dryness. 

"The  pod-boaring  plants  have  these  properties  in  a  higher  degree  in  tliemselves  than 
the  grasses.  Those  with  a  small  root  vetches,  peas  lentils  and  beans,  form  them- 
selves very  perfectly,  therefore,  in  a  moist  climate  and  an  easy  soil,  with  litde  manure ; 
but  in  a  dry  climate  their  roots  must  be  protected  by  a  close  soil  before  drying  up,  or 
by  a  greater  quantity  of  nutriment  in  the  soil,  obtain  more  physical  power.  Those 
with  deep,  penetrating  roots,  clover,  sainfoin,  luzerne,  endure  in  the  same  circum- 
stances a  warmer  climate,  and  greater  dryness  than  if  the  soil  is  more  clayey  and  the 
plants  older  and  the  roots  penetrate  deeper  into  the  soil.  The  extraordinary  great 
organic  production  of  this  last  plant  cannot  possibly  be  ascribed  only  to  the  humus 
existing  in  the  soil ;  since,  were  it  possible  that  the  same  field,  if  it  were  sown  with 
grain,  should  produce  in  a  course  of  4  years  some  150  cwt.  of  grain  and  straw,  iC  it 
bears  luzerne.  it  produces  more  than  double,  often  three  times  this  weight  in  dry 
leaves  and  stalks:  and  how  can  we  explain  the  luxuriant  growth  of  the  white  horse- 
bean,  I  lip!  n  IIS  alhus,  in  a  poor  and  light  soil,  unless  we  suppose  that  these  plants,  by 
means  of  tht  ir  inany  large,  thick  and  heavy  leaves,  suck  a  great  part  of  their 
nourisliment  from  the  air,  and  that  their  long  tapering  (pfahlformig)  roots,  running 
into  the  soil,  with  small  horizontal  sucker  roots,  appear  to  be  designed  more  to  suck 
in  water  in  the  depth  of  the  soil,  and  to  protect  the  plants  before  drying  up,  than  to 
suy)^"'ly  them  with  nourishment? 

"Tiic  culture  of  the  pod-bearing  plants,  therefore, exhausts  the  soil  less;  and  because 


70  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

they  leave  behind  in  the  soil  much  organic  matter — in  their  leaves  falling  off  at  the 
season  of  fruit — and  frequently  quite  large  roots ;  and  further,  their  thick  condition 
sets  the  field  fully  in  the  shade,  and  hinders  the  coming  up  of  weeds  and  the  useless 
evaporation  of  the  humus— therefore  the  following  fruit  of  that  time  succeeds  better 
than  after  grass-kind  of  grain  or  knob  and  root-plants." — Tr.] 

13.  A  field,  then,  requires  for  the  production  of  all  kinds  of  fruits  in  a 
course  of  years,  so  much  the  less  manure,  according  to  the  frequency  with 
which  pod-bearing  plants,  with  thick  roots,  are  cultivated  with  culmiferous 
fruits. 

The  culture  of  clover,  luzerne  and  sainfoin,  is  therefore  of  the  greatest  conse- 
quence, because  they  not  only  produce  a  very  great  proportionate  quantity  of  fodder, 
but  also  abstract  but  little  humus  from  the  soil,  and  by  their  remaining  roots  and 
leaves  decaying,  they  leave  in  the  soil  a  great  amount  of  organic  matter  which  must 
likewise  be  reckoned  as  entire  manure  with  stall-manure. 

14.  Because  the  herbaceous  plants  generally  yield  a  larger  organic  pro- 
duct than  the  weight  of  the  humus  which  they  absorb  from  the  soil  during 
their  growth  :  hence  it  is  possible  to  keep  the  field  in  the  same  state  of 
fruitfulness  if  we  do  not  bring  back  again  a  part  of  the  product  on  the  same. 

If  plants  lived  only  on  organic  matter,  then  must  we,  for  that  which  we  produce 
from  the  fields  and  have  not  returned  in  manure,  add  vegetables  grown  elsewhere 
to  the  same  matter,  whereby  a  gradual  disappearance  of  vegetation  would  be 
effected. 

15.  The  products  of  our  fields  are  taken  away  from  the  same,  either  in 
whole  or  part. 

16.  Those  products  are  wholly  taken  away  which  yield  no  manure  on 
the  farm  ;  those  in  part  from  those  fields  to  which  is  restored  more  or  less 
again  in  manure  on  the  same. 

The  grain-kernels,  plants  for  commerce,  &-c.,  which  we  sell  from  the  farm,  are  wholly 
taken  from  the  field.  But  the  grain  that  we  consume  on  the  farm  itself,  and  the  plants 
for  fodder,  with  which  we  support  our  beasts,  are  only  so  far  taken  from  the  fields  as 
a  part  of  it  is  changed  into  animal  substance,  during  the  processes  of  digestion,  or  is 
dissipated  by  means  of  the  putrid  fermentation. 

17.  To  keep  the  fields  in  the  same  state  of  fertility,  there  must  be  so  much 
manure  restored  that  the  mass  of  the  humus  may  remain  the  same  in  a 
course  of  years. 

18.  But  in  order  to  return  to  the  fields  a  quantity  of  manure  propor- 
tioned to  their  needs,  it  is  necessary  to  know  in  what  proportion  the  plants 
need  humus  ;  or  much  more  how  the  quantity  of  the  produ3t  Is  proportioned 
to  the  consumption  of  the  manuring  substance  in  the  soil  ;  and  how  much 
they  lose  in  substance  consumed  out  of  the  field  as  fodder,  and  by  putre- 
faction. 

19.  What  we  take  away  from  the  fields  in  any  veg3table  products,  must 
be  restored  again  with  other  organic  products,  in  the  same  degree  as  we 
have  taken  away  more  r'lan  the  increase  which  the  plants  have  appropri- 
ated to  themselves  in  inorganic  matter. 

20.  But  because  plants  are  of  different  natures,  and  the  power  to  con- 
vert inorganic  matter  into  organic  is  not  the  same  with  all  ;  and  because 
the  same  plai't^  in  different  periods  of  their  growth  herein  vary,  therefore 
the  amount  which  must  be  restored  for  that  which  is  taken,  is  not  always 
alike. 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.       '  71 

21.  Meadows  which  are  artificially  watered,  or  are  frequently  overflowed^ 
need  for  their  product  no  additional  manure,  because  they  are  kept  up  by 
the  slime  which  is  contained  in  the  water.  But  if  they  are  neither  watered 
nor  overflowed,  then  must  a  part  of  their  product  be  restored  to  them  if 
their  productiveness  is  to  be  kept  uniform. 

If  on  dry  meadows  which  from  no  quarter  possess  a  remarkable  supply  of  manur- 
ing substances,  one  obtains  a  yearly  crop,  though  often  a  small  one  ;  yet  we  need 
not  hence  beUeve  tint  the  growing  plants  hve  only  on  air  and  water,  and  from  these 
two  sources  only  can  produce  organic  production ;  they  derive  nourishment  from 
overflows,  to  wliich  many  years  they  have  been  exposed,  from  the  droppings  of 
beasts,  which  in  the  autumn,  and  frequently  in  the  spring,  pasture  on  them  ;  and  from 
the  bodies  of  insects  and  worms  which  die  and  are  decomposed  within  reach  of  their 
roots.  Were  it  possible  to  shut  off  from  the  meadows  these  sources  of  nourishment, 
then  could  they  yield  such  an  amount  of  organic  products  only  when  it  was  not 
taken  from  them,  and  the  leaves  falling  off  rotted  on  the  soil.  To  make  hay  on  such 
meadows,  and  take  it  away,  would  be  to  destroy  the  proportion  between  the  quantity 
of  the  organic  product  obtained  from  air  and  water,  and  that  which  is  not  returned 
again  to  the  same  soil,  and  is  elsewhere  employed  as  hay ;  the  consequence  of  which 
would  be,  that  in  a  few  years  all  the  plants  would  pine  away,  and  the  meadow  would 
become  scarcely  better  than  a  lean  pasture. 

Whoever  manures  not  his  dry  meadows,  must  content  himself  with  their  inconstant 
but  always  small  product ;  but  whoever  wishes  to  obtain  a  more  steady,  and  alwayt> 
a  greater  product,  must  take  back  to  them,  from  time  to  time,  manuring  substances; 
and  the  greater  and  more  efficacious  the  quantity  of  the  same  is,  the  richer  also  w4!l 
the  product  be  which  they  will  yield,  as  the  manured  mountain-meadows  show. 

22.  The  pod-bearing  plants,  perennials,  derive  only  half  of  their  dry 
products  from  the  humus  ;  the  other  they  owe  to  the  inorganic  matter,  and 
since  the  mass  of  the  roots  of  clover,  of  luzerne,  and  sainfoin,  increase 
yearly  about  one  fourth  part  of  the  product  of  their  leaves  ;  hence  is  clear, 
the  great  importance  which  these  plants  hold  in  agriculture,  as  they  yield  so 
great  products,  and  reduce  the  soil  so  little. 

This  opinion  is  by  no  means  arbitrary,  since  a  well-sown  field  of  luzerne,  in  a  warm 
climate,  yields  in  a  course  of  five  years,  twice  as  much  in  dry  fodder,  as  has  been  in- 
troduced of  earlier  dried  substance  by  means  of  manure.  Suppose  there  has  been 
carried  on  to  it  in  the  time  of  sowing.  300  cwt.  of  stall-manure  which  consists  of  150 
cwt.  of  hay  and  straw,  for  I  yoke  CI. 422  acres),  and  later  twice,  each  time,  5  cwt  of 
gypsum  hns  been  used;  that  the  harvest  has  been  in  5  years  294  cwt.  of  hay;  in 
the  first  year  34 ;  in  the  four  following,  always  65  cwt.  If  now  we  plough  up  sach  a 
field  of  luzerne,  and  all  the  seeds  cast  in  grow  as  luxuriantly  from  the  decaying  great 
roots  as  if  they  were  freshly  manured,  there  could  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  correct- 
ness of  this  conclusion.  Because  the  clover  usually  remains  in  the  soil  only  two 
years,  its  roots  are  not  as  important  as  those  of  luzerne,  but  they  are  always  sufficient  to 
affect  one  quarter  of  the  usual  manuring  substances  from  the  stall.  If  the  field  of  clover 
is  thick  set,  and  the  growth  of  the  plants  has  been  fiivored  by  the  weather,  then  the 
fre?h  roots  of  clover  on  an  average  of  many  experiments  bear  140  cwt.,  and  their 
effect  cannot  be  less  than  half  as  great  a  weight  of  manure  would  be.  Where 
the  clover  is  thinner  and  low,  the  crop  which  follows  it  is  then  so  much  the  worse. 

The  causes  why  fruits  following  clover  so  distinguish  themselves  with  respect  to 
their  growth  and  product,  must  in  a  slight  degree  be  ascribed  to  the  leaves  which  have 
fallen  off  but  in  a  crreat  measure  to  the  roots  remaining  in  the  soil.  The  experi- 
ments Avhich  Prof.  KOrte  tried  on  this  subject  in  1835,  show,  that  on  an  extent  of  a 
Vienna  yoke  ( 1.422  acres),  in  a  part  of  a  clover  field  where  gypsum  was  used,  366, 
and  on  apart  where  it  was  not  used.  270  cwt.  of  fresh  roots  were  contained ;  in  the  ex- 
periments which  I  tried  in  August  1837,  one  yoke  of  moderately  stocked  clover  gave 
only  1 17  cwt.  of  roots,  and  a  friend  of  mine  found  in  the  same  month,  per  yoke,  87, 124, 
and  296  cwt,  according  as  the  clover  was  more  or  less  thickly  set. 

How  KoRTE  could  obtain  from  clover  which  was  sowed  in  the  year  1834  with 
barley,  in  June  of  the  following  year  so  great  a  mass  of  roots,  I  must  leave  to  be 
determined  j  but  even  in  the  case  where  only  140  cwt  of  roots  per  yoke  continue  ia 


72  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

the  earth,  yet  this  wouli  he  equal  to  the  third  part  ofmanuring  it  with  stall-manure  ; 
and  probably  yet  higher,  since  the  wheat,  alter  a  thick  grown  crop  of  clover,  bears  a 
greater  product  than  if  a  similar  field,  but  badly  stocked  with  clover,  was  manured 
with  100  cvvt.  of  stall-manure.  That  all  the  clover  roots  may  benefit  the  following 
crop,  the  field  mast  be  ploughed  up  deep  with  a  well-set  cutting-plough,  because 
otherwise  the  harrow  tears  up  or  merely  exposes  too  many  roots. 

23.  The  annual  pod-bearing  plants  with  small  roots,  if  they  are  mowed 
before  the  formation  of  the  kernels,  must  be  considered  equal  to  the  peren- 
nials in  respect  to  their  need  of  humus  ;  but  the  roots  which  they  leave  in 
the  soil  are  too  insignificant  to  be  regarded. 

I  see  no  sufficient  reason  why  vetches  and  peas,  if  they  should  be  mowed  for  fodder, 
and  only  occupy  the  soil  for  a  short  time,  should  draw  away  to  themselves  more 
humus  than  clover  and  luzerne.  That  vetches  only  slightly  take  away  from  the  soil, 
and  that  grain,  which  follows  after  vetches  that  have  been  manured  and  mowed 
while  green,  is  only  a  little  inferior  to  that  which  is  fresh  manured,  is  universal  expe- 
rience. But  the  roots  of  peas  and  vetches  are  so  small  that  they  scarcely  deserve 
mention  in  the  estimate  of  manure ;  the  roots  of  lentils  and  beans  must  be  more 
regarded. 

24.  If  the  pod-bearing  plants  produce  ripe  grains,  they  need  for  the  for- 
mation of  the  same  more  manure;  and  we  must  bring  the  whole  product 
of  the  kernels  into  the  estimate  of  manure. 

Every  one  knows  that  those  fields  which  have  borne  ripe  vetches,  compared  with 
others  where  they  were  mowed  in  a  green  state,  show  themselves  more  enfeebled  in 
proportion. 

25.  Should  the  grain  plants  of  the  grass-kind  be  cut  before  the  kernelling, 
then  we  must  ascribe  the  formation  of  f  of  the  whole  product  to  the  humus, 
and  only  f  to  the  unorganized  matter. 

I  allow  that  these  statements  of  particular  proportions  appear  arbitrary,  because 
they  are  grounded  on  no  definite  experience,  but  are  only  drawn  from  the  estimate 
of  the  quantity  of  manure  for  the  production  of  rtie  bodies  of  the  plants.  But  if  we 
take  for  granted  that  plants  usually  appropriate  inorganic  matter,  and  that  the  grass- 
xind  of  plants  can  do  this  in  a  less  degree  than  the  pod-bearing  ones,  so  only  can  the 
relative  amount  of  the  necessity  of  organic  and  inorganic  matter  in  these  two  classes 
of  plants  be  a  matter  of  doubt.  We  have  reckoned  of  the  pod-bearing  plants,  should 
they  be  cut  green,  only  one  half  of  their  product  to  the  humus;  and  if  we  here  bring 
f-  of  the  same  into  the  account,  yet  we  hold  them  not  to  be  too  much  lessened  and 
the  more  so  since  these  suppositions  are  placed  in  correct  proportions  in  the  following 
paragraphs. 

26.  If  the  grass-kind  of  grain-plants  are  cut  in  a  ripe  state,  their  whole 
product  in  kernels  and  straw,  must  likewise  be  set  down  for  the  diminution 
of  the  humus  in  the  soil. 

The  leaves  drying  up  in  a  great  degree  are  the  special  cause  that  the  whole  plant 
is  henceforth  nourished  only  by  the  roots.  The  greater  absorption  of  humus  by  the 
roots,  and  its  large  evaporation  from  the  soil  which  is  less  shadowed,  than  with  the 
husk-bearing  plants  or  vegetables,  are  the  principal  causes  why  the  soil  is  so  much 
exhausted  by  the  culture  of  the  grass-kind  of  plants.  So,  that  there  is  always  a 
surplus  of  product  to  be  taken  into  the  account  compared  with  the  quantity  of  humus 
employed,  which  at  a  close  estimate  probably  exceeds  10  percent.,  cannot  be  doubted ; 
but  I  have  purposely  overlooked  it,  because  on  the  other  side  I  have  not  brought  into 
the  estimate  the  loss  wliich  the  manuring  substances  undergo,  partly  in  the  bodies  of 
beasts  which  are  fed  upon  them,  partly  during  the  processes  of  fermentation. 

[  Veit  observes:  "The  grain  fruits  with  their  roots  run  through  the  whole  upper 
strata,  and  appropriate  to  themselves  all  the  store  of  dissolved  humus  there  existing. 
After  the  time  of  kernelling.  the  leaves  dry  up;  therefore  the  atmosphere  operates  on 
the  uncovered  soil,  draws  out  its  moisture,  forms  a  crust,  enlivens  the  weeds,  and 
ripens  them."; 

On  the  exhausting  power  of  the  different  grains,  Thaer  remarks,  that  "according 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  73 

to  the  analysis  ofEiNHOFF,  they  rank  in  the  possession  of  nutritions  matter,  as  follows : 
Wheat  78  per  cent. ;  rye,  70  ;  barley  63  to  70  per  cent  ;  oais.  58  per  cent. :  and  con- 
sequently the  exhausting  powers  of  these  grains  are,  wlieat,  13;  rye,  10;  barley,  7; 
oats,  5  " 

In  the  British  Husbandry,  Vol.  II.,  p.  92  it  is  said,  in  view  of  the  above  analysis,  that 

a  bushel  of  wlieat,  weiglung  59  lbs.,  w^ould  absorb  about  46  lbs.  of  nutritive  matter. 

'•       "  rye  •'        55     "        '•  "  "      38^  "  '•  " 

"       "   barley  "         46     "         "  "  "      30 i  "  "  " 

«       u  oats  "        31:     "        "  "  "      20     '•  "  " 

27.  The  root-vegetables  draw  from  the  soil,  in  proportion  to  the  time 
which  they  remain  in  it,  J-  to  ^  of  their  weight  in  humus. 

Turnips  on  stubble  ground  which  remain  in  the  soil  only  three  months,  require  sure- 
ly not  more  hutnus  than  the  half  of  the  dry  product  which  they  have  produced  in  this 
time  ;  whilst  to  carrots,  cabbage-turnips,  beets,  we  must  allow  at  least  f ,  since  they 
grow  hard  longer  in  the  soil.  The  difference  of  the  product  of  the  succeeding  crops 
will  determine  for  us  this  question. 

28.  Potatoes  weaken  the  soil  most  of  all  the  root-vegetables,  because  they 
must  be  hoed  and  hilled  ;  because  they  ripen  in  the  soil  ;  and  because  their 
leaves  lose  the  power  of  absorption  before  the  knobs  are  formed  out. 

It  seems  to  me  that  we  must  allow  ^  of  their  dry  weight  to  the  estimate  of  manure, 
if  we  would  not  enfeeble  the  fields  by  them.  If  the  summer  grains,  especially  barley, 
always  agree  so  well  after  potatoes,  as  every  one  sees  this  is  no  proof  against  us  ; 
since,  by  the  culture  of  potatoes,  the  old  humus,  as  well  as  the  newly  introduced  ma- 
nure, are  brought  into  a  very  decomposed  state  ;  and  the  stock  remaining  in  the  soil 
after  potatoes,  is  always  large  enough  to  pro, luce  a  rich  harvest  of  barle)'-.  If  250 
cwt  of  potatoes  are  gathered  for  a  yoke  ( 1.422  acres),  this  gives  62  cwt.  of  dry  sub- 
stance with  the  stalk;  ^  of  this  is  46.50  cwt. ;  and  if  for  10  cwt.  of  dry  stalk,  f  be 
ascribed  to  the  humus,  =  6.66,  this  makes  the  whole  consumption  of  organic  matter 
to  be  53.16  cwt  But  since  we  have  brought  to  this  fruit,  with  300  cwt  of  manure, 
150  cwt  of  organic  matter  in  the  soil,  there  remains  of  it  in  the  field  ^',  unless  we 
suppose  that  by  means  of  hoeing  and  hilling,  a  greater  escape  of  the  humus  takes 
place  than  what  is  allowed  in  the  above  estimate,  which  is  not  perceptible  in  the  first, 
but  especially  in  the  second  and  third  fruits  following  the  potatoes. 

29.  The  oil-plants,  and  the  plants  which  are  to  be  spun,  if  they  are  suffer- 
ed to  ripen,  must  be  computed  like  the  ripened  culmiferous  grains.  If  they 
are  taken  away  from  the  field  in  a  green  state,  we  need  only  reckon  f  of 
their  product  in  dry  materials. 

There  is  no  sufficient  ground  for  the  conclusion  that  the  oil-plants,  and  those  used 
for  spinning,  are  as  absorbinor  as  the  culmiferous  grains;  much  more  is  it  true,  that 
the  latter  appropriates  to  itself  more  humus  than  the  former  plants.  The  small,  low 
rape  and  flax  plants,  which  remiin  in  the  soil  a  shorter  time,  need  not  proportionally 
more  for  their  production,  than  wheat  and  rye  ;  and  if  the  flax  and  hemp  are  not  left 
to  ripen,  certainly  less.  The  notion  of  some  that  these  plants  especially  exhaust  the 
soil,  rests  on  the  observation  that  many  farms  which  can  yield  no  sufficient  addition 
for  thnt  which  is  wholly  taken  away  from  the  soil  by  the  oil-plants,  and  such  as  are 
used  for  spinning,  must  for  a  while  Iinve  their  fields  withdrawn,  as  wholly  enfeebled, 
from  this  culture.  But  it  is  clear  t!i  il  iicre  the  indirect  effect  is  confounded  with  the 
immediate  one. 

[By  the  oil-plants,  are  meant  the  winter  and  summer  rape-seed,  the  poppy  and 
dotter.     By  the  spinning-plants,  flax  and  hemp. 

Some  particulars  n^lating  to  the  plants  mentioned  in  some  of  the  preceding  para- 
graphs may  be  suitably  introduced  in  this  place. 

The  following  estimates  from  Burger  and  Schwertz  and  from  the  British  Hus- 
bandry, show  the  average  amount  of  seed  needed,  and  the  average  product  of  the 
difieront  plants.  The  averagres  are  of  many  experiments,  made  in  different  countries, 
with  various  soils,  clim?ites.  an  1  modes  of  culture.  Schwertz  uses  the  French  meas- 
ures.    It  has  been  necessary  to  abbreviate  in  some  cases. 

10 


74 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 


ACCOHDING   TO     BURGER    A.ND    SCHWERTZ. 

BRITISH    HUSB.\NDKY. 

id 

Seed  required. 

Product. 

c 

te 

Names 

£2 

si 

si 

of  the  Fruits. 

&2 

01 
1 

g 
1 

1 

c 
1 

CO 

1 

Hectoli- 
trps. 

Bushels. 

Hectoli- 
tres. 

Bushels 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Wheat, 

100:40.6 

2.25  * 

2h 

22                 25 
sir.  3977 
kdogrs.    =3.506  lbs. 

bM  cast  21-31 
drilled  2-21 
dibhl'dS— 7p'ks 

28 

Rye, 

100:41.5 

1.80 

2 

22}               25 
sir.  3tI8 

kilog.   =3023  lbs. 

early  sown 
later  3 

25 

Barley,  winter, 

100 :  50.7 

2.5 

2.71 

38                34 
str.  2327 

kdog.  =2046  lbs. 

rich  .soil  10  p'ks 
adhesivp  12    " 
light  14— 16    " 

32—40 

"        summer, 

3 

2.8 

28J               311 

Oats, 

100:61.5 

4 

4.5 

37                 40 
str.  4218 
kilog.  =3702  lbs. 

4—7 

32 

Millet, 

31  litres 

7  qts. 

26                28 
str.   3997 

kilog.   =3520  lbs. 

Beans, 

— 

l.Shect. 

1.16 



small  31—4 

34 

Horsp  beans  in  rows 

bushels. 

24                28 

.Irilled  3 

Broad  cast. 

3.5 

3.8 

str.  2766 
kilog.  =2433  lbs. 

dibbled  2 

Peas, 

~ 

2—3 

2.2—3.3 

24                26 
str.  3000 

kilog.  =2640  lbs. 

broad  cast  3 
drilled   depends 
on  distance 

30—40 

Buckwheat, 

1 

1.1 

25                27 
as  2d  crop 
121               13 J 

soiling  2 
for   corn    5 — 6 
[pecks 

26 

Vetches, 

— 

11-2 

1.6—2.2 

15                 16 

21 

20 
hay  6  tons 

Lentls, 

— 

2 

2.2 

16                 17 

broad  cast  li 

— 

Turnips, 

~ 

2i  kilog. 

21  lbs. 

~ 

drilled  1— 2  pt.«. 
Itroad  cast  11—2 

Swedish  30 
tons,  white 
glob    35  do. 

Rape 

~ 

10  or  12 

lbs.  per 
yoke. 

7— 9  lbs. 

24—30         16—20 
metzen 

l>er  yoke. 

4  lbs. 

~ 

Beets, 

" 

"~" 

~ 

:i00— 400     250—300 

Wt.  p^T  v'k 

st'lkl06cwt=80cwt 

" 

~ 

Cabbages, 

— 

— 

— 

—                — 

}  lb.  for   plants 
foi  an  acre. 

— 

Carrots, 

— 

6  lbs. 
per  yoke. 

5  lbs. 

300  met  z. 
p.ryoke  =  360 

4—41  or  5  lbs. 

400  bushels. 

Clover  grass. 

16  kilo- 
grams. 

14  lbs. 

10—14  lbs.    on 
light  .soils    12.16 
—  18  with  wheat 
or  oats  on  clay 

Sainfoin, 

— 

4— 6mpt- 

zen  per 

yokp. 

ah.  41—7 
bushels. 

—                — 

broad  cast  4 
ind  a  lilile  tre- 
foil. 

— 

Luzerne, 

— 

34  kilog. 
per  hpcr. 

28  lbs. 

—                — 

b'd  c  .St  25  lbs. 
Inll  d,     15    " 

_ 

Flax, 

"~~ 

2—3  tnft. 
per  yokp. 

2—3 
bushe.s. 

8— lOmPt.S— lOb'sh. 
per  yoke,     per  acre. 

2—3  bushels 

10  bush,  seed 

Hemp, 

— 

2i-3 
per  yoke. 

21-3 

600—800     500—660 

Iteryuke.             [Uis. 

3 

^00— 600  U)s. 
)iilkd   befTO 
<ef^d,if  after, 

r    it'S.S. 

Teasel, 

— 

— 

— 

60-100  000  40-75  000 
per  yoke,     per  acre. 

1—2  pecks 

1.5— 16  packs 
of  9000. 

ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 


76 


Veit,  vol  IT.  p  272  gives  us  the  following  table,  containing  similar  results,  with 
Bome  additional  items  for  1  morgen.  (^  acre)  :  to  which  a  column  or  two  is  added  to 
show  the  equivalents  of  Enghsh  measure.  The  measures  used  are  those  of  Bava- 
ria, the  metzen  and  schefTel.  for  the  amount  of  which,  in  our  measure,  reference 
may  be  made  to  the  Table  of  Weights  and  Measures,  which  accompanies  the  present 
Treatise.  The  quantity  is  also  proportioned  to  the  acre,  as  more  easily  understood 
by  the  agriculturists  of  this  country.  In  some  instances,  the  fractions  in  the  reduc- 
tions may  have  been  omitted. 


S 

^ 

Product  obtained 

Weight.      1 

Manure. 

<2 

v2 

,,f  „-.>;, 

.         1 

of  ha"  "*■■ 

Names 

-3 

5-^ 

OI 

and  k 

1,  roo 
nobs. 

ands 

talks 

«<3 

"    0) 

■3.  d 

41      . 

.2 1_  ^ 

of  the  Fruits. 

-r  * 

X      rC 

li 

5    4.' 

li 

5  ,. 

4l 

^1 

±1 

n 

ll' 

t 

M 

73 

H 

^1 

.£4 

*i 

l^- 

4,    to 

r 

s 

II 

miz. 

i.'sh. 

.SChf. 

b'sh. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

Winter  wheat, 

1.8 

2.6 

3 

221 

18 

21.6 

300 

50 

75 

90 

1000 

•     «P^'-.Kp"eUz. 

4.5 

5.5 

7 

52i 

3 

3.6 

18 

21.6 

(  300 
\  170 

50 

28 

75 

90 

377 

20 

2.9 

3 

221 

20 

24 

200 

33,1-3 

70 

84 

700 

"     barley, 

1.8 

2.6 

4 

30 

18 

21.6 

260 

43 

70 

84 

590 

Summer  wheat, 

2.0 

2.9 

2 

15 

4 

4.8 

15 

18 

290 

48,2-5 

50 

60 

878 

"    »P''-.i:;Sx. 

4.7 

5.7 

6 

45 

4 

4.8 

16 

19.2 

(  290 
\  160 

48,2-5 
26,2-3 

50 

60 

333 

"     r}-p, 

2.2 

3.1 

2 

15 

4 

4.8 

17 

20  6 

270 

44,3-5 

40 

48 

642 

"     barley 

2.0 

2.9 

3 

22 

2 

2.4 

12 

14.4 

250 

41,2-5 

40 

43 

565 

'«     oats 

30 

4.3 

4 

30 

14 

16.8 

180 

30 

35 

42 

360 

Maize, 

0.5 

0.72 

6 

45 

.30 

36 

260 

43 

88 

110 

722 

Millet, 

0.3 

0.43 

2 

15 

4 

4.8 

20 

24 

270 

44,3-5  1  70 

84 

750 

Peas, 

1.7 

2.4 

2 

15 

4 

4.8 

18 

21.6 

300 

50         \  .30 

36 

909 

Vetches, 

1.7 

2.4 

2 

15 

3 

3.6 

16 

19.2 

310 

51,3-5  '  30 

36 

857 

i--"-    &,. 

1.7 
2.0 

2.4 
2.9 

2 
3 

15 

22 

10 
14 

12 
16.8 

310 
290 

51,3-5 

48.2-5 

30 

36 

939 

725 

Horse  lieans. 

1.5 

2.17 

4 

30 

20 

24 

290 

48.2-5 

75 

90 

725 

Sow  h  ans, 

1.5 

2.17 

4 

30 

20 

24 

280 

46,2-3 

75 

90 

600 

Fa.se()le, 

1.2 

1.75 

2 

15 

4 

4.8 

6 

7.2 

300 

50 

30 

36 

90D 

Buckwheat, 

1.7 

2.4 

2 

15 

4 

4.8 

12 

14.4 

230 

38,1-3 

30 

36 

4G0 

Mixl'ire   of   oats,  vetches 

and  lieans. 

2.0 

2.9 

4 

30 

18 

21.6 

240 

40 

35 

42 

Siiinfoin,  for  5  years, 

0.6 

0.75 

33 

39.6 

7     " 

0.6 

0.75 

30 

36 

Potatoes, 

3.0 

4.3 

40 

300 

8-10 

9-12 

300 

50 

80 

96 

150 

Artichokes, 

3.0 

4.3 

32 

240 

35 

42 

300 

50 

80 

96 

130 

Flax, 

2.5 

3  62 

250 

.300 

10 

12 

270 

44,35 

80 

96 

Hemp, 

3.0 

4.3 

350 

120 

15 

18 

200 

33,1-3 

80 

96 

Safflower, 

0.4 

0.5 

80 

96 

Red  clover,  to  use  the  year 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

it  is  sown, 

10 

12 

20 

24 

Po.   for  3  cuttings, 

10 

12 

50 

60 

Do.  for  2  yrs.  .successive, 

5 

6 

35 

42 

Luzerne,  for  5  years, 

3 

3.6 

50 

60 

8        •' 

2 

2.4 

45 

54 

Beets, 

1 

1.2 

180 

216 

45 

54 

80 

96 

91 

Cabbage  turnips, 

0.2 

0.24 

180 

216 

35 

42 

80 

96 

93 

White  turnips,  fallow. 

15 

1.8 

200 

240 

45 

54 

80 

96 

90 

"               as  stubble. 

1.5 

1.8 

80 

96 

20 

24 

30 

36 

60 

Carrots, 

2.0 

2.4 

175 

210 

35 

42 

80 

96 

103 

Leaf  cabbage, 

0.2 

0.4 

350 

420 

80 

96 

Winter  rape. 

8 

96 

3 

22 

20 

24 

260 

43 

80 

96 

Summer  Ciibbage  rape, 

8 

9.6 

21 

19.6 

16 

19.2 

250 

41,2-5 

80 

96 

"       turnip       " 

8 

9.6 

2i 

17.:} 

14 

16.8 

245 

40.5-6 

80 

96 

Poppy, 

4 

4.8 

2h 

18.5 

18 

21.6 

230 

38,1-3 

80 

96 

Mustard, 

8 

9.6 

V| 

19.6 

16 

19.2 

260 

43 

PO 

96 

Gob)  of  pleasure, 

5 

6.0 

2h 

IM.5 

14 

16.8 

250 

41,2-5 

70 

84 

Sunflower, 

6 

7.2 

2 

15 

30 

36 

225 

44 

80 

96 

Mad.ler, 

10 

12 

100 

120 

Teasel, 

0.2 

0  24 

90 

108 

76 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 


Veit,  also,  Vol.  II,  p.  70,  gives  the  quantity  of  clover-seed  for  a  morgen,  (f  acre,) 
5  follows : 


On  first  rate  clover 
soil. 


permorg.jper  acre 


On  good  clover 
soil. 


permorg.  per  acrf 


On  soil  poorer  for 
clover. 


i>ermorg.  per  acre. 


Broadcast,  .... 

"With  the  clover-seed  roller,    . 
Wiih  a  tiirrii[i-si)v\  iiitr  machine,  . 


lbs. 

10.8 

7.8 


lbs. 
10 


lbs. 
12 


7.2 


lbs.  I  llis. 
12  I  14.4 
9       I     10.8 


The  increase  of  the  power  of  the  soil  of  the  clover  above  the  consumption  of  this 
power,  he  gives  in  Vol.  II.  p.  81,  as  the  following: 


OiJ  first  rate  clover 
soil. 


perrnorg.  per  acre 


After  seed,  or  the  first  year  of  vegetation, 
ATter  tiie  2  I  year  " 

Ater  tlie  3d  and  4tli  years  " 


CVNt. 

20 
50 
70 


cvvt. 
24 
60 

84 


On  good  clover 
soil. 


perrnorg.    er  acre 


cv\t. 
15 
40 
60 


cwt. 
18 
48 
72 


On  poor-  r  clover 
.soil. 


perrnorg.  per  acre. 


cwt, 
10 
30 


CMt. 

12 
36 


For  luzerne,  standing  from  4  to  6  years,  for  the  whole  time,  the  proportion  ol  in- 
ease  on  the  same  conditions,  stands  thus  :   See  Vol.  II.  p.  90. 


cvvt. 
120 


cwt. 
144 


cvvt. 
100 


cwt. 
120 


cwt. 
FO 


cwt. 

CR 


For  sainfoin,  during  the  same  time,  and  on  like  conditions  :     See  Vol.  II.  p.  96. 


CWi.      I        cwl. 
100      '        ]9.0 


Cv\t. 

80 


cwt. 
96 


cwi.  cwt. 

72 


Of  artichokes,  he  gives,  Vol.  II.  p.  142,  as  the  result  of  experiments  at  Schleisheim, 
from  1824  to  1827,  on  a  morgen,  the  following  product : 


a  )  On  a  strongly  nr.nnured  field, 

b.)  For  .second  manuring, 

c.)  "     third  " 

d.)  The  3d  v'r  on  a  broken-np  pasture,  after  2d.  withont  mannre 


In  knobs. 


per  more,  per  acre 


srhaffel, 
38 
28 
21 
13 


bushels. 
240 
165.6 
138.6 
80.«) 


In  st'lks  and  leave* 


)er  morg.  per  acre. 


cwt. 

42 

31 

22 
18 


cwt. 
50.2 

37:i 

26.4 
•  1  6 


"  Considering  the  weight  of  a  schaflel  at  3  cwt ,  and  the  proportion  of  knobs  to 
hay  as  2.5 : 1,     the  product  of  materials  of  manure  is,  according  to, 
a.)  3S  X  3 

45  4-  42  =  87,  and  so  the  manure,  for  a  morgen,  174  cwt. 


b.) 

2..5 

28  X  3 

c) 

2.5 
21  X  3 

d.) 

2.5 
13  X  3 

=  33+31  =64, 


25  +  22  =  47, 


=  15 -HIS  =33, 


128 


94 


66 


2.5 


Hence  artichokes,  for  fodder  and  manure,  enual  lasting  clovers,  which  stand  highest, 
and  on  a  good  clover  soil,  surpass  them.  For  where  is  there  a  plant  which,  on  an 
exhausted,  dry.  light,  and  chalky  soil,  will  give  15  cwt,  of  hay  value,  and  18  cvvt.  of 
straw,  and  thus  66  cwt,  of  manure  on  a  morgen.  Even  if  90  cwt.  per  morgen  be 
charged  to  the  strongly  manured  artichoke,  there  is  yet  84  cwt.  per  morgen,  not 
much  less  than  of  the  durable  kinds  of  clover." 


/ 


ECONOMY   OF  FARMING. 


77 


\\ 

eight  of  turnips' 

at  an  averajie  of 

Rowsdistitnt  from 

Turnips  in  rows — 
from  each  other. 

No.  of 
turnips. 

No.  of 

turnips. 

1   11).    each. 

2  lbs.  each.  |  3  lbs.  each 

each  other. 

i^/rnrr. 

p'r  acr. 

p'rm'r. 

p'r  acr.  p'r  m'r.  p'r  acr. 

f  et. 
2 

2 

inches. 
9 

feet. 
2 

1 
1 

inches. 
9 

[)  rmorg. 
10,000 
13,000 
20,000 

(ler  acre 
12,000 
15,600 
24,000 

cwr. 
1(10 
IJO 
200 

cwt. 
120 
156 
240 

cwt. 
200 
2(i0 
400 

cwt. 

240 
212 

480 

cwt. 

300 

390 

r,oo 

cwt. 
3fi0 
4f>8 
720 

►- 

p 

P 

00 

;~1 

p 

Cn 

:^ 

.w 

63 

^ 

c- 

p 

?■ 

p 

C 

O 

c 

o 

o 

02 

c 

^ 

o 

a 

H 

73 

s 

3 

:s 

" 

<* 

3 
7 

i 

1" 

a: 

1^ 

c 

2, 

c 

o 

c 

5 
O 

;< 

T3 

1 

o 

« 

VI 

n 

c 

3 
"5 

r 

-1 

5. 
-5' 

1 

1 

• 

• 

= 

» 

= 

•^ 
1 

: 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

o 

-} 

OJ 

«5 

to 

?* 

F 

IIO 

*^  £>r 

rf^ 

o 

4^ 

63 

00 

o 

o 

o 

00 

>^ 

(J> 

cn 

<        r. 

S  «  i" 

-J 

s 

§ 

3 

m 

63 

§ 

s 

a 

4k 

00 

s 

CO 

4k. 

F 

VTieP  no 

5- a.? 

-     5^ 

a 

CO 

rfk. 

63 
C/» 

50 

cn 

63 

CO 

s 

4k. 

a 

•no 

1  bushel 
of  seed 
gives  in 

^« 

^^ 

CO 

CO 

63 

63 

63 

63 

63 

63 

60 

63 

63 

to 

^ 

9^ 

00 

C» 

O 

^ 

i;^ 

Ol 

4>- 

F 

'9J[V.O  ]!0 

C    — ' 

^^ 

^s 

60 

63 

CO 

>(k. 

63 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

•no 

o> 

o 

o 

OS 

o 

o 

00 

CO 

05 

OS 

^ 

^ 

fi 

5J 

5 

2 

2 

a 

§ 

s 

s 

cn 

s 

F 

•a^lBo  no 

- 

nt- 

^ 

- 

63 

63 

63 

63 

63 

^ 

CO 

CO 

63 

^ 

^ 

3^ 

7<    -I 

•3JnsB8ui  .Cq  paag 

^_ 

^_ 

„.. 

__ 

^. 

63 

<>0 

- 

-^ 

P 

^ 

00 

o> 

Cn 

00 

c;» 

CZ) 

in 

63 

63 

P 

sr 

is 

rd 

CO 

^4 

63 

^3 

Oi 

•«k 

o 

o> 

S 

_j 

^ 

Cn 

§■3 

-i 

tn 

O" 

'-' 

CO 

Of 

tri 

o 

O 

(J. 

Oi 

CO 

Cn 

lUStatt  Xq  poag 

^ 

&j 

63 

CO 

-1 

05 

Cn 

-1 

-1 

-J 

«c 

CO 

o> 

il 

g 

§ 

O 

^ 

^ 

63 

s 

^ 

Oi 

s 

^ 

O 

£■ 

O 

^  . 

o> 

• 

> 
< 

73 

^ 

^ 

^ 

^ 

^ 

^ 

^ 

§■5 

to 

Oi 

o 

o 

00 

OD 

O 

>^ 

>f>. 

a> 

o 

o 

00 

•MBJlg 

> 
0 

^d 

^_ 

K.. 

>_ 

63 

63 

CO 

b> 

,_ 

__ 

60 

63 

^^ 

_ 

V  _ 

o 

a> 

4k 

4k. 

63 

J 

?  ^ 

:? 

OS 

OJ 

00 

00 

63 

O 

•9 

.M 

h- 

K- 

f^ 

H- 

63 

H~ 

63 

63 

i1 

^ 

s 

o 

63 

^ 

§ 

g 

^ 

g 

O 

J3 

^ 

63 

F 

no 

0 
c 
a 
0 

63 

^ 

63 

63 

63 

63 

63 

CO 

63 

»j  ^ 

& 

63 

o> 

>^ 

6.1 

05 

O 

•f^ 

63 

O 

tn 

4k. 

.> 

00 

63 

>«>■ 

4k 

o 

4k 

V. 

1 

1— i 

to 

_ 

^^ 

^ 

CO 

^ 

1^ 

CO 

CO 

j^ 

4k 

CO 

- 

o 

4k 

Cn 

r— 

o 

63 

00 

Cn 

<^ 

63 

4k 

o 

C^ 

.« 

•d^p.o  no 

^ 

65 

63 

rfk. 

CO 

-J 

•tk. 

>t^ 

4k. 

Cl 

Oi 

9: 

s 

O 

a 

00 

g 

2 

g 

s 

s 

^ 

o 

g 

^ 

M 

rf^ 

ifk 

O 

>«.. 

OS 

4k. 

00 

i^ 

63 

CO 

s 

v^ 

.^ 

Oi 

o 

o 

^ 

Cn 

Ci 

W 

a> 

o 

o> 

CO 

o 

o 

o 

CO 

GC 

=•  5 

•3T^PD  pO 

aqi  JO  3n|BA  Xkjj 

4k. 

CO 
CO 

g 

CO 

5 

§ 

2 

CO 

6 

g 

§ 

s 

§g 

§ 

§ 

r? 

1-^ 

60 

OJ 

63 

63 

63 

o> 

63 

63 

63 

o> 

78  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

In  this  connexion,  it  may  be  well  to  add  the  result  of  experiments  on  the  different 
kinds  of  oil  here  mentioned,  and  some  others,  which  Veit  gives.  Vol.  l.,p.  231.  The 
trial  in  each  case,  was  with  4  loths  (or  2  oz.). 

14  hours. 

13      ^' 

lU    " 

11      « 

10      « 

9i    « 

9^    " 

9      " 

9      « 

8      « 

10^     « 

Various  experiments  have  been  tried  to  determine  the  proper  depth  at  which  seeds 
«hould  be  planted.  The  following  result  is  given  by  Burger,  Vol.  I.,  p.  286,  with 
respect  to  maize  or  Indian  corn : 

That  which  was  planted  at  the  depth  of 
No. 


rhe 

oil  of  poppy                                    burnt 

u 

"  sunflower 
"  rape 

a 

(( 

"  mustard                                      " 

(( 

u 

»  flaxseed                                      " 

« 

u 

"  gold  of  pleasure  (Leindotter)  " 

(C 

u 

•'  olives                                        " 

(( 

(( 

"  walnuts                                      " 

(C 

(( 

«  beech-nuts                                  " 

(( 

li 

"  hemp-seed                                " 

u 

(1 

«  tJillow                                        " 

1. 

1    inch, 

came 

up  in    8^  days. 

2. 

H 

ti 

(( 

H 

3. 

2 

ii 

a 

10 

4. 

n 

«( 

u 

lU 

5. 

3 

u 

li 

12 

6. 

3^ 

i« 

li 

13 

7. 

4 

<( 

(( 

13^ 

8. 

^ 

« 

« 

9. 

5 

(( 

(( 

— 

10. 

H 

u 

(I 

17J 

11. 

6 

(( 

u 

"The  Nos.  8,  9,  11,' were  dug  up  after  22  days,  and  it  was  found  that  No.  8  had  an 
inch  more  to  grow  to  reach  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Nos.  9  and  11  had  just  sprouted, 
but  were  short,  and  were  three  inches  below  the  surface.  No.  10  came  up  in  17^ 
days,  but  the  tender  leaf  remained  only  6  days  green,  and  then  withered.  There  is 
no  experiment  which  shows  more  clearly  the  advantage  of  a  shallow  planting  in  a 
soil  not  too  loose,  and  trodden  down,  than  this.  The  more  shallow  the  seed  was 
covered  by  the  earth,  the  more  rapidly  the  sprout  made  its  appearance,  and  the 
stronger  afterwards  was  tlie  stalk.  The  deeper  the  seed  lay,  the  longer  it  remained 
before  it  came  to  the  surface.  Four  inches  was  too  deep  for  the  maize,  and  must  there- 
fore be  for  yet  smaller  grain  kernels.  It,  indeed,  came  up  at  that  depth,  but  in  the 
experiment  made  in  the  hot  time  of  the  year,  in  June,  on  the  15th  day  after  it  was 
planted  ;  in  the  colder  season  of  Spring  it  would  have  been  18  or  20  days.  If  the 
germ-leaves  of  the  seed  lie  too  long  under  ground,  they  begin  to  get  twisted,  and  will 
be  bleached  and  die.  as  in  No.  10.  or  form  weak  plants,  as  in  Nos.  7  and  11. 

"  Petri  gives  an  experiment,  made  with  respect  to  rye  in  Oct.  1817,  with  the  follow- 
ing results : 

Depth  of  Seed.  Appeared  ahovc  ground  in  No.  of  Plants  that  came  upu 

11  days,  ^' 

all 

i 

i 

i 

"The  root-stalk  forms  itself  always  next  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  if  we 
place  the  grain  deep  it  must  first  put  out  it^  sprouts  to  the  surface,  and  form  its  side- 
branches  in  a  nearer  connexion  with  the  air.  We  never  find  that  the  sucker-roots 
are  ranged  from  below  to  above,  but  the  contrary. 

"As  a  proof  the  correctness  of  this  opinion,  I  will  here  give  the  interesting  experi- 
ment of  Ugazy  in  Andre,  Okon.  Neuicrkeiten  (Economical  Novelties),  July,  1817.  He 
tried  76,  between  the  5th  and  15th  of  June,  1817.  on  good  soil,  where  the  seed  was 
well  ploughed  in,  with  different  grains,  to  ascertain  how  deep  the  root-stalk  stood  in 
the  earth,  and  what  influence  the  different  depths  would  have  on  the  formation  of  the 
Btalk.     The  results  are  exhibited  in  the  following  table : 


4  inch, 

11 

1      « 

12 

2  inches, 

13 

3    « 

20 

4    « 

21 

5    « 

22 

6    « 

23 

ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 


Number  of  root-stalks  which  remained 
earth. 

in  tiie 

No.  which  on  aver.ige  produced 
stalks. 

of  Fruit. 

At  1       1  At  1  to  1  !      At  Q 
inch.       jl-2  inches,    inches. 

At  2  to 2 
1-2  inch. 

Totul. 

"Togo 

Of  the  1st  Of  the  2d  Of  the  :}d' Of  4th 
depth.    1    depth,    j    depth,   jdepth. 

Winter  rye, 
"        wheat. 

Summer     '• 
"        barley, 
"        oats, 

742 
765 
645 
631 
672 

221 
215 
304 
317 
241 

32 
17 
42 
41 
64 

5 

9 
11 
23 

2-i     1     2; 
3)-     1     2V 

H    !    2} 

3>     1     If 

H   !    1 

li 
1  ' 

1 

1 

1 
1 

"We  see  here,  that  ^  to  f  of  all  these  grain-plants  had  their  root-stalk  only  one  inch 
under  ground,  and  that  exactly  these  proiiuced  the  most  stalks ;  ^  of  them  had  their 
roots  only  1^  inches  deep  and  had  only  half  as  many  stalks  as  the  first;  at  2  inches 
deep  there  was  only  4  in  100,  and  at  2-'-  inches  deep  only  9  of  1000 ;  but  one  only  of 
them  produced  stalk,  while  the  fir;=t,  in  rye  and  wheat,  showed  only  2.^  to  4^^  stalks. 
"From  this  it  is  clear  that  shallow  sowing,  if  the  seed  is  only  so  far  covered  as  to 
sprout,  and  the  germ  is  protected  from  immediate  contact  with  the  air,  is  preferable 
to  laying  the  seed  deep,  because  it  springs  up  quicker,  and  acquires  a  stronger  growth, 
and  has  hardier  plants." — Tr  ] 

30.  The  increase  in  humus  which  the  field  acquires  by  the  three-division 
Egarten  husbandry,  depends  on  the  fertility  which  the  soil  had  when  it 
ceased  to  be  sowed  ;  on  the  climate  which  more  or  less  favors  the  growth 
of  grass ;  on  the  number  of  years  the  field  Is  suffered  to  He,  and  on  the 
plants  which  grow  on  the  field. 

A  three  years'  Dreschfeld-Egarten  may  in  favorable  circumstances  be  considered 
equal  to  a  two-year  proportionally  stocked  clover  field. 

31.  That  any  farm  may  be  retained  In  the  same  capacity  of  production, 
as  much  manure  Is  required  as  It  would  receive.  If  all  the  straw  of  the  grass- 
kind  of  grain-plants,  all  the  fodder  which  has  grown  on  the  field,  and  for 
the  products  taken  away  for  the  production  of  manure  as  much  In  hay  and 
litter,  were  restored,  as  the  increase  of  weight  Is  less  than  that  which  the  plants 
restored  have  <]jalned  in  inorsranic  matter. 

It  seems  to  me  necessary  to  observe  here,  that,  when  I  maintain  that  whatever  is 
produced  from  the  field  in  kernels  must  be  restored  to  it  in  equal  weight  of  other 
vegetables,  so  that  it  may  continue  in  the  same  capacity  of  production  ;  this  should 
be  understood  here  not  merely  of  straw,  leaves,  rushes,  wood-litter  ;  since  these  vege- 
table bodies  contain  not  in  sufficient  quantity  those  elements  which  are  essential  to 
the  formation  of  grain  ;  but  that  we  m.ust  also  allow  hay,  clover,  and  generally  the 
means  of  fodder  in  a  proportionate  quantity,  wliich,  fed  out  in  the  stall  and  mixed  with 
the  animal  liquids  and  litter,  produce  those  bodies  which  contain  the  materials 
(GrundstofTe)  of  wheat,  maize  and  lentils. 

To  make  the  foregoing  positions  clear  by  an  example,  tlie  following  estimate  of 
the  consumption  of  manure  may  answer. 


ROTATION    OF   CROPS. 

1  potatoes,  2  barley,  3  clover,  4  wheat,  5  beans,  6  rye,  7  vetch-mixture,  8  oats. 

PRODUCT    OF    ONE    YEAR. 

Potatoes  250  metzen  =  422.5  bushels,  > 
give  in  dry  substance  S 

Barley  20  metzen  =  33 1%-  bush,    at  66  lbs. 
Clover. 
Wheat  16  metzen  =  27  bushels 


Beans  20  " 
Rye  18  " 
Vetch-mixture 
Oats      24      « 


=  38,i„- 
=  30,\- 

=  421- 


«  82  lbs. 
"96   " 
♦•76   " 

"50  " 


In  grain. 

1  n  straw. 

5170  lbs. 

800  lbs. 

1320  " 

2500  " 

6000  « 

1312  « 

3000  " 

1920  « 

2000  « 

1368  « 

3200  " 

3000  '• 

1200  « 

2500  « 

12,290  « 

23,000  « 

80  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

If  any  one  should  suppose  that  all  the  product  of  plants  can  only  be  restored  again 
by  organic  substances,  and  there  must  be  given  back  again  to  the  field  all  that  it  has 
yielded  in  straw  and  grain,  or  that  it  must  be  replaced  by  an  equal  weight  of  easily- 
dissolved  organic  substances ;  then  in  the  foregoing  case,  for  the  grain  drawn  from 
the  pro  luction  of  manure  12,280  lbs.  are  requisite,  which  must  be  gathered  some- 
where else  in  hay  from  the  meadows,  and  in  litter  from  the  woods.  But  as  we  know 
that  plants  in  part  draw  their  nourislmicnt  from  other  sources,  the  estimate  of  the 
need  of  manure  according  to  our  supposition  is  as  follows  : 

Potatoes  need  only  f  of  their  dry  weight,  consequently  the  saving  is  1294  lbs. 

Clover  needs  only  +.  and  therefore  gives  a  saving  of             _        _  .        3000   " 

Beans  need  foi  their  straw  scarcely  ■^.  and  give  a  saving  therefore  of  1000   " 

Vetch-mixture  green  needs  only  ^,  and  gives  thereibre         -        .  -        1500  ♦' 

Total  saving        6,794  « 
The  above  mentioned  weight  in  grain  and  knobs  equals        -        -        -     12  280 


Consequently  there  are  needed  ___-----  5,486  lbs. 
But  because  the  mass  of  manure  will  be  increased  by  140  cwt.  of  green 

vegetable  substance,  which  reduced  to  dry  weight,  equals       -        -        3,500  lbs. 

Therefore  the  real  deficiency  in  vegetables  which  needs  to  be  supplied 

for  the  production  of  knobs  and  grain,  is  only        _        _        -        -        -  1,986  lbs. 

which  must  be  made  up  by  hay  or  litter,  unless  potatoes  are  employed  in  part  for 
feeding  out,  in  which  case  the  cultivation  of  the  field  requires  no  additional  supply, 
but  also  can  spare  1890  lbs.  of  dry  potatoes  as  not  necessary  for  the  production  of 
manure. 

Here  may  be  introduced  the  estimates  of  the  need  of  manure  in  order  to  yield  a 
given  quantity  of  production,  in  §  vii.  of  Vol.  II.  p.  180,  where  we  must  observe  that 
in  respect  to  clover  f  of  its  weight  of  product  was  assumed  instead  of  ^  as  the  need 
of  manure,  and  no  account  scarcely  was  made  of  its  roots  as  manure.  For  the  same 
object  serve  also  the  estimates  quoted  hereafter  §  iii.  B.  8,  seq.,  what  proportions 
the  production  of  plants  tor  trade  must  bear  to  those  tor  fodder  and  the  production  of 
litter. 

That  the  above-mentioned  statements  must  be  considered  only  as  probable  assump- 
tions, any  one  may  easily  convince  himself  who  knows  that  the  growth  of  plants 
depends  not  only  on  the  quantity,  but  also  the  quality  of  the  nutriment  furnished 
them,  on  their  culture  and  the  influences  of  the  weather,  &c.  The  quantity  of  nutri- 
ment only  can  be  expressed  in  numbers,  and  afterwards  verified  by  experience; 
therefore  I  have  confined  myself  thus,  in  forming  an  estimate  of  the  proportion  be- 
tween the  manure  and  the  product. 

[The  estimates  to  which  the  author  refers  as  found  in  Vol.  II.  p.  ISO,  occur  in  the 
following  connexion :  "If  we  take  the  straw  from  the  field  for  fodder,  then  will  a  con- 
siderable part  of  its  weight  be  partly  assimilated  to  the  flesh  of  the  animal,  partly  be 
dissipated,  and  the  remainder  only  be  applied  to  the  benefit  of  the  manure.  If  further 
we  take  from  the  field  much  grain-fruit,  if  we  must  repay  a  proportion  of  it,  and  are 
not  in  a  situation  to  restore  it  in  the  same  measure  by  straw,  grain,  by  wood  and  bog 
litter,  meadow-growth,  manure  purchased,  &c..  then  will  the  quantity  of  the  manure 
produced  be  always  smaller,  and  the  harvest  from  year  to  year  become  worse. 

In  order  to  show  clearly  the  value  of  manure,  and  the  alteration  of  the  power  of 
production  of  the  field,  we  will  quote  the  product  as  it  really  follow^s  under  certain 
given  circumstances,  and  show  the  aids  which  are  necessary  to  increase  the  product. 
The  field  will  be  viewed  as  tilled  according  to  the  rules  of  the  Threefield  pys- 
tem,  with  fallows.  Its  product  per  yoke  (=  1.422  acres)  in  grain,  the  first  year,  as 
fallow,  was, 


2d  year, 

winter  rye, 

16  metzen  =  27  bushels. 

3d      " 

oats. 

18        "       =30,-3^-     " 

4th     " 

fallow. 

5th    " 

winter  ry, 

14        "      =23A    « 

6th    « 

oats, 

16        «      =  27         « 

64        "      =  103 


ECONOMY   OF  FARMING.  81 

In  straw,  the  field  gives, 

of  winter  rye,  on  2  yokes  =  2.S44  acres,  6,200  lbs. 
oats,  "      "  «        "      2,600    " 

8,800 

If  the  field  should  henceforth  produce  this  crop,  then  must  it,  for  the  30  metzen 
(=  50.7  bushels)  of  winter  rye  at  80  lbs.  per  metzen,  =  2,400  lbs  ,  and  34  metzen 
(=  57^  bushels,  nearly)  of  oats,  at  50  lbs.  per  metzen,  together  4,100,  yield  a  suffi- 
cient substitute  :  therefore,  at  least  as  much  weight  in  good  hay,  that  is  for  6  yokes  of 
plough-land,  a  yoke  of  good  meadow  is  necessary ;  or,  if  a  part  of  the  straw  is  fod- 
dered out,  or  is  taken  away  for  other  purposes,  then  we  must  have  at  hand,  in  propor- 
tionate quantity,  some  foreign  materials  of  litter. 

If  one  changes  88  cwt.  of  straw,  and  41  cwt.  of  hay,  by  fodder  and  litter,  into  stall- 
manure,  then  he  has,  as  we  have  proved  in  another  place,  278  cwt.  of  half-rotted 
manure,  =  23  double-spanned  cartloads,  which  must  be  carried  out  in  the  fallow  of 
the  first  year.  As  the  field  is  manured  only  once  in  6  years,  this  comes  each  year 
to  46  cwt. 

If  now  we  wish  to  cultivate  peas,  but  without  having  a  less  product  of  rye  and 
oats: 

Metzen.      Bushels.     Wt.  of  metzen.     Wt.  of  bushel.  Whole  weight. 

In  the  1st  year,  Peas,  12  =  20.28  94  lbs.  =  56  lbs.  nearly.  1128  lbs. 

"       2d       «     Rye,  16  =  27  80    «  =  48    "  2280  " 

"      3d      «     Oats,  18  =  30.3  50    "  =  30    «                      900  " 

«      4th     "    Peas,  10  ==  16.9  94    "  =  56    "    nearly.      940  " 

«      5th     "    Rye,  14  =  23.6  80    "  =  48    »  1120  " 

"      6th     "     Oats,  16  =  27  50    ^'  =  30    "                     800  " 

86  =  145.28  6168  " 

2  yokes  of  peas  give  of  straw,  6600  " 

Straw  of  rye  and  oats,  as  before,  8800  " 

The  greater  production  which  we  may  wish  to  secure  gives,  in  2  yokes  ( =  2.844 
acres),  22  metzen  of  peas  (=  37.18  bushels),  =  2068  lbs.,  and  66  cwt.  of  straw,  to- 
gether in  weight,  8868  lbs.  If  with  the  beginning  of  the  new  culture,  we  buy  21  cwt. 
of  hay,  and  66  lbs.  of  straw,  and  change  it  in  the  yard  into  manure;  or  if  we  buy 
174  cwt.  of  good  stall-manure,  and  carry  it  on  the  fallow  field,  then  this  product 
would  be  possible.  If  this  mode  of  culture  be  pursued,  there  would  be  needed  as 
much  hay  as  the  weight  of  the  grain  bears,  6168  lbs.,  that  is,  for  6  yokes  of  plough- 
land,  would  be  needed  2  yokes  of  usual  meadow,  or  other  kind  of  substitute,  in  litter, 
pasture,  &c.,  in  order  to  be  able  to  employ  the  straw  more  for  fodder,  and  to  need 
less  hay.  Should  6168  lbs.  of  hay  be  made  into  manure,  with  15,400  lbs  of  straw  in 
the  stall,  then  this  would  give  431  cwt.,  =  36  double-spanned  cartloads.  If  we  di- 
vide this  quantity  of  manure  among  6  years,  then  there  is  for  each,  71  cwt.  per  yoke. 

But  does  this  product  correspond  too  little  to  our  needs  ?  Do  we  wish  more  grain, 
and  because  for  this  more  manure  is  necessary,  do  we  wish  to  produce  this  by  em- 
ploying a  part  of  the  field  for  plants  for  fodder  ? 

Since  we  have  not  sufficient  meadow  or  other  opportunity  to  procure  the  materials 
for  manure,  for  this  purpose  we  cultivate  our  land  in  the  following  rotation : 

Metzen.  Bushels.  Weight  of  a  metzen.  Weight  of  a  bushel.  Whole  weight 


1st  year,  Maize,             40  =  67.6 

80  lbs. 

48  lbs.            3200  lbs. 

2d      "    Barley,            24  =  40.5 

66 

40 

nearly.  1584 

3d      »    Clover,            —       — 

— 

— 

6000 

4th     «    Winter  Rye,  18  =  30.3 

80 

48 

1440 

5th     "    Peas,                12  =  20.28 

94 

56 

nenrW.  1128 

6th     "     Oats,                18  =  30.3 

50 

30 

900 

112=188.98 

14,252 

We  shall  have  of  straw— of  Maize, 

3500 

of  Barley, 

2000 

of  Winter  : 

Rye, 

3200 

of  Peas, 

2000 

of  Oats, 

1 

1400 

I 

13,100  lbs. 

11 


5  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

Accordino"  to  the  before-mentioned  culture,  we  produced — 

of  Grain,  6,168  lbs. 

of  Straw,  15,400 


21,568 

Now  we  have  produced,  in  Grain  and  Clover,  14,252  lbs. 

Straw,  13,100 

27,352  lbs. 
This  is  5784  lbs.  more  than  by  the  former  culture,  for  which  we  in  the  beginning, 
that  is,  in  the  first  year,  buy  20  cwt.  of  hay,  and  40  cwt.  of  straw,  or  120  cwt.  of  ma- 
nure, which,  together  with  the  already-prodvced  manure,  we  bring  upon  the  field  of 
maize.     The  field  yields  us  by  this  culture,  in 

Grain,  8,252  lbs. 

Straw,  13,100   '' 

Clover,  6,000   " 

We  should  need  to  make  up  for  the  hay,  8252  lbs.     But  because  the  clover,  by  the 

falhng  leaves,  and  yet  more,  in  a  great  part,  by  its  many  and  great  roots  remaining  in 

the  soil,  yields  a  compensation  for  the  humus  received ;  therefore  only  f  of  the  weight 

of  its  product  need  be  reckoned  as  necessary  for  the  production  of  manure,  and* we 

subtract  then  from  the  8252  lbs.  of  the  hay  required,  2000  lbs ;  there  remain  over 

only  6252  lbs.  of  hay,  which  we  need  yearly  in  carrying  on  this  culture,  besides  the 

clover. 

Should  there  be     6252  lbs.  of  hay, 
6,000  "      "  clover. 
13,100   "      "  straw,' 

total,  25,352  lbs.  to  be  converted  into  manure,  then  we  have 
517  cwt.,  =  43  double-spanned  cartloads.  Divided  among  6  years,  it  comes  to  86 
cwt.  per  yoke. 

In  the  Threefield  system,  we  have  had  41  cwt.  of  hay  necessary  to  produce  64 
metzen  of  grain ;  here  we  need  52|  cwt.  of  hay,  but  for  it  we  produce  112  metzen  on 
I  of  the  same  extent,  which  we  owe  in  a  great  measure  to  the  clover. 

The  estimate  is  derived  from  the  above  proposed  positions — that  the  field  remains 
in  like  power,  if  that  which  it  produced  be  employed  again  on  it;  and  will  produce  a 
compensation  for  that  which  is  taken  from  it.  Tf  one  know,  therefore,  what  he  has 
produced  from  one  manuring  to  another,  and  also  how  much  manure  he  had,  he  can 
conclude  with  tolerable  accuracy  as  to  the  increase  of  the  latter  on  the  quantity  of 
the  increase  of  production." 

Veit  has  many  interesting  particulars  on  these  subjects,  which  in  part  I  shall  be 
obliged  to  quote  in  substance  only.  According  to  various  experiments,  the  following 
conclusions  are  established,  Vol.  I,  p.  333  : 

"1.  That  if  the  soil  is  fructified  before  the  sowing  of  the  seed,  the  vegetation  is 
stronger  and  more  rapid  than  if  manured  after  the  sowing  of  the  seed. 

"  2.  In  the  period  from  the  time  of  germination  to  the  starting  up  of  the  grain 
stalk,  or  shooting  of  ears,  a  much  greater  effect  follows  the  manuring  than  later.  But 
especially  was  the  greatness  of  the  number  of  the  culms  of  a  single  root-stalk  depend- 
ent on  the  manure  which  was  applied  equally  after  the  course  of  the  seed-time, 
or  the  coming  forth  of  the  germ-leaf,  to  the  putting  out  of  the  fourth  leaf 

"  3.  In  the  period  from  the  beginning  of  the  shooting  forth  of  the  ears  to  their  devel- 
opment out  of  their  sheath,  the  manuring  was  yet  noticeable,  but  about  f  less  than 
in  the  former  period. 

"  4.  Were  the  ears  already  formed  and  the  addition  of  the  grain  already  visible, 
then  the  consequence  of  manuring  would  not  in  all  cases  be  verified,  or  at  most  only 
a  slight,  scarcely  perceptible  change  of  color  of  the  culm. 

"5.  If  manured  after  the  blossom,  no  trace  of  the  given  manuring  was  noticeable. 

"  6.  The  fruits  that  followed  gave,  agreeably  to  the  foregoing  results,  so  much  the 
better  harvest,  by  how  much  the  shorter  time  after  the  germination  of  the  manured 
fruit  preceding  they  were  taken  from  the  soil  or  harvested."  "  The  most  active  work- 
ing over  of  the  nutritious  substance  appears,  in  other  words,  in  the  period  from  the 
beginning  of  the  putting  forth  of  the  culm  to  the  breaking  out  of  the  ears  from  the 
same.  In  this  period  is  formed  the  comparatively  vegetable  mass,  which  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  time  of  flowering  unites  in  itself  nearly  all  the  nutritious  substance, 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  83 

whilst  the  hay  value  of  the  fruit  mown  at  this  time,  is  not  much  less  than  the  same 
fruit  in  a  ripened  state.  As  with  the  appearance  of  the  blossom,  besides  moisture 
plants  draw  little  more  nutriment  from  the  soil,  so  the  collective  deposit  in  the 
roots  and  stalks  gradually  conduct  the  ears  to  tlie  formation  of  seeds.  Since  the 
longer  time  before  the  blossom  the  plants  are  cut,  so  much  better  is  the  success  of 
the  after-fruit,  therefore  so  much  the  more  nutriment  remains  in  the  soil.  But  the 
longer  period  after  the  flowering  the  harvest  is  gathered,  so  much  the  more  is  the 
power  of  the  soil  weakened. 

"  The  progress  of  the  exhaustion  of  power  may  be  observed  in  the  plants  for  fodder. 
The  further  indeed  the  meadow  grasses  or  kinds  of  clov^er  are  advanced  at  the  time 
of  being  cut  in  their  flower  or  formation  of  seed,  so  much  the  v/eaker  does  the  after- 
increase  show  itself,  compared  with  those  places  on  which  the  first  cutting  was  made 
before  the  approach  of  the  flower.  On  this  is  based  the  remarkable  exhausting 
power  of  fully  ripe  clover. 

"  But  the  highest  gradation  of  the  exhaustion  ofpower  is  seen  in  the  so-called  yellow- 
ripe  or  dead-ripe  fruit,  in  which  the  plants  likewise  are  dried  up  and  have  lost  all 
vegetable  life.  This  state  should  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible.  The  plants  of  the 
usual  husk-fruit  ripen  not  suddenly  but  gradually,  so  that  the  greater  part  of  the  fruit 
may  be  ripe,  whilst  the  tips  of  the  plants  yet  bear  flowers,  or  at  least  are  yet  green. 
The  collective  production  of  these  plants  will  therefore  rarely  be  dead-ripe  or  over- 
ripe, and  on  that  account  the  exhaustion  of  power  is  less  with  them  in  general  than 
with  the  grain-fruits  which  are  usueilly  cut  yellow-ripe." 

Again,  on  p.  341,  he  says :  "  As  the  manure  is  to  be  viewed  in  a  progressive  de- 
composition, and  the  most  nutritious  animal  substances  are  already  consumed  for  the 
most  part  the  first  year  after  manuring,  or  are  escapedby  evaporation,  the  less  easily 
decomposed  or  harder  dissolving  undergo  a  decomposition  somewhat  later;  as  soon 
indeed  as  the  condition  of  the  putrid  fermentation  operates  upon  them ;  thus  the 
power  of  the  manure  gradually  disappears  from  the  soil  even  without  the  cultivation 
of  plants.  It  is  estimated  that  of  the  nourishing  parts  of  the  manure  in  the  1st  year 
at  least  50  per  ct.,  in  the  2d,  25  to  33,  in  the  3d,  15  to  20,  and  in  the  4th,  10  to  15  per  ct. 
are  consumed.  On  soil  which  possesses  no  old  stock  ofpower,  other  circumstances 
being  equal,  the  decrease  of  production  will  nearly  correspond  to  the  decrease 
of  the  manuring  power,  but  not  on  grounds  possessing  old  power  of  the  soil,  upon 
which,  as  we  have  already  shown,  the  diminution  of  production  according  to  the  dis- 
tance of  the  plants  from  the  time  of  manuring,  will  scarcely  be  25  to  30  per  ct.  But 
it  is  ever  the  rule,  that  the  fruit  to  which  the  manure  is  given  will  consume  most 
of  it,  and  indeed  so  much  the  more  as  it  is  according  to  its  nature  the  more  capable 
of  nourishment ;  demands  a  stronger  working  over  of  the  soil ;  the  less  it  shadows  the 
soil ;  the  more  active  the  soil  is ;  the  more  dissolved  the  manure  is,  and  the  longer  the 
period  of  vegetation  is."  Again,  p.  345,  "  Plants,  other  things  being  equal,  are  very 
different  in  respect  to  the  need  of  manure  and  compensation  for  it  They  are  di- 
vided thus : 

"  1.  Into  such,  the  whole  product  of  which  employed  for  the  production  of  manure 
would  scarcely  cover  half  the  need,  and  which,  after  the  withdrawal  of  the  usual 
parts  to  be  sold  with  the  remaining  part  for  the  manufacture  of  manure,  can  supply 
only  from  a  4th  lO  a  3i]  part  of  the  need  of  manure.  They  are  therefore  consuming 
in  the  proportion  of  f  to  f,  or  their  need  is  to  their  supply  of  manure :  as  6 — 8 :  4. 
Here  belong  flax,  poppy,  tobacco,  hemp,  dec. 

"  2.  Those,  the  collective  product  of  which  including  the  roots  and  stubble  remain- 
ing in  the  soil,  equals  or  wholly  covers  the  need  of  manure  as  all  the  cereals,  rape, 
&c.,  which  therefore  are  f ,  or  in  the  highest  f  consuming. 

"  3.  Those,  f  to  f  of  the  product  of  which  suffices  for  the  supply  of  the  consumed 
manure^  wherefore  they  are  only  consuming  at  the  rate  of  f  to  'f,  as  the  usual  husk- 
fruits,  and  root  and  knob-vegetables. 

"  4.  Those  one-year  fodder-plants  which  are  cut  in  their  green  state,  f  to  f  of 
the  product  of  which  are  set  off  for  the  need  of  manure,  as  a  mixture  of  fodder,  peas, 
buckwheat,  rye,  &c.  These  are  usually  called  soil-power  saving  (bodenkraft- 
schonend). 

"5.  Into  those  perennial  plants  for  fodder,  the  whole  production  of  the  fodder 
from  which  goes  to  the  manufacture  of  manure,  and  of  the  mass  of  the  stubble  and 
roots  remaining  in  the  soil,  half  answers  to  supply  the  consumed  manure,  and  half 
remains  for  surplus  to  increase  the  power  of  the  soil.     The  quantity  of  manure  going 


84 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 


to  the  soil  through  the  collected  mass  of  roots  and  stubble,  is  on  one  morgen  (=  f  of 
an  acre). 

Of  Luzerne,  after  4  to  5  or  more  years'  standing        -  200  cwt. 

Sainfoin,        "      "      "  "  "  "  _  -         ]60     " 

Two  years'  red  clover  -  -  -  _  .   120     " 

Many  years'  natural  meadow  and  pasture  -  -         120     " 

One  year's  red  and  white  clover        -  -  -  -    80     " 

one  half  of  which  is  to  be  counted  for  the  consumption  of  manure,  and  half  as  to  en- 
rich the  power  of  the  soil. 

"6.  Into  manuring  plants  for  the  so-called  green-manuring  which  give  to  the  soil 
after  the  deduction  of  its  OAvn  consumption,  an  increase  of  from  30  to  40  cwt." 

The  following  tabular  view,  in  which  examples  are  taken  from  the  actual  cultiva- 
tion of  many  farms,  shows  the  different  proportions  of  the  supply  of  manure  to  the 
need  of  the  same.     See  Veit,  Vol.  I.  p.  347 : 


A 

—ON  A  GOOD  CLOVER  SOIL. 

i2 

Harvtst 

Gain,  manure. 

Manure. 

Of  manure 

"S  c 

employed 

1 

>> 

o 

1^ 

1 

o' 

3 

2 

on  a  morgen. 

Q.  a- 

o 

"o 

"B. 

-d 

5 
£ 

^1 

.  6 

c 

'o 

CO 

3 

si 

c 

3 

|i 

c 

H 

c 
S 

^ 

MS 

Q 

3 

s3 

•5 

I. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

Pure  fallow, 

HO 

140 

Winter  wheat, 

9 

18 

27 

54 

36 

Barley, 

8.7 

14 

22  7 

45.4 

28 

II. 

140 

140 

17.7 

32 

49.7 

99.4 

64 

76 

70 

46 

Clover, 

40 

40 

30 

30 

60 

60 

Winter  wheat, 

100 

100 

9 

18 

27 

54 

36 

1 

Barley, 

8.7 

14 

22.7 

45.4 

28 

III. 

100 

40 

140 

17.7 

62 

79.7 

159.4 

124 

24 

50 

33 

Mixture, 

160 

160 

20 

20 

40 

40 

Winter  wheat, 

9 

18 

27 

54 

36 

Barley, 

8.7 

14 

22.7 

45.4 

28 

IV. 

160 

160 

17.7 

52 

69.7 

139.4 

104 

56 

53 

53 

Beans, 

200 

200 

12 

20 

32 

64 

64 

1 

! 

Winter  wheat, 

9 

18 

27 

54 

36 

Barley, 

8.7 

14 

22.7 

45.4 

28 

i 

V. 

200 

200 

29.7 

52 

81.7 

163.4 

72 

Potatoes. 

210 

210 

'l\ 

53 

106 

106 

Potato  stalks, 

Winter  wheat. 

9 

18 

27 

54 

36 

Barley, 

8.7 

14 

22.7 

45.4 

28 

VI. 

210 

210 

17.7 

85 

102.7 

205.4 

170 

40 

70 

50 

Potatoes, 

180 

180 

1} 

53 

106 

106 

Barley, 

8.7 

14 

22.7 

45.4 

23 

Clover, 

40 

40 

30 

30 

60 

60 

Winter  wheat, 

9 

18 

27 

54 

36 

180 

40 

220 

17.7 

115 

132.7 

265.4 

230 

50 

60 

45 

ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 


A. 

—ON  A 

GOOD  CLOVER 

SOIL. 

t« 

Harvest 

iGain,  manure.! 

Mannre.  | 

Of  manure 

z- 

1 

1 



employed 

i             ( 

u  a. 

Dn  a  raorgen. 

!     -§ 

o  o 

^ 

-^(11 

na 

o 

-d 

Q, 

5^5 

a 

S. 

o 

1 

J     ^ 

c 

il 

o  o 

a.  i 

3    3 

H 

si 

2 

il 

1 

'5 

03 

-S   cs 

^ 

S 

E 

H 

JC 

a 

^      1 

^ 

Q 

3 

VII. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

CVNt, 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt.       cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

Potatoes, 

180 

180 

'l\ 

53 

106     !   106 

1 

Barley, 

8.7 

14 

22.7 

45.4 

28 

Clover, 

30 

30 

60 

60 

Clover, 

60 

60 

20 

20 

40 

40 

Winter  rape, 

120 

120 

8 

20 

28 

56 

40 

"         wheat. 

9 

18 

27 

54 

36 

Oats, 

6 

16 

22 

44 

32 

300 

60 

360 

31.7 

171 

202.7     405.4 

342 

viir. 

Potatoes, 

180 

180 

'l\ 

48     1     96 

j 

36 

Potatoes, 

170 

170 

To\ 

60     1   120 

1 

52 

Barley, 

8.7 

14 

22.7  1     45.4 

28 

5  year  luzerne. 

100 

100 

225 

225     1  450 

450 

Winter  rape, 

130 

130 

8.5 

22 

305     1     61 

44 

"         wheat. 

9 

20 

29     '     58 

40 

Peas, 

9 

16 

25          50 

32 

Winter  rye, 

8 

18 

26          52 

36 

480 

100 

380 

42.7 

423 

466.2  1 1022.4 

718 

238 

68 

40 

IX. 

Flax, 

220 

220 

4 

14 

18          36 

22 

Winter  wheat 

9 

18 

27          54 

36 

Barley, 

8.7 

14 

22.7 1     45.4 

28 

220 

220 

21.7 

46 

67.7  i     86 

1  134 

173 

73 

B.-ON    GOOD 

SAINFOIN 

SOIL. 

L 

White  Clover, 

40 

40 

25 

25 

50 

50 

Winter  rye. 

140 

110 

8 

20 

28 

56 

40 

Oats, 

7 

15 

22 

44 

30 

140 

40 

150 

15 

60 

75 

150 

120 

10 

55 

36 

IL 

Potatoes, 

210 

210 

48 

48 

96 

96 

Winter  rye, 

8 

18 

26 

52 

36 

Oats, 

6.3 

15     1     21.5 

43 

30 

210 

210 

14.5 

81 

95.5 

191 

162 

48 

70 

in. 

Beets, 

190 

190 

60 

60 

120 

120 

Summer  rye. 

8 

16 

24 

48 

32 

5  years'  sainfoin, 

80 

80 

125 

125 

50 

250 

Winter  rye 

15.", 

155 

9 

22 

31 

62 

44 

Peas, 

8 

15 

23 

46 

30 

Oats, 

/ 

16 

23 

46 

32 

345  1   80  !425 

32 

'  254 

286 

572 

508 

!l63 

69 

34.5 

We  have  therefore  the  following  results  : 

1.  By  employini^  a  pure  fallow,  the  mutual  operation  of  the  atmosphere  and  the 
constituent  parts  of  the  soil,  aids  the  decomposition  of  the  organic  matter  and  hence, 
prepares  the  nourishment  of  the  plants  for  a  more  rapid  consumption.  Therefore, 
the  crops  in  a  pure  fallow  succeed  so  well.     But  the  power  of  the  soil,  will  on  this 


86  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

account,  be  withdrawn  in  so  great  measure,  that  tlie  fruit  next  following  will  be  found 
disproportionately  small.  No  increase  of  the  power  of  the  soil,  consequently,  can 
be  ascribed  to  the  pure  fallow. — See  Class.  A.,  I. 

"  2.  In  the  cultivation  of  the  fallow  with  fodder-plants  that  consume  much  nutriment, 
the  supply  of  manure  is,  with  potatoes  20,  with  mixed  fodder  33,  and  wiih  beans  3t> 
per  cent. ;  whilst,  in  the  pure  fallow,  50  per  cent,  is  required.  If  the  fallow  is  culti- 
vated with  strongly-exhausting  plants  for  trade,  which  contribute  little  material  for 
the  manufacture  of  manure,  as  under  A.,  IX,  then  the  supply  of  manure  mounts  up 
to  61  per  cent.  From  this,  the  weight  of  the  grain  to  be  sold,  and  other  parts  of  the 
material  for  the  fabrication  of  manure,  are  to  be  deducted. 

"  3.  But  should  the  whole  product  of  the  plants  be  employed  for  the  manufacture  of 
manure,  then  the  supply  of  manure  is,  with  potatoes  in  the  fallow,  2.3,  with  the  mix- 
ture 12,  with  flax  38,  and  with  pure  fallow  itself  28  per  cent. 

"  4.  Of  the  given  manure  for  A,  on  a  morgen  cultivated  with  exhausting  fruits,  is 
used  at  least  50,  in  the  highest  75,  on  an  average  63  cwt.  of  manure,  and  for  B. 
65  cwt. 

"  5.  Wherever  one  of  the  perennial  plants  for  fodder  is  adopted  in  a  period  of 
manuring,  there  is  a  surplus  of  manure. 

"  6.  But  the  most  striking  influence  of  the  property  of  luzeme  to  increase  the  power 
of  the  soil,  is  shown  by  the  course  of  fruit  A.,  VIII,  after  which  the  potatoes,  being 
otherwise  employed — which  make  the  best  preparation  of  the  soil  for  luzerne — 
the  least  harvest  of  fodder  was  obtained,  rape  is  interposed,  and  yet  a  surplus  of 
manure  gained  of  233  cwt. 

"  7.  On  a  lime,  gravelly,  sainfoin  soil,  for  an  equal  production,  more  manure  was 
required,  or  of  an  equal  quantity  of  manure,  a  less  production  was  obtained.  After 
B.,  I.  II,  III,  on  a  morgen  cultivated  with  fruits  for  sale,  were  carried  on,  on  an  average, 
65  cwt.  of  manure,  whilst  on  the  better  soil  A.,  with  63  cwt.  on  a  morgen,  a  greater 
and  better  production  was  gained. 

"  8.  From  the  amount  of  the  deficiency  of  manure,  may  be  reckoned  the  addition  to 
be  made  in  meadow  and  other  lands  for  fodder. 

"  9.  The  proportion  of  the  supply  of  manure  to  the  need  of  the  manure,  is  here 
shown  in  general.  But  how  much  of  the  employed  manure  must  be  counted  to  each 
fruit,  will  be  more  closely  determined  in  the  economy  of  the  culture  of  plants,  -when 
the  standard  of  the  cost  of  manure  for  reparation  of  the  soil  shall  be  exhibited  under 
the  different  plants  cultivated  on  a  farm." 

"  Of  the  full  manuring  of  200  cwt.,  therefore,  for  the  winter-fruits,  we  reckon  in 
the  1st  manuring  90  to  100  cwt. ;  in  the  2d,  65  to  75  cwt. 

"  Of  the  summer-fruits,  the  most  craving  are  potatoes,  turnips.,  tobacco,  maize, 
artichokes,  flax,  &c. ;  they  require  in  the  first  period  of  manuring  80  to  90  cwt.  of 
manure,  and  in  the  second,  60  to  70  cwt. 

Period  I.  Period  II,  Period  III. 

Beans  and  millet  require  manuring,  70 — 70  50 — 60 

Summer-wheat,  speltz,  &c.,  rye,  barley,  35 — 50  25—30 

Oats, 30—40  20—25 

Peas,  vetches,  lentils,  buckwheat,        .  25 — 35  15 — 20 

Annual  vegetables  for  fodder,  as  fodder- 
mixture,  rape,  &c.,       .         .         .  30—40  15—25  10—15 
Thaer  also  has  estimates  on  these  subjects.     Thus,  in  Vol.  I.,  p.  175,  he  says 

"  We  reckon 

1  yoke  (=  1.422  acre)  of  potatoes  and  other  fruit  of  this  kind  at  16,500  lbs.  of  manure. 
"  "  clover,  in  two  cuttings,  .         .         11.380  '• 

"  "  clover,  in  one  cutting,       .        .         .       6,350  " 

"  "  luzerne, 18,970  " 

"  "  manured  vetches 9,490  " 

"  "  unmanured   "      '.         .         .         .  3,690  " 

This  is  exclusive  of  the  increase  of  weight  which  the  litter-straw  produces. 

With  respect  to  straw,  he  observes,  that  the  proportion  of  the  grain  to  the  straw  is 
as  follows : 

With  rye,     between  38  and  42  to  100. 
"     wheat,         "      48   —   52     " 
"     barley,        "      62  —  64     " 
"     oats,  «      60  —  62     " 

"     peas,  «  35    " 


13 

a 

24,000 

15 

(( 

27,700 

18 

u 

33  300 

20 

{( 

37,000 

221 

u 

41,600 

ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  87 

The  following  Table  of  Thaer's,  also  shows  the  quantity  of  manure  applied  by 
different  modes  of  manuring.  Of  1850  lbs.  cart-loads,  there  are  carried  on  a  yoke 
(=  1.422  acre)  11^,  18  to  22-J-.  The  first  is  called  iveak,  the  second  good,  the  third 
strong  or  rich  manuring. 

With  11^  cart-loads  or  20,800  lbs.  there  will  be  put  on  one  square  foot  0.403  lb. 

'  "                        ■    "        0.464 

'  «                            "        0.536 

'  «                            «        0.644 

'  «                            "        0.716 

'  "                            "        0.805 

With  the  strongest  manuring,  therefore,  there  is  on  a  square  foot  0.8  lb. 

ScHWERTZ  too,  in  Vol.  III.,  p.  141,  Anleitung  zum  Practischen  Ackerbau  (Guide  to 
Practical  Agriculture),  has  many  valuable  observations  on  this  subject.  He  inquires, 
How  much  do  vegetables  gain  or  lose  by  their  conversion  into  manure  ?  To  answer 
this  question,  he  says,  ''that  in  modern  times  there  has  been  proposed  a  multiplier  for 
these  materials  before  use,  and  variously  from  1.3  to  3.7,  according  as  the  discussion 
was  of  litter  or  of  fodder,  of  the  greater  or  less  nutriment  of  the  latter,  or  its  more 
or  less  juicy  state.  It  makes,  indeed,  the  highest  conceivable  difference,  whether  the 
beasts  are  nourished  by  watery  or  dry  substance,  good  or  bad ;  w^hether  they  are 
littered  proportionally  much  or  little ;  whether  the  weight  of  fresh  manure,  or  that 
which  has  lain  some  time,  be  brought  into  the  account  and  how  long,  in  this  latter 
case,  the  manure  has  lain  5  whether  it  has  been  protected,  and  how  treated  ;  with 
what  kind  of  beast,  finally,  the  straw  and  fodder  has  been  employed,  since  that  used 
by  the  cow  yields  more  fresh  manure  than  that  by  the  horse,  and  this  more  than  that 
by  the  sheep.  But  with  whatever  species  of  beasts  both  may  be  used,  therefore  the 
weight  of  the  fresh  manure  thereby  obtained,  rests  almost  simply  and  alone  on 
the  quantity  of  moisture  which  is  mingled  with  it,  and  only  in  the  smallest  degree  on 
the  kind  of  the  beast,  provided  that  the  beasts  are  sound,  and  in  a  condition  to  be  fed 
for  their  needs.  Therefore  the  weight  is  nearly  equal,  if  we  take  the  excrements  in 
their  dry  state.  This  dry  weight,  with  a  cow  is  44,  with  a  horse  40,  w^ith  the  sheep  42. 
We  may  hence  disregard  tlie  difference  of  the  consumer,  and  in  the  following 
estimate  confine  ourselves  to  cattle  as  the  most  common. 

"  One  of  the  greatest  difficulties  in  this  estimate  lies  in  this,  that  the  beast  is  not 
always  foddered  wnth  dry,  but  also  with  juicy  substances.  Of  the  first,  it  is  known 
that  though  a  portion  of  it,  going  from  the  maw  to  the  animal's  support,  is  employed 
for  growth,  &c.,  and  therefore  is  lost  for  manure,  yet  the  dry  fodder  yields  a  greater 
weight  in  the  excrements  than  it  bore  before  it  w^as  eaten.  This  increase  of  weight 
can  rest  on  nothing  else  than  on  the  addition  of  water  or  other  liquids  which  are 
introduced  into  the  body  of  the  animal.  Wholly  contrary  is  the  proportion  with  green 
fodder,  the  texture  of  which  is  not  only  sufficiently  filled  with  its  own  juices,  but  of 
which  it  makes  more  than  its  separated  parts  could  hold  after  their  decomposition. 
There  can,  therefore,  be  no  increase  of  substances  foddered  out  in  a  still  juicy  state, 
but  a  diminution  in  its  mass  must  take  place,  whilst  the  surplus  of  moisture  then 
separates  itself  therefrom,  and  partly  evaporates,  and  partly  unites  with  the  dry-eaten 
fodder,  and  partly  goes  off  with  the  urine  and  soaks  into  the  litter. 

"It  follows,  therefore,  that  if  we  would  make  an  estimate  before-hand  of  the  produc- 
tion of  manure,  it  is  necessary  to  bring  the  substances  foddered  out  to  one  common 
measure  of  solid  parts,  and  from  this  to  conclude  on  the  increase  of  weight  in  manure, 
on  account  of  the  admission  of  moisture,  which  is  added  in  the  maw  or  entrails  of 
the  beast.  It  might,  indeed,  seem,  that  the  dry  parts  of  one  absorbing  substance  would 
take  up  more  watery  parts  than  those  of  another,  as  is  the  case  in  different  subjects 
of  which  they  are  derived ;  but  the  wateriness  of  organic  bodies  proceeds  not  so 
much  from  their  constituent  parts,  as  tVom  the  kind  of  connexion  of  lliose  parts  and 
their  texture.  As  this  texture  is  loosened  by  digestion,  so  the  difference  of  their 
water-retaining  property  passes  away,  and  one  pound  of  dry  potatoes  will  not  give 
more  manure  than  one  pound  of  hay.  We  have  therefore  to  determine,  first  how 
much  dry  substance  the  usual  fresh  or  juicy  articles  of  fodder  giv^e  after  the  loss  of 
their  moisture,  and  for  this  purpose,  quote  the  statements  of  the  excellent  A.  K. 
Block."  It  will  be  recollected,  that  we  have  already  quoted  a  table  of  Equivalents 
from  this  distinguished  author,  which  our  readers  may  find,  with  other  similar  and 
valuable  ones,  on  page  30  of  the  present  work. 


88  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 


100  lbs.  of  hay 

"                potatoes        -        -        - 
«                beets        -        .        .        - 

21  lbs. 

-     28   " 
12   « 

"                 carrots          _         _         _ 

"                cabbage-turnips 

"                turnips        -        _        - 

-  13  " 
21   " 

-  9  " 

"  We  seek  to  know,  therefore,  how  much  dry  substance  the  beast  eating  can  appor- 
priate,  and  how  the  rejected  parts  are  increased. 

"  The  solution  of  the  first  part  of  this  question  is  so  difficult  that  we  may  consider  it 
in  general  as  impossible  to  answer  it  satisfactorily.  We  observe  for  example  that  one 
head  of  kine,  with  equal  fodder,  gives  more  milk,  obtains  more  flesh  and  fat,  and  uses 
up  more  of  the  fodder  than  another;  that  one  dry  substance  is  more  nutritious  than 
another ;  that  therefore  foddered  in  equal  quantity  the  animal  bodies  retain  more  or  less 
of  it,  and  in  the  same  proportions  more  or  less  is  cast  out  therefrom ;  that  beasts  digest 
that  which  is  eaten  better  or  worse,  as  well  as  that  the  food  in  and  of  itself  is  more  or 
less  digestible.  &c.  Hence,  therefore,  there  remains  for  us  nothing  else  than  to  over- 
look wholly  the  decrease  drawn  out  by  the  nourishment — and  this  may  easily  be  done, 
since  that  decrease  in  fact  is  not  so  great  that  we  should  represent  it  to  ourselves — 
and  which  is  replaced  again,  if  not  wholly  yet  in  a  great  degree,  by  that  which  the 
animal  organization  takes  from  the  air,  heat  and  water,  as  well  as  by  the  slime  mixed 
with  the  excrements. 

"  Not  much  less  difficult  is  it  to  determine  the  weight  of  that  thrown  out,  since  its  in- 
crease rests  solely  and  alone  on  the  moisture  mingled  with  it.  But  the  excrements 
are,  as  we  know,  sometimes  thinner,  sometimes  thicker,  and  lose  weight  after  being 
cast  out  each  day,  and  even  each  hour,  so  that  they  sometimes  contain  90,  some- 
times 80,  70,  60,  50  per  cent,  of  moisture,  according  as  they  have  lain  a  longer  or 
shorter  time  ;  as  they  have  been  carefully  or  negligently  handled,  as  they  have  been 
gathered  in  the  stall  or  m  the  yard.  Any  one  can  see  what  a  striking  difference 
these  circumstances  must  produce  in  the  weight  of  the  manure.  According  to  the 
experiments  of  the  Abbate  Gazzeri,  manure  lost  after  some  4  months,  54.81  per 
cent. ;  thus  above  half  its  weight.  As  this  learned  man,  whose  experiment  was 
proposed  with  only  a  small  mass  (some  40  lbs.),  sought  diligently  to  diminish  the  fer- 
mentation and  evaporation  of  the  same,  we  may  suppose  that  the  manure  in  a  consi- 
derable mass  treated  after  the  usual  manner  would  have  lost  far  more. 

We  conclude,  therefore,  that  when  manure  is  brought  on  the  field  its  mois- 
ture has  lost  in  proportion  to  its  solid  parts  |  of  its  weight,  therefore  it  yet  con- 
tains 75  per  cent,  of  moisture,  a  state  in  which  on  an  average  it  will  for  the  most  part 
be  brought  on  the  field.  Accordingly  we  may  expect  of  the  substances  fed  out  the 
following  quantity  of  manure. 

100  lbs.  of  fodder.  Contain  lbs.  of  Give  in  lbs.  of  manure  at 

drv  parts.  75  per  cent,  moisture. 

Hay         -  -        -        "100  -        -        -         175 

Straw         -  -        -       100  -        .        -     175 

Clover   -  -        .        -    21  -        -        -            36|- 

Potatoes    -  -        -        28  -        -        -       49 

Beets      -  -        -        -   12  -        -        -        -  21 

Carrots      -  -        -         13  -        -        -       22?- 

Cabbage-turnips     -  22  -        -        -           38^ 

Turnips  .        .         lo  .        _        .       171 

Straw-litter  -        -          100  -        -        -        200 

"  The  multiplier  of  all  the  substances  mentioned  in  a  dry  state  will  therefore  be  1.75, 
with  the  exception  of  the  litter,  which  I  have  ;aken  at  do'uble  its  weight  for  manure, 
because  it  gives  nothing  for  the  support  of  the  beasts,  and  also,  on  account  of  its  cel- 
lular tissue  and  hollow  stalks,  it  is  in  a  state  to  take  up  more  moisture  than  can  be 
tlie  case  after  bruising  and  digestion.'^ 

ScHWERTZ  also  gives  the  following  tabular  view  of  a  Hectare,  4  of  which  are  equal 
to  10  English  acres  (therefore  about  2^  acres)  of  green  and  dry  fodder,  and  the 
manure  furnished  by  the  same : 


ECONOMY   OF  FARMING. 


89 


Weight  of  Fodder  and  Straw. 

Product  ir 

1  Manure. 

Articles. 

In  a  fresh  state. 

In  a  dry  state. 

At  75  per  cei 

It.  moisture. 

Kilograms. 

Kilograms. 

Kilograms. 

Cartloads. 

Cabbas^e-turnips, 

35  000 

7700 

13415 

14.86 

Potatoes, 

27,000 

7560 

13230 

14.70 

Luzerne,   . 

26,200 

5504 

9097 

10.10 

Turnips, 

50,000 

5000 

8750 

9.72 

Clover, 

23,800 

4998 

8270 

9.19 

Carrots, 

35,000 

4550 

7962 

8.84 

Maize, 

4500 

7875 

8.75 

Beets,    . 

36,000 

4320 

7560 

8.40 

Rye,          .        . 

3500 

7000 

7.77 

Rape,    . 

3000 

5250 

5.80 

Oats, 

3000 

5250 

5.80 

Meadow-grass, 

13,300 

2793 

4888 

5.43 

Beans, 

2500 

4625 

5.14 

Peas,  vetches, 

2500 

4625 

5.14 

Barley,      . 

2200 

3850 

4.27 

A  Kilogram  is  nearly  2^  lbs. 

"  Considerable  as  is  always  the  production  of  the  straw  of  a  field,  yet  we  see  that  it 
is  not  equal  in  reference  to  the  mass  of  manure  of  the  several  plants  for  fodder,  since, 
if  we  average  the  articles  quoted  which  yield  fodder,  it  gives  material  for  only  10^ 
cartloads  of  manure,  whilst  the  articles  producing  straw  yield  only  for  9  cartloads  per 
hectare.  Hence  it  is  not  to  be  overlooked,  that  the  fluid  parts  drawn  from  the  juicy 
plants  by  digestion  are  not  generally  lost,  although  they  are  no  more  found  in  the 
excrements  derived  from  those  vegetables.  But  they  unite  themselves  mostly  with 
the  dry  eaten  articles,  as  well  as  with  the  litter.  What  those,  therefore,  lose,  will  be 
pure  gain  for  these,  from  which  we  may  conclude  how  important  green  fodder  gene- 
rally is.  If  cattle  have  no  juicy  articles,  they  must  drink  the  more  ;  the  quantity  ot 
their  excrements  indeed  remains  the  same,  but  the  quality  will  not  gain  much  by  the 
strong  addition  of  water,  though  as  to  this  last  the  operation  cannot  all  be  denied  to 
its  improvement." 

Burger,  Vol.  I.,  p.  121,  speaking  of  plants  to  be  employed  as  green  manure,  says: 
"  For  a  climate  in  which  wdieat  ripens  at  the  end  of  June,  the  lupine — lupinus  alhus 
— is  the  most  important  plant:  to  this  succeed,  in  colder  regions,  vetches,  gray  peas, 
turnips ;  for  easy  soils,  spurry  and  buckwheat." 

"  The  experiments  which  were  made  in  the  experimental  fields  of  the  Agricultural 
Society  of  Vienna,  in  the  years  1S23-4,  1833-4,  with  such  manuring,  and  which  are 
given  Vol.  II.  2nd  part,  and  Vol.  III.  2nd  part,  of  their  Transactions  for  the  year 
1834-5,  prove  especially  the  great  effects  of  manuring  with  lupines  and  gray  peas  on 
the  ground.  In  the  autumn  of  1832,  a  field  was  sown  with  rye.  For  one  yoke  (1.422 
acres)  there  was  used  1.61  metzen  (2.67  bushels)  of  seed,  which  was  evidently  too  small. 
This  field  was  divided  into  seven  parts,  and  each  part  had  a  different  preparation, 
and  gave  in  the  next  summer  of  1833,  a  product  reduced  to  the  yoke  as  follows : 


Product  of  a  yoke,  (ahout  If  acre.) 

The  above  mentioned  prepara- 
tion of  the  fields. 

In  grain. 

In  straw. 

str.  per  acre. 

1.  White  lupines,  ploughed  in, 

2.  Vetches 

3.  Rye                        «            " 

4.  Pure  fallow,  manured, 

5.  Clover  stubble,  half  manur'd 

6.  "             unmanured, 

7.  Barley  stubble,  half  manur'd 

metzen. 

41 

27 
21 
31 
23 
23 
27 

achtel. 

2 
6 

4 
3 

1 
5 

bushels. 

69.3 

46 

34 

52.5 

37.2 

37 

46.6 

lbs. 

3912 
2232 
2S32 
3925 
2635 
2724 
3480 

lbs. 

2600 
1500 
1890 
2602 
2008 
2066 
2411 

12 


90 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 


'•  The  next  year,  1833,  there  was  not  a  sufficient  quantity  of  lupines,  and  therefore 
gray  peas  were  taken,  which  are  usually  cultivated  as  fodder-plants.  These  peas 
were  sowed  in  the  spring,  in  the  half  of  a  field  devoted  to  winter  plough-land  and 
ploughed  in  in  their  blossom,  and  once  more  sowed  with  peas,  which  had  grown 
already  so  far,  at  the  time  of  sowing  rye,  that  the  pods  had  begun  to  set.  In  the 
other  half  of  the  field,  peas  sowed  in  the  spring  were  suffered  to  ripen,  and  then  on 
this,  stall-manure  was  used  at  the  rate  of  380  cwt.  a  yoke  (or  253  cwt.  for  an  acre). 
Each  of  the  two  pieces  were  divided  into  two  equal  parts,  and  one  sowed  with  Avinter 
rye,  and  the  other  with  wheat.  The  amount  sown,  and  product,  are  given  in  the  fol- 
lowinor  table : 


The  above  mentioned  prepa- 
tion  of  the  fields. 

Wmler  Wheat. 
After   the    ripe    peas    were 

taken  off,  manured,  30  loads 

of  12  cwt.  on   a  yoke,  (or 

240  cwt.  per  acre,) 
Double  green  manuring,  with 

gray  fodder  peas, 

Winter  Rye. 
Manured  as  above,  after  peas 

taken  off, 
Double  green  manuring  with 

gray  fodder  peas, 


Seed 

sown. 

Product  in 

Per  yoke. 

Per  acre. 

Grain. 

Straw. 

Per  yoke. 

P'r  acre 

P'ryokf 

P'r  acre 

metzen. 
2.44 

bushels. 
4.12 

m.  Sthsmasl.bushl's 
22    7      i       48.7 

lbs. 
3,348 

lbs. 
2,500 

2.71 

4.17 

30    3    2^ 

65 

4,580 

3,131 

3.31 

5.09 

23    7    1| 

50.5 

4,731 

3,228 

3.63 

5.63 

27    6    \\ 

47 

5,618 

3,900 

cwt. 

qis. 

lbs. 

19   , 

3 

25 

15 

0 

7 

14 

0 

5 

9 

3 

18 

9 

0 

7 

"  The  results  of  these  two  experiments  are  very  decisive,  and  so  far  as  one  may 
reason  from  the  less  to  the  greater,  they  show  that  the  marked  effects  of  green  ma- 
nuring cannot  be  ascribed  to  circumstances  merely." 

The  following  statements  and  estimates  may  perhaps  be  as  well  introduced 
here  as  elsewhere : 

From  an  experiment  on  the  comparative  weight  of  manures,  it  appears  according 
to  the  British  Farmer's  Magazine,  that — 

"  One  cubical  yard  of  garden-mould  weighs 
"        "  ''  water  _  _  _ 

"        "  "  of  a  compost  of  earth,  weeds, 

lime  and  dung  that  had  lain  9  months  and  been 

turned  over 
"        "  "  new  dung 

"        "  ''  leaves  and  sea-weeds 

''  Thaer  calculates  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  any  straw  farm-yard  manure  at  only 
about  46  lbs. ;  while  one  that  has  been  partly  decomposed  will  weigh  from  56  to  upwards 
of  60  lbs.  without  being  compressed."  Thaer  also  remarks  respecting  the  evaporation 
of  manure,  not  only  does  theory  teach  us  but  during  his  own  experience  he  has  had 
frequent  occasion  to  observe,  "  that  it  is  hurtful  to  remove  farm-yard  manure  while  it 
is  in  a  high  degree  of  fermentation  ;  for  according  to  all  appearance,  an  essential 
portion  of  the  most  active  substances  of  which  it  is  composed  are  evaporated  when 
exposed  to  the  air  while  that  process  is  going  on.  But  before  the  fermentation  lias 
arrived  at  its  height,  or  after  it  has  passed,  the  dung  does  not  seem  to  lose  any  thing 
by  exposure  to  the  air;  or  at  least,  nothing  but  what  it  regains  by  some  other 
means."  Sir  Humphrey  Davy  says,  that  "  dung  which  has  fermented  so  as  to  be- 
come a  mere  soft  cohesive  mass  has  generally  lost  from  one-third  to  one-half  of  its  most 
useful  constituent  elements."  Prof  Coventry  of  Edinburgh,  has  calculated  that  on  an 
acre  of  arable  land  of  a  medium  degree  of  fertiUty  and  management  maybe  produced 
in  round  numbers  28  bushels  of  wheat,  36  of  barley,  42  of  oaTs  ;  and  that  the  average 
quantity  of  straw  yielded  by  those  crops  will  amount  to  21  cwt.  He  sup])oses  that 
ihis.  if  moistened  and  rolled,  would  gain  |,  or  between  -^  and  f  of  its  own  gross 
weight,  thus  producing  3^  tons  of  manure.  He  has  also  given  an  estimate  of  the 
average  quantity  of  manure  such  land  might  produce,  accordingly  as  used  for  diffe- 
rent crops,  thus : 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  91 

It  -n  torn, 

"  By  clover,  grass,  or  herbage,  hay,  &r..,  firsc  year  -  -  6 

"        "       if  mowed  the  second  year    -  -  -  -  51 

"    pulse-crops — as  beans — part  of  the  grain  being  fed  by  live  stock  5^ 

"        "        when  the  grain  is  sold  -  -  -  -  5 

"     white  or  corn  crops,  as  wheat,  barley,  &c., 
as  an  average  of  the  whole 

"  Meadow-land,  which  gives  1|  ton  of  hay  to  an  acre,  has  been  calculated  to  give 
6f  tons  of  manure  to  the  acre." 

As  to  the  quantity  of  manure  voided,  we  find  it  mentioned  that  "  36  cows  and  4 
horses  tied  up  ate  50  tons  of  hay,  and  had  20  acres  (equal  to  probably  25  tons)  of 
straw  for  litter,  from  which  they  produced  200  loads  of  rotten  dung."  An  experi- 
rnent  made  with  a  horse  is  thus  g-iven  for  one  week : 


"  Oafs  each  day 

10  lbs.  =  70  lbs. 

Hay     "      " 

12  *'     =84  " 

Straw"      " 

8  "    =56  " 

"  He  drank  within  the  week  27  gallons  of  water,  and  during  his  time  of  exercise  (1 
hour  each  day),  the  loss  of  the  dung  is  supposed  to  have  been  4  lbs.  daily,  or  28  lbs., 
in  which  period  therefore, 

The  total  forage  consumed  amounted  to  210  lb. 
And  the  dung  and  litter  produced  was      227   " 
"Thus — if  the  lost  dung  be  added — yielding  with  the  addition  of  the  moisture  im- 
parted to  the  litter  by  urine,  an  increase  off  beyond  the  weight  of  the  solid  food." 

Another  experiment  was  with  a  cow,  "  which  was  fed  during  four-and-twenty 
hours  with  the  following  provender : 

81  lbs.  of  brewers'  grains, 
30      "     raw  potatoes, 
15       "      meadow-hay. 
"  The  food  thus  amounted  to  126  lbs.     She  drank  2  pailsful  of  water,  and  the  urine 
was   allowed  to  run  off;  but  she  had  no  straw  or  litter  of  any  kind,  and  the  weight 
of  the  solid  dung  which  was  carefully  swept  up  amounted  to  45  lbs." 

A  third  was  on  the  same  cow,  which  consumed  in  24  hours  170  lbs.  of  potatoes  and 
38  lbs.  of  hay,  and  the  solid  manure  amounted  to  73  lbs.  It  is  said,  however,  that  in 
this  last  case  her  milk  fell  off  2  quarts  per  day.  Arthur  Young  states  in  the  Papers 
of  the  Bath  and  West  of  England  Society,  that  from  a  winter  stock  of  6  horses,  4 
cows,  and  9  lean  hogs,  which  consumed  16  loads  of  hay,  with  29  loads  of  straw  for 
litter,  besides  the  usual  quantity  of  oats  for  working-cattle,  the  quantity  of  manure 
obtained  was  118  loads  each  of  36  bushels,  and  "45  oxen,  littered  while  fattening 
with  20  wagon-loads  of  stubble,  are  said  to  have  produced  600  tons  of  rotten  duno-.''' 

Tr.] 

32.  But  because  the  plants  for  fodder  obtained  on  the  fields  and  meadows, 
must  be  employed  for  the  nourishment  of  beasts,  by  which  a  part  of  their 
substance  is  dissipated  by  the  processes  of  digestion  ;  and  because  in  the 
putrefaction  of  the  manure  in  the  stalls  and  on  the  dunghills,  a  part  of  the 
substance  is  wholly  lost  in  the  form  of  air  ;  we  must  therefore  replace,  ac- 
cording to  the  proportion  of  this  loss,  a  greater  part  than  is  furnished  in 
fodder  and  litter  by  the  restoration  of  organic  and  inorganic  matter  employ- 
ed for  the  production  of  plants,  and  of  that  given  in  addition  to  make  up  the 
quantity  by  weight  taken  out  for  the  production  of  manure. 

In  the  estimate  quoted  above,  as  well  as  in  that  extracted  from  p.  180,  Vol.  I.,  and 
in  the  following  one,  no  regard  must  be  had  to  the  loss  of  substance,  partly  in  order 
not  to  render  complex  this  generally  only  hypothetical  calculation,  and  partly  be- 
cause it  is  more  than  probable  that  the  straw  of  the  culmiferous  grains  should  not  be 
wholly  ascribed  to  the  humus,  as  is  the  case  in  this  estimate,  but  also  owes  an  impor- 
tant portion  of  its  weight  to  the  constituent  parts  of  the  air,  water,  and  mineral 
bodies. 

33.  From  the  amount  of  the  production  in  vegetables  of  different  kinds 


92  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

in  a  long  course  of  years,  we  may  reckon  with  tolerable  certainty  how  great 
the  mass  of  manure  would  be  which  one  must  employ  for  the  purpose. 

34.  We  can  therefore  compute  beforehand  how  great  the  production 
will  be  if  a  greater  mass  of  manure  has  been  employed  than  usual. 

How  the  amount  of  production  on  plough-land  stands  in  respect  to  greater  manur- 
ing, we  have  already  shown  in  Vol.  I.  §  VII.  d.  14.  p.  180,  to  which  reference  may 
be  had. 

[The  remarks  and  estimates  referred  to.  have  already  been  quoted  in  the  preceding 
paragraph  (31),  found  on  p.  80—92  of  this  prt sent  work.— Tr.] 

35.  But  because  stall-manure  is  a  substance  which  only  gradually  dis- 
solves in  water,  and  because  in  the  first  and  second  years  the  greater  part 
of  the  same  reaches  to  this  state  ;  therefore  the  harvests  of  the  first  and 
second  years  after  manuring  must  be  proportionally  greater  than  of  the  third 
and  fourth. 

It  is  therefore  usual  in  estimates  of  husbandry,  where  the  cost  of  the  manure  is 
charged  to  the  fruit  benefitted,  to  assume  that  every  time  manure  is  brought  on  the 
field  it  loses,  in  the  1st  year,     ^ 

«     «    2nd     "        i 

"     "     Sd      "        i 

"    «    4th     "       -iV 

[Veit's  estimates  corresponding  with  the  above  have  already  been  given  (31)  p. 
82.  Speaking  of  the  decrease  of  the  power  of  the  soil  according  to  the  quality  of  the 
manure,  he  observes,  Vol.  I.  p.  342 :  "  Manure  escapes  from  the  soil  according  to  the 
decree  of  its  being  dissolved.  As  to  its  quality  of  solubleness  in  any  case,  the  farmer 
wifl  decide  who  prepares  it,  according  to  his  object,  to  obtain  a  more  rapid  or  tardy^ 
effect.  In  most  cases  of  farming,  it  is  intended  to  have  an  effect  lasting  a  number  of 
years,  by  which  one  can  obtain  many  harvests  on  the  same  field,  from  one  manuring. 
For  this  object  it  is  usual  to  employ  stall-manure,  if  the  litter  is  brittle  and  divisible 
by  the  past  fermentation.  In  this  half-rotten  state,  the  manure  in  the  first  year  of 
vegetation  will  exert  its  greatest  activity  by  the  easily-dissolved  animal  substances ; 
but  also  a  great  part  of  its  mass,  and  indeed  the  solid  vegetable  substances  of  the 
litter  and  remains  of  fodder,  will  operate  in  the  2d  year,  and  a  considerable  remnant, 
also,  even  to  the  3d  year's  fruit.  If  one  wishes  to  make  the  eflicacy  of  the  stall-ma- 
nure yet  more  gradual,  he  may  employ  it  before  it  begins  to  ferment,  or  hold  this  back 
till  he  employs  it,  in  which  case  indeed  in  the  first  year  the  manuring  powers  devel- 
ope  themselves  in  less  measure,  but  yet  exert  themselves  efficaciously  in  the  3d  and 
4th  years. 

But  if  it  is  the  object  to  have  the  full  and  greatest  effect  of  the  manure  in  the  first 
year  of  the  fruit,  he  will  only  employ  fermented  well  decomposed  stall-manure,  or  it 
may  be  kinds  of  manure  in  the  form  of  powder,  or  of  a  liquid,  which  usually  give  only 
a  little  strength  for  the  2d  year's  fruit,  and  therefore  must  be  repeated  in  a  shorter 
space," — Tr.] 

36.  The  substance  of  manure  will  draw  from  the  sod,  through  all  plants, 
in  an  inverse  ratio,  compounded  of  the  absolute  quantity  of  their  similarly- 
formed  product,  and  their  relative  power  to  assimilate  inorganic  matter. 

In  manures  are  contained  all  the  elements  of  the  vegetable  material,  and  thus,  as 
the  manure  is  found  in  a  state  to  be  dissolved  in  water,  the  plants  suck  it  in,  and  the 
organs  existing  in  the  interior  of  plants,  first  separate  those  substances  which  are 
needed  for  the  formation  of  the  constituent  parts  of  the  plants.  The  greater,  there- 
fore, the  quantity  of  material  that  can  be  dissolved  which  is  in  the  soil,  the  larger  will 
be  the  product  in  plants  and  parts  of  plants  of  all  kinds;  only  in  the  consumption  of 
manure,  a  difference  is  shown,  because  after  a  harvest  equal  in  weight  of  peas  and 
wheat,  not  an  equal  amount  of  humus  has  been  taken  from  the  soil.  It  seems  to  me 
that  we  explain  in  this  way,  much  more  simply  and  correctly,  the  consumption  of 
manure,  than  if  we  suppose  with  Thaer.  that  the  same  is  proportioned  according  to 
the  amount  of  the  product  of  plants,  and  their  capacity  for  nutritition. 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  93 

Thus,  according  to  EinhofF,  100  parts  of  wheat  contain,  of  nourishing  matter — 
starch,  gluten,  albumen,  slime,  sugar,  and  oil,  77.5 

100  parts  of  rye  contain     70. 
"        '•     "    large  barley,  62.5 
"        "     "    small       "      60.3 
♦'        "     "    oats,  58. 

Therefore  the  field  would  lose  so  much  the  more  in  humus,  than  the  excess  it  pro- 
duced of  like  weight  of  the  first  fruits  above  the  last,  or  would  need  so  much  more 
manure,  if  one  cultivated  it  in  the  rotation  of  wheat  and  barley,  than  if  with  rye  and 
oats.  But  because  the  success  of  the  one  or  the  other  plants  depends  not  only  on  the 
manure,  but  also  on  a  quantity  of  moisture,  warmth,  &c.,  proportioned  to  the  nature  of 
the  plants ;  therefore  it  must  be  ascribed  to  these  circumstances,  that  the  same  quan- 
tity of  manure  which  is  here  required  for  the  production  of  a  certain  amount  of  rye 
and  oats,  elsewhere  produces  as  great  a  weight  of  wheat  and  barley.  I  have  with 
the  greatest  particularity  ascertained  the  quantity  of  manure  used  in  Upper  Austria, 
in  many  regions  of  Lower  Stiermark  and  Carinthia,  in  Friuli  and  Istria,  with  their 
harvests  in  wheat,  barley,  and  other  fruits,  and  compared  these  with  the  manure  and 
the  harvests  of  other  countries,  in  rye,  oats,  millet,  &c. ;  and  I  have  not  found  more 
manure  necessary  for  the  production  of  a  certain  amount  of  wheat  and  barley, 
in  the  former  countries  than  in  the  latter,  to  produce  an  equal  weight  of  rye  and 
oats.  I  found,  moreover,  they  manured  rather  less  there  than  here,  which  seems 
very  probable,  if  we  take  into  consideration  the  effect  of  the  light  soil  of  the  former 
regions  on  the  consumption  of  manure,  and  on  that  of  the  looser  soil  of  the  last  coun- 
try. But  if  any  one  will  cultivate  these  fruits  in  a  soil  unpropitious  to  wheat  and 
barley,  then  he  needs  everywhere  more  manure,  if  he  would  obtain  a  product  pro- 
portioned to  that  of  a  soil  of  any  particular  grade,  since  the  humus  must  then  be- 
come not  only  a  nutritious  substance,  but  one  which  will  absorb  the  water,  and  retain 
the  same  in  the  soil ;  and  hence  must  be  explained  the  idea  prevailing  in  all  coun- 
tries with  an  easy  soil,  and  the  correct  observation,  that  wheat  needs  more  manure 
than  rye.  Besides  this,  there  are  Thaer's  views  concerning  the  increase  of  power 
which  the  soil  obtains  by  fallows,  the  threefold  division  of  fields,  and  the  culture  of 
clover — by  no  means  corresponding  with  my  own,  yet  ingenious,  and  if  we  grant 
the  premises,  conclusive.  I  cannot  here  allow  myself  a  closer  opposition  to  Thaer's 
hypothesis,  yet  I  maintain  that  mine  is  capable  of  proof  in  all  its  parts.  It  is  suf- 
ficient for  the  object  of  this  volume,  to  give  a  sketch  of  my  own  view :  whoever 
wishes  to  learn  Thaer's  opinion  fully  will  find  it  in  the  first  volume  of  his  Rational 
Land  Husbandry,  §  251,  &c. ;  then  in  the  second  volume,  p.  14,  in  his  History  of  Hus- 
bandry at  Moghn,  p.  247 ;  and  finally,  in  the  first  volume  of  the  MOglin  Annals,  p.  235. 

But  it  is  necessary  to  read  also  the  views  of  Wulfen,  in  the  MOglin  Annals,  Vol. 
II.  p.  258 ;  and  a  Treatise,  very  admirable  in  many  respects,  of  J.  G.  Koppe  (the 
Review  of  the  Systems  of  Agriculture,  Berlin  1818),  in  order  to  learn  what  is  said  for 
the  further  explanation  of  Thaer's  hypothesis  in  the  first  of  these  papers  ;  and  what 
against  it  in  the  second  of  them. 

Finally,  I  must  here  mention,  also,  an  Essay,  relating  to  this  subject,  from  an 
anonymous  writer,  contained  in  the  Land-and-Forst-wissensch.of  Sprengel,  Bruns- 
wick, 1834,  p.  396.  It  bears  the  title,  "  Of  the  Statics  of  Agriculture,"  and  is  extend- 
ed to  the  four  following  questions : 

1.  In  what  proportions  do  the  different  fruits  derive  their  nourishment  from  the  soil. 

2.  In  what  proportions  does  the  product  of  the  fruits  stand  with  nutritious  particles 
existing  in  the  soil,  drawn  from  the  crops  ;  and  what  can  one  promise  himself  of  a 
supposed  power  in  the  soil,  in  an  average  year  of  any  kind  of  grain  ? 

3.  In  what  proportions  can  the  productive  power  of  the  soil,  be  replaced  by  manure 
or  in  any  other  way  ? 

4.  In  what  proportion,  in  fine,  is  the  power  of  production  to  a  given  culture  of  fruit 
and  weight  of  manure,  for  or  against,  in  a  certain  rotation  ? 

The  Author  relates  when  and  where  Thaer  proposed  these  questions ;  how,  here- 
upon, Wulfen  sought  to  answer  them  by  algebraic  formula ;  how,  more  recently, 
Messrs.  Von  Thunen  and  Geisler  have  labored  on  the  subject^  but  without  having 
found  any  response  from  the  educated  agricultural  public.  Agreeing  perfectly  with 
my  own  view,  he  goes  on  to  say  that  in  the  circumstances,  as  one  cannot  leave  unno- 
ticed the  elementary  influences  on  the  culture  of  the  soil,  herein  lies  the  ground, 
wherefore  land-husbandry,  considered  as  a  science,  must  not  be  counted  among  the 
positive,  but  the  experimental  sciences ;  and  since  an  infinite  number  of  experiments 
remain  to  be  made  in  the  same,  so  the  science  can  take  no  positive  character  j  whence 


94  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

it  follows  that,  by  a  mathematical  mode,  it  cannot  be  brought  to  a  completeness, 
and  much  less  to  an  end  ;  for  it  is  acknowledged  on  all  sides  that  the  solution  of  the 
problem  depends  on  the  supremacy  of  the  unalterable  elements,  the  effects  of  which 
can  be  known  only  in  the  way  of  experiment,  according  to  quantity,  and  never 
according  to  quality ;  the  operation  of  the  elementary  and  chemical  powers  in  the 
culture  of  the  soil,  being  in  a  great  measure  withheld  from  our  verification  and  obser- 
vation, and  accurate  experiments  exist  in  a  small  number ;  so  that  it  is  extremely 
difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  bring  the  free  elements  into  a  union  perfectly  corres- 
ponding in  every  respect  with  the  unalterable  ones.  The  theory  at  the  basis  of  a 
formula,  according  to  which  the  product  and  exhaustion  of  the  soil  can  be  reckoned — 
with  which  especially  Wulfen  occupied  himself— justly  appears  to  the  Author  super- 
fluous, and  is  a  circuitous  mode,  if  a  man  hopes  by  it  that  the  agreement  of  the  formula 
will  prove  backwards  the  correctness  of  the  theory  ;  since  this  would  always  be  only 
the  old  w^ay  of  experiment,  every  agreement  must  be  often  repeated  in  order  to 
demonstrate  the  correctness  of  the  theory,  which  would  not  follow  from  particular 
cases. 

Physics  and  Mathematics,  and  especially  the  practical  mathematics,  are  employed 
about  bodies  with  varying  quantities  ;  but  Agriculture  knows  only  one  imperishable 
quantity,  the  earth  which  yearly  allows  new  growth  to  proceed  from  it.  Here,  there- 
fore, is  an  eternal  coming  and  going,  and  if  we  could  explain  that  one  species 
of  grain  used  just  so  much  nutritious  matter  in  order  to  form  a  certain  quantity  of 
kernels,  yet  it  would  not  thence  follow,  that  by  this  quantity  of  kernels  produced 
from  the  nutritious  matter  in  the  soil,  which  is  here  named  as  its  power,  it  must  be 
lessened  a  certain  quantity  according  to  weight,  and  exactly  in  proportion  to  the 
quantity  of  kernels  ;  because  the  production  of  kernels  is  in  no  wise  effected  by  the 
power  of  the  soil  only,  by  which  we  here  understand  the  given  manure. 

The  Author  justly  observes,  that  we  must  consider  the  soil  not  merely  as  the  bearer 
of  vegetation,  but  also  as  an  agent,  in  so  far  as  it  acts  chemically  on  the  decomposable 
matter  in  it,  and  combines  with  the  constituent  parts  of  the  atmosphere  ;  and  since 
moisture  and  heat  cannot  be  brought  into  the  calculation,  because  they  are  too 
changeable  quantities,  it  follows  hence,  that  we  can  adopt  the  Statics  of  Agriculture 
for  nothing  else  than  a  practical  natural  philosophy  of  Agriculture  with  its  results  ; 
and  that  the  employment  of  mathematical  formula  do  not  answer  for  the  computation 
of  the  processes  of  vegetation ;  since,  though  one  begins  this  process  well,  yet  he 
cannot  follow  it  in  the  course  of  its  development,  and  cannot  observe  and  bring  into 
the  computation  the  combinations  of  earthy,  organic  and  atmospherical  matter. 

From  this  cause,  I  have  never  been  able  to  explain  to  myself,  so  as  by  it  to  reckon 
algebraically  the  result  of  the  processes  of  hfe,  and  I  have  believed  that  I  ought 
therefore  previously  to  confine  myself  to  compute  from  the  quantity  of  substances 
affording  nutriment  to  plants  brought  on  the  field,  the  probable  profit  to  be  expected 
in  vegetable  products  for  a  given  rotation  ;  by  which,  as  is  easily  seen,  on  account  of 
the  difference  of  the  operation  of  the  weather,  the  product  is  not  brought  into  the 
course  of  a  particular  year ;  but  the  collective  amount  will  agree,  so  far  as  one  can 
expect  of  so  imperfect  a  computation,  and  which  can  scarcely  be  brought  to  a 
higher  degree  of  perfection,  as  we  know  only  the  mixture  of  the  soil  and  the  quan- 
tity of  the  substances  nourishing  plants  applied  to  it;  the  other  two  chief  factors  of 
the  processes  of  vegetation,  heat  and  moisture,  are  previously  unknown. 

That  my  opinions  concerning  the  proportion  of  manure  to  the  production;  the 
difference  of  proportion  in  grass-kind  and  husk-kind  of  fruits,  in  the  root  and  knob 
vegetables ;  then  whether  these  should  be  cut  before  or  after  the  blossom,  or  after  the 
ripening  of  the  seed-corns,  contain  much  that  is  arbitrary,  resting  either  only  on 
probability,  or  not  demonstrated  by  sufficient  observations  and  experiments,  I  will  nol 
deny.  The  object  of  the  question  is  yet  too  new,  too  little  diffused,  and  demands  for 
the  solution  of  the  problem,  very  closely-tried  computations  of  husbandry,  which  are 
rarely  to  be  found,  and  which  the  farmers  can  scarcely  undertake  on  account  of  the 
continued  observation  which  they  require.  On  this  account,  I  hope  that  the  simple 
formula  which  I  have  proposed,  will  be  acknowledged  better  than  all  hitherto  set 
forth,  by  which  to  reckon  the  profit  to  be  expected  in  products  in  any  given  mode  of 
husbandry,  and  to  show  afterwards  the  increasing  production  which  will  result  from 
the  change  of  husbandry,  so  far  as  this  is  connected  with  the  production  of  more 
manure,  or  a  less  consumption  of  the  substance  which  nourishes  the  plants. 

Though  many  believe  it  to  be  a  mere  scientific,  and  as  they  say,  a  useless  contest, 
which  is  here  presented,  yet  every  man  knows,  that  the  better  he  manures,  the  richer 
harvests  he  obtains,  as  well  as  that  he  harvests  less  in  the  year  the  furtlier  he  recedes 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  95 

from  the  time  of  manuring :  therefore  they  may  reflect  that  no  practice  exists  without 
theory,  and  that  a  correct  or  a  false  theory  always  exhibits  itself  by  a  correct  or 
defective  practice.  Is  our  view — concerning  the  different  capacity  of  plants  to 
assimilate  organic  matters ;  concerning  the  advantages  of  clover  and  luzerne  roots  ; 
of  the  necessity  of  replacing  to  the  grass-kind  of  grain  fruit  all  that  they  have  pro- 
duced, &c — correct  ?  this  is  of  the  greatest  importance  for  the  practice  of  Agriculture, 
as  we  have  had  occasion  to  show  in  the  sixth  paragraph  of  this  note. 

2.    WHAT    ANIMALS     PRODUCE    THE    NECESSARY    MANURE     FOR    THE    MANAGEMENT    OP 
THE    FARM   AT   THE    CHEAPEST    RATE  ? 

1.  Those  animals  will  produce  the  manure  required  for  agriculture  at  the 
cheapest  rate,  which  by  the  value  of  their  labor  or  their  otherwise  usefulness 
repay  wholly  or  in  a  great  measure,  the  value  of  the  food  given  them. 

When  horses  perform  so  much  labor  that  their  food  and  all  that  is  expended  on 
them  is  thus  repaid ;  then  the  manure  which  they  produce  in  the  stables  is  a  clear 
profit.  If  they  do  not  perform  so  much  work  that  the  cost  is  covered,  the  value  of 
their  manure  mustbe  reckoned  to  repair  this  loss.  If  through  futeningthe  fodder  as  well 
as  the  trouble  is  repaid  by  the  increased  value  of  the  cattle ;  then  the  value  of  the 
manure  is  a  clear  gain  in  this  undertaking.  But  if  oxen,  cows,  sheep  and  swine  do 
not  by  their  use  repay  the  value  of  their  feeding ;  then  we  must  either  reckon  their 
manure  to  the  field  far  too  high  to  cover  these  losses,  by  which  we  deceive  ourselves, 
or  we  must  enter  it  as  loss  sustained  on  cattle. 

According  to  Arngeville's  estimates,  100  lbs.  Vienna  weight  (about  123  lbs.  English) 
of  stall-manure  stood  him  at  lO.S  kr.  (about  7  cts.),  as  there  the  value  of  hay  is 
51  kr.  (=:  33  cts.  per  cwt.),  and  a  cwt.  of  rich  cheese  sells  for  only  20  j  florins  (= 
nearly  $10). 

2.  Manure  has  for  a  given  place  a  definite  value.  As  much  greater  as 
is  the  value  in  the  production  of  fruits  from  one  manuring  on  one  half  of  the 
field  manured,  compared  with  another  which  was  not  manured,  will  be  the 
value  of  the  manuring. 

According  to  the  cash-value  of  the  plants  which  one  cultivates  is  the  cash-value  of 
the  manure.  Therefore  the  gardener  can  reckon  it  higher  than  the  farmer.  He  can 
reckon  it  higher  who  employs  it  for  plants  raised  for  trade,  than  he  can  who  uses  it 
to  raise  grain  to  be  consumed  on  his  farm,  because  the  former  always  sells  propor- 
tionally higher  than  the  latter.  Where  maize  and  wheat  are  the  principal  products, 
the  value  of  the  manure  is  higher  than  where  they  are  rye  and  oats.  Thaer  sets 
down  a  cart  load  of  stall-manure  of  20  Berlin  cwt.  =  1S72  lbs.  Vienna  weight  (about 
1  ton  English),  equal  to  1|  Berlin  schafiel  =  1.32  metzen  (=  2^  bushels),  and  if  we 
suppose  with  Hube  (der  Landwirth,  Vol.  II.  p.  402),  that  one  half  of  the  product  in 
grain  in  a  not-hitherto  neglected  farm,  must  be  ascribed  to  the  newly-carried  on  ma- 
nure, and  the  other  half  to  the  old  humus,  and  that  there  was  harvested  in  the  first 
half  twice  as  much  as  in  the  last  half;  then  this  valuation  where  peas,  rye  and  oats 
are  the  field-fruits,  agrees  pretty  correctly.  If  indeed  the  product  of  86  metzen  of 
grain-kernels  in  6  years,  mentioned  in  the  first  volume,  p.  181  of  this  Manual,  is  re- 
duced to  rye,  it  amounts  to  74.5  metzen  (=  126  bushels),  for  wdiich  was  employed  46 
cwt.  of  manure.  Upon  a  similar,  but  not  manured  extent  of  the  same  field,  it  bore 
37.25  metzen  (=:  63  bushels),  consequently  the  surplus  product  of  37.25  metzen  is 
equal  to  496  cwt.  of  manure,  or  1872  lbs.  of  manure  are  equal  to  1.49  metzen  of  rye 
(=  2^  bushels).  But  it  is  more  than  probable  that  the  unmanured  half  would  not 
produce  so  much,  and  that  therefore  the  manure  would  have  a  higher  value. 

The  true  value  is  known  by  very  few  farmers  ;  most  of  them  have  only  obscure 
and  confused  ideas  on  the  subject,  and  so  neglect  the  requisite  production  and  gath- 
ering of  the  same.  Nothing  therefore  would  more  raise  to  a  proper  footing  the  cul- 
tivation of  fodder  and  the  rearing  of  cattle,  and  by  means  of  this  the  cultivation  of 
grain  and  plants  for  trade,  than  the  ascertaining  the  proportional  value  of  manure 
to  the  staple  product  of  a  country,  in  given  circumstances,  by  a  course  of  experiments 
for  many  years ;  and  no  subject  deserves  more  to  be  investigated  in  experimental 
farms  than  this  ;  because  it  is  too  costly  for  others  on  account  of  the  loss  which  they 
suffer  in  the  unmanured  half  of  the  field. 

How  tlie  product  of  the  field  increases  with  the  increase  of  manure,  and  a  propor- 


96  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

tional  rotation  of  crops,  we  have  shown  in  Vol.  I.  p.  180.  See  pp.  80 — 82.  But  as  the 
statements  there  made  are  drawn  from  universal  experience  and  reason,  they 
may  be  attacked  until  reference  be  had  to  the  particular  experiments  which  lie  at 
the  ground  of  them.  Every  experiment  which  may  be  made  concerning  this  neg- 
lected subject  is  therefore  of  the  highest  importance  and  deserves  to  be  carefully  col- 
lected; and  in  this  point  of  view,  I  hold  as  very  deserving  of  notice  what  Gasparin 
says,  concerning  the  relative  value  of  manure  in  his  Memoir  on  the  Culture  of  the 
Olive  in  the  South  of  France  (Bibhotheque  Universelle,  March,  April,  May,  1822). 

"  The  value  of  manure  is  very  different  according  to  the  country,  the  vicinity  of 
cities,  the  usual  culture,  &c.  At  Avignon,  where  madder  is  cultivated,  they  reckon 
100  lbs.  Vienna  weight  (=  123  lbs.  English),  for  ISg  kreutzers  (=  11  cts.),  and  as 
high  at  Strasburg,  where  they  cultivate  tobacco.  In  Tarrascon,  on  an  average  9|- ; 
at  Marseilles  13^  kr. ;  and  since  we  see  a  man  becomes  rich  in  those  places  where 
manure  is  the  dearest,  we  may  justly  conclude  that  it  is  not  bought  at  its  true  value. 
I  have  found  by  many  experiments  and  comparisons,  that  100  lbs.  of  manure  may  be 
considered  as  equal  in  value  to  0.128  metzen  of  wheat  (nearly  a  quarter  of  a  bushel). 
The  average  product  of  7  years  of  a  garden  of  olives  of  1600  young  trees  which  were 
not  manured  was  651  lbs.  of  oil.  (One  tree  gave  yearly  0.40  lb.)  A  similar  number 
of  the  same  trees,  which  in  3  years  had  collectively  840  cwt.  of  manure,  gave  yearly 
1497  lbs.  of  oil.  (For  one  tree  0.93  lb.)  One  cwt.  of  manure,  therefore,  produced 
3  lbs.  of  oil.     The  manure  was  horse-dung. 

''  The  product  of  the  larger  trees  was  raised  by  manure  in  the  same  proportion. 
Trees  thirty  years  old  not  manured  for  a  number  of  years  gave  3^  lbs.  of  oil,  whilst 
those  which  had  yearly  168  lbs.  of  manure  on  a  mean  average  bore  8.14  lbs.  of  oil. 
One  cwt.  of  manure  increased  the  product  of  oil  about  2.91.  A  person  yearly 
manured  his  olives,  and  succeeded  in  obtaining  as  the  mean  product  of  15  year  old 
trees,  4^  lbs.  of  oil.  The  trees  situated  near  the  house  which  had  yearly  2  cwt  of 
manure  produced  10  lbs.  of  oil." 

3.  But  since  manure  is  collected  from  the  excrements  of  animals,  and 
the  litter  laid  under  them  ;  therefore,  of  the  mass  of  manure  only,  that 
should  be  reckoned,  which  the  fodder  has  contributed  to  increase,  but  not 
the  litter  for  the  use  of  the  beasts. 

We  may  assume  that  the  manure  consists  of  ^  litter,  and  f  excrements,  since  we 
shall  rarely  find  anywhere  in  a  foddering  of  20  lbs.  of  dry  stuffs,  more  than  4 1  lbs. 
of  litter  employed.  If  from  20  lbs.  of  fodder  ^  be  deducted  for  imperceptible  evapo- 
ration, there  remains  18^  lbs.  of  excrements  against  4 1  lbs.  of  litter,  =  4:1.  Of  1872 
lbs.  of^  manure,  1521  lbs.  belong  to  excrements;  and  since  1872  lbs.  of  stall-manure 
are  collected  from  936  lbs.  of  dry  vegetables,  but  of  which  ^  is  from  litter,  =  187  lbs. ; 
therefore  the  animals  must  be  credited  1521  lbs.  of  manure,  in  value  1^  metzen  (2 
bushels)  of  rye  ;  and  this  must  also  be  charged  as  a  debt  to  the  fields ;  if  we  reckon 
1872  lbs.  of  stall-manure,  which  consists  of  excrements  and  straw,  as  equal  in  value 
to  1^  metzen  of  rye.  The  351  lbs.  of  manure  falling  short  of  a  cartload,  may  be 
made  up  of  litter  at  0.28  metzen  of  rye  ;  which  must  be  put  down  to  the  account  of 
the  field.  In  the  usual  Farm-Accounts,  the  value  of  the  fodder  is  brought  into  the 
Cattle-Account,  and  the  charge  is  made  to  manure  equal  to  the  value  of  the  litter  em- 
ployed. But  it  is  clear  from  these  statements  that  thus  the  product  of  the  field  must 
appear  far  too  high  on  the  cost  of  the  Cattle-Account,  and  to  this  circumstance  must 
it  be  ascribed,  that  in  so  many  cases  the  account  of  cattle  kept  for  manure  turns  out 
only  loss  and  not  gain. 

4.  What  kind  of  cattle  kept  for  manure  may  be  the  most  suitable  for  a 
given  farm,  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the  climate,  which  agrees 
more  with  one  kind  of  beasts  and  less  with  others  ;  on  the  local  situation  of 
the  fields  ;  on  the  cash  value  of  the  different  animal  products,  Sic. 

5.  It  is  only  after  a  careful  consideration  of  these  different  circumstances, 
that  we  can  know  by  what  kind  of  animals,  and  by  what  use  of  the  same, 
the  fodder  necessary  for  the  production  of  manure  can  be  employed  to  the 
highest  advantage. 

If  the  value  of  the  fodder  is  balanced  by  the  value  of  the  use  of  the  cattle,  then  the 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  STT 

value  of  the  manure  is  to  be  considered  as  clear  gain ;  if  the  value  of  the  use  of  the 
cattle  is  the  greater,  yet  ought  we  not  to  reckon  the  given  manure  cheaper  to  the  field 
on  this  account,  because  we  should  deceive  ourselves  concerning  the  pure  profit  j 
so  that  we  must  reckon  to  the  field  the  manure  in  equal  value,  if  the  account  shows 
that  the  use  of  the  cattle  has  not  covered  the  cost  expended  on  it,  although  we  brmg 
thus  into  the  account  the  value  of  the  manure.  In  this  case  the  use  of  cattle  for  ma- 
nure brings  a  loss,  and  we  must  examine  to  discover  and  remove  the  causes. 

[The  amount  of  manure  produced,  its  comparative  strength  and  its  value  as  a 
means  of  nourishing  plants,  must  have  a  very  important  influence  in  deciding  the 
question  as  to  the  kinds  of  animals  kept  to  the  greatest  advantage.  On  some  of  these 
topics  Thaer  furnishes  us  with  tlie  following  statements  : 

"NicoLAi,  in  his  Principles  for  the  Administration  of  Estates,  (Grundsatzen  zur 
Verwaltung  des  Domainenwesens),  assumes,  probably  after  Bekendorf,  that  there 
will  be  produced  from    1  head  of  cattle,  10  two-spanned  loads. 

"         1         "        young  kine,     5      "        "  " 

"         1  stall-fed  horse,  15      '»        "  ''• 

«         1  grass-fed     "  7^    "        «  " 

"     100  head  of  sheep,  100      "         '  « 

For  swine,  by  careful  littering,  we  may  reckon  twice  as  much  as  the  cattle. 
Therefore,  1   head  of  cattle,         will  manure  -f  of  a  yoke   (-,%  acre). 
1      "     ofyoung  cattle  "         «         i    "        «       (r^\       "  ). 
1  horse,  fed  in  the  stall,  «         "         ^    "        "       (  i        «  ). 
100  head  of  sheep,  "        ♦'         3  yokes  (4^  acres). 

''Fredersdorf  reckons  for  one  cow,  with  good  fodder,  if  she  has  2^  shock  of  lit- 
ter, 6  four-spanned  cartloads  at  23  cwt ;  with  stall  foddering,  10  four-spanned  cartloads. 
Of  one,  if  he  has  daily  1^  bundle  of  straw,  7^  loads  ;  15  sheep,  or  4  or  5  full-grown 
swine,  as  one  cow.  According  to  Karbe,  65  cows  in  summer  on  a  pasture,  being 
kept  over  night  in  the  stall,  will  manure  44  yokes  (62^  acres) ;  horses  and  small  cows 
are  in  proportion  as  2  :  3 ;  oxen  foddered  in  the  stall,  as  3  :  2. 

"According  to  Von  Pfeifer,  1  cow  foddered  in  the  stall  gives  184  cwt;  a  fattened 
ox,  during  time  of  fattening,  73  cwt. 

According  to  Leopold,  4  cows  foddered  in  the  stall  give  50  loads  of  manure,  of 
which  6  would  answer  for  an  acre. 

In  a  very  learned  and  able  treatise  found  in  the  Annals  of  Netherland  Agriculture, 
the  proportion  of  manure  of  different  animals  is  stated  to  be, 

For  1  head  of  cattle, 180 

]  horse, 170 

1  sheep,  10 

1  swine, 18 

On  the  subjects  of  the  value  and  cost  of  manure,  the  Authors  I  have  heretofore 
quoted  are  full  of  estimates  and  many  valuable  remarks.  I  shall  make  some  extracts 
from  Veit,  as  he  has  treated  the  subject  very  practically.  It  must  be  obvious  indeed 
to  any  one,  that  the  estimates  must  be  regarded  as  comparative,  since  the  price  of  the 
articles  used,  as  well  as  of  labor,  &c..  varies  greatly  in  this  country  from  those  in 
Europe.  Still  the  computations  may  be  valuable,  as  furnishing  intelligent  farmers 
with  rules  by  which  to  judge  with  more  accuracy  of  their  losses  or  gains. 

Veit  says.  Vol  I.  p.  365,  "  The  value  of  stall-manure  is  determined  by  the  value  of 
the  production  effected  by  it.     The  quantity  of  production  depends  on, 

"  1.  The  natural  capacity  of  production  of  the  soil. 

"  2.  On  the  choice  preparation  and  employment  of  the  manure. 

"  3,  On  the  choice  of  the  plants  which  are  cultivated  in  one  period  of  manuring.     '■ 

"  4.  On  the  system  of  culture,  especially  the  rotation  of  the  crops,  and  the  treat- , 
ment  and  use  of  the  soil. 

"Since  so  many  circumstances  co-operate  which,  with  the  employment  of  an  equal 
quantity  of  manure,  may  produce  a  different  amount  of  production ;  hence  is  clear 
the  difficulty  of  ascertaining  the  part  of  production  which  belongs  to  the  account  of 
manure,  and  the  worth  of  which  expresses  the  positive  value  of  the  manure. 

"Different  writers  on  husbandry  have  reckoned  the  value  of  manure  at  different, 
amounts,  and  should  all  faimers  ascertain  the  value  of  their  employed  manure,  very 
probably  scarcely  one  would  agree  with  another.  Of  the  results  of  a  great  number- 
of  experiments  which  we  have  made  from  1821  to  1822,  concerning  the  efficacy  of 
different  kinds  of  manure,  we  take  tlie  following  extract : 

13 


98 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 


ON  A  MORG EN,  =  0.842  OF  AN   ENGLISH  ACRE 


1 

"o 

^ 

)-) 

2 

bf 

^^ 

> 

c 

o 

-ot, 

HAME   OF   THE   MANURES. 

El 

"'5 
0| 

2^ 
c  S 

o  1 

o 

?  ^ 
£  jS 
c  t 
O 

c 
O 

I 
1 

1 

1 

s 

1 

1.  Manure  of  cattle  decom- 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt 

cwt. 

posed, 

140 

29 

41 

46 

With  water, 

80 

50 

Without   "         .         . 

70 

40 

2.  Do  half  decomposed,     . 

200 

140 

70 

30 
20 

42 
31 

48 
37 

36 

3.  Do.  not  decomposed,     . 

260 

140 

70 

37 
16 

42 
19 

59 
34 

28 

4.  Do.  dec.  employ'd  on  surf. 

140 

49 

5.  Mixture  of  tluids,  &c.,  ) 
in  a  fermented  state,    j 

260  eimers 

8 

19 

39 

22 

19 

30  " 

23 

6.  Draining  of  dung  hills, 

260  " 

6 

9 

30 

7.  Pulverized   human  ex-  ) 
crement,            .          ] 

5  schefTels 

18 

23 

28 

28 

=  32  bush. 

8.  Strong  manuring  in  fold, 

26 

43 

39 

35 

Watered, 

66 

9.  Moderate  manuring,  do.    j 

18 

29 

28 

24 

10.  Weak,             do,         do.    | 

7 

18 

11.  Fine  bone  dust,    .        .     ,4  scheffels 

=  25  l)ush. 

or   10  cwt. 

12 

21 

25 

24 

30 

1  fl.  30  kr. 
=  60  cts. 

15  fl. 
=  $7  20 

7 

6 

10 

16 

10  fl.  30  kr. 

12.  Urate,       . 

4  scheffels 
=  25  bush. 

4 

6 

=  $5  04 

13.  Mailings,       . 

10  scheffels 
=  62  bush. 

7 

9 

7  kr.  per  metz. 

7fl. 

=  $3  36 

20  scheffels 

16 

17 

28 

36 

38 

14  fl. 

=  124  bush. 

=   S6  72 

34schf. 

38 

23  fl.  48  kr. 
=  $10  40 

41 

40 

28  fl.  42  kr. 
=  $13  75 

7 

26 

4  fl.  54  kr. 
=  $2  32 

14.  Malt  dust, 

5 

10 

14 

17 

19 

15 

9  kr.  per  metz. 

4  fl.  30  kr. 
=  $2  16 

15.  Peat  dust,    . 

8 

20  cwt. 

4 

16 

29 

22 

16.  Fine  refuse  of  the  sinks, 

20 

10 

23 

17.  Ground  manur'g  b'kwhe't, 

20 

18.  Unslacked  lime,     . 

6schf. 

6 

10 

20  kr.  per  metz. 

12fl=S5  76 

19.  Lime  dust  and    ashes, 

6 

9 

17 

6  kr.  per  metz. 

3  fl.  36  kr. 
=  $1  71 

20.  Street  dust,  . 

10 

7 

10 

21.  Gypsum,   . 

4  melzen. 

20 

7 

24  kr.  per  metz. 

1  fl.  36  kr. 

=  3.6  bush. 

=  16  cts. 

=  75  cts. 

22.  Wood  ashes, 

5schf. 

6 

19 

<  19 

i  18 

18  kr.  per  metz. 

9fl.=$4  32 

=  13  cts. 

23.  Peat  ashes,        ; 

6 

8 

8 

11 

11 

21 

24.  Leached  ashes,    . 

5  cartloads 

18 

20 

26 

1  fl.  30  kr. 
=   72  cts. 

7fl.  30kr. 
=  $3  60 

25.  Manure  salts,    . 

10  cwt. 

6 

10 

16 

1  fl.  =  48  cts. 

10fl.=  $4  80 

8 

5 

6 

9 

8  fl.=  $3  92 

26.  Burnt  marl,  . 

Oschf 

10 

21 

27 

27.  Unburnt  do. 

30  cartloads 

36 

28.  Burnt  sod,     . 

12schf. 

19 

26 

31 

34 

29.  Compost  from  the  re-  ) 
mains  of  peat,          ) 

15  cartloads 

30 

37 

4 

16 

30.  Compost  from  mud  of  ) 
plants. 

15 

34 

38 

4 

24 

ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  99 

This  table  needs  to  be  accompanied  by  the  following  observations: 

"  1.  The  meadow-s  on  which  the  experiments  were  made,  had  not  been  hitherto  ma- 
nured. Man}'-  portions  remained,  in  the  progress  of  it,  unmanured,  with  the  natural 
product  of  which  the  production  gained  by  the  employment  of  different  kinds  of  ma- 
nure must  be  compared,  and  the  surplus  in  hay-value  be  brought  in  as  the  pure  result 
of  the  manuring.  In  the  fields,  also,  in  like  manner,  a  difference  must  be  made  be- 
tween the  manured  and  unmanured  parts. 

'•  2.  Of  the  fresh  catde-manure,  260  cwt.  lessened,  after  8  to  10  week.s  to  200  cwt.  of 
half-decomposed  manure,  which,  in  10  or  12  weeks  more  weighed  only  140  cwt,  and 
was  fermented  and  decomposed.  The  volume  was  lessened  about  8  per  cent  more 
than  the  weight  tell  off. 

"  3.  Equafquantities  of  masses  of  manure  employed  in  the  different  states  of  decom- 
position, did  not  raise  the  production  in  exactly  the  same  proportion  of  the  addition 
of  tlieir  manuring  power  or  quality,  otherwise  140  cwt  of  decomposed  stall-manure 
must  have  yielded  48  per  cent  greater  production  than  the  140  cwt  of  fresh,  not-de- 
composed manure,  whilst  the  increase  of  production  in  the  dry  meadows,  was  7.6 ;  in 
the  grain  culture,  9.-5  ;  in  the  moor  meadows,  14 ;  and  with  the  potatoes  17  per  cent. 

"4.  As  in  respect  to  Remark  2,  as  much  nutritious  power  was  contained  in  140  cwt 
of  wholly-decomposed,  and  in  200  cwt  of  half-decomposed  manure,  as  in  260  cwt  of 
fresh  stall-manure,  from  which  it  was  derived  ;  so  should  the  effect  of  these  different 
masses  of  manures  be  the  same.  But  according  to  the  result  of  the  experiments,  the 
production  rises  with  the  increase  of  the  mass ;  and  indeed  in  comparison  of  the  great- 
est mass  of  manure  of  260  lbs.  with  the  least  of  140  lbs.,  the  rise  is  in  the  culture  of 
grain  about  13  lbs.  of  hay-value ;  in  dry  meadows,  about  8 ;  and  in  the  moor  meadows, 
about  1  lb. 

"  5.  Should  the  production  again  be  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  manure,  100 
lbs.  of  the  employed  manure  would  give — 

Wholly-decomposed  Half-decomposed  Not  decomposed, 

manure.  manure.  manure. 

a.  On  the  dry  meadow,       .        .         41  lbs.  29  lbs.  26  lbs. 

b        "       moor  meadow,         .  58  42  30 

c        "       watered  meadow,        .      125  —  — 

d.  "       grain  culture,  .  65  50  46 

e.  "  potatoes,  ...  114  102  SO 
Therefore,  only  for  c.  and  e.  is  there  a  surplus  over  the  consumption,  which  would 
be  soon  evaporated  from  the  decomposed  manure  when  weighed,  so  that  the  fore- 
going supply  of  manure,  by  the  multiplying  the  production  in  hay- value,  gives  2  per  ct, 
which  increase  is  found  only  in  the  employment  of  the  half-decomposed  manure,  but 
agrees  not  either  on  the  undecomposed,  which  increases  itself  more,  or  on  the 
wholly-decomposed  manure,  which  diminishes  30  percent,  from  the  half-decomposed 
state  fixed  on.  Consequently,  according  to  the  Table  heretofore  given  (see  31.  p.  84), 
if  we  should  employ  the  whole  product  yielded  for  the  forming  of  manure,  on  100  lbs. 
of  employed  manure,  would  be  given 

In  A.  VIII.,  215  lbs.  of  manure,  In  A.  V.,    99  lbs.  of  manure, 

B.  II.,    90 
A.  III.,  87 
•'  A.  IV.,  80        "  " 

«  A.  I.,     70        "  « 

«  A.  IX.,  61        »  " 

"6.  The  effect  of  the  mixture  of  the  fluid  and  other  manure  (marked  as  No.  5)  on 
the  clay  soil,  was  five-fold,  and  on  the  bog-soil  two-fold,  compared  with  the  effect  on 
dry  kinds  of  soil. 

"  7.  The  pulverized  human  excrement,  as  well  as  all  other  materials  of  manure  in 
the  form  of  powder,  display  a  dissimilar  greater  effect,  if  they  cover  the  soil,  and  are 
shadowed  by  the  plants  manured  by  them,  than  when  they  are  employed  in  a  snrialler 
mass,  and  on  an  uncovered  surface.  They  are  therefore  mixed  with  other  suitable 
materials  which  are  cheaper,  and  which  increase  the  mass  and  nutritiousness.  Five 
or  six  schaffels  (=  31  to  37  bushels)  of  human  excrement,  bone-dust,  malt-dust,  or 
ashes  put  on  a  morgen  (=  t  of  an  acre),  under  favorable  circumstances,  that  is,  in 
moist  weather,  produce  lucrative  results,  but  in  unfavorable,  dry  weather,  will  have 
little  effect.  If  with  the  quantity  mentioned,  also  be  added  8  or  10  schaffels  (about 
50  to  62  bushels)  of  peat-dust,  or  plant-mud,  or  leached  ashes,  the  surface  would  be 
better  covered,  the  moisture  longer  retained,  and  therefore,  under  all  circumstances 
a  greater  effect  produced. 


B.  III., 

165 

A.  II., 

159 

A.  VI., 

147 

B.I., 

136 

A.  VII., 

135 

100  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

"  8.  The  effect  of  folding  is  in  exact  proportion  to  the  degree  of  the  moisture  of 
the  soil  and  chmate.  A  part  of  the  watered  meadow  of  Hard,  which  had  3  years 
before  a  strong  manuring  in  the  fold,  gave  during  a  period,  an  increase  of  production 
of  66  cwt.  of  hay  on  a  morgen,  while  the  dry  meadows  at  Schlcisheim,  produced 
only  26  cwt.  of  the  same  description,  and  with  equally  great  manuring. 

"  9.  Maltings,  if  employed  with  good  effect,  must  be  used  on  grounds  sufficiently 
moist  to  decompose  them,  or  before  being  used,  must  be  dissolved  or  reduced  to 
powder,  in  which  state,  compared  with  their  cost,  they  are  profitable. 

"  10.  Peat-dust,  in  regions  where  easily  obtained,  is  a  very  cheap  and  most  effica- 
cious means  of  manure,  if  suitably  employed,  protected  against  drying  up,  and  joined 
with  such  other  materials  of  manure  as  will  continue  it  moist  till  decomposition,  or  if 
used  for  plants  under  the  shadow  of  wliich  it  can  remain  moist  long  enough. 

"  11.  That  for  manuring  over  a  morgen,  of  all  the  materials  of  manure,  gypsum 
required  the  least  quantity,  is  evident,  and  gives  occa.sion  for  the  supposition,  that  its 
powder,  especially  in  a  moist  atmosphere,  lies  among  the  young  leaves  and  stalks, 
which  produces,  in  proportion  to  the  manure  employed,  the  greatest  effect.  But 
because  this  is  very  dependent  on  foreign  influences — and  therefore  this  manure  fre- 
quently remains  without  results — it  is  used  within  moderate  limits,  and  only  in  the 
most  needy  quantity  of  3,  3|,  and  at  the  highest,  4  metzen  (nearly  as  many 
bushels)  on  a  morgen. 

"  12.  The  compost  employed  in  No.  30,  consisted  of  the  chief  materials  there 
named,  and  of  horse-dung,  in  the  proportion  of  the  latter  to  the  former  of  1:5,  with 
fluid  mixture,  with  brick-kiln  ashes  and  refuse. 

"  13.  Manuring  in  holes,  directly  on  the  seed,  as  was  the  case  with  the  potatoes, 
exceeds  in  efficacy  all  other  kinds  of  manuring.  A  cubic  foot  of  the  m.anure,  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the  seed  and  the  efficacy  of  the  manure,  should  be  used  for  100, 
150,  and  at  the  highest.  200  holes ;  and  therefore,  in  10,000  holes  or  plants  for  a  mor-, 
gen  (=  0,842  acre),  there  must  be  used  at  the  above  rate  of  100  holes,  11  schaffels 
(=  68  T^j^^  bushels),  at  the  rate  of  150, 7.4  schaffels  (=  46  bushels),  and  at  the  rate 
of  200  holes,  5.5  schaffels  (=  34  bushels).  Should  now  all  the  results  of  the  obser- 
vations and  experiments  made  concerning  the  effect  of  manure  as  its  value  be 
collected  together,  we  shall  be  convinced  that  the  amount  of  this  value  depends  on  a 
great  variety  of  partly  accidental,  unavoidable  circumstances,  partly  on  the  correct 
knowledge  of  the  cheapest  means  of  manuring,  and  mode  of  preparation  and  employ- 
ment of  the  same,  and  also  on  the  character  of  the  farmer.  The  jpositice  value  of 
manure,  therefore,  we  vainly  seek  to  ascertain,  because  the  factors  are  not  fixed 
quantities,  and  in  raising  them,  it  depends  on  the  Avill  of  the  person." 

In  speaking  of  the  duties  of  the  Director  of  the  Farm,  Vol.  III.  p.  260,  Veit  also  uses, 
with  reference  to  this  subject,  language  which  applies  well  to  our  own  country.  "  There 
is  scarcely  in  general  any  circumstance  of  Land-Husbandry  more  out  of  suitable  pro- 
portion than  the  great  need  of  manure,  owing  to  the  little  care  used  for  its  preparation 
and  increase.  This  disproportion  is  the  more  striking,  as  everywhere  there  are  op- 
portunities for  increasing  the  amount,  and  the  whole  blame  lies  in  a  want  of  sufficient 
attention  to  this  subject.  As  Schwertz  remarks,  that  it  is  incredible  how  the  Bel- 
gians with  so  little  manure  can  manure  so  much  land,  so  it  is  incredible  how  little 
land  is  manured  with  us  with  a  proportionably  greater  quantity  of  cattle  and  mate- 
rials for  the  production  of  manure.  From  Schwertz,  too,  we  further  learn  with 
what  uncommon  carefulness  the  Belgians  collect  all  kinds  of  materials  for  the  pro- 
duction of  manure,  in  what  estimation  they  hold  manure,  and  how  closely  and  accu- 
rately they  know  how  to  proportion  and  classify  the  nianuring-power  of  different 
kinds  of  manure.  Such  facts  ought  to  make  us  ashamed  and  wake  us  up  to  a  zeal- 
ous imitation. 

"  The  most  admirable  talent  of  the  Director  (farmer)  consists  in  this,  to  collect  all  the 
materials  of  manure,  and  to  cause  them  to  be  prepared  partly  alone  and  partly  by 
the  suitable  mixture  into  a  manure  which  shall  be  most  suitable  to  be  employed  in 
the  various  kinds  of  culture,  and  thus  to  increase  the  quantity  of  manure.  A  director 
who  has  a  proper  sense  of  the  importance  of  these  things,  v.'ill  not  leave  disregarded 
whatever  will  better  or  increase  the  manure,  and  will  so  direct  and  employ  his  work- 
men as  to  seek  out  and  use  whatever  materials  he  can  obtain.  And  thus  he  will 
leave  no  day  to  pass  over  in  which  he  will  not  give  a  thought  to  the  question,  by 
what  means  a  higher  value  can  be  imparted  to  it,  and  whether  the  materials  for  its 
manufacture  are  employed  to  the  greatest  advantage." — Tr.] 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  10| 

3.    now  GREAT    MUST  BE  THE    NUMBER  OF  CATTLE  ON  A  FARM  TO  AID    FN    THE    PRODUC- 
TION   OF    MANURE  ? 

1.  In  every  farm-husbandry  (Acker-wirthschaft)  beasts  are  necessary 
for  labor  ;  and  because  the  manure  which  these  yield,  is  not  sufficient  to 
supply  the  necessity  of  the  field,  we  have  also  so  many  other  beasts — 
cattle  kept  for  manure,  &c.  (Nutsvieh) — in  order  thus  to  supply  the  defi- 
ciency of  manure. 

2.  How  much  manure  each  head  of  working-cattle  will  yield,  must, 
therefore,  first  be  sought,  before  we  can  proceed  to  the  answer  of  the  second 
question  :  How  much  one  head  of  cattle,  kept  for  manure,  will  give,  and 
how  many  of  such  cattle  must  be  kept  ? 

S.  But  because  cattle,  kept  for  labor  and  various  other  uses,  are  large 
or  small,  well  or  ill-fed,  either  constantly  foddered  in  the  stall  or  pastured, 
sometimes  a  greater,  sometimes  a  smaller  part  of  the  year  ;  and  because 
sometimes  they  are  littered  profusely,  and  sometimes  only  sparingly,  and 
the  manure  is  suffered  more  or  less  to  rot  before  it  is  brought  into  the 
field  ;  therefore  the  weight  of  manure,  which  one  head  of  cattle  of  the 
same  kind  yields  in  the  farm,  varies  according  to  the  difference  of  these 
circumstances. 

To  the  different  circumstances  above  mentioned  must  it  be  ascribed,  that  the  beasts 
yield  sometimes  more,  sometimes  less  manure,  and  that  even  in  the  same  farm,  of  the 
same  number  of  beasts,  not  always  an  equal  weight  of  manure  is  obtained.  Mayer, 
in  his  Estimates  tor  Farms,  reckons  that  one  cow, — which  weighs  live-weight  350  lbs., 
and  is  pastured  6  months,  during  which  time  she  is  only  every  night  brought  to  the 
stall,  and  for  6  months  in  the  winter  is  fed  and  littered  daily  with  10^  lbs.  of 
strav/  and  5^:  lbs.  of  hay, — will  yield  5|  4spanned  (or  2  yoked)  cardoads,  at  1746  lbs., 
or  10.039  lbs.  of  manure.  If  the  cow  weighs  525  lbs.  live-weight  and  is  supplied  in 
the  winter  w^ith  IO5  lbs.  of  straw  and  13^  lbs.  of  hay,  she  will  give  7.39  cartloads,  or 
13,002  lbs.  of  manure;  and  if  she  weighs  700  lbs.  live-weight,  Hnd  for  winter-fodder 
has  14.8  lbs.  of  straw  and  13^  lbs,  of  hay,  she  will  yield  8.8  cartloads  =  15,364  lbs. 
of  manure. 

Working-oxen  give,  in  the  same  circumstances,  less  manure,  as,  on  account  of 
labor  in  the  field,  they  are  absent  from  the  stall. 

Sheep  usually  pasture  the  greatest  part  of  the  year;  they  are  often  scarcely  more 
tiian  3—4  months  in  the  stall.  According  to  this  time,  according  to  their  size,  fodder, 
and  litter,  we  reckon  sometimes  more,  sometimes  less  manure.  Hube  found  that  one 
sheep  in  150  days  of  winter,  gave  12^  Rhenish  cubic  feet  (about  the  same  Enghsh)of 
manure.  Mayer  reckons  for  one  sheep  daily,  3-1  lbs.  of  manure ;  according  to  him 
one  sheep  produces  in  135  days  of  winter  fodder,  472,5  lbs.  of  manure. 

With  swine,  the  quantity  of  manure  is  given  as  variously  ;  sometimes  it  is  thought 
that  one  single  yoked  cartload,  sometimes  two,  may  be  obtained  from  one  animal. 

I  had  on  my  farm.  3  horses,  12 — 15  cows,  3 — 5  heifers,  3  sows,  with  their  progeny. 
If  I  reckon  a  horse  equal  to  a  cow,  as  respects  the  production  of  manure,  the  young 
cattle,  according  to  the  need  of  fodder,  and  5  one-year  swine,  equal  to  one  cow,  1 
have  thus  given  tlie  proportion  of  the  animals.  One  cow  on  an  average  weighs  700 
to  800  lbs.  hve  weight.  They  were  always  foddered  in  the  stalls,  and  only  go  on  the 
meadows  and  clover-fields  to  feed  on  the  after-crop  of  grass,  from  the  15th  of  Sep- 
tember to  the  end  of  October,  at  which  time  also  they  are  every  morning,  noon,  and 
evening  brought  a  while  to  the  stalls.  They  were  well  but  only  moderately  littered. 
Of  these  beasts  I  had  in  the  course  of  years  by  no  means  an  equal  yearly  amount  of 
manure  from  a  head  ;  because  they  were  not  always  equally  littered,  and  because 
the  people,  one  year  when  there  was  a  surplus  of  clover,  foddered  them  very  abun- 
dantly, and  in  dry  years  practised  more  economy.  I  had  of  one  cow.  or  of  cattle  re- 
duced thus,  in  the  lowest  case  12,  in  the  best  14  two-yoked  cardoads  of  half-rotted 
manure;  each  cartload  reckoned  at  12  cwt.,  therefore  from  144  to  188  cwt.  a  year. 

4.  Because  the  amount  of  the  weight  of  manure  which  one  head  of  cattle 
yields,  varies  according  to   the  difference  of  these  circumstances ;  so  in 


102  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING, 

general  it  can  in  no  wise  be  determined  how  great  the  number  of  head  of 
cattle  to  be  kept  for  manure,  &ic,  (Nutsthiere) ,  must  be,  by  which  the 
manure  required  may  be  produced. 

5.  Should  a  head  of  cattle  yield  a  certain  mass  of  manure  in  the  stall,  so 
there  must  be  voided  a  certain  quantity  of  excrement  which  is  mixed  with 
a  certain  quantity  of  litter.  But  as  the  weight  of  the  excrements  stands  in 
an  equal  proportion  with  the  weight  of  the  given  fodder  ;  so  will  a  person 
obtain  only  as  much  manure  as  he  employs  fodder  and  litter  in  the  stalls, 
and  while  the  beasts  remain  in  the  same.  If  the  beasts  are  pastured,  then 
their  production  of  manure  is  to  be  reckoned  according  to  the  proportion  of 
time  in  which  they  are  brought  up  into  the  stalls. 

[Veit  quotes  Vol.  I.  p.  287.  from  an  average  of  estimates  of  his  own,  and  of  Block, 
the  following  result,  as  exhibiting  the  production  of  manure  from  different  kinds  of 
fodder,  and  with  different  animals. 

Of  one  lb.  of  Horse.  Cattle.  Sheep. 

1.  Usual  meadow  hay,  .         .         .     1.50  2.00  1.25 

2.  Straw-fodder  ....         1.40  1.90  1.20 

3.  Grass  and  clover  in  a  green  state,  0.40  0.60  0.37 

.    „     ,        ,  ,      ,  +  VI      S  Potatoes,  0.50  0.70  0.25 

4.  Roots  ana  knob-vegetables,  ^  ^^^^.^^     ^^^  ^  ^^  0  3^ 

5.  Grain, 1.50  2.00  1 00 

6.  Straw  litter, 1.70  2.20  1.37 

But  should  the  materials  for  fodder  be  reduced  to  hay-value,  they  would  give,  ia 
manure  on  one  lb.  of  hay-value. 

When  100  lbs.  of 

hay  are  equal  to    Horses.        Cattle.        Sheep. 

1.  Usual  meadow  hay,     .            .            .100  1.50  2.00  1.25 

2.  Straw  fodder,          ...             200  2.80  3.80  2.00 

3.  Grass  and  clover  in  a  green  state,       .       450  1.80  270  1.50 
.  „     ,         11V          .  ui        <  Potatoes,  200  1.00  1.40  0.74 

4.  Roots  and  knob  vegetables :  ^  turnips,  300  1.05  1.50  0.75 

5.  Of  grain,  .  .  .  .50  0.75        0.90        O.CO 

By  which  it  appears  that  of  1  lb.  of  hay,  one  head  of  cattle  yields  2  lbs  ,  one  horse 
1.4  lbs.  and  one  sheep  1 .2  lbs.  of  manure.  If,  therefore,  the  articles  of  food  be  reduced 
to  hay-value,  as  they  may  be  by  the  tables  heretofore  given,  the  multiplier  may  be 
easily  used,  as  respects  either  the  horse  or  a  head  of  cattle  or  a  sheep." — Tk.] 

6.  In  order  to  compute  accurately  beforehand  the  mass  of  manure,  there- 
fore, we  must  know  how  much  a  working  animal,  or  one  kept  for  manure, 
&tc.,  consumes  in  a  day  ;  how  much  litter  is  given  out ;  how  the  weight 
of  the  fodder  eaten  is  proportioned  to  the  weight  of  dung  ;  and  how  great 
the  loss  of  weight  in  dung  and  litter  may  be  by  putrefaction. 

7.  But  because  only  that  manure  is  at  the  free  disposal  of  the  farmer  which 
is  obtained  in  the  stalls,  so  regard  must  be  had  to  the  time  in  which  the 
beasts  are  brought  into  the  stalls,  and  we  must  deduct  for  those  beasts  for 
labor,  which  are  foddered  in  the  stalls,  that  time  which  they  spend  out  of 
them  on  account  of  being  employed  in  labor,  as  well  as  for  those  which  are 
pastured,  and  so  fed  out  of  the  stalls,  that  time  of  the  increase  of  manure 
must  be  counted  in  which,  in  the  summer,  they  are  kept  in  the  stalls. 

How  much  fodder  beasts  need  in  proportion  to  their  size  and  use,  is  given  in  the 
Special  Rearing  of  cattle.  The  consumption  of  litter  must  be  governed  by  the  quan- 
tity and  kind  of  fodder,  and  partly  by  the  surplus  which  one  has  of  these  materials, 
and  the  space  which  each  particular  beast  occupies;  it  is  sometimes  3,  sometimes  6 
lbs.  of  straw. 

[On  the  subjects  embraced  in  some  of  the  immediately  preceding  paragraphs,  I  will 
also  introduce  some  other  computations  of  Veit  which  may  farther  aid  in  the  labor 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 


103 


of  estimating  the  cost  of  manure,  and  the  methods  of  its  economical  production.    In 
Vol.  III.  p.  1147,  he  observes: 

"  It  is  known  that  the  dry  fodder  and  the  juicy,  estimated  according  to  hay-value, 
with  htter  employed  for  the  cattle,  for  manure  in  general,  will  give  double  the  weight 
in  moderately  decomposed  manure.  For  the  production  of  19,800  cwt.  of  manure, 
there  are  therefore  necessary,  of  materials  for  the  manufacture  of  manure,  9900  cwtj 
which  may  be  obtained  from  the  following  weight  of  products : 


No.  ofmor- 
gen. 

Material  employed  for  making  manure. 

Hay  value 

Straw 

(a  morgen 

Hay. 

of 

Orain. . 

and 

Total. 

=5-6  acre. 

juicy  fod'r. 

stalks. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

ewt. 

cwt 

cwt 

(  for  fodder, 

138 

138 

Potatoes,  }  hay  val.  slops, 

671 

671 

t  stalks,  dry, 

50 

400 

400 

Winter  rape, 

20 

400 

400 

Winter  wheat, 

20 

400 

400 

Winter  rye. 

20 

400 

400 

Summer  rye, 

40 

67.2 

720 

787 

Barley, 

20 

260 

260 

Oats, 

20 

136 

300 

436 

Peas, 

20 

340 

340 

Beets, 

10 

617 

80 

697 

After  grain, 

18.2 

18.2 

Red  clover, 

20 

800 

800 

a          u 

20 

400 

400 

Luzerne, 

10 

450 

450 

Meadow  thrice  mowed, 

60 

2160 

2160 

"        twice      " 

117 

2340 

2340 

"        once       " 

70 

200 

The  hay  value  of  fodder 
for  swine,  of  sour  milk 

557 

6630 

1626 

222 

3300 

11777 

slops,  then  the  weight 

of   the  oil  cake,   bran 

and  barley  scum,  may 

be  reckoned  at. 

370 

12147 

Multiply  12,147  by  2  =  24,294,  and  there  remains,  after  deducting  the  loss  of  dung 
on  the  meadows,  at  least  22,000  cwt  therefore  more  than  was  required. 

The  following  table  of  the  consumption  of  fodder  and  straw  or  materials  for  the 
production  of  manure  for  10  working-horses,  may  also  be  useful  in  its  relation  to  this 
general  subject : 

1.  Oats,  70  schaffel  (=  433^  bushels),  at  180  lbs. 

2.  Rye,    5         "       (=     31         "       )  "   280   « 

3.  Hay.  12  lbs.  per  head  a  day 

4.  Hacksel  of  hay  per  day,  12  lbs. 

((  c(        ((  5  "  . 

5.  Straw-Utter,  at  3  lbs.  per  head  a  day 


On  this  allow  115  days  of  rest 
250     "    of  labor 


=  12,600  lbs. 

=    1,400    " 

.     45,800    « 

36,500    « 

18.250    « 

10,950    « 

125,500 
38,910x2= 
84,590 
2 

=77,820  lbs. 

manure 

After  deducting  ^  of  loss  while  at  labor 
There  remains  in  manure 


169,180  '- 
56,393  " 


Total, 


190,607 


164  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

Veit  has  also  furnished  us  with  estimates  on  this  subject,  relating  to  cattle  of 
various  breeds,  ages  and  sizes.  One  of  them  only  will  here  be  given.  It  will  be 
observed  that  in  this  as  in  the  former  example  the  consumption  of  fodder  is  multi- 
plied by  two  to  give  the  weight  of  manure,  which  is  according  to  his  previous 
remarks  as  to  the  proportion  between  them. 

Need  of  Fodder  and  Litter  for  12  Working- Cattle^  of  a  large  kind. 

1.  For  the  Winter  period,  from  1st  of  October  to  the  end  of  May,  8  months — or  245 
days. 

Hacksel,  hay   12  lbs.  =  35,000  lbs. 

"         straw  9   "    =  26,244   " 

Hay  at  6  lbs.  per  head  daily  17,496   " 

Refuse  of  potatoes  from  potato-distillery  at  36  maas  =   104,976  maas  =  1,450 
gallons  =  163  cwt.  of  hay-value. 

2.  For  the  Summer-period,  for  122  days. 

Green  fodder  90  lbs.  per  head  daily  =  20  lbs.  of  hay  value  =  29,280  lbs. 
Hay  6  lbs.  =  8,784  lbs. 

3.  Through  the  whole  year. 

After-grain  3  schaffels  =  18|  bushels  at  260  lbs.  =  780  lbs. 
Summer-rye  3      "        =  "  «        «  280  «     =  840  « 

Straw-litter  at  3^  lbs.  per  head  a  day  15,324 


Totals. 

Grain 

16.20  cwt. 

Hay 

905.60    « 

Hay-value  of  juicy  fodder 

163.00    " 

Straw-fodder 

262.44    " 

Straw-litter 

153.24    « 

1500.48    " 

On  this  allow  135  days  of  rest  527  cvtX.  X  2—  1,054  cwt.  manure. 
«  230  days  of  labor  973    " 

2 

1.946 
After  deducting  ^  loss  while  employed  in  labor  649  cwt. 

There  remains  of  manure 1,297  cwt.  manure. 

Add  to  this  of  horses 1,907    " 


Total        .      4,258    *' 

By  means  of  cattle  kept  for  manure,  therefore,  to  hold  its 

own  must  be  produced 15,542    " 

in  order  to  gain  the  above-shown  need  of  manure  of    19,800    " 

Need  of  fodder  and  litter  for  800  Sheep,  i.  e.  758  grown,  and  lambs  equal  to  42. 

1.  For  the  Winter  period  from  1st  November  to  middle  of  April,  through  165  days. 

Hay 2,000     cwt. 

Beets  1400  cwt.  in  hay-value     .         .         .        466 

Straw-fodder 300 

After-grain  2  schaffels  =  12^  bushels  at  260  lbs.  5.2 
Oats  6  schaffels  =  37  bushels  at  180  lbs.  .  10.8 
Straw-litter  at  0.3  lbs.  per  head  daily  396 

3,178X2=6,356  cwt.  of  manure. 

For  the  Summer  period,  from  the  middle  of  April  to  the  end  of  October,  therefore 
for  200  days,  the  sheep  must  be  kept  on  hired  pasture. 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  105 

For  10  fattening- Oxen,  to  be  fed  according-  to  the  e.vampleofthe  working-oxen  above 
given,  la  \st  of  November. 

From  1st  of  November  to  the  end  of  April,  through  6  months  of  fattening. 
Hacksei,  of  20  lbs.  of  hay  per  head  daily  on  an  average  360  cwt. 

"  6       "     straw  .  .  .  108    " 

Rye  16  schatfels  =  nearly  100  bushels,  at  280  lbs.  48  8  " 

Steamed  potatoes  42  schanels=261^  bushels  in  hay  value  63    " 
Beet-roots  450  cwt.  in  hay  value  .  .  .      151    " 

"     leaves  400  "  "        .  .  .  80    " 

Distill,  slops  72,000  maas  in  hay-value  at  6.42  maas       112 
Straw-litter  at  5  lbs.  per  day  for  a  head  .  .     90 


(C 


1009 
2 

2018 


(( 


For  40  Milch  Kine, 


For  the  Winter  period,  from  1st  of  October  to  the  end  of  May — for  245  days. 
Hacksei  12  lbs.  of  hay  per  head  daily  .  .     1,176  cwt. 

"  6      "       straw        "  "  .  .  588     " 

Slops,  24  maas  per  day         "  235,200  maas 

"  in  hay  value  at  6.42  maas  .  .  .      566     " 

Oil-cake  .  .  .  .  .  .         3.5  " 

For  the  Summer  period,  from  June  1st  to  the  end  of  September — 120  days. 
Green  clover  in  hay-valiie  18  lbs.  per  head  daily  864  cwt. 

Straw-litter  at  5  lbs.  per  head,  therefore  in  the  whole 
through  the  year  ....  438   " 

Total  3435.5  " 
2 

6871.0  "manure. 

For  17  Swine, 

For  the  Winter  period,  from  middle  of  October  to  the  end  of  April,  through  180 
days. 

Distillery  slops  at  6|  maas  per  head  daily  =  19,825  maas, 

in  hay  value  at  6.42  maas  30.8  cwt 

Sour-milk  at  5^  maas  per  head  =  16,830  maas  at  hay  value  16.8  " 
Steamed  potatoes  at  4.9  lbs.  per  head  daily  =  150  cwt,  in  "  75  " 
Bran  of  30  schiiffels  of  rye  and  20  schaffels  of  wheat  .  18.8  " 
Beer-maltings  of  5  schaffels  of  malt  =  1250  lbs.  in  hay-value  4.16  '' 
Barley-scum  1  schaffel  at  180  lbs 1.80  " 

For  the  Summer  period,  from  the  middle  of  April  to  the  middle  of  October,  for 
185  days. 
Sour-milk  at  5^  maas  per  head  =  17,297  maas  in  hay-value   172   cwt. 
Pasture  in  hay-value  per  day  for  a  head  4  lbs.  .  126     " 

Milk  for  the  pigs  5348  maas  ....  33.4  " 

After-grain,  2  schaffels  at  260  lbs.       .  .  .  .       5.2  " 

Straw-litter  through  the  year        ....         1037   " 


Total  739    " 
2 

1478    « 
Of  this  ^  of  manure  to  be  deducted  for  time  of  pasturing     .     198 

1280  "manure. 
14 


106 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 


SUMMARY. 


10 

12  working 

800 

10  fatten- 

40 milch 

17 

horses. 

oxen. 

sheep. 

ing  oxen. 

kine. 

swine 

Total. 

Hay  and  green  fodder,  in  } 
hay-value,                    ^ 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

803 

905.6 

2000 

360 

2040 

6108 

Straw,     .... 

292 

415.6 

696 

198 

1026 

103.7 

2731 

Oats,  .... 

126 

10.8 

136.8 

Rye,        .... 

14 

8.4 

44.8 

67.2 

After-grain, 

7.8 

5.2 

5.2 

18.2 

Potatoes,  in  hay-value,    . 

63 

75 

138 

Beet-roots,     "         " 

466 

151 

617 

Do.    leaves,  «        « 

80 

80 

Bran 

18.8 

18.8 

Slops,  in  hay-value. 

163 

112 

366 

30.8 

671.8 

Milk,  in    " 

374 

374 

Mailings,  "         « 

4.16 

4.16 

Barley-scum. 

1.8 

1.8 

Oil-cake, 

3.5 

3.5 

Pasture-fodder  in  hay-value. 

1235 

126 

126 

Total,  . 

1500.4 

3178 

1009 

3435.5 

739 

11097 

Hence  of  manure  multi-  > 

plied  by  two,                \ 

After  deducting  |-  of  ma-  ) 

2470 

3000 

6356 

2018 

6871 

1477 

22194 

nure  during  time  of  > 

563 

649 

198 

1410 

labor  and  pasture,       ) 
There  remains  of  manure, 

1907 

2351 

6356 

2018 

6871 

1280 

20784 

The  quantity  of  drink  and  of  litter,  by  the  different  animals,  are  given  by  Veit 
in  the  Tables  that  follow : 


The  quantity  of  water  needed  in  proportion  to  the  dry  food. 

Quantity  consumed  in  a  day.     1 

Proportion  of  water 

Living 
weight  of 

Water  in 

fodder  in 

Hay. 

Winter. 

Summer. 

Winter. 

Summer. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs 

Working  horse, 

1050 

26 

35 

50 

1.34 

1.92 

Working  ox, 

1000 

24 

55 

70 

2.29 

2.91 

Cow,        .... 

700 

17 

42 

60 

2.47 

3.52 

With  some  salt  in  the  water, 

— 

— 

55 



3.25 

Sheep,     .... 

70 

1.8 

2.5 

3 

1.38 

2.0 

In  a  day  when  salt  was  given, 

— 

in  hay-value 

3.0 

—.6 

1.66 

— 

Swme,     .... 

140 

4 

16 

20 

4 

5 

The  quantity  of  litter  differs  according  to  the  different  species  of  cattle,  of  the 
fodder,  drink,  and  the  longer  or  shorter  time  the  beasts  are  kept  up  in  the  stall.  For 
the  most  part,  the  proportion  is  according  to  the  need  of  fodder,  and  as  follows : 


At  a  daily 

On  100  lbs.  hay-value 

There 

fore  daily, 

in  hay-value  of 

straw-litter. 

In  stall-feeding. 

In  pasture  or  at  work. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

Working  horse. 

30 

10   —20 

3   -6 

3     —4 

Working  ox. 

24 

14.5—29 

3.5—7 

3.5  —4 

Fattening  ox, 

30 

16.6—30 

5   —9 

Milch  cow,      . 

20 

15   —20 

3   —6 

2     —3 

Sheep,      .     . 

2 

10   —20 

0.2—0.5 

0.15—0.25 

Swine,  .     .     . 

8 

30  —40 

2   -2 

Tr.] 

ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  107 

4.   WHAT    PROPORTION    DOES    THE    FODDER    CONSUMED,    TOGETHER    WITH    THE    LITTER, 
BEAR    TO    THE    WEIGHT    OF    THE    MANURE? 

1.  All  nourishment  which  the  beasts  take  in  a  fluid  or  solid  fonn  suffers 
in  the  process  of  digestion  a  loss  of  weight,  which  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  a 
portion  of  the  same  is  taken  into  the  animal  substance,  and  another  portion 
is  dissipated  during  these  processes  ;  then  the  weight  of  the  animal  excre- 
ments and  the  litter  used  is  diminished  by  the  putrefaction  which  the  ma- 
nure undergoes  before  it  is  carried  into  the  field.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
excrements  obtain  an  increase  by  the  animal  liquids  employed  in  their  de- 
composition. 

2.  If  one  knew  accurately  the  weight  of  the  waste  and  increase,  he  would 
then  know  also  the  weight  of  fresh  manure  which  will  be  produced  by  a 
given  quantity  of  fodder  and  litter. 

3.  But  because  one  can  know  as  little  of  the  mass  which  is  taken  up  into 
the  animal  organization  in  solid  substance,  which  may  be  dissolved  in  water, 
as  of  those  parts  which  are  dissipated  during  their  passage  through  the  organs 
of  digestion,  and  by  the  later  putrefaction  on  the  dunghill ;  therefore  we  must 
be  contented  with  the  conclusions  which  are  indeed  drawn  from  experience, 
but  which,  on  account  of  their  defectiveness,  must  only  be  considered  an 
approximation  to  the  truth. 

[Thaer  says,  "  Beasts  are  to  be  viewed  only  as  machines  which,  in  proportion  to 
their  size,  but  especially  to  the  mode  of  feeding,  convert  part  of  the  fodder  into  their 
own  animal  substance,  and  the  far  greater  part  into  manure,  i.  e.,  not  only  the  dung, 
but  also  the  urine,  and  the  trodden  Utter,  and  what  passes  off  by  evaporation.  This 
manure  is  not  merely  from  the  offals  of  the  fodder,  but  from  the  excretions  of  the  ani- 
mal body.  Whether  the  solid  mass  of  the  fodder  consumed,  even  in  a  dry  state,  be- 
comes more  or  less  in  the  excrements,  is  not  known.  Probably  less,  as  the  increase 
of  the  body,  growth  of  wool,  and  production  of  milk  requires  a  part  of  the  same.  Yet 
this  is  only  small,  and  it  is  not  yet  decided  whether  the  water  drank,  and  the  sub- 
stances filled  with  gases  are  so  dispersed  through  the  body  as  to  form  solid  matter. 
The  weight  of  manure  from  dry  fodder  by  the  moisture  added  to  the  excrements  is 
certainly  increased  one  half,  viewing  it  in  the  state  of  moisture  we  use  it." — Tr.] 

4.  The  weight  of  the  moist  manure  yet  existing  in  the  state  of  warm  fer- 
mentation, is  double  the  weight  of  the  dry  substance  consumed,  and  of  the 
litter  employed  in  a  proportionate  quantity. 

The  dry  nutritious  substance,  or  that  which  is  reckoned  by  its  dry  weight,  suffers 
in  the  bodies  of  beasts  a  considerable  diminution  by  the  loss  of  that  which  the  absorb- 
ing vessels  appropriate  to  themselves  from  it,  and  which  with  the  excrements  secre- 
tory of  nutritious  substances  are  so  easily  decomposed  by  the  process  of  putrid  fer- 
mentation, that  in  a  short  time  its  substance  as  well  as  its  weight  is  very  considerably 
diminished.  If  we  therefore  say  that  100  lbs.  of  dry  substance  of  consumed  fodder 
with  a  proportionate  quantity  of  litter  gives  200  lbs.  of  manure,  this  must  be  under- 
stood of  stall-manure,  where  the  greatest  amount  of  urine  is  mixed  in  part  with  solid 
excrements,  or  if  they  should  be  dissipated  on  the  dunghill,  would  be  replaced  again 
by  rain. 

The  more  raw — more  recent — stall-manure  is ;  the  more  the  beasts  drink  ;  the  more 
they  take  of  juicy  food ;  the  greater  is  the  proportion  of  the  weight  of  stall  manure, 
compared  with  the  weight  of  the  fodder  eaten ;  wherefore  there  is  more  manure  from 
horned  cattle  than  from  horses,  and  the  least  from  sheep. 

The  following  experiments  may  serve  as  confirmations  of  these  statements.  Ge- 
ricke  undertook,  with  3  cows,  seven  experiments  to  ascertain  how  much  of  different 
nutritious  matter  such  beasts  ate,  and  also  the  water  drank,  how  much  milk  they 
gave  from  it,  and  how  great  was  the  weight  of  their  solid  and  liquid  excrements. 
Every  experiment  lasted  7  days,  with  the  exception  of  Nos.  4  and  5,  and  was  tried 
with  great  accuracy.  In  the  following  table  these  experiments  are  collected  without 
being  reduced  to  Vienna  weight,  because  it  is  only  the  proportions  which  are  of  value 
in  any  weight. 


108 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 


•p./UlU»UO.)     JrffJjJOJ 

Ajp  aqi  JO  jqj![8A\ 
am  01  Jajiii  am  q;tM 
ounp  aip   JO  iqaidM 


uojjBJodBAaXq  ssoq 


J3HT[  aqi  mrw  Suiip 
aq'i  JO  iqiStaAV 


•pasn  Jajii^ 


•paonpojd  ^itj\[ 


c     » 


»s 


Bjuaiuuadx^  jo  -o^ 


o>  o  r-  o  t^  o» 

10  CT)  DJ  t^  O  M 
(M  — "  (N  (N  ^  C) 


2 -<  O  X  MO 

O  «0  OS  CM  i-  — . 

C>5  Tj«  ■»*«  CO  CO  (N 

C  O  O  O  O  O 


M  OS  to  '£)  10  00 

O  f-  10  SO  00  o> 
O)  iO  OJ  CO  OJ  CO 


"  — '  CJ  00  ' 
«0  T).  (N  C^ 
"5  ■<»<  N 


—«■>»•  00  N  00 

^  rj<  J-  t~-  lO 

«0    T«   CO  CO    T}< 

yf  mm  IT)  -^ 


t^  CO  CO  —  C4 
00  (N  05  «0  CO 
«3  (N  00  00  00 
W  (N  -H  -^  -H 


If 


U  ^  dj  :s  o 


—      is  S 


g-  ^    I. 

•"So  o  r-  c 

T}<  M  DJ  CM  Hi 

I  in  Tf  —  00 

t^  —  ^  CM  CO 


'>*<  10  to  l^  00 


Laborious,  and  in  many  respects  instructive  as  are  these  experiments,  yet  they  are 
also  in  many  particulars  defective. 

We  can  employ  only  the  first  five  in  conclusions ;  since  chaff-mixture  (Hacksel  or 
Hackerling),  hay,  grass,  and  clover  must  be  considered  as  the  natural  kinds  of  fodder. 
With  beets,  Swedish  turnips,  and  potatoes,  one  cannot  exclusively  fodder  beasts  with- 
out making  them  sick,  which  happened  with  beets,  and  would  happen  with  other 
roots  certainly  if  they  were  longer  used. 

The  proportional  greater  weight  of  stall- mixture, — since  one  ought  not  to  call  by 
name  of  manure  this  raw  mass  consisting  of  excrement  and  straw  8  days  old, — from 
the  dry  fodder,  compared  with  the  grass,  must  be  ascribed  to  the  greater  quantity  of 
water  which  the  beasts  drank  while  eating  chaff-mixture  and  hay,  and  the  less  evap- 
oration in  March,  compared  with  the  stronger  in  June.  Why  they  ate  less  of  clover 
reduced  to  its  dry  weight,  than  of  hay,  and  even  of  the  chaft-mixture,  most  probably 
was  owing  to  the  clover  being  in  full  bloom,  in  which  state  the  beasts  eat  it  not  so 
freely.     Why,  finally,  the  proportion  of  the  dung,  together  with  the  litter,  in  the  fod« 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  109 

dering  of  grass,  if  this  is  reduced  to  hay,  is  so  small,  whilst  2687  lbs.  of  grass,  561 
lbs.  of  water,  and  144  lbs.  of  htter,  together  3392  lbs.,  produced  only  1579  lbs.  of  ma- 
nure ;  but  627  lbs.  of  hay,  2359  lbs.  of  water,  with  105  lbs.  of  litter,  together  3091  lbs., 
produced  1902  lbs  of  manure,  owing  to  the  difference  of  the  dissimilar  evaporation 
during  the  use  of  both  means  of  foddering.  At  Schleisheim,  in  Bavaria,  many  ex- 
periments were  made  on  a  farm  there,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  proportion  between 
the  fodder  and  the  htter,  and  the  manure.  It  is  a  disadvantage  that  the  experiment 
made  with  milch-kine  is  so  far  useless  as  we  know  not  determinately  how  much  of  the 
particular  kinds  of  articles  of  fodder  were  given  to  the  beasts ;  since  if  the  object  is  to 
find  out  the  proportion  of  weight  between  the  fodder  which  is  given  to  the  beasts, 
and  their  excrements,  must  one  know  the  absolute  weight  of  the  former,  because 
its  relative  worth  compared  with  hay,  if  it  were  even  ascertained  with  certainty,  which 
is  nowhere  the  case,  is  of  no  use,  as  we  have  already  shown.  The  casually-tried 
experiment  with  horses,  speaks  always  of  hay  and  its  substitutes,  i.  e.  nourishing  sub- 
stances, which  are  reduced  to  hay  according  to  their  relative  value ;  only  with  sheep 
no  such  mention  is  made  of  the  reduction. 

With  horned  cattle,  760  lbs.  of  hay,  straw  fodder,  and  substitutes  for  hay,  gave  2300 
of  fresh  dung  (proportion  100  :  230),  which  after  50  days  lost  -J-  in  weight;  according 
to  which  100  lbs.  of  fodder  and  litter  gave  18S  lbs.  of  fermented  manure. 

With  horses  in  the  month  of  March,  620  lbs.  of  hay,  straw  fodder,  and  substitutes 
for  hay,  with  380  lbs.  of  straw  litter,  gave  1400  lbs.  of  fresh  dung  (proportion  100  :  140), 
which  after  34  days  lost  in  weight  0.48,  according  to  which  100  lbs.  of  fodder  and  lit- 
ter gave  only  75  lbs.  of  fermented  manure. 

With  sheep  from  19th  of  February  to  25th  of  April,  710  lbs.  of  fodder  and  290  lbs. 
of  litter  gave,  on  the  27th  of  May,  800  lbs.  of  manure  (proportion  100  to  80). 

The  above  mentioned  differences  between  the  weight  of  fodder  and  litter,  and  of 
the  fermented  manure,  are  explained  by  the  different  proportion  of  the  straw  htter 
mingled  with  the  dung.  With  horned  cattle  the  proportion  of  litter  to  hay,  is  as  5  to 
15;  with  horses,  as  11  to  18;  with  sheep,  as  5  to  11.  With  horses  and  sheep  the 
proportion  of  the  litter  to  the  fodder  was  clearly  too  great,  on  which  account  the  ma- 
nure thus  produced  weighed  less  than  the  materials  employed  in  preparing  it;  since 
apart  of  the  same  which  was  dissipated  by  the  putrefaction,  was  not  replaced  by  the 
email  quantity  of  the  liquid  excrements  ;  with  the  horned  cattle  the  proportion  be- 
tween the  Utter  and  fodder  was  more  correct,  and  therefore  the  results  agreed  more 
with  those  before  quoted. 

Mayer,  who  deserves  the  highest  praise  on  account  of  his  estimates  of  the  propor- 
tions of  husbandry,  in  his  work  concerning  the  division  of  a  community  (P.  III.  69) 
first  gave  importance  to  the  method  of  reckoning  the  gain  of  manure  from  the  weight 
of  the  fodder  and  litter  employed.  He  proposed  to  multiply  the  consumed  fodder  and 
straw  litter  by  2.7,  but  the  hay,  of  which  the  body  is  more  assimilated,  by  1.8.  Con- 
sequently on  these  rules,  from  70  lbs.  of  straw,  and  30  lbs.  of  hay,  we  should  have 
189-1-54  =  243  lbs.  of  manure,  but  from  30  lbs.  of  straw  and  70  lbs.  of  hay,  only 
81 -f- 126  =  207  lbs.,  and  therefore-^  less,  which  appears  beforehand  in  the  highest 
degree  improbable,  and  by  experiment  is  proved  incorrect.  The  divisors  for  root- 
vegetables,  are  with  him  from  2.1  to  2.8,  but  with  potatoes,  1.3.  100  lbs.  of  potatoes 
which  contain  somewhat  more  than  28  lbs.  of  dry  substance  would  therefore  give  77 
lbs.  of  manure,  while,  according  to  our  statements,  they  yield  only  56  lbs.  The  grains 
finally  he  would  multiply  by  3 — 3.7. 

Thaer  has  frequently  quoted  this  subject  in  his  Annals,  and  in  the  first  Volume  of 
his  Rationellen  Landwirthschaft,  p.  258,  as  well  as  in  his  History  of  the  husbandrj' 
of  MOgelin,  p.  166.  He  there  maintains  that  we  must  multiply  the  hay  foddered  out 
and  the  amount  of  straw-litter  by  2.3,  if  we  would  know  the  weight  of  manure 
gained.  The  juicy  plants  for  fodder  he  would  first  reduce  to  their  hay-value ;  ac- 
cording to  which,  100  lbs.  of  hay  are  equal  to  200  lbs.  of  potatoes,  460  of  beets,  350  of 
cabbage-turnips,  525  of  water- turnips,  266  of  carrots,  600  of  white  cabbage,  90  of 
young  clover-hay,  90  of  vetch-hay,  90  of  luzerne  and  sainfoin,  and  then  would  give 
the  manure  in  this  proportion,  i.  e.  200  lbs.  of  potatoes,  or  256  lbs.  of  turnips,  or  100  lbs. 
of  hay.  would  give  an  equal  quantity  of  manure.  Mayer  is  inconsistent  with  himself 
when  he  advises  us  to  multiply  hay  by  1.8,  and  grain  by  3,  in  order  to  ascertain  the 
amount  of  manure  ;  since  if  the  physical  system  of  beasts  absorb  more  from  hay  than 
from  straw,  and  hay  yields  less  manure  according  to  its  weight  than  straw,  there- 
fore, this  must  be  much  more  true  as  respects  the  grains  which  are  so  much  more 
nutritive  than  hay.  Thaer  is  of  the  same  opinion  with  Mayer,  and  believes  that  a 
horse  in  a  great  measure  fed  on  grain  would  yield  not  fuUy  but  nearly  as  much  ma-^ 


110  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

nure  as  if  he  was  fed  on  hay  only,  and  sets  it  at  double  the  weight.  According  to  him. 
it  is  the  same  whether  we  give  a  horse  25  lbs.  of  hay.  or  10  lbs.  of  oats  and  5  lbs.  of 
hay  ;  and  25  lbs.  of  hay  or  15  lbs.  of  dry  nutritious  substance  give  the  same  weight  in 
excrements.  But  if  10  lbs.  of  oats  will  give  a  beast  as  much  nutritious  substance  in  24 
hours  as  20  lbs.  of  hay,  then  must  there  be  not  only  in  an  absolute  but  also  in  a  relative 
respect  a  much  less  weight  of  excrement  than  from  20  lbs.  of  hay.  That  the  excre- 
ments of  a  beast  fed  with  grain  are  of  greater  efficacy  as  manure,  we  have  already 
shown  ;  but  since  here  the  only  object  is  to  ascertain  the  quantity  of  manure  from  the 
quantity  of  fodder  and  litter,  therefore  we  cannot  now  have  regard  to  that  point 
Count  d'Angeville  (Mogl.  Annual,  Vol.  I.)  says  that  with  a  very  small  littering  100 
lbs.  of  hay  give  216  lbs.  of  fresh  manure,  which  is  nearly  the  same  I  have  supposed. 
But  because  the  object  is  to  know  the  weight  of  manure  which  has  lain  in  heaps  for 
3  or  4  months  compared  with  the  consumed  materials  of  fodder  and  litter ;  therefore 
it  will  not  be  too  small  to  reckon  100  parts  of  fodder  and  Utter  against  200  parts  ol 
half-rotten  manure. 

Finally,  I  must  here  observe,  that,  in  the  first  edition  of  this  work,  I  have  multiplied 
the  materials  of  fodder  and  litter  by  2.17,  in  order  to  compute  the  weight  of  manure ; 
and  that  in  the  following  editions  I  have  thrown  away  the  fractional  part  of  the 
multiplier,  and  taken  the  double  weight  of  manure  for  the  single  in  fodder  and  litter, 
which  has  been  retained  in  the  present  edition,  while  I  am  always  more  convinced 
that  we  do  best  in  this  approximation  of  computing  the  manure,  to  reckon  all  the 
fodder^  be  it  of  what  description  it  may  be,  according-  to  its  dry  weight,  to  add  to 
it  the  litter  and  then  multiply  by  two  the  collective  sjim. 

[Thaer's  views  have  been  alluded  to  above,  by  our  Author.  He  has  given  a 
great  variety  of  tables  and  deductions,  which  are  found  in  his  first  volume,  and  after- 
wards modified  in  the  Introduction  to  the  second  volume  of  his  work  heretofore 
quoted.  It  may  be  well  to  subjoin  a  few  extracts  from  these,  as  they  contain  valua- 
ble information  in  reference  to  the  production  of  manure  from  the  various  crops  pro- 
duced. It  is  not  supposed  indeed  that  the  products  will  exactly  correspond  to  those 
in  our  own  country,  though  the  principles  of  computation  may  answer. 

Vol.  I.,  p.  177,  he  thus  speaks  of  the  proportions  of  grain,  straw,  and  manure: 
"  As  the  result  of  many  experiments,  it  is  found  that  the  proportion  of  grain  to  the 
straw  varies — 

In    Rye,      from  38—42  :  lOf 

V^heat,     "    48—52  :  lOl 

Barley,     •*    62—64 :  10( 

Oats,        "    60—62  :  100 

"  W^ith  peas,  it  is  more  undetermined,  and  the  addition  of  the  pods,  as  is  well  known, 
is  in  very  different  proportions  to  the  stalk.  Count  Podewill  found  it  to  be  as  5  to 
21.  I  believe  that  on  the  whole  it  should  be  given  as  35  to  100,  as  peas  are  usually 
planted ;  but  it  would  be  the  surer  way  to  reckon  the  straw  of  one  yoke  (=  1.422 
acre)  of  peas  at  4130  lbs.  (==  3844  to  an  acre),  while  the  product  of  straw  in  this 
fruit  is  usually  much  larger  than  of  the  grain.  It  is  the  same  with  respect  to  vetches. 
If  therefore  1  metzen  (=  1.69  bushels)  of  good  rye,  somewhat  heaped,  weight  88 1 
lbs.  (=  1  bushel  at  52  lbs.),  and  the  grain  on  an  average  is  as  40  :  100 ;  then  one 
yoke  (=  1.422  acre)  of  rye  will  give. 

At  3  metzen  (=  5  bushels),  product 


4 

(( 

H 

(( 

(C 

887 

« 

u 

2039 

(( 

5 

u 

H 

"nearly" 

1108 

u 

u 

2549 

(( 

6 

«l 

10 

li 

(C 

1330 

(( 

(( 

3059 

(( 

7 

it 

11^ 

u 

« 

1552 

(( 

(( 

3569 

(( 

8 

(( 

13^ 

(( 

<( 

1773 

ii 

i( 

4078 

« 

9 

« 

15A 

(( 

C( 

1995 

(C 

{( 

4588 

(( 

10 

« 

17 

(( 

« 

2217 

it 

<c 

5098 

u 

11 

u 

18i 

(( 

.( 

2348 

« 

« 

5608 

a 

12 

(( 

20i 

(( 

(( 

2660 

u 

u 

6117 

li 

This,  corresponding  to  the  first  computation  of  one  yoke  at  3  metzen,  is  for  1  acre 
at  3|  bushels,  a  product  of  straw  of  467  lbs.,  and  of  manure  of  1066  lbs.  Conse- 
quently, every  added  bushel  on  the  acre  will  give  about  125  lbs.  of  straw,  and  about 
300  lbs.  of  manure. 

"  If  one  metzen  (=  1.69  bushels)  of  wheat  weighs  94^  lbs.  (=  56  lbs.  the  bushel) 
and  the  grain  is  to  the  straw  as  50  to  100,  then  1  yoke  (=  1.422  acre)  gives, 


4 

u 

5 

(( 

6 

u 

7 

(( 

8 

*4 

9 

<i 

10 

u 

11 

u 

12 

•« 

u 

2181 

u 

(( 

2181 

(( 

<c 

2617 

(( 

u 

3054 

{( 

t( 

3490 

« 

K 

3926 

u 

(( 

4362 

u 

« 

4799 

a 

c 

5236 

u 

ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  Ill 

At  3  metzen  (see  last  table  for  bushels)  569  product  in  straw,  and  so  1309  lbs.  manure. 

759  u  - 

948  « 

1138  " 
1328 

1517  " 

1707  *' 

1897  « 

2086  •' 

2276  « 

This,  corresponding  to  the  3  metzen  per  yoke,  is  for  1  acre  at  3|  bushels,  a  product 
of  straw  of  about  298  lbs.,  and  of  manure  about  700  lbs.  Consequently,  every  added 
bushel  per  acre  gives  about  80  lbs.  of  straw,  and  not  quite  190  lbs.  of  manure. 

"If  1  metzen  (=  1.69  bushels)  of  barley  weighs  70  lbs.  (nearly  42  lbs.  the  bushel), 
and  the  grain  is  to  the  straw  as  60  :  100,  then  1  yoke  (=  1.422  acre)  of  barley  gives 

At  3  metzen  (see  1st  table  for  bushels)  350  lbs.  of  straw,  and  so  805  lbs.  of  manure. 

466  •'  "  1072 

583  »  "  1340 

699  "  "  1607 

815  «  "  1875 

932  «  "  2143 

1049  «  "  2412 

1165  «  "  2679 

1281  "  «  2946 

1398  "  "  3214 


4 

u 

5 

it 

6 

a 

7 

u 

8 

u 

9 

(( 

10 

(( 

11 

(( 

12 

(( 

u 


This,  corresponding  to  the  3  metzen  per  yoke,  is  for  the  acre  at  3|  bushels,  a  pro- 
duct of  straw  equal  to  about  162  lbs.,  and  of  manure  about  382  lbs.  Consequently, 
every  added  bushel  gives  for  an  acre  about  44  lbs.  of  straw,  and  about  106  lbs.  of 
manure. 

"If  1  metzen  (=  1.69  bushels)  of  oats  weighs  53f  lbs.  (=  33  lbs.  to  the  bushel 
nearly),  and  the  grain  is  to  the  straw  as  60  :  100 ;  then  1  yoke  (1.422  acres)  of  oats 
gives 
At  3  metzen  (see  1st  table  for  bushels)  266  lbs.  of  straw,  and  so  611  lbs.  of  manure, 

4  " 

5  « 

6  " 

7  « 

8  " 
9 

10  " 

11  « 

12  « 

This,  corresponding  to  the  3  metzen  per  yoke,  is,  for  the  acre  at  3|  bushels,  a  pro- 
duct of  straw  equal  to  about  139  lbs.,  and  ot  manure  of  about  321  lbs,  consequently 
every  bushel  added  gives  of  straw  aljout  37  lbs.,  of  manure  about  86  lbs. 

"  To  determine  the  manure  which  the  food  in  the  pasture  gives,  it  has  been  weigh- 
ed, and  for  a  well-fed  milch  cow,  in  a  rich  pasture,  has  been  found  to  be,  in  24  hours, 
34  lbs.  on  an  average,  oi-  in  5  months,  or  153  pasture  days,  5200  lbs.  The  manure 
by  day,  and  that  by  night,  has  been  separately  weighed,  and  found  to  be,  in  the  former 
case,  19  to  21  lbs.,  in  the  latter  13^  to  14  lbs." 

'*We  have  therefore  the  following  for  the  different  kinds  of  cattle : 


355 

(( 

816 

a 

443 

u 

1020 

a 

532 

ti 

1223 

u 

621 

u 

1427 

t( 

719 

u 

1631 

(( 

798 

(( 

u 

1835 

(C 

887 

u 

il 

2029 

u 

975 

11 

u 

2242 

(( 

1064 

a 

u 

2447 

u 

Winter  Straw. 

Summer  Straw. 

Hay 

or  a  great               ox, 

3530  lbs. 

1646  lbs. 

1717  lbs. 

"     middle-sized  " 

2940 

1370 

1348 

«     small       "       « 

2350 

1100 

1078 

*'    large             cow. 

1760 

1235 

1293 

"    middle-sized  " 

1470 

1030 

1078 

«    small       «      « 

1116 

823 

862 

"    horse  foddered  in  the  stable,  4700  2587 


112  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

Therefore,  according  to  the  proportions  adopted. 

Will  manure  at 
Of  straw  and  fodder.  Manure.  22,000  lbs.  per  yoke. 

For  a  large            ox,  6793  lbs.  15,624  lbs.      0.71  yoke 

"  middle-sized  "  5658  13,013  0.59 

«'  small        "      ♦'  4528  10,400  0.47 

«  large         "    cow  4288  9,862  0.44 

"  middle      "      "  3518  8.091  0.36 

«  small        "      "  2861  6,580  0.30 

«  Btabled  horse,  7287  11,222  0.51 

Average  per  head,    0.48  yoke  =  -^  of  an  acre. 
"  In  my  edition  of  Bergen's  Guide  for  raising  cattle,  I  have  given  a  table  of  the 
fodder  which  some  cows  of  mine  consumed  in  a  year.     It  amounted  per  head  to, 

Reduced  to  hay  value. 

White  cabbage,         .        .        .    4,790  lbs.  798  lbs. 

Potatoes,         ....         3,820  1,910 
Turnips,             ....     1,790  335 

Carrots,  ....         1,210  453 

Green  clover,     ....  13,800  3,066 

Hay, 1.630 

Straw-fodder, 2,266 

Straw-litter, 3,577 

from  which  was  produced  32,280  lbs.  of  manure. 

'•  See  also  on  this  point,  the  table  quoted  from  Veit,  Vol.  I.  p.  287,  already  given 

on  pages  103—106  of  this  work.— Tr.] 

5.    WHAT  PROPORTION  MUST  THE  PRODUCTION    OF  PLANTS  FOR  SALE  BEAR    TO  THE  PRO- 
DUCTION OF  THOSE  FOR  FODDER? 

1.  The  object  of  Agriculture  is  the  highest  gain;  which  is  obtained  from 
the  sale  of  those  vegetable  and  animal  products  that  are  not  required  for 
the  management  of  the  farm. 

2.  But  since  beasts  are  necessary  for  the  nourishment  of  plants,  and  the 
degree  of  the  growth  of  plants  depends  on  the  quality  of  manure  which 
the  fields  receive  ;  hence  is  clear  the  necessity  of  producing  so  much  ma- 
nure in  every  farm  as  is  needed  to  keep  the  field  in  a  state  of  uniform 
power,  or  if  this  is  too  small,  to  increase  it. 

3.  In  a  farm  which  has  for  its  object  simply  the  rearing  of  cattle,  or  the 
domestic  use  of  them,  we  need  only  suit  the  number  of  cattle  to  the  pro- 
duce of  the  land,  because  all  the  land,  be  it  plough-land  or  meadow  or  pas- 
ture, produces  only  plants  for  fodder  ;  and  in  the  same  proportions  as  the 
produce  of  the  land  in  plants  is  raised  by  the  manure  employed,  the  num- 
ber of  cattle,  or  the  product  of  any  particular  part  which  before  was  less, 
may  be  increased. 

4.  But  in  a  farm  which  derives  a  great  part  of  its  receipts  from  the  sale  of 
vegetable  produce,  must  a  part  of  the  land  be  employed  for  the  food  of  the 
beasts  required  for  carrying  on  the  operations  of  the  farm,  and  another  por- 
tion for  the  production  of  plants,  &ic.,  for  sale. 

5.  The  proportion  between  the  lands  which  must  be  allotted  to  the 
production  of  manure,  and  that  which  yields  products,  which  are  not  so 
employed,  is  found  from  the  produce  of  the  first  in  fodder  and  litter,  and 
the  need  in  manure  of  the  latter. 

6.  There  must,  therefore,  always  be  so  much  land  employed  for  the 
production  of  fodder  and  litter,  that  the  manure  produced  will  maintain 


ECONOMY   OF  FARMING.  113 

the  entire  extent  of  the  field  under  culture,  in  the  highest  capacity  of  pro- 
duction suited  to  the  circumstances. 

7.  But  fodder  and  litter  either  grows  spontaneously    on  meadows,  pas- 
tures, in  woods  and  bogs,  or  is  purposely  produced  on  cultivated  grounds. 

8.  When  the  manure,  which  proceeds  from  the  employment  of  the  natural 
fields  of  fodder  and  litter,  is  sufficient  for  the  quantity  of  production  of  the 
plough-land,  then  can  this  be  wholly  employed  for  plants  for  sale ;  if  a 
part  only  fails,  then  this  may  be  replaced  by  the  production  of  as  much 
straw  from  the  cultivation  of  grain  as  is  needed  ;  but,  should  there  be  little 
or  a  very  disproportionately  small  portion  existing  of  such  natural  fields  of 
fodder  or  litter,  then  must  the  whole,  or  the  greatest  part  of  the  manure,, 
be  obtained  from  the  production  of  the  cultivated  land,  and  one  must  then 
employ  according  to  the  proportion  of  the  circumstances  which,  more  or 
less  agree  with  the  growth  of  plants  for  fodder,  in  favorable  circumstances, 
one  quarter,  often  one  half,  and  yet  more  of  the  plough-land  for  the  pro- 
duction of  fodder,  in  order  to  be  able,  on  the  other,  to  produce  grain  and 
other  plants  for  the  purposes  of  trade. 

Where  all  land  consists  only  in  that  which  is  tilled,  and  neither  meadows,  pastures, 
nor  woods,  are  found,  and  all  the  fodder  and  litter  must  be  produced  on  the  plough- 
land,  we  can  only,  in  the  most  favorable  situation,  be  satisfied  with  a  fourth  part  to. 
be  used  for  fodder,  and  ought  to  raise  on  the  other  three  parts,  no  herbaceous  plants, 
which  yield  no  straw.  Take  as  an  example  this  rotation:  1,  Maize ;  2,  Barley; 
3,  Clover  ;  4,  Wheat. 

The  produce  on  100  yokes  (142.2  acres,)  of  plough  land: 
Of  Maize,  25  yokes  (nearly  35:^  acres),   at  30  metzen  (50.7  bushels),  is  1,750 
metzen  ( 2,957 1  bushels),  at  80  lbs.  =  60,000  lbs. 

Barley,  25  yokes  (nearly  35^  acres),  at  20  metzen  (33.8  bushels),  is  500  met- 
zen (845  bushels),  at  66  lbs.  is  33,300  lbs. 

Clover,  25  yokes  (nearly  35:]:  acres),  at  6,000  lbs.  is  150,000  lbs. 
Wheat,  25  yokes  (nearly  35:^  acres),  at  16  metzen  (  =  27  bushels),  450  metzen 
(760  bushels),  at  82  lbs.  is  32,000  lbs. 

The  manure  will  be  produced  from   1,500  cwt.  of  clover,  and  also  from 
25  yokes  of  Maize-stalks  at  35  cwt.  =  875    " 
"  "     Barley-straw  at  20    "         500    '' 

«  "     Wheat-straw  at  30   "         750    " 

3625    " 
As  all  the  straw,  with  the  clover,  will  be  restored  to  the  field  in  manure,  so  ought  the 
weight  of  the  grain  raised  on  it,  and  not  employed  for  the  production  of  manure,  be 
restored  by  an  equal  weight  of  other  vegetables,  or  by  the  surplus  of  the  gain  in 
assimilating  inorganic  matter,  which  the  clover  makes. 
The  weight  of  the  grain-harvest  yields : 

Of  Maize,  .  .  .600  cwt 

Of  Barley,      .  .  .  .       330    « 

Of  Wheat,  ...  328    " 

1258    « 

and  since  half  of  the  product  of  the  clover  yields,  as  the  surplus  of  the  gain  in  as-' 
similating  inorganic  matter,  750  cwt  ;  therefore,  there  are  only  wanting  508  cwt  of 
hay  and  straw  in  order  to  make  up  the  given  production  of  the  cultivated  field,  but 
which  deficiency  will  be  fully  covered  by  the  roots  of  clover. 

If  little  clover  is  raised,  then  31  yokes  (  =  44  acres,)  of  meadow  requiring  no 
manure,  and  which  will  give  each  40  cwt.  of  hay,  is  needed  to  produce  so  much 
fodder  as,  joined  with  the  straw  of  the  cultivated  field,  may  furnish  the  necessary- 
manure  to  yield  the  above-mentioned  product  of  grain.  Here  then  are  -^  of  the 
field  for  fodder,  against  f  of  cultivated  land. 

Is  the  situation  less  favorable  for  clover  or  luzerne,  and  must  vetches  in  part  lake 

15 


114  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

their  place,  one  needs  then  |  of  the  field  for  fodder,  in  order  to  plant  f  with  grain: 
For  example,  100  yokes  (  =  142.2  acres),  of  plough  land,  lie  in  the  following  rota- 
tion :  1,  Maize,  manured ;  2,  Barley  ;  3,  Clover  j  4,  Wheat ;  5,  Vetches,  manured ;  6, 
Oats ;  7,  Vetches  ;  8,  Oats. 

Acres.  Bushels. 

12.5  yokes  (17 A)  of  Maize,  give  of  grain,  at  30  metzen  (50  7^)  per  yoke,  :  300  cwt 

'♦        «         "  Barley,     "  "  20       "        (33-^)      "       "      :  165    " 

(*       »        u  Wheat,    "  "  16      "        (27)  "      "      :  164    '• 

"  Oats,        «  '*  24  to  50  lbs  (401)         «      «      :  155    « 

«        "        «  Oats,        "  "  20        "      (33^-)         »      "      :  120    « 

904   " 
These  904  cwt.  must  be  replaced  by  that  which  the  clover  and  the  vetches  have 
appropriated  to  themselves  from  the  inorganic  matter. 

12.5  yokes  (17-|  acres,)  of  clover,  give  here,  per  yoke,  50  cwt.  625  cwt. 

«        «        «'        «       of  manured  vetches    "      *'      30    "  375    " 

«        "        «        «       unmanured       "         "      "      25     "  312     « 

1312     " 
Half  of  this  is  656    " 

There  is  wanting,  therefore,    248     " 

which  must  be  replaced  by  fodder  or  litter,  but  in  the  present  case  may  be  replaced 
by  the  clover  roots,  if  the  rest  could  only  gain  SO  cwt.,  on  the  extent  of  a  yoke. 

In  the  first  example  we  have  produced,  on  100  yokes  of  plough  land,  1,258  cwt.  of 
grain ;  here  only  904  cwt,  because  so  large  a  part  must  be  employed  for  fodder, 
while  the  clover  gave  a  smaller  product,  and  in  the  sixth  and  eighth  year  the  land 
could  only  be  cultivated  for  oats. 

Since,  in  the  first  volume  of  this  work,  I  charged  the  peas-straw  wholly  to  the 
manure,  I  will  therefore  repeat  the  computation  of  the  productions  quoted  on  page 
181  of  that  volume,  (for  which  also  see  pp.  80—85  of  this  work)  and  examine  how  the 
quantity  of  the  field  for  fodder  is  proportioned  to  that  which  bears  grain.  We  pro- 
duce, in  this  mode  of  husbandry,  in  six  years,  in  grain,  on  100  yokes  of  plough  land, 

Acres.  Bushels.  Metzen. 

16f  yoke   (23|)  in  Maize,       at  40  metzen  (67-i\)  at  80  lbs.  :  050-^  :  520  cwt. 
«         "  «  Barley,  24      "        (40^)     at  66  lbs. :  394f :  260    " 

«         «  «  Winter  Rye,  18      "        (30f,-)  at  80  lbs.  :  300    :  240     " 

Peas,  12      "        (20-,\)  at  94  Ib.^.  :  200    :  188     " 


(( 


«         «         «  Oats,  18      "        (18-iV)  atSOlbs. :  300    :  150 


(( 


1358    " 
Of  clover,  we  produce  for  one  yoke  60  cwt. ;  consequently,  of  16 1  yokes, 

1000  cwt.,  of  this  half  belongs  as  a  supply  for  500  cwt 

Of  peas-straw,  is  produced,  per  yoke,  30  cwt. ;  consequently,  of  16f  yokes, 

500  cwt.,  of  this  half  belongs  here  250    " 

750  " 
There  is  wanting,  therefore,  608  cwt.  addition  for  grain,  which  must  be  either 
wholly  or,  in  a  great  part,  replaced  by  the  clover  roots.  If,  on  the  extent  of  one  yoke, 
only  80  cwt.  of  fresh  roots  are  found,  on  16|  yokes  there  would  be  1,332  cwt. ;  there- 
fore 333  cwt.  of  grain  replaced,  and  there  is  wanting  only  275  cwt.  more  of  hay  to 
be  supplied ;  but,  if  we  reckon  140  cwt.  of  roots  per  yoke,  the  amount  supplied  would 
be  583  cwt. 

Should  the  clover  be  left  out  of  this  rotation,  we  should  then  need,  for  the  supply 
of  1358  cwt.  of  grain,  as  much  hay ;  and  if  the  meadows  gave  not  more  than  25 
cwt.  per  yoke,  then  there  would  be  needed  54  yoke. 

Great  harvests  can  only  be  produced  by  great  auxiliaries,  as  this  computation  very 
clearly  shows.  When,  formerly,  I  produced  on  my  farm,  at  Wolfsberg,  67  metzen 
(  =  113^  bushels)  of  maize j  40  metzen  (  =  67 6.10 bushels)  of  barley;  20  metzen 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  115 

(  =  33  8.10  bushels)  of  wheat:  and  34  metzen  (  =  40^  bushels)  of  rye,  per  yoke, 
I  had  the  following  rotation : 

barley. 


(  maize,  gj  vear     ^ 

1st  year,  <  potatoes,  ^      '    ( 

(  beans ; 


3d,  clover ;  4th,  winter  wheat ; 

5th,  winter  rye  ;  and  as  an  after-crop,  turnips  in  the  stubble. 
Near  by  I  had  an  equal  nvmiber  of  yokes  of  dry,  not  very  productive  meadow,  as 
plough-land,  and  obtained  in.  leaves  of  the  fruit-trees  as  much  as  half  the  product  in 
sti'aw. 

[ScHWERTz,  in  Vol.  III.  p.  150,  gives  also  some  estimates  as  to  the  production  of 
manure,  according  to  ditlerent  modes  of  culture.  '•  The  first  was  where  the  field  was 
allowed  every  2d  year  to  lie  fallow,  and  the  other  years  were  cultivated  with  grain. 
The  product  in  straw  and  manure  w^as  the  following.  The  weight  is  in  kilograms, 
of  which  one  kilogram  =  about  2^  lbs. 


Straw. 

Manure. 

1.  Naked  fallow, 

2.  Rye, 

3.  Naked  fallow, 

4.  Rye,      .         . 

5.  Naked  fallow, 

6.  Oats, 

manured,     . 

0  kilograms. 
3,500 

0 
2,625 

0 
2,250 

0  kilograms. 
7,000 

0 
5,250 

0 
3,957 

8,375  16,207 

equal  to  18  cartloads  of  manure.     Therefore  the  product  is  equal  to  the  need, 

*'  On  the  system  of  a  fallow,  manured  every  3d  year  with  grain, 

Straw. 


Straw. 

Manure. 

1.  Naked  fallow,  manured, 

0  kilogr. 

0  kilogr. 

2.  Rye,        .... 

3,500 

7,000 

3.  Oats,           .... 

.     3,000 

6,250 

4.  Naked  fallow,  manured, 

0 

0 

5.  Wheat,       .... 

.     3,300 

6,600 

6.  Barley, 

2,200 

3,850 

12,000  22,700 

equal  to  25.22  cartloads  of  manure.  The  farm  needs  30  cartloads,  for  each  fallow 
year  18,  therefore  it  fails  short  1078.  A  similar  farm  of  100  hectares  =  250  acres, 
suffers,  therefore,  a  loss  of  179f ,  to  cover  which,  an  addition  of  33  hectares  of  meadow 
are  required. 

"The  same  mode  of  husbandry,  with  fallow  every  3d  year,  but  with  clover,  gives 
the  following  results : 

1  year,  naked  fallow,  manured. 


2 
3 

4 

rye, 

barley, 

clover,  manured, 

5 
6 

Wheat, 
Oats, 

Straw  and  fodder. 

0  kilogr. 

3.500 
,    2,200 

4,998 
.     3,300 

3,000 

Manure. 

0  kilogr. 
7,000 
3,850 
8,270 
6,600 
5,250 

16,998 

30,970 

Total, 

which  is  34^  cartloads.     There  was  needed  in  manure  for  the  fallow,  18  cartloads, 

"    "     clover,  24 

42 
The  product  in  manure,  .  .  34^ 

Deficiency,  ,  .  .  -      '^i 

being  125  cartloads  to  100  hectares,  to  cover  which,  there  must  be  23  hectares  of  un- 
manured  meadows. 


116  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

"  In  resorting  to  the  production  of  roots,  tjie  following  is  the  result  in  the  case  of 
potatoes,  &c. 

Materials  of  rranure.  Manure. 

^            i  half  potatoes,          ....     3,780  kilog.  6,615  kilog. 

^  y®^^' ^  half  naked  fallow,          ...             0  0 

„     ^,     \  half  wheat,          ....         1,650  3,300 

'^           ^  half  rye 170  3.500 

„     „      S  half  oats,             ....         1,500  2,625 

"^            (  half  barley, 1,100  1,925 

4  ''         clover,  dry,           ....        5,000  8,270 

5  "        wheat, 3,300  6.600 

6  "        oats, 3,000  5,250 


Total,    21,080  kilogr.  38,085  kilogr. 

The  manure  is  42 1  cartloads. 

The  need  of  manure  is,  for  half  a  hectare  of  fallow,       9  cartloads. 
"      "  "        "  potatoes,  15 

For  1  hectare  of  clover,  24 

48 

"  There  is  a  deficiency,  therefore,  of  5f  cartloads  of  manure.  The  amount  on  100 
hectares  is  94^  cartloads,  for  which  17^  hectares  of  meadow  are  required.  On  com- 
parison of  the  above  three  examples  of  the  culture  of  grain,  it  appears  that  without  the 
culture  of  fodder,  but  with  a  3d  part  naked  fallows,  on  100  morgen  of  plough-land,  33 
hectares  of  good  meadow,  which  require  no  manure,  are  needed;  that  with  the  cul- 
ture of  clover,  with  the  use  of  the  6th  part  as  naked  fallow,  23  morgen ;  and  finally  with 
clover  and  potatoes,  using  -/.r  of  naked  fallow,  17^  morgen  of  meadow  are  required. 
Therefore  we  save,  on  100  morgen  of  plough-land,  by  clover,  10  morgen  of  grass 
growth,  and  by  the  culture  of  potatoes,  5^  morgen.  We  might  therefore  expect  that 
clover  and  potatoes,  where  both  are  resorted  to,  would  gain  f  part  of  the  cultivated 
soil  for  the  plough.  If  we  compare  the  above  examples,  it  follows  that  only  by  a  fre- 
quent return  of  the  naked  fallow,  as  well  in  the  system  of  grain  crops  as  in  the  rota- 
tion of  fraits,  can  an  addition  of  meadows  be  avoided." — Tr.] 

9.  Should  the  cattle  feed  themselves  in  the  summer  on  the  pastures, 
and  we  compare  the  quantity  of  the  pasture-land  with  the  quantity  of  the 
plough-land,  we  must,  according  to  the  proportion  of  the  goodness  of  the 
pasture,  have  at  least  as  much  field  for  fodder,  in  order  to  keep  an  equal 
amount  of  plough-land  in  a  fruitful  state.  If  the  meadows  are  poor,  and 
one  has  only  little  meadow,  and  practises  fallow,  then  the  extent  of  the 
grain-bearing  land  to  the  pasture,  meadow,  and  fallow,  is  often  as  100  to 
200  and  upwards. 

The  farm  of  Mr.  Bloomfield,  in  Norfolk,  described  in  the  1st  Vol.  of  t.lie  MOglin 
Annals,  had  800  acres  of  plough-land,  of  which  one-half  was  sown  with  turnips,  clo- 
ver, and  vetches,  together  with  100  acres  of  artificial,  900  acres  of  natural  pasture. 
400-[-100-|-900  =  1400  acres  of  land  for  fodder,  against  400  acres  of  grain-bearing 
land.  That  he  could  easily  raise  on  this  36  metzen  (^=  68  ,V  bushels)  of  barley,  and 
26  metzen  (=  44  bushels)  of  wheat  per  yoke,  we  may  well  believe,  if  we  consider 
only  the  extent  of  the  pasture  on  the  strand,  on  account  of  its  exposure  to  the  flood. 

The  estates  of  Gusow  and  Platkow  have  on  the  high  grounds : 

In  wheat,  barley,  and  oat-land,  .       1477  morgen,  at  |  of  an  acre. 

In  three  year  rye-land,     .  .  300         " 

In  wheat,  .  .  .  .      90        " 

1867 
If  we  set  off  from  the  first  land  |  for  fallow  =  492,  and  from  the  2d  ^  as  pasture 
=  200,  there  remains  985  morgen  of  grain-bearing  land,  but  of  which  again  70  mor- 
gen must  be  subtracted  for  clover  and  potatoes ;  therefore  915  morgen  against  952 
morgen  of  pasture,  and  some  meadow. 

In  fallow  tliese  estates  have  in  wheat,  rye,  barley,  and  oatland,  1735  morgen, 
In  meadow,         .  .  .602      " 

2337 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  117 

If  we  set  off  of  the  first  I-  for  fallow,  with  578  morgen,  80  morgen  more  for  clover 
and  potatoes,  there  i-emain  1077  morgen  of  grain-bearing  land  against  1260  morgen 
of  pasture,  meadow,  and  plants  for  foddei.  But  that  this  proportion  of  land  for  fod- 
der to  the  grain-bearing  land  is  not  sufficient,  and  that  too  little  winter-fodder  would 
thus  be  produced,  the  small  harvests  which  I  have  mentioned  in  many  places  in  the 
Special  Culture  of  plants  proves. 

Muglin  had  in  7  divisions  619  morgen  of  plough-land.  The  rotation  was,  1,  hoed- 
fruits,  the  greater  part  of  which  were  foddered  out ;  2,  barley  ;  3,  clover ;  4,  winter- 
fruit;  6,  husk-fruit;  7,  winter-fruit.  There  were  -^  of  the  plough-land  cultivated  with 
plants  for  fodder.  The  inclosed  divisions  contained  350  morgen,  and  were  used  two 
years  one  after  ano.her,  for  grain,  and  then  three  years  for  pasture.  The  farm  of 
KoenigsholY  produced  on  an  average  777  cwt.  of  hay  yearly,  and  probably  half  as 
much  in  straw  =  1165  cwt,  which  might  well  enough  be  the  case  on  100  morgen  of 
land. 

There  was,  therefore, 

In  MOglin,  of        .         .        619  morgen,  set  apart  for  fodder  258  morgen. 
In  the  inclosed  divisions  of  350       "  ♦'  pasture      210       '* 

Total,         969        «  "       Total,  468       " 

On  the  farm  of  KoenigshofT,  hay  and  litter  was  obtained  on    100      " 

Total,  568 

Without  regarding  the  addition  of  Koenigshoff,  the  proportion  in  MOghn  between 
land  for  grain  and  ibr  fodder,  was  as  969—468  =  501  to  468,  that  is,  as  100  to  93. 
With  Koenigshoff  as  501  to  568,  i.  e.  100  to  111.  With  the  Koppel,  or  Egarten- 
wirthschaft  (see  6,  7.)  there  is  always  more  land  necessary  for  fodder  than  ought  to 
be  employed  for  the  production  of  grain.  The  Koppel-wirthschaft  which  Thaer 
mentions  in  the  1st  Vol.  of  his  Rationellen  Landwirthsch,  p.  159,  consisted  of  1200 
morgen  of  ])iough-land,  but  of  which  only  if  was  sown  with  grain,  450  morgen ;  tlie 
other  ^  =  650  morgen,  are  150  morgen  fallow,  150  morgen,  of  clover,  and  450  mor- 
gen of  pasture.  This  farm  required  further  150  morgen  of  meadow,  and  100  yokes  of 
out-pasture  :  650  -}-  150-1-  100  =  900  morgen  of  land  for  fodder  against  450  morgen 
of  laud  for  grain. 

If  we  examine  our  mountain-farms  with  their  fallows,  heath-pastures,  meadow  and 
woods,  which  produce  little  in  abundance,  we  should  find  frequently  30  and  40  yoke 
of  land  for  fodder  and  litter,  against  10  yoke  of  grain-land. 


6.  How  MUST  THE  DIFFERENT  PLANTS  CULTIVATED  FOLLOW  EACH  OTHER,  SO  THAT  THE 
NECESSARY  WANTS  OF  FODDER  AND  LITTER  MAY  BE  MET  AND  SUITED  TO  THE  GREAT- 
EST POSSIBLE  PRODUCTION  OF  PLANTS  FOR  GRAIN  AND  FOR  TRADE.  WITHOUT  THE 
FIELD  BEING  TOO  MUCH  EXHAUSTED  OR  RENDERED  BARREN,  OR  NEEDING  ANY  EXTRA- 
ORDINARY CULTURE  ? 

1.  The  order  in  which  the  crops  should  follow  one  another  on  a  field  is 
called  the  Succession  of  Fruit  (Frucht-folge,  Frucht-wechsel)or  the  Turnus. 

2.  Such  plants  only  ought  to  be  adopted  in  the  Succession  of  Crops  in  a 
given  country,  which  are  suited  to  the  nature  of  the  climate,  of  the  soil,  and 
the  circumstances  of  local  situation. 

In  a  dry  and  loose  soil,  to  cultivate  wheat  will  bring  the  greatest  disadvantage, 
while  rye  and  buckwheat  will  yield  the  best  profit  Beans  in  a  moist,  cold  climate 
bring  more  profit  than  maize,  and  vice  versa;  and  where  there  are  only  a  few  men 
for  labor,  all  those  vegetables  which  require  much  hand-labor,  as  millet,  flax,  carrots, 
&c.,  yield  little  or  no  profit. 

3.  Plants  which  we  cultivate  in  any  farm  standing  by  Itself,  are  cither 
designed  as  food  for  the  beasts  required  for  their  cultivation,  plants  for 
fodder,  or  to  yield  products — which  only  in  part,  or  scarcely  not  at  all,  are 
applied  to  the  nourishment  of  beasts,  or  the  production  of  manure — and 
plants  for  grain  or  for  trade. 


113  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

4.  WheiX'  sufficient  pastures  and  meadows  exist,  there  the  whole  field 
can  be  employed  for  wheat  and  plants  for  trade. 

5.  The  mode  of  husbandry,  where  the  land  under  cultivation  is  em- 
ployed only  for  the  production  of  grain  and  plants  for  trade,  and  not  for 
vegetables  for  fodder,  is  called  Field-farming  (Felder-wirthschaft.) 

6.  Where  pasture  and  meadows  are  wanting,  or  not  existing  in  sufficient 
extent  and  goodness,  the  fodder  must  be  wholly  or  in  part  produced  upon 
the  field,  and  plants  for  fodder  and  grain,  must  be  interchanged  on  the  cul- 
tivated land. 

7.  When  the  field  is  left  over  for  two  or  more  years  to  a  wild  natural 
growth  of  grass,  and  in  this  time  is  used  as  a  meadow  or  pasture, 
this  mode  of  husbandry  is  called  the  Egarten,  or  Koppel-wirthschaft ;  but 
if  the  field  is  sown  alternately  with  grain  and  plants  for  fodder,  and 
this  last  cultivated  proportionally,  this  kind  of  husbandry  is  called  the 
Rotation  of  Crops  (Frucht-wechsel-wirthschaft). 

8.  The  Field-farming  (Felder-wirthschaft)  may  be  adopted  wherever 
pastures  and  meadows,  required  for  the  amount  of  cultivated  land,  and  its 
comparatively  highest  use,  exist  in  sufficient  extent,  and  are  not  capable  of 
a  higher  use. 

9.  The  Natural  Grass-growth,  (Koppel-wirthschaft)  is  only  profitable 
where  the  climate  so  much  favors  the  natural  grov/th  of  grass,  that  the  field 
left  to  itself  will  become  a  meadow,  if  it  is  not  ploughed,  without  the  ne- 
cessity of  sowing  it  with  plants  for  fodder. 

10.  The  Rotation  of  Crops  (Frucht-wechsel-wirthschaft)  must  be  em- 
ployed where  the  existing  field  of  plants  for  fodder,  pastures,  and  meadows, 
do  not  produce  the  fodder  required  to  meet  the  demand,  and  the  climate 
too  little  favors  the  natural  growth  of  grass  ;  so  that  either  all  the  fodder  or 
a  part  of  the  same  must  be  produced  on  the  cultivated  fields  ;  or  where  the 
soil  from  the  number  of  population  has  so  high  a  value,  that  a  person  must 
be  contented  with  a  small  use  of  the  same  for  a  pasture,  or  of  a  small,  more 
productive  meadow. 

11.  Only  in  rare  cases  will  one  of  these  kinds  of  husbandry  be  used  by 
itself ;  for  the  most  part  one  is  more  or  less  joined  with  others,  and  a  per- 
son cultivates  with  the  Field-husbandry  (Felder-wirthschaft)  also  some 
fodder  on  the  tilled  land,  or  with  the  Koppel-wirthschaft  makes  use  also 
of  natural  meadoivs  and  pastures. 

12.  If  a  person  has  adopted  a  selection  of  gi'ain-plants  for  fodder  and  for 
trade,  suited  to  the  nature  of  the  climate,  soil,  and  local  situation  of  the 
farm,  and  has  fixed  on  the  proportion  in  which  the  plants  producing  fodder 
and  straw,  should  stand  to  those  which  are  not  applied  to  the  production  of 
manure,  the  order  then  must  be  given  in  which  these  plants  should  follow 
one  another  on  the  field. 

13.  The  plants  cultivated  on  the  field  must  be  so  cultivated  successively, 
followinsf  each  other  on  the  field,  that  those  which  will  bear  the  most  ma- 
nure  without  suffering  injury  from  it  should  come  on  the  field  in  the  first 
year  of  the  manuring,  and  later  afterwards  those  which  need  more  humus, 
and  later  still  those  which  are  in  a  state  to  appropriate  to  themselves  more 
of  the  inorganic  matter.     Besides  this,  they  must  be  so  arranged,  that  the 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  119 

condition  of  the  field  in  which  it  is  left  by  the  culture  of  the  preceding 
fruit  shall  be  most  suited  to  the  succeeding  fruit,  and  most  profitable  for 
itself. 

14.  Those  plants  bear  the  most  manure  which  form  a  thick  and  stiff 
stalk,  or  grow  low  in  the  field,  moreover  all  root-vegetables.  To  these 
belong  maize,  beans,  head-cabbage,  hemp,  potatoes,  turnips,  &ic.,  he. 

Culmiferous  grain  (i.  e.  having  a  haulm  or  hollow-jointed  stalk,)  easily  suffers 
injury  from  fresh  manure,  as  it  shoots  up  too  tender  and  too  high,  easily  lodges, 
and  has  feeble  ears,  or  becomes  rusty  and  blighted  ;  whilst  maize,  and  beaiis,  head- 
cabbage,  and  the  root-vegetables,  yield  in  the  same  proportion  a  greater  product  ac- 
cording as  one  employs  the  more  manure  for  these  fruits. 

15.  The  usual  culmiferous  and  pod-bearing  plants  need  less  manure,  and 
buckwheat  the  least. 

16.  But  above  all,  the  amount  of  the  product  of  all  the  plants  is  in  ex- 
act proportion  to  the  amount  of  those  before-existing  in  the  soil  in  a  dis- 
solved state,  assimilating  to  themselves  a  quantity  of  organic  nutriment  of 
plants  ;  and  we  shall  obtain  a  harvest  so  much  the  richer,  the  more  we  take 
care  that  the  field  shall  always  contain  that  quantity  of  manure  which  is 
most  suited  to  the  nature  of  the  plants. 

Many  are  of  the  opinion  that  one  kind  of  grain  needs  more,  another  less  manure, 
not  so  much  in  an  absolute  as  in  a  relative  point  of  view,  in  order  to  produce  a  defi- 
nite weight  of  straw  and  grain ;  others  suppose  that  plants  assimilate  to  themselves 
difterent  parts  of  the  humus,  and  that  we  must  ascribe  it  to  this  last  circumstance, 
that  we  suffer  first  wheat  and  then  oats  to  follow  one  another  in  the  field ;  and  others 
still,  that  a  course  of  fruits  with  a  proportionate  succession,  with  a  given  manuring 
will  produce  more  organic  matter  than  with  a  disproportionate  one.  But  I  hold  on 
this  subject,  that  the  product  of  all  fruits  is  greater  in  the  same  mass,  as  they  find  in 
the  soil  more  humus  in  a  state  easy  to  be  dissolved,  which  they  suck  in,  and  out  of 
which  they  form  the  different  particular  parts  of  plants.  On  this  account  only,  we  cause 
wheat  to  come  in  the  field  earlier  after  the  manuring  than  oats,  because  the  increased 
product  of  the  wheat-plants  in  a  strong  field,  has  a  greater  cash-value  than  that  which 
the  oat-plant  produces,  though  this  generally  produces  a  greater  volume,  and  is  earlier 
in  a  rich  soil  and  later  in  a  poorer  soil.  Plants,  like  beasts,  first  take  the  nourishment 
appointed  for  them  to  themselves,  arid  then  secrete  in  their  interior  parts,  by  assimi- 
lation, those  substances  which  they  need  for  the  formation  of  the  organic  material ; 
and  as  from  hay,  with  the  cow,  is  formed  milk,  with  the  fattening-ox,  tallow,  and  with 
the  sheep,  wool,  by  the  process  of  life  of  the  beasts  ;  so  from  the  same  hunms  dissolved 
in  water,  according  as  a  plant  sucks  it  in,  a  vegetable  product  contains  sometimes 
more,  sometimes  less  gluten,  farina,  sugar,  slime,  oil,  &c.  But  this  product  is  al- 
ways in  that  proportion  of  quantity  which  corresponds  to  the  amount  of  dissolved 
humus  in  the  soil. 

[LiEBiG  pronounces  the  theory  respecting  the  rotation  of  crops,  the  only  one  which 
rests  on  a  firm  basis.  Decandolle  supposed  that  the  roots  of  plants,  in  extracting  so- 
luble matter  of  various  kinds  from  the  soil,  absorbed  a  variety  of  substances  which 
were  not  fitted  for  their  own  nutriment,  and  that  therefore  these  were  ejected,  and  re- 
turned back  to  the  soil.  Of  course,  the  soil  thus  filled  with  this  ejected  matter  would 
be  unfit  for  another  crop  of  the  same  plant.  But  these  very  substances  might  be  a 
suitable  nutriment  to  other  plants  of  a  diflerent  species,  and  by  being  absorbed  from 
the  soil  it  might  again  be  rendered  proper  for  the  plants  before  raised  on  it.  He  cites 
as  confirmatory  of  this  theory  also  the  experiments  of  Macaire  Princep.  This  theory 
of  Decandolle,  and  also  the  one  to  which  our  Author  alludes  above,  which  merely 
considers  the  innutritions  matter  as  not  at  all  extracted  from  the  soil,  but  left  in  it, 
Leibig  thinks  do  not  explain  how  afield  is  improved  by  lying  fallow,  and  this  accord- 
ing as  it  is  improved,  nor  how  a  soil  gives  carbonaceous  matter  by  the  cidtivation 
of  luzerne  and  sainfoin.  He  says  that  the  advantage  of  the  alternation  of  crops  pro- 
ceeds from  two  causes:  '•  A  fertile  soil  ought  to  afford  to  a  plant  all  the  inorganic 
bodies  indispensable  for  its  existence  in  sufficient  quantity  and  in  such  a  condition 
as  allows  their  absorption." 


120  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

"  All  plants  require  alkalies,  &c. ;  where  those  are  in  combination  with  silicic  acid, 
the  ashes  obtained  from  the  incineration  of  the  plant  contain  no  carbonic  acid,  &c." 
See  Leirig's  Organic  Chemistry,  Cambridge  edition,  pp.  214,  and  onward.  The 
whole  of  this  valuable  work  deserves  the  reflecting  study  of  all  our  intelligent  farmers ; 
for  in  it  they  will  find  explained  many  of  those  questions  of  deep  practical  interest 
which  force  themselves  upon  their  minds  while  carrying  on  the  operations  o^  their 
Agriculture  ;  and  they  may  derive  from  it,  too,  many  important  rules  for  the  regulation 
of  their  usual  husbandry.  More  here  might  be  quoted  on  some  of  the  preceding  pro 
positions  of  our  Author,  from  Veit,  Thaer,  and  others,  but  it  seems  unnecessary,  as 
many  of  the  topics  which  appear  to  need  farther  illustration  have  already  been  casu- 
ally embraced  in  the  various  extracts  heretofore  made  from  those  authors. — Tr.] 

17.  Whoever  manures  his  field,  can  cultivate  the  same  fruit  continuously 
with  equal  results,  if  between  the  harvest  and  the  sowing-time  a  sufficient 
period  be  given  to  prepare  the  soil  suitably,  and  if  he  also  takes  care  that 
the  field  shall  be  cleared  of  weeds. 

Summer-fruits  may  always  be  cultivated  on  the  same  field,  if  one  only  takes  care 
to  manure  it;  but  with  winter-fruits,  especially  wheat,  it  does  not  always  succeed, 
because  between  the  harvest  and  the  time  of  sowing,  the  period  is  often  too  short  to 
clear  the  field,  by  repeated  ploughing  of  the  weeds,  and  reduce  the  hardened  soil. 
That  one  can  always  cultivate  head-cabbage,  hemp,  maize,  potatoes,  in  the  same 
field  with  equally  good  results,  no  one  sc^arcely  doubts  ;  and  whoever  does  doubt  it, 
can  easily  convince  himself  at  any  time  of  the  correctness  of  this  fact.  But  may  not 
that  which  succeeds  with  maize  and  hemp,  also  do  so  with  barley,  oats,  and  summer- 
wheat?  If  one  supplies  the  quantity  and  quality  of  manure  proper  for  these  plants, 
it  is  undoubtedly  true.  I  know  the  field  oi"  a  butcher  which  he  has  sowed  for  20  years 
with  barley,  and  every  year  scattered  on  it  some  sheep-dung,  and  which  has  pro- 
duced him  continually  the  richest  harvests.  Surely  we  can  always  cultivate  oats  and 
barley  on  the  same  field  with  equal  results  if  we  think  it  profitable.  But  because 
summer  culmiferous  fruit,  manured  with  fresh  stall-manure  in  moist  weather,  more 
easily  lodges  and  becomes  rusty  than  if  it  were  sown  in  the  second  and  third  year  af- 
ter manuring,  so  we  had  always  much  rather  take  such  summer-fruits  for  fresh  ma- 
nuring, which  the  manure  will  injure  in  no  weather.  Winter-wheat  we  cannot  sow 
after  winter-wheat  in  Northern  Europe  for  many  reasons ;  because  the  period  of 
time  from  the  harvest  in  August  till  the  sowing-time  at  the  end  of  September,  is  too 
short,  and  usually  too  moist,  to  clear  and  pulverize  the  clayey  soil  by  repeated  plough- 
ing ;  because  the  soil,  by  too  frequent  ploughings  following  one  another  too  rapidly, 
causes  too  much  work  in  too  short  a  time  ;  because  it  may  easily  become  too  loose, 
whereby  the  plants  are  winter-killed,  and  because  the  crude  stall-manure,  and  the 
late  sowing  of  the  seed  occasion  rust  and  blight.  But  in  the  South  of  Europe,  one 
may  sow  with  good  success  frequently  winter-wheat  many  times  in  succession,  in  the 
same  field.  In  the  South  of  France,  Arthur  Young  saw  the  fields  of  luzerne  broken 
up  three  times  in  succession,  sowed  with  wheat  without  any  damage  being  occa- 
sioned, and  in  the  newly  broken  up  rich  marshy  fields  in  the  South  of  Hungary,  they 
cultivate  wheat  many  years  in  succession.  But  winter-rye  one  may  raise  with  us  as 
well  as  in  Western  Germany  continuously  in  the  same  field,  since  this  fruit  is  here 
cleared  from  the  field  at  the  end  of  June,  and  therefore  allows  us  time  to  plough  re- 
peatedly till  the  end  of  September.  Rye  also  can  be  raised  on  a  loose  soil,  and  it 
Buflfers  not  from  the  strong  loosening ;  it  is  also  scarcely  liable  to  blight,  and  very 
rarely  to  rust,  and  the  fresh  manure  frequently  does  it  less  injury  than  it  does 
wheat. 

18.  But  because  on  account  of  the  division  of  labor  and  the  danger  of 
the  failure  of  the  crop,  we  cultivate  many  plants  for  fodder  and  grain,  and 
because  the  usual  manure  wdiich  we  carry  into  the  field  is  only  gradually 
dissolved  in  the  course  of  many  years,  therefore  we  must  cause  the  plants 
fixed  on  for  our  fields,  so  to  follow  one  another  that  the  quantity  of  manure 
may  not  be  injurious  to  the  plants,  and  the  remainder  of  it  which  is  still  left 
in  the  field  after  the  harvest  of  the  preceding  fruit,  may  also  correspond 
to  the  need  of  the  after-fruit. 

If  we  cultivate  only  a  small  variety  of  the  fruits  of  cultivated  land,  then  we  are  lia- 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  121 

ble  to  loss  from  accidental  fliilures  of  the  same.  If  we  cultivate  many,  then  the  loss 
which  we  sutfer  from  the  failure  of  one  fruit  may  be  made  up  by  the  success  of  another. 
Further,  we  must  take  care  to  keep  our  beasts  and  people  appointed  for  the  work  in 
constant  useful  activity,  and  this  will  only  be  possible  when  we  cultivate  a  large  va- 
riety of  plants :  and  because,  finally,  the  stall-manure  mixed  with  litter  dissolves 
itself  only  gradually  ;  thus  can  we,  according  to  the  proportion  of  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  the  same,  draw  benefit  from  it  for  several  years  ;  only  we  must  not  expect 
every  year  equally  great  harvests  of  plants  which  are  of  similar  proportion  as 
to  their  need  of  hunms.  But  because  some  plants  possess  in  a  higher  degree  than 
others  the  power  to  assimilate  to  themselves  inorganic  matter,  therefore  we  may 
obtain  by  their  culture  valuable  harvests;  provided,  indeed,  the  mass  of  the  humus  in 
the  soil  is  only  smaller,  and  not  at  variance  with  that  crop  which  requires  more,  to 
which  belong,  for  example,  vetches,  peas,  lentils,  and  buckwheat. 

19.  But  the  greatest  regard  must  be  had  to  leave  the  plants  so  to  follow 
one  another,  that  the  condition  in  which  the  soil  is  left  by  the  pre- 
ceding fruit  may  be  suited  to  the  after-fruits ;  so  that  on  the  one  side  the 
plants  may  seize  on  that  state  of  the  division  of  the  soil  which  is  adapted 
to  their  nature  under  the  given  circumstances  of  climate,  and  on  the 
other  hand  may  avoid  any  extraordinary  effort  for  its  purification. 

20.  If  we  cultivate  in  a  suitable  alternation  on  the  same  field  such 
plants  as  are  raised  to  their  usual  development  at  wide  intervals,  and  must 
be  frequently  hoed  and  well  hilled,  with  culmiferous  fruit  and  other  plants, 
which  by  their  thick  state  and  the  shadowing  of  the  soil  hinder  the  spring- 
ing up  of  the  weeds  and  the  hardening  of  the  soil,  we  shall  then  reach 
the  object  perfectly. 

Potatoes,  beets,  Swedish-turnips,  maize,  beans,  peas,  tobacco,  teazles,  &c.,  must  be 
planted  wide  apart,  and  during  their  growth  must  be  hoed,  and  up  to  the  two  last 
be  also  hilled.  Thus  the  field  will  be  put  into  a  loose  and  very  clean  state,  and  if  it 
is  ploughed  once  after  the  harvest,  it  is  sufficiently  prepared  for  the  following  fruit : 
Clover,  luzerne,  vetches,  and  lentils,  grow  so  thick  in  a  well- prepared  soil  that  weeds 
do  not  come  up  among  them,  and  by  hemp  the  field  is  kept  in  the  cleanest  state.  It 
is  only  by  the  culture  of  the  culmiferous  grains — which  during  the  growth  are  not  hoed, 
and  which,  by  their  trembling  state  and  their  thin,  early  dried-up  leaves,  oppose  little  hin- 
derance  to  the  coming  up  of  the  weeds,  and  which  allow  the  sun  too  great  an  influence 
on  the  soil — that  the  field  begins  to  waste ;  and  herein  alone,  and  in  nothing  else,  lies 
the  cause  why  we  must  watch,  and  not  allow  two  culmiferous  fruits  to  follow  one 
another,  unless  we  immediately  leave  it  fallow  again,  or  raise  a  hoed  fruit,  or  suffer 
the  field  to  lie  for  a  pasture,  or  to  a  natural  growth  of  grass. 

21.  If  there  is  at  hand  no  suitable  rotation -crop,  then  the  clayey  soil  so 
easily  hardens  and  runs  to  waste  in  unfavorable  weather,  or  in  a  cold  and 
moist  climate,  that  it  can  only  be  restored  by  lying  fallow. 

He  who  always  sows  culmiferous  grain,  and  finds  not  time  nor  power  to  loosen 
and  clear  the  soil  properly,  in  the  interval  from  the  harvest  of  the  preceding  fruit  to 
the  sowing  of  the  after-fruit,  nothing  remains  for  him  in  such  circumstances,  than  to 
give  up  the  product  of  a  year,  and  employ  the  whole  summer  in  cleaning  and  pulve- 
rizing the  soil  run  to  waste. 

22.  The  fallow,  therefore,  is  never  absolutely  necessary,  because  the 
object  of  the  same  can  be  obtained  perfectly  by  hoed  fruits  ;  it  is  only 
accidentally  necessary  if  we  are  hindered  by  the  weather  from  imparting  to 
the  clay  soil  that  degree  of  loosening  and  cleaning  which  the  culture  of 
plants  demands. 

23.  It  is  only  then  when  the  cultivation  of  the  field  must  be  carried  on 
with  very  small  means  of  aid,  or  when  the  burden  of  the  pasturage  rests  on 
the  fields,  that  one  need  resort  to  fallows. 

He  who  uses  no  fallows,  must  have  more  or  stronger  teams  of  cattle  than  he  who 
employs  them ;  because  he  must  prepare  his  field  suitably  from  the  harvest  of  one 


122  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

fruit  to  the  sowing-time  of  another  often  in  quite  a  limited  space  of  time,  whilst  with 
the  fallow  he  might  employ  the  space  of  a  w^hole  sunuiier  to  prepare  the  third  part  of 
the  field  for  sowing  the  winter-crop  ;  and  the  ploughing  and  carrying  out  the  manure 
may  be  attended  to  at  a  time  when  the  labor  of  a  crop  presses.  That  one  needs 
less  manure  when  he  practices  on  the  fallow  system  is  very  natural,  because  only  f 
of  the  field  bears  fruit ;  for  a  like  production  therefore  he  needs  ^  less  manure.  But 
afterwards  one  harvests  so  much  the  less  for  it,  since  the  greater  product  of  the 
winter-fruit  gathered  makes  not  up  fhe  deficiency  of  a  third  part  of  the  field,  which 
gives  at  the  best  but  a  sparse  pasture. 

We  have  already  treated  of  this  subject  in  the  first  volume,  p.  242,  and  here  refer 
to  what  we  there  said.  Great  farms  usually  need  fallows  because  they  have  neither 
teams  nor  manure  sufficient  for  the  extent  of  the  field  ;  and  where  the  farms  are  mari- 
aged  on  the  soccage-principle  (FrOhne)  there  the  fallow  is  indispensable,  if  the  cli- 
mate favors  not  the  mode  of  farming  by  the  system  of  the  natural  grass-pastures 
(Egarten-wirthschaft).  We  see,  therelbre.  in  all  the  North  of  Germany,  in  a  great 
part  of  England,  and  of  Hungary,  &c.,  fallow  practised.  But  where  the  farms  are 
small  and  the  burden  of  the  pasturage  rests  not  on  the  fields,  there  fallows  are  almost 
wholly  unknown,  or  they  gradually  disappear ;  as  for  example,  in  the  Netherlands,  in 
Switzerland,  in  Alsace,  in  Tyrol,  Steirmark,  Carinthia.  and  in  Italy.  A  clear  proof 
that  great  estates  are  hinderances  to  the  welfare  of  a  nation  in  two  ways :  because 
they  produce  less  and  hinder  a  great  part  of  the  population  from  becoming  proprie- 
tors and  lessees. 

Thaer,  in  the  first  volume  of  his  Rationellen  Landwirthsch  ,  has  stated  very  well 
the  reasons  for  and  against  fallows;  in  the  first  No.  also,  of  the  Transactions  of  the 
Agricultural  Society  of  Vienna,  may  be  found  admirable  remarks  on  this  subject. 

The  advocates  of  fallows  are  acquainted  usually  with  only  the  land-husbandry  of 
their  own  country  and  the  circumstances  there ;  and  because  there  fallow  is  prac- 
tised, and  after  fallow  fine  winter-grain  is  harvested,  and  those  who  plant  their  fallow 
in  part  with  summer-fruits  have  poor  winter-grain,  and  this  and  that  person  who 
have  solely  employed  their  fallows  for  cultivation  must  return  again  to  the  fallow 
system,  they  therelbre  conclude  that  one  can  hardly  raise  grain  to  advantage  with- 
out faUows.  But  they  overlook  the  fact  that,  on  the  other  side  of  the  mountains  they 
have  no  fallows,  and  yet  raise  as  fine  and  more  grain  than  here  at  home  :  that  those 
who  have  planted  their  fallows  in  part  with  summer-fruits,  without  taking  care  to  use 
more  manure,  must  necessarily  only  weaken  the  field  ;  and  that  it  is  from  imprudence 
and  laying  up  too  small  means  of  aid,  that  this  and  that  person  must  give  up  again  a 
mode  of  farming  which  they  do  not  understand,  and  in  which  they  were  in  no  wise 
brought  up. 

[The  remarks  to  which  our  Author  refers  as  found  in  Vol.  I.  p.  242,  &c.;  respecting 
fallows,  are  these:  "When  a  person  ploughs  and  harrows  a  field  in  the  course  of  the 
year  many  times,  3  to  6  times,  merely  for  the  purpose  of  preparing  it  for  the  sowing 
in  autumn,  this  is  called  to  fallow  the  field,  the  field  itself  is  the  falloir. 

"As  the  fallow  is  the  most  costly  preparation  of  the  soil,  w^hich  is  used  while  it  is 
ploughed,  from  3  to  6  times,  and  besides,  the  interest  of  two  years  and  the  loss  of  a 
harvest,  as  well  as  the  useless  dissipation  of  the  manure  during  this  time,  which  is  very 
much  aided  by  frequent  turning  of  the  soil,  must  be  counted  as  a  charge  ;  hence  it  is 
clear  that  only  in  the  most  pressing  circumstances  should  one  resort  to  this  mode  of 
preparing  his  field. 

"In  easy  and  mellow  soil  one  always  has  time  enough,  between  the  harvest  of  the 
preceding  and  the  sowing  of  the  after-fruit,  to  pulverize  and  clean  the  soil  sufficient- 
ly, by  the  plough,  harrow,  and  extirpator;  the  culture  of  the  hoed  fruit  affords  also  an 
effectual  means  of  aid  to  reach  this  object;  but  in  a  tight,  hard,  clayey  soil,  one  is 
often  hindered  from  ploughing  the  field  in  the  usual  time  of  the  year,  and  if  not  to  be 
sown  in  the  most  uncleared  state,  yet  nothing  else  remains  than  to  plough  it  again 
later,  whereby  many  times  the  period  of  the  summer  sowing  is  lost. 

"From  this  it  is  clear  that  the  fallow  is  only  accidental,  not  necessary  in  itself  for 
the  preparation  of  the  soil. 

"AUhough  it  is  certain  that  the  real  ground  on  account  of  wliich  men  have  adopted 
fallows,  lies  only  in  the  nature  of  a  light  soil  not  reduced  except  by  much  work ;  yet 
it  appears  in  the  lapse  of  time  to  have  been  forgotten,  and  because  the  fallow  was 
every  where  introduced  into  Europe  from  many  causes,  therefore  the  chief  ground 
becam.e  a  secondary  ground,  and  other  grounds  vrcre  relied  on  to  prove  the  necessity 
and  use  of  the  same. 
"The  fallow^  would,  by  a  rest  of  an  entire  year,  gain  in  power  and  by  the  oft-re 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  123 

peated  turning  over  of  the  soil,  become  enriched  with  atmospheric  substances.  Aa 
to  what  concerns  the  first  reason,  it  would  be  superfluous  to  deny  it,  as  we  are  now 
more  accurately  instructed  than  they  formerly  were,  as  to  the  efl'ect  of  the  soil  on 
vegetation ;  and  as  respects  the  second,  the  advantage  is  always  double — one  that, 
by  the  frequent  turning  of  the  soil,  the  humus  is  brought  into  a  more  soluble  state, 
and  then,  that  by  frequent  ploughing  under,  the  weeds  always  springing  up  again, 
increase  the  mass  of  the  humus  itself  But  we  ought  not  here  to  overlook  the  fact, 
that  in  the  period  that  the  soil  is  exposed  to  the  air  and  brought  into  activity,  no  plants 
occupy  the  field  which  can  take  it  up,  and  that  by  the  evaporation  of  the  old  humus 
the  advantage  of  its  easier  dissolution,  and  probably  its  increase  itself,  is  lost.  The 
real  advantage  of  this  treatment  always  confines  itself  only  to  the  clearing  of  a  soil 
greatly  overrun  with  weeds,  which  is  more  rarely,  or  of  a  firm,  cohesive,  tight,  and 
hardened  soil,  which  is  most  usually  the  case. 

How  it  happens  that  it  is  believed  necessary  to  repeat  the  fallow  for  three  years  on 
the  same  field,  in  other  words,  why  the  Triennial  or  Threefield  system  of  hus- 
bandry is  every  where  the  most  usual  on  hard  and  lazy  soil,  must  be  sought  for  in 
the  disproportionate  size  of  the  farms,  or  what  is  the  same,  in  the  too  small  means  of 
aid  to  manage  them,  in  the  bi-eaking  up  of  pasture-land,  in  the  want  of  fodder,  in  the 
prevalence  of  soccage,  in  the  right  of  pasturage,  and  in  the  senseless  imitation  of 
doing  that  which  a  father  or  a  neighbor  has  done.  It  is  nowhere  absolutely  neces- 
sary, since  it  is  in  no  case  supposable  that  one  cannot  sufficiently  prepare  a  clayey 
soil,  if  also  it  is  run  to  waste,  by  means  of  one  deep  ploughing  in  the  autumn,  and  the 
repeated  employment  of  the  cutting  and  shovel  plough  in  favorable  weather  in  the 
spring,  so  as  to  obtain  at  least  one  summer-fruit.  From  the  Danube  at  Vienna  to 
the  Po  fallows  are  unknown,  and  who  will  maintain  that  these  extensive  lands 
prodvice  less  than  those  which  lie  between  the  Danube  and  the  Baltic  sea.  The 
chmate  in  Steirmark,  Salzburg,  Tyrol,  Carinthia,  and  Carniola,  is  as  different  as  the 
soil  of  those  different  lands,  and  one  finds  there  as  many  variations  as  in  those  lands 
which  practice  fallow.  The  ground  of  the  necessity  of  the  fallow  hes  therefore  not  in 
the  climate,  and  not  in  the  soil.  But  when  we  compare  the  circumstances  of  the 
farms  of  countries  which  have  no  fallows,  with  those  where  the  Threefield  system  of 
husbandry  is  the  most  common,  then  the  true  ground  and  the  correctness  of  our 
above-mentioned  opinion  is  evident.  The  inclosed  and  proportionately  small  farms, 
the  great  stock  of  cattle,  the  extended  culture  of  plants  for  fodder,  and  the  great  ex- 
tent of  meadow,  make  it  possible  there  in  fields  unbroken  either  to  raise  grain  or  plants 
for  fodder,  while  as  one  must  carry  on  large  farms  with  small  means  of  aid,  the  fallow, 
as  also  in  mellow,  sandy  soil  is  indispensably  necessary. 

How  the  soil  must  be  ploughed  in  the  fallow  year,  depends  on  the  proportion  of 
each  ploughing  to  its  object,  and  on  the  weather,  which  more  or  less  flivors  the  cleans- 
ing and  pulverizing  it.  The  object  must  be  obtained,  and  the  smaller  the  cost  is  with 
which  one  reaches  it,  the  greater  the  profit.  If  one  starts  up  the  fallow  at  its  full 
depth  in  autumn,  he  may  in  the  following  spring  and  summer  very  perfectly  pulver- 
ize the  strongest  clayey  soil  with  two  ploughings,  and  as  frequent  harrowing,  and 
following  this  with  the  extirpator  or  scarifier.  Besides,  one  reckons,  according  to  the 
rule,  that  the  soil  must  be  ploughed  up  in  Autumn,  in  Spring,  in  June,  August,  and 
September,  if  the  fallow  is  to  be  fully  prepared.  The  manure  should  be  brought  on 
the  field,  and  buried  under  the  ground  in  May  and  June,  again  in  August,  and  again 
buried  in  September;  there  is,  therefore,  time  enough  for  it  to  evaporate  itself  use- 
lessly, as  respects  the  field,  during  the  lapse  of  nearly  a  whole  year ;  and  of  all  the 
objections  which  are  made  to  fallows,  this  waste  of  manure  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant, although  the  least  considered.  The  summer  deposit  is  frequently  made  in  cross 
lines  with  the  hoe,  which  is  certainly  very  suitable.  But  if  one  leave  the  fallow 
field,  as  is  much  more  commonly  done,  unbroken  till  June,  in  order  to  use  it  as  a  pas- 
ture, and  then  first  break  up  the  soil,  then  in  dry  summers  he  would  not  always  ^ 
obtain  his  object  in  the  fallow,  even  not  to  mention  thot  now  the  greater  part  of  the 
work  on  the  field  must  be  done  in  the  time  of  the  harvest.  We  generally  notice  that 
a  person  wishes  with  a  fallow  to  attain  two  contrary  objects;  he  practises  fallow  to 
purify  the  soil  from  weeds,  and  render  it  as  finely  divided  as  possible,  and  he  does  so 
also  to  have  pasture  for  his  cattle.  In  most  casrs  he  has  no  other  field  for  fod- 
der ;  his  cattle,  especially  sheep,  feed  on  it  till  the  cutting  of  the  winter  grain.  Not 
to  leave  his  beasts  to  suff'er,  one  ploughs  up  his  fallow  late,  leaves  it  between  each 
ploughing  to  grow  green  and  harden  again,  and  if  he  is  not  always  in  a  state  to  attain 
the  object  of  the  most  perfect  cleaning,  loosening,  and  pulverizing  the  soil,  yet  he 
beheves  himself  recompensed  by  the  enriching  of  the  soil ;  then  in  such  a  case  the 


124  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

fallow  must  be  regarded  as  a  species  of  green-manuring,  and  the  most  enigmatical 
opinion,  that  in  many  regions  grain  is  always  produced  on  the  fields  without  manur- 
ing them,  and  without  that  one  employs  in  them  any  particular  heaping  up  of  the 
old  humus,  must  be  partly  explained  by  the  green-manuring,  by  means  of  the  three 
year-returning  fallows.  The  most  convenient  time  to  turn  the  soil,  is  when  it  is  in 
that  state  of  moisture  with  which  it  exerts  the  least  degree  of  cohesion.  If  it  is  ne- 
cessary to  give  the  soil  by  a  repeated  ploughing  a  proper  degree  of  cleanness  and  loose- 
ness, yet  it  is  not  so,  nor  even  profitable,  to  turn  up  the  soil  in  the  frequent  ploughings 
to  the  same  depth." — Tr.] 

24.  Where  the  fields  are  divided  into  three  parts,  and  one  part  is  left 
fallow,  one  part  is  sown  with  winter,  and  one  part  with  summer  grain ; 
this  mode  of  farming  is  called  the  Three-field  or  Three-shift  system. 
(Dreifeld-wirthschaft.) 

25.  What  method  of  husbandry  will  bring  the  greatest  profit  in  the 
given  situation  can  only  be  determined  after  a  close  survey  of  the  nature 
of  the  soil,  the  climate,  the  political  and  commercial  relations. 

26.  In  general  we  may  assume,  that  in  cold,  moist  regions  with  a  clayey 
soil,  where  the  population  and  the  capital  employed  for  carrying  on  the 
farm  are  small,  the  Koppel-wirthschaft  will  yield  the  greatest  profit,  be- 
cause the  climate  and  the  soil  favors  the  grass-growth,  and  because  this 
mode  of  husbandry  demands  the  least  expense  of  power  and  manure  ;  but 
in  warmer  and  dryer  regions,  and  where  moreover  the  value  of  the  soil,  with 
a  large  population,  stands  not  too  low,  the  system  of  Rotation  of  Crops 
(Frucht-wechsel-wirthschaft)  brings  the  most  profit. 

27.  The  Koppel-wirthschaft  brings  under  the  plough  all  the  field  which 
is  not  watered  meadow,  or  dry  and  remote  pasture-land,  and  cultivates  on  it 
grain,  for  2  to  5  years,  whereupon  it  is  used  as  long,  or  even  twice  as  long, 
for  meadow  and  pasture. 

28.  The  object  in  the  employment  of  the  Koppel-wirthschaft  is  either 
the  rearing  of  cattle  or  the  cultivation  of  grain.  In  the  first  case,  one  must 
draw  out  the  power  of  the  field  by  ploughing  and  the  raising  of  grain  as 
little  as  possible,  and  employ  manure  more  for  the  grass  than  for  the 
grain  ;  in  the  second  case,  one  seeks  to  obtain  by  his  employed  manure  an 
increase  of  grain.  In  the  first  case,  the  fallow  becomes  a  meadow,  but  in 
the  second  case,  only  a  pasture. 

In  the  mountains  of  Southern  Germany  and  Switzerland,  the  Egarten-wirthschafl 
has  prevailed  from  time  immemorial.  In  what  rotations  the  fields  are  employed,  the 
following  examples  may  show. 

In  Salzburg  at  Mittersill,  1,  winter-rye,  manured  ;  2,  summer-wheat,  manured  ;  3 
and  4,  grazing-pasture. 

We  cannot,  in  highly  situated,  cold,  and  moist  lands,  bring  the  winter-fruit  into  the 
second  year,  but  must  sow  it  in  the  fresh,  unploughed,  grazing-fallow  ;  then  the  sum- 
mer-wheat is  removed  from  the  field  too  late  for  us  even  to  venture  to  sow  rye. 

If  both  kinds  of  grain  should  be  manured,  which  there  is  very  possible  where  a 
small  cultivation  of  the  field  is  joined  to  great  mountainous  and  Alpine  meadows,  as 
well  as  aided  with  bog-lilter,  then  is  the  product  in  grain  and  straw  very  great,  and 
the  grazing-meadows  appear  like  the  most  luxuriant  well-watered  meadows. 

In  Upper  Steirmark  at  Murau,  1,  summer-wheat,  without  manure  ;  2,  oats,  with- 
out manure ;  3,  winter-rye,  manured ;  4,  5,  and  6,  grazing,  or  natural  grass-growth 
(Egarten). 

The  climate  is  milder  than  at  Mittersill,  wherefore  one  can  sow  winter-rye  after 
oats  ;  but  because  it  is  manured  only  once  in  six  years,  though  with  the  grain  fruit, 
therefore  the  product  of  the  grass-growth  (Egarten)  is  less,  indeed  scarcely  any  thing, 
in  a  third  year,  than  a  good  pasture. 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  125 

In  Carinthia,  I.  1,  Winter-rye,  manured ;  2,  Oats  ;  3,  Summer-rye,  manured  ;  4,  5, 
and  6,  Egarten. 

II.  1,  Oats,  manured ;  2,  Summer-rye,  manured ;  3,  Winter-rye,  manured ;  4, 5,  and 
6,  Egarten. 

III.  1,  Summer-wheat,  manured ;  2,  Oats ;  3,  Winter-rye,  manured,  4,  5,  and  6, 
Egarten. 

IV.  1,  Oats,  without  manure ;  2,  Winter-rye,  unmanured ;  3,  Summer-rye,  ma- 
nured ;  4,  5,  and  6,  Egarten. 

The  rotation  of  crops  on  these  lands  is  always  determined  by  the  climate  and  the 
quantity  of  manure  which  one  obtains  by  mountain-meadows,  pastures,  and  wood- 
Utter.  For  each  fruit  the  soil  is  only  once  ploughed  before  sowing,  partly  because 
there  is  not  time  to  plough  oftener,  and  partly  because  it  is  not  desired  to  uproot,  but 
only  to  keep  under  the  weeds  existing  in  the  soil ;  manure  is  always  employed  for 
the  last  fruit,  so  as  not  to  weaken  the  power  for  grass  growth. 

In  the  level  country  of  Northern  Germany,  the  Koppel-wirthschaft  has  been  re- 
cently introduced ;  they  became  more  intimately  acquainted  with  it  by  the  inter- 
course with  Denmark  and  England,  where  this  mode  of  farming,  has  been  common 
from  time  immemorial.  We  must  make  a  distinction  between  this  system  of  hus- 
bandry, as  practised  in  Holstein,  and  in  Mecklenburgh.  The  first  has,  as  is  the  case 
with  our  grazing-syslem,  the  rearing  of  cattle  more  for  an  object,  than  the  cultivation 
of  grain,  and  has  no  fallows  ;  but  varies  in  this,  that  they  have  more  divisions,  i.  e., 
they  harvest  grain  for  a  longer  course  of  years,  and  then  leave  the  field  to  re- 
vert to  a  pasture  as  long,  often,  indeed,  twice  as  long.  But  especially  these  two 
modes  of  farming  are  distinguished  in  this,  that  with  us  the  grass-growth  is  treated 
and  used  as  a  meadow,  whilst  in  Holstein,  it  is  only  a  pasture  ;  then  most  of  the  ma- 
nure brought  on  the  field  is  taken  back  again  in  the  grain,  whilst  we  manure  the  last 
year,  and  then  leave  the  field  to  lie. 

The  Mecklenburg  kind  of  Koppel-wirthschaft  unites  fallows  with  pasture  husband- 
ry. Their  principal  object  is  the  cultivation  of  grain,  and  not  the  raising  of  cattle  ; 
therefore  they  seek  by  fallows  to  destroy  the  weeds,  and  to  bring  the  manure  into 
greater  activity,  that  it  may  benefit  the  grain-fruits.  But  therefore  their  pastures  are 
poorer  and  less  valuable,  and  they  leave  not  their  land  to  lie  so  long  as  pasture. 

EXAMPLES    OF    THE    HOLSTEIN    KOPPEL-WIRTHSCHAFT. 

I.  ].  Oats  unmanured.  2.  Winter-rye  manured.  3.  Barley.  4.  Rye.  5.  Oats. 
6,  7,  8,  9,  10  and  11,  Pasture. 

II.  1.  Buckwheat.  2.  Winter-rye,  manured.  3.  Oats.  4,  Oats.  5,  6,  7,  8,  9, 
10,  and  11,  Pasture. 

Examples  of  the  Mecklenburgh  Koppel-wirthschaft: 

I.  1.  Fallow,  manured.  2.  Winter-rye.  3.  Barley.  4.  Oats.  5,  6  and  7,  Pas- 
ture. 

II.  1.  Fallow,  manured.  2.  Wheat.  3.  Barley.  4.  Rye.  5.  Oats.  6, 7,  8,  and 
9,  Pasture. 

29.  In  the  system  of  the  Rotation  of  Crops  (Frucht-wechsel-wirthschaft), 
the  grain-fruit  and  the  plants  for  trade  only  interchange  together  if  suffi- 
cient meadows  and  pasture  exist ;  or  the  plants  for  fodder  must  be  culti- 
vated in  common  with  these  if  there  are  hardly  any  natural  fields  for  fodder 
or  not  in  sufficient  measure. 

30.  The  plants  which  one  adopts  in  a  rotation  of  crops  must  correspond 
to  the  nature  of  the  climate  and  of  the  soil  and  to  the  circumstances  of  the 
farm,  and  be  so  arranged  one  after  another  according  to  the  degree  of 
manure  in  which  the  field  is,  that  the  culture  of  the  preceding  fruit  may , 
leave  the  soil  in  such  a  state,  that  the  cultivation  of  the  after-fruit  may 
require  no  extraordinary  labor  and  care  upon  it. 

EXAMPLES  OF  THE  ROTATION  OP  CROPS  WITHOUT  PLANTS  FOR  FODDER. 

In  a  cold  climate,  and  heavy  soil. 

I.  1.  Beans,  manured,  hoed.     2.  Wheat.     3.  Barley. 

II.  1.  Beans,  manured,  hoed.     2.  Wheat     3.  Peas.     4.  Barley. 

In  both  these  cases  there  are  first,  hoed-fruits  j  to  this  follows  wheat,  with  which  the 


126  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

etrong  and  clean  state  of  the  soil  especially  agrees,  and  with  which  we  use  in 
a  higher  degree  the  manure  existing  in  the  soil,  than  with  the  later  fruits.  Between 
the  harvest  of  wheat  and  the  sowing  of  barley,  in  the  first  example,  there  is  time 
enough  to  plough  up  the  field  twice,  and  extirpate  the  weeds ;  but  we  sow  peas ; 
thus  these  cover  the  field  by  their  thick  state,  and  protect  it  from  drying  up  ;  they 
may  also  be  drilled  and  hoed,  and  because  they  draw  less  out  of  the  soil  than  the 
culmiferous  fruits,  therefore  we  may  expect  from  the  barley,  in  the  fourth  year,  yet 
a  very  excellent  harvest. 

b.  In  a  warm  climate,  and  a  heavy  soil. 

I.  1.  Maize,  tobacco,  hemp,  manured,  and  the  first  hoed.    2.  Wheat    3.  Barley, 
Summer-wheat,  or  Oats. 

c.  In  a  cold  climate,  and  an  easy  soil. 

I.  1.  Potatoes,  manured,  hoed.     2.  Oats.     3.  Winter-rye. 

II.  1.  Winter-rye,  half-manured.      2.  Buckwheat.     3.    Oats,  half-manured.     4. 
Winter-rye. 

d.  In  a  warm  climate,  and  an  easy  soil. 

I.  1.  Maize,  manured,  hoed.    2.  Winter-rye.     3.  Oats. 

II.  1  and  2,  as  before.     3.  Peas.    4.  Oats. 

EXAMPLES    OF   THE    ROTATION    OF   CROPS,    WITH    PLANTS    FOR    FODDER. 

a.  In  a  cold  climate,  and  a  heavy  soil. 

I.  1.  Beans,   head-cabbage,  manured  and  hoed.     2.  Barley.      3.   Clover.     4. 
Wheal. 

II.  1,  2,  and  3,  as  before.    4.  Peas.     5.  Wheat,  half-manured.     6.  Oata. 

b.  In  a  warm  climate,  and  a  heavy  soil. 

I.  1.  Maize,  hemp,   Swedish  turnips,  beets,  manured  and  hoed.     2.  Barley. 

3.  Clover.     4.  Wheat. 

II.  1,  2,  3,  and  4,  as  before.     5.  Vetches  manured.     6.  Wheat. 

c.  In  a  cold  climate,  and  an  easy  soil. 

I.  1.   Potatoes,   Swedish  turnips,  manured  and  hoed.     2.  Summer-rye,  barley, 
and  oats.     3.  Clover.    4.  Winter-rye. 

The  Rotation  in  Norfolk  is: 

II.  1.  Turnips  manured,  and  hoed.     2.  Barley.    3.  Clover.    4.  Winter-wheat. 

d.  In  a  warm  climate,  and  an  easy  soil. 

I.  1.  Maize,  potatoes,  manured  and  hoed.     2.   Barley  and  oats.      3.  Clover. 

4.  Winter-rye,  and  as  an  after-fruit,  water  turnips. 

II.  1.  Maize.    2.  Barley.     3,  4,  5,  6,  and  7,  Luzerne.     8.  Wheat.     9.  Oats. 
Thaer,  Vol.  II.  p.  xvii.,  furnishes  the  following  estimates  of  the  exhaustion  or  addi- 
tion of  power  by  different  crops  and  modes  of  tillage. 

No.  1. 

PURE  THREE-SHIFT,  OR   TRIENNIAL   SYSTEM. 
I 

1.  Fallow, 
1:^^  loads  of  manure, 

2.  Rye,    12  metzen  (20^  bushels), 

3.  Barley,"         «      (  "         «       ) 

4.  Fallow, 

5.  Rye,  7  metzen  (11.82  bushels), 

6.  Oats,  8      "       (13^        "       ), 

7.  Fallow,  hght  folded, 

8.  Rye,  8  metzen  (13|  bushels), 

9.  Barley,  6    "       (10        "       ), 


se  of  power. 

Loss  of  power. 

10  degrees. 

—  degrees. 

60 

— 

— 

30 

— 

21 

10 



17.5 

— 

10 

28 





20 

— 

10.5 

Loss  in  9  years,  1  degree. 


108  109 


ECONOMY    OF  FARMING.  127 

No.  2. 

IMPROVED    THREE-SHIFT    OR    TRIENNIAL    SYSTEM. 

Increase  of  power.  Loss  of  power. 

1.  13^  loads  of  manure,                             60  degrees.  —  degrees. 
Peas,                                                         —  10 

2.  Rye,    10  metzen,  (17  bushels,  nearly), —  25 

3.  Barley, "      "       (  '-        "  "      ),  —  17.5 

4.  Fallow,                                                     10  — 
18  loads  of  manure,  including  folding,  80  — 

5.  Rye,    14  metzen  (23.66  bushels),         —  35 

6.  Barley,"       "         (     "  «     ),  —  24.5 

7.  Clover,  12  — 

8.  Rye,  12  metzen  (20^  bushels),  —  30 

9.  Barley,  —  17.5 


162  159.5 
Gain  of  power,  2|-  degrees. 

No.  3. 

SEVEN-DIVISION    KOPPEL-WIRTHSCHAFT. 

Gain  of  power.  Loss  of  power. 

1.  Fallow,  12  degrees.  —  degrees. 
13  loads  of  manure,                                 58                            — 

2.  Rye,    15  metzen  (25.35  bushels),        —  37.5 

3.  Barley, "       «        (     «         "         ).         —  26.25 

4.  Oats, '14       "        (23.66     «        );        —  17.5 

5.  Mown  clover,  10  — 

6.  7.  Pasture,  20  — 


Gain  in  7  years,  18^  degrees. 
No.  4. 


100  81| 


EIGHT-DIVISION    ROTATION    OF    CROPS,  WITH    PASTURE. 

Gain  of  power.  Loss  of  power. 

1.  20^  loads  of  manure,                             90  degrees.  —  degrees. 
Potatoes,                                                  10  30 

2.  Barley.  18  metzen  (30.42  bushels),      —  31.5 

3.  Peas,  '                                                   —  10 
6^  loads  of  manure,                                 30  — 

4.  Rye,  16  metzen  (27  bushels),               —  40 

5.  Mown  clover,                                         12  — 

6.  7.  Pasture.                                                20  ~ 
8.  Oats,  22  metzen,  (37.18  bushels,)         —  27.5 


Gain  in  8  years,  23  degrees. 
No.  5. 


162  139 


EIGHT-DIVISION    ROTATION    OF    CROPS,  WITH    STALL-FODDERING. 

Gain  of  power.  Loss  of  power. 

1.  20^  loads  of  manure,                                 90  degrees.        —  degrees. 
Potatoes,  160  metzen  (270  bushels),          10  30 

2.  Barley,      18        "      (30^      "    nearly),  —  31.5 

3.  Clover,                                                        15  — 

4.  Oats.  26  metzen,  (34  bushels,  nearly),     —  32.5 

5.  9  loads  of  manure,                                    40  — 
Peas,                                                           —  10 

6.  Rye,  18  metzen,  (30-^  bushels,  nearly,    —  45 

7.  Green  vetches,                                           10  — 
6|  loads  of  manure,                                     30  — 

8.  Rye,  16  metzen  (27  bushels),                  —  40 

195  189 

Gain  in  8  years,  6  degrees.  Th."] 


128  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

SECTION  IV. 

or    THE    INNER    DOMESTIC    ECONOMY. 

1.  The  Inner  Household  (Hausehalt),  or  the  doctrine  of  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  interior-husbandry,  teaches  the  distribution  of  occupations 
among  many  members  of  the  farming  establishment,  the  reciprocal  duties 
of  the  same,  and  the  manner  how  one  may  obtain  a  clear  insight  and  a 
perfect  conviction  as  to  the  profit  or  loss  which  proceeds  from  the  various 
branches  of  the  farm. 

2.  This  doctrine  divides  itself,  therefore,  into  three  parts,  of  which  the 
first  shows  the  distribution  of  occupations  ;  the  next,  the  duties  of  employ- 
ers and  the  laborers  ;  and  the  third,  the  mode  of  keeping  the  accounts  of 
husbandry. 

A. OF    THE    DISTRIBUTION    OF     OCCUPATIONS. 

1.  The  distribution  of  occupations  in  land-husbandry,  is  ordered  on 
the  same  general  principles  as  in  other  business  which  employs  many  and 
various  laborers. 

2.  When  several  large  farms  belong  to  the  same  proprietor,  he  or  his 
representative  is  fully  occupied,  if  he  plans  the  organization  of  the  estates, 
directs  the  mode  of  husbandry,  watches  that  his  directions  are  followed, 
and  reviews  the  Farm  Accounts. 

3.  The  execution  of  the  mode  of  husbandry  adopted  in  general,  belongs 
to  the  Administrator,  or  head  of  the  particular  farm,  from  whom  the  Over- 
seer receives  the  directions  which  the  laborers  carry  out  under  his  guidance 
and  inspection. 

4.  In  small  farms  the  proprietor  usually  acts  as  Administrator,  and  in  the 
farms  of  the  peasantry,  puts  his  own  hand  also  to  the  work. 

5.  Every  laborer  must  have  a  specific  work  assigned  to  him,  which  may 
keep  him  sufficiently  busy,  and  for  which  he  is  accountable. 

Thus  one  has  the  care  of  the  horses,  another  of  the  oxen,  the  sheep,  or  the  swine. 
The  maids  must  attend  to  the  cows,  the  swine,  the  poultry,  to  the  kitchen,  &c.  It  is 
well  to  commit  to  each  hostler  or  herdsman,  not  only  the  cattle  which  he  drives,  as  his 
exclusive  care,  but  also  the  tools  he  requires,  as  he  will  be  more  careful  of  the  cattle 
and  tools  if  he  is  personally  answerable  for  them. 

6.  The  occupations  of  the  next  day  must  be  arranged  on  the  evening 
before,  so  that  every  man  may  be  kept  busy  from  early  in  the  morning  till 
night,  with  the  business  assigned  him. 

7.  One  must  often  satisfy  himself  whether  the  laborers  begin  and  end 
their  work  at  the  appohited  time,  and  whether  they  properly  perform  it. 

B. OF  THE  DUTIES  OF  EMPLOYERS  AND  LABORERS. 

1.  The  mutual  duties  of  employers  and  laborers,  in  the  most  limited 
sense,  consists  in  this,  that  the  employer  pays  the  laborer  the  wages  agreed 
on  for  his  labor,  and  that  the  laborer  fills  up  the  time  agreed  on,  in  those 
labors  which  he  has  bound  himself  to  perform. 

2.  But  this  relation  only  has  place  with  respect  to  day-laborers,  and 
those  who  work  by  the  job,  of  whose  service  we  stand  in  need  but  for  a 
short  time,  and  for  a  definite  work. 

3.  Between  the  employer  and   the  domestics  (Dienstboten)  there  is  a 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  ]29 

more  social  relation,  that  holds  them  closer  together,  and  draws  the  latter 
nearer  to  the  former  ;  for  as  the  employer  must  commit  his  whole  employed 
property  to  the  domestics,  so  his  profit  requires  him  to  cultivate  their  good 
will,  that  they  may  be  more  diligent  and  upright,  and  concern  themselves 
to  protect  their  employer  from  every  loss. 

The  domestics  will  take  the  most  lively  interest  in  the  welfare  of  their  employer,  if 
he  is  in  every  respect  friendly,  cares  for  them,  and  makes  them  feel  as  little  as  possi- 
ble the  difference  between  himself  and  them.  They  hate  him  if  they  see  themselves 
little  regarded  and  badly  treated  ;  then  they  labor  only  so  far  as  compelled  and  an- 
swerable, and  injure  and  provoke  him  when  they  can. 

4.  It  is  therefore  not  enough,  that  the  employer  fulfil  his  contract,  i.e.,  give 
the  domestic  (Dienstboten)  the  promised  wages  and  the  board  agreed  on  ; 
he  must  also  treat  him  kindly,  and  take  care  of  him  if  he  is  sick,  or  he  will 
be  unfit  for  further  labor  in  his  service. 

5.  The  amount  of  wages  will  be  governed  by  the  value  of  money,  the 
number  of  those  seeking  work,  and  the  kind  of  labor  to  be  performed. 

In  any  country  where  money  is  plenty,  there  it  is  of  less  value,  and  the  wages  are 
greater,  as,  for  example,  in  England  and  Switzerland,  the  Netherlands,  where  they 
give  an  hostler  from  50  to  160  florins  (%2b  to  $80),  while  with  us  he  receives  only  12 
to  20  ($6  to  $10).  Where  there  are  many  domestics  (Dienstboten)  to  be  hired,  the 
work  is  proportionately  cheaper  than  where  there  are  few.  During  war,  the  wages 
of  a  servant  were  with  us  about  half  as  much  again,  and  often  even  double  those 
at  present.  In  peace  there  is  a  surplus  of  laborers.  Such  work  as  demands  more 
skill  and  art,  as  is  just,  is  counted  dearer  than  where  mere  bodily  powers  are  requir- 
ed ;  wherefore,  laborers  that  plough  and  sow  are  paid  more  than  those  who  are  em- 
ployed merely  to  fodder  the  cattle ;  cheese-makers  higher  than  the  simple  cow-herd, 
and  the  cook  more  than  the  kitchen-maid. 

6.  Every  domestic  must  receive  every  year  the  wages  suited  to  his  con- 
dition, according  to  the  customs  of  the  country,  so  to  appear  decently  clad, 
and  with  economy  to  lay  by  something  for  time  of  need,  without  being 
forced  to  give  up  all  the  enjoyments  of  life. 

7.  Because  the  domestic  must  not  be  looked  on  as  a  stranger,  but  as  a 
member  of  the  family  ;  therefore  we  must  care  not  only  for  his  support, 
but  also  for  his  moral  education. 

8.  If  order,  morality,  and  a  decided  religious  system  be  observed  and 
practised  in  the  household,  we  shall  have  orderly,  contented,  and  happy 
domestics  and  laborers. 

In  all  countries  where  the  land  is  much  divided  and  cultivated  by  free  proprietors, 
assisted  by  domestics  (Dienstboten)  who  live  under  the  eye  of  their  employer,  and 
are  provided  for  by  him,  we  find  greater  morality  among  the  laboring  class,  than 
where  the  Depulat  or  allowance-system  is  practised,  or  the  day-laborer  is  left  to  take 
care  of  himself 

9.  The  complaint  made  of  domestics,  that  they  are  lazy,  coarse,  un- 
skilful and  unfaithful,  proceeds  in  a  great  measure  from  the  everywhere 
neglected  education  of  this  class,  and  may  be  traced  in  part  to  the  employ- 
ers themselves,  who  are  frequently  coarse,  immoral,  ignorant,  and  niggard- 
ly, and  in  no  case  a  fit  example  for  their  servants,  or  justified  in  reproach- 
ing them  for  things  which  may  be  recriminated  on  themselves. 

It  is  aside  from  the  object  of  this  work  to  speak  of  the  different  modes  of  leasing 
landed  property,  and  of  the  advantages  or  disadvantages  connected  with  these 
leased  farms,  since  we  only  propose  a  manual  of  land  husbandry,  in  which  he  who 
manages  a  farm  of  his  own,  or  under  the  direction  of  his  employer,  may  find  the 

17 


130  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

necessary  instructions  which  may  serve  to  guide  him  in  his  proceedings.  He  who 
leases  his  landed  property,  passes  from  the  rank  of  husbandman  to  that  of  the  man 
who  lives  on  his  rents  (Rentier),  and  while  he  receives  for  his  ground  capital, 
a  definite  income  in  money,  or  natural  products,  or  a  fixed  proportion  of  the 
rough  amount  of  all,  or  of  particular  products  of  the  farm,  as  in  Italy  and  France, 
troubles  himself  no  more  with  the  management  of  the  farm. 

[Many  of  the  preceding  remarks  apply  more  particularly  to  European  life  than  to 
that  of  this  country,  and  therefore  need  to  be  partially  modified  to  serve  as  directions 
for  our  farmers  and  laborers ;  though  the  principles  on  which  they  are  based,  as 
well  as  the  excellent  spirit  they  exhibit,  will  commend  them  to  the  candor  and  good 
sense  of  every  reader.     Tr.] 

C — OF   THE    FARM   ACCOUNTS. 

1.  Whether  a  man  reaps  profit  or  suffers  loss  from  farming,  and  in  what 
proportion  one  or  another  branch  of  husbandry  has  to  be  employed  for  this 
purpose,  can  be  seen  only  by  the  accounts.  Without  an  account  one  has 
only  conjectures  ;  by  keeping  an  account  he  has  clear  ideas  on  the  subject. 

2.  The  chief  object  of  a  Farm-Account  is  to  show  how  large  an  interest 
is  paid  by  the  capital  vested  in  the  farm. 

3.  The  Capital  of  the  farm  is  of  three  kinds,  viz. :  that  which  consists 
in  the  ground  and  soil,  as  well  as  in  those  buildings  required  for  the  business 
of  the  farm,  called  the  Ground- Capital,  the  interest  of  which  is  the  Ground- 
Rent  ;  that  which  consists  in  the  movables,  living  as  well  as  dead,  neces- 
sary for  the  management  of  the  farm — cattle,  tools,  provisions  for  men  and 
beasts  from  one  harvest  to  another,  called  the  Inventory ;  and  the  third, 
which  consists  either  in  money,  or  in  part  in  the  surplus  and  saleable  pro- 
ducts of  the  farm,  wherewith  the  current  expenses  for  labor,  taxes,  and 
necessary  purchases,  may  be  defrayed,  and  which  is  called  the  Stock- 
Capital,  or  business  fund. 

4.  The  income  of  the  ground-capital  is  obtained  by  the  sale  or  lease 
of  the  estate. 

He  who  has  bought  his  estate  for  10.000  florins  (=  to  $4.S00)  must  bring  yearly 
into  the  account  the  interest  of  this  sum.  at  3,  4,  5,  or  6  per  cent.,  accordingto  the 
rate  of  interest  in  the  different  countries.  He  who  has  leased  his  estate  brings  the 
amount  of  the  lease  into  the  reckoning. 

5.  The  interest,  or  income  of  the  inventory,  must  be  reckoned  double 
that  of  the  ground-capital,  because  its  value  lessens  by  age  and  use,  is  ex- 
posed to  more  hazard,  and  frequently  is  lost  before  the  time. 

6.  The  interest,  or  income  of  the  stocJc-capital,  is  found  by  reckoning 
up  the  interest  of  the  ground  and  inventorial-capital,  as  well  as  all  the 
other  expenses  paid  for  the  farm  ;  then  all  the  receipts,  and  the  difference 
of  the  inventorial-capital  of  the  last  year  from  the  present. 

An  example  may  make  this  plainer : 

The  value  of  the  estate  is  supposed  at  ...     10,000  florins. 

"  inventory,      "  ....      5,000      " 

EXPENDITURES. 

Interest  on  the  ground  capital-at  5  per  cent.          .        .  500  " 

"             inventory      "       10       "        .         .         .  500  " 
Taxes,  days'-wages,  purchases,  &c.,  which  are  called 

tlie  outlay  of  the  stock-capital,        ....  4,000  " 


Sum  of  Expenditures, 


ECONOMY  OF  FARMING.  131 

RECEIPTS. 

From  cattle  and  grain 4,600  florins. 

The  inventory  of  the  present  year  is  greater  than  the 

former  800       " 


Sum  of  Receipts  .  .  .  5,400  " 
Deducting  expenditures,  there  remains  400  florins  as  the  income  of  the  stock- 
capital  of  4,000  florins,  and  this  shows  us  that  the  ground-capital  has  been  at  a  rate 
of  interest  of  5  per  cent,  the  inventory  at  10  per  cent.,  and  the  stock  capital  at  10  per 
cent. ;  yet  not  the  whole  of  the  stock-capital  has  been  repaid  in  cash,  but  a  part, 
namely  800  florins,  is  contained  in  the  inventory. 

7.  The  next  object  of  Farm  Accounts  is  to  know  the  profits  or  losses 
which  one  experiences  from  the  different  branches  of  farming. 

8.  To  attain  this  object,  it  is  not  sufficient  merely  to  keep  an  account  of 
the  expenditures  and  receipts  in  cash  ;  we  must  also  distinguish  all  the 
work,  and  every  expenditure  of  money  and  products  of  the  farm,  and  for 
what  they  have  been  laid  out. 

9.  If  a  charge  is  made  to  any  product  of  the  soil  of  what  it  comes  to  in 
the  ground-rent,  and  in  the  interest  of  the  inventory,  as  well  as  in  taxes  of 
all  kinds,  of  what  has  been  expended  for  the  same  in  money,  products  of 
the  farm,  and  in  labor ;  and  if  that  which  it  has  produced  is  credited  ; 
then  the  difference  of  these  two  sums  shows  the  profit  or  loss  of  the  same. 

10.  The  sura  of  the  ground-rents  on  all  parts  of  the  ground  and  soil 
belonging  to  the  farm  must  be  divided,  according  to  the  proportion  of  the 
objective  and  subjective  values  of  the  same. 

11.  The  interest  of  the  property  invested,  with  the  exception  of  the 
cattle,  as  well  as  taxes,  must  be  divided,  according  to  the  same  propor- 
tion as  in  the  case  of  the  ground -rents,  over  the  soil. 

12.  To  the  different  fields  or  fruits  cultivated  on  the  same,  as  well  the 
plants  for  fodder  and  for  trade,  must  also  be  reckoned  the  labor  performed  by 
one's  own  or  other  cattle,  and  men,  and  the  manure  carried  out  on  the  field. 

We  have  already  shown  how  the  cash-value  of  a  day's-work  of  cattle  and  men 
may  be  ascertained,  and  also  before  explained  our  view  of  the  value  of  manure, 
and  therefore  merely  refer  to  them. — See  §  I.  A.  a.  8.  and  b.  24,  and  III.  B.  2. 

13.  But,  because  the  manure  brought  on  the  field  is  only  gradually 
consumed,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  same,  the  fruits  which  are  culti- 
vated, the  mode  of  culture,  the  climate  and  the  soil  ;  therefore  to  the 
fruits,  which  vary  on  the  same  cultivated  land,  must  be  charged  a  part  of 
the  cost  of  manure,  corresponding  to  these  circumstances. — See  <§>  111.  B.  2. 

We  carry  out,  for  example,  on  one  yoke  of  plough-land,  300  cwt.  of  manure, 
worth  24  metzen  of  rye.  On  this  field  we  cultivate  maize,  barley,  clover,  and  wheat; 
we  must,  therefore,  charge  to  maize — as  it  yields  the  greatest  product  and  consumes 
the  whole  animal  part  of  the  stall-manure,  and  a  great  portion  also  of  the  vegetable 
— ^  of  the  manure;  and  the  more  so  because,  by  hoeing  and  hiUing,  much  is  also 
dissipated.  To  the  barley  must  be  charged  ^ ;  to  the  clover  ^ ;  and  to  the  wheat 
T^ ;  therefore,  the  manure  is  charged : 


1st  year,  the  value  of  12  metzen  of  rye. 
2nd      „  „  6 

3rd      „  „  3 


4th      „  „  1^ 

Did  only  -fV  of  the  manure  remain  after  the  clover,  then  would  the  wheat  yield 
a  very  scanty  harvest ;  but,  as  the  clover  furnishes  an  increase  of  manure  by  it, 
roots,  which  in  the  foregoing  case  equal  0.20  of  the  original  quantity  of  manure, 
therefore  the  wheat  has  nutriment  enough  in  the  soil.  But,  for  this  reason,  the 
manure-account  stands  differently,  since  to  clover  only  ^  of  the  portion  of  mannre 
consumed  by  it  as  above  ought  to  be  charged,  but  to  the  v/heat  crop  that  follows 


132  ECONOMY  OF  FARMING. 

must  be  charged,  not  only  the  portion  already  given  for  it,  but  also  the  newly-pro- 
duced increase  of  substance  furnished  by  the  clover  roots, 
he  manure  account,  therefore  stands  as  follows : 

1st    year,    to  Maize,  the  value  of  12  metzen  of  rye. 

2nd         "  Barley,  "  .         .         6  « 

3rd         "  Clover,  instead  of  3      .         .         1.5  « 

4th  Wheat    \  ^^^  P^'-^^""  Y""'^  °'?"'   ]*«  \  6.3 
(  mcrease  by  clover-roots      4  8^ 

25.8 
But  because  the  value  of  stall-manure  is  .        .        24  '* 

"  "  clover-roots  .        .  4  " 

Total         .        .        28  " 

Therefore  there  remains  in  the  soil,  of  power  2.2  metzen  of  rye. 
If  we  wish  to  keep  the  clover  account  exact,  we  must  credit  its  roots,  in  value  4.8 
metzen  of  rye,  here  charged  to  wheat.     But  if  we  cultivate  wheat  after  maize,  then 
barley  and  oats,  the  value  of  the  manure  of  24  metzen  of  grain  must  be  divided, 
according  to  the  above  given  proportion  of  ^,  ^,  ^^  -f^,  among  these  four  fruiis. 

14.  As  the  beasts  are  noiirlshed  by  the  products  of  the  field,  which 
have  been  already  reckoned  for  ground-rent ;  so  they  cannot  in  this 
respect  be  charged  with  any  thing  but  the  interest  of  their  own  value  and 
the  cost  of  fodder  and  keeping. 

We  must,  indeed,  consider  the  cattle  as  well  as  the  field  as  a  profit-bringing  body. 
Should  any  one  charge  the  interest  of  the  cattle  to  the  field,  then  the  use  of  the 
cattle  must  be  disproportionally  raised  above  the  cost  of  the  cultivation  of  the  field. 

15.  Therefore  we  must  credit  to  it  not  only  the  labor,  but  also  all  that 
it  yields  in  animal  products,  and  what  it  gains  in  the  numbers  and  in- 
creased value  of  particular  portions. 

How  the  cash  value  of  the  manure  is  reckoned  see  §  III.  B.  2. 

16.  Should  an  account  be  adopted,  setting  in  the  clearest  light  every 
particular  branch  of  farming,  then  must  every  labor  and  outlay  be  credited 
to  that  which  it  produces,  and  charged  to  that  which  receives  it. 

17.  Every  branch  of  husbandry,  and  all  the  powei*s  and  means  of  aid 
belonging  to  the  management  of  the  farm  must,  for  this  purpose,  be  con- 
sidered as  so  many  persons,  with  whom  the  debt  and  credit-account  is  kept. 

This  mode  of  keeping  accounts  is  called  the  Double-entry  Book-keeping,  because 
every  receipt  or  expenditure  is  twice  exhibited,  i.  e.,  it  is  credited  to  him  who  per- 
forms the  labor,  and  charged  to  him  who  receives  it. 

18.  But,  because  this  mode  of  keeping  accounts  is  much  more  extended 
than  usual,  it  only  repays  the  trouble,  he,  when  the  farm  is  large  and 
widely  connected,  and  where,  without  it,  one  retains  one  of  his  own  men 
for  the  Farm-accounts  ;  in  small  or  very  simple  farms,  it  is  sufficient  if  the 
chief  object  of  the  Farm-account  is  attained. 

In  Farm  Accounts  there  should  be  the  following  books:  one  for  Cas^-receipts  and 
expenditures,  the  Cash  Journal;  one  for  receipts  and  expenditures  in  vegetable 
products,  the  Granary  and  Barn  Journal ;  one  for  animal  products,  the  Cattle 
Journal ;  and  one  for  th(f  labor  of  men  and  beasts,  the  Labor  Journal.  By  these  the 
Single-entrj'^  Farm-accounts  may  be  formed  by  the  opposite  entries  of  Expenditures 
and  Receipts ;  but  in  the  Double-entry  Book-keeping  we  form  from  these  books — 
first,  the  different  Special-accounts,  pro  or  contra,  the  Accounts  of  the  diflerent  parts 
of  the  husbandry,  from  which  is  seen  their  gain  or  loss ;  and  by  bringing  together 
these  accounts  the  balance  shows  the  profit  or  loss  on  the  whole  farm.  On  this  subject 
Bee  Thaer's  Annals  of  Agriculture,  Vol.  IV.  p.  477,  also  his  Annals  of  Improve- 
ments, Vol.  III.  p.  50,  and  Vol.  I.  of  his  Rationallen  Land-wirthschaft 


THE    END 


TABLES  OF  MEASURES  AND  WEIGHTS, 

OSED      BY     DIFFERENT      AUTHORS     QUOTED      IN     THIS      WORK. 


Burger  and  Thaer  use  the  Austrian  measures.  Veit  uses  the  Bavarian  measures, 
and  ScHWKKTz  the  French.  In  the  reductions,  in  the  following  sections,  fractions 
have  Kometinies  been  disregarded 

AUSTRIAN. 

LONG  MEASURE. 

1  foot  =  12  inches  =  12  lines  each,  and  =  1.037  English  feet 

1  k  I  after  is  about  6  feet. 

1   mile  is  about  4^   miles,  English. 

SQUARE    MEASURE. 

1  yoke  [Joch]  =  1600  square  klafters,  =  1.422  English  acres. 
1    square  klafter  is   about  5  square  yards. 

DRY    MEASURE. 

1  metzen  =  16  maessl,  =  0.211  of  an  English  Quarter  of  8  bushels,  or  1.69  of 

an  English  bushel,  or   about  54  quarts. 
1  maeesl  =    about  3  quarts. 

The  metzen  is  also  sometimes  divided  into  8ths,  or  2  msessl. 

LIQUID     MEASURE. 

1  wine   eimer  =  40  maas :  equal   to  about    12^    English  gallons. 
1  beer       "       =  42h     "  "  «  13  "         '  " 

I   maas  =  0.311  gallons,  =2^  pints. 

WEIGHT. 

1  ceiUner;  or  100  lbs.,  =  123.4  lbs.  English. 
I  lb.  contains  32  loths,  about  ^  an  oz.  each. 


B  A  VA  R  I  A  N 


LONG   MEASURE. 


1  foot  =  12  inches  of  12  lines  each,  =    0.957  English  feet. 
1  mile,  about  4k  miles  English. 

SQUARE    MEASURE. 

1  morgen  =  400  quadrat  ruthen,  or  square  rods,  or  40,000  square  feet,  =  0.842, 
or  about  5-6  of  an    English  acre. 

DRY    MEASURE. 

1  schaeffel  =-6  metzen  =  4  quarters  =  4  massl  =  6.223  English  bushels. 

1  metzen  =  1.037  English  bushels. 

1  quarter  =  about  8  quarts,  or  a  peck,  English. 

1  maessl  =  about  2  quarts,  English. 

LIQUID    MEASURE. 

1  eimer  =  60  or  64  maas  =  about  14  or  15  gallons,  English 
1  maas  =  0.235  gallon,  or  nearly  2  pints,  English. 

WEIGHT. 

1   centner,  or  100  lbs.  =  123.4  lbs.  English. 

I  lb.  =  32  loths. 

1   loth  =  about  .}  oz.  English. 

MONEY. 

The  German  florin  =  60  kreutzers,  ia  reckoned  at  about  48  cents.    1    kreutzer,  about 
I  of  a  cent     1  groschen,  about  2  cents. 


FRENCH. 

SQUARE     MEASURE. 

1  hectare  =  2.471,  thus  nearly  2§  English  acres. 

DRY     MEASURE. 

1  hectolitre  =  100  litres  =  0.344   English   quarters,  or  somewhat  over  2f  bushels. 
1  litre  =  about  If  English  pints. 

WEIGHT. 

1  kilogram  =  2.204,  nearly  2\  lbs.  English. 


The  following  tables  of  the  Austrian  yoke  and  Bavarian  morgen,  into  English,  is  added, 
as  these  measures  are  of  the  most  usual  occurrence. 


Yokes. 

Acres. 

Morgen. 

Acres. 

1 

— 

1.422 

1 

= 

0.842 

2 

(( 

2.844 

2 

t( 

1.684 

3 

(( 

4.266 

3 

it 

2.526 

4 

(( 

5.688 

4 

tt 

3.368 

5 

(( 

7.110 

5 

tt 

4.210 

6 

(( 

8.532 

6 

tt 

5.052 

7 

(( 

9.954 

7 

tt 

5.894 

8 

(( 

11.376 

8 

tt 

6.736 

9 

(( 

22.798 

9 

tt 

7.578 

10 

(( 

14.220 

10 

tt 

8.420 

20 

(( 

28.440 

20 

tt 

16.840 

30 

(( 

42.660 

30 

tt 

25.260 

40 

((' 

56.880 

40 

tt 

33.680 

50 

u 

71.100 

50 

tt 

42.100 

60 

n 

85.320 

60 

tt 

50.520 

70 

(( 

99.540 

70 

It 

58.940 

80 

(( 

113.760 

80 

tt 

67.360 

90 

t{ 

127.980 

90 

tt 

75.780 

100 

It 

142  200 

100 

tt 

84.200 

1-2 

{( 

0.711 

nearly 

3-4 

1-2 

Cl 

0.421  over    2-5 

1-3 

i( 

0.474 

(( 

1-2 

1-3 

tt 

0.280      ' 

'      1-4 

1-4 

(t 

0.355 

over 

1-3 

1-4 

l( 

0.205      ♦ 

'       1-5 

1-5 

(( 

0.244 

nearly 

1-4 

1-5 

tt 

0.168      ' 

'      1-6 

1-6 

t( 

0  237 

(( 

1-4 

1-6 

tt 

0.140      ' 

'      1-7 

1-7 

(( 

0.203 

over 

1-5 

1-7 

tt 

0.120      * 

'       1-8 

1-8 

1( 

0.177 

(( 

1-6 

1-8 

(t 

0.105      ♦ 

'      1-10 

1-9 

(( 

0.158 

(C 

1-7 

1-9 

tt 

0.093      ' 

'      1-11 

1-10 

(t 

0.142 

t( 

1-8 

1-10 

tt 

0.084      ♦ 

'      112 

INDEX 


AwDERSoN  Proctor — his  mode  of  finding  the  weight  of  cattle,  35 

Aniinal<: — loss  of  to  the  per  centage  of  value,  43 — necessary  for  the  cheapest  management  of  the  farm,  95 — need 
of  fodder,  litter  and  drink,  for  different  animals,  104,  106. 

Artichokes — value  of,  as  fodder  for  cows,  31. 

Ashes — proportion  of,  in  plants,  Table,  61. 

Bailet  and  Cullev,  Messrs. — their  views  of  the  comparative  value  of  horses  or  oxen,  for  labor,  &;c.  44. 

p-irley — its  absori)tion  of  nutritive  matter,  73 — seed  required,  and  product,  74,  75. 

Block,  A.  K. — his  Table  of  equivalents  of  food,  30 — Table  of  solid  substance  in  different  kinds  of  food,  88. 

Bread — a  species  of,  used  for  fodder 

Burger,  J. — account  of  him,  v. — his  estimates  of  food  for  sheep,  13 — of  men  required  to  keep  swine,  &c.,  15 
— remarks  on  the  use  of  cows  and  bulls  for  labor,  19 — on  the  food  for  horses,  23,  24 — of  working  oxen,  27 — 
of  fattening  oxen,  35.  .35 — of  ploughing,  «fcc.,  10 — of  manure,  &;c.,  55 — of  modes  of  husbandry,  &,c,  117 — 
of  direction  of  farms  and  accounts,  130 — 132. 

Capital — different  kinds  of,  in  husbandry,  130. 

Carrots — value  of,  as  food  for  horses,  2o. 

Cary's  gauge  for  finding  the  weiglit  of  cattle,  36. 

Cattle^how  many  can  one  man  tend  at  pasture,  or  summer  or  winter  foddering,  U — modes  of  fattening,  16, 15 
— modes  of  finding  live  weight  of,  36 — food  of,  analysis.  Table,  54 — kind  of,  lo  be  kept  for  manuie,  96— num- 
ber, 101 — weight  of  manure  by  one  head  of.  Table,  103 — need  of  fodder  and  litter  for.  104,  105. 

Clover — its  great  importance  to  enrich  land,  71,  89 — seed  required,  and  product,Tables,  74,  76. 

CuRWErt,  Mr. — his  experiments  in  feeding  horses.  25 — his  mode  of  finding  the  weight  of  cattle,  &;c.,  36. 

Dana,  Dr. — his  analysis  of  cow  dung,  59. 

Day's  work— in  different  kinds  of  labor,  16,  18,54 — cash  value  of,  54. 

Decandolle — his  tlieory  of  tlic  rotation  of  crops,  118. 

Depths  of  planting  seed — experiments  on,  78. 

Deputat — or  allowance,  what?  4. 

Dienstbotcn,  Dicnstleute  or  domestics — how  divided  wages,  how  many  needed?  kinds  of  occupation  fitted  for,  2 

Director  or  administrator  of  a  farm — his  duties,  &;c.,  128. 

Digffing — day's  work,  in  what?  16. 

DouisLAS,  Mr. — his  mode  of  finding  the  weight  of  cattle,  36. 

Droifeld,  or  Dreifelder-wirthschaft,  what?  3,  124. 

Drink — need  of  for  different  cattle,  106. 

Dung — of  the  cowandotlier  animals,  analysis  of,  59,  60, 

Earths — power  to  take  up  water.  Table,  65. 

Economy— rural  ;  the  organization  of  the  Iiousehold,  1— of  Land  husbandry,  Thaer's  definition  of,  2. 

Egarten,  Egarten-wirtlischaft — meaning  of,  3,  117 — number  of  laborers  needed  in,  6 — when  this  mode  of  hus- 
bandry may  be  employed  to  advantage,  117. 

Ellsworth,  Hon.  H.  L  —his  mode  of  fencing  the  prairies  referred  to,  19. 

Equivalents  of  food— taljles  of,  13,29,  30,  31. 

Exhausting  power  of  different  grains,  73. 

Extensive  mode  of  husbandry,  what  ?  3. 

Farm  accounts — proper  mode  of  keeping  Ihrm,  130-132. 

Fattening  of  oxen,  &:c.— remarks  on  modes  of,  34,  35,  37,  38— progress,  how  judged  of,  35— rapid  the  best,  38. 

Felder-wirthschaft— meaning  of  the  term  and  when  this  mode  of  husbandry  is  desirable,  117.. 

Fences — advantages  and  disadvantages  of,  18,  19. 

Flesh  and  tallow — how  propoitioned,  40. 

Fodder— importance  of  a  diversity  of  articles  for,  3— conservation,  how  much  needed  daily,  23,  29— conservation 
and  melioration,  what  ?  32— necessity  of,  how  provided  for,  23 — amount  of  consumed  in  fattening  39— re- 
sults of  experiments  in,  40- in  wiiat  its  value  consists,  54— in  relation  to  manure,  KE'-Tables  ;  consumption 
of,  103 — need  of,  for  cattle,  104,  106— proportion  of,  with  litter,  to  manure,  109,  111— proportion  of  plants 
for  to  plants  for  manure,  112. 

Frucht-folge,  Frucht-wechsel — meaning  of,  116. 

Frucht-wechsel-wirthschaf>— meaning  of  the  term,  and  when  this  mode  of  husbandry  should  be  employed,  117, 124 

Furrows,  and  furrow-slices- length  and  breadth  of,  in  ploughing,  45,  46,  48. 

Grain — proportion  of  to  straw,  86— its  relation  to  manure,  118. 

Hackcn— comparison  of,  to  the  plough,  vfec,  50. 

Ilacksel- preparation  of,&c.,  11— as  fodder  for  cattle,  &c.,  28,  39. 

Harrowing  -horses  better  for  than  oxen  ;  amount  in  a  day,&.c.,  51. 

Harvesting — day's  work  in  what?  18. 

Hay— quantity  of,  one  man  can  bind,  weigh  out,  &c.,  in  a  day— day's  work  in  mowing,  turning,  spreading,  load- 
ing and  unloading,  &c.,  16. 

Horse,  horses— Thaer's  remarks  on  food  and  kepping  of  20.  21— Veit's  21—23:  Loudon's,  24— British  Hus- 
bandry, Curwen's  experiments, 25, 26;  Stephens',  26— difference  of  expense  of,  and  of  oxen,  &c.,  34— 
comparative  amount  of  labor  from  them  ;  preference  of,  in  various  things  stated  by  Thaer,41  ;  I)y  Veit,42, 
43 ;  by  Loudon,  43  ;  by  Bailey  and  Ci.lley,- teams  of,  how  spanned,  44— number  needed  for  a  plough, 
45_ptopoition  of,  to  land  in  different  countries,  52,  53— urine  and  dung  of,  analysed,  60. 

Household— meaning  and  object  of  in  Land  Husbandry,  1— Thaer  and  Veit's  views  ;  outer  and  inner,  what? 
2 — outer,  doctrine  of,  how  divided  ?3 

Humus — what?   composition,  &c.,  Thaer's  views,  .56;  Liebig  and  Sprengel's  57— its  power  of  retaining 
warmth  small  ;  proportion,  plants  draw  it  from  the  soil,  68— increase  of  depends  on  fertility  of  soil,  &,c.  79 
Husbandry— how  to  estimate  the  gain  or  loss  of  any  proposed  method  of,  4. 

Income  or  interest  on  husbandry— how  to  be  reckoned?  128. 

Indentured  laborers,  10. 

lasurance  on  animals — rates  on,  in  Germany,  43. 


INDEX. 

Intensive  mode  of  luisbandry,  what  ?  3. 

Koppel-wirthschaft — meaning  of  3 — wlien  to  be  employed,  117. 

Labor — of  men  and  beasts  requisite,  in  what,  3 — advantages  and  disadvantages  of  different  kinds  of  labor 
of  men,  7,  8 — time  of,  8 — beasts  of,  horses  and  oxen,  2(5,97 — of  a  horse,  according  to  Prof.  Leslie,  52. 

Laborers — food  of,  5 — kind  of,  what,  and  what  work  adapted  to  them,  amount,  &.c.  7 — necessary  for  taking 
care  of  iiorscs  or  cattle,  &c.,  10— number  of  to  100  yokes  of  land,  52 — 54. 

Land  Husbandry — in  what  it  consists,  1. 

LiEBir. — his  view  of  the  action  of  humus  on  plants,  57  ;  of  the  theory  of  rotation  of  crops,  118,  119 

Loss  of  animals  to  per  centage  of  value,  what?  43. 

Lupines — experiments  on,  as  a  green-manure,  89. 

Luzerne — its  gn-at  importance  to  enrich  tiie  land,  71 — seed  of  required,  and  product  74 — 76. 

Maize  or  Indian  corn — proper  depth  of  planting  it,  78. 

Manure — loading,  &c.;  number  of  heaps,  spreading,  &c.,  on  an  acre,  17 — what.'  55 — when  obtained  in  the 
cheapest  manner  ;  how  much  is  needed  to  letain  fields  in  a  fruitful  state?  62 — with  reference  to  different 
soils  and  to  ploughing,  &c.,  63,  64 — the  relations  of  the  different  plants  to  the  quality  required,  69,  70 — of 
meadows,  &c  ,  71 — mode  of  proportioning  to  the  product,  76 — amount  required  to  retain  ihe  capacity  of 
production;  consumption  of  79 — Veits  estimates  of  the  need  of  80 — 82 — conclusions  82,  83 — proportion- 
ate consumption  of  for  different  years  ;  division  of  plants,  83 — green,  Schwert^  &  Burger's  Tables,  89 — 
weight  of  diff'erent  kinds  of,  90 — Prof.  Coventry's  estimate  of  production  by  land,  90,  91 — quantity  voided, 
9] — the  mass  to  be  replaced,  how  reckoned?  aud  proportion  in  different  years,  92 — value  of,  how  reckoned .' 
96,  97 — amount  produced  from  difi'crent  animals,  97 — kinds  of  value.  Table,  98 — observations  on,  99,  100 — 
weight  of  from  one  head  of  cattle,  &c.,  101 — from  different  kinds  of  fodder;  mode  of  computation,  102 — 
weight  of,  to  foddei  and  litter,  107 — weight  of  moist  to  dry  substance  ;  experiments  on,  Table  107,  108 — 
Mayer's  mode  of  computing  of,  from  Fodder ;  Thaer's,  109, 110  ;  Table  of  proportions,  &c.,  Ill,  112. 

Milk — production  of,  from  fodder  employed.  Table  108. 

Milking — how  many  cows  can  be  milked  in  an  hour,  11 — quality  of  first  and  last  compared,  12. 

Oats — absorption  of  nutritive  matter,  73— seed  of  required,  and  product,  74,75 — Einhoff's  analysis  of,  93. 

Oil — comparative  time  of  burning  of  different  kinds,  78. 

Oil-plants  —what  ;  their  relation  to  humus,  73— seed  required,  and  product.  Table  74,  75 — comparative  amonnt 
of  oil  produced.  Table  77. 

Oxen— fodder  of,  Burner's  views,  27 — Veit's,28,  33— Thaer's, 29, 32— amount  consumed,  31 — expense  of  for 
an  ox  in  Bavaria,  33— and  horses  compared  as  to  cost,  &c.,  34— fattening  of.  Burger's  views,  34 — Veit's, 
38 — 40- comparative  amount  of  labor  from  them,  &.C.,  41— superiority  of  to  horses,  what?  42;  Loudon's 
view,  43— Bailey  &  C'ulley's,  44 — teams  of  how  spanned,  44— number  of  needed,  a  plough,  45— need  of 
fodder  and  litter  for,  104, 105. 

Pasture — of  cattle,  11 — estimate  of  by  Petri,  33. 

Petri— accouut  of  him -his  Table  of  equivalents  of  food  for  sheep,  13 — estimates  of  food  for  sheep,  14,  15— 
of  pasture,  32. 

Planting — day's  work  in,  what?  17 — depths  of;  experiments,  78 — distance,  79. 

Plants — how  nourished,  55— action  of  humus  on,  57 — their  need  of  humus,  &c.,68 — do  not  require  equal  amonnt 
of  manure  to  what  they  take  up,  69 — pod- bearing  require  less  manure,  70 — and  derive  only  half  their  pro- 
ducts from  the  humus,  71,72 — grain,  of  the  grass-kind,  their  need  of  manure,  what?  72— how  divided,  respect- 
ing their  consumption  of  manure,  83;  Tables,  84,  85;  Results,  85,  86;  Thaer's  remarks  on  this  subject, 
86  ;  Schwertz's  ;  loss  or  gain  of  vegetables  converted  into  manure,  87  ;  Tables  88,  89— proportion  of  plants 
for  sale  to  those  for  fodder,  112,  113— how  must  the  order  of  succession  be  arranged  so  a?  to  secure  the  best 
result,  116— what  plants  will  bear  the  most  manure,  118. 

Plough— necessary  ])0wer,  experiments,  &;c.,  49,  50.     Strain  of  draught  in,  50. 

Ploughing — No.  of  men  needed  in  10— quantity  of  in  9  hours  ;  charges  of  beasts  in;  number  of  beasts,  45 — 
Thaer's  estimate  of  quantity  in  a  day,  47— Table  of  distance  travelled,  rates,  &;c.,4S. 

Podewill  Count— his  experiments  in  fattening  oxen,  34. 

Potatoes— value  of  as  a  fodder,  22,  25,  29.  31— their  relation  to  the  soil  as  exhausters,  73— seed  of  required  and 
produce,  74,  75. 

Rich  soil,  what  ?  57 

Root— vegetables,  their  consumption  of  humus,  73— seed  of  required  and  product,  74,  75— Einhoff's  analysis 
of,  93. 

Rotation  of  crops- theory  respecting  it,  118 — the  proper  order  to  be  observed,  119 — examples  of,  123,  124. 

Rye— experiments  as  to  the  depth  of  planting,  78— seed  of  required,  and  product,  74,  75. 

Sainfoin  — its  great  importance  to  enrich  land,  71 — seed  of,  required  and  product,  74,  75,76. 

ScHUBLER— his   experiments  on  the  qualities  of  earths  or  soils.  Table  65,  67. 

ScHWERTZ — account  of  him,  7 — his  views  of— the  consumption  of  manure,  &c.,  by  plants.  Table  87,  P9. 

Sheep — how  many  one  shepherd  can  tend,  allowance  of  food  for,  in  winter  or  by  day,  or  in  summer  foddering,  12 
— Petri's  estimate  of  food  for,  and  variations  of  fodder,  14,  15— need  of  fodder  and  litter  for,  104. 

Sorting— advantages  of— 32 

Soils- analysis  of  in  Ohio,  57,  58— Thaer's  Table  on  the  value  of,  59— Spreisgei's  view  of  their  affinity  to 
manures,  54— power  of,  to  take  up  water,  or  to  retain  it,  66,  or  to  absorb  it ;  decrease  of  volume  in  drying, 
capacity  for  warmth,  57 — exhausting  power  of,  68 

Sour  meadows,  what  ?  20. 

Span— moaning  of,  44. 

Sprengel— his  analysis  of  soil,  &c.,57,  58,  64. 

Stall-room— amount  required  by  different  cattle.  Table  32. 

Strachmss- his  rule  for  finding  weight  of  cattle,  35. 

Straw- its  value  as  fodder  in  the  different  grains,  28— proportion  to  grain,  86. 

Thaer— account  of  him,  7— his  definition  of  land  and  husbandry,  2— description  of  Gesindc  or  Dienstboten, 
4 — distinction  !)etwoen  price  of  wages  and  of  work,  9— estimate  of  men  for  taking  care  of  cattle,  &c.,  11  ; 
of  sheep,  12— remarks  on  food  for  hoises,  20-estimate  of  food  for  cattle,  29 ;  on  fattening  cattle,  37;  supe- 
riority of  horses  to  oxen,  in  what?  41— estimate  of  ploughing  in  a  day,  47— Table  of  the  value  of  soils,  59— 
his  remarks  on  the  consumption  of  manure  by  i)lants,86— hia  hypothesis  on  incrc?.se  of  power,  &c.,  opposed, 
93— mode  of  con)puting  manure  from  fodder  used,  109. 

Turnips— weight  of-distance,  &c.,  product.  Table  77. 

Turnus— meaning  of  the  term,  116. 

Veit— account  of  him— his  description  of  Land  husbandry,  &.C.,  9  ;  of  Dienstboten  or  l)ienstleute,4,5  ;  of  thei. 
food,  5 ;  estimate  of  the  cost  of  a  domestic,  7  ;  comparison  of  diff"erent  kinds  of  labor, 7,  8— principles  to  be 
adopted  ;  account  of  Frohncr.  90-  estimate  of  men  for  horses,  10;  of  fowl  for  sheep,  13-,  for  many  kinds  of 
work,  16-18-remarks  on  tlie  food  of  horses,  21—23  ;  eciuivalent  of  plants  for  fodder.  Table  29  ;  amount  of 
Btall-room,  32-remarks  on. fattening  cattle,  .38  ;  amount  of  fodder  for,  39  ;  results,  40— view  of  the  supej^" 
ority  of  horses  or  oxen,  42  ;  results  ;  rate  of  insurance,  &c.,  43 -estimates  of  the  need  of  manure,  °" 
—Table  of  fodder  in  relation  to  manure,  103  ;  of  fodder  and  litter,  104,  105  ;  table  of  drink,  &.C.,  106. 

Wages— of  domestics,  7— how  affected,  8— a  day's  what?  9. 

Wochselwirthschaft— meaning  of,  3,  117