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\  •     '     ■ 

EDINBURGH    NEW 

PHILOSOPHICAL  JOURNAL, 

EXHIBITING  A  VIEW  OF  THE 

PROGRESSIVE  IMPROVMENTS  AND  DISCOVERIES 

IN  THE 


SCIENCES  AND  THE/iI5MS^ 


CONDUCTED  BY 

ROBERT  JAMESO^^ 

RBGIUS   PROFBSSOB   OF    NATURAL   HISTORY,    LKCTURER  ON   MINERALOGY,    AND    KKEPER  OF 
THE    MUSEUM   IN   THE   UNIVERSITY  OF   EDINBURGH  ; 

Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London ;  Fellow  of  the  Royal,  Antiquarian,  and  Wemerian  Societies  of 
Edinburgh ;  Honorary  Member  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  and  of  the  Royal  Dublin  Society ; 
Fellow  of  the  Linnean  and  Geological  Societies  of  London ;  of  the  Royal  Geolc^ical  Society  of 
Cornwall,  and  of  the  Cambridge  Philosophical  Society ;  of  the  York,  Bristol,  Cambrian,  Northern, 
and  Cork  Institutions;  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Sciences  of  Denmark ;  of  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Sciences  of  Berlin ;  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Naples ;  of  the  Imperial  Natural  History  Society 
of  Moscow ;  of  the  Imperial  Pharmaceutical  Society  of  Petersburgh ;  of  the  Natural  History  So- 
ciety of  Wetterau  ;  of  the  Mineralogical  Society  of  Jena ;  of  the  Royal  Mineralogical  Society  of 
Dresden ;  of  the  Natural  History  Society  of  Paris ;  of  the  Philomathic  Society  of  Paris ;  of  the 
Natural  History  Society  of  Calvados;  of  the  Senkenberg  Society  of  Natural  History  ;  Honorary 
Member  of  the  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  of  New  York ;  of  the  New  York  Historical 
Society ;  of  the  American  Antiquarian  Society ;  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadel- 
phia ;  of  the  Lyceum  of  Natural  History  of  New  York,  S^c.  <S-c. 


APRIL. ..OCTOBER  1826. 


TO  BE  CONTINUED  QUARTERLY. 


EDINBURGH : 

PRINTED  FOR  ADAM  BLACK,  NORTH  BRIDGE,  EDINBURGH  ; 

AND  LONGMAN,  REES,  ORME,  BROWN,  &  GREEN, 

LONDON. 


1826. 


p.  Neill,  Printer,  Edinburgh. 


CONTENTS. 


Art.  I.  Biographical  Memoir  of  the  late  Henry  KiJHL^  M.  P. 

Doctor  of  Natural  History,  &c.  &c.  -  -  1 

II.  Sketches  of  our  Information  as  to  Rail-Roads.  By  the 
Rev.  James  Adamson,  Cupar-Fife.  (Communicated 
by  the  Author),  -  -  -  -  23 

HI.  On  the  Natural  History  and  Economical  Uses  of  the 
Cod,  Capelin,  Cuttle-Fish,  and  Seal,  as  they  occur  on 
the  Banks  of  Newfoundland,  and  the  Coasts  of  that 
Island  and  Labrador.  Communicated  in  a  Letter  to 
Professor  Jameson,  by  W.  E.  Cormack,  Esq.  32 

IV.  Description  of  a  New  Reflecting  Telescope,  denomi- 
nated the  Aerial  Reflector.  By  Thomas  Dick,  Esq. 
Author  of  the  Christian  Philosopher,  &c.  Commu- 
nicated by  the  Author,  -  -  -  41 
V.  On  the  Combustion  of  Alcoholic  Fluids,  Oils,  &c.  in 
Lamps,  with  Observations  on  the  Colour  and  Consti- 
tution of  Flame.  By  Henry  Home  Blackadder, 
Esq.  F.R.S.E.     Communicated  by  the  Author. 

1.  Of  Lamps  without  Wicks,  -  -  -  52 

2.  Of  the  Colour  of  Flame,         -         -  -  -  56 
VI.  Tour  to  the  South  of  France  and  the  Pyrenees,  in  1825. 

By  G.   A.  Walker  Arnott,  Esq.  A.M.  F.L.S.  & 
R.S.E.  &c.     In  a  Letter  to  Professor  Jameson,  66 

VII.  Notice  of  a  New  Zoophyte  (Cliona  celata,  Gr.)  from 
the  Frith  of  Forth.  By  R.E.  Grant,  M.D.  F.R.S.E. 
F.L.S.  M.W.S.  «&c.  Communicated  by  the  Author,  78 
VIII.  Geological  Observations, — 1.  On  Alluvial  Rocks:  2.  On 
Formations :  3.  On  the  Changes  that  appear  to  have 
taken  place  during  the  different  periods  of  the  Earth's 
formation  on  the  Climate  of  the  Globe,  and  in  the 
nature  and  the  Physical  and  Geographical  Distribu- 
tion of  its  Animals  and  Plants.  By  A  Boue',  M.  D. 
Member  of  the  Wernerian  Society.  Communicated 
by  the  Author,  -  -  -  -  82 


ii  CONTENTS. 

Art.  IX.  Observations  on  the  Climate  of  the  Canary  Islands. 

By  Baron  Leopold  Von  Buch,  -  -         92 

X.  On  the  Wombat  of  Flinders.  By  Dr  Knox,  F.R.S.E. 
M.W.S.  Lecturer  on  Anatomy  and  Physiology, 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  in  Edin- 
burgh, and  Conservator  of  the  Museum.  Com- 
municated by  the  Author,  -  -  104 
XI.  On  an  Air-Pump  without  Artificial  Valves.  By  Wil- 
liam Ritchie,  A.  M.  Rector  of  Tain  Academy. 
Communicated  by  the  Author,  -  112 
XII.  Table  exhibiting  the  Highest  and  Lowest  Degrees  of 
Temperature,  with  the  State  of  the  Weather,  of  New 
Brunswick  in  North  America,  as  observed  on  the 
coast,  and  at  a  distance  of  about  fifty  miles  from 
the  sea,  from  October  1.  1818  to  September  SO. 
1 820.  By  Alexander  Boyle,  M.  D.  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Physicians  of  Edinburgh,  and 
Surgeon  to  his  Majesty's  Forces,  Communicated 
by  Dr  Duncan ywrnor,             -             m    ■       -          us 

XIII.  Notices  regarding   Fiery  Meteors  seen  during  the 

Day.     By  J.  H.  Serres,  Sub-prefect  of  Embrun,  114 

XIV.  Picture  of  Vegetation  on  the  Surface  of  the  Globe,     117 
XV.   On  Falling  Stars.     In  a  Letter  from  Prof  Brandes 

;., ,  \  r.of  Breslau  to  Professor  Jameson,  -  124 

XVI.  On  the  Management  of  the  Water-Meloh  and  the 
Cucumber  in  Russia.   By  William  Howison,  M.D. 
Lecturer  on  Materia  Medica  and  Botany.     Com- 
municated by  the  Author,  -  -  125 
XVII.  Notice  respecting  the  Presence  of  a  Rudimentary 
Spur  in  the  Female  Echidna  of  New  Holland. 
By  R.  Knox,  M.  D.  F.R.S.E.  M.W.S.  Conservator 
•  of  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons. 
Communicated  by  the  Author,             -           -          130 
XV in.  Observations  on  Philadelpheoe  and  Granateae,  two 
new  FamiHes  of  Plants.     By  David  Don,  Libr. 
L.  S.  Corresponding  Member  of  the  Wernerian  So- 
ciety, &c.     Communicated  by  the  Author,  132 
KlU^  Account  of  a  raie  Fish  (Sciaena  Aquila)  found  in  the 
Shetland   Seas.      By   P.   Neill,   Esq.    F.R.S.E. 
F.  L.  S,  &  Sec.  M.  W.  S.      Communicated  by  the 
Author,             -             -             -               «                 ISB 


CONTENTS.  iii 

Art.  XX.  On  the  Transparency  of  Space.     By  Df-  *0^'6*^s  of 

Bremen,  -  -  -  -  141 

XXI.  Observations  on  the  Spontaneous  Motions  of  the  Ova 
of  the  Campanularia  dichotomaj  Gorgonia  verru- 
cosa, Caryophylleae  calycularis,  Spongia  panicea, 
Sp.  papillaris,  cristata,  tomentosa,  and  Plumularia 
falcata.  By  Robert  E.  Grant,  M.  D.  F.  R.  S.  E. 
F.L.S.  M.W.S.  Communicated  by  the  Author,  150 
XXII.  Remarks  on  the  Noises  that  sometimes  accompany 

the  Aurora  Borealis,  _  -  _  156' 

XXIII.  On  the  presence  of  Iodine  in  the  Mineral  Spring  of 

Bonnington,  near  Leith.     By  Edward  Turner, 
M.D.  F.R.S.E.  &c.  In  a  Letter  to  Prof  Jameson,  159 

XXIV.  Intelligence  from  the  Arctic  Land  Expedition  under 

Captain  Franklin  and  Dr  Richardson,         -         I6I 
XXV.  Remarks  on  the  Structure  of  some  Calcareous  Sponges. 
By   Robert  E.  Grant,  M.D.  F.R.S.E.  F.L.S, 
M.W.S.  &c.     Communicated  by  the  Author,  16"() 

XXVI.  List  of  Rare  Plants  which  have  Flowered  in  the  Royal 
Botanic  Garden,  Edinburgh,  during  the  last  three 
months ;  with  Descriptions  of  several  New  Plants. 
Communicated  by  Professor  Graham,  -         171 

XXVIl.  Celestial  Phenomena  from  July  1.  to  October  1.  1826, 
calculated  for  the  Meridian  of  Edinburgh,  Mean 
Time.     By  Mr  George  Innes,  Aberdeen,  176 

XXVIII.  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,         178 
XXIX.  Proceedings  of  the  Wernerian  Nat.  History  Society,   178 

XXX.  Scientific  Intelligence. 

NATURAL  PHILC«OPHY. 

1.  Lieut.  Drummond  on  the  means  of  facilitating  the  Obser- 

vations of  Distant  Stations  on  Geodesical  Observations,     182 

METEOROLOGY. 

2.  Deception   occasioned  by  Fog.     3.  Apparent  nearness  of 

Objects.     4.  Mirage  in  Persia.     5.  Shower  of  Fishes  in     ♦ 
Argyleshire.     6.  Shbwer  of  Herrings  in  Galloway.     7. 
Shower   of  Herrings    in    Kinross-shire.      8.   Shower    of 
Shells  in  Ireland.     9-  Colours  of  Lightning.    10.  Meteoric 
Stones,  -  -  -  -  -  183-188 

CHEMISTRY. 

11.  Effects  of  Mineral  Substances  on  Animals.     12.  Salts  as- 
sume different  primitive  forms,  according  to  the  men- 


iv  CONTENTS. 

struum  in  which  they  crystallise.  IS.  Compound  for 
preserving  Substances  from  Humidity.  14.  Inconve- 
niences of  the  Pressure  apparatus  for  Cooking.  15.  Car- 
bonate of  Magnesia.  l6.  Changes  that  take  place  in  the 
texture  of  different  solid  substances  in  the  course  of  time. 
1 7.  Constituent  parts"  of  Magnesian  Limestones  from  the 
vicinity  of  Jedburgh,  as  ascertained  by  Mr  William  Cop- 
land. 18.  Analysis  of  a  Powder  which  is  sold  in  Paris 
under  the  name  of  Colour,  and  used  in  giving  trinket  gold 
the  colour  of  fine  gold,  -  -  ,  1 88-190 

MINERALOGY. 

19.  Gay-Lussite.  20.  Titanium,  a  general  ingredient  in  Fel- 
spars and  Serpentines.  21.  Fluids  in  Cavities  of  Mine- 
rals, -  -  -  -  -  191,  192 

GEOLOGY. 

22.  Contested  passage  in  Tacitus.  23.  Hills  formed  by  Springs. 
24.  On  the  manner  in  which  Ammoniacal  Salts  are  form- 
ed in  Volcanoes,  -  -  -  192,  I93 

ZOOLOGY. 

2.5.  Whale  killed  in  the  River  St  Lawrence,  6OO  miles  from  the 
Sea.  26.  On  the  Siliceous  Spiculaof  two  Zoophytes  from 
Shetland.  27.  Histoire  Naturelle  des  Mammiferes.  28. 
Cows,  Horses  and  Sheep,  fed  on  Fish  in  Persia.  29. 
Swiftness  of  Animals.  SO.  Foot  race  on  Clapham  Com- 
mon. 31.  Insects.  32.  Mildew  in  Barley.  23.  Taming 
Rattle-snakes.  34.  Geckoes  used  for  catching  Flies.  35. 
Heart  of  the  Frog  used  for  Poison.  36.  Marabous.  37. 
Irish  Elk,  -  -  -  -  193-199 

BOTANY. 

38.   Pluvial    Trees.      39.  Sensitive   Tree.       40.   Poisoning   of 

Plants.     41.  Leguminosse,  -  -  200,  201 

ARTS. 

42.  On  the  liability  of  English  Silks  and  Cottons  to  become 

faded;  and  on  the  superiority  of  the  Silks  of  France,  and 
the  Cottons  of  India  in  that  respect,  -  -  203 

COMMERCE. 

43.  Fisheries  of  Newfoundland  and  Labrador,  -  205 

Art.  XXXI.  List  of  Patents  sealed  in  England  from  4th  Fe- 
bruary to  8th  May  1826,  -  -  205 
XXXII.  List  of  Patents  granted  in  Scotland  from   20th 

March  to  26th  May  1826,  -  -  208 


CONTENTS. 


Page 
Art.  I.  Biographical  Memoir  of  the  late  Christian  Smith, 

M.D.  Naturalist  to  the  Congo  Expedition.  By  Ba- 
ron Leopold  Von  Buch,  _  -  -  2O9 
11.  Description  of  the  Contents  of  a  Tumulus  in  the  Pa- 
rish of  Burness,  Island  of  Sanday.  By  William 
Wood,  Esq.  Surgeon.  (Communicated  by  Dr  Wil- 
liam Howison).     With  a  Plate.             -  -  216 

III.  Observations  on  the  Anatomy  of  the  Corallina  opun- 

tia,  and  some  other  Corallines.     By  Prof.  Schweig- 
OER,  -----  220 

IV.  On  the  Constitution  of  Flame.     By  H.  Home  Black- 

adder,  Esq.  F.  R.  S.  E.     Communicated  by  the  Au- 
thor. -----  224 
V.  Hypothesis  regarding  Magnetism.     By  Dr  BiicHNER,    236 

VI.  On  the  Construction  of  Meteorological  Instruments, 
so  as  to  ascertain  their  indications,  during  absence, 
at  any  given  instant,  or  at  successive  intervals  of 
time.     With  a  Plate.  -  -  -  238 

VII.  Some  mechanical  Inquiries  regarding  the  Tails  of  Co- 
mets. By  Dr  Lehmann  of  Berlin,  -  243 
VIII.  On  the  Snakes  of  Southern  Africa.  By  Andrew^ 
Smith,  M.  D.  M.  W.  S.  Assistant-Surgeon  98th  Re- 
giment, and  Superintendant  of  the  South  African 
Museum.     Communicated  by  the  Author.          -         248 

IX.  Picture  of  Vegetation  on  the   Surface  of  the  Globe. 

(Continued  from  p.  124 )  -  -  -         255 

X.  Remarks  on  the  Geological  Position  of  the  Strata  of 
Tilgate  Forest  in  Sussex.  By  Gideon  Mantell, 
Esq.  F.  R.  S.  &c.  In  a  Letter  to  Professor  Jame- 
son, -  r^  -  -  -  262 

XI.  Description  of  a  Design  for  a  Rotatory  Steam-Engine. 
By  Mr  James  White.  With  a  Plate.  Communi- 
cated by  the  Author,  -  -  -  266 


ii  -  CONTENTS. 

Art.  XII.  Tour  to  the  South  of  France  and  the  Pyrenees  in 
1825.  By  G.  A.  Walker  Arnott,  Esq.  A.M. 
F.  L.  S.  &  R.  S.  E.  &c.  In  a  Letter  to  Professor 
Jameson.     (Continued  from  p.  70.)  -  268 

XIII.  On  the  Changes  which  the  Laws  of  Mortality  have 

undergone  in  Europe  within  the  last  Half  Cen- 
tury, or  from  1775  to  1825.     By  M.  Benoiston 

DE  ChaTEAUNEUF,  -  -  _  275 

XIV.  Observations  on  some  Fossil  Vegetables  of  the  Coal 

Formation,  and  on  their  relations  to  living  Ve- 
getables. By  M.  Ad.  Brongniart.  With  a  Plate.  282 
XV.  Professor  P.   Prevost   upon  the  Magnetical    In- 
fluence of  the  Sun,  -  -  -  289 

XVI.  On  the  Reaction  of  Sulphate  of  Magnesia  and  Bi- 
carbonate of  Soda.     By  M.  Planche,  -         292 

XVII.  Observations  on  the  Nature  and  Importance  of 

Geology,  _  -  _  _  293 

XVIII.  On  Female  Pheasants  assuming  the  Male  Plumage- 
By  M.  Isidore  Geoffroy  St  Hilaire.  With 
Notes  by  the  Editor,  -  -  -  302 

XIX.  1.  Caventou  on  the  Chemical  Properties  of  Starch, 
and  the  various  Amylaceous  Substances  of  Com- 
merce. 2.  Engelhart  on  the  Colouring  Prin- 
ciple of  the  Blood.  3.  On  Arsenic,  its  Oxides, 
and  Sulphurets ;  by  M.  Guibourt.  4.  Prepara- 
tion of  Chloride  of  Lime.  5.  On  the  detection 
of  Arsenic.  6.  On  Cafeine.  7-  Analysis  of 
the  Root  of  Bryonia  alba.  8.  General  Treus- 
SART  on  the  Preparation  of  Hydraulic  Cements. 
9.  On  a  New  Method  of  Purifying  Crystals  ;  by 
M.  RoBiNET.  10.  Repetition  of  the  Comparison 
of  the  Rate  of  the  Mercurial  and  Spirit  Thermo- 
meter, -  -  .  -  -  311-326 
XX.  Description  of  the  Ciconia  Ardgala,  or  Adjutant 

Bird.     By  J.  Adam,  M.  D.  -  -  327 

XXI.  On  the  Theory  of  the  Air-Thermometer.     By  Mr 

Henry  Meikle.     Communicated  by  the  Author.  332 

XXII.  Observations  on  the  Structure  of  some  Siliceous 
Sponges.  By  R.  E.  Grant,  M.  D.  F.  R.  S.  E. 
F.  L.  S.  M.  W.  S.  Honorary  Member  of  the  Nor- 
thern Institution,  &c.  Communicated  by  the 
Author,  -  -  -  .  341 


CONTENTS.  iii 

Art.  XXIII.  Notice  of  a  Voyage  of  Research.  In  a  Letter 
from  Captain  Basil  Hall,  R,  N.  to  Professor 
Jameson,  -  -  -  -  351 

XXIV.  On  Achmite,  Hyalosiderite,  and  Trachylite.    By 

Professor  Breithaupt  of  Freyberg,  -         362 

XXV.  The  Destruction  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  oc- 
casioned by  Volcanic  Agency,  -  365 

XXVI.  Notice  on  Oil  in  the  Human  Blood,  by  Dr 
Adam  ;  and  on  the  Bite  of  the  Ceylon  Leech, 
by  John  Tytler,  Esq.  Assistant-Surgeon, 
Garrison  of  Monghyr,  -  -  373 

XXVII.  A  Series  of  Observations  on  the  Temperature  of 
the  Thames,  in  the  year  1 824.  By  Mr  J. 
Frembly,  R.  N.  Communicated  by  the  Au- 
thor, .  -  .  -  377 
XXVIII.  Observations  made  during  a  Visit  to  Madeira, 
and  a  Residence  in  the  Canary  Islands.  By 
Baron  Leopold  Von  Buch,             -          -         380 

XXIX.  List  of  Rare  Plants  which  have  Flowered  in  the 
Royal  Botanic  Garden,  Edinburgh,  during  the 
last  Three  Months ;  with  Descriptions  of  se- 
veral New  Plants.  Communicated  by  Dr 
Graham,  _  -  »  -  S85 

XXX.  Celestial  Phenomena  from  October  1.  1826  to 
January  1.  1827,  calculated  for  the  Meridian 
of  Edinburgh,  Mean  Time.  By  Mr  George 
Innes,  Aberdeen,  -  -  -  387 

XXXI.  Scientific  Intelligence, 
astronomy. 

1.  The  Moon  and  its  inhabitants,  _  _  _  389 

meteorology. 

2.  Transmission  of  Sound.     3.  Showers  of  Blood  in  Britain. 

4.  Bitsberg  Meteoric  Stone.    5.  Morichini  on  Magnetism. 

6.  Luminous  Meteor.     7-  Remarkable  Rainbow,        390-392 

chemistry. 
8.  Chemical  Action  of  Diffused  Silica.     9.  Chloride  of  Lime 
as  an  antiseptic.     10.  Ammoniac  in  Alder  Water.     11. 
Acids  and  Salts  of  Soil,  -  -  -  392,  393 

geology. 
12.  Quadersandstone  belongs  to  the  Greensand.     13..Strnc- 


iv  CONTENTS. 

ture  of  the  Swiss  Alps.  14.  Apatite  in  Secondary  Green- 
stone, -  -  -  -  -  393,  394 

MINERALOGY. 

15.  Sulphat  of  Strontian  and  Sulphate  of  Barytes  confounded. 
16.  Telluric  Bismuth.  I7.  Vesuvian  of  Mussa.  18.  Gar- 
net.    19.  Natural  Alum,  -  -  394,  3g5 

ZOOLOGY. 

20.  Scottish  Entomology.  21,  Mastodon  found  in  Bahama. 
22.  Mammoth  at  Hudson's  Bay.  23.  Whale-Fishery  at 
Van  Dieman's  Land.     24.  Fossil  Insects,  -         395,  39^ 

BOTANY. 

25.  Nardus  or  Spikenard.  26.  On  the  Oshac,  or  Gum  Ammo- 
niac Plant.  27.  The  bark  of  the  stem  of  the  Pomegra- 
nate, a  specific  in  the  cure  of  Taenia,  -  395,  396 

ANTHROPOLOGY. 

28.  Account  of  a  singularly  small  Child,  by  T.  E.  Baker^  Esq. 

Esq.  of  Buxar,  ...  -  398 

MENSURATION. 

29.  Tables  for  converting  Scotch  Land  Measure  into  Imperial 

Land  Measure,  and  for  finding  the  Rent,  Produce,  or 
Value  of  an  English  Acre,  having  given  that  of  a  Scots 
Acre,  -  -  -  -  -  399,  400 

NOTICES  OF  NEW  BOOKS. 

30.  Daubeny  on  Volcanoes.     31.  Lothian's  County  Atlas  of 

Scotland.  32.  Dr  Fyfe's  Manual  of  Chemistry.  33. 
Captain  Parry's  New  Work,  -  -  -  401 

Art.  XXXII.  List  of  Patents  granted  in  England  from  26th 

May  to  9th  September  1826,  -  402 

XXXIII.  List  of  Patents  granted  in  Scotland  from  26th 

May  to  9th  September  1826,  -  403 

List  of  Plates,  -  .  -  -  .  404 

Index,  -  -  -  .  ^  -  405 


THE 


EDINBURGH  NEW 
PHILOSOPHICAL  JOURNAL, 


Biographical  Memoir  of  the  late  Henry  Kuhl,  M.  P.  Doctor 
of  Natural  History^  S^c.  S^c,  * 

JlXenry  Kuhl  was  born  at  Hanau,  on  the  17th  September 
179*7.  His  father,  John  Henry  Kuhl,  was  president  of  the  pro- 
vincial court  of  judicature,  an  office  which  he  still  continues  to 
discharge.  His  mother,  Maria  Judith  Walther,  who  died  at  an 
advanced  age,  was  the  daughter  of  Frederick  William  Walther, 
who  was  Councillor  of  State  at  Hanover. 

Kiihl,  who  was  by  nature  endoAved  with  an  excellent  genius, 
was,  from  his  earliest  years,  so  fond  of  the  study  of  natural  his- 
tory, that  he  usually  devoted  to  it  all  his  spare  hours  after  the 
ordinary  labours  of  the  school  had  been  performed.  He  hap- 
pened to  be  born  at  a  time  and  in  a  country  which  were  parti- 
cularly favourable  to  the  cultivation  of  his  genius ;  for  no  one 
will  deny  that  the  discoveries,  by  which  many  parts  of  natural 
history  have  of  late  years  been  elucidated,  are  in  no  small  de- 
gree to  be  attributed  to  the  naturalists  on  the  Mayne. 

In  the  number  of  these  were  many  friends  of  his  father,  such 
as  Leisler,  Meyer,  Gaertner,  and  De  Leonhard.  The  two  for- 
mer introduced  him  to  the  study  of  geology,  Gaertner  to  that  of 
botany,  while  Leonhard  taught  him  that  of  mineralogy  in  ge- 
neral.    But  he  was  especially  indebted  to  the  care  of  Leisler, 


Prepared  from  the  Memoirs  of  the  Academia  Csesarea  of  Leopoldino-Carolina?. 
APRIL JULY  1826.  A 


21  Biographical  Mefnoir  of  the  late  Henry  Kilhl. 

who,  being  without  children  himself,  and  knowing  Kiihl  to  be 
very  fond  of  the  study  of  natural  history,  and  possessed  of  great 
talents,  took  him  into  his  society,  which  proved  of  the  greatest 
advantage  to  him.  For  Leisler  was  president  of  the  association 
which  had  been  formed  at  Hanau  not  long  before,  for  the  sale 
and  exchange  of  objects  of  natural  history,  and  an  opportunity 
was  thus  afforded  him  of  handling  and  examining  these  objects. 
He  himself  collected  new  specimens  for  the  museum  in  the  sur- 
rounding country,  and  transmitted  them  in  a  sufficiently  finished 
condition  ;  and  besides,  freed  his  friend  of  much  of  the  labour 
to  which  his  literary  connections  subjected  him.  He  met  him 
daily  at  those  hunting  excursions  which  proved  of  so  much  be- 
nefit to  the  ornithology  of  Europe,  accompanied  him  on  these 
expeditions,  and,  in  short,  was  conducted  by  him  into  the  only 
path  by  which  the  assiduous  investigator  of  nature  can  be  led  to 
acquire  a  true  knowledge  of  the  objects  of  his  pursuit.  The 
consequence  was,  that  Kiihl,  while  yet  a  boy,  was  much  better 
acquainted  with  these  objects  than  often  falls  to  the  lot  of  peo- 
ple considerably  advanced  in  years.  In  this  manner  he  obtain- 
ed a  much  more  complete  knowledge  of  the  natural  productions 
of  the  country  of  Hanau  than  could  have  been  expected  at  his 
early  age ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  so  improved  the  natural  acu- 
men of  his  mind,  that  he  afterwards  detected,  in  other  parts  of 
the  eai'th,  objects  which  had  eluded  the  observation  of  many  na- 
turalists. 

Without  allowing  their  proper  weight  to  these  circumstan- 
ces, it  will  scarcely  be  credited  that  Kiihl,  when  only  nineteen 
years  of  age,  had  already  gone  over  the  whole  range  of  minera- 
logy under  the  instruction  of  Leonhard,  examined  a  great  num- 
ber of  the  plants  growing  in  AVetteravia,  with  the  assistance  of 
Gaertner,'and  acquired  a  knowledge  of  all  the  quadrupeds,  birds 
and  fishes,  of  the  middle  parts  of  Europe.  Besides,  at  this  age, 
he  pubhshed,  in  the  Wetterauen  Annalen,  vol.  iv.,  a  paper  on 
the  bats  of  Germany,  in  which  several  species  were  described  for 
the  first  time  by  himself.  After  Leisler's  death,  which  hap- 
pened on  the  18th  November  1813,  he  undertook  the  charge  of 
the  zoological  department  of  the  institution  mentioned  above,  for 
the  sale  and  exchange  of  natural  curiosities.  Nor  were  his 
scientific  pursuits  interrupted  by  the  accession  of  these  new  la- 


V  ■ 

Biographical  Memoir  of  the  late  Henry  KuliL  S 

bours;  for  although  he  managed  nearly  the  whole  business 
himself,  he  so  assiduously  cultivated  them  as  to  be  taken  notice 
of  by  the  most  illustrious  naturalists  of  our  time. 

After  having  undergone  the  usual  preparatory  exercises  in 
the  Latin  school  of  Hanau,  he  determined  to  proceed  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Heidelberg,  with  the  design  of  devoting  his  whole 
life  to  the  study  of  natural  history,  and  the  resolution  of  pa- 
tiently submitting  to  ail  the  inconveniences  which,  from  the 
want  of  sufficient  pecuniary  resources,  he  foresaw  could  not  be 
avoided,  in  the  pursuit  of  this  science.  On  this  occasion  he 
writes  in  the  following  manner  to  his  friend  Bojes :  "  What  li- 
terary profession  I  shall  follow,  I  do  not  know.  This  I  know, 
however,  that,  without  the  study  of  natural  history,  I  cannot 
live.  I  therefore  wish,  with  all  my  heart,  that  whatever  situa- 
tion I  may  have  in  future,  it  may  leave  for  me  a  few  by-hours, 
in  which  I  may  indulge  in  those  investigations  which  are  of  all 
others  the  most  agreeable  to  me.  I  do  not  seem  to  have  been 
born  for  the  study  of  law,  which  some  recommend  to  me  to  fol- 
low ;  and  so  I  imagine  my  best  plan  will  be  to  study  medicine. 
But  I  should  gladly  renounce  this  also,  the  moment  an  oppor- 
tunity might  occur,  that  I  might  give  myself  wholly  up  to  na- 
tiu-al  history.  But  if  this  do  not  happen,  I  shall  accommodate 
myself  to  circumstances,  and  study  medicine,  for  physicians  are 
required  all  the  world  over ;  and  when  my  studies  are  finished, 
I  shall  endeavour,  if  possible,  to  get  out  to  America,  or  where- 
ever  fortune  may  lead." 

He,  therefore,  in  the  month  of  September  1816,  had  made 
up  his  mind  to  go  to  Heidelberg,  when  Theodore  Van  Swin- 
deren,  one  of  the  Groningen  professors,  becoming  acquainted 
with  him,  prevailed  upon  him  to  follow  him  to  Groningen. 
This  arrangement  was  fortunate  for  Kiihl ;  for  although  his  ge- 
nius and  assiduity  would  have  led  him  to  eminence,  indepen- 
dently of  Swinderen,  yet  this  object  could  only  have  been  at- 
tained by  a  longer  way,  and  after  much  time.  For  with  what 
difficulties  would  he  have  had  to  struggle,  and  how  many  sour- 
ces which  Holland  disclosed  would  have  been  lost  to  him  ?  But 
here,  under  an  entirely  different  sky, — in  the  midst  of  other 
plants  and  other  animals, — in   the  vicinity  of  the  sea,  which  he 

A  2 


4  Biographkal  Memoir  of  the  late  Henry  KiiM. 

had  long  wished  to  behold,  and  access  furnished  to  the  rich  col- 
lections of  Holland, — he  daily  saw  new  objects  to  excite  afresh 
his  thirst  after  knowledge.  In  short,  he  there  found  opportu- 
nities of  improvement  which  few  other  places  could  better  afford. 
Difficulties,  however,  occurred,  which  presented  obstacles  to 
his  departure  for  Holland ;  but  these  were  removed  by  the  kind- 
ness of  Swinderen,  who  felt  much  interested  in  him,  and,  more- 
over, was  influenced  by  the  hope  that  he  would  prove  an  ho- 
nour to  the  university  of  which  he  himself  was  a  member.  At 
the  end  of  September  1816,  Kuhl  arrived  at  Groningen,  and 
from  this  time  they  pursued  their  studies  together.  It  happened 
that  Swinderen  liad  then  commenced  his  lectures  on  Natural  His- 
tory, which  being  on  a  larger  scale,  usually  occupied  four  years 
in  continuance,  whereas  his  ordinary  lectures  were  finished  within 
a  year.  Klihl,  therefore,  was  admitted  into  the  number  of  his 
hearers ;  nor  was  he  merely  a  hearer,  but  also  an  assistant. 
This  year,  although  he  attended  De  la  Faille  and  Bakker  on  na- 
tural philosophy  and  anatomy,  he  was  chiefly  occupied  in  the 
study  of  natural  history,  confining  himself  to  the  mammaha, 
and  making  choice  of  a  more  precise  method  in  treating  these  dif- 
ferent subjects,  than  is  usually  followed.  With  regard  to  Swin- 
deren's  lectures  on  quadrupeds,  this  is  sufficiently  attested  by 
his  prize  essay,  in  which  he  very  ingeniously  explained  the  gra- 
dual manner  in  which  the  animals  of  this  class  pass  into  each 
other.  There  needs  be  little  wonder,  then,  if  he  gained  the 
gold  medal. 

Previous  to  1816,  the  year  in  which  he  came  to  Groningen, 
the  zoological  knowledge  which  he  had  acquired,  included  only 
indigenous  animals,  as  he  had  seen  but  very  few  exotic  ones. 
On  this  account,  however  accurately  he  knew  indigenous  ani- 
mals, and  their  mode  of  living,  he  yet  wanted  some  general  pro- 
spectus, without  which  there  can  be  no  order  in  the  study.  He, 
therefore,  first  of  all  read  Illiger's  Prodromus,  which  Swinderen 
followed  in  his  lectures  on  quadrupeds  and  birds.  But  he  did 
not  confine  himself  to  merely  reading  it,  but  at  the  same  time 
diligently  compared  each  description  with  the  object  itself  in  the 
museum.  In  this  manner,  during  the  first  period  of  his  resi- 
dence here,  he  passed  five  days  of  the  week  ;  but  on  Saturday 
he  made  an  excursion  to  this  or  that  village  along  the  coast,  in 


x 

Biographical  Memoir  of  the  late  Henry  KiihL  5 

order  to  collect  fishes  or  birds.  On  the  winter  holidays  of  this 
year  he  made  journeys  to  Amsterdam,  Harlem,  and  Ley  den,  in 
wliich  he  visited  Temminck,  as  well  as  the  elder  Voigtius,  who 
sold  him  many  natural  objects,  among  which  were  several  that 
he  had  never  seen  before.  He  also  met  with  other  learned  men, 
such  as  Brugmans,  the  Leyden  professor.  Van  Marum,  a  medi- 
cal practitioner  at  Harlem,  and  others.  He  also  stayed  several 
days  in  the  town  of  Lisste,  with  Temminck,  in  order  to  collect 
the  animals  of  that  district,  and  dissect  them. 

During  the  Whitsuntide  vacation,  he  made  an  excursion  to 
the  island  of  Rottus,  where  he  not  only  obtained  many  natural 
objects,  but  also  made  an  agreement  with  the  keeper  of  the  island, 
that  he  should  transmit  to  him  whatever  might  chance  to  be  cast 
ashore  upon  it.  The  consequence  of  these  journeys  was  an  a- 
bundant  supply  to  almost  all  the  collections  in  Germany  of  seals 
and  rare  marine  birds. 

When  he  had  returned  home  during  the  summer  vacation  of 
1817,  he  acquired  a  knowledge  of  many  expensive  works  in  the 
library  of  the  Society  of  Wetterau,  and,  during  the  same  vaca- 
tion, he  made  a  trip  from  Hanau  to  Heidelberg,  where  he  met 
with  Tiedemann,  a  very  accomplished  and  learned  man,  who  fa- 
voured him  with  useful  advice  regarding  his  studies,  and  pre- 
sented him  with  some  of  his  celebrated  works.  By  this  time  he 
had  acquired  so  eminent  a  name  in  his  own  country,  that  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Natural  History  Society  at  Marburg,  as 
well  as  of  that  which  has  been  instituted  at  Hanau,  under  the 
name  of  the  Wetterau  Society,  for  promoting  the  study  of  every 
department  of  Natural  History.  And,  in  the  end  of  the  follow- 
ing year,  on  the  20th  December  1818,  he  was  made  a  member 
of  the  Academia  Caesarea  Leopoldino-Carolinse,  under  the  name 
of  Johnson. 

On  the  12th  August  he  passed  the  Rhine,  accompanied  with  a 
large  party,  in  which  were  Leonhard  and  his  family,  and  return- 
ed to  Groningen,  by  Newied,  Duisburg,  Utrecht,  Leyden  and 
Amsterdam.  At  Newied  he  was  introduced  to  Prince  Maximi- 
lian, lately  returned  from  his  journey  through  Brazil,  who  re- 
ceived him  very  graciously.  In  the  same  manner  he  was  re- 
ceived at  Utrecht  by  Professor  Freimer.  Passing  through  Ley- 
den he  so  gained  upon  the  regard  of  Brugmans,  that  after  he^ 


6  Biographical  Memoir  of  the  late  Henry  Kiihl. 

had  taken  him  through  the  public  museum,  and  shewn  him  the 
collection  of  natural  objects  which  he  possessed,  as  well  as  his 
splendid  library,  he  frankly  offered  him  twice  the  salary  which  he 
had  at  Groningen,  if  he  would  remain  at  Leyden.  What  an  in- 
ducement to  a  young  man,  inflamed  with  the  desire  of  know- 
ledge !  The  double  salary  was  less  an  object  of  importance  with 
him ;  but  how  great  the  difference  between  the  Leyden  museum 
and  that  at  Groningen,  between  the  Leyden  apparatus  and 
that  which  the  Groningen  University  at  that  time  possessed  !  be- 
tween Brugman's  library  and  the  one  at  Groningen  !  How  great 
the  conflict  between  the  love  of  knowledge,  and  the  desire  of  dis- 
charging his  duty  !  But  duty  prevailed  :  "  I  am  too  much  bound 
to  Swinderen,"  he  replied,  "  to  remain  with  any  other  than  him, 
during  my  stay  in  Holland."  So,  in  the  beginning  of  September, 
he  returned  to  Swinderen,  like  a  new  gift.  He  received  a  gold 
medal  from  the  faculty  of  Groningen  as  the  reward  of  his  indus- 
try, and  was  admitted  by  the  Physical  and  Chemical  Society  in- 
to the  number  of  its  members. 

In  the  second  year  which  he  spent  at  Groningen,  he  attended 
the  lectures  of  Driessen  on  Chemistry  and  Botany  ;  of  Bakker 
and  Wilkens  on  vegetable  and  human  anatomy  and  physiology ; 
of  Swinderen  on  the  Natural  History  of  Birds,  and  in  this  de- 
partment, of  which  he  was  particularly  fond,  and  which  he  had 
already  assiduously  cultivated,  he  was  frequently  not  merely  a 
hearer,  but  also  an  assistant,  as  Swinderen  himself  testifies.  Be- 
sides, he  turned  his  attention  to  the  history  of  exotic  plants 
and  animals,  as  well  as  to  comparative  anatomy  ;  while  at  the 
same  time  he  dissected  and  diligently  described  the  whole  of  the 
indigenous  birds  and  fishes,  and  defined  the  coloured  figures  of 
birds  published  by  Buffbn  *.  The  discoveries  which  he  made 
in  dissecting  the  various  kinds  of  animals,  were  afterwards  pu- 
bhshed  in  the  second  volume  of  "  Additamenta."" 

During  the  long  vacation  of  1818,  he  made  a  journey  on  foot 
through  Germany  with  his  friend  Van  Hasselt.  They  left  Gro- 
ningen on  the  last  of  June,  and  already  on  the  third  day  after 
their  departure  had  reached  Bremen,  thirty-six  hours'  journey 

•  Buffonii  et  Daubentonii  Figurarum  Avium  coloratarum  nomina  systematica, 
Groninga;,  1820. 


■Biographical  Memoir  of  the  lale  Henry  KM.  7 

distant  from  the  city  of  Groningen,  Avhere  they  were  kindly  re- 
ceived by  Albers,  Treviranus  and  IMertens.  In  the  museum  of 
this  city,  there  was  a  remarkably  good  zoological  collection,  and 
Aibers''s  private  cabinet  was  well  stored^  particularly  in  compa- 
rative anatomy.  Kiihl  took  notes  of  every  thing  that  he  saw. 
From  Bremen  they  went  to  Brunswick  by  Cella,  and  there  they 
visited  the  Duke's  collection,  which  is  very  rich  in  preparations 
of  amphibia,  both  anatomical  and  osteological,  while  it  is  at  the 
same  time  well  supplied  with  birds.  From  thence  they  set  out 
without  delay  for  Berlin,  where  they  arrived  on  the  2d  or  3d 
of  July. 

Immediately  after  their  arrival,  they  visited  Lichtenstein, 
whom,  having  known  two  years  before,  they  found  a  very  ac- 
complished man,  as  well  as  a  very  learned  zoologist.  "  He 
treated  us,"  says  Kiihl,  in  a  letter  to  Swinderen,  "  as  if  we  had 
been  his  own  children ;  and  whenever  we  visited  the  Royal  Mu- 
seum, or  Lichtenstein's  own  library,  we  commonly  supped  at 
his  house.'''' 

In  this  manner  they  spent  some  weeks  in  Berlin,  applying  to 
their  studies  with  the  utmost  diligence ;  and  the  last  days  of 
their  stay  were  further  improved  to  them  by  the  arrival  of  the 
celebrated  Temminck.  From  thence  they  proceeded  to  Halle, 
where  they  met  Professor  Nitzsch,  and  other  naturalists ;  to 
Leipsig,  Dresden,  and  into  German  Switzerland,  and,  lastly,  to 
Jena,  being  every  where  received  in  a  friendly  manner. 

Kiihl  also  paid  a  visit  to  Naumann  upon  this  journey,  and 
the  respect  which  he  had  before  entertained  for  this  celebrated 
ornithologist,  was  by  no  means  diminished  by  his  personal  ac- 
quaintance with  him.  As  the  time  allotted  for  their  excursion 
was  now  drawing  to  an  end,  they  spent  the  remainder  of  the 
vacation  in  the  house  of  Kiihrs  father,  making  a  short  journey 
to  Heidelberg,  where  Tiedemann  gave  them  very  useful  advice, 
with  regard  to  the  manner  in  which  comparative  anatomy  should 
be  treated. 

From  thence  they  returned  to  Groningen,  on  the  21st  of  Sep- 
tember. In  this  year  Swinderen  read  his  fuller  lectures  on  the 
cold-blooded  animals,  and  the  three  great  divisions  of  the  inver- 
tebrata,  in  which  he  very  ingenuously  confesses  that  he  was  not 
less  studiously   assisted    by    Kiihl   in  respect  to  mental  than 


8  Biographical  Memoir  of'  the  late  Henry  Kilhl. 

in  manual  labour.  As  an  example  of  his  industry  and  profi- 
ciency in  this  department,  we  may  mention  that  he  described 
the  Kobelian  Collection  of  Insects,  which  was  purchased  at  this 
time,  in  such  a  manner  as  few  collections  in  Europe  have  been 
described. 

It  is  also  due  to  him  to  state,  that  he  gave  excellent  defini- 
tions of  most  of  the  amphibia  depicted  in  Seba^s  Thesaurus,  by 
which  means  Swinderen's  copy  is  rendered  of  the  greatest  va- 
lue ;  and  Swinderen  further  states,  that,  at  the  request  of  seve- 
ral of  the  most  eminent  naturalists,  he  described  many  things 
relating  to  this  explanation  of  Seba"'s  plates,  and  transmitted 
them  to  them ;  and  it  would  be  of  advantage  to  science,  as  well 
as  creditable  to  our  author,  that  this  work  were  published,  since 
the  Index  to  BufFon  and  Daubenton  is  already  before  the  pub- 
lic. But  it  is  a  matter  of  much  regret,  that  Kiihl  never  com- 
pleted the  plan  which  he  had  entered  upon,  of  defining  the  whole 
of  Seba's  work ;  from  doing  which,  as  well  as  from  composing 
many  other  excellent  works,  he  was  prevented  by  his  journey 
to  India,  and  ultimately  by  his  premature  and  much  lamented 
death. 

We  have  thus  come  to  another  and  very  important  period  of 
his  Hfe,  to  the  time  when  he  prepared  for  his  journey  to  India ; 
which  happened  in  the  following  manner. 

Having  gone,  in  his  accustomed  manner,  during  the  short  va- 
cation of  the  Christmas  season,  to  Holland,  in  order  to  inspect 
the  specimens  of  objects,  with  which  he  was  only  acquainted  by 
means  of  descriptions,  on  account  of  the  limited  nature  of  the 
collections  at  home,  he  betook  himself  to  Temminck,  at  Amster- 
dam, with  the  view  of  defining,  along  with  him,  the  collection 
of  fishes  which  he  had  either  brought  home  himself  in  the  pre- 
ceding summer,  or  had  received,  from  the  Mediterranean.  And 
being  requested  by  this  celebrated  naturalist  to  undertake  along 
with  him  the  description  of  his  splendid  ornithological  collection, 
he  undertook  a  selection  of  the  Index  published  by  Latham,  as 
a  prodromus  of  his  General  Synopsis  of  Ornithology,  a  work  of 
much  labour ;  by  which  Kiihl,  with  the  guidance  of  Temminck, 
and  the  use  of  his  admirable  library,  indeed  made  remarkable 
progress  in  the  knowledge  of  exotic  species,  but  which,  being 
deficient  in  the  lately  discovered  species,  has  yielded  to  the 


Biographical  Memoir  of  the  late  Henry  Kiiht  9 

Planches  cohreeSy  which  are  now  published  by  Temminck  and 
Laugier. 

While  Kiihl  was  thus  occupied  at  Amsterdam,  Swinderen 
received  a  letter  at  Groningen,  by  which  intimation  was  given 
of  his  being  appointed  to  undertake  a  journey  at  the  public  ex- 
pence.  A  letter  was  also  transmitted  to  Kiihl  himself,  by  the 
King's  minister  and  counsellor  for  public  institutions  of  teach- 
ing works  of  art,  and  the  colonies,  to  the  following  effect: 
That  his  Majesty,  from  what  had  been  reported  to  him  of  his 
knowledge  in  the  various  departments  of  natural  history,  his 
love  of  science,  and  the  ardent  desire  which  he  possessed  for  the 
extension  of  knowledge,  had  selected  him,  as  a  young  man,  who 
might  be  sent  with  advantage  to  one  or  more  of  the  colonies  be- 
longing to  the  state,  in  order  to  lay  before  the  learned  of  his 
own  country,  and  of  Europe  in  general,  the  still  hidden  treasures 
which  nature  had  so  largely  bestowed  upon  them. 

Nearly  at  the  same  time,  the  minister,  thinking  it  absolutely 
necessary,  in  order  to  insure  the  success  of  the  undertaking,  that 
Kiihl,  before  setting  out,  should  be  well  acquainted  with  the 
full  progress  which  science  has  made  in  Europe,  persuaded  the 
king  to  order  him  to  proceed  to  London  and  Paris,  at  the  pub- 
lic expence.  This  intelligence  produced  the  most  lively  emo- 
tions in  the  mind  of  Kiihl,  and,  in  a  letter  to  Swinderen  on  this 
occasion,  he  writes  as  follows : — "  I  was  so  agitated  by  the  mes- 
sage, that  I  did  not  know  what  to  do  for  joy.  Much,  indeed, 
am  I  indebted  to  you  and  Temminck,  nor  shall  I  ever  forget 
the  many  good  offices  which  you  have  performed  to  me.  It  was 
always,  indeed,  my  firm  resolution  to  devote  myself  entirely  to 
science,  but  with  how  many  impediments  should  I  have  had  to 
struggle,  had  I  not  been  so  fortunate  as  to  become  acquainted 
with  you.  My  residence  at  Groningen  was  among  the  most 
agreeable  periods  of  my  life,  and  will  always  remain  so ;  nor 
shall  I  ever  forget  the  happy  days  in  which  I  there  commenced 
my  studies." 

On  the  3d  of  April,  he  set  out,  accompanied  by  Temminck 
and  Lichtenstein,  for  London,  where  he  was  kindly  received  by 
all  the  learned.  Almost  all  of  them  presented  him  with  speci- 
mens, or'  at  least  gave  him  free  access  to  their  collections,  that 


10  Biographical  Memoir  of  the  late  Henry  Kuhl. 

he  might  have  an  opportunity  of  drawing  or  describing  what- 
ever he  deemed  of  importance.  He  there  entered  minutely  into 
the  study  of  the  mammalia,  birds  and  amphibia  of  New  Holland, 
the  description  of  the  natural  history  of  which,  having  already 
collected  much  with  regard  to  it  at  Berlin  and  Amsterdam,  he 
had  in  view  to  finish  the  following  winter  at  Paris.  He  found 
a  great  abundance  of  these  animals  in  London,  as  the  Linnean 
Society  was  in  possession  of  a  very  extensive  collection  from 
New  Holland,  which  had  not  previously  been  described.  In  the 
course  of  a  few  days  he  described  and  arranged  200  of  these 
animals.  He  also  found  much  useful  matter  for  his  mono- 
graphs on  the  genera  Falco  and  Psittacus  (the  former  of  which, 
however,  has  not  been  published) ;  and  acquired  a  knowledge 
of  all  the  objects  which  had  been  brought  home  by  the  last  po- 
lar expedition. — The  Banksian  Library,  which  contains  an  im- 
mense collection  of  books  on  natural  history,  being  open  to  all 
who  profess  that  science,  was  visited  by  him  between  the  hours 
of  ten  and  four ;  and,  among  the  sketches  made  by  Forster  and 
Sir  Joseph  Banks  himself,  he  found  many  things  of  great  im- 
portance. In  this  library  he  also  began  the  compilation  of  an 
Indian  Fauna,  which  he  intended  to  make  use  of  in  the  colonies 
w^hich  he  was  about  to  visit. — Access  being  given  him  to  Bul- 
lock's Museum,  which  was  then  proposed  for  sale,  from  ten  to 
five,  he  attended  during  these  hours,  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of 
the  specimens  in  that  great  collection,  and  describe  and  name 
what  was  new.  With  regard  to  mammalia,  this  museum  pos- 
sessed few  that  were  not  previously  known ;  but  of  birds  he  de- 
scribed upwards  of  100  new  species,  and  corrected  the  descrip- 
tions of  a  great  many  more. — He  experienced  much  kindness 
from  Mr  Ay  ton,  the  manager  of  the  botanical  garden  of  Kew ; 
and  also  met  with  DecandoUe,  who  was  then  consulting  the  her- 
baria of  Smith  and  Brown  for  his  great  work.  In  the  Banksian 
Museum  he  became  acquainted  with  a  gentleman,  who  having 
commanded  the  British  army  in  America,  had  there  collected  a 
great  store  of  zoological  subjects ;  and  this  acquaintance  turned 
out  of  much  importance  to  him  with  regard  to  the  object  of  his 
journey,  for  this  gentleman  was  enabled,  from  his  own  experi- 
ence, to  furnish  our  traveller  with  circumstantial  directions  in 


Biographical  Memoir  of'  the  late  Henry  Kiihl.  11 

respect  to  the  mode  of  travelling  in  hot  countries,  and  was  of 
much  assistance  to  him  in  procuring  the  articles  necessary  for 
his  journey. 

Before  leaving  England,  Kuhl  made  an  excursion,  along  with 
Laugier  and  a  Breslau  student,  through  the  south  of  England, 
visiting  Oxford,  Windsor,  Bath,  Bristol,  Severn,  Southampton, 
the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  Plymouth.  Wherever  he  came  to  the 
sea,  he  collected  natural  objects ;  and  many  beautiful  shells,  both 
terrestrial  and  aquatic,  were  given  by  him  to  the  Groningen 
Museum,  as  a  memorial  of  his  journey. 

During  the  short  time  which  he  spent  in  Holland,  an  ho- 
nour was  conferred  upon  him  which  is  seldom  given  to  stu- 
dents, he  having  been  promoted  to  the  degree  of  Master  of  Phi- 
losophy and  Doctor  of  Natural  History,  on  the  6lh  August ;  as 
an  acknowledgment  for  which,  he  presented  to  the  Museum  of 
the  University  four  new  genera  of  birds  of  the  rarest  kind,  Po- 
zoporus,  Melliphaga,  Menura  and  Aptenodytes. 

In  the  beginning  of  September,  accompanied  with  his  friend 
Cremersius,  whose  loss  we  have  now  also  to  deplore,  and  with 
Van  Hasselt,  he  returned  by  Brussels,  Naumur,  (where  he 
met  with  Professor  Galdius),  Aix-la-Chapelle  and  Newied, 
(where  he  consulted  Prince  Maximilian  with  regard  to  his  in- 
tended journey)  to  Hanau,  where  he  remained  with  his  father 
for  some  time,  while  his  friends  Cremersius  and  Van  Hasselt 
made  an  excursion  through  Switzerland. 

In  the  beginning  of  November  he  left  his  father  and  went  to 
Strasburg,  in  order  to  meet  his  friends  tliere  according  to  pro- 
mise, and  continue  his  journey  with  them  to  Paris.  The  end 
which  he  had  in  view,  in  undertaking  this  journey,  was  to  study 
the  invertebrate  animals  a  second  time,  under  the  direction  of 
Cuvier  and  Lamarck ;  to  examine  the  herbarium  made  a  short 
time  before  in  Java  by  Leschenault,  and  hitherto  known  to  few ; 
but,  above  all,  by  making  use  of  the  rich  collection  of  amphibia 
in  Paris,  to  bring  more  quickly  to  a  conclusion  the  system  of 
amphibia  which  he  had  been  busied  in  for  two  years  back. 

Besides,  as  he  had  seen  all  the  collections  in  Berlin  and  Lon- 
don, he  was  anxious  to  inspect  those  which  yet  remained  in 
abundance  in  Paris.  For  which  piu*pose,  Kiihl  and  Van  Has- 
selt having  taken  lodgings  near  the  museum  of  Natural  History, 


'12  Biographical  Memoir  of  the  late  Henry  Kiihl. 

spent  almost  the  whole  da}  there,  in  examining  all  the  genera 
of  invertebrate  animals  which  they  found.  At  the  same  time, 
they  read  in  the  evenings  at  home  the  works  of  Cuvier  and  Sa- 
vigny,  on  the  anatomy  of  these  animals,  and  received  various  ob- 
jects for  examination  from  the  former ;  and,  besides,  Kiihl  oc- 
cupied those  hours  in  which  Van  Hasselt  and  Cremersius  at- 
tended the  medical  lectures  and  hospital,  chiefly  in  collecting 
materials  for  his  work  on  amphibia,  birds,  and  other  animals. 

The  distinguished  Cuvier  also,  had  a  literary  party  on  the 
Saturday  evenings,  to  which  all  the  learned  men  residing  in 
Paris  were  usually  invited,  and  Kiihl  and  Van  Hasselt  were 
constantly  invited  to  attend.  These  were  also  allowed  free  ac- 
cess to  Cuvier's  library,  and  were  permitted  to  work  in  the  same 
apartment  with  him  ;  while  orders  were  at  the  same  time  given 
to  the  different  keepers  of  the  museum,  to  open  all  the  cases  to 
them  when  required. 

But,  without  doubt,  among  so  many  illustrious  men,  he  was 
most  disposed  to  pay  the  tribute  of  admiration  and  esteem  to  the 
celebrated  Humboldt,  a  man  equally  noted  for  his  benevolence, 
learning  and  prudence.  Humboldt  procured  for  Kiihl  and  his 
friend  free  access  to  the  Royal  Institute,  by  which  they  were  al- 
lowed to  attend  the  sittings  and  make  use  of  the  library ;  be- 
sides, he  very  kindly  offered  Kiihl  the  use  of  his  own  libraty, 
and  did  not  think  him  unworthy  of  being  admitted  among  the 
number  of  his  particular  friends.  During  his  residence  at  Paris, 
Kiihl  completed  his  monograph  on  the  genus  Psittacus,  which 
was  printed  in  the  tenth  volume  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Leo- 
poldine  Society. 

Leaving  Paris  on  the  26th  February  1820,  he  returned  straight 
to  Hanau,  where  he  laboured  with  indefatigable  diligence  in  cor- 
recting his  manuscripts,  so  as  to  be  able,  soon  after,  to  send  to  the 
press,  his  first  volume  of  "  Additamenta  ad  Zoologiam  et  Ana- 
tomiam  Comparatami"  After  reducing  all  these  to  order,  he 
took  leave  of  his  father  and  family,  and  proceeded  to  Amster- 
dam, in  order  to  make  preparations  for  his  journey ;  this  done, 
he  went  to  Groningen  for  the  last  time,  and  after  staying  there 
one  day,  bade  adieu  to  his  friends.  On  the  10th  July  1820, 
the  ship  in  which  he  embarked,  commanded  by  Breukcmeyer, 
sailed  from  the  Texel. 


Biographical  Memoir  of' the  late  Henry  Kiihl.  1^ 

When  ill  the  Channel,  they  examined  various  species  of 
flexile  polypi,  and  dissected  different  fishes  which  do  not  oc- 
cur on  the  coasts  of  Holland.  They  noticed  a  new  genus  of 
the  family  of  corallines,  and  found  abundant  matter  for  inves- 
tigation in  the  numerous  species  of  flustrae  and  fuci  which  oc- 
curred. Among  other  remarkable  fishes  they  dissected  the  fol- 
lowing: Scomber  Scomber,  Conger  Conger,  and  Raja  oxy- 
ryncha.  In  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  the  weather  was  so  bad  that 
they  could  not  collect  any  thing.  In  the  Spanish  sea  they 
caught  the  first  Salpae,  and  among  them  several  new  species,  as 
well  as  a  genus  allied  to  these,  to  which  they  gave  the  name  of 
Selenosoma. 

On  the  18th  July  they  anchored  at  Madeira;  and,  although 
five  days  only  were  allowed  for  their  stay  on  this  island,  they 
examined  much  of  its  natural  history.  They  were  kindly  re- 
ceived by  the  English  Governor,  and,  with  his  advice  and  assist- 
ance, were  enabled  not  only  to  examine  the  shores,  but  also  to 
penetrate  into  the  interior  of  the  country.  This  gentleman, 
whom  KUhl  happened  to  meet  on  his  journey,  being  informed  of 
the  object  of  their  voyage,  requested  him  and  his  companions  to 
come  that  same  day  to  his  seat,  two  miles  and  a-half  distant  from 
the  town,  and  high  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Having  rested 
here  for  some  hours,  they  took  their  departure,  and  ascended 
the  mountain  named  Pico  Rtifo,  and  found  its  height  according 
to  Hasselt's  measurement  to  be  2500  feet.  They  collected  a 
great  many  plants  in  these  five  days,  the  number  of  which  they 
have  stated  at  224,  although  this  district  is  not  by  any  means 
considered  as  fertile  in  vegetable  productions.  They  also  in- 
quired into  the  distribution  of  the  plants  at  different  altitudes, 
and  looked  after  the  geological  structure  of  the  island.  In  the 
animal  kingdom,  the  principal  productions  that  occurred  were 
insects ;  for  this  country  is  very  deficient  in  animals  of  the 
higher  orders.  They  found  no  mammalia,  but  Kiihl  discovered 
a  new  species  of  bird,  nearly  allied  to  Fringilla  coelebs.  Be- 
sides, they  found  a  great  number  of  amphibia,  but  all  belonging 
to  two  species  of  lizards,  as  well  as  many  fishes,  but  all  of  six  ge- 
nera ;  nor  did  they  meet  with  any  fresh-water  fishes. 

Leaving  Madeira  on  the  3d  August  1820,  they  entered  the 
tropical  seas,  where  so  many  objects  often  occurred  in  a  single 


14  Biographical  Memoir  of  the  late  Henry  Kilhl, 

day,  that  they  were  overwhehiied  by  their  multiplicity.  There 
occurred  in  particular  a  vast  multitude  of  remarkable  and 
partly  new  niollusca,  echinodermata,  and  entozoa;  and  there 
they  made  many  important  observations,  with  regard  to  the 
conformation  of  various  fishes,  mollusca,  and  radiaria. 

On  the  9th  of  October  they  made  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
and  tarrying  there  twelve  da3^s,  explored  the  mountains  or  shores 
from  the  first  dawn  to  late  in  the  evening.  They  carried  with 
them  the  ^  skins  of  various  birds  prepared  for  stufiing,  and  also 
presei-ved  a  great  number  entire  for  the  purpose  of  making 
skeletons.  They  also  prepared  skeletons  of  the  Viverra  genetta 
and  Chrysochloris  capensis.  Besides,  they  collected  amphibia, 
fishes,  molhisca,  Crustacea,  radiaria,  and  many  species  of  fuci, 
in  Table  Bay  and  Hout  Bay.  The  number  of  plants  which 
they  collected  at  the  Cape,  they  had  not  determined  at  their 
departure,  but  they  mentioned  it  as  being  very  great,  they 
having  come  there  in  the  proper  season.  They  also  prepared 
some  bundles  of  bulbous  roots,  and  the  seeds  of  about  200  spe- 
cies, for  the  Botanical  Garden  at  Batavia.  But  what  is  par- 
ticularly worthy  of  remark  is,  that  they  examined  with  great 
care  the  structure  and  stratification  of  Table  Mountain,  and 
the  other  hills  which  surround  Table  Bay  and  Hout  Bay,  con- 
cerning which  very  erroneous  ideas  had  been  entertained. 

The  Great  Indian  Ocean,  not  less  than  the  Atlantic,  furnish- 
ed them  with  ample  opportunities  of  scrutinizing  animals  hither- 
to but  imperfectly  known.  They  discovered  several  genera  of 
the  family  of  naked  mollusca,  annularia,  and  tunicata  of  La- 
marck. Bad  weather  at  length  forced  them  upon  the  Cocoa 
Islands,  toward  the  south  of  Sumatra, — a  group,  according  to 
their  account,  entirely  composed  of  madrepores,  and  perfectly 
similar  to  those  flat  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  whose  origin 
has  also  by  Forster  been  attributed  to  madrepores. 

On  account  of  the  multitude  of  sharp  coral  rocks,  access  can 
only  be  had  to  the  bay  of  these  islands  in  fine  weather,  and 
with  very  small  vessels.  Their  origin  from  corals  shooting  up 
from  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  is  plainly  demonstrated  by  their 
want  of  mammalia,  amphibia,  and  land-birds,  and  the  scantiness 
of  their  flora,  which  was  found  to  consist  of  only  four  species, 
a  new  grass,  an  urtica,   the  cocoa-nut-tree  {Cocos  mtcjfera),  a 


Biographical  Memoir  of  the  late  Henry  Kiihl.  15 

wood  of  which  covers  the  interior  of  the  island,  and  the  Tourne^ 
fortia  argentea,  which  margins  the  cocoa-wood,  with  its  dark 
green  foHage.  Innumerable  bands  of  aquatic  birds  inhabit 
these  desert  shores,  and  so  fearless  were  they,  that  many  of 
them  were  caught  by  the  hands,  or  killed  with  sticks.  Amid  all 
this  profusion,  however,  there  were  but  very  few  different  spe- 
cies. 

They  first  landed  in  Java  at  the  Promontory  of  Banta,  and 
after  being  a  short  time  on  shore,  returned  to  their  ships,  load- 
ed with  corals  and  moUusca.  The  labours  and  inconveniences 
of  their  voyage  were  amply  compensated  by  the  kindness  with 
which  they  were  received,  and  the  liberality  with  which  they 
were  treated,  by  his  Excellency  the  Governor  of  the  Island. 
He  permitted  them  to  live  at  Buitenzorg,  in  order  to  become 
more  readily  accustomed  to  an  Indian  chmate,  from  the  salu- 
brity of  the  air  in  that  place.  The  first  four  months  they  pas- 
sed near  Buitenzorg  without  interruption  ;  for  since  they  daily 
found  an  abundant  supply  of  new  objects  for  investigation,  it 
would  have  been  useless  to  extend  their  excursions,  and  seek  at 
a  distance  what  they  could  obtain  at  hand.  Not  a  day  passed 
without  their  naming,  describing,  and  drawing  some  new  spe- 
cies or  genera,  or  even  orders.  In  this  manner  they  prepared 
a  Conspectus  of  the  Flora  and  Fauna  of  Java,  taking  care  not 
to  waste  their  time  in  delineating  what  had  already  been  de- 
scribed by  Reinwardts.  On  which  account  they  made  out  an 
index  of  all  the  drawings  which  he  had  made,  inspected  his 
Herbarium,  and  received  many  of  the  names  which  he  had  im- 
posed. In  the  course  of  these  four  months  which  they  occu- 
pied in  collecting  natural  objects,  they  had  done  so  much,  that, 
by  the  10th  of  August,  they  were  able  to  write  home  to  the  mi- 
nister, "  that  their  labours  regarding  some  of  the  objects  of  in- 
vestigation in  this  country  were  now  finished,  and  that  among 
these  might  be  enumerated  the  Cheiroptera,  Ophidia,  Sauria, 
Birds,  Fishes,  and  MoUusca."  At  this  time  they  were  of  opi- 
nion, that,  with  regard  to  the  Buitenzorg  Fauna,  they  were  as 
well  acquainted  with  the  animals  of  this  district,  as  with  those 
of  any  country  in  Europe.  Having  made  this  foundation,  they 
proposed  making  a  journey  to  Banta,  a  less  known  part  of  the 
island,  when  the  cholera  made  its  appearance,  and  frustrated 


16  Biograjihical  Memoir  of  the  late  Henry  Kuhl. 

this  design.  On  which  account  they  set  about  occupying  the 
following  months  in  ascending  the  neighbouring  niovmtains,  espe- 
cially the  sinnmit  of  the  mountain  Salak,  4550  feet  in  height, 
situated  above  Buitenzorg  towards  the  east,  one  of  whose  sum- 
mits had  already  been  ascended  by  Reinwardt,  although  a  high- 
er one  toward  the  west  had  been  left  by  him,  and  had  conse- 
quently been  hitherto  unattained.  They  then  came  upon  a 
continuous  ridge  of  mountains,  extending  northwards  toward 
the  sea-shore,  and  among  others  ascended  the  ridge  of  Munar. 
After  this  they  visited  the  three  hot  saline  springs,  situated  be- 
tween the  villages  of  Rompin  and  Waru  (which  are  not  marked 
in  our  common  maps),  arising  from  these  calcareous  hills,  which 
seem  to  have  been  themselves  produced  by  the  deposition  of 
calcareous  matter  from  the  water, — a  process  which  is  still  daily 
taking  place.  An  entirely  different  vegetation  was  found  in 
the  vicinity  of  these  springs,  and  as  it  was  probable  no  person 
had  hitherto  examined  it,  they  were  highly  delighted  with  it. 
On  the  10th  August  they  returned  from  the  mountain  Pange- 
rang,  8580  feet  in  height,  forming  on  one  side  a  continuous 
ridge  with  the  mountain  Gede,  which  they  had  ascended  with 
much  labour.  These  summits,  together  with  that  of  Salak, 
situated  towards  the  east,  were  volcanic.  In  these  pretty  ele- 
vated and  cold  regions,  they  found  many  retreats  of  rhinoce- 
roses, and  the  paths  which  these  animals  had  made,  afforded 
them  considerable  facility  in  ascending  the  mountains.  So  great 
was  the  profusion  of  natural  productions  in  these  higher  regions, 
that,  notwithstanding  their  unremitted  attention  and  industry, 
they  could  not  manage  to  describe  the  whole.  Amidst  al- 
most insuperable  difficulties,  and  exhausted  with  labour,  they 
at  length  reached  the  summit.  But  after  they  had  got  to  their 
huts  in  the  evening,  a  violent  rain  came  on,  which  continued 
for  three  days,  and  as  nothing  could  resist  its  impetuosity,  they 
were  miserably  affected  by  the  cold,  and  this  the  more  espe- 
cially, as  they  had  been  by  this  time  familiarized  to  a  hot  cli- 
mate. 

For  the  first  fourteen  days,  however,  after  this  excursion, 
Kiihl  enjoyed  very  good  health,  on  which  account  they  sup- 
posed that  he  had  escaped  the  danger,  and  rather  rejoiced  that 
they  had  been  subjected  to  it,  as  they  imagined  the  worst  was 


Biographical  Memoir  of  the  late  Henry  Kuhl.  IfT 

^ast,  and  expected  to  be  safe  in  future  from  all  attacks  of  the 
climate.  But  soon  after  Kiihl  became  affected  by  a  disease 
which  resisted  all  treatment,  accompanied  by  inflammation  of 
liver  to  such  a  degree  that  his  life  was  in  danger.  He  saw  from 
-the  first  that  the  disease  would  prove  mortal,  but  he  waited  the 
approach  of  death  with  becoming  fortitude.  "  The  tranquillity 
of  mind  which  he  possessed  when  in  good  health,"  writes  Van 
Hasselt,  his  companion,  to  Swinderen,  "  instead  of  being  dimi- 
nished by  sickness,  was  rather  increased.  I  have  been  astonished 
at  the  calmness  with  which  he  spoke  of  his  approaching  death. 
He  even  gave  me  some  injunctions  about  things  which  he  wish- 
ed to  be  performed  before  he  died.  In  fact,  I  am  not  less  an 
admirer  of  him,  now  that  he  is  dead,  on  account  of  the  fortitude 
which  he  displayed,  than  I  was  his  friend  while  alive."  After 
having  laboured  four  weeks  under  his  disease,  he  died  on  the 
14th  of  September  1821,  not  yet  twenty-four  years  of  age. 

Kiihl  was  of  an  excellent  disposition,  and  the  most  refined  man- 
ners. He  was  quick  of  comprehension,  acute  in  discriminating, 
and  possessed  of  a  most  tenacious  memory, — qualities  of  the  ut- 
most importance  to  the  naturalist,  especially  as  the  compass  of 
science  is  now  so  extended,  that,  without  a  proper  arrangement 
of  ideas,  and  a  faithful  memory,  the  various  objects  cannot  fail 
to  be  confounded.  Nor  was  his  manual  dexterity  less  remark- 
able than  the  acuteness  of  his  intellect:  he  could  in  fact  do 
every  thing  with  his  hands  that  he  wished;  he  stuffed  the  skins 
of  animals,  dissected  them  with  great  neatness,  and  drew  not 
less  beautifully  than  accurately,  so  as  occasionally  to  supply  the 
place  of  a  painter,  on  the  voyage  undertaken  to  the  Island  of 
Java,  in  delineating  anatomical  subjects. 

'  To  these  qualities  Kiihl  added  the  greatest  industry.  With 
him  every  moment  of  time  was  employed  :  when  in  his  room  he 
was  either  reading  or  examining  natural  objects;  when  walking, 
or  upon  a  journey,  he  was  collecting  animals,  plants,  and  mine- 
rals, and  thinking  upon  their  qualities  and  properties.  He 
deemed  it  base  to  enjoy  repose  longer  than  was  necessary.  He 
often  sat  up  at  his  studies  till  midnight ;  and  when  Swinderen 
shewed  him  his  bed-room  on  his  arrival,  the  first  thipg-  he  did 
was  to^  see  whether  a  bell  might  be  hung  above  his  bed,  that  the 

APRIL JULY  1826.  B 


18  Biogi'aphkal  Memoir  of  the  late  Henry  Kukl. 

watch  might  waken  him  every  morning  at  four,  by  pulling  at 
the  door,  in  such  a  manner,  however,  as  not  to  disturb  the  rest 
of  the  family.  A  man  possessed  of  so  much  genius  and  assidui- 
ty could  not  therefore  fail  to  acquire  a  vast  stock  of  knowledge. 
Nor  was  his  knowledge  confined  to  natural  history  alone,  but 
also  extended  to  political  history,  both  ancient  and  modern. 
He  was  also  so  well  versed  in  geography  and  all  other  attain- 
ments requisite  in  a  well  educated  man,  that,  even  at  the  time 
when  he  came  to  Groningen,  the  most  accomplished  student,  on 
hearing  him  converse  on  general  subjects  of  literature,  acknow- 
ledged with  one  voice,  that,  in  the  course  of  their  studies,  they 
had  met  with  no  young  person  equal  to  him.  And  to  this  ge- 
nius and  this  industry  were  added  an  ardent  mind,  which 
prompted  him  to  great  undertakings,  a  constancy  which  sus- 
tained his  efforts,  and  a  devotion  to  science  which  made  him 
prefer  it  to  all  other  objects. 

It  has  already  been  observed,  that  natural  history  was  his  fa- 
vourite pursuit;  and  there  are  none  or  at  least  very  few  ex- 
amples, in  any  other  department  of  science,  in  which  so  much 
keen  investigation  is  displayed,  so  many  dangers  so  fearlessly 
confronted,  and  so  many  privations  borne  with  fortitude,  as  we 
see  evinced  in  the  character  and  conduct  of  the  disciples  of  na- 
ture. 

All  these  essential  good  qualities  were  combined  in  Kuhl. 
Besides  the  other  virtues  with  which  he  was  adorned,  he  pos- 
sessed a  remarkable  moderation  in  regard  to  food.  On  his  jour- 
neys he  required  nothing  more  to  allay  hunger  and  thirst  than 
dry  bread  with  water  and  milk,  provided  he  could  attain  the 
object  to  which  all  his  labours  were  directed, — the  extension  of 
his  knowledge.  To  accomplish  this  he  left  his  father,  his  coun- 
try, and  friends ;  in  its  pursuit  exposing  himself  to  the  dangers 
to  which  a  long  sea  voyage,  change  of  climate,  untrodden  paths, 
savage  men  and  wild  animals  exposed  him  ;  and  all  these  he  un- 
derwent without  the  prospect  of  any  great  reward,  at  least  with- 
out the  hope  that  these  labours  would  be  repaid  by  greater  ad- 
vantages than  his  accomplishments  and  celebrity  had  already  ac- 
quired for  him  in  Europe.  Certain  it  is,  that  it  was  neither 
by  the  hope  of  riches,  the  most  general  stimulus  to  exertion,  nor 
the  honourable  and  truly  royal  liberality  with  which  he  was 


Biographical  Memoir  of  the  late  Henry  Kiihl.  19 

equipped  for  his  journey,  but  by  the  mere  love  of  natural  history, 
that  he  was  actuated, — a  truly  sublime  affection,  which  made 
him  spare  no  labour  in  collecting  new  objects  of  investigation. 

When  he  was  last  at  Hanau,  anticipating  the  difficulties 
wliich  he  had  to  encounter,  he  thus  wrote  to  Swinderen :  "  I 
have  determined  to  make  a  journey  to  the  eastern  countries, 
and  go  I  shall,  if  there  be  no  other  way,  even  in  the  capacity  of 
a  barber."     Such  was  the  love  of  Kiihl  for  his  profession. 

But  Kiihl  had  also  other  properties,  which,  however  becoming 
in  his  person,  were  especially  adapted  for  the  department  of 
science  on  which  he  had  fixed  his  affections.  Besides  his  other 
virtues,  he  was  distinguished  by  an  ingenuous  mind.  Truth, 
obedience,  modesty,  and  a  grateful  remembrance  of  benefits,  were 
among  the  ornaments  of  his  mind.  He  willingly  accommodated 
himself  to  the  manners  of  his  friends ;  but,  when  persuaded 
that  he  was  better  acquainted  with  a  scientific  subject  under  dis- 
cussion, he  defended  his  opinion  with  warmth,  although  with 
modesty,  nor  yielded  rashly  to  the  determination  of  others.  His 
filial  piety,  and  the  affection  which  he  bore  to  his  brothers  and 
sisters,  were  highly  exemplary  ;  and  it  is  to  be  mentioned  to  his 
honour,  that  he  would  receive  nothing  from  his  father,  although 
it  would  gladly  have  been  given  him,  lest  he  should  diminish 
the  portions  of  his  brothers  and  sisters. 

Kiihrs  greatest  merit  was  to  have  embraced  the  whole  com- 
pass of  natural  history.  For  when  he  came  to  Groningen  in 
1816,  he  already  knew  a  great  number  of  minerals,  both  oryc- 
tognostically  and  geologically,  the  whole  of  the  plants  indige- 
nous to  the  fertile  district  of  Wetterau,  and  all  the  mammalia, 
birds,  and  fishes  of  the  middle  parts  of  Eui'opc.  He  chiefly 
studied  exotic  plants  in  the  Botanical  Garden  at  Groningen,  as 
well  as  in  the  other  gardens  which  he  saw  on  his  journeys ;  and 
investigated  the  foreign  vertebrated  animals  in  the  Groningen 
Museum,  and  in  those  of  Berlin,  Paris,  London,  &c.,  while  he 
principally  studied  the  invertebrate  animals  at  Paris.  "  I  hope,"" 
says  he,  in  a  letter  to  Swinderen  while  in  Java,  "  that  when  I 
return  to  Europe,  I  shall  not  be  accused  of  cultivating  one  de- 
partment only  of  science,  as  my  aim  is  not  merely  to  treat  those 
parts  well  of  which  I  was  fondest  when  at  home,  but  I  am  also 
feent  upon  mastering  all  the  other  branches. 

b2 


W  Biographical  Memoir  of  the  late  Henry  KM. 

.  Another  merit  of  KiihPs  was,  that,  besides  the  study  of  na- 
tural liistory  in  the  more  limited  sense,  he  paid  attention  to  ana- 
tomy also,  and  to  physiology,  or  rather  biology.  Although 
the  study  of  physiology  was  of  all  others  that  which  he  prefer- 
red, he  was  yet  free  of  a  fault  into  which  many  naturalists  fall, 
who,  on  account  of  the  main  object  of  their  science,  which  they 
take  to  be  the  determination  of  the  general  laws  of  nature,  de- 
spise the  aids  of  less  elevated  but  subsidiary  studies ;  whence 
it  necessarily  follows,  that  they  always  fall  short  of  their  object. 
But  Kiihl  did  better ;  he  set  about  both  kinds  of  study  with 
equal  diligence,  and  in  this  respect  is  the  only  naturalist  who 
can  be  compared  with  PaUas. 

Tiedemann,  the  celebrated  anatomist  of  Heidelberg,  when 
he  met  with  Kiihl  on  his  journey  to  Paris,  said,  that  "  a  more 
accomplished  naturalist  never  before  travelled  f'  and  Temminck 
writes  thus  to  one  of  his  friends,  "  Science,  by  the  death  of 
Kiihl,  has  lost  another  Linnaeus.*" 

But  even  these  were  not  KiihFs  only  merits,  but  rather  the 
beginning  and  foundation  of  greater  excellence ;  for  he  not  only 
knew  what  others  had  done,  but  contributed  as  long  as  he  lived 
to  the  improvement  of  science.  Without  insisting  much  upon 
his  Annotations,  not  yet  published,  his  Fauna  of  New  Holland 
and  India,  or  his  Monograph  on  the  genus  Falco,  besides  the 
discoveries  which  he  made  in  Java,  and  which,  as  they  have  not 
yet  been  made  public,  cannot  be  judged  of,  we  shall  confine  our- 
selves here  to  the  advantages  which  he  has  conferred  upon  science 
by  his  publications. 

.  With  regard  to  Mammalia,  he  drew  up  a  general  conspectus 
of  this  class,  in  the  essay  mentioned  above,  for  which  he  gained 
the  gold  medal.  In  his  monograph  on  the  Simiae,  a  work  which 
seems  to  be  the  most  complete  in  regard  to  the  number  of  spe- 
cies of  any  upon  the  subject,  he  has  described  111  species,  and 
among  these  several  new  ones,  first  defined  by  himself,  as  well 
as  many  others  which  had  hitherto  been  merely  named.  In  his 
monograph  on  the  Bats  of  Germany,  he  made  known  three  new 
species,  and  rectified  many  errors  connected  with  the  specific 
distinctions.  In  his  Zoologies  Auctaria,  he  has  proposed  a  new 
genus,  Saccophorus  (the  Mus  bursarius  of  Shaw),  and  made 
known  various  new  species  of  mammalia ;  so  that  before  he  left 


Biographical  Memoir  of  the  late  Henry  Kuhl.  91 

Europe  he  had  already  increased  the  list  of  mammalia  by  many 
new  ones,  to  which  he  would  without  doubt  have  added  many> 
more  in  Java.  ":: 

But  of  all  the  departments  of  natural  history,  Ornithology 
was  that  which  he  most  enriched  by  his  discoveries,  most  of 
which  he  made  along  with  the  celebrated  Temminck.  His  in, 
dex  to  the  coloured  plates  of  Buffon,  which  Swinderen  publish-^) 
ed  with  his  consent,  is  also  of  much  advantage  to  ornithology. 
This  work  of  Buffon,  which  comprehends  the  whole  range  of  the 
birds  known  in  his  time,  is  much  superior  to  most  of  the  works 
on  the  same  subject,  and  will  always  remain  so ;  but  of  what 
importance  would  these  figures  be  without  systematic  names  ? 
This  deficiency,  then,  was  supplied  by  Kiihl.  Besides,  he  wrote 
a  monograph  on  the  genus  Psittacus,  in  which  he  included  200 
species,  a  considerable  number  of  them  being  first  characterised 
by  himself,  or  distinguished  and  named  with  the  assistance  of 
Temminck.  Moreover,  he  described  in  his  Auctaria  a  new  ge* 
nus  discovered  by  himself,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Ptilo- 
norynchus,  and  wrote  a  monograph  on  the  difficult  genus  Pro- 
cellaria.  Lastly,  during  his  journey,  as  well  as  in  Java  itself, 
he  made  many  other  interesting  discoveries  in  this  department, 
of  which,  however^  we  are  as  yet  only  acquainted  with  a  small 
part. 

With  regard  to  the  Amphibia,  he  has  the  merit  of  having 
added  many  names  to  Seba'*s  figures  in  his  Thesaurus,  by  which 
he  has  much  facilitated  a  reference  to  that  work.  Many  of  his 
observations  on  Seba's  figures  are  also  contained  in  the  additions 
already  mentioned.  We  there  also  find  critical  remarks  on 
Daudin's  work  on  serpents,  and  very  useful  annotations  regard- 
ing the  number  of  the  abdominal  and  caudal  scuta  of  serpentsj 
of  which  much  use  is  now  deservedly  made  for  the  purpose  of 
specific  distinction.  Had  it  been  his  fate  to  have  returned  from 
India,  he  would  assuredly  have  described  the  new  species  of 
amphibia  which  he  had  discovered,  according  to  Merrem's  me- 
thod. With  respect  to  invertebrate  animals,  he  did  not  publish 
any  of  his  discoveries  previous  to  his  Indian  journey.  What- 
ever, therefore,  was  found  by  him  subsequently,  was  common  to 
him  and  his  companion  Van  Hasselt.  In  regard  to  compara- 
tive anatomy,  Kiihl  made  most  of  his  observations  along  with 


22  Biographical  Memoir  of  the  late  Henry  Kuhh 

Van  Hasselt,  and  their  papers  on  this  subject  are  consequently 
common.  These  papers,  indeed,  chiefly  treated  of  the  whole 
first  four  classes  of  vertebrate  animals ;  but  we  may  mention 
one  in  particular  as  worthy  of  praise,  which  contains  a  disputa- 
tion regarding  the  hearts  of  various  animals.  In  them,  as  well 
as  in  the  other  writings  of  Kiihl,  many  new  facts  are  detailed. 
On  their  voyage  to  Java,  although  they  paid  most  attention  to 
the  dissection  of  invertebrate  animals,  yet,  by  their  industry, 
they  also  extended  the  anatomy  of  the  vertebrate  ones. 

In  regard  to  the  vegetable  kingdom,  they  paid  particular  at- ' 
tention  to  the  laws  of  the  distribution  of  plants  over  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  in  respect  to  which  they  instituted  many  and  very 
diligent  investigations  in  the  Island  of  Madeira,  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  and  in  Java.  "^ 

In  mineralogy  and  geology  we  are  indebted  to  them  for  an 
account  of  the  geological  structure  of  Madeira,  for  a  better  view 
of  the  South  Cape  of  Africa,  as  weU  as  remarks  upon  the  Co- 
coa Islands,  and,  lastly,  for  various  communications  illustrative 
of  the  colony  of  Buitenzorg  in  Java. 

The  printed  works  of  Kiihl  are  the  following  : 

1.  Die  Deutschen  Fledermause  (in  the  Annals  of  the  Society  of  Wetterau). 

Frankfort,  1819. 

2.  Responsio  ad  qusestionem,  ab  ordine  disciplinarum  mathematicarum  et  phy- 

sicarum  propositam  :  Cum,  licet  naturae  corpora  varia  modo  inter  se  dif- 
ferunt,  ex  hucusque  cognitis  observationibus  tamen  constare  videatur, 
ita  comparatam  esse  rerum  naturam,  ut  lento  quasi  passu  ab  una  specie 
ad  alteram  progrediatur,  atque  sic  continuam  quasi  catenam  efficiat,  ex 
variis  quidem  annulis,  intime  tamen  junctis  compositam,  hsec  catena,  in 
Mammalium  classe  demonstranda  quseritur.  (Annals  of  the  Groningen 
Academy,  1816,  1817-     Groningen,  1818.) 

3.  Conspectus  Psittacorum,  cum  specierum  definitionibus  novarum,  descrip- 

tionibus,  synonymis,  &c.  (Nova  Acta  Physico-Medica  Acad.  Cses.  Leop. 
Car.  Nat.  Curios,  vol.  x.  part  1.  p.  1,-104.     Bonn,  1820). 

4.  Beitrage  zur  Zoologie.     Frankfort,  1820.     4to. 

6.  Beitrage  zur  vergleichenden  Anatomie  von  Dr  Van  Hasselt  u.  Dr  Kiihl. 
Frankfort,  1820.     4to. 

6.  Buffonii  et  Daubentonii  Figurarum  Avium  coloratarum  nomina  systemati- 
ca.   Groningen,  1820.    Fol. 


{     23     ) 

Sketches  of  our\  Informatioji  as  to  Rail-Roads.  By  the  Rev. 
James  Adamson,  Cupar-Fife.  (Communicated  by  the 
Author  *). 

XSefore  we  can  anticipate  with  any 'confidence  the  performance 
of  an  engine,  we  must  know  what  part  of  its  moving  power  is 
employed  in  the  support  of  its  own  functions,  independent  of 
that  expended  on  the  object  of  its  effort.  Our  knowledge  of  tliis 
subject  is,  I  fear,  very  deficient  with  regard  to  most  kinds  of 
machinery,  because  the  sort  of  effect  which  they  are  employed 
to  produce,  renders  it  difficult  to  estimate  the  power  wasted  up- 
on it.  It  is  to  be  hoped,  that  its  great  importance  will  secure 
greater  attention  to  it,  since  the  comparative  advantage  of  many 
different  forms  of  machinery  can  be  determined  only  by  the  dis- 
covery of  the  comparative  amount  of  power  necessary  to  com- 
municate motion  through  them.  It  is  not  easy  to  devise  means 
for  obtaining  this  object  even  in  machinery  much  under  our 
controul,  and  we  ought,  therefore,  to  feel  grateful  to  Mi: 
Wood  for  having  opened  up  to  us  some  novel  sources  of  informa-. 
tion,  likely  to  be  productive  of  considerable  certainty  on  the  sub- 
ject. The  locomotive  engine  is  a  peculiarly  manageable  thing,, 
since  all  its  parts  may  easily  be  put  in  motion,  without  employ- 
ing its  ordinary  moving  power,  and  the  effort  required  to  put 
them  in  motion  becomes  easily  ascertainable.  Of  this  advantage 
Mr  Wood  has  taught  us  to  avail  ourselves,  and  though  we  do 
not  find  in  the  detail  of  his  experiments  the  means  of  settling  the 
question  completely  to  our  satisfaction,  we  can  anticipate  import- 
ant consequences  from  the  prosecution  of  the  method  he  has 
pointed  out.  What  we  have  chiefly  to  regret  is,  the  small  num- 
ber of  the  experiments  which  are  of  use  in  this  inquiry. 

It  is  evident,  that,  if  the  engine  were  allowed  to  descend,  an 
inclined  plane,  having  the  steam  restrained  from  acting  upon  the 
pistons,  we  could,  from  the  observed  time  of  its  descent,  estimate 
the  retardation  by  the  movement  of  all  its  parts,  were  all  put 
in  motion  by  the  revolution  of  the  wheels  :  and,  besides,  there  are 

•  We  trust  Mr  Adamson  will  continue  his  valuable  sketches :  they  do  him 
credit  as  a  natural  philosopher,  and  their  style  of  execution  is  worthy  of  imi- 
tation.<i*£oiT. 


S4  Mr  Adamson  091  Rail-Roads. 

some  of  those  parts  which  we  could  detach ;  and  thus,  by  the  ef- 
fect of  those  which  remained,  judge  of  the  proportionate  influ- 
ence of  each  of  them.  Mr  Wood  has  narrated  an  experiment 
made  for  the  purposes  of  ascertaining  the  total  friction  of  an  un- 
loaded engine  ;  and  from  the  additional  retardation  caused  by  it^ 
when  attached  to  waggons  descending  an  inclined  plane,  he  esti- 
mates the  friction  of  its  joints,  axles  and  pistons,  to  be  no  more 
than  91S  lb.  Now,  the  resistance,  by  the  friction  at  the  axles 
of  the  wheels,  could  not,  according  to  the  lowest  estimate  in  the 
table  of  experiments  or  friction,  have  been  less  than  100  lb ; 
so  that  only  113  lb.  remain  as  the  retarding  force  of  the  pistons, 
and  other  parts  of  the  machinery. 

Another  method  of  estimating  this  retardation,  is  afforded  by 
the  experiments  with  wheels  of  different  sizes.  It  was  found, 
that,  by  applying  to  the  same  engine  wheels  of  different  diame-* 
ters,  diff'erent  results  were  produced  by  the  same  expenditure  of 
motive  force  in  the  same  time.  The  retardation  being  equivalent 
to  a  constant  pressure  acting  through  unequal  spaces,  must  have^ 
required,  to  overcome  it,  an  expenditure  of  force  in  proportion 
to  these  spaces,  which  are  as  the  diameters  of  the  wheels.  The 
resistance  opposed  by  the  rubbing  parts  would,  therefore,  when 
3  feet  wheels  were  exchanged  for  4  feet  wheels,  be  diminished . 
in  the  proportion  of  4  :  3  ;  or  the  observed  increase  of  effect  frmn 
the  same  pressive  power,  must  have  arisen  from  the  annihilation 
of  one-fourth  of  the  friction,  by  the  addition  of  one-third  to  the 
diameter  of  the  wheels.  The  increase  of  eff^ect  appears  to  have 
been  equivalent  to  a  force  of  146  lb.  * ;  and,  therefore  the  total 
friction  of  the  engine  with  3  feet  wheels  amounted  to  584 
lb.  If  from  this  we  deduct  the  100  lb.,  which  will  represent 
the  constant  resistance  at  the  axles  of  the  wheels  arising  from 
the  weight  of  the  engine,  we  shall  have  484  lb.  as  the  measure 
of  the  resistance  from  friction,  in  all  the  other  parts  of  the  en- 
gine. The  measure  of  this  retarding  force  in  the  former  case, 
when  the  engine  was  unloaded,  was  113  lb.  These  two  num- 
bers tannot  yet  express  the  ratio  according  to  which  the  friction 
increases  as  the  load  is  augmented,  for  the  friction  created  by 

•  This  is  greater  than  Mr  Wood's  estimate,  and  is  found  b^   taking  the 
2^  part  of  the  additional  load  the  engine  carried  with  the' same  fJLiel»_,    ,. 


Mr  Addmson  07i  RalURoads.  251 

the:  motion  of  the  piston  and  pistonrrod  within  the  cylinder,  can-« 
not  be  affected  by  the  load.  Let  c  represent  this  constant  quan-' 
tity  :  then  the  remainders  484-c  and  113-c  may  be  assumed  to 
have  to  each  other  the  ratio  of  the  pressures,  to  wliich  the  mo." 
ving  parts  of  the  machinery,  exclusive  of  the  pistons,  have  been: 
subjected.  When  the  engine  was  unloaded,  tliis  pressure  could) 
arise  only  from  ^the  resistance  of  the  piston.  Now,  if  /  repre-; 
sent  the  length  of  the  stroke,  and  d  the  diameter  of  the  wheel,; 
then,  the  constant  resistance  c  will  be  to  the  pressure  upon  the 
piston,  which  would  counteract  it,  in  the  ratio  of  1  :  .  g-i*ig  <^ ^: 
which  is  the  ratio  of  the  spaces  passed  over  by  the  piston  and 
the  engine.  When  the  engine  is  loaded  and  working  with  a  pres- 
sure of  50  lb.  per  square  inch  of  the  pistons  of  two  nine-inch 
cylinders,  the  whole  pressure  on  the  pistons  will  be  6367  lb.- 
which,  when  diminished  in  the  ratio  of  1  :  ^•'j-^.xesd  ^-^  -^^  ^^ie' 
pressure  producing  friction  in  the  other  parts  of  the  engine;  if  J=3 
and  /=  2,  its  numerical  value  will  be  2702  lb.  Part  of  this  is* 
absorbed  by  the  constant  resistance  c;  and,  therefore,  2702-c  will- 
represent  the  effective  load  or  pressure  producing  resistance  in* 
the  rubbing  parts  of  the  engine  when  loaded.  Hence,  as  the  re-' 
sistances  are  in  the  ratio  of  the  pressures,  we  have  484-c  :  113-c 
r-  2702-c  :  c  and  c  =  98.3  nearly  ;  therefore  the  resistances  from 
friction  when  the  engine  was  loaded  will  be  385.7  and  when  un- 
loaded 14.7. 

The  steam  pressure  required  to  overcome  the  friction  of  the- 
pistons  in  the  cylinders  will  be  therefore,  98.3  x  ^-^^^  ^  ^  —  231  - 
lb.  This  result  is  remarkable,  as  it  is  very  far  below  the  theo- 
retical value  of  this  kind  of  resistance :  since  there  will  be  proi 
bably  about  100  square  inches  of  rubbing  surface  in  each  cylin- 
der, the  resistance  is  not  quite  1 J  lb.  per  square  inch  of  rubbing 
surface  *.  - .. 

The  resistance  created  by  the  friction  of  the  whole  machi- 
nery, may  be  expressed  as  a  multiple  of  either  the  pressure  o^ 
the  steam  on  the  piston,  or  of  the  load  attached  to  the  engine; 
and  if  the  numerical  values  of  the  quantities  in  question  were  tq 

--;*  |tt  would  be  interesting  to  know  Avhat  pressure  will  render  oiled  hempi 
or  such  substances  as  are  used  in  packing  the  piston,  impervious  to  steam.  Th* 
experiment  could  be  easily  made,  by  exposing  the  substances  (com2)ressed  be- 
tween drilled  plates)  to  the  pressure  of  steam  of  different  elasticities. 


26  Mr  Adamson  on  Rail-Roads. 

be  depended  on,  we  should  be  able  to  tell  exactly  either  the 
steam  power  and  weight  of  the  engine  necessary  to  carry  a  given 
load,  or  determine  correctly  the  load  which  any  given  steam 
power  could  overcome.  We  are  perhaps  most  in  doubt  respect- 
ing the  relation  between  the  weight  of  an  engine  and  its  power, 
or  between  the  size  of  the  boiler  and  the  force  of  the  steam  which 
it  can  be  made  to  afford.  As  there  is  a  certain  velocity  of  the 
piston  which  produces  a  maximum  of  effect,  it  is  clear  that 
this  velocity  alone  should  be  preserved  as  much  as  possible,  and 
the  velocity  of  the  load  should  be  determined  by  the  machinery, 
independent  of  that  of  the  piston.  Each  engine  ought,  in  fact, 
to  be  constructed  for  one  determined  velocity ;  and  as  the  dimi- 
nution of  the  engine's  power  by  its  friction,  increases  as  its  weight 
increases,  it  will  be  less  expensive  to  have  light  engines  and  high 
velocities.  None  of  those,  as  yet  in  use  have  been  intended  to 
travel  faster  than  6  miles  per  hour.  The  highest  velocity  which 
I  have  witnessed  was  about  twice  this  ;  but  then  the  force  of  the 
steam  was  lost  on  account  of  the  excessive  velocity  of  the  piston, 
— ^there  was  no  load  to  be  overcome  except  the  friction  of  the 
engine ;  and  even  this  was  diminished  by  the  engine-man  assist- 
ing to  open  and  shut  the  valves.  The  experiments  by  Mr 
Wood,  from  which  an  estimate  has  been  drawn  of  the  travel- 
ling engine''s  work,  cannot  by  any  means  give  too  favourable  a 
measure  of  it :  for  the  progressive  effort  of  the  engine,  or  that 
part  of  its  power  exerted  on  the  load,  must,  on  account  of  the 
undulation  of  the  road,  have  varied  in  the  ratio  of  1 :  8,  and  there 
must  have  been  a  corresponding  variation  in  the  rate  of  the  pis- 
ton. Such  inequalities  in  the  load,  and  in  the  velocity  of  the 
machinery,  are  a  disadvantage  attending  the  apphcation  of  steam 
power  to  rail-roads  in  every  form,  except  when  a  dead  level  can 
be  secured.  The  greatest  irregularities  would  be  found,  when 
a  fixed  engine  was  made  to  work  over  a  considerable  extent  of 
country,  if  such  a  thing  were  possible.  But  the  apphcabihty  of 
this  method  of  using  the  steam-engine  must  be  reduced  far  with- 
in the  limits  which  Mr  Tredgold  assigns  to  it.  The  risk  of  in- 
terruption, in  the  traffic  of  a  whole  line,  by  the  failure  of  one  en- 
gine, is  almost  decisive  against  the  system  ;  and,  besides  this  oc- 
casional inconvenience,  there  would  be  the  constant  one  of  being 


Mr  Adamson  on  Rail-Roads.  27 

obliged  to  have  at  one  time,  on  a  long  line  of  road,  no  more 
than  that  quantity  of  goods  which  the  ropes  or  chains  were  cal- 
culated to  bear,  while  no  other  power  could  be  employed  on  the 
same  line  to  remedy  its  failure  or  add  to  its  capabilities.  The 
great  and  continual  expence  of  renewing  the  exposed  parts  of 
the  machinery,  in  addition  to  these  inconveniences,  ought  to  be  a 
good  reason  for  preferring  even  very  expensive  excavations  to 
this  method  of  avoiding  them. 

We  could  bring  the  fixed  engine  and  the  locomotive  engine 
more  directly  into  comparison,  if  we  could  tell  exactly  the  loss 
of  effect  incident  to  each,  in  moving  a  given  weight  over  a  cer- 
tain space.  Whenever  the  friction  of  the  rope  or  chain  and  its 
rollers  becomes  the  same  proportional  part  of  the  load,  as  the  loco- 
motive engine''s  friction  is  of  its  load,  we  may  consider  this  waste 
of  power  as  equal.  Mr  Wood's  experiments  on  inclined  planes 
afford  us  the  means  of  approximating  to  a  decision  on  this  point, 
though  we  must  regret  that  the  instances  of  the  kind  required 
are  too  few,  and  too  little  varied,  to  lead  us  to  certainty.  If  we 
compare  Nos.  14.  and  15.  of  these  experiments,  we  find  that 
the  friction  of  a  rope  of  a  certain  length,  is  represented  in  these 
two  cases  by  the  numbers  239  tb.  and  250  lb.,  of  which  the  dif- 
ference is  11  lb.  Now,  this  rope  was,  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
plane,  bent  round  a  large  fixed  pulley  or  friction- wheel,  the  re- 
sistance to  the  revolution  of  which,  independent  of  the  friction 
produced  by  its  own  weight,  we  may  assume  as  increasing  in 
proportion  to  the  tension  of  the  rope ;  but  from  the  manner  in 
which  the  rope  acts  on  the  other  friction  rollers,  the  retardation 
caused  by  them  may  safely  be  assumed  as  constant.  By  exam- 
ining the  details  of  the  experiments,  we  find  that  the  tension  of 
the  rope,  in  the  15th   experiment,  was  greater  than  it  was  in 

the  14th,  in  the  proportion  of  1  -f  -—-  :  1.     This  determines 

what  fractional  part  of  the  friction  of  the  large  wheel,  the  dif- 
ference of  11  K).  will  amount  to;  and  we  wiU  thus  have 
11  X  5.27,  or  58  ft),  as  the  resistance  presented  by  the  large 
wheel  with  the  lighter  load.  The  friction  of  the  wheel  caused 
by  its  own  weight,  will,  by  Mr  Wood's  rules,  amount  to  14  ft)., 
and  thus  72  ft)  will  be  the  total  friction  of  this  part  of  the  mar- 
chinery ;  if  this  be  subtracted  from  the  total  resistance  of  the 


^         '  Mr  Adamson  on  Rail-Roads. 

rope,  rollers,  &c.  -it  will  have  147  ft),  as  the  friction  of  the  rope, 
and  the  smaller  rollers  on  which  it  rests.  This  is  at  the  rate  of 
S62  tb.  per  mile,  and  equal  to  about  one-fifth  of  the  strain  to 
which  the  rope  was  exposed ;  and  therefore  the  utmost  strain  to 
which,  from  this  example,  a  similar  rope  ought  to  be  exposed, 
is  the  friction  of  5  miles  of  rope  of  the  same  thickness,  resting 
on  the  same  proportion  of  rollers  of  the  same  weight.  If  we 
make  m  represent  the  distance  at  which  the  expenditure  of 
power. in  overcoming  the  friction  of  the  rope  by  the  fixed  en- 
gine is  equal  to  that  expended  by  the  locomotive  engines,  in 
moving  themselves,  and  let  t  represent  the  strain  upon  the  rope, 
or  power  of  the  fixed  engine,  independent  of  its  own  friction, 

—  will  be,  in  this  case,  the  resistance  of  the  rope  of  the  fixed 
5 

engine,  and  will  represent  the  friction  of  the  locomotive  engines ; 

and,  assuming  that  their  friction  is  half  the  power  available  to 

move  the  load,  or  one-third  of  the  power  of  the  engine,  then 

-—  =-  ;  hence  w  —  II,  the  distance  in  miles.     As  the  un- 

certain  amount  of  the  friction  of  the  fixed  engine  and  its  rope^ 
roll  has  not  [been  taken  into  account,  we  may  perhaps  con- 
clude, that  the  moving  of  goods  by  means  of  a  rope  of  a  greater 
length  than  1^  miles,  will  always  be  more  expensive  than  their 
conveyance  by  locomotive  engines,  when  there  is  no  ascent  on 
the  line.  To  find  the  more  general  formula  for  an  ascent,  we 
must  make  the  gravitating  force  of  the  load  and  of  the  rope  to 
become  elements  in  the  equation.  Now,  as  the  weight  of  the 
rope  per  mile  is  nearly  three  times  the  strain  to  which  it  is  sub- 
jected, making  sin  i  to  represent  the  inclination,  3  ^  sin  i  wiU  be 

\he  gravitating  force  of  the  rope ;  hence  m'  x  f  -  +  3  f  sin  i  1 

will  represent  the  whole  loss  of  force  incident  to  the  fixed  en- 

gine,  from  the  weight  and  friction  of  the  rope.     Now,  as  ^j  ^  is 

the  progressive  effort  or  adhesion  of  the  locomotive  engines, 

^5  X  ai  will  be  their  weight;  and  the  loss  of  power  incident  tb 

.them,  which  is  to  be  equal  to  that  lost  by  the  fixed  engines,  ac- 

coi'ding  to  the  foregoing  deductions,  will  be  ^  f  1  -)-  50  sin  «  ); 


Mr  Adamson  on  RaitRoads.  S9 

rJience, 


5      1+50  sin  i 

7n'  =   TT  X  r 


3  "  1  +  15  sin  i ' 
which  is  the  same  equation  as  before,  when  sin  i  =  0.  When 
sin  i  z=  gV,  then  m'  —  3.125;  in  which  case,  the  power  of  the 
locomotive  engine  ceases,  and  the  resistance  of  the  rope  becomes 
equal  to  the  whole  strain  placed  upon  it.  This  must  be  consi- 
dered as,  on  those  conditions,  the  hmit  of  the  length  of  a  stage 
between  two  fixed  engines,  and  since  a  chain  of  short  links,  of 
the  same  strength  as  a  rope,  would  be  heavier,  and  would  re- 
.quire  heavier  rollers,  but  would  not  acquire  so  great  an  excess 
of  strength,  to  compensate  for  its  wasting,  the  substitution  of  it 
would  probably  make  no  great  change  on  the  results. 

It  appears,  then,  that  if  a  Hne  of  road  were  xvorked  by  fixed 
engines,  the  number  must  be  very  great ;  and  though  certainly 
the  expenditure  of  power,  on  a  given  conveyance,  may  be  ren- 
dered less  than  is  required  by  locomotive  engines,  provided  the 
distances  between  the  stations  be  less  than  those  determined  by 
the  preceding  rules,  yet,  when  we  consider  the  many  inconve- 
niences to  which  the  employment  of  them  subjects  us,  we  must 
conclude  that  they  should  be  resorted  to  only  when  other  means 
are  inapplicable.  They  possess  no  pecuhar  advantages,  as  to 
safety,  to  counterbalance  those  defects ;  any  danger  arising  from 
liabihty  in  the  carriages  to  be  overturned,  or  from  swiftness  of 
motion,  should  the  machinery  be  suddenly  stopped,  will  be  the 
same  in  both  cases,  or  will  be  increased  by  the  employment  of 
fixed  engines.  Carriages  containing  any  persons,  or  any  pro- 
perty easily  injured,  may  be  kept  at  a  safe  distance  from  a 
travelling  engine,  so  as  to  be  unendangered  by  its  casualties, 
and  easily  brought  to  rest,  before  reaching  it ;  but  would  be  ex- 
posed to  a  dangerous  concussion  by  a  pause  in  the  macliinery 
of  the  fixed  engine.  The  locomotive  engines  must  certainly  be 
high  pressure-engines,  but,  from  their  size  and  treatment,  are  far 
more  likely  to  be  deficient  in  the  power  of  generating  steam,  than 
able  to  spare  any  for  explosions.  There  are  circumstances,  also, 
which  render  the  employment  of  the  high  pressure-engine  less 
dangerous  in  this  form  than  in  other  cases.  The  distance  at 
which  it  may  be  made  to  act,  will  render  injury  very  improl 
bable  to  all,  except  those  in  immediate  attendance  on  it;  and  the 


30  Mr  Adamson  on  Rail-Roads. 

slight  oscillatory  motions,  to  which  the  machine  must  always  be 
liable,  may  be  employed  to  keep  the  safety-valves  from  becom- 
ing fastened  or  rusted  in  their  sockets. 

For  this  purpose,  it  is  only  necessary  to  detach  the  valve  from 
the  lever,  upon  which  the  principal  compressing  weight  is  hung, 
and  giving  it  the  shape  of  a  ball  resting  in  a  socket,  to  attach  to 
it  a  considerable  weight,  hanging  like  a  pendulum  inside  the 
boiler.  This  interior  weight  may  also  be  so  disposed  as  to  give 
intimation  of  over-feeding  with  water,  as  the  fluid,  when  it 
reaches  the  weight,  will  buoy  it  up,  and  help  to  open  the  valve. 
The  method  of  conveying  the  heat  through  the  boiler  in  a  longi- 
tudinal tube,  completely  surrounded  by  the  water,  appears  best 
fitted  for  deriving  from  the  fuel  all  the  advantage  it  can  afford. 
A  cylindrical  tube  has  hitherto  been  used  in  the  locomotive  en- 
gine ;  but  there  are  other  forms  which  would  expose  more  sur- 
face to  the  action  of  the  flame,  with  equal  security  against  the 
pressure  within.  Probably  this  pressure  may  even  be  convert- 
ed into  the  means  of  safety.  If  the  tube  were  elliptical,  and 
on  that  account  ready  to  yield  in  one  direction  sooner  than  ano- 
ther, this  yielding  may  be  employed  to  pull  open  a  valve,  and 
allow  the  steam  to  escape,  when  the  pressure  approaches  to  any 
dangerous  intensity.  The  whole  apparatus  of  the  engine  is  sus- 
ceptible of  numberless  different  forms ;  and  it  is  not  too  much 
to  expect,  that  the  mechanical  knowledge  and  ingenuity  of  our 
countrymen  will  lead  them  to  many  more  perfect  than  those  yet  in 
use.  As  far  as  I  know,  none  has  yet  worked  so  advantageously 
as  those  constructed  according  to  the  patent  of  Messrs  Stephen- 
son and  Losh,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  and  employed  at  the  col- 
leries  of  Killingworth  and  Hetton,  in  that  neighbourhood. 

The  estimates  of  the  expence  of  the  employment  of  steam 
power  upon  rail-roads,  do  not  seem  in  its  favour,  when  com- 
pared with  horses  moving  at  the  velocity  most  favourable  to 
them,  provided  the  cost  of  coals  continues  to  bear  the  same  ratio 
to  the  expence  of  supporting  horses  as  it  does  at  present  in  those 
districts  of  the  kingdom  where  such  constructions  are  likely  to  be 
advantageous.  Where  coals  are  10s.  per  ton,  the  total  expence 
per  annum  of  a  locomotive  engine,  including  allowance  for  wear 
and  tear,  and  interest  on  its  value,  will  be  L.  330 ;  the  work 

done  will,  if  estimated  by  their  performance  at  Killingworth,  be 
2 


Mr  Adamson  on  Rail-Roads.  31 

126,000  tons  conveyed  one  mile  in  312  days.  The  performance 
at  the  Hetton  colliery,  during  the  same  period,  amounted  to 
198,000  tons  conveyed  one  mile.  The  difference  arises  from  the 
greater  regularity  of  the  hne  in  the  latter  case.  The  effect,  in 
the  one  case,  is  equal  to  somewhat  more  than  that  of  three 
horses ;  and,  in  the  other,  somewhat  more  than  four.  The  ex- 
pence  of  neither  of  which,  including  that  of  their  attendance,  is 
likely  to  amount  to  the  annual  cost  of  the  locomotive  engine. 
But  as  the  velocity  in  those  cases  is  not  much  above  the  ordinary 
rate  at  which  a  horse  travels,  this  may  be  looked  upon  as  far 
under  the  rate  of  performance  they  are  capable  of  attaining  to. 
For  few  of  the  items  composing  the  whole  expence,  are  increased 
by  increasing  the  speed  of  the  engine,  while  its  performance  must 
increase  in  the  rate  of  the  velocity ;  so  that  a  rate  of  speed  may 
be  found  at  which  conveyance  by  them,  will  be  cheaper  than  by 
horses  moving  at  the  velocity  most  favourable  for  their  action. 
But  the  great  advantage  of  steam-power  hes  in  the  economy 
with  which  quickness  of  motion  may  be  produced.  According  to 
Mr  Wood's  estimate,  an  engine,  which,  at  the  velocity  of  two 
miles  per  hour,  performs  the  work  of  four  horses,  w  ill,  at  the 
rate  of  six  miles  per  hour,  perform  the  work  of  twelve  horses. 
The  increase  of  expence  consequent  on  the  increase  of  velocity, 
has  not  yet,  I  imagine,  been  correctly  ascertained.  It  is  evident, 
however,  that  it  cannot  approach  to  the  ratio  of  the  performances 
at  the  higher  and  lower  velocity.  It  is  well  understood,  that 
goods  can  be  conveyed  at  a  slow  rate  on  a  canal  much  cheaper 
than  by  any  other  method ;  and  that  as  the  motion  is  made 
quicker,  the  superiority  of  the  canal  vanishes ;  but  in  comparing 
them  with  rail-roads,  the  rate  which  produces  equal  effects  with 
the  same  power  has  been  stated  at  different  values,  generally, 
however,  lying  between  three  and  four  miles  per  hour,  and  vary- 
ing with  the  shape  of  the  tracts  and  size  of  the  canal ;  for  all  ve- 
locities beyond  this,  the  advantage  of  the  rail-road  augments  in 
a  high  ratio.  The  system  of  water  conveyance  we  must  look 
upon  as  nearly  perfect;  and  the  other  as  yet  offering  many 
chances  of  improvement ;  and  from  its  applicability  in  some  of 
its  many  forms  to  all  imaginable  situations,  and  its  success  in 
those  wherein  it  has  been  attempted,  we  must  esteem  it  eminent- 
ly worthy  of  having  its  properties  more  accurately  investigated. 


8^        Mr  W.  E.  Cormack  oti  the  Natural  History  and 

On  the  Natural  History  and  Economical  Uses  of  the  Cod,  Ca- 
peU7i,  Cnttle-Fish,  and  Seal,  as  they  occur  on  the  Banks  of 
Newfoundland,  and  the  Coasts  of  that  Island  and  Labrador*, 
Communicated  in  a  Letter  to  Professor  Jameson,  by  W.  Ei 
Cormack,  Esq.  f 

vJf  the  fishes  of  the  British  North  American  Seas,  the  most 
abundant  is,  at  the  same  time,  the  most  important  to  man. 
The  cod  (Gadus  Morhua)  here  holds  dominion  over  all  the 
babitable  parts  of  the  ocean, — from  the  outer  edges  of  the  great 
banks  of  Newfoundland,  which  are  more  than  300  miles  from 
land,  and  more  than  100  fathoms  deep,  to  the  verges  of  every 
<;reek  and  cove  of  the  bounding  coasts  :  it  even  ascends  into  the 
fresh-water. 

To  support  such  a  mass  of  living  beings,  the  ocean  sends  her 
periodical  masses  of  other  living  beings  ;  and  these,  in  the  eco- 
nomy of  nature,  are  next  in  importance,  and,  of  necessity,  in 
abundance  in  these  seas.  Nature  furnishes  two  successive  tribes 
of  animals  as  food  for  one  tribe;  and  for  the  three  together,  this 
busiest  part  of  the  ocean  seems  to  exist. 

'  The  Cod. — The  cod  is  accompanied  at  one  season  by  shoals 
of  myriads  of  the  capelin  (Salmo  arcticus),  and  at  another  by 
eiqual  hosts  of  that  molluscous  animal  the  cuttle-fish  {Sepia  Lo- 
iigo),  called  in  Newfoundland  the  Squid.  The  three  animals 
are  migratory  ;  and  man,  who  stations  himself  on  the  shores  for 
their  combined  destruction,  conducts  his  movements  according 
to  their  migrations.  By  art,  he  captures  annually  more  than  two 
hundred  millions  of  the  cod  with  the  capelin,  and  one  hundred 
millions  with  the  cuttle-fish.  On  the  coast  of  Labrador,  and 
in  the  north  part  of  Newfoundland,  the  cod  is  so  abundant,  that 
it  is  hauled  on  shore  with  lines  in  vast  quantities.  Thus,  by 
these  three  means,  and  the  use  of  herrings  and  shell-fish  for  bait, 

■  Read  before  the  Wernerian  Natural  History  Society,  14th  January  1826, 

-|-  The  interesting  details  in  this  communication,  are  the  result  of  the  au- 
thor's inquiries  and  observations  in  Newfoundland.  Mr  Cormack,  who  is  an  ac- 
tive and  intelligent  Newfoundland  merchant,  has  already  distinguished  himself, 
by  being  the  first  European  who  succeeded  in  crossing  Newfoundland  ;  of  which 
achievment  an  account,  vtith  a  map  of  the  route,  was  published  in  the  10th  vo- 
lume of  the  Edinburgh  Philosophical  Journal,  p.  56.  ei  sej — Ed, 

3 


Economkal  Uaes  of  the  Cod  at  NewfoimdlancL  33 

along  the  southern  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence,  there 
is  caught  in  the  British  North  American  Seas,  upwards  oi  four 
hundred  millions  of  cod  annually. 

There  appear  to  be  four  varieties  or  kinds  of  the  cod  in  these 
seas ;  but  their  history  has  not  been  sufficiently  attended  to,  to 
determine  their  relations  to  each  other  as  species  or  variety. 
The  first  is  the  hank-cod,  found  on  the  great  bank,  many  miles 
from  land  ;  the  second  is  the  shore-cod,  caught  in  the  bays 
around  the  shores,  and  in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence ;  the 
third  is  the  red-cod  (Gadus  callarias),  resembling  the  rock-cod 
or  red- ware  codling  of  Scotland,  caught  near  the  shores  ;  the 
fourth  and  most  remarkable,  is  what  may  be  called  the  SeaU 
headed-cod,  from  its  head  resembling  that  of  a  seal  or  dog.  The 
haddock  (Gadus  Mglejinus),  of  a  large  size,  is  also  met  with 
among  the  proper  cod.  All  the  kinds  approach  towards  one  size^ 
and  are  caught  and  dried  promiscuously  by  the  fishermen.  The 
bank-cod  differs  from  the  other  varieties  in  his  place  of  resort, 
which  is  almost  always  on  the  banks,  at  a  distance  from  land  ;  he 
is  also  larger  and  stronger,  with  larger  scales  and  spots ;  his  body 
is  of  a  lighter  colour  throughout,  with  the  spots  more  generally 
diffused,  and  more  distinctly  marked  ;  his  flesh,  too,  is  firmer. 
The  shore-cod  resembles  most  the  cod  in  a  healthy  state  on  the 
coasts  of  Britain,  and  is  that  of  which  the  greatest  quantity  is 
caught,  owing  to  its  being  most  conveniently  taken  :  the  back 
is  of  a  dusky  brown  colour;  the  belly,  silvery  or  yellowish,  and 
the  spots  in  general  not  remarkably  distinct.  The  red  cod  is, 
probably,  larger  than  our  rock-cod,  and  is  not  numerous.  The 
seal-headed  cod,  is  of  the  same  colour  and  size  as  the  shore-cod, 
and  its  head  is,  in  like  manner,  covered  with  skin ;  and  it  is  com- 
paratively rare.  The  young  cod,  tom-cod,  or  podley,  swarms 
in  summer  in  all  the  harbours  and  shallow-waters. 

There  are  some  other  differences  in  the  cod,  which  may  part- 
ly arise  from  difference  of  latitude  and  of  coasts  where  they  are 
found.  Thus,  the  farther  north,  the  less  oil  is  obtained  from 
them,  their  livers  being  smaller ;  and  the  bank-cod  yields  the 
least  oil  of  any. 

The  cod  is  sometimes  caught  six  feet  in  length  ;  but  there  are 
accounts  of  its  having  been  taken  larger.  All  the  kinds  of  cod 
obey  the  same  general  laws  of  migration.  They  shift  according 
APRIL — JULY  18%*.  c 


34         Mr  W.  E.  Corniack  on  the  Natural  Hiatory  and 

to  the  changes  of  temperature  in  their  element,  arising  from  the 
seasons,  and  with  the  supplies  of  food  which  invariably  accom- 
pany these  changes.  The  bank-cod  seems  to  be  the  most  sta- 
tionary. 

As  we  advance  northward  from  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence, 
the  migrations  of  the  cod  assume  a  more  decided  character, 
and  it  strikes  in  in  greater  abundance.  This  holds  as  far 
north  as  fishing-posts  have  yet  been  established  on  the  coast 
of  Labrador.  The  same  applies  to  the  migrations  and  abun- 
dance of  the  other  fishes  inhabiting  these  seas,  more* especially 
of  those  connected  with  the  cod,  and  they  arise  together  from 
the  same  general  causes.  In  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence, 
Lat.  45°  48°,  particularly  along  the  shores  of  Nova  Scotia,  New 
Brunswick,  Canada,  and  the  adjacent  islands,  where  shell-fish 
are  more  abundant  than  farther  to  the  north,  and  where, 
perhaps,  in  consequence,  more  other  fishes  remain  during  the 
winter,  the  herring  *  arrives  in  spring,  about  the  same  time  that 
it  arrives  on  the  coasts  of  Newfoundland  and  Labrador,  in 
April  and  May,  when  the  cod,  in  consequence,  becomes  proba- 
bly equally  abundant  at  all  places ;  but  afterwards,  worlds  of 
food  arrive  on  the  coasts  of  Newfoundland  and  Labrador ;  first 
the  capelin,  over  the  shores  of  both  these  countries,  and  then, 
again,  the  cuttle-fish,  around  the  shores  of  Newfoundland  ;  they 
never  failing  to  bring  in  with  them  their  hosts  of  cod,  and  to  re- 
tain them  at  these  shores  during  the  summer.  Neither  the  cape- 
lin, nor  any  equivalent,  ever  appears  at  the  countries  farther 
south,  although  the  cuttle-fish  visits,  and  sometimes  in  consider- 
able quantities,  the  east  coast  of  Nova  Scotia  and  Cape  Breton  : 
Hence  the  pre-eminence  of  Newfoundland  and  Labrador  as  a 
fishing-station,  over  every  other  part  of  the  northern  hemisphere. 

At  Labrador,  and  in  the  north  part  of  Newfoundland,  where 
the  length  of  the  summer  is  not  more  than  six  weeks  or  two 
months,  the  hook  and  line  are  often  laid  aside  for  the  seine ;  for 
it  is  necessary  that  enough  of  cod  should  be  taken  within  the 
first  two  or  three  weeks,  otherwise  the  remainder  of  the  warm 
weather  would  not  be  sufficient  to  dry  it.  Hence  the  cod-fishery, 

•  The  Alewife  or  Gaspereau  visits  the  coasts  of  the  countries  just  named,  No- 
va Scotia,  &c.,  but  is  never  met  with  at  Newfoundland,  nor  farther  north. 


Economical  Uses  of  the  Cod  at  Newfoundland.  35 

according  to  the  present  mode  of  curing,  which  is,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  very  trifling  proportion,  by  drying  the  fish  in  the 
sun.  Cannot  be  carried  on  farther  north  tlian  a  certain  latitude. 

The  fishery  of  Newfoundland  commences  in  June,  as  soon  as 
the  capelin  appears  on  the  coast,  and  ends  about  the  beginning 
of  September,  when  the  cuttle-fish  begins  to  move  off  from  the 
shores.  The  capelin  is  the  bait  used  during  the  first  month  or 
six  weeks,  and  after  that  the  cuttle-fish. 

When  bait  is  scarce,  considerable  numbers  of  cod  are  caught 
hy  jigging ;  the  jiggei's  being  an  artificial  bait,  with  hooks  af- 
fixed. 

The  process  of  curing  the  cod  requires  about  a  month  in 
favourable  weather. 

Of  the  four  hundred  millions  and  upwards  of  cod  that  are 
taken  annually  out  of  the  British  North  American  Seas,  about 
one  hundred  millions^  or  upwards  of  sixty  thousand  tons,  are  ex- 
ported in  a  dried  state  by  the  Britishj  to  the  warm  countries  of 
Europe  and  America :  Of  the  remainder,  a  part  equal  to  double 
that  of  the  British  is  taken  avvay  by  the  Americans,^ — a  part  by 
the  French, — and  a  part  is  consumed  in  the  countries  themselves. 

It  is  from  the  livers  of  the  cod-fish,  that  the  cod-oil  of  com- 
merce is  made.  These  are  exposed  in  casks,  and  sometimes  in 
vats,  to  the  sun,  and  the  heat  in  all  these  countries  is  sufficient 
to  render  them  into  oil  *.  There  is  a  falling  off,  some  years,  in 
the  average  quantity  of  oil  obtained  from  the  cod  throughout 
the  British  fisheries ;  but  as  the  French  have  the  exclusive  pri- 
vilege of  fishing  at  those  parts  of  the  island  where  the  different 
kinds  of  fish  abound  most,  it  is  probable  that  the  quantity  of 
oil  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  fish  caught,  including  all 
the  fisheries,  in  any  one  year  may  not  vary  much. 

As  the  sun  withdraws  from  the  north,  the  temperature  of  the 
surface-water  decreases ;  its  vivifying  principle  vanishes,  and  it 
is  no  longer  inviting  to  the  free  inhabitants  of  the  deep.  The 
cuttle-fish  begins  to  retire,  and  with  it  man  ends  his  warfare  with 
the  cod.  All  feel  the  warning,  and  begin  to  retire  to  the  strong- 
holds in  their  respective  elements,  leaving  the  field  of  their  in^ 

•  There  ought  to  be  obtained  from  all  the  cod  caught,  twenty-five  thousand 
tons  of  oil,  about  five  to  six  thousand  tons  of  which  are  exported  by  the  British, 
chiefly  to  Britain- 

I'  o 


36         IMr  W.  E.  Cormack  oii  the  Natural  History  and 

dustry  and  summer  rejoicing,  where  air,  earth,  and  water,  had 
met  in  harmony  together,  soon  to  become  the  conflicting  scene 
of  an  arctic  winter. 

Of  the  Capelin. — The  value  of  this  delicate  and  interesting 
little  fish  may  be  estimated,  when  it  is  known  to  constitute  the 
bait  with  which  more  than  half  the  cod  caught  in  these  seas  are 
taken.  The  capelin  arrives  on  the  coasts  of  these  countries  to 
spawn  about  the  end  of  June,  and  departs  about  the  end  of 
July  and  beginning  of  August.  It  arrives  at  Labrador  about 
a  month  later,  and  remains  from  two  to  four  months.  Its  num- 
bers are  often  truly  wonderful.  Immediately  on  its  arrival,  it 
pushes  its  dense  shoals  into  the  small  bays  and  creeks,  as  if  to 
shun  the  jaws  of  the  millions  of  its  devouring  enemies,  the  cod, 
and  many  other  fishes  which  had  followed  it  from  the  deep,  and 
which  remain  arrayed  at  a  little  distance,  impatient  for  its  de- 
struction. These  massive  clouds  of  capelin  are  sometimes  more 
than  fifty  miles  long,  and  many  miles  broad.  Their  spawn  is 
sometimes  thrown  up  along  the  beaches,  forming  masses  of  con- 
siderable thickness^  most  of  which  is  carried  back  into  the  sea 
,  by  a  succeeding  tide  or  two. 

The  capelin  is  six  or  seven  inches  in  length  ;  although  the 
males  sometimes  occur  nearly  twice  the  ordinary  size.  It  is 
caught  for  bait,  in  nets  constructed  of  different  forms  for  the 
purpose.  It  possesses  some  peculiar  quality,  which  unfits  it  to  be 
cured  for  domestic  use  like  the  herring,  and  is,  therefore,  mere- 
ly dried  in  the  sun.  Whether  the  migration  of  the  capelin  is 
to  and  from  the  north  sea,  or  limited  to  the  adjacent  deep- 
waters,  does  not  appear  to  be  yet  well  ascertained,  notwithstand- 
ing that  its  appearance  and  disappearance  at  all  parts  of  these 
coasts  are  watched,  as  important  events,  by  every  fisherman.  On 
the  great  scale,  it  is  as  regular  and  certain  in  its  appearance  and 
disappearance,  as  the  herring  is  on  the  coasts  of  Europe.  It 
generally  appears  some  days  earlier  at  the  south-east  parts  of 
Newfoundland,  than  at  the  neighbouring  parts  of  the  island  far- 
ther to  the  north  ;  and  from  its  leading  in  the  bank-cod  to  these 
places  (as  in  1825),  it  would  seem  to  have  come  in  from  the 
Great  Bank.  There  is  little  doubt  that  it  is  on  the  banks  at 
certain  seasons,  as  is  shewn  not  merely  by  the  circumstance  of 


Economical  Uses  of  the  Capelin  and  Cuttle-Fish.  37 

its  appearing  to  have  led  in  the  cod  from  thence  towards  the 
shores,  but  by  the  fact,  that,  very  early  in  spring,  and  some 
weeks  before  it  appears  every  where  at  the  shores,  the  cod  on  the 
banks  take  it  very  readily  as  a  bait  salted,  when,  at  the  same 
time,  the  cod  at  the  shore  will  not  take  it  in  that  state.  It  is 
well  known,  that  the  cod  will  take  readily  as  a  bait,  on  the  great 
scale,  that  only  which  is  its  common  food  at  the  time  ;  and,  in 
the  present  case,  as  soon  as  the  capelin  arrives  at  the  shores,  the 
bank-cod,  which  we  infer  to  have  followed  it  from  the  banks, 
not  only  continue  to  take  it  salted  *,  but  the  shore-cod  which  re- 
fused it  before,  now  take  it  fresh  and  salted  promiscuously -f-. 

The  Cuttle-Fish,  —  About  the  beginning  of  August,  the 
throngs  of  capelin  which  had  enlivened  the  shores,  give  way  to 
throngs  of  the  cuttle-fish.  This  animal  seems  to  succeed  the 
other,  as  if  to  supply  immediately  provision  to  the  cod.  It  is 
of  equal  importance  in  Newfoundland  as  the  capelin,  as  it  is 
the  bait  with  which  the  other  half  of  the  cod  here  is  caught. 

The  cuttle-fish  does  not  appear  at  Labrador  in  quantities  the 
same  as  at  Newfoundland ; — from  which  it  might  be  inferred 
that  it  migrates  only  to  and  from  the  adjacent  deep  waters. 

The  common  size  of  this  animal  is  from  6  to  10  inches  in 
length  ;  but  it  has  been  met  with  of  colossal  size.  During  vio- 
lent gales  of  wind,  hundreds  of  tons  of  them  are  often  thrown 
up  together  in  beds  on  the  flat  beaches,  the  decay  of  which 
spreads  an  intolerable  effluvium  around.  It  begins  to  retire  from 
the  coast  in  September.  It  is  made  no  use  of  except  for  bait ; 
and  as  it  maintains  itself  in  deeper  water  than  the  capelin,  in- 
stead of  nets  being  used  to  take  it,  it  is  jigged  ;  a  jigger  being 
a  number  of  hooks  radiating  from  a  fixed  centre,  made  for  the 
purpose.     The  cod  is  in  best  condition  after  having  fed  on  it. 

When  shoals  of  the  cuttle-fish  and  of  the  capelin  come  in 
contact,  the   latter  always  retieat,   and  from  the  wounds  they 

*  The  capelin  are  salted  the  preceding  year  purposely,  to  fish  for  the  cod  on 
the  banks  earlier  in  the  ensuing  spring  than  the  cod  nearer  the  shore  can  be 
caught ;  that  is  before  the  capelin  has  struck  in. 

-|-  The  capelin  is  also  sometimes  taken  in  the  month  of  April,  by  th^  seal- 
ing vessels,  among  the  ice  on  the  banks,  more  than  200  miles  from  the  land ;  and 
then  it  is  found  also  in  the  stomachs  of  the  seals ; — no  doubt  on  its  migration  at 
that  time  from  the  deeps  over  the  banks  towards  the  coast. 


S8       Mr  W.  E.  Corniack  on  (he  Natural  Historij  and 

carry  with  them,  are  sufferers  in  an  attack :  These  animals  dart 
backwards  and  forwards  with  a  quickness  which  the  capeUn 
cannot  escape. 

The  cuttle-fish  is  supposed  to  impart  the  crimson  colour  whicli 
the  sea  exhibits  in  various  parts  here,  during  the  latter  part  of 
summer.  The  water  of  the  harbour  of  St  John's,  two  miles  in 
extent,  sometimes  exhibits  the  phenomenon. 

It  may  be  unnecessary  to  say  that  the  migrations  of  the  cod, 
of  the  capelin,  and  of  the  cuttle-fish,  are  only  once  a  year  *. 

Of  the  Seals. — Newfoundland,  owing  to  its  projecting  into 
the  Atlantic  eastward  from  Labrador,  intercepts  many  of  the 
immense  fields  and  islands  of  ice,  which,  in  the  spring,  move 
south  from  the  Arctic  Sea.  These  fields  of  ice,  in  their  origi- 
nal formation,  present,  at  their  edges,  a  sufficient  barrier  against 
the  inroads  of  the  ocean  ;  and  they  are  so  extensive,  that  their 
interior  parts,  with  the  openings  or  lakes  interspersed,  notwith- 
standing the  rage  of  elements  around,  remain  serene  and  un- 
broken :  Here  are  the  chosen  transitory  abodes  of  millions  of 
seals,— here  these  animals  enjoy  months  of  peace  and  security, 
to  bring  forth  and  nurture  their  young.  Such  fields  collect 
on  the  coasts  of  Newfoundland,  and,  as  it  were,  offer  to  the  in- 
habitants the  treasures  they  bring :  l^he  island  is  periodically 
surrounded  by  them  for  many  leagues  in  all  directions, — the  in- 
habitants within  the  dazzling  bulwark  being  as  impotent  to- 
wards the  rest  of  the  world,  as  the  rest  of  the  world  is  towards 
them. 

The  all-efficient  sun,  gradually  returning,  liberates  the  fields 
of  ice  from  the  shores  to  which  they  had  for  a  time  become  at- 
tached, and  enables  man  again  to  expose  himself  with  impunity 
in  his  own  element. 

In  the  month  of  March,  upwards  of  800  vessels,  fitted  out 
for  the  seal-fishery,  are  extricated  from  the  icy  harbours  on  the 
east  coast  of  Newfoundland  ; — the  fields  are  now  all  in  motion, 
and  the  vessels  plunge  directly  into  the  edges  of  such  as  appear 

*  The  cuttle-fish  occurs  in  abundance  in  many  of  our  estuaries  and  coasts, 
"but  has  hitherto  been  considered  as  of  no  value.  Now  that  it  is  known  to 
form  an  excellent  bait  for  cod,  and  even  for  other  fishing,  it  is  not  to  be 
doubted  that  it  will  in  future,  in  this  country,  be  used  with  equal  advantage 
and  profit  as  a  bait  for  the  capture  of  our  cod,  ling,  &c.— Ed. 


Economical  Uses  of  the  Seal,  at  ISfewfoimdland.         39 

to  have  seals  on  them  ; — the  crews,  armed  with  heavy  firelocks 
and  bludgeons,  there  land,  and,  in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks, 
destroy  nearly  300,000  of  these  animals  for  their  fat  and  skins.* 
The  skins,  with  the  fat  which  surrounds  the  body,  are  taken  off 
together,  and  the  scalped  carcases  left  on  the  ice.  When  the 
vessels  are  loaded  with  these  scalps,  or  otherwise,  when  the  ice 
is  scattered  and  dissolved  by  the  advancing  spring,  which  it  al- 
ways is,  except  the  islands,  before  the  middle  of  May,  they  re- 
turn to  their  respective  ports  ;  the  fat  is  then  separated  from 
the  skins,  and  exposed  in  vats  to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  where, 
in  from  three  to  five  weeks,  it  is  rendered  into  the  seal-oil  of  com- 
merce *  The  field-ice  extends,  with  interruptions,  more  than 
200  miles  off  the  land,  but  the  vessels  in  general  have  not  to  go 
so  far  to  look  for  the  seals :  The  fields  are  even  met  with  at 
sea  continuous  in  a  northerly  and  southerly  direction  for  that 
extent,  at  that  distance  from  land. 

As  these  fields  of  ice  are  not  formed  at  Newfoundland,  and 
only  partially  formed  at  Labrador,  the  herds  of  seals  which  are 
found  on  them,  when  they  appear  at  these  places,  must  have 
come  from  the  sea  farther  north,  where  the  main  body  of  the 
ice  is  formed,  viz.  from  the  Greenland  Sea,  and  that  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  Davis"*  Straits.  The  Greenland  winter,  it  would  ap- 
pear, is  too  severe  for  these  animals,  and  when  it  sets  in,  they 
accompany  the  field-ice,  which  winds  and  currents  carry  south- 
ward, and  remain  on  it  until  it  is  scattered  and  dissolved  in  the 
ensuing  spring,  in  about  Lat.  43°  N.,  or  about  200  miles  south 
of  Newfoundland.  Old  and  young  of  these  animals  being  then 
deserted  in  the  ocean  by  their  birth-place,  nature  points  out  to 
them  the  course  to  their  favourite  icy  haunts,  and  thither  their 
herds  hurry  over  the  deep  to  pass  an  arctic  summer.  Winter 
returns,  and  with  it  commences  again  their  annual  migration 
from  latitude  to  latitude. 

There  are  five  different  kinds  of  seals  found  on  the  field-ice 
at  Newfoundland,  all  known  in  the  Greenland  seas.  The  three 
best  known  of  which  are,  1^^,  The  Harp  (Phoca  groenlandica), 
the  one-year  old  of  which  is  called  the  Bedlimmer ;  ^d,  The 
Hood  or  Hooded  Seal  (Phoca  leonina,)  ;  and,  3c/,  The  Square- 

*  From  3000  to  4000  tons  of  seal-oil,  according  to  the  success  of  the  fish- 
ery, is  made  annually.     The  seal-fishery  is  prosecuted  by  the  British  only. 


40        Mr  W.  E.  Cortnack  on  the  Natural  History  and 

fipper.  The  other  two  kinds  are  the  Blue  Seal,  so  called  from 
its  colour,  which  is  as  large  as  the  Hooded  Seal ;  and  the  Jar 
Seal,  so  named  from  its  form  resembling  that  of  a  jar,  thick  at 
the  shoulders,  and  tapering  off  suddenly  towards  the  tail;  head 
small,  body  4  or  5  feet  long,  the  fur  spotted,  and  it  keeps  more 
in  the  water  than  the  other  ice-seals.  These  all  differ  from 
the  shore  or  harbour-seal  (Phoca  vitulina)  of  these  coasts.  The 
ice-seals  are  alike  migratory,  and  promiscuously  gregarious  ;  they 
\iiffer  much  in  size,  and  the  flesh  of  them  all  is  very  unpalateable, 
unless  to  an  acquired  taste,  more  particularly  that  of  the  old 
ones,  differing  in  this  respect  from  the  flesh  of  the  shore-seal, 
some  parts  of  which  are  very  good.  It  remains  to  be  pro- 
ved, that  some  of  the  alleged  differences  in  the  ice-seals  do  not 
arise  from  age.  Although  the  ice-seals,  which  are  sometimes 
met  with  in  herds  of  many  leagues  in  extent  on  the  ice,  seem 
to  have  no  ordinary  means  of  subsistence,  yet  the  hand  of  un- 
erring Providence  maintains  both  old  and  young  excessively 
fat.  The  seal-hunters  often  find  fresh  capelin  and  other  ani- 
mal substances  in  their  stomachs. 

Notwithstanding  the  apparently  immense  annual  destruction 
by  man  among  the  cod  in  these  seas  for  more  than  two  centu- 
ries, it  does  not  appear  that  their  numbers  are  at  all  diminished, 
or  that  their  migrations  are  in  any  way  affected :  Nor  is  it  hkely 
that  they  ever  will  be,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  migratory  fishes 
of  Europe  that  have  been  persecuted  for  many  more  centuries, 
between  the  North  Cape  and  the  South  of  England. 

It  is  not  so,  however,  with  those  animals  which  man  can  pur- 
sue in  his  own  element ; — thus,  the  walrus  and  the  penguin, 
once  abundant,  may  be  said  now  to  have  entirely  disappeared 
from  the  Gulf  of  St  Laurence. 

As  the  persecution  of  the  seals  in  the  field-ice  increases,  which 
it  has,  every  year  since  it  commenced,  it  will  be  interesting  to 
observe,  at  some  future  day  not  far  distant,  the  effect  on  their 
numbers.  It  is  not  much  more  than  thirty  years  since  any 
vessels  ventured  out  among  the  ice  at  sea,  purposely  equipped 
and  manned  for  their  destruction. 

The  cod,  the  capelin,  and  the  cuttle-fish,  in  their  natural 
connection,  and  the  seal,  or  rather  the  cod  and  the  seal,  consti- 


Economical  Uses  of  the  Cod,  Capelin,  Cuttle-Fish,  S^c.     41 

tute  the  political  value  of  Newfoundland  and  Labrador,  and 
render  these  otherwise  desolate  and  inhospitable  regions  the  scene 
of  rivalry  of  British,  French,  and  American  national  enter- 
prise and  industry  *.  The  day  is  not  far  distant  when  vessels 
will  be  fitted  out  direct  from  Britain  for  the  seal-fishery  at 
Newfoundland. 


Description  of'  a  New  Reflecting  Telescope,  denominated  the 
Aerial  Rejlector.  By  Thomas  Dick,  Esq.  Author  of  the 
Christian  Philosopher,  &c.     Communicated  by  the  Author. 

X  HE  invention  of  the  Reflecting  Telescope  was  an  important 
improvement  on  the  long  and  unwieldy  refractors,  which  were 
in  use  among  astronomers  towards  the  close  of  the  17th  century. 
With  a  Newtonian  reflector,  only  six  feet  long,  celestial  objects 
may  be  viewed  with  as  high  a  magnifying  power,  and  with  equal 
distinctness,  as  with  a  common  refracting  telescope  of  120  feet 
in  length.  By  means  of  these  instruments,  the  late  Dr  Her- 
schel  made  those  brilliant  discoveries  which  have  extended  our 
views  of  the  solar  system,  and  of  the  grandeur  of  the  universe, 
and  which  have  rendered  his  name  immortal  in  the  annals  of  as- 
tronomy. It  was  not  a  little  singular,  however,  that  more  than 
half  a  century  elapsed,  after  the  construction  of  this  instrument 
was  suggested  by  Gregory  and  Newton,  before  any  reflecting 
telescope  of  a  size  calculated  for  celestial  observation  was  actual- 
ly constructed.  In  the  year  1663,  Mr  James  Gregory  of  Aber- 
deen pubhshed  his  account  of  the  construction  of  that  form  of 
the  reflecting  telescope,  which  bears  his  name,  in  a  treatise  en- 
titled "  Optica  promota  ;"  and  in  the  year  167^,  Sir  Isaac  New- 
ton constructed  two  small  reflecting  telescopes,  about  six  inches 

•  The  herring,  mackerel,  and  whale,  are  in  abundance  at  Newfoundland, 
and  comparatively  allowed  to  pass  unmolested.  The  herring  varies  in  size, 
from  small  to  several  pounds  weight.  The  whale  is  of  three  or  four  kinds, 
and  the  fishery  of  it  is  prosecuted  only  by  one  enterprizing  English  mercan- 
tile house  at  the  south  part  of  the  island;  the  whales  have  been  taken  up- 
wards of  70  feet  in  length,  Yielding  from  six  to  eight  tons  of  oil.  The  salmon 
abounds  in  all  the  rivers,  and  is  taken  in  large  quantities.  The  dog-fish 
sometimes  occurs  with  the  cod  in  great  numbers. 


42     Mr  Dick's  Description  of' a  neio  Reflecting  Telescope, 

in  length,  of  a  form  somewhat  different  from  th^^t  proposed  by 
Gregory,  which  he  presented  to  the  Royal  Society :  But  we 
hear  no  more  about  the  construction  of  reflectors,  till  the  year 
1723,  when  MrHadley  published^  in  No.  376  of  the  Philosophi- 
cal Transactions,  an  account  of  a  large  Newtonian  reflector, 
which  he  had  just  then  constructed,  and  which  left  no  room  to 
fear  that  this  invention  would  remain  any  longer  in  obscurity. 
The  large  speculum  of  this  instrument  was  62|  inches  focal  dis- 
tance, and  5§  inches  diameter,  was  furnished  with  magnifying 
powers  of  from  190  to  230  times,  and  equalled  in  performance, 
the  famous  aerial  telescope  of  Huygens  of  123  feet  in  length  *. 
Since  this  period,  the  reflecting  telescope  has  been  in  general 
use  among  astronomers  in  most  countries  of  Europe,  and  has 
received  numerous  improvements,  under  the  direction  of  Short, 
Mudge,  Edwards  and  Herschel,  the  last  of  whom  constructed 
reflectors  of  7,  10,  20,  and  even  40  feet  in  focal  length,  which 
far  surpassed  in  brightness  and  magnifying  power,  all  the  instru- 
ments of  this  description,  which  had  previously  been  attempted. 
Having  constructed  and  made  a  variety  of  experiments  on 
small  Gregorian  reflectors,  I  was  generally  disappointed  in  my 
expectations  of  the  effects  produced  by  their  performance ;  and 
had  always  recourse  to  achromatic  telescopes,  both  in  terres- 
trial and  celestial  observations,  where  brightness,  distinctness  and 
accuracy,  were  required.  This  might  be  owing,  in  part,  to  a  de- 
ficiency in  the  figure  and  polish  of  the  specula  I  made  use  of 
in  these  instruments ;  but  in  all  the  Gregorian  telescopes  I  have 
had  occasion  to  use,  there  is  a  certain  degree  of  dinginess  and 
obscurity,  which  renders  their  performance  less  pleasant,  and 
far  inferior  to  that  of  good  achromatic  refractors.  About  four 
years  ago,  an  old  speculum,  27  inches  in  focal  distance,  very  im- 
perfectly polished,  having  accidentally  come  into  my  possession, 
and  feeling  no  inclination  to  fit  it  up  in  the  Gregorian  form,  I 
formed  the  resolution  of  throwing  aside  the  small  speculum,  and 
attempting  the  front  view,  notwithstanding  the  uniform  asser- 
tion of  opticians,  that  such  an  attempt  in  instruments  of  a  small 
size  is  impracticable.     I  had  some  grounds  for  expecting  suc- 

*  A  particular  description  of  this  telescope,  with  the  machinery  for  moving  it, 
illustrated  with  an  engraving,  may  he  seen  in  Reid  and  Gray's  "  Abridgment  of 
the  Phil.  Transactions,"  vol.  vi.  part  i.  p.  147. 


denorninated  the  Aerial  Reflector .  43 

cess  in  tliis  attempt,  from  several  experiments  I  had  previously 
made,  particularly  from  some  modifications  I  had  made  in  the 
construction  of  astronomical  eye-pieces,  which  have  a  tendency 
to  correct  the  aberration  of  the  rays  of  light,  when  they  proceed 
somewhat  obliquely  from  a  lens  or  speculum. 

In  the  first  instance,  I  placed  the  speculum  at  the  one  end  of 
a  tube,  of  the  form  of  a  segment  of  a  cone,  the  end  next  the  eye 
being  somewhat  wider  than  that  at  which  the  speculum  was  fix- 
ed, and  its  length  about  an  inch  shorter  than  the  focal  distance  of 
the  mirror.  A  small  tube  for  receiving  the  different  eye-pieces  was 
fixed  in  the  inside  of  the  large  tube,  at  the  end  opposite  to  the 
speculum,  and  connected  with  an  apparatus,  by  which  it]could  oc- 
casionally be  moved  either  in  a  vertical  or  a  horizontal  direction. 
With  the  instrument  fitted  up  in  this  manner,  I  obtained 
some  very  pleasant  and  interesting  viev^^s  of  the  moon,  and  of 
terrestrial  objects.  But  finding  that  one  side  of  the  tube  inter- 
cepted a  considerable  portion  of  light  from  the  object,  I  deter- 
mined to  throw  aside  the  tube  altogether,  and  to  fit  up  the  in- 
strument on  a  different  plan.  A  short  mahogany  tube,  about 
three  inches  long,  was  prepared,  to  serve  as  a  socket  for  holding 
the  speculum.  To  the  side  of  this  tube  an  arm  was  attached, 
about  the  length  of  the  focal  distance  of  the  mirror,  at  the  ex- 
tremity of  which  a  brass  tube,  for  receiving  the  eye-pieces,  was 
fixed,  connected  with  screws  and  sockets,  by  which  it  might  be 
raised  or  depressed,  and  turned  to  the  right  hand  or  to  the  left, 
and  with  adjusting  apparatus,  by  which  it  might  be  brought 
nearer  to  or  farther  from  the  speculum. 

Plate  I.  Fig.  1.  Exhibits  a  general  representation  of  the  in- 
strument in  profile.  AB  is  the  short  tube  which  holds  the  spe- 
culum ;  CD  the  arm  which  carries  the  eye-tubes,  which  consists 
of  two  distinct  pieces  of  mahogany  ;  the  part  D  being  capable 
of  sliding  along  the  under  side  of  C,  through  the  brass  sockets 
EF.  To  the  under  part  of  the  socket  F  is  attached  a  brass 
nut,  with  a  female  screw,  in  which  the  male  screw  a  h,  acts,  by 
applying  the  hand  to  the  knob  c,  which  serves  for  adjusting  the 
instrument  to  distinct  vision.  G  is  the  brass  tube  which  receives 
the  eye-pieces.  It  is  supported  by  a  strong  brass  wire  de,  which 
passes  through  a  nut  connected  with  another  strong  wire,  which 
passes  through  the  arm  D.     By  means  of  the  nut  /,  this  tube 


'44     Mr  Dick's  Description  of  a  New  lieflecting  Telescope, 

maybe  elevated  or  depressed,  and  firmly  fixed  in  its  proper  posi- 
tion ;  and  by  tlie  nut  g^  it  may  be  brought  nearer  to,  or  farther 
from,  the  arm  D.  By  the  same  apparatus,  it  is  also  rendered 
capable  of  being  moved  either  in  a  vertical  or  a  horizontal  direc- 
tion: but  when  it  is  once  adjusted  to  its  proper  position,  it  must 
be  firmly  fixed,  and  requires  no  farther  attention.  The  eye-piece 
represented  in  this  figure,  is  the  one  used  for  terrestrial  objects, 
which  consists  of  the  tubes  belonging  to  a  small  achromatic  tele- 
scope. When  an  astronomical  eye-piece  is  used,  the  length  of 
the  instrument  extends  only  to  the  point  I.  In  looking  through 
this  telescope,  the  right  eye  is  applied  at  the  point  H,  and  the 
observer's  head  is  understood  to  be  uncovered.  For  those  who 
use  only  the  left  eye,  the  arm  would  require  to  be  placed  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  tube,  or  the  tube,  along  with  the  arm,  be 
made  to  turn  round  180  degrees. 

Fig.  2.  Represents  a  front  or  rather  an  oblique  view  of  the 
instrument,  in  which  the  position  of  the  speculum  may  be  seen. 
All  the  specula  which  I  have  fitted  up  in  this  form,  having  been 
originally  intended  for  Gregorian  reflectors,  have  holes  in  their 
centres.  The  eye-piece  is,  therefore,  directed  to  a  point  nearly 
equidistant  from  the  hole  to  the  exterior  edge  of  the  speculum, 
that  is,  to  the  point  a.  In  one  of  these  instruments  fitted  up 
with  a  four  feet  speculum,  the  line  of  vision  is  directed  to  the 
point  5,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  speculum ;  but,  in  this  case, 
the  eye-tube  is  removed  farther  from  the  arm,  than  in  the  for- 
mer case.  The  hole  in  the  centre  of  the  speculum  is  obviously 
a  defect  in  this  construction  of  a  reflecting  telescope,  as  it  pre- 
vents us  from  obtaining  the  full  advantage  of  the  rays,  which 
fall  near  the  centre  of  the  mirror  ;  yet,  the  performance  of  the 
instruments,  even  with  this  disadvantage,  is  superior  to  what  we 
should  previously  have  been  led  to  expect. 

The  principal  nicety  in  the  construction  of  this  instrument, 
consists  in  the  adjustment  and  proper  direction  of  the  eye-tube. 
There  is  only  one  position,  in  which  vision  will  be  perfectly  dis- 
tinct. It  must  neither  be  too  high  nor  too  low, — it  must  be  fix- 
ed at  a  certain  distance  from  the  arm, — and  must  be  directed 
to  a  certain  point  of  the  speculum.  This  position  must  be  ulti- 
mately determined  by  experiment,  when  viewing  terrestrial  ob- 
jects.    A  ^)erson  unacquainted  with  this  construction  of  the  te- 


denominated  the  Aerial  Reflector.  45 

lescope,  would,  perhaps,  find  it  difficult,  in  the  first  instance,  to 
make  this  adjustment;  but,  were  it  at  any  time  deranged, 
through  accident  or  otherwise,  I  can  easily  make  the  adjustment 
a-new,  in  the  course  of  five  or  six  minutes. 

In  pointing  this  telescope  to  the  object  intended  to  be  viewed,  the 
eye  is  applied  at  K  (fig.  1.),  and  looking  along  the  arm,  towards 
the  eye-piece,  till  it  nearly  coincide  with  the  object,  it  will,  in 
most  cases,  be  readily  found.  In  this  way  I  can  easily  point  this 
instrument  to  Jupiter  or  Saturn,  or  to  any  of  the  other  planets 
visible  to  the  naked  eye,  even  when  a  power  of  170  or  180  times 
is  applied.  When  high  magnifying  powers,  however,  are  used, 
it  is  expedient  to  fix,  on  the  upper  part  of  the  short  tube  in 
which  the  speculum  rests,  a  finder,  such  as  that  which  is  used  in 
Nevvtonian  telescopes.  When  the  moon  is  the  object  intended 
to  be  viewed,  she  may  be  instantly  found  by  moving  the  instru- 
ment till  her  reflected  image  be  seen  from  the  eye-end  of  the  te- 
lescope on  the  face  of  the  mirror. 

I  have  fitted  up  five  or  six  instruments  of  the  above  descrip- 
tion, with  specula  of  8,  16,  27,  35,  and  49  inches  focal  distance. 
One  of  these  having  a  speculum  eight  inches  focus,  and  two  in- 
ches diameter,  with  a  terrestrial  eye-piece,  magnifying  about  24 
times,  forms  an  excellent  parlour  telescope,  for  viewing  land  ob- 
jects, and  exhibits  them  in  a  brilliant  and  novel  aspect.  When 
compared  with  a  small  Gregorian,  of  the  same  size  and  magnify- 
ing power,  the  quantity  of  light  upon  the  object  appears  nearly 
doubled,  and  the  image  is  equally  distinct.  It  represents  ob- 
jects in  their  natural  colours,  without  that  dingy  and  yellowish 
tinge  which  appears  when  looking  through  a  Gregorian.  Ano- 
ther of  these  instruments,  having  a  speculum  of  27  inches  focal 
distance,  and  an  astronomical  eye-piece,  producing  a  magnifying 
power  of  about  100  times,  serves  as  an  excellent  astronomical  te- 
lescope. By  this  instrument  the  belts  and  satellites  of  Jupiter, 
the  ring  of  Saturn,  and  the  mountains  and  cavities  of  the  Moon, 
may  be  contemplated  with  great  ease  and  distinctness.  With  a 
magnifying  power  of  40  times,  terrestrial  objects  appear  extreme- 
ly bright  and  well  defined.  Another  of  these  instruments  is  a- 
bout  4  feet  long.  The  speculum  which  belongs  to  it  is  a  very 
old  one  :  when  it  came  into  my  possession,  it  was  so  completely 
tarnished,  as  scarcely  to  reflect  a  ray  of  light.    After  it  was  clean- 


46     Mr  Dick's  Description  of  a  New  Reflecting  Telescope, 

ed,  it  appeared  to  be  scarcely  half-polished,  and  its  surface  is 
variegated  with  yellowish  stains,  which  cannot  be  erazed.  AVere 
it  fitted  up  upon  the  Gregorian  plan,  it  would,  I  presume,  be  of 
very  little  use,  unless  when  a  very  small  magnifying  power  was 
applied.  Yet,  in  its  present  form,  it  bears,  with  great  distinct- 
ness, a  magnifying  power  of  J  70  times,  and  is  superior  in  its  per- 
formance to  a  4  feet  achromatic  refractor,  with  a  similar  magni- 
fying power.  It  exhibits  very  distinct  and  interesting  views  of 
the  diversities  of  shade,  and  of  the  mountains,  vales,  caverns, 
and  other  inequalities  of  the  moon^s  surface.  The  smallest  in- 
strument I  have  fitted  up  on  this  plan  is  one  whose  speculum  is 
only  5i  inches  focal  distance,  and  1|  inches  diameter.  With  a 
magnifying  power  of  about  1 5  times,  it  shows  land  objects  with 
great  distinctness  and  brilliancy.  But  I  would  deem  it  inexpe- 
dient to  fit  up  any  instrument  of  this  description,  with  specula 
of  a  shorter  focal  distance  than  10  or  12  inches. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  properties  and  advantages  pe- 
culiar to  this  construction  of  the  reflecting  telescope. 

1.  It  is  extremely  simple,  and  may  be  fitted  up  at  a  compara- 
tively small  expence.  Instead  of  large  and  expensive  brass 
tubes,  such  as  are  used  in  the  Gregorian  and  Newtonian  con- 
struction, little  more  is  required  than  a  short  mahogany  tube, 
2  or  3  inches  long,  to  serve  as  a  socket  for  the  speculum,  with 
an  arm  about  the  focal  length  of  the  mirror.  The  expence  of 
small  specula,  either  plain  or  concave,  is  saved,  together  with 
the  numerous  screws,  springs,  &c.  for  centring  the  two  specu- 
la, and  placing  the  small  mirror  parallel  to  the  large  one.  The 
only  adjustment  requisite  in  tliis  construction,  is  that  of  the  eye- 
tube  to  the  speculum  ;  and,  by  means  of  the  simple  apparatus 
already  described,  it  can  be  effected  in  the  course  of  a  few  mi- 
nutes. Almost  the  whole  expence  of  the  instrument  consists  in 
the  price  of  the  speculum  and  the  eye-pieces.  The  expence  of 
fitting  up  the  four  feet  speculum,  alluded  to  above,  including 
mahogany  tube  and  arm,  brass  sockets,  screws,  eye-tube,  brass 
joint,  and  a  cast-iron  stand,  painted  and  varnished,  did  not 
amount  to  L.  1,  7s.  A  Gregorian  of  the  same  size  would  have 
required  a  brass  tube  at  least  4|  feet  in  length,  which  would 
cost  four  or  five  guineas,  besides  the  apparatus  connected  with 
the  small  speculum,  and  the  additional  expence  connected  with 

9 


denominated  the  Aerial  Reflector.  47 

the  fitting  up  of  the  joint  and  stand  requisite  for  supporting  and 
steadying  so  unwieldy  an  instrument.  While  the  one  instru- 
ment would  require  two  persons  to  carry  it  from  one  room  to 
another,  and  would  occupy  a  considerable  portion  of  an  ordinary 
apartment,  the  other  can  be  moved,  with  the  utmost  ease,  to  any 
moderate  distance,  and  the  space  it  occupies  is  scarcely  known. 

2.  It  is  more  convenient  ^br  viewing  celestial  objects  at  a 
high  altitude  than  any  other  telescope. — When  we  look  through 
a  Gregorian  reflector,  or  an  achromatic  telescope  of  4  or  5 
feet  in  length,  to  an  object  elevated  50°  or  60°  above  the  ho- 
rizon, the  body  requires  to  be  placed  in  an  uneasy  and  dis- 
torted position,  and  the  eye  is  somewhat  strained,  while  the  ob- 
servation is  continued.  But,  when  observing  similar  objects 
by  the  Aerial  Reflector^  we  can  either  stand  perfectly  erect, 
or  sit  on  a  chair,  with  the  same  ease  as  we  sit  at  a  desk  when 
reading  a  book  or  writing  a  letter.  In  this  way,  the  sur- 
face of  the  moon,  or  of  any  of  the  planets,  may  be  contemplated 
for  an  hour  or  two,  without  the  least  weariness  or  fatigue.  A 
delineation  of  the  lunar  surface  may  be  taken  by  this  instrument, 
with  more  ease  and  accuracy  than  with  any  other  telescope,  as 
the  observer  can  sketch  the  outline  of  the  object  by  one  eye,  on 
a  tablet  placed  a  little  below  the  eye-piece,  while  the  other  eye  is 
looking  at  the  object.  For  the  purpose  of  accommodating  the 
instrument  to  a  sitting  or  a  standing  posture,  I  caused  a  small 
table  to  be  constructed,  capable  of  being  elevated  or  depressed 
at  pleasure,  on  which  the  stand  of  the  telescope  is  placed.  When 
the  telescope  is  4  or  5  feet  long,  and  the  object  at  a  very  high 
elevation,  the  instrument  may  be  placed  on  the  floor  of  the  apart- 
ment, and  the  observer  will  stand  in  an  erect  position. 

3.  This  instrument  is  considerably  shorter  than  a  Gregorian 
telescope,  whose  large  mirror  is  of  the  same  focal  length.  When 
an  astronomical  eye-piece  is  used,  the  whole  length  of  the  instru- 
ment is  nothing  more  than  the  focal  length  of  the  speculum. 
But  a  Gregorian,  whose  large  speculum  is  4  feet  focus,  will  ex^ 
ceed  5  feet  in  length,  including  the  eye-piece. 

4.  The  "  aerial  reflector""  far  excels  the  Gregorian  in  bright- 
ness. The  want  of  light  in  Gregorians  is  owing  to  the  second 
reflection  from  the  small  mirror ;  for,  it  has  been  fuUy  proved  by 
experiment,  that,  about  the  one-half  of  the  rays  of  light  which, 


48      Mr  Dick's  Description  of  a  New-  Reflecting  Telescope, 

fall  upon  a  reflecting  surface,  is  lost  by  a  second  reflection.  The 
image  of  the  object  may  also  be  presumed  to  be  more  correct,  as 
it  is  not  liable  to  any  distortion  by  being  reflected  from  another 
speculum.  ^ 

5.  There  is  less  tremor  in  these  telescopes  than  in  Gregorian 
reflectors.  One  cause,  among  others,  I  presume,  of  the  tremors 
which  afffect  Gregorians,  is  the  formation  of  a  second  image  at  a 
great  distance  from  the  first,  besides  that  which  arises  from  the 
elastic  tremor  of  the  small  speculum,  when  carried  by  an  arm 
supported  only  at  one  end.  But,  as  the  image  formed  by  the 
speculum,  in  the  aerial  telescope,  is  viewed  directly,  without  be- 
ing exposed  to  any  subsequent  reflection,  it  is  not  so  liable  to 
the  tremors  which  are  so  frequently  experienced  in  other  reflect- 
ing telescopes.  Notwithstanding  the  length  of  the  arm  of  the 
four  feet  telescope  above  mentioned,  a  celestial  object  appears  re- 
markably steady,  when  passing  across  the  field  of  view,  especial- 
ly when  it  is  at  a  moderate  degree  of  altitude ;  and  it  is  easily 
kept  in  the  field  by  a  gentle  motion  applied  to  the  arm  of  the 
instrument. 

The  specula  used  in  all  the  instruments  to  which  I  have  alluded 
above,  are  far  from  being  good,  being  of  a  yellowish  colour,  and 
some  of  them  scarcely  half  polished.  They  have  likewise  large 
holes  in  their  centre,  as  they  were  originally  intended  for  Grego- 
rian telescopes.  Were  they  fitted  up  in  the  Gregorian  form, 
they  would  be  of  little  use,  unless  with  small  degrees  of  magni- 
fying power.  Yet,  with  all  these  imperfections,  they  exhibit  the 
object  with  more  brightness  and  accuracy  than  the  generality  of 
reflectors ;  and  therefore  I  have  no  doubt  that,  were  instruments 
of  this  construction  fitted  up  with  specula  of  the  best  figure  and 
polish,  they  would  equal,  if  not  surpass  in  brilliancy  and  distinct- 
ness, the  general  run  of  achromatic  telescopes. 

In  prosecuting  my  experiments  in  relation  to  these  instru- 
ments, I  wished  to  ascertain  what  effect  might  be  produced  by 
using  a  part  of  a  speculum  instead  of  the  whole.  For  this  pur- 
pose, I  cut  a  speculum,  three  feet  in  focal  length,  through  the 
center,  so  as  to  divide  it  into  two  equal  parts,  and  fitted  up  each 
part  as  a  distinct  telescope ;  so  that  I  obtained  two  telescopes 
from  one  speculum.  In  this  case,  I  found  that  each  half  of  the 
speculum  performed  as  well  as  the  whole  speculum  had  done 

2 


denominated  the  Aerial  Reflector.  49 

before ;  at  least  there  appeared  to  be  no  sensible  diminution  in 
the  brightness  of  the  object,  and  the  image  was  equally  accurate 
and  distinct ;  so  that,  if  economy  were  a  particular  object  aimed 
at  in  the  construction  of  these  instruments,  two  good  telescopes 
might  be  obtained  from  one  speculum.  I  have  also  some 
reason  to  believe,  that  instruments  of  this  kind  might  be 
fitted  up  with  glass  specula.  My  opinion  on  tliis  point,  how- 
ever, is  not  quite  decisive,  owing  to  the  want  of  glass  specula  of 
a  proper  figure  and  focal  distance,  on  which  to  try  the  experi- 
ments. With  a  glass  speculum,  however,  about  11  inches  focal 
distance,  and  whose  figure  was  obviously  somewhat  incorrect,  I 
have  seen  distant  objects  tolerably  distinct  and  weU-defined,  with 
magnifying  powers  of  from  12  to  20  times. 
,/  From  the  experiments  I  have  made  in  reference  to  these  in- 
struments, it  is  demonstrable,  that  a  tube  is  not  necessary  in  the 
construction  of  a  reflecting  telescope,  whether  it  be  used  for 
viewing  celestial  or  terrestrial  objects ;  and,  therefore,  were  a  re- 
flecting telescope  of  50  or  60  feet  in  length  to  be  constructed,  it 
might  be  fitted  up  at  a  comparatively  small  expence,  after  the 
charge  of  casting,  grinding,  and  polishing  the  speculum  is  de- 
frayed. The  largest  instrument  of  this  description  which  has 
hitherto  been  constructed  is  the  40  feet  reflector  of  Dr  Herschel. 
This  compHcated  and  most  unwieldy  instrument  has  a  tube  of 
rolled  or  sheet  iron  39  feet  4  inches  in  length,  and  4  feet  10  inches 
in  diameter,  which  weighs  several  thousands  of  pounds ;  and  it 
has  been  computed  that  a  wooden  tube,  for  the  same  purpose, 
would  have  exceeded  this  in  weight  by  at  least  3000  pounds. 
Now,  I  conceive,  that  such  enormous  tubes  in  instruments  of 
such  dimensions,  are  altogether  unnecessary.  Nothing  more  is 
requisite  than  a  short  tube  for  holding  the  speculum.  Connect- 
ed with  one  side  of  this  tube  (or  with  both  sides  were  it  found 
necessary),  two  strong  bars  of  wood,  projecting  a  few  feet  be- 
yond the  speculum  end  of  the  tube,  and  extending  in  front  as 
far  as  the  focal  length  of  the  mirror,  and  connected  by  cross  bars 
of  wood,  iron,  or  brass,  would  be  quite  sufficient  for  a  support 
to  the  eye-piece,  and  for  directing  the  motion  of  the  instrument. 
A  telescope  of  40  or  50  feet  in  length,  constructed  on  this  plan, 
would  not  ^require  one-fifth  of  the  expence,  nor  oixe-fourth  of  the 
apparatus  .aAd^n^echamcalpa^^  it  to  any  required 

APRIL JULY  1826,  ■'        ^'  D 


50       Mr  Dick's  Description  of  a  New  Reflecting  Telescope^ 

position,  which  were  found  necessary  in  the  construction  of  Dr 
Herschers  large  reflecting  telescope  *.  With  regard  to  telescopes 
^^  Waller  dimensions,  as  from  5  to  15  feet  focal  length,  with  the 
exception  of  the  expence  of  the  specula  and  eye-pieces;  they 
might  be  fitted  up  for  a  sum  not  greater  than  from  2  to  5  or  6 
guineas. 

Were  any  person  to  attempt  the  construction  of  these  tele- 
scopes, in  the  mean  time,  it  is  not  hkely  he  would  succeed,  with- 
out more  minute  directions  than  I  have  yet  given.  The  astro- 
nomical eye-pieces  used  in  the  aerial  telescope,  have  a  particUar 
modification,  which  is  essentially  requisite  to  distinctness  of  vi- 
sion ;  and,  therefore,  were  any  one  to  try  the  experiment  with  a 
common  astronomical  eye-piece,  he  would  most  probably  feel 
disappointed  in  the  performance  of  the  instrument.  A  descrip- 
tion of  the  peculiarity  of  the  eye-piece  to  which  I  allude,  with 
other  particulars  in  relation  to  these  instruments,  I  deem  it  ex- 
pedient, for  certain  reasons,  to  postpone  to  a  future  opportu- 
nity. 

I  have  sometimes  used  these  instruments  for  the  purpose  of 
viewing  perspective  prints,  which  they  exhibit  in  a  beautiful  and 
interesting  manner.  If  a  coloured  perspective  be  placed  at  one 
■end  of  a  large  room,  and  strongly  illuminated  with  two  candles, 
and  one  of  those  reflectors,  furnished  with  a  small  magnifying 
power,  placed  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  room,  the  representation 
of  a  street  or  a  landscape  will  be  seen  in  its  true  perspective, 
and  will  appear  even  more  pleasant  and  interesting  than  when 
viewed  through  the  common  optical  diagonal  machine.  If  an 
inverting  eye-piece  be  used,  which  is  most  eligible  in  this  expe- 
riment, the  print,  of  course,  must  be  placed  in  an  inverted  posi- 
tion. 

That  reflecting  telescopes  of  the  description  now  stated  are 
original  in  their  construction,  appears  from  the  uniform  language 
of  optical  writers,  some  of  whom  have  pronounced  such  attempts 
to  be  altogether  impracticable.     Dr  Brewster,  one  of  the  latest 

•  The  idea  here  suggested  will  perhaps  be  more  readily  appreciated,  by  an  in- 
spection of  Plate  I.  Fig.  3,  where  A  is  the  short  tube,  BC  and  DE  the  two  large 
bars  or  arms,  connected  with  cross  bars,  for  the  purpose  of  securing  strength 
and  steadiness.  At  F  and  G,  behind  the  speculum,  weights  might  be  applied, 
tf  necessary,  for  counterbalancing  the  lever-power  of  the  long  arm. 


Eihrir  vew  Ffu'l.  Jo  urn .  7 .  SO. 


B4t.6. 


hy^Jfl/udi^  SdurimyA  /Jf26. 


H^Jf,Li}tars 


denominated  the  Aerial  Reflector.  51 

and  most  respectable  writers  on  this  subject,  in  the  Edinburgh 
Encyclopaedia,  art.  Optics,  and  in  the  last  edition  of  his  Appendix 
to  "  Ferguson''s  Lectures,"  has  the  following  remarks : — "  If  we 
could  dispense  with  the  use  of  the  small  specula  in  telescopes  of 
moderate  length,  by  inclining  the  great  speculum,  and  using  an 
obhque,  and  consequently  a  distorted  reflector,  as  proposed  first 
by  La  Maire,  we  should  consider  the  Newtonian  telescope  as 
perfect ;  and,  on  a  large  scale,  or  when  the  instrument  exceeds 
20  feet,  it  has  undoubtedly  this  character,  as  nothing  can  be 
more  simple  than  to  magnify,  by  a  single  eye-glass,  the  image 
formed  by  a  single  speculum.  As  the  front  view  is  quite  im- 
practicable, and  indeed  has  never  been  attempted  in  instruments 
of  a  small  size,  it  becomes  of  great  practical  consequence  to  re- 
move, as  much  as  possible,  the  evils  which  arise  from  the  use  of 
a  small  speculum,"  &c. 

The  instruments  now  described  have  effectuated  the  desirable 
object  alluded  to  by  this  distinguished  philosopher ;  and  the  mode 
of  construction  is  neither  that  of  Dr  HerschePs  front  view,  nor 
does  it  coincide  with  that  proposed  by  La  Maire,  which  appears 
to  have  been  a  mere  hint  that  was  never  reahzed  in  the  construc- 
tion of  reflecting  telescopes  of  a  small  size.  The  simplicity  of 
the  construction  of  these  instruments,  and  the  excellence  of  their 
performance,  have  been  much  admired  by  several  scientific  gen- 
tlemen, and  others  to  whom  they  have  been  exhibited ;  and  so 
much  am  I  convinced  of  their  utiHty,  that  I  have  dismantled 
every  other  Gregorian  telescope  I  had  in  my  possession,  and 
fitted  it  up  in  the  form  now  described ;  and  I  seldom  use  any 
other  telescope  either  in  terrestrial  or  celestial  observations.  As 
it  is  distinguished  from  every  other  telescope,  in  being  used 
without  a  tube,  I  have  chosen  to  denominate  it  "  The  Aerial 
Reflector  "^r 

Perth,  April  1826. 

•  A  caveat  has  been  lodged  at  the  patent  office,  in  the  view  of  taking  out 
^  patent  for  this  construction  of  the  reflecting  telescope.  A  brief  notice  of  it 
was  published,  about  three  years  since,  in  the  Appendix  to  a  work  entitled, 
"  The  Christian  Philosopher.' 

2  D  2 


f52  Mr  H.  H.  Blackadder  on  the  Combustion  of 

On  the  Combustion  of  Alcoholic  Fluids,  Oils,  S^-c.  in  Lamps,  with 
observatiwis  on  the  Colour  and  Constitution  of  Flame  *,  By 
Henry  Home  Blackadder,  Esq.  F.  R.  S.  E.  Communi- 
cated by  the  Author. 

1 . — Of  Lamps  xvithout  Wicks. 

J\,  POROUS  or  filamentous  substance,  that  has  the  property  of 
raising  fluids  by  capillary  attraction,  has  hitherto  been  consider- 
ed an  essential  part  of  a  lamp  for  burning  oils  or  alcoholic  fluids ; 
and  this  part  of  the  lamp,  termed  the  wick,  has  been  made  of 
various  vegetable  and  mineral  substances,  such  as  cotton,  lint, 
moss,  asbestus,  mica,  small  wires,  &c.  All  combustible  fluids, 
however,  that  are  commonly  employed  for  producing  light  or 
heat,  may  be  burned  with  advantage  in  a  lamp,  without  making 
use  of  any  wick.  For  this  purpose,  it  is  only  requisite  to  have 
a  burner  in  the  form  of  a  tube,  and  made  of  a  substance  that  is 
incombustible,  and  a  slow  conductor  of  heat ;  and,  perhaps,  it 
would  scarcely  be  anticipated  how  well  glass  and  other  slow  con- 
ductors are  adapted  for  burners  of  this  description,  or  how  easily 
such  a  lamp  may  be  constructed.  In  their  construction  provi- 
sion must  be  made  for  a  constant  supply  of  fluid  to  the  burner, 
without  the  influence  of  capillary  attraction  ;  and  this  is  effected 
by  having  the  burner  so  placed,  as  to  be  lower  than  the  reser- 
voir, the  supply  being  regulated  by  a  stop-cock  or  valve,  or  by 
duly  proportioning  the  size  of  the  connecting  tube.  Lamps  of 
this  description  may  be  made  of  almost  any  form,  and  of  almost 
any  solid  material ;  it  being  only  essential,  as  already  stated, 
that  the  burner  be  a  tube  made  of  an  incombustible  and  slow 
conducting  substance.  For  alcoholic  fluids,  the  length  of  the 
burner  does  not  necessarily  exceed  an  inch  ;  and  for  oils,  it  may 
be  reduced  to  the  half  or  the  fourth  of  that  length.  In  Plate  I. 
Fig.  5.  is  represented  a  convenient  and  easily  constructed  lamp  for 
the  combustion  of  alcoholic  fluids.  It  consistsof  a  small  glass  globe, 

•  The  first  part  of  this  paper  is  an  extract  from  a  paper  read  before  the  Royal 
Society,  1st  May  1826.  On  that  occasion,  some  of  the  facts  noticed  in  the  se- 
cond pan  were,  cursorily  adverted  to. 


Alcoholic  Fluids,  Oils,  fSfc.  in  Lamps.  b^ 

and  a  bent  glass-tube,  supported  on  a  metallic  stand  or  frame.  The 
tube  is  of  the  size  used  for  thermometers ;  its  interior  diameter 
being  aboiit  one-fortieth  of  an  inch.  It  is  passed  through  an  elastic 
piece  of  cork,  which  is  cemented  into  the  lower  part  of  the  glass- 
globe,  and  surroimded  by  a  cx)llar  of  metal :  in  this  way  the  tube 
may  be  readily  slid  up  or  down,  without  allowing  any  of  the 
fluid  to  escape  between  it  and  the  cork.  When  the  extremity 
of  the  tube  is  above  the  surface  of  the  fluid,  none  of  the  latter 
can  escape  through  it ;  and  when  the  lamp  is  to  be  used,  the 
tube  is  drawn  down,  as  represented  in  Fig.  5. ;  the  degree 
of  its  depression  being  regulated  by  the  size  of  the  flame  that  is 
wished  to  be  produced.  When  a  low  flame  is  required,  the  ho- 
rizontal part  of  the  tube  is  cemented  to  a  low  flat  stand  ;  and 
when  the  lamp  is  to  be  lighted,  the  fluid  is  made  to  flow,  by 
drawing  up  the  reservoir,  instead  of,  as  in  the  former  case,  draw- 
ing down  the  tube.  For  occasional  purposes,  a  tube  bent,  so  as 
to  form  a  syphon,  and  passed  through  a  cork  in  the  neck  of  a 
phial  containing  the  fluid,  constitutes  a  very  convenient  lamp. 
When,  with  a  lamp  of  any  form,  it  is  wished  to  produce  a  large 
flame,  it  is  only  necessary  to  increase  the  number  of  the  burners  ;* 
and  in  this  way  the  degree  of  heat  can  be  regulated  at  pleasure, 
and  with  great  accuracy.  The  advantages,  &c.  resulting  from 
the  combustion  of  alcoholic  fluids  in  a  lamp  without  a  wick,  will 
afterwards  be  considered. 

A  lamp  for  burning  oils,  for  the  purpose  of  illumination,  is 
constructed  on  the  same  principle  as  that  for  burning  alcoholic 
fluids.  The  reservoir  may  be  made  of  metal,  or  of  plain,  cut, 
or  coloured  glass,  so  as  to  produce  a  beautiful  effect.  And  a 
fine  green,  red,  or  yellow  colour,  can  easily  be  communicated  to 
spermaceti  oil,  producing  the  same  effect  as  coloured  glass.  The* 
form  represented.  Fig.  6.,  which  may  be  modified  according  to 
taste,  having  additional  branches,  &c.  may,  perhaps,  be  found 
as  suitable  as  any  other.  One  that  contains  from  one  to  two 
ounces  of  oil,  and  whose  burner  is  not  larger  than  an  ordinary 
bugle  bead,  burns  for  eight  or  ten  hours ;  and  will  enable  most 
persons  to  read  or  write.  A  lamp  of  this  description  has  conti- 
nued burning  three  days  and  a  half,  or  eighty-four  hours,  with- 
out having  been  touched;  and  the  small  conical  crust,  which 
formed  on  the  burner,  did  not  amount  to  two  grains,  though  the' 


Bi  Mr  H.  H.  Blackadder  07i  the  Combustion  of 

oil  was  of  the  inferior  quality  that  is  sold  under  the  name  of 
whale  oil.  When  a  greater  degree  of  illumination  is  required, 
the  number  of  burners,  and  capacity  of  the  reservoir,  must  be 
increased  in  proportion.  It  will  be  found,  that  a  lamp  of  this 
description  is  as  readily  lighted  as  a  candle,  or  lamp  with  a 
wick ;  and  the  burner  may  be  such  as  to  produce  a  flame  that  is 
a  mere  luminous  point  in  a  dark  apartment,  or  only  a  blue  speck, 
that  is  invisible  at  a  short  distance  ;  or  such  as  to  give  a  flame 
similar  to  that  of  an  argand  lamp  with  a  wick.  This  last  may 
be  effected,  either  by  two  short  and  wide  tubes,  having  an  ar- 
rangement similar  to  the  metallic  wick-holder  of  an  argand  lamp, 
or  by  means  of  small  short  tubes,  placed  nearly  in  contact,  and 
in  the  form  of  a  circle. 

A  convenient  small  hand-lamp,  for  occasional  purposes,  and 
either  for  burning  oil  or  alcoholic  fluids,  is  made,  by  fixing  a 
long  tube  in  the  mouth  of  a  small  bag,  formed  of  caoutchouc,  or 
other  impervious  substance  ;  the  burner  being  supplied  by  the 
pressure  of  the  hand. 

When  a  thin  narrow  collar  of  metal  is  attached  to  the  mouth 
of  a  burner,  so  as  to  project  in  the  form  of  a  small  cup,  the  re- 
semblance of  the  flame  then  produced,  to  that  of  a  gas-lamp,  is 
so  complete  as  readily  to  deceive  those  who  are  not  aware  of  the 
presence  of  oil.  If  the  collar  be  made  of  impure  silver,  and  the 
lamp  has  not  recently  been  used,  the  flame,  when  first  lighted, 
has  a  green  colour ;  but  this  adventitious  colour  disappears  in 
the  course  of  a  few  seconds,  when  the  metal  acquires  a  red  heat. 
In  the  practical  line  this  modification  of  the  wickless  lamp  is  par- 
ticularly deserving  of  attention. 

Various  attempts  were  made  to  take  advantage  of  the  capillary 
attraction  of  tubes,  for  maintaining  a  constant  supply  of  oil  to 
the  burner,  which  at  first  proved  unsuccessful ;  and  the  want  of 
success  was  attributed  to  the  well  known  fact,  that,  however  high 
a  fluid  may  rise  in  a  tube,  by  capillary  attraction,  it  will  in  no 
instance  rise,  so  as  to  flow  from  its  upper  orifice.  This,  how- 
ever, was  found  to  be  incorrect ;  for  a  small  perforated  disk  of 
mica,  having  a  small  tube  cemented  into  the  perforation  at  its 
centre,  will  constitute  a  burner  of  this  description.  When  such 
a  burner  is  placed,  so  as  to  float  on  the  surface  of  oil,  the  oil 
rises  by  capillary  attraction,  and  fills  the  tube.     If  a  lighted 


Alcoholic  Fluids^  Oils,  Sfc^  in  Lamps.  55 

match  be  now  applied,  the  oil  in  the  upper  part  of  the  tube  eva- 
porates and  produces  a  flame,  fresh  portions  of  oil  rise  to  fill  the 
empty  space,  and  thus  combustion  is  maintained.  With  such 
a  burner  there  is  no  shadow  ;  the  reflected  image  of  the  flame 
being  seen  directly  under  the  true  flame.  From  a  number  of 
such  burners,  in  an  appropriate  glass-vessel,  the  illumination  is 
brilliant ;  and  the  floating  disks  are  observed  to  be  in  continual 
motion,  as  if  alternately  attracting  and  repelling  each  other;  which 
proceeds  from  the  film  of  oil  immediately  under  the  mica  be- 
coming expanded  by  heat.  Though  such  burners,  when  pro- 
perly constructed,  will  maintain  combustion  for  many  hours, 
if  the  flame  is  by  any  means  extinguished,  they  almost  in- 
stantly sink  to  the  bottom.  This  results  from  the  structure  of 
the  mica,  and  the  expansion  of  the  oil  by  heat.  Mica  is  com- 
posed of  thin  plates,  which  admit  oil  into  their  interstices  ;  and 
the  oil  thus  admitted,  with  that  on  the  under  surface  of  the  mica, 
is  expanded  by  the  heat  of  the  flame.  When  the  flame  is  extin- 
guished the  oil  cools,  and  then  the  mica,  being  specifically  heavier 
than  the  oil,  necessarily  sinks. 

A  burner,  similar  to  the  one  above  described,  but  more  appli- 
cable to  ordinary  purposes,  seems  to  merit  description,  as  it  may 
be  readily  constructed,  and  will  be  found  admirably  adapted  for 
a  night  lamp.  In  this  form,  a  small  light  concave  shell,  or  a 
light  concave  glass,  resembling  in  miniature  that  of  a  watch,  or 
a  small  disk  of  card  paper,  made  concave  by  pressure,  and  coat- 
ed with  a  solution  of  gum,  is  used  instead  of  the  mica.  A  small 
hole  is  made  in  the  centre,  and  a  piece  of  sound  cork,  about  the 
size  of  a  pea,  is  cemented  on  the  convex  side,  and  over  the  per- 
foration. A  small  perforation  13  then  made  through  the  cork, 
and  a  rather  wide  and  thin  bugle  bead  is  stuck  firmly  into  it, 
from  the  concave  side  of  the  shell.  The  only  use  of  the  cork  is 
to  fix  the  burner,  so  as  to  admit  of  its  being  readily  adjusted  or 
replaced.  When  the  shell  floats  on  the  oil,  the  upper  extremity 
of  the  burner  should  be  nearly  on  a  level  with  the  surface  of  the 
fluid  ;  and  if  the  burner  be  properly  fixed  in  the  cork,  the  shell, 
glass,  or  concave  piece  of  paper,  will  not  sink  when  the  flame  is 
extinguished.  The  quantity  of  pale  rape  seed  oil  (which,  in 
every  respect,  is  the  best)  that  is  consumed  by  a  single  burner, 
amounts  to  about  three-fourths  of  an  ounce  in  twelve  hours, 


56  Mr  H.  H.  Blackadder  on  the  Combustion  of 

and  the  consumption  is  so  regular  and  uniform,  that,  when  a 
lamp  is  constructed  in  the  form  of  a  floating  syphon,  it  is  found 
to  measure  time  with  great  accuracy. 

Tallow,  and  other  solid  combustibles,  of  a  similar  nature,  may 
also  be  burned  without  a  wick.  In  such  cases,  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  melt  a  small  quantity  of  the  solid  substance^  with  the 
end  of  a  hot  wire  or  rod  of  glass  ;  or  to  introduce  a  little  oil  into 
a  hollow,  previous  to  introducing  the  floating  burner.  After- 
wards, the  heat  of  the  flame  is  suflicient  to  keep  up  a  supply  of 
fluid. 

It  is  well  known,  that  volatile  oils,  such  as  turpentine,  give 
out  so  much  carbon  in  the  form  of  soot,  during  their  combus- 
tion, as  to  prevent  their  being  hitherto  burned  in  a  lamp,  for  the 
purpose  of  illumination.  Turpentine,  however,  may  be  burned 
in  a  lamp,  so  as  not  only  to  give  out  no  carbon  in  the  form  of 
soot,  butto  afibrd  a  beautiful  white  light,  which,  in  splendour, 
far  exceeds  that  given  out  by  the  fixed  oils : — this  was  exhibit- 
ed on  a  small  scale,  by  means  of  a  small  experimental  glass  lamp. 
All  the  fixed  oils  are  rendered  empyreumatic,  previous  to 
combustion  ;  and  the  same  change  is  necessary  in  the  case  of 
turpentine,  but,  from  its  volatile  nature,  is  less  readily  produced. 
From  the  extreme  whiteness  and  splendour  of  the  flame  of 
turpentine,  there  is  reason  to  expect,  that  it  may  yet  be  ap- 
plied to  valuable  purposes.  The  preceding  details  have  been 
entered  into,  with  the  view  of  facilitating  investigation,  and 
were,  to  a  certain  extent,  necessary  to  the  next  part  of  the  sub- 
ject. 

2. — Of  the  Colour  of  Flame. 
Previous  to  entering  on  the  subject  of  the  colour  of  flame,  it 
is  necessary  to  attend  to  what,  for  the  sake  of  distinction,  may 
be  termed  its  structure.  Exterior  to  the  central  cone  of  gas  or 
vapour,  that  is,  in  the  proper  flame,  there  are  parts  which  can 
readily  be  distinguished,  and  which  distinctly  differ  from  each 
other.  One  part  may  be  changed,  or  a  part  may  be  made  to 
disappear,  while  the  others  remain  unaffected.  By  means  of  a 
prism,  the  light  of  any  flame  may  be  shewn  to  be  composed  of 
several  colours : — that,  however,  is  a  separate  investigation,  and 
which  is  left  to  those  who  are  conversant  in  the  branch  of  sci^^ 


Alcoholic  Fluids,  Oils,  S^c.  in  Lamps.  57 

ence  to  which  it  properly  belongs ;  the  structure  of  a  flame  has 
reference  to  what  is  cognizable  by  the  naked  eye. 

When  combustibles  that  are  compounds  of  hydrogen  are 
burned,  so  as  to  produce  a  blue  flame,  without  the  assistance  of 
a  blowpipe,  or  any  similar  contrivance,  the  flame  appears  in  its 
most  simple  form,  and  two  parts  are  to  be  distinguished.  The 
one  appears  immediately  exterior  to  the  cone  of  gas  or  vapour, 
and,  as  seen  on  each  side  of  the  flame,  has  the  appearance  of  a 
bright  blue  line,  extending  from  the  base  to  the  apex  of  the 
cone.  It  must  be  unnecessary  to  explain  how  this  part  of  the 
flame  is  only  to  be  distinguished  at  the  sides,  though  it  sur- 
rounds the  whole  of  the  cone.  Exterior  to  this  narrow  blue  line, 
is  an  attenuated  portion  of  an  opaline  or  misty  blue  colour, 
which  extends  about  the  tenth  of  an  inch,  more  or  less,  beyond 
the  blue  line,  and  whose  exterior  surface  is  ill  defined,  resem- 
bling a  brush.  This  exterior  portion  surrounds  the  whole  flame  ; 
and  though  its  presence  might  not,  in  every  instance,  be  suspect- 
ed at  certain  parts  of  the  flame,  it  surrounds  the  whole  of  white 
flames,  when  these  are  properly  adjusted. 

When  the  substances  formerly  mentioned  are  burned,  so  as 
to  extricate  white  light,  the  white  portion  appears  interior  to 
the  narrow  blue  line,  but  the  former  never  extends  to  the  base 
of  the  flame,  and  the  latter  can  only  be  traced  to  a  short  dis- 
tance on  the  exterior  of  the  white  portion. 

On  examining  the  flame  of  a  properly  adjusted  candle,  the 
blue  line  exterior  to  the  white  light  is  observed  to  disappear  op- 
posite to  the  apex  of  the  transparent  cone  surrounding  the  wick, 
or  at  that  part  where  the  white  light  is  extricated  with  great 
effulgence  *.  The  same  thing  takes  place  with  the  exterior  at- 
tenuated opaline  brush,  v/hich  is  not  readily  distinguished  above 
the  middle  height  of  the  flame,  where  the  white  light  becomes  in- 
tense. In  this  instance,  the  attenuated  blue  flame  seems  to  be  ren- 
dered invisible  by  the  intensity  of  the  white  light.  If,  even  in  foggy 
weather,  with  an  overcast  sky,  a  blue  and  white  flame  of  diluted 

*  In  a  blue  and  white  spirit-flame,  the  bright  blue  lines  are  seen  extending  ori 
the  exterior  of  the  white  portion  ;  and  between  their  upper  extremities  is  a  broad 
arch  or  belt  of  a  dark  blue  colour,  which  surrounds  the  upper  part  of  the  white 
portion,  and  is  observed  occasionally  to  conceal  or  darken  its  apex.  See  Fig.'  7. 
in  which  this  flame  is  represented  in  outline.  'i' s 


58  Mr  H.  H.  Blackadder  oji  the  Combustion  of 

alcohol  be  brought  to  the  window,  the  flame  becomes  wholly  in* 
visible,  not  a  vestige  even  of  the  white  portion  is  to  be  discerned  ; 
so  that  any  one  ignorant  of  its  presence,  would  almost  inevita- 
bly meet  with  an  accident,  or  might  be  induced  to  lay  hold  of 
the  burner.  This  simple  experiment  will  render  the  existence 
of  an  invisible,  though  intensely  hot  flame,  sufficiently  intelli- 
gible. The  surface  of  the  flame  of  a  candle,  where  the  com- 
bustion is  most  intense,  is  the  hottest.  Where  the  combustion 
is  most  intense,  the  flame  has  a  pale  blue  colour,  and  when  this 
colour  comes  to  be  contrasted  with  intense  whiteness,  it  is  too 
weak  to  make  a  sensible  impression  on  the  retina.  By  means  of 
opaque  skreens,  the  attenuated  brush  may  be  seen  extending  all 
over  the  flame ;  but  its  presence  may  also  be  detected,  by  chang- 
ing its  colour  in  a  way  afterwards  to  be  described. 

The  colour  of  the  light  that  is  extricated  in  a  flame,  depends, 
1st,  On  the  mode  of  combustion ;  or,  2d,  On  the  presence  of 
some  foreign  body  or  extraneous  ingredient.  1.  When  alcohol 
or  rectified  spirit,  having  a  specific  gravity  of  about  835,  is 
burned  in  a  lamp  without  a  wick,  and  with  a  half  inch  flame, 
or  when  it  is  burned  on  a  flat  surface  of  glass,  the  flame  is  alto- 
gether of  a  blue  colour.  Again,  when  in  burning  the  same 
fluid  with  the  glass-burner,  the  flame  is  enlarged  to  an  inch,  or 
an  inch  and  a  half  in  length,  a  considerable  quantity  of  white 
light  is  extricated.  Lastly,  When  the  extremity  of  the  glass- 
burner  is  brought  to  a  red-heat,  or  thereby,  by  holding  it  in  the 
edge  of  a  blue  spirit  flame,  portions  of  the  alcohol  are  succes- 
sively exploded  as  they  come  into  contact  with  the  heated  ex- 
tremity of  the  burner,  and  then  much  yellow  hght  is  extricated. 
We  have  thus  blue,  white,  and  yellow  light  extricated  during 
the  combustion  of  the  same  fluid,  and  depending  wholly  on  the 
mode  of  combustion. 

Oil  may  also  be  burned  so  as  to  give  out  either  a  blue,  a  blue 
and  white,  or  a  blue  and  yellow  flame.  When  oil  is  burned  in 
a  lamp  without  a  wick,  so  as  to  give  a  large  flame,  the  light  ex- 
tricated is  blue,  with  a  great  prpportion  of  white.  But,  if  the 
stop-cock  be  cautiously  turned,  the  white  light  diminishes,  and 
at  length  there  is  only  a  blue  flame.  By  again  increasing  the 
flow  of  oil,  a  spot  of  yellow  light  appears  in  the  centre  of  the 
blue;  and  by  stiU  farther  increasing  the  supply,  the  white, 


Alcoholic  Fluids,  Oils,  S^-c.  m  Lamps.  59 

that  is  the  usual  yellowish  white,  flame  reappears.  On  the  same 
principle,  a  wine-glass  full  of  oil  may  be  made  to  exhibit  either 
a  blue  flame,  covering  the  whole  surface  of  the  oil,  or  a  flame  of 
a  blue  and  white  colour. 

When  diluted  alcohol,  vulgarly  termed  ardent  or  proof  spi- 
rit, is  burned  in  a  lamp  without  a  wick,  the  colour  of  the  flame 
is  blue,  or  blue  and  white,  similar  to  the  flame  of  alcohol  former- 
ly described.  In  this  case,  a  simple  distillation  and  combustion 
goes  forward ;  the  whole  of  the  water  being  separated  as  cold, 
or  nearly  as  cold,  as  before  its  passage  through  the  flame ;  and 
the  burner  only  acquires  a  perceptible  increase  of  temperature. 
The  flame  has  a  fine  conical  form,  and  the  combustion  proceeds 
without  any  buzzing  noise.  Hence  the  advantage  of  a  lamp, 
without  a  wick  for  burning  diluted  alcohol,  such  as  the  whisky 
of  the  shops.  When  that  fluid  is  burned  in  the  usual  way  with 
a  wick,  there  is,  with  other  disadvantages  and  peculiarities  to 
be  mentioned,  this  great  inconvenience,  that  if,  after  the  com- 
bustion has  continued  a  short  time,  the  flame  be  extinguished, 
it  cannot  be  relighted  without  renewing  the  wick.  Besides,  by 
using  a  glass  burner,  there  is  derived  all  the  advantage  of  a  spi- 
rit-lamp without  the  expence  ;  and  ardent  spirits  can  readily  be 
had  in  situations  where  alcohol  cannot  be  procured. 

When  diluted  alcohol  is  burned  with  a  wick,  the  flame  is  not 
blue  and  white,  as  when  a  slow  conducting  tubular  burner  is 
made  use  of;  on  the  contrary,  much  yellow  light  is  given  out; 
the  white  disappears,  and  a  portion  at  the  base  has  a  blue  co- 
lour. The  form  of  the  flame  is  mucji  less  regular  ;  it  has  a  dis- 
agreeable flickering  motion,  and  the  combustion  is  accompanied 
by  a  constant  whizzing  or  buzzing  noise.  But,  with  all  this  difi*e- 
rence  of  effect  resulting  from  the  mode  of  combustion,  the  wick 
undergoes  no  change,  being  in  no  degree  carbonized  by  the 
flame.  In  this  case  there  is  a  cotemporaneous  vaporization  and 
combustion  of  the  alcoholic  part  of  the  fluid ;  but  the  watery 
part  is  not  separated  as  in  the  lamp  without  a  wick.  Part  of 
the  water  is  converted  into  steam,  and  part  of  it  remains  in  the 
wick;  which  last  circumstance  prevents  the  relighting  of  the 
lamp,  after  a  short  continuance  of  combustion,  as  formerly  men- 
tioned. Though  the  wick  remains  uninjured  by  the  flame,  it 
always  becomes  hot ;  and  hence  not  only  alcoholic  vapour,  but 


60  Mr  H.  H.  Blackadder  o?i  the  Coinhustmn  of 

likewise  steam,  is  generated,  and  discharged  into  the  interior  of 
the  flame.  After  the  diluted  alcohol  in  the  reservoir  has  been 
consumed,  the  quantity  of  water  remaining  in  the  wick  is  not 
equal  to  that  contained  in  the  original  fluid,  as  may  readily  be 
determined,  by  ascertaining  the  specific  gravity  of  the  alcoholic 
fluid  that  is  employed.  It  thus  appears,  that,  in  the  interior 
of  the  yellow  flame  of  diluted  alcohol,  there  is  present  a  certain 
admixture  of  steam,  which  does  not  exist  in  the  blue  coloured 
flame  of  the  same  fluid ;  and  when  steam  is  generated,  much 
heat  is  necessarily  consumed  ;  but  it  does  not  follow  that  the 
presence  of  steam  is  the  cause  of  the  yellow  colour.  Alcohol  of 
the  strength  formerly  mentioned,  and  that  which  is  considerably 
stronger,  may  be  burned,  so  as  to  give  out  yellow  light ;  and 
alcohol  that  cannot  be  made,  in  one  way  or  another,  to  extricate 
yellow  light  during  its  combustion,  has  not  been  procured  for 
experiment. 

It  would  appear  that,  though  some  attention  has  been  paid  to 
the  noting  of  such  substances  as  give  out  particular  kinds  of  co- 
loured light,  when  subjected  to  a  high  temperature,  or  when  dis- 
solved in  the  fluid  which  supports  combustion,  but  little  atten- 
tion has  hitherto  been  paid  to  the  coloured  light  of  a  flame,  with 
the  view  of  ascertaining  the  mode  of  its  production.  That  this 
and  the  other  substance  gives  a  yellow  or  green  flame,  and  that 
the  quantity  of  yellow  light  may  be  increased  by  particular 
means,  has  been  ascertained  ;  but  on  what  the  extrication  of  yel- 
low light  depends,  or  what  particular  process  goes  forward  du- 
ring its  production,  remains  to  be  investigated.  The  following 
short  extracts  from  a  pubhcation  of  modern  date,  and  by  a  gen- 
tleman distinguished  in  the  ranks  of  science,  will  be  found  in-' 
teresting : — "  After  numerous  experiments,  attended  with  much 
trouble  and  disappointment,  I  found  that  almost  all  bodies  in 
which  the  combustion  was  imperfect,  such  as  paper,  Hnen,  cot- 
ton, &c.  gave  a  light  in  which  the  homogeneous  yellow  rays  pre- 
dominated ;  that  the  quantity  of  yellow  light  increased  with  the 
humidity  of  these  bodies ;  and  that  a  great  proportion  of  the 
same  light  was  generated,  when  various  flames  were  urged  me-' 
chanically  by  a  blowpipe  or  a  pair  of  bellows.  As  the  yellow 
rays  seemed  to  be  the  product  of  imperfect  combustion,  I  con- 
ceived that  alcohol,  diluted  with  water,  would  produce  them  in 
greater  abundance  than  when  it  was  in  a  state  of  piuity  ;  and, 


Alcoholic  Fluids,  Oils,  ^c.  in  Lamps.  61 

iqjon  miaking  the  experiment,  I  found  it  succeed  beyond  my 
most  sanguine  expectations.'" — "  I  found  that  the  discharge  of 
yellow  light  depended  greatly  on  the  nature  of  the  wick,  and 
on  the  rapidity  with  which  the  fluid  was  converted  into  va- 
pour/' A  piece  of  sponge,  having  a  rough  surface,  was  found 
to  constitute  the  best  wick,  and  for  converting  the  alcohol  ra- 
pidly into  vapour,  the  heat  of  the  wick-holder  was  increased  by 
a  spirit-lamp  ;  or  red  hot  wire  gauze  was  brought  into  contact 
with  the  surface  of  the  sponge  *. 

By  these  extracts,  we  are  given  to  understand,  that,  when  al- 
cohol, "  in  its  purity,"  is  burned,  it  gives  a  yellow  flame  ;  but 
that,  when  alcohol,  diluted  with  water,  is  burned,  yellow  light  is 
given  out  in  greater  abundance  ;  and  the  conclusion  seems  to  be, 
that,  as  moisture  increases  the  quantity  of  yellow  light  during 
the  combustion  of  cotton,  paper,  &c.  so  water  added  to  alcohol 
has  the  same  effect ;  and  that,  on  such  occasions,  the  water  acts 
by  causing,  or  by  increasing  the  disposition  to  "  imperfect  com- 
bustion." Admitting,  however,  that  these  views  were  established, 
such  questions  as  the  following  immediately  present  themselves : 
What  is  imperfect  combustion  ?  Is  the  presence  of  water  essen- 
tial or  only  accessary  ?  &c.  This  is  a  subject  that  might  en- 
gage the  attention  of  some  one  of  the  many  expert  chemists  of 
the  present  day  :  there  is  certainly  no  want  of  interest,  and 
much  precise  information  is  still  wanting.  The  few  facts  that 
have  been,  or  that  may  be,  brought  forward  on  the  present  oc- 
casion, are  submitted  as  a  contribution,  with  the  hope  that  they 
may  tend  to  promote  investigation. 

The  blue  flame  of  diluted  alcohol  has,  as  formerly  stated,  a  re- 
gular form  ;  is  steady  as  that  of  a  well-adjusted  candle,  and  the 
combustion  proceeds  in  silence;  but,  when  burned  with  a  wick,  or 
otherwise,  so  as  to  give  a  yellow  Hght,  the  flame  is  very  un- 
steady, and  the  combustion  is  always  accompanied  with  noise. 
Whether  this  noise  proceeds,  in  every  instance,  from  actual  ex- 
plosions, may  be  uncertain  ;  but  it  is  certain  that  when  diluted 
alcohol  is  exploded,  by  throwing  it  into  a  red  hot  fire,  or  by 
other  means,  a  profusion  of  yellow  light  is  extricated  ;  and,  when , 

*  See  Description  of  a  Monochromatic  Lamp,  by  David  Brewster,  LL.  D. 
&c.  &c.  published  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edin.,  1822. 

3  ' 


62  Mr  H.  H.  Blackadder  on  the  Combustion  of 

it  is  burned  with  a  wick,  there  is  a  constant  buzzing  noise,  with 
an  appearance  as  if  this  noise  was  produced  by  an  infinity  of  mi- 
nute explosions  at  that  part  of  the  flame  where  the  narrow  bhie 
line  appears.     It  is  particularly  to  be  observed,  however,  that 
this  part  of  the  flame  remains  unchanged,  and  that  it  is  the  ex- 
terior brush  flame  that  is  changed  from  a  pale  misty-blue  to  a 
mat-yellow  colour.     The  blue  flame  of  alcohoHc  fluids  may  be 
made  to  swell  out  or  expand,  by  touching  the  fluid  as  it  issues 
from  the  burner,  with  a  hot  wire,  and  without,  in  any  degrecj 
altering  the  colour  of  the  flame  ;  and,  in  this  case,  there  is  simply 
an  increase  of  the  distillation.     But,  with  the  same  wire,  or  with 
a  rod  of  glass,  the  mouth  of  the  burner  may  be  so  touched  as  to 
produce  a  discharge  of  small  particles  of  the  fluid,  similar  to  that 
which  takes  place  on  other  occasions,  when  a  very  hot  piece  of 
metal  is  introduced  into  a  vessel  containing  water.     These  mi- 
nute particles  are  impelled  against  the  inner  surface  of  the  flame, 
seem  to  explode,  and  then  produce  the  dull-yellow  colour  of  the 
exterior  brush  flame.     When  a  wick  of  cotton,  or  of  sponge,  is 
used,  it  acts  the  part  of  the  hot  wire ;  and  the  rougher  its  sur- 
face, and  the  nearer  it  approaches  to  the  inner  surface  of  the 
flame,  without  being  carbonized,  the  more  copious  is  the  dis- 
charge of  the  particles,  and  consequently  of  the  yellow  light. 
This  may  be  farther  illustrated  as  follows  : — Let  a  small  ball  of 
cotton  thread  be  attached  to  the  end  of  a  glass  tube,  and  moisten 
the  ball  with  alcohol.     When  the  latter  is  made  to  burn,  yellow 
light  is  extricated  ;  but  if  the  ball  be  now  made  to  turn  rapidly 
on  its  own  centre,  the  quantity  of  yellow  hght  will  be  increased 
an  hundred-fold.     In  this  case,  two  causes  operate  ;  the  flame  is 
brought  closer  to  the  ball,  producing  a  greater  discharge  of  mi- 
nute particles  ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  alcohol  is  expelled  by 
the  rotatory  motion  in  a  thick  shower  into  the  flame. 

Steam  issuing  forcibly  from  a  small  orifice  will  answer  the  pur- 
pose of  a  blowpipe ;  and,  even  when  it  is  condensed  into  a  white 
vapour,  it  has  no  eflect  in  changing  the  blue  colour  of  a  spirit- 
flame.  But  if  a  small  vessel  of  water  be  placed  under  the  burn- 
er, and  a  hot  rod  of  metal  be  introduced,  so  as  to  discharge  par- 
ticles of  the  water  on  the  exterior  surface  of  the  flame,  yellow 
light  is  extricated.  Some  of  the  coloured  light  is,  in  this  case,  ap- 
parently produced  by  small  solid  particles  from  the  surface  of  the 


Alcoholic  Fluids,  Oils,  <^c.  in  Lamps.  G3 

metal,  bright  sparks  being  observed ;  but  rods  of  different  metals 
produce  similar  effects ;  and  when  numerous  minute  particles  of 
<;old  or  boiling  water  are  made,  by  mechanical  means,  to  impinge 
on  the  exterior  surface  of  the  flame,  the  blue  colour  is  not  there- 
by affected.  A  perfectly  clean  rod  of  glass,  however,  has  the 
same  effect  as  rods  of  metal,  only  no  sparks  are  observed ;  and 
hence  particles  of  the  water  of  wells,  thus  elicited,  cause  the  ex- 
trication of  yellow  light ;  but  pure  water,  that  is,  the  pure  com- 
pound of  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  has  not  been  procured  for  ex- 
periment. When  the  particles  of  alcoholic  fluids,  or  of  water, 
impinge  on  the  interior  or  exterior  surface  of  the  flame,  there  is 
doubtless  an  absorption  of  heat ;  but  the  mere  absorption  of  heat 
cannot  produce  the  observed  eff^ects,  as  appears  by  an  experi- 
ment already  noticed.  If  we  approach  a  blue  spirit  flame,  to 
another  of  the  same  colour,  no  change  is  produced ;  but,  if  a 
flame  of  that  colour  be  brought  near  to  a  yellow  spirit  flame,  so 
that  the  gaseous  products  of  the  latter  may  come  into  contact 
with  the  former,  the  blue  flame  acquires  a  yellow  colour.  Hence 
the  products  or  substances  emitted  from  a  yellow  flame  are  diffb- 
rent  from  those  of  a  blue  flame ;  and  as  steam,  as  formerly  stated, 
does  not  change  the  colour  of  a  blue  flame,  we  are  led  to  trace 
the  extrication  of  yellow  light  to  some  other  cause. 

It  is  known  that  carbonic  oxide  gas,  in  a  certain  state,  and 
likewise  light  hydro-carburet  gas,  give  out  yellow  light  during 
their  combustion.  If  a  splinter  of  wood  (and  various  other  ve- 
getable substances  may  be  used)  be  lighted,  and  in  a  few  se- 
conds again  extinguished,  the  white  vapour  or  smoke  that  issues 
from  it  gives  a  fine  yellow  colour  to  blue  flame.  If  the  carbo- 
nized extremity  of  the  wood  be  brought  into  contact,  or  only 
near  to  the  flame,  there  is  a  profuse  extrication  of  yellow  light 
from  the  exterior  or  brush  flame  ;  and  if  the  extremity  of  the 
carbonized  wood  be  held  quite  above  the  flame,  there  is  a  co- 
pious discharge  of  yellow  light,  similar  to  that  of  the  brush 
flame,  but  which  might,  with  more  accuracy,  be  termed  lumi- 
nous vapour  than  a  flame.  In  all  these  cases,  it  is  possible  that 
a  minute  quantity  of  aqueous  vapour  may  be  present ;  but  if, 
after  the  wood  has  been  lighted,  and  the  flame  extinguished,  the 
combustion  of  the  carbonized  portion  be  allowed  to  proceed,  un- 
til an  attenuated,  extremely  light,  and  spider-web-like  substance 
alone  remains,  the  minutest  particle  of  this  substance,  when 


X  64  Mr  H.  H.  Blackadder  on  the  Combustion  of 

brought  to  the  marghi  of  the  blue  flame,  produces  a  discharge 
of  hght  of  a  fine  yellow  colour ;  and,  in  this  case,  no  moisture 
can  be  present.  In  this  way  a  beautiful  flame,  of  a  yellow  co- 
lour from  the  base  to  the  apex,  may  be  produced,  and  which  is 
altogether  free  of  any  unsteady  or  flickering  motion. 

When  a  piece  of  wood  that  has  been  carbonized  in  a  spirit 
flame,  and  completely  extinguished,  is  brought  under  a  blue 
flame,  a  very  slight  motion  given  to  the  wood  will  be  followed 
.by  an  extrication  of  yellow  light ;  and  by  rubbing  two  such 
pieces  of  wood,  the  one  upon  the  other,  under  the  flame,  the 
whole  of  the  latter  will  acquire  a  yellow  colour.  Scraping  the 
carbonised  wood  with  a  knife  produces  a  similar  eff*ect ;  but,  in 
this  case,  larger  particles  are  also  separated,  which  give  out 
light  of  a  brilliant  yellow  colour,  and  much  better  suited  for 
the  purpose  of  illumination,  than  the  dull  mat  yellow  of  di- 
luted alcohol,  or  that  produced  by  the  smoke,  &c.  of  carbonized 
wood  above  described.  For,  in  both  these  cases,  the  light  is  si- 
milar, and  proceeds  from  a  modification  of  the  same  part  of  the 
flame.  By  means  of  carbonized  wood,  &c.  the  exterior  attenu- 
ated brush-flame  of  a  candle  or  lamp  may  be  rendered  visible  all 
over  the  flame,  a  yellow  colour  being  communicated  to  it.  It 
may  be  remarked,  that  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  pure  carbon 
•would  not  produce  the  effects  above  described ;  but  that  has 
not  been  procured  for  experiment.  If,  when  a  blowpipe  is 
used  with  a  candle,  the  wick  be  cut  short,  so  that  the  stream  of 
air  may  pass  through  the  white  part  of  the  flame,  the  jet  has 
a  fine  blue  colour  :  when  the  jet  has  a  red  or  reddish-yellow 
colour,  it  will  be  found  that  particles  of  the  carbonized  portion 
of  the  wick,  or  of  soot,  are  carried  off  by  the  current  of  air 
from  the  blowpipe ;  and  whether  a  blowpipe  or  bellows  be 
used,  the  yellow  light  is  similarly  produced  in  all  cases  in  which 
the  combustion  is  supported  by  solid  carbonaceous  substances. 
'  When  a  wire  or  rod  of  glass  is  introduced  into  a  blue  flame, 
yellow  light  is  commonly  extricated,  and  this  always  proceeds  from 
some  foreign  substance  on  the  surface  of  these  bodies,  such  as  con- 
densed smoke,  dust,  &c.  ;  it  is  almost  impossible  to  handle  glass  or 
unpolished  metals,  particularly  when  the  hands  are  hot,  without 
leaving  condensed  perspiration  on  their  surfaces.  An  oppoi*- 
tunity  occurred  last  summer,  of  pointing  out  this  circum- 
stance to  Dr  Brewster,  to  whom  had  been  exhibited,  and  with 


Alcoholic  Fluids^  Oils,  ^c.  in  Lamps.  65 

whom  were  repeatedly  discussed  all  these  experiments  on  colour- 
ed flame,  &c.  It  was  stated  by  him,  that  glass  or  mica  introduced 
into  a  blue  flame,  produced  yellow  light ;  but  it  was  immediate- 
ly shewn,  that  when  a  glass-rod  was  brought  to  a  white  heat, 
and  thereby  perfectly  cleaned,  previous  to  its  being  introduced, 
when  cold,  into  a  blue  spirit  flame,  no  change  of  colour  was  pro- 
duced ;  and  that  the  yellow  light  proceeded  from  some  foulness 
of  the  glass.  Apparently  clean  glass  and  wire  kept  for  a  length 
of  time  exposed  in  a  room  with  a  fire,  have  been  observed  to 
change  the  colour  of  blue  flame.  But  as  soon  as  the  glass  or 
wire  is  made  red-hot,  the  yellow  light  disappears,  and  cannot  be 
made  to  reappear  without  a  renewal  of  the  combustible  substance 
on  their  surface ;  and  hence  a  monochromatic  lamp  giving  a  yel- 
low light,  cannot  be  constructed  by  a  coil  of  wire  in  the  centre 
of  a  blue  flame. 

Various  salts,  such  as  the  muriate  of  barytes,  the  muriate  of 
soda,  &c.  are  well  known  to  give  a  yellow  colour  to  flame ;  and 
it  has  been  supposed,  that  the  yellow  light  was  produced  by  the 
water  of  crystallization  ;  but  in  this  case,  it  would  be  difficult  to 
imagine  why  the  sulphate  of  alumina  and  potass,  and  other  salts, 
should  produce  no  change  on  blue  flame,  and  that  the  muriate  of 
lime  should  give  it  a  beautiful  crimson  colour.  The  water  of 
crystallization  may  be  accessary  to  the  production  of  coloured 
light ;  but  it  does  not  seem  evident  that  it  is  the  primary  cause. 
By  means  of  the  blue  flame  of  diluted  alcohol,  and  the  muriate 
of  soda,  a  steady  flame,  extricating  yellow  light,  may  easily  be 
kept  up.  An  opportunity  occurred  about  a  year  ago,  of  show^ 
ing  to  the  gentleman  formerly  mentioned  the  following  simple 
experiment.  A  narrow  slip  of  paper,  or  of  thin  soft  muslin, 
well  soaked  in  a  solution  of  the  muriate  of  soda,  was  rolled  on  a 
short  and  rather  wide  glass-tube ;  and  the  roll  was  retained  and 
defended  by  another  wider  tube  passed  over  it.  This,  as  a  collar, 
was  placed  on  the  glass-burner  of  a  lamp  for  burning  alcoholic 
fluids,  and  when  the  lamp  was  lighted,  the  collar  was  brought 
up  so  as  to  bring  the  circular  edge  of  the  paper  into  contact  with 
the  base  of  the  blue  flame ;  and  in  this  way  a  steady  conical 
yellow  flame  was  produced.  A  collar,  consisting  of  several  rolls 
of  a  particular  kind  of  paper  was  preferred  for  experiment,  the 
roll  being  easily  raised  between  the  tubes  by  tlie  hand,  after  the 

APRIL— JULY  1826.  E 


(56  Mr  Arnott's  Tmir  to  the  South  of  France 

manner  of  the  circular  wick  of  an  argand  lamp.  A  monochro- 
matic lamp,  made  exactly  after  this  method,  has  lately  been  ex- 
hibited, the  blue  flame  being  produced  from  condensed  oil-gas. 
In  this  instance,  the  flame  was  extremely  unsteady,  having  the 
appearance  of  the  feather-shaped  flame  produced  by  a  blowpipe ; 
and  it  is  well  known,  that  an  unsteady  wavering  light  is  extreme- 
ly unfavourable  to  distinct  vision. 

Other  experiments  and  observations  relating  to  flame  are  ne- 
cessarily delayed  for  want  of  room. 


Tour  to  the  South  of  France  and  the  Pyrenees^  in  1825.  By 
G.  A.  Walker  Arnott,  Esq.  A.  M.  F.  L.  S.  &  R.  S  E. 
&c.     In  a  Letter  to  Professor  Jameson. 

Sir, 

X  OU  have  kindly  signified  to  me  a  request  that  I  should  de- 
vote a  few  hours  of  my  time  to  the  giving  a  short  account  of 
my  late  excursion  abroad.  This  to  me  is  no  very  easy  matter, 
having  kept  no  regular  diary,  and  but  few  notes  that  may  amuse 
you  or  the  readers  of  your  Journal.  Such  notes,  however,  as 
I  did  keep,  aided  with  Cassini's  map  of  France  reduced  by 
Donnet,  may  enable  me  to  give  you  at  least  an  outline  of  my 
short  tour ;  and  I  shall  employ  the  very  words  of  my  notes  as 
often  as  possible. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  enter  upon  my  journey  from  London 
to  Paris :  that  ground  is  travelled  over  by  so  many  at  the  present 
day,  that  nothing  can  be  said  that  almost  every  one  does  not  know. 
None,  however,  but  those  who  have  crossed  from  Dover  to  Calais 
can  believe  in  the  shortness  and  pleasure  of  the  sail.  In  days  of 
yore  I  do  not  know  how  many  hours,  or  even  days,  were  de- 
voted to  this  perilous  passage ;  but,  at  present,  three  or  four 
hours  is  only  requisite  in  those  blessed  inventions  ycleped  Steam- 
boats. The  sailors,  too,  are  surely  more  expert  than  formerly, 
or  ^olus  has  more  mercy,  as  we  never  hear  now  of  a  Tom 
Pipes  thrusting  his  body  through  the  deck  to  take  the  com- 
mand of  the  vessel,  when  captain  and  all  have  given  over  every 
thing  for  lost.  Nor  do  we  feel  that  any  one  now  thinks  of  ta- 
king the  precaution  (still,  however,  recommended  by  the  sapient 


and  the  Pyrenees,  in  1825.  67 

translators  of  EbeFs  Guide  through  Switzerland  *)  of  laying  in 
a  store  of  provisions,  of  benefit,  not  to  the  traveller,  but  to  the 
steward.  At  Calais  our  passports  are  taken  from  us,  and  a  pro- 
visionary  one  given  as  far  as  Paris.  This,  if  not  attended  with 
inconvenience,  is  at  least  attended  with  a  small  expence  ;  and  I 
have  never  been  able  to  find  out  any  good  reason  for  it.  If  a 
person  goes  any  where  else  than  to  Paris,  he  is  allowed  to  retain 
the  passport  he  received  in  London,  and  is  charged  nothing ; 
so  that  one  going  first  to  any  town  in  the  north  of  France, 
there  gets  a  visa  for  Paris,  and  the  passport  is  not  changed. 

I  arrived  in  Paris  on  the  evening  of  the  12th  February,  ha- 
ving been  inclosed  thirty-six  hours  in  the  Exploitation  generate 
des  Messageries  Roy  ales,  "  the  general  blowing-up  of  the  royal 
post-houses,'' — a  species  of  vehicle  which,  though  much  impro- 
ved since  my  short  residence  in  France  in  1821,  may  still  be 
rendered  much  more  comfortable.  This  is  throughout  denomi- 
nated a  "  Diligence,*"  but  ought  to  receive  rather  the  appella- 
tion of  "  Paresseux^""  or  the  Sloth ;  but  I  ought  not  to  com- 
plain. The  distance  is  32^  posts,  or  162^  Enghsh  miles ;  so 
that  we  had  travelled  at  the  enormous  rate  of  4^  miles  an  hour. 
But  is  it  possible  to  make  the  French  "  Paresseux''"'  comfortable  ? 
I  fear  not.  This  English  term  has  no  corresponding  one  in  the 
French  language.  The  French  emigres,  as  I  am  informed, 
had  acquired,  by  their  long  residence  in  England,  some  indis- 
tinct ideas  of  English  comfort,  and  actually  went  so  far,  after 
.their  return  home,  as  to  use  the  English  word  with  a  French 
twang.  This,  however,  was  never  countenanced  by  the  French 
Academy,  none  of  the  members  having  the  least  conception  of 
what  was  meant ;  and  I  now  believe  the  word  is  dropt  for  ever. 
I  have  often  been  asked  for  an  explanation  of  comfort,  but  I 
have  always  found,  that  the  present  nature  and  habits  of  the 
people  rendered  it  impossible  for  them  to  enter  into  my  feel- 
ings. 

Of  a  month's  residence  in  Paris,  and  of  my  motives  for  being 
there,  I  need  not  trouble  you  with  any  notice.  It  was  the  sea- 
son of  the  Carnival — all  was  gaiety.     On  Tuesday,  15th  Fe- 


•  "  The  passage  is  seldom  more  than  twelve  hours,  and  sometimes  less 
than  three  ;  only  a  small  stock  of  provisions  is  therefore  necessary." 

e2 


68  Mr  AmottV  Tour  to  the  South  of  France 

bruary,  I  had  occasion  to  be  much  in  the  streets.  "  The  whole 
of  to-day  I  every  where  encountered  the  masqueraders  of  the 
carnival.  One  says  the  Enghsh  are  attached  to  raree-shows  and 
wonders ;  but  all  is  nothing  to  what  I  have  to-day  witnessed. 
Every  one  here  turned  out,  some  in  carriages  or  cabriolets,  others 
on  foot,  others  on  horseback, — all  to  look  on  a  few  fools  with  masks 
on  their  faces  and  tawdry  clothes  on  their  backs.  There  was  nei- 
ther spirit  nor  character  in  their  costumes ;  their  caps  being  prin- 
cipally of  tw^o  sorts, — one  like  a  fool's  cap,  the  other  like  a  turban. 
They  did  nothing,  said  nothing,  but  paraded  the  streets  and 
boulevards  in  open  landavis  and  carriages.  To  me  all  in  cos- 
tume appeared  to  be  of  the  lower  classes,  mixed  with  a  few 
hired  troops  of  rope-dancers.  Yet  so  important  a  business  is 
the  Caraival,  that  the  king  of  these  fools  was  introduced  on 
Sunday  last  to  his  Majesty  King  Charles  X. ;  and  was  yesterday 
again  introduced  into  the  Court  of  the  Tuilleries.  One  almost 
expected  to  hear  them  cry  out  "  Vivent  les  7'ois.''''  All  this 
mummery  has  no  doubt  meaning,  but — I  am  no  Roman  Ca- 
tholic." 

***** 

"  The  French  may  talk  of  politeness,  but,  in  some  respects 
they  are  entirely  devoid  of  it.  The  military  hold  the  civilians 
(as  our  own  East  India  nabobs,  who,  to  say  the  best  of  them, 
sell  their  services  for  money,  do  the  merchants  at  Madras  and 
Calcutta)  quite  beneath  them  ;  and  farther,  those  who  can  ride 
on  horseback,  in  carriages,  cabriolets  or  Jiacres,  seem  to  consi- 
der those  on  foot  as  the  very  canaille.  This  spirit  pervades 
even  the  drivers  of  these  vehicles  :  the  streets  are  naiTow,  and 
if  one  is  not  somewhat  nimble,  he  is  sure  to  be  run  down.  To- 
day I  was  squeezed  into  a  shop-door  to  avoid  a  cabriolet  trund- 
ling along  at  six  or  eight  miles  an  hour ;  and  had  T  not  taken  re- 
:fuge,  the  brutality  or  incivility  of  the  driver  would  not  have  al- 
lowed him  to  rein  up  his  horse.  The  last  time  I  was  in  Paris, 
a  horse  patrole  came  galloping  through  a  street  crowded  with 
people,  and  a  porter  close  to  where  I  was,  who  could  not  get 
quickly  out  of  the  way  with  the  load  he  carried,  was  literally 
rode  down ;  and  although  a  few  sacres  were  bestowed  on  the 
gens  d'armes,  and  cries  to  stop  bawled  out,  he  never  deigned  to 
look  over  his  shoulder,  laughing,  I  have  no  doubt,  at  the  noble 


and  the  Pyrenees^  in  \S9>5.  09 

exploit  of  trampling  under  his  horse's  feet  a  foot-passenger.  A 
Frenchman  is  more  polite  in  many  things  than  the  English,  but 
in  much  he  falls  far  behind  us."" 

When  I  left  England,  my  intention  was,  after  getting  through 
the  private  business  that  called  me  to  Paris,  to  set  off  direct  to 
Switzerland,  and  there  spend  the  summer.  When,  however,  at 
Paris,  I  received  so  many  requests  from  my  valued  friend  Mr 
Bentham  to  pay  him  a  few  days'  visit  at  Montpellier,  that  I  was 
induced  to  accede  to  his  wishes  until  the  season  was  sufficiently 
advanced  for  a  Swiss  tour.  You  know  that  natural  history  is 
one  of  the  branches  to  which  I  have  long  paid  attention  ;  in- 
deed, I  have  to  thank  yourself  for  that  taste,  having  acquired 
it  when  attending  your  classes  eight  or  ten  years  ago.  One 
branch  of  natural  history  leads  to  another,  and  if  I  have  now 
given  up  mineralogy,  and  attended  chiefly  to  botany,  it  is  not 
that  I  disHke  the  former,  but  find  it  rather  a  too  weighty  and 
bulky  study,  while  plants  are  much  more  portable.  The  kind- 
ness of  Baron  B.  Delessert,  in  throwing  open  to  me  his  rich  her- 
barium, gave  me  an  opportunity  of  studying  attentively  the  col- 
lection of  Palisot  de  Beauvois,  now  in  his  possession,  and  enabled 
me  to  make  out  what  many  of  his  hitherto  doubtful  species  of 
mosses  are.  A  notice  of  these  may  be  of  little  interest  to  some, 
while  to  others  it  may  be  useful.  I  shall,  therefore,  here  mark 
a  few  of  the  most  important. 

Bartramia  subintegrifolia is  Bartramia  gracilis. 

Bryum  gymnostomoides is  not  in  Beauvois'  herbarium,  and  maybe  there- 
fore rejected  as  a  doubtful  species.  It  is  pos- 
sibly Weissia  Templetoni. 

Cecalyphum  cylindraceum....is,  I  think,  a  variety  of  his  Cecalyphum  perichcBtia- 
le:  both  belong  to  Dicranum,  and  approach  close- 
ly to  Z>.  calycinum. 

longirostratum.  .is  Dicranum  Schraderi  in  a  young  state. 

tortile is  Dicranum  flagellare. 

Dicranum  dichotomum is  Thysanomitrion  nivale. 

phascoideum is  Grimmia  pagiopodon. 

striatum. is  a  Trichostomum. 

Fissidens  dubius. , is  Dicranum  adiantioides  var. 

Fontinalis  squamosa The  fruit  is  in  a  bad  state,  so  that  I  am  doubt- 
ful whether  this  belongs  to  F.  squamosa,  or 
should  be  imited  with  F.  disticha  Sprengel, 
and  form  a  distinct  species. 

Gymnostomum  d^ilatat^u^^^^^^      J  ^^^  ^^^^  Gymmstomum  pynformG, 


70  Mr  Arnotf  s  Tour  to  the  South  of  France 

Hedwigia  nervosa is  Grimmia  apocarpa  var.     It  is  the  G.  striata  of 

Turner,  as  Beauvois  himself  had  long  ago  dis- 
covered and  marked  in  his  herbarium. 

Hypnum  arbuscula This  is  a  Ilookeria.    It  resembles  exceedingly 

Hookeria  rotulata,  but  is  much  larger,  being 
about  3  or  4  inches  in  height.  I  should  be 
unwilling  to  separate  the  two,  however,  as 
Beauvois'  plant  has  not  yet  been  found  in  fruit. 

,.  II  -.1  ■■  I ...  confertum is  ^.  murale. 

.        gnaphalium is  Bartramia  tomentosa. 

,— — longijflorum is  //.  stramineum.  But  there  is  another  plant  in 

Beauvois'  herbarium  under  this  name ;  it  is 
//.  Jluitans. 

.  magellanicum is  Hookeria  viagellanica  N. 

.    .     sipho is  H.  riparium. 

stoloniferum... is  H.  attenuatum,    or  Leskea  attenuata  Hedw. ; 

Mnium  palmifolium is  Dicranum  semicompletum. 

— — —  rubellum is  Bryum  carneum. 

Orthotrichum  americanura is  O.  Hutchinsice. 

.  heterophyllum.  .is  O.  diaphanum. 

breve This  is  a  mistake  of  the  printer.    In  Beauvois* 

herbarium  it  is  Iceve^  and  the  plant  is  the 
same  with  the  Schlotheimia  torta  of  Schw. 

Pilotrichura  biductulosum is  Daltonia  polytrichoides  N. 

— — . — : denticulatum is  Jungermannia  Thouarsii  Hook. 

— — serrulatura is  probably  a  iV(?cA:em.     There  is  no  fruit,  and 

it  resembles  somewhat  Hookeria  Langsdorfii. 

Poly  trichum  elatum \ 

.-,  remotifolium..  V appear  to  be  only  P.  commune. 

subpilosum....  j 

Splachnura  pusillum This,  of  which  Beauvois  is  ignorant  of  the  loca- 
lity, comes  from  Norway.  It  was  sent  to 
Jussieu  by  Vahl,  and  was  properly  named  by 
him  Spl.  vasculomm. 

Trichostomum  obtusifoliura....is  T.  aciculare. 

My  partiality  for  botanical  science  was  indeed  no  small  rea- 
son for  my  visit  to  the  south  of  France ;  and  although  the 
month  of  March  had  only  commenced,  yet  I  had  the  prospect  of 
seeing  wild  the  Mihora  verna  and  Hutchinsia  petrcea  (two  plants 
although  occurring  in  England,  yet  very  scarce),  with  the  Fa- 
lantia  cruciata,  Andryale  nemausensis.  Astragalus  incanus^ 
Taraxacum  IcBvigatum,  Erodium  Romanum,  and  some  other 
midi  de  la  France  plants,  which  Mr  Bentham  wrote  to  me  had 
long  been  in  full  bloom. 

9.5th  March,  Lyons. — "  I  left  Paris  on  Tuesday  morning 


and  the  P^/renees,  in  1825-  71 

{the  22d)  at  half-past  5  o'clock,  and  got  to  Fountainbleau  about 
1  to  breakfast ;  proceeding  to  Montargis  to  dinner,  about  half- 
past  7, — the  travelling  most  provokingly  slow.  During  the 
night  I  was  awakened  from  sleep  by  a  tremendous  row  be- 
tween the  rest  of  the  passengers  and  the  postilion,  who  had  been 
coolly  walking  his  horses  for  a  league  or  two,  whilst  he  on  foot 
was  enjoying  the  fineness  of  the  night.  Got  on  to  Pouilly  to 
breakfast.  Between  Neuvy  and  Pouilly  I  saw,  for  the  first  time 
this  year  in  France  (so  backward  I  suppose  is  the  spring),  a  wild 
flower  in  blossom :  it  was  Helkhorus  Jwtidus.  This  was  the 
flrst  decided  vine  country  we  had  come  to,  but  here  all  the  ri- 
sing grounds  were  closely  planted  with  that  shrub.  Between 
Pouilly  and  La  Charite  I  observed  also,  for  the  first  time  since 
leaving  Paris,  bullocks  commonly  used  for  ploughing  and  draw- 
ing loaded  carts ;  but  all  these — the  wild  flowers,  the  vines,  and 
use  of  bullocks — became  more  common  as  we  got  towards  Lyons. 
The  bullocks  are  yoked  quite  in  the  Roman  fashion  :  a  beam  of 
wood  is  fixed  across  the  brows  of  each  pair  of  oxen,  and  is  tied 
to  their  horns ;  and  to  the  centre  of  this  beam,  between  the 
two  animals,  is  attached  the  extremity  of  the  pole  of  the  cart. 

^'  We  arrived  at  Lyons  last  night  about  12  o'clock.  The 
road  down  Mount  Tarare  is  very  beautiful,  and  in  many  re- 
spects resembles  Glen  Farg  in  Perthshire ;  but  the  descent  is 
much  more  rapid.  Lyons  is  the  richest  town  in  France,  and  is 
famous  for  its  silk  manufactures,  and  on  that  account  the  inha- 
bitants hate  the  English,  and  take  every  opportunity  of  cheat- 
ing them.  An  English  Jew  is  an  upright  man  in  comparison 
with  the  Lyonais.  Moreover,  the  most  respectable  houses  think 
it  a  kind  of  duty  to  charge  the  English  two  or  three  prices.  An 
English  gentleman  whom  I  met  to-day  at  the  table  d'hote  informs 
me,  that  even  the  bankers  do  not  refrain  from  this  system.  He 
wished  to  pay  in  some  money  at  Lyons,  and  get  their  bill  on 
Paris  :  a  banker  at  Liverpool  would  give  one  on  London,  pay- 
able at  sight ;  but  here,  when  my  informer  first  called,  they 
told  him  they  would  not  give  a  bill  for  less  than  ten  days.  This 
he  refused ;  but  when  he  resolved  to  accept  these  terms,  and 
called  again,  they  saw  he  was  anxious,  and  they  raised  the  term 
to  fourteen  days.  Again  he  called,  and  they  raised  it  to  twenty ; 
and  the  last  time  he  went  to  them,   they  told  him  they  would 


72  Mr  Arnotfs  Tour  to  the  South  of' France 

not  do  it  under  a  month.  One  of  the  first  places  to  which  Buo- 
naparte proceeded  on  his  escape  from  Elba,  was  to  Lyons ;  and 
a  great  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  are  still  Buonapartists  in 
their  hearts." 

9nth  March. — "  Left  Lyons  yesterday  morning  at  5  o'clock. 
Mules  now  began  to  be  more  generally  used  for  drawing  loads. 
At  Vienne  (where  died  Pope  Pius  VI.)  the  country  becomes 
liner :  both  hills  and  dales  were  now  covered  with  vines,  and 
the  almond  trees  began  to  show  forth  their  blossoms.  The  en- 
virons abound  in  Roman  rehcs.  A  little  below  this  is  a  remark- 
able ancient  monument :  it  is  a  huge  pyramid  on  four  high 
supports  or  arches ;  but,  what  is  singular,  the  base  of  the  py- 
ramid is  plain,  not  arched,  and,  with  the  large  flag-stones 
which  constitute  it,  seems  ready  to  fall  upon  one's  head. — 
Many  plants  now  begin  to  make  their  appearance ;  indeed  the 
difference  between  the  vegetation  of  Paris,  and  that  to  the  south 
of  Lyons,  is  very  great :  the  crops  are  here  far  above  the  ground, 
and  the  lambs  were  already  several  weeks  old.  On  a  hill  to  the 
south  of  Vienne  that  we  walked  up,  I  saw  the  Buxus  semper- 
virens,  the  common  box,  in  flower.  I  collected  some  of  the 
Grimmia  qfricana  (Dicranum  pulvinatum  /3,  Hedw.)  :  this  has 
a  hemispherical  operculum,  and  is  certainly  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  Grimmia  pulvinata.  By  some,  the  south  of  France 
plant  is  considered  as  different  from  that  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope;  but  I  can  detect  no  difference,  although  I  carefully 
examined  the  latter  in  the  herbarium  of  Mr  Burchell  at  Ful- 
ham.  It  appears,  although  unnoticed  till  met  with  at  the 
Cape  by  Thunberg,  to  be  even  more  common  in  the  region  of 
the  olives  in  France,  and  probably  also  in  Spain  and  Italy,  than 
at  the  Cape.  The  hill  on  which  we  were  was  of  puddingstone, 
and  is  quarried  for  gravel  to  the  roads  :  the  mine  is  carried  in 
nearly  a  horizontal  direction,  pillars  being  left  of  the  material 
to  prevent  the  roof  falling  in.  The  hills  still  continue  along  the 
west  side  of  the  Rhone.'"* 

"-  Peage  de  RoussUhn.  St  Vallon. — The  hills  now  begin 
to  get  small,  and  are  covered  with  vines :  they  are  terraced,  and 
seem  of  a  red  gravelly  rock.  Cote-roti,  and  several  other  of  the 
fine  Rhone  wines  are  produced  in  the  neighbourhood  of  St  Val- 
lon,  below  which  the  view  gets  more  beautiful  as  we  arrive  at 


and  tlie  Pyrenees^  in  ^S%6.  /  73 

an  elbow  of  the  Rhone.  The  beauty  of  the  landscape  continues 
to  Tain,  immediately  below  which,  on  the  left  hand,  is  the  Her- 
mitage, famous  for  Jljie  wine  of  that  name.  Opposite  to  Tain, 
on  the  other  side  of  the  river,  is  the  pretty  village,  or  rather 
town,  of  Tournon.  Formerly  the  only  communication  between 
these  two  was  by  a  boat  pulled  across  in  a  manner  somewhat  si- 
milar to  what  I  have  seen  in  Scotland  :  A  rope  is  suspended  be- 
tween the  two  abutments  as  a  guide,  while  a  small  rope  attached 
to  the  boat  slides,  by  means  of  a  ring  on  the  larger,  to  prevent 
the  bark  being  swept  away  by  the  force  of  the  stream.  In 
Scotland,  I  believe,  they  generally  push  over  the  boat  by  rest- 
ing the  hands  on  the  guide-rope ;  while  at  the  Bac  de  Tain, 
and  other  Bacs  or  ferries  in  this  part  of  France,  they  have  a 
small  contrivance  to  pull  it  over.  There  is  now  so  great  a  com- 
munication between  the  towns  of  Tain  and  Tournon,  that  a 
handsome  chain-bridge  has  been  commenced,  and  is  expected 
to  be  finished  in  the  course  of  the  season  *. 

"  We  now  proceeded  towards  the  river  Isere.  The  Hiron- 
delle  diligences  are  the  chief  ones  opposed  to  those  of  the  Mes- 
sageries  Royales  in  France.  There  is  one  between  Paris  and 
Lyons,  and  a  corresponding  one  between  Lyons  and  Marseilles. 
This  last  left  Lyons  an  hour  before  our  dihgence  the  Paresseux ; 
but  by  stopping  shorter  time  at  breakfast,  and  by  overdriving, 
we  had  made  up  to  our  antagonist  at  Tain.  As  the  first  ar- 
rived at  the  ferry  or  Bac  dTsere  must  get  first  over,  we  had  a 
competition,  for  the  first  time  I  ever  saw  such  a  thing  in  France : 
still  the  Swallow  kept  a-head,  and  never  gave  us  an  opportuni- 
ty to  lay  salt  on  its  tail ;  but,  driving  near  the  pier,  their  pos- 
tilion thought  that  we  would  not  attempt  any  farther  struggle, 
and  stopped ;  but  he  reckoned  wrong,  for^  at  the  instant,  we 
doubled  our  pace,  and  in  a  second  drew  up  before  the  other, 
leaving  him  to  launch  against  us  not  a  few  of  those  tremendous 
oaths  with  which  the  mouth  of  a  French  postboy  is  peculiarly 
well  stored.  I  was  rascal  enough  myself  to  enjoy  the  fun,  and 
even  tipped  the  postilion  a  piece  of  silver  for  his  good  deeds, 
and  promising  another  should  he  prevent  the  Swallow  flying 
past  .us." 

*  This  bridge  was  nearly  completed  when  I  returned  this  Avay  on  the  19tU 
September. 


74  Mr  Arnott'^s  Tour  to  the  South  of  France 

We  crossed  and  got  to  Vallence,  close  to  which  is  a  great  ar- 
tillery arsenal.  Leaving  Vallence,  the  moon  shone  clear,  and 
illuminating  the  Rhone  at  the  intervals  we  could  see  the  river. 
There  was  none  besides  another  gentleman  and  myself  in  the 
coach,  and,  stretched  at  full  length  on  the  seat,  I  enjoyed  the 
night  extremely.  It  was  so  mild  that  we  kept  down  both  the 
■windows  ;  and  although  only  in  the  end  of  March,  I  found  it 
much  warmer  to  sleep  here,  than  I  have  experienced  on  some 
of  the  Scottish  mountains,  under  a  tent,  in  the  month  of  Au- 
gust. 

"  This  morning  the  sun  rose  upon  us  about  6  oVlock,  shining 
on  the  old  fortress  of  Donzere.  The  scene  is  now  much  changed 
from  that  of  yesterday  :  we  have  now  entered  the  "  Region  des 
Ohviers,""  the  "  Region  mediterrannee,''  or,  as  it  is  also  called, 
the  ^*  Midi  de  la  France."  The  mulberry  trees  now  cover  the 
plain ;  low  hills  are  at  each  side  in  the  distance,  studded  with 
white  houses,  which  probably  appeared  more  beautiful  as  the 
sun  was  shining  on  them  so  very  obliquely.  Towards  Pierre- 
Late,  the  mountains  again  appear  on  the  left ;  and  just  before 
entering  this  wretched  village,  there  is  a  very  singular,  and  ap- 
parently isolated  rock  of  great  height,  almost  close  to  the  road, 
and  which  resembled,  on  a  small  scale,  our  own  Duribarton 
rock.  Passing  Mondragon,  it  is  on  the  left  side  rocky  and 
hilly ;  the  olive  trees  now  commence,  and  flank  the  hills  like 
the  beeches  on  a  Highland  mountain. 

"  Mornas. — I  walked  on  while  they  changed  horses.  My  eyes 
were  now  beginning  to  get  confused  with  looking  on  plants  that 
I  had  never  seen  wild  before,  growing  out  of  all  the  dry  dusty 
walls  that  I  passed.  I  had  neither,  however,  time  for  gather- 
ing them,  nor  means  for  drying  them  ;  and  it  was  of  the  less 
consequence,  as  I  expected  to  meet  with  them  all  at  Avig- 
non or  Montpellier.  On  entering  Orange,  we  passed  the  an- 
cient triumphal  arch  of  Marius.  On  leaving  the  town,  we 
saw  large  and  apparently  barren  plains,  covered  with  cail- 
loux,  or  round  hard  stones :  all  the  soil  seemed  of  a  plumpud- 
dingstone  nature,  and  by  the  dissolution  and  sinking  of  the  ar- 
gillaceous cement,  the  cailloux  are  finally  loosened,  and  lie  on 
the  surface.  There  was  nothing  on  these  plains  but  a  few  mul- 
berry trees,  which,  however,  I  am  told  do  well,  if  the  soil  is 


ana  the  Pyrenees^  in  1825.  75 

loosened  about  their  roots,  with  a  pioche  or  mattock,  twice  or 
thrice  a-year,  to  allow  the  scanty  rain  that  falls,  or  the  water 
used  in  irrigation,  to  penetrate  to  their  fibres.  A  less  stony 
and  more  argillaceous  soil  continues  to  Avignon,  and  appears 
to  be  well  adapted  to  the  vines  :  these  between  Paris  and  Ly- 
ons must  be  supported  by  stakes,  but  here  they  have  enormous 
roots,  and  short  arborescent  stems,  and  require  no  supports." 

I  arrived  at  Avignon  between  2  and  3  o^clock,  and  found 
that  my  friend  Mr  Bentham  had  come  here  from  Montpellier 
to  meet  me.  We  went  together  to  M.  Requien"'s.  This  gentle- 
man, inter  alia,  directs  the  public  garden  at  Avignon,  but,  be- 
sides being  a  good  and  active  botanist,  attends  also  to  other 
parts  of  natural  history.  His  library  of  botanical  works  is  the 
best  in  the  south  of  France,  and  his  herbarium  is  exceedingly 
rich  in  European,  but  particularly  in  French  plants.  His  libe- 
rality as  a  botanist  is  also  very  different  from  what  one  often 
meets  with.  He  seems  to  have  even  more  desire  to  give  than 
to  receive, — and  he  has  the  power  of  giving.  Upwards  of  a 
month"'s  excursion  made  to  a  distance  every  summer  for  these 
some  years  past,  has  enabled  him  to  lay  up  a  stock  of  much 
that  may  give  pleasure  to  the  botanist.  Switzerland,  the  Gre- 
noble Alps,  lies  Hieres,  Piedmont,  Marseilles,  Toulon,  Nar- 
bonne,  and  lately  Corsica,  have  all  been  examined  by  him.  Be- 
sides, his  residence  at  Avignon,  in  the  heart  of  one  of  the  rich- 
est parts  of  France  for  plants,  was  sufficient  itself  to  furnish 
him  with  ample  provision  for  his  friends. 

SOtk  March. — "  Requien  having  made  up  a  party  to-day  for 
Vaucluse,  we  set  off  from  Avignon  at  6  o'clock,  in  a  calache 
and  cabriolet.  It  is  about  twenty  or  twenty-three  miles  dis- 
tant. The  rocks  are  very  steep,  and  encircle  the  fountain,  so 
that  the  water  has  no  egress  in  the  dry  seasons,  when  the  foun- 
tain is  low,  but  by  percolating  the  rocks ;  it  consequently  is  for 
some  distance  lost,  but  again  appears  a  little  below  in  a  large 
stream.  Farther  down  some  other  streams  gush  out  of  the 
rocks  on  both  sides ;  so  that,  in  the  course  of  one  or  two  hun- 
dred yards,  a  large,  deep,  and  wide  river,  the  Sorgues,  is 
formed ;  but  this,  again,  is  soon  afterwards  made  to  split  into 
eight  or  ten  branches,  each  of  which  serves,  in  their  course,  to 
turn  mills,  or  irrigate  the  fields  during  the  droughts  of  sum- 

2 


76  Mr  Arnott's  Tour  to  the  South  of  France 

mer  *.  To-day  the  fountain  was  uncommonly  low,  and  all  the 
stones  which  are  covered  by  the  water  when  high,  were  now  ab- 
solutely green  with  the  Hedzoigia  aquatica  and  Cinclidotusjon' 
tinaloides,  but  of  which  the  former  was  the  more  abundant. 
We  were  so  fortunate  as  to  observe  here  during  the  short  time 
we  remained,  Tortida  chloronatos  (T,  memhranifolia  Hook.^, 
Grimmia  qfricana,  Clypeola  Jonihlaspi,  Hutchinsia  jpetrcea. 
Thymus  vulgaris  (or  garden  thyme),  Vallantia  cruciata,  Hes- 
peris  laciniata,  and  Asplenium  glanduhsum  Loisl.  (called  by 
some  A.  PetrarchcB^  and  by  others  A.  Vallisclausce).  Of  the 
two  last  we  gathered  only  one  or  two  specimens ;  they  are  very 
scarce,  and  if  not  taken  care  of  may  be  soon  entirely  eradicated. 
The  Targionia  hypophylla  actually  grows  here,  though,  if  the 
notes  I  have  be  correct,  Sir  J.  E.  Smith  seems  to  think  there  is 

*  It  may  be  interesting  to  some  to  have  Sir  J.  Smith's  observations  on 
this  scene.  They  are  contained  in  his  "  Tour  to  the  Continent,"  a  book  1 
regret  I  had  not  carried  with  me. 

*'  Nov.  30 — Nothing  about  Avignon  could  interest  us  so  much  as  the  fa- 
mous fountain  of  Vaucluse,  consecrated  to  immortality  by  the  sweet  muse  of 
Petrarch,  and  now  rivalling  in  celebrity  the  Castalian  font,  which  it  excels  in 
beauty  and  magnificence.  We  arrived  on  its  brink  about  3  o'clock  in  a  bright 
afternoon,  when  the  i"glowing  refulgence  of  the  declining  sun  on  the  rocky 
scenery  around,  increased,  by  contrast,  the  charms  of  the  sequestered  vale,  at 
whose  extremity  the  fountain  is  situated. 

"  It  was  now  in  great  perfection,  rather  fuller  than  usual.  The  water, 
though  clear  as  crystal,  appears  green  as  it  runs,  from  the  depth  of  the  chan- 
nel. This  fountain  is,  in  fact,  a  considerable  river,  arising  from  an  unfathom- 
ably  rocky  basin  of  a  circular  form,  at  the  foot  of  a  stupendous  perpendicular, 
or  rather  impending  rock.  A  few  yards  from  its  source,  the  stream  falls,  in 
the  most  majestic  and  picturesque  manner,  over  fragments  of  rock,  and  then 
forms  a  rapid  river,  winding  through  the  vale,  whose  sides,  for  some  distance, 
rise  suddenly  to  an  immense  height  from  its  banks,  and  then  gradually  ex- 
pand into  an  open  plain.  The  village  (Dr  Smith  might  have  called  it  mise- 
rable) of  Vaucluse  is  built  on  some  of  the  most  accessible  parts  of  these  pre- 
cipices, and  many  of  its  houses  overhang  the  river.  The  only  approach  to 
the  fountain  is  by  a  single  path  along  the  bank  opposite  to  the  town. 

"  Although  it  may  seem  approaching  to  impiety  to  visit  this  place  with 
any  other  thoughts  than  that  of  Laura  and  her  sublime  lover,  whose  elo- 
quence I  almost  adore,  and  to  whose  refinement  I  do  all  possible  reverence ; 
yet  I  cannot  but  remark,  that  its  beauties  are  in  themselves  sufficient  to  ren- 
der it  one  of  the  most  interesting  spots  in  the  world.  A  naturalist  or  painter, 
as  well  as  a  poet,  might  spend  many  days  here  most  delightfully.  The 
neighbouring  scenery  wants  only  a  little  more  wood." 


and  the  Pyrenees^  in  1825.  77 

some  mistake  *.  As  to  tlie  Hedxvigia  aquatica^  few  botanists 
would  credit  me  should  I  say  I  gathered  none  of  it ;  but  fewer 
still  will  believe  that  I  was  at  the  pains  to  fill  all  my  pockets, 
and  my  hat  as  full  as  possible.  While  thvis  engaged,  one  of 
our  companions  came  up,  and  assured  me  I  had  taken  "  bien 
assez  pour  tous  les  botanists  en  Europe.*"  "  Voila  dont  pour 
PAmerique,"  was  all  I  had  time  to  answer,  while  I  proceeded 
in  my  labours.  There  is  certainly  something  very  delightful 
in  finding  in  quantities  any  thing  one  has  been  long  eager  to 
lay  hold  of.  At  the  fountain,  or  rather  in  the  river  below  the 
fountain,  I  was  highly  satisfied  to  have  clear  demonstration  that 
the  Hypnum  VaUisdausce  was  only  H.Jilicinum  in  an  injured 
state.  I  had  long  suspected  such  to  be  the  case,  from  my  exa- 
minations of  both  in  the  herbarium.  At  the  edge  of  the  river 
I  found  the  H.  Jilicinum  abundantly,  and  in  fruit ;  while  in 
the  deeper  part  of  the  river,  I  detected  the  H.  vallisclausce 
without  fructification.  By  a  careful  examination  I,  however, 
at  length  found,  in  a  place  where  the  water  was  shallow,  a  few 
specimens  so  completely  between  the  two  species,  that  now 
none  I  should  think  can  doubt  of  their  identity.  Of  the  same 
specimen,  the  lower  part  was  the  H.  vallisclauste,  while  the 
upper  part,  which  was  out  of  the  water,  was  in  fruit,  and  be- 
longed as  certainly  to  H.Jilicinum.  it 

"  On  the  road  out  from  Avignon  in  the  morning,  we  had 
observed  fields  as  yellow  with  the  Crepis  nemausensis,  as 
they  are  white  in  England  with  the  Bellis  perennis  or  daisy. 
Abundance  of  Erodium  romanum  was  every  where  by  the  way 
side ;  while  some  garriques,  or  waste  lands,  were  as  well  stocked 
with  Genista  scorpius  and  Quercus  coccifer,  as  some  fields  in 
Scotland  with  the  Ulex  europaus  or  furze. 

"  Had  time  permitted  us  I  should  have  been  delighted  to 
have  gone  over  the  mountains  some  leagues  farther  than  Vau- 
cluse  to  Mont  Ventoux,  a  mountain  of  considerable  elevation 
(6650  feet  English),  and  on  which  there  are  some  very  remark- 

•  I  had  been  led  into  an  error.  Dr  Smith's  words,  I  find,  are,  "  Here, 
too,  we  found  something  much  resembling  Targionia^  but  which  proved  only 
Marchantia  hemispharica,  with  its  flowers  budding.  It  is,  however,  the  Aito- 
nia  rupestris  of  Forster  {Rupinia  lichenoides  of  liinn.  Supp.),  as  I  can  prove 
from  original  specimens.  Messrs  Broussonet  and  Sibihorp  assured  me  thej 
found  the  true  Targimia  in  this  place." 


78  Dr  Grant  on  a  New  Zoophyte 

able  plants.  The  season  was  not,  however,  sufficiently  ad- 
vanced, the  mountain  being  still  covered  with  snow,  and,  besides, 
it  would  have  required  at  least  a  day  or  two.  We,  therefore, 
returned  to  Avignon  in  the  evening." 

(To  be  continued.) 


Notice  of  a  New  Zoophyte  (Cliona  celata,  Gr.)  from  the 
Frith  of  Forth.  By  R.  E.  Grant,  M.D.  F.R.S.E.  F.L.S. 
M.W.S.  &c.     Communicated  by  the  Author. 

W  E  frequently  find  on  the  shore  the  decayed  shells  of  the 
common  oyster,  (Ostrea  edulis.  Lam.)  entirely  perforated  on 
both  sides  with  small  round  holes,  about  half  a  hne  in  diameter. 
These  holes  do  not  pass  in  a  straight  line  through  the  substance 
of  the  shells,  but  open  on  both  sides  into  chambers,  which  have 
been  somehow  excavated  in  the  interior  of  each  valve :  they  have 
probably  been  perforated  by  some  marine  worms,  in  order  to 
feed  on  the  animal  matter  connecting  the  layers  of  the  shell,  and 
to  obtain  a  safe  abode,  as  we  generally  observe  a  variety  of  these 
animals  come  from  the  interior,  when  such  shells  are  kept  a  few 
days  in  a  vessel  of  sear-water.  When  these  perforated  shells  are 
first  brought  up  by  the  dredges  from  the  oyster-beds  of  the  Frith 
of  Forth,  I  have  almost  always  found  the  holes  on  their  surface, 
and  the  excavated  chambers  between  the  layers,  filled  with  a  soft 
yellow  organised  matter,  which  appears  not  to  have  been  de- 
scribed by  naturalists,  but  whose  singular  properties  entitle  it  to 
a  minute  examination.  This  yellow  fleshy  substance  occupies 
the  perforated  shells  of  the  living  oyster,  as  well  as  the  detached 
valves  of  the  dead  animal ;  but,  in  the  living  oyster,  as  the  per- 
forations are  only  seen  on  the  outside,  and  never  pass  through 
the  innermost  layer,  there  is  always  a  thin  layer  of  shell  between 
the  yellow  substance  and  the  living  animal.  On  the  death  of 
the  oyster,  and  separation  of  its  valves,  the  inner  layer  soon  be- 
comes likewise  perforated,  and  the  yellow  matter  is  then  seen 
projecting  through  the  holes  on  both  sides  of  the  shell  at  the 
same  time.  By  removing  successively  the  outer  layers,  we  easily 
discover  that  the  internal  excavations  communicate  freely  with 
each  other,  and  with  the  apertures  on  the  surface,  and  that  all 


from  the  Firth  of  Forth.  79 

the  pulpy  matter  which  fills  them,  and  projects  through  the  su- 
perficial openings,  is  connected  within  so  as  to  form  one  conti- 
nuous fleshy  mass  pervading  the  whole  shell.  This  yellow  fleshy 
substance  forms  a  distinct  and  well  marked  zoophyte,  which  I 
have  termed  Cliona  celata,  and  I  have  not  yet  found  this  ani- 
mal in  any  other  situation  than  that  above  described. 

The  Cliona  in  the  living  state  consists  of  a  soft,  fleshy  granu- 
lar and  distinctly  irritable  substance,  of  a  greenish  yellow  colour, 
traversed  Hke  many  other  zoophytes,  with  minute  and  regularly 
formed  spicula.  Its  form  depends  on  that  of  the  cavities  which 
it  fills ;  it  insinuates  itself  into  their  minutest  ramifications,  and 
adheres  so  closely  to  their  smooth  parietes,  that  it  cannot  be  se- 
parated without  tearing.  The  parts  of  the  Cliona  which  pro- 
ject through  the  holes  on  the  surface  of  the  shell  are  tubular ; 
and  on  removing  the  outer  layers  of  the  shell,  we  can  perceive 
several  empty  canals  winding  and  ramifying  from  these  tubular 
papillae,  through  the  body  of  the  zoophyte.  During  the  months 
of  March  and  April,  when  these  observations  were  made,  nume- 
rous small  yellow  ova  were  seen  in  the  vicinity  of  the  canals, 
agreeing  much  in  their  form,  colour,  size  and  mode  of  distribu- 
tion with  those  of  the  Spongia  papillaris  and  Spongia  panicea, 
which  were  then  nearly  in  the  same  stage  of  advancement.  The 
projecting  tubular  papillae  possess  a  complicated  structure,  and 
a  high  degree  of  contractile  power,  and  exhibit  a  singular  series 
of  appearances,  when  the  zoophyte  is  attentively  examined  while 
at  rest  in  pure  sea-water.  When  under  water,  the  papillae  are 
seen  projecting  from  the  apertures  of  the  shell,  sometimes  to  the 
length  of  a  line  and  a  half;  they  present  a  wide  circular  opening 
in  their  centre,  and  a  rapid  current  of  water  issues  constantly 
from  them,  conveying  occasional  flocculi  of  a  grey  membrana- 
ceous matter.  But  on  being  touched  with  a  needle,  or  with- 
drawn from  the  water,  the  opening  gradually  closes,  the  current 
ceases,  and  the  whole  papilla  continuing  slowly  to  contract,  is 
withdrawn  completely  within  the  aperture  of  the  shell.  The  pa- 
pillae, viewed  in  their  contracted  state,  present  a  smooth,  rounded, 
shut  extremity ;  but  when  they  begin  to  advance  beyond  the  sur- 
face of  the  shell,  their  extremity  becomes  flat  and  sHghtly  di- 
lated, assumes  a  villous  appearance,  with  open  fissures,  radiating 
^rom  the  centre  to  the  margin  of  the  papillae,  and  at  length  a  mi- 


80  Dr  Grant  on  a.Nexv  Zoophyte 

nute  circular  opening  is  perceived  in  the  centre  of  the  villous 
surface.  The  papilla  advances  from  the  shell,  and  its  central 
opening  enlarges  in  proportion  to  the  healthy  state  of  the  zoo- 
phyte, and  the  purity  and  stillness  of  the  water ;  its  flat  downy 
radiated  surface  gradually  diminishes  by  the  widening  of  the 
central  opening,  till  only  thin  margins  are  left  around  the  orifice, 
and  the  current  is  again  seen  to  play  briskly  from  it.  In  recent 
specimens  of  the  Cliona  dredged  from  an  oyster-bed  neai'  the 
shore  at  Prestonpans,  and  examined  under  the  most  favourable 
circumstances  on  the  coast,  I  have  twice  observed  polypi  of  ex- 
traordinary minuteness  and  delicacy  placed  around  the  margin  of 
the  orifice,  and  which,  kept  in  constant  motion,  advancing  and 
withdrawing  themselves  into  the  substance  of  the  papilla,  while 
the  current  flowed  from  its  central  opening.  The  polypi  were 
perfectly  invisible  to  the  naked  eye  in  an  ordinary  fight  and  po- 
sition ;  but  by  suspending  the  Cliona  in  a  crystal  jar  with  clear 
water,  and  placing  it  between  the  eye  and  a  candle,  or  the  sun, 
they  were  seen  like  filaments  of  silk  or  asbestus  constantly  rising 
and  sinking  on  the  margin  of  the  papilla.  On  cutting  off  a  pa- 
pilla, and  placing  it  under  the  microscope  in  sea-water,  the  polypi 
continvied  their  motions,  and  were  seen  to  consist  of  a  long,  slen- 
der, transparent,  cylindrical,  tubular  fleshy  body,  at  the  farther  ex- 
tremity of  which  were  placed  about  eight  short  broad  tentacula, 
slightly  dilated  at  their  free  ends,  which  were  constantly  inflect- 
ing and  extending  themselves  irregularly,  while  the  polypi  ad- 
vanced or  retreated.  In  two  entire  and  fresh  specimens,  the 
polypi  continued  visible  and  in  motion  for  more  than  twenty-four 
hours  in  a  jar  of  water  at  Prestonpans ;  but  I  have  not  yet  suc- 
ceeded in  perceiving  them  in  any  of  the  numerous  specimens 
which  I  have  preserved  afive  in  the  water  procured  from  New- 
haven.  The  spicula  of  the  Cliona  celaia  are  siliceous^  and  have 
a  very  close  resemblance  to  those  of  the  great  Spongia  paterce, 
or  Neptune's  cups  of  the  Indian  ocean,  many  splendid  specimens 
of  which  are  preserved  in  the  Museum  of  the  University  ;  when 
procured  separate,  by  removing  the  animal  matter  with  the  blow- 
pipe, or  with  nitric  acid,  we  observe  them  to  be  long,  slender, 
cylindrical,  tubular,  slightly  curved,  shut  at  both  ends,  a  fittle 
fusiform  in  the  middle,  acutely  pointed  at  one  end,  and  termi- 
nated bv  a  small  hollow  round  head  at  the  other.     Thev  are 


from  the  Firth  of  Forth,  81 

about  the  fourth  of  a  Hne  in  length,  and  appear  through  the  mi- 
croscope as  minute  curved  pins  spread  irregularly  through  the 
whole  fleshy  substance  of  the  animal :  they  do  not  impede  the  irri- 
tabihty  of  that  substance,  as,  on  tearing  off  a  portion  of  it  par- 
tiaQy  from  the  shell,  we  observe  it  slowly  contract  its  dimensions, 
and  a  portion  of  it  entirely  detached,  soon  becomes  contracted 
and  more  hard  to  the  feel. 

This  zoophyte,  though  one  of  the  least  attractive  in  its  exter- 
nal appg^arance,  and  one  of  the  most  common  inhabitants  of  our 
coast,  presents  to  the  comparative  anatomist  a  new  and  very  in- 
teresting combination  of  properties ;  it  is  closely  allied  to  the  AI- 
cyonmm  by  its  contractile  fleshy  texture,  and  by  its  distinct  though 
microscopic  polypi ;  and  it  is  allied  to  the  Sponge  by  its  siHceous 
tubular  spicula,  ramified  internal  canals,  tubular  papillae,  regu- 
lar currents,  and  the  distribution  of  its  ova.  It  differs,  however, 
from  the  Alcyonium,  in  not  presenting  a  free  surface,  covered 
with  a  coriaceous  integument,  marked  with  stellate  pores  for  the 
lodgment  of  distinct  polypi ;  and  it  differs  from  the  Sponge  in 
the  obvious  contractility  of  its  papillae  and  general  texture,  in  its 
possessing  distinct  polypi,  and  in  its  surface  not  being  free,  and 
covered  with  open  angular  pores.  It  constitutes  a  distinct  genus, 
forming  a  connecting  link  between  the  Alcyonium  and  the  Sponge^ 
and  throws  much  light  on  the  nature  of  the  latter  zoophyte.  I 
have  termed  this  genus  Cliona,  (from  ;cAg«w,  claudo),  from  its 
most  obvious  and  remarkable  property  of  retracting  and  shutting 
the  papillae  when  irritated  ;  and  the  above  described  species,  the 
only  one  I  have  met  with,  is  named  celata,  from  its  concealed 
and  secure  habitation  within  the  substance  of  oyster-shells.  It 
has  an  extensive  distribution  in  the  Frith  of  Forth,  occurring 
abundantly  in  the  oyster-beds  at  Prestonpans,  off*  Inchkeith,  and 
in  the  Roads.  I  have  only  found  it  in  the  shell  of  the  t?ommon 
oyster,  and  it  may  be  questioned  whether  the  sharp  siliceous  spi- 
cula, and  constant  currents  of  its  papillae,  do  not  exert  some  in- 
fluence in  forming  or  enlarging  the  habitation  of  this  zoophyte. 

APRIL- — JULY  18S6.  Y 


(     82    ) 

Geological  Observations^ — 1.  On  Alluvial  Rocks:  2.  On  For- 
mations: 3.  On  the  Changes  that  appear  to  have  taken 
place  during  the  different  periods  of  the  EartV s  formation 
on  the  Climate  of  our  Globe,  and  in  the  nature  and  the  phy^ 
sical  and  the  geographical  disti'ibution  of  its  Animals  and 
Plants.  By  A.  Boue',  M.  D.  Member  of  the  Wernerian 
Society,  &c.     Communicated  by  the  Author. 

I. — On  Alluvial  Rocks. 

1.  Old  Alluvium y  syn.  Diluvium. 

jL  his  series  of  alluvial  deposits,  in  the  regular  succession, 
immediately  follows  the  newest  tertiary  rocks.  We  do  not  be- 
lieve that  it  is  always  distinctly  separated  from  the  modern  al- 
luvium, although  Cuvier,  Professor  Buckland  and  others,  main- 
tain that  such  is  the  case.  When  a  distinct  separation  takes  place, 
it  only  occurs  accidentally  here  and  there.  On  the  contrary,  there 
is  in  general  a  transition  from  the  one  to  the  other,  as  in  all  the 
preceding  formations ;  so  that  the  two  would  seem  to  be  nothing 
else  than  the  product  of  the  same  and  still  existing  causes,  al- 
though the  effects  of  these  causes  would  appear  to  have  dimi- 
nished from  the  older  to  the  more  recent  epochs.  When  both 
alluvia  are  well  separated,  it  indicates  that  the  causes  to  which 
the  old  alluvium  has  owed  its  existence  had  suddenly  ceased  to 
operate.  Thus,  in  a  great  basin,  it  would  be  thought  that  the 
water  has  rapidly  subsided  by  a  rupture  or  debacle,  &c. 

In  this  deposit  we  find  remains  of  vegetables  still  existing ; 
also  of  marine,  fluviatile,  and  terrestrial  shells,  of  species  still 
living ;  likewise  remains  of  extinct  and  living  quadrupeds,  but 
no  human  bones. 

Old  Deposites  of  the  Sea. 

Accumulations  of  sand^  rolled  stones^  and  decayed  vegetables^  along  the  coast, 
more  or  less  elevated  above  the  present  level  of  the  sea,  at  high-water, 
(Britam). 
Banks  of  sand  and  shelly  marl,  with  bones  and  remains  of  marine  animals, 
(East  coast  of  England,  Forth,  Clyde,  Norway,  Oyster  Bank  near  Ro- 
chelle,  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gironde,  Boston  in  the  United  States). 
Sandy  calcareous  matter  deposited  by  the  sea,  in  holes  and  fissures  in 
calcareous  rocks  of  the  Mediterranean  ;  compact  limestone,  with 
still  existing  marine  shells  (Nice),  Mediterranean  of  M.  Risso. 


Df  Boue's  Geological  Observations.  83 

Sandy  calcareous  breccia,  vnih.  bones  of  animals  not  all  still  existing  in 

the  country,  and  sometimes  with  marine  and  terrestrial  shells  still 

existing  there,  (Nice,  Corsica,  Cette,  Gibraltar,  Cerigo,  Dalmatia). 

Banks  of  corallines  or  madrepores  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  (Island  of 

Lamlash). 
Traces  of  Pholades  at  different  heights  on  the  rocks  of  the  sea-shore,  And 

much  above  high-water  mark,  (near  Nice). 
Some  sandy  submarine  banks  produced  by  currents  (Newfoundland  Bank). 

Old  Deposits  of  Lakes  and  Rivers^  along  their  sides  or  at  their  nwuthsy  and  much 
above  the  present  level  of  their  waters. 
Accumulations  of  sand,  rolled  stones,  and  decayed  vegetables,  on  platforms, 
or  often  in  the  form  of  terraces,  (Glen  Roy,  Lake  of  Geneva) ;  some 
conglomerate  clay-marl,  with  carbonized  vegetables,  (along  the  Missi- 
sippi). 
Lake  or  river  marl,  with  indurated  calcareous  nodules,  bones  of  large 
animals,  in  part  extinct,  and  fluviatile  and  terrestrial  shells,  of  which 
the  species  exist,  but  are  often  not  frequent  in  the  country,  (Garonne, 
Rhine,  Danube,  north  of  Germany,  great  plain  of  Eastern  Hungary). 

Old  Deposits  of  Calcareous  Tufa  ,•  spring  and  lake  deposits  of  different  epochs, 
with  bones  of  terrestrial  animals  not  existing  in  the  country,  or  of  which 
the  species  or  even  the  genus  is  lost  (Pyrmont,  Southern  Hartz) ;  also 
with  lacustrine  and  terrestrial  shells  which  still  exist,  but  of  which  the 
species  is  not  always  frequent  in  the  country,  (Baden  in  Austria). 

Calcareous  Breccia,  with  bones,  in  the  interior  of  the  Continent,  (Romagnagno 
in  the  country  of  Verona,  and  Concud  in  Arragonia,  Perigord,  Adelsberg 
in  Camiola,  Mixtnitz  near  Berneck  in  Styria,  Belenyesh  in  Eastern 
Hungary,  Gailenreuth). 

Deposits  of  Bones  of  Animals  (partly  of  extinct  species),  in  clay  or  calcareous 
tufa,  in  holes  and  caverns,  frequent  in  limestone  rocks. 

Old  Turf  sometimes  under  old  calcareous  tufa  (Pyrmont),  with  pyrites  and 

selenite ;  sometimes  accidentally  beneath  the  present  level  of  the  sea,  or 

actually  under  the  water  of  the  sea,  (Pomerania). 
Accumulated  matter,  produced  by  the  falling  in  or  falling  down  of  mineral  masses 

at  a  remote  period,  accidents  produced  by  earthquakes,  erosion  of  water, 

or  watery  infiltration,  (in  all  hilly  countries). 

A  part  of  the  vegetable  mould,  especially  on  the  elevated  parts  of  the  earth,  pro- 
duced by  the  decomposition  of  rocks,  and  vegetable  and  animal  matter. 

2.  Modern  Alluvium,  s}^n.  Alluvium. 

In  this  deposit  we  find  only  remains  of  existing  animals  and 
vegetables ;  and  here  also  human  bones  and  products  of  the  arts 
are  met  with. 


84»  Dr  Boue's  Geological  Ohservaiions. 

Modern  Deposits  of  the  Sea,  very  little  higher  than  the  highest  tide. 

Accumulations  of  sand  and  rolled  sto7ies,  and  decayed  vegetables,  (Dunes  irf 
Gascony,  Scotland). 

Masses  of  Sand,  sometimes  calcareous,  and  cemented  by  a  calcareous  infil- 
tration (Messina),  with  marine  shells  and  human  bones  (Guadaloupe). 

Coral  and  Madrepore  Reefs,  still  forming  (South  Sea). 

Traces  of  Pholades,  in  the  columns  of  the  temple  of  Serapis. 
Sand-banks  forming  under  the  sea. 

Modem  Deposits  of  Lakes  and  Rivers,  on  their  sides,  or  at  their  moutlis,  and  rising 
very  little  higher  than  the  highest  tides. 

Accumulations  of  sand,  rolled  stones,  and  decayed  vegetables. 

Mud  mixed  with  vegetable  and  animal  matters. 

Cof  Carbonate  of  Soda,  in  some  lakes  of  Egypt,  the  Barbary 
Deposits  -^      States,  and  centre  of  Africa. 

\  of  Common  Salt,  in  some  lakes  of  Russia. 

Modem  Deposits  of  Calcareous  Tufa,  still  forming  in  small  lakes  (Roman  States, 
Transylvania),  or  from  springs  (Alps)  ;  pisolites,  with  fluviatile  and  ter- 
restrial shells,  and  bones  of  animals  (Valley  of  the  Gave  du  Pau). 

Modem  Turf  deposits,  still  going  on,  and  containing  human  bones  and  pro- 
ducts of  art  (Scotland,  Mecklenburg). 

Matters  accumulated  by  the  falling  in  or  down  of  rocky  masses  or  earth  (Rigy, 
between  Deva  and  Dobra  in  Transylvania). 
Moraine  of  the  glaciers,  (Switzerland,  Savoy). 

Saline  products,  forming  in  mines,  caverns,  and  on  the  soil,  in  many  countries 
(Hungary,  Asia) ;  for  example,  saltpetre,  nitrate  of  lime,  sulphate  of  lime, 
?  sulphur. 

Deposits  of  Mineral  Waters,  ferruginous,  saline,  or  hot ;  for  example  bog  iron- 
ore  (Scotland,  Mecklenburg). 

Sulphur,  pulverulent  or  crystallised  (Baden  in  Austria). 
Vegetable  Mould,  still  forming. 

11. — On  Formations. 
From  the  want  of  extensive  geognostical  knowledge,  observers 
have  sometimes  been  unable  to  distinguish  properly  the  local 
from  the  general  formations ;  formations,  also,  have  been  unne- 
cessarily multiplied,  and  some  have  even  fancied  that  new  ones 
occurred  in  every  country.  At  other  times,  geologists  have 
fallen  into  the  opposite  extreme,  and  unnecessarily  reduced  the 
chief  formations.  Not  having  always  a  clear  idea  of  the  mode 
of  formation  of  modern  and  ancient  mineral  masses,  they  have 
often  separated  the  deposits  of  one  country  from  those  of  ano- 
ther, because  they  have  not  agreed  in  all  their  characters.    Is  it 


Dr  BoutTs  Geological  Observations.  8S 

not  natural  to  suppose  that  an  arenaceous  or  calcareous  forma- 
tion should  present  differences  in  different  countries,  or  on 
the  opposite  sides  of  a  basin,  or  in  the  intermediate  points  be- 
tween the  two  sides  of  a  basin.  If  these  deposits  are  the 
products  of  sea  and  river  alluvium,  it  is  evident  that  the  nature 
of  the  debris  will  vary  according  to  the  localities,  and  that  their 
quantity  will  be  more  or  less  great ;  which  would  also  partly  be 
the  case,  should  these  rocks  be  attributed  to  a  chemical  precipi- 
tation. If  the  observed  deposits  are  nothing  else  than  the  re- 
mains of  marine  animals,  or  similar  productions,  taken  up  and 
arranged  by  the  sea-water,  the  same  bed  will  present,  in  diffe- 
rent localities,  varieties  not  only  in  the  nature  of  the  rock,  but 
also  in  the  Jbssils ;  for  marine  animals  are  not  the  same  at 
different  depths  of  the  sea,  at  different  distances  from  the  coast, 
or  under  different  zones,  or  in  different  places  of  the  world  ;  and 
their  debris  must  also  be  variously  arranged  or  grouped  toge- 
ther by  the  sea,  according  to  the  unequal  motions  and  bottom 
of  the  ocean.  For  farther  elucidations  of  this  subject,  I  may 
refer  the  reader  to  the  late  excellent  Memoir  of  M.  C.  Prevost. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  are  mineral  masses,  which  are  gene- 
rally distributed,  as  sandstones,  &c. ;  while  others  are  much 
more  local,  as  all  unstratified  rocks,  also  limestones,  gypsum, 
salt,  and  coal.  The  unstratified  rocks  seem  to  have  given  rise 
to  certain  deposits  in  the  countries  where  these  rocks  have  ap- 
peared ;  thus  the  granite  rocks  are  accompanied  with  certain 
conglomerates,  the  serpentines  are  near  certain  sandstones,  the 
porphyries  occur  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  coal-formation, 
and  of  various  flcetz  sandstones,  the  basalts  are  associated  with 
deposits  of  lignite  and  arenaceous  rocks,  &c.  It  should  not 
then  excite  surprise  to  find  differences  in  the  beds  of  the  same 
formation  in  different  countries.  In  this  manner,  the  transition, 
or  floetz  sandstones  of  a  country,  which  contain  no  unstratified 
rocks,  will  differ  a  little  from  those  of  another  country,  in  which 
these  igneous,  or  unstratified  rocks,  are  present.  It  is  acknow- 
ledged that  limestone  rocks  are  not  equally  distributed  over  the 
earth'*s  surface,  but  that  they  have  been  formed  in  particular  lo- 
calities, as  in  basins,  sinuosities  of  a  basin,  or  along  submarine 
rocky  chains.  The  gypsum  and  salt  also  evidently  belong  to 
the  local  deposits,  if  their  mixed  igneous  and  aqueous  origin  be 

3 


86  Dr  Boue*s  Geological  Observations, 

admitted.  Lastly,  the  combustible  deposits  must  be  placed  in 
the  same  order,  as  facts  shew  that  they  are  nothing  else  than 
vegetable  and  animal  matters,  which  have  been  carried  away 
from  the  continent  by  rivers,  debacles,  or  the  sea,  and  which 
have  been  buried  under  certain  conglomerated  rocks. 

In  conformity  with  these  views,  it  will  be  perceived  how  er- 
roneous it  would  be  to  search,  for  instance,  in  the  middle  of  a 
very  large  basin,  for  the  coal,  lignite,  gypsum  or  salt,  which  are 
found  accidentally  at  its  margins.  We  will  not  entirely  deny 
the  success  of  such  researches ;  but  we  may  affirm,  that  the 
probability  of  the  existence  of  such  extensive  deposits,  always 
diminishes  in  the  ratio  of  the  magnitude  of  the  basin.  In  an 
extensive  basin,  which  might  shew  coal  or  salt  at  its  margins, 
we  ought  not  to  be  surprised  to  find  here  and  there,  instead  of 
these  inflammable  or  saline  bodies,  arenaceous  matters,  with 
little  or  no  coal  or  salt. 

These  preliminary  observations  have  seemed  to  me  to  be  es- 
pecially necessary,  with  the  view  of  enabling  us  to  classify  with 
accuracy  the  deposits  of  a  great  part  of  the  Alps,  the  Appe- 
nines,  the  Carpathians,  and  the  Pyrenees*  The  three  first 
chains  present,  in  my  tables,  a  great  arenaceous  or  marly  depo- 
sit, which  is  pretty  similar  to  the  greywacke,  and  which  would 
seem  to  occupy  the  place  of  more  than  one  of  the  arenaceous 
floetz  formations  of  other  countries,  or  which,  perhaps,  is  an  equi-i 
valent  for  the  whole  of  these  floetz  formations,  up  to  the  Jura 
limestone.  This  new  fact  would  be  explained,  according  to  my 
ideas,  by  the  total  absence  of  porphyries  in  these  great  chains ; 
for  in  every  other  part  where  these  igneous  rocks  have  appeared, 
they  have  given  to  the  ancient  floetz  deposits  their  peculiar  and 
ordinary  characters  ;  and  some  parts,  even  of  the  Alps,  and  of 
Hungary  and  Transylvania  (as  the  Southern  Tyrol,  the  coun- 
try round  Funfkirchen  and  Zalathna),  afford  us  very  striking 
examples  of  this  general  law.  * 

These  remarks  also  give  rise  to  general  geognostical  views 
regarding  the  floetz  formations.  It  would  seem,  that,  from  too 
great  a  desire  to  examine  the  details,  geologists  have  lost  sight 
of  the  general  facts  presented  by  this  class  of  deposits.     With- 

•  See  my  Memoir  on  Germany,  in  the  Journal  de  Physique,  1821?. 


Dr  Boue's  Geological  Observations.  Wt 

out  sufficient  examination,  they  have  united  under  the  names  of 
ancient  and  recent  transition  class,  an  immense  quantity  of  beds, 
containing  numerous  alternations  of  sandstone  and  limestone 
rocks ;  and  have,  on  the  other  hand,  subdivided,  to  a  great 
degree,  much  smaller  masses  of  deposits,  because  they  abounded 
more  in  fossil  shells,  or  were  more  easily  studied.  I  ask,  if 
there  really  exist  in  the  floetz  period,  more  than  two  great  essen- 
tial and  universal  formations ;  of  which  the  one  would  be  emi- 
nently calcareous,  and  would  contain  the  chalk  and  the  Jura 
limestone,  and  the  other  generally  arenaceous,  and  containing 
all  the  older  floetz  sandstones  posterior  to  the  Jura  limestone  ? 

I  confess  I  am  inclined  to  this  arrangement.  I  see  in  the 
floetz  formations  the  arenaceous  deposits  decreasing  from  below 
upwards,  and  the  limestone  from  above  downwards,  I  find  be- 
tween the  chalk  and  the  Jura  limestone,  or  even  in  this  latter 
(England,  Dalmatia,  France),  nothing  else  than  very  small  are- 
naceous masses,  which  even  do  not  occur  generally.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  the  older  arenaceous  deposits,  I  see  only  acci- 
dentally two  limestone  masses,  of  which  the  lowest  is  nowhere  very 
thick,  and  of  very  partial  distribution,  and  of  which  the  other  also 
does  not  seem  to  have  the  general  extent  of  the  Jura  limestone. 
Lastly,  this  latter  limestone  shows,  how  extensive  one's  observa- 
tions must  have  been,  before  we  could  decide  whether  a  particu- 
lar deposit  is  universal,  or  entitled  to  rank  as  a  formation  ;  for 
the  different  divisions  recognised  here  and  there  in  that  lime- 
stone, do  not  exist  every  where ;  some  of  these  divisions  are 
sometimes  represented  by  very  different  rocks,  and  even  that 
which  seems  the  most  important,  the  lias,  is  wanting  in  the 
whole  of  the  south-eastern  part  of  Europe,  as  in  the  Appenines, 
the  Alps,  Austria,  and  Hungary. 

Whatever  other  opinions  may  yet  be  formed  on  the  subjects 
in  question,  these  are  the  ideas  which  seem  to  have  been  em- 
braced by  many  eminent  geologists,  who  are  accustomed  to  con- 
sult nature  with  the  hammer  in  their  hand,  and  not  through  the 
medium  of  books.  I  may  also  remark,  that,  so  early  as  1816, 
Professor  Jameson  was  not  far  from  these  ideas,  with  which 
every  known  fact  in  geological  geography  is  in  accordance. 
Nevertheless,  I  beheve  it  of  importance  to  retain  all  the  existing 
subdivisions,  and  even  to  endeavour  to  establish  still  more,  in 


88  Dr  Boue's  Geological  Observations. 

order  to  enable  us  to  comprehend  more  easily  the  whole  details 
of  the  complicated  structure  of  the  earth's  crust. 

III.  On  the  changes  that  aj)pear  to  have  taken  place  during 
the  different  periods  of  the  JEartJis  Jbrmation^  in  the  cli- 
mate of  our  globe,  and  in  the  nature,  and  the  physical 
and  geographical  distribution  of  its  animals  and  plants. 

If  we  attend  to  the  changes  produced  on  the  earth  by  volca- 
noes, rivers,  the  ocean,  the  atmosphere,  and  various  chemical 
agencies,  we  shall  obtain  very  simple  theoretical  ideas,  which  will 
enable  us  to  explain  the  formation  of  the  groups  of  rocks  of 
which  the  crust  of  the  earth  is  composed,  by  well  known  physi- 
cal and  chemical  facts.  The  Tabular  View  of  Rocks,  given  in 
volume  13th  of  The  Edinburgh  Philosophical  Journal,  shews 
the  causes  of  the  changes  that  have  taken  place  in  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  surface  of  the  globe,  and,  in  consequence  of  it,  in 
the  three  kingdoms  of  nature ;  and  it  resolves  in  a  very  natural 
manner  the  greatest  geological  problem,  for  it  assigns  the  rea- 
sons for  the  formation  of  the  various  zones  in  latitude,  longitude, 
and  height,  for  the  establishment  of  different  climates  on  the 
earth,  for  the  successive  changes  in  the  various  creations  of  the 
three  kingdoms,  and  for  the  particular  distribution  of  the  re- 
mains of  the  ancient  or  lost  creations.  All  these  problems  seem 
to  be  resolved,  by  admitting,  at  a  former  period,  a  much  greater 
activity  in  the  chemical  actions  which  are  still  the  source  of  pre- 
sently existing  volcanoes.  This  first  proposition  is  founded  on 
a  series  of  facts,  stated  in  my  Tabular  View  of  Rocks,  from 
which  it  appears  that  the  igneous  action  decreases  in  a  contrary 
ratio  to  the  Neptunian,  from  the  ancient  to  the  modern  periods. 
If  these  chemical  subterraneous  operations  have  gradually  dimi- 
nished from  ancient  to  modern  times,  less  volcanic  matter  has 
been  formed,  and  smaller  tracts  of  countries  have  been  volca- 
nized  or  subjected  to  the  igneous  action  and  change ;  and  as  the 
high  temperature  of  these  volcanic  products  must  have  elevated 
the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  it  is  clear,  that,  in  propor- 
tion as  the  formation  of  these  volcanic  masses  became  less  con- 
siderable, the  heat  of  the  atmosphere  and  surface  of  the  earth 
also  diminished.  Volcanic  actions  are  generally  accompanied  by 
fissures,  by  fallings  in  and  risings  up  of  tracts  of  country.  These 


Di-  Boue's  Geological  Observations.  ® 

effects  must  also  have  been  produced  formerly  as  now ;  but  their 
causes  being  then  infinitely  greater  than  at  present,  the  changes 
operated  must  also  have  been  proportionally  much  more  consider- 
able. This,  also,  seems  to  explain  to  us  the  rising  up  of  certain 
strata,  or  certain  parts  of  continents,  as  well  as  the  successive  sink- 
ing of  the  level  of  the  sea,  or  its  inclosure  within  its  present  limits. 
It  is  obvious  that  a  consequence  resulting  from  this  is,  that,  in 
the  earlier  states  of  the  globe,  the  seas  and  continents  were  chan- 
ging more  rapidly  than  in  the  more  modern ;  that  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  earth  also  was  decreasing  more  rapidly :  but,  at  the 
same  time,  in  consequence  of  this  decreasing  heat,  the  evapora- 
tion must  have  diminished  ;  the  rays  of  the  sun,  in  a  less  moist 
atmosphere,  must  have  become  less  hot ;  the  rains  must  have 
decreased  in  quantity,  and  the  atmospheric  meteors  must  have 
generally  become  less  considerable ;  the  streams  of  water  must 
have  gradually  lost  their  original  greatness,  as  well  as  their  de- 
structive energy;  and  the  inclined  planes  along  which  they 
flowed  must  have  diminished,  or  increased,  according  to  local 
circumstances.  On  the  other  hand,  the  countries  from  which 
the  sea  was  retiring,  or  those  which  had  been  raised  up,  must 
have  lost  a  part  of  their  temperature.  It  is  also  to  be  conclud- 
ed, that  the  diminution  of  the  temperature  was  not  equally  the 
same  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  globe,  but  that  it  took  place 
in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  the  volcanic  masses,  to  the  degree 
of  their  cooling,  to  that  of  the  retreat  of  the  sea,  and  to  the  po- 
sition of  the  different  parts  of  the  earth,  compared  with  their 
level  above  the  sea,  with  their  removal  from  the  sea.  and  with 
their  position  in  reference  to  the  sun.  The  last  propositions 
shew,  first,  the  probability  that  there  have  always  been  parts  on 
the  earth  warmer  than  the  others;  and  explain,  besides,  how  the 
zones  of  temperature  have  been  established  in  latitude,  longi- 
tude and  height,  and  also,  according  to  local  circumstances,  the 
various  climates  of  the  whole  earth.  It  is  known  that  every 
zone,  and  nearly  every  climate  that  is  more  or  less  general,  has 
its  pecuhar  animals  and  vegetables ;  or,  at  least,  it  is  a  fact,  that 
the  distribution  of  animals  and  vegetables  is  most  materially  in- 
fluenced by  the  division  of  the  surface  of  the  earth  into  zones, 
and  into  countries  or  climates.  Is  it  not  fiatural  to  search  in  the 
successive  establishment  of  these  different  zones  and  climates. 


90  Dr  6006*8  Geological  Ohservatiotis. 

the  cause  of  the  differences  observed,  not  only  between  the  pre- 
sent vegetable  and  animal  creations,  and  those  similar  creations 
which  are  buried  in  the  earth,  but  also  of  those  known  varia- 
tions in  these  last  creations  ?  Geology  has  shewn,  that  the  far- 
ther we  penetrate  into  the  crust  of  the  earth,  the  more  simplicity 
do  we  observe  in  the  vegetable  and  animal  productions,  and  the 
more  uniformity  must  the  surface  of  the  earth  formerly  have 
presented  in  its  creations.  This  can  only  be  a  consequence  of 
the  greater  equality  of  temperature  which  took  place  formerly 
over  the  whole  terrestrial  surface,  for  the  assigned  causes  had 
then  converted  into  warm  zones  those  which  are  now  cold  or 
temperate ;  and  they  perhaps  fgave  the  torrid  zone  a  tempera- 
ture much  higher  than  it  now  possesses,  while,  at  the  same  time, 
certain  parts  of  this  zone  could  only  have  the  temperatvire  of  the 
other  zones  by  various  circumstances  not  understood.  As  the 
jzones  and  climates  gradually  became  established,  the  vegetables 
and  animals  became  diversified ;  the  vegetables  of  certain  parts 
of  the  earth  also  presently  became  extinct,  because  they  no 
longer  found  the  climate  which  they  required ;  and,  according 
to  their  distribution  at  that  period,  and  to  the  temperature  ne- 
cessary for  their  existence,  some  are  no  longer  found  upon  the 
-earth,  others  have  degenerated,  and  some  genera,  or  even  per- 
haps some  species,  requiring  a  pretty  high  temperature,  still  live 
within  the  tropics.  The  animals  which  were  not  possessed  of  the 
faculty  of  locomotion,  must  have  experienced  the  same  fate  as 
plants;  but  those  species  which  could  move,  must  have  em- 
ployed the  means  thus  afforded  them  to  travel,  when  it  became 
necessary,  into  climates  which  were  favourable  to  their  existence. 
Some,  suddenly  brought  into  cold  climates,  in  consequence  of 
volcanic  elevations,  or  the  retreat  of  the  sea,  must  have  perished 
entirely,  or  must  have  remained  in  life  only  near  the  equator ; 
others  would  soon  have  nowhere  found  the  climate  adapted  for 
them,  and  their  races  would  have  become  extinct ;  while,  at  the 
same  time,  others  would  have  descended,  first,  from  the  hills 
into  the  valleys  and  flat  country,  and,  afterwards,  they  would 
no  longer  have  been  able  to  emigrate,  when  the  temperature 
would  already  have  been  too  cold  for  them  in  these  last  locali- 
ties. 


Dr  Boue*'s  Geological  Observations.  91 

These  ideas  afford  a  clear  explanation  of  those  mixtures  of  ve- 
getables and  animals  of  the  temperate  and  torrid  zone,  that  seem 
at  first  unintelligible ;  they  also  afford  us  the  key  to  those  centres 
of  creation  which  have  been  perceived  on  the  globe,  and  account 
for  the  intimate  relations  which  seem  to  be  established  between 
the  geological  structure  of  the  earth''s  crust,  and  the  geographi- 
cal distribution  of  plants  and  animals,  and  particularly  the  acci- 
dental isolated  state  of  some  of  them.  The  fossil  conchologist 
will  conclude,  a  priori,  from  these  propositions,  that  the  more 
we  approach  the  poles  from  the  equator,  the  more  will  the  fossil 
remains  be  similar  or  analogous  in  genera  or  species,  to  those  at 
present  existing  between  the  tropics.  The  more  recent  the  for- 
mations are,  the  more  hope  may  we  have  of  still  finding  the  ana- 
logous, or  even  identical,  species  of  their  fossils.  But,  on  the 
contrary,  the  more  ancient  the  deposit  is,  the  less  reason  will  we 
have  to  expect  to  find  identical,  or  even  analogous,  species  in  the 
sea  or  fresh  water  of  the  torrid  zone ;  for  this  zone  perhaps  no 
longer  presents  all  the  circumstances  necessary  for  the  exis- 
tence of  such  beings^  notwithstanding  the  actual  heat  of  that 
part  of  the  earth.  Lastly,  the  more  recent  the  formations  ob- 
served in  different  continents,  or  in  a  particular  continent,  are, 
the  more  must  their  fossils  differ  from  one  continent  to  another, 
or  rather  from  one  zone  to  another,  and  also,  at  the  same  time, 
from  one  basin  to  another.  But  the  fossils  of  these  various  coun- 
tries will  always  be  in  the  same  relation  with  respect  to  the  num- 
ber of  the  analogous  or  similar  species,  with  the  animals  still 
living  in  these  various  localities.  These  last  propositions,  de- 
duced a  priori,  are  conformable  to  experience,  and  have  been, 
and  will  still  probably  be,  ably  elucidated  by  Baron  de  Ferussac. 

Thus  far  does  geology  conduct  us.  We  see  with  some  pride 
on  our  side,  a  Ferussac  (see  his  Geological  Ideas  on  Tertiary 
Basins,  in  the  Journal  de  Physique,  and  his  article  on  the  Geo- 
graphical Distribution  of  the  Mollusca  in  the  Dictionnaire  Clas- 
sique  d'Histoire  Naturelle,  1825),  a  Humboldt,  (see  his  Nou- 
velle  Recherches  sur  la  Distribution  des  Vegetaux,  in  the  Dic- 
tionnaire des  Sciences  Naturelles,  and  his  Discours  sur  les  Vol- 
cans),  a  Fourier,  (Memoires  sur  la  Chaleur  Terrestre),  a  Von 
Buch,  (see  his  beautiful  Memoirs  on  Trap  Porphyries,  and  those 
on  the  Tyrol  and  Germany,  in  Leonard's  Taschenbuch,  1824), 

3 


92  Baron  Von  Buch's  Observations 

a  Crichton,  (Memoir  on  the  Climates  of  the  Globe,  in  the  An- 
nals of  Philosophy,  February  and  March  1825),  and  a  Dau- 
beny.  Geology  certainly  enables  us  to  perceive  an  uninterrupted 
series  of  igneous  and  neptunian  phenomena  ;  that  science  alone 
cannot  yet  explain  all  the  details  of  these  in  a  satisfactory  man- 
ner ;  but  she  expects  additional  light  from  the  progress  of  che- 
mistry, natural  philosophy,  and  astronomy ;  and  then  only  will 
it  be  allowed  to  the  philosopher  to  elevate  himself  to  ideas  of 
pure  geogony. 


Observations  on  the  Climate  of  the  Canary  Islands.     By  Baron 
Leopold  Von  Buch  * 

jljLmoxg  the  many  important  additions  made  to  the  physical 
knowledge  of  the  earth  by  the  travels  of  Humboldt,  and  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  in  its  consequences,  is  the  determination  of 
the  temperature  under  the  tropics.  For,  before  this  was  known, 
it  was  not  easy  to  determine  in  how  far  the  formulas  which 
should  express  the  distribution  of  temperature  at  the  earth's  sur- 
face, were  consistent  with  observation.  Inquired  into  in  tempe- 
rate and  northern  climates,  the  result  of  observation  was  always 
affected  by  disturbing  causes,  and  the  object  of  the  investigation, 
which  was  to  ascertain  and  give  a  distinct  view  of  the  anomalies, 
could  only  be  unsatisfactorily  and  imperfectly  attained. 

Having  now,  however,  obtained  nearer  information  concern- 
ing the  degrees  of  temperature  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  equa- 
tor, at  the  level  of  the  sea,  a  series  of  observations  are  still  re- 
quired to  connect  it  with  those  made  beyond  the  50th  degree  of 
latitude ;  but  it  is  remarkable  enough  that  there  are  none  from 
which  the  temperature  of  the  intermediate  40  degrees  might  be 
ascertained,  with  the  exception  of  those  conducted  in  Madeira 
by  Dr  Heberden  in  1750,  which  it  would  be  desirable  to  ex- 
change with  others  more  recent,  and,  on  that  account,  probably 
more  accurate. 

Hence,  it  is  presumed  the  observations  instituted  by  the  able 
naturalist  Don  Francisco  Escolar,  at  Santa  Cruz  in  TenerifFe, 

•  Memoirs  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Berlin,  &c. 


on  the  Climate  of  the  Canary  Islands.  93' 

from  May  1808  to  August  1810,  will  meet  with  a  favourable 
reception.  However  much  they  still  leave  undetermined,  such 
as  they  are,  they  fill  up  an  important  gap  in  our  knowledge 
of  the  distribution  of  temperature,  and,  it  may  well  be  affirmed, 
cannot  be  dispensed  with  in  the  formation  of  a  scientific  meteor- 
ology. 

I  have  reckoned  the  observations  of  Don  Francisco,  which  he 
has  had  the  goodness  to  communicate  to  me,  by  decades.  Taking 
the  mean  of  these,  I  reduced  the  whole  to  a  tabular  form  *. 

Don  Francisco  had  provided  himself  with  good  EngHsh  in- 
struments, which  were  placed  in  the  shade,  in  an  open  gallery, 
remote  from  reflection.  In  this  respect,  his  observations  are  ful- 
ly deserving  of  credit.  The  time  of  observation  was  at  sunrise, 
and  at  midday,  or  somewhat  later.  Hence,  it  might  be  thought, 
that,  in  this  way,  the  extreme  heat  would  never  be  observed ; 
that  the  medium  would  consequently  be  too  low.  This  impres- 
sion would  be  strengthened  by  the  remarkable  fact,  that  the  tem- 
perature at  midday  exceeds  that  at  sunrise,  on  an  average, 
only  by  1.16  of  Reaumur,  (2.61  Fahr.)  But  Monsieur  Thi- 
bant  de  Chanvallon,  (Voyage  a  la  Martinique,  1763),  has  long  ago 
shewn,  that,  in  islands  in  w^arm  climates,  the  extreme  heat  never 
falls  later  than  one  o'clock,  or,  what  very  rarely  happens,  half 
past  one,  but  is  frequently  found  to  be  soon  after  eleven,  and 
very  generally  at  midday ;  the  elevation  of  the  temperature,  by 
the  culmination  of  the  sun,  being  probably  prevented  by  the 
sear-breeze,  which  has  now  reached  its  greatest  strength.  Now, 
however  much  the  small  difference  of  temperature  at  the  hours 
of  observation  might  cause  an  error  or  unfavourable  posi- 
tion of  the  instruments  to  be  suspected,  this  singular  phenome- 
non is,  nevertheless,  fully  confirmed  by  the  observations  of  He- 
berden,  60  years  earlier,  at  Funchal  in  Madeira.  For,  besides 
the  mean  monthly  temperature,  he  gives  also  the  extremes  in 
each  month ;  and  the  mean  difference  of  these,  in  the  course  of 
four  years,  amounts  to  not  more  than  2.91  of  Reaumur,  {6.55 
Fahr.)  It  is  therefore  very  probable,  that  the  difference  of  the 
medium  temperature  may  only  be  half  so  great.  There  is  no 
plain  at  Santa  Cruz  any  more  than  at  Funchal,  the  mountains 

•  This  will  be  found  in  the  Scientific  Intelligence  of  this  Number. 


94  Baron  Von  Buch's  Observations 

ascending,  in  part  very  abruptly,  at  no  great  distance.  Hence 
there  is,  during  the  night,  no  perfect  radiation  of  heat  to  the 
open  sky,  and  the  diminution  is  inconsiderable.  Around  Lagu- 
na,  on  the  cbntrary,  which  is  elevated  1588  Parisian  feet  above 
the  sea,  there  is  a  plain,  about  half  a  German  square  mile  in  ex- 
tent, and  there  the  nights  are  sensibly  cold ;  so  much  that,  in 
winter,  it  is  no  way  rare  for  ice  to  be  formed,  though  only  of  the 
thickness  of  a  knife.  Yet  it  never  snows  in  Laguna ;  the  fall  of 
temperature  is  peculiar  only  to  the  ground,  since  it  is  not  in  the 
atmosphere,  but  arises  from  the  radiation  of  heat,  which  is  not 
again  reflected  from  the  clear  sky,  and  at  places  not  far  from 
Laguna,  though  at  the  same  level,  would  probably  not  occur. 

On  these  grounds,  I  do  not  think  that  any  thing  ought  ei- 
ther to  be  added  to,  or  subtracted  from,  the  observations  of  Dqn 
Francisco  ;  and  am  of  opinion,  that  they  may  be  regarded  as 
giving  a  fair  view  of  the  climate  of  Santa  Cruz. 

The  mean  temperature  foi'  each  month  is  as  follows  : 

Fahr. 


January, 

63.84 

February, 

64.29 

March, 

67.17 

AprU, 

67.32 

May, 

72.12 

June, 

73.89 

July, 

77.27 

August, 

78.89 

September, 

73 

October, 

74.66 

November, 

70.43 

December, 

65,82 

Mean,         71.09 

These  are,  it  must  be  allowed,  very  high  temperatures.  The 
mean  heat  of  January,  the  coldest  month,  is  as  great  as  that  of 
the  whole  year  in  the  southern  parts  of  Italy ;  but  from  the 
range  of  temperature  in  the  several  months,  it  is  evident  that 
the  sun  here  no  longer  passes  through  the  zenith.  There  is  no 
twofold  elevation  and  depression  of  the  temperature,  as  in  all 
places  under  the  tropics ;  but  as  is  almost  universal  in  the  tem- 
perate regions,  the  greatest  depression  is  in  January,  the  great- 


on  the  Climate  of  the  Canary  Islands.  95^ 

est  elevation  a  month  after  the  summer  solstice.  The  Canary- 
Islands,  also,  no  longer  experience  any  thing  resembling  tropi- 
cal rains ;  or  such  as,  in  the  language  of  seamen,  are  said  to  fol- 
low the  sun,  and  set  in  when  he  has  reached  the  zenith.  The 
rains  of  these  climates  first  make  their  appearance  when  the  > 
temperature  in  winter  sinks  perceptibly,  and  has  become  consi- 
derably lower  than  that  of  the  equatorial  regions.  The  cause 
of  the  rains,  then,  appears  to  be  nothing  else  than  that  which 
produces  them  in  all  countries  towards  the  pole ;  the  cooling  of 
the  warm  south-west  winds  coming  from  the  tropics  and  lower 
latitudes.  But  since  these  winds,  by  the  temperature  of  the  har- 
vest months  in  the  Canary  islands,  are  not  immediately  cooled 
down  to  the  point  where  the  condensation  of  vapour  takes  place ; 
the  reason  is  obvious,  why  the  rains  should  here  begin  much 
later  than  in  Spain  and  Italy,  and  still  more  so  than  in  France 
and  Germany.  Rain  does  not  often  fall  on  the  coast,  before  the 
beginning  of  November,  nor  later  than  the  end  of  March.  In 
Italy,  the  rainy  season  lasts  from  the  first  half  of  October  till 
the  middle  of  April. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  summer  of  the  Canary  Islands  iden- 
tifies the  climate  with  that  of  the  tropics ;  so  that,  in  these  lati- 
tudes, both  zones  pass  into  each  other.  For,  from  April  to  October 
the  north  east  trade-wind  blows  without  intermission,  just  as  it 
does  all  the  way  down  to  the  Mexican  Gulf.  The  trade-wind  in 
summer  always  stretches  farther  north,  till  at  last  it  reaches  the 
coasts  of  Portugal.  In  like  manner,  it  recedes  back  towards  the 
equator,  in  proportion  as  the  sun  advances  southward,  and  the 
temperature  falls.  But  how  far  do  they  proceed  ?  Do  even 
the  south-west  winds,  if  only  for  a  few  weeks  in  December  and 
January,  descend  on  the  Cape-Verd  Islands  ?  And  is  this  po- 
sition, on  the  boundaries  as  it  were,  of  the  tropical  and  winter 
rains,  which  proves  so  beneficial  and  fertilizing  to  their  respec- 
tive countries,  perhaps  the  cause  why  these  unfortunate  islands, 
in  the  midst  of  the  ocean,  frequently,  for  many  years  together, 
are  never  blessed  with  a  single  drop  of  rain  ? 

The  invariableness  of  the  trade-wind  during  summer  is  such, 
that  it  interrupts,  like  an  insurmountable  barrier,  all  communica- 
tion at  this  season,  in  the  direction  of  south-west  to  north-east. 
In  two  days,  one  can  conveniently  reach  Teneriff*e  from  Madeira ; 


96  Baron  Von  Buch's  Observations  on 

but  no  one  will  easily  be  induced  to  go  from  Teneriffe  to  Cana- 
ry or  Madeira,  for  he  would  run  the  risk  of  consuming  a  whole 
month  in  the  attempt.  Few  people  on  the  globe  live  more  soli- 
tary than  the  inhabitants  of  Ferro.  Only  one  day  is  required 
to  go  thither  from  Teneriffe ;  but  the  return,  which  can  only 
be  effected  by  the  help  of  strong  and  unusually  far  spreading 
land-winds,  is  so  insecure  and  dangerous,  that  people  only  make 
this  voyage  when  it  is  absolutely  necessary.  Generally,  eight  or 
ten  days  are  calculated  upon  ;  but  it  may  happen  that  three,  four, 
or  five  weeks,  will  be  required. 

The  manner  in  which  this  north-easterly  trade-wind  is,  to- 
wards winter,  supplanted  by  that  from  the  south-west,  is  very 
singular,  as  well  as  instructive,  and  of  the  greatest  importance  to 
the  science  of  meteorology.  These  winds  do  not  previously 
prevail  in  the  south,  and  then  advance  towards  the  north,  as, 
from  their  direction,  might  at  first  be  imagined  ;  but,  as  has  been 
before  remarked,  they  appear  sooner  on  the  Portuguese  coast 
than  in  Madeira,  and  there  earlier  than  in  Teneriffe  and  Canary ; 
as  if,  from  the  north,  they  descend  gradually  from  the  upper 
regions,  where  they  were  at  all  times,  even  during  summer, 
when  the  north-east  trade-wind  blew  at  the  level  of  the  sea  with 
the  greatest  violence.  It  was  conjectured  long  ago,  that  there 
might  be,  in  the  upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere,  a  current  run- 
ning in  an  opposite  direction  to  that  below  ;  and  on  this  suppo- 
sition was  founded  the  generally  received  theory  of  the  trade- 
winds,  viz.  that  which  ascribes  their  origin  to  the  rarification  of 
the  air  at  the  equator,  and  the  rushing  in  of  the  colder  air  from 
the  north  and  south,  which,  having  at  first  a  course  from  north- 
east to  south-west,  is  at  last  entirely  converted  into  an  easterly  ; 
because  in  lower  latitudes,  the  rotatory  motion  is  greater  than 
in  those  from  whence  it  proceeded.  But  this  returning  current 
was,  till  of  late  years,  only  a  conjecture.  In  1812,  a  great  volca- 
nic eruption  took  place  in  St  Vincent's.  To  the  eastward  lies 
the  Island  of  Barbadoes,  at  no  great  distance,  but  so  decidedly 
separated  by  the  easterly  trade-wind,  that  it  could  only  be  reach- 
ed by  making  a  circuit  of  many  hundred  miles.  This  east  wind 
brings  to  Barbadoes  no  rain  and  no  clouds.  All  of  a  sudden, 
however,  dark  clouds  appeared  over  the  island,  and  the  ashes  from 
the  volcano  in  St  Vincent's  fell  in  great  abundance,  to  the  great 


on  the  Climate  of  the  Canary  Islands.  97 

astonishment  would  they  have  seen  mountains  in  motion,  than 
such  matters  brought  to  them  through  the  air  from  the  west. 
But,  by  this  striking  occurrence,  the  returning  current  in  the 
upper  regions  was  proved,  and  with  it  the  theory  of  the  trade- 
winds,  for  which  we  are  indebted  to  Hadly  (Phil.  Trans,  vol.  xvi. 
p.  151.),  was  become  something  more  than  conjecture.  With 
not  less  certainty  can  this  current  be  daily  observed  in  the  Ca- 
nary Islands ;  for  the  Peak  of  TenerifTe  is  high  enough  to  reach 
it  even  in  the  middle  of  summer.  There  is  scarcely  any  account 
of  a  journey  to  the  top  of  the  Peak,  in  which  mention  is  not 
made  of  the  violent  west-wind  blowing  there.  Humboldt  as- 
cended it  on  the  21st  of  June  ;  and,  when  arrived  at  the  brink 
of  the  crater,  the  raging  west- wind  scarcely  allowed  him  to  stand 
^on  his  feet,  (Relat.  i.  132.)  Had  such  a  wind  blown  at  this 
season  at  Santa  Cruz,  or  at  Orotava,  people  would  have  been  as 
much  alarmed  by  the  circumstance  as  they  were  in  Barbadoes 
by  the  clouds  of  ashes.  I  found  a  similar,  though  somewhat 
less  powerful,  west-wind  at  the  summit  of  the  Peak  on  the  19th 
of  May  ;  and  George  Glass,  an  attentive  and  accurate  observer, 
who,  as  a  seaman,  had  for  many  years  carefully  explored  the  winds 
of  these  islands,  says  in  his  work,  which  still  contains  much  valu- 
able information,  that  strong  west-winds  always  blow  upon  the 
heights  of  these  islands,  when  those  from  the  north-east  prevail 
below,  ''  which,''  he  adds,  "•  takes  place,  as  I  believe,  in  allparts 
of  ike  world  in  which  there  are  trade-winds^  "  I  venture  not,*" 
he  farther  adds,  "  to  explain  this  circumstance,  but  it  certainly 
is  so  on  the  Peak  of  Teneriffe,  and  on  the  heights  of  some  others 
of  these  islands,''  (History  of  the  Canary  Islands,  p.  251.) 
Glass  knew  the  islands  too  well  not  to  speak  here  from  his  own 
experience. 

These  winds  descend  gradually  upon  the  mountains  from 
the  high  regions  of  the  atmosphere,  as  is  evidently  seen  from  the 
clouds,  which,  after  October,  cover  the  top  of  the  Peak  from  the 
south,  and  which  appear  always  lower  till  they  rest  on  the 
range  of  mountains,  more  than  6000  feet  high,  between  Oro- 
tava and  the  southern  coast,  and  there  break  out  into  dreadful 
thunder-storms.  After  that,  perhaps,  a  week  may  pass,  or  more, 
before  they  are  felt  on  the  sea-coast.  There  they  continue  to 
APRIL — JULY  1826.  G 


98  Baron  Von  Buch's  Observations 

prevail  for  months.     Rain  now  falls  in  the  declivity  of  the  moun- 
tains, and  the  Peak  is  covered  with  snow. 

Have  we  not,  then,  reason  to  believe  that  the  west-wind, 
which,  on  the  passage  in  summer  from  Teneriffe  to  England,  is 
sought  for  in'the  neighbourhood  or  in  the  latitude  of  the  Azores, 
and  is  also  generally  found  there ;  have  we  not  reason  to  be- 
lieve, that  the  almost  constantly  prevailing  west  and  south-west 
winds,  which  cause  the  voyage  from  New  York  or  Philadelphia 
to  England,  to  be  called  down  (bergab),  and  from  England 
back,  up  (bergauf),  as  well  as  that  which  blows  at  the  top  of  the 
Peak,  are  the  upper  equatorial  current,  which  has  here  descend- 
ed to  skim  the  surface  of  the  ocean  ?  It  would  then  follow,  that 
the  equatorial  air  of  the  upper  regions  does  not  reach  the  pole, 
at  least  along  the  Atlantic  ocean ;  and  that  the  polar  air  must 
be  subject  to  other  movements,  dependent  on  the  temperature  of 
the  neighbouring  countries  of  the  temperate  zone ;  and  thus 
new  causes  would  be  ascertained  for  modifying  the  laws  which 
regulate  the  distribution  of  temperature.  How  much  for  the 
clearing  up  of  this  point  is  not  a  series  of  meteorological  obser- 
vations from  one  of  the  Azores  to  be  wished  !  How  much,  also, 
with  this  view,  the  narrative  of  a  journey  to  the  Peak  of  the 
Azores ! 

Glass  details  some  other  phenomena,  which  appear  to  me  to 
be  important,  in  order  fully  to  comprehend  the  true  course  of 
these  currents,  one  above  the  other.  All  experienced  seamen 
hold  it  as  a  rule,  that  continents  in  the  warmer  climates  at  all 
times  attract  fixed  winds,  probably  because  the  air  being  more 
rarified  over  the  land,  ascends,  and  must  be  replaced  by  the 
trade-wind.  Thus  the  Canary  Islands  feel  the  influence  of  the 
neighbourhood  of  Africa.  The  north-east  wind  is  always  more 
diverted  towards  the  coast,  the  nearer  the  islands  are  to  it.  Near 
the  land  the  wind  is  almost  directly  north,  or  N.  by  E. ;  at 
Lancerote  and  Fortaventura,  N.  N.  E. ;  at  Canary,  N.  E. ;  at 
Teneriffe,  N.  E.  by  E. ;  and  at  Palma,  a  little  more  to  the  east, 
and  thus  continues  along  the  Atlantic.  These  winds  are  so 
completely  intercepted  by  the  higher  islands,  Canary,  Teneriffe, 
and  Palma,  that,  when  they  are  blowing  violently  on  the  north- 
east side,  there  is  a  perfect  calm  on  the  one  opposite.  Of  this 
appearance  there  is  a  striking  account  given  in  the  manuscript 


on  the  Climate  of  the  Canary  Islands.  99 

of  Mons.  Borda's  voyage,  which  has  been  communicated  to  me 
by  the  Bureau  of  Marine  at  Paris.  Borda  had  given  orders  to 
Mons.  Chastenest  to  sail  round  the  island  of  Canary,  who  sailed 
accordingly  with  a  strong  north-east  wind  from  Sardina  to  the 
Punta  de  PAldea.  Having  got  round  this  point,  however,  he 
found  himself  all  of  a  sudden  involved  in  such  a  calm,  that  he 
required  two  days  to  reach  the  Punta  Descojada,  only  about  a 
league  distant.  He  took  four  days  more  to  double  the  Punta 
d'Arganeguin,  the  southernmost  part  of  the  island.  Then,  on 
the  following  day,  he  advanced  slowly  to  Cape  Tanifet ;  but  no 
sooner  had  he  weathered  this,  than  the  north-east  wind  came 
against  him  with  such  violence  that  he  was  obliged  to  take  in  the 
greater  part  of  the  sails.  Now,  the  line  from  Punta  Aldea  to 
Cape  Tanifet  lies  as  exactly  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of 
north-east,  as  if  artificially  laid  down. 

Glass  investigates  how  far  this  interruption  extends  out  to 
sea,  and  fixes  it  at  from  20  to  25  leagues  for  Canary,  15  for 
Teneriffe,  10  for  Gomera,  and  30  for  Palma.  He  asserts  that 
he  had  visited  and  ascertained  all  these  calm  projections,  and 
that  they  are  very  dangerous  to  ships,  because  the  high  waves 
break  upon  the  quiet  water  of  these  unruffled  spaces,  as  upon  a 
shelving  shore,  and  occasion  a  very  hazardous  and  foaming 
surf.  These  distances  are  so  very  considerable  as  to  justify  the 
belief  that  these  winds  do  not  proceed  parallel  to  the  earth,  still 
less  that  they  have  their  course  downwards ;  but  that  they  as- 
cend gradually,  or,  what  is  the  same,  towards  low  latitudes  oc- 
cupy greater  spaces.  It  were  scarcely  accountable,  on  any 
other  supposition,  why  they  should  not  sooner  unite  again  be- 
hind the  islands. 

Barometrical  observations  do  indeed  seem  to  indicate  a  parti- 
cular accumulation  of  the  atmosphere  over  the  Canary  Islands ; 
at  least  the  appearances  the  barometer  presents  are,  in  this  re- 
spect, very  deserving  of  attention,  and  more  careful  examination. 

From  the  21st  July  till  the  10th  August,  I  daily  observed 
the  barometer  at  Las  Palmas  in  Grand  Canary,  and  found  it  re- 
duced to  the  freezing  point. 


g2 


At   7  A.  M. 

28  inches 

2.882 

11  — 

28  

3.0217 

4  p.  M. 

28  

2.524 

11  — 

28  

2.7445 

100  Baron  Von  Buch's  Observations 

The  mean  of  these  is  •28.  ^'".791,  or  adding,  for  30  feet  above 
the  sea,  28  inches  3'".09  lines. 

This  is  very  considerable,  and  is  fully  confirmed  by  the  obser- 
vations of  Don  Francisco  Escolar,  at  Santa  Cruz.  The  mean  of 
the  extremes,  for  three  years,  reduced  to  the  freezing  point,  and 
to  the  level  of  the  sea,  is  28  inches  2'". 441  lines.  And  if  these 
monthly  extremes  be  not  fallacious,  the  pressure  of  the  air  in 
summer,  when  the  north-east  and  westerly  winds  are  placed  above 
each,  appears,  in  fact,  to  be  greater  than  in  the  winter  months, 
when  the  south-west  alone  prevails.  For  the  mean  of  the  four 
months.  May,  June,  July  and  August,  is  28  inches  3.173  lines. 
The  mean  height  from  September  to  April  28,  2.017  ;  the  diffe- 
rence of  which  is  1.156  lines. 

How  very  different  is  this  from  the  state  of  the  barometer  in 
countries  at  the  equator !  How  very  different  from  what  it  is 
found  to  be  in  England,  Ireland  and  Norway  !  Seven  days^  ob- 
servations in  May,  at  Puerto  Orotava,  gave  the  height  of  the 
barometer,  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  at  28°1.79.  Seven  days'  ob- 
servations at  the  same  place,  in  September  and  October,  gave 
28°2.38.     And,  lastly,  three  days'  at  Lancerote,  28°3.8. 

When  to  this  is  added,  that  the  naturalists  who  have  ascend- 
ed the  Peak  with  barometers,  have  never  marked  them  low  at 
the  level  of  the  sea,  Lamanon  28°.3'",  at  Santa  Cruz,  Cordier 
even  28  inches,  5^^^. 6  at  Puerto  Orotava,  on  the  17th  of  April, 
(Journal  de  Physique,  Ivii.  57.),  a  somewhat  greater  height  of 
the  atmosphere,  over  these  islands,  becomes  almost  probable. 

When  the  west  wind  of  the  upper  regions  descends  obliquely 
in  avitumn,  and  thereby  reaches  the  surface  sooner  in  northern 
than  in  more  southern  parts,  it  must,  long  before  it  reach  the 
latter,  have  completely  interrupted  the  course  of  the  north  wind ; 
and  hence  it  is,  that,  at  this  season,  places  particularly  exposed 
to  the  trade  wind  are  left  in  a  perfect  calm.  Is  the  course  of 
local  winds  prevented  by  the  nature  of  the  environs  ?  The  heat 
being  no  longer  carried  off,  will  increase  considerably,  till  again 
reduced,  by  regular  winds.  In  this  way  I  would  explain  the 
very  singular,  and,  as  I  believe,  unprecedented  phenomenon, 
that  at  Las  Palmas  in  Grand  Canary,  the  greatest  heat  does  not 
occur  in  July  or  August,  but  in  the  middle  of  October ;  and  so 
singular  is  it,  that,  till  September,  the  heat,  as  compared  witli 


on  tite  Climate  of  the  Canary  Islands.  10  i 

the  other  islands,  rises  only  slowly,  but  now  ascends  rapidly,  and 
reaches  such  a  height  as  is  only  found  in  the  warmest  tropical 
climates.  The  fact  is  indisputably  established,  by  the  observa- 
tions of  Dr  Bandini  de  Gatti  in  Las  Palmas^  made  for  ten  years, 
with  good  and  properly  placed  thermometers,  which  he  commu- 
nicated to  me,  and  from  which  I  have  reckoned  the  decades  for 
three  years.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  M.  Bandini  observed  only 
at  midday,  and  thus  the  true  mean  temperature  cannot  be  oh- 
tained.  In  order,  however,  to  bring  it  in  some  respect  near  the 
truth,  I  have  applied  the  difference  between  the  mean  and  mid- 
day temperature,  as  obtained  from  Don  Francisco's  observations, 
to  those  of  Bandini ;  the  difference,  however,  must  certainly  be 
greater  in  Las  Palmas.     The  result  is  as  follows, 

Las  Palmas  in  Grand  Canary. 


Mid-day. 


Fahrenheit, 
Means  by 
calculation. 


Mid-day. 


Fahrenheit. 
Means  by 
calculation. 


January 


1.  to  10, 
10.  to  20. 
30-  to  31. 


63.81 
63.77 
63.25 


62.19 
62.15 
61.63 


February  1.  to  10. 
10.  to  20. 
20.  to  28. 


63.61 

64.51 
64.49 
65.05 


61.99 

63.54 
63.52 
64.06 


July 


August 


1.  to  10. 
10.  to  20. 
20.  to  31. 


1.  to  10. 
10.  to  20. 
20.  to  31. 


74.10 
75.74 
75.99 


72.45 
74.10 
74.34 


75.27 

77.49 
77.99 
78.48 


73.63 

75.72 
76.21 
76.71 


March 


April 


May 


June 


1.  to  10. 
10.  to  20. 
20.  to  31. 


1.  to  10. 
10.  to  20. 
20.  to  30. 


1.  to  10. 
10.  to  20. 
20.  to  31. 


1.  to  10. 
10.  to  20. 
20.  to  30. 


64.68 

65.66 
65.75 
66.49 


63.71 

64.44 
64.53 
65.28 


September  I.  to  10. 
10.  to  20. 
20.  to  30. 


77.99 

80.53 
81.95 
83.75 


76.21 

79.14 
80.55 
82.35 


65.97 

67.12 
67.75 
67.68 


64.75 

66.06 
66.44 
66.40 


October 


1.  to  10. 
10.  to  20. 
20.  to  31. 


82.08 

86.00 
86.27 
84.00 


80.68 

84.69 
84.96 
82.69 


67.52 

68.85 
69.75 
69.90 


66.30 

67.55 
68.45 
68.67 


69.53 

70.65 
71.60 
72.09 


68.22 

69.19 
70.14 
70.63 


November  1.  to  10. 
10.  to  20. 
20.  to  30. 


December  1.  to  10. 
10.  to  20. 
20.  to  31. 


85.42 

78.26 
74.52 
69.26 

74.01 

65.75 
64.20 
63.99 


84.10 

76.95 
70.97 
67.95 

71.96 

64.44 
62.87 
62.69 


71.45        69.99 


64.65 


63.33 


10J2  Baron  Von  Buch''s  Observations 

Were  we  to  form  a  curve  from  tliese  data,  it  is  at  once  evi- 
dent, that  all  the  warmth,  from  the  end  of  August  to  the  end  of 
November,  will  seem  not  to  belong  to  it,  but  to  flow  from  quite 
a  distinct  source.  The  opinion  of  the  inhabitants  fully  coincides 
with  the  indications  of  the  instruments,  that  the  heat  in  the  mid- 
dle of  summer  is  not  to  be  compared  with  that  towards  the  mid- 
dle and  the  end  of  October.  The  products  of  nature  also  con- 
firm these  results.  Las  Palmas  has  not  been  improperly  named 
from  the  palm  tree ;  for  there  is,  at  this  day,  a  wood  of  date 
palms,  extending  along  the  valley,  whose  fruit  ripens  well;  which, 
however,  is  not  the  case  with  the  few  scattered  trees  at  Santa 
Cruz,  or  at  Oratava,  in  TenerifFe.  The  Euphorbia  balsamifera, 
which  requires  much  heat,  and  which,  at  Oratava  and  Santa 
Cruz,  scarcely  appears  above  ground,  is  found  in  this  neigh- 
bourhood, on  heights  of  800  feet ;  and  it  is  in  no  way  unusual 
to  see  bushes  of  it  from  ten  to  twelve  feet  high.  The  Placoma 
pendula,  very  rai'e  near  Santa  Cruz,  grows  equally  large.  A 
multitude  of  East  and  West  India  trees  also  adorn  the  gardens 
of  Canary,  which  are  not  seen  in  Tenerifffe  :  Poinciana  pulcher- 
rima,  of  extraordinary  beauty  and  size  ;  Bixa  orellana  ;  Tama- 
rind trees,  as  large  as  our  limes,  and  a  noble  alley  of  large  trees 
of  the  Carica  papaya,  surrounds  the  inner  court  of  the  Hospital 
of  St  Lazarus,  which  obviously  succeed  here  better  than  the  few 
found  scattered  on  the  north  coast  of  Teneriffe.  Wherefore  this 
singular  circumstance  is  well  deserving  the  attention  of  those 
who  inquire  into  the  laws  for  the  distribution  of  temperature  at 
the  earth's  surface,  and  the  other  meteorological  phenomena 
therewith  connected. 

Such  irregularities  and  traces  of  local  variation  are  not  met 
with  in  the  curve  of  Santa  Cruz.  Hence,  I  think,  it  may  safe- 
ly be  employed  in  the  investigation  of  the  decrease  of  heat  in  the 
various  latitudes  which  lie  in  equal  longitudes  of  temperature. 
I  have,  therefore,  attempted  to  place  several  well  ascertained 
curves  over  each  other,  which  seem  to  admit  of  being  referred 
to  similar,  or  slightly  modified  laws,  and  inserted  the  observa- 
tions themselves  in  the  accompanying  table.  It  contains  the 
temperatures  of  Cumana,  Santa  Cruz,  Funchal,  Kendal,  in  the 
north-west  of  England  ;  Sondmor,  near  Drontheim,  in  Norway  ; 
and,  lastly,  several  months,  accurately  ascertained  from  twelve 


Of  I  the  Climate  of  the  Canary  Islands.  103 

years  observations  in  78°  of  latitude ;  for  which  we  are  indebted 
to  the  indefatigable,  learned,  and  bold  Greenland  navigator 
William  Scoresby  of  Whitby  in  Yorkshire. 

Havannah,  on  the  contrary,  and  Cairo,  form,  on  the  table, 
two  curves,  which  belong  to  quite  different  meteorological  longi- 
tudes, running  parallel  on  each  side  of  the  Atlantic.  The  in- 
fluence of  the  winter  is  considerable  on  both.  In  Havannah, 
just  under  the  tropic,  the  thermometer  sinks  in  winter  almost  to 
the  freezing  point,  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  (Humboldt).  On  the 
other  hand,  the  summer  in  Cairo  ascends  so  very  considerably 
above  that  of  the  Canaries,  which  lie  still  farther  south,  that  it 
is  quite  evident  the  decrease  of  temperature  is  not  here  subject 
to  the  same  laws. 

When  the  above  mentioned  temperatures  of  the  Atlantic 
zone  are  calculated  by  the  known  formula  of  Mayer,  according 
to  which  the  temperatures  decrease  as  the  quadrant  of  the  sine 
of  latitude,  multiplied  by  an  arbitrary  co-efficient,  it  will  be  found, 
that  the  respective  results  are  by  no  means  exact  which  Hum- 
boldt has  already  remarked  in  his  excellent  treatise  on  isothermal 
lines ;  one  of  the  richest  sources  for  the  meteorological  know- 
ledge of  the  earth\s  surface.  (Mem.  d'Arcueil,  iii.  481).  But  it 
results  at  once  from  such  calculations,  in  what  latitudes  the  tem- 
perature decreases  more  rapidly,  and  where  more  slowly,  than 
is  consistent  with  the  fundamental  law  ;  and  we  are  thereby  led 
to  investigate  and  ascertain  the  interfering  and  modifying  fac- 
tors. Thus,  the  mean  temperature  of  the  pole,  as  obtained  from 
a  comparison  of  the  observations  of  Santa  Cruz  and  at  Kendal, 
is  4°.9  of  Reaumur,  (20°.98  Fahr.)  that  of  the  equator  28°.2 
(95°. 45  Falir.)  The  first  is  not  so  far  from  the  truth  as  the 
latter ;  for  Scoresby  has  shewn  that  the  medium  temperature  of 
the  polar  sea  is  several  degrees  under  the  freezing  point.  He, 
indeed  supposes  the  mean  temperature  of  the  78th  degree  of  lati- 
tude to  be  6°.7of  Reaumurj(16°.93  Fahr.);  but  this  is  probably  too 
low,  and  rests  on  the  untenable  supposition  that  the  polar  curve 
would  have  a  similar  progression  with  that  of  Stockholm.  But 
this  place  is  too  remote  from  the  sea.  It  would  be  more  cor- 
rect to  suppose  the  curve  similar  to  that  of  the  Norwegian  coast, 
and,  were  it  determined  by  the  data,  furnished  by  M.  Strom  of 


104  Baron  Von  Buch's  Observations^  ^c. 

Sondmor,  the  mean  temperature  would  be  5°.4  (19^.85  Fahr.) 
which  may  perhaps  approach  very  near  to  that  of  the  pole. 

From  the  observations  at  Kendal  and  Sondmor,  on  the  con- 
trary, we  obtain  the  mean  temperature  of  17°.8  of  Reaumur, 
(72°.05  Fahr.)  for  the  equator,  and  +  0°.5  (33°.12  Fahr.)  for 
the  pole ;  results  which  should  be  mutually  at  greater  distances 
from  each  other.  It  is  hence  evident  that  the  decrease  of  tem- 
perature in  the  Northern  Atlantic  is  much  less  than  the  general 
rule  requires.  Some  new  principle  of  heat,  modifying  the  re- 
sults, must  here  have  interposed ;  and  what  is  that  else  than  the 
upper  equatorial  current,  which,  between  America  and  Europe, 
descends  to  the  surface  of  the  ocean,  and  distributing  its  heat, 


mounts  upwarc 

Is  tow 

Eirds  tl 

le  pol( 

J  ' 

i 

|i 

si 

0  1 

II 

"«  CO 

111 

k 

?s 

13 

"2 

^^ 

-|^ 

"2 

a 

o 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

January, 

80.35 

69.98 

58.10 

63.84 

64.49 

36.59 

23.938 

2.75 

February,      - 

80.51 

71.96 

56.12 

64.29 

63.77 

38.50 

29.489 

5.56 

March, 

81.95 

75.74 

64.58 

67.17 

65.28 

38.19 

33.51 

10.40 

April, 

83.84 

78.98 

77.90 

67.32 

65.52 

43.21 

37.49 

14.23 

May, 

84.54 

82.58 

78.26 

72.12 

66.20 

50.99 

46.47 

22.55 

June, 

83.10 

83.12 

83.66 

73.89 

69.80 

55.80 

53.37 

31.37 

Julv, 

83.28 

83.30 

85.82 

77-27 

73.62 

57.09 

57.717 

36.99 

August, 

81.50 

83.84 

85.82 

76.89 

75.00 

58.21 

56.997 

35.94 

September,     t 

— 

82.04 

79.16 

77.43 

75.69 

52.70 

53.25 

30.88 

October, 

— . 

79.52 

72.32 

74.64 

72.95 

46.29 

42.507 

21.88 

November,     - 

83.21 

75.56 

62.96 

70.43 

69.08 

40.59 

36.50 

15.69 

December,     - 
Mean  Fahr. 

80.80 

71.78 

61.34 

66.42 

65.25 

35.10 

27.88 

10.06 

82.31 

78.20 

72.17 

7^94 

68.89 

46.11 

41.593 

19.86 

On  the  Wombat  of  Flinders.    By  Dr  Knox,  F.R.S.E.  M.W.S. 

Lecturer  on  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons  in  Edinburgh,  and  Conservator  of  the 
Museum  *.     (Communicated  by  the  Author.) 

X  HE  genus  Phascolome  was  establislied  by  M.  St  Hilaire  for 
the  reception  of  certain  animals  brouglit  from  New  Holland  by 

*  Read  before  the  Wernerian  Society  14th  January  1826. 


Dr  Knox  on  the  Wombat  of  Flinders.  105 

the  French  ships  of  discovery,  which  circumnavigated  the  world 
during  the  reign  of  the  late  Emperor.  Of  two  or  more  speci- 
mens, one  was  landed  alive,  so  that  M.  St  Hilaire  had  an  op- 
portunity of  observing  some  of  the  habits  of  this  very  curious 
class  of  animals.  His  memoirs  on  the  natural  liistory  of  the 
Phascolome  will  be  found  in  an  early  number  of  the  Annales  de 
Museum ;  the  anatomical  descriptions  were  drawn  up  by  Baron 
Cuvier,  and  have  been  long  submitted  to  the  pubhc  in  the 
"  Anatomie  Comparee.'''' 

The  Regne  Animale  of  Baron  Cuvier  notices  certain  other 
marsupial  animals,  somewhat  resembling  the  Phascolome  of  St 
Hilaire,  yet  sufficiently  different  to  constitute  distinct  genera : 
these  are,  the  Koala,  the  Phalanger,  and  the  Perameles.  Of  these, 
the  first,  or  Koala,  seems  to  have  been  established  by  naturalists 
without  sufficient  authority.  It  resembles,  it  is  true,  very  close- 
ly the  animal  I  am  about  to  describe,  under  the  name  of  the 
Wombat  of  Flinders ;  but  we  shall  afterwards  find,  that,  if  the 
character  given  in  the  Regne  Animale  be  correct,  they  cannot 
be  considered  as  belonging  to  the  same  species. 

But  previous  to  the  arrival  of  Peron  and  his  associates  in 
Europe,  and  consequently  to  the  description  and  dissection  of 
M.  St  Hilaire  and  the  Baron  Cuvier,  Mr  Bass,  a  British  sur- 
geon, companion  of  the  great  but  unfortunate  Flinders,  had 
discovered  and  described,  under  the  name  of  Wombat,  an  ani- 
mal of  Australia,  differing  essentially  from  the  Phascolome, 
and  even  in  certain  respects  from  the  Koala,  so  as  evidently  to 
constitute  a  distinct  species.  A  certain  degree  of  vagueness, 
however,  in  the  observations  of  Captain  Flinders  and  of  Mr 
Bass  (who  at  the  time  were  deeply  interested  in  more  important 
discoveries),  led  Baron  Cuvier  to  suppose  that  there  might  exist 
some  error, — some  erroneous  combination  of  two  different  de- 
scriptions ;  and,  consequently,  that  the  Wombat  described  by 
Captain  Fhnders  might  not  have  a  real  and  distinct  existence ; 
but,  should  this  not  be  the  case,  he  observes,  the  animal  de- 
scribed by  Bass  and  Flinders  would  form  a  subgenus  apart,  and 
ought  to  be  arranged  with  or  near  the  Perameles. 

lUiger,  whose  acuteness  in  the  classification  of  objects  apper- 
taining to  natural  history  was  avowedly  great,  suspected  this 


106  Dr  Knox  cwi  the  Wombat  of'  Flinders. 

Wombat,  described  by  Mr  Bass,  to  differ  from  the  Phascolome 
of  Peron,  and  he  gave  to  it  the  name  of  Amblotis,  the  bestow- 
ing of  new  names  being  with  him,  as  with  many  naturalists  of  the 
present  day,  an  object  of  much  greater  importance  than  the  dis- 
covery of  new  species. 

I  am  not  acquainted  with  all  the  sources  whence  M.  lUiger 
may  have  derived  his  information,  relative  to  this  species  of  ani- 
mal,— probably  from  the  voyage  of  Collins, — ^from  a  very  im- 
perfect notice  on  the  subject  contained  in  the  Mem.  de  TAcade- 
mie  Imperiale  des  Sciences  de  St  Petersbourg,  t.  i.  p.  444. — 
and  from  the  very  excellent  compilation  of  M.  Desmarest. 

The  Wombat  of  Bass  is  distinctly  enough  described  by  that 
bold  navigator,  with  the  exception  of  the  teeth.  He  says  *,  that 
"  the  opening  of  the  mouth  is  small :  it  contains  five  long  grass- 
cutting  teeth  in  the  front  of  each  jaw,  like  those  of  the  kanga- 
roo ;  within  them  is  a  vacancy  for  an  inch  or  more ;  then  ap- 
pear two  small  canine  teeth,  of  equal  height  with  and  so  much 
similar  to  eight  molares,  situated  behind,  as  scarcely  to  be  dis- 
tinguishable from  them.  The  whole  number  in  both  jaws 
amount  to  twenty-four.""  It  is  not  improbable  that  this  account 
of  the  teeth  may  prove  incorrect.  Notwithstanding,  I  am  in- 
clined, from  various  circumstances,  to  view  the  Wombat  de- 
scribed by  Mr  Bass  as  different  from  that  I  have  called  the 
Wombat  of  Flinders,  of  the  natural  history  of  wJiich  I  shall 
now  offer  a  brief  history  to  the  Society. 

It  is  far  from  being  improbable,  that  the  animal  described  by 
Captain  Flinders  was  really  the  Phascolome  of  naturalists  ;  for 
that  great  navigator  says,  in  the  Introduction  to  his  "  Voyage 
to  Terra  Australis,"  that  there  are  two  sorts  or  species  of  the 
Wombat,  one  inhabiting  the  islands,  which  burrows  like  the 
badger,  and  does  not  quit  its  retreat  till  dark  :  another  species 
of  this  animal  has  been  discovered  in  New  South  Wales,  which 
lives  in  the  tops  of  trees,  and  in  manners  bears  much  resemblance 
to  the  sloth. 

Whether  I  am  right  in  supposing  that  the  description  given 
more  in  detail  by  Mr  Bass,  really  applies  to  the  Phascolome  of 

•  Collinses  New  South  Wales,  vol.  ii.  p.  165. 


Dr  Knox  on  the  Wombat  of  Flinders.  107 

St  Hilaire,  or  to  the  animal,  the  skeleton  of  which  is  now  before 
us,  and  which  we  shall  call  the  Wombat  of  Flinders,  is  perhaps 
a  matter  of  little  moment,  since  both  species  are  undoubtedly 
alluded  to  in  the  writings  of  Flinders. 

In  June  1808,  Sir  E.  Home  published  in  the  Philosophical 
Transactions  "  an  account  of  some  peculiarities  in  the  anatomi- 
cal structure  of  the  Wombat,""  which  contains  many  very  va- 
luable and  original  observations,  and,  as  we  shall  presently  find, 
is  the  only  account  of  the  internal  anatomy  of  the  Wombat  that 
has  as  yet  been  submitted  to  the  public.  To  explain  this  as- 
sertion, it  will  be  necessary  to  premise  the  circumstances  which 
led  to  the  discovery,  that  the  Wombat  of  Flinders  *,  and  the 
Phascolome  of  Peron,  however  they  might  appertain  to  the  same 
genus,  do  yet  constitute  two  distinct  species. 

Sir  Thomas  Brisbane,  Governor-General  of  Australasia,  ha- 
ving transmitted  to  this  country  a  specimen  of  an  animal  much 
resembling  the  Wombat,  an  opportunity  was  thus  offered  me  of 
dissecting  this  animal ;  and  here  I  may  be  permitted  to  state, 
that,  on  this,  as  on  all  other  occasions,  my  pursuits  in  compara- 
tive anatomy  have  been  forwarded  to  the  utmost  by  Professor 
Jameson,  to  whose  kindness  I  owe  the  success  I  have  experienced 
in  anatomical  investigation. 

The  first  step  I  took  before  proceeding  to  the  dissection  of 
the  species  of  Wombat  put  at  my  disposal,  was  the  comparing 
of  the  external  characters,  in  as  far  as  they  could  be  made  out, 
with  the  descriptions  of  Cuvier  and  of  Desmarest.  The  result 
of  this  comparison  was,  that  the  animal  under  examination  dif- 
fered essentially  from  the  Phascolome  of  Peron,  with  which  it 
had  been  confounded  by  anatomists  and  naturalists  of  high  re- 
putation. Nor  could  it  be  made  to  agree  with  another  genus, 
the  Koala  (Cuv.)  a  marsupial  animal  described  briefly  in  the 
''  Regne  Animale  -j-."*"* 

Let  us  now  proceed  to  examine  the  sources  whence  those  er- 
rors have  arisen,  by  means  of  which  the  internal  anatomy  of  the 

*  Called  so  by  me  in  honour  of  that  truly  great  man. 
•f  The  engraving  of  the  Koala,  as  given  in  the  4th  volume  of  the  Regne 
Anim^y  has  no  resemblance  in  form  to  the  animal  dissected  by  me. 


108  Dr  Knox  on  the  Wombat  of  Flinders. 

Wombat  of  Flinders  has  been  thought  applicable  to  the  Pha- 
scolome  of  St  Hilaire ;  that  is,  to  an  animal  of  a  very  different 
nature,  and  belonging  to  a  distinct  genus,  and  endeavour,  as 
far  as  the  very  limited  opportunities  as  yet  permit,  to  rectify 
them. 


The  only  account  hitherto  published  of  the  animal  to 
which  I  have  given  the  name  of  the  Wombat  of  Flinders,  is 
that  by  Sir  E.  Home,  already  quoted.  This  great  anatomist 
has  described  some  of  the  habits  of  the  animal  (for  it  was 
brought  to  him  alive  by  Mr  Brown),  and  several  peculiarities 
in  its  internal  structure ;  but,  by  an  error  inexplicable  to  me, 
he  fancied  that  the  Wombat  he  described  was  the  same  as  the 
Phascolome  of  Peron,  the  internal  anatomy  of  which  had  al- 
ready been  accurately  given  by  the  Baron  Cuvier ;  and  this  has 
led  to  a  confusion  which  can  scarcely  be  imagined,  but  by  those 
who  may  have  had  to  unravel  the  anatomy  of  two  distinct  spe- 
cies of  animals,  given  partially  by  different  observers,  who  both 
fancied  they  were  describing  one  and  the  same  animal. 

The  external  form  of  the  Wombat,  observes  Sir  E.  Home, 
has  been  described  by  M.  Geoffroy  in  the  Sd  volume  of  the 
A7inales  du  Museum,  and  several  parts  of  its  internal  structure 
have  been  taken  notice  of  by  M.  Cuvier  in  his  Lemons  d'Anato- 
mie  Comparee ;  but  in  order  to  shew,  that  to  suppose  this  is  a 
great  error,  and  to  prove  satisfactorily  to  the  Society,  that  the 
great  French  anatomist  never  dissected  an  individual  of  the  spe- 
cies which  Sir  E.  Home  speaks  of  in  the  memoir  alluded  to, 
I  have  only  to  call  the  attention  of  the  Society  to  the  following 
circumstances : 

The  Phascolome  of  Peron,  Cuvier,  and  St  Hilaire,  has  two 
long  incisive  teeth  in  each  jaw ;  ten  molar  teeth,  but  no  canine 
teeth.  The  Wombat  of  Flinders  has,  on  the  contrary,  six  in- 
cisive, two  canine,  and  ten  molar. 

The  peculiarities  which  Sir  E.  Home  supposes  to  have  es- 
caped the  observation  of  MM.  Cuvier  and  St  Hilaire,  are  three 
in  number,  and  they  comprise  all  the  observations  which  Sir  E. 
Home  has  thought  fit  to  offei-  on  the  subject. 


Dr  Knox  on  the  Wombat  of  Flinders.  109 

1.  There  is  no  patella.  S.  The  stomach  of  the  Wombat  re- 
sembles that  of  the  beaver, — a  remarkable  gland  or  assemblage 
of  glands,  resembling  the  glandular  crop  in  birds,  being  found 
in  the  smaller  curvature  of  the  stomach,  but  nearer  the  cardiac 
than  the  pyloric  orifice.  3.  The  prostate  gland  exists,  and  is 
very  distinct. 

Now,  I  am  not  surprised  that  these  peculiarities  should  have 
escaped  the  French  anatomists  and  naturalists ;  for  it  may  easi- 
ly be  shewn  from  their  own  writings,  that,  notwithstanding  the 
assertions  of  Sir  E.  Home,  they  never  saw  the  Wombat  of 
Flinders,  which  in  the  above  account  he  has  partially  described ; 
they  described  the  Phascolome,  and  not  the  Wombat. 

Having  verified  in  the  specimen  before  me  the  peculiarities 
just  spoken  of,  and  ascertained  the  cause  of  error,  I  became 
anxious  to  add  as  many  new  facts  as  possible  to  the  three  dis- 
covered by  Sir  E.  Home ;  but  the  specimen  was  not  a  little 
unfavourable  for  anatomical  investigation. 

Feet.    In. 
The  total  length  of  the  animal  is  -  -  •  111 

Length  of  the  small  intestines,  from  the  pylorus  to  their  ter- 
mination in  the  large  intestines,  -  -  -  7       8 
Length  of  the  large  ditto  (caecum  not  included),                 -           10       8 
Length  of  the  caecum,         -            -            -            -             -            6       5 

We  have  seen  that  the  Phascolome  or  Wombat  of  Peron  has 
a  short  and  wide  caecum,  and  an  appendix  vermiformis ;  t?ie 
ccBcum  of  the  Wombat  of  Flinders  is  6Jeet  5  indies  long-,  ta- 
pering' gradually/ to  a  point ;  there  is  not  a  vestige  of  an  appen- 
dix vermiformis.  The  toes  of  the  anterior  extremities  are  di- 
vided into  two  groups,  the  thumb  and  index  constituting  one, 
and  the  remaining  three  toes  the  other.  The  great  toe  of  the 
posterior  extremity  is  really  a  very  strong  and  opposable  thumb ; 
the  two  adjoining  toes  are  very  weak,  and  united  to  the  inser- 
tion of  the  nail.  I  presume  that  it  will  now  scarcely  be  believed 
by  any  one  that  these  animals  belong  to  the  same  species. 

The  Wombat  of  Flinders  constitutes  the  link  connecting  the 
Marsupial  animals  with  the  Rodentia.  It  must  precede  that  of 
Peron  in  a  systematic  arrangement,  if  we  regard  the  nature  of 
the  teeth  ;  but  the  intimate  form  and  structure  of  its  intestinal 
canal  places  it  in  the  closest  relation  with  the  Beaver,  and  with 
the  class  Rodentia. 


110  Dr  Knox  (m  the  Wornbat  of  Flinders. 

II. 

The  natives  of  New  Holland  give  the  name  of  Wombat  or 
Womback  to  several  animals  which  seem  to  differ  essentially 
from  each  other,  and  to  constitute  distinct  species,  of  which 
some  inhabit  the  mountains,  and  others  the  islands.  They  use, 
therefore,  the  term  Wombat  generically,  and  they  add  to  it  other 
terms,  expressive,  I  presume,  of  some  particular  quality,  or 
conveying  a  notion  of  species  as  distinct  from  genus.  It  is  in 
this  way  that  they  seem  to  use  the  term  Koala,  which  very  er- 
roneously has  been  employed  to  designate  a  particular  genus  of 
an  animal  distinct  from  the  Wombat,  and  entitled  to  precede  it 
in  systems  of  natural  history.  As  it  might  be  asserted,  that, 
under  the  head  Koala,  the  animal  I  have  described  as  the  Wom- 
bat of  Flinders,  is  sufficiently  characterised,  and,  if  not  identical 
therewith,  must  be  merely  a  variety  of  the  Koala,  as  it  has  been 
termed,  I  shall  here  offer  my  objections  to  such  an  inference. 

It  is  probable  that  European  writers  became  first  acquainted 
with  the  term  Koala  through  the  medium  of  a  communication 
transmitted  by  Colonel  Paterson,  Lieutenant-Governor  of  New 
South  Wales,  to  Sir  E.  Home,  nearly  twenty  years  ago.  Co- 
lonel Paterson  observes,  that  the  species  of  Wombat  which  the 
natives  call  the  Koala  Wombat,  inhabits  the  forest  of  New  Hol- 
land, about  fifty  or  sixty  miles  to  the  south-west  of  Port  Jack- 
son, and  was  first  brought  to  Port  Jackson  in  August  1803. 
From  this  time,  the  term  Koala  came  to  be  considered  as  a  dis- 
tinct genus,  and  we  find  it  figuring  in  systems  of  natural  his- 
tory as  a  subdivision  of  the  marsupial  animals.  The  distinct  and 
precise  manner  in  which  Baron  Cuvier  notices  the  Koala,  would 
lead  one  to  suppose  that  he  had  examined  a  specimen  ;  for  he  has 
not  only  given  the  generic  character  of  the  animal,  but  also  an 
engraving,  which  bears  but  little  resemblance  to  the  Wom- 
bat of  Fhnders.  The  characters  of  the  Koala,  as  given  in  the 
Regne  Animal,  are,  two  long  incisive  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw, 
without  any  canine  teeth,  and  in  the  upper  jaw  two  long  inci- 
sive teeth,  with  some  smaller  ones  at  the  sides,  and  two  smaller 
canine.  He  moreover  adds,  that  the  posterior  extremities  wants 
the  thumb.  On  the  other  hand,  the  excellent  naturalist  M.  Des- 
niarest  describes  the  Koala  as  having,  incisiv.  j^/ausses  canines 
1 


Dr  Knox  on  the  Wombat  of  Flinders.  Ill 

|~,  molaires  j^.  A  little  farther  on,  he  says,  that  there  are 
four  small  teeth  intermediate  between  the  incisives  and  the  up- 
per molar  teeth ;  and  he  asserts,  contrary  to  the  statement  of 
Baron  Cuvier,  that  the  thumb  on  the  posterior  extremities  is 
very  large.  M.  De  Blainville,  whose  extreme  accuracy  as  an 
anatomist  and  naturalist  I  am  well  acquainted  with,  gives  a 
third  description,  differing  considerably  from  the  two  already 
spoken  of. 

With  these  conflicting  statements  before  us,'  I  may  venture  to 
question  the  existence  of  the  Koala,  as  now  described  in  books  of 
history,  however  nearly  it  may  seem  to  approach  the  animal  called 
by  me  the  Wombat  of  Flinders.  Perhaps  it  may  be  permitted 
me  to  propose  the  abolition  of  the  term  Koala,  and  restore  the 
names  employed  by  the  natives  of  New  Holland.  The  classifi- 
cation, then,  of  these  very  extraordinary  animals  would  be  as 
follows  * : 

Genus  WOMBAT. 
Phascolarctos  of  De  Blainville. — Koala,  Cuv.  -f- 

Charact. — Incisiv.  j,      Canin.  ^.    Molar.  |^,  =:  Jf. 

The  two  upper  middle  incisives  much  longer  than  the  others ; 
the  lower  incis.  like  those  of  the  kangaroo. 

Ears  large  and  pointed,  with  the  conch  directed  forward. 
Five-toed ;  toes  of  the  anterior  extremity  divided  into  two 
groups ;  thumb  and  index,  and  the  other  three  together.  Thumb 
on  the  posterior  extremities  large,  separated  without  any  nail; 
the  two  following  toes  smaller^  and  re-united  as  far  as  the  nails. 

I.  Sp.  Wombat  of  Flinders. 
Phascolarctos  of  De  Blainville. — Koala  of  Cuvier  and  Desmarest. 
For  the  anatomy  and  natural  history,   see  Sir  E.  Home  in 
Phil.  Trans.  1808,  and  the  foregoing  paper. 

•  The  arrangement  here  proposed  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  employed  by 
M .  Desmarest  in  his  "  Tableau  methodique  des  Mammiferes,"  published  in  1804. 
He  describes  the  Wombat  as  having  6  incisors  in  each  jaw,  two  canine,  and 
16  molar  teeth;  the  only  species  being  the  Wombatus  fossor.  I  am  not  at  all 
certain  to  what  animal  the  above  description  is  applicable,  if  not  to  some  spe- 
cies of  the  Wombat  entirely  unknown  to  me. 

•j-  Baron  Cuvier  has  not  given  any  authority  for  the  establishment  of  the 
Koala  as  a  distinct  genus. 


112     Mr  Ritchie  on  anAh-pnmp  without  Artificial  Valves. 

II.  Phascolome  (Geoff.) 
Wombat  of  Bass. — Didelphis,  Shaw. — Phascolome,  St  Hilaire, 
Cuvier. 
For  the  anatomy  and  natural  history,  see  Anatomie  Comparie, 
and  the  Annales  du  Museum. 


On  an  Air-Pump  without  Artificial  Valves.  By  William 
Ritchie,  A-  M.,  Rector  of  Tain  Academy.  (Communicated 
by  the  Author.) 

1 N  the  common  construction  of  the  air-pump,  the  valves  are 
very  liable  to  be  deranged,  the  repairing  of  which  is  attended 
with  much  trouble  and  expence.  In  the  following  construction 
no  such  derangement  can  possibly  take  place,  which  must  of  it- 
self give  this  air-pump  a  decided  advantage. 

The  machine  consists  of  a  barrel  shut  at  the  lower  end,  and 
having  a  small  aperture  at  C,  forming  a  free  communication 
with  the  receiver,  F.  (Plate  I.  fig.  8.)  The  piston  D  is  solid,  and 
stuffed  in  the  usual  way.  The  piston  rod  works  in  a  small  stuf- 
fing box  at  A,  so  as  to  render  it  completely  air-tight.  There  is 
a  small  aperture  at  E  in  the  top  of  the  barrel,  to  allow  the  air  to 
make  its  escape,  when  the  piston  is  raised.  This  air-pump  may 
be  worked  in  the  usual  way,  or  by  the  method  of  continued  mo- 
tion. In  commencing  the  exhaustion  of  the  receiver,  the  piston 
is  supposed  to  be  below  the  small  aperture  at  C.  The  piston  is 
then  raised,  and  the  air  which  occupied  the  barrel  is  forced  out 
through  the  aperture  at  E.  The  point  of  one  of  the  fingers  is 
applied  to  the  perforation,  in  the  same  manner  as  in  playing  the 
German  flute.  The  air  easily  passes  by  the  finger,  which,  when 
the  piston  begins  to  descend,  shuts  the  opening,  and  completely 
prevents  the  entrance  of  the  external  air.  The  piston  is  again 
forced  down  below  the  opening  C,  the  air  in  the  receiver  rushes 
into  the  barrel,  and  is  again  expelled  by  the  ascending  piston. 

Since  the  air  in  the  receiver  has  no  valve  to  open  by  its  elas- 
ticity, it  is  obvious  that  there  is  no  limit  to  the  degree  of  exhaus- 
tion, as  in  the  common  construction. 

1 

1 


(     "3     ) 


Table  ewhibiting  the  Highest  and  Lowest  Degrees  of  Temper ci^ 
ture,  with  the  State  of  the  Weather^  of  New  Briinswick  in 
North  America^  as  observed  on  the  coast,  and  at  a  distance 
of  about  fifty  miles  from  the  sea,  from  October  1.  1818  ilo 
September  30.  1820.  By  Alexander  Boyle,  M.  D.  Fel- 
low of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians  of  Edinburgh,  and 
Surgeon  to  his  Majesty's  Forces.  Communicated  by  Dr 
Duncan  jww. 


station  and  Dates. 

Thermom. 

Winds. 

Weather. 

Max. 

Min. 

1818. 

0 

O^t-    {Sst 

67 
65 

25 
30 

W.  NW.  E.  SE. 
WS. 

>  Fine,  frost  towards  end. 

Nov.  {Sstf' 

62 

14 

N.  W.  E.  NE. 

Cloudy,  showers,  snow. 

60 

20 

SW.  W. 

Fine,  serene  sky. 

ner     i  Inland, 
^^''-    t  Coast, 

60 

—  15 

NW.  SE.  NE. 

Clear,  snow. 

45 

_  18 

N.  NW. 

Clear,  much  snow,  high  wind. 

1819. 

,„_      f  Inland, 
•'^"-    1  Coast, 

46 

_  18 

N.  W. 

Clear,  fine,  snow. 

50 

32 

S.  SW. 

iMild,  fog,  rain,  no  snow,  unusual. 

TT-^v,     ( Inland, 
^^^-    t  Coast, 

48 

_  14 

NW.  SE. 

Clear,  much  snow. 

4b 

33 

s. 

Much  fog,  rain,  mild,  snow  gone. 

^r        f  Inland, 
^^^••i  Coast, 

50 

—     4 

NW.  NE.  S. 

Clear,  much  snow. 

32 

_  15 

N.  NW.  NE. 

High  wind,  clear,  much  snow. 

April,     Coast, 

70 

10 

Very  variable. 

Mild  by  day,  and  frost  at  night. 

May,     Coast, 

80 

25 

Do. 

Mild,  rain,  fog. 

June,     Coast, 

86 

54 

S.  SW.  NW. 

Fog,  clear  towards  end. 

July,     Coast, 

84 

70 

SW.  W. 

Fine,  dry. 

Aug.      Coast, 

82 

65 

N.  E.  S. 

Sultry,  cloudy,  showers. 

Sept.      Coast, 

82 

60 

S.  W.  E. 

Cloudy,  rain,  thunder. 

oet-   {S^tf' 

83 

20 

NW.  W.  E.  SE. 

Fine,  sultry,  snow  towards  end. 

76 

40 

SW.  W.  NW. 

Much  rain,  cloudy,  frost. 

N-  {"s^t 

55 

10 

S.SW.SE.E.NW 

Much  rain,  snow,  clear,  frost. 

70 

28 

N.  NW.  SE. 

Much  rain,  dry,  and  pleasant. 

Dec     1  Inland, 
^^'''    t  Coast, 

44 

—     6 

NW.  W.  S.  SE. 

Rain,  sleet  &  snow  every  day,  mild 

60 

_     5 

W .  N.  W. 

Pleasant. 

1820. 

y         j  Inland, 
'^^^"-    t  Coast, 

65 

_     5 

NNW.  NE. 

Clear,  much  snow. 

40 

-  17 

W.  NW. 

Clear,  snow. 

T^  ,       f  Inland, 
^^^'    1  Coast, 

70 

—  19 

NW.  NNE. 

Clear,  mild  towards  end. 

50 

_  15 

W.  NW.  NE. 

Clear,  cloudy,  snow. 

Mar    /Inland, 
^^''  \  Coast, 

74 

5 

NNE. 

Much  snow,  rain,  high  wind. 

54 

_     3 

NW.  NE. 

Clear,  much  snow. 

Anril  1  Inland, 
^P"^'t  Coast, 

74 

12 

E.  SE.  NW.  W. 

Fine. 

64 

32 

W.  SW. 

Dry,  serene. 

M^^'IS;'- 

78 

27 

NE.  SE.  S.  SAV. 

MUd,  rain  and  fog,  frost. 

70 

40 

SE.  W. 

Fog,  rain. 

j"-.{Sf' 

98 

32 

S.  SE.  N.  SW. 

Heavy  rain,  thunder. 

75 

48 

SW.  s. 

Fine,  cloudy. 

Tnlv   J  Inland, 
^"^^'1  Coast, 

99 

44 

S.  SW. 

Very  fine,  showers,  thunder. 

84 

50 

SW.  s. 

Serene,  dry.                                  * 

Ana-    /Inland, 
^"S-   t  Coast, 

94 

44 

W.  S.  SW. 

Dry,  dews  at  night. 

82 

45 

W.  S.  SE. 

Fine,  rain,  high  wind. 

Sent    /Inland,     92 
P^P^-\  Coast,       78 

31 

W.  SW.  NW. 

Fine,  dew,  fog,  frost. 
Dry,  serene,  fog. 

32 

SW.  S.  NE. 

APRIL JULY  1826. 


H 


(     114    ) 

Notices  regarding  Fiery  Meteors  seen  during  the  Day.      By 
J.  H.  Serres,  Sub-prefect  of  Embrun  *. 

JT^rofessor  Hansteen  relates,  that  while  he  was  observing 
the  polar  star,  on  the  13th  August  1825,  at  a  quarter  past  11 
in  the  morning,  he  saw,  passing  in  the  field  of  his  telescope,  a 
luminous  point,  the  light  of  which  was  brighter  than  that  of 
the  star.  Its  apparent  motion  was  upwards,  it  was  slow  and 
somewhat  sinuous.     He  imagined  it  to  be  a  falling  star. 

Mr  Dick  of  Perth,  in  the  Edinburgh  Philosophical  Journal, 
is  of  opinion,  that  the  phenomenon  observed  by  Professor  Han- 
steen, was  not  a  falling  star,  but  some  bird  placed  at  a  great  dis- 
tance, the  convex  surface  of  which  reflected  the  solar  light  in 
the  direction  of  the  axis  of  the  telescope.  Without  denying  that 
the  light  reflected  very  obliquely  from  the  feathers  of  a  bird,  is 
capable  of  producing  an  eff*ect  similar  to  that  described  by  Pro- 
fessor Hansteen,  I  am  yet  of  opinion  that  the  explanation  ought 
not  to  be  generahzed.  Wliile  observing  the  sun  at  the  repeat- 
ing circle,  I  have  frequently  perceived,  even  through  the  colour- 
ed glass  adapted  to  the  eye-piece,  large  luminous  points,  which 
traversed  the  field  of  the  telescope.  They  appeared  too  well  de- 
fined not  to  admit  them  to  be  distant,  and  subtended  too  large 
angles  to  imagine  them  birds.  I  have  sometimes  thought  that 
these  points  shewed  themselves  more  frequently  at  the  periods  of 
the  year  when  great  quantities  of  spiders'  webs  are  carried  by 
the  winds  into  our  atmosphere.  The  phenomenon  certainly  merits 
investigation.  Why,  in  fact,  should  there  not  be  faOing  stars 
during  the  day  as  well  as  at  night  ?  Who  can  affirm,  if  these  me- 
teors are  produced  on  the  extreme  Hmits  of  our  atmosphere,  that 
the  presence  of  the  sun  does  not  favour  their  formation  ?  I  leave 
to  the  reader  to  decide  if  there  be  not  some  analogy  between  the 
phenomena  of  which  we  speak,  and  that  described,  in  a  letter  ad- 
dressed to  the  President  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  by  the  sub- 
prefect  of  Embrun,  dated  the  5th  October  1820. 

"  Chance  has  made  me  the  spectator  of  a  phenomenon  which  I 

imagine  to  be  new,  and  which  I  have  deemed  interesting  for  na- 

*tural  philosophy  and  astronomy.     Under  this  twofold  relation, 

I  have  been  induced  to  make  it  known  to  you.     The  following, 

*  From  the  Annates  de  Chimie,  October  1825. 


J.  H.  Serres  on  Fiery  Meteors  seen  during  the  Day.     115 

Mr  President,  is  the  fact  sOch  as  I  have  seen  it :  On  the  7th  of 
last  month,  about  a  quarter  after  four  in  the  evening,  after  hav- 
ing, with  all  other  people,  observed  the  eclipse  of  the  sun,  I 
took  a  fancy  to  have  a  walk  in  the  fields.  On  crossing  the  town, 
I  saw  at  first,  in  one  of  its  public  places,  a  pretty  numerous 
group  of  individuals  of  every  age  and  sex,  who  had  their  eyes 
fixed  in  the  direction  of  the  sun.  Among  this  group,  I  remark- 
ed only  a  young  student  of  law,  named  Cezanne^  but  still  pre- 
occupied with  the  eclipse,  I  passed  without  remarking  that,  in 
the  position  in  which  this  young  man  was,  as  well  as  the  persons 
who  were  with  him,  they  could  not  perceive  the  sun,  which  left  me 
in  the  belief  that  they  were  all  looking  at  the  eclipse,  as  I  had 
myself  been  doing. 

Further  on  I  met  another  group,  having  their  eyes,  in  like  man- 
ner, turned  towards  the  sun ;  but  as,  at  this  time,  I  noticed  that 
the  individuals,  composing  this  group,  were  in-  a  street,  and  com- 
pletely in  the  shade,  I  understood  that  they  were  looking  at 
something  else  than  the  occultation  of  the  sun,  and  then  it  came 
into  my  liead  to  question  the  Sieur  Thomme,  a  veterinary  artist, 
who  was  among  them,  in  order  to  know  from  him  the  object  that 
fixed  his  attention.  He  replied  to  me,  "  We  are  looking  at  the 
stars  which  are  detaching  themselves  from  the  sun.^'  "  What  say 
you.^"  "  Yes,  sir;  but  look  yourself,  that  will  be  the  shortest  way."" 
I  looked,  and  saw,  in  fact,  not  stars,  but  balls  of  fire,  of  a  dia- 
meter equal  to  that  of  the  largest  stars,  which  were  projected, 
in  various  directions,  from  the  upper  hemisphere  of  the  sun,  with 
an  incalculable  velocity,  and  although  this  velocity  of  projection 
appeared  the  same  in  all,  yet  they  did  not  all  attain  the  same 
distance. 

These  globes  were  projected  at  unequal  and  pretty  short  in- 
tervals. Several  were  often  projected  at  once,  but  always  di- 
verging from  one  another.  Some  of  them  described  a  right  line, 
and  were  extinguished  in  the  distance ;  some  described  a  para^ 
bolic  line,  and  were  in  like  manner  extinguished  ;  others  again, 
after  having  removed  to  a  certain  distance  in  a  direct  line,  re- 
trograded upon  the  same  line,  and  seemed  to  enter  still  luminous 
into  the  sun's  disc.  The  grovmd  of  this  magnificent  picture  was 
a  sky-blue,  somewhat  tinged  with  brown. 

This,  Mr  President,  is  what  I  saw,  and  what  I  attest,  as  well 

h2 


116      J.  H.  Serres  on  Fiery  Meteors  seen  during  the  Day, 

as  a  very  great  number  of  other  people  of  the  town,  who  would 
attest  it  if  required.  I  forgot  to  mention,  that,  at  the  moment 
of  ray  observation,  I  was  placed  at  the  comer  of  a  house  which 
prevented  me  from  seeing  the  sun,  and  that  my  visual  ray,  pas- 
sing by  the  roof  of  the  house,  terminated  at  a  point  not  far  dis- 
tant from  the  edge  of  the  planet.  The  eclipse  was  then  on  its 
decline. 

You  will  easily  comprehend  what  must  have  been  my  astonish- 
ment at  the  sight  of  so  majestic  and  imposing  a  spectacle,  and 
one  so  new  to  me.  It  will  suffice  to  say,  that  it  was  impossible 
for  me  to  keep  my  eyes  off  it  until  it  ceased,  which  happened 
gradually  in  proportion  as  the  eclipse  wore  off,  and  the  solar 
rays  resumed  their  ordinary  lustre.  The  same  happened  to  the 
persons  present.  One  of  them  added,  at  the  moment  when  I 
left  the  group,  that  "  the  sun  projected  most  stars  at  the  time 
when  he  was  palest  ;"*"'  "  le  soleil  lancait  plus  d^etoiles,  alors  qu''il 
etait  plus  pale.''     These  were  his  words. 

Having  recovered  from  the  astonishment  into  which  I  was 
thrown  by  this  wonderful  phenomenon,  I  inquired  of  the  two 
observing  individuals  whom  I  had  distinguished  in  the  two 
groups  of  spectators  spoken  off,  how  they  had  been  led  to  no- 
tice the  phenomenon.  The  Sieur  Thomme  replied,  that,  on 
coming  from  his  stable,  a  woman  cried  out,  "  Come  here,  M. 
Thomme,  come  and  see  the  flames  of  fire  that  are  issuing  from 
the  sun."  That,  at  this  invitation,  having  approached,  he  saw, 
for  the  first  time  in  his  life,  what  he  had  put  me  in  a  condition 
of  seeing  myself ;  and  the  young  Cezanne  told  me,  it  was  chik 
dren  of  ten  or  twelve  years  of  age  that  had  noticed  it  first,  and 
who,  wondering  at  the  sight,  called  out,  "  Come  and  see,  come 
and  see  now  r  and  that  thus  was  formed  the  group  by  which 
I  had  passed  a  little  after ;  that  he  had  said  nothing  to  me,  be- 
cause he  had  conjectured  that  the  phenomenon,  which  at  that 
moment  excited  his  admiration,  must  have  been  known  to  me. 
I  have  the  honour,  &c.  J.  H.  Serres. 

P.  S. — Since  this  letter  was  written,  I  have  learnt  from  M. 
Foure,  Engineer  of  Bridges  and  Highways,  of  this  residence, 
that  this  public  functionary  also  had  occasion  to  observe  the  phe- 
nomenon, which  he  will  attest  if  required.'' 


(    117    ) 

Picture  of  Vegetation  on  the  Surface  of  the  Globe. 

JL  he  Creator  of  the  universe  has  not  confined  himself  to  deco- 
rating our  world  with  all  the  luxury  of  a  brilliant  vegetation  ;  he 
has  varied  it  in  every  locality ;  diversified  its  forms  to  infinity 
in  their  general  arrangement,  in  their  comparative  size,  in  the 
correspondence  or  contrast  of  all  their  parts.  Elegance  of  form, 
richness  of  colouring,  delicacy  of  perfume,  are  the  seducing  cha- 
racters under  which  those  varied  and  numerous  flowers,  the 
lovely  children  of  spring,  disclose  themselves  to  the  eyes  of  man. 
What,  then,  is  that  Omnipotence  which  covers  the  barren  rock 
with  vegetation,  peoples  deserts,  carries  vegetation  to  the  very 
bottom  of  rivers,  and  even  to  the  depths  of  the  sea  ?  What 
sublime  pencil  has  designed  these  rich  decorations  of  the  abode 
of  man  ?  Who  could  refuse  to  own  in  this  the  invisible  hand  of 
the  Creator  ? 

All  are  admitted  to  the  enjoyment  of  this  spectacle ;  but  it  is 
he  only  who  has  been  enlightened  by  observation  that  can  enjoy 
it  to  its  full  extent,  or  comprehend  its  beautiful  order.  In  the 
midst  of  apparent  confusion,  he  will  perceive  that  plants  have 
not  been  thrown  at  random  over  the  surface  of  the  globe,  but 
that  each  has  its  peculiar  place,  that  it  could  not  be  in  any  other, 
that  the  beauty  and  variety  of  the  landscape  would  disappear 
were  each  portion  of  it  not  covered  with  its  own  peculiar  orna- 
ments ;  that  the  plants  of  the  shores  would  be  misplaced  upon 
the  heights,  while  those  of  the  mountains,  descending  from  the 
icy  summit  of  their  vast  amphitheatre,  would  no  longer  produce 
the  same  effect  in  our  level  plains ;  that  they  would  lose  their 
native  graces,  as  well  as  the  delicacy  of  their  perfumes,  or  the 
variety  of  their  colours,  as  has  happened  to  the  greater  number 
of  such  of  them  as  have  been  rendered  objects  of  cultivation. 
How  inferior  the  interest  which  the  most  brilliant  flowers  of  our 
parterres  excite,  compared  with  that  which  they  would  inspire, 
were  we  to  meet  with  them  in  their  native  abode  ?  Nor  are  the 
systematic  order,  and  the  air  of  finery  which  we  give  them,  in 
any  degree  equivalent  to  the  loveliness  of  that  disorder  which 
reigns  in  their  distribution  in  the  midst  of  the  fields,  scattered 
in  the  woods,  or  dispersed  among  the  meadows. 

In  reality,   vegetation   is   not   equally  brilliant  throughout. 


118       Picture  of'  Vegetatum  oil  the  Surface  of  the  Globe. 

With  regard  to  the  place  which  she  has  to  embelhsh,  she  as- 
sumes the  character  of  adaptation  which  associates  best  with  the 
aspect  of  the  locaUty.  Gay  and  smiling  upon  the  banks  of 
streams,  elegant  and  graceful  in  the  valleys,  rich  and  majestic  in 
the  great  plains,  she  is  no  longer  the  same  when  she  mounts  the 
burning  rock,  or  when  she  struggles  upon  the  Alps  with  the 
snow  and  ice.  Thus,  in  this  admirable  distribution  of  vegetables 
upon  the  surface  of  the  earth,  no  place  has  been  forgotten  ;  all 
its  parts,  if  we  except  the  sand  of  the  desert,  have  been  invested 
with  the  clothing  which  best  suits  them.  Twenty,  thirty  leagues, 
or  more,  of  plain,  in  the  same  country,  and  with  the  same  ex- 
posure, would  produce  throughout  nearly  the  same  vegetables ; 
but  if  this  plain  be  intersected  by  forests,  furrowed  by  valleys, 
bristled  by  rocks  and  mountains,  watered  by  springs ;  if  the  soil 
is  variable,  if  it  is  hujnid  or  dry,  composed  of  peat,  or  of  a 
chalky  nature,  the  mass  of  vegetation  will  equally  vary  with 
each  change  of  situation  and  of  temperature. 

If  the  localities  of  the  same  country  present  very  different 
plants,  this  effect  is  still  more  striking,  in  proportion  as  we  ad- 
vance from  south  to  north,  from  east  to  west,  and  especially 
when  we  pass  from  one  continent  to  another;  whether  we  tra- 
verse the  burning  regions  of  Africa,  the  vast  countries  of  Asia, 
or  the  numerous  islands  of  America.  In  the  greater  number  of 
these  countries,  the  vegetation  is  so  abundant,  so  varied  in  its 
forms,  so  different  from  that  with  which  we  are  acquainted,  that 
often  we  could  scarcely  give  credit  to  travellers,  were  not  their 
relations  confirmed  by  the  possession  of  the  objects  of  which  they 
speak ;  although,  in  our  possession,  they  are  isolated,  mutilated, 
and  altered.  It  is  in  their  native  place  that  we  must  observe 
them,  to  form  an  idea  of  the  richness  and  of  the  beautiful  order 
which  nature  has  established,  in  all  her  productions.  Let  us 
listen,  upon  this  subject,  to  one  of  our  most  celebrated  travellers 
Baron  Humboldt. 

"  It  is,"  says  he,  in  his  Tableaux  de  la  Natwe,  "  under  the 
ardent  sun  of  the  torrid  zone,  that  the  most  majestic  forms  of 
vegetation  are  developed.  In  place  of  those  lichens  and  thick 
mosses,  which,  amid  the  hoarfrosts  of  the  north,  invest  the  bark 
of  trees  ;  beneath  the  tropics,  on  the  contrary,  the  odorous  va- 
nilla, and  the  cymUdiay  animate  the  trunk  of  the  acagou  (ana- 


Picture  of  Vegetation  on  the  Surface  of  the  Globe.      119 

cardium)  and  gigantic  fig.  The  fresh  verdure  of  the  leaves  of 
the  pothos  contrasts  with  the  flowers  of  the  orchideae,  so  varied 
in  their  colours ;  the  bauhineae,  the  climbing  grenadillae,  and 
banisteriae,  with  gold  yellow  flowers,  interlace  themselves  around 
the  trunks  of  the  trees  of  the  forests ;  delicate  flowers  spring  from 
the  roots  of  the  theobroma,  as  well  as  from  the  thick  and  rough 
bark  of  the  calabash-tree  (crescentia)  and  gustavia.  Amid  this 
abundance  of  flowers  and  fruits,  this  richness  of  vegetation,  and 
this  confusion  of  climbing  plants,  the  naturalist  is  often  at  a  loss 
to  determine  to  what  stem  the  leaves  and  flowers  belong.  A 
single  tree,  adorned  with  pauUinia,  bignonioe^  and  dendrobia, 
forms  a  group  of  vegetables,  which,  if  separated  from  one  an- 
other, would  cover  a  considerable  space. 

"  In  the  torrid  zone,  the  plants  are  more  abundant  in  juices, 
of  a  fresher  verdure,  and  clothed  with  larger  and  more  shining 
leaves,  than  in  the  northern  climates.  The  vegetables  which 
live  in  society,  and  which  render  the  plains  of  Europe  so  mono- 
tonous, are  almost  entirely  wanting  in  the  equatorial  regions. 
Trees,  twice  the  height  of  our  oaks,  are  clothed  with  flowers  as 
large  and  beautiful  as  our  lilies.  On  the  umbrageous  banks  of 
the  river  of  Madalena,  in  South  America,  we  find  a  climbing 
aristolochia  (A.  cordiflora,  Kunth),  whose  flowers  are  four  feet 
in  circumference. 

*'  The  prodigious  height  to  which,  under  the  tropics,  not  only 
isolated  mountains,  but  even  entire  countries  rise,  and  the  cold 
temperature  of  this  elevation,  procure  for  tne  inhabitants  of  the 
torrid  zone,  an  extraordinary  spectacle.  Besides  the  groups  of 
palms  and  bananas,  they  have  also  around  them  vegetable  forms 
which  seem  to  belong  only  to  the  regions  of  the  north.  Cy- 
presses, figs,  and  oaks,  barberries  and  alders,  which  approach  very 
near  to  ours,  cover  the  mountainous  districts  of  the  south  of 
Mexico,  as  well  as  the  chain  of  the  Andes,  under  the  equator. 

"  In  these  regions,  nature  permits  man  to  see,  without  leaving 
his  native  soil,  all  the  forms  of  vegetables  diff^used  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth ;  and  the  vault  of  Heaven,  uncurtained  as  it 
were  from  one  pole  to  the  other,  does  not  conceal  from  his  view 
a  single  one  of  those  resplendent  orbs  with  which  it  is  studded. 
These  natural  enjoyments,  and  a  multitude  of  others,  are  denied 
to  the  northern  nations.     Many  constellations,  and  many  forms 


1^0      Picture  of  Vegetation  on  the  Surface  of  the  Globe, 

of"  vegetables,  especially  the  more  beautiful,  those  of  the  palms 
and  bananas,  the  arborescent  graminese  and  ferns,  as  well  as  the 
mimosas,  the  fohage  of  which  is  so  delicately  divided,  remain 
for  ever  unknown  to  them.  The  sickly  individuals  which  our 
hot-houses  contain,  can  present  but  a  feeble  image  of  the  majes- 
ty of  vegetation  in  the  torrid  zone. 

"  He  who  can  embrace  the  whole  of  nature  at  one  glance,  with- 
out dwelling  upon  local  phenomena,  sees  how,  from  the  pole  to 
the  equator,  in  proportion  as  the  vivifying  heat  increases,  orga- 
nic power  and  life  also  increase  in  a  corresponding  degree ;  but 
in  the  course  of  this  increase,  particular  beauties  are  reserved 
for  each  zone ;  for  the  tropical  climates,  the  diversity  of  forms 
and  pre-eminent  size  of  vegetables ;  for  the  climates  of  the  north, 
the  pleasing  prospect  of  meadows,  and  the  periodical  revelling  of 
nature  upon  the  return  of  the  first  breezes  of  spring.  Besides 
the  advantages  which  are  peculiar  to  it,  each  zone  has  also  a 
character  of  its  own.  If,  in  every  organized  individual,  we  re- 
cognize a  determinate  physiognomy,  in  like  manner  we  can  dis- 
tinguish a  certain  natural  physiognomy,  which  belongs  exclu- 
sively to  each  zone.  Similar  species  of  plants,  such  as  pines  and 
oaks,  equally  crown  the  mountains  of  Sweden  and  those  of  the 
most  southern  part  of  Mexico ;  and  yet,  notwithstanding  this 
correspondence  of  forms,  and  this  similarity  of  partial  outlines, 
the  general  picture  of  these  countries  presents  an  entirely  diffe- 
rent character. 

"'  The  size  and  the  development  of  organs  in  plants,  depend 
upon  the  climate  which  favours  them.  In  the  impossibility  of 
presenting  a  complete  picture  of  the  plants  of  America,  we  shall 
venture  to  trace  the  characters  of  the  most  prominent  groups, 
commencing  with  the  palms.  They  have,  of  all  vegetables,  the 
loftiest  and  most  noble  form,  and  to  it  the  prize  of  beauty  has 
been  adjudged  by  all.  Their  tall,  slender,  and  channelled 
stems,  sometimes  furnished  with  prickles,  are  terminated  by  a 
shining  foliage,  which  is  sometimes  pinnate,  and  sometimes 
fan-shaped.  Their  smooth  trunk  often  attains  a  height  of 
124  feet.  The  size  and  beauty  of  palms  diminish  in  proportion 
as  they  retire  from  the  equator  to  approach  the  temperate  zones. 
A  striking  character,  and  one  which  very  agreeably  varies  its 
aspect,  is  the  direction  of  the  leaves.     The  very  dense  leaflets 


Picture  of  Vegeiattaii  on  the  Surface  of  the  Ghbe.      121 

of  the  date  and  cocoa  trees,  produce  beautiful  reflections  of  light 
from  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves,  of  a  brighter  green  in  the 
cocoa,  duller,  and,  as  it  were,  mingled  with  grey  in  the  date. 
What  difference  of  aspect  between  the  pendent  leaves  of  the 
hovira  palm  of  the  Orinoco,  even  between  those  of  the  date  or 
the  cocoa,  and  the  branches  of  the  jagna  and  pirigcto,  which  , 
point  toward  the  heaven.  Nature  has  been  prodigal  of  her  beauties 
to  the  jagna  palm,  which  crowns  the  granitic  rocks  of  the  cata- 
racts of  Atures  and  Maypures.  Their  slender  and  smooth  stems  <- 
attain  a  height  of  160  or  170  feet ;  so  that,  according  to  the  ex- 
pression of  Bernardin  de  Saint  Pierre,  they  rise  in  the  form  of  a 
portico  above  the  forests.  Their  aerial  cyme  contrasts  in  a  sur- 
prising manner  with  the  dense  foliage  of  the  ceiha  trees,  with 
the  forests  of  laurels  and  melastomata  which  surround  it.  In 
the  palms  with  palmated  leaves,  the  tufted  foliage  is  often  placed 
upon  a  bed  of  withered  leaves,  which  gives  to  these  vegetables  a 
melancholy  character. 

"  In  all  parts  of  the  world,  the  form  of  the  palms  is  associated 
with  that  of  the  bananas.  Their  stem  less  elevated,  but  more 
succulent,  is  almost  herbaceous,  and  crowned  with  leaves  of  a 
thin  and  loose  structure,  with  nerves  delicate  and  shining  like 
silk.  The  groves  of  bananas  are  the  ornaments  of  the  humid 
districts.  From  their  fruit  is  derived  the  subsistence  of  all  the  in- 
habitants of  the  tropics ;  they  have  accompanied  man  from  the 
infancy  of  civilization.  If  the  vast  and  monotonous  fields  which 
are  covered  by  the  cereal  plants,  diffused  by  cultivation  in  the 
northern  countries  of  the  earth,  afford  little  embellishment  to  the  . 
aspect  of  nature,  the  inhabitant  of  the  tropics,  on  the  contrary, 
in  establishing  himself,  multiplies,  by  his  banana  plantations,  one 
of  the  most  noble  and  magnificent  of  the  forms  of  vegetation. 

"  The  delicately  pinnated  leaves  of  the  mimoscE,  acacia,  gledit- 
sice,  tamarinds,  &c.,  have  a  form  which  the  vegetables  peculi- 
arly affect  between  the  tropics.  It  occurs,  however,  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  torrid  zone ;  for  these  plants  are  not  wanting  in  the 
United  States  of  America,  where  vegetation  is  more  varied  and 
more  vigorous  than  in  Europe,  although  in  a  similar  latitude. 
The  deep  blue  of  the  sky  of  the  torrid  zone,  as  perceived 
through  their  delicately  pinnated  foliage,  has  an  extremely  pic- 
turesque effect. 


122      Picture  of  Vegetation  on  the  Surface  qfthe  Globe, 

"  The  cactuses  are  almost  exclusively  peculiar  to  America. 
Their  form  is  sometimes  spherical,  ,sometimes  articulate ;  some- 
times it  rises  like  the  pipes  of  an  organ,  into  long  channelled  co- 
lumns. This  group  forms  in  its  exterior  the  most  striking  con- 
trast with  that  of  the  liliacea?  and  bananas ;  it  belongs  to  those 
plants  which  Bemardin  de  St  Pierre  has  so  happily  named  the 
Vegetable  Springs  of  the  Desert.  In  the  parched  plains  of 
South  America,  the  animals,  tormented  by  thirst,  look  out  for 
the  melocactus,  a  spherical  plant,  half  concealed  in  the  sand,  en- 
veloped in  formidable  prickles,  and  whose  interior  abounds  in 
refreshing  juices.  The  stems  of  the  columnar  cactus  rise  to  the 
height  of  thirty  feet,  and  form  a  sort  of  candelabra ;  their  phy- 
siognomy has  a  striking  affinity  to  that  of  some  African  Eu- 
phorbia?. 

"  While  the  cactuses  form  vases  dispersed  through  leafless  de- 
serts, and  the  orchideae,  under  the  torrid  zone,  animate  the  As- 
sures of  the  wildest  rocks,  and  the  trunks  of  trees  blackened  by 
excess  of  heat,  the  form  of  the  vanillas  is  brought  into  notice,  by 
their  pale-green  leaves,  filled  with  juice,  and  their  variegated 
flowers,  so  singular  in  structure.  These  flowers  resemble  a 
winged  insect,  or  the  small  bird  which  feeds  upon  the  perfume 
of  the  nectaries.  A  whole  hfe  would  not  suffice  an  artist  to 
paint  all  those  magnificent  orchideae  which  adorn  the  deeply 
furrowed  valleys  of  the  Andes  of  Peru. 

"  The  CasuarinacecB,  which  occur  only  in  India,  and  the 
islands  of  the  great  ocean,  are  denuded  of  leaves,  like  the  greater 
part  of  the  cacti :  they  are  trees  whose  branches  are  jointed  like 
the  stems  of  equisetum.  We  find,  however,  traces  of  this  type  in 
other  parts  of  the  world.  The  pines,  the  thuyae,  and  cypresses, 
belong  to  a  northern  form,  which  is  of  rare  occurrence  in  the 
torrid  zone.  Their  continual  and  always  fresh  verdure,  enlivens 
the  landscape  saddened  by  winter,  and  announces  at  the  same 
time  to  the  nations  bordering  upon  the  poles,  that  even  when  the 
earth  is  covered  with  snow  and  frost,  the  internal  life  of  plants, 
like  the  fire  of  Prometheus,  is  never  extinguished  upon  our 
planet. 

"  The  mosses  and  lichens  in  our  northern  climates,  the  aroideoi 

imder  the  tropics,  are  parasites  as  well  as  the  orchidea,  and  clothe 

1 


Picture  of'  Vegetation  on  the  Surface  of' the  Globe.      123 

the  trunks  of  trees  as  they  grow  up.  They  have  fleshy  and  her- 
baceous stems,  sagittate,  digitate,  or  elongated  leaves,  but  always 
with  very  large  veins.  The  flowers  are  inclosed  in  sheaths. 
These  vegetables  belong  rather  to  the  New  Continent  than  to 
the  Old.  The  caladium  and  pothos  inhabit  only  the  torrid 
zone. 

"  With  this  form  of  the  aroideae,  is  connected  that  of  the  lianas, 
of  a  remarkable  vigour  in  the  warmest  countries  of  South  Ame- 
rica, such  as  the  paullinece,  banisteria,  bignonice,  &c.  Our 
traihng  hop  and  vines,  may  give  an  idea  of  the  elegance  of  forms 
of  this  group.  On  the  banks  of  the  Orinoco,  the  leafless  branches 
of  the  bauhinice  are  often  forty  feet  in  length ;  sometimes  they 
fall  perpendicularly  from  the  elevated  cymes  of  the  acajous ; 
sometimes  they  are  diagonally  extended  from  one  tree  to  ano- 
ther, like  the  cordage  of  a  ship.  The  stiff*  form  of  the  bluish- 
coloured  aloes,  contrasts  with  the  pliant  shoots  of  the  lianas  of  a 
fresh  and  light-green  tint.  Their  stems,  when  they  have  any, 
are,  for  the  greater  part,  without  divisions,  having  approximated 
knots,  bent  upon  themselves  like  serpents,  and  crowned  at  their 
summit  with  succulent  fleshy  leaves,  terminated  by  a  long  point, 
and  dispersed  in  dense  rays.  The  aloes,  which  have  a  tall  stem, 
do  not  form  groups  like  the  vegetables  which  love  to  live  in  so- 
ciety;  they  grow  isolated  in  arid  plains,  and,  by  this  circum- 
stance, give  to  the  tropical  regions  a  pecuHar  character  of  melan- 
choly. A  sad  stiffness  and  immobihty  characterize  the  forms  of 
the  aloes ;  a  cheerful  slimness  and  mobile  suppleness  distinguish 
the  gramineae,  and,  in  particular,  the  physiognomy  of  those  of 
them  which  are  arborescent.  The  bamboo  thickets  of  both  In- 
dies form  umbrageous  alleys.  The  smooth  stem,  often  recur- 
ved and  floating,  of  the  gramineae  of  the  tropics,  surpasses  in 
height  that  of  our  alders  and  oaks. 

"  The  form  of  the  ferns  is  not  less  ennobled  than  that  of  the 
gramineae  in  the  warm  countries  of  the  earth.  The  arborescent 
ferns,  often  thirty-five  feet  in  height,  resemble  palms,  but  their 
trunk  is  less  slender,  shorter,  and  very  rugged.  Their  fo- 
liage, more  delicate,  and  of  a  looser  contexture,  is  transparent, 
and  slightly  dentate  upon  the  edges.  These  gigantic  ferns  are 
almost  exclusively  indigenous  to  the  torrid  zone ;  but  they  pre- 


124!  Professor  Brandes  on  Falling  Stars. 

fer  to  extreme  heat  a  less  ardent  climate.  Depression  of  tem- 
perature being  a  consequence  of  elevation  of  the  soil,  we  may 
consider  as  the  principal  abode  of  these  ferns,  the  mountains, 
which  rise  to  a  height  of  from  2000  to  3000  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  The  tall-stemmed  ferns  accompany,  in  south  Ame- 
rica, that  beneficent  tree  whose  bark  prevents  fever.  The  pre- 
sence of  these  two  vegetables,  indicates  the  happy  region  where 
the  mildness  of  spring  continually  reigns."*"* 
(To  he  conti7iued.) 


On  Falling  Stars.     In   a  Letter  from  Professor  Bhandes  of 
Breslau,  to  Professor  Jameson. 

Sir, 

X  HE  phenomena  known  by  the  name  of  Falling  Stars,  have 
for  some  time  past  attracted  the  attention  of  naturalists :  I 
therefore  hope  that  you  will  read  with  interest  a  small  work  on 
the  subject,  which  I  have  the  honour  of  transmitting  to  you, 
(entitled,  "  Beobachtungen  Uber  die  Sternschnuppen,'^ — Leip- 
zig, 1825.) 

I  am  exceedingly  anxious  that  there  should  be  observers  of 
these  phenomena  in  your  country  also,  and  you  will  therefore 
pardon  me  for  requesting  you  to  insert  a  short  notice  of  the  re- 
sults of  our  observations  in  your  Journal. 

Those  which  seem  to  me  the  most  worthy  of  attention,  may 
be  expressed  in  few  words. 

1.  Although  falling  stars  move  in  all  directions,  in  respect  of 
the  vertical,  yet  those  which  fall,  that  is  to  say  which  approach 
the  earth,  are  more  numerous  than  those  which  recede  from  it ; 
and  it  might  therefore  be  concluded,  that  they  are  subjected  to 
the  earth's  attraction,  during  the  short  period  of  their  appear- 
ance. 

2.  Falling  Stars  move  in  almost  every  direction,  in  respect  of 
azimuth,  yet  those  whose  course  is  directed  toward  the  south- 
west, are  much  more  numerous  than  those  that  follow  the  opposite 
direction. 

Our  observations  furnish  us  with  the  direction  of  the  paths  of 
34  of  these  meteors,  and  it  would  seem  from  calculation,  that 

1 


Professor  Brandes  07i  Falling  Stars.  125 

the  greatest  number  had  a  motion  almost  exactly  the  opposite 
of  the  earth's  motion  in  its  orbit.  I  calculated,  therefore,  for 
the  observed  times  of  the  appearances  of  the  meteors,  the  azi- 
muth of  the  direction  of  the  earth's  motion,  and,  by  taking  the 
mean  of  the  results,  I  found  the  direction  exactly  opposite  of  that 
of  the  earth's  motion  to  be  48 1°  to  the  west  of  the  meridian. 

Beginning  from  this  point,  T  divided  the  whole  horizon  into  8 
equal  parts,  so  that  the  azimuth  48 J°  from  south  to  west  would 
be  the  middle  of  the  first  octant.  Then,  for  every  octant,  I 
found  the  courses  of  the  34  meteors  to  be  as  in  Fig.  4.  Plate  I. 

1^^,   9  directly  opposite  to  the  earth's  motion ; 

2d,    0  coinciding  with  the  earth's  motion ; 

Sd,    7  and  4  in  the  two  octants  adjacent  to  the  first. 

4}th,  3  and  2  in  the  two  octants  adjacent  to  the  second. 

5th,  6  and  3  in  the  two  octants  which  are  in  the  middle. 

It  seems  to  me,  therefore,  that  falling  stars  disclose  to  us  the 
earth's  motion ;  and  although  they  have  doubtless  a  proper  mo- 
tion, yet  the  greater  part  of  their  celerity  is  only  apparent,  and 
arises  from  the  proper  motion  of  the  earth,  which  passes  near 
them  in  its  course  round  the  sun. 

If  this  be  true,  might  it  not  be  desirable  that  the  result 
should  be  confirmed  by  a  great  number  of  observations  ?  But 
I  shall  not  trouble  you  with  my  reasonings  on  the  subject. 
Have  the  goodness  to  communicate  these  observations  to  such 
of  your  countrymen  as  feel  an  interest  in  meteorology.  I  trust 
you  will  pardon  me  for  troubling  you  with  this  letter.  I  am. 
Sir,  &c.  Brandes. 

Breslau  in  Silesia,  ) 
Sd  April  18^6.       j 


On  the  Management  of  the  Water-Melon  and  the  Cucumber  in 
Russia,  By  William  Howison,  M.  D.  Lecturer  on  Ma- 
teria Medica  and  Botany.     (Communicated  by  the  Author.) 

JjiFFERENT  kinds  of  water-melon,  or  arbouse,  are  cultivated 
in  surprising  quantities  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  Russian 
Empire,  from  the  Don  to  the  Ural ;  and  particularly  along  the 


1^6  Dr  Howison  on  the  Management  of  the 

Banks  of  the  Volga.  Their  cultivation  requires  but  little 
trouble.  They  thrive  in  the  open  air,  only  to  the  52d  degree 
of  north  latitude.  The  melon  gardens,  from  their  size,  might 
rather  be  called  fields  ;  they  are  inclosed  with  a  slight  fence,  just 
sufficient  to  keep  off  cattle,  and  are  divided  into  long  beds,  be- 
tween which,  in  the  oriental  style,  little  canals  are  cut  in  the 
soil  for  watering  the  plants.  For  this  purpose,  the  gardens  are 
always  laid  out  contiguous  to  a  pool,  or  to  a  streamlet  of  run- 
ning water.  The  melon  comes  early  forward,  and  is,  with  lit- 
tle pains,  brought  to  a  large  size.  They  are  treated  with  little 
more  care  than  the  most  common  field  fruits ;  and  yet,  in  every 
plantation  of  them,  melons  are  to  be  found  weighing  thirty 
pounds,  and  which,  in  point  of  succulence,  and  mild  flavour, 
cannot  be  excelled.  The  plant  sends  out  a  very  luxuriant  crop 
of  dark  green  coloured  fresh  looking  leaves,  and  also  long  juicy 
pale  coloured  shoots,  or  tendrils,  of  considerable  thickness,  which 
extend  to  a  great  distance,  creeping  along  the  surface  of  the  soil. 
The  fruit  is  of  a  rich,  dark  green,  variegated  colour,  sometimes 
spotted,  of  an  oval  shape,  and  grows  to  a  large  size.  When  ripe, 
and  cut  into,  it  appears  pure  white,  of  a  spongy  looking  structure, 
and  contains  at  the  heart  large  dark  coloured  seeds,  surrounded 
with  a  pale  pink  tint,  colouring  the  pulpy  substance  on  which 
they  are  contained,  and  gradually  losing  itself  in  the  white. 
When  eaten,  it  is  remarkably  juicy,  resembling  cold  spring  wa- 
ter, and  is  well  adapted  as  a  refrigerant  for  allaying  thirst,  and 
other  disagreeable  effects  of  a  warm  climate.  It  may  be  used 
either  raw,  with  powdered  sugar,  or  ginger,  or  salted  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  cucumber.  The  water-melon  also  possesses 
the  advantages  of  keeping  in  its  fresh  state  for  a  considerable 
period ;  and,  from  the  firmness  of  its  texture,  it  will  bear  without 
injury  removal  to  a  great  distance. 

Water-melons,  although  they  are  annually  sent  to  the  great 
towns  of  St  Petersburg  and  Moscow,  in  abundance,  and  at  a 
cheap  rate,  from  the  southern  parts  of  the  empire,  are  also 
brought  to  maturity  by  forcing  under  glass  frames,  in  consider- 
able quantity,  at  an  early  period  of  the  season,  in  the  northern 
parts  of  Russia,  but  chiefly  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  princi- 
pal towns.  What  is  principally  necessary  during  their  cultiva- 
tion in  this  manner,  is  to  take  particular  care  not  to  injure  the 


Water-Melon  and  the  Cucumber  in  Russia.  127 

very  strong  and  creeping  shoots,  which  the  plant  sends  out  du- 
ring its  progress,  as  ah-eady  described,  but  either  to  raise  the 
frames,  and  allow  them  to  spread  out  into  an  adjoining  one,  or  to 
keep  them,  by  bending,  entirely  within  its  own,  which,  in  that 
case,  would  require  to  be  long  and  roomy.  The  former  way  I 
would  prefer.  It  is  to  neglecting  this,  that  the  gardeners  in 
Russia  attribute  the  general  failure  in  the  cultivation  of  the 
water-melon  in  Great  Britain.  If  the  shoots  are,  in  any  way 
checked,  or  injured,  during  their  growth,  the  plant  is  observed  to 
suffer  considerably,  and  the  future  progress  of  the  fruit  towards 
maturity  is  either  interrupted  or  totally  destroyed.  Attention 
to  this  circumstance,  is  of  much  more  consequence  than  heat,  as 
is  satisfactorily  and  daily  proved  in  the  northern  parts  of  Rus- 
sia. It  is  also  well  known,  that  the  water-melon  plant,  propa- 
gated by  artificial  heat,  produced  by  glass  frames,  will  flourish 
and  the  fruit  reach  its  full  size,  at  the  same  temperature  at 
which  any  of  the  common  species  of  melon  will  do.  My  friend, 
Mr  Booker,  has  them  every  season  growing  in  great  perfec- 
tion among  other  melons,  in  his  garden  at  Cronstadt ;  and  mere- 
ly from  paying  attention  to  this,  Mr  Cole  has  the  same  at  the 
Taurida  Palace-Garden  near  St  Petersburg.  As  the  plants 
are  remarkably  strong  and  luxuriant,  and  send  out  very  large 
and  bushy  shoots,  one  plant  is  quite  sufficient  to  fill  a  large 
sized  glass-frame. 

Water-melons  are  known  to  be  ripe,  not  by  the  smell  but  by 
the  peculiar  sensation  which  they  communicate  when  struck,  a 
knowledge  of  which  can  only  be  acquired  by  experience.  If  they 
are  allowed  to  remain  adhering  to  the  plant,  until  the  seeds  shake 
within  them,  they  will  be  found  good  for  nothing,  excepting  fu- 
ture propagation  from  the  seed.  When  the  extremely  tough 
skin,  covering  the  water-melon,  is  removed,  and  they  are  cut 
into  slices,  they  may  be  eaten  in  the  raw  state  with  salt,  in  the 
manner  of  celery.  The  arbouse,  when  eaten  in  quantity,  I  am 
told,  acts  as  a  diuretic ;  and  when  in  Russia,  I  was  informed  by 
a  physician  of  a  remarkable  case  of  obstinate  'gonorrhoea  being 
cured  by  it. 

The  Cucumber. 

Cucumbers  are  made  use  of  in  large  quantities  by  the  native 
Russians,  and  by  foreigners  settled  in  the  country  ;  both  during 


128  Dr  Howison  mi  the  MdiiagenUnt  of  the 

the  summer,  in  their  fresh  state,  and  during  the  winter,  when 
artificially  preserved.  The  plant  is  cultivated  in  great  profu- 
sion in  the  fields,  wholly  in  the  open  air,  during  the  short  but 
warm  summer  of  Russia.  In  general,  it  is  planted  in  long  rows, 
along  with  cabbage ;  a  cabbage  and  cucumber  plant  alternately 
constituting  the  rows.  It  is  also  to  be  met  with  in  abundance 
in  the  gardens  of  the  better  class  of  peasantry  throughout  the 
interior.  In  the  gardens  of  the  higher  orders,  an  early  crop  is 
sometimes  raised  under  glazed  frames.  Glass  is  remarkably 
cheap  in  Russia,  as  it  pays  little  or  no  duty. 

The  Russian  cucumber  differs  in  some  respects  from  that 
which  is  common  in  Britain.  The  leaf  and  plant  are  consider- 
ably smaller,  and  contracted  ;  the  first,  when  it  has  attained  its 
full  growth,  is  short,  thick,  containing  a  large  proportion  of 
juice  and  pulpy  matter ;  and,  from  these  last  mentioned  qualities, 
is  much  better  adapted  for  salting  (the  only  mode  in  which  the 
cucumber  is  preserved  during  the  winter  throughout  Russia), 
than  the  common  cucumber  of  this  country.  It  may  be  unne- 
cessary for  me  to  mention  here,  that  the  cucumber  plant  re- 
quires a  rich  soil,  or  ground  well  dunged,  for  its  cultivation. 
The  Russians  of  all  classes  pay  particular  attention  to  this,  co- 
vering the  root  of  each  plant  with  a  small  heap  of  horse  or  cow 
dung.  For  winter  use,  the  cucumber  is  preserved  in  salt,  as  al- 
ready noticed  ;  and  prepared  in  that  way,  it  forms  an  excellent 
cooling  article  of  food,  which  is  used  in  great  quantities.  Be- 
fore these  are  eaten,  their  green  outer  skin  is  removed  by  the 
knife  ;  when  the  pulp  is  found  remarkably  juicy,  and  pleasant 
to  the  taste.  The  liquid  which  is  charged  with  the  salt,  and 
with  the  soluble  portion  of  the  vegetable  matter,  and  which  fills 
the  cask  in  which  the  cucumbers  are  preserved,  is  not  unpleasant 
to  the  taste ;  and  is  used  by  the  native  Russians  as  a  gentle 
cooling  laxative  in  fever,  about  a  tumbler  to  a  dose.  A  cask  of 
Russian  pickled  cucumbers  was  procured  last  winter  by  a  dis- 
tinguished member  of  the  Horticultural  Society  in  this  city  ;  and 
the  cucumbers  were  much  admired  for  being  well  preserved  and 
of  fine  flavour. 

As  the  seed  of  the  Russian  cucumber  has  found  its  way  into 
Britain,  and  has  been  cultivated  in  Scotland  with  success, 
I  shall  subjoin  here  a  very  accurate  receipt  for  the  preparation 


Water-Melon  mid  the  Cucumber  in  Russia.  129 

and  salting  of  cucumbers.  Tliis  was  procured  for  me  by  the 
kindness  of  Mrs  Dr  Crichton,  from  one  of  the  most  experienced 
cucumber  salters  in  St  Petersburg ;  and  I  am  not  without 
hopes,  that  it  may  form  a  useful  and  salutary  addition  to  our 
British  cookery.  "  Take  1000  cucumbers,  weigh  out  7  lb.  Eng- 
lish of  salt,  which  has  been  previously  well  purified,  and  dried. 
Mix  the  salt  well  with  a  quantity  of  cold  soft  water,  sufficient  to  co- 
ver the  cucumbers,  500  of  which  may  be  put  into  one  small  h'ght 
made  cask.  Have  ready  plenty  of  the  following  leaves,  which 
have  been  gathered  when  the  weather  was  dry  ;  oak  leaves, 
black-currant  leaves,  cherry  leaves,  dill  leaves  and  heads  :  mix 
them  well  together,  and  place  a  layer  of  them  at  the  bottom  of 
the  cask ;  then  a  layer  of  cucumbers,  and  thus  alternately  until 
the  cask  be  completely  filled  :  then  pour  on  the  salt  and  water 
till  it  rise  to  the  brim,  and  close  the  cask  tightly.  Some  people 
add  a  small  bottle  of  vinegar,  and  a  very  small  bit  of  garlick  to 
each  cask."'  In  two  or  three  months  the  cucumbers  are  fit  for 
use.  They  are  brought  to  table  entire,  floating  among  the  juice 
and  leaves  which  cover  them  while  in  the  cask.  In  Russia,  they 
seldom  appear  at  table  until  the  month  of  November  or  De- 
cember, when  the  winter  has  completely  set  in,  as  they  must  re- 
main in  the  cask  for  two  or  three  months,  in  order  that  the  salt 
and  water  may  have  sufficient  time  to  act  upon  the  vegetable 
matter  of  the  cucumber,  and  of  the  various  species  of  leaves  em- 
ployed in  their  preparation.  However  some  prefer  them,  from 
the  time  they  are  first  subjected  to  the  salt,  until  it  has  complete- 
ly penetrated  them ;  when  they  are  said  to  be  half  salted,  and 
known  by  a  correspondent  appellation  in  the  Russian  language. 
A  Russian  will  often  eat  several  cucumbers  salted  in  the  above 
mentioned  manner  during  a  meal,  and  no  bad  effect  is  ever 
known  to  arise  from  their  use. 

,  Whether  the  cucumber  of  this  country  would  answer  for 
salting  in  the  above  mentioned  manner,  I  have  not  yet  put  to 
experiment.  The  objection,  as  appears  to  me,  would  be,  its 
containing  much  fibrous  matter,  and  too  little  pulp  and  juice. 
Although  they  possess  our  common  variety  of  cucumber  in 
great  abundance  in  Russia,  I  never  met  with  it  salted. 

While  visiting  the  hot-houses  of  the  Taurida  Palace  garden, 
St  Petersburg,  under  the  direction  of  Mr  Cole,  a  native  of  this 

APRIL JULY  1826.  I 


130  Dr  Knox  on  a  rudwientary  Spur  in  the 

country,  intelligent  and  experienced  in  the  art  of  Horticulture, 
I  saw  the  branches  of  a  number  of  cucumber  plants,  both 
of  the  Russian  kind,  and  of  that  common  to  Britain,  tied  up  to 
wooden  rafters  or  palings  in  the  manner  of  vines.  The  plants 
treated  in  this  way  appeared  to  be  remarkably  strong,  and  the 
fruit  was  very  large. 


Notice  respecting  the  Presence  of  a  Rudimentary  Spur  in  the 
Female  Echidna  of  New  Holland*  By  R.  Knox,  M.  D., 
F.  R.  S.  E.,  M.  W.  S.,  Conservator  of  the  Museum  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons.     Communicated  by  the  Author. 

-In  the  beginning  of  the  year  1823,  Professor  Jameson  put 
into  my  hands  a  specimen  of  the  duck-billed  animal  of  New 
Holland,  the  male  Ornithorynchus  paradoxus.  It  had  been  sent 
to  him  by  the  governor  of  Australasia,  the  Honourable  Sir 
Thomas  Brisbane ;  and,  aware  that  I  was  continually  engaged 
in  anatomical  inquiries,  he  requested  me  to  dissect  this  para- 
doxical animal,  and  to  lay  the  results  before  the  Wernerian 
Society.  At  that  time  the  only  accounts  in  existence  relative 
to  the  anatomy  of  the  spur,  a  remarkable  appendage  found  in 
the  male  of  the  Ornithorynchus  and  Echidna,  were,  1st,  An  ac- 
count of  the  spur,  drawn  up  by  a  distinguished  English  anato- 
mist, and  published  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  describe 
ing  the  organ  to  be  solid,  and  to  be  an  instrument  of  prehen- 
sion ;  ^d,  A  statement  made  by  Rudolphi,  in  a  German  jour- 
nal, affirming  the  spur  to  be  solid  ;  M,  A  notice  by  Sir  John 
Jamison,  in  the  Linnean  Transactions,  describing  the  poison- 
ous nature  of  wounds,  inflicted  by  this  spur  of  the  Ornithoryn- 
chus ;  lastly,  A  short  memoir  by  that  most  distinguished  anato- 
mist M.  De  Blainville,  demonstrating  the  tubular  structure  of 
the  spur,  and  tracing  its  anatomy  as  far  as  the  base,  or  insertion 
of  the  spur,  into  the  heel,  beyond  which  the  state  of  the  speci- 
men in  his  possession  did  not  permit  him  to  go. 

The  discovery  of  a  large  poison-gland,  situated  over  the  hip- 
joint,  which  discovery  I  had  the  honour  to  submit  to  the  Wer- 

•  Read  before  the  Wernerian  Natural  History  Society,  27th  May  1826. 


Female  Echidna  of  New  Holland,  131 

neriaii  Society  a  short  time  after  the  dissections  were  completed, 
rendered  it  extremely  probable,  that  the  functions  heretofore  as- 
signed to  the  spur  were  purely  hypothetical,  and  that  this  wa& 
really  a  very  formidable  instrument  of  offence  and  defence,  be- 
longing to  the  male  of  these  different  species  of  animals ;  but 
the  original  opinion  relative  to  the  functions  of  the  spur  was 
not  to  be  given  up  so  easily;  and  accordingly  we  find,  that  Sir 
Everard  Home,  the  original  promulgator  of  the  doctrine,  still 
defends  the  opinion  in  a  very  ingenious  manner.  He  observes, 
in  the  third  volume  of  his  Lectures  on  Comparative  Anatomy, 
that  contrivances  of  this  kind  are  not  uncommon :  his  words  are 
as  follows  : — ''  In  the  toad  and  frog,  the  fore-legs  of  the  male 
are  applied  round  the  belly  of  the  female  for  that  purpose.  In 
the  shark  there  are  regular  holders,  as  will  be  shewn.  In  the. 
earth-worm  it  is  effected  by  suction,  as  will  be  explained.  In 
the  Dytiscus  marginalis,  an  insect  that  copulates  under  water, 
there  is  an  apparatus  mentioned  in  the  seventh  lecture,  more 
nearly  allied  than  any  other  to  the  present  apparatus ;  on  the 
thigh  of  the  male,  there  are  suckers  which  attach  the  animal  to 
the  female.  Having  ascertained  that  a  secretion  is  emitted 
through  the  spur,  and  the  parts  being  so  minute  as  to  require  glas- 
ses of  considerable  power,  I  got  Mr  Bauer  to  examine  the  socket 
of  the  female ;  and,  after  overcoming  considerable  difficulties,  the 
parts  being  very  much  corrugated,  and  yet  retaining  their  elas- 
ticity, he  made  out  the  form  of  this  socket,  which  corresponds 
exactly  in  shape  with  the  spur  itself,  so  that,  when  completely 
introduced,  it  must  be  so  grasped,  that  the  male  would  not  be 
able  to  withdraw  it,  when  the  coitus  was  over ;  in  this  respect  re- 
sembling the  effect  of  suction.  The  male,  it  would  appear,  at 
least  this  is  the  best  conjecture  I  can  make  by  reasoning  from 
analogy,  there  being  no  facts  to  guide  us,  by  throwing  some  of 
the  secretion  of  the  gland  of  the  thigh  into  the  socket,  dilates  it, 
and  releases  the  spur.  The  liquor  injected  being  acrimonious, 
will  also  irritate  the  female,  and  make  her  use  efforts  to  escape. 
This  is  exactly  similar  to  what  is  performed  in  the  cupping- 
glass  apparatus  by  muscular  action,  to  let  in  the  air.'"' 

A  single  fact,  however,  respecting  the  anatomy  of  the  female 
echidna,  renders  this  very  ingenious  theory  almost  inadmis- 
sible :    for  the  opportunity  of  making  this  discovery,  we  are 


132     Mr  Don's  Observations  on  PMladelpheoe  and  Granafece, 

again  indebted  to  the  kindness  and  attention  of  Sir  Thomas 
Brisbane,  who  some  time  ago  transmitted  to  Professor  Jameson, 
for  the  Royal  Museum  of  the  University,  a  female  echidna, 
which  was  put  into  my  hands  for  examination.  On  the  heels  of 
the  female  echidna,  exactly  in  the  situation  of  the  spur  in  the 
male,  there  is  found  what  I  shall  venture  to  call  a  rudimentary 
spur,  similar  in  many  respects  to  that  of  the  male,  which  it  in 
some  measure  represents  in  miniature.  It  is  placed  in  the  bot- 
tom of  a  little  cavity,  not  quite  deep  enough  to  conceal  it  from 
view  :  its  base  may  be  about  half  the  size  of  the  male  spur,  but 
it  suddenly  tapers  to  a  point,  so  that  altogether  it  may  not  be 
much  larger  than  a  fourth,  or  probably  a  fifth  part  of  a  full 
grown  male  spur.  It  is  of  the  same  horny  texture,  and  seems 
altogether  quite  analogous  with  that  of  the  male. 

The  physiological  anatomist  can  have  no  difficulty  in  com- 
prehending that  this  organ  must  bear  to  the  male  spur  the 
same  relation  that  the  human  male  breast  does  to  the  female. 
In  the  one  case  we  have  an  organ  fully  developed,  and  capable 
of  performing  its  functions,  in  the  other  a  rudimentary  and  im- 
perfect organ.  The  rest  of  the  poison  apparatus  found  in  the 
male,  and  first  described  by  me  in  the  Wernerian  Transactions 
(vol.  V.  p.  1.)  seem  to  be  wanting  in  the  female. 


Observations  on  Philadelphea  and  Granatece,  two  new  Families 
of  Plants.  By  Mr  David  Don,  Libr.  L.  S.  Corresponding 
Member  of  the  Wernerian  Society,  &c.  (Communicated  by 
the  Author.) 

JLJLLTHOUGH  the  genera  which  I  now  propose  to  separate  as 
distinct  Natural  Families,  have  been  cultivated  in  our  gardens 
from  almost  time  immemorial,  yet  no  plants  have  been  less  un- 
derstood in  regard  to  their  botanical  characters,  or  to  the  station 
they  ought  to  occupy  in  the  Natural  System ;  affording  a 
striking  confirmation  of  the  justness  of  a  common  remark,  and 
which  applies  equally  well  in  botany,  that  what  we  have  daily 
before  our  eyes  we  most  frequently  overlook  as  unworthy  our 
regard.  The  genera  Philadelphus  and  Punica,  which  form  the 
subject  of  this  paper,  constitute  two  very  natural  groups.  They 


tzvo  new  Families  of  Plants.  133 

have  been  placed  by  the  illustrious  Jussieu  among  the  Myrta- 
cea,  and  I  am  not  aware  that  any  one  has  questioned  the  pro- 
priety of  this  classification.  That  they  can  neither  be  'grouped 
with  the  Myrtacea,  nor  with  any  other  family  hitherto  esta- 
blished, I  trust  I  shall  be  enabled  satisfactorily  to  shew  in  the 
sequel.  It  may  be  proper  here  to  observe,  that  the  whole  of  the 
Myrtacea,  require  a  thorough  revision,  as  at  present  they  com- 
prise plants  which  have  but  little  general  affinity.  The  true 
Myrtace/R  are  distinguished  by  their  perfectly  entire  leaves,  fur- 
nished with  numerous  pellucid  dots,  which,  when  bruised,  emit  a 
camphoriferous  or  spicy  scent,  and  by  the  seeds  being  destitute 
of  albumen,  although  Gsertner  has  attributed  a  fleshy  albumen 
to  the  seeds  of  BtEchia.  This  I  found,  however,  to  be  quite  er- 
roneous, Gaertner  having  evidently  mistaken  the  embryo  for  the 
albumen  ;  for  in  the  seeds  of  several  species  of  BacMa.,  which  I 
carefully  examined,  I  was  unable  to  trace  the  least  vestige  of 
this  substance.  Whether  it  is  present  in  the  seeds  of  Imbrica- 
ria  (the  Jungia  of  Gaertner),  I  have  not  had  an  opportunity  of 
determining ;  but,  if  it  is  really  present,  as  Gaertner  affirms,  it 
would  alone  be  sufficient  to  remove  the  genus  from  the  Myrta- 
cece,  as  in  those  families  in  all  of  whose  genera  its  presence  is 
not  uniformly  constant_,  traces  of  it  may  still  in  general  be  de- 
tected in  all  of  them,  on  a  careful  examination.  Before  I  pro- 
ceed farther,  I  shall  add  a  description  of  the  Philadelphece. 

PHILADELPHEiE. 

Genus  Myrtaceaeum,  Juss. 

Calyx  turbinatus,  limbo  4-fido  (raro  S-fido)^  persisteus.  Pelala 
4  (raro  5),  calycinis  laciniis  alterna,  in  sestivatione  convoluto-im- 
bricata.  Stainina  20-40,  duplici  serie  disposita,  fauci  calycinae  in- 
serta.  Styli  4,  raro  5,  inferne  ssepius  coaliti.  Stigmata  longa, 
divaricata,  obtusa,  latere  iiiteriore  puberula,  nunc  spiraliter  torta. 
Capsula  semi-infera,  sublignosa,  4-  (raro  5-)  locularis,  polysper- 
ma,  apice  quadrifariam  loculicido-dehiscens.  Semina  scobiformia, 
subulata,  laevia,  angulis  placentae  tetragonae  cumulatipa  adnata, 
arillo  laxo  membranaceo,  ad  umbilicum  foramine  fimbria  lacerata 
aperto,  nucleo  seminis  triple  longiore  instructa :  testa  tenuissima, 
membranacea,  nucleum  arete  vestiens  :  albumen  ovoideum,  carno- 
sum,  album.  Embryo  inversus,  lacteus,  fere  albuminis  longitudi- 
ne  :  cotyledon es  ovales,  obtusae,  planiusculse  :  radicula  teretiuscula, 
cotyledonibus  plurimum  longior,  supera,  recta,  obtusa. 

Frutiees  (Europa?,  Asise,  et  Ameriese,  temporatis  communes)  erectt, 
decidui.  Folia  opposifa,  nervosa,  dentata,  itnpiuictata,  Flores  op- 
posite  axillareSj,  terminalcs,  subracemosi,  albi. 


134     Mr  Don's  Observation^  on  PMladelpheoe  and  Granatew, 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  above  description,  in  how  few  charac- 
ters this  family  agrees  with  Myrtacece^  which  differ  not  only  in 
their  simple  style,  in  the  absence  of  albumen,  and  in  having  the 
leaves  perfectly  entire,  evergreen,  with  pellucid  dots,  but  in 
their  seeds  being  destitute  of  an  arillus,  in  the  structure  and  po- 
sition of  their  embrya  In  the  mean  time,  I  am  disposed  to 
place"  this  family  near  to  Saocifragece^  as  they  agree  in  the  aesti- 
vation of  the  corolla,  in  the  petals  alternating  with  the  lacinia? 
of  the  calyx,  in  the  half-inferior  ovarium,  in  the  plurality  of 
styles,  in  the  presence  of  albumen,  and  in  the  structure  of  their 
anthers ;  and  they  correspond  well  with  Hydrangea  in  habit,  in 
their  opposite,  toothed  leaves,  and  in  the  structure  of  their  bud& 
and  young  shoots. 

I  shall  now  proceed  to  give  the  characters  of  the  second  fa- 
mily, which  I  have  denominated  Granatece,  and  conclude  with 
remarks  on  it. 

GRANATEiE. 

Genus  Myrt  ace  arum,  Juss. 

Calyx  tubulosus,  crassus  :  liynbo  erecto,  5-10-lobo,  persistente.  Pe- 
iala  5,  rarius  plura,  lobis  calycinis  alterna^  obovato-rotundata,  ca- 
duca.  Stamina  indefinite  numerosa,  fauci  incrassatae  calycis  in- 
serta.  Antkerce  fere  orbiculatae,  peltatae,  biloculares,  duplici  ri- 
ma  longitudinaliter  dehiscentes.  Ovarium  tubo  calycis  accretum, 
apice  liberum,  multiloculare.  Stylus  breviS;,  crassus,  teres.  Stig- 
ma indivisum,  capitatum.  Bacca  pomiformis,  limbo  tubuloso  den- 
tate calycino,  nunc  contractor  coronata  :  cortex  crassissimus,  extus 
cuticula  laevi  rubicunda  punctata  lucida  vestitus,  intus  spongio- 
so-carnosus,  albus,  dein,  matura  baeea,  fissura  irregulariter  rum- 
'  pens.  Placenta  cortici  baccse  substantia  simiUima,  at  magis  car- 
nosa  et  succulenta,  baccam  omnino  replens,  in  loculis  numerosis 
polyspermis  insequalibus  reticulatim  atque  interrupte  excavata. 
Dissepimenta  vera  nulla :  spuria  tamen  adsunt^,  quae  e  substantia 
placentae  orta,  valde  sunt  fragilia,  et  crassitie  varia.  Semina  cre- 
bra,  excavationibus  placenta?  passim  inserta,  obovato-cuneato,  an- 
gulata,  baccata!  testa  membranacea,  pellucida,  pulpam  aquosam 
involvens  :  putamen  osseum,  angulatum :  albumen  nullum.  J5^m- 
6ryo  cavitati  putaminis  conformis,  rectus,  lacteus:  cotyledon  cs  io' 
liaceee,  carnosse,  orbiculato-cordatae,  spiraliter  convolutae :  radicula 
teres,  recta  crassiuscula,  infera,  basi  obtusa,  cotyledonibus  duplo 
brevior,  vaga. 

Frutices  (Africae  borealis)  decidui,  erecti,  ramosissimiy  ifiermes  v.  spi- 
nosi.  Folia  exstipulata,  petiolata,  integerrima,  impunctata,  inodo- 
ra,  opposita  v.  rarius  terna  aut  sparsa.  Flores  magni,  laterales, 
s(ditariij  sessiles,  punicei,  pulcherrimi.     Bacca  magna,  ampuUaceo- 


two  new  Families  of'  Plants.  1B5 

sphmrtca,  exlus  sa7igui?ieo-rubra,  nitida,    Semina  pulpd  sanguined, 
grati  acidi  eduli. 

The  real  structure  of  the  fruit  of  the  pomegranate  appears  to 
have  been  overlooked  by  all  authors  *  I  have  consulted  on  the 
subject,  and  even  the  distinguished  Gaertner  has  fallen  into  er- 
ror both  in  bis  description  and  figure.  It  is  in  reality  a  fleshy 
receptacle,  formed  by  the  tube  of  the  calyx  into  a  unilocular 
berry,  filled  with  a  spongy  placenta,  which  is  hollowed  out  into  a 
number  of  irregular  cells,  in  which  the  seeds  are  placed ;  the 
dissepiments  being  nothing  more  than  thin  portions  of  the  pla^ 
centa.  If  we  could  conceive  the  fruit  of  Rosa  to  be  filled  up 
with  an  interrupted  pulpy  matter,  it  would  be  exactly  of  the 
same  structure  as  the  pomegranate.  The  affinities  of  Granatem 
are  yet  to  be  ascertained.  In  the  structure  of  the  embryo,  it 
agrees  well  with  the  true  Malva^cecE,  and  with  PomacecB  in  its 
flowers  ;  but  the  total  absence  of  stipules,  together  with  the  pre- 
sence of  some  important  characters,  lead  me  to  suspect  that  the 
comparison  is  merely  analogical,  and  that  it  has  no  real  affinity 
with  either  of  these  families. 


Account  of  a  rare  Fish  (Scicena  AquilaJJbund  in  the  Shetland 
Seasf.  By  P.  Neill,  Esq.  F.  R.  S.  E.,  F.  L.  S.,  &  Sec.  W.  S., 
(Communicated  by  the  Author.) 

I^O  long  ago  as  the  autumn  of  the  year  1820,  I  received  from 
my  friend  Mr  Robert  Strong  of  Leith,  a  specimen  of  a  large  and 
very  uncommon  fish,  belonging  to  the  Spinous  class,  and  of  the 
order  Thoracici,  which  had  been  sent  to  him  from  Shetland, 
along  with  a  cargo  of  the  dried  fish  of  that  country.  The  spe- 
cimen had  been  split  and  cured  much  in  the  way  practised  by 
the  Shetland  fishers  on  the  cod,  ling  and  tusk,  which  they  send 
to  market.  The  head,  however,  remained  attached  to  the  body, 
and  was  pretty  entire.     All  the  fins  likewise  remained,  but  were 

*  I  must  except,  however,  the  learned  Dr  F.  Nees  von  Esenbeck,  whose 
views  respecting  the  structure  of  the  fruit  of  Punica  appear  to  coincide  en- 
tirely with  mine. — Vide  Nova  Acta  Acad.  Ccbs.  Nat.  Cur.  torn.  11.  p.  110,  et  seq. 

t  Read  before  the  Wernerian  Natural  History  Society,  g7th  May  1&26. 


136  Mr  NeilVs  Account  lyfa  rare  Fish 

more  or  less  mutilated.  Although  the  muscular  parts  had  been 
thoroughly  salted,  and  were  in  general  well  preserved,  yet  the 
heat  of  the  summer  had  rendered  the  fatter  portions  soft,  and 
somewhat  rancid ;  and  a  good  deal  of  oil  exuded  from  these 
parts.  The  flesh,  where  free  of  the  oil,  tasted  not  unlike  ling ; 
where  tainted  with  the  oil,  it  had  the  flavour  of  herring.  Many 
large  scales  had  already  dropt,  as  evinced  by  the  scars  left  ;r  and 
in  attempting  to  dry  the  skin^  the  greater  part  of  the  remainder 
of  the  body-scales  fell  away,  those  upon  the  head  and  opercula 
only  continuing  firmly  attached.  An  attempt  to  make  a  pre- 
paration of  the  fish  not  having  succeeded,  and  it  having  been 
seen  by  Professor  Jameson,  Dr  Fleming,  and  other  naturalists, 

1  did  not  think  of  troubling  the  Society  with  any  account  of  it. 
As,  however,  it  is  an  animal  not  well  understood,  and  has  not 
yet  been  admitted  into  the  British  Fauna,  it  has  been  suggested 
to  me  that  some  notice  of  it  should  be  put  upon  record. 

I  shall  therefore,  first,  state  the  general  characters  and  dimen- 
sions, from  notes  taken  in  August  1820,  when  the  specimen 
came  into  my  hands ;  then  give  some  particulars  regarding  the 
capture  of  the  fish,  and  its  appearance  when  fresh,  from  infor- 
mation derived  from  Shetland ;  and,  lastly,  I  shall  briefly  ad- 
vert to  the  principal  ichthyological  writers  who  have  described 
and  classified  the  animal 

1 .  The  total  length  of  the  fish,  in  a  straight  Hne,  from  the 
tip  of  the  snout  to  the  extremity  of  the  tail,  was  5  feet  4  inches. 
The  depth  of  the  body,  in  a  straight  line  taken  opposite  to  the 
centre  of  the  first  dorsal  fin  (the  fin  being  included,  but  not  in 
its  expanded  state),  was  1  foot  and  |  inch.  The  depth,  in  a 
straight  hne  taken  in  front  of  the  anal  fin,  was  9|  inches ;  and 
the  depth  at  the  lower  end  of  the  second  dorsal  fin  was  4|  inches. 

The  head  was  large  in  proportion  to  the  body.  The  length, 
in  a  straight  Hne,  from  the  tip  of  the  snout  to  the  posterior  ex- 
tremity of  the  operculum  or  gill-cover,  was  1  foot  4  inches  near- 
ly ;  the  depth,  in  a  straight  line,  taken  at  the  centre  of  the  oper- 
cula, was  10  inches.  The  circumference  at  the  centre  of  the 
opercula,  the  sides  of  the  head  being  laid  loosely  together,  was 

2  feet  4  inches. 

When  the  dried  sides  of  the  body  were  laid  loosely  together, 
the  circurnference,  at  the  centre  of  the  first  dorsal  fin,  was  about 


found  in  the  Shetland  Seas,  1371. 

3  feet ;  but  had  the  animal  been  entire,  this  measurement  must 
necessarily  have  been  several  inches  more.  The  circumference 
at  the  base  of  the  second  dorsal  fin  was  about  1  foot.  At  the 
lower  end  of  this  second  dorsal  fin,  the  back  was  flattened  on  the 
upper  surface ;  and  the  breadth  of  this  flattened  part  was  nearly 
2  inches. 

The  dimensions  as  to  length  and  circumference  now  given, 
will  convey  some  general  idea  of  the  tapering  of  the  body. 

There  was  a  distinct  lateral  line,  situate  somewhat  nearer  the 
ridge  of  the  back  than  of  the  belly.  This  line  commenced  two 
or  three  inches  back  from  the  gill-cover,  and  extended,  nearly 
in  a  straight  line,  to  the  middle  of  the  tail,  where  it  terminated, 
in  forming  a  strong  central  scaly  ray  in  that  organ. 

The  eye  remained  in  the  socket,  but  was  completely  dried  up 
and  shrunk.  It  evidently  must  have  been,  proportionally,  of 
large  size.  The  orbit  was  oval,  with  the  longest  diameter  point- 
ing upwards:  in  this  direction  its  length  was  If  inch;  its 
breadth  being  1 1  inch.  There  was  a  crescent-shaped  opening 
in  front  of  the  orbit,  capable  of  admitting  a  small  pea ;  and  still 
in  front  of  this  opening  was  a  small  round  pore,  having  a  slight- 
ly elevated  ring  around  its  edge,  of  a  yellowish-brown  colour. 

The  jaws  could  not  be  laid  together,  owing  to  the  rigidity 
they  had  acquired  in  drying ;  but  they  were  evidently  nearly 
equal ;  and  each  was  furnished  with  a  row  of  small  slightly  hook- 
ed teeth,  and  an  indistinct  interior  row  of  still  smaller  straight 
teeth. 

The  scales  on  the  upper  part  of  the  back  and  sides  were 
large  ;  some  of  those  which  first  fell  off*  being  about  3  inches  in 
circumference.  These  large  scales  were  of  an  irregular  trape- 
zoidal form,  and  so  deeply  imbricated  tjhat  only  about  a  third 
part  of  each  scale  was  exposed  while  it  remained  in  situ ;  the 
covered  part  was  divided  into  three  compartments,  having  radii 
or  slight  grooves  diverging  in  three  directions.  These  large  scales 
had  a  thin  pellucid  membranous  covering,  like  an  epidermis ; 
and  when  they  had  been  immersed  for  a  short  time  in  water  they 
became  somewhat  opalescent.  The  scales  on  the  opercula,  and 
all  about  the  head,  were  in  general  much  smaller,  varying  from 
an  inch  to  half  an  inch  in  circumference,  or  even  less.  They 
likewise  were  of  trapezoidal  forms,  but  often  approaching  to 
squares :  these  small  scales  were  grouped  very  closely  together^ 


138  Mr  NeilFs  Account  of  a  Rare  Fish 

and  so  firmly  fixed  that  it  required  some  force  to  detach  them. 
All  the  scales  were  set  on  obliquely  to  the  axis  of  the  body  of 
the  fish ;  but  this  obliquity  was  particularly  remarkable  in  the 
large  body-scales. 

The  body,  while  still  covered  with  the  scales,  was  in  general 
of  a  lead  colour,  somewhat  darker  above  the  lateral  line ;  the 
head,  however,  was  of  a  fine  silvery  hue. 

Fins. — The  first  dorsal  fin  was  situate  in  a  distinct  sulcus  or 
groove,  within  which  the  animal  had  evidently  possessed  the 
power  of  retracting  this  fin  at  pleasure.  The  length  of  this  fin 
was  about  10  inches ;  but  as  it  had  dried  in  its  retracted  state, 
it  was  impossible  to  count  the  rays. — The  second  or  longest  dor- 
sal fin  arose  immediately  behind  the  first,  and  was  also  placed 
in  a  kind  of  groove ;  but  this  groove  was  shallow,  and  its  mar- 
gins were  less  distinct,  being  compressed  and  covered  with  small 
scales.  The  length  of  this  fin  was  1  foot  10^  inches ;  and  26 
rays  could  be  numbered. — The  pectoral  fins  were  each  9  inches 
in  length,  with  14  or  15  rays.  The  ventral  fin  was  7  inches, 
with  6  rays ;  and  the  anal  fin  also  7  inches,  with  9  rays. — The 
caudal  fin  consisted  of  16  branched  rays,  with  the  central  scaly 
ray,  already  mentioned  as  the  termination  of  the  lateral  line. 
The  breadth  of  this  organ,  at  the  broadest  part,  and  when  not 
stretched,  was  9  inches.  In  form  it  was  nearly  rectangular,  or 
only  very  slightly  rounded  at  the  extremity,  and  on  the  upper 
and  under  edges. 

2.  Having  communicated  to  Mr  Strong  some  queries  relative 
to  the  capture  of  the  fish, — the  appearance  of  the  scales  and  fins 
when  it  was  alive  or  newly  dead, — the  contents  of  the  stomach, 
— the  structure  of  the  sound  or  swimming-bladder,  &c. — he 
obligingly  transmitted  them  to  Mr  Laurence  Sinclair,  his  cor- 
respondent in  the  islands ;  and  the  following  particulars  I  ex- 
tract from  a  letter  from  that  gentleman,  dated  North  Roe,  2d 
April  1821 : — "  Answers  to  Mr  NeilFs  inquiries  respecting"  the 
Zetland  fish. — The  fish  was  caught  off  Uyea,  on  the  north-west 
coast  of  Northmavine,  in  November  1819-  It  was  first  seen 
from  the  land  at  Uyea,  in  contention  with  a  seal,  or  rather  en- 
deavouring to  escape.  Some  men  went  off  in  a  boat,  and  took  it 
without  any  difficulty,  as  it  was  then  so  exhausted  as  scarcely 


found  in  the  Shetland  Seas.  130 

to  be  able  to  swim.  No  hurt  appeared  on  it,  except  the  mark 
of  a  bite  over  the  gip  (gape).  It  recovered  a  Uttle  in  the  boat, 
and  was  brought  on  shore  aHve.  It  made  a  buzzing  sort  of 
noise  in  the  boat.  It  had  a  long  struggle  with  the  seal,  as  the 
men  who  took  it  first  saw  it  from  a  hill  at  a  distance,  and  a  good 
deal  of  time  elapsed  before  they  reached  the  shore,  put  off  their 
boat,  and  arrived  at  the  spot  where  it  was.''  Its  fins  were  of  a 
beautiful  dark  red  colour,  and  inflated  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  fishermen  remark  the  fins  of  the  ling  to  be,  when  they  are 
emigrating.  The  skin  was  coloured  like  mother-of-pearl,  with 
very  large  scales  on  it.  Its  flesh  had  a  whitish  painted  appear- 
ance, and  was  very  soft.  There  was  very  little  in  the  stomach, 
and  the  contents  did  not  exhibit  any  strange  particular.  No  per- 
son here  remembers  to  have  seen  any  fish  of  the  kind.  When 
it  was  brought  to  me,  I  had  it  put  in  salt  pickle ;  in  which  it  re- 
mained till  summer,  and  consequently  its  beautiful  appearance 
was  by  that  time  much  impaired."  No  particular  attention  had 
been  paid  to  the  swimming-bladder ;  and,  of  course,  no  remark- 
able structure  was  observed  in  that  organ. 

3.  The  description  above  given  of  the  dried  fish,  and  the  par- 
ticulars now  detailed  regarding  its  appearance  when  fresh,  leave 
not  a  doubt  that  oiir  fish  is  the  species  of  Scicena  called  by  the 
French  Maigre,  or  Aigle-de-mer,  and  excellently  described  by 
Baron  Cuvier  in  the  first  volume  of  the  new  series  of  the  "  Me- 
moires  du  Museum  d'Histoire  Naturelle,"  1815.  So  far  as  the 
descriptions  are  parallel,  or  can  be  compared,  they  completely 
agree  *. 

In  the  dried  fish,  indeed,  the  fins  were  destitute  of  colour,  ex- 
cept that  a  tinge  of  red  was  perceptible  at  the  base  of  the  rays 
of  the  first  dorsal,  when  moistened  and  raised  out  of  the  sulcus. 
This  loss  of  colour  was  not  to  be  wondered  at,  considering  that 
the  bright  colours  of  fishes  are  generally  fugacious,  and  that  this 
individual  had  been  first  pickled  and  then  dried.     Cuvier  men- 

•  An_accurate  drawing  was  made  by  Mr  P.  Sjme,  painter  to  the  Wernerian 
Society  ;  but  as  figures  of  the  fish  have  long  ago  been  published,  and  a  correct 
outline  has  been  given  by  Baron  Cuvier  in  the  work  above  mentioned,  it 
seems  unnecessary  to  engrave  it. 


140  Mr  NeilFs  Account  of  a  Rare  Finh 

tions  that  the  first  dorsal,  the  pectorals,  and  the  ventral  are  red; 
the  others  reddish-brown:  And  Mr  Sinclair  notices,  that,  in  the 
fresh  fish,  the  "  fins  were  of  a  beautiful  dark  red  colour."     It  is 
also  remarkable  that  Mr  Sinclair  reports,  that  the  fish  ^*  made 
a  buzzing  sort  of  noise  in  the  boat ;"  and  that  Cuvier  mentions 
the  "  mugissement ""  of  the  maigre  as  being  louder  than  that  of 
the  gurnard,  and  adds,  that  some  of  the  French  fishermen  (hke 
the  Shetlanders)  described  it  as  a  "  bourdonnement  sourd."       ^ 
Much  confusion  has  prevailed  among  ichthyological  writers 
regarding  this  species  of  Sciaena.     Baron  Cuvier  remarks,  that  it 
was  well  known  to  the  older  naturalists,  and  was  described  and 
figured  by  several  of  them.     Belon,  Rondelet,  and  Salvien,  all 
take  notice  of  it.     Willughby,  so  clear  and  accurate  whenever 
he  describes  from  actual  observation,  had  not  met  with  any  spe- 
cimen ;  and  both  he  and  Ray,  therefore,  speak  of  the  Sciaena  in 
a  confused  way.    The  work  of  Willughby,  it  is  farther  remark- 
ed by  Cuvier,  served  as  the  foundation  for  that  of  Artedi ;  who, 
in  his  turn,  was  copied  by  Linnaeus.     In  his  Systema,  Linnaeus 
confounded,  under  the  title  of  Sciana  umbra^  two  species ; — the 
corb  of  Rondelet,  or  Sciaena  nigra  of  Bloch, — and  the  maigre  or 
algle-de-mer  of  the  French,  which  is  our  fish.     His  Sciaena  um- 
bra has  black  fins  instead  of  red,  (being  those  of  the  corb  or 
Sciaena  nigra)  ;  while  the  rest  of  his  description  is  applicable  to 
our  fish.     In  this  way  a  good  species  came  to  be  discarded,  for 
a  long  time,  from  the  systems  of  ichthyology.     The  maigre,  it 
seems,  was  formerly  a  well  known  and  much  esteemed  fish  in  the 
French  market,  but  had  disappeared  for  a  long  course  of  years. 
In  the  year  1813,  however,  the  fishermen  of  Dieppe  took  several 
specimens  of  the  maigre,  and  gave  it,  from  tradition,  the  name 
of  aigle.      The  late  M.  Noel  de  la  Moriniere  (distinguished  for 
his  accurate  researches  regarding  the  French  fisheries)  transmit- 
ted a  description  to  the  Count  de  La  Cepede,  who,  in  the  Sup- 
plement to  his  great  work  on  Fishes,  noticed  the  species  vmder 
the  title  of  Cheilodiptere  aigle  ; — not  a  fortunate  one,  as  the 
mouth  does  not  in  reality  exhibit  the  essential  character  of  his 
genus  Cheilodipterus. 

From  Dr  Cloquefs  notice  in  the  "  Dictionnaire  des  Sciences 
naturelles,"*^  art.  Cheilodiptere,  it  would  appear,  that  Baron 
Cuvier  at  first  adopted  the  name  of  Sciaena  Aquila  for  this  spe- 
cies.    In  his  paper  in  the  "  Memoires  du  Museum,*"  he  adopts 


found  in  the  Shetland  Seas.  141 

the  trivial  name  Umbra  :  but  the  former  seems  decidedly  prefer- 
able ;  for  the  latter  would  certainly  tend  to  perpetuate  the  con- 
fusion introduced  by  the  mistake  of  Linnaeus. 

It  may  be  added,  that  M.  Risso,  in  his  Ichthyology,  gives  a 
figure  and  description  of  our  fish,  as  a  new  species  of  Perca  (a 
genus  to  which  it  is  nearly  allied),  calling  it  P.  Vanloo,  after  a 
painter  at  Nice. 

On  the  Transparence/  of  Space.     By  Dr  Olbers  of  Bremen.  * 

VTreatness  and  smallness  in  space  are  relative  ideas :  we  can 
imagine  beings  to  whom  a  grain  of  sand  would  be  as  large  as  the 
whole  terrestrial  globe  is  to  us,  just  as  we  can  represent  to  our- 
selves an  order  of  things,  in  which  bodies,  surpassing  in  magni- 
tude the  planets  and  the  sun,  would  be  what  the  grain  of  sand 
is  to  us.     From  this  very  circumstance,  it  is  natural  to  man  to 
judge  of  greatness  or  smallnesfe  by  means  of  a  scale,  the  imme- 
diate or  mediate  basis  of  which  is  found  in  the  dimensions  of  his 
own  body,  or  of  the  bodies  which  surround  him,  and  which  he 
compares  with  his  own.     It  is  only  by  the  aid  of  such  a  proce- 
dure, that  man  can  estimate  magnitudes,  and  it  is  thus  easily 
understood  why  he  must  consider  with  astonishment  the  im- 
mense proportions  of  those  regions  of  the  universe  which  gra- 
dually unveil  themselves  to  his  eye,  armed  with  the  instruments 
of  art.     The  distance  of  the  sun  from  the  earth  is  so  great,  that, 
to  render  it  capable  of  being  conceived,  it  has  been  attempted  to 
calculate  the  time  that  a  cannon  ball  would  take  in  traversing 
this  vast  space.     But  every  fixed  star  is  a  sun,  and  the  nearest 
of  these  stars  is  at  so  great  a  distance  from  us,  that  the  distance 
of  our  globe  from  the  sun  dwindles  almost  into  nothing  beside 
it.     An  innumerable  multitude  of  similar  stars,  of  very  different 
sizes,  shew  themselves  to  our  unarmed  view,  from  the  brilliant 
Sirius,  to  the  stars  of  sixth  or  seventh  magnitude ;  the  presence 
of  which  is  scai'cely  detected  by  the  most  penetrating  eye  in  the 
clearest  night.     Without  doubt,  a  great  number  of  these  small 
stars  appear  to  us  inferior  to  the  others  in  size,  because  in  fact  they 
are  so;  but  the  greater  part  look  so  small,  only  on  account  of  their 

•  Bibliotheque  Universelle,  February  1826. 


142  Dr  Olbers  ori  the  Transparency  of  Space. 

great  distance ;  and  thus  we  perceive,  with  the  naked  eye,  stars 
which  are  probably  twelve  or  fifteen  times  more  remote  than 
those  of  the  first  magnitude.  The  more  perfect  our  instruments 
are,  the  more  stars  do  we  count  in  the  heavens,  and  the  more  do 
we  discover  of  small  ones,  so  that,  although  it  may  be  difficult 
to  imagine,  our  reason  must  conceive  distances  and  spaces  so 
vast,  that  Herschel,  armed  with  his  gigantic  telescopes,  might 
place  in  them  bodies  1 500  or  several  thousands  of  times  more 
distant  from  us  than  Sirius  or  Arcturus. 

But  has  the  keen  search  of  Herschel  penetrated  to  the  limits 
of  the  universe  ?  or.  Has  he  only  sensibly  approached  them  ?  Who 
could  think  it  ?  Is  not  space  infinite?  Can  boundaries  be  as- 
signed to  it  ?  Can  it  be  supposed  that  creating  Omnipotence 
has  left  void  those  interminable  regions  ?  Let  us  hear  what  the 
celebrated  Kant  says  on  this  subject ;  "  Where  will  creation 
cease  ?"  says  he ;  "  We  immediately  see  that,  to  remain  in  rela- 
tion with  the  power  of  the  infinite  Being,  it  ought  to  have  no 
limit.  We  do  not  approach  nearer  the  infinity  of  the  creative 
power  of  God,  when  we  extend  the  space  in  which  it  is  mani- 
fested into  a  sphere  engendered  by  the  radius  of  the  Milky  Way, 
than  when  we  confine  it  to  a  globe  an  inch  in  diameter.  What- 
ever is  finite,  whatever  has  limits,  and  a  determinate  relation  to 
an  unity,  is  equally  distant  from  infinity.  It  would,  therefore, 
be  equally  absurd  to  restrict  the  divinity  to  an  infinitely  small 
part  of  his  creative  energy,  as  to  suppose  that  this  measureless 
power  could  remain  eternally  in  a  state  of  inaction.  Is  it  not 
more  rational,  or,  to  speak  more  correctly,  is  it  not  necessary,  to 
look  upon  creation  as  a  representation  of  that  power  which  can- 
not be  estimated  by  any  scale  ?  According  to  this  view,  the  field 
of  the  manifestation  of  the  divine  perfections  is  as  infinite  as 
these  perfections  themselves.  Eternity  does  not  suffice  to  ren- 
der testimony  of  the  supreme  being,  if  it  is  not  connected  with 
the  infinity  of  space.'^ 

So  reasoned  Kant.  It  is  therefore  probable,  that  not  only 
the  portion  of  space  which  our  eye  has  penetrated  with  the  aid 
of  instruments,  or  may  yet  penetrate,  but  infinite  space  itself,  is 
sprinkled  over  with  suns,  each  accompanied  with  its  train  of  pla- 
nets and  comets.     I  say,  that  this  is  very  probable,  for  our  li- 


Dr  Olbers  on  the  Transparency  of  Space.  143 

mited  reason  is  unable  to  procure  for  us  any  certainty  on  the 
subject.  Other  regions  of  space  may  contain  other  creations 
than  suns,  planets,  comets  and  light ;  creations  of  which  we  can 
have  no  idea.  Halley  has  laboured  to  produce  a  proof  of  the 
innumerable  multitude  of  suns.  "  If  their  number  were  not  in- 
finite,"" says  he,  "  there  would  be  found  in  the  space  which  they 
occupy,  a  point  which  would  be  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  ge- 
neral system,  and  towards  which  all  the  bodies  of  the  universe 
would  necessarily  be  precipitated,  with  a  continually  increasing 
motion.  It  is  only  because  the  universe  is  infinite,  that  every 
thing  remains  in  equilibrium."  Halley  seems  to  have  only  had 
gravitation  in  view  here,  and  he  says  nothing  of  the  power  of 
projection.  However,  the  very  motion  which  appears  to  be  pro- 
per to  these  stars,  would  tend  to  demonstrate  that  they  are  ani- 
mated with  a  power  of  projection.  This  itself  would  suffice  to 
shew  the  insufficiency  of  the  reasoning  employed  by  Halley, 
against  whom  there  are  besides  many  other  charges. 

However,  it  remains  not  the  less  probable,  that  the  beauti- 
ful order  which  we  observe  extending  as  far  as  our  faculty  of 
sight  can  penetrate,  reigns  equally  through  all  space ;  and  we 
have  only  to  search  if  there  exist  other  reasons  in  nature  to 
induce  us  to  abandon  this  opinion.  Here  a  very  important  ob- 
jection presents  itself.  If  there  really  be  suns  in  the  whole  of 
space,  and  to  infinity,  and  if  they  are  placed  at  equal  distances 
from  each  other,  or  grouped  into  systems  like  that  of  the  Milky 
Way,  their  number  must  be  infinite,  and  the  whole  vault  of  hea- 
ven should  appear  as  bright  as  the  sun  ;  for  every  line  which 
may  be  supposed  to  emanate  from  our  eye  towards  the  sky, 
would  necessarily  meet  a  fixed  star,  and  thus  every  point  of  the 
sky  would  bring  to  us  a  ray  of  sideral,  or  which  is  the  same 
thing,  of  solar  light. 

There  is  no  need  of  saying  that  observation  contradicts  such 
a  deduction.  Halley  denies  this  consequence  of  the  infinite 
number  of  fixed  stars,  but  for  reasons  which  are  altogether  er- 
roneous. He  evidently  confounds  the  apparent  magnitudes 
with  the  real  magnitudes ;  and  it  is  only  thus  that  he  can  ad- 
vance that  the  number  of  the  fixed  stars  increases,  it  is  true,  as 
the  square  of  their  distances,  but  that  the  intervals  which  sepa- 
rate them  increase  as  the  double  of  this  square.     This  is  an 


1'44-  Dr  Olbers  on  the  Transparence^  of  Space. 

error.  Supposing  the  stars  uniformly  diffused  over, the  sky;  if 
we  represent  by  unity  the  radius  of  the  sphere  formed  by  the 
mean  distance  of  the  stars  of  the  first  magnitude  from  our  sun 
by  ^,  the  mean  diameter  of  these  stars,  and  by  n^  their  number 
at  this  distance ;  the  portion  of  the  celestial  vault  which  they 

will  occupy  to  our  eyes,  will  be  equal  to  — —.  At  a  distance 
from  the  sun  equal  to  2,  the  apparent  diameter  of  the  stars  will 
be  -K ;  but  their  number  will  be  4  /i :  they  will  thus  also  oc- 
cupy a  space  — j — upon  the  sphere.  Thus  at  distances  1,  2,  3, 4, 
5,  ...  7W,  the  stars  will  always  cover  the  same  portion  of  theceles- 

7?.^r  71X^2  ^^^2 

tial  vault;  the  space  — r f-  — j— =  m      ^    ■   will   become  m- 

finitely  great,  when  m  will  become  so  itself,  since  -x-  ,  how- 
ever small  this  quantity  may  be,  remains  always  an  infinite  mag- 
nitude. Consequently,  not  only  will  the  whole  celestial  vault 
be  covered  with  stars,  but  they  will,  moreover,  be  placed  one  be- 
hind another,  in  infinite  series,  mutually  covering  each  other. 
It  is  evident  that  the  same  conclusions  will  be  obtained,  on  sup- 
posing the  stars  not  only  uniformly  diffused  in  space,  but  dis- 
tributed in  systems,  separated  from  each  other  by  great  inter- 
vals. 

Fortunately  for  us,  nature  has  disposed  things  otherwise  ; 
fortunately  each  point  of  the  celestial  vault  does  not  send  to  the 
earth  a  light  Hke  that  of  the  sun.  I  say  nothing  of  the  bright- 
ness and  heat  that  would  result  from  such  an  arrangement ;  for 
then,  whatever  would  have  been  that  brightness  and  that  heat, 
the  Omnipotent  would  have  put  our  globe  and  its  whole  organ- 
ism in  a  condition  to  resist  them.  I  would  only  speak  of  the 
state  of  imperfection  in  which  our  astronomical  knowledge  must 
then  have  remained.  We  would  know  nothing  of  the  fixed 
stars  ;  we  should  scarcely  be  able  to  discover  our  own  sun,  by 
means  of  its  spots ;  the  moon  and  planets  would  only  be  distin- 
guished as  more  or  less  obscure  disks,  detached  from  a  shining 
ground  of  a  solar  brightness. 


Dr  Olbers  on  the  Transparency  of  Space.  14«5 

But  because  the  celestial  vault  has  not,  in  all  its  points,  the 
lustre  of  the  sun,  must  we  reject  the  infinity  of  the  stellar  sys- 
tem ?  Must  we  restrict  this  system  to  a  confined  portion  of  li- 
mitless space  ?  By  no  means.  In  the  reasoning,  by  means  of 
which  we  arrived  at  the  inference  of  the  infinite  number  of  the 
stars,  we  have  supposed  that  space  was  absolutely  transparent, 
or  that  the  light  composed  of  parallel  rays  was  not  impaired,  as 
it  removed  to  a  distance  from  the  bodies  from  which  it  ema- 
nated. Now,  not  only  is  this  absolute  transparency  of  space  not 
demonstrated,  but,  moreover,  it  is  altogether  improbable.  What 
though  the  planets,  bodies  possessed  of  great  density,  experience 
no  sensible  resistance  in  their  courses,  there  is  nothing  that  can 
oblige  us  to  consider  the  space  in  which  they  move  as  perfectly 
void.  What  may  be  presumed  on  the  subject  of  cornets  and 
their  tails,  would  rather  tend  to  make  us  suppose  the  existence 
of  something  material  in  the  regions  which  they  traverse.  The 
very  matter  of  the  tails  of  comets,  which  gradually  dissipates, 
and  that  of  tlie  zodiacal  light,  necessarily  have  their  abode  in 
this  space ;  and,  besides,  supposing  it  absolutely  void,  the  rays 
of  light,  in  crossing,  might  and  must  intercept  each  other.  This 
latter  point  may  not  only  be  demonstrated  a  priori^  by  the  hy-* 
potheses  of  Newton  and  Huygens,  regarding  the  nature  of 
light,  but  may  also  be  experimentally  confirmed  by  the  compa- 
rison of  the  telescopes  of  Cassegrain  and  Gregory,  and  the  re- 
lative density  before  and  behind  the  focus  of  a  spherical  mir- 
ror *. 

Space  is  not,  therefore,  absolutely  transparent.  But  the 
slightest  defect  in  its  transparency  is  sufficient  to  annihilate  that 
consequence  of  the  infinite  number  of  the  fixed  stars,  so  con- 
trary to   observation,   namely,   that  the  whole  heaven   should 

•  Philosophical  Transactions  for  1813  and  1814.  In  the  calculation  of  the  re- 
lative density  of  the  light  before  and  behind  the  focus  of  a  concave  mirror,  Captain 
Kater  appears  not  to  have  reflected,  that  the  focus  cannot  be  considered  as  a  phy- 
sical point,  but  that  it  is  only  the  place  of  the  image  of  the  sun,  or  of  the  flame  of 
a  candle.  This  consideration  ought  to  introduce  some  corrections  into  the  calcu- 
lations, but  it  does  not  affect  the  result  that  the  light  undergoes  a  loss  in  passing 
through  the  focus.  It  would  be  desirable  that  these  interesting  experiments, 
which  perhaps  might  be  directed  in  a  manner  better  adapted  to  the  object  in  view, 
were  repeated  with  great  care. 

APEIL^-jyLY  1826.  K 


146  Dr  Olbers  on  the  Transparency  of  Space. 

blaze  upon  us  with  solar  brightness.  If  we  suppose,  for  ex- 
ample, that  the  degree  of  transparency  be  such,  that  of  800  rays 
which  emanate  from  Sirius,  799  attain  the  distance  at  which  we 
are  placed  from  that  planet,  this  would  suffice,  and  more  than 
suffice,  to  make  us  see  the  system  of  fixed  stars  such  as  we  ac- 
tually see  it. 

Since  rays  proceed  in  all  directions  from  every  point  of  the 
surface  of  luminous  bodies,  we  may  represent  to  ourselves  this 
light  as  composed  of  cyHndrical  fasciculi,  themselves  formed  of 
parallel  rays.  The  lustre  of  the  radiating  bodies  will  be  pro- 
portional to  the  density  of  the  hght  in  these  fascicuh.  Accord- 
ing to  the  law  of  the  diminution  of  the  hght  which  traverses 
homogeneous  substances,  not  entirely  transparent,  the  diminu- 
tion of  the  density  of  this  hght  for  each  infinitely  small  degree 
erf  its  progress,  is  proportional  to  this  very  density.  Let  «/, 
then,  be  the  density  of  light  at  the  distance  x  from  the  radiating 
body ;  for  every  space  d  x  which  it  traverses  in  its  passage  from 
the  body,  it  undergoes  a  diminution  d  «/,  and  we  have  d  «/  =  — 
ay  di  X,  or  integrating,  log  y  =  const  ■ —  ax.  The  constant 
quantity  will  be  determined  by  remarking,  that  y  =  A,  for  ex- 
ample, when  X  =  o;   and  we  shall  thus  obtain  the  equation. 

Log  -^  =  —  « zr ;  or  log  ^  is  anatural  logarithm, «,  the  measure 

of  the  defect  of  the  transparency  of  space ;  -,  the   subtangent 

a 

of  the  logarithmic  curve,  of  which  the  decreasing  ordinates  mea- 
sure the  diminution  of  brightness  which  the  luminous  object 
undergoes  when  its  distance  increases.  Besides,  in  the  calcula- 
tion, we  may  employ  for  log  -—  the  artificial  logarithm,  keep- 
ing in  mind,  that  then  a,  multiphed  by  0.43429448,  is  the 
measure  of  the  opacity. 

Let  us  now  find  what  wiU  be  the  value  of  a,  on  the  supposi- 
tion (entirely  arbitrary)  that  the  light  of  a  star,  placed  at  the 

distance  of  Sirius,  becomes  weakened  in  the  proportion  of  -— 
in  coming  to  us.     Let  r  be  the  distance  of  Sirius, 


"Dr  0\hevs  on  the  Transparency  of  Space.  147 

Log  799  =  2.9025467793 
Log  800  =  2.9030899870 

a  =  0.0005432077 
Therefore  log  a  =  6.  7349604  —  10. 

It  is  easy,  again,  to  calculate  the  diminution  of  brightness  of 
stars  for  more  considerable  distances. 

Let  us  now  suppose  the  lustre  A  of  a  star,  such  as  our  sun, 
but  placed  at  the  distance  of  Sirius,  which  we  took  a  little  ago 
for  unity,  itself  equal  to  1 ;  the  lustre  of  this  star  will  be, 

jQ  at  a  distance  equal  to  84.23  times  that  of  Sirius. 
A  178.40 

/s  285.16 

/o  408.41 

A  554.13 

We  see,  therefore,  that,  at  the  extreme  distances  at  which  our 
armed  eye  can  still  distinguish  isolated  stars,  the  lustre  is  di- 
minished by  one-half.  The  absolute  brightness  of  stars  may 
establish  between  them  differences  equally  remarkable  and  still 
greater. 

The  lustre  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  intensity  of  the 
%ht. 

This  intensity  is  the  lustre  multiplied  by  the  apparent  mag- 
nitude :  it  is  directly  proportional  to  the  lustre,  and,  inversely, 
the  square  of  the  distance.     Thus,  a  star  554  times  more  distant 
from  us  than  Sirius,  has  still  the  half  of  the  lustre,  but  only 
^^i^_th  of  the  luminous  intensity  of  that  star. 

The  lustre  diminishes  considerably  at  greater  distances.  At 
a  distance  equal  to  1842.9  times  that  of  Sirius,  it  is  only  j^^th 
of  the  lustre  of  that  star;  at  the  distance  of  3681.8  it  is  not 
more  than  yj^;  and  at  that  of  5522.7,  it  is  xo\o>  ^^^  ^  i^ 
proportion. 

At  what  distance  would  the  light  of  a  fixed  star  still  have  the 
lustre  of  the  full  moon,  supposing  this  lustre  to  be  ^oo^ous?  ®^ 
that  of  the  sun  ?     As  we  have,  then  *, 

•  Here  —  zz  ^  is  substituted  in  the  equation,  log  —  =  —  a  ^,  or 

log  X  -  log(log^)~.  log  a. 

K  2 


148  Dr  Olbers  on  the  Transparent/  of  Space, 

The  logarithm  of  which  is  =       0.7385524 

Log         a    =       6.7349604  —  10 


Log         ^    =       4.0035920 
a'    z=        10083.05 


It  is  therefore  at  a  distance  equal  to  10000  times  that  of  Sirius. 
Thus,  a  certain  quantity  of  stars  situated  at  this  distance  would 
require  to  be  accumulated  close  to  one  another,  before,  in  a  clear 
and  moonless  night,  our  most  perfect  telescopes  could  render 
this  group  visible  as  a  pale  nebulosity. 

Our  atmosphere,  illuminated  by  the  full  moon,  has  not  even 
-i—  of  its  lustre,  and  this  light  suffices  to  render  invisible  to 
the  naked  eye  all  the  stars  which  are  under  the  fourth  or  fifth 
magnitudes.  The  following  calculation  shews  at  what  distance 
the  stars  have  still  a  lustre  equal  to  that  of  the  ground  of  the 
sky,  in  a  night  illuminated  by  the  full  moon. 

We  have  then, 

Log  (300000  X  90000)  =  10.4313638 
The  log  of  which  is  =:    1.0183410 

Log«=    6.7349604—10 


Log^=:    4.2833806 
Therefore  ^-    19203.5 

Let  us  still  calculate  the  lustre  of  a  star,  which  is  placed  at 
30,000  times  the  distance  of  Sirius ;  then 
Log  a:  =  4,4771213 
Log  a  =  6,7349604—10 


Log  a^=r:  1.2120817 
The  number  of  which  is         16.29602 

Therefore  log  t  =  —  16.29602 

The  number  of  which  is  1977100000  millions,  and  expresses 
how  many  times  the  absolute  lustre  of  the  star  is  weakened  at  this 
distance.  To  form  a  conception  of  this  relation  the  more  easily, 
it  may  be  remarked,  that  the  lustre  then  preserved  by  the  star 


Dr  Olbers  on  the  Transparency  of  Space.  149 

is  6500  millions  of  times  weaker  than  that  of  the  full  moon,  or 
732250  times  weaker  than  that  of  the  celestial  vault  in  a  clear 
night,  lightened  by  the  full  moon.  Now,  this  last  shade  may 
be  considered  as  perfectly  dark. 

We  may  therefore  admit,  that,  with  the  degree  of  non-trans- 
parency, which  we  have  supposed  to  exist  in  space,  the  stars, 
which  are  30000  times  farther  from  us  than  Sirius,  do  not  con- 
tribute to  light  the  celestial  vault.  The  ground  of  the  sky 
would  therefore  appear  to  us  black,  had  not  our  own  atmos- 
phere, lightened  only  by  the  stars,  itself  a  feeble  lustre,  which  suf- 
fices to  colour  this  ground  of  a  bluish  tint. 

A  circumstance  which  proves  that  the  ground  of  the  sky 
would  be  entirely  black,  did  we  not  see  it  through  our  atmos- 
phere, which  is  lighted  by  the  glimmer  of  the  stars,  exists  in 
what  we  observe  regarding  the  planet  Venus.  The  portion  of 
its  disk,  which  is  not  lighted  by  the  sun,  is  sometimes  distin- 
guished from  the  sky  by  a  peculiar  or  phosphorescent  light, 
but  never  as  being  darker  than  the  ground  which  it  covers. 
The  same  is  also  remarked  in  the  planet  Mars,  when  it  is  not 
light  all  over.  Those  who  have  had  occasion  to  observe  the 
starry  sky  on  high  mountains,  have  seen  that  it  was  dark,  and 
even  absolutely  black,  although  the  greatest  part  of  our  atmos- 
phere was  still  interposed. 

I  do  not  know  if  I  am  deceived,  but  it  has  often  seemed  to 
me,  that,  among  the  small  stars,  of  the  same  luminous  intensity 
(the  intensity  is  the  lustre  multiplied  by  the  apparent  magni- 
tude), some  had  a  mobile;  and  scintillating  light,  others  a  tran- 
quil light.  If  this  be  not  an  illusion,  I  would  be  induced  to 
think  that  the  former  are  smaller  and  nearer,  the  others  larger  and 
more  distant,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  light  of  these  latter, 
weakened  by  the  defect  of  transparency  in  space,  has  no  longer 
the  density  necessary  for  sparkling. 

The  supposition  that  the  light,  independently  of  its  divergence, 
is  weakened  ijjij  in  coming  from  Sirius  to  us,  is  entirely  arbi- 
trary. My  object  was  to  demonstrate  that  this  loss,  and  even 
a  still  less  at  these  enormous  distances,  was  sufficient  to  render 
the  appearance  of  the  heavens  such  as  we  observe  it,  although 
the  stars  should  yet  exist  in  infinite  number  in  space.  It 
is  not  without  reflection   that  I   have  assigned   this  degree  of 


150  Dr  Olbers  on  the  Transparence/  of  Space. 

opacity  to  space,  and  I  do  not  imagine  it  to  be  very  wide  of  the 
truth. 

It  is  therefore  with  equal  wisdom  and  goodness,  that  creative 
Omnipotence  has  given  to  space  a  high  degi'ee  of  translucidity, 
without,  however,  rendering  this  translucidity  perfect,  and  that 
it  has  thus  hmited  the  range  of  our  vision  to  a  determinate  part 
of  this  space.  In  consequence  of  this  arrangement,  we  are  pla- 
ced in  a  condition  to  acquire  some  knowledge  of  the  structure 
and  arrangement  of  the  universe,  of  which  we  should  scarcely 
know  any  thing,  had  the  most  distant  suns  sent  us  a  light  which 
underwent  no  diminution. — Bibliotheque  Universelle,  Feb.  1826. 


Observaticyns  on  the  Spontaneous  Motions  of  the  Ova  of  the 
Campanularia  dicliotoma,  Gorgonia  verrucosa^  Caryophyllea 
calycularis,  Spongia  pankea^  Sp.  papillaris,  cristata,  tomen- 
tosa,  and  Plumulariajalcata.  By  Robert  E.  Grant,  M.  D. 
F.  R.  S.  E.,  F.  L.  S.,  M.  W.  S.,  &c  *  (Communicated  by  the 
Author.) 

rv\ 

JL  HAT  acute  and  indefatigable  zoologist  Mr  Ellis,  first  ob- 
served in  1755  the  spontaneous  motions  exhibited  by  the  ova  of 
the  Campanularia  dichotomaljam.,  ( Sertularia  dichotoma  Lin.^, 
for  some  time  after  their  separation  from  the  parent.  Although 
this  interesting  fact  is  one  of  the  most  important  and  best  esta- 
blished v/hich  has  yet  been  discovered,  connected  with  the  gene- 
ration of  zoophytes,  and  one  of  very  general  occurrence  in  these 
animals,  it  has  attracted  so  little  attention  for  half  a  century 
past,  that  we  find  not  the  slightest  allusion  to  it  in  the  writings 
of  Lamarck,  Lamouroux,  Cuvier,  or  almost  any  other  modern 
zoologist.  When  in  company  with  Dr  Schlosser  and  Mr  Ehret, 
on  the  coast  of  Sussex,  Mr  Ellis  examined  the  Campanularia 
dichotoma  alive,  and  found  several  vesicles  on  it,  some  of  which 
contained  ova  attached  to  an  umbilical  cord.  This  cord  was  dis- 
tinctly seen  through  the  transparent  coats  of  the  vesicle,  to  take 
its  origin  from  the  fleshy  central  part  of  the  stem.  "In  other 
vesicles  (he  observes)  we  discovered  these  ova  beginning  to  exhi- 

•  Head  before  the  Wernerian  Natural  History  Society,  27th  May  1826. 


Dr  Grant  on  the  Ova  of  Zoophytes.  151 

bit  signs  of  life  ;  they  appeared  to  us  to  be  evidently  young  living 
polypi,  which  extended  in  a  circular  order,  the  tentacula  proceed- 
ing from  their  head,  as  in  other  polypi.  While  examining  them, 
some  of  the  ova,  after  detaching  themselves,  fell  to  the  bottom 
of  the  glass  of  water  in  which  we  had  placed  them  ;  they  then 
began  to  move  and  stretch  themselves  out  like  fresh  water  po- 
lypi ;"  (Ellis,  Hist.  Nat.  des  Cor.,  p.  116).  This  statement  of 
Mr  Ellis,  though  not  altogether  correct  in  its  detail,  is  satisfac- 
tory as  to  the  motions  of  the  ova  which  he  saw  escape  from  the 
vesicles.  As  this  species  of  Campanularia  occurs  abundantly 
on  Leith  rocks,  and,  at  this  time  (May)  presents  the  ova  in  a 
state  of  maturity,  I  have  examined  their  singular  motions  under 
the  microscope,  in  presence  of  some  friends  conversant  with  the 
structure  of  these  animals.  The  moving  ova  which  Mr  EUis 
observed,  were  not,  as  he  supposed,  the  same  with  the  polypi- 
like  bodies  he  has  represented  (PL  xxxviii.  Fig.  3.  B,  B,  B,) 
hanging  from  the  mouths  of  the  vesicles,  but  were  ova  which 
had  fallen  from  these  polypi-like  bodies.  The  polypi-like  bo- 
dies, viewed  under  the  microscope,  are  found  to  be  thin,  trans- 
parent, motionless  capsules,  containing  each  three  distinct  ova, 
and  presenting  at  their  free  extremities  several  stiff,  straight,  di- 
verging pointed  processes,  which  Mr  Ellis  mistook  for  the  ten- 
tacula of  a  young  polypus ;  and  was  thus  led  to  believe,  that 
the  polypus  is  the  first  formed  part  of  a  young  zoophyte,  which 
I  have  found  by  experiment  to  be  contrary  to  fact.  This  mode 
of  generation  in  Sertularice,  by  the  detachment  of  numerous 
capsules,  containing  ova  enveloped  in  a  viscid  matter,  was  known 
to  Cavolini,  who,  forty  years  ago,  detected  the  fallacy  of  Mr 
Ellis's  statement  regarding  the  polypi-like  bodies,  and  suspected 
that  the  true  ova  contained  in  these  exterior  capsules,  would  be 
found  to  exhibit  the  same  kind  of  motions  which  he  had  ob- 
served in  the  ova  of  other  zoophytes  ;  but  he  did  not  succeed 
in  obtaining  the  ova  after  their  expulsion  from  the  capsules,  so 
as  to  verify  or  refute  his  conjecture.  As  I  had  already  observed 
through  the  transparent  vesicles  of  the  Plumulariajhlcata  the 
motions,  and  even  the  cilias,  of  the  ova  contained  in  them,  I 
placed  one  of  the  polypi-like  capsules  hanging  by  umbilical 
cords,  from  the  vesicles  of  the  Camp,  dichotoma  entire  under  the 
microscope,  and  I  could  distinctly  perceive  the  vortex-like  cur- 


152  Dr  Grant  on  the  spmitaneous  Motions  of 

rents  along  the  surface  of  the  contained  ova,  and  that  particu- 
lar vibrating  zone  immediately  around  them,  which  we  always 
observe  along  a  ciliated  surface,  when  the  ciliae  are  in  too  rapid 
motion  to  be  distinctly  seen.  On  allowing  the  three  ova  to  es- 
cape into  the  water  of  the  watch-glass,  by  tearing  open  the  cap- 
sule with  two  needles,  they  immediately  began  to  glide  to  and 
fro  along  the  bottom,  and  I  could  now  perceive  the  cilia?  vibrat- 
ing on  their  surface  as  they  moved  forward.  The  ova  of  this 
minute  zoophyte  are  very  numerous,  amounting  to  twenty  or 
thirty  in  each  vesicle,  which  is  probably  the  reason  of  the  poly- 
pi-like capsules,  to  allow  so  many  ova  sufficient  space  to  deve- 
lope  themselves  on  the  outside  of  the  vesicles.  I  have  never  ob- 
served more  than  two  ova  in  a  vesicle  of  the  PlumulariaJMcatay 
and  they  have  space  to  arrive  at  full  maturity  within  that  vesi- 
cle. The  ova  of  the  Camp.  di(;hoto7na  are  very  minute,  regularly 
formed  oval  bodies  of  a  semiopaque  milk-white  colour  ;  the  ciliae 
distributed  over  their  surface,  propel  them  only  in  one  direction  ; 
their  motions  and  general  appearance,  like  those  of  other  ova, 
are  so  peculiar,  that  they  are  easily  distinguished  from  animal- 
cules, by  any  person  who  has  once  examined  the  mature  vesicles 
of  a  zoophyte.  The  cilia  on  the  surface  of  these  and  other  ova 
are  minute  filaments,  which  may  be  compared  to  the  small  hairs 
covering  the  human  body  ;  they  do  not  add  to  the  internal  or- 
ganization of  the  ovum,  nor  render  it  as  complex  as  that  of  the 
adult  animal  which  possesses  highly  organized  polypi ;  they  are 
organs  which  exist  in  the  adult  zoophyte,  and  in  the  simplest 
known  forms  of  animal  matter,  the  motions  of  the  simplest  gela- 
tinous animalcules  being  performed  by  them  ;  and  they  are  ne- 
cessary to  prevent  the  ova  from  falling  by  their  own  gravity  like 
the  seeds  of  plants,  to  be  buried  in  the  ever-moving  sands. 

Cavolini  prosecuted  for  two  successive  years,  1784-5,  his  re- 
searches into  the  structure  and  economy  of  the  Gorgonia  verru-^ 
cosa  Lam.,  particularly  with  reference  to  the  spontaneous  mo- 
tions and  the  development  of  its  ova ;  and  his  observations  on 
this  animal  form  a  model  of  patient  and  scientific  inquiry,  which 
has  no  equal  in  the  history  of  zoophytology.  He  examined  the 
position  of  the  pvaria  at  the  base  of  each  polypus,  watched  the 
manner  in  which  the  ova  were  discharged  through  eight  small 
oviducts,  opening  between  the  bases  of  the  eight  tentacula,  and 


the  Ova  of  Zoophytes.  153' 

has  given  enlarged  representations  of  the  forms  which  tlie  ova 
assumed  while  swimming  to  and  fro,  and  of  their  appearance 
when  laid  open.  He  observed,  that  the  ova  were  all  somewhat 
egg-shaped  ;  that  they  passed  through  the  oviduct  with  their  ta- 
pering end  pointed  forward ;  and  that,  as  soon  as  discharged, 
they  turned  up  their  rounded  thick  extremity,  and  continued  to 
swim  about  with  that  extremity  always  forward  (Cavolini, 
Abhand.  uber  Pflanzen-thiere,  p,  48).  On  cutting  off  a  small 
portion  of  the  outer  covering  from  the  base  of  a  polypus,  he 
generally  observed  five  ova  of  a  flesh-red  colour,  like  those  he 
saw  passing  out  through  the  oviducts.  In  the  month  of  June, 
he  observed  the  polypi  of  the  Gorgonia  in  the  act  of  discharging 
their  ova ;  a  portion  of  this  zoophyte,  only  six  inches  high,  dis- 
charged ninety  ova  in  the  space  of  an  hour.  The  ova  first 
mounted  in  a  spiral  direction  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  then 
swam  in  a  horizontal  direction  to  the  margin,  without  changing 
their  forms.  Under  the  microscope,  he  repeatedly  observed  the 
ovum  change  its  lengthened  form  to  that  of  a  sphere,  and  when 
the  microscope  was  perfectly  steady,  he  was  surprised  to  see  the 
ovum  bound  off  with  rapidity  from  the  place  where  it  lay,  and 
keep  itself  in  a  constant  quick  motion  as  long  as  he  watched 
it  (Abh.  p.  48).  "  On  looking  again  at  the  vessel  in  which 
the  Gorgonia  lay  (he  says)  I  found  that  all  the  ova  had  ar- 
ranged themselves  round  the  margin,  with  their  rounded  thick 
ends  applied  to  the  sides  of  the  vessel,  like  a  swarm  of  wood-Hce 
on  a  branch ;  and  when  I  pushed  them  off  with  a  needle,  they 
changed  their  forms  in  an  extraordinary  manner,  while  they  con- 
tinued to  swim  about  in  all  directions." 

In  the  CaryophylUa  calycularis  Lam.  (Madrepora  calycula- 
riB  Lin.),  Cavolini  observed  that  the  ova  were,  like  those  of  the 
Gorgonia,  in  a  state  of  maturity  in  spring,  and  were  discharged, 
in  the  same  manner,  through  small  distinct  openings  between 
each  of  the  ten  taenia.  They  were  seen  through  the  transparent 
sides  of  the  polypi  to  occupy  a  similar  situation  at  their  base ; 
they  had  the  same  ovoidal  shape,  but  were  of  a  darker  red  co- 
lour than  those  of  the  gorgonia,  and  somewhat  larger.  They 
exhibited  the  same  singular  phenomena ;  they  glided  about  in 
the  water  ;  swam  to  the  surface  ;  changed  their  forms,  in  a  va- 
riety of  ways,  on  the  slightest  irritation ;  and,  when  torn  under 


154  Dr  Grant  mt  the  Sponta?ieous  Motions  of 

the  microscope,  they  exhibited  the  same  granular  structure 
(Cav.  Abhand.  p.  50.)  The  detailed  account  which  Cavolini 
has  given  of  the  spontaneous  motions  of  the  ova  in  these  two 
zoophytes,  agrees  so  remarkably  with  what  I  have  observed  in 
other  genera,  that  I  have  not  the  least  doubt  that  they  are  pro- 
duced in  the  same  manner,  by  the  rapid  vibration  of  minute  ci- 
lia  distributed  over  their  surface  ;  and  that  the  cihae  have 
escaped  his  observation,  and  that  of  Mr  Ellis  (in  the  Campami- 
laria)  only  from  their  not  employing  the  high  magnifying 
powers  necessary  to  render  them   distinct. 

In  a  memoir  on  the  Structure  and  Functions  of  the  Sponge, 
read  to  the  Wernerian  Society,  in  March  1825,  I  described  the 
singular  motions  which  I  had  observed  in  the  ova  of  the  Spongia 
panicealLam.,  Sp. papillaris,  cristata,tomentosa,  between  the  time 
of  their  expulsion  from  the  fecal  orifices,  and  that  of  their  perma- 
nently fixing  themselves  to  develope  on  the  surface  of  watch-glass- 
es, and  represented  the  appearance  of  the  cihae  which  I  had  disco- 
vered by  the  aid  of  the  microscope,  vibrating  on  the  surface  of  the 
ova  as  they  moved  about  in  the  water,  and  even  for  a  short  time 
after  they  had  fixed  themselves  (see  Edin.  Phil.  Journ.  vol.  xiii.  p. 
382.)  The  details  connected  with  the  formation  and  detachment 
of  these  ova,  their  structure  at  the  time  of  expulsion,  and  the 
changes  they  undergo  during  the  fixing  and  developing  of  their 
bodies,  are  reserved  for  the  continuation  of  my  memoir  on  that 
animal ;  but,  with  reference  to  their  spontaneous  motions,  I  may 
here  observe,  that  they  are  all  somewhat  egg-shaped,  the  cih'ae 
cover  every  part  of  their  surface,  excepting  their  posterior  ta^ 
pering  extremity,  where  I  have  never  distinctly  perceived  them. 
In  swimming,  they  always  carry  their  broadest  extremity  for- 
ward. They  have  a  granular  structure,  and  a  rough  surface, 
like  the  ova  of  the  gorgonia  ;  but  spicula  are  distinctly  discerni- 
ble in  those  of  the  Spongia  panicea,  at  the  time  of  their  expul- 
sion. They  do  not  change  their  forms,  while  swimming,  like 
the  ova  of  many  other  zoophytes,  but  ghde  along  with  a  regular 
and  smooth  motion.  After  remaining  some  time  in  the  water, 
they  generally  come  to  the  surface,  and  collect  round  the  mar- 
gin. When  one  of  them  is  placed  in  a  drop  of  water,  under  the 
microscope,  we  often  see  the  motions  of  the  ciliae  gradually 
cease,  and  become  again  suddenly  revived,  without  the  ovum 


the  Ova  of  Zoophytes.  155 

undergoing  the  least  change  of  form  ;  on  cutting  an  ovum  of  the 
Sp.  papillaris  transversely  through  the  middle,  its  anterior  half 
continued  the  motions  of  its  cihae  for  24  hours.  The  form  of 
the  ovum,  and  its  general  appearance,  vary  with  the  species,  and 
are  as  easily  distinguishable  as  those  of  the  adult.  Having  now 
examined  these  ova  during  two  successive  years,  and  having 
varied  my  experiments  in  every  possible  manner,  I  consider 
the  spontaneous  motions  of  the  ova  in  the  above  species  as  suffi- 
ciently established  by  direct  observation,  and  by  the  analogy  of 
other  zoophytes. 

The  observations  which  I  have  lately  made  on  the  ova  of  tlie 
Plurnularia  Jalcata  Lam.,  have  not  been  less  satisfactory  than 
those  so  often  repeated  on  the  ova  of  the  sponge.  I  have  taken 
the  mature  ova  from  the  vesicles  of  the  plumularia,  and  examined 
their  spontaneous  motions,  under  the  microscope,  in  the  presence 
of  experienced  naturalists ;  and  I  now  present  to  the  Wemerian 
Society  eight  of  these  ova  growing  and  branching  on  the  side  of 
a  glass  vessel,  after  their  having  remained  three  weeks  in  that 
situation.  This  species  is  very  common  in  the  deeper  parts  of 
the  Frith  of  Forth  ;  its  vesicles  are  very  numerous,  and  its  ova 
are  in  full  maturity  at  the  beginning  of  May.  The  ova  are 
large,  of  a  light  brown  colour,  semi-opaque,  nearly  spherical, 
composed  of  minute  transparent  granules,  ciliated  on  the  surface, 
and  distinctly  irritable.  There  are  only  two  ova  in  each  vesicle ; 
so  that  they  do  not  require  any  external  capsules,  like  those  of 
the  campanularia,  to  allow  them  sufficient  space  to  come  to  ma^ 
turity.  On  placing  an  entire  vesicle,  with  its  two  ova,  under 
the  microscope,  we  perceive,  through  the  transparent  sides,  the 
ciliae  vibrating  on  the  surface  of  the  contained  ova,  and  the  cur- 
rents produced  in  the  fluid  within  by  their  motion.  When  we 
open  the  vesicle  with  two  needles,  in  a  drop  of  sea-water,  the  ova 
glide  to  and  fro  through  the  water,  at  first  slowly,  but  afterwards 
more  quickly,  and  their  ciliae  propel  them  with  the  same  part 
always  forward.  They  are  highly  irritable,  and  frequently  con- 
tract their  bodies  so  as  to  exhibit  those  singular  changes  of  form 
spoken  of  by  Cavolini.  These  contractions  are  particularly  ob- 
served when  they  come  in  contact  with  a  hair,  a  filament  of  con- 
ferva, a  grain  of  sand,  or  any  minute  object ;  and  they  are  like- 
wise frequent  and  remarkable  at  the  time  when  the  ovum  is  bu- 


156         On  Noises  accompa7if/ing  the  Aurora  Borealis. 

sied  in  attaching  its  body  permanently  to  the  surface  of  the  glass. 
After  they  have  fixed,  they  become  flat  and  circular,  and  the 
more  opaque  parts  of  the  ova  assume  a  radiated  appearance  ;  so 
that  they  now  appear,  even  to  the  naked  eye,  hke  so  many  mi- 
nute grey  coloured  stars,  having  the  interstices  between  the  rays 
filled  with  a  colourless  transparent  matter,  which  seems  to  harden 
into  horn.  The  grey  matter  swells  in  the  centre,  where  the 
rays  meet,  and  rises  perpendicularly  upwards,  surrounded  by  the 
transparent  horny  matter,  so  as  to  form  the  trunk  of  the  future 
zoophyte.  The  rays  first  formed  are  obviously  the  fleshy  cen- 
tral substance  of  the  roots,  and  the  portion  of  that  substance 
which  grows  perpendicularly  upwards,  forms  the  fleshy  central 
part  of  the  stem.  As  early  as  I  could  observe  the  stem,  it  was 
open  at  the  top ;  and,  when  it  bifurcated  to  form  two  branches, 
both  were  open  at  their  extremities,  but  the  fleshy  central  mat- 
ter had  nowhere  developed  itself  as  yet  into  the  form  of  a  poly- 
pus. Polypi,  therefore,  are  not  the  first  formed  parts  of  this 
zoophyte,  but  are  organs  which  appear  long  after  the  formation 
of  the  root  and  stem,  as  the  leaves  and  flowers  of  a  plant. 

From  these  observations  it  appears  that  the  so-named  ova  of 
many  zoophytes,  when  newly  detached  from  the  parent,  have  the 
power  of  buoying  themselves  up  in  the  water,  by  the  rapid  mo- 
tions of  ciliae  placed  on  their  surface,  till  they  are  carried  by  the 
waves,  or  by  their  own  spontaneous  efforts,  to  a  place  favour- 
able for  their  growth,  where  they  fix  their  body  in  the  particu- 
lar position  best  suited  for  the  future  development  of.  its  parts. 
How  far  this  law  is  general  with  zoophytes,  must  be  determined 
by  future  observation. 


On  the  Noises  that  sometimes  accompany  the  Aurora  Borealis. 

JlIaving,  many  years  ago,  both  in  this  country  and  in  the  Shet- 
land Islands,  heard  very  distinctly  noises  proceeding  from  the  po- 
lar lights,  we  have  always  given  full  credit  to  the  statements  of 
those  observers  who  have  published  accounts  of  this  fact.  It  is 
true,  that  late  observers,  particularly  our  friends  and  former  pupils 


On  Noises  accompanying  the  Aurora  Borealis.         157 

Scoresby  *  and  Richardson  -f-,  never  heard  such  noises,  although 
they  have  seen  many  polar  lights.  But  their  observations  were 
made  during  a  minimum  period  of  this  meteoric  phenomenon, 
while  those  striking  instances  of  which  accounts  are  published, 
occurred  during  a  period  when  the  energy  of  the  polar  lights 
was  great,  or  in  a  maximum  state.  Muschenbroek  says,  that 
the  Greenland  fishers,  in  his  time,  assured  him  that  they  had 
frequently  heard  noises  proceeding  from  the  aurora  borealis. 
Mr  Nairne  is  confident  that  he  has  heard  a  hissing  and  whizzing 
noise  when  the  polar  lights  were  very  bright ;  and  Mr  Cavallo 
affirms  that  he  more  than  once  heard  a  crackling  noise  from  po- 
lar- lights.  Giesecke,  who  resided  so  long  in  West  or  Old  Green- 
land, says,  "  The  Polar  lights  sometimes  appear  very  low,  and 
then  they  are  much  agitated,  and  a  crashing  and  crackling 
sound  is  heard,  like  that  of  an  electric  spark,  or  the  falling  of 
hail."  Professor  Parrot  of  Dorpat,  describes  a  magnificent  po- 
lar light  he  witnessed,  on  22d  October  1804,  from  which  a 
crackling  and  rustling  noise  proceeded.  We  learn  from  the  in- 
habitants, says  Captain  Brooke,  in  his  interesting  travels  through 
Norway,  with  respect  to  the  polar  or  northern  lights,  that  they 
had  frequently  heard  the  noise  that  sometimes  attends  them, 
which  they  describe  like  that  of  a  rushing  wind.  At  Hammer- 
fest,  they  said  they  were  violent,  and  descended  so  low  that  it 
would  appear  almost  possible  to  touch  them.  In  a  letter  from 
Mr  Ramm,  of  Tonset  in  Norway,  addressed  to  Professor  Han- 
steen,  and  published  in  the  Magazinfur  Naturwidenskaherne^ 
Christiana  1825,  st.  1.,  we  are  told  that  he  several  times  heard  a 
quick  whispering  noise,  simultaneously  with  the  motion  of  the 
beams  of  the  polar  lights.  In  the  same  journal  Professor  Han- 
steen  remarks,  "  The  polar  regions  being,  in  reality,  the  na- 
tive country  of  the  polar  light,  we  ought  to  be  peculiarly  inte- 
rested in  obtaining  any  additional  information  on  the  natural 
history  of  this  remarkable  phenomenon  ;  and  we  have  so  many 
certain  accounts  of  the  noise  attending  it,  that  the  negative  ex- 
perience of  southern  nations  cannot  be  brought  in  opposition  to 

•  Arctic  B-egions  and  Journal  of  a  Voyage  to  the  Northern  Whale  Fishery. 

,t  "  Remarks  on  the  Aurora  Borealis"  in  Franklin  and  Richardson's  Jour- 
ney  to  the  Shores  of  the  Polar  Sea. 


158         On  Noises  accompanying  the  Aurora  BoreaUs. 

our  positive  knowledge.  Unfortunately,  we  live,  since  the  be- 
ginning of  this  century,  in  one  of  the  great  pauses  of  this  phe- 
nomenon ;  so  that  the  present  generation  knows  but  little  of  it 
from  personal  observation.  It  would,  therefore,  be  very  agree- 
able to  receive,  from  older  people,  observations  of  this  kind, 
made  in  their  youth,  when  the  aurora  borealis  shewed  itself  in 
its  full  splendour.  It  can  be  proved  mathematically,  that  the 
rays  of  the  northern  lights  ascend  from  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
in  a  direction  inclining  towards  the"  south  {an  inclination  which, 
with  us,  forms  an  angle  of  about  73°.)  If,  then,  this  light  oc- 
cupies the  whole  northern  sky,  rising  more  than  17°  above  the 
zenith,  the  rays  must  proceed  from  under  the  feet  of  the  ob- 
server, although  they  do  not  receive  their  reflecting  power  till 
they  have  reached  a  considerable  elevation, .  perhaps  beyond  our 
atmosphere.  It  is  therefore  conceivable,  why  we  should  fre- 
quently hear  a  noise  attending  the  northern  lights,  when  the  in- 
hahitants  of  southern  coimtiies,  who  see  these  phenomena  at  a 
distance  of  many  hundred  miles,  hear  no  report  whatever. 
Wargentin,  in  the  fifteenth  volume  of  the  Transactions  of  the 
Swedish  Academy^  says,  that  Dr  Gisler  and  Mr  Hellant,  who 
had  resided  for  some  time  in  the  north  of  Sweden,  made,  at  the 
request  of  the  Academy,  a  i*eport  of  their  observations  on  the 
aurora  borealis^ 

The  following  extract  is  given  by  Hansteen  from  Dr  Gisler's 
account : — "  The  most  remarkable  circumstance  attending  the 
northern  lights  is,  that,  although  they  seem  to  be  very  high  in 
the  air,  perhaps  higher  than  our  common  clouds,  there  are  yet 
convincing  proofs  that  they  are  connected  with  the  atmosphere, 
and  often  descend  so  low  in  it,  that,  at  times,  they  seem  to  touch 
the  earth  itself;  and,  on  the  highest  mountains^  they  produce  an 
effect  like  a  wind  round  the  face  of  the  traveller  ^  He  also  says, 
that  he  himself,  as  well  as  other  credible  persons,  "  had  often 
heard  the  rushing  of  them,  just  as  if  a  strong  wind  had  been 
blowing  (although  there  was  a  perfect  calm  all  the  time),  or  like 
the  whizzing  heard  in  the  decomposition  of  certain  bodies  during 
a  chemical  process."  It  also  seemed  to  him_,  that  he  noticed  '  a 
smell  of  smoke  or  burnt  salt.'''' — "  I  must  yet  add,"  says  Gisler, 
"  that  people  who  had  travelled  in  Norway,  informed  me  they 
have  sometimes  been  overtaken,  on  the  top  of  mountains,  by  a 
1 


On  Noises  accompanying  the  Aurora  Borealis.         159 

thin  fog,  very  similar  to  northern  Hghts,  and  which  set  the  air  in 
motion :  they  called  it  Sildebleket  (Haring's  Lightning),  and 
said  that  it  was  attended  by  a  piercing  cold,  and  impeded  respi- 
ration," Dr  Gisler  also  asserts  that  he  often  heard  '  of  a  whi- 
tish grey  coldjhg,  of  a  greenish  tinge,  wJiich,  though  it  did  not 
prevent  the  mountains  from  being  seen,  yet  somewhat  obscured 
the  sky,  rising  from  the  earth,  and  changing  itself  at  last  into  an 
aurora ;  at  least,  such  a  fog  was  frequently  the  forerunner  of  this 
phenomenon."  To  these  observations.  Professor  Hansteen  adds, 
that  Captain  Abrahamson,  in  the  Transactions  erf  the  Scandina- 
vian Literary  Society,  has  given  an  account  of  several  observa-* 
tions  of  noises  that  were  heard  along  with  the  northern  lights. 
The  Professor  concludes  with  the  observation,  that  he  himself 
knows  several  persons  that  have  heard  the  same  sounds,  and  ex- 
presses his  surprise  that  a  fact  so  well  established  should  be  called 
in  question ;  and  relates,  with  some  sharpness,  a  conversation  he 
had  on  this  subject  with  an  Englishman,  who  remarked  that  the 
Norwegian  tales  of  noises  from  polar  lights  were  akin  to  the 
ghost  stories  of  this  country  ; — every  one,  he  said,  had  heard  of 
ghosts,  but  no  person  had  ever  seen  one. 


On  the  presence  of  Iodine  in  the  Mineral  Spring  of  Bonning- 
ton,  near  Leith.  By  Edward  Turnee,  M.  D.  F.  R.  S.  E. 
&c.     In  a  Letter  to  Professor  Jameson. 

Dear  Sir, 

JL  HAVE  the  pleasure  to  inform  you  that  the  Bonnington  mi- 
neral water  which  you  lately  sent  me  for  examination,  contains 
Iodine  in  addition  to  the  other  substances  hitherto  discovered 
in  it.  The  iodine  was  first  detected  by  my  pupil  Mr  W.  Cop- 
land, to  whom  I  gave  the  water  for  analysis,  with  directions  to 
examine  it  for  the  presence  of  that  substance ;  and  I  have  since 
found  it  myself  in  several  portions  of  the  same  water  purpose- 
ly brought  at  different  times  from  the  spring,  so  that  it  may  be 
regarded  as  a  regular  constituent.  The  iodine  may  be  readily 
detected  by  the  following  method : — Evaporate  a  pint  of  the 
water  to  dryness ;  take  up  the  soluble  parts  in  a  drachm  or  two 
of  a  diluted  solution  of  starch,  quite  cold,  and  add  a  few  drops 


160    Dr  Turner  on  Iodine  iw  the  Mineral  Spring  ofBcmnington. 

of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid ;  the  characteristic  blue  colour 
will  then  make  its  appearance.  I  prefer  the  use  of  sulphu- 
ric to  nitric  acid  or  chlorine  for  decomposing  the  hydrio- 
dic  acid ;  for  it  effects  that  object  with  certainty,  and  does  not 
decompose  the  iodide  of  starch,  or  prevent  its  formation,  as  the 
two  last  are  apt  to  do. 

The  greater  part  of  the  iron  in  the  Bonnington  water  is  un- 
der the  form  of  the  carbonate  of  iron,  which  is  held  in  solution 
by  free  carbonic  acid.  It  also  contains  the  muriatic  and  sul- 
phuric acids,  in  combination  with  lime,  magnesia,  and  soda,  the 
last  of  which  is  the  predominating  base.  Potash  is  also  present, 
and  forms  the  hydriodate  of  potash  with  the  hydriodic  acid.  Its 
quantity,  however,  is  more  than  sufficient  for  saturating  that 
acid ;  for  the  residual  salts  still  contain  it,  after  the  hydriodate 
of  potash  has  been  removed  by  alcohol. 

I  have  examined  portions  of  water  from  the  springs  of  Har- 
rowgate,  Moffat,  and  Pitcaithly,  but  could  discover  in  them  no 
trace  of  iodine.     I  remain,  dear  Sir,  yours  most  faithfuUy, 

Edward  Turner. 


Addition  hy  the  Editor. 

Since  the  discovery  of  Iodine  in  some  marine  plants  by  Cur- 
tois,  it  has  been  found  by  Kriiger  and  Fuchs  in  small  quantity 
in  the  salt-springs  of  Sulzer  and  Halle  ;  more  lately  in  minute 
quantity  in  the  salt-springs  of  Rosenheim  by  Vogel  of  Munich, 
and  by  Professor  Liebig  in  the  salt-springs  of  Darmstadt.  An- 
gelini  and  Cantu  have  detected  this  curious  substance  in  some 
mineral  waters  in  Italy ;  and  Vogel,  as  far  as  we  know,  was  the 
first  who  ascertained  its  presence  in  the  mineral  waters  of  Ger- 
many. Being  informed  that  the  mineral  waters  of  Heilbrunn, 
in  the  circle  of  Isar,  in  Bavaria,  were  used  by  the  inhabitants  as 
a  specific  against  diseases  in  the  glandular  system,  especially  the 
goitre,  Vogel  was  led  to  suspect  the  presence  of  iodine,  which  he 
soon  detected  by  means  of  the  usual  re-agents.  The  iodine  was 
in  the  state  of  hydriodate  of  soda. 

We  take  this  opportunity  of  recommending  the  analysis  of  the 
mineral  waters  of  this  country  to  the  attention  of  naturalists  ; 
and  we  do  this  in  the  conviction,  that  a  knowledge  of  the  con- 


Intelligence  Jrom  the  Land  Arctic  Expedition.         161 

tents  of  mineral  and  other  waters  is  intimately  connected,  not 
only  with  many  important  changes  perpetually  taking  place  in 
the  solid  strata  of  the  globe,  but  also  with  the  chemical  compo- 
sition of  mountain  rocks,  and  of  the  materials  of  their  beds  and 
veins.  The  gazeous  matters  associated  with  natural  waters,  are 
aJso  worthy  of  the  attention  of  the  naturalist ;  the  more  espe- 
cially, as  they  are  often  connected  with  those  aeriform  substan- 
ces which  are  perpetually  rising  through  the  fissures  and  stratar- 
seams  of  rocks.  These  aeriform  emanations  from  rocks,  are  an- 
nounced by  the  sulphureous,  empyreumatic,  acid  or  other  odours, 
perceived  over  the  outgoing  and  in  the  body  of  the  fissures ; 
also,  by  their  sometimes  extinguishing  lights,  when  placed  in  or 
over  fissures  ;  in  other  cases,  by  the  emanating  air  taking  fire. 


Intelligence  Jrom  the  Land  Arctic  Expedition,  under  Captain 
Franklin  and  Dr  Richardson, 

XN  the  Edinburgh  Philosophical  Journal,  we  gave  an  account  of 
the  early  progress  of  the  Land  Arctic  Expedition,  under  Cap- 
tain Franklin  and  Dr  Richardson.  The  following  contains  an  in- 
teresting statement  of  its  progress,  up  to  September  last,  which 
is  the  latest  information  from  the  travellers. 

"  We  have  travelled  incessantly  since  we  left  Lake  Superior. 
We  overtook  our  boats,  which,  with  their  crews,  left  England  in 
June  1824,  eight  months  before  us,  about  half  way  to  this  place, 
or  four  or  five  days  march  to  the  southward  of  Mathye  Portao-e. 
We  embarked  in  them  at  Chepewyn,  on  the  J^Oth  July,  and  ar- 
rived in  Mackenzie's  River  on  the  31st.  At  Fort  Normans,  Dr 
Hichardson  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  party.  Captain 
Franklin  and  Mr  Kendale  went  down  the  river  to  the  sea  in  one 
boat,  whilst  Dr  Richardson  brought  the  others  and  their  car- 
goes up  Bear  Lake  River,  which  falls  into  the  Mackenzie  a  few 
miles  below  Fort  Normans.  Franklin  made  a  prosperous  voy- 
age, and  on  the  16th  of  August,  exactly  six  months  from  the 
day  he  sailed  from  Liverpool,  had  an  extensive  view  from  the 
summit  of  Garry's  Island,  of  the  open  sea,  clear  of  ice,  with 
many  black  whales,  belugas,  and  seals,  playing  about.  The 
APRIL JULY  1826.  T 


162  Intelligence  Jrom  the  Land  Arctic  Expedition. 

water  at  Whale  Island  is,  as  Mackenzie  states  in  his  chart,  fresh, 
but  a  few  miles  from  Garry's  Island,  which  is  30  miles  to 
seaward,  and  out  of  sight  of  the  other,  it  changes  its  colour  and 
taste.  The  mighty  volume  of  waters  which  rolls  down  the  Mac- 
kenzie, carries  shoals  of  sand  and  a  brackish  stream  a  long  way 
out.  Captain  Franklin  did  not  join  Dr  Richardson  and  his 
party  before  the  5th  September  last,  at  Port  Franklin,  in  Bear 
Lake,  the  navigation  up  the  river  being  tedious,  from  the 
strength  of  the  current.  The  Sharpeyes  or  Quarrellers  of  Mac- 
kenzie, who  inhabit  the  lower  parts  of  the  river,  resemble  the 
Esquimaux  a  good  deal  in  their  manners  and  language,  and  that 
part  of  the  tribe  who  live  nearest  the  sea,  were  partially  under- 
stood by  our  Esquimaux  interpreter.  The  Esquimaux  being 
at  this  season  inland  hunting  the  rein  deer,  were  not  seen,  but 
the  Sharpeyes  have  promised  to  give  them  notice  of  our  intend- 
ed voyage  next  year.  Every  thing  at  present  promises  success  to 
our  future  operations.  The  boats  sent  out  from  England  an- 
swer admirably,  and  we  are  well  provided  with  stores  for  the 
voyage.  During  Captain  Franklin's  absence,  Dr  Richardson 
surveyed  this  lake,  which  is  about  150  miles  long,  extending 
from  Lat.  QS"  10'  Long.  123°  32^,  where  Fort  Franklin  is  built, 
to  Lat.  67°  Long.  119°,  within  TO  miles  of  the  nearest  bend  of 
the  Coppermine  River,  and  about  85  miles  from  its  mouth. 
Garry's  Island  lies  in  Lat.  69°  29'  Long.  135°  42',  about  450 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Coppermine,  and  about  600  from 
Icy  Cape,  distances  which  may  easily  be  accomplished,  even  du- 
ring the  short  period  that  the  arctic  sea  is  navigable  for  boats, 
if  no  greater  obstacles  occur  than  were  visible  from  the  mouth  of 
Mackenzie's  River.  A  canoe  is  to  be  deposited  at  the  North 
Eastern  arm  of  this  lake,  by  which  the  eastern  party  will  save 
200  miles  of  land  journey  on  their  return. — But  a  very  cursory 
view  of  the  rocks  was  taken  in  the  voyage  down  the  river,  as  was 
to  be  expected  from  the  rapidity  with  which  the  party  travelled. 
The  oldest  rocks  met  with  were  in  the  portions  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  which  skirt  the  river,  and  which  are  composed  of 
transition  limestone.  From  that  there  is  a  very  complete  series  of 
formations  down  to  the  new  red  sandstone,  exposed  in  various 
parts.  The  rocks  of  the  coal  formation  are  particularly  interest- 
ing, from  the  strong  resemblance  the  organic  remains  found  in 


Intelligence Jrom  the  Land  Arctic  Expedition,         J. 63 

llie  sandstone  slate,  and  bituminous  shale,  have  to  those  seen  in 
England.      They  met  with   several  lepidndendra,  compressed 
like  the  English  ones,  also  impressions  of  ferns  and  reeds.    They 
had  not,  however,  found  any  beds  of  coal  belonging  to  this  forma- 
tion, but  large  deposits  of  a  new  bituminous  wood-coal,  mixed 
with  layers  of  mineral  pitch.     This  is  found  in  various  parts  of 
the  river,  and  on  Garry's  Island,  at  its  mouth,  sometimes  depo- 
sited on  the  fixed  rocks,  but  never,  as  far  as  could  be  ascertained, 
under  any  of  them.    It  is  generally  associated  with  a  rich  earthy 
loam,  and  seems  to  derive  its  origin  from  great  deposits  of  tim- 
ber, compressed  under  alluvial,  or,  to  speak  in  a  newer  language, 
diluvial  matters,  and  impregnated  with  the  bitumen,  exuding  in 
immense  quantities  from  the  carboniferous  limestone,  which  ex- 
ists in  enormous  masses  in  this  country,  constituting  whole  dis- 
tricts and  ridges  of  mountains.     The  shells  and  corallines  of  the 
limestone  are  very  fine  and  perfect.     The  fibrous  structure,  and, 
indeed,  the  shape  of  the  trees,  may  still  be  clearly  traced  in  the 
coal.    From  the  twisted  state  of  the  woody  layers,  I  suspect  that 
a  great  portion  of  the  coal  has  been  formed  from  roots,  or  from 
trees  that  have  grown  in  a  cHmate  equally  severe  with  this ;  the 
resemblance  being  very  perfect  to  the  wood  of  the  spruce-fir, 
which  grows  in  the  surrounding  country." 


Additional  Infoi'mation. 

We  have  read  another  letter,  dated  Fort  Franklin,  from  which 
the  following  is  extracted  : 

"  Fort  Franklin^  Great  Bear  Lake, 
"  My  Dear  Friknd,  September  6.  1825. 

"  Here  I  am  once  more  housed  for  the  winter. 

'  Hebrum  prospiciens,  et  nive  candidam 
Thracem,  ac  pede  barbaro 
Lustratam  Rhodopen.' 

After  six  months  of  constant  travelhng,  our  winter  residence 
is  pleasantly  situated  on  the  banks  of  a  lake  150  miles  long,  deep 

l2 


164         Intelligence Jrom  the  Land  Arctic  Expedition, 

and  abounding  in  fish,  its  shores  well  wooded,  considering  the 
high  latitude,  and  frequented  by  moose  deer,  musk  oxen,  and 
rein  deer.  We  have  abundant  stores  for  next  yearns  voyage,  but 
our  party  is  large,  and  we  depend  on  the  fishery  and  chase  for 
support  during  the  winter,  yet  hope  to  fare  well.  In  our  ex- 
cursion of  three  weeks  along  the  lake,  which  I  made  since  my 
arrival,  I  obtained  a  boat-load  of  excellent  venison,  and  our  nets 
have  occasionally  given  us,50  or  60  trout  in  a-day,  weighing  each 
from  20  lb.  to  50  lb.,  besides  200  to  300  of  a  smaller  fish  called 
fresh-water  herrings.  Notwithstanding  all  these  comforts,  the 
wiser  part  of  us  live  in  some  fear  ;  for  any  sudden  amelioration 
of  the  climate,  produced  by  the  approach  of  a  comet  to  the  earth, 
or  any  other  of  the  commotions  amongst  the  heavenly  orbs  dread- 
ed by  astronomers,  might  cause  us  to  be  swept  into  the  lake,  as, 
our  fort  being  built  on  an  iceberg,  a  thaw  might  prove  fatal  to  its 
stability.  The  ground,  although  it  produces  trees  of  consider- 
able size,  is  constantly  frozen  ;  the  mud  with  which  our  house  is 
plastered  was  dug  out  by  the  aid  of  fires  last  month,  and 
now,  at  the  close  of  the  summer,  the  excavation  under  our  hall- 
floor,  which  we  intended  to  convert  into  a  cellar,  has  been  work- 
ed only  to  the  depth  of  three  feet,  its  walls  of  clay  being  frozen 
as  firm,  and  harder,  than  a  rock.  I  hope,  however,  we  shall  es- 
cape such  a  catastrophe,  as  Moore,  in  his  almanack,  says  nothing 
about  it;  unless,  indeed  he  means  to  give  us  a  hint,  when  he  says 
*  About  this  time,  before  or  after,  certain  northern  powers  will 
make  some  stir  in  the  waters.' 

"  I  have  had  no  fly-fishing  for  want  of  proper  tackle.  The 
gigantic  trout  of  this  lake  would  disdain  such  a  mosquito  as  we 
were  wont  to  fish  with,  and  I  see  no  pleasure  in  bobbing  for 
them  with  a  cod  hook  and  cable.  One  of  the  monsters  might 
take  a  fancy  to  drag  the  fisherman  to  his  sublacustrine  abodes. 

Captain  Franklin  and  Mr  Kendall  have  been  to  the  sea,  which 
they  found  in  Lat.  69°  29',  quite  clear  of  ice,  on  the  16th  of 
August.  Mackenzie  was  very  near  it  in  his  voyage  down  the 
river,  which  bears  his  name,  but  did  not  reach  the  salt  water,  by 
about  thirty  miles.  They  left  letters  for  Captain  Parry  and  his  of- 
ficers from  their  friends  in  England,  buried  at  the  foot  of  a  pole, 
on  which  they  suspended  a  flag.     They  returned  only  yesterday, 


Intelligence  Jrom  the  Land  Arctic  Expedition.  165 

and  the  dispatch,  by  which  I  send  this,  sets  out  to-morrow  with 
intelligence  of  their  proceedings  to  Oovernment, 

'*  Mr  or  at  all  events  Mrs  H.  will  rejoice  to  hear  that  we  have 
a  Highland  piper,  and  a  crew  of  hardy  and  hearty  sons  of  the 
mist,  who  foot  it  every  night  after  the  labours  of  the  day  to 
the  sound  of  their  native  music.  We  lack  only  a  little  of  the 
mountain  dew  to  invigorate  the  dance.  For  my  part  I  think 
water  a  more  wholesome  beverage  ;  but  there  is  a  great  deal  in 
the  name,  and  prejudices  are  difficult  to  be  overcome,"" 

In  a  letter  from  Captain  Franklin  to  a  friend  in  London,  and 
published  in  the  Courier  Newspaper,  is  the  following  state- 
ment 

**  I  do  most  heartily  congratulate  you  on  the  prospect  we 
had  from  Garry's  Island,  of  a  perfectly  open  sea,  without  a  par- 
ticle of  ice,  as  it  is  another  step  gained  in  confirmation  of  your 
much  contested  hypothesis.  We  saw  nothing  to  stop  the  ships, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  every  thing  around  us  strengthened  my 
hope  of  their  effecting  the  passage.  The  Indians,  indeed,  have 
a  report,  that,  between  the  Mackenzie  and  Copper  Mine  River, 
there  is  a  point  which  stretches  far  to  the  north,  which  is  gene- 
rally surrounded  with  ice.  If  this  be  true,  the  ships  may  per- 
haps be  checked  in  their  progress  for  a  time ;  but  I  think  they 
will  not  be  altogether  stopt,  providing  they  have  been  enabled 
to  get  to  the  main  shore,  to  the  eastward  of  Regent's  Inlet.  No 
Indian,  however,  with  whom  I  had  spoken  in  my  recent  visit  to 
the  sea,  can  speak  of  this  point,  or  of  the  obstruction,  from 
his  own  observation ;  and  the  report  seems,  like  many  others  cur- 
rent among  them,  to  have  passed  from  generation  to  generation, 
which  at  the  first  had  but  little  ground  to  stand  upon.*" 

Franklin  has  thus,  in  our  opinion,  succeeded  in  realising,  to 
a  certain  extent,  the  views  of  the  learned  and  distinguished  Se- 
cretary Barrow.  We  ardently  hope  and  trust,  that  the  honour^ 
of  effecting  thp  North-west  Passage,  will  not  be  allowed  to  pass 
from  us,  and  that  Captain  Parry  will  be  again  dispatched  to 
finish  this  grand  nautical  enterprise.  The  Congress  of  the 
United  States  are,  we  are  informed,  at  this  moment  consider- 
ing a  proposal  laid  before  them  for  the  discovery  of  the  North- 


166  T>r  Grant  withe  Structure 

west  Passage,  which,  from  the  known  activity  of  that  body,  may 
l)e  agreed  too,  and  thus,  in  all  probability,  we  shall  hear  of  the 
American  flag  traversing  the  Polar  Sea,  and  doubling  Icy  Cape. 
The  Americans,  by  this  achievement,  would  secure  to  them- 
selves and  deservedly,  a  splendid  name  in  the  annals  of  geogra- 
phical discovery, — a  name  that  ought  to  be  ours,  and  which 
would  add  another  and  enduring  laurel  to  the  wreath  of  glory 
which  surrounds  the  maritime  honour  of  this  nation. 


Remarhs  on  the  Structure  of  some  Calcareous  Sponges.  J5y 
Robert  E.  Grant,  M.  D.,  F.R.S.E.,  F.  L.  S.,  M.W.S., 
&c.     Communicated  by  the  Author. 

JL  HE  Spong'm  compressa  Fabr.  Gmel.  Latnouroux,  (S./b- 
liacea,  Montagu),  affords  a  good  example  of  a  species  in  which 
the  axis  is  composed  entirely  of  calcareous  spicula.  This  is  a 
small  white  tubular  compressed  species,  generally  about  an  inch 
in  length  ;  it  hangs  from  the  under  surface  of  rocks  by  a  thick 
short  peduncle  ;  it  is  entirely  hollow,  and  opens  by  one  or  more 
marginal  apertures  at  its  pendent  extremity  ;  its  parietes  are  of 
equal  thickness  throughout,  nearly  as  thin  as  writing  paper,  and 
every  where  pierced  with  minute  openings,  which  are  visible  to 
the  naked  eye  on  the  external  and  internal  surface,  and  its  cur- 
rents are  distinctly  visible,  both  those  passing  in  through  the 
pores,  and  those  issuing  from  the  large  pendent  orifices.  It  is 
a  hardy  species,  growing  in  very  exposed  situations,  and  in  cold 
climates.  Fabricius  observed  it  on  the  coast  of  Greenland,  Pro- 
fessor Jameson  and  Dr  Fleming  on  the  shores  of  the  Shetland 
Islands,  Montagu  on  the  coast  of  Devonshire,  and  I  have  found 
it  very  abundant  in  the  Frith  of  Forth.  They  hang  like  small 
white  leaves  from  the  surface  of  rocks,  at  low-water  mark, 
being  always  in  a  collapsed  state,  and  their  opposite  sides  in 
contact  during  the  retreat  of  the  tide  ;  but,  when  suspended  for 
a  short  time  in  pure  sea  water,  their  parietes  separate,  and  they 
become  like  small  distended  bags  pouring  forth  a  continued  and 
obvious  current.  The  pores  pass  through  their  parietes  in  a 
direction  a  little  oblique,  from  below  upwards,  and  the  margins 


of  some  Calcareous  Sponges.  167 

of  the  fecal  orifices  are  surrounded  with  the  projecting  extremi- 
ties of  minute  shining  spicula.  To  the  naked  eye  their  external 
surface  appears  even  and  villous,  and  on  tearing  them  open,, 
their  internal  surface  appears  more  compact,  and  the  termina- 
tions of  the  pores  are  wider.  On  tearing  a  portion  of  this 
sponge  into  minute  fragments,  and  examining  them  under  the 
microscope,  we  find,  in  place  of  the  horny  tubular  fibres  of  the 
S.  communis,  which  Mr  Ellis  has  compared  to  fine  filaments  of 
catgut,  the  whole  axis  composed  of  slender,  shining,  transparent 
spicula  of  regular  and  constant  forms.  Two  forms  of  spicula 
are  observed  in  this  species,  the  one  is  tri-radiate,  consisting  of 
three  rays  of  the  same  form  and  size,  united  at  one  point,  and 
forming  equal  angles  by  their  union ;  the  rays  are  thickest  at 
their  point  of  divergence,  and  taper  slightly  to  near  their  free 
extremities,  where  they  are  brought  suddenly  to  a  point.  The 
rays  of  the  tri-radiate  spiculum  are  hollow  within,  shut  at  their 
free  extremities,  and  have  no  superficial  openings ;  but  their  in- 
ternal cavities  communicate  freely  at  their  point  of  junction,  and 
form  there  a  small  central  reservoir.  These  spicula  vary  much 
in  size  in  the  same  individual,  but  their  general  length  is  about 
the  sixth  of  a  line,  from  the  extremity  of  one  ray  to  the  extre- 
mity of  another;  and  I  have  not  observed  any  difference  in 
their  magnitude  taken  from  specimens,  one  of  which  was  ten 
times  the  size  of  the  other.  The  other  spiculum  of  the  com- 
pressa  is  the  clavate,  which  is  broadest  and  rounded  at  one  end, 
from  which  it  tapers  regularly  to  a  point  at  the  other ;  it  is 
quite  straight  for  two-thirds  of  its  length  from  the  pointed  end, 
but  the  remaining  thick  part  is  bent  so  as  to  describe  the  fourth 
part  of  a  circle.  This  spiculum  is  distinctly  tubular,  and  shut 
at  both  extremities.  The  very  small  straight  spicula,  which  we 
always  observe  along  with  these  two,  appear  to  be  only  broken 
rays  of  minute  tri-radiate  spicula.  These  spicula  consist  of  car- 
bonate of  lime,  and  exhibit  no  trace  of  phosphate  of  lime,  on 
employing  the  usual  agents  to  detect  its  presence.  When  we 
examine  with  the  microscope  the  arrangement  of  these  spicula 
in  the  compressa,  we  observe  two  rays  of  the  tri-radiate  spicula 
contribute  to  form  the  polygonal  pores,  while  the  third  ray 
serves  to  defend  and  maintain  a  space  between  the  pores  for  the 
lodgment  of  the  soft  parts  and  ova  of  this  animal ;  the  curved 


16Sf  Dr  Grant  on  the  Structure 

ends  of  the  clavate  spicula  hang  over  and  converge  around  the 
entrances  of  the  pores,  and  seem  to  have  a  relation  to  that  func- 
tion. As  these  tubular  spicula  have  no  external  opening,  they 
cannot  be  the  cells  of  polypi,  or  contribute  in  any  way  to  pro- 
duce the  currents  of  this  sponge. 

The  Spongia  nivea,   Gr.   is  a  small  sessile  flat  spreading 
species,  of  a  pure  white  colour,  which  I  have  only  found  on  the 
under  surface  of  sheltered  rocks  at  Prestonpans  Bay,  during  the 
ebb  of  stream-tides :  it  is  not  very  uncommon  there ;  it  appears 
like  patches  of  mineral  agaric,  or  rock -milk,  on  the  roofs  of 
small  caves,  is  about  two  lines  in  thickness,  spreads  to  the  ex- 
tent of  one  or  two  inches  in  diameter,  and  is  smooth  on  the  sur- 
face.    Its  pores  are  just  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  and  its  fecal 
orifices  are  regularly  and  beautifully  constructed  ;  there  is  a 
gentle  rise  of  the  surface  to  the  margins  of  the  fecal  orifices,  the 
margins  are  quite  circular,  and  have  thin  transparent  termina- 
tions ;  the  orifices  are  never  produced  so  far  as  to  form  distinct 
papillae,  and  their  currents  are  directed  perpendicularly  down- 
wards, in  the  natural  position  of  the  animal.     When  the  nivea 
is  checked  in  its  growth,  and  prevented  from  spreading  by  the 
crowding  of  other  animals  around  it,  its  surface  becomes  waved, 
and  in  many  places  presents  elevated  sharp  ridges,  which  allow  a 
greater  space  for  the  distribution  of  the  pores.     (See  specimens 
in  the  Museum  of  the  University,  ^S*.  nivea,  Gr.)     The  axis  of 
this  sponge  is  composed  almost  entirely  of  large  tri-radiate  spi- 
cula, some  of  which  are  more  than  half  a  line  in  length,  and 
thick  in  proportion  ;  their  forms  are  seen  by  the  naked  eye. 
These  triradiate  spicula  occur  of  different  sizes,  to  the  minute- 
ness of  the  fiftieth  of  a  line  in  length,  their  rays  taper  regu- 
larly from  their  place  of  junction  to  their  sharp-pointed  extre- 
mities, their  internal  cavities  are  very  distinctly  seen  in  the  large 
spicula.     The  second  form  of  spiculum  in  the  *S'.  nivea  is  the 
most  remarkable,  though  the  rarest ;  it  consists  of  a  straight 
line,  with  two  opposite  lateral  projections  in  its  middle,  which 
are  generally  a  little  curved.     When  these  lateral  processes  are 
large  and  straight,  it  becomes  a  regular  quadriradiate  spiculum, 
but  they  are  generally  much  shorter  than  the  other  two  rays  ; 
and  when  they  are  placed  near  one  extremity  of  the  spiculum, 
it  appears  under  the  microscope  like  a  small  dagger  with  a 


of  some  Cakareoiis  Spmiges.  169 

handle.  The  quadriradiate  spicula  are  generally  very  minute, 
and  in  number  about  one  to  a  hundred  of  the  triradiate.  The 
third  kind  of  spiculum  in  this  species,  is  a  very  minute  straight 
equally  thick  spiculum,  obtuse  at  both  ends,  and  generally  about 
the  fiftieth  of  a  line  in  length  ;  this  form  is  very  abundant,  and 
may  possibly  be  derived  from  the  broken  rays  of  very  small  tri- 
radiate spicula,  as  in  the  compressa.  These  three  kinds  of  spi- 
cula are  likewise  calcareous,  and  dissolve  with  rapid  efferves- 
cence on  being  touched  with  diluted  nitric  acid.  On  looking 
closely  into  the  surface  of  the  S.  nivea,  with  a  single  lens,  we 
perceive  that  the  large  triradiate  spicula  lie  parallel  with  the 
surface,  and  contribute  to  form  and  protect  the  pores. 

In  a  portion  of  the  Spongia  complicata  of  Montagu,  sent  me, 
along  with  fragments  of  nearly  thirty  other  species  of  British 
sponges,  by  the  Rev.  Dr  Fleming  of  Flisk,  who  has  collected 
and  studied  the  British  zoophytes  for  upwards  of  twenty  years, 
I  observe  the  axis  to  consist  entirely  of  very  minute  triradiate 
spicula,  which  dissolve  rapidly  with  effervescence,  when  touched 
with  nitric  acid.  Dr  Fleming  mentions  this  species  as  an  inha- 
bitant of  the  Frith  of  Forth,  and  considers  it  a  variety  of  the 
S.  hotryoides  of  most  authors.  The  triradiate  spiculum  not 
only  occurs  alone,  and  very  small,  in  this  species,  but  is  quite 
peculiar  and  very  imperfect  in  its  form  ;  the  rays  are  very 
short  and  disproportionally  thick ;  they  often  diverge  at  unequal 
angles,  and,  on  viewing  the  spiculum  sideways,  they  are  seldom 
found  to  lie  in  the  same  plain.  This  sponge  has  a  white  colour, 
like  the  other  calcareous  species,  and,  when  dry,  the  spicula  on 
its  surface  have  the  same  shining  silvery  lustre.  The  triradiate 
spicula  of  the  S.  hotryoides  were  figured  and  described  by  Mr 
Ellis,  and  have  been  mentioned  by  most  writers  since  his  time. 
Montagu  and  Lamouroux  have  very  judiciously  introduced  the 
forms  of  the  spicula  into  their  definitions  of  this  species  ;  and  in 
order  to  distinguish  them  from  the  triradiate  spicula  of  the 
S.  complicata^  Montagu  mentions  that  they  are  more  than  four 
times  as  large  as  those  of  the  latter  sponge.  From  having  inva- 
riably found  the  triradiate  spiculum  present,  either  alone  or  com- 
bined with  other  forms,  in  calcareous  sponges,  I  have  no  doubt 
that  the  true  S.  hotryoides,  if  distinct  from  S.  complicata,  will 
be  found  to  have  a  calcareous   axis.     A  portion  of  another 


170    Dr  Grant  on  the  Structure  of  some  Calcareous  Sponges. 

species,  presented  me  by  Dr  Fleming,  under  the  name  of 
S.  pulverulenta,  presents  two  kinds  of  spicula,  both  of  which 
effervesce  and  dissolve  quickly  in  nitric  acid ;  one  of  these 
forms  is  a  triradiate  spiculum  with  long  and  very  slender  rays 
diverging  at  equal  angles  ;  the  other  is  a  very  long  straight 
needle-shaped  spiculum,  pointed  acutely  at  one  end,  and  ob- 
tuse at  the  other.  This  calcareous  species  agrees  with  the 
others  in  its  white  colour,  and  the  silvery  lustre  of  its  spicula, 
when  dry.  The  Spongia  coronata  is  the  most  minute  and  the 
most  perfectly  constructed  of  all  the  calcareous  sponges  I  have 
yet  met  with.  It  has  two  kinds  of  spicula,  the  one  triradiate, 
and  the  other  needle-shaped,  both  of  which  dissolve  quickly 
with  eifervescence  in  diluted  acids.  The  triradiate  spicula  are 
more  equal  in  size  than  in  the  other  species,  and  are  models  of 
this  form  for  their  symmetry  and  proportions  ;  the  rays  are 
straight,  slender,  and  diverge  equally;  they  are  cylindrical, 
transparent,  and  acutely  pointed.  The  needle-shaped  spicula  are 
about  twice  as  long  as  the  triradiate,  slender,  transparent,  cylin- 
drical, rounded  at  one  end,  and  pointed  acutely  at  the  other. 
This  sponge  is  almost  microscopic  ;  several  entire  specimens  of 
it,  presented  me  by  Dr  Fleming,  are  not  half  a  line  in  length  ; 
they  agree  with  the  others  in  their  colour,  and  the  lustre  of 
their  spicula.  The  long  needle-shaped  spicula  cover  the  whole 
surface,  like  filaments  of  white  silk,  and  are  obviously  destined 
to  defend  the  pores  and  the  fecal  orifice,  which  is  proportionably 
large.  On  removing  these  projecting  needle-shaped  spicula 
from  the  surface,  which  may  be  compared  with  the  clavate  spi- 
cula of  the  S.  compressa,  we  observe  that  the  triradiate  spicula 
are  entirely  devoted  to  the  formation  of  the  pores  and  passages 
leading  into  this  animated  tube. 

There  are  thus  at  least  six  well  marked  species  of  British 
sponge,  in  which  the  spicula  consist  entirely  of  carbonate  of  lime, 
which  forms  an  important  character  of  distinction  between  these 
species,  and  those  containing  a  horny  or  a  siliceous  axis,  and 
shows  an  approximation  in  this  obscure  genus  to  the  more 
solid  polypiferous  corals,  which,  so  far  as  I  know,  has  hitherto 
escaped  notice. 


(    171    ) 


List  of  Rare  Plants  which  have  Flowered  in  the  Royal  Botanic 
Garden,  Edinburgh,  during  the  last  three  months;  with 
Descriptions  of  several  New  Plants.  Communicated  by 
Professor  G  hah  am. 

June  10.  1826. 


Arum  triphyllum  (a)  zebrinum. 
Bot.  Mag.  t.  950. 

Baptisia  nepalensis. 
Hook,  Exot.  Fl.  1. 131. 

Caprifolium  pubescens. 

Conospermum  tenuifolium. 

Never  having  seen  the  C.  tenuifolium 
of  Brown,  I  have  referred  our  plant 
to  that  species  with  some  hesita- 
tion, as  it  seems  to  agree  with  the 
essential  character. 

Conospermum  acinacifolium. 

Spec.  Char. — C.  acinacifolium  ;  laci- 
niis  perianthii  acutis,  tubum  vix  se- 
quantibus;  foliis  aveniis,  lineari-aci- 
nacifbrmibus,  mucronatis,  basi  at- 
tenuatis ;  corymbis  laxis. 

Description — Shrub  erect.  Leaves 
scattered,  narrow,  long  (2-3  inches), 
harsh,  slightly  hollowed  on  one  side, 
rounded  on  the  other,  bent  towards 
one  edge,  occasionally  tortile,  es- 
pecially in  the  upper  part  of  the 
branches,  mucronate,  veinless,  mid- 
dle rib  indistinct.  Corymbs  axil- 
lary, collected  near  the  top  of  the 
branches,  subdivided  in  their  up- 
per half.  Flowers  white,  sessile  in 
the  axil  of  a  pointed,  blue,  pubes- 
cent bractea ;  perianth  pubescent 
on  the  outer  side,  especially  of  the 
tube,  segments  of  the  lower  lip 
somewhat  spreading,  the  central 
rather  the  smallest ;  stigma  applied 
to  the  upper  lip  of  the  perianth, 
above  the  stamens ;  style  club- 
shaped,  passing  in  front  of  the  cen- 
tral stamens,  bent  at  the  base  of 
the  lower  lip ;  germen  silky ;  pappus 
silky,  unequal. 

When  the  upper  and  lower  lips  of 
the  perianth  are  drawn  asunder,  or 
when  the  style  is  touched  at  the 
joint,  it  starts  forward,  and  lies 
along  the  lower  lip  of  the  perianth, 
the  lateral  stamens  at  the  same 
time  separating,  and  exposing  those 
in  the  centre.  This  elasticity  of 
the  style,  attended  with  the  same 


separation  of  the  anthers,  I  have 
also  observed  in  the  C.  tenuifolium. 
The  flowers  of  both  are  perfumed 
like  hawthorn  blossom,  but  those  of 
the  C.  acinacifolium  by  much  the 
most  powerfully.  The  seeds  both 
of  this  species  and  the  last  were 
received  from  Mr  Fraser  from  New 
Holland  under  the  name  of  C.  erec- 
tum^  a  name  which  I  have  thought 
could  scarcely  be  retained  in  this 
genus.  The  plants  have  been  kept 
in  the  greenhouse. 

Dryandra  formosa. 

Epidendrum  ellipticum. 

Hook.  Exot.  Flor.  t.  207. 

Spec.  Char — E.  ellipticum;  foliis  al- 
ternis,  subellipticis,  succulentis ; 
pedunculis  terminalibus,  elongatis ; 
labello  perianthio  sequali,  tripar- 
tito,  fimbriato,  lobo  intermedio  mi- 
nore,  lineari. 

Description — Roots  long,  round, 
fleshy,  many  pushed  downwards 
from  the  origin  of  the  branch,  green 
above,  yellow  below  the  soil.  Stem 
jointed,  branched.  Branches  simple, 
round,  slightly  flexuose,  green, 
spotted  with  dull  brown.  Leaves 
alternate,  distichous,  spreading,  va- 
rying on  different  branches  from 
ovato-elliptical  and  slightly  concave 
above  to  elliptico-linear  and  near- 
ly flat,  occasionally  slightly  notch- 
ed at  the  apex,  fleshy,  very  ob- 
scurely marked  with  numerous  mi- 
nute parallel  nerves,  green,  occa- 
sionally faintly  spotted  like  the 
stem,  arising  from  the  joints  by 
very  thin  sheaths,  which  enclose 
the  stem,  and  are  in  some  branches 
as  long  as  its  joints,  in  others  much 
shorter ;  for  about  a  foot  at  the  up- 
per part  of  the  branch,  and  gene- 
rally for  a  little  way  at  the  bottom, 
there  are  sheaths  only,  which  are 
there  pointed,  persisting,  whitish, 
and  withered,  brown  and  striated 
in  their  upper  part.  Inflorescence 
a  crowded,  short,  terminal  spike. 
Rachis  toothed,  and  gradually  elon- 


in 


Dr  Graham's  List  of  Rare  Plants. 


gated  during  the  flowering.  Flowers 
spreading,  continue  many  days  ex- 
panded, each  having  a  small,  point- 
ed, marcescent  bractea.  Perianth 
rose-coloured,  obscurely  veined,  3 
outer  segments  rather  the  largest, 
obovato-lanceolate,  entire,  pointed, 
2  inner  lanceolate,  slightly  serru- 
lated towards  the  apex.  Labellum 
erect,  5-toothed  in  front,  two  teeth 
being  in  a  line  on  each  side,  and  one 
above  and  between  the  upper  pair, 
which  are  the  largest,  3-cleft,  seg- 
ments spreading,  fimbriated,  2  late- 
ral ones  by  much  the  longest,  semi- 
circular, central  segment  Unear,  and 
nearly  entire  on  its  sides,  aU  deep 
rose-colour  when  expanding,  but 
afterwards,  especially  the  lateral 
segments,  which  have  a  few  small 
dots  of  deep  rose-colour,  becoming 
very  pale.  Anther-case  conical,  pale 
yellowish-green,  occasionally  red- 
dish at  its  base.  Pollen-masses  4, 
yellow,  oblong,  remain  attached  to 
the  hollow  at  the  top  of  the  column, 
after  the  case  is  removed ;  four  fi- 
laments, of  greater  length  than 
them,  and  deeper  yellow,  arise 
from  their  lower  ends,  are  in  con- 
tact, reflected  along  the  pollen- 
masses,  and  connected  to  each  other 
at  their  extremities.  Germeri  an 
inch  long,  furrowed,  enlarging  up- 
wards, pink. 
The  mode  of  growth  of  this  plant  is 
curious,  and  analogous  to  that  of 
other  genera  among  the  Orchidese. 
A  bud  forms  immediately  above  a 
joint,  from  this  one  or  more  flower- 
ing branches  push,  and  from  the 
origin  of  these  many  roots  arise  ; 
branches  with  roots  in  like  manner 
proceed  from  these,  and  others  from 
these  again,  each  after  flowering 
appearing  gradually  to  decay.  Per- 
haps the  plant,  therefore,  would  be 
more  correctly  described  as  having 
a  simple  stem,  the  only  portion 
possessing  in  activity  the  powers 
of  life  being  what  for  convenience 
I  have  called  a  branch.  This  mode 
of  propagation  occurs  chiefly  at  the 
lowest  joints,  or  immediately  below 
the  flower.  The  species  certainly 
approaches  nearly  to  the  E.  elonga- 
tum,  Bot.  Mag.  t.  611.  and  the  flower 
greatly  resembles  it,  but  is  distin- 
guished by  the  form  and  size  of  the 
central  lobe  of  the  labellum,  and 


the  form  of  the  leaves,  which  arc 
never  pointed,  as  well  as  by  their 
more  fleshy  texture. 
I  am  indebted  for  the  plant  to  M. 
Harris  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  to 
Captain  Graham  of  H.  M.  Packet 
Service,  who  brought  it  to  Europe 
in  1824.  It  has  been  kept  in  the 
stove,  and  grows  freely  among 
pieces  of  bark. 

Eucrosia  bicolor. 

The  specimen  in  the  Botanic  Garden 
differed  from  the  plant  figured  in 
the  Bot.  Mag.  t.  2490.  in  having 
the  involucre  of  many  nearly  equal 
segments,  the  coroUa  of  nearly  an 
uniform  red-oran^e  colour;  in  there 
being  six  flowers  in  the  umbel ;  in 
its  much  more  vigorous  growth ; 
in  the  filaments  being  united  for  a 
very  little  way  only ;  and  in  the  leaf 
appearing  along  with  the  flower. 
I  cannot  doubt,  however,  that  the 
species  is  the  same.  A  figure  from 
our  specimen  is  given  in  Hooker's 
Exotic  Flora,  t.  209.  from  the  ac- 
curate pencil  of  Dr  Greville.  A 
second  plant  which  flowered  with 
us,  resembled  this  in  all  respects, 
excepting  in  the  involucre,  which 
had  3  large  undulated  segments, 
and  several  smaller ;  in  the  appear- 
ance of  two  leaves  at  a  time  ;  and 
in  the  occurrence  of  several  small 
abortive  flowers  which  expanded 
before  the  others. 

The  collection  at  the  Garden  is  in- 
debted for  these  plants  to  P.  Neill, 
Esq.  who  received  them  from  Mr 
Jameson,  surgeon,  Chili. 

Grevillea  pubescens. 

Spec.  Char. — G.  pubescens;  foliis  el- 
liptico-linearibus  integerrimis  mu- 
cronatis,  pedicellis  recur  vis,  floribus 
superioribus  prsecocioribus,  stylo 
pubescenti. 

DiEscRivi:.— -Branches  erect,  round, 
pubescent.  Leaves  scattered,  el- 
liptico-linear,  entire,  when  young 
revolute  at  the  edges,  mucronate, 
pubescent,  pubescence  harsh  on  the 
upper  surface,  softer  beneath,  mid- 
rib distinct,  veins  obscure.  Flowers 
in  abrupt,  terminal,  secund  ra- 
cemes. Pedicels  ascending,  straight, 
(i  inch  long).  Perianth  pale  yel- 
low, tomentose  immediately  above 
the  nectarium,  becoming  brown  in 
withering,  its  segments  remaining 


Dr  Graham's  List  of  Rare  Plants. 


173 


united.  Germen  nearly  round,  sub- 
sessile,  green ;  style  rather  longer 
and  much  stouter  than  the  pedicel, 
oblique,  pubescent,  flat  in  front,  of 
nearly  the  same  colour  as  the  pe- 
rianth ;  stigma  oblique,  flat,  with  a 
projecting  point  in  the  centre,  shin- 
ing, gi-een. 
The  seeds  were  sent  by  Mr  Fraser 
from  New  Holland  in  1824;  the 
plants  were  raised  last  year,  and 
have  already  flowered  freely  in 
the  greenhouse.  The  species  be- 
longs to  Section  B.  Ptychocarpa 
of  Brown,  Linn.  Soc.  Trans,  vol.  x. 
p.  172.  and  so  nearly  agrees  with 
the  description  of  G.  arenaria,  that 
I  should  have  hesitated  in  consi- 
dering it  distinct,  had  it  not  been 
for  the  recollection  of  Mr  Mac- 
nab,  the  excellent  Curator  of  the 
Royal  Botanic  Garden,  who  as- 
sured me  that  it  was  different  from 
the  plant  which  he  once  knew  at 
Kew  under  that  name, — an  obser- 
vation the  truth  of  which  has  since 
been  confirmed  by  Dr  Hooker,  from 
a  comparison  with  a  specimen  of  G. 
arenaria  in  his  possession.  The 
early  period  at  which  this  shrub 
flowers,  after  being  raised  from 
seed,  suggested  the  specific  name 
of  prcBcox ;  but  Dr  Hooker  having 
sent  to  the  engraver,  under  the 
name  of  G.  pubescens,  a  drawing 
kindly  supplied  by  Dr  Greville,  I 
have  adopted  this  designation. 

Habenaria  fimbriata. 

This  very  splendid  species,  along  with 
many  other  rare  American  plants, 
I  had  the  honour  to  receive  from 
the  Countess  of  Dalhousie,  before 
her  return  to  Canada  last  autumn ; 
and  magnificent  specimens  2  feet 
high,  are  now  in  flower  in  a  cold 
frame. 

Heliophila  arabioides. 

Laurus  Cassia. 

Lobelia  crispa. 

Spec.  Char — L.  crispa;  spica  ter- 
minali,  foliosa,  foliis  crispis,  den- 
tato-serratis,  sessilibus,  superiori- 
bus  linearibus,  acuminatis,  inferi- 
oribus  lanceolato-spathulatis. 

Descript — Root  fibrous  (annual?). 
Stem  erect  (5  feet  high),  generally 
simple,  angled,  proper  juice  milky. 
Leaves  scattered,  sessile,  sub-am- 


plexicaul,  veined,  indistinctly  pu- 
bescent, deeply  tooth-serrated,  ser- 
ratures  occasionally  toothed,  upper 
leaves  linear,  pointed,  gradually  di- 
minishing to  the  extremity  of  the 
spike,  crisped ;  lower  leaves  lan- 
ceolato-spathulate,  and  less  crisp- 
ed. Spike  very  long.  Flowers  so- 
litary, in  the  axils  of  the  brac- 
tese.  Peduncles  equal  in  length 
to  the  germen.  Calyos  segments 
pointed,  nearly  as  long  as  the  tube 
of  the  coroUa,  ciliated,  serrated,  at 
first  reflexed,  afterwards  spread- 
ing at  right  angles,  persisting, 
and  becoming  larger.  Corolla  mar- 
cescent,  limb  lilac,  faux  and  tube 
white,  2  upper  segments  small, 
linear,  pointed,  reflexed,  3  lower 
larger,  obovate,  acuminate,  spread- 
ing, the  central  lobe  rather  the 
smallest ;  tube  bent  down,  straight, 
nearly  cylindrical,  when  beginning 
to  fade,  cleft  in  its  whole  length 
above,  and  from  its  base  nearly  to 
the  faux  on  each  side.  Filaments 
flat,  unconnected,  hairy  on  their 
outer  surface,  white,  with  a  slight 
tinge  of  purple  on  the  outside. 
Anthers  connected  throughout,  deep 
purple,  hard.  Pollen  yellow.  Ger- 
men green,  partly  superior,  obovate, 
bilocular.  Style  compressed,  thick- 
ening upwards.  Stigma  oblique, 
cleft  transversely,  pubescent  round 
its  base,  segments  revolute.  Seeds 
very  numerous,  receptacle  large, 
and  attached  to  the  centre  of  the 
dissepiments. 

Native  of  Mexico.  Has  been  culti- 
vated in  the  stove,  but  suffers  from 

.  great  heat.  Seeds  were  received 
both  from  Lord  Napier  -and  Mr 
Mair  in  1825. 

Magnolia  conspicua. 

Flowered  well  against  the  open  wall  in 
a  sheltered  situation  towards  the  end 
of  March,  and  its  fine  large  flowers 
bore  without  injury  continued  and 
very  cold  weather. 

Maxillaria  aromatica. 
Gen.  Char — Bot.  Reg.  fol.  897- 
Spec.  Char — M.  aromatica;  bulbo 
ovato  compresso,  foliis  numerosis 
sequitantibus,  scapis  radicalibus, 
unifloris,  labello  semicylindraceo, 
lobo  medio  majore  denticulato,  la- 
bello interno  integerrimo  angus- 
tiori. 


174 


Dr  Graham's  List  of  Rare  Plants. 


Description. — Roots  fleshy,  cylin- 
drical. Btdb  ovate,  much  com- 
pressed, green,  with  two  indistinct 
rounded  angles  on  each  side.  Leaves 
numerous,  equitant,  lanceolate,  acu- 
minate, bright  green  and  shining, 
rising  from  the  base  of  the  old  bulb, 
and  before  any  distinct  bulb  is 
formed  at  their  origin.  Scapes  se- 
veral from  the  base  of  the  bulb, 
slender,  round,  jointed,  having  a 
marcescent  brown  sheath  at  each 
joint.  Flowers  solitary.  Perianth^ 
3  outer  segments  spreading,  green- 
ish-yellow, acuminate,  puljescent 
on  the  inside  near  the  base,  espe- 
cially the  upper  one,  which  is  lan- 
ceolate, the  others  ovate,  dilated 
downwards,  covering  laterally  the 
rounded  base  of  the  Tip,  but  scarce- 
ly involute,  and  here  quite  uncon- 
nected with  each  other;  2  inner 
segments  lanceolate,  pointed,  re- 
flected at  the  apex,  entire.  Lip 
semicylindrical,  fleshy  (as  is  the 
whole  perianth,  though  in  a  smaller 
degree),  pubescent  within,  parallel 
with  the  column,  and  loosely  arti- 
culated with  its  elongated  base ;  la- 
teral lobes  small,  their  upper  edges 
somewhat  involute,  their  apices 
turned  a  little  down  ;  middle  lobe 
nearly  as  long  as  the  inner  seg- 
ments of  the  perianth,  reflexed, 
rounded  at  its  apex,  and  edged  with 
minute  teeth,  attenuated  at  the 
base,  inserted  into  the  back  of  a 
broader  internal  lobe,  which  is 
quite  entire,  reflected  at  the  mar- 
gin, and  ascends  in  a  point  at 
each  side,  so  as  nearly  to  touch 
the  lateral  lobes  towards  their  ex- 
tremities ;  labellum  and  inner  seg- 
ments of  perianth  orange-yellow, 
sprinkled  on  the  inside  with  red 
dots.  Column  linear,  pubescent  in 
front,  especially  towards  the  top, 
beaked  above  the  stigma.  Anther 
terminal ;  pollen-masses  2,  yellow, 
rounded,  scarcely  flattened,  each 
furrowed  in  the  outer  side,  attach- 
ed by  very  short  partial  pedicels 
to  the  summit  of  a  flat  white  com- 
mon pedicel,  which  is  rather  longer 
than  the  pollen-masses,  and  is  re- 
flected under  the  anther-case  from 
the  beak  of  the  column,  to  which 
it  is  attached  by  a  round  flat  scale ; 
anther-case  blunt.  Germen  6.fur- 
rowed. 


The  flowers  are  perfumed  very  like 
to  Cinnamon,  from  which  circum- 
stance I  have  taken  the  trivial 
name. 

This  very  pretty  parasite  is  a  native 
of  Mexico,  where  the  bulbs  were 

f)rocured  by  Lord  Napier,  and  ob- 
igingly  communicated  to  the  Royal 
Botanic  Garden  at  Edinburgh  in 
1825. 

Medeola  virginica. 
Has  flowered  very  freely  and  in  large 
quantity  in  a  cold  frame. 

Phlox  nivalis. 

Pogonia  ophioglossoides. 

This  plant  having  been  presented  in 
large  quantity  by  the  Countess  of 
Dalhousie,  forms  a  turf,  and  flowers 
most  freely  in  a  cold  frame. 

Pyrola  umbellata. 

Protea  melaleuca. 

Puschkinia  scilloides. 

Pyrethrum  diver sifolium. 

Stem  herbaceous,  pale  green,  and  co- 
vered with  lax  hairs  which  decrease 
upwards,  leading  shoot  erect,  many 
others  arising  in  a  circle  from  its 
base,  diverging,  branching,  and  ex- 
ceeding the  leading  shoot  in  height. 
Leaves  linear,  ciliated,  but  other- 
wise less  pubescent  than  the  stem, 
pinnatifid  in  more  than  the  upper 
half,  pinnae  incised ;  nearly  the 
lower  half  entire,  ovate,  semi-am- 
plexicaul;  pinnatifid  portion  gra- 
dually diminishes  upwards,  and  is 
entirely  awanting  in  several  of  the 
uppermost  leaves,  which  are  quite 
entire,  ovate  and  acuminate.  Flow- 
ers terminal.  Calyx  semi-globular, 
imbricated  in  two  rows,  the  scales 
of  equal  length,  at  their  edges,  and 
especially  at  their  rounded  extre- 
mities, membranaceous,  transpa- 
rent, colourless  (though  reddish  in 
the  bud),  every  where  else,  like 
every  part  of  the  plant,  except  the 
flower,  pale  green;  membranous 
terminations  spread  upon  the  back 
of  the  ray.  Florets  of  the  Ray  spread- 
ing, at  length  revolute,  entire  at 
the  apex,  pointed,  white,  tinged 
with  red  along  the  centre  of  the 
outside  while  m  bud.  Disk  round- 
ed, yellow,  florets  funnel-shaped, 
tube  nearly  half  as  Iwig  as  the  limb ; 


Dr  Graham's  List  of  Rare  Plants. 


175 


limb  divided  to  a  third  of  its  length 
into  five  equal,  acute  segments. 
Filaments  inserted  at  the  throat  of 
the  tube.  Seeds  angular,  angles 
blunt.  Pappus  simple,  placed  ob- 
liquely on  the  top  of  the  seed, 
which  is  more  than  double  its  length. 
Style  rather  longer  than  the  limb 
in  the  tubular  florets,  and  project- 
ing nearly  as  much  beyond  the  tube 
of  the  ligulated  florets.  Stigma  cle^t^ 
segments  projecting,  converging. 
Style  and  stigma  awanting  in 
many  of  the  florets.  The  florets  of 
the  ray  seem  also  generally  barren, 
and  in  them  the  stigma  is  small, 
and  the  segments  diverging.  Re- 
ceptacle pitted,  hispid,  and  having 
a  few  long  soft  hairs.  The  ^seeds 
were  received  from  Mr  Fraser, 
New  Holland. 

Renealmia  grandiflora. 
Sweet's  British  Flower  Garden,  t.  64. 

Stylidium  adnatum. 

. graminaefolium. 

Viola  hederacea. 

Roots  branching.  Stem  very  abort 
(4  inch),  tapering,  leafy,  producing 
many  very  long,  filiform,  jointed 
stolons,  joints  sending  down  a  per- 
pendicular branched  root,  and  form- 
ing crowns  from  which  other  sto- 
lons proceed.  Leaves  petiolate, 
kidney-shaped,  at  first  cucuUate, 
afterwards  convex  on  their  up- 
per surface,  nerved,  smooth,  but 
not  shining,  crenate  or  sinuato- 
dentate,  (1-14  i"^^  broad).  Pe- 
tioles (2-4  inches  long)  grooved,  and 
having  a  ridge  in  the  centre  of  the 
groove.  Stipules  generally  two  be- 
tween the  joints  of  the  stolons,  lan- 


ceolate, acuminate,  toothed.  Pe- 
duncles axillary,  erect,  having  one 
indistinct  groove,  generally  longer 
than  the  petioles,  procumbent,  and 
somewhat  rolled  when  in  fruit. 
BractecB  2,  slender,  awl -shaped, 
nearly  opposite,  placed  in  the 
middle  of  the  peduncle.  Calyx 
persisting,  leaflets  awl-shaped,  with 
very  short  spurs.  Corolla  inodo- 
rous, resupinate,  lowest  petal  the 
largest,  ovate,  concave,  emarginate, 
blue  and  beautifully  veined,  white 
at  the  apex,  green  at  the  base,  2 
side  petals  nearly  linear,  twisted, 
pubescent  on  the  upper  and  lower 
half  of  the  inner  surface,  blue  from 
the  base  to  the  middle  on  the  inside, 
nearly  to  the  apex  without,  vein- 
ed ;  upper  petals  spathulate,  re- 
flected, blue  to  near  the  middle  in 
front,  almost  to  the  apex  behind. 
Anthers  nearly  sessile,  large,  mem- 
branous appendage  pointed  (cleft?) 
brown.  Pollen  yellow.  Germen 
obovate.  Seeds  numerous,  obovate, 
attached  to  the  centre  of  the  valves, 
black  when  ripe.  Style  white,  bent 
at  its  base,  filiform.  Stigma  white, 
tapering  from  the  style,  cleft,  near- 
ly straight. 
The  seeds  of  this  plant  wei-e  sent  by 
Mr  Fraser,  colonial  botanist  at 
Sydney,  New  Holland,  in  1824, 
and  first  raised  last  season.  We 
were  not  told  in  what  part  of  the 
country  the  plant  is  native.  It 
has  been  cultivated  in  the  stove, 
but  is  injured  by  great  heat,  and  is 
doing  well  in  a  cool  frame,  and  no 
doubt  will  thrive  in  the  green- 
house. It  produces  abundance  of 
stolons  as  well  as  seeds. 


(    176    ) 


Celestial  Phenomena  from  July  1.  to  October  1.  1826,  caku^ 
latedfor  the  Meridian  of  Edinburgh^  Mean  Time.  By  Mr 
George  Innes,  Aberdeen. 

The  times  are  inserted  according  to  the  Civil  reckoning,  the  day  beginning  at  midnight. 
The  Conjunctions  of  the  Moon  with  the  Stars  are  given  in  Right  Ascension. 


JULY.                                  1 

AUGUST. 

t>. 

H.       /      // 

D. 

^.      /      // 

1. 

•  21   10  52 

6  D  A  tt 

1. 

8  35  34 

$  very  near  11  • 

2. 

6  52  34 

6  D2k  « 

1. 

5  greatest  elong. 

3. 

0  21  23 

dD'  « 

3. 

19  14  22 

(^  New  Moon. 

a 

16  10  40 

6K  « 

4. 

15  37  46 

d  Do  ^ 

4. 

2  32  30 

dDb 

5. 

0  33  28 

6))^n. 

6. 

7  27  38 

%  New  Moon. 

5. 

22  32  50 

dD$ 

6. 

10  41  54 

dD^ 

6. 

10  24     6 

6DV 

7. 

11  27  32 

C5  ))   1  «  225 

6. 

18  10    7 

dD? 

7. 

12  39  13 

d  ^  2a  S3 

8. 

22  29  54 

6D»W 

7. 

21     4  51 

6])? 

8. 

23     9  20 

dDiTlJ 

8. 

17  59  40 

d})*^ 

9. 

17     0     - 

5  very  near  (i  TIJ 

9. 

17  43  40 

6))'U 

10. 

18    6  30 

])  First  Quarter. 

9. 

21  16  31 

Em.  I.  sat.  7/ 

11. 

2    9     7 

6D^ 

12. 

13  16  53 

])  First  Quarter. 

11. 

7  34  10 

6D>^^ 

12. 

17  57  11 

d])iTlJ 

11. 

12    7     2 

dDx^ 

14. 

0  45  13 

6)>6 

11. 

16  57  22 

d  D  1  A  TtL 

15. 

1  47  29 

61)^^ 

11. 

16  58  46 

d  ])2/2ni 

15. 

4  45    - 

^])¥ 

12. 

22  51  53 

d  1)  P  Oph. 

15. 

"    6  15  28 

dD^=^ 

13. 

19  52     9 

6])if^  t 

16. 

10  59     0 

6  D  MR 

13. 

20  27  48 

6])2f.  t 

15. 

11     0  20 

d])2/?TTl, 

14. 

21  57  30 

d])d  ^ 

16. 

16     9  50 

c^  D  P  oph. 

15. 

6  33  20 

6  })¥ 

17. 

6  50    - 

d?«^ 

16. 

1     4  40 

61)iin 

17. 

12  36  17 

c^  ])1/-  t 

17. 

2    4- 

9  near  ^  n 

17. 

13  11     - 

dD2/t  t 

17. 

17     5  21 

O  Full  Moon. 

18. 

14     3  25 

61)^  t 

23. 

17  51  41 

O  enters  Tl}? 

19. 

0  16  30 

6  D^ 

24. 

11  11  35 

d])<^  T 

19. 

7     5  10 

O  Full  Moon. 

25. 

14  58  34 

(  Last  Quarter. 

19. 

16  39  49 

6D^n 

26. 

16  16  25 

d  D'  « 

23. 

11  28  16 

0  enters  ^ 

27. 

8  18  36 

dK  « 

25. 

7  40    - 

6^-^ 

28. 

6  25  40 

d])b 

26. 

20  56  52 

(  Last  Quarter. 

28. 

7  54  46 

d])vn- 

28. 

3  28  41 

dD^  T 

30. 

14  10    - 

Inf.  6  0  9 

29. 

14  33  43 

d  })2x   tt 

31. 

3  24  14 

d  ])  1  «  225 

30. 

8     5  35 

dD'  « 

31. 

4  34  18 

d  ))  2«  SZ5 

30. 

23  57  57 

dK  « 

31. 

16  54  42 

6Dh 

31. 

23  18  56 

d  ])vn 

- 

•  At  the  true  time  of  conjunction  of  Venus  and  Jupiter  on  the  1st  day  of 
August,  their  geocentric  longitude  will  be  164°  53'  24";  their  elongation  36°  22' 
54";  the  geocentric  latitude  of  Venus  1°  7  24",6 ;  and  of  Jupiter  1°  5'  49",2,  both 
north ;  logarithm  of  the  distance  of  Venus  from  the  earth  0,0858477  ;  and  of 
Jupiter,  0,7940647.  This  will  be  an  interesting  phenomenon,  as,  owing  to  the 
effect  of  Venu8*s  parallax  in  latitude,  she  will  probably  be  in  contact  with  Jupiter. 


Celestial  Phenmnenafrom  July  I.  to  Oct.  I.  1826.         177 


SEPTEMBEE. 

1. 

H.      ,       .. 

9    3- 

6D'  SI 

D. 
11. 

4     1     0 

6D^t 

1. 

21  52  30 

dD? 

11. 

U  24  40 

6  ])¥ 

2. 

5  29  10 

0  New  Moon. 

12. 

7  39  27 

6))p>y%  ' 

3. 

2  25  30 

6DV 

16. 

5  39  16 

O  Full  Moon. 

ft. 

4  47  20 

61)  »^ 

18. 

8  50    - 

60% 

5. 

5  24  49 

dDiTIJ 

21. 

10     5    - 

66  ^  Opii. 

ft. 

11  56  50 

dD? 

23. 

0     8  29 

dD'  « 

7. 

12  54  42 

6D-^ 

23. 

14  19  10 

0  enters  zCiz 

7- 

17  26  48 

6  D^=^ 

23. 

16  23     _ 

d  K  « 

7. 

22  15  10 

6  D  i^TTt 

24. 

9  11   30 

(  Last  Quarter. 

7. 

22  16  34 

ii   D  2i3lT\^ 

24. 

16  21  23 

dDvH 

8. 

0  53     6 

d])vTTl 

25. 

18  43  46 

dDb 

8. 

12  10  30 

dDc? 

27. 

13     4     8 

d  ])  1  «  225 

a 

23  29  35 

(  First  Quarter. 

27. 

14  15  10 

d  ^  2  a  Q2J 

9. 

4  13  43 

6  D  P  Oph. 

27. 

18  59  14 

6  ))^£l 

10. 

5  greatest  elong. 

30. 

19  32  13 

dDV 

la 

1  27  51 

6M^  ^ 

30. 

22     4  10 

6  DV 

10. 

2     4     0 

C3])2/.    ? 

30. 

22  48  15 

d])9 

T 

imes  of  the 

Planets  passing  the  Meridian. 

JULY. 

Mercury. 

Venus. 

Mars. 

Jupiter. 

Saturn. 

Georgian. 

D. 

H.       , 

H.        , 

H.    , 

II.      , 

H.        , 

H.        , 

1 

12  39 

14     8 

19  39 

16     9 

11  13 

1     5 

5 

12  58 

14  12 

19  27 

15  56 

10  59 

0  48 

10 

13  18 

14  16 

19  13 

15  41 

10  42 

0  28 

15 

13  32 

14  19 

18  59 

15  22 

10  25 

0     3 

20 

13  43 

14  23 

18  47 

15     6 

10     8 

23  41 

25 

13  49 

14  25 

18  35 

14  50 

9  51 

23  21 

AUGUST.                                                                                   1 

Mercury. 

Venus. 

Mars. 

Jupiter. 

Saturn. 

Georgian. 

D. 

H.       , 

H.       , 

H.       , 

H.       , 

H.        , 

H.          , 

1 

13  51 

14  28 

18  21 

14  28 

9  27 

22  52 

5 

13  48 

14  30 

18   13 

14  15 

9  14 

22  36 

10 

13  39 

14  31 

18     3 

14     4 

8  56 

22  16 

15 

13  23 

14  32 

17  54 

13  43 

8  38 

21  54 

20 

13     1 

14  33 

17  46 

13  27 

8  21 

21  34 

25 

12  29 

14  35 

17  39 

13  11 

8     4 

21   14 

SEPTEMBER.                                                                         | 

Mercury. 

Venus. 

Mars. 

Jupiter. 

Saturn. 

Georgian. 

D. 

H.       , 

H.        , 

H.       , 

11.      , 

H.       , 

H.      , 

1 

11  41 

14  36 

17  29 

12  49 

7  42 

20  47 

5 

11  17 

14  37 

17  24 

12  37 

7  24 

20  31 

10 

10  55 

14  38 

17  17 

12  20 

7    5 

20  10 

15 

10  50 

14  36 

17  12 

12     4 

6  47 

19  50 

20 

10  55 

14  42 

17    7 

11  50 

6  29 

19  31 

if 

11     4 

14  43 

17    2            11  34 

6  lo 

19  12 

APHIL JULY  1826. 


(    178    ) 

Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh. 

Feb.  6.  1826. L  here  was  read  a  Notice  respecting  the 

late  severe  cold  in  Inverness-shire  and  Aberdeen,  as  communi- 
cated to  Dr  Brewster  in  Two  Letters  from  J.  P.  Grant,  Esq. 
M.  P.,  and  George  Fairholme,  Esq. 

Feb.  20. — Mr  Bald  read  a  Notice  on  a  Fine  Sand  found  near 
Alloa  fit  for  making  Flint  Glass.  There  was  also  read  a  Letter 
from  Professsr  Moll  of  Utrecht  to  Dr  Brewster,  on  a  New  Island 
in  the  Pacific. 

March  6. — A  paper  by  Dr  Brewster  was  read,  on  the  Re- 
fractive Power  and  other  properties  of  the  Two  New  Fluids  in 
Minerals. 

March  20. — A  paper  by  Mr  Stark  was  read,  on  Two  Spe- 
cies of  Pholas  found  on  the  Coast  in  the  Neighbourhood  of 
Edinburgh.  And  Dr  Knox  read  a  paper  on  the  Size  of  the 
Teeth  of  the  Shark. 

April  S. — There  was  read  a  paper  on  a  Singular  Phenomenon 
in  Vision,  by  Mr  Thomas  Smith,  Surgeon,  Kingussie.  And 
a  Notice  by  Dr  Brewster  was  read  on  the  Advantages  of  making 
Simultaneous  Meteorological  Observations  in  different  parts  of 
the  Kingdom,  on  one  or  more  days  of  every  year. 

April  17. — There  was  read  a  Description  of  a  New  Register 
Thermometer,  without  any  Index,  by  H.  H.  Blackadder,  Esq. 

May  1. — Mr  H.  H.  Blackadder  read  a  paper,  entitled.  Ob- 
servations on  the  colour  and  constitution  of  Flame.  (This  paper 
is  printed  in  the  present  Number,  p.  52  et  seq.)  At  the  same 
meeting,  Dr  Brewster  exhibited  to  the  Society  a  new  Monochro- 
matic Lamp.  And  a  new  Safety  Gas-burner,  invented  by  Mr 
W.  Warden,  was  also  exhibited. 

The  Society  adjourned  till  December. 


Proceedings  of  the  Wernerian  Natural  History  Society, 

1826,  Feb.  11. — Jl  rofessor  Jameson  communicated  a  note 
of  low  temperatures,  observed  by  Mr  Grant,  at  his  seat  of  Ro- 
thiemurchus,  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  during  the  late  se- 
vere frost  of  January ;  the  lowest  being  6°  below  0,  and  this 
extreme  cold  continuing  for  several  hours. 


Proceedings  of' the  Wernerian  Society.  179 

The  Professor  also  gave  an  account  of  the  occurrence  of  phos- 
phate of  lime,  in  balls  or  concretions,  in  the  bituminous  shale  of 
the  coal  formation. 

Dr  R.  E.  Grant  then  read  a  paper  on  the  structure  and  na- 
ture of  the  SpongiUa  Jriabilis,  and  exhibited  recent  specimens 
from  the  rocks  and  stakes  on  the  east  side  of  Loch  end,  near 
Edinburgh.  (This  paper  is  printed  in  the  Edinburgh  Philo- 
sophical Journal,  vol.  xiv.  p.  11 3,  et  seq.) 

There  was  exhibited  to  the  meeting  a  collection  of  magnificent 
specimens  of  doubly  refracting  spar  from  Iceland,  the  property 
of  Mr  Witham,  and  collected,  last  summer,  by  Mr  Rose  and 
Mr  Brown,  from  a  great  vein,  about  fourteen  feet  wide,  travers- 
ing trap-rock  of  the  nature  of  amygdaloid. 

Feb.  25. — The  Secretary  read  Mr  William  Scott's  Observa- 
tions on  the  Climate  of  Shetland,  &c.,  and  laid  before  the  meet- 
ing a  Meteorological  Journal,  kept  at  Unst,  by  Mr  Scott.  He 
likewise  read  a  notice,  communicated  by  Mr  Trevelyan,  relative 
to  the  numerous  teeth  of  the  rhinoceros  lately  discovered  in  the 
cave  near  Kent's  Hole,  and  also  regarding  the  teeth  of  an  un- 
known quadruped  found  in  the  same  cave. 

Professor  Jameson  then  read  the  first  part  of .  a  paper,  enti- 
tled, "  Remarks  tending  to  explain  the  Geological  Theory  of 
the  Earth." 

March  11. — Professor  Jameson  read  the  concluding  part  of 
the  Observations  on  the  Theory  of  the  Earth. 

The  Secretary  read  an  extract  of  a  letter  from  Prof.  Buckland 
of  Oxford  to  Mr  Jameson,  regarding  the  lately  discovered  cave 
near  Torquay,  which  has  been  considered  as  an  antediluvian 
hyena's  den.  Specimens  of  the  bones,  supposed  to  have  been 
gnawed  by  the  hyenas,  were  exhibited ;  and  several  members 
gave  it  as  their  opinion,  that  these  bones  had  been  gnawed  by 
some  quadruped ;  while  others  remarked,  that,  in  some  cases, 
the  erosion  in  the  middle  of  a  bone  was  so  great,  that  it  must 
have  snapped  through,  had  such  erosion  been  produced  by  for- 
cible gnawing. 

The  President  exhibited  to  the  meeting  several  large  flower- 
buds  of  the  Rqfflesia  Arnoldi  of  Sumatra,  with  a  coloured 
engraving  representing  the  flower  when  fully  expanded.  It  was 
mentioned  by  Mr  Arnott,  that  Mr  R.  Brown  had  lately  pro- 

M  9, 


J  80  Proceedings  oftJie  Wernerian  Society. 

cured  some  seeds  of  this  remarkable  plant,  in  a  state  fit  for  the 
examination  of  their  structure,  though  not  for  germination.  (It 
has  been  hitherto  supposed  to  belong,  along  with  Cytinus  and 
Nepenthes,  to  the  natural  order  Cytineae.) 

Dr  R.  E.  Grant  then  opened  a  small  mummy-case  in  presence 
of  the  Society :  the  case  was  brought  from  a  catacomb  in  Upper 
Egypt,  and  had  one  end  formed  into  the  resemblance  of  the 
head  of  a  cat.  A  few  bones  only  remained ;  and  Dr  Grant  was 
of  opinion  that  they  might  be  those  of  a  small  domestic  cat. 

March  25. — There  was  read  a  paper  by  the  Rev.  Dr  Fle- 
ming of  Flisk,  entitled,  "  The  Geological  Deluge,  as  interpreted 
by  Baron  Cuvier  and  Professor  Buckland,  shewn  to  be  incon- 
sistent with  the  testimony  of  Moses  and  the  phenomena  of  na- 
ture."    (Printed  in  the  Edin.  Phil.  Journ.  vol.  xiv.  p.  205.  et 


Professor  Jameson  exhibited  and  gave  a  general  account  of 
several  gigantic  specimens  of  the  vase-shaped  sponge,  common- 
ly known  by  the  name  of  Paterae  or  Neptune's  cups  ;  these  splen- 
did specimens  having  been  brought  from  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  Mauritius. 

A  very  excellent  stuffed  specimen  of  the  Crocodile  of  the 
Nile,  12 1  feet  long,  was  also  shewn  to  the  meeting. 

April  8. — There  was  read  a  notice  of  a  shower  of  young 
herrings,  which  fell  on  the  coast  of  Argyleshire,  contained  in  a 
letter  from  the  Rev.  Colin  Smith  of  Appin  to  Professor  Jame- 
son.    (Printed  in  the  present  number  of  this  Journal,  p.  186.) 

Dr  Grant  then  read  an  account  of  a  new  zoophyte  from  the 
Frith  of  Forth,  forming  a  genus  which  connects  Spongia  and 
Alcyonium,  and  which  he  proposed  to  call  Cliona ;  the  species 
found  on  old  oyster-shells  in  our  frith  being  Cliona  celata  of  Dr 
Grant.     (Printed  in  the  present  Number,  p.  78.) 

Mr  Stark  exhibited  four  drawers,  containing  a  very  complete 
and  beautiful  suite  of  the  numerous  varieties  of  Ortrea  opercu- 
laris  found  in  the  Frith  of  Forth.  And  Mr  Bald  gave  an  inte- 
resting account  of  the  great  coal-field  of  South  Wales,  and  laid 
before  the  meeting  several  very  uncommon  specimens  of  coal, 
ironstone,  Welch-rock  (a  sort  of  micaceous  sandstone-flag),  and 
ore  of  titanium. 

At  this  meeting,  the  following  new  members  were  admitted  : 


Proceedings  of  the  Werner  ian  Society.  181 

RESIDENT. 

John  Geddes,  Esq.  mining-engineer,  Edinburgh. 

George  Lees,  Esq.  teacher  of  mathematics  to  the  Military  Academy. 

MOM*RESIDBNT. 

Geo.  Edw.  Frere,  Esq.  of  the  Clydach  Ironworks,  Brecknockshire. 
Thomas  Buchanan,  Esq.  Hull,  author  of  "  Acoustic  Surgery." 
Joseph  Carne,  Esq.  Cornwall,  author  of  "  Mineralogy  of  Cornwall." 
Geo.  Cuming  Scott,  Esq.  master  of  the  Anglo-Mexican  Mint  at  Guanaxato. 
H.  Stirling,  Esq.  Captain  in  the  Hon.  East  India  Company's  service.  > 

FOREIGN. 

M.  Adrien  de  Jussieu,  Paris. 
M.  John  Roeper  of  Gottingen. 
M.  Achille  Richard,  Paris. 

April  22. — The  Secretary  read  a  memoir  on  the  arrange- 
ment and  nomenclature  of  Univalve  Shells,  and  on  the  structure 
of  the  animals,  by  Charles  Collier,  Esq.  Staff-surgeon,  Ceylon. 
He  also  read  the  introductory  part,  and  gave  a  general  account, 
of  an  elaborate  and  learned  monograph  of  the  genus  Allium, 
comprehending  133  species,  by  Mr  George  Don,  A.  L.  S. — 
Professor  Jameson  then  read  a  communication  on  the  Snakes  of 
Southern  Africa,  by  Dr  Andrew  Smith,  assistant-surgeon  98th 
Regiment,  and  superintendant  of  the  South  African  Museum. 

May  27. — The  Secretary  read  an  Account  of  a  rare  fish,  the 
Sciaena  Aquila,  taken  in  the  Shetland  Seas.  (This  is  printed 
in  the  present  number,  p.  135.  et  seq.) 

Dr  Knox  read  a  Notice  respecting  the  presence  of  a  rudi- 
mentary spur  in  the  female  Echidna  of  New  Holland.  (Print- 
ed in  the  present  number,  p.  130.) 

Dr  Grant  read  an  Account  of  the  motions  of  the  ova  of 
Campanularia  dichotoma,  Gorgonia  verrucosa,  Caryophyllea  ca- 
lycularis,  Spongia  panicea,  papillaris,  cristata,  and  of  Plumu- 
laria  falcata ;  and  stated,  that,  in  all  these  zoophytes,  the  mo- 
tions seem  to  be  produced  by  cilise  distributed  over  their  sur- 
face. (This  paper  is  likewise  printed  in  the  present  number, 
p.  150.  et  seq.) 

There  was  read  at  the  same  meeting  an  Account,  illustrated 
by  coloured  drawings,  of  the  Holothuria  tubulosa,  by  Dr  Col- 
lier, staff-surgeon. — The  Society  then  adjourned  for  the  season. 


(    182    ) 


SCIENTIP^IC  INTELLIGENCE. 

NATURAL  PiBEILOSOPHY. 

1.  Lieutenant  Drummond  on  the  means  q/' Jacilitating  the 
Observations  of  Distant  Stations  on  Geodesical  Operations. — 
There  was  lately  read  to  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  a  paper 
on  the  means  of  facilitating  the  observations  of  Distant  Stations- 
in  geodesical  operations,  by  a  highly  accomplished  engineer,  our 
friend  and  former  pupil,  Lieutenant  T.  Drummond,  Royal  En- 
gineers. A  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  having  re- 
commended to  his  Majesty's  Government,  in  1824,  the  accom- 
plishment of  a  new  survey  of  Ireland,  the  author  was  entrusted 
by  Lieutenant-Colonel  Colby  with  the  contrivance  of  means  for 
obviating  the  delay  which  usually  occurs,  in  connecting  the  sta- 
tions in  triangulation  in  this  country,  from  the  frequently  unfa- 
vourable state  of  the  weather  not  permitting  the  ordinary  sig- 
nals to  be  seen  from  distant  stations.  To  remove  this  inconve- 
nience, as  far  as  day  observations  were  concerned.  Lieutenant 
Drummond  had  recourse,  in  preliminary  trials,  to  tin-plates,  as 
substitutes  for  regular  heliostats ;  and  the  advantages  derived, 
from  applying,  even  in  this  rough  way,  the  principle  of  reflec- 
tion, as  suggested  by  Professor  Gauss,  led  to  the  invention  of  an 
instrument  described  in  the  paper,  which  was  used  with  much 
benefit  last  season  in  the  survey  of  Ireland.  It  was  also  desira- 
ble to  have  some  method  of  connecting  the  stations  during  the 
night.  For  this  purpose,  Bengal  and  white  lights  had  formerly 
been  employed  by  General  Roy,  but  the  use  of  them  had  given 
way  to  that  of  Argand  lamps,  their  light  being  concentrated,  and 
reflected  towards  the  observers,  by  a  parabolic  mirror.  These, 
however,  had  been  found  to  answer  but  imperfectly  ;  and  Colo- 
nel Colby  and  Captain  Kater,  when  connecting  the  meridians  of 
Greenwich  and  Paris,  in  1821,  with  MM.  Matthieu  and  Ara- 
go,  employed  the  light  of  an  Argand  lamp,  with  four  concen- 
tric wicks,  concentrated  by  a  lens.  This  apparatus,  however, 
u^as  found  to  be,  in  many  respects,  objectionable ;  and  the  para- 


Scientific  Intelligence. '-^Natural  Philosophy j         183 

bolic  reflector  still  appeared  to  be  the  most  eligible  means  of  con- 
centrating the  light.  With  the  view  of  obtaining  a  powerful  light, 
Lieutenant  Drummond  first  tried  various  pyrotechnical  prepara- 
tions, and  afterwards  the  combustion  of  phosphorus  in  oxygen 
gas ;  but  he  found,  in  all  these,  that  the  light  was  ill  defined, 
and  otherwise  unsuited  to  the  object  in  view.  He  then  had  re- 
course to  the  light  emitted  by  some  of  the  earths  and  metallic  ox- 
ides, when  ignited  by  the  flame  of  alcohol,  urged  by  oxygen  gas. 
Taking  the  light  of  the  brightest  part  of  the  flame  of  an  Argand 
lamp  as  unity,  and  effecting  the  comparison  by  the  method  of 
shadows,  he  found  the  light  given  out  by  quicklime,  when  under 
this  treatment,  to  be  equal  to  37 ;  that  emitted  by  zircon,  31  ; 
and  that  by  magnesia,  16.  The  best  kind  of  lime  for  the  purpose, 
is  chalk-lime,  which  admits  of  being  turned  readily  into  small 
balls,  having  a  stem,  and  to  which  the  regularity  and  truth  of 
surface  can  be  given,  which  are  essential  to  the  production  of 
the  well-defined  image,  necessary  for  the  perfect  use  of  the  con- 
trivance in  geodesical  operations.  This  lime,  when  the  experi- 
ment is  most  successful,  emits  a  light  exceeding  83  times  that  of 
the  brightest  part  of  the  flame  of  an  argand  lamp.  In  the  fo- 
cus of  the  parabolic  reflector,  at  the  distance  of  40  feet,  it  is  al- 
most too  dazzling  to  look  at.  From  the  perfect  success  which 
attended  the  employment  of  this  mode  of  illumination,  on  one 
occasion  in  Ireland  last  year,  it  is  expected  that  it  will  enable 
the  officers  to  complete  the  connection  of  distant  stations  with 
celerity,  and  in  the  most  satisfactory  manner.  Various  applica- 
tions of  it  are  contemplated  ;  among  others,  the  connection  of 
the  meridian  of  the  Edinburgh  Observatory  with  that  of  Dub- 
lin, taking  Benlomond  as  an  intermediate  station. 

METEOROLOGY. 

2.  Deception  occasioned  by  Fog. — "  When  at  San  Bias,  a  port 
at  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  California,  in  January  1824,  I 
had  occasion,  in  company  with  several  of  the  officers  of  the  ship 
in  which  I  then  served,  to  visit  the  town  of  Sepic,  situated  about 
fifty  miles  inland.  The  first  eighteen  or  twenty  miles  of  our 
journey  was  over  a  low,  swampy,  flat,  covered  thickly  with  trees, 
so  as  to  obstruct  the  view  in  every  direction.  Afterwards,  we. 
began  to  ascend  the  mountainous  tract  that  terminates  the  low 


184  '      Scientific  Intelligence. — Meteorology. 

land  stretching  along  the  coast.     On  reaching  the  top  of  the 
nearest  ridge,  which  was  clear  of  trees,  we  stopped  to  look  around 
us,  and,  to  our  astonishment,  we  perceived,  as  we  thought,  the 
sea  lashing  the  base  of  the  hill  on  which  we  stood.     As  we  had 
calculated  on  having  accomplished  upwards  of  one-third  of  our 
journey,  we  were  bewildered  at  this  unexpected  circumstance, 
and  so  convinced  were  some  of  my  companions,  that  it  was  the 
sea  they  saw  stretched  out  before  them,  that  they  insisted  our 
guide  had  mistaken  the  road,  and  led  us  along  the  beach,  instead 
of  taking  a  direction  directly  inland.     The  Hne  of  the  horizon 
appeared  distinctly  marked,  and  the  vapour  seemed  to  roll  on 
the  beach  like  the  gentle  motions  of  the  waves,  when  slightly 
urged  by  light  and  variable  winds.    Indeed,  so  striking  was  the 
deception,  that  it  was  not  before  I  had  examined  the  phenome- 
non steadily,  for  some  time,  and  reflected  on  the  impossibility 
of  the  sea  being  so  near,  from  the  direction  we  had  taken  at  the 
outset  of  our  journey,  that  I  became  convinced  of  the  whole 
being  an  illusion,  caused  by  the  reflection  of  the  sun'*s  rays,  from 
a  dense  mist  that  hovered  over  the  plain  we  had  passed  ;  but  our 
guide  (an  English  resident  at  San  Bias)  had  great  difficulty  in 
convincing  one  or  two  of  my  companions,  that  their  eyes  had  de- 
ceived them,  and  that  the  ocean  they  were  observing  was  an 
ocean  of  vapour  instead  of  water.     A  heavy  rain  had  fallen  the 
evening  before,  and  the  moisture,  suddenly  converted  into  va- 
pour, by  the  powerful  action  of  a  tropical  sun,  we  conjectured 
to  be  the  cause  of  this  remarkable  appearance.     The  vapour  ap- 
peared to  hover  close  over  the  tops  of  the  trees  ;  as,  on  observing 
it  steadily  for  some  time,  we  saw  one  or  two  of  the  taller  trees 
breaking  through  it,  having  the  appearance  of  distant  islands  in 
die  ocean."" 

3.  Apparent  7iearness  of  Objects. — "  The  deception  of  distance 
in  these  plains  is  even  more  remarkable  than  it  is  upon  water, 
there  are  so  few  objects  wherewith  to  measure  space,  that  the  eye 
is  bewildered,  and  quite  put  to  fault.  I  remember,  upon  look- 
ing from  the  caravanserai  at  Moschacoor,  from  whence  points 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  next  stage  (Soo)  are  to  be  seen,  I  should 
have  judged  a  small  water  reservoir  on  the  road  to  be  but  two 
miles  distance  ;  it  was  twelve  in  reality :  and  a  small  knob  upon 
the  shoulder  of  a  hill  somewhat  further,  (four  miles  I  should 


Scientific  Intelligence. — Meteorohg^y.  1^5 

have  said,)  turned  out  to  be  twenty.  On  leaving  the  caravan- 
serai at  Muxood-beggee,  we  clearly  discerned  the  walls  of  Ko- 
maishah,  elevated  by  refraction ;  and  though  the  real  distance 
was  full  twenty-five  miles,  it  did  not  appear  to  be  five :  instances 
even  more -remarkable,  particularly  when  looking  from  a  height, 
might  be  quoted.  This  deception  has  a  more  unpleasant  effect 
than  can  be  conceived  ;  for  the  weariness  of  the  body  and  mind, 
harassed  by  the  dull  unvarying  scene,  is  exasperated  by  prolonged 
disappointment ;  as  the  same  objects,  never  altering  in  size  or 
propinquity,  seem  to  the  jaded  traveller  to  recede  rather  than 
advance,  as  he  slowly  winds  along.'" — Eraser's  Travels. 

4.  Mirage  in  Persia. — "  The  wonderful  effects  of  the  mirage, 
and  the  phenomena  it  produces,  have  frequently  been  the  theme 
of  admiration  with  travellers  ;  but  it  is  almost  impossible  to  con- 
ceive the  extent  to  which  these  prevail  upon  the  wide  and  level 
plains  of  these  countries,  when  the  air,  in  a  state  of  rapid  undu- 
lation, causes  every  object  near  the  surface  to  tremble  into  forms 
as  uncertain  and  evanescent  as  the  eddies  that  produce  them. 
A  distant  mountain,  in  the  space  of  a  minute,  will  assume,  first, 
perhaps,  the  form  of  a  lofty  peak  ;  this,  after  rising  to  what  ap- 
pears a  prodigious  elevation,  will  thicken  at  the  top,  and  spread 
into  that  of  a  large  mushroom,  with  a  slender  stalk  ;  the  top  will 
then  split  into  several  spires,  and  then  all  will  join  into  a  solid 
table  shape.  This  is  extremely  puzzling  to  a  surveyor,  who  de- 
pends upon  the  peaks  of  mountains  as  objects  from  which  to  form 
his  triangles ;  for  he  may  be  thrown  many  degrees  out  of  the 
true  line,  by  trusting  to  an  observation  under  such  circumstances. 
In  other  instances,  a  mud-bank,  furrowed  by  the  rain,  will  ex-- 
hibit  the  appearance  of  a  magnificent  city,  with  columns,  domes,' 
minarets,  and  pyramids,  all  of  which  flit  as  you  approach  ;  till, 
to  your  utter  confusion,  they  dwindle  into  a  heap  of  earth,  per- 
haps not  ten  feet  high.  Numberless  have  been  the  mistakes 
made  of  asses  with  boys  on  them,  for  elephants  and  giants,  or 
well  mounted  troops  of  cavalry ;  sheep  and  goats  for  camels  and 
dromedaries  ;  and  the  smallest  bushes  for  fine  forest-trees.  There 
is  sometimes  great  beauty,  and  much  that  is  amusing,  in  the  va- 
riety of  phenomena  produced,  but  they  not  unfrequently  involve 
the  weary  traveller  in  great  disappointment.''' — Eraser's  Trwvets: 


186  Scimtific  Intelligence. — -Meteorology. 

5.  Shower  of  Fishes  in  Argyleshire. — "  The  rare  occurrence 
of  such  falls  renders  them  so  remarkable,  as  to  be  remembered 
after  long  intervals  of  time,  and  even  after  every  circumstance 
connected  with  them  is  forgotten.  When  any  phenomenon  is 
not  considered  in  its  relation  to  any  particular  cause,  few  will 
attend  to  its  possible  relations  to  preceding  events ;  and  fewer 
still  will  esteem  it  of  such  importance  as  to  treasure  up  the  ob- 
servations which  they  might  have  happened  to  make,  even  al- 
though these  might  be  of  great  importance,  in  illustrating  the 
nature  and  causes  of  the  circumstance  observed. 

It  is  thus,  that,  though  the  testimony  of  many  has  enabled 
me  to  ascertain,  that  a  shower  of  herring-fry  fell  in  Lorn,  about 
the  year  1796,  yet  I  have  not  met  with  any  who  could  inform 
me  of  the  particulars  concerning  it. 

In  the  same  district,  and  near  the  same  place,  on  a  small  emi- 
nence above  Melford  House,  a  shower  of  herring  fell  in  1821, 
in  every  respect  so  large  and  good,  that  the  tenants  by  whom 
they  were  found  were  induced  to  send  some  of  them  to  their 
landlord,  then  residing  in  Edinburgh.  In  regard  to  the  state 
of  the  weather,  I  could  learn  no  more  than  that  it  was  exceed- 
ingly boisterous;  while  the  hill  on  which  they  were  found  is 
exposed  to  the  south-west  wind,  which  blows  along  Loch  Mel- 
ford, an  arm  of  the  sea  in  which  herrings  are  frequently  found ; 
and,  as  far  as  I  know,  the  only  one  in  this  quarter  in  which  the 
fly  is  commonly  and  successfully  used  in  fishing  them. 

In  the  month  of  March  1817,  strong  gales  of  wind  from  the 
north  were  experienced  in  Appin.  Upon  the  evening  of  the 
second  day  of  their  continuance,  rain  fell  in  abundance ;  and 
next  day  being  very  warm  and  sultry,  some  children  observed  a 
large  quantity  of  herring-fry  scattered  over  a  moss  a  little  to  the 
north-east  of  the  ferry  of  Shien.  There  might  have  been  about 
three  barrels  or  more  of  these,  and  measuring  from  1^  to  3 
inches  in  length.  Now,  the  place  in  which  they  were  found  is 
only  about  300  yards  north  of  Lochcreran,  an  arm  of  the  sea 
running  east  and  west,  from  which  severals  supposed  the  fry 
must  have  been  raised.  The  wind,  however,  being  from  the 
north,  renders  this  a  seeming  impossibility ;  and  it  may,  per- 
haps, be  more  safely  concluded,  that  they  must  have  been  eject- 


Scientific  Intelligence, — Meteorology.  18f 

€d  from  the  Linnhe  Loch,  another  arm  of  the  sea>  extending 
south-west  and  north-east,  about  three  miles  north  of  the  place 
in  which  they  were  found,  A  range  of  moorland,  about  300 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  intervenes;  but  it  is  easier  to 
suppose  the  cause  which  originally  elevated  these  fry  to  be  so 
powerful  as  to  carry  them  this  height  and  distance,  than  that 
they  should  obtain  a  course  contrary  to  the  general  body  of  the 
air.  They  exhibited  no  appearance  of  being  bruised  by  the  fall, 
nor  was  there  any  thing  which  could  induce  them  to  believe  that 
water  had  fallen  at  the  same  time.*" — 'Letter  Rev.  Colin  Smith 
of  Appin  to  the  Editor* 

6.  Shower  of  Herrings  in  Galloway.  —  "  Macchirmore,  or 
the  Head  of  the  Macchirs  *,  for  indeed  there  is  not  much  white 
ground  above  it,  pertains  to  Dunbar  of  Macchirmore.  It  is 
situate  upon  the  east  side  of  the  river  of  Cree,  one  mile  distant 
to  the  south  from  the  town  of  Monnygaffe ;  and  here  is  the  first 
ford  of  the  water  of  Cree,  except  that  betwixt  Kirkmabreck  and 
Wigton,  of  which  more  hereafter.  This  ford  is  five  miles,  or 
thereby,  in  recta  linea,  to  the  northward  distant  from  Wigton. 
In  the  moors  of  this  parish  of  Monnygaffe,  not  many  years  since, 
at  a  place  called  La  Spraig,  not  far  distant  from  the  water  of 
Munnach,  but  sixteen  miles  distant  from  the  sea,  there  fell  a 
shower  of  herring,  which  were  seen  by  creditable  persons,  who 
related  the  story  to  me.  Some  of  the  said  herring  were,  as  I 
am  informed,  taken  to  the  Earl  of  Galloway's  house,  and  shown . 
to  him."" — Andrew  Symson's  Large  Description  of  Galloway ^ 
1684.     Edinb,  1823,  p.  31. 

7.  Shower  of  Herrings  in  Kinross-shire. — Mr  Arnot  informs 
me,  that,  about  a  year  ago,  a  shower  of  herrings  fell  near  Loch 
Leven ;  it  came  in  the  direction  of  the  Frith  of  Forth,  and  the 
herring  are  conjectured  to  have  been  blown  out  of  the  water  of 
the  Frith,  and  carried  by  the  wind  across  Fifeshire,  to  the  place 
where  they  were  found,  in  the  vicinity  of  Loch  Leven. 

8.  Shower  of  Shells  in  Ireland.  —  "I  send  you  another  in- 
stance of  a  shower  of  shells,  which  fell  at  Monastereen,  in  the 

•*  Macharmor  is  not  "  the  Head  of  the  Macchirs,"  but  the  Great  Machar,  or 
level  arable  district.  The  Head  of  the  Machars  would  be  Ceann-a-Mhachair.— Edit. 


188  Scientific  Iiitelligence. — Metcfrrohgy. 

county  of  Kildare,  a  few  days  ago.  At  this  time  the  tides  were 
remarkably  high,  and  the  sea  exhibited  marks  of  unusual  dis- 
turbance.    I  regret  that  I  can  send  one  only  of  these  shells." 

9.  Colours  of'  Lightning. — The  colours  of  Hghtning  that  ac- 
companies thunder  high  in  the  atmosphere,  are  yellowish  white, 
sometimes  reddish,  seldom  pale  green  ;  but  in  low  thunder,  the 
lightning  is  bluish  or  pale  violet. — Kastner. 

10.  Meteoric  Stones, — Earthy  meteoric  stones  are  com- 
pact and  grey  coloured,  and  either  contain,  besides  finely  disse- 
minated native  iron,  no  other  constituent  parts,  as  in  those  of  En- 
sisheim,  Aigle,  Lissa,  &c. ;  or  they  are  composed  of  diffe- 
rent mineral  substances,  arranged  in  granular  concretions,  as 
is  the  case  with  the  meteoric  stones  of  Stannern  and  Juvenas. 
The  meteoric  stone  of  Juvenas,  according  to  Mitscherlich,  is  a 
granular,  crumbly,  compound  of  augite  (which  also  occurs  crys- 
tallized in  cavities  of  the  mass),  labradorite  (Labrador  fel- 
spar), a  yellow  foliated  mineral,  and  a  metallic  mineral,  re- 
sembling magnetic  pyrites.  The  resemblance  of  this  meteoric 
stone  to  the  greenstone  (dolerite)  of  the  Meissner  Hill  in  Ger- 
many, is  very  striking ;  and  not  less  so  to  some  varieties  of 
greenstone  from  Hammersfiord  in  Iceland.  That  the  white  mi- 
neral in  the  meteoric  stone  is  not  common  felspar,  is  proved  by 
the  re-entering  angles  formed  by  the  cleavages  in  the  twin- 
crystals. 

CHEMISTRY. 

11.  Effects  of  Mineral  Substances  on  Animals. — From  the 
experiments  of  Professor  Gmelin  of  Tubingen  on  the  action  of 
mineral  substances  on  animals,  it  results,  1 .  That  mineral  sub- 
stances, very  nearly  allied  to  each  other,  as  baryte  and  stron- 
tian,  are  yet  very  different  in  the  effects  they  produce  on  the 
animal  body.  S.  That,  of  the  different  metals  injected  into  the 
vascular  system,  three  only  occasioned  coagulation  of  the  blood, 
viz.  muriates  of  barytes,  uranium,  aud  palladium ;  which  three 
metals  differ  very  much  in  their  chemical  constitution.  3.  That, 
when  chromate  of  potash  is  introduced,  under  the  skin,  in- 
to the  cellular  substance,  it  affects  the  bropchial  system,  occa- 
sioning increased  secretion  of  mucus,  and  also  inflammation  of 


Scientific  Intelligence. — Chemistry.  189 

riie  conjunctiva.  4.  That  the  oxide  of  osmium  occasions  more 
speedy  vomiting  than  any  other  metal.  3.  That  sulphate  of  man- 
ganese injected  into  the  vascular  system,  occasions  a  powerful  ac- 
tion of  the  liver,  causes  inflammation  of  that  organ,  and  increases 
very  much  the  secretion  of  the  gall,  so  that  the  larger  vessels 
become  of  a  yellow  colour. 

12.  Salts  assume  different  primitive  forms,  according  to  the 
menstruum  in  which  they  crystallise. — We  are  informed,  that  a 
German  chemist,  Dr  Wollner,  has  found  that  one  and  the  same 
salt  assumes  different  fundamental  or  primitive  forms,  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  liquor  in  which  the  crystals  are  formed. 
In  illustration  of  this  statement,  he  says,  that,  when  a  small 
portion  of  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron  is  poured  into  a  solution 
of  alum,  and  the  whole  allowed  to  crystallise,  the  sulphate 
of  iron  assumes  the  octahedral  form  of  the  alum,  although  these 
octahedral  crystals  contain  scarcely  a  trace  of  alum. 

V6.  Compound  for  preserving  Substances  from  Humidity. — 
When  a  mixture  of  one  part  of  oil  and  two  parts  of  resin  is 
forced,  by  the  application  of  a  high  temperature,  to  penetrate 
porous  substances,  as  building-stones,  plaster,  &c.,  it  renders 
them  perfectly  impermeable  to  moisture. 

14.  Inconveniences  of  the  pressure  apparatus  Jor  Coohing.—- 
In  the  miUtary  establishment  of  Carlsruhe,  the  alimentary  sub- 
stances are  cooked  in  vessels  composed  of  tinned  iron,  in  which 
the  temperature  can  be  augmented  by  pressure.  M.  Geiger  has 
detected  in  all  the  substances  so  prepared  a  small  quantity  of  tin 
and  lead,  which  varies  according  to  the  nature  of  the  substance 
cooked,  and  the  time  it  has  remained  in  the  apparatus.  He 
thinks  that  the  continual  presence  of  these  metals  in  the  food  ta- 
ken by  the  same  persons,  although  they  may  exist  in  but  very 
small  proportions,  must  prove  hurtful  to  their  health. 

15.  Carbonate  of  Magnesia. — According  to  Bischof  1363 
parts  of  water  dissolve  1  part  of  carbonate  of  magnesia,  which 
is  a  larger  portion  than  stated  by  Dr  Fyfe,  who  found  that  it  re- 
quired 2632  parts  of  water  to  dissolve  1  part  of  carbonate  of 
magnesia. 

16.  Changes  that  take  place  in  the  teocture  of  different  solid 
substances  in  the  course  of  time. — Common  barley-sugar  when 


190  Scientific  Intelligence^'-^Cheniistry. 

fresh  made  is  transparent,  and  exhibits  no  particular  structure  ; 
but  if  kept  for  some  time  it  loses  its  transparency,  and,  by  a 
diange  of  the  arrangement  of  its  particles,  its  structure  gradu- 
ally changes  from  compact  into  stellular  radiated.  This  case  is 
analogous  to  changes  we  have  observed  in  minerals,  which,  al- 
though solid,  and  without  any  particular  structure,  in  the  course 
of  time  acquire  a  particular  structure,  such  as  the  fibrous,  radia- 
ted, or  foliated. 

17.  Constituent  parts"  of  Magnesian  Limestones  from  the  vi- 
dmty  of  Jedburgh^  as  ascertained  by  Mr  William  Copland. 

Carbonate  of  Lime,  -  45  50  53 

Carbonate  of  Magnesia,  -  33  35  15 

Carbonate  of  Iron,  -  16  8  27 

Alumina,               -  -  6  7  5 

100  100  100 

18.  Analysis  of  a  Powder  wliich  is  sold  in  Paris  under  the 
nam£  of  Colour^  and  used  in  giving  trinket  gold  the  colour  of 

fine  gold. — Cupidity  and  ignorance  have  often  issued  in  com- 
merce, under  different  names,  a  multitude  of  more  or  less  noxi- 
ous substances,  to  which  extraordinary  properties  have  been  at- 
tributed ;  and  the  credulous  public,  having  no  suspicion  of  the 
dangerous  qualities  which  these  substances  often  possess  in  a 
very  high  degree,  and  according  to  which  they  exert  a  specific 
agency,  are  frequently  exposed  to  the  most  serious  accidents. 
Secret  preparations  of  this  kind  cannot  be  too  well  made  known, 
nor  can  too  much  publicity  be  given  to  their  composition,  and 
the  analysis  that  may  be  made  of  them,  the  knowledge  of  the  re- 
sults of  which  maybe  so  eminently  useful  to  society.  The  powder 
which  the  trinket-manufacturers  used  to  apply  for  the  purpose  of 
colouring  gold,  was  composed  of  marine  salt,  nitrate  of  potash, 
and  alum ;  but,  for  some  time  back,  another  substance  has  been 
vended,  the  composition  of  which  is  different.  This  powder  is 
of  a  dirty  white  colour,  having  a  tinge  of  red,  its  taste  is  salt, 
and  like  that  of  common  sea-salt,  but  it  leaves  a  disagreeable 
metalKc  taste  in  the  mouth;  and  it  sensibly  attracts  moisture 
from  the  air.  Its  analysis  has  furnished  the  following  results. 
Twenty  grammes  of  it  have  yielded, 


Scientific  Intelligence. — CJiemistry.  191 

Of  pure  White  Oxide  of  Arsenic,     2.135 
Alum  with  a  base  of  Potash,  4. 190 

Marine  Salt,         -         -         -        13.560 
Oxide  of  Iron  and  Argil,         .         0.115 


20  gr. 

If  this  powder  be  really  used  for  colouring  gold,  as  I  have 
been  assured,  the  oxide  of  arsenic,  I  should  think,  can  have  no 
effect  in  that  way. — M.  J.  L,  Casaseca. 

Note  hy  M.  UArcet — I  have  several  times  had  occasion  to 
examine  the  saline  composition  known  under  the  name  of  colour ^ 
which  is  employed  by  the  toymen  for  giving  to  trinket  gold  the 
beautiful  yellow  colour  of  fine  gold.  The  following  is  the  re-* 
suit  of  my  analysis  in  round  numbers  : 

Saltpetre,         40 
Alum,  25 

Sea.salt,  35 

100 

I  was  not  aware  that  any  change  had  been  made  in  the  com- 
position of  this  mixture.  If  the  powder  examined  by  M.  Casa.- 
seca  be  now  used  for  colouring  gold,  it  can  only  have  been 
adopted  of  late,  and  since  fashion  has  introduced  the  taste,  and 
rendered  necessary  the  employment  of  variously  coloured  alloys 
of  gold  with  silver,  copper,  iron,  antimony  and  platina.  M. 
Casaseca's  observations  appear  to  me  to  be  very  important,  and 
will,  without  doubt,  induce  authorities  to  adopt  measures  of  ad- 
ministration for  obliging  the  persons  who  prepare,  vend,  or  em- 
ploy the  new  composition  in  question,  to  employ  all  the  neces- 
sary precautions  against  the  danger  arising  from  the  use  of  a 
mixture  containing  so  much  oxide  of  arsenic. — Annales  de 
Chimie  et  de  Physique,  Mar.  1826. 

MINERALOGY. 

19.  Gay-Lussite. — A  new  mineral,  under  this  name,  is  de- 
scribed, and  its  analysis  given  in  the  Annales  de  Chimie  and  de 
Physique  for  March  1826.  It  is  a  hydrated  bicarbonate  of  lime 
and  soda,  the  following  being  its  constituent  parts :  carbonate 
of  lime  32.85  ;  carbonate  of  soda  34^.76;  water  82.29=100.00; 
analysed  by  J.  B.  Boussingault.  It  occurs  in  crystals  dissemina- 


192  Scientific  Intelligence. — Mineralogy. 

ted  through  a  bed  of  clay,  which  covers  the  natural  carbonate 
of  soda,  called  urao,  at  Lagunilla,  a  small  Indian  village  to  the 
south-east  of  the  town  of  Merida  in  Spanish  America. 

20.  Titanium,  ageneral  ingredient  in  Felspars  and  Serpentines. 
-Peschier,  in  Ann.  de  Chem.  and  de  Phys.  March  1826,  finds,  by 
experiments,  1.9/,  That  Titanium  is  a  constant  constituent  part  of 
felspars  and  serpentines ;  ^d,  That  serpentines,  like  felspars,  con- 
tain an  alkaline  principle.  And  he  adds,  that  his  researches  de- 
monstrate that  the  greater  number  of  primitive  mountain  rocks 
contain  titanium,  and  that  the  metal  is  more  generally  distributed 
in  nature  than  is  commonly  supposed.  The  glassy  felspar  Pe- 
schier  finds  to  contain  both  potash  and  soda. 
21.  Fluids  in  Cavities  of  Minerals. — Many  beautiful  specimens 
'  of  amber,  containing  cavities  more  or  less  filled  with  water  and 
air,  are  drawn  and  described  in  Sendeiio's  Historia  Succinorum. 
Sokolow,  we  are  informed,  on  breaking  a  rock  crystal  in 
which  a  fluid  was  inclosed,  heard  an  explosive  noise,  and  re- 
marked that  the  hand- tow  el  in  which  the  specimen  was  held 
when  breaking  it,  appeared  in  several  places  as  if  acted  on  by  an 
acid.    (Communicated  to  Lconhard  by  Von  Struve). 


GEOLOGY. 

22.  Contested  passage  in  Tacitics. — In  Tacitus  Ann.  Lib.  xiii. 
c.  57.,  it  is  said,  "  Sed  civitas  Juhonum  socia  nobis,  malo  impro- 
viso  afflicta  est ;  nam  ignes,  terra  editi,  villas,  arva  passim  corripier 
bant,"  &c.  This  passage  some  consider  as  an  historical  proof  of 
volcanic  eruptions  on  the  Rhine  and  in  the  Eifel, — an  opinion  not 
in  dhe  least  probable.  We  are  disposed,  with  Nees  von  Esen- 
beck  and  others,  to  refer  the  whole  to  some  muir  or  heath  burn- 
ing that  had  taken  place  near  Cologne. 

23.  Hills  formed  by  Springs. — The  wells  of  Moses,  near  to 
Suez,  afford,  according  to  Monge,  the  remarkable  appearance  of 
hills  formed  by  springs.  The  eight  wells  of  this  watering  place 
all  occur  on  the  summits  of  small  conical  hillocks,  having  crater- 
shaped  hollows  at  top,  forming  basins,  in  which  the  water  collects, 
and  from  which  it  flows  downwards  in  natural  ravines.  The 
highest  of  these  hillocks  rises  40  feet  above  the  surrounding 
country.     In  it  the  spring  has  long  ceased  to  flow.     The  other 


^cimtific  IntelUgence- — Geology.  193 

seven  springs  shew  how  these,  elevations  are  gradually  formed. 
In  other  countries,  especially  in  Iceland,  Trinidad,  Kamtschatka, 
&c.  appearances  of  the  same  description,  but  on  a  large  scale, 
occur.  The  quantity  of  matter  during  the  course  of  even  one 
year,  brought  from  the  interior  of  the  earth,  and  deposited  on 
its  surface,  by  the  agency  of  springs,  is  truly  enormous.  What 
must  be  the  quantity  during  the  course  of  a  few  centuries  ? 

24.  On  the  manner  in  which  Ammoniacal  Salts  are  formed  in 
Volcanoes, — It  is  well  known,  that  muriate  and  sulphate  of  ammo- 
nia are  met  with  incrusting  and  intermixed  with  volcanic  rocks, 
thus  shewing  that,  in  these  situations,  they  are  of  volcanic 
origin.  Some  geologists  have  been  puzzled  for  an  explanation  of 
the  mode  of  formation  of  these  salts.  The  following,  founded  on 
Mr  Faraday's  experiments,  may  be  considered  as  sufficiently  plau- 
sible. The  hot  lava,  which  analysis  shews  to  contain  alkaUne  hy- 
drate and  also  iron,  coming  in  contact  with  water,  a  decomposi- 
tion takes  place ;  the  nascent  hydrogen  of  the  water  unites  with 
the  azote  of  the  atmospherical  air,  and  thus  ammonia  is  formed, 
and  this  alkali  meeting  with  muriatic  and  sulphuric  vapours,  com- 
bines, and  forms  muriate  and  sulphate  of  ammonia. 

ZOOLOGY. 

25.  Whale  hilled  in  the  River  St  Laurence^  600  miles  from 
the  Sea. — "  The  steam-boat  Lady  Sherbroke,  arrived  on  Friday 
from  Quebec  ;  the  passengers  on  board  reported,  that  they  had 
been  followed  to  within  a  few  miles  of  this  city,  by  a  large  sea 
monster.  Some  supposed  it  to  be  the  famous  sea-serpent,  while 
others  believed  it  a  whale  or  grampus ;  however,  all  concurred 
that  it  was  a  fish  of  a  very  large  kind,  stating  the  length  to  be 
from  thirty-five  to  eighty  feet.  In  the  evening  of  Friday,  the 
monster  rose  alongside  of  the  steam  ferry-boat,  which  plies  from 
the  Cross  (two  miles  below  the  city),  to  Long  Guile,  and  ap- 
peared to  be  nearly  the  length  of  the  boat.  On  Saturday  morn- 
ing, two  enterprising  captains,  Brush  and  Seymour,  with  a  crew 
of  eight  men,  went  down  in  the  long  boat  belonging  to  the  steam- 
boat. About  three  miles  below  Montreal,  they  had  the  satisfac- 
tion to  see  the  fish  rise  and  blow.  They  immediately  pulled  for 
his  tract,  and  soon  came  alongside,  when  the  harpooner  fixed 
the  dart  into  him. — Now  a  scene  took  place,  which  surprised 

APRIL-— JULY  1826.  N 


194  Scientific  Intelligence. — Zoology. 

those  who  had  collected  on  shore.  The  current  running  with 
great  rapidity,  it  is  not  common  to  see  a  boat  propelled  up  stream 
with  any  swiftness  ;  but  the  whale,  for  so  we  must  now  call  him, 
darted  with  the  boat  in  tow,  up  the  current,  at  the  rate  of  ten  or 
twelve  miles  an  hour.  The  whale,  perhaps  not  wishing  to  ap- 
proach too  near  the  city,  soon  tacked  about,*  and  stood  down  for 
Long  Point,  and  remained  towing  the  boat,  until  near  12  o'clock, 
going  where  he  pleased,  and  drawing  the  boat  much  faster  than 
those  in  her  were  accustomed  to  travel  even  by  steam.  Finally, 
the  harpoon  gave  way,  and  the  whale  foj*  the  present  made  his 
escape.  The  party,  however,  are  determined  to  make  a  second 
trial  to-morrow,  when  they  will  be  better  supplied  with  proper 
instruments.  Hundreds  were  assembled  on  the  shore  to  witness 
the  attack  and  chase,  and  certainly  it  was  a  novel  one  to  see  a 
whale  600  miles  up  from  the  sea-board.  Much  credit  is  due  to 
Captains  Brush  and  Seymour  for  the  promptness  and  energy  em- 
ployed on  this  occasion.  Captain  Bunker,  of  your  city,  who 
commands  the  Malsham  steam-boat,  will  be  up  to-morrow,  and 
by  him  we  may  hear  something  farther. — Montreal  is  about  120 
miles  above  the  termination  of  the  tides,  and  about  300  miles 
from  salt  water.- TA^  Whale  caught.  On  Sunday  last  a  great  num- 
ber of  boats  were  very  early  on  the  alert  below  Granf  s  island, 
watching  the  motions  of  the  whale.  He  was  repeatedly  seen  very 
near  the  boats,  but  not  sufficiently  to  allow  them  an  opportuni- 
ty of  striking  hini.  At  about  9  or  10  o'clock,  the  steam-boat 
Laprairie,  wdth  several  persons  on  board,  came  down  the  cur- 
rent, and  it  is  thought,  by  those  who  were  present,  frightened 
him,  and  occasioned  his  running  up  the  river,  passing  several 
lx)ats,  until,  from  some  cause,  he  was  induced  to  slacken  his  pro- 
gress, and  to  drop  backward  down  the  river,  until  he  struck 
the  boat  navigated  by  Captain  Brush,  Mr  Young,  and  some 
other  persons.  Mr  Young  then  seized  the  opportunity  and 
thrust  a  harpoon  with  main  force  into  his  body,  directly  behind 
the  first  fin.  Never  was  a  thrust  more  effectual.  Mr  Young, 
as  it  were,  stood  over  him  when  the  wound  was  made.  He  im~ 
mediately  veered  about,  and  went  down  the  stream  with  great 
rapidity.  Shortly  after  he  turned  and  proceeded  up  the  current 
St  Marie,  and  taking  the  southern  channel  through  which  tlie 


Scientific  Intelligence. — Zoology.  195 

Laprairie  steam-boats  are  navigated,  he  dashed  about  in  the 
breakers  opposite  the  town  for  nearly  two  hours.  The  move- 
ments of  the  boat  could  be  plainly  seen  from  the  harbour  ;  and 
we  seldom  ever  beheld  a  concourse  of  people  equal  to  that 
which  crowded  the  embankments.  The  whale  then  proceeded 
further  up  the  river,  and  would  in  all  probabiHty  have  visited 
Laprairie  had  not  the  shallowness  of  the  water  prevented.  Du- 
ring all  this  time  the  persons  in  the  boat  were  enabled  to  wound 
him  with  lances  continually.  At  last,  exhausted  and  unable  to 
resist  the  stream,  he  again  took  the  direction  towards  the  foot 
of  the  current,  and  continued  his  course  to  Bocherville  Islands, 
where  he  was  killed  and  sunk  in  three  fathoms  water.  Yester- 
day morning  the  New  Swiftsure  towed  the  carcase  to  this  place  ; 
and  we  understand  that  he  will  be  exhibited  this  day  in  a  build- 
ing constructed  for  the  purpose.  We  are  pleased  that  Captain 
Brush  and  Mr  Young  were  the  successful  competitors  in  this 
sport ;  as  their  former  exertions  and  perseverance  seemed  to  en- 
title them  to  be  the  favourites  of  Fortune.  The  dimensions  of 
this  creature  are  42  feet  8  inches  in  length,  6  feet  across  the 
back,  and  7  feet  through  from  the  back  to  the  belly.  He  is  of 
the  species  called  by  the  whalers  Finners.'''' — Extract  of  a  Letter 
from  Montreal,  dated  September  13.  1823. 

26.  On  the  Siliceous  Spicula  of  two  Zoophytes  from  Shetland. — 
"  On  examining  the  siliceous  axis  of  two  zoophytes  lately  present- 
ed to  me  by  Dr  Fleming,  and  discovered  by  him  on  the  coast  of 
Shetland,  I  have  found  that  their  spicula  agree  exactly  in  form 
and  arrangement  with  those  represented  by  Donati,  as  occurring 
in  the  Alcyonium  primum  Dioscoridis,  and  Tethya  spheerica,  of 
that  author.  The  spicula  of  both  are  sihceous,  as  stated  by  Pal- 
las, who  compares  them  to  asbestus  and  to  pumice ;  the  same  was 
observed  by  Montagu,  who  generally  terms  such  spicula  asbes- 
tine. In  the  one  of  these  species,  named  by  Dr  Fleming  Cydo- 
nium  Mulleri,  we  observe  the  interior  composed  of  two  forms  of 
spicula ;  one  slender,  long,  and  fusiform ;  the  other  thick,  and 
branched  at  one  end,  into  three  short  curved  rays ;  and  the  outer 
covering  of  the  zoophyte  is  composed  of  regular  minute  siliceous 
balls,  precisely  as  figured  and  described  by  Donati,  in  the  Alcy. 
pr.  Dios.,  (Donati.  mar.  Adriat.,  PI.  IX).  In  the  other  species, 
named  by  Montagu  Spongia  pilosa,  and  by  Dr  Fleming  Tethya 

N  2 


196  Scientific  Intelligence Zoology. 

pilosa,  the  axis  consists  solely  of  radiating  fasciculi  of  slender 
fusiform  spicula,  as  very  accurately  represented  by  Donati  (PL 
X.),  in  the  Tethya  spharica.  Pallas  mentions  the  former  of 
these  zoophytes  as  very  common  and  large  on  the  shores  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  Donati  found  it  common  in  the  Adriatic ; 
the  latter  zoophyte  is  likewise  mentioned  by  Pallas  as  not  uncom- 
mon at  the  Cape,  and  Donati  found  it  adhering  to  various  ma- 
rine animals  in  the  Mediterranean.  Should  these  two  zoophytes 
from  Shetland  be  found  to  agree  in  their  recent  state,  with  those 
described  by  Donati,  to  which  they  have  the  closest  resemblance 
in  the  structure  of  their  dried  axis,  they  will  afford  new  and  strik- 
ing proofs  of  the  favoured  situation  of  these  remote  islands,  be- 
yond the  58th  degree  of  north  latitude,  for  the  growth  of  zoo- 
phytes, most  of  the  largest  British  species  of  which  are  already 
known  to  abound  on  their  indented  and  rocky  shores,  (see  Wern. 
Mem.  vol.  i.  p.  560,  et  seq.)  ;  and  the  occurrence  of  these  two 
inhabitants  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, would  lead  us  to  suppose,  that  the  temperature  of  the  Shet- 
land seas  is  much  influenced  by  the  heated  waters  of  the  great  gulf 
stream  from  the  Equator.  Had  Donati's  example  been  followed 
by  succeeding  naturalists,  in  describing  and  delineating  the  forms 
and  arrangement  of  the  ultimate  spicula,  particularly  in  zoo- 
phytes, hke  our  present  species,  w  hich  have  never  exhibited  any 
trace  of  polypi,  much  of  the  present  uncertainty  would  have 
been  removed  from  the  natural  history  of  the  species,  and  much 
more  light  would  now  have  been  thrown  on  the  nature  of  these 
mysterious  beings." — Communication  from  Dr  Grant. 

27.  Histoire  Naturelle  des  Mammiferes. — Of  this  work,  con- 
ducted by  Geoffroy  St  Hilaire  and  Frederic  Cuvier,  we  have 
lately  been  favoured  by  a  perusal  of  the  first  number  of  a  4to 
edition.  The  folio  edition  is  nearly  completed ;  and  when  so, 
will  contain  360  coloured  plates,  many  of  which  represent  objects 
not  before  figured.  The  great  size  of  this  edition,  and  its  ex- 
pence,  amounting  to  about  L.  35  at  Paris,  not  suiting  private  in- 
dividuals, it  has  been  thought  proper  to  commence  a  4to  edition 
at  a  reduced  price ;  this,  when  complete,  is  calculated  to  cost 
scarcely  more  than  20  guineas.  We  have  just  been  favoured  by 
a  perusal  of  the  first  number  or  cahier.     Betwixt  it  and  the  folio 


Scientific  Intelligence. — Zoology.  197 

edition  we  believe  there  is  no  material  difference.  The  plates 
are  coloured  with  the  same  care,  and  nothing  is  suppressed  in  the 
text.  One  slight  difference  there  is,  and  we  believe  it  must,  by 
all,  be  considered  an  improvement ;  the  generic  characters  con- 
stitute each  a  separate  article,  placed  at  the  head  of  the  descrip- 
tions of  the  species,  in  place  of,  as  in  the  folio  edition,  being  em- 
bodied in  one  of  the  latter.  All  the  figures  (well  executed  in  li- 
thography) are  exact,  both  in  the  proportions  and  colours.  The 
first  number  contains  the  two  genera  Orang,  (Pithecus  Cuv.), 
and  Gibbon  {Hylohates  IlKger).  The  species  described  and 
iigured  are  the  orang-outang  female  (Pithecus  satyrus).  The 
Siamang  (Hylohates  syndactylus)^  the  Wouwou,  male  and  fe- 
male (H.  agilis),  and  the  Ounko,  male  and  female  (H.  Lar.j 

28.  Cotvs,  Horses  and  Sheep,  Jed  on  Fish  in  Persia. — The 
cows  have  humps,  and  resemble  those  of  India ;  milk,  butter 
and  ghee,  are  very  abundant,  and  good  of  their  kind.  This  is  the 
more  remarkable,  as  the  cattle  have  but  little  pasture  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  town ;  and  it  is  certain,  that  one  chief  ar- 
ticle of  their  food  is  dried  fish,  a  little  salted  ;  the  cattle  become 
very  fond  of  this,  which,  with  pounded  date  stones,  is  all  they 
get  to  eat  for  a  considerable  portion  of  the  year.  The  natives 
assert,  that,  so  far  from  the  milk  being  spoiled  when  the  cattle 
feed  on  these  things,  they  drink  much  more  water,  which  in- 
creases both  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  produce.  Horses 
and  sheep,  as  well  as  cows,  are  fed  on  this  diet,  and  thrive  equal- 
ly well  upon  it. — Fraser'^s  Travels. 

S9.  Swiftness  of  Animals,-^  Trotting  match  at  An  well,  Berks. 


Min. 

Sec. 

Min. 

Sec. 

A  Horse  Three  Miles  in 

13 

30 

A  Mare  Three  Miles  in 

12 

20 

Do. 

11 

10 

Do. 

12 

25 

Do. 

11 

8 

Do. 

11 

59 

Do. 

11 

12 

Do. 

12 

20 

Do. 

12 

16 

Do. 

13 

2 

One  Mile 

3 

50 

One  Mile 

4 

2 

Sixteen  Miles  63       6  Sixteen  Miles  Q6      8 

The  horse  broke  into  a  gallop  in  the  2d  mile,  otherwise  the 
16  miles  would  have  been  done  within  the  hour.  The  mare 
was  beat  in  the  14th  mile.  The  match  took  place  over  3  miles 
of  ground,  each  carrying  feather  weight. 


198  Scientific  Intelligence.— Zoology. 

30.  Foot  race  on  Clapham  Common. — The  runner,  a  York- 
shire man  ;  the  distance  10  miles ;  a  mile  was  measured  off ;  there 
were  nine  turns,  for  which  27  seconds  were  allowed ;  and  added 
to  an  hour. 

Min.  Sec.  Min.    Sec. 

1st  Two  Miles  run  in  11     33  4th  Two  Miles  run  in  11     37 

2d  Ditto,  11     32  5th  Ditto,  11     40 

3d  Ditto,  11     36  

Total  57     58 
Winning  by     2     29 

60     27 

31.  Insects. — In  the  same  manner  that  the  cochineal  insect  is 
cultivated  in  America  and  elsewhere,  the  English  have  set  ago- 
ing a  cultivation  of  the  gall  insect,  which  produces  the  lac  resin 
in  India.  There  is  another  gall  insect  in  China,  the  Pe-la^ 
which  also  procures  a  fine  wax,  of  which  candles  are  made. — 
Journal  de  Pharmacie,  Mar.  1826. 

32.  Mildexv  in  Barley. — This  affection,  which  is  attributed  by 
M.  DecandoUe  to  a  fungus,  and  is  considered  by  many  others 
as  a  malady  resulting  from  humidity,  is  regarded  by  Mr  Mar- 
tin Field  as  the  consequence  of  the  puncture  of  an  insect  of  the 
genus  Musca,  when  the  seed  is  yet  in  a  pulpy  state.  This  in- 
sect does  not  deposit  eggs  in  the  pulp,  nor  are  larvae  in  fact 
found  there.  It  is  the  irritating  fluid  poured  into  the  puncture 
that  causes  the  appearance  of  this  blackish  excrescence,  and 
communicates  noxious  qualities  to  it. — Ibid. 

33.  Taming  Rattle- snakes. — Mr  Neale,  it  is  said,  has  succeed- 
ed in  America  in  taming  rattle-snakes,  by  means  of  music,  so  as 
to  prevent  them  from  doing  any  harm.  This  author  asserts, 
that  they  really  possess  the  power  of  enchanting  animals,  or  of 
rendering  them  motionless  through  terror :  for  he  says  he  has 
seen  an  example  even  in  his  garden.  The  effluvia  of  these  rep- 
tiles has  nothing  nauseous  in  it. 

34.  Geckoes  used  for  catching  Flies. — In  Java,  the  inhabitants 
rid  themselves  of  flies  in  their  apartments  by  means  of  geckoes^ 
a  species  of  lizard,  named  from  their  cry  toke  and  gogoky  which 
continually  pursue  these  insects  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  upon 
them. 

35.  Heart  of  the  Frog  used  for  Poison. — The  Javanese,  it  is 
said,  also  employ  the  heait  of  the  frog  named  Kadok-kesse,  for 


0 


P  L  AT  E  .  II.  £dinX.V^u'  Thil.Jour.  7.199. 


Scientific  Intelligence. — Boiant^.  199 

preparing  a  poison.  The  blood  of  other  reptiles  is  also  consi- 
dered as  venomous,  and  is  used  for  poisoning  daggers  or  krisses. 
It  is  known  that  the  blood  of  a  frog  is  employed  by  the  Ameri- 
cans for  producing  variegated  feathers  in  parrots  :  some  of  the 
feathers  are  plucked  out,  and  the  place  where  they  grew  im- 
bued with  the  blood  of  the  reptile,  after  which  there  are  produ- 
ced very  beautiful  feathers  of  various  colours, — Journal  de 
Pharmacies  Mar.  1826. 

36.  Marabous. — The  beautiful  feathers  so  much  in  request  for 
ornaments,  under  the  name  oi  Mai'obous^  belong  to  the  tail  of  cer- 
tain storks,  the  Ciconia  Marabou.  These  birds  are  tamed  and 
kept  in  large  flocks  in  Bengal,  and  the  islands  of  the  great  Indian 
Archipelago,  and  afford  so  extensive  an  article  of  commerce, 
that  many  of  the  natives  subsist  by  it.  The  plumes  of  Ciconia 
Argala  in  Africa,  and  those  of  some  other  species,  are  inferior 
in  beauty,  and  less  esteemed. 

37.  Irish  Elk.-^  Many  facts  prove  that  the  quadruped  popu- 
lation of  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  and  even  of  some  of  the  neigh- 
bouring large  islands,  was,  geologically  considered,  at  a  compa- 
ratively recent  period,  very  different  from  what  it  is  at  present. 
But  these  changes  do  not  appear  to  have  been  confined  to  quadru- 
peds alone ;  for  particular  species  of  birds,  formerly  inhabitants  of 
this  country,  have  disappeared,  and  their  fossil  remains,  we  doubt 
not,  will  be  found  in  our  newer  clays,  marls,  and  calcareous 
tufFas  and  sinters.  These  alterations  in  our  native  quadru- 
peds and  birds,  must,  we  maintain,  have  been  accompanied  by 
similar  changes  in  the  lower  classes  of  animals,  and  the  time  is 
not  distant  when  we  shall  have  enumerated,  as  occurring  in  the 
newer  alluvial  deposites,  fossil  amphibia,  fossil  fishes,  and  nu- 
merous fossil  avertebral  species,  formerly  inhabitants  of  the  land 
and  waters  of  our  European  empire.  It  is  indeed  probable, 
that  not  a  century  passes  which  is  not  marked  in  this  country 
by  the  loss  of  some  species,  not  only  of  animals,  but  also  of 
plants,  and  the  acquisition  of  others.  An  extended  view  of 
this  subject  affords  a  series  of  historico-geological  facts,  that  lead 
to  many  beautiful  views  in  regard  to  the  history  of  those  changes 
that  have  taken  place,  and  are  still  going  on,  among  the  ani- 
mals and  vegetables,  and  also  in  the  climate,  of  the  earth.  The 
most  striking  of  our  recently  lost  qufidrupeds  is  unquestionably 


SOO  Scientific  Intelligence. — Botany. 

the  Irish  Elk,  the  fossil  remains  of  which  are  found  in  alluvial 
deposites  of  comparatively  modern  date.  Many  years  ago, 
skulls  and  single  bones  of  this  gigantic  and  elegant  species  were 
collected  and  described  by  naturalists,  but  it  is  not  more  than 
four  or  five  years  since  nearly  perfect  fossil  skeletons  were  met 
with.  Of  these,  two  only  have  been  preserved,  the  one  depo- 
sited in  the  Royal  Museum  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh, 
the  other  in  the  collection  of  the  College  of  Surgeons  in  Dublin. 
As  the  specimen  in  the  Edinburgh  Museum  was  for  a  time  the 
only  one  in  any  collection,  we  had  a  drawing  and  engraving 
made  from  it,  and  of  which  a  copy  is  given  in  the  present  num- 
ber of  the  Journal  (Plate  II.)  It  is  6  feet  high,  9  feet  long,  and 
in  height,  to  the  top  of  the  right  horn,  9  feet  7i  inches.  Re- 
mains of  this  deer  have  been  met  with  not  only  in  England, 
Ireland,  and  the  Isle  of  Man,  but  also  in  France,  Germany, 
and  Italy  ;  and  in  all  these  countries  in  similar  geognostic  si- 
tuations,— thus  shewing  that  the  species,  in  all  probability, 
lived  about  the  same  time  in  Britain,  Ireland,  and  the  Conti- 
nent of  Europe. 

BOTANY. 

38.  Pluvial  Trees. — In  the  old  accounts  of  travellers  in  Ame- 
rica, related  also  by  Thevet  in  his  Cosmography,  mention  is 
made  of  a  tree  which  attracted  the  vapours  of  the  atmosphere, 
and  resolved  them  into  rain  among  the  parched  deserts.  These 
accounts  were  regarded  as  fabulous.  In  Brazil  there  has  been 
found  of  late  a  tree,  the  young  branches  of  which  exude  drops 
of  water,  which  fall  almost  like  rain.  This  tree,  to  which  Lean- 
der  has  given  the  name  of  Cubea  pluviosa,  is  referred  by  M. 
Decandolle  to  the  genus  Ccesalpinia,  belonging  to  the  family  of 
Leguminosae,  in  his  Prodromus,  vol.  ii.  p.  483.  Other  vegeta- 
bles also,  such  as  Calamus  rotang,  and  the  climbing  lianas,  the 
vine,  and  other  sarmentaceous  plants,  afford  drops  of  water  in 
abundance,  at  the  period  of  the  sap,  especially  when  they  are 
cut. 

39-  Sensitive  Tree. — The  genus  Coosalpinia,  which  furnishes 
the  dyewoods  of  Pernambucca  and  Sappan,  also  presents  a  spe- 
cies, the  leaves  of  which  are  nearly  as  sensible  to  contact,  as  the 
sensitive  plants  of  Malabar ;  it  is  the  Ccesalpinia  mimosoides  of 
Lamarck. 


Scientific  Intelligence, — Botany.  201 

40.  Poisoning  of  Plants. — Vegetables  are  susceptible  of  losing 
their  contractile  faculty,  from  the  action  of  the  distilled  water 
of  rose-laurel,  as  Carradori  observed  :  Thus,  the  distilled  water, 
or  still  more  the  volatile  oil  of  rose-laurel,  destroys  the  whole 
power  of  contraction  possessed  by  the  capsules  of  Momordica 
Elaterium,  and  Balsamina  hortensis.  M.  Marcet  of  Geneva, 
on  applying  an  aqueous  solution  of  opium  to  sensitive  plants 
and  others,  observed  that  it  also  destroyed  the  action  of  vegeta- 
ble life.  Whence  Carradori  concludes,  that  plants  have  con- 
tractile muscular  fibres,  and  M.  Marcet  imagines,  that  vegeta-- 
bles  possess  something  analogous  to  a  nervous  system,  since  the 
first  of  these  poisons  operates  upon  the  contractility,  and  the  se- 
cond upon  the  sensibility,  in  animals  as  in  vegetables. 

41.  Leguminostje. — By  this  time,  perhaps,  the  second  volume  of 
the  Prodromus  Systematis  universalis  Regni  vegetahilis  is  in 
the  hands  of  most  botanists  in  Europe ;  but  few,  we  believe, 
will  find  it  an  easy  task  to  study  it.  The  arrangement,  although 
founded  on  the  principles  developed  by  Brown  our  countryman, 
and  Brown  in  Germany,  becomes  extremely  embarrassing  to  the 
student  who  has  not  carefully  perused  these,  and  other  memoirs 
on  this  difficult  order.  To  obviate  these  difficulties,  and  to  ex- 
plain the  various  reasons  which  induced  him  to  change  so  many 
of  the  hitherto  almost  universally  received  genera.  Prof.  De  Can- 
doUe  is  engaged  at  present  in  publishing  a  separate  work  *  on  the 
subject ;  we  allude  to  the  Memoir es  sur  lajamille  des  Legumi- 
neuses.  These  memoirs  were  originally  read  before  the  Society 
of  Natural  History  of  Geneva,  and  were  intended  to  be  inserted 
in  the  Memoires  du  Mus.  d'Hist.  Naturelle.  Their  great  ex- 
tent, and  the  number  of  plates  (when  complete,  there  will  be 
seventy  plates  and  fourteen  memoirs,  forming  a  volume  of  about 
500  pages  quarto),  prevented  such  being  carried  into  effect,-^ 
fortunately  for  the  botanists  who  do  not  find  it  convenient  to 
take  that  voluminous  and  expensive  work.  We  have  only  yet 
had  a  perusal  of  the  six  first  memoirs.  The  first  is  on  the  ge- 
neral characters  of  the  Leguminosae,  taken  from  their  organs  of 

•  Published  by  Belin,  Rue  des  Mathurins,  S.  I.  No.  14.  Paris. 


20^  Scientific  Intelligence. — ^Botany, 

vegetation  *  and  fructification.  On  both  of  these,  Decandoile  has 
presented  us  with  an  account  of  all  tliat  has  been  discovered  by 
others,  or  by  himself.  The  following  is  a  concise  view  of  what 
he  has  said  on  the  first  point ;  and,  it  must  be  recollected,  that, 
without  the  aid  of  his  plates,  it  is  impossible  to  enter  into  any 
details.  ,The  roots  are  nearly  all  fibrous  and  branched,  but,  in 
some  annuals,  simple ;  sometimes  they  are  tuberous,  and  sub- 
ject to  three  different  modifications.  The  stems  are  exceedingly 
varied^  from  a  tender  annual  to  a  tree  of  sixty  feet  high ;  but 
the  branches  are  usually  either  longitudinally  striated  or  angled. 
The  leaves  seem  to  present  very  striking  differences.  The  first 
leaves,  or  lobes  of  the  cotyledons,  are  either  opposite  or  alter- 
nate; but,  in  maturity,  the  leaves  of  nearly  all  the  species  of 
the  family  are  alternate.  As  to  their  composition,  they  are  either, 
(J.)  simply  pinnated,  without  an  odd  one;  (2.)  simply  pinnated, 
with  an  odd  one ;  (3.)  palmated ;  (4.)  twice  or  thrice  pinnated, 
which  have  very  rarely  an  odd  leaflet.  That  the  number  of  times 
the  pinnation  takes  place  is  irregular,  Decandoile  happily  illus- 
trates in  Plate  I.  by  the  genus  Gleditsia.  M.  Decandoile  denies 
that  the  Leguminosae  have  simple  leaves,  but  he  enumerates  six 
different  w^ays  by  which  a  leaf  really  compound  may  be  taken  at 
first  sight  for  a  simple  leaf.  It  has  been  long  known,  that  what 
many  take  for  a  simple  leaf  in  this  family,  is  only  a  dilated  petiole, 
or  what  Decandoile  calls  a  phyllodium.  The  hairs  and  glands 
on  the  Leguminosae  present  few  variations ;  but  the  spines  very 
many. — On  what  regards  the  fructification,  we  must  refer  to  the 
book  itself.  Of  the  disposition  of  the  flowers,  the  soldering  of 
the  sepals  and  petals,  their  regularity  or  irregularity,  the  com- 
binations or  number  of  the  stamina,  we  can  give  no  short  ac- 
count ;  nor  shall  we  enter  upon  the  proofs  brought  forward  that 
the  Leguminosae,  when  they  have  only  one  carpell,  have  so 
only  by  abortion  of  some  others.  The  second  memoir  is  on  the 
germhiation  of  this  family.  This  memoir  is  full  of  interest,  and 
tends  to  shew  that  the  germination  ought  to  be  closely  attended 
to  in  the  classification  of  these  plants ;  and  we  are  even  furnished 


•  This  term,  as  far  as  we  know,  has  no  other  more  precise  English  term ; 

it  refers  to  all  the  parts  of  a  plant,  except  those  concerned  with  the  flowers 

and  fruit. 

3 


Scientific  Intelligence. — Botwhy.  20S 

by  the  author  with  an  arrangement  which  might  be  derived  solely 
from  the  germination ;  in  some  cases  it  is  artificial,  but  for  the 
miost  part  natural.  The  comparison  of  the  Leguminosse  with  the 
families  with  which  they  are  allied,  occupies  the  third  memoir, 
l^heir  relation  with  the  Terebinthaceae  and  Rosaceae  are  fully 
pointed  out ;  but  although  we  have  no  wish  to  unite  them  with 
either  of  these  two  families,  it  scarcely  appears  to  us  that  any  de- 
finite characters  are  yet  pointed  out,  which  can  be  at  all  of  service 
to  the  student  of  the  artificial  method.  We  believe,  however, 
that  this  will  be  again  taken  up  in  a  future  memoir.  The  fourth 
memoir  is  on  the  mutual  relations  of  the  Leguminosae,  and  their 
subdivisions.  The  fifth  memoir  contains  a  review  of  the  tribe 
called  Sophoreae,  while  the  sixth  is  devoted  to  that  of  the  Lo- 
teae.  These  two  last,  to  many,  are  the  most  interesting  that 
have  yet  appeared  :  each  genus  is  passed  under  review :  the 
characters  of  the  new  or  little  known  genera  are  developed ;  and 
if  the  old  ones  are  divided,  or  the  species  changed  to  others,  the 
reasons  are  entered  upon.  We  understand  that,  in  the  subse- 
quent memoirs,  other  tribes  will  be  treated  in  a  similar  manner. 


ARTS. 


4S.  On  the  liahility  of  English  Silks  and  Cottcnis  to  become 
faded ;  and  on  the  superiority  of  the  Silks  of  France,  and  the 
Cottons  of  India  in  that  respect. — The  cause  why  English  silks 
or  satins  do  not  retain  their  colour  or  whiteness,  so  long  as  those 
of  French  manufacture,  cannot  reasonably  be  attributed  to  the 
change  of  climate,  as,  in  that  case,  it  should  equally  affect  both. 
Silks  or  satins  of  French  manufacture  will  be  found  as  fit  for 
use,  after  a  period  of  twelve  or  fifteen  months,  as  when  first  im- 
ported ;  while  those  manufactured  in  England,  will  have  so 
completely  changed,  as  to  be  rendered  useless  for  any  article  of 
dress.  The  white  will  have  assumed  an  unsightly  yellow  tinge, 
and  the  coloured  will  be  found  to  have  faded  considerably.  It 
is  probable,  that  the  fault  originates,  in  a  great  measure,  from 
the  method  used  in  extracting  the  varnish  or  gum  from  the  raw 
silk :  and,  perhaps,  also  from  some  slight  inattention  in  the  pro- 
cess of  bleaching  it  afterwards.  It  can  scarcely  be  thought 
that  so  delicate  an  article  as  silk,  must  not  suffer,  more  or  less, 


^04  .  Scientific  Intelligence Arts. 

from  exposure  to  the  action  of  sulphurous  acid  gas,  or  immersion 
in  acid,  according  to  the  degree  of  strength  or  purity  of  the  sub- 
stance used,  as  well  as  from  the  length  of  time  the  article  is  sub- 
mitted to  the  action  of  the  gas  or  acid.  The  silks  manufactu- 
red at  Madras,  are  all  of  an  imperfect  white,  but  last  much 
longer  than  English  or  French.  The  coloured  silks  are  scarce- 
ly inferior,  and  stand  as  well  as  the  best  of  European  manufac- 
ture. The  scarlet,  purple,  orange,  and  other  silk  shawls,  from 
Bangalore,  are  really  beautiful,  and  the  colours  permanently  fix- 
ed. It  is  also  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  English  long-cloths, 
muslins,  jaconnets,  &c.  never  retain  their  original  whiteness  for 
any  length  of  time,  but  assume  a  yellow  tinge,  which  they  do 
not  recover  by  any  process  of  washing.  Some  pieces,  after  a 
few  washings,  are  full  of  small  holes ;  and  it  is  an  incontestible 
fact,  that  one  piece  of  good  northward  36  Penijum,  will  wear 
out  three  pieces  of  the  best  English  loflg-cloth.  No  chemical 
process  is  used  for  giving  their  cloth  an  artificial  whiteness : 
they  are  delivered  from  the  loom  dirty  and  brown,  and  when  re- 
turned from  the  washerman  are  as  white  as  snow.  The  ad- 
vantages which  the  English  cloths  possess,  are,  that  they  are 
much  cheaper,  and  have  the  threads  of  a  more  even  texture,  and 
more  regular.  If  some  more  attention  were  paid  to  the  mode 
of  bleaching,  there  is  no  doubt,  then,  that  they  would  be  of 
much  greater  consideration,  and  in  more  request  than  they  are 
at  present.  The  mode  in  which  the  bales  of  cotton  for  exporta- 
tion are  usually  packed,  may  also  in  some  measure  account  for 
the  evils  above  mentioned.  It  is  the  general  custom  to  com- 
press a  considerable  quantity  of  cotton  into  a  very  small  com- 
pass. This  is  effected  by  means  of  strong,  massive  iron  frames, 
and  powerful  screws  of  the  same  metal,  so  that  the  cotton  is 
found  to  be  almost  a  solid  mass.  Although  much  space  may 
be  thus  saved  on  ship-board,  it  is  probable  the  cotton  must  be 
in  some  way  injured.  If  this  be  really  the  case,  the  natives  have 
decidedly  a  very  material  and  obvious  advantage  in  the  manu- 
facture of  cloths. — Abridged  Jrom  a  communication  in  GilPs  Re- 
pository. 


Scientific  Intelligence  -^Commerce.  205 

COMMERCE. 

43.  Fisheries  of  Newfoundland  and  Labrador. — The  Ameri- 
cans send  about  2000  fishing  vessels  to  Labrador  alone.  Allow 
that  each  vessel  takes  away  1000  quintals  of  fish,  =  2,000,000 
quintals  =  100,000  tons;  each  vessel  carries  from  12  to  15 
men,  =  25,000  to  30,000  men ;  the  number  of  seamen  required 
afterwards  to  carry  this  fish  to  the  various  markets  in  the  two 
hemispheres  is  very  considerable.  They  carry  on  the  fishery 
extensively  at  other  parts  here. — The  French  employ  many 
thousand  men  in  this  fishery  at  Newfoundland ;  and  a  propor- 
tion of  seamen  to  carry  part  of  their  fish  to  markets. — The 
British :  The  resident  fishermen  of  Newfoundland  are  not  equal 
in  number  to  the  American  fishermen  who  come  to  the  neigh- 
bourhood to  fish.  About  4000  British  seamen  are  employed  to 
carry  the  60,000  tons  offish  to  market. —  W.  E.  Cormack,  Esq. 


List  of  Patents  sealed  in  England  from  4ith  February  to  8th 
May  1826. 

1826, 
Feb.  4.  To  R.  Rigg,  Bowstead  Hall,  Cumberland,  for  "  a  new  Condensing 
Apparatus,  to  be  used  with  the  apparatus  now  employed  for  ma- 
king Vinegar." 
7-  To  J.  C.  Gamble,  Dublin,  chemist,  for  "  an  Apparatus  for  the  Con- 
centration and  Crystallisation  of  Aluminous  and  other  Saline  and 
Crystallisable  Solutions,  part  of  which  apparatus  may  be  applied 
to  the  general  purposes  of  evaporation^  distillation,  inspissation, 
and  desiccation,  and  especially  to  the  generation  of  Steam." 

To  W.  Mayhew,  Union  Street,  Southwark,  and  W.  White, 
Cheapside,  hat-manufacturers,  for  "  an  Improvement  in  the  ma- 
nufacture of  Hats." 

To  H.  Evans,  harbour-master  of  the  port  of  Holyhead,  North 
Wales,  for  "  a  method  of  rendering  Ships  and  other  Vessels,  whe- 
ther sailing  or  propelled  by  steam,  more  safe  in  cases  of  danger 
by  leakage,  bilgeing,  or  letting  in  water,  than  as  at  present  con- 
structed." 

To  B.  Cook,  Birmingham,  brass-founder,  for  "  Improvements  in 
making  Files  of  various  descriptions." 
11.  To  W.  Warren,  Crown  Street,  Finsbury  Square,  for  "  Improve- 
ments in  the  process  of  extracting  from  the  Peruvian  Bark  me- 
dicinal substances  or  properties,  known  by  the  name  of  Quinine 
and  Cinchonine,  and  preparing  the  various  salts  to  which  these 
substances  may  serve  as  a  basis." 


20(i  List  of  English  Patents. 

To  J.  L.  HiGGiNS,  Oxford  Street,  for  "  Improvements  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  Masts,  Yards,  Sails,  Rigging  of  Ships,  and  smaller 
Vessels,  and  in  the  Tackle  used  for  Avorking  or  navigating  the 
same." 
1 8.  To  B.  Newmarch,  Cheltenham,  and  C.  Bonner,  Gloucester,  bra- 
zier, for  "  a  mechanical  invention  to  be  applied  for  the  purpose 
of  Suspending  and  Securing  Windows,  Gates,  Doors,  Shutters, 
Blinds,  and  other  apparatus." 

To  J.  Walter,  Luton,  Bedfordshire,  straw-hat  manufacturer,  for 
"Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  Straw,  plait,  for  making 
Bonnets,  Hats,  and  other  articles." 

To  C.  Whitlaw,  Bayswater  Terrace,  Paddington,  medical  bota- 
nist, for  "  Improvements  in  administering  Medicines  by  the 
agency  of  Steam  or  Vapour." 

To  A.  BuFFUM,  Bridge  Street,  hat-manufacturer,  for  "  Improve- 
ments in  the  process  of  making  or  manufacturing  and  dyeing 
Hats." 
25.   To  J.  Fraser,  Houndsditch,  engineer,  for  "  an  improved  method 
of  constructing  Capstans  and  Windlasses." 

To  B.  Newmarch,  Cheltenham,  for  "  certain  inventions  to  pre- 
serve Vessels  and  other  bodies  from  the  dangerous  effects  of  ex- 
ternal or  internal  violence  on  land  or  water,  and  other  improve- 
ments connected  with  the  same. 

To  B,  Newmarch,  Cheltenham,  for  "  a  Preparation  to  be  used 
either  in  solution  or  otherwise,  for  preventing  decay  in  tmiber  or 
other  substances,  arising  from  dry-rot  or  other  causes." 
Mar.     4.  To  J.  Fraser,  Houndsditch,  engineer,  for  "  a  new  and  improved 
method  of  distiUing  and  rectifying  spirits  and  strong  waters." 

To  R.  Midgley,  Horsforth,  near  Leeds,  for  "  a  Method,  Ma- 
chine, or  Apparatus,  for  conveying  persons  and  goods  over  or 
across  rivers  or  other  waters,  and  over  valleys  or  other  places." 

To  G.  Anderton,  Chickheaton,  Yorkshire,  worsted-spinner,  for 
"  Improvements  in  the  combing  or*  dressing  of  AVool  and  waste 
Silk." 
14.  To  J.  Neville,  New  Walk,  Shad  Thames,  engineer,  for  "  a  new 
and  improved  Boiler  or  Apparatus  for  generating  Steam,  with 
less  expenditure  of  fuel." 

To  N.  H.  Manicler,  Great  Guildford  Street,  Southwark,  chemist, 
for  "  a  new  Preparation  of  Fatty  Substances,  and  the  application 
thereof  to  the  purposes  of  affording  Light." 
April  18.  To  J.  Billingham,  Norfolk  Street,  Strand,  civil  engineer,  for  "an 
improvement  or  improvements  in  the  Construction  of  Cooking 
Apparatus." 

To  J.  RowBOTHAM,  Great  Surrey  Street,  Blackfriars  Road,  hat- 
manufacturer,  and  R.  Lloyd,  Strand,  for  "  a  certain  method  of 
preparing,  iniiting,  combining,  and  putting  together,  certain  ma- 
terials, substances,  or  things,  for  the  purpose  of  being  matle  into 


List  of  English  Patents.  207 

hats,  caps,  bonnets,  cloaks,  coats,  trowsers,  and  for  wearing  ap- 
parel in  general,  and  various  other  purposes." 
22.  To  W.  Wood,  Summer-Hill  Grove,  Northumberland,  for  "  aii 

apparatus  for  destroying  the  inflammable  air  in  mines." 
25.  To  J.  P.  Gillespie,  Grosvenor  Street,  Newington,  for  "  a  new 
Spring  or  combination  of  Springs,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  an 
elastic  resisting  medium." 

To  S.  Brown,  Eagle  Lodge,  Old  Brompton,  for  "  improvements 
on  an  engine  for  effecting  a  vacuum,  and  thus  producing  powers 
•  by  which  water  may  be  raised,  and  machinery  put  in  motion." 

To  F.  Halliday,  Ham,  Surrey,  for  "  an  apparatus  for  preventing 
the  inconvenience  arising  from  Smoke  in  Chimneys." 
.  »  27.  To  J.  Williams,  Commercial  Road,  ironmonger  and  ships'  fire- 
hearth  manufacturer,  for  "  improvements  on  ships'  hearths,  and 
apparatus  for  cooking  by  steam." 

To  W.  Choice,   Strahan  Terrace,   auctioneer,  and  R.  Gibson, 
White  Conduit  Terrace,  builder,  Islington,  for  "  improvements 
in"  machinery  for  making  bricks." 
29.  To  C.  Kennedy,  Virginia  Terrace,  Great  Dover  Road,  Surrey, 
surgeoQ  and  apothecary,  for  "  improvements  in  the  apparatus 
used  for  cupping." 
May     2.  To  J.  Goulding,  Cornhill,  London,  engineer,  for  "  improvement* 
inr  the  machines  used  for  carding,  stubbing,  silvering,  roving,  or 
spinning  cotton,  waste  silk,  short  stapled  hemp  and  flax,  or  any 
other  fibrous  materials,  or  mixture  thereof." 
6.  To  A.  BuFFURN,  Javin  Street,  hat-manufacturer,  and  J.  Mac- 
CARDY,  Cecil  Street,  Strand,  for  "  improvements  in  steam-en- 
gines." 

To  Sir  R.  Seppings,  Somerset  House,  for  "  improvements  in  the 
construction  of  Fids,  or  apparatus  for  striking  topmasts  and  top- 
gallantmasts  in  ships." 

To  W.  Fenner,  Bushell  Rents,  Wapping,  carpenter,  for  "  an  im- 
provement in  machinery  for  curing  smoky,  and  cleansing  foul 
chimneys." 

To  A.  Allard  de  la  Court,  Great  Winchester  Street,  for  "  a 
new  instrument,  and  improvements  in  certain  well-known  instru- 
ments, applicable  to  the  organ  of  sight" 

To  J.  Schaller,  Regent  Street,  ladies'  shoemaker,  for  "  improve- 
ments in  the  construction  or  manufacture  of  clogs,  pattens,  or 
substitutes  for  the  same." 
8.  To  E.  Heard,  St  Leonard,  Shoreditch,  chemist,  for  "  a  certain 
new  composition  to  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  washing  in  sea  and 
other  water." 


(     208     ) 

List  of  Patents  granted  in  Scotland  from  9X)th  March  to  ^6th 

May  1826. 
1826, 
Mar.  20.  To  Wihiam  Thomson  and  James  Thomson,  of  Fountainbridge 
Street,  Edinburgh,  cabinet-makers  and  joiners,  for  an  invention 
of  "  a  Series  of  Machines,  and  certain  Implements  and  Tools  ca- 
'  "  pable  of  performing  cabinet-makers'  work,  joiners'  work,  and  car- 

pentry work,  and  which  machines  and  instruments  or  tools  may 
be  applied  with  advantage  to  various  similar  purposes." 
21.  To  William  Erskine  Cochrane  of  Regent  Street,  in  the  county 
of  Middlesex,  for  "  an  Improvement  in  certain  Cooking  Appa- 
ratus." 
May     6.  To  Samuel  Brown  of  Eagle  Lodge,  Old  Brompton,  in  the  county 
of  Middlesex,  gentleman,  for  "  certain  Improvements  on  his  for- 
mer patent  for  an  Engine  or  Instrument  for  effecting  a  vacvium, 
and  thus  producing  powers  by  which  waters  may  be  raised  and 
machinery  put  in  motion." 
To  Henry  Richardson  Fanshawe,  of  Addle  Street,  in  the  city 
of  London,  silk-embosser,  for  "  an  Improved  Apparatus  for  spin- 
ning, doubling,  and  twisting  or  throwing  silk." 
To  John  Mart ineau  junior,  of  the  City  Road,  in  the  county  of 
Middlesex,  engineer,  and  Henry  William  Smith,  of  Laurence, 
Pountney  Place,  in  the  city  of  London,  Esq.  for  an  invention  of 
*'  certain  Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  Steel." 
9.  To  William  Parr,  of  Union  Place,  City  Road,  in  the  county  of 
Middlesex,  gentleman,  for  "  an  Improvement  or  Improvements 
in  the  mode  of  propelling  vessels  through  the  water." 
To  Joseph  Alexander  Taylor,  of  Great  St  Helens,  in  the  city 
of  London,   gentleman,  for   "  a  new  Polishing  Apparatus  for 
household  purposes." 
20.  To  Francis  Molineux,  of  Stoke  Saint  Mary,  in  the  county  of 
Somerset,  gentleman,  for  "  an  Improvement  in  Machinery  for 
spinning  and  twisting  silk  and  wool,  and  for  roving,  spinning, 
and  twisting  flax,  hemp,  cotton,  and  other  fibrous  substances." 
To  Alexander  Lamb,  of  Prince's  Street  Bank,  in  the  city  of 
London,  and  William  Suttill,  of  Old  Brompton,  in  the  coun- 
ty of  Middlesex,  flax-spinner,  for  "  Improvements  in  machinery 
for  preparing,  drawing,  roving,  and  spinning  flax,  hemp,  and 
waste  silk." 
26.  To  Thomas  Shaw  Brandreth  of  Liverpool,  in  the  county  of 
Lancaster,  Esq.  barrister  at  law,  for  "  an  improved  mode  of  con- 
structing Wheel  Carriages  to  be  used  on  Rail-roads,  or  for  other 
similar  purposes." 
To  Joseph  Eve,  of  Augustus  Georgia,  in  the  United  States  of 
America,  now  residing  in  Jewin  Street,  in  the  city  of  London, 
engineer,  for  "  an  improved  Steam-Engine." 


P.  Neill,  Printer. 


THE 


EDINBURGH    NEW 

PHILOSOPHICAL   JOURNAL, 


Biographical  Memoir  of  the  late  Christian  Smith,  M.  D. 
Naturalist  to  the  Congo  Expedition.  By  Baron  Leopold 
Von  Buch. 

VyHRisTiAN  Smith,  son  of  a  wealthy  proprietor  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Dram  in  Norway,  was  born  on  the  17th  October 
1785.  Under  the  prudent  management  of  his  father,  his  talents 
were  early  unfolded ;  and  in  his  fourteenth  year,  he  was  sent  to 
the  school  at  Kongsberg,  which  enjoyed  a  well-merited  repu- 
tation. Here  he  made  such  progress  in  his  knowledge  of  the 
ancient  languages,  that,  in  a  short  time,  he  wrote  Latin  with 
almost  as  much  facility  as  his  mother-tongue.  As  early  as  1801, 
his  father  sent  him  to  Copenhagen,  where  the  celebrated  Vahl, 
soon  finding  what  a  proficient  might  be  made  of  him,  became 
his  counsellor  and  friend,  and  detennined  him  to  devote  himself 
exclusively  to  the  study  of  Botany.  The  knowledge  of  Mosses 
and  Lichens,  so  abundant  in  his  native  country,  had  especially 
attracted  his  attention,  to  which  he  was  the  more  fully  deter- 
mined, by  the  discovery  of  some  plants,  till  then  unknown,  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  his  native  city,  which  were  given  to  the 
world  in  the  Flora  Danica.  Not  all  the  advantage  he  enjoyed 
for  acquiring  practical  knowledge  as  a  physician,  in  the  ma- 
nagement, from  the  year  1804,  of  the  Frederick's  Hospital  in 

JULY— OCTOBER  1826.  O 


210       Biogra'phkal  Memoir  of  the  late  Christian  Smith. 

Copenhagen,  could  prevent  liim  from  accompanying  his  friends 
Hornemann  and  Wonnskiold  on  their  botanical  journey  into 
Norway.  They  explored  some  of  the  most  impervious  valleys  ] 
in  the  country,  and  made  a  number  of  new  discoveries ;  and 
when,  in  1807,  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  between  Denmark, 
England  and  Sweden,  obliged  the  friends  to  return  to  Copen- 
hagen, Smith  proceeded  again  into  the  mountains  of  Tellemark, 
and  brought  from  thence  so  many  unknown  mosses  and  lichens, 
that,  from  that  time_>  he  became  known  to  all  the  botanists  of 
the  north,  and  his  reputation  among  them  was  thereby  fully 
established. 

Want  of  scientific  resources  brought  him  back  to  Copenha- 
gen, during  the  misfortunes  of  his  native  country.  No  sooner,^ 
however,  was  quiet  restored,  than  he  hastened  again  into  the 
mountains  of  the  north,  and  undertook,  in  1812,  a  most  arduous 
journey  through  Tellemark  and  Hallingdal,  over  the  chain  of 
mountains  down  to  the  west  coast.  These  mountains  were  little 
known,  even  in  the  country  itself.  Their  height  had  never  been 
measured ;  their  productions  never  been  described ;  and  little 
more  was  known  of  them  than  from  the  accounts  of  the  fatigues 
and  dangers  to  which  the  peasants  of  Hardanger  were  exposed, 
when  they  proceeded  with  the  productions  of  their  valleys  over 
the  range  to  Kongsberg.  Smith,  incited  in  the  highest  degree, 
by  the  striking  and  comprehensive  views  of  Humboldt  regarding 
the  geography  of  plants,which  have  had  so  decided  an  influence  on 
the  researches  of  botanists,  examined  these  mountains  in  the  ca- 
pacity both  of  an  attentive  naturalist  who  generalizes  and  com- 
bines, and  of  an  experienced  botanist,  from  whose  notice  the 
minutest  plant  does  not  escape ;  and  was  thereby  enabled  to  give 
a  narrative  of  this  journey,  which  will  ever  remain  one  of  the 
most  instructive  and  remarkable  for  physical  geography  *. 

In  it,  he  places  the  mighty  influence  of  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  sea  in  a  clear  light,  and  the  very  remarkable  distinction 
thjence  arising,  between  the  climate  of  the  continent  and  that  of 
the  sea-coast.  To  the  severe  winter,  on  the  east  side,  summer 
succeeds,  in  a  few  weeks,  with  continual  clear  and  serene  wea- 

•  Topographisk-statistiske  Samlinger,  udgivne  Selskabet  fur  Norges,  vel 
den  Deels  2  det  Bind.     Christiana,  1817. 


Biographical  Memoir  of  the  late  Christian  Smith.       211 

tbcr.  The  sun  of  an  almost  perpetual  day  calls  forth  a  multi- 
tude of  leaves  and  flowers,  which  would  scarcely  be  expected  in 
so  northern  a  latitude.  On  the  contrary,  on  the  other  side  of 
the  mountains,  the  sea  always  open,  moderates  the  severity  of 
the  winter,  and  the  constant  winds  from  the  west  and  south, 
coming  over  the  ocean,  heighten  the  temperature  of  the  coasts. 
But  they  cover  them,  at  the  same  time,  with  fogs  and  clouds, 
which  intercept  the  genial  influence  of  the  sun,  and  thus  permit 
to  the  warmth  of  summer  a  short  duration,  and  limited  effect. 
Smith  shews  how  much  this  influence  manifests  itself,  in  the 
productions  of  vegetation  in  the  diff*erent  heights  at  which 
trees  grow,  and  the  limits  of  perpetual  snow.  For  these,  in 
fact,  are  much  more  determined  by  the  warmth  of  summer  than 
by  the  cold  of  winter ;  and  hence,  when  their  various  heights 
are  ascertained,  we  gain  a  pretty  accurate  knowledge  of  the 
state  of  the  valleys  and  plains  below.  Smith  first  ascended 
Goustafield  in  Tellemark,  the  highest  mountain  in  the  south  of 
Norway,  and  found  it  5886  Parisian  feet  high ;  and  the  snow 
line  he  ascertained  at  about  4740.  On  the  great  chain  which 
separates  Tellemark  from  Hardanger,  the  snow  line  did  not 
reach  to  4650  feet ;  and  on  Folge  Fonden  in  Hardanger,  which 
is  almost  surrounded  by  arms  of  the  sea,  it  had  sunk  so  low  as 
4036.  A  great  number  of  annual  plants,  however,  and  such  as 
are  able  to  endure  the  severity  of  the  winter,  but  which,  at  the 
same  time,  so  soon  as  the  sap  has  ascended,  require  uninterrupt- 
ed warmth,  to  put  forth  leaves  and  flowers,  is  found  on  the  east 
side,  and  wherever  the  snow  line  is  at  a  considerable  elevation. 
Such  bushes  and  plants,  on  the  other  hand,  and  all  such  as  re- 
tain their  leaves  in  winter,  or  at  least  as  shed  them  late  in  the 
season,  but  which  require  no  great  warmth  in  summer  for  their 
support,  flourish  especially  in  the  softer  and  more  uniform  climate 
of  the  sea-coast.  The  former  enjoy  the  climate  of  the  plains  of 
Russia,  the  other  of  the  flats  of  England  and  Scotland,  of  which 
the  appearance  of  the  birch  affords  a  very  palpable  and  striking 
example.  Vigorous  enough  to  set  the  severity  of  a  Siberian 
winter  at  defiance,  it  requires,  however,  uninterrupted  warmth 
to  put  forth  its  leaves ;  and  when  these  are  unfolded,  they  are 
so  tender  that  the  slightest  return  of  frost  is  hurtful,  if  not  alto- 
gether destructive  to  the  growth  of  the  tree.     Hence  the  climate 

o2 


212       Biographical  Memoir  of  the  late  Christian  Smith: 

of  the  coast  is  not  well  suited  to  it,  and  the  limits  of  its  growth 
will  sink,  on  that  account,  in  proportion  as  the  warmth  of  the 
summer  is  diminished.  Smith  shews  this  with  the  barometer  in 
his  hand.  He  found  the  limits  of  the  birch  in  604°  north  lati- 
tude, to  be  at  the  height  of  3384  Parisian  feet.  Some  miles 
farther  on,, in  the  direction  of  the  great  mountain  chain,  birches 
already  disappear  at  the  height  of  3325.  In  descending  towards 
the  sea,  over  Ulensvang,  its  limit  is  found  to  be  2803.  On  the 
west  side  of  Folge  Fonden,  it  descends  to  1837.  Lastly,  it  is 
found  at  only  1776,  on  the  Gocnnequiting,  near  Tuse,  which 
lies  within  sight  of  the  ocean.  Here  the  birch  can  only  reach 
half  of  its  height  on  the  east  side.  With  this  warmth  of  sum- 
mer, however,  disappear  the  magnificent  forests  of  pine  (abies)  : 
in  the  valleys  are  no  longer  to  be  seen  the  showy  flowers  of  Aco- 
nitum  Lycoctonum,  of  Pedicularis  sceptrura  Carolinum,  or  of 
Pedicularis  Oederi,  otherwise  so  common  on  the  eastern  side  of 
Norway.  There  is  no  longer  to  be  found  Andromeda  hyp- 
noides,  Menziesia  coerulea,  Primuk  stricta  (Horn.),  Lychnis 
apetala,  Viola  biflora,  Aira  subspicata,  Carex  rotundata,  Juncus 
arcuatus  (Vahl),  Splachnum  serratum,  luteum,  rubrum,  &c. 
plants  which  unite  the  east  side  of  Norway  with  Russia  and 
Siberia.  On  the  other  band,  the  vegetation  of  Scotland  appears 
on  the  mountains  of  the  west  side.  These  are  quite  covered 
with  the  Scots  fir  (Pinus  sylvestris),  while  the  vales  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  sea  are  adorned  with  the  beautiful  Digitalis 
purpurea,  which  is  unknown  in  other  parts  of  Norway.  On  the 
declivities  of  the  hills,,  Hieracium  aurantiacum  spreads  its  gol- 
den flower,  and  Gentiana  purpurea  is  of  frequent  occurrence, 
which  no  one  would  scarcely  have  expected  to  find  beyond  the 
Alps.  -Bunium  bulbocastanum,  Anthericum  ossifragum,  Se- 
dum  anglicum,  Chrysosplenium  oppositifolium,  Centaurea  ni- 
gra, Hypericum  pulchrum,  Erica  cinerea,  Rosa  spinosissima, 
Lycopodium  inundatum,  all  plants  which  would  be  sought  in 
vain  where  the  birch  ascends  to  3000  feet  high,  but  which  are 
common  in  the  British  Isles,  are  not  unfrequent  and  often  quite 
common  in  the  districts  on  the  sea-coast  of  Norway.  Even  Ilex 
aquifolium  and  Hedera  helix,  which  cannot  survive  the  winter 
in  a  great  part  of  Germany,  thrive  excellently  on  the  west  coa«t 
of  this  roimtrv. 


Biographical  Memoir  of  the  late  Christian  Sviith.       21U 

After  Smith  has  unfolded  with  perspicuity  circumstar>ces 
equally  instructive  for  the  natural  history  of  the  globe,  as  for 
the  culture  of  trees  and  plants  in  a  given  chmate,  he  directs  his 
course  to  the  magnificent  glaciers  of  Justedal  in  Lat.  61J°,  and 
gives  almost  a  complete  description  of  them.  Thence  he  bent 
his  way  througli  the  vale  of  Walders,  back  to  his  native  city  of 
Dram. 

This  journey  excited  attention.  The  Patriotic  Society,  con- 
vinced of  the  utiUty  of  such  undertakings,  enabled  Smith,  in 
the  following  year,  1813,  to  attempt  a  similar  one  ;  and  he  en- 
tered on  it  with  pleasure,  because  the  interests  of  science  ap- 
peared to  be  thereby  identified  with  those  of  Ivis  country.  Du- 
ring the  greater  part  of  the  summer  he  perambulated  the  moun- 
tains under  6S°  of  latitude,  lying  between  the  valleys  of  Wal- 
ders, Guldbrandsdal,  and  Romsdal,  >vhich,  from  their  height, 
extent,  and  solitariness,  had  remained  so  much  unknown,  even 
to  the  nearest  inhabitants,  that  lyeretofore  they,  with  the  valleys 
they  inclose,  could  be  very  itnperfectly  designed  upon  the  maps. 
The  Flora  of  Norway  hereby  gained  many  new  species  which 
had  not  before  been  observed  in  this  country.  In  the  end  of 
summer  he  descended  into  the  imposing  valleys  of  Romsdal, 
to  occupy  himself  with  the  productions  of  the  sea,  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Molde  ;  and  the  advanced  period  of  the  season  difl 
not  prevent  him  from  twice  crossing  the  chain  of  the  Dovrefield, 
as  far  as  the  Nomadic  Laplanders.  Every  where,  on  these 
excursions,  he  collected  the  inhabitants  of  the  higher  valleys,  and 
taught  them  the  distinguishing  marks,  vakie,  and  properties  of 
the  lichens  that  cover  their  mountains.  He  shewed  them  the 
process  how  to  make  a  wholesome  bread  from  these  lichens, 
which  is  at  once  nutritious  and  pleasant  to  the  taste,  and  per- 
vsuaded  them  to  reject  the  miserable  resource  of  bread  from  bark, 
which  supports  a  wretched  existence  at  the  expence  of  health. 
The  end  of  the  year  brought  him  back  to  Dram. 

The  loss  of  his  father,  a  short  while  after  his  return,  put  him 
in  {)ossession  of  a  small  fortune,  which,  in  his  opinion,  he  could 
not  better  employ  tiian  by  seeking  to  improve  himself  by  fo- 
reign travel,  either  by  the  study  of  nature  or  intercourse  with 
the  learned.  His  nomination  as  ProftvSsor  of  Botany  in  the 
newly  instituted  Univcrsitv  at  Chri;5tiana,  confirmed  him  in  his 


214       Biographical  Memoir  of  the  late  Christian  Smith. 

purpose ;  for  all  the  fruits  of  his  journey  were  henceforth  de- 
voted to  the  new  botanic  garden,  which  he  regarded  as  his  own. 
No  sooner,  therefore,  had  he  landed  in  England  at  Yarmouth, 
and  reached  London  in  July  1814,  than  he  set  about  procuring 
for  the  garden  a  well  qualified  and  experienced  gardener,  and 
had  the  good  fortune  to  find  one  in  the  person  of  a  country- 
man of  his  own,  who  had  been  trained  in  the  excellent  institu- 
tion at  Kew.  This  lucky  circumstance  had  a  decided  influence 
on  all  his  later  researches,  for,  after  the  departure  of  the  gar- 
dener, he  considered  the  garden  as  already  arranged,  and  to  it 
all  his  cares  were  henceforth  directed.  Convinced  that  every 
thing  in  Christiana  would  be  carefully  attended  to,  he  collected 
and  purchased  whatever  he  considered  in  the  least  adapted  to 
it;  and  all  the  arrangements  of  EngUsh  gardens  acquired 
double  value  in  his  eyes,  when  any  part  of  them  seemed  to  be 
applicable  to  his  own.  The  advanced  state  of  the  season,  how- 
ever, did  not  permit  him  to  remain  long  in  London.  In  Au- 
gust he  went  to  Edinburgh,  and  a  few  days  thereafter  to  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland,  to  have  an  opportunity  in  particular  of 
examining  the  mosses  peculiar  to  the  country.  He  visited  Loch 
Tay,  ascended  Ben  Lawers,  surveyed  the  celebrated  Shehallien, 
and  penetrated  as  far  as  Ben  Wyvis  in  Ross-shire,  a  place  but 
seldom  visited.  Then  he  ascended  Ben  Nevis,  the  highest 
mountain  in  Scotland,  saw  the  venerable  naturalist  Dr  Stuart 
at  Luss,  and  returned  to  Edinburgh  after  an  absence  of  five 
weeks.  The  profound  knowledge  of  cryptogamic  plants  pos- 
sessed by  Dr  Taylor,  called  him  from  hence  to  Dubhn.  On 
returning  he  passed  through  Carlisle,  Cumberland,  and  Wales ; 
and,  after  a  short  stay  by  Liverpool  and  Oxford,  arrived  in 
London  in  the  month  of  December  1814. 

The  Congo  expedition,  after  he  had  fairly  resolved  to  ac- 
company it,  had  filled  him  with  the  greatest  hopes.  These  ap- 
peared to  be  the  more  confirmed  the  farther  it  proceeded.  Cap- 
tain Tuckey  was  a  man  of  a  scientific  education,  and  of  great 
politeness,  whose  society  afforded  him  both  pleasure  and  in- 
struction. Willingly  would  the  former  have  granted  him  a  few 
days  to  examine  St  Jago,  one  of  the  Cape  Verd  Islands,  where, 
on  the  9th  April  1816,  the  ship  cast  anchor  for  the  first  time  af- 
ter her  departure  from  England,  if  his  instructions,  as  well  as 


Biographical  Memoir  of' the  late  Chri^iian  Smith,      ^15 

bis  own  wish,  had  not  made  it  his  duty,  to  hasten  the  arrival  of 
the  expedition  in  the  Congo.     The  Uttle,  however,  which  Smith 
saw,  in  a  single  day,  on  the  mountains  of  the  island,  forms  a 
considerable  addition  to   our   knowledge.     In  July  the  ships 
reached  the  mouth  of  the  Congo.     Captain   Tuckey  sailed  up 
the  river  as  far  as  was  practicable,  but  even  their  progress  in 
boats  was  soon  arrested  by  rapids ;  whereupon  he  determined 
to  advance  along  the  river  by  land,  with  a  company  of  forty 
men.     The  excellence  of  the  climate  facilitated  the  undertaking, 
and  the  vegetation  becoming  always  richer  and  more  beautiful, 
inflamed  the  zeal  of  the  indefatigable  botanist.     "  Every  thing 
is  new,"  he  wrote  in  his  journal ;  "  one  can  only  collect  and  be- 
hold ;""  and,  truly  delighted  with  the  river  and  the  mountains, 
he  was  quite  confounded  when  the  Captain  declared  it  to  be  ne- 
cessary to  return.     The  hope  of  obtaining  sufficient  supplies 
either  from  the  negro  inhabitants  or  from  the  chace,   had  en- 
tirely failed ;  the  stores  they  had  carried  with  them  did  not  ad- 
mit of  their  advancing  farther  :  it  was  even  too  late  to  return  ; 
their  provisions  no  longer  sufficed  to  bring  them  to  the  ship's 
anchorage.     Want,  anxiety,  hunger,  fatigue,  produced  at  last 
a  fever,  which  spread   rapidly  and  consumed  their  yet  remain- 
ing strength.     Smith  sought  to  maintain  himself  by  liveliness  of 
spirits.     Always  cheerful,  he  inspired  others  also  with  courage, 
and  wished  even  to  animate  them  by  his  example.  But  this  he  was 
no  longer  able  to  do.     Whenever  he  had  made  a  few  steps  he 
fell  down,  and  at  last  could  no  longer  raise  himself.    He  was  ob- 
liged to  be  carried,  and  even  in  this  condition  he  constantly  en- 
couraged his  remaining  companions,  always  cherishing  the  best 
hopes  for  them  all.     In  this  manner  he  and  Captain  Tuckey, 
with  a  few  attendants,  reached,   on  the  17th   September,  the 
place  where  the  Congo  lay  at  anchor.     On  the  18th  both  were 
put  on  board  the    transport    Dorothea,   which   afforded   them 
greater  convenience.     Captain  Tuckey  died  soon  after.     Smith 
was  very  much  depressed,   and  very  weak.     On  the  21st,   the 
gardener  Loekhart  (from  the  garden  at  Kew)  came  to  him,  and 
heard  him  speak  much  and  long  in  Norwegian,  which  he  did  not 
understand.     This  was  considered  to  arise  from  the  heat  of  the 
fever,  and  medicines  were  offered  to  him.     To  which  he  made 
answer,  very  distinctly,  in  the  last  words  he  was  heard  to  ut- 


216       Biographical  Memoir  of  the  late  Christian  Smith. 

ter,  "  I  have  demanded  what  could  be  useful  to  me,  and  it  has 
not  been  given.*" 

On  the  22d  September,  a  few  moments  after  the  Dorothea 
had  weighed  anchor,  he  died,  far  from  relations  and  friends, 
and  attended  by  no  sympathising  soul.  His  remains  were  sunk 
in  the  river,  with  the  customary  ceremonies,  at  the  place  which 
has  been  called  "  The  Tall  Trees.''* 

His  collections  and  journals  have  been  saved  and  used  to  ad- 
vantage. There  could  scarcely  have  been  a  more  splendid  mo- 
nument erected  to  the  memory  of  this  lamented  naturalist,  than 
the  distinguished  memoir  of  Robert  Brown,  respecting  Smith''s 
collections  and  observations  in  Congo.  He  thereby  occupies, 
as  is  remarked  also  by  Brown,  an  honourable  place  among  the 
band  of  northern  naturalists  who  now  encircle  the  whole  of  Af- 
rica with  their  discoveries,  from  Egypt  to  the  coast  of  Barbary, 
through  Morocco,  Guinea,  and  the  Cape,  back  again  to  the 
Red  Sea.  For  since  Smith,  by  his  discoveries  in  Congo,  has 
filled  up  the  gap  which  formerly  separated  Guinea  from  the 
Cape,  in  respect  of  our  knowledge  of  African  plants,  the  ob- 
servations of  Hasselquist,  Vahl,  Schousboe,  Afzelius,  Tonning, 
Isert,  Smith,  Sparrmann,  Thunberg,  and  Forskaal  appear  with 
increased  interest,  and,  associated  with  these  distinguished  na- 
turalists. Smith  will  always  be  named  with  peculiar  honour  and 
renown,  as  one  of  the  martyrs  of  botanical  science  *. 


Description  of  the  contents  of  a  Tumulus  in  the  Parish  of  Bur- 
nesSf  Island  of  Sanday.  By  William  Wood,  Esq.  Surgeon, 
Island  of  Sanday.  (Communicated  by  Dr  William  Howi- 
son). 

X  his  tumulus,  like  many  of  the  same  outward  appearance, 
was  situated  on  the  slope  of  a  gently  rising  ground,  close  at  the 
head  of  a  fresh- water  loch,  which  is  commonly  dry  during  the 
summer  months.  It  was  about  a  mile  from  the  sea,  with  rising 
grounds  intervening.  It  was  nearly  circular  at  the  bottom,  and 
approached  gradually  to  an  apex,  which  appeared  as  if  sunk 

•   From  Leopold  Von  Buch's  "  Physicalishe  Beschreibung  der  Cana- 
r'fc''jrr.  Jnsoln."     4to.    Berlin,  lS2r>. 


PLATE. III. 


I^dmT  new  Phil  Jorjr.  Vol.zA 


Fvs.l. 


A  Plan  of  some  vans  crossimf  the  (jramle 
formir^  ffu  tase  ofLTimsffead  directum  rmir^KNM 
ffuit  <m  ^£astem  aspect  a  Ktffe  mifre  JVer^rh ' 


7      c 

e 
d     d 


(^rmmd  Flan  ofJw'M'n^  foi/nd  in 
Ti!mjthis,paris?i  ofBitmessJshndofSani 


Granite. 


.4n0tTier  parallel  vein  of  the  same  materialj'  about  40  Yds:  distance  from  Arst 


Granite 


QarkeAbds  vein  (mh/  t\'idwut  ffu  shift,  l^e Nitrrafivt  0f^Jmim^t»  thelnteHpr  of(7wmF2&  7  ^ 


W  \ 


Mr  Wood's  Description  of  the  contents  of' a  Tumulus.  217 

about  a  foot.  It  measured  eighty-five  feet  across  at  the  base, 
and  not  much  above  six  feet  in  height  at  the  highest  part,  which 
was  a  Httle  removed  from  the  centre,  in  a  northwest  direction. 
It  was  covered  with  short  grass.  One  or  two  more  tumuli  are 
in  the  immediate  vicinity.  The  ground  around  is  mostly  bar- 
ren moor-land. 

The  cottars  in  the  neighbourhood  have,  for  four  or  five 
years  past,  been  occasionally  removing  earth  and  stones  from 
the  edge  of  the  tumulus, — the  earth  for  improving  their  little 
patches  of  land, — the  stones  for  building  and  repairing  hill 
dikes.  They  have  never  seen  any  regular  building  till  this 
summer  ;  nor  have  they  found  any  thing  but  what  they  were  in 
search  of — earth  and  stones.  An  old  man,  indeed,  some  months 
ago,  found,  a  few  feet  from  the  edge  of  the  tumulus,  a  ring  of 
black  earthenware,  large  enough  to  go  round  hisw  rist ;  it  was 
finely  polished  and  very  hard,  according  to  his  account;  he 
broke  it  to  ascertain  its  composition,  and  has  since  lost  it.  The 
same  man  also  describes  a  vennel  or  drain  running  at  right  an- 
gles with  the  drain  we  discovered ;  it  was  on  the  south-east  of 
the  tumulus. 

The  tumulus,  I  have  already  hinted,  was  formed  of  stones 
and  earth.  The  stones  were  mostly  rounded  stones  from  the 
sea^shore,  and  seemed  all  to  have  been  subjected  to  the  action  of 
fire  ;  the  earth  was  black,  and  in  many  places  mixed  with  ashes. 
After  removing  many  cart-loads  of  stones  and  earth,  we  came 
to  the  building,  a  ground  plan  of  which  I  have  attempted, 
(PI.  III.  Fig.  1.),  and  which  I  shall  now  describe  as  accurate- 
ly as  I  can.  ) 

The  principal  part  of  the  building  consisted  of  one  square 
apartment,  in  one  end  of  which  there  was  a  fire-place  R  ;  on  the 
right  hand  side  it  communicated  with  a  small  cell ;  a  drain  a  a 
commenced  nearly  at  the  fire  place,  and  ran  in  a  south-east  di- 
rection towards  the  loch  ;  at  the  outer  extremity  of  the  drain  h  b 
was  another  small  cell. 

The  dimensions  of  the  principal  apartments  may  be  judged 
of  from  the  plan.  The  height  of  the  walls  we  could  not  ascertain  ; 
they  were,  when  we  examined  them,  about  three  feet  high,  and  did 
not  appear  ever  to  have  been  much  higher  :  they  were  two  feet 
thick,  composed  of  roughly  dressed  stones,  cemented  Avith  clav  ; 


218  Mr  Wood's  Description  of  the  cotitents  of  a  Tumulus. 

in  the  inside  a  flat  stone,  six  inches  thick,  and  about  three  feet 
broad,  reaching  from  A  to  H,  stood  on  edge ;  it  Was  also  ce^ 
mented  to  the  outer  wall  with  clay.  All  the  walls  of  the  prin- 
cipal apartment  were  thus  hned,  except  at  the  fire-place. 

A  space,  the  breadth  of  the  drain,  between  B  B,  was  left, 
evidently  for  a  door ;  there  was  no  appearance  of  a  window  in 
any  part ;  neither  was  there  any  thing  like  a  roof. 

,  The  walls  at  the  fire-place  were  built,  like  the  other  walls, 
from  the  ground  to  the  height  of  a  foot  and  a  half;  when  ano- 
ther form  of  building  commenced^ with  large  flat  stones,  without 
cement ;  they  were  so  placed,  that  the  one  above  overlapped  the 
one  below  an  inch  or  two,  thus  gradually  contracting  the  vent,  till 
at  last,  at  the  height  of  five  feet,  only  an  opening,  six  or  seven 
inches  wide,  was  left.  The  vent  had  only  three  sides,  or  rather  a 
back  wall  and  two  side  walls ;  it  was  open  next  the  principal 
apartment.  The  fire-place  itself  was  raised  a  foot  from  the 
floor,  built  of  rough  stones  which  had  suffered  from  strong  heat : 
they  crumbled  down  on  being  rubbed  between  the  fingers.  At 
one  side  of  the  fire-^ce  was  a  large  stone  K,  as  if  for  a  table 
or  seat ;  at  the  other  side  a  small  semicircular  recess  L.  Th^ 
floor  of  this  apartment  was  composed  of  clay,  which  appears 
to  have  been  taken  from  the  loch  already  mentioned,  where  it 
abounds. 

The  drain,  which  commenced  near  the  fire-place,  was  only 
a  few  inches  deep,  built  with  rough  stones  of  various  sizes,  and 
covered  with  flag-stones  level  with  the  floor ;  it  contained  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  very  fetid  water  At  the  outer  end  of  the 
drain  there  was  a  small  cell  (e)  ;  it  had  no  communication  with 
the  drain  ;  the  sides  of  it  were  formed  of  four  flat  stones,  about 
two  feet  high,  set  on  edge,  and  not  cemented  together.  The  bot- 
tom of  it  was  considerably  below  the  level  of  the  drain,  and 
formed  of  clay. 

The  cell  Q  had  one  side  open  to  the  principal  apartment ;  it 
was  lined  on  all  sides,  top  and  bottom,  with  flag-stones,  except 
the  opening,  which  measured  about  two  feet  six  inches  both  ways; 
the  depth  of  this  cell  from  the  level  of  the  floor  of  the  principal 
apartment  to  the  bottom,  was  two  feet  five  inches :  from  the  top 
of  the  cell  to  the  bottom  four  feet  eleven  inches.  Outside  of  the 
flat  stones  there  was  a  rough  wall,  built  as  in  the  principal  apart- 


Mr  Wood's  Description  of  the  contents  of  a  Tumulus.  219 

ment.  The  flat  stone  forming  the  upper  half  of  the  back  of  this 
cell,  was  perforated  at  its  lower  edge,  with  a  semicircular  aper- 
ture (jo),  three  inches  and  a  half  in  diameter,  which  communi- 
cated with  a  passage  about  a  foot  square,  covered  partly  with 
a  flat  stone  (O),  and  partly  open.  One  side  of  this  passage  was 
formed  by  a  large  stone  (P)  ;  the  other  side  was  formed  by  the 
wall  built  at  the  back  of  the  cell.  The  semicircular  part  marked 
in  the  plan  with  dots,  (^....ooo)  being  in  a  very  ruinous  state, 
could  not  be  examined  accurately,  but  there  has  been  some 
building  at  this  part. 

The  whole  of  the  inside  of  the  building  was  filled  with  black 
earth,  ashes,  burnt  roots  of  heath,  and  burnt  stones ;  two  or 
three  pieces  of  straw  were  found  imbedded  in  lumps  of  ashes. 
An  iron  nail  was  found  at  the  fire-place; — it  may  have  fallen 
from  the  opening  at  the  top  of  the  vent  at  a  more  recent  period, 
but  it  was  imbedded  in  a  solid  lump  of  ashes.  Several  bones 
were  found  at  the  fire-place,  also  imbedded  in  ashes ;  among 
them  were  vertebrae,  ribs,  and  leg-bones  of  domestic  animals, 
part  of  the  under  jaw  of  a  hog,  and  many  teeth.  There  Avere 
no  human  bones. 

The  cell  Q  was  filled  to  the  level  of  the  floor  of  the  principal 
apartment  with  rounded  unburnt  stones ;  a  deer''s  horn,  and  two 
leg-bones  of  some  of  the  lower  animals  were  found,  about  half 
way  down  among  these  stones.  There  was  also,  in  this  cell,  a 
considerable  quantity  of  black,  unctuous  earth,  very  wet,  and 
of  a  fetid  odour.  The  horn  was  soaked  with  water,  and  could 
not  be  lifted  entire.  Above  the  level  of  the  floor,  this  cell  was 
filled  with  burnt  stones,  &c.  as  in  the  rest  of  the  building. 

Such  is  the  account  of  what  was  seen.  I  do  not  hazard  even  a 
conjecture  as  to  the  use  of  this  relic  of  antiquity.  The  building, 
I  consider  to  be  of  an  older  date  than  its  covering,  which  ap- 
pears to  have  been  thrown  over  it  at  a  more  recent  period,  but 
still  ages  ago,  for  some  particular  purpose,  which,  with  the  use 
of  the  building  itself,  I  fear,  will  for  ever  remain  unknown, 

Island  or  Sanday,    ^ 
2,^th  June  1824.         / 


(     220     ) 

Observatiajis  an  the  Anatomy  of  the  Corallina  opuntia,  and  some 
other  species  of  Corallines^     By  Professor  Schweigger. 

Since  the  time  of  Cavolini  no  writer  has  examined  the  struc- 
ture and  economy  of  zoophytes  with  more  attention  than  Pro- 
fessor Schweigger  of  Konigsberg,  (Anatomisch-physiologische 
untersuchungen  uber  Corallen,  Berlin  18J 9)  He  has  made 
himself  acquainted  with  the  observations  and  discoveries  of  his 
predecessors  and  cotemporaries  in  every  European  language ;  he 
has  carefully  examined  the  animals  in  the  living  state  with  the 
assistance  of  the  microscope,  during  his  extensive  travels,  parti- 
cularly during  his  residence  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean ;  and  he  has  perused  with  equal  care  and  minuteness  the 
collections  preserved  in  the  Museums  of  Great  Britain,  and  of 
the  Continent,  but  more  especially  those  of  the  late  Sir  Joseph 
Banks,  and  of  the  Natural  History  Museum  of  Paris.  The 
doubtful  nature  of  corallines  he  has  made  a  subject  of  particu- 
lar inquir3\  These  singularly  hard  organized  substances  are 
regarded  as  animals  by  most  modern  systematic  authors,  as 
Cuvier,  Lamarck,  Bosc,  Lamouroux.  The  experiments,  how- 
ever, and  microscopical  observations  of  Schweigger  on  their  inter- 
nal organization,  add  great  probability  to  the  opinions  foimer- 
{y  entertained  by  Pallas,  Spallanzani,  Cavolini,  and  Olivi,  who, 
from  their  own  observations  on  living  corallines,  regarded  them 
as  plants.  Schweigger'*s  observations  have  been  chiefly  confined 
to  the  Corallina  opimtia,  C.  rubens,  and  C.  officinalis.  On  the 
6th  of  October  he  collected  a  portion  of  the  C.  opwitia  Pal.  on 
the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  between  Nice  and  Villefranche, 
growing  on  rocks  from  1  to  3  feet  under  the  surface  of  the  sea ; 
the  specimens  were  of  a  bright  green  colour,  and  so  very  flexi- 
ble, that  one  would  have  taken  them  at  first  sight  for  alcyonia. 
The  outermost  divisions  of  the  branches  were  for  the  most 
part  very  small,  transparent,  and  almost  destitute  of  calcareous 
matter  ;  others  had  a  thin  white  covering,  often  confined  to  par- 
ticular places,  and  were  still  flexible,  though  in  a  less  degree. 
The  lowest  portions  of  the  branches  appeared  the  oldest,  both 
externally  and  by  their  calcareous  interior,  and  had  the  leathery 
texture  we  generally  observe  in  specimens  of  the  C.  opu7itia  prc^ 


Prof.  Schwergger's  on  the  Corallina  opuntia.  221 

served  in  museums.  On  dividing  the  green  stalks,  a  number  of 
filaments  and  a  bright  green  parenchymatous  substance  could 
be  distinguished  with  the  naked  eye.  Under  the  microscope, 
the  filaments  appeared  as  succulent  fibres  or  soft  narrow  bands 
interwoven  and  branched  irregularly.  In  the  recent  state,  the 
filaments  had  a  great  resemblance  to  the  soft  fibres  of  the  Alci/- 
onium  bursa,  Linn,  (now  considered  a  plant)  ;  as  they  became 
dry  however,  particularly  in  the  older  branches  which  had  har- 
dened by  their  copious  deposit  of  calcareous  matter,  the  fila- 
ments appeared  jointed,  and  this  was  especially  observed  in  the 
latter,  on  removing  the  lime  by  means  of  nitric  acid.  In  this 
state  their  resemblance  to  the  filaments  of  confervae  and  the  ves- 
sels of  fuel  was  obvious.  The  vegetable  nature  of  the  Cor. 
opnniia,  appeared  still  more  distinct  in  its  general  structure. 
The  outer  covering  appeared  under  the  microscope,  uniform 
or  striated  longitudinally,  the  striae  being  composed  of  short  ca- 
nals or  cells  ranged  above  each  other  in  irregular  lines.  These 
lines  are  undoubtedly  mere  remains  of  the  cellular  texture  left 
attached  to  the  inner  surface  on  removing  the  covering.  The 
structure  of  the  cellular  substance  distinctly  indicates  this  coral- 
line to  belong  to  the  vegetable  kingdom.  The  parenchyma  is 
seen  to  be  composed  partly  of  globular,  partly  of  pentagonal  or 
hexagonal  cells,  precisely  as  we  find  it  in  the  generality  of  plants, 
but  never  in  animals.  The  soft  filaments  above  described  are 
extended  between  these  cells.  The  younger  the  branch  is,  the 
more  distinct  is  this  structure,  the  cells  in  the  young  state  be- 
ing soft  and  green  ;  but,  after  the  lime  is  deposited  in  the  cellu- 
lar tissue,  the  cells  become  almost  undistinguishable ;  by  remo- 
ving the  lime  with  acids,  however,  tlicy  are  brought  again  into 
view,  more  or  less  distinctly,  according  to  the  age  of  the  branch. 
In  young  portions  we  discover  a  number  of  minute  granules  in 
the  cellular  texture  between  the  filaments.  They  are  not  perceiv- 
ed in  older  branches ;  and,  even  when  the  lime  is  removed,  they 
are  still  either  imperceptible,  or  are  observed  in  much  smaller 
quantity  than  in  the  former.  These  granules  are  obviously  not 
calcareous,  since  they  do  not  disappear  when  the  young  branch 
is  immersed  in  nitric  acid.  In  their  general  appearance,  and 
in  the  circumstance  of  their  collecting  principally  in  the  young- 
est portions,  they  exhibit  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  granular 


2^2  Professor  Schweigger  (yn  the 

matter  observed  in  the  cellular  substance  of  plants,  especially  in 
the  youngest  shoots,  but  which  likewise  becomes  less  as  the 
plants  advance  in  growth.  This  species  of  coralline  can  be  re- 
garded therefore  only  as  a  marine  plant,  composed,  like  many 
other  plants,  of  distinct  articulations,  but  which  gradually  as- 
sumes the  appearance  of  a  coral  by  the  deposition  of  lime  in  its 
interior. 

The  structure  of  the  other  corallines  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
C.  opuntia,  excepting  that,  in  proportion  as  the  articulated 
parts  become  smaller,  the  cells  are  less  numerous,  and  the  coral- 
line is  found  to  consist  almost  entirely  of  filaments  and  calca- 
reous matter.  The  Corallina  ruhens,  Lam.  was  frequently  exa- 
mined by  Schweigger  in  the  Mediterranean,  particularly  in  the 
Gulf  of  Spezzia,  where  he  often  collected  transparent  young 
specimens.  These  are  distinctly  composed  of  parallel  filaments, 
which  extend  through  the  joints  and  digitations  without  inter- 
ruption from  one  end  to  the  other.  The  delicacy  of  these  young 
plants  did  not  admit  of  their  being  divided  by  a  longitudinal 
section,  which  was  likewise  unnecessary  from  the  branches  being 
sufficiently  transparent  when  examined  singly.  No  trace  of  the 
cells  of  polypi  could  be  detected,  nor  any  resemblance  to  the 
structure  of  those  zoophytes  which  contain  polypi.  The  whole 
plant  may  be  considered  as  a  petrified  conferva,  having  gradual- 
ly become  consolidated  in  the  course  of  its  growth.  The  struc- 
ture of  the  Corallina  officinalis^  which  abounds  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, is  similar  to  that  of  the  C.  rnbens,  but  is  more  diffi- 
cult to  examine,  as  it  becomes  consolidated  more  quickly,  and 
in  a  higher  degree.  Schweigger  never  found  this  species  trans- 
parent, but  when  he  immersed  it  in  acids,  and  examined  it  un- 
der the  microscope,  it  exhibited  the  same  kind  of  structure  as 
the  other  corallines,  though  not  so  distinctly. 

The  deposition  of  calcareous  matter  in  the  coralHnes  appears 
to  proceed  from  the  surface  inwards.  The  outer  covering  is 
observed  opaque  at  particular  places,  as  if  incrusted,  while  the 
substance  within  is  green  throughout,  and  contains  little  lime. 
The  calcareous  deposition  proceeds  more  and  more  towards  the 
interior,  the  green  colour  and  cellular  structure  disappear  ;  but, 
at  the  commencement  of  this  calcifying  process,  the  vegetable 
cellular  structure  can  be  quickly  and  distinctly  reproduced  by 

3 


Anatomy  of  the  Corallina  opuntia.  2^3 

means  of  acids.  The  deposition  of  lime  begins  with  the  very 
first  appearance  of  the  branches,  the  minutest  stalks  of  the  Cor. 
opuntia  were  found  to  contain  some  lime,  the  quantity  of 
which  increased  as  the  branches  grew. 

Cavolini  observed  on  the  surface  of  corallines  minute  fibres 
filled  with  granular  bodies,  which   he   took   for  seeds.     They 
were  likewise  seen  by  Olivi,  who  thence  inferred  that  they  came 
chiefly  from  the  joints.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  they  are  on- 
ly filaments  of  confervae,  the  ends  of  which  are  often  covered, 
and  imbedded  in  the  substance  of  the  coralline,  and  they  fre- 
quently remain  attached  to  it,  even  after  the  lime  has  been  re- 
moved by  acids.     Lamouroux  likewise  observed  these  filaments, 
and  found  them  capable  of  spontaneous  motion.     The  latter  ob- 
servation reminds  us  of  a  similar  fact  mentioned  by  Covalini, 
who  observed  the  Sertulariajastigiata,  covered  with  filaments 
which  possessed  spontaneous  motion.     In  specimens  of  the  Cor. 
opuntia^  which  Schweigger  had  preserved  in  spirits,  he  discover- 
ed similar  filaments,  which  he  had  looked  for  in  vain  in  those 
recent  from  the  sea.  They  appeared  under  the  microscope  like 
tubes  interrupted  by  small  knots.  The  knots,  however,  on  apply- 
ing higher  magnifying  powers,  were  found  to  be  tranverse  parti- 
tions, lying  parallel  to  each  other  at  short  distances':  the  fila- 
ments had  altogether  the  appearance  of  confervae.     Should  thev 
be    regarded    as  such,  there  is  nothing  remarkable    in   their 
spontaneous    motions,  since    similar   motions  have   often  been 
seen  in  confervae,  and  are  described  by  Vaucher  and  other  wri- 
ters.    The  mere  resemblance,  however,  is  not  conclusive  as  to 
th(pir  being  distinct  confervae,  since  they  have  likewise  the  clos- 
est resemblance  to  the  filaments  within  the  coralline.     They  are 
probably  continuations  of  the  inner  substance,   like  those  pro- 
jecting from  the  Cellaria  cereoides,  upper  roots,  (liiftwurzeh, 
air-roots),  appearances  presented  hy  confervae  ;  and  the  whole 
coralline  consists  of  cells  and  conferva-filaments.     Ellis  observ- 
ed in  the  substance  of  corallines  minute  vesicles  which  he  sup- 
posed to  be  air-vesicles,  destined  to  preserve  the  coralline  erect 
in  the  water.     They  were  likewise  seen  by  Lamouroux ;  but  as 
he  frequently  observed    round  bodies  in   them,  he  considered 
them  ovaria.     From  the  foregoing  account  of  the  structure  of 
the  corallines,  there  can  scarcely  be  a  doubt  that  these  vesicles 


^84         Mr  Blackadder  on  the  Constitution  of  Flame, 

are  only  cells  which  have  not  been  filled  with  calcareous  mat- 
ter, and  that  the  supposed  ova  are  the  usual  granular  mat- 
ter of  the  cellular  substance. — 'Commumcaiion  froin  Dr  Grant, 


On  the  Constitution  of  Flame.     By  H.  Home  Blackadd^k, 
Esq.  F.  R.  S.  E.     (Communicated  by  the  Author.) 

Jt-iVEN  at  the  present  day,  the  constitution  of  an  ordinary 
flame  would  seem  to  be  but  very  imperfectly  understood  ;  at 
least  the  following  notice,  of  a  very  recent  date,  would  naturally 
lead  to  such  a  conclusion.  "  It  appears,  from  a  series  of  expe- 
riments by  Mr  Davies  of  Manchester,  that  there  is  considerable 
foundation  for  the  opinion  of  Mr  Sym,  that  the  flame  of  a  can- 
dle is  a  conical  surface,  the  interior  of  which  is  not  luminous,  a 
section  of  the  flame  being  a  luminous  ring  surrounding  an  ob- 
scure disc  *.'"  Hence,  it  would  appear,  that,  within  the  present 
year,  it  has  only  been  considered  as  probable,  that  the  flame  of 
a  candle  is  a  cone  of  gas  or  vapour  in  a  state  of  combustion  at 
its  surface  ;  and  a  determination  of  this  point  may  well  be  con- 
sidered the  very  first  step  in  a  scientific  investigation  of  the  sub- 
ject. Though  some  may  be  of  opinion  that  this  point  does  not 
require  determination,  I  shall  describe  a  very  simple  method, 
with  which  I  have  long  been  familiar.  For  this  purpose  a  blow- 
pipe is  all  that  is  necessary ;  and  one  made  of  glass,  having  a 
hollow  bulb  near  its  distant  extremity,  is  the  most  suitable. 
When  the  point  of  the  instrument  is  introduced  into  the  centre 
of  a  spirit  flame,  and  the  operation  of  suction  is  performed,  the 
luminous  cone  is  observed  to  diminish,  or  contract  in  proportion 
to  the  degree  of  suction  that  is  applied  ;  and  by  thus  extracting 
the  vapour  from  the  interior  of  the  flame,  the  latter  may  readily 
be  extinguished.  In  performing  this  suction,  even  with  a  short 
tube,  the  operator  is  exposed  to  no  risk,  farther  than  that  of  in- 
haling a  quantity  of  alcohol  in  the  state  of  vapour ;  and,  unless 
the  operation  be  unnecessarily  prolonged  or  repeated,  this  is  not 
apt  to  be  followed  by  any  sensible  effects.     When,  after  suction 

•  Journal  of  Science  for  1826. 


Mr  Blackadder  cyii  the  Constitution  of  Flame.          2^5 

lias  been  applied,  the  instrument  is  removed  from  the  flame,  it 
.  is  found  to  contain  alcoholic  vapour,  and  which,  when  lighted, 
on  being  slowly  expelled  by  the  breath,  gives  a  blue  flame  at 
the  point  of  the  blowpipe.     If,   instead  of  performing  suction 
by  the  mouth,   the  tube,  inserted   in  the  flame,  be  connected 
with  a  vessel  full  of  mercury,  and  the  latter  be  allowed  slowly 
to  escape,  any  quantity  of  vapour  may  be  collected  from  conical 
flames.     When  an  accurate  analysis  is  to  be  made  of  this  va- 
pour, it  is  necessary  to  fill  the  tube  as  well  as  the  vessel  with 
mercury,  and  to  abstract  the  air  that  is  mixed  with  the  combus- 
tible fluid.     It  is  also  to  be  recollected,  that  a  small  quantity  of 
air  always  remains  between  the  surface  of  the  mercury,  and  the 
glass  vessel.    In  making  use  of  a  blowpipe  in  the  way  described, 
with  the  flame  of  a  candle  or  oil  lamp,  it  is  preferable,  for  rea- 
sons that  will  afterwards   appear,   to  perform  the  suction  by 
means  of  a  syringe,  or  a  bag  of  elastic  gum.     In  this  case,  a 
dense  white  vapour  is  observed  to  fall  in  a  continued  stream, 
into  the  hollow  bulb  of  the  instrument,  the  flattie  at  the  same 
time  contracts,  and  when  the  extracted  vapour  is  lighted,  it 
burns  with  a  white  flame.     When  this  vapour  is  in  the  interior 
of  the  flame,  it  is  kept  at  a  high  temperature,  and  is  then  per- 
fectly transparent,  but  the  instant  its  temperature  is  very  slight- 
ly reduced,  as  by  touching  the  upper  part  of  the  wick  with  the 
point  of  a  small  wire,  it  acquires  a  milky  whiteness  ;  and  hence, 
when  falling  in  a  stream  from  a  tube,  it  is  so  dense  as  to  resem- 
ble an  opaque  hquid.    By  means  of  an  Argand  lamp,  without  a 
wick,  the  burner  being  made  of  Reaumeur's  porcelain,  this  va- 
pour may  be  procured  pure  and  in  great  abundance ;  but  the 
following  method  is  more  simple,  and  is  abundantly  productive. 
A  glass-vessel,  having  a  wide  mouth,  and  a  perforation  in  its 
bottom,  is  converted  into  a  lamp  with  a  circular  wick.     The  cen- 
tral canal  which  supports  the  wick  is  made  of  glass-tube,  not  less 
than  the  eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  which  is  left  project- 
ing below  the  body  of  the  lamp.     On  lighting  a  lamp  of  this  de- 
scription, air  does  not  rise  through  the  tube ;  but,  in  the  course 
of  a  few  seconds,  masses  of  dense  white  vapour  are  seen  falling 
down  through  it,  and  these  are  soon  followed  by  a  continued 
stream,  which  flows  copiously  from  its  lower  orifice.     On  some 
occasions  it  is  discharged  in  the  form  of  beautiful  rings,  or  loop- 

JULY OCTOBER  18^6.  P 


S^6        Mr  Blackadder  on  the  Constitution  of  Flume. 

(?d  curves  variously  modified,  and  whidi  proceed  from  the  same 
cause  as  the  pulsatory  motion  of  the  flame.     On  approaching  a 
flame  to  this  vapour  it  readily  catches  fire,   and  burns  with  a 
white  flame,  which  is  in  an  inverted  position.     The  tube  may 
be  bent  so  as  to  give  an  upright  flame,  and  by  having  several 
tubes  in  the  form  of  branches,  all  on  the  same  level,  the  lamp 
may  thus  be  surrounded  with  jets  of  white  flame.      This  va- 
pour may  also  be  made  to  protinide  from  the  tube  in  a  cylin- 
drical form,  like  a  white  taper,  with  a  flame  confined  to  its  up- 
per extremity.     As  the  ambient  air  is  usually  agitated,  this  va- 
poury taper  exhibits  singular  motions ;   and  as  its  flame  may 
be  tinged  successively  with  various  colovu's,  h^  slight  alterations 
or  additions  at  the  wick  from  which  the  vapour  proceeds,  it 
presents  rather  an  interesting  appearance.     When  a  mixture  of 
volatile  oil  is  used  to  produce  this  vapour,  it  affords* an  oppor- 
tunity of  illustrating  the  theory  of  certain  meteors  supported  by 
M.  de  Luc  and  others.     Narrow  cylindrical  masses  rise  in  the 
air,  and  when  these    are  inflamed  at  one  of  their  extremities^ 
they  burn  rapidly,  giving  the  appearance  of  luminous  balls  tra- 
versing or  descending  through  the  air.     On  introducing  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  glass-tube  into  a  glass  receiver,  the  vapoiu'  falls  to 
tlte  bottom  of  the  vessel,  being,  as  formerly  stated,  more  like  a 
milky  liquid  than  a  gaseous  body  ;  and  any  quantity  may  thus 
be  collected.      White  light  is  extricated  when  it  is  exploded 
with  atmospheric  air ;  but,  when  agitated  with  water,  until  it  is 
quite  transparent,  it  gives  a  blue  flame.     It  differs  in  no  res- 
pect from  the  vapour  obtained  from  the  centre  of  the  flame  in 
the  way  formerly  described  ;  and  when  the  circular  wick  is  pro- 
perly adjusted,  it  appears  to  consist  of  carburetted  hydrogen, 
heavily  loaded  with  oil  in  tlie   state  of  vapour ;  but  the  wick 
ma,y  be  So  arranged  as  to  cause  an  admixture  of  carbonic  acid 
l^as,  either  in  very  minute  quantity,  or  so  great  as  to  render  the 
vapour  incombustible,  as  it  issues  from  the  central  tube.  When 
oil  is  burned,  the  white  part  of  the  abstracted  vapour  conden- 
sies  into  an  amber  coloured  oil ;  and,  when  tallow  is  burned,  it 
is  deposited  in  the  form  of  a  white  powder,  which  adheres  to 
the  sid^  of  the  vessel,  or  forms  a  cake  on  the  surface  of  water. 
The  inhalation  of  this  vapour,  even  when  much  diluted,  pro- 
duces an  oppressive  headache  ;  and  hence  it  is  not  advisable  ta- 


Mr  Blackadder  on  the  Constitution  of  Flame,  SS7 

abstract  it  from  the  interior  of  a  flame  by  suction  with  the 
mouth.     It  has,  besides,  a  very  offensive  odour. 

It  has  already  been  stated,  that,  when  the  vapour  issues  in 
a  full  stream,  it  burns  with  a  white  flame  similar  to  that  of  a 
candle.  When  the  flow  of  vapour  is  gradually  increased  from 
the  smallest  quantity  that  will  maintain  combustion  to  the  com- 
plete evolution  of  the  flame,  the  appearances  that  are  successive- 
ly exhibited  are  not  unworthy  of  attention. 

At  first  the  flame  is  but  shghtly  convex,  and,  as  viewed 
from  above,  there  is  an  exterior  ring  of  a  misty  blue  colour, 
then  a  very  narrow  ring  of  purple,  within  that  a  broad  ring  of  a 
bright  blue  colour,  and  in  its  centre  a  circular  spot  of  a  sea- 
green  colour,  at  times  very  distinct.  The  green  tinge  is  evi- 
dently produced  by  the  commencing  extrication  of  yellow  light, 
which,  when  first  perceived,  is  faint,  and  has  the  appearance  of 
a  yellow  fluid,  in  a  state  of  slow  ebullition.  As  the  flow  of  va- 
pour increases,  the  boihng  motion  becomes  more  apparent,  then 
ceases,  and  as  the  yellow  light  rises  in  a  small  cone  in  the  cen- 
tre, the  green  either  disappears,  or,  for  a  short  time,  forms  a 
circle  around  it.  If  at  this  stage  of  the  flame,  it  be  viewed 
transversely,  there  is  observed  a  narrow  line  extending  over  the 
yellow  cone,  which  has  a  very  bright  purple  colour,  and  which 
seems  to  correspond  to  the  broad,  dark-blue  arch  that  is  ob- 
served in  the  flame  of  alcohol.  By  directing  a  momentary 
puff*  of  air  against  the  flame  of  the  circular  wick,  the  flame 
of  the  vapour  is  in  the  course  of  a  few  seconds  considerably 
modified.  A  number  of  bright  yellow  lines  are  seen  projecting 
from  the  flame,  and  which  proceed  from  particles  of  charcoal, 
that  have  been  formed  in  the  circular  flame^  being  mixed  with 
the  descending  vapour,  and  becoming  ignited  in  passing  through 
the  flame  at  the  lower  orifice  of  the  glass-tube.  As  these  par- 
ticles pass  through  the  bright  purple  line  above  described,  they 
exhibit  a  beautiful  crimson  colour.  Does  the  bright  purple  light 
derive  its  origin  from  the  formation  and  combustion  of  cyano- 
gen, or  is  it  derived  from  the  carbon,  as  is  observed  during  the 
combustion  of  diamond  in  oxygen  gas  ?  As  the  flow  of  vapour 
increases,  the  flame  expands,  but  it  is  still  of  a  yello^^'  colour,  nor 
is  the  white  light  extricated,  until  an  interior  cone  is  formed^ 
whose  base  is  above  the  blue  portion  of  the  flame. 


Mr  Blackadder  on  the  Constittition  of' Flame. 

The  flame  of  a  candle  differs  but  little  from  that  of  the  va- 
pour, or  that  of  oil  burned  without  a  wick.  For,  after  the  wick 
is  carbonized,  as  long  as  it  is  completely  enveloped  by  the  flame, 
and  is  not  in  contact  with  it,  it  undergoes  no  particular  change. 
The  charcoal  becomes  more  consolidated,  but  none  of  it  seems 
to  escape,  or  to  be  carried  off  by  the  vapour  ;  and  hence,  on  the 
present  occasion,  the  wick  may  be  viewed  simply  as  a  porous 
solid,  projecting  into  the  centre  of  the  flame.  In  such  a  flame 
as  that  of  a  candle,  the  following  parts  may  be  distinguished  : 

1^^,  A  blue  portion,  which  extends  from  the  base  to  about 
the  middle  of  the  flame.  Its  extent  may,  in  most  cases,  be 
traced  by  the  eye,  but  its  height  may  always  be  determined  by 
means  of  a  blowpipe.  This  may  be  termed  the  essential  part 
of  the  flame,  which  may  exist  without  the  white  light,  but  with- 
out which  the  latter  cannot  be  produced.  It  is  at  least  princi- 
pally at  this  part  of  the  flame  that  water  is  formed  by  the 
union,  of  hydrogen,  with  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere. 

9,dly^  An  attenuated  opaline  brush  over  the  whole  exterior 
surface  of  the  blue  part  of  the  flame.  This  brush  can  readily 
be  distinguished  as  high  as  the  middle  of  the  flame,  where  the 
blue  portion  terminates ;  and  perhaps,  strictly  speaking,  it  does 
not  extend  higher.  But,  from  its  apparent  termination  to  the 
apex  of  the  flame,  there  is  a  somewhat  similar,  but  extremely 
attenuated  brush,  which  has  a  dusky  yellow  colour,  readily  dis- 
tinguished in  small  flames,  but  seldom  to  be  observed  in  large 
flames,  without  the  aid  of  opaque  skreens.  How  this  opaline 
brush  is  produced,  or  in  what  it  differs  from  the  other  parts  of 
the  flame,  remains  perhaps  to  be  determined.  From  the  blue 
part  of  the  flame,  water  is  very  copiously  discharged  in  the  form 
of  steam.  When  a  polished  piece  of  metal  is  approached  to  it, 
even  at  its  base,  there  is  a  copious  and  instantaneous  deposition 
of  moisture  on  its  surface.  It  is  not  improbable,  therefore,  that 
the  brush  is  produced  mechanically  by  the  steam  as  it  issues 
from  the  flame ;  and  this  would  enable  us  to  account  for  its  be- 
coming nearly  invisible  above  the  blue  portion  of  the  flame  of  a 
Candle,  and  for  its  presence  over  the  whole  surface  of  a  blue 
flame,  such  as  that  of  alcohol. 

Sdly,  A  cone  of  yellowish  white  light,  commencing  on  the 
inner  surface,  and  at  a  short  distance  from  the  base  of  the  blue 
portion.     On  the  inner  surface  of  the  blue  portion,  this  cone  is 


Mr  Blackadder  on  the  Constitution  of  Flame.  229 

so  attenuated,  that,  on  looking  at  an  object,  such  as  a  slip  of 
paper,  through  the  middle  of  the  lower  half  of  the  flame,  it  is 
seen  as  through  glass,  or  other  transparent  media.  Hence, 
when  the  flame  is  viewed  at  a  distance,  an  oval  space  is  obser- 
ved around  the  wick,  which  has  a  dusky  or  non-luminous  ap- 
pearance ;  but,  when  more  closely  examined,  luminous  particles 
of  a  yellowish  white  colour  are  observed  on  its  interior  surface, 
and  which  appear  to  move  rapidly  in  parallel  lines,  and  from 
below  upwards.  This  oval  space  serves  to  point  out  the  exact 
height  to  which  the  blue  portionof  the  flame  extends, and  the  part 
of  the  flame  which  alone  contains  the  white  vapour  formerly  de- 
scribed. 

Stilly y  An  interior  cone  of  white  light,  the  base  of  which  is 
above  the  upper  part  of  the  blue  portion.  This  is  the  whitest, 
most  luminous,  and  last  evolved  part  of  the  flame.  When  the 
combustion  is  moderate,  and  the  wick  properly  adjusted,  the 
apex  of  diis  cone  remains  within  that  of  the  exterior  cone  ;  but 
it  almost  constantly  exhibits  a  disposition  to  protrude,  and  then 
produces  the  appearance  of  a  notch  or  break  on  each  side  of  the 
apex  of  the  flame.  Beyond  a  certain  extent,  however,  it  can- 
not thus  protrude,  without  interrupting  the  process  of  combus- 
tion at  the  upper  part  of  the  flame.  More  or  less  charcoal  is 
then  discharged,  in  the  form  of  soot,  and  which,  in  becoming 
partially  ignited,  gives  out  light  of  a  brown  or  reddish  yellow  co- 
lour ;  and  it  may  be  remarked,  that  it  is  the  exterior  cone  that 
first  and  principally  exhibits  the  effects  of  this  interruption. 

In  the  interior  of  the  upper  half  of  the  flame,  or  in  that 
which,  for  the  sake  of  distinction  might  be  termed  its  upper 
chamber,  there  is  present  a  vapour  of  peculiar  properties,  and 
which  is  altogether  different  from  that  which  is  found  in  the 
lower  chamber,  or  within  the  blue  portion.  When  the  vapour 
referred  to  is  collected,  it  has  a  misty  appearance  from  the  pre- 
sence of  minute  particles  of  charcoal,  and  even  remains  slightly 
obscured,  after  having  been  repeatedly  agitated  with  water.  No 
oil  or  water  is  deposited  from  it,  and  though  it  has  a  suffocating 
odour,  it  is  altogether  free  of  the  offensive  smell  proper  to  the 
•dense  vapour  formerly  described.  It  would  be  desirable  to  as- 
certain the  exact  chemical  nature  of  this  vapour,  but  such  an 
analysis  is  not  unattended  with  difficulty,  and  other  pursuits  of 
n  professional  nature,  present  too  many  obstacles  tp  such  an  jn^ 


230  Mr  Blackadder  on  the  Constitution  of'  Flame. 

vestigation.  When  a  jet  of  it  is  projected  above  the  apex, 
or  on  the  opaline  brush  of  a  blue  spirit  flame,  streaks  of  reddish 
brown  light  make  their  appearance,  if  projected  through  the 
brush,  so  as  to  come  into  contact  with  the  bright  blue  part  of 
the  flame,  light  of  a  golden  yellow  is  extricated  ;  but,  when  the 
jet  is  forced  into  the  interior,  so  as  to  strike  on  the  inner  surface 
of  the  blue  flame,  the  light  that  is  given  out  is  similar  to  the 
yellowish- white  light  of  a  candle.  There  cannot  be  a  doubt 
that  these  appearances  depend  on  the  presence  of  minute  parti- 
cles of  charcoal,  which  are  brought  to  various  degrees  of  igni- 
tion in  different  parts  of  the  flame ;  but  the  relation  which  the 
carbon  has  to  the  vapour  has  not  been  accurately  determined. 
Between  the  point  of  the  tube,  and  the  place  where  the  yellow 
light  is  extricated,  there  is  sometimes  observed  an  attenuated 
blue  flame,  and  some  of  the  charcoal,  is  merely  in  a  state  of  sus- 
pension. When  projected  from  a  wide  orifice  at  the  base  of  a 
blue  spirit  flame,  almost  the  whole  surface  of  the  latter  appears 
as  if  spotted  with  minute  spangles  of  a  brilliant  golden  colour. 
In  this  case,  none  of  the  vapour  enters  at  the  base  of  the  flame, 
so  as  to  mix  with  the  cone  of  alcoholic  vapour  in  the  interior  ; 
for,  in  that  case,  streaks  of  yellow  light  would  appear  at  its  apex, 
similar  to  what  was  stated  to  take  place  with  the  flame  of  the 
white  vapour,  after  a  puff'  of  air  had  been  directed  against  the 
circular  wick.  The  vapour,  however,  may  be  made  to  enter  at 
the  base  of  a  spirit  flame,  by  directing  a  jet  from  a  small  orifice 
between  it  and  the  glass  burner.  The  vapour  then  rises  through 
the  centre  of  the  cone,  and  streaks  of  yellow  light  appear  at  its 
apex.  To  produce  this  effect,  the  jet  must  be  small,  and  urged 
with  considerable  force  ;  and  we  may  therefore  conclude,  that, 
on  ordinary  occasions,  atmospheric  air  is  not  mixed  with  the  va- 
pour in  the  interior  of  a  flame.  This,  however,  may  be  other- 
wise and  more  accurately  determined.  A  flame  is  extinguished 
in  the  interior  of  another  flame.  This  may  readily  be  deter- 
mined by  means  of  a  glass  burner  :  thus,  pass  the  glass  burner 
of  a  lamp  through  a  cork  in  the  bottom  of  a  glass  or  porcelain 
vessel,  the  diameter  of  which  may  be  one  inch,  or  several  inches, 
but  whose  depth  does  not  necessarily  exceed  the  fourth  of  an 
inch.  Fill  the  vessel  with  alcohol,  or  strong  ardent  spirits,  and 
having  lighted  the  lamp,  raise  the  vessel  on  the  glass  burner  to 
about  the  fourth  of  an  inch  from  its  orifice,  when  the  alcohol 


Mr  Blackadd^r  07i  the  Constitution  ofFiame.         231 

wiil  inflame.  The  flame  of  the  oil  that  is  burned  in  the  lamp 
will  be  extinguished ;  but  the  flame  of  the  alcohol  will  evaporate 
the  oil  as  it  issues  from  the  burner,  and  this  vapour,  on  coming 
into  contact  with  the  inner  surface  of  the  blue  flame,  will  under- 
go combustion,  giving  out  much  white  light.  In  such  a  case^ 
the  cone  of  white  light  from  the  combustion  of  the  vapour  of 
oil,  keeps  distinct  from  the  white  light  of  the  flame  of  the  alco- 
holic vapour. 

This  experiment  has  been  repeated  in  a  variety  of  ways, 
and  the  result  has  always  been  the  same ;  and  hence  we  are  ne- 
cessarily led  to  the  conclusion,  that  the  vapour  in  the  interior  of 
a  flame  is  incapable  of  supporting  combustion.  It  is  certain, 
however,  that  some  oxygen  is  always  present  in  that  vapour, 
for  oils  and  alcoholic  fluids  always  contain  some  air  in  a  state  of 
mechanical  admixture  ;  and  oxygen  is  understood  to  be  a  consti- 
tuent part  of  all  of  them. 

The  apex  of  a  spirit  flame  is  the  hottest,  or  is  the  part  at 
which  a  solid  body  is  raised  to  the  highest  temperature ;  and 
partly  for  this  reason,  that  less  heat  is  carried  off*  by  the  air 
with  which  the  solid  body  is  surrounded,  than  at  the  other  parts 
of  the  flame — the  vapour  discharged  from  the  flame  being 
itself  at  a  very  high  temperature  *.  The  upper  part  of  the  flame 
oi  a  candle  communicates  less  heat  to  a  solid  body  than  its  middle 
part,  where  the  blue  portion  terminates.  This  seems  to  pro- 
ceed, in  some  measure,  from  the  deficiency  of  hydrogen  in  the 
upper  and  most  luminous  part  of  the  flame  ;  and  hence,  at  that 
part  a  blowpipe,  the  use  of  which  infers  a  greater  supply  of  air, 
has  comparatively  but  a  trifling  effect. 

When  the  opaque  white  vapour  formerly  described  is  burned, 
so  as  to  produce  a  white  conical  flame,  the  vapour  is  observed  to 
project  into  the  interior  of  the  flame  like  a  white  wick,  tapering  to 
a  small  point ;  hence,  of  a  supposed  transverse  section  of  a  flame, 
the  coldest  point  would  be  in  the  centre.  Much  heat  is  con- 
sumed at  the  inferior  part  of  a  flame  ;  the  burner  or  wick-hold- 
er carries  off  no  inconsiderable  quantity,  and  much  is  consumed 
in  converting  the  combustible  body  into  vapour.  It  is  an  old 
observation,  that  a  common  lamp  will  burn  in  air  that  will  ex- 

•  In  the  centre  of  a  conical  spirit  flame,  the  heat  diminishes  from  the  apex  to 
the  mouth  of  the  hurner,  near  which  glass  acquires  what  is  termed  a  dark  cherry- 
red. 


252         Mr  Blackadder  on  the  Constitution  ()f  Flame. 

tinguish  a  candle,  and  from  this  it  might  be  inferred,  that  more 
heat  is  consumed  in  converting  tallow  into  a  fluid  than  is  carried 
off  by  the  wick-holder  of  a  common  lamp  ;  but,  in  a  common 
lamp,  much  of  the  heat  that  is  abstracted  by  the  metallic  wick 
holder,  is  communicated  to  the  oil  in  the  reservoir.  A  lamp 
without  a  wick  may  readily  be  extinguished  by  abstracting  heat 
from  the  burner. 

If  a  small  stream  of  water,  projected  from  a  tube,  be  direct- 
ed through  the  flame  of  a  candle,  the  stream  being  made  to  pass 
immediately  above  the  wick,  the  form  of  the  flame  is  thereby 
scarcely  aff^ected ;  white  light  is  defective  at  the  spot  where  the 
water  enters  and  comes  out  of  the  flame,  and  in  this  much  only 
is  the  combustion  interrupted.  On  receiving  the  water  into  a 
vessel,  after  it  has  passed  through  the  flame,  a  film  of  tallow  is 
observed  to  form  on  its  surface,  and  which  is  derived  from  the 
vapour  in  the  interior  of  the  flame ;  part  of  which  has  been  car- 
ried off*  and  condensed  by  the  water.  When  the  stream  is  di- 
rected through  the  white  part  of  the  flame  that  is  above  the  oval 
space  formerly  mentioned,  the  effect  produced  on  the  flame  is  si- 
milar ;  no  tallow,  however,  is  observed  on  the  surface  of  the  wa- 
ter ;  but,  instead  thereof,  a  considerable  quantity  of  carbon,  in 
the  form  of  soot,  is  deposited.  When  the  water  is  made  to  pass 
through  the  flame,  near  its  apex,  the  combustion  is  interrupted, 
and  the  top  of  the  flame  acquires  a  brown  colour.  The  same 
effect  is  produced  by  a  solid  body,  and  likewise  by  a  stream  of 
air ;  and  hence  it  might  appear,  that  the  interruption  of  the  com- 
bustion was  simply  a  consequence  of  the  abstraction  of  heat ; 
but  the  flame  of  a  spirit-lamp,  when  propelled  on  the  apex  of  the 
flame  of  a  candle,  interrupts  the  combustion,  and  gives  the  lat- 
ter a  brown  colour.  The  following  facts,  illustrative  of  the  ex- 
trication of  white  light,  may  also  be  noted.  When  any  solid 
body  ifi  approached  to  the  flame  of  a  candle,  so  as  to  be  at  the 
distance  of  about  three-tenths  of  an  inch  from  its  surface,  the 
part  of  the  flame  that  is  immediately  above,  exhibits  a  sensi- 
ble increase  of  white  light ;  but  when  the  solid  body  is  brought 
to  within  the  tenth  of  an  inch  of  the  opaline  brush,  the  space 
which  formerly  presented  an  increase  of  white  light  is  now  alto- 
gether deprived  of  itj  the  flame  remaining  in  other  respects  un- 
changed. The  space  that  is  deprived  of  white  light  has  a  rela- 
j^ion  to  the  form  and  size,  but  to  no  otlior  property  of  the  solid 


Mr  Blackadder  oti  the  Constitution  of' Flame. 

body.  The  flame  of  a  spirit-lamp,  and  a  stream  of  cold  air, 
from  a  blowpipe,  have  the  same  effect  as  a  solid  body,  in  causing 
the  white  hght  to  disappear  *.  If  a  solid  body,  such  as  the  end 
of  a  wire,  be  passed  through  the  opaline  brush,  so  as  to  come 
into  contact  with  the  part  of  the  flame  from  which  the  latter 
proceeds,  there  is  observed  from  the  point  of  the  wire  upwards, 
a  line,  in  which  the  quantity  of  white  light  is  very  distinctly  in- 
creased ;  but  on  carrying  the  point  of  the  wire  into  the  interior 
of  the  flame,  the  line  which  was  in  the  former  instance  rendered 
more  luminous,  is  now  rendered  transparent,  and  is  altogether 
deprived  of  white  light ;  so  that  on  passing  the  wire  quite  through 
the  flame,  the  latter  appears  as  if  mechanically  divided  into  two 
parts.  By  greatly  diminishing  the  force  of  the  current  of  air, 
as  it  impinges  on  the  lower  part  of  a  flame,  that  part  of  the  lat- 
ter, which,  in  ordinary  circumstances,  is  altogether  of  a  blue  co- 
lour, becomes  nearly  as  luminous  as  the  rest  of  the  flame.  This 
may  be  illustrated,  by  causing  a  small  current  of  air  to  pass  in  a 
transverse  direction,  and  at  a  small  distance,  from  the  base  of 
the  flame,  or  by  bringing  the  extremity  of  a  small  tube  near  to 
it,  and  applying  suction.  The  same  effect  is  produced  by  in- 
creasing the  supply  of  vapour  at  the  lower  part  of  the  flame. 
Thus,  when  a  small  metallic  ball  is  connected  with  the  orifice  of 
a  burner  without  a  wick,  or  when  a  double  burner,  the  one  with- 
in the  other,  is  used,  the  usual  blue  ligl?t,  at  the  base  of  the 
flame,  is  scarcely  perceptible.  In  both  these  cases  an  unusual 
supply  of  vapour  is  produced  at  the  base  of  the  flame. 

It  was  stated  on  a  former  occasion,  that,  when  a  vessel  of  wa- 
ter was  placed  under  a  blue  spirit-flame,  and  a  solid  body,  near- 
ly at  a  red  heat,  was  introduced  into  it,  the  small  particles  of 
water  that  were  thus  impelled  on  the  exterior  surface  of  the  flame 
caused  an  extrication  of  yellow  light.  It  was  also  stated,  that, 
when  small  particles  of  water,  driven  by  a  simple  mechanical  im- 
pulse, impinge  on  a  blue  flame,  no  yellow  light  Was  given  out. 
Particles  of  water  miry  be  thus  discharged,  by  giving  a  whirl- 
ing motion  to  a  moist  body,  and  in  various  other  ways,  with- 
out obviously  modifying  the  flame  with  which  they  come  into 

•  Hence  a  lamp,  with  concentric  wicks,  as  hitherto  constructed,  is  not  likely  to 
afford  the  degree  of  illumination  that  might  be  expected  from  the  increased  sur- 
face of  flame  and  consumption  of  oil.  It  is  better  adapted  to  afford  an  increase  of 
heat  than  of  light.  4 


234  Mr  Blackadder  on  the  Constitution  of  Flame. 

contact.  But,  without  the  assistance  of  heat,  water,  and  many 
iQther  fluids,  may  be  made  to  impinge  on  a  spirit-flame,  so  as  to 
cause  the  extrication  of  yellow  light.  For  this  purpose,  it  is  on- 
ly necessary  to  impel  the  fluid  in  such  a  way,  that,  in  escaping 
from  the  vessel  in  which  it  is  contained,  it  shall  produce  a  whiz- 
zing noise,  similar  to  that  caused  by  the  escape  of  soda  water 
and  carbonic  acid  gas,  through  the  pores  of  a  cork  ;  or  to  that 
produced  when  a  hot  body  is  dropt  into  water.  On  such  occasions 
particles  are  expelled  of  such  a  size  as  renders  their  explosion 
inevitable  on  coming  into  contact  with  the  flame ;  the  larger  par- 
ticles passing  through  without  suffering  more  than  a  slight  dimi- 
nution of  their  bulk.  Thus,  let  a  small  quantity  of  water  be  in- 
troduced into  the  hollow  bulb  of  a  glass  blowpipe,  and  on  bring- 
ing the  water  to  a  level  with  the  distant  part  of  the  tube,  let  air 
be  forced  through  the  instrument,  so  as  to  expel  water  from  its 
point,  with  a  whizzing  noise.  Thus  expelled,  particles  of  water, 
alcohol,  sulphuric  acid,  and  many  other  fluids,  cause  a  blue  flame 
to  give  out  yellow  light.  A  similar  discharge  of  fluids  may  be 
produced  in  various  other  ways,  and  always  with  the  same  eff*ect ; 
such  as  tallow  mixed  with  water,  &c.  When  muriate  of  soda  is 
placed  in  a  flame  it  decrepitates,  and  the  yellow  light  is  brilhant, 
in  proportion  to  the  violence  of  the  decrepitation.  The  muriate 
of  baryta  also  decrepitates,  though  in  an  inferior  degree.  When 
held  near  the  apex  of  a  spirit-flame,  it  gives  out  white  fumes,  and 
these  fumes  give  a  yellow  colour  to  flame.  The  presence  of  a  li- 
quid, such  as  water,  is  necessary  to  the  formation  of  the  fumes, 
which  seem  to  be  simply  particles  of  the  salt,  in  a  state  of  minute 
division.  It  would  be  desirable  to  ascertain  the  effect  of  these 
salts  on  the  flame  of  a  combustible,  into  the  composition  of  which 
hydrogen  does  not  enter,  and  whose  conjbustion  is  not  supported 
by  oxygen. 

When  a  perfectly  clean  rod  of  glass  is  broken  in  a  spirit-flame, 
yellow  light  is  given  out ;  and  the  same  effect  is  produced  by 
grinding  together  the  ends  of  two  rods  in  tJie  immediate  vicinity 
of  the  flame.  Two  pieces  of  pumice  stone,  that  have  been  pre- 
viously brought  to  a  white  heat,  also  cause  the  extrication  of  yel- 
low light,  when  struck  or  ground  close  to  a  spirit-flame.  Many 
other  incombustible  bodies  produce  a  similar  effect ;  and  in  such 
cases  the  origin  of  the  coloured  light  is  very  obvious. 

The  gaseous  oxide  of  carbon,  during  its  combustion,  gives  out 


Mr  Blackadder  on  the  Constitution  of  Flame.  S35 

but  a  very  faint  light,  which  is  of  a  blue  colour  ;  but  when  parti* 
cles  of  carbon  are  presented  in  such  a  form  that  they  can  become 
ignited,  the  colour  of  the  light  that  is  given  out  during  their  ig- 
nition, seems  to  depend  on  the  existing  temperature  and  the  sup- 
ply of  oxygen  ;  it  is  red,  yellow,  or  white.  At  a  certain  tempe- 
rature the  charcoal  that  is  deposited  from  a  flame  seems  to  unite 
with  oxygen,  without  the  extrication  of  light.  Thus,  if  the  end 
of  a  rod  of  glass,  that  has  been  blackened  in  the  flame  of  a  can- 
dle, be  introduced  into  the  centre  of  a  spirit-flame,  the  charcoal 
becomes  red,  without  undergoing  any  farther  change ;  but,  on 
withdrawing  the  rod  from  the  flame,  the  charcoal,  after  becom- 
ing black,  is  observed  to  disappear  from  the  surface  of  the  glass, 
exactly  in  the  same  way  that  condensed  aqueous  vapour  disap- 
pears in  dry  air  from  a  polished  surface  *.  If  the  rod  be  made 
to  pass  quickly  through  the  air  the  charcoal  becomes  ignited  ; 
but  more  of  it  is  not  consumed  than  is  observed  to  disappear  when 
ignition  is  not  thus  produced.  The  yellow  light  that  is  extricat- 
ed, when  solid  vegetable  or  animal  substances  are  brought  into 
contact  with  a  blue  flame,  is  doubtless  produced  by  the  ignition 
of  minute  particles  of  charcoal.  The  yellow  light  given  out  when 
alcoholic  fluids  are  burned  with  a  wick,  or  when  minute  particles 
of  various  fluids  are  made  to  impinge  on  a  blue  spirit-flame,  has, 
I  have  reason  to  believe,  a  similar  origin. — 

After  the  preceding  part  of  this  paper  was  written,  a  first  op- 
portunity was  had  of  perusing  the  highly  interesting  papers  on 
Combustion,  by  Sir  H.  Davy,  published  about  ten  years  ago,  in 
the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  In  these  pa- 
pers the  researches  of  that  celebrated  chemist  are  stated  to  be 
unfinished,  but  whether  he  has  since  that  period  prosecuted  the 
subject,  I  have  not  had  the  means  of  ascertaining.  Perhaps,  with- 
out being  guilty  of  presumption,  it  may  be  asked.  Is  the  evi- 
dence hitherto  adduced,  in  support  of  the  following  opinions  con- 
clusive ? 

"  The  flame  of  combustible  bodies,  in  all  cases,  must  be  con- 
sidered as  the  combustion  of  an  explosive  mixture  of  inflamma- 
ble gas,  or  vapour,  and  air ;  for  it  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  mere 

*  If  it  were  merely  carried  off  by  the  current  of  heated  air,  it  might  be  expect- 
ed to  be  similarly  carried  off  when  in  the  centre  of  a  spirit  flame,  for  the  velocity 
of  the  vapour  is  fully  equal  to  that  of  the  upward  current  of  air  caused  by  heat 
emanating  from  the  glass  rod. 


S36  Dr  Blichner's  Hypothesis,  S^-c. 

combustion  at  the  surface  of  contact  of  the  inflammable  matter  ; 
and  the  fact  is  proved,  by  holding  a  taper  or  a  piece  of  burning 
phosphorus,  within  a  large  flame  made  by  the  combustion  of  al- 
-cohol ;  the  flame  of  the  candle,  or  of  the  phosphorus,  will  appear 
in  the  centre  of  the  flame,  proving  that  there  is  oxygen  even  in 
its  interior  part. 

''  The  form  of  the  flame  is  conical,  because  the  greatest  heat 
is  in  the  centre  of  the  explosive  mixture. 

"  The  heat  diminishes  towards  the  top  of  the  flame,  because 
in  this  part  the  quantity  of  oxygen  is  least. 

"  When  the  wick  increases  to  a  considerable  size  from  collect- 
ing charcoal,  it  cools  the  flame  by  radiation,  and  prevents  a  pro- 
per quantity  of  air  from  mixing  with  its  central  part ;  in  conse- 
quence, the  charcoal  thrown  off*  from  the  top  of  the  flame  is  only 
red  hot,  and  the  greater  part  of  it  escapes  unconsumed.'"' 


Hypothesis  regarding  Magnetism.     By  Dr  Buchneu. 

i  HE  following  hypothesis  is  proposed  in  the  first  volume  of 
Dr  Blichner's  Elements  of  Chemistry,  at  present  in  the  press  ; 
it  has  been  inserted  by  the  author  in  a  German  Scientific  Jour- 
nal, (Archiv  fur  die  gesammte  Naturlehre,  1825,  No.  12.) 
However  bold  it  may  be,  it  appears  to  us,  that,  with  regard  to 
the  subject  to  which  it  applies,  nothing  should  be  absolutely  re- 
jected. The  new  analogies  which  it  is  the  object  here  to  ex- 
plain, open  a  field  entirely  free  to  the  imagination  of  natural 
philosophers. 

**  There  are  still,''  says  Dr  Biichner,  "  so  many  obscure  things 
in  the  phenomena  of  magnetism,  that  it  would  be  rash  to  pre- 
sent any  explanation  of  these  phenomena,  otherwise  than  as  a 
mere  hypothesis.  We  may  admit  as  demonstrated,  that  the  mag- 
netic influences  are  as  extensive  in  their  operation  as  light,  ca- 
loric, and  electricity,  but  that  they  are  in  a  state  of  reciprocal 
neutralization,  which  prevents  their  being  made  sensible.  There 
is  but  a  small  number  of  bodies  which  have  the  property  of 
breaking  this  state  of  equilibrium,  and  manifesting  north  and 
south  polarities.  Among  these  we  distinguish  the  loadstone, 
iron,  steel,  nickel,  cobalt,  &c.  To  what  is  this  remarkable  pro- 
perty owing  ?    Is  it  to  a  peculiar  crystallisation  of  these  bodies, 


Br  Biichner^s  Hypothesis  regarding  Magnetism.         237 

or  rather  to  some  defect  of  equilibrium  in  their  chemical  consti- 
tution ?  Of  this  we  are  ignorant.  It  seems  to  me,  that  it  may 
be  admitted,  that,  as  light  emanates  from  the  sun  toward  the 
earth,  magnetism  in  return  emanates  from  the  earth  toward  the 
sun,  in  a  state  of  neutralization  in  the  equatorial  zone,  which 
receives  the  greatest  quantity  of  light,  and  in  a  state  of  polariza- 
tion toward  the  poles  of  the  globe,  which  receive  the  least  of  it. 
It  cannot  be  refused  to  admit,  that  light,  caloric,  electricity  and 
magnetism,  are  in  a  certain  mutual  relation  of  causality  :  the  ques- 
tion is  merely,  what  is  this  relation  ?  The  following  hypothesis 
appears  to  me  the  most  simple  and  most  natural. 

"  The  planets  receive  from  the  sun  light  and  electricity  in  the 
neutral  state ;  they  decompose  these  principles,  and  reproduce, 
in  their  turn,  caloric,  and  the  two  polarised  electric  principles. 
But  caloric  dilates  bodies,  and  breaks  in  them  the  equilibrium 
of  their  cohesion,  and  of  their  chemical  constitution.  Then  ca- 
loric itself  undergoes  a  modification,  which  is  stiil  enigmatical  to 
us,  in  virtue  of  which  it  is  transformed  into  magnetism.  All 
ponderable  bodies  are  conductors  of  magnetism,  for  which  they 
appear  to  have  little  affinity.  Organised  and  living  bodies,  such 
as  our  own,  are  sensible  to  light  and  heat ;  but  we  want  a  sense 
for  the  magnetism  with  which  we  are  constantly  surrounded  and 
penetrated  :  hence  the  difficulty  of  understanding  this  agent 
aright.  If  we  inhabited  the  sun,  perhaps,  in  place  of  a  sense 
for  perceiving  light,  we  should  possess  a  sense  for  perceiving 
magnetism. 

",  In  the  present  hypothesis,  magnetism  would  not  emanate 
from  the  earth  only,  but  also  from  all  bodies  in  the  universe  that 
are  illuminated  hy  the  sun.  We  may  consider  as  proofs  of  these 
magnetic  emanations;  1^^,  The  magnetic  currents  which  are 
established  in  the  conducting  wire  of  an  electro-chemical  appa- 
ratus, or  in  a  thermo-magnetic  metal ;  for  the  earth  itself,  con- 
sidered in  this  point  of  view,  is  nothing  else  than  a  great  thermo- 
magnetic  apparatus  ;  and,  S^/z/,  the  circumstance  that,  in  the  most 
elevated  regions  of  the  earth's  atmosphere  which  man  has  hither- 
to been  able  to  attain,  the  magnetic  needle  remains  as  strongly 
polarised  as  at  the  very  surface  of  the  globe. 

"  Further,  if  we  reason  according  to  the  ordinary  laws  of  na- 
ture, we  cannot  regard  it  as  probable  that  the  planets,  placed  as 
they  are  right  opposite  to  the  sun,  act  an  entirely  passive  part. 


288         Dr  Buchner''s  Hypothesis  regarding  Magnetism, 

We  see  every  where  in  the  universe  mutual  changes  taking  place; 
why  should  the  sun,  on  its  part,  be  always  giving,  and  never  re- 
ceiving any  thing  in  compensation  ?  If  it  were  so,  notwithstand- 
ing the  magnitude  of  its  mass,  the  productive  power  of  hght 
which  it  possesses  would  necessarily  diminish,  after  a  lapse  of 
some  thousands  of  years,  while  the  earth  and  the  other  planets 
would  be  supersaturated  with  light  and  heat.  Now,  this  is  what 
we  do  not  see  happening.  It  appears  to  me  much  more  pro- 
bable, thctC  there  must  prevail,  with  respect  to  this,  in  the  plane- 
tary system,  a  continued  order  and  a  periodical  return.  The 
sun  might  be  considered  as  the  heart  of  this  system  ;  a  common 
principle  would  emanate  from  this  centre  under  the  form  of  light, 
and  would  flow  toward  the  planets,  as  the  arterial  blood  flows  to- 
ward the  extremities ;  it  would  there  be  successively  transformed 
into  caloric,  electricity  and  magnetism.  In  this  latter  state,  it 
would  flow  back  toward  the  sun,  as  the  venous  blood  flows  back 
toward  the  heart,  to  be  reconverted  into  a  state  of  light,  by  a  mo- 
dification the  inverse  of  the  first.  Perhaps  mathematicians  might 
even  seek  the  cause  of  the  laws  which  regulate  the  motions  of 
the  celestial  bodies,  in  this  alternate  transportation  of  light  to- 
ward the  planets,  and  of  magnetism  toward  the  sun.  We  see 
motion  result  from  analogous  currents  in  the  rotatory  electro- 
magnetic apparatus."" — Bibl.  Universelle. 


On  the  Construction  of  Meteorological  Instruments^  so  as  to  as- 
certain their  indications,  during  absejice,  at  any  given  instant, 
or  at  successive  intervals  of  time.     With  a  Plate. 

Jtii ARLY  last  summer  a  paper,  by  Mr  H.  H.  Blackadder,  was 
read  before  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  in  which  was  de- 
scribed the  mode  of  constructing  meteorological  instruments  so 
as  to  determine  their  indications,  during  absence,  at  any  given 
instant,  or  at  successive  intervals  of  time.  One  instrument,  of 
this  construction,  was  exhibited,  which  had  been  in  daily  use 
for  upwards  of  a  year,  and  which  had  been  found  to  give  per- 
fect satisfaction.  An  apparatus,  consisting  of  several  thermo- 
meters or  atmizomic  hygrometers,  was  at  the  same  time  exhibi- 
ted, nearly  completed,  and  by  means  of  which,  with  three  in- 


PI.  ATE. IV 


£d^r  PtiH.  Jhvi:  K.1.1} 


On  the  Construction  of  Meteorological  Instruments.     239f 

spections  in  the  course  of  the  day^  the  atmospheric  temperature^ 
and  (on  the  principle  of  the  late  celebrated  Dr  Hutton)  its  hu^ 
midity,  for  every  hour- of  the  day  and  night,  could  be  readily 
and  exactly  determined.  For  a  particular  account  of  this  ne^ 
mode  of  constructing  a  meteorological  apparatus,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  last  volume  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety. The  present  notice  is  chiefly  confined  to  an  explana- 
tion of  the  figures,  Plate  IV.,  where  certain  forms  of  'construc- 
tion are  represented,  and  which  will  render  the  practical  appli- 
cation of  the  principle  easily  apprehended. 

The  possession  of  a  single  thermometer,  constructed  on  this 
principle,  renders  the  keeping  of  an  accurate  thermometrical  re*, 
gister  a  comparatively  easy  task,  as  the  observer  is  freed  froift 
the  irksome  necessity  of  being  always  at  home  and  disengaged 
at  certain  fixed  hours.  This  freedom,  be  it  also  observed,  is  at- 
tainable at  a  very  trifling  ex  pence ;  and  at  a  very  small  addi- 
tional expence,  two  thermometers  and  hygrometers  may  be  thus 
constructed,  and  by  means  of  these,  an  accurate  and  valuable 
register  may  be  kept  with  very  little  inconvenience.  In  compa^ 
rison  with  the  usual  method,  it  would  be  found  an  agreeable 
amusement  rather  than  a  labour,  tolerable  to  very  few,  and  easy 
to  none. 

Eocplanation  of  Plate  IV. 
Fig.  1.  Represents  an  apparatus  applicable  to  various  pur- 
posesj  and,  among  others,  that  of  ascertaining  the  tempe- 
rature, or  the  temperature  and  humidity,  of  the  atmosphere 
every  successive  hour  of  the  day  and  night.  For  this  purpose, 
only  three  inspections  in  the  course  of  the  day  are  requisite  ; 
for  example,  at  7  a.  m.,  4  p.  m.  and  11  p.  m. 

a,  Seven  thermometers  suspended  on  rollers  or  hinges ;  four  are 
in  one  row  in  front,  and  are  represented  in  their  vertical  po- 
sition ;  the  other  three  are  suspended  about  an  inch  and  a-half 
behind  these,  and  are  seen  in  their  horizontal  position. 

These  thermometers  are,  on  the  present  occasion,  supposed  to  be 
made  with  old,  colourless,  and  carefully  filtrated  spirit,  that 
has  been  deprived  of  air.  The  index  may  be  very  minute, 
and,  consequently,  the  bulb  small,  which  last  is  an  important 
consideration.  The  tube  should  admit  of  the  spirit  rising  to 
about  140°  Fahrenheit,  though  it  may  be  unnecessary  to  di- 
vide the  scale  much  above  100». 


240     On  the  Construction  of  Meteorological  Instruments. 

b,  bj  Seven  valves,  four  of  which  are  shut,  and  three  open.  Thej^ 
exclude  rain,  snow,  &c.  and  confine  the  heat  in  seven  short 
tubes,  which  receive  the  bulbs  of  th^  instruments,  when  these 
are  in  their  horizontal  position. 

Cf  A  glass  frame  or  screen  for  protecting  the  bulbs  of  the  instru- 
ments when  in  the  vertical  position.  The  wooden  frame  of 
the  apparatus  is  varnished,  so  as  to  be  completely  water-proof. 

d,  A  lamp  giving  out  no  smoke  or  soot. 

e,  A  chimney. 

The  temperature  of  the  instruments,  when  they  have  received 
*  their  horizontal  position,  may  be  kept  above  that  of  the  at- 

^  *  mosphere  in  various  ways ;  as  by  causing  water,  or  ardent 
spirits  and  sulphuric  acid,  to  distil  slowly  from  separate  re- 
servoirs, and  through  capillary  tubes,  on  the  bulbs  of  the  in- 
struments. An  index  may  even  be  fixed  to  its  place  at  any 
given  instant  by  means  of  a  magnet,  and  an  artificial  supply 
of  heat  be  thus  dispensed  with  ;  but,  in  general,  a  lamp  will 
be  found  most  convenient.  On  many  occasions,  however,  even 
a  lamp  is  unnecessary,  provided  the  air  of  at  moderately  warm 
room  has  free  access  into  the  vapour  chamber,  A,  fig.  2. ;  par- 
ticularly if  the  communication  be  such  as  to  favour  a  constant 
circulation  of  air. 

f,  An  index  for  marking  the  hour  or  time  at  which  the  regis-* 
tering  commences  after  each  inspection.  The  outer  circle  is 
divided  into  seven  equal  parts,  and  is  fixed  to  the  wooden 
frame.  The  inner  circle  slides  on  the  outer,  and  is  divided  into 
twenty-four  parts,  corresponding  with  the  twelve  hours  of  the 
day  and  night.  If,  for  example,  it  is  wished,  at  9  a.  m.,  to  as- 
certain the  temperature  each  hour,  for  seven  hours  in  succes- 
sion, the  index  is  made  to  point  to  7  on  the  outer  circle,  and 
10  A.  M.  on  the  inner  circle  is  brought  opposite  to  1  on  the 
outer  circle. 

The  axis  of  the  index  projects  so  as  to  admit  of  its  being  connect- 
ed with  a  small  time-piece  or  table-clock,  by  means  of  a  small 
rod  which  may  be  removed  at  pleasure.  When  the  appara- 
tus is  fixed  on  the  outside  of  a  window,  the  small  rod  passes 
through  a  perforation  in  the  frame  of  the  window,  the  time- 
piece being  placed  on  a  table  within  the  room,  and  the  two 
may  be  thus  adjusted  in  less  than  half  a  minute. 
Fig.  2.  represents  the  interior  mechanism  of  the  apparatus. 

a,  A  cylinder,  around  which,  at  equal  distances,  and  in  two  spi- 
ral lines,  are  seven  projecting  pins.     The  index  ^  fig.  1.  is 


On  the  Construction  of' Meteorological  Instruments.      241 

fixed  on  the  axle  of  this  cylinder. 
b,  Seven  levers  moving  on  a  common  wire  at  c,  each  supported 

by  a  small  spring  d. 
€,  e,  Small  catches  for  retaining  the  instruments  in  an  upright 

or  inclined  position. 

f,  A  wire,  represented  by  a  dotted  line  to  g,  which  keeps  the 
valve  h,  fig.  1.^  shut  when  the  instrument  is  vertical,  and  al- 
lows it  to  open  when  the  instrument  is  moving  to  a  horizontal 
position.     There  is  one  such  wire  for  each  instrument. 

h,  The  vapour  chamber,  which  is  an  oblong  tin-box,  connected 
in  front  with  the  lamp  d,  fig.  1.,  and  at  the  other  extremity 
with  a  narrow  bent  tube  m,  which  terminates  in  the  chimney 
e,  fig.  1.  The  vapour  chamber  is  at  some  distance  from  the 
wooden  frame,  and  the  space  between  them  is  filled  with  cot- 
ton or  powdered  charcoal. 
-  n,  n,  Are  thin  metallic  tubes  which  project  into  the  vapour 
chamber,  and  are  shut  at  their  under  extremities. 

p,  p,  p,  Are  small  bent  levers,  which,  by  means  of  short  springs, 
elevate  the  valves  b,  b,  when  these  are  freed  by  the  wires j[/! 

Fig.  3.    Represents  a  section  of  a  small  apparatus  which  may  be 
carried  in  the  pocket. 

a,  The  frame  or  case. 

b,  Two  slips  of  metal  bearing  each  a  thermometer  and  atmi- 
zomic-hygrometer,  with  a  separate  scale  for  each. 

c,  A  lever  kept  in  its  place  by  the  spring  d,  and  retaining  b  in 
a  vertical  position  by  means  of  a  catch. 

e,  A  revolving  cylinder,  with  two  projecting  pins  for  depressing 
the  levers.  When  the  ajjparatus  is  used,  the  cylinder  is  put 
in  motion  by  means  of  a  pocket  time-piece. 

/,  The  vapour  chamber. 

g,  A  glass- vessel  containing  rain  or  distilled  \\^ater,  and  which 
may  be  raised  or  lowered  on  the  upright  stem  h, 

i,  A  small  glass-tube,  having  attached  to  its  under  extremity  a 
soft  hair  pencil,  through  which  the  water,  in  the  glass- vessel, 
slowly  distils,  so  as  to  keep  the  bulbs  of  the  atmizomic  hy- 
grometers constantly  moist.  There  may  be  a  separate  tube 
for  each  instrument,  or  one  tube  may  terminate  in  two  or 
more  branches,  each  mounted  with  its  brush.  The  tube  slides 
up  or  down  through  a  cork  in  the  glass-vessel,  so  as  to  regu- 
late or  stop  the  flow  of  water. 

JULY OCTOBER    1826.  Q 


^4)2     Ofi  the  Construction  of  Meteorological  Instruments. 

When  a  thermometer  is  converted  into  an  atmizomic  hygrome- 
ter, it  has  been  the  practice  to  cover  the  bulb  of  the  instrument  with 
soft  cambric  or  silk,  for  the  purpose  of  extending  the  moisture  over 
its  surface.  But  though  this  contrivance  certainly  answers  the 
purpose,  it  is  attended  with  considerable  inconvenience ;  for  if  rain 
or  distilled  water  is  not  used,  the  cloth  soon  becomes  loaded  with 
calcareous  and  other  earthy  matter  deposited  from  the  water  * ; 
and  even  when  the  purest  Avater  is  used,  the  instrument  soon  be- 
comes loaded  with  all  kinds  of  dust,  lime,  soot,  &c.  When  the  bulb 
has  become  thus  incrusted,  it  is  desirable,  if  not  requisite,  to  renew 
the  bibulous  covering ;  a  troublesome  operation,  which  cannot  be 
effected  without  considerable  risk  of  breaking  the  instrument ;  and 
which  is  particularly  objectionable  in  the  case  of  slender,  and  ex- 
tremely fragile  air  thermometers. 

This  bibulous  covering  may  be  got  rid  of,  by  having  the  bulb  of 
the  instrument  made  rough  by  means  of  fine  emery,  with  or  without 
the  aid  of  fluoric  acid ;  and  by  keeping  up  a  constant  supply  of  al- 
kalized water,  by  means  of  a  capillary  glass  tube,  fitted  with  a  soft 
hair  pencil,  and  connected  with  a  suitable  reservoir. 

It  would  seem,  however,  that  an  imperfection  attaches  to  the  dif- 
ferential hygrometer,  which  does  not  appear  to  have  been  particularly 
adverted  to  by  writers  on  meteorology.  It  has  been  admitted,  that 
moisture  is  deposited  from  the  atmosphere  on  glass  at  a  time  when 
the  former  is  not  saturated  with  aqueous  vapour.  Hence  when  a 
differential  thermometer  is  used  as  a  hygrometer,  and  when,  as  has 
hitherto  been  the  case,  the  naked  bulb  of  the  instrument  is  left  free- 
ly exposed  to  the  air,  it  cannot  be  ascertained,  in  the  evening  for  ex- 
ample, whether  the  air  is  or  is  not  saturated,  for  moisture  will  be  de- 
posited (as  it  appears)  on  the  naked  bulb  before  the  air  is  saturated ; 
and  when  the  naked  bulb  has  moisture  condensed  on  its  surface, 
the  instrument  no  longer  acts  as  a  hygrometer.  Perhaps  this  im- 
perfection might  be  remedied  by  keeping  the  surface  of  the  naked 
bulb  coated  with  a  thin  layer  of  a  fixed  oil  that  freezes  at  a  low  tem- 
perature ;  but  this  would  render  it  a  very  complicated  instrument. 

*  The  -deposition,  from  the  water  in  this  cit}^  seems  to  be  much  more 
copious  now  than  it  was  some  years  ago. 


(     HS    ) 

Some  mechanical  Inquiries  regarding  the  Formation  of  the 
Tails  of  Comets.     By  Dr  Lehmann  of  Berlin  *. 

i\  UMERous  attempts  have  been  made  to  explain  the  formation 
of  the  tails  of  comets.  The  extraordinary  aspect  of  those  bo- 
dies, by  exciting  the  imagination  of  natural  philosophers,  has 
often  drawn  them  into  hypotheses  which  have  run  wide  of  all 
the  known  laws  of  nature.  L  propose  to  inquire  here,  if  the 
form  of  the  tails  of  comets,  and  their  changes,  may  not  be  ex- 
plained by  means  of  known  powers  and  mechanical  laws  only,  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  flux  and  reflux  of  the  sea  are  explained 
by  means  of  gravitation  alone. 

Comets  do  not  differ  essentially  from  planets,  with  respect  to 
their  motions,  but  the  eccentricity  of  the  orbit  which  they  de- 
scribe is  much  more  considerable  than  that  of  the  orbit  of  the 
planets,  so  that  their  course  is  accomplished  in  a  curve,  which 
differs  little  from  a  parabola  or  a  hyperbola^  The  planets  on 
which  we  can  observe  spots,  turn  at  the  same  time  upon  their  axis 
as  the  earth  does.  The  satellites  in  their  motion  always  present, 
like  the  moon,  one  and  the  same  side  to  the  planet  round  which 
they  move,  the  time  of  their  rotation  being  the  same  as  that 
of  their  circulation  round  the  planet.  That  this  agreement  is 
not  an  effect  of  chance,  but  must  have  resulted,  in  the  case  of 
our  moon,  from  the  circumstance  that  its  mass  is  larger  toward 
the  hemisphere  which  it  presents  to  us  -f,  is  what  has  been  plain- 
ly demonstrated  by  the  celebrated  La  Place,  in  his  Mecanique 
Celeste  (L.  V.  PI  2..)t. 

If  we  return  to  the  comets,  we  shall  see  that  two  cases  may 
present  themselves,  with  respect  to  their  revolution  round  an 
axis.  This  revolution  is  performed,  either  like  that  of  the  planets, 
in  such  a  manner  as  that  they  present  all  the  parts  of  their  sur- 
face in  succession  to  the  sun,  or,  like  that  of  the  satellites^  in 
such  a  manner  as  that  they  always  turn  the  same  hemisphere 
toward  that  star.     It  is  demonstrated  upon  mechanical  princi- 

*  Astronom.  Jahrbuch,  Berlin,  1826  ;  and  Biblioth  Universelle,  Mars  18^6. 

f  In  consequence  of  the  earth's  attraction,  and  of  the  circumstance  that  the 
mass  of  the  moon  must  have  been  originally  fluid. 

X  It  being  understood  that,  at  the  commencement,  the  times  of  these  two  mo- 
tions did  not  differ  in  any  considerable  quantity.  This  explanation  is  originally 
due  to  La  Grange. 

q3 


244  Dr  Lelimann's  Inquiries  regarding 

pies,  that  no  third  case  can  exist.  Now,  it  is  easy  to  see,  that  a 
comet  which  sliould  turn  round  its  axis,  in  the  first  of  these 
ways,  could  not  have  a  tail  ;  for,  if  we  suppose  that  some  parts 
of  the  atmosphere  of  the  comet  were  upon  the  point  of  extend- 
ing, over  a  larger  space  of  the  side  opposite  the  sun,  than  of  any 
other  side,  they  would  be  immediately  displaced  by  the  rotatory 
motion,  since  they  must  possess  this  motion  in  common  with  the 
nucleus.  It  may  therefore  be  admitted,  that,  before  a  comet 
can  have  a  tail,  it  must  necessarily  ahvays  present  the  same  side 
to  the  sun.  Knowing  that  some  comets  shew  no  trace  of  a  tail, 
while  others  acquire  one  near  their  perihelion,  we  may  consider 
it  as  established,  that  the  former  turn  in  the  manner  of  planets, 
and  the  others  in  the  manner  of  satellites.  But  if  a  comet  ai- 
w^ays  present  the  same  side  to  the  sun,  it  can  only  be,  because 
it  has  a  greater  mass  on  the  side  which  it  thus  presents,  than 
on  the  opposite  side,  as  La  Place  has  demonstrated  with  respect 
to  the  moon.  Its  centre  of  gravity  will  therefore  be  found  be- 
tween the  centre  of  iigure  of  the  nucleus  and  the  sun,  and  nothing 
prevents  us  from  supposing  this  centre  of  gravity  near  the  sur- 
face of  the  nucleus. 

The  accelerating  forces,  to  which  each  particle  of  the  atmos- 
phere of  a  comet  will  be  subjected,  are  the  following,  1*^,  The 
power  of  expansion  ;  2^Z^,  Tlie  gravitation  toward  the  sun  ; 
Sdli/,  The  gravitation  toward  the  nucleus  ;  ^thly^  The  attrac- 
tion of  all  the  other  particles  of  the  atpiosphere. 

The  fourth  of  these  powers  is  so  feeble,  that,  in  our  inquiry, 
it  may  be  considered  as  an  infinitely  small  quantity,  on  account 
of  the  extreme  rarity  of  such  an  atmosphere.  The  same  might 
almost  be  said  of  the  gravitation  toward  the  nucleus  ;  for  this  nu- 
cleus has  so  little  density,  that  even  when  it  is  in  proximity  to  a 
planet,  it  exercises  no  appreciable  attraction  upon  it.  This  is  a 
circumstance  which  may  be  verified  by  the  comet  of  1770, 
which  approached  the  earth  to  a  distance  only  seven  times  great- 
er than  that  of  the  moon,  without  producing  any  sensible  action 
upon  it.  However,  the  parts  of  a  cometary  atmosphere,  which 
are  near  the  nucleus,  are  so  situated,  that  we  cannot  neglect  the 
attraction  which  this  nucleus  exercises  upon  them.  There  re- 
main, therefore,  three  powers  acting  upon  this  atmosphere  ;  the 
power  of  expansion,  the  gravitation  toward  the  sun,  and  the  gra- 
vitation toward  the  nucleus.     Let  us  decompose  each  of  these 


the  Formation  of  the  Tails  of  Cornets.  245 

forces  into  two  others,  and  of  which  one  is  parallel  to  the  radius 
vector  ;  there  are,  then,  six  forces,  of  which  we  have  only  to  con- 
sider the  three  that  act  in  the  direction  of  the  radius  vector.  We 
shall  consider  the  nucleus  as  a  solid  body,  such  as  the  atmosphere 
which  surrounds  it  cannot  penetrate,  and  that  the  densest  part  of 
this  atmosphere  rests  upon  its  surface. 

If  we  consider  the  parts  of  the  atmosphere  situated  on  the  side 
opposite  the  sun,  it  is  plain,  that  being  somewhat  more  distant 
from  the  sun  than  the  nucleus,  they  will  be  attracted  by  the  sun 
with  less  power  than  the  nucleus  itself.  The  component  of  the 
attraction  exercised  by  the  nucleus  upon  the  atmosphere  will 
therefore  be  diminished  by  the  attraction  of  the  mass  of  the  sun. 
While  this  diminution  will  remain  insensible,  on  account  of  the 
too  great  distance  of  the  comet  from  the  sun,  the  gravitation  of 
the  particles  of  the  atmosphere  toward  the  nucleus  will  be  in 
equilibrium  with  the  power  of  expansion  ;  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  expansive  power  of  the  earth*'s  atmosphere  remains  in  equi- 
librium  with  its  weight,  so  long  as  the  air  is  tranquil.  But,  in 
proportion  as  the  comet  approaches  the  sun,  this  diminution  will 
become  more  and  more  sensible  ;  the  component  of  the  power  of 
expansion,  directed  according  to  the  radius  vector,  will  gain 
more  and  more  upon  the  component  of  the  gravitation  toward 
the  nucleus,  in  the  same  direction;  it  will  therefore  remove 
from  the  nucleus  the  parts  of  the  atmosphere,  situated  on  the 
side  opposite  the  direction,  and  will  form  a  tail. 

The  tail  which  will  be  formed  in  this  manner^  will  always 
elongate  more,  and  will  always  increase  with  more  rapidity,  be- 
cause several  causes  acting  in  the*same  direction  unite  to  accele- 
rate this  increase.  In  the  first  place,  every  motion  once  im- 
pressed, will  continue  of  itself  in  one  direction,  and  with  a  con- 
tinued celerity.  Secondly,  if  the  comet  approach  the  sun,  the 
diminution  of  intensity  of  the  gravitation  toward  the  nucleus  be- 
comes on  this  very  account  always  more  sensible.  In  the  third 
place,  when  even  a  particle  of  the  atmosphere  is  in  motion,  for 
the  purpose  of  removing  from  the  nucleus,  the  difference  which 
there  is  between  the  distances  of  the  sun  from  the  nucleus  and 
the  particle,  goes  on  continually  increasing,  and  consequently  it 
is  the  same  with  the  difference  between  the  gravitation  of  the  nu^ 


246  Dr  Lehmann's  Inquiries  regarding 

cleus  and  the  particle  towards  the  sun.  Thus,  in  all  cases,  the 
particle  will  remove  from  the  nucleus  with  an  increasing  rapi- 
dity on  the  side  opposite  the  sun.  In  conformity  with  this,  we 
often  see  the  tail  attaining  an  astonishing  length  in  a  short  time, 
while  at  first  sight  it  might  seem  that  the  diiference  which  ori- 
ginally exists  between  the  distance  of  the  nucleus  and  that  of 
the  particle  from  the  sun,  compared  with  this  very  distance,  is 
too  small  a  quantity  for  the  diminution  that  must  result  from  it 
in  the  gravitation  ever  having  an  appreciable  influence,  or  being 
capable  of  determining  the  formation  of  a  tail.  But  this  forma- 
tion depends  essentially  upon  the  circumstance  that,  according 
to  my  supposition,  the  comet  always  presents  the  same  side  of 
the  sun.  Its  extension  to  a  length  of  several  millions  of  miles, 
will  then  be  possible,  because  all  the  causes  which  tend  to  aug- 
ment this  length,  act  without  interruption  in  the  same  direction. 
If,  on  the  contrary,  the  comet  should  turn  on  its  axis  like  the 
planets,  the  enormous  increase  of  its  tail  from  the  causes  which 
I  have  just  exposed,  could  not  take  place. 

How  does  it  now  happen  that  the  tail  decreases  after  the  pas- 
sage to  the  perihelion  ?  It  is  not  difficult  to  reply  to  this  ques- 
tion, by  means  of  the  principles  already  laid  down.  When  the 
comet  approaches  the  sun,  two  causes  concur  to  retard  the 
growth  of  its  tail.  The  first  resides  in  the  law  of  aerostatics, 
which  determines  that  the  power  of  expansion  diminishes  with 
the  density.  The  tail  will  not  therefore  increase  so  quickly  as 
it  would  have  done,  had  the  power  of  expansion  remained  the 
same.  The  other  cause  is  connected  with  the  circumstance 
that  we  cannot  see  objects  which  transmit  too  little  light  to  our 
eyes.  There  results  from  this,  that  we  can  no  longer  distinguish 
the  extreme  parts  of  the  tail,  when  it  is  much  extended  and  con- 
sequently highly  rarified,  because  a  diminution  of  lustre  is  ne- 
cessarily connected  with  this  rarefaction  of  an  atmosphere  lumin- 
ous in  itself.  For  these  two  reasons,  the  tail  will  seem  to  us 
to  be  shorter,  and  to  increase  more  slowly.  It  is  very  difficult 
to  distinguish  the  limits  of  the  atmosphere  of  a  comet,  or  its 
last  layers :  They  escape  our  view,  on  account  of  their  extreme 
rarity,  the  passage  to  vacuity  being  effected  in  a  manner  entire- 
ly imperceptible.  There  follows  from  this  that  the  tail  of  a  co- 
met may  appear  so  much  the  shorter  that  we  employ  a  greater 


the  Formatiofi  of  the  Tails  of  Cornets.  247 

magnifying  power    for  observing  it,  because  this  magnifier  de- 
minishes  the  intensity  of  the  light. 

So  long  as  the  comet  approaches  the  sun,  and  also  when  it  be- 
gins to  retire  from  it,  the  causes  which  contribute  to  elongate 
the  tail  will  gain  much  upon  those  which  tend  to  shorten  it ; 
and  the  greatest  length  will  take  place  immediately  after  the 
perihelion.  But  when,  after  the  perihelion,  the  comet  begins  to 
retire  from  the  sun  a  sufficient  space,  the  latter  causes  will  begin 
in  their  turn  to  gain  upon  the  first.  The  gravitation  towards 
the  nucleus  will  always  be  less  surpassed  by  the  power  of  expan- 
sion, which  will  itself  have  become  smaller  and  smaller,  from 
the  rarefaction  of  the  atmosphere.  There  will  thus  be  a  period 
at  which  these  two  powers  will  be  mutually  balanced,  and  at 
which,  in  consequence,  the  power  will  vanish,  in  virtue  of  which 
the  particles  of  the  atmosphere  were  propelled  from  the  nucleus 
on  the  side  opposite  the  sun.  After  this  there  will  immediately 
rise  a  contrary  power,  which  will  draw  them  towards  the  nucleus. 
However,  in  virtue  of  the  law  of  inertia,  the  tail  will  still  grow, 
but  with  a  slower  progress  ;  after  a  certain  time  it  will  be  sta- 
tionary, and  at  length  it  will  rapidly  diminish,  so  as  to  form  a 
new  and  condensed  atmosphere.  As  thisatmospherecannot  entire- 
ly disappear,  the  growth  of  the  tail  will  diminish  more  and  more, 
till  the  period  when  the  coniet  will  be  sufficiently  removed  from 
the  sun  for  its  atmosphere  to  return  to  the  same  state  of  con- 
densation which  it  possessed  at  the  commencement  of  the  phases 
which  we  have  described. 

Hitherto  we  have  only  considered  the  parts  of  the  atmosphere 
of  a  comet  which  are  situated  on  the  side  farthest  from  the  sun. 
We  might,  by  a  perfectly  similar  mode  of  reasoning,  conclude  with 
respect  to  those  which  are  on  the  side  next  the  sun,  that  they 
ought  to  retire  from  the  nucleus  and  stretch  toward  the  sun,  as 
the  others  extended  in  the  contrary  direction.  There  is  no  es- 
sential difference  between  the  two  regions  of  the  comet :  It  must 
form  as  long  a  tail  on  the  one  side  as  on  the  other.  Why, 
then,  do  we  only  see  one  on  the  hemisphere  farthest  from  the  sun  ? 
Because  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  nucleus  does  not  coincide 
with  its  centre  of  form,  but  is  situated  much  nearer  the  surface 
of  the  hemisphere  turned  toward  the  sun. 

It  is  demonstrated  by  calculation,  that  the  centre  of  gravity  be- 


248  Dr  Lehmann  cni  tlie  Tails  of'  Comets. 

ing  so  placed,  the  diminution  of  gravitation  is  much  smaller  in 
the  parts  of  the  atmosphere  turned  toward  the  sun,  than  in  those 
which  are  on  the  opposite  side  ;  the  tail  must,  therefore,  be  much 
shorter  in  this  region  than  in  the  other.  And  as  the  centre  of 
gravity  may  be  supposed  extremely  near  the  surface  of  the 
nucleus,  as  has  been  said  above,  it  may  be  conceived  that  here 
the  dilatation  of  the  atmosphere  no  longer  forms  a  tail,  but  only 
a  nebulosity. 

Lastly,  the  tail  is  ordinarily  inflected,  so  as  to  turn  its  conca- 
vity toward  the  side  from  whence  the  comet  comes,  and  to  have 
the  plane  of  its  curvature  coinciding  with  that  of  the  orbit  of  the 
star.  The  reason  is  this, — the  particles  of  the  tail  cannot  follow 
the  circulating  motion  round  the  sun,  with  the  same  rapidity 
as  the  nucleus,  because  to  the  same  linear  velocity  correspond 
angular  velocities,  so  much  the  smaller  in  proportion  to  the  great- 
ness of  the  distance  from  the  sun.  The  radius  will  be  tangent 
to  the  curve  of  the  tail  in  the  vicinity  of  the  nucleus,  because 
there  the  angular  velocity  of  the  particles  of  which  it  is  compos- 
ed does  not  differ  from  that  of  the  nucleus.  It  is  easy  also  to 
comprehend,  that  the  tail  will  appear  so  much  the  more  strongly 
inflected,  the  larger  it  is  ;  a  result  of  our  hypothesis  that  agrees 
with  observation. 

According  to  what  has  been  said  above,  the  formation  and 
change  of  the  tails  of  comets  may  be  considered  as  a  sort  of  flux 
and  reflux  of  the  atmosphere  of  their  bodies,  perfectly  similar  to 
the  tides  which  are  caused  by  the  moon  in  our  ocean,  and  per- 
haps even  in  our  atmosphere. 

On  the  Snakes  of  Southern  Africa.  By  Andrew  Smith,  M.  D. 
M.  W.  S.  Assistant-Surgeon  98th  Regiment,  and  Superinten- 
dent of  the  South  African  Museum  *.  Communicated  by  the 
Author, 

An  no  branch  of  natural  history  is  the  want  of  accurate  and 
perspicuous  description  more  felt  than  in  Ophiology.  Such  im- 
perfections have  unquestionably  tended  to  retard  the  advance- 
ment of  the  science,  to  create  diffidence  and  doubt  in  the  mind 
of  the  inquirer,  and  to  keep  back  communications  on  the  sub- 

•  Read  before  the  Wernerian  Society,  22d  April  1826. 


Dr  Snhth  on  the~ Snakes  q/'Souihern  Jfrica.  S49 

ject,  from  a  feai*  of  unnecessary  repetition  or  a  chance  of  plagia- 
risn]^. 

As  authors  have  hitherto,  in  general,  been  satisfied  with  hav- 
ing dead,  distorted,  and  variously  altered  specimens  for  the  de- 
scription of  species,  in  that  way  the  confusion  complained  of 
most  probably  arose ;  and  if  so,  the  only  method  calculated  to 
remove  it,  would  be  a  series  of  accurate  observations  made  up- 
on living  snakes.  As  considerable  difficulties  must  necessarily 
be  overcome  before  that  can  be  generally  effected,  and  as  but 
few  individuals,  comparatively  speaking,  can  enjoy  the  means  of 
carrying  on  such  inquiries,  it  therefore  becomes  the  duty  of  all 
interested  in  the  subject,  to  lose  no  opportunity  of  forwarding 
such  a  desirable  object ;  and,  under  this  impression,  I  have  taken 
minute  descriptions,  from  living  examples,  of  the  species  actu- 
ally contained  in  the  South  African  Museum,  of  which  the  an- 
nexed are  abridgments. 

.  Such  of  them  as  have  been  ascertained,  beyond  doubt,  to  be 
already  known,  are  designated  by  the  established  names ;  but 
where  no  descriptions  have  been  found  in  Shaw  or  Lacepcde 
(the  only  authors  I  have  on  the  subject),  answering  exactly  to 
the  appearances  which  have  been  observed,  I  have  given  them 
names  myself;  and,  in  one  of  those  instances,  have  selected,  as 
a  specific  distinction,  the  name  of  the  noble  individual  who 
procured  it,  and  to  whom  natural  history  is  indebted  for 
the  institution  of  the  South  African  Museum,  where  the  speci- 
men is  now  deposited,  viz.  Lord  Charles  Somerset,  governor  of 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

The  descriptions,  though  concise,  and  by  no  means  complete, 
have  been  proved  to  be  sufficiently  explicit  to  enable  individuals 
to  distinguish,  with  certainty  and  facility,  the  different  species, 
which  is  all  I  aim  at  on  the  present  occasion  ;  reserving  the  more 
ample  details,  as  well  as  the  accurate  representations  which  I  ac- 
tually possess,  for  a  work  expressly  on  the  subject.  With  re- 
gard to  number,  5,  I  have  considered  it  as  a  species  of  the  ge- 
nus Naia,  more,  however,  from  its  manners  than  from  its  natural 
appearances.  In  relation  to  the  former,  they  are  exactly  like 
those  of  number  4,  or  the  Naia  capensis,  and  so  completely 
diflPerent  from  those  of  the  vipers,  that  I  have  placed  it,  though 
devoid  of  the  loose  skin  on  the  neck,  with  the  former,  at  least 
till  such  time  as  an  opportunity  occurs  of  ascertaining,  by  ana- 


S50         Dr  Smith  on  the  Snakes  of  Southern  Africa. 

tomical  examination,  its  proper  genus.  If  examples  of  all  sorts 
of  snakes  could  be  procured  alive,  and  kept  so  for  some  consi- 
derable time, /many  excellent  specific  characters,  as  well  as  va- 
luable generic  distinctions,  would  doubtless  be  obtained,  and 
classifications,  which  have  hitherto  been  formed  upon  insufficient 
data,  might  certainly  be  fixed  upon  clear  and  lasting  principles. 
Indeed  so  convinced  am  I  of  that  being  practicable,  that  I  have, 
for  some  time  past,  been  forming  a  collection  of  live  snakes ;  and, 
from  experience,  I  find  that  the  more  their  natural  dispositions 
and  appearances  are  remarked,  the  more  perceptible  is  the  in- 
sufficiency of  our  present  divisions,  and  the  want  of  reform. 

To  attempt  the  latter,  however,  with  any  prospect  of  success, 
would  require,  previously,  great  observation  and  extensive  expe- 
rience, both  of  which  must  be  the  work  of  time ;  and  therefore, 
by  waiting  for  them,  other  persons  might  notice  what  we  ought 
to  do  at  least  in  relation  to  our  own  colonies.  Therefore,  to 
prevent  that  happening  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  I  propose, 
in  successive  papers,  to  give  short  sketches  of  the  different  spe- 
cies of  the  serpent  tribe  which  are  actually  contained  in  our  in- 
fant museum,  dividing  them,  for  the  time  being,  according  to 
the  most  popular  classification  ai  present  in  use. 

VIPERA. 

a.  With  orhicuJo-cordate  Head,  and  Fangs. 
1.  ViPERA  iiiflata.     Burchell. 
Piiff- Adder  of  the  Inhabitants. 

Ground  colour  above,  varying  from  brown  to  brownish-yellow  or  dirty  yel- 
low, and  variegated  throughout  by  transverse  curved  or  ziz-zag  bands  of 
black,  and  bright  yellow  or  cream-colour.  The  bright  yellow  or  cream- 
colour,  which  ever  of  them  it  happens  to  be,  is  generally  found  immediate- 
ly behind  the  black  ones,  and  the  same  colour  is  invariably  observed  mark- 
ing more  or  less  of  other  scales  in  various  situations.  The  lateral  portions 
of  the  black  bands  are  mostly  somewhat  semicircular  with  their  curvatures 
backwards  ;  the  central  parts  again  acutely  angular  or  arrow-shaped,  with 
their  points  nearly  in  the  middle  of  the  back,  and  directed  towards  the 
tail.  The  bands  on  the  anterior  and  middle  parts  of  the  body  are  for  the 
most  part  continuous,  though  marked  by  such  a  serpentine  course,  but 
near  the  tail  they  become  much  less  distinct,  and  are  often  either  com- 
pletely interrupted  or  lost.  Towards  the  middle  as  well  as  more  forwards, 
they  have  three  distinct  curvatures  or  angles,  one  on  each  side,  being  ge- 
nerally semicircular,  and  the  third  on  the  middle  of  the  back  mostly  acute 
and  angular.  Besides  those  three  portions,  some  of  the  bands  have  at 
their  extremities  also  a  black  blotch  on  each  side,  which  in  some  in- 
stances arc  connected  to  them,  but  in  the  majority  are  separate.     The 


Dr  Smith  07i  the  Snakes  of  Southern  Africa.  251 

ground  colour  of  the  tail  is  generally  darker  than  that  of  the  body,  and  more 
distinctly  intersected  by  several  narrow  regular  and  continuous  yellow  bands, 
which  extend  round  the  greater  part  of  its  circumference.  Colour  below, 
as  well  as  on  the  inferior  parts  of  the  sides,  bright  yellow,  some  of  the 
scuta  and  squamae,  however,  variously  marked  towards  their  extremities 
by  black  spots.  Head  much  depressed  and  mottled  above  by  black,  yel- 
low, and  brown.  Generally  posterior  to  each  eye,  just  over  the  place 
where  the  jaws  dilate  behind,  there  is  a  large  blackisib  blotch,  with  a  yel- 
low centre,  and  also  before  and  between  the  eyes  is  usually  observed  a 
transverse  black  band,  dotted  more  or  less  with  yellow.  The  eyes  are 
situated  well  forward  and  high  up  on  the  head,  the  nostrils  are  large,  and 
placed  close  to  the  edges  of  the  upper  lip.  The  scales  with  which  the 
head  is  covered,  as  well  as  those  on  the  body,  are  ovate,  imbricate  and 
carinated :  The  nose  and  lateral  parts  before  the  eyes  are  covered  with  irre- 
gular flattened,  granular-like  bodies.  Body  diminishes  suddenly  and  consider- 
ably in  size  at  the  commencement  of  the  tail,  which  is  slender  for  the  size  of 
the  make,  and  measures  about  ^th  of  the  whole  length,  which  is  usually  from 
three  feet  to  three  and  a  half.  The  neck  is  considerably  narrower  than 
either  the  body  or  the  head.  Its  motion  is  moderately  quick,  its  disposi- 
tion fiery,  and  its  bite  frequently,  though  not  invariably,  fatal.  Scuta 
somewhere  about  139,  squamae  generally  about  22. 

The  colouring  of  this  snake  is  very  peculiar,  and  Burchell's  * 
remark,  that  it  is  not  easy  to  convey  an  idea  of  it  by  mere  des- 
cription, is  very  just. 

2.  ViPERA  m-mata. 
Horfied  Snake  of  the  Inhabitants. 

Ground  colour  above,  ash-grey,  bluish-grey,  or  greyish-green,  with  irregular 
rows  of  irregular  brown  spots,  that  have  their  edges  considerably  darker 
in  general  than  their  centres.  In  most  specimens,  two  distinct  rows  are 
observed  along  the  middle  of  the  back,  but  in  some  there  is  only  one,  and 
then  the  spots  are  considerably  larger,  and  extend  right  across  the  imagi- 
nary dorsal  line.  Along  each  side  again,  is  another  row  of  spots,  but  of  a 
much  smaller  size  than  those  just  described,  and  between  them  and  the 
scuta  is  a  slight  mottling  of  blackish-blue  dots,  ziz-zag  streaks,  or  waving 
lines.  Colour  below  a  shining  pearly  white,  with  in  many  instances  a 
slight  tinge  of  red.  Head  depressed,  and  like  the  body  covered  with  cari- 
nated scales.  Eyes  prominent,  placed  well  forward  ;  and  each  guarded  a- 
bove  by  three  or  more  short,  erect  and  prickly  pointed  bodies,  which  have 
obtained  for  it  the  name  it  bears  amongst  the  colonists.  Neck  consider- 
ably smaller  than  the  head  or  body,  and  the  latter  diminishes  much  in 
thickness  at  the  vent.  The  tail  is  slender,  pointed,  and  about  |th  of  the 
length,  which  is  seldom  more  than  fourteen  or  fifteen  inches.  Greatest 
thickness  rarely  more  than  that  of  a  man's  thumb,  unless  when  enraged, 
at  which  time,  it  can,  in  common  with  most  vipers,  increase  its  dimensions 
very  considerably.     Scuta  generally  about  120,  and  squamae  about  26. 

The  motion  of  this  snake  is  but  slow,  its  disposition  is  fierce, 
and  its  bite  I  have  found  invariably  occasion  death,  when  in- 
flicted on  young  animals,  though  not  always  when  practised  on- 
old  ones  of  the  same  species. 

*  Travels  in  Southern  Africa,  vol.  i.  / 


252  Dr  Smith  on  the  Siiakes  of  Soutliern  Africa. 

b.  With  ovato-cordate  Head  and  Fangs. 

ViPEEA  monta7ia. 

5^r^--^<^r  of  the  Inhabitants. 

Ground  colour,  a  dirty  brownish  black,  the  intensity  of  which  varies  in  dif- 
ferent specimens.  Along  the  back  there  are  two  rows  of  large,  black  semi- 
lunar spots,  having  their  convexities  directed  towards  each  other,  and  their 
margins  surrounded  by  a  narrow  edging  of  dirty  white.  Below  those,  on 
each  side,  is  another  row  of  similarly  shaped  and  coloured  spots,  but  of  a 
smaller  size,  and  having  their  convexities  pointing  downwards.  These  are 
separated  from  the  centre  rows  by  two  white  longitudinal  lines,  which  are, 
for  the  most  part,  continuous,  though  here  and  there  occasionally  inter- 
rupted. The  two  lateral  rows  are  not  well  seen  on  the  sides  of  the  neck, 
but  the  two  central  ones  extend  distinctly  forwards,  along  the  upper  sur- 
face of  the  head,  as  far  as  the  eyes ;  though,  in  the  latter  situation,  the 
spots  are  of  an  oblong,  instead  of  a  semilunar  shape.  Between  the  side 
rows  and  the  abdomen  the  colour  is  variegated,  black,  and  dirty  white ;  the 
scuta,  themselves  are  of  the  latter  hue,  and  mottled  with  black  or  blackish 
blue ;  indeed,  in  many  examples,  the  latter  is  the  prevailing  colour.  Head 
somewhat  quadrangular,  with  its  posterior  extremity  a  good  deal  broader 
than  the  neck,  and,  like  the  body,  covered  above  by  ovate  arid  carinated 
scales.  Eyes  moderately  large,  and  placed  well  forward.  Nostrils  close  to 
the  tip  of  the  nose.  Thickness,  as  in  the  two  preceding  species,  dimi- 
nishes rapidly  about  the  anus.  Tail  slender,  pointed,  and  about  /2  th  of  the 
whole  length  of  the  snake,  which  is  generally  between  sixteen  and  twenty 
inches.  Greatest  circumference  seldom  more  than  that  of  a  man's  thumb. 
Scuta  generally  about  132.  Squamse  about  20.  Motion  rather  slow ;  dis- 
position ferocious,  and  bite  poisonous ;  though  not  invariably  fatal. 

The  above  approaches  so  close  in  its  characters  to  the  Colu- 
ber Atropos  of  Shaw  *,  L' Atropos  of  Lacepede  -|-,  that  I  feel 
disposed  to  view  it  as  the  same  snake. 

It  is  commonly  found  amongst  short  grass,  in  dry  mountain- 
ous situations,  all  over  Southern  Africa. 

Variety. 

Ground-colour  cinereous,  with  four  rows  of  spots,  similarly  arranged  and 
shaped  as  in  the  sort  just  described,  but  their  colour,  instead  of  being 
black,  is  reddish-brown,  with  lighter  centres. 

NAIA. 

a.  With  loose  Skin  on  the  sides  irfthe  Neck,  and  Fangs. 

Naia  capensis. 

Ringhals  Slang  of  the  Inhabitants. 

Above,  black  and  dirty  white,  the  colours  disposed  in  alternate  waving  trans- 
verse bands.     The  black  is  the  prevailing  or  sole  colour  towards  the  head, 

*  General  Zoology,  vol.  iii.  part  2.  p.  404. 

-f-  Histoire  Naturelle  des  Serpens,  torn.  ii.  fol.  134.     4to.     Paris,  17^9/ 


Dr  Smith  on  ilie  Snakes  of'  Southern  Afrka.  25S 

and  it  is  not  till  nearly  two  inches  from  that  part  that  the  white  is  dis- 
tinctly seen.  Towards  the  tail,  as  well  as  on  it,  the  regular  disposition  of 
the  two  colours  is  most  clearly  marked,  and  the  bands"  are  most  directly 
transverse.  Below,  the  general  colour  is  black,  with  the  scuta,  that  are 
more  than  a  few  inches  behind  the  chin,  white  at  their  extremities.  Be- 
tween those  that  are  thus  marked  and  the  head,  the  space  is  a  deep  shining 
jet  black,  except  at  two  points,  where  some  plates  throughout  are  nearly 
white,  and  thereby  give  rise  to  two  broad  transverse  light-coloured  bands. 
Tail  slender,  tapering,  terminated  by  a  shining  horny  point,  and  not  quite 
ith  of  the  whole  length  of  the  reptile,  which  is  generally  from  two  feet  six 
to  three  feet.  Head  depressed,  narrow  before,  a  little  dilated  behind,  and 
somewhat  broader  than  the  neck ;  covered  above  by  plates,  of  which  the 
nasal  or  most  anterior  one  is  triangular,  its  apex  extending  upwards  and 
backwards,  whilst  its  base  is  directed  downwards,  to  form  the  anterior  por- 
tion of  the  upper  lip.  Eyes  prominent,  nostrils  large,  and  opening  back- 
wards. Body  broad  and  flattish,  with  a  loose  fold  of  skin  on  each  side  of 
the  neck,  which  it  can  extend  at  pleasure,  and  form  into  small  wing-like 
or  thin  membranous  processes,  like  what  is  done  by  the  Coluber  Naia  of 
Linnaeus.  Scales  carinated,  with  those  of  the  two  lowermost  rows  larger 
than  any  of  the  others.  Greatest  circumference  about  the  middle  of  the 
body,  and  that  is  seldom  more  than  three  or  three  inches  and  a-half.  Scuta 
usually  about  130.     Squamae  about  43. 

The  motion  of  this  snake  is  very  rapid,  its  disposition  is  very 
fierce,  often  almost  apparently  courting  opposition,  and  its  bite, 
in  all  the  instances  in  which  I  have  tried  it,  has  soon  occasioned 
death. 

It  delights  in  warm  sandy  situations,  and  is  found  pretty  ge- 
nerally diffused  over  the  whole  of  Southern  Africa. 

h.  Withont  any  loose  Skin  on  the  Neck,  but  zmth  Fangs. 

5.  NAIA  Somersetta. 

Nacht  Slang  or  Night  Snake  of  the  Inhabitants. 

Ground  colour  above,  a  brick  red  or  orange  colour,  and  intersected  by  twenty- 
four  or  twenty-five  black  rings,  which  are  generally  of  greatest  breadth 
about  the  centre  of  the  back,  or  under  the  belly.  The  one  next  to  the 
head  is  by  much  the  largest,  and  above  has  a  pointed  extension  in  front, 
which  runs  a  short  way  along  the  crown  of  the  head.  At  some  distance 
before  this  ring,  on  the  hinder  part  of  the  head,  an  irregular  black  spot  is 
observed  on  each  side  ;  and  from  the  upper  lip  of  one  side,  to  the  same 
place  on  the  opposite,  directly  cutting  the  eyes,  extends  a  narrow  trans- 
verse black  band.  Many  of  the  black  rings  on  the  body  have  above  an  inter- 
rupted edging  of  yellowish  white.  Colour  below  a  dirty  reddish-white, 
more  or  less  deeply  tinged  here  and  there  with  yellow.  Head  depressed, 
inclined  to  ovate,  and  its  sides  slightly  dilated  behind,  thereby  giving  to  it 
a  little  superiority  in  point  of  breadth  over  the  neck.  Above  it  is  covered 
by  large  plates,  the  foremost  of  which,  or  the  nasal  one,  is  considerably 
elevated  above  the  others,  and  triangular,  with  its  apex  extending  upwards 
and  backwards,  whilst  its  laase,  which  :is  slightly  arched,  is  downwards,  and 
forms  the  anterior  part  of  the  upper  lip.  The  thickness  of  the  body  is 
pretty  nearly  the  same  throughout,  and  does  not  exceed  that  of  a  man's 
thumb.  It  increases  but  little  behind  the  neck,  yet  it  diminishes  consider^ 
ably  and  rather  abruptly  about  the  vent.  Tail  thickish  along  its  whole 
length,  terminated  by  a  horny  point,  and  measuring  about  -^^  of  the  whole 
4     . 


254  Dr  Smith  on  the  Snakes  of  Southern  Africa. 

length  of  the  snake,  which  is  usually  about  two  feet  two  or  three  inches. 
Scales  smooth  and  slightly  imbricate,  towards  neck  and  tail  inclined  to  ovate, 
but,  about  the  middle  of  the  body,  a  little  disposed  to  an  orbicular  shape. 
Scuta  about  159,  squamae  20.  Motion  rather  quick;  disposition  ex- 
tremely fierce ;  and  bite  often  mortal. 

This  sort  of  snake  is  but  rarely  met  with  here  ;  indeed  the  pre- 
sent is  the  first  I  have  seen,  though  for  the  last  four  years  I 
have  been  endeavouring  to  procure  one.  The  inhabitants  assert 
that  it  only  moves  about  during  the  night,  and  thereby  account 
for  its  being  so  seldom  found. 

ELAPS. 

a.  With  Fangs. 

6.  Elaps  punctatus. 

Koussehand  or  Garter-Snake  of  the  Inhabitants. 

Ground  colour,  a  deep  jet-black,  variously  marked  by  minute  white  dots  and 
blotches.  Along  the  centre  of  the  back  the  spots  are  largest,  and  of  irre- 
gular forms,  some  being  roundish,  and  others  triangular,  oblong  or  waved. 
On  each  side  of  this  central  row  is  a  zig-zag  line  of  white  dots,  which 
forms  more  or  less  frequent  connections  with  the  spots  of  the  central  row 
just  mentioned.  Immediately  under  this  second  row,  is  a  third  also  of 
white  dots,  nearly  straight,  and  extending  distinctly  from  the  head  to  the 
tail.  Colour  below  black  and  white,  disposed  in  alternate  transverse  nar- 
row lines,  which,  under  the  tail,  appear  in  a  double  series.  Head  small, 
somewhat  ovate,  roundish  in  front,  and  covered  above  by  plates,  the  colour 
of  which  are  black,  with  an  interrupted  whitish  line  running  along  the 
middle  of  the  crown,  and  the  sides  slightly  spotted  with  yellowish-white. 
Mouth  small.  Neck  not  less  than  the  head  ;  nor  is  any  part  of  the  body 
larger  than  the  neck ;  so  that  the  whole  is  therefore  nearly  of  the  same 
thickness,  except  the  tail,  which  tapers  gently  to  a  fine  slender  point,  and 
measures  about  one-eighth  of  the  length  of  the  whole,  which,  in  the  speci- 
men described  (the  only  one  I  have  seen),  was  about  nine  inches,  and  no- 
where thicker  than  a  common  quill.  Scales  smooth,  slightly  ovate,  and 
scarcely,  if  at  all,  imbricate.     Scuta  183,  squamse  38. 

This  is  a  rare  species  of  snake  at  the  Cape ;  its  motion  is 
quick  ;  its  appearance  beautiful ;  and  its  bite  highly  venomous  ; 
having  in  several  instances  occasioned  death  while  it  continued 
alive  in  my  possession.  Other  snakes  besides  this,  which  are 
either  remarkable  for  their  beauty,  or  the  variety  of  their  colours, 
Ivhen  of  a  small  size,  are  generally  considered  by  the  inhabitants 
as  a  Kousseband. 

(  To  he  continued.) 


(     255     ) 

Picture  of  Vegetation  on  the  Surface  of  the  Globe. — Continued 
from  page  124. 

j!\_FTER  having  viewed  with  M.  de  Humboldt,  the  rich  ve- 
getation of  the  most  beautiful  countries  of  America,  if  we  now 
transport  ourselves  to  the  wild  and  desert  shores  of  New  Holland, 
with  Billardiere,  Brown  and  Peron,  we  shall  find,  in  the  little 
that  is  known  of  this  vast  continent,  vegetables  entirely  different, 
although  in  the  same  degree  of  latitude.  Those  which  have 
been  collected,  approach  more  to  the  plants  of  the  Old  Continent ; 
those  destined  for  the  nourishment  of  man  are  here  as  rare  as 
they  are  common  in  America.  These  countries  are  scarcely  in- 
habited, and  the  men  who  live  in  them  have  but  barely  en- 
tered upon  the  confines  of  civilization,  so  powerful  is  the  influ- 
ence of  useful  vegetables  over  the  multiplication  and  develop- 
ment of  the  human  race.  In  calling  the  attention  of  the  reader 
to  the  works  published  upon  the  plants  of  New  Holland,  by 
Messrs  de  la  Billardiere  and  Brown,  I  shall  here  confine  myself 
to  the  more  interesting  parts  of  M.  Peron's  description  of  the 
vegetation  of  Van  Dieman's  Land. 

"  It  is  a  very  singular  spectacle,''  says  this  naturalist,  "  which 
those  profound  forests  present,  the  ancient  offspring  of  nature 
and  time,  where  the  stroke  of  the  axe  is  never  heard  to  resound, 
where  vegetation,  becoming  every  day  richer  in  its  proper  pro- 
ductions, can  exercise  itself  without  restraint,  and  every  where 
extend  its  developments  without  obstruction  ;  and  when,  at  the 
extremity  of  the  globe,  such  forests  exclusively  present  them- 
selves formed  of  trees  unknown  to  Europe,  of  vegetables  singu- 
lar in  their  organization,  and  in  their  varied  products,  the  in- 
terest becomes  more  lively  and  interesting.  Here,  there  con- 
tinually reign  a  mysterious  shade,  a  great  coolness,  a  penetrating 
humidity ;  here  crumble  with  age  those  powerful  trees  from 
which  have  sprung  forth  so  many  vigorous  shoots ;  their  old^ 
trunks  now  decomposed  by  the  united  action  of  time  and  mois- 
ture, are  covered  over  with  parasitic  mosses  and  lichens. 
Their  interior  swarms  with  cold  reptiles,  with  numerous  legions 
of  insects;  they  obstruct  all  the  avenues  of  the  forests;  they 
cross  each  other  in  a  thousand  different  directions ;  every  where 
they  form  an  obstacle  to  progression,  and  multiply  difficulties 
and  dangers  around   the  traveller;   sometimes  they   form    by 


^6      Picture  of  Vegetatiwi  on  the  Surface  of  the  Globe. 

their  heaps  natural  dikes  of  twenty-five  or  thirty  feet  in  height ; 
in  other  cases  they  have  fallen  across  the  beds  of  torrents,  or  the 
depths  of  valleys,  forming  in  this  manner  so  many  natural  bridges 
which  cannot  be  made  use  of  but  with  fear. 

To  this  picture  of  disorder  and  ruin,  to  these  scenes  of  death 
and  destruction,  nature,  so  to  speak,  opposes  with  benevolence 
all  that  her  creative  power  can  present  of  the  beautiful  and  im- 
posing. On  all  hands  we  see  pressed  to  the  surface  of  the  soil 
those  lovely  mimos^e,  those  superb  metrosideroses,  those  correo', 
but  of  late  unknown  in  Europe,  and  which  already  gladden  our 
groves.  From  the  shores  of  the  ocean  to  the  summits  of  the 
loftiest  mountains  of  the  interior,  are  to  be  seen  the  mighty  en- 
ccdyptuses^  those  gigantic  raonarchs  of  the  southern  forests, 
many  of  which  are  not  less  than  from  a  hundred  and  sixty  to  a 
hundred  and  eighty  feet  in  height,  and  from  twenty-five  to  thirty 
or  thiry-six  feet  in  circumference.  The  Banksiae  of  different  ?^^e- 
cies,  the prote6e,iheemboth?^ia,  the  leptospermata,  are  developed  as 
a  charming  border  around  the  edge  of  the  woods.  Elsewhere 
the  casuarina  are  seen,  so  remarkable  for  their  beauty,  so  valu- 
able for  their  solidity,  distinguished  by  the  rich  colouring  of 
their  berries.  The  elegant  exocarpus  projects  in  a  hundred  dif- 
ferent places  its  luxuriant  branches,  sprouting  forth  in  neglected 
beauty  like  those  of  the  cypress.  Farther  on  appear  the  xan- 
thorretSy  whose  solitary  stem  rises  to  a  height  of  twelve  or  fifteen, 
above  a  scaly  and  stunted  stock,  from  which  an  odorous 
resin  oozes  abundantly.  In  some  places  are  to  be  seen  the 
cycases,  whose  nuts,  enveloped  in  a  scarlet  epidej^mis,  are  so  per- 
fidiously poisonous ;  every  where  are  produced  charming  tufts  of 
melaleuca,  thesiuvi,  concilium,  and  erodia,  all  equally  interesting 
from  the  gracefulness  of  their  port,  or  the  beautiful  verdure  of 
their  foliage,  or  the  singularity  of  their  corolla  and  fruit.  In 
the  midst  of  so  many  unknow^n  objects,  the  mind  is  astonished, 
and  cannot  but  admire  that  inconceivable  fecundity  of  nature, 
which  furnishes  to  so  many  different  climates  productions  so  pe- 
culiar, and  always  so  rich  and  so  beautiful." 

The  happy  climate  of  India  is,  perhaps,  of  all  others,  that  on 
which  nature  has  bestowed,  with  the  greatest  profusion,  all  the 
luxury  of  vegetation.  Inhabited  by  people  who  have  long  at- 
tained a  high  degree  of  civilization,  its  vegetable  productions 


Picture  of  Vegetation  on  the  Surface  of  the  Globe.       257 

seem  to  have  equally  emerged  from  their  original  wildness.  All 
present  the  most  elegant  forms,  and  appear  to  reflect,  t»y  the  vi- 
vacity of  their  colours,  those  floods  of  light  which  the  star  of  day 
continually  pours  upon  their  corollas.  Those  beautiful  countries 
are  perfumed  by  the  most  precious  spices,  embellish ed^by  the  su- 
perb family  of  the  liliaceae ;  scarcely  is  there  one  of  the  plants 
observed  in  Europe  to  be  seen.  There  grow  those  vegetables 
wJiich  furnish  commerce  with  those  gums  and  odorous  resins 
which  are  imported  by  us  at  so  high  a  price  ;  those  medicinal 
plants,  which,  for  so  long  a  time,  have  only  been  known  by  their 
productions,  and  by  unmeaning  denominations.  It  is  here  that 
we  learn  to  what  shrubs,  and  to  what  plants,  are  to  be  referred  the 
campeachy-wood,  the  snake- wood,  the  nux  vomica,  the  cassias, 
the  myrobolans,  the  tamarind,  the  curcuma,  galamba,  ginger, 
cardamom,  zedoary,  dragonVblood,  &c.  In  the  fields  and  in 
the  plains,  there  vegetate  an  immense  quantity  of  beautiful  plants, 
some  of  which  constitute  the  riches  of  our  gardens ;  the  cleroden- 
dra,  jiisticia,  achyranthi,  cerbei'i,  pontederia,  eranthema,  glo- 
riosa,  crotones^  acalypha,  &c. 

In  this  general  picture  of  vegetation,  we  would  not  forget  an- 
other corner  of  the  world,  where  nature  seems  to  delight  to  shew 
her  munificence,  in  the  infinite  number  of  species  belonging  to 
the  same  genera, — to  genera,  whose  types,  for  the  most  part,  al- 
ready exist  in  Europe ;  to  mingle  them  with  other  genera  pecu- 
liar to  the  climate,  and  of  which  some  have  been  Remarked  among 
the  plants  of  America.  Such  does  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  pre- 
sent itself  to  the  eye  of  the  naturalist,  who  visits  it  for  the  first 
time ;  he  is  struck  with  astonishment  at  the  sight  of  those  moun- 
tainous rocks,  covered  with  succulent  plants,  aloeSj  mesemhryan- 
thema^  stapelice^  crassulae^  tetragonict,  &c.  If  he  penetrate  into 
the  forests,  they  are  no  longer  those  of  Europe  or  of  America  ; 
he  sees  them  all  shining  with  that  golden  and  silvery  lustre,  dif- 
fused over  the  leaves  of  the  numerous  protecB.  Let  him  traverse 
vast  plains,  he  can  scarcely  count  the  numberless  species  of 
heaths,  borbonice,  blcBricc,  pencea,  &c.  The  thickets  and  woods 
are  composed  of  a  multitude  of  shrubs  little  known,  of  beautiful 
phylioEi  passerince,  myrsinites,  tarconanthi,  anthosperma,  roy- 
ence,  Jialleria,  kc.  While  in  the  fields  grow  in  rivalry,  the  nu- 
merous gerania,  ixiee.  gladioli,  lobelia,  hamanthi,  selagines,  ste-^ 

JULY OCTOBER  1826.  R 


258  Picture  of  Vegeiaiiofi 

vias,  everlasting-flowers,  kc. ;  several  of  which  now  shine  in  our 
parterres,  or  form  the  ornaments  of  our  hot-houses.  The  spe- 
cies alone  which  we  possess  are  so  numerous,  that  we  can  scarcely 
believe  them  to  be  the  productions  of  a  single  locality.  We  count 
several  hundreds  of  heaths,  gerania,  &c. 

To  form  a  comprehension  of  the  work  of  nature,  we  must 
observe  it  in  those  countries  where  the  ground,  abandoned  to  its 
natural  productions,  has  not  yet  been  turned  up  by  the  hand  of 
man.  Wherever  this  has  established  its  power,  it  has  subjected 
to  his  empire  all  that  might  contribute  to  his  well-being,  or  em- 
belhsh  his  abode  ;  the  animals  have  become  slaves ;  rich  harvests 
and  vast  meadows  have  replaced  the  wildnesses  of  nature ;  ancient 
forests  have  fallen  under  the  axe,  and  the  ground,  despoiled  of 
its  original  productions,  no  longer  presents  to  the  eye  of  the  ob- 
server, but  a  vast  garden  created  by  human  industry.  The  tree 
of  the  mountains  has  descended  into  the  plains,  and  the  exotic 
plant,  more  useful  or  more  agreeable,  has  chased  from  its  native 
soil  the  plant  which  is  noxious,  or  of  no  utility  to  man.  It  is 
therefore  only  at  a  distance  from  great  societies  in  foreign  coun- 
tries, in  lands  untouched  by  man,  that  vegetation  can  be  studied 
in  its  natural  state,  understood  in  its  modifications,  development, 
and  progress. 

There  still,  however,  exist  countries  in  Europe  which  the  pow- 
er of  man  has  not  entirely  subjected  ;  but  it  is  only  among  tlie 
proud  rocks,  and  upon  the  summits  of  the  Alps,  that  they  are  to 
be  looked  for.  There  mountains  piled  upon  mountains,  rising 
above  the  clouds,  form  so  many  gardens,  each  furnished  with  a 
vegetation  of  its  own,  the  character  of  which  changes  at  each 
degree  of  elevation.  There,  in  proportion  as  we  rise,  we  find 
succeeding  each  other  the  temperatures  of  various  climates,  from 
that  of  the  tropics  to  that  of  the  poles,  as  well  as  several  of  the 
vegetables  peculiar  to  each  of  these  climates. 

At  the  foot  of  these  mountains,  and  in  the  lower  valleys,  ve- 
getate the  plants  of  the  plains,  and  a  part  of  those  of  the 
southern  countries  of  Europe.  Forests  of  oaks  occupy  the 
first  platform;  they  rise,  but  not  without  losing' a  proportional 
degree  of  their  strength  and  beauty,  to  a  height  of  about 
eight  hundred  toises,  the  extreme  limit  of  their  habitation. 
The  beech  shews  itself  equally,   but  the  oak  has  ceased  to 


cm  the  Surface  oftlie  Globe.  g59 

grow  more  thaa  a  hundred  fadioms  beneath  the  highest  limit  of 
this  plant.  In  the  zone  which  succeeds  these  trees,  more  ex- 
posed to  the  impetuosity  of  the  winds,  would  present  too  much 
scope  for  their  action,  in  the  large  cyme  and  broad  leaves 
which  they  possess.  The  pine,  the  yew,  the  fir,  furnished  with 
a  finely  divided  foliage,  raise  securely  toward  the  regions  of 
perpetual  snow  their  robust  and  branchless  trunks.  The  ac- 
tion of  the  winds  no  longer  meeting  the  same  resistance,  is  di-. 
vided  and  loses  its  force  among  their  short  and  slender  leaves. 
These  trees,  however,  do  not  attain  a  greater  elevation  than 
a  thousand  toises ;  above  this,  woods  of  cratcBgus,  and  birch, 
and  tufts  of  hazel  and  willow,  among  which  the  rhododendrons 
flourish,  brave  the  cold  and  the  tempests,  to  the  height  of  twelve 
hundred  toises.  Beyond  this,  appear,  but  with  a  much  lower 
stature,  a  multitude  of  beautiful  and  elegant  shrubs,  daphnes^ 
passerina,  globularia,  creeping  willows,  and  some  ligneous  cis- 
tuses. 

Further  on,  to  the  region  of  snow,  scarcely  any  more  woody 
vegetables  are  found,  if  we  except  some  dwarf  birches,  some 
stunted  willows,  scarcely  a  iew  inches  long.  A  short  beautiful 
and  tufted  sward  springs  every  summer  from  beneath  the 
snowy  mountains,  and  is  covered  with  a  multitude  of  pretty 
little  flowers  with  rosaceous  petals,  naked  peduncles,  and  viva- 
cious roots :  this  is  tlie  peculiar  place  of  the  numerous  saxifra- 
ges, elegant  primulae,  gentians,  ranunculi,  and  a  profusion  of 
other  diminutive  plants.  The  frightful  nakedness  of  the  poles 
reigns  upon  the  summits  of  these  mountains  loaded  with  per- 
petual ice ;  if  there  still  remain  some  traces  of  vegetation,  they 
only  exist  in  a  ^evj  lichens,  which  here,  as  elsewhere,  endeavour, 
but  in  vain,  to  lay  the  foundations  of  vegetation. 

Thus  the  traveller,  having  arrived  on  these  mountains,  at 
the  region  of  ice,  has  experienced,  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours, 
the  different  degrees  of  temperature  which  reign  in  each  cli- 
mate from  the  tropics  to  the  poles ;  he  may  have  observed  a 
portion  of  the  plants  which  grow  from  about  the  45th  degree 
of  latitude  to  the  70th,  that  is  to  say  along  a  meridian  of  about 
eight  hundred  leagues,  a  phenomenon  which  exists  in  all 
high  mountains,  of  both  the  Old  and  the  New  Continent,  with 
some  modifications  peculiar  to  the  localities.  : 

R  S 


260  Picture  of  Vegetation 

The  observations  made  by  M.  Humboldt,  in  the  equinoctial 
regions,  and  upon  the  highest  mountains  of  our  globe,  furnish 
us  with  a  proof  of  this.  The  same  order  occurs  there  in  the 
gradation  of  species,  but  only  above  the  height  of  five  hundred 
toises.  The  species,  to  be  sure,  are  not  the  same  as  in  Europe, 
but  they  have  the  same  character  of  aspect,  size,  and  consis- 
tence. The  burning  zone  which  occupies  the  lower  space  from 
the  level  of  the  sea  to  this  height,  enjoying  a  temperature  un- 
known to  Europe,  is  inhabited  by  vegetables  peculiar  to  this 
climate ;  this,  as  we  have  seen  above,  is  the  country  of  palms, 
bananas,  amomums,  tree  ferns,  &c.  It  is  only,  therefore,  at  the 
height  of  five  hundred  toises,  that,  upon  the  mountains  of  the 
torrid  zone,  the  climate  commences  which  corresponds  to  the 
base  of  the  Alps,  proceedhig  from  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  it  can 
only  be  here  that  the  zone  of  plants  corresponding  to  those  of 
Europe  can  commence. 

Such  is  the  spectacle  of  vegetation,  always  varied,  and  inces- 
santly renewed,  that  presents  itself  to  the  view  of  man  ;  a  spec- 
tacle rich  in  its  composition,  admirable  in  its  contrasts,  sublime 
in  its  harmony,  and  which,  to  produce  it,  has  only  required  of 
nature  to  submit  the  forms  to  the  influence  of  different  tempera- 
tures, of  temperatures  I  repeat,  and  not  of  climates.  It  is  a  very 
essential  effect  to  remark,  that  the  production  of  vegetable  spe- 
cies is  much  more  dependent  upon  the  action  of  heat  or  cold,  of 
dryness  or  humidity,  than  upon  the  difference  of  climates  ;  we 
may  meet,  and  in  fact  do  pretty  frequently  meet,  the  same  spe- 
cies in  very  different  latitudes,  in  which,  however,  from  local  cir- 
cumstances, the  same  degree  of  temperature  prevails.  It  is  thus 
that  we  find  upon  the  high  mountains  of  the  South  of  Europe, 
plants  of  Sweden,  Norway,  and  even  those  of  Lapland  and  Spitz- 
bergen.  Tournefort  made  the  same  observation  in  Asia  minor, 
upon  Mount  Ararat.  At  the  foot  of  the  mountain  are  found 
the  plants  of  Armenia  ;  in  proportion  as  we  rise,  those  of  Italy 
and  the  south  of  France,  then  those  of  Sweden,  and  toward  the 
summit  the  plants  of  Lapland.  It  is  by  means^  equally  simple, 
that  nature  has  removed  from  the  surface  of  the  globe  that  mo- 
notonous uniformity  which  the  plants  would  produce,  were  they 
every  where  the  same ;  but,  subjected  to  the  influence  of  the  at- 
mosphere, what  varied  forms  do  they  present  to  our  admiration  ! 


on  the  Surface  of  the  Glohe^  ^61 

A  temperature  constantly  humid  and  warm,  such  as  that  of 
the  equinoctial  countries,  maintained  by  the  rays  of  a  burning 
sun,  and  the  emanations  of  a  soil  watered  by  the  vicinity  of 
large  rivers  and  lakes,  gives  to  vegetation  that  vigour  which  as- 
tonishes in  those  magnificent  vegetables  peculiar  to  those  cli- 
mates. Another  form  of  plants  is  seen  in  those  countries  which 
are  exposed  to  the  alternations  of  cold  and  warm  seasons  ;  it  is 
more  equal  upon  the  sea-coasts,  where  the  temperature  is  less  va- 
riable ;  but  the  plants  assume  another  aspect  upon  the  high  moun- 
tains, where  dry  and  cold  winds  frequently  blow ;  they  vary  lit- 
tle in  the  fresh-waters,  or  in  those  of  the  sea ;  being  there  placed 
in  a  medium  less  subject  to  the  inclemencies  of  the  atmosphere. 
The  intensity  and  duration  of  the  light,  the  long  and  humid 
nights,  occasion  as  many  different  modifications  in  the  vegetable 
forms.  Nature  has  also  so  fixed  the  station  of  plants,  that  the 
dwarf  and  creeping  willows  never  descend  from  the  summit  of 
their  mountains  to  associate  with  the  osier  willows,  upon  the 
banks  of  our  brooks  ;  and  the  primulae,  which  decorate  the  green 
swards  of  the  Alps,  cannot  mingle  with  those  of  our  meadows. 

From  these  considerati©ns  has  arisen  the  idea  of  a  botanical 
geography,  in  which  the  plants  are  distributed  by  groups,  which 
have  each  their  determinate  height,  their  climate,  and  their  li- 
mits. Several  naturalists  have  directed  their  attention  to  this 
sort  of  observations,  but  no  one  has  carried  them  so  far  as  M. 
de  Humboldt,  who  has  published  memoirs  of  great  interest  up- 
on this  subject.  From  the  observations  of  this  learned  traveller, 
and  those  partly  made  before  him,  we  see  the  cruciform  plants 
and  the  umbelliferae  disappear,  almost  entirely,  in  the  plains  of 
the  torrid  zone ;  while  this  zone  is  the  abode  of  palms,  tree- 
ferns,  gigantic  gramineae,  and  parasitic  orchideae.  In  the  tem- 
perate zones  grow  abundantly  the  malvaceae,  the  labiatae,  the 
compositae  and  caryophylleae,  which  are  very  rare  under  the 
equator.  The  coniferae,  and  a  great  number  of  amentaceous 
trees,  belong  to  the  boreal  regions.  There  are  other  families 
which  recur,  in  almost  all  the  countries  of  the  globe,  such  as  the 
gramineae  and  the  cyperaceae,  but  under  different  forms,  accord- 
ing to  the  temperatures.  Some  of  them  nearly  rival  the  palms 
in  size,  such  as  the  bamboos,  &c. ;  others  form  but  a  short  and 
tufted  sward.     My  limits  not  permitting  me  to  enter  farther  in-. 


26^  Mr  MantelPs  Remarks  on  the  Strata 

^  d<etail  on  this  interesting  subject,  I  refer  the  reader  to  the 
learned  dissertations  of  Linnasus,  the  Station es  et  Coloniae  Plan- 
tarum,  to  the  Tentamen  Historiae  Geographicse  Vegetabihum  of 
Professor  Strohmeyer,  and  particularly  to  the  Memoirs  of  Mes- 
sieurs de  Humboldt  and  Hamond  *. 


Remarks  on  the  Geological  Position  0/  the  Strata  of  Tilgate  Fo- 
rest in  Sussex.  By  Gideon  Mantell,  Esq.  F.  R.  S.,  &c. 
In  a  Letter  to  Professor  Jameson. 

A  HERE  appeared  in  the  Edinburgh  Philosophical  Journal  for 
April,  "  Observations  on  the  Position  of  the  Fossil  Megalosau- 
i?ttSy^^d  Didelphis  or^Opossiim  at  Stonesfield,'"  in  which  the 
writer  alludes  to  the  strata  of  Tilgate  Forest ;  and  remarking  on 
the  extraordina4'y  nature  of  their  organic  remains,  very  summa- 
rily conffludes,  that  doubts  may  be  raised  regarding  the  geolo- 
gical position,  both  of  the  limestone  schist  of  Stonesfield,  and  the 
sandstone  of  Tilgate  Forest.  I  shall  leave  to  the  abler  pen  of 
Dr  Buckland,  the  defence  of  the  assumed  situation  of  the  Stones- 
field  slate,  and  confine  my  observations  to  the  consideration  of 
the  writer'*s  conjecture,  that  the  Tilgate  strata  should  be  ranked 
as  tertiary,  and  not  as  secondary,  deposits ; — a  conjecture  no  one 
could,  for  a  moment,  entertain,  who  had  examined  the  strata  of 
the  south-eastern  part  of  England  with  any  degree  of  attention. 
The  only  argument  brought  forward  in  support  of  an  opi- 
nion so  entirely  oppdsed  to  that  held  by  persons  who  have  de- 
voted considerable  time  and  labour  to  the  subject,  is,  that  "  the 
strata  which  contains  the  organic  bodies  do  not  appear  clearly 
ccwered  by  those  of  the  formations  which  are  said  to  be  more  re- 
cent." If  such  an  argument  be  considered  valid,  the  progress 
of  geology  must  be  slow  indeed.  In  other  branches  of  natural 
history  induction  and  analogy  are  frequently  admitted  to  supply 
the  place  of  actual  observation ;  and  I  cannot  understand  why 
the  same  privilege  should  not  be  extended  to  geology.  In  the 
present  instance,  however,  it  is  unnecessary;  and  I  am  willing 
the  question  shall  be  decided  by  demonstration  only.  That  the 
strata  of  Tilgate  Forest  are  not  actually  covered  by  the  newer 

•  Poiret's  Lecons  De  Flore,  Paris  1825. 


SdinTnew  Phil  Joiti-Noll, 


r 


Fif/.l. 


12  9  6  S  O  J  2  3 


ff?f 


Jl  6  7  « 


\Feet 


Published-  hy  A.Blach  Jedii^V  1826. 


W}I.Li::ars.  sc. 


of  Tilgate  Forest  in  Sussex,  S6S 

deposits  in  tJiose  localities  that  are  most  accessible  to  the  geolo- 
gist, is  certain ;  but  their  emergence  from  beneath  the  weald 
clay,  the  superincumbent  formation,  is  so  obvious,  as  to  leave 
not  the  shadow  of  a  doubt  that  they  were  originally  entirely 
covered  by  the  clay,  and  that  their  present  approach  to  the  sur- 
face is  owing  to  the  operation  of  that  uplifting  power,  whose  ef- 
fects are  strikingly  manifest  throughout  the  whole  of  the  south- 
eastern part  of  England.  The  annexed  section  of  the  strata 
from  Brighton  (on  the  coast  of  Sussex)  to  Tilgate  Forest,  is  made, 
not  from  theory,  but  from  actual  observation,  and  will,  I  trust, 
satisfy  the  writer  of  the  "  Observations,''  of  the  correctness  of 
my  remarks. 


JSrf^^ion,     South  Downs  '  -^  y-^^Svsc. 


Ua  stivrf  JSandFormaTco  7^ 

If  the  section  wer^tcontinuedxjn  to  London,  the  several  for- 
mations would  re-app'eary  but  in  an  ascending  series  (vide  Phil- 
lips and  Conybeare's  Sec^tions),  The  attention  of  geologists  was 
first  directed  to  the  remarkable  nature  of  the  fossils  of  the  strata 
of  Tilgate  Forest,  by  my  work  on  the  Geology  of  Sussex,  in 
1822 ;  and  although,  at  that  period,  the  geological  position  of 
those  deposits  was  not  determined,  yet  I  had  not  the  slightest 
doubt  that  they  were  situated  beneath  the  weald  clay.  The  only 
question  was,  whether  they  should  be  ranked  with  the  purbeck, 
or  the  iron  sand ;  their  emergence  from  beneath  the  more  recent 
formations  was  too  manifest  to  be  questioned  (vide  Illustrations 
of  the  Geology  of  Sussex,  p.  57).  Subsequent  observations  con- 
vinced me,  that  the  strata  of  Tilgate  Forest,  instead  of  being  li- 
mited, as  I  had  at  first  supposed,  to  a  small  district,  were  co-ex- 
tensive with  the  iron-sand,  and  might  be  traced  through  Sussex 
to  the  coast  at  Hastings ;  and  a  paper,  describing  the  result  of 
my  researches,  was  read  before  the  Geological  Society  of  Lon- 
don, in  the  same  year  (1822). 

The  writer  of  the  observations  states,  "  that  there  are  nume-^ 
rous  considerations  that  might  lead  us  to  consider  the  two  depo^^ 
sits  (viz.  the  Stonesfield  slate  and  Tilgate  limestone)  as  having 
been  formed  at  a  period  which  would  be  much  newer  than  that 


264  Mr  Manteirs  Remarhs  on  the  Strata 

of  the  oolitic  formations ;  in  short,  that  they  are  tertiary,  and  not 
secondary  deposits.""  What  the  considerations  may  be  that  can 
lead  to  such  a  conclusion  I  cannot  possibly  conceive,  and  shall 
not  therefore  occupy  the  valuable  pages  of  this  Journal  with  use- 
less conjectures ;  but  as  my  sole  object,  in  these  remarks,  is  the 
establishment  of  what  I  conceive  to  be  the  truth,  I  shall  feel 
obliged,  if  the  writer  still  entertains  a  doubt  on  the  subject,  by 
the  statement  of  his  objections  to  what  I  have  advanced. 

In  the  present  infancy  of  geology,  if  a  person  discover,  in  cei- 
tain  formations,  remains  of  animals  and  vegetables,  of  classes  or 
orders,  which,  according  to  received  theories,  we  might  not  ex- 
pect could  be  found  in  such  deposits,  we  ought  not,  on  that  ac- 
count only,  to  doubt  the  accuracy  of  his  investigations,  or  the 
truth  of  his  assertions. 

In  the  comparative  Hst  of  the  organic  remains  of  Stonesfield 
and  Tilgate,  inserted  in  the  Memoir  on  the  Megalosaurus,  it 
was  the  object  of  Dr  Buckland  to  mark  their  general  resem- 
blance only.  It  may  not,  therefore,  be  uninteresting  to  give  a  more 
extended  catalogue,  since  the  difference,  as  well  as  resemblance 
of  the  fossils  of  the  two  deposits,  will  thus  be  placed  in  a  more 
striking  point  of  view. 

Organic  Remains  of' 

The  Limestone  Schist  of  Stonesfield    and     Tlw  Sandstone  of  Tilgate  Forest. 

Megalosaurus,  teeth,  vertebrae,  and  Megalosaurus— -teeth,  vertebrae,  and 
other  bones.  other  bones. 

Crocodile.  Crocodile — teeth,  vertebrae,  &c.  teeth 

more  obtuse  and  large  than  those  of 
Stonesfield. 

Plesiosaurus.  Plesiosaurus— teeth    and    vertebrae  ; 

species  unknown. 

Didelphis.  Iquanodon  ^  teeth,    vertebrae,    and 

Elytra  of  insects.  other  bones ;  hitherto  not  found  else- 

where. 

Birds— tibiae,  and  other  bones.  Birds—tibiae   somewhat   resembling 

those  of  Stonesfield. 

Whale??  Whale??  the  supposed  humeri  are 

probably  of  Plesiosauri. 

Balista— species  o£  Balistae— spines  of. 

Turtles — scales  and  bones  j  species  un-  Turtles— 3  genera ;  a  fresh- water,  ma- 
pertain,  rine,  and  terrestrial  ? 


of  Tilgate  Forest  in  Sussex.  265 

Teeth  of  Squali  or  Sharks.  Tricuspid  teeth,  longitudinally  striat- 

ed ;  differ  entirely  from  those  of  the 
chalk,  and  from  those  of  the  recent 
species  I  have  examined. 

Teeth  of  Spari  and  Anarhicas  lupus  ?       Teeth  of  Spari  and  Anarhicas  lupus  ? 

small  rounded  teeth,  very  nume- 
rous.   Bony  palates — unknown. 
Bones  of  unknown  animals. 

Shells Trigonice,   BelemnitcB^    Ostrea,      Shells  of  the  genera  Unio,  Mactra, 

PectenitcB,  PatellcB^  (marine).  Paludina,  Cyrena,  (fresh-water). 

Ferns  and  reeds— not  of  the  same  spe-      Ferns — 4  species ;  reeds, 
cies  as  those  of  Tilgate. 

Wood  ?  lignite,  charcoal.  Wood  ?  lignite,  charcoal. 

Fuci,  algae.  Gigantic  plants  of  the  Palm  tribe ; 

(Endogenites  erosa). 
Arborescent  ferns — (Blathraria  Lyel- 
Hi). 

Carpolithi.  Carpolithi. — not  the  same  as  Stones- 

field. 

Quartz-pebbles.  Quartz-pebbles  and  boulders. 

A  glanoe  at  the  above  lists  will  shew,  that,  although  the  gene- 
ral resemblance  of  the  organic  contents  of  the  two  deposits  is 
striking,  yet  they  actually  agree  but  in  few  particulars.  The 
Stonesfield  beds  partake  more  of  the  character  of  a  marine,  and 
those  of  Tilgate  of  a  fresh-water  formation.  The  prevalence  in 
the  latter,  of  large  terrestrial  vegetables,  of  which  the  genera,  at 
all  analogous  (Cycas,  Dicksonia,  &c.),  now  exist  in  tropical  re- 
gions only ;  and  the  absence  of  marine  shells,  particularly  of  Be- 
lemnites  and  ammonites^  and  also  of  zoophytes,  seem  to  prove, 
that  the  Hastings  Sands  (the  name  now  given  to  the  series  of 
sands  and  clays  between  the  purbeck  and  the  weald  clay,  and  of 
which  the  Tilgate  strata  form  a  part)  have  been  deposited  under 
circumstances  materially  different  from  those  which  operated  in  the 
formation  of  the  Stonesfield  slate.  But,  as  a  work  on  the  Fos- 
sils of  Tilgate  Forest  will  shortly  appear,  it  is  unnecessary  to  ex- 
tend these  remarks ;  and  I  will  only  add,  that,  should  the  writer 
of  the  "  Observations,""  or  any  one  interested  in  the  subject,  vi- 
sit this  part  of  England,  he  shall  have  free  access  to  my  cabinet ; 
and  it  will  give  me  pleasure  to  afford  him  every  facility  for  an 
actual  examination  of  the  strata  of  Tilgate  Forest. 

Castle  Place,  Lewes,  Sussex, 
August  2.  1826. 


} 


k 


(    266    ) 

Descriptuyii  of  a  Design  for  a  Rotatory  Steam-Engine.  By 
Mr  James  White.  With  a  Plate.  Communicated  by 
the  Author. 

xjLfter  completing  my  design,  I  feel  a  degree  of  diffidence  in 
submitting  it  to  public  notice.  Nearly  two  hundred  years  have 
past  away  since  the  first  attempt  to  produce  a  rotatory  motion 
in  the  first  instance  by  steam,  such  a  period  of  time  having  in- 
volved itself  betwixt  the  original  and  the  present ;  and  the  men 
of  genius,  both  in  our  own  country  and  abroad,  that  have  la- 
boured to  effect  this  object,  and  the  universal  failure  of  all  their 
designs,  when  compared  with  the  present  perfect  state  of  the 
Reciprocating  Engine,  has  absolutely  marked  the  name  of  Ro- 
tatory in  Steam-engines  as  something  like  a  wild  scheme,  and 
left  us  but  Httle  hope  that  we  shall  ever  be  able  to  wipe  that 
stain  away. 

Those  who  are  well  acquainted  with  the  principles  of  steam, 
and  the  different  schemes  that  have  been  devised  for  a  rotatory 
steam-engine,  are  aware,  that  the  friction  occasioned  from  an 
unequal  pressure  of  steam  on  the  revolving  cylinder,  has  been 
the  great  obstacle  which  stood  in  the  way  of  success.  That 
such  difficulties  no  longer  exist,  can  be  plainly  shown  in  my  de- 
sign. First,  let  it  be  understood  that  the  engine  consists  of  one 
large  outside  cylinder,  divided  by  plates  into  three  divisions ; 
the  mid  division  being  in  length  equal  to  the  other  two.  In 
each  of  these  divisions,  smaller  cylinders  are  concentrically 
placed,  called  the  revolving  cylinders ;  the  difference  betwixt 
the  inside  diameter  of  the  outer  cylinder,  and  the  outside  dia- 
meters of  the  inner  ones,  forms  the  steam-passage.  Let  A,, 
Plate  V.  Fig.  1.  represent  one  of  the  revolving  cyhnders ; 
then  B,  B,  will  be  the  steam-passage:  if  the  steam  from  the 
boiler  enter  by  the  steam-pipe  s,  and  pass  downwards,  it  will 
get  into  the  steam-passage  B,  B,  through  the  valve  J\  act  on 
the  piston-plate  P,  which  is  fast  to  the  revolving  cylinder,  and 
force  it  round ;  when  it  has  nearly  made  a  revolution,  the  qua- 
drants on  the  piston-plate  will  come  in  contact  with  the  valve, 
but  not  before  the  piston-plate  has  passed  the  passage  C,  lead- 
ing to  the  condenser  ;   consequently  the  pressure  is  removed 


Mr  White's  Dcsi^ifor  a  Rotatory  Steam-Engine.       267 

from  the  valve.  A  fly-wheel  being  supposed  to  be  attached  to 
the  engine,  will  continue  the  motion,  cause  the  quadrants  ort 
the  piston-plate  to  open  the  valve,  and  allow  the  piston-plate  to 
pass.  It  has  now  made  a  complete  revolution.  When  the 
valve  f  begins  to  open,  it  shuts  the  steam  off,  consequently 
there  is  no  expence  of  steam  when  the  power  has  to  be  perform- 
ed by  the  fly-wheel.  The  re-shutting  of  the  valve  is  also  per- 
formed by  steam,  from  the  small  lever  on  the  spindle  of  the 
valve  connected  with  the  piston,  working  in  the  small  steam  cy- 
linder T  :  when  the  valve  begins  to  open,  it  will  raise  the  pis- 
ton in  the  cylinder  T ;  but  as  soon  as  the  piston-plate  P  has 
passed  the  valve,  the  steam  acting  on  the  piston  of  the  small  cy- 
linder T,  will  force  it  down  again,  and  shut  the  valve.  Thus 
may  we  consider  it  ready  for  a  second  revolution.  Before  ex- 
plaining further,  let  us  suppose  that  the  engine  only  consisted 
of  one  steam-passage,  in  place  of  three,  and  let  it  be  that  which 
I  have  already  described :  when  the  piston-plate  P  has  only 
made  a  half  revolution,  it  is  evident  that  the  steam  would  then  be 
entirely  on  the  under-side  of  the  revolving  cylinder  A,  and  force 
it  up  against  that  side  where  there  is  no  steam,  and  xjause  such 
a  degree  of  friction  on  its  bearings,  that  the  force  on  the  piston- 
plate  would  be  little  more  than  sufficient  to  turn  the  revolving 
cylinder  round.  To  overcome  this  great  obstacle,  I  have  di- 
vided the  [outer  cylinder  into  three  divisions,  shown  in  Plate  V. 
Fig.  J^.  by  the  division  plates  marked  <r,  oc,  &c.  These  plates 
do  not  revolve.  The  first  division  contains  the  cylinder  A,  be- 
ing that  which  I  have  already  described  as  having  made  a  re- 
volution ;  the  mid  division,  the  cylinder  E,  and  the  third  divi- 
sion the  cylinder  D.  The  two  end  divisions  containing  the  cylin- 
ders A  and  D,  are  in  every  respect  similar  to  one  another,  and 
the  valves j^^  are  on  the  same  spindle.  The  mid  division  con- 
taining the  cylinder  E  is  in  principle  exactly  similar  to  the  other 
two,  and  only  has  this  difference,  that  it  is  equal  in  length  to 
both. 

Fig.  1.  Let  the  steam  be  admitted  by  the  steam-pipe  s,  and 
pass  downwards  through  the  two  end  valves  f,  f;  at  the  samp 
time  it  will  pass  upwards,  through  the  pipe  W,  over  the  outer 
cylinder,  and  through  the  mid  valve  V,  act  upon  the  piston- 
plate  F  of  the  mid  division,  shewn  in  Fig.  2.  and  equahze  the 


268  Mr  Arnotfs  Tour  to  the  South  of  France 

pressure  from  the  under-side.  The  revolving  cylinder  will  thus 
be  forced  round  by  an  equal  pressure  of  steam  on  all  sides,  to 
effect  Y*oths  of  a  revolution;  leaving  about  y^jjth  to  the  accele- 
rated force  of  the  fly-wheel,  at  which  period  no  steam  is  expend- 
ed. 

Fig.  2.  H,  shews  the  flange  to  connect  the  steam-pipe  W 
leading  to  the  mid  division ;  r,  r,  &c.  brass  rings  fitted  on  the 
ends  of  the  cylinders,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  them  steam- 
tight  against  the  division-plates  ar,  x,  &c. ;  and  R  the  shaft  of 
the  revolving  cylinders. 

In  cases  where  a  fly-wheel  must  be  dispensed  with,  the  pis- 
ton-plates can  be  so  placed  on  the  revolving  cylinders  as  the 
mid  one  would  be  in  action,  when  the  end  ones  pass  the  valves, 
and  the  end  ones  in  action  when  the  mid  one  passes ;  but  in  this 
case  the  pressure  on  the  revolving  cylinders  would  not  be  ex- 
actly fair. 


London, 

7.  Pratt  Street,  Lambeth 

21(h  July  \fi2ii 


] 


Tour  to  tlie  S(mth  of  France  and  the  Pyrenees^  in  1825.  By 
G.  A.  Walker  Arnott,  Esq.  A.M.  F.L.S.  &  R.S.E.  &c. 
In  a  Letter  to  Professor  Jameson.  (Continued  from  p.  78.) 

V>IN  the  1st  of  April  Mr  Bentham  and  I  left  Avignon  behind 
us  at  4  A.  M.  We  arrived  at  Lafoux  at  half-past  7.  This  is  a 
small  village  on  the  other  side  of  the  river  Gard,  from  and  op- 
posite to  the  town  of  Remoulins.  It  is  the  La  Fourche  of  Sir 
James  Smith  ;  and  I  had  been  much  prejudiced  against  this 
place  by  some  remarks  I  remembered  to  have  been  made  by  that 
author  in  his  Tour  on  the  Continent.  I  was,  however,  agreeably 
disappointed.  Instead  of  a  dirty  and  comfortless  inn,  we  found 
one  remarkable  for  its  neatness  and  cleanness.  Many  changes 
and  many  improvements  have,  however,  every  where  taken 
place  during  the  last  forty  years.  Towards  9,  we  sidlied  fortli 
to  see  the  famous  Pont  de  Gard,  which  is  about  two  miles 
higher  up  the  river.  This  remarkable  bridge,  or  rather  aque- 
duct, consisting  of  three  series  of  arches,  one  above  the  other, 


and  the  Pyrenees,  in  1825.  269 

is  thrown  over  a  very  deep  valley,  and  served  in  ancient 
times  to  convey  water  from  a  hill  in  the  neighbourhood  to 
the  town  of  Nismes.  But  this  astonishing  piece  of  Roman 
architecture  has  been  so  often  and  so  well  described,  that  it 
were  folly  in  me  to  say  a  word  more  on  the  subject,  than  that 
at  present  it  is  so  very  entire  that  we  walked  from  the  one 
end  to  the  other,  within  the  aqueduct  itself.  The  covering  in 
some  places  is  broken ;  but  we  found  little  difficulty  in  return- 
ing on  the  top.  On  the  centre  roof-stone  was  a  long  Latin  in- 
scription ;  but  we  had  neither  time  nor  patience  to  attempt  to 
decypher  it. 

Within  the  aqueduct,  and  on  tlic  roof,  we  observed  many  cu- 
rious little  plants.  Indeed,  it,  like  the  steps  of  St  Peter's  at 
Rome,  may  well  be  said  to  produce  a  Flora  sufficient  to  gratify 
one  who  had  come  from  a  northern  climate.  Amongst  others 
were  Hutchinsia  petrcBa,  Linaria  rubifoUa,  Helianthemum  ra- 
cemosum  /S,  Duval,  Valantia  muralis,  Ceterach  officinale,  Polyc- 
nemum  arvense,  Tortula  chloronotos,  Brid.  Grimmia  africana, 
&c. 

We  botanized  in  the  neighbourhood,  where  we  met  with  se- 
veral of  what  botanists  call  good  plants.  Iris  pumila,  both  the 
yellow  and  blue  varieties,  Ophrys  aranrfera,  Valeria/na  tuberosa, 
Tulipa  clusiana  (I  doubt  much  that  this  ^should  rank  as  a  spe- 
cies). Orchis  rohertia/na  (of  which  only  one  plant  was  found 
by  us),  Globularia  ahjssum  and  Thapsia  villosa  (but  not  in 
flower),  were  all  here.  The  Grimmia  cifricana  covered  the 
rocks,  while  Tortula  gracilis  was  abundant.  We  had  been  in- 
formed that  a  peculiar  s[)ecies  of  Cyclamen  grew  here,  as  well 
as  at  Capouladon,  in  the  neiglibourluxxl  of  Montpellier,  and  we 
sought  for  it  long,  but  without  success.  Of  the  Iris  pumila, 
some  make  two  species,  I  think  erroneously,  although  it  is  pro- 
bable that,  as  garden  varieties,  they  may  keep  tolerably  con- 
stant. On  the  rocks  opposite  to  Lafoux  is  Targicmia  hypo- 
phylla,  and  behind  the  inn  was  a  field  covered  with  Hohstea 
umbeUata,  a  plant  nearly  as  scarce  in  the  south  of  France  as 
in  Scotland. 

Having  done  ample  justice  to  a  dinner  that  we  had  ordered 
to  be  ready  by  our  return,  we  left  Lafoux  at  6,  and  got  to 
Nismes  at  9  o'clock.     The  amphitheatre  and   maison  carr^e^ 


270  Mr  Arnott's  Tour  to  the  South  of  France 

both  splendid  remains  of  Roman  magnificence,  are  sure  to  give 
high  pleasure  to  all  who  see  them. 

The  materials  for  building  both  these  at  Nismes,  and  the: 
Pont  de  Gai'd,  must  have  been  brought  from  a  considerable  dis- 
tance (probably  to  the  south),  at  least  no  stones  can  possibly  be 
procured  at  this  day  any  where  in  the  neighbourhood,  of  so  du- 
rable a  nature. 

Leaving  Nismes  at  11  p.  m.  we  arrived  at  Montpellier  at  half-: 
past  6  the  next  morning,  and  in  a  few  hours  set  off  for  the 
Chateau  de  Restinclieres,  the  seat  of  Sir  S.  Bentham. 

When  I  left  Paris,  it  was  my  intention  to  remain  only  a  fort-, 
night  at  Montpellier,  and  then  to  proceed  to  Switzerland.  But 
1  was  induced  to  alter  my  plans,  and  to  go  to  the  Pyrenees  in 
the  summer,  by  the  persuasions  of  my  friend  Mr  Bentham,  and 
of  two  other  gentlemen  MM.  Regnier  and  Audibert,  who  were 
to  accompany  us  for  six  weeks. 

A  northern  botanist  had  no  leisure  to  feel  ennui  in  the 
south  of  France,  such  is  the  variety  of  almost  new  objects  that 
meets  his  eye.  A  few  hours  were  devoted  before  breakfast  to 
the  gathering  of  specimens,  which,  in  the  heat  of  the  day,  we 
laid  out  to  be  pressed  and  dried,  or  changed  the  paper  of  such 
as  were  in  progress.  By  this  I  was  enabled  to  collect,  not  only 
for  myself,  but  for  such  British  and  foreign  botanists  as  might 
desire  the  productions  of  Montpellier,  without  going  to  look  for 
them.  But  we  were  not  contented  with  what  we  found  on  Sir 
S.  Bentham's  property,  one  of  the  richest  in  wild  plants  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Montpellier.  We  sometimes,  with  M.  Delile, 
Professor  of  Botany,  and  M.  Duval,  the  author  of  the  mono- 
graphs on  the  Annonaceae  and  the  genus  Solanum,  made  more 
distant  excursions.  One  of  these  took  place  a  few  days  after 
my  arrival. 

"  7th  April. — We  set  off  on  Tuesday  (the  5th)  at  5  in  the 
morning  for  the  Pic  St  Loup,  an  arid  rocky  hill  of  considerable 
elevation,  about  sixteen  or  twenty  miles  north  of  Montpellier. 
There  is  an  old  chateau  on  the  right,  to  which  we  directed  our 
steps,  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  there  the  Arahis  verna.  It 
was  not  in  flower,  but  we  found  a  few  of  Orobanche  epithymum 
(O.  rvhra^  Sm.)  ;  and  on  the  other  side  of  the  hill  we  met  with 
Draba  muralis,  and  several  other  interesting  plants.     We  now 


mid  the  Pyreneesy  in  1825.  271 

skirted  along  the  north  side  of  the  hill  towards  the  west,  until 
we  arrived  at  a  wood,  in  which  we  expected  to  procure  the  Pcb- 
onia  perefftina.  A  fortnight  ago  it  had  been  in  bud ;  but  in  bud 
it  still  was,  and  we  were  consequently  disappointed.  We  had, 
however,  another  object  more  worthy  of  search ;  and  we  now  be- 
gan to  make  inquiries  after  a  place  called  La  Roque,  or  Roquette. 
No  one  of  the  few  we  encountered  could,  however,  give  us  that 
information.  At  last  we  met  one  who  told  us  that  there  was  a  vil- 
lage called  La  Roque  some  leagues  to  the  north  :  of  that  we  were 
aware,  but  it  could  not  be  our  La  Roque.  The  plant  we  sought 
for  was  the  Brassica  humilis,  a  plant  closely  allied  to  B.  i-epanda^ 
the  Sisymbrium  monense  of  Villars,  and  resembling  somewhat 
our  own  Brassica  monensis,  but  much  smaller,  growing  at  a  dis- 
tance, from  the  sea,  and  in  a  hot  climate.  It  had  been  disco- 
vered by  De  Candolle,  when  Professor  at  Montpellier,  and  has 
hitherto  been  found  no  where  else.  Indeed,  it  is  doubtful  if  the 
station  be  known  to  any  one  but  De  Candolle.  He  thus  indi- 
cates the  locality :  "  Planities  argillosa  pone  montem  Lupi,  in 
pagos  Londres  et  La  Roque.'"'  Londres  was  soon  found ;  but 
as  for  La  Roque,  alas !  We  searched  diligently  over  several 
plains  all  the  way  to  Londres,  but  without  success,  and  then 
giving  up  the  pursuit,  we  returned  to  St  Martin  by  some  mea- 
dows. No  sooner  did  we  arrive  at  this  village,  where  we  were 
to  pass  the  night,  than  we  discovered  that  we  had  been  wander- 
ing nearly  all  the  afternoon  in  part  of  the  individual  "  planities 
argillosa''"*  we  were  in  quest  of.  La  Roquette  (not  La  Roque), 
we  found  to  be  an  old  castle,  and  a  very  conspicuous  one,  too, 
with  a  few  farm-houses  about  it,  and  this  the  peasants  we 
had  met  with  were  in  the  habit  of  calling  merely  the  Cas- 
tello,  and  did  n»jt  know  that  it  possessed  the  denomination  of 
di  Roquett'i.  Had  we  known,  we  might  have  examined  the 
plain  with  more  attention,  but,  on  account  of  its  great  extent, 
it  is  not  likely  we  should  have  been  successful.  I  had,  however, 
no  reason  to  be  dissatisfied :  much  that  I  saw  was  new  to  me, 
at  least  in  the  wild  state.  MM.  Delile  and  Duval  met  us  in 
the  evening.  St  Martin  is  a  dirty  village ;  and  as  for  the  au^ 
berge,  it  certainly  had  not  cleanhness  to  recommend  it. 

"  Yesterday  morning  we  started  at  5  o''clock  for  the  Capou- 
ladon.     Here  grows  the  same  species  of  Cyclamen  that  we  had 


272  Mr  Arnott's  Tour  to  the  South  of  France 

endeavoured  to  fall  in  with  at  the  Pont  de  Gard.  Bentham 
and  Delile  had  seen  it  in  bud  about  a  fortnight  ago,  and  we 
hoped  to  get  it  in  full  flower.  After  a  fatiguing  walk  up  hill 
and  down  hill  for  three  hours  and  a  half,  in  which  time  the  sun 
had  broke  forth  with  all  his  power,  we  came  to  the  Capouladon. 
I  deserved  some  recompence,  for  never  did  I  suffer  so  by  the 
heat.  We  proceeded  at  the  rate  of  full  four  miles  an  hour ; 
but  this  gave  no  more  inconvenience  to  my  companions,  than 
it  would  to  me  in  a  Highland  glen  with  my  gun  in  my  hand  in 
the  month  of  August.  We  arrived  at  the  Capouladon,  and  found 
the  Cyclamen  still  en  houton,  apparently  not  more  advanced  than 
it  was  a  fortnight  ago. 

"  From  the  Capouladon,  we  descended  by  a  romantic  ravine 
(I  say  romantic^  but  there  was  no  stream,  no  not  even  a  drop 
of  water  to  moisten  the  parched  valley),  for  a  mile  or  two,  un- 
til we  arrived  on  the  banks  of  the  Herault.  On  the  banks  of 
this  river  we  met  with  Lycopodium  denticulatum  (a  species  per- 
haps too  much  allied  to  L.  helveticum),  and  Hepatica  triloba : 
on  some  rocks  Glohularia  alyssum  and  Coronilla  glauca.  We 
returned  to  St  Martin  in  the  evening  by  a  small  hill  called 
Agasse.  This  is  the  patois  name  for  the  Acer  Monspeliensis, 
which  is  very  abundant  on  this  hill.  Owing  to  the  elevation  of 
most  of  the  ground  we  had  passed,  the  vegetation  was  not  so 
much  advanced  as  at  Montpellier. 

*'  To-day  Dehle  and  Duval  set  off  for  Montpellier,  and  we 
for  Restenclieres.  We  botanized  by  the  way,  and  got  some  good 
plants.  Leucodon  sciuroides  and  Pterogonium  Smithii  were 
in  a  fine  state  of  fructification.  In  one  valley.  Erica  arhorea, 
with  its  handsome  white  blossoms,  and  which  deserves  as  good 
a  place  in  our  gardens  as  the  Cape  heaths,  was  abundant,  as 
well  as  the  Erica  scoparia.  Lavandula  stuechas,  scarcely  yet  in 
flower,  covered  the  side  of  a  hill.  On  the  rocks  here  was  also 
Lichen  mamillaris  of  Gouan,  a  species  which  can  be  only  con- 
founded with  Lecidea  Candida.  It  does  not  appear  to  have 
be  taken  up  by  Acharius  or  any  other  lichenologist,  nor  is  it 
noticed  in  Steudel's  Nomenclator  Botanicus  *. 

•  I  have  since  ascertained  it  to  be  L.  tumidulus^  Smith,  Linn.  Trans. ;  but 
Sir  James  himself  has  since  united  it  in  English  Botany,  t.  1138.  to  Lichen 
(Lecidea)  candidus.     I  almost  think  there  are  good  marks  of  distinction. 


and  the  Pyrenees^  in  1825.  273 

^'  Through  all  the  districts  I  have  passed  during  these  three 
days,  I  observed  that  the  prevailing  large  plants  on  the  waste 
lands  are  Genista  scorpius.  Cist  us  monspeliensis,  and  Lavandula 
spica,  interspersed  with  Quercus  ilex  and  coccifera,  Rosmarinus 
officinalis  (the  Rosemary),  Buxus  sempervirens  (the  Box- tree), 
&c.  Of  these,  the  Genista  scorpius  holds  the  place  of  the  Ulex 
£uropeeus  or  Furze  in  Scotland :  the  Lavandula  spica  *  they 
have  in  place  of  our  Calluna  erica,  or  heather ;  and  as  for  the 
Quercus  ilex  and  coccifera,  they  would,  if  not  cropped  by  the 

»  sheep,  cover  the  grounds  like  the  Quercus  sessiliflorus  in  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland.  Upon  the  whole,  the  country  here  is 
far  from  beautiful :  the  whole,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  scat- 
tered valleys,  consisting  of  waste  lands  or  Garriques.     These 

\  wastes  consist  of  little  but  small  sharp-cornered  hard  stones, 
of  a  grey  colour,  which  in  some  places  ages  scarcely  moulder 
down  :  the  consequence  is,  that  there  is  but  little  soil,  and 
that  little  is  immediately  seized  upon  by  the  wild  plants. 
Nor  is  it  possible  to  cultivate  these  garriques ;  remove  the 
surface  stones,  and  you  only  find  more ;  besides,  the  heavy 
October  rains  wash  down  the  finest  mould  into  the  valleys, 
leaving  the  hilly  parts  absolutely  destitute  of  covering.  Cale- 
donians hills  are  celebrated  for  being  bare  and  barren ;  but  they 
must  give  up  the  point  when  Languedoc  contests  it.     On  ac- 

•  The  plant  found  at  Montpellier,  and  throughout  Provence,  is  the  true 
L.  spica;  that  usually  cultivated  in  our  gardens  is  a  more  mountainous  species, 
being  the  L.  vera  of  De  CandoUe.  Between  these  two  and  the  L.  pyrenaica 
there  exists  great  confusion  among  authors.  The  chief  character  pointed 
out  by  De  CandoUe  is  the  shape  of  the  bractese  being  linear  in  L.  spica,  and 
broadly  cordato-acuminate  in  the  other  two ;  and  even  in  these,  the  shape  is 
not  precisely  the  same,  though  not  so  strikingly  different  as  to  afford  a  good 
specific  character.  De  CandoUe,  however,  founds  upon  it.  One  of  the  nerves 
of  the  calyx  in  all  the  species  expands  at  the  apex  into  a  smaU  foliaceous  ap- 
pendage, which  closes  the  orifice  of  the  calyx  before  the  appearance  of  the  co- 
rolla. The  shape  of  that  part,  although  the  character  be  extremely  minute, 
affords,  as  my  friend  the  Baron  Gingins  de  Lassarey  at  Berne  has  clearly 
shewn  me,  the  best  specific  difference.  Baron  Gingins,  the  celebrated  au- 
thor of  the  article  ViolariecB  in  De  CandoUe's  Prodromus,  is  about  to  publish  a 
monograph  on  the  Lavandula.  Among  other  remarkable  discoveries,  he  has 
found  that  the  simple  and  pinnated  leaved  species  present  two  very  different 
structures  in  the  embryo  of  the  seed,  which  promises  fair  not  only  to  separate 
the  latter  generically  from  the  former,  but,  should  a  natural  classification  of 
the  LabiatcB  demand  it,  to  remove  them  to  a  different  part  of  the  order. 

JULY OCTOBER  1826.  S 


2*74}  Mr  Arnott's  Tour  to  the  South  of  Finance 

count  of  the  paucity  of  soil,  it  will  readily  be  supposed  that 
there  is  no  pasture  for  the  larger  cattle :  indeed,  there  is  scarce- 
ly a  dozeu  cows  in  the  country.  Sheep-milk  is  chiefly  in  use, 
but  that  cannot  always  be  had,  as  in  summer  even  the  sheep 
must  be  sent  some  days'  journey  to  the  north,  to  the  mountains 
,Q&  the  Cevennes.  How  different  is  even  poor  Scotland,  where 
every  hill  has  a  valley  watered  by  a  rivulet.  Here  there  are  no 
such  things  as  springs ;  no  such  things  as  streamlets :  we  find 
iiither  extreme  aridity  or  a  large  riven  The  Lez  (a  river  which 
flows  past  Montpellier)  commences  close  to  Sir  S.  Bentham's 
house.  Where  it  issues  from  the  rock,  it  is  as  large  as  a  good- 
sized  mill-dam ;  and  indeed,  before  it  is  allowed  to  narrow  into 
a  river,  it  is  obliged  to  act  on  a  mill.  It  resembles  Vaucluse, 
but  seems  much  larger,  although  the  surrounding  rocks  being 
by  no  means  so  elevated,  or  on  so  grand  a  scale  as  the  other, 
prevents  its  being  considered  so  romantic.  Though  scarcely 
known,  except  to  the  natives  of  the  country,  I  consider  it  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  objects  I  have  observed  about  Mont- 
pellier. It  deserves  well  a  passing  traveller's  attention.  The  ri- 
vers here  generally  decrease  in  volume  as  they  flow  outwards,  thus 
reversing  the  laws  followed  by  nature  in  more  northern  climates. 
Thqre  seem  three  principal  causes :  the  quantity  taken  off'  for 
irrigation  ;  the  want  of  after  supply,  on  account  of  the  absence 
of  springs  or  feeding  streamlets ;  and  the  great  evaporation  to 
which  the  river  is  subject.  Hence,  however  improbable,  there 
is  no  impossibility  in  the  circumstance  of  the  African  Niger 
spreading  out  into  a  large  surface,  and  being  then  evaporated. 

*'  Besides  the  Castello  di  Roquetta,  we  saw  a  considerable 
number  of  other  forts  on  the  north  side  of  the  Pic  de  Loup. 
Every  small  hill  was  provided  with  one ;  but  they  are  all  now 
in  a  state  of  ruin.  These  served  as  strongholds  to  the  different 
families  during  the  Languedoc  wars.  But  now  that  all  danger 
is  past,  that  private  feuds  have  ceased,  and  that  these  castellos 
have  gone  to  decay,  it  is  astonishing  to  see  the  same  desire  still 
prevail  here  of  building  even  their  farm-houses  on  as  elevated 
a  situation  as  they  can  choose.  What  are  their  motives  for  so 
doing  it  is  difficult  to  conceive.  They  are  farther  from  water, 
and  more  exposed  to  the  sun ;  for  the  all-destroying  Revolu- 
tion cleared  this  country  of  every  tree.     Is  it  to  enjoy  a  view . 


and  the  Pyrenees,  in  18S5.  ^J$ 

of  the  Mediterranean  ?  or,  as  one  of  my  friends  jocularly  said. 
Are  they  afraid  of  an  inundation  ?"" 

(To  be  continued.) 


On  the  Changes  which  the  Laws  of  Mortality  have  undergone 
in  Europe  zvithin  the  last  Half  Century,  or  from  1775  to 
1825.     By  M.  Benoiston  de  Chatbauneuf.* 

■'•  JL  HE  physical  circumstances  amid  which  man  is  placed, 
the  passions  which  animate  him,  and  the  political  revolutions  by 
which  he  is  agitated,  influence  his  organization,  alter  and  mo- 
dify it.  The  inhabitant  of  the  north,  free  and  happy,  is  not 
born,  does  not  propagate,  and  dies  not,  hke  the  suffering,  un- 
happy, and  enslaved  inhabitant  of  the  south  ;  and  the  calcula- 
tions, whose  object  is  to  determine  the  chances  of  his  life,  no 
longer  afford  the  same  results,  when  it  is  spent  in  affluence  and 
independence,  as  they  do  when  it  is  passed  in  poverty  and  ser- 
vitude. 

2.  These  numerical  results,  therefore,  whenever  they  can  be 
obtained,  become  the  truest  expression  of  the  degi'ee  of  well- 
being,  which  he  owes  to  his  institutions.  They  furnish,  says  a 
celebrated  English  writer,  Mr  Malthus,  more  instruction  re- 
garding the  internal  economy  of  a  people,  than  the  most  accu- 
rate observations  of  the  traveller. 

3.  In  the  last  century,  several  philosophers  occupied  them- 
selves in  investigating  the  laws  of  mortality,  and  the  probabili- 
ties of  the  duration  of  life,  at  all  the  periods  by  which  its  course 
is  divided.  According  to  their  calculations,  the  following  facts 
have  been  considered  as  sufficiently  established : 

4.  In  a  growing  generation,  the  half  died  in  the  first  ten 
years  of  existence,  and  even  sooner. 

5.  Three-fourths  had  perished  before  fifty  years,  and  four- 
fifths  at  sixty  ;  or,  in  other  words,  of  a  hundred  individuals, 
fifteen  only  arrived  at  this  age. 

•  Read  to  the  Royal  Academy  of  Science  on  the  30th  January  182^.  .      , 

s2 


9!76  M.  Chateauneuf  on  the  Changes  of  the 

6.  From  eighty  to  a  hundrecL  years,  none  remained  :  a  whole 
generation  had  run  its  course. 

7.  The  general  proportion  of  deaths  was  determined  to  be 
as  one  to  thirty-two*,  and  that  of  births  as  one  to  twenty-eight. 

3.  It  was  reckoned  that  there  was  one  marriage  in  a  hun- 
dred and  ten,  or  a  hundred  and  fifteen  individuals,  and  that 
the  degree  of  fecundity  was  pretty  accurately  represented  by 
four  children  for  each  couple,  although,  at  the  same  time,  this, 
as  well  as  all  the  other  relations,  was  liable  to  vary  according  to 
the  places.  In  Spain  and  Italy,  there  were  only  two  children 
from  each  marriage  ;  in  France  and  Russia  four ;  from  six  to 
eight  in  Germany,  and  from  eight  to  eleven  in  Sweden. 

9.  All  these  facts  were  deduced  from  the  calculations  of  Nec- 
ker,  Moheau,  and  the  Pommelles,  in  France;  those  of  Short 
and  Price,  in  England ;  of  Sussmilch  in  Germany,  and  of  Far- 
gentin  in  Sweden. 

10.  Such  then,  about  the  year  1780,  were  the  principal  laws 
to  which  a  more  or  less  perfect  state  of  society,  a  more  or  less 
active  industry,  and  more  or  less  limited  means  of  existence, 
subjected  the  course  of  human  life  in  Europe. 

11.  Since  then  facts  have  increased,  and  at  the  same  time 
have  become  more  accurate ;  great  political  changes  have  taken 
place ;  civilization  and  the  arts  of  industry  have  advanced  with 
rapidity  ;  and  science  demands  that  we  examine  what  may  have 
been  their  influence  upon  human  life. 

12.  We  have  seen  what  were  its  laws  half  a  century  ago  i 
with  the  old  state  let  us  compare  the  present. 

We  have  already  said  that  the  inquiries  into  this  subject 
were  now  facilitated  by  the  possession  of  more  numerous  and 
more  extensive  documents.  Of  these  documents  we  shall  take 
the  official  accounts  inserted  in  the  different  periodical  collec- 
tions, which  have  continued  to  publish  them  with  care  for  seve- 
ral years.    We  shall  cite  especially  of  these  collections,  the  Bul- 

•  M.  Crome  divides  the  nations,  with  reference  to  this  circumstance,  into 
three  classes.  The  mortality  is  1  in  30  in  the  rich  and  populous  nations ;  1  in 
32  in  those  which  are  less  so ;  and,  lastly,  1  in  36  in  poor  nations,  where  the 
population  languishes  or  decreases.  The  number  32  is  precisely  the  exact 
mean  of  these  three  proportions ;  its  extreme  terms  are  22  in  Holland,  and 
58  in  Russia. 


Laws  of  Mortality  in  Europe  in  the  last  Half  Century,     277 

letin  Universel  des  Sciences,  by  Baron  Ferussac,  and  the  An- 
nales  des  Voyages  et  de  la  Geographic,  by  Messrs  Eyries  and 
Malte-Brun,  &c. 

13.  At  the  period  in  which  we  write,  18S5,  of  a  certain  num- 
ber of  children  born  in  Europe,  there  dies,  in  the  first  ten 
years,  a  httle  more  than  a  third  (38.3  in  100),  in  place  of  the 
half  (49.9)  which  formerly  died. 

14.  From  birth  to  fifty  years,  three-fourths  of  a  generation 
(74.2)  were  found  to  be  extinct.  At  present,  the  proportion  of 
dead  to  living,  in  the  same  period  of  time,  is  not  more  than 
three- twentieths,  or  sixty-six. 

15.  Lastly,  twenty-three  persons  in  a  hundred  now  arrive 
at  sixty,  in  place  of  eighteen  who  attained  that  age  half  a  cen- 
tury ago. 

16.  These  proportions  are  mean  terms ;  taken  separately 
they  become  still  more  favourable.  Thus  in  France,  the  pro- 
portion of  those  who  survive  at  sixty  years  is  24.3  in  the  hun- 
dred, while  formerly  it  did  not  exceed  fifteen  (14.7). 

These  results,  sufficiently  remarkable  of  themselves,  give  rise 
to  others  which  are  not  less  so. 

17.  From  the  40th  degree  of  latitude  to  the  65th,  that  is  to 
say,  upon  a  line  which  extends  from  Lisbon  to  Stockholm,  em- 
bracing an  extent  of  about  a  thousand  leagues,  and  in  a  popula- 
tion of  sixty-five  millions  of  individuals,  which  is  comprehended 
by  Portugal,  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  France,  England,  Prus- 
sia, Denmark,  and  Sweden,  the  proportion  of  deaths  is  1  in 
40.3 ;  that  of  births  1  in  30.1 ;  that  of  marriages  1  in  123.3 ; 
and  the  fecundity,  four  children  by  each  marriage. 

18.  On  comparing  these  relations  with  those  of  the  last  cen- 
tury, we  are  struck  with  the  difference  which  exists  in  the  actual 
mortality  of  early  life  at  these  two  periods,  a  difference  which 
is  not  less  than  that  between  38  and  150. 

19.  This  difference  would  itself  suffice  to  attest  the  happy 
effects  of  vaccination,  to  which  they  are  partly  owing ;  but  it 
also  proves  a  great  amelioration  with  respect  to  the  cares  be- 
stowed on  childhood ;  and  those  cares  themselves  indicate  a 
greater  prosperity  and  an  improved  condition  in  families.  If 
we  now  reflect  that  it  was  especially  in  the  lower  classes  that  the 
mortality  of  children  was  enormous,  we  may  conclude,  that  if 


278  M.  Chaieauneui  on  the  Changes  of  the 

these  classes  lose  fewer  at  the  present  day,  it  is  because  they  are 
in  a  better  state  for  taking  care  of  them,  and  bringing  them  up.* 

20.  Nor  is  it  less  evident  also,  that  if  these  same  causes,  as 
well  as  some  others,  had  not  extended  their  influence  beyond 
the  years  of  childhood,  they  would  only  have  had  the  melan- 
choly advantage  of  delivering  over  to  death  a  greater  number 
of  victims  in  the  stages  which  follow.  The  contrary,  however, 
takes  place,  and  at  the  present  day  more  individuals  attain  the 
fiftieth  and  sixtieth  year  than  formerly.  The  action  of  these 
preserving  causes  of  childhood  must  therefore  continue  to  ope- 
rate upon  the  grown  up  person  during  the  remaining  part  of 
his  career;  and  these  preserving  causes  are  in  our  eyes,  to 
sum  them  up  into  one  which  contains  them  all,  an  improved 
state  of  society,  a  more  diifused  civilization,  from  whence  results 
a  more  happy  and  easy  existence. 

21.  Along  with  the  fact  of  the  diminution  of  the  number  of 
deaths,  we  have  to  place  a  second,  which  equally  results  from 
the  comparison  of  the  true  epochs,  namely  that  of  the  diminu- 
tion of  marriages.  They  were  formerly  in  the  proportion  of 
one  in  a  hundred  and  ten  individuals  ;  they  are  now  in  that  of 
one  to  a  hundred  and  twenty-three.  This,  which  is  a  mean 
term,  is  even  too  high  for  some  countries.  In  France,  where, 
according  to  the  calculations  of  Necker,  there  was  one  marriage 
in  a  hundred  and  eleven  individuals,  there  is  only  reckoned  one 
in  a  hundred  and  thirty-five. 

2^.  The  natural  consequence  of  the  diminution  of  marriages 
i^  that  of  births.  This  diminution  is  always  proportional  to  the 
increase  of  the  population  ;  for  while  the  proportion  of  mar- 
riages to  it  has  fallen  from  a  hundred  and  ten  to  a  hundred  and 
twenty-three,  and  that  of  births  from  twenty-eight  to  thirty,  it 
is  yet  remarked  that  the  one  and  the  other  are  augmented  in  a 
certain  degree. 

•  Mr  Glenily,  who  has  been  much  occupied  in  England  with  statistics, 
coh9idei*ed  with  relation  to  insurance  societies,  thinks,  that  since  the  time  of 
Dr  Price,  the  public  health  is  improved  in  children,  and  very  little  in  grown 
up  persons.  He  estimates,  that  in  the  course  of  the  last  twenty-five  years, 
the  mean,  term  of  the  duration  of  the  life  of  children  has  been  increased  a 
fiftieth  part.— JBn/w^  Review,  Number  for  November  1825,  p.  168. 


Laws  of  Mortality  in  Europe  in  the  last  Half  Century.     379 

S3.  The  fecundity  would  appear  to  have  remained  the  same. 
In  the  present  century,  as  in  the  last,  the  numerical  expression 
which  represents  it  is  always  four  children  for  each  marriage. 
But  this  proportion  is  undoubtedly  not  the  true  one,  since  we 
are  obhged  to  include  among  the  births  that  of  the  illegiti- 
mate children,  from  the  defect  of  proper  distinctions  in  the  ac- 
counts of  births,  especially  in  foreign  countries.  In  France,  the 
exact  proportion  of  births  to  marriages  is  3.9-  ,    .        .    . 

24.  The  marriages,  as  well  as  births,  have  diminished  in 
Europe  within  these  fifty  years,  and  yet  the  population  is  seen 
to  increase.  This  apparent  contradiction  is  explained  by  ano- 
ther fact,  the  very  great  diminution  of  the  proportion  of  deaths. 
There  was  formerly  one  death  in  thirty-two  individuals :  there  is 
at  present  one  in  40.3.  This  diminution  of  the  mortality  bears 
chiefly  upon  the  earlier  stages  of  life.  There  are,  on  the  one 
hand,  more  newly-born  individuals  that  survive,  and  on  the 
other  more  adults  that  grow  old. 

25.  The  necessary  result  of  this  latter  state  of  things,  is  the 
prolongation  of  the  middle  period  of  life,  which  appears  in  fact 
to  extend  beyond  the  limits  within  which  it  was  formerly  con- 
fined. 

26.  The  simultaneous  diminution  of  the  marriages  and  deaths 
in  Europe  at  the  present  day,  confirms  Mr  Malthus"*  observation, 
that  whenever  the  deaths  are  numerovis,  the  marriages  are  so 
also ;  for  then  the  vacuities  must  be  filled  up,  and  there  is  room 
for  every  body ;  and  that,  on  the  contrary,  whenever  there  are 
few  deaths,  there  are  also  few  marriages.  The  reason  of  this 
in  fact,  is,  that  from  the  moment  when  the  augmentation  of  in- 
dividuals begins  to  fill  all  the  paths  of  life,  and  to  obstruct  all 
its  courses,  the  means  of  existence  become  more  and  more  scarce 
and  uncertain.  People  must  then  be  much  restrained  from 
gratifying  the  desire  of  marrying,  and  having  a  family,  by  the 
difficulty  which  is  foreseen  of  providing  for  them.  Thus,  al- 
though it  may  appear  paradoxical,  it  is  not  the  less  true,  that 
there  comes  a  period  when  population  forms  an  obstacle  to  po- 
pulation, and  industry  arrests  industry. 

27.  From  all  that  has  been  stated,  it  would  appear  that  the 
following  conclusions  may  be  drawn  : 


280  M.  Chateauneuf  cm  tJie  Changes  of  the 

28.  The  laws  of  mortality,  such  as  they  were  established  fifty 
years  ago  by  the  philosophers  who  were  then  engaged  in  their 
investigation,  appear  since  that  period  to  have  undergone  the 
following  modifications : 

Mortality  of  the  Different  Ages. 

Old  State.  New  State. 

From  birth  to  the  age  of  10,  50    in  100                         38.3    in   100 

50,  74.4  ....                           66.0 

60,  82.0  ....                           77.0 

Proportion  of  deaths,       -  1  :  32.2                                 1  :  40.3 

.     .     .     ,     .    births,        -  1  :  27-7                                   1  :  30.1 

marriages,  1  :  110.4                               1  :  123.3 

Fecundity,     -        -        -  4.0                                       4.0 

29.  This  table,  without  doubt,  contains  errors,  owing  to  the 
incorrectness  of  several  of  the  accounts  given.  There  is  a 
means,  however,  of  remedying  this  defect,  which  would  be, 
that  in  each  country  where  the  laws  of  its  population,  and  the 
numbers  which  express  them,  are  well  known,  while  they  are 
only  known  through  the  medium  of  printing,  which  too  often 
alters  them,  some  person  accustomed  to  calculations  of  this  de- 
scription, or  even  learned  societies,  would  publish  accounts  si- 
milar to  those  which  we  have  given.  From  these  various  ele- 
ments, a  general  and  accurate  mean  might  then  be  obtained. 

It  is  with  this  view  that  we  have  published  the  present  note, 
and  that  we  join  to  it  the  state  of  the  population  of  France 
in  particular,  such  as  it  was  at  the  time  of  Necker  in  1780,  and 
such  as  it  is  at  the  present  day  in  1825,  according  to  the  Annuaire 
du  Bureau  des  Longitudes  for  the  year  1826. 

Old  State  in  10  years.  New  State  in  7  years. 

Population.  Population. 

24,800,000  inhabitants.  30,400,000  inhabitants. 

Deaths,         -        -  818.490  261.230 

Births,  -         -  963.200  957-970 

Marriages,   -         -  213.770  224.570 

Natural  ChUdren,  20.480  (,'7)  65-760  {j\\ 


Laws  of  Mortality  in  Europe  in  the  last  Half  Century.     281 

Mortality  at  Different  Ages. 

Old  State  in  10  years.     New  State  in  7  years. 

From  birth  to  the  age  of  10,        50.9  in     100                   43.8    in     100 

60,         74.4  ....                    67.5 

. 60,         81.0  ....                    75.6 

Proportion  of  deaths,            1  :  30.2  1  :  39.9 

births,             1  :  25.7  1  :  31.7 

marriages,    1  :  111.3  1  :  135.3 

Fecundity,        -        -                  4.4  3.9 

Now,  if  we  bring  in  connexion  with  these  new  laws  of  morta- 
lity, the  political  changes  which  have  taken  place  in  Europe 
within  these  forty  years,  and  especially  in  France,  we  shall  per- 
haps be  correct,  while  at  the  same  time  it  will  afford  us  plea- 
sure, in  thinking  that  good  institutions  and  well  regulated  go- 
vernments alone  have  this  happy  privilege,  that,  under  their  pa- 
ternal influence,  human  life  is  preserved  and  prolonged,  while 
it  is  consumed,  and  is  quickly  extinguished,  by  injustice  and 
oppression. 

We  had  concluded  this  note,  when  M.  Bureau  de  la  Malle, 
who  is  at  this  moment  employed  in  very  extensive  researches 
regarding  the  ancient  population  of  Italy,  communicated  to  us 
the  following  result : 

His  numerous  readings  have  satisfied  him,  that  the  senate 
first,  and  afterwards  the  Roman  emperors,  did  not  neglect  in 
their  administration,  any  of  the  statistical  accounts  which  seve- 
ral modern  states  collect  at  the  present  day,  with  so  much  pains 
and  accuracy.  He  has  even  been  enabled,  by  means  of  the 
various  documents  furnished  by  the  digeste  and  the  Roman 
laws,  to  reproduce  the  complete  tables  of  the  requisitions  which 
the  censors  addressed  to  the  citizens,  and  it  is  found  that  they 
entered  into  details  in  this  respect,  much  more  extended  than 
ours,  regarding  the  sexes,  ages,  professions,  the  different  kinds 
of  cultivation,  the  number  of  slaves,  &c. 

But  what  is  more  interesting  still,  M.  Dureau  has  discovered 
in  the  Pandects  the  calculations  of  the  probability  of  life  for  all 
ages,  and  he  has  thus  obtained  proof  that  the  mean  duration  of 
life  in  Italy  was  thirty  years  in  the  reign  of  Alexander  Severus, 
toward  the  end  of  the  third  century  ;  and  it  is  known  that  this 
was  also  nearly  its  duration  fifty  years  ago  (twenty-eight  years.) 


28^  M.  Brongniarfs  Ohservations  on  Some 

We  leave  to  M.  Dureau  himself  the  task  of  presenting  this 
fact  in  his  work,  surrounded  by  all  the  considerations  which  at- 
tach to  it,  and  which  will  reduce  it  to  the  place  which  it  ought 
to  occupy  in  science.  But  the  fact  itself,  which  at  once  con- 
nects what  is  with  what  has  been^  by  making  to  disappear  an 
interval  of  two  thousand  years,  and  which  refers  to  so  early  a 
period  the  first  recognitions  of  the  laws  of  human  life,  appeared 
to  us  so  curious  and  so  interesting,  that  we  gladly  availed  our- 
selves of  M.  Bureau's  permission  to  attach  it  to  our  note,  and 
publish  it. 


Observations  on  some  Fossil  Vegetables  of  the  Coal  Formation, 
and  on  their  relations  to  living  Vegetables.       By  M.  Ad. 

BnONGNlAllT. 

Jl.  he  study  of  fossil  organic  bodies  is  so  much  the  more  diffi- 
cult, in  proportion  to  the  obscurity  in  which  the  structure  of  the 
living  beings  which  they  resemble  is  still  involved.  Numerous 
collections  of  comparative  anatomy  have  become  necessary  for 
the  determination  of  the  isolated  bones  that  are  found  buried 
in  the  strata  of  the  globe.  Without  such  collections,  it  would 
have  been  impossible  to  fix  the  families  to  which  those  animals 
of  former  times  are  to  be  referred,  to  determine  their  genera, 
and  to  limit  their  species,  with  accuracy.  With  reference  to  fos- 
sil botany,  we  are  still  entirely  deficient  in  collections  of  this  de- 
scription. A  few  specimens  brought  home  by  travellers,  often 
without  the  precise  species  being  satisfactorily  determined,  are 
scarcely  sufficient  to  afford  an  idea  of  the  parts  of  vegetables 
which  cannot  be  preserved  in  herbaria.  The  deficiency  of  ob- 
jects of  comparison  is  so  much  the  more  detrimental  to  the  pro- 
gress of  this  part  of  natural  history,  that,  as  the  fossil  vegetables 
of  the  old  formations  appear  to  be  almost  all  referrible  to  the 
great  arborescent  monocotyledonous  vegetables,  at  present  con- 
fined to  the  warmest  parts  of  the  globe,  the  examination  of  the 
plants  which  grow  in  our  own  country  can  throw  but  little  light 
upon  the  structure  of  the  trees  which  composed  those  ancient 
forests.  If  there  be  added  to  this  the  changes  which  compres- 
sion,   and    the    otheV    phenomena   which    have    accompanied 


Fossil  Vegetables  of  the  Coal  Formation.  ^iS 

the  destruction  of  these  vegetables,  have  produced  upon  them, 
an  idea  will  be  obtained  of  the  difficulties  to  be  experienced  in 
the  attempt  to.  determine  detached  portions  of  plants  so  modi- 
fied. All  these  circumstances  will  serve  as  so  many  excuses  fot 
errors,  and  numerous  observations  become  necessary  for  rectify- 
ing them. 

It  is  thus,  that,  from  errors  too  gross  to  be  mentioned,  all  those 
large  trees  which  accompany  the  coal  strata,  have  in  a  general 
view  been  considered  as  stems  of  palms.  Perhaps  even,  under 
this  name,  it  has  only  been  intended  to  indicate  their  place  a- 
mong  the  Monocotyledbnes,  a  class  in  which  the  arborescent  ve* 
getables  are  rare,  and  belonging  almost  exclusively  to  this  fami- 
ly of  palms.  A  closer  examination  has  shewn,  that  these  large  ve- 
getables of  the  coal  formation  possess  characters  which  announce 
very  different  structures,  and  which  have  given  rise  to  their 
being  divided  into  several  genera  ;  such  are  the  stems  to  which 
have  been  applied  the  names  of  Calamites,  Sigillariae,  Clathrariae, 
Syringodendra,  Stigmariae,  Sagenarige  or  Lepidodendra.  On 
comparing  them  with  the  different  vegetables  at  present  exist- 
ing, it  has  been  found  that  none  of  them  could  be  referred  to 
the  family  of  palms,  or  to  the  arborescent  vegetables  of  the  neigh- 
bouring families,  such  as  the  Asparageae,  Pandanaceae,  Liliaceae," 
&c.  Numerous  and  important  characters,  on  the  contrary,  have 
appeared  to  me  to  bring  the  Calamites  in  relation  with  the 
Equiseta  ;  to  associate  the  Sigillarias  and  Clathrariae,  which  per- 
haps should  only  form  two  sections  of  the  same  genus  of  ferns  ; 
to  refer  the  Sagenariae  or  Lepidodendra  of  Sternberg  to  the  Ly- 
copodiaceae ;  and,  lastly,  to  indicate  in  the  Stigmariae  a  consider- 
able affinity  to  the  stems  of  some  Aroideae.  With  regard  to  the 
Syringodendra,  their  position  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  has  be6flV 
hitherto  the  subject  of  conjectures  supported  by  proofs  more  or 
less  probable,  but  always  refuted.  They  have  thus  been  succes- 
sively transported  from  the  family  of  Palms  to  that  of  Cactaceae, 
from  the  latter  to  that  of  Euphorbiaceae,  &c.,  without  its  appear- 
ing possible  to  admit  any  of  these  affinities.  Not  finding  any 
thing,  therefore,  among  the  vegetables  which  exist  at  the  present 
day  to  which  they  presented  any  affinity,  I  had  considered  them 
as  remains  of  a  genus  entirely  different  from  all  those  with  which 
we  are  acquainted.     New  observations,  however,  made  in  the 


284  M.  Brongniart's  Observations  07i  some 

very  places  which  contain  these  vegetable  remains,  allow  me 
now  to  do  away  with  this  error,  and  will  shew  how  much  one  is 
exposed,  in  this  sort  of  study,  to  the  danger  of  subdividing  unne- 
cessarily, by  considering  as  distinct  species  the  different  portions 
of  the  same  plant. 

The  genus  of  fossil  plants  to  which  Count  Sternberg  has  given 
the  name  of  Syringodendron,  contains  stems,  the  surface  of  which 
is  covered  with  numerous  parallel,  and  very  regular,  convex 
ribs.  On  the  middle  of  the  ribs  are  placed  in  quincunx  order, 
simple  or  double  lines,  or  rounded  impressions,  which  are  always, 
however,  very  small,  and  never  have  the  form  of  a  disk  or 
shield,  as  in  the  genus  Sigillaria.  This  character  alone  would 
distinguish  these  two  genera,  but  it  would  further  appear  of 
great  importance,  inasmuch  as  it  announces  a  great  difference  in 
the  form  of  the  organs,  whose  insertion  is  indicated  by  these  im- 
pressions. In  the  Sigillariae,  the  disks  have  been  regarded;  with 
reason,  as  the  marks  left  upon  the  bark  by  the  base  of  their  pe- 
tioles, after  the  fall  of  the  leaves.  The  form  of  the  base  of  these 
petioles,  and  the  disposition  of  the  vessels  which  have  traversed  it, 
render  it  almost  certain  that  these  plants  have  belonged  to  the 
family  of  ferns.  The  form  of  the  impressions  of  the  Syringo- 
dendra,  indicates,  on  the  contrary,  small  organs,  often  in  pairs, 
in  which  the  traces  of  spines,  like  those  of  the  cactuses,  fleshy 
Euphorbiae,  &c.  have  been  supposed  to  be  recognised.  This 
character  has  been  deemed  sufficient  by  several  naturalists  to  in- 
duce them  to  admit  the  analogy.  A  perfect  similarity  of  form  in 
the  Syringodendra  and  Sigillariae,  and  their  existence  in  the  same 
strata  of  the  globe,  might  have  impressed  an  idea,  if  not  of  their 
identity,  at  least  of  their  mutual  resemblance ;  yet  these  two 
genera  have  been  admitted  as  distinct  by  all  modern  authors. 
Direct  observation,  however,  comes  to  prove,  that  they  are  only 
two  parts  of  one  and  the  same  plant ;  that  the  genus  Syringo- 
dendron must  be  erased  from  the  list  of  plants  ;  'and,  in  a  word, 
that  the  alleged  species  of  this  genus  are  nothing  else  than  Si- 
gillariae deprived  of  their  outer  bark.  Several  specimens  collect- 
ed in  the  mines  of  Valenciennes,  Mons,  and  Charleroi,  evidently 
prove  this  identity ;  they  are  either  Sigillariae  or  Syringodendra, 
according  as  the  carbonized  bark   which  envelopes  the  stony 


Fossil  Vegetables  of  the  Coal  Formation.  285 

nucleus  of  which  these  stems  is  almost  entirely  composed,  is  still 
preserved,  or  has  fallen  off.  It  is  in  fact  a  character  peculiar  to 
the  fossil  stems  of  the  coal  deposits,  to  be  transformed  or  rather 
entirely  replaced,  by  an  inorganic  substance,  deposited  in  the  way 
of  sediment,  often  very  coarse,  and  retaining  no  traces  of  the  in- 
ternal organisation  of  the  stem  ;  while  around  this  nucleus  there 
occurs  a  layer,  more  or  less  thick,  of  very  friable  lamellar  char- 
coal, which  has  exactly  preserved  the  form  of  the  surface  of  the 
vegetable.  According  as  this  cortical  layer  has  a  thickness  more 
or  less  great,  and  more  or  less  equal,  the  central  nucleus,  when 
it  is  deprived  of  it,  preserves  more  or  less  accurately  the  form 
of  the  external  surface  of  the  vegetable.  In  the  Stigmariae,  the 
Sagenariae,  the  Calamites,  and  some  Sigillarice,  this  bark  forms 
an  extremely  thin  layer,  a  sort  of  epidermis,  which  leaves  to  the 
stony  nucleus  the  same  form  which  the  surface  of  the  vege- 
table itself  presented.  In  the  greater  number  of  the  Sigillariae, 
on  the  contrary,  this  bark,  which  has  a  thickness  of  from  one  to 
two  lines,  does  not  preserve  internally  the  form  which  it  had  on 
the  outside  ;  the  disk  produced  by  the  entire  base  of  the  petiole 
no  longer  exists.  The  vessels  alone  which  traversed  it  still  leave 
a  mark  internally,  and  produce  those  narrow,  and  often  puncti- 
form,  impressions  which  were  observed  on  the  Syringodendra. 
This  character  still  furnishes  an  additional  reason  for  considering 

o 

their  genus  as  allied  to  the  tree  ferns.  In  the  small  number  of 
stems  of  these  plants  which  we  have  had  an  opportunity  of  ob- 
serving, and  particularly  in  those  of  the  old  continent,  there  is 
observed  a  perfectly  distinct  bark,  or  rather  external  layer,  of  an 
organisation  very  different  from  the  bark  of  dicotyledonous  ve- 
getables. This  bark  appears  to  detach  itself  from  the  substance 
which  occupies  the  centre  of  the  stem,  and  then  forms  a  sort  of 
hollow  cylinder,  of  a  very  dense  substance,  the  external  surface 
of  which  presents,  with  much  accuracy,  the  form  of  the  bases  of 
the  petioles,  while  the  inner  surface  presents  only  the  passage  of 
the  vessels.  Let  us  suppose  this  woody  cylinder  to  be  filled  up 
with  an  earthy  substance,  and  the  bark  afterwards  converted  in- 
to charcoal,  stems  will  be  obtained,  having  a  nearly  perfect  re- 
semblance to  the  Sigillariae ;  if,  again,  the  carbonaceous  bark  be 
removed,  the  earthy  nucleus  will  represent,  with  but  slight  dif- 
ferences, the  Syringodendra. 


S86  •  M.  Brongniart's  OhserDatio7is  mi  some 

If  all  the  proofs  which  we  have  adduced  establish  almost  with 
certainty  the  resemblance  of  these  immense  stems  to  the  stems 
of  the  arborescent  ferns,  a  very  remarkable  character  distin- 
guishes, if  not  all  the  Sigillariae,  at  least  some  of  them,  from  our 
presently  existing  arborescent  ferns.  All  the  tree  ferns  known 
present  a  perfectly  simple  stem,  similar  in  its  general  form  to 
that  of  the  palms,  cycases,  &c.,  but  commonly  broader  toward 
the  base :  a  character  which  is  not  observed  in  the  stems  of  the 
greater  number  of  arborescent  monocotyledoncs,  and  which  is 
equally  observed  in  the  fossils  of  the  genus  Sigillaria.  All  the 
specimens  of  these  fossils  which  I  had  hitherto  observed  in  col- 
lections were  perfectly  simple,  and  this  character  appeared  to  be 
common  to  all  the  species  of  the  genus.  In  conjunction  with 
several  others  it  had  served  to  distinguish  this  genus  from  the 
Sagenaria3,  the  stem  of  which  is  commonly  dichotomous.  This 
difference  would  tend  to  confirm  the  analogy  of  the  former  of 
these  genera  with  the  ferns,  and  of  the  latter  with  the  Lycopo- 
dia,  I  was  therefore  very  much  astonished  on  seeing,  in  the 
collection  of  M.  de  Derschau,  engineer  of  mines  of  the  Grand 
Duchy  of  the  Lower  Rhine,  a  stem  which  was  indicated  by  all 
these  characters  to  belong  to  the  Sigillarite,  and  which  was  yet 
twice  divided  into  two.  Three  specimens  of  the  same  species  pre- 
sented this  character  more  or  less  completely.  Having  myself 
descended  into  one  of  the  coal  mines  of  the  neighbourhood 
of  Essen  (the  mine  of  Kunzwerk),  I  was  enabled  to  satisfy 
myself  on  the  spot  regarding  this  remarkable  organization. 
The  almost  vertical  roof  of  one  of  the  beds  of  coal,  in  which  the 
gallery  had  been  wrought,  presented  an  immense  quantity  of 
impressions  of  vegetables  of  different  species.  After  having 
seen  with  astonishment,  among  the  remains  of  this  ancient  fo- 
rest, stems  of  Sagenariae  of  nearly  two  feet  diameter  rising  per- 
pendicularly from  the  bottom  of  the  gallery,  dividing  once  or 
twice,  and  presently  losing  themselves  in  the  rocks  which  cover- 
ed this  gallery,  without  its  being  possible  to  judge  whether 
their  length  was  proportional  to  their  diameter ;  after  having 
endeavoured  in  vain  to  trace  several  of  these  stems,  which  were 
interwoven  in  all  directions,  I  at  length  came  upon  a  stem  of 
Sigillaria,  the  position  of  which  enabled  me  to  trace  it  in  almost 
its  whole  extent.     This  stem  lay  parallel  to  the  bottom  of  the 

4 


Fossil  Vegetables  of  the  Coal  Formation.  SSY 

gallery,  almost  at  the  height  of  the  observer's  eye ;  towards  its 
base,  it  was  about  a  foot  in  diameter,  and  appeared  broken  and 
not  naturally  terminated ;  it  was,  like  all  the  stems  deposited  in 
the  direction  of  the  strata,  compressed  to  such  a  degree  as  to  be 
entirely  flat.  On  following  this  stem  in  the  gallery,  I  was  as- 
tonished to  see  that  it  attained,  without  interruption,  a  length  of 
more  than  forty  feet ;  its  diameter  diminished  insensibly,  so  that 
it  was  not  more  than  six  inches  at  its  upper  extremity ;  but  this 
extremity,  instead  of  terminating  suddenly,  was  divided  into 
two  branches,  each  of  about  four  inches  diameter,  which  sepa- 
rated from  each  other,  and  were  prolonged  a  few  inches,  when 
they  were  interrupted  by  a  fracture  in  the  rock.  I  was  not 
able  to  trace  beyond  this  point  with  certainty ;  but  it  is  never- 
theless well  proved  that  these  stems,  after  attaining  a  great  height, 
finish,  if  not  always,  at  least  in  some  cases,  with  becoming  fur- 
cated, and  probably  dividing  several  times  by  dichotomy.  It 
is  to  this  latter  division  of  the  stem  that  we  must  attribute  the 
rare  occurrence  of  specimens  presenting  examples  of  it.  On  the 
contrary,  the  great  extent  of  the  simple  part  of  the  stem  of  these 
vegetables,  must  render  the  specimens  of  these  portions  of  stems 
very  common  in  the  rubbish  extracted  from  mines.  In  the  Sa- 
genarias,  on  the  contrary,  where  the  stem  appears  to  divide  at  a 
small  distance  from  the  base,  and  to  ramify  a  great  number  of 
times,  examples  of  these  dichotomous  divisions  are  of  more  fre- 
quent occurrence. 

After  having  properly  established  the  mode  of  division  of 
the  stems  which  compose  the  genus  Sigillaria,  there  remains  for 
us  to  determine,  if,  notwithstanding  this  dichotomous  form,  they  ' 
ought  still  to  rank  among  the  ferns,  or  if  this  character  be  suf- 
ficient to  separate  them  from  these  plants,  among  which  no  ex- 
ample of  the  kind  of  structure  in  question  is  now  observable. 

The  mode  of  division  of  the  stem  does  not  appear  to  me  to- 
form  a  character  of  sufficient  importance  to  induce  a  separation 
of  vegetables  which  have  so  many  other  characters  common.  We 
see  these  two  modes  of  structure  united  in  the  most  natural  fami- 
lies of  monocotyledonous  plants ;  and  there  is  nothing  in  the 
organization  of  the  tree-ferns  that  appears  to  militate  against 
the  possibihty  of  their  having  united,  like  these  families,  plants 
with  simple  stems,  and  others  with  branched   ones.     Supposing 


288  M.  Brongniart  on  some  Fossil  Vegetables. 

that,  among  the  pahus,  the  doum,  a  palm  with  dichotomous 
stem,  so  common  in  Egypt,  had  been  destroyed  by  some  revo- 
lution of  the  globe,  all  the  botanists  would  consider  a  simple 
stem  as  a  general  character  of  the  plants  of  this  family,  and 
perhaps  would  hesitate  to  assign  a  place  in  this  group  to  a 
plant,  the  organization  of  which  would  appear  to  separate  it 
from  all  the  other  species  known.  We  are  not  acquainted  with 
any  circumstance  that  would  induce  us  to  believe  that  the 
family  of  ferns,  the  arborescent  species  of  which  are  still  so  im- 
perfectly known,  does  not  contain  plants  with  stems  thus  divid- 
ed. The  characters  deduced  from  the  form  and  disposition  of 
the  bases  of  the  petioles,  and  from  the  disposition  of  the 
vessels  in  these  petioles,  characters  which  are  only  observed 
among  the  ferns,  appear  to  us  of  much  greater  importance,  and 
decide  in  our  opinion  the  place  which  these  vegetables  ought  to 
occupy. 

All  the  families  of  phanerogamous  monocotyledonous  plants 
which  contain  arborescent  species,  present  these  two  forms  of 
stem.  It  is  therefore  probable,  that  when  the  equinoctial  zone 
shall  be  better  known  to  us,  cycases,  zamise  and  ferns  with 
dichotomous  stems,  will  be  discovered,  as  we  already  know  dra- 
conae,  yuccse,  and  palms,  which  present  this  organization.  Per- 
haps, also,  these  vegetables,  so  remarkable  for  their  form,  their 
magnitude,  and  we  may  even  say  their  elegance,  have  ceased  to 
exist  at  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  their  remains  will  serve  to 
perfect  our  ideas  regarding  several  families  of  plants,  of  which 
the  present  vegetation  of  our  globe  no  longer  presents  but  im- 
perfect fragments,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  ancient  world 
has  already  served  to  fill  up  several  voids  of  the  animal  king- 
dom. 


Eocptanaticm  of  Plate  VI. 

Fig/1.  Sigillaria  Hippocrepis.     Ad.  B. 

Sigillaria  with  flattened  ribs,  eight  lines  broad ;  bark  smooth  ex- 
ternally, striated  internally ;  cicatrices  semi-elliptical,  truncated 
beneath,  or  in  the  form  of  a  horse's  shoe,  marked  with  three  vas- 
cular fasciculi  above  ;  internal  cicatrices  simple,  ovaL 
Found  in  the  coal  mine  of  Mons. 

3 


r^^.i. 


PLATE  .at:  .  i:(liiz':iiewPhilJour  Voi.l  .j>.288. 


rubUs7icd   7>y  A.Blcick  Bdi7i^lS26 . 


M.  A.  Brongniart  on  some  Fossil  Vegetables,  289 

Fig.  2.  Sigillaria  reniformis.     Ad.  B. 

Sigillaria  with  flattened  ribs,  about  15  lines  broad ;  bark  thick, 
smooth  externally,  striated  internally,  cicatrices  small,  from  three 
to  four  lines  broad,  reniform,  notched  above  and  marked  with 
three  vascular  fasciculi ;  internal  cicatrices  oval,  large,  double. 

Gathered  in  the  coal-mines  of  Mons. 
Fig.  3,  4.  Sigillaria  elofigata.     Ad.  B. 

Sigillaria  with  convex  angular  ribs ;  bark  pretty  thick,  smooth  ex- 
ternally, striated  internally ;  cicatrices  oblong,  truncated  at  the 
two  extremities,  marked  with  three  vascular  fasciculi  above, 
the  cicatrices  are  close  together,  and  the  interval  between  them 
is  rugose  and  transversely  striated. 

Var.  cc.  minor.  Ribs  from  live  to  six  lines  broad ;  inner  cicatrices 
rounded,     (fig.  3). 

Var.  &.  major.  Ribs  from  eight  to  ten  lines  broad ;  inner  cica- 
trices elongated,  linear,     (fig.  4). 

Occurs  in  the  coal-mines  of  Charleroi. 
Fig.  5.  Sigillaria  mamillaris.     Ad.  B. 

Sigillaria  with  ribs  alternately  narrowed,  from  four  to  five  lines 
broad,  forming  lamellae  which  support  narrow  cicatrices,  trun- 
cated above,  widened  and  rounded  beneath,  marked  toward 
their  upper  edge  with  three  vascular  fasciculi.  Bark  very  thin, 
striated  transversely  beneath  the  cicatrices,  smooth  internally ; 
internal  cicatrix  rounded. 

Occurs  in  the  coal-mines  of  Charleroi. 

Obs.  The  three  first  species  difi^er  essentially  from  all  those  figured 
by  M.  Sternberg,  Schlotheim,  Rhode,  &c.;  the  last  species  pretty 
much  resembles  Sternberg's  Lepidodendron  alveolare ;  but  it  is 
distinguished  from  it  by  its  cicatrices  being  wider  set,  and  its 
bark  striated  in  the  interval  of  the  cicatrices. — Annales  des  Set' 
ences  Naturelles,  Jan.  1825,  p.  23. 


Professor  P.    Pkevost,    upon    the   Magnetical   hifiuence  of 

the  Sun. 

i^  UMEROUs  observations  made  at  different  periods,  appear  to 
attest  that  the  southern  hemisphere  is  colder  than  the  northern. 
This  fact  is  explained  by  the  theory  of  radiating  caloric,  and  is 

JULY OCTOBER  1826.  T 


S90  Professor  P.  Prevost  upon  the 

not  capable  of  being  accounted  for  by  any  other.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  brief  account  of  the  state  in  which  the  discussion  on  this 
subject  stands  at  present. 

The  southern  winter  is  longer  than  the  northern,  and  the  sum- 
mer proportionally  shorter.  But  this  circumstance  introduces 
no  diiference  in  the  quantities  of  solar  irradiation,  which  either 
hemisphere  experiences  in  the  course  of  a  season  of  the  same 
name.  It  is  demonstrated  that,  in  the  elliptical  orbit,  the  differ- 
ence of  the  distance  from  the  sun  exactly  compensates  the  effect 
of  the  duration  of  the  corresponding  seasons  of  the  two  hemi- 
spheres ;  the  quantity  of  rays  received  by  the  earth  is  constantly 
the  same  for  the  same  number  of  degrees  traversed  upon  the 
ecliptic  ;  in  other  terms,  the  quantity  of  heat  which  the  earth 
receives  from  the  sun  is  proportional  to  the  true  anomaly.  From 
one  equinox  to  the  other,  the  earth  therefore  receives  the  same 
quantity  of  solar  rays.  Thus,  for  a  season  of  the  same  name, 
summer  for  example,  each  of  the  two  hemispheres  similarly  si- 
tuated with  relation  to  the  sun,  receives  precisely  the  same  se- 
mestral  light,  measured  by  180°  of  the  ecliptic.  If,  therefore, 
one  of  the  two  hemispheres  is  more  heated  by  solar  irradiation 
than  the  other,  this  cannot  depend  upon  the  quantity  of  rays 
which  it  receives.  It  only  remains  to  be  seen  whether  it  might 
not  depend  upon  the  different  manner  in  which  the  distribution 
of  this  same  quantity  is  operated.  But  if  all  this  quantity  be 
considered  as  fixed,  and  in  some  measure  stored  up  in  the  bosom 
of  the  earth,  it  is  of  no  consequence  although  there  should  be 
some  inequality  in  the  form  of  its  distribution.  It  may  there- 
fore be  said  in  general,  that  the  unequal  temperature  of  the  two 
hemispheres  does  not  depend  immediately  upon  the  heat  which 
they  receive  from  the  sun. 

But  it  is  known  that  all  the  rays  received  in  this  way  do  not  re- 
main imprisoned  in  the  terrestrial  globe.  A  part  of  them  ema- 
nates by  means  of  radiation,  and  loses  itself  in  space.  If,  accord- 
ing to  the  general  theory  of  radiation,  regard  be  had  to  the  dif- 
ferent distribution  of  solar  heat  in  the  two  hemispheres  of  the 
earth,  if,  for  example,  confining  ourselves  to  the  summer  (the 
influence  of  which  is  entirely  predominant),  we  consider  the  ef- 
fect which  the  length  of  the  northern  summer  has  upon  the  ra- 


Magnetical  Injiuenct  of  the  Sun.  291 

diation,  we  find  that  the  southern  hemisphere  is  more  cooled,  and 
that  there  remains  to  the  northern  (deduction  made  of  the  radia- 
tion) a  superiority  of  heat.  This  is  the  result  of  a  train  of  rea- 
soning which  will  be  found  in  the  treatise  on  radiating  caloric, 
sect.  285,  to  which  I  can  only  refer  here. 

These  truths  which  I  have  laboured  to  establish,  in  two  es- 
says published  in  1792  and  1809?  would  have  been  sufficiently 
confirmed  by  the  experiments  of  M.  de  la  Roche,  and  by  those 
of  MM.  Dulong  and  Petit,  could  it  be  admitted  that  what  takes 
place  in  very  high  temperatures  is  applicable  to  lower  degrees. 
But  I  cannot  at  present  attend  to  this  remark,  nor  to  several 
others  which  refer  to  heat,  having  another  object  in  view. 

What  has  been  demonstrated  of  the  heat  which  has  emanated 
from  the  sun,  easily  applies  to  every  other  emanation  from  that 
body.  Accordingly,  in  1792,  I  made  application  of  it  to  a  fluid 
which  I  was  disposed  to  refer  to  this  origin.  Proceeding  on 
the  supposition,  now  very  generally  received,  of  two  magnetic 
fluids,  I  thought  that  the  magnetism  of  the  terrestrial  globe 
might  come  from  the  abundance  in  excess  of  one  of  them  upon 
one  of  our  hemispheres.  Then,  viewing  it  as  probable  that  such 
a  fluid  emanates  from  the  sun,  or  that  in  some  manner  or  other 
the  solar  emanation  affects  the  magnetism,  I  proposed  to  examine 
if  the  abundance  in  excess  of  this  fluid  upon  our  hemisphere 
might  not  be  attributed  to  the  same  cause  which  produces  an 
excess  of  heat  in  it.  I  remarked,  lastly,  that,  if  these  supposi- 
tions were  verified,  we  might  hope  to  detect,  between  the  mag- 
netic variations  and  the  known  motions  of  the  earth's  exis,  rela- 
tions that  it  would  be  useful  to  observe. 

These  reflections  have  been  suggested  to  me  by  experiments 
which  seem  to  indicate  the  emission  of  one  of  the  magnetic  ele- 
ments by  the  sun,  namely,  those  upon  the  influence  of  the  violet 
ray  first  made  by  Mr  Morechini,  and  afterwards  repeated  and 
varied  by  Mrs  Somexw'AXQ.'-'Bibliotheqiie  Universelle,  May 
1826. 


T  2 


On  tlie  Reaction  of  Sulphate  of  Magnesia  and  Bicarbonate  of 
Soda.      By  M.  Planche. 

At  is  known  that  the  bicarbonate  of  soda  and  the  sulphate  of 
magnesia,  in  a  state  of  aqueous  solution,  exercise  no  reciprocal 
action  in  the  cold,  and  that  it  is  only  when  a  certain  quantity  of 
carbonic  acid  has  been  disengaged  by  heat,  or,  in  other  words, 
when  the  alkaline  bicarbonate  has  passed  into  the  state  of  sub- 
carbonate,  that  the  sulphuric  acid  prevails  over  the  soda,  and 
leaves  the  magnesia  to  the  carbonic  acid.  But  I  have  nowhere 
seen  it  mentioned  that  the  two  salts  mixed  together,  in  a  dry 
state,  and  in  the  form  of  powder,  react  upon  each  other.  This 
must  at  least  be  the  case  with  regard  to  their  immediate  and  in- 
stantaneous mixture,  since  in  this  state  they  dissolve  in  water 
without  affecting  its  transparency,  and  consequently  without  any 
decomposition  taking  place,  or  at  least  any  apparent  decomposi- 
tion. Presuming  upon  this  property  of  the  two  salts,  a  physi- 
cian prescribed  several  years  ago  to  M.  de  Sommariva,  a  mixture 
of  powdered  sulphate  of  magnesia,  and  saturated  carbonate  of 
soda.  He  gave  alternately  either  this  mixture  alone,  or  bicar- 
bonate of  soda.  Being  charged  with  the  preparation  of  both 
these  medicines,  for  a  journey  of  three  months,  which  M.  de 
Sommariva  made  annually  to  Italy,  I  always  had  the  precaution 
of  placing  the  mixture,  in  a  very  dry  state,  and  divided  into  par- 
cels in  tin  canisters,  to  preserve  it  from  humidity.  I  used  the 
same  precaution  with  regard  to  the  carbonate  of  soda.  I  observ- 
ed that  the  sulphate  of  magnesia  was  free  of  hydrochlorate. 

During  three  years  M.  de  S.,  a  man  very  careful  of  his  health, 
and  besides  a  good  observer,  never  perceived  that  cold  water  be* 
came  turbid  when  he  dissolved  the  two  salts  together  in  it ;  but 
in  1822,  having  been  obliged  to  prolong  his  journey  beyond  the 
usual  time,  he  laid  up  a  store  for  a  year.  Toward  the  end  of 
the  fifth  month,  M.  de  S.  remarked  that  the  same  water  which 
he  ordinarily  used  became  slightly  milky,  and  that  the  change, 
which  he  rightly  attributed,  though  without  being  able  to  ex- 
plain the  cause,  to  the  alteration  of  the  powder,  went  on  increas- 
ing as  the  time  advanced.     At  length,  by  the  seventh  month. 


Observations  on  the  Nature  and  Importance  of  Geology,    293 

the  precipitate  which  formed  in  the  water  became  so  consider- 
able, that  M.  de  S.  deemed  it  proper  to  intermit  the  use  of  the 
powder,  and  sent  for  some  more,  promising  to  inform  me  on 
his  return  from  Italy,  of  what,  according  to  his  expression, 
had  happened.  M.  de  S.  returned  at  the  end  of  six  months, 
and  sent  me  back  the  powder  in  question,  which  I  submitted 
to  the  following  experiments. 

1st,  This  powder  put  into  a  quantity  of  cold  water,  double 
that  which  is  necessary  for  dissolving  the  two  salts,  rendered  it 
milky. 

%  Dissolved  in  a  large  quantity  of  water,  it  deposited  a  white 
powder,  which,  on  being  washed  several  times  and  dried,  was 
found  to  be  subcarbonate  of  magnesia. 

The  liquor  in  which  this  deposit  was  formed  was  limpid  after 
being  filtered,  and  was  not  rendered  turbid,  either  cold  or  hot, 
by  the  soluble  alkaline  subcarbonates.  All  the  acids  stronger 
than  the  carbonic  disengaged  this  latter  from  it.  Lastly,  when 
suitably  evaporated,  sulphate  and  carbonate  of  soda  were  obtain- 
ed, part  of  the  latter  of  which  was  in  the  form  of  subcarbonate. 
To  explain  here  the  presence  of  the  carbonate  of  soda,  it  requires 
to  be  known  that  the  quantity  of  bicarbonate  mixed  with  the 
sulphate  6f  magnesia,  was  more  than  sufficient  to  decompose 
this  latter  salt. 

There  results  from  this  observation.,  that  the  sufficiently  pro- 
longed  contact  ofsidphate  of  magnesia  and  bicarbonate  of  soda  in 
a  dry  state,  determines  a  chemical  action  similar  to  that  which 
the  concurrence  of  water  and  heat  would  produce,  affording  a 
new  example  of  the  inaccuracy  of  the  old  chemical  axiom :  Cor- 
pora non  agunt  nisi  soluta. — Journal  de  Pharmacie,  March 
1826. 


Observations  cni  the  Nature  and  Importance  of  Geology. 

XJL  CELEBRATED  school  of  philosophy  among  the  ancients,  main- 
tained that  there  was  only  one  virtue.  With  as  much,  nay  even 
more,  propriety,  it  might  be  maintained,  that  there  is  only  one 
science,  at  least  one  physical  science.     The  various  departments 


S94     Observations  on  the  Nature  and  Importance  of  Geology/. 

of  this  science  are  so  framed,  as,  in  some  measure,  to  accommo* 
date  the  incommensurability  of  nature  to  our  capacity  ;  and  by 
connecting  things  that  are  homogeneous,  they  enable  us  to  take 
a  survey  of  natural  phenomena ;  but,  while  we  are  occupied  with 
a  single  department,  we  become  sensible  of  its  dependence  on 
others,  and  are  frequently  at  a  loss  to  assign  to  each  its  peculiar 
province. 

Of  all  the  departments  of  physical  science,  geology  is  the  niost 
intimately  connected  with  other  branches,  and  stands  in  need  of 
their  assistance,  or  assists  them  more  frequently  than  any  other. 
This  mutual  relation,  which  contributes,  in  no  small  degree,  to 
bestow  a  peculiar  charm  on  geology,  has,  at  the  same  time,  a 
tendency  to  render  it  a  difficult  study. 

When  speaking  of  Geology,  it  must  be  understood  to  compre- 
hend Oryctognosy  as  its  foundation ;  the  latter  gives  us  a  know- 
ledge of  the  characters,  the  former  of  their  combination.  Who- 
ever is  in  danger  of  mistaking  one  character  for  another,  will 
never  learn  to  read  accurately  ;  and  he  who  continually  devotes 
his  attention  to  nothing  but  the  characters,  may,  indeed,  owing 
to  the  difficulty  of  recognising  them,  be  very  profitably  engaged, 
but  he  will  be  frustrated  as  to  the  ultimate  and  most  essential 
object  of  their  study. 

The  terrestrial  globe,  whose  structure,  so  far  as  it  is  exposed 
to  our  view,  is  the  proper  object  of  geognostic  investigation,  is 
the  extensive  workshop  wherein  the  powers  of  nature,  with  which 
natural  philosophy  and  chemistry  are  engaged,  have  operated, 
and  are  still  operating.  It  is  not  therefore  matter  of  surprise, 
though  these  two  sciences  have  both  a  kindred  affinity  for  geo- 
logy, to  which  the  latter  is  indeed  so  closely  related,  that  geo- 
logy may  be  considered  as  practical  chemistry.  In  addition  to 
this,  geology  has,  with  other  departments  of  science,  many  points 
of  contact,  from  which  it  may  be  allowable  to  select  a  single  ex- 
ample. 

Geometry,  guided  by  simple  principles,  formed  regular  bo- 
dies from  limited  plane  surfaces,  and  determined  their  peculiar 
properties,  without  foreseeing  that  models  of  them  would  be 
found  in  nature  herself;  but  since  observation  has  brought  us 
acquainted  with  the  regular  figures  of  mineral  bodies,  they  ex- 


Observations  on  the  Nature  and  Importance  of  Geology,     295 

hibit  in  relation  to  this  science  one  of  the  most  important  appli- 
cations, as  well  as  one  of  the  most  unerring  standards,  by  which 
they  are  distinguished. 

When  the  geometer,  by  his  measurements,  proves  that  the  fi- 
gure of  our  earth  mayj  like  that  of  other  planets,  be  determined 
by  its  revolutions,  and  hence  draws  conclusions  regarding  its  ori- 
ginal state  of  fluidity,  we  find,  that  the  phenomena  of  geology 
lead  to  the  same  result.  When  he  weighs  its  mass  in  a  balance, 
whose  arm  is  the  semidiameter  of  the  sun's  orbit,  we  are  unable 
to  confirm  his  statement  by  immediate  observation ;  but  we  ob- 
tain, in  this  way,  a  basis  on  which  we  can,  in  some  measure,  rest 
our  conclusions  regarding  the  internal  structure  of  the  earth. 

If  we  contemplate  its  surface,  with  all  its  inequalities,  it  is  geo- 
logy alone  that  can  give  us  a  distinct  representation  of  them.  All 
local  descriptions,  not  springing  from  this  source,  either  leave  be- 
hind them  indistinct  and  erroneous  conceptions,  or  are  entire- 
ly fanciful.  This  surface  being  the  habitation  of  our  species, 
its  figure  and  its  changes  must,  therefore,  be  closely  connected 
with  the  history  of  the  human  race  ;  and  though  the  most  im- 
portant of  those  changes  may  be  far  anterior  to  their  origin,  and 
to  the  period  of  history,  we  may  yet,  in  more  than  one  geognos- 
tic  fact,  find  suggestions  and  disclosures,  which  cannot  be  unac- 
ceptable to  the  historical  investigator.  These  facts  concur  with 
historical  testimony,  in  representing  the  elevated  platforms  of 
Asia  as  the  cradle  of  the  human  race,  and  in  explaining  their  dif- 
fusion from  that  centre ;  and  the  traditions  of  deluges,  found 
among  all  the  nations  of  antiquity,  are  corroborated  by  the  still 
existing  traces  of  those  violent  events. 

The  monuments  concealed  in  the  bosom  of  the  earth,  and  ex- 
tending to  the  whole  organic  creation,  are  still  more  instructive. 
Between  the  dead  and  the  living  there  yawns  a  chasm,  indeed, 
A^hich  we  can  never  overleap  ;  but  if  any  thing  can  lift  the  veil 
that  hangs  over  the  origin  and  progress  of  the  organic  world,  it 
must  be  those  remains  of  it,  for  the  knowledge  of  which  we  are 
indebted  to  geology.  So  far  as  we  have  examined  the  crust  of 
the  earth,  we  have  discovered  in  its  structure  and  materials  no 
transition  from  simple  to  compound.  The  order  of  time  has 
established  no  relation,  according  to  which  the  strata  of  simple 


^96     Observations  on  the  Nature  and  Importance  of  Geology. 

rocks  of  the  earliest  formations  are  the  simplest,  while  the 
newer  are  more  and  more  compound ;  on  the  contrary,  the 
oldest  appear  to  be  the  most  compound.  In  complete  opposi- 
tion to  this,  the  organic  world,  in  each  of  its  two  principal  divi- 
sions, exhibits  a  series  of  formations  from  simple  to  compound  ; 
the  simplest  being  the  oldest.  Thus  we  observe  animal  life 
commencing  in  infusory  animals,  without  any  discernible  organs. 
Simple  digestive  organs  are  first  visible  in  the  polypi ;  in  the 
echinodermata  the  organ  of  respiration  first  appears  ;  in  insects 
a  system  of  nerves  and  muscles ;  in  crustaceous  animals  circula- 
tion ;  and  in  the  last  two,  simple  organs  of  sense  make  their 
appearance.  At  the  same  time,  generation  preserves  the  pe- 
culiar character  of  organic  beings  ;  and  after  having  accom- 
plished its  purpose,  by  mere  division  and  dissolution,  the  particu- 
lar generative  organs  develop  themselves  in  distinct  sexes.  With 
the  avertebral  animals  are  conjoined  the  series  of  the  vertebral, 
in  which  every  system  appears  more  perfect,  and  more  close- 
ly connected.  New  organs  of  sense  are  unfolded,  and  the 
brain  becomes  the  centre  of  feeling,  perception  and  life,  till 
in  man  it  attains  the  highest  state  of  perfection,  and  endows  him 
with  consciousness  and  rationality.  Long  ago,  celebrated  natu- 
ralists, relying  upon  these  observations,  attempted,  with  more  or 
less  success,  to  arrange  the  species  of  animals,  sometimes  accord- 
ing to  a  scale  of  gradation,  and  sometimes  according  to  a  reticu- 
lated form,  without  giving  any  distinct  account  of  the  meaning 
of  such  an  arrangement.  Should  it,  like  the  piling  up  of  a  col- 
lection of  books,  merely  serve  for  a  more  convenient  survey  of 
innumerable  creatures,  without  any  reference  to  their  origin  ?  Or, 
do  they  intend,  by  means  of  such  an  arrangement,  to  express  the 
design  that  hovered  in  the  mind  of  Omnipotence,  before  he  cal- 
led these  creatures  into  being  ?  Or,  have  they  originated  in  the 
way  in  which  they  appear  in  the  scale  of  gradation,  as  if  the 
hand  of  the  Creator,  like  that  of  a  human  artist,  perhaps,  must 
first  be  exercised  on  simple  formations,  before  it  was  capable  of 
producing  such  as  were  compound  ? 

Upon  these  questions,  whose  answer  might  contain  no  less 
than  a  key  to  the  profoundest  secrets  of  nature,  Mr  Lamarck, 
one  of  the  most  sagacious  naturalists  of  pur  day,  has  expressed 


Observations  on  the  Nature  and  Importance  of  Geology.     ^7 

himself  in  the  most  unambiguous  manner.  He  admits,  on  the 
one  hand,  the  existence  of  the  simplest  infusory  animals ;  oil 
the  other,  the  existence  of  the  simplest  worms,  by  means  of 
spontaneous  generation,  that  is,  by  an  aggregation  process  of 
animal  elements  ;  and  maintains,  that  all  other  animals,  by  the 
operation  of  external  circumstances,  are  evolved  from  these  in 
a  double  series,  and  in  a  gradual  manner.  On  that  account, 
the  scale  of  gradation,  according  to  which  he  arranges  the  ani- 
mal kingdom,  is,  at  the  same  time,  the  history  of  their  origin  ; 
and  the  discovery  of  this  truly  natural  method,  the  most  im- 
portant problem  of  the  natural  philosopher.  Although  it  should 
not  be  forgotten,  that  this  meritorious  philosopher,  more  in  con^ 
formity  with  his  own  hypothesis  than  is  permitted  in  the  pro- 
vince of  physical  science,  has  resigned  himself  to  the  influence 
of  imagination,  and  attempted  explanations,  which,  from  the 
present  state  of  our  knowledge,  we  are  incapable  of  giving,  we 
nevertheless  feel  ourselves  drawn  towards  it,  and  these  notions 
of  the  progressive  formation  of  the^  organic  world,  must  be 
found  more  worthy  of  its  first  Great  Author  than  the  limited 
conceptions  that  we  commonly  entertain. 

Geology  can  alone  inform  us,  how  far  this  successive  course 
of  development  may  have  been  followed  by  nature.  When  all 
the  races  of  animals,  whose  remains  are  contained  in  the  crust 
of  the  earth,  have  been  better  ascertained  than  at  present,  and 
their  situations  better  kno^vn,  when  we  have  discovered  at  what 
period  of  the  earth's  formation  any  species  of  animals  makes  its 
appearance  for  the  first  time,  we  shall  then  be  able  to  draw  con- 
clusions, more  or  less  accurate,  concerning  the  order  of  succes- 
sion. The  doctrine  of  petrifactions,  even  in  its  present  imper- 
fect condition,  furnishes  us  with  accounts  that  seem  in  favour  of 
Mr  Lamarck''s  hypothesis.  We,  in  fact,  meet  with  the  more 
perfect  classes  of  animals,  only  in  the  more  recent  beds  of  rocks, 
and  the  most  perfect,  those  closely  allied  to  our  own  species,  only 
in  the  most  recent ;  beneath  them  occur  granivorous,  before  car- 
nivorous, animals  ;  and  human  remains,  are  found  only  in  allu- 
vial soil,  in  calcareous  tuff,  and  in  limestone  conglomerates. 

Geology  does  not  inform  us  merely  of  the  origin  of  animal 
species,  but  also  of  their  destruction.     Out  of  the  vast  number 

3 


S98     Observations  cm  the  Nature  and  Importance  ofGeohgy, 

of  animal  remains,  but  few  belong  to  species  now  living,  and 
these  only,  in  the  most  recent  rock-formations  ;  by  far  the  great- 
er number  of  their  primitive  structures  are  lost,  and  the  older 
the  beds  of  rock  in  which  they  make  their  appearance,  so  much 
the  more  do  they  deviate  in  their  formation  from  the  species  now 
in  existence.  May  this  destruction,  as  is  commonly  received, 
have  been  the^result  of  violent  accidents,  and  destructive  revo- 
lutions of  the  earth  ;  or  does  it  not  rather  indicate  a  great  law  of 
nature,  which  cannot  be  discovered  by  reason  of  its  remote  an- 
tiquity ?  Within  the  narrow  circle  of  vision  in  which  the  organic 
world  manifests  itself  to  our  observation,  we  observe  individuals 
only  going  to  destruction,  and  in  opposition  to  that,  great  pre- 
parations making  for  the  preservation  of  the  species.  But  if  all 
living  perish,  may  no  point  of  duration  have  been  fixed  for  the 
species  ;  or  do  we  not  rather,  in  these  signs  of  a  former  world, 
discover  a  proof,  that,  from  a  change  in  the  media  in  which  or- 
ganic creatures  lived,  and  from  powerful  causes  operating  upon 
them,  their  power  of  propagation  may  be  weakened,  and  at 
length  become  perfectly  extinct  ?  Is  the  continual  decrease,  then, 
which  we  observe  among  some  species,  a  consequence  of  the  va- 
rious modes  of  destruction  they  experience  from  the  hand  of 
man,  or  may  it  not  rather  be  produced  by  natural  circumstan- 
ces, and  be  a  sign  of  the  approaching  old  age  of  the  species  ? 

The  distinction  of  species  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  founda- 
tions of  natural  history,  and  her  character  is  the  propagation  of 
similar  forms.  But  are  these  forms  as  immutable  as  some  dis- 
tinguished naturalists  maintain  ;  or  do  not  our  domestic  animals 
and  our  cultivated  or  artificial  plants  prove  the  contrary  ?  If 
these,  by  change  of  situation,  of  chmate,  of  nourishment,  and 
by  every  other  circumstance  that  operates  upon  them,  can  change 
their  relations,  it  is  probable  that  many  fossil  species  to  which 
no  originals  can  be  found,  may  not  be  extinct,  but  have  gra- 
dually passed  into  others.  As  there  are  periodical  movements 
of  the  heavenly  bodies,  that  is,  movements  that  are  visible  only 
after  hundreds  of  years,  so  these  are  undoubtedly  periodical 
changes  in  the  organic  world.  If  these  have  required  intervals 
of  time  that  are  antecedent  to  all  historical  traditions,  and  to  the 
duration  even  of  the  human  race,  the  monuments  concealed  in 


Observations  on  the  Nature  and  Importance  of  Geology.     S99 

the  bosom  of  the  earth  can  alone  reveal  them.  We  indeed  ob- 
serve that  the  Ibis,  which  was  worshipped  in  ancient  Egypt,  and 
preserved  as  a  mummy,  is  still  the  same  in  modern  Egypt ;  but 
what  are  the  few  thousand  years  to  which  the  mummy  refers, 
in  comparison  with  the  age  of  the  world,  as  its  history  is  related 
by  geology. 

Geology  likewise  supplies  us  with  instructive  disclosures  re- 
garding the  distribution  of  organic  beings.  If  we,  in  all  the 
regions  and  climates  of  the  world,  meet  with  a  striking  unifor- 
mity in  the  structure  of  the  earth,  we  also,  on  the  contrary,  ob- 
serve plants  and  animals  of  a  most  varied  character  scattered 
over  its  surface.  As  there  are  among  the  dicotyledons,  that  is, 
among  the  more  perfect  plants,  no  species,  which  are  at  the 
same  time  indigenous  to  the  hot  climates  of  the  old  and  new 
world,  so  both  halves  of  the  globe  in  the  same  zone  possess  mam- 
miferous  animals,  birds,  reptiles,  and  insects  peculiar  to  each. 
Species  common  to  both  are  found  only  among  the  inferior  gra- 
dations of  organization,  and  species  of  a  higher  order  are  found 
only  in  those  high  northern  latitudes,  where  the  continents  were 
undoubtedly  at  one  time  conjoined.  From  the  combined  re- 
sults of  organic  geography,  and  the  doctrine  of  petrifactions,  it 
will  at  once  follow,  whether  the  ancient  population  of  the  ter- 
restrial globe  was  distributed  according  to  the  same  laws  as  at 
present.  Even  now,  many  of  the  petrifactions  of  cold  climates, 
whose  species  and  families  are  produced  only  in  hot  countries, 
indicate  a  great  change  in  the  temperature  of  their  former  si- 
tuations, and  phenomena,  like  that  of  the  rhinoceros  found  on 
the  shore  of  the  Wilhui,  and  of  the  mammoth  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Lena,  are  likewise  indications  of  sudden  changes  in  those 
places.  Along  with  the  distribution  of  species,  we  also  acquire 
a  knowledge  of  the  distribution  of  individuals,  and  of  their 
modes  of  life,  from  their  fossil  remains,  because  these  remains, 
like  living  creatures,  appear  to  us  sometimes  single,  and  dis- 
persed at  other  times  in  numerous  bodies,  and  closely  crowded 
together. 

The  doctrine  of  petrifactions  contains  also  the  history  of  the  or- 
ganic world,  as  natural  history  contains  its  description.  Like  the 
coins,  inscriptions,  and  works  of  art,  which  make  us  acquainted 


300     Observations  on  the  Nature  and  Importance  of  Geology. 

with  the  varied  destiny  of  our  own  species,  these  monuments  have 
been  buried  in  the  earth,  and,  by  that  means,  have  been  secured 
against  destruction.  The  Siberian  and  Chinese  popular  tradi- 
tions of  the  mammoth  living  in  the  interior  of  the  earth,  are  at 
least  figuratively  correct ;  and,  in  conjunction  with  the  remains  of 
a  former  world,  bear  evidence  of  an  earlier  state  of  things. 
The  remains  of  all  plants  and  classes  of  animals,  whose  struc- 
ture permitted  it,  have  been  preserved  in  great  abundance ; 
and,  although  the  distinction  of  species  not  unfrequently  con- 
fronts us  with  unsurmountable  obstacles,  a  knowledge  of  them 
must  lead  to  important  results ;  at  least,  if  we  admit  that  the 
various  forms  have  been  evolved  from  a  primitive  model,  and 
that  the  species  have  arisen  from  an  original  generic  form.  But 
to  perform  what  may  be  expected  from  it,  the  doctrine  of  petri- 
factions should  keep  pace  with  the  improvement  of  botanical 
and  zoolo^cal  methods,  and  renounce  names  and  distinctions 
which  have  no  longer  any  meaning. 

Independent  also  of  this  connection  between  the  inorganic 
and  the  organic  world,  between  geology,  botany,  and  zoology, 
it  is  surely  no  unprofitable  occupation  for  a  rational  being,  to  in- 
quire what  this  earth  upon  which  we  live  consists  of,  how  it  is 
constructed,  what  changes  it  may  have  suffered,  and  what  it 
may  still  be  destined  to  undergo.  Whoever  is  still  unsatisfied, 
whoever  estimates  the  value  of  science,  not  by  intellectual  de- 
sires but  by  practical  advantage,  ought  to  recollect  that  there 
are  few  of  the  arts  of  life  to  which  geology  is  not  more  or  less 
applicable.  It  is  one  of  the  foundations  of  agriculture,  which 
cannot  flourish  without  a  knowledge  of  the  soil :  it  instructs  us 
in  the  course  and  operation  of  water,  whether  we  wish  to  pre- 
vent it  from  doing  injury,  or  to  turn  it  to  advantage  ;  it  enables 
us  to  search  out  materials  for  our  habitations  and  furniture,  and 
the  art  of  working  mines,  with  which  geology  originated,  and 
which  in  return  yields  its  most  valuable  productions.  We  hence 
conceive  that  the  study  of  geology  brings  us  in  continual  con- 
tact with  the  most  exalted  scenes  of  nature,  with  all  that  can 
captivate  our  imagination,  and  fill  our  souls  with  vast  concep- 
tions, and  thus  explains  the  interest  that  is  daily  more  and  more 
excited  by  it,  and  which  warrants  the  most  sanguine  expecta- 
tions of  its  future  progress. 


Observations  on  the  Nature  and  Importance  of  Geology.     301 

Geology  has  shared  the  fate  of  all  experimental  sciences. 
Its  first  steps,  for  the  most  part  directed  by  necessity,  consisted 
of  loose  and  superficial  observations  on  those  phenomena  more 
immediately  presented  to  our  attention.  But,  as  it  is  a  peculiar 
prerogative  of  our  nature  to  entertain  a  desire  of  tracing  back 
causes,  and  explaining  operations,  theories  of  the  earth  were 
early  indulged  in  ;  and  these,  although  often  absurd,  were  not 
without  their  use.  Afterwards  it  was  considered  presumptuous, 
from  those  fragments  of  the  earth's  crust  which  we  had  looked 
upon  rather  than  examined,  to  draw  conclusions  as  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  earth,  and  to  relate  its  history,  as  if  we  had  been  co- 
eval with  the  events ;  and  that  true  geology  must  be  a  collec- 
tion, arrangement,  and  comparison  of  facts,  and  its  theories  on- 
ly general  observations.  This  view  being  generally  admitted, 
geology  may  be  said  to  have  passed  from  the  condition  of  child- 
hood, and  assumed  its  station  among  the  sciences. 

These  theories  are  essentially  different  from  those  of  other 
branches  of  physical  science.  When  the  natural  philosopher 
makes  mention  of  two  electric  fluids,  or  of  a  luminous  matter, 
he  is  perfectly  well  aware  that  the  causes  of  electrical  or  lumi- 
nous phenomena  might  be  different  from  what  he  imagines ;  yet 
these  modes  of  expression  are  most  convenient  for  producing  unity 
and  connection  among  the  facts  that  have  come  under  his  observa- 
tion. Geological  theories  are,  on  the  contrary,  of  a  purely  histori- 
cal character.  Whether  granite  be  a  production  of  fire  or  water, 
is  a  matter  of  indifference  in  the  explanation  of  its  origin,  if  we 
are  incapable  of  producing  it  either  in  the  one  way  or  the  other  ; 
but  whoever  tells  us  that  the  present  crust  of  the  earth  was 
once  in  a  state  of  fusion,  and  that,  upon  cooling,  it  became  a  so- 
lid mass,  exhibits  an  event  which,  like  the  heroic  exploit  of 
a  Curtius  or  a  Clcelia,  should  be  received  only  upon  the  most 
indisputable  testimony.  Geological  theories  are,  therefore,  more 
exclusive  than  physical ;  hence  a  reason  why  geologists  have  al- 
ways been  more  at  variance  than  natural  philosophers. 

It  is  therefore  the  duty  of  the  geologist  to  proceed  cautious- 
ly with  his  conclusions.  In  return  for  that  he  is  sufficiently  in- 
demnified by  the  nature  of  his  study,  which  bears  in  the  most 
distinguished  manner  the  peculiar  character  of  all  physical 
science. 


502       071  Female  Pheasants  assuming  the  Male  Plumage. 

Geology  obtains  its  materials  from  mineralogical  geography, 
whose'general  results  it  selects  and  combines,  in  the  same  manner 
as  state  policy  does  with  the  results  of  civil  geography.  The 
advancement  of  the  one,  therefore,  depends  on  the  progress  of  the 
other ;  and  although  it  may  be  advantageous  to  science,  from 
time  to  time,  to  exhibit  a  correct  view  of  its  progressive  advance- 
ment, as  it  is  profitable  for  the  traveller  to  stop  sometimes  and  take 
a  retrospective  view  of  the  country  he  has  passed,  geology  has 
nevertheless  to  expect  improvement  principally  from  a  patient 
and  laborious  investigation  of  single  districts.  There  are  but 
few  who,  by  a  glance,  can  determine  general  relations  and  throw 
light  upon  science,  as  there  are  but  few  travellers  who  are  qua- 
lified to  give  any  instructive  information  concerning  the  social 
condition  of  a  country  :  On  the  contrary,  any  one  provided  with 
the  necessary  knowledge,  may,  by  an  accurate  and  detailed  exa- 
mination of  a  district,  contribute,  if  not  general  views,  facts  that 
serve  as  a  foundation  for  the  great  geological  edifice.  And,  any 
one  who  reflects  how  much  time  and  perseverance  are  necessary 
for  examining  the  geognostic  character  of  even  a  limited  district, 
especially  if  its  interior  is  not  laid  open  by  mines  and  natural 
sections,  will  agree  with  us,  that  this  investigation,  like  that  of 
the  character  and  customs  of  a  people,  must  chiefly  be  the  work 
of  an  inhabitant. 


On  Female  Pheasants  assum^mg  the  Male  Plumage.     By  M. 
Isidore  Geoffroy  St  Hilaire. 

Jl  HE  AS  ANTS  somctimcs  occur  in  the  woods,  as  well  as  in  a  state 
of  domestication,  which,  from  the  dulness  of  their  colours,  while 
at  the  same  time  they  possess  the  male  plumage,  were  long  con- 
sidered as  males  in  a  diseased  state,  or  with  their  feathers  soiled 
and  tarnished ;  but  it  has  been  ascertained  that  they  are  hen 
birds  with  the  plumage  of  males ;  and,  in  fact,  Vicq  d'Azyr 
and  Mauduit,  from  the  inspection  of  the  sexual  organs  in  such 
birds,  have  placed  this  curious  fact  beyond  the  reach  of  doubt. 
Mauduit,  in  his  account  of  it,  in  the  Encylopedie  Methodique, 

4 


On  Female  Pheasants  assumiiig  the  Male  Plumage.      30S 

has  confined  himself  to  the  change  of  phimage  solely,  adding  only 
the  fact  that  the  ovarium  was  extremely  small  in  all  such  birds  as 
had  been  dissected  by  himself  or  Vicq  d'Azyr ;  and  since  his 
time  no  person  has  paid  attention  to  the  interesting  physiological 
phenomenon  in  question,  which  has  only  been  barely  mentioned 
in  a  very  few  works  on  ornithology.  Having  lately  had  an  op- 
portunity of  observing  the  change  of  plumage  in  female  phea- 
sants to  a  greater  extent  than  has  hitherto  been  done,  I  consider 
my  observations  not  without  interest,  as  they  will  enable  me  to 
shew  that  the  transition  in  question,  which  Mauduit  only  saw 
produced  in  a  partial  manner,  may  be  effected  in  the  most  com- 
plete. 

My  observations  were  made  upon  females  of  the  Silver  Phea- 
sant (Phasianus  nycthemerus)^  the  Collared  Pheasant  (Ph.  tor- 
quatus),  and  the  Common  Pheasant  (Ph.  colchicus). 

Change  of  plumage  in  the  Commmi  Pheasant. — A  female 
pheasant  that  had  been  reared  in  the  phaisanderie  of  the  mu-. 
seum,  ceased  to  lay  at  the  age  of  five  years,  and  the  change  of 
plumage  began  to  become  apparent  about  the  same  period.  It 
manifested  itself  first  upon  the  belly,  which  assumed  a  more  yel- 
low tint,  and  upon  the  neck,  which  became  brighter  in  its  co- 
lours ;  and  soon  after  the  whole  body  participated  in  the  change. 
The  following  year  the  feathers  acquired  still  more  of  the  lustre 
and  brilliancy  of  those  of  the  male  ;  and  in  that  state  it  might 
with  propriety  be  said,  that  the  bird  in  question  was  like  a  male 
with  dull  and  tarnished  plumage.  In  the  third  year  after  the 
commencement  of  the  change,  it  became  almost  impossible  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  a  male,  the  resemblance  was  so  great,  although 
still  not  altogether  complete. 

Such  was  the  state  of  the  plumage  of  this  female  at  the  age 
of  eight  years  ;  it  ate  well,  and  enjoyed  good  health,  and  there 
was  every  reason  to  hope  that  next  season  would  see  it  clothed 
in  the  perfect  plumage  of  the  male,  but  an  unexpected  accident 
deprived  it  of  life. 

It  had  always  lived,  like  the  other  hen  pheasants,  with  the 
males,  but  ever  after  its  plumage  began  to  change,  it  became  an 
object  of  indifference  to  them ;  it  neither  sought  nor  avoided 


6S)4      On  Female  Pheasants  assuming  the  Male  Plumage. 

them  itself,  and  thus  became  like  one  of  themselves  both  in  ap- 
pearance and  manners. 

At  the  time  of  its  death  it  so  resembled  a  male,  that  people 
accustomed  to  see,  and  even  to  take  charge  of  pheasants,  were 
deceived  by  its  colours,  and  believed  it  to  be  a  male.  Never- 
theless the  plumage,  as  has  been  said,  was  not  complete. 

Change  of  Plumage  in  the  Silver  Pheasant. — A  female  of 
this  species  was  brought  up  in  company  with  a  male,  at  the 
country  seat  of  an  old  friend  of  my  family,  M.  Montand,  a  no- 
tary at  Paris  ;  but  in  its  old  age  it  was  given  to  the  museum. 
It  was  eight  or  ten  years  old  before  it  began  to  change  its  plu- 
mage. Another  remarkable  circumstance  is,  that  it  had  ceased 
to  lay,  three  or  four  years  before  the  change  began  to  become  ap- 
parent. In  the  other  pheasant,  on  the  contrary,  the  age  was 
only  five  years  when  the  change  commenced,  and  it  continued  to 
lay  up  to  this  period.  The  transition  to  the  male  colours  was 
first  announced  by  the  appearance  of  white  feathers  among  the 
regular  brownish  ones.  The  following  year  the  change  was  still 
more  decidedly  marked  ;  but  it  was  not  until  the  third  year  that 
it  could  truly  be  said  to  have  taken  place.  The  fourth  year 
the  resemblance  became  complete  ;  the  tail  and  the  crest  being 
even  elongated  as  much  as  they  are  seen  to  be  in  the  males,  and 
at  the  same  time  appearing  with  more  vivid  colours.  This  is  a 
circumstance  that  ought  to  be  taken  notice  of,  as  we  see  not  on- 
ly the  colour  of  the  feathers  changing,  but  also  their  natural 
proportions.  The  fifth  year  the  resemblance  was  complete,  and 
the  bird  represented  a  male  adorned  with  the  most  brilliant  li- 
very. 

The  male  was  still  living  at  the  period  when  the  change  be- 
gan to  make  its  appearance,  and  had  not  become  indifferent  to 
the  female,  no  doubt  because  she  was  his  only  companion  ;  but 
she,  on  the  contrary,  shunned  him,  appearing  sometimes  troubled 
at  his  presence.  However,  the  male  happening  to  die,  she  ap- 
peared to  become  dull  in  her  solitariness,  for  which  reason  she 
was  immediately  given  to  the  Museum,  where  she  was  kept  for 
some  time.  But  the  infirmities  of  age  announced  the  approach 
of  death,  and  from  a  desire  to  preserve  the  plumage  in  all  its 
beauty,  it  was  determined  to  kill  her,  before  it  should  fade.    At 


On  Female  Pheasants  assuming  the  Male  Plumage.      305 

the  time  of  her  death,  she  was  thirteen  or  fourteen  years  old, 
and  it  was  then  four  years  and  six  months  since  the  change  had 
commenced*  The  plumage  was  exactly  similar  to  that  of  the 
male  bird  in  its  best  state,  as  may  still  be  seen  in  the  specimen, 
which  is  deposited  in  the  Museum. 

The  sexual  organs  were  also  preserved  :  On  dissecting  them 
there  were  found,  beside  the  ovarium,  which  still  remained,  two 
small  bodies  which  appeared  to  be  vestiges  of  the  last  eggs  that 
had  escaped  from  the  ovarian  sac.  The  aduterum  (or  horns  of 
the  uterus)  was  very  distinct,  and  of  an  ovoidal  form.  The  pre- 
sence of  the  ovarium  is  an  important  fact,  from  the  observations 
on  this  subject  made  by  Vicq-d'Azyr  and  Manduit. 

The  feathers  shed  during  the  years  that  preceded  the  last 
moult,  have  also  been  preserved  through  the  care  of  the  first 
possessors  of  the  bird ;  and  it  is  to  this  circumstance,  as  well  as 
the  accounts  with  which  they  have  obligingly  furnished  me,  that 
I  owe  the  knowledge  of  a  great  part  of  the  details  which  I  have 
given. 

Change  of  Plumage  in  the  Collared  Pheasant — The  female 
of  the  collared  pheasant  of  which  we  have  here  to  speak,  was 
brought  up,  like  the  preceding,  near  Paris,  by  a  private  person, 
and  it  was,  like  it,  also  given  to  the  museum  in  its  old  age.  The 
accounts  furnished  by  the  giver  make  it  appear  that  it  had  laid 
several  times  while  in  his  possession.  However,  as  the  change 
of  the  plumage  was  at  the  time'  of  its  delivery  much  advanced, 
and  as  it  then  presented  more  of  the  external  appearance  of 
a  male  than  of  a  female,  it  was  thought  expedient,  when  its 
death  took  place  some  time  after,  to  determine  its  true  sex  by 
the  dissection  of  the  genital  organs. 

The  colours  were  in  fact  very  like  those  of  a  male,  as  may  still 
be  seen  in  the  galleries  of  the  Museum,  where  its  spoil  is  depo- 
sited. However,  the  upper  coverts  of  the  tail  and  wings  were 
red,  like  the  rest  of  the  body,  the  collar  less  marked,  and  the 
belly  much  blacker  than  the  male,  so  that  it  was  still  far  from 
having  that  complete  and  perfect  resemblance  of  which  we  gave 
an  example  in  the  silver  pheasant.  Nor  would  we  have  spoken 
here  of  this  female,  which  besides  we  did  not  see  alive,  and  whose 

JULr OCTOBER  1826.  U 


806       0)1  Female  Pheasants  assum'mg  the  Male  Plumage. 

development  we  cannot  therefore  follow,  liad  it  not  presented  a 
great  degree  of  interest  under  another  point  of  view.  The  spur, 
a  part  peculiar  to  the  malej  was  present  in  it,  and  was  even  near- 
ly as  large  as  it  usually  is  in  ordinary  males. 

We  therefore  see  that  the  spur  itself  is  not  so  much  the  ex- 
clusive property  of  the  males  in  pheasants,  that  it  may  not 
equally  exist  in  certain  females,  and  thus,  a  hen-pheasant  may 
not  only  become  invested  with  the  precise  plumage  of  the  male, 
in  a  certain  period  of  time,  but  it  may  even  assume  all  its  other 
external  characters,  the  narrowness  of  the  red  membrane  sur- 
rounding the  eye  remaining  the  only  indication  of  its  true  sex. 

General  RemarJcs.-^lt  is  not  a  very  uncommon  thing  to  see 
the  spur  anomalously  developed  in  females  of  species,  the  males 
of  which  are  furnished  with  that  organ,  and  particularly  in  the 
common  domestic  fowl ;  but  in  this  case,  besides  being  commonly 
of  smaller  size  than  in  the  male,  it  almost  constantly  bears  the 
character  of  an  anomalous,  and,  as  it  were,  diseased  organ.  Thus, 
the  two  spurs  in  hens  are  commonly  very  unequal  in  size  ;  and 
it  even  sometimes  happens,  that,  while  one  leg  has  a  spur,  the 
other  has  none.  Hence  it  happens,  that  the  sole  inspection  of 
the  spur  in  a  female  resembling  the  male  in  possessing  that 
organ,  may  of  itself  lead  to  a  knowledge  of  its  true  sex,  with- 
out having  reference  to  any  other  character. 

The  pheasant  being  reduced  to  a  state  of  domesticity,  like  the 
common  fowl,  and  approaching  it  closely  in  its  organization,  it 
were  easy  to  foresee  that  it  would  turn  out  the  same  in  this  re- 
spect; and  of  the  accuracy  of  this  analogical  conjecture,  we 
have  seen  a  proof  in  the  collared  pheasant.  Its  spurs  differ  in 
form  from  those  of  the  male ;  the  left  is  much  larger  than  the 
other,  but  it  is  slender,  and,  as  it  were,  embossed  over  its  whole 
surface. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  the  possibility  of  a  complete  change  taking 
place  in  the  plumage  of  one  species,  an  important  fact  not 
hitherto  observed  by  any  ornithologist,  being  perfectly  establish- 
ed, ought  we  to  conclude  that  it  is  equally  possible  in  other  spe- 
cies, whether  of  the  genus  phasianus,  or  of  any  other  ?  In  my 
opinion,  it  would  be  using  a  very  unnecessary  reserve,  not  to 
admit  this  possibility  with  regard  to  the  species  of  the  same 
genus,  in  which  the  change  in  question  has  been  seen  to  be  pro- 


On  Female  Pheasants  assuming  the  Male  Plumage.     307 

duced  entirely,  or  even  only  partially,  such  as  the  common  phea- 
sant, the  collared  pheasant,  and  the  golden  pheasant.  Taking 
analog}?^  for  our  guide,  we  might  even  be  tempted  to  give  a  much 
greater  degree  of  generality  to  these  conclusions  ;  and  there  are 
in  reality  several  facts  that  seem  to  favour  such  an  opinion. 
Thus,  several  travellers  have  made  recitals  which  can  only  be 
properly  explained,  upon  the  supposition  that  they  have  spoken 
of  females  with  male  plumage.  M.  Dufresne,  who  has  charge 
of  the  zoological  laboratory  of  the  museum,  assures  me,  that  the 
females  of  the  cotinga  become  similar  to  their  males  as  they 
grow  old,  M.  Florent  Prevost  has  seen  the  change  of  plumage 
begin  in  several  female  chaffinches ;  and  the  same  observation 
has  also  been  made  with  regard  to  the  female  of  the  rouge- 
queue,  and  of  that  of  our  starling.  Lastly ^  I  might  remark, 
that  similar  facts  are  observed  even  in  animals  of  very  different 
organization,  and  in  the  human  species  itself.  Thus,  in  many 
women,  after  the  cessation  of  the  menses,  the  chin  and  upper 
lips  become  furnished  with  a  true  beard,  a  phenomenon,  the  re- 
lation of  which,  with  the  development  of  the  plumage  of  our  hen 
pheasant,  cannot  be  denied. 

It  would,  however,  be  wrong,  notwithstanding  these  remark- 
able analogies,  to  make  a  general  fact  of  this  phenomenon ;  for 
there  are  species  of  birds  in  which  it  would  appear  never  to  be 
observed.  Thus,  although  a  great  number  of  peacocks  are  kept 
in  the  menagerie  of  the  museum,  where  they  are  always  allowed 
to  die  a  natural  death,  and  where  many  females  must  conse- 
quently have  died  of  old  age,  no  such  change  has  ever  been  ob- 
served, as  that  which  I  have  related  to  have  taken  place,  more 
or  less,  completely  in  three  individuals  of  different  species  of 
pheasant,  and  which  has  been  also  seen  in  many  others.  It  is  to 
be  observed  that  the  peacock,  although  thus  differing  from  the 
pheasant  in  this  respect,  is  not  only  of  the  same  order  with  it, 
but  also  of  a  genus  very  closely  allied,  which  renders  the  case 
more  striking. 

We  remark  further,  that  the  young  male  pheasant,  and  the 
female  pheasant,  when  she  begins  to  grow  old,  are  both  in  a 
similar  condition  with  respect  to  the  point  in  question.  Both 
have  the  same  plumage ;  both  will  at  length  complete  the 
change  ;  and   it  were  natural  to  think  that  it  wjli-*  be  brought 

u  u  2 


308       On  Female  Pheasants  assuming  the  Male  Plumage. 

about  in  the  same  manner,  with  the  sole  difference  of  a  greater 
celerity  in  the  one  case  than  in  the  other,  so  that  the  young  male 
will  make  the  same  progress  in  a  certain  number  of  months,  that 
the  female  requires  a  certain  number  of  years  to  accomplish. 
This,  however,  is  not  the  case ;  and  it  will  be  sufficient  to  com- 
pare the  descriptions  of  young  males  given  by  ornithologists, 
■with  the  details  which  I  have  presented  with  regard  to  old 
females,  to  perceive  that  in  either  case  the  change  is  brought 
about  in  a  different  manner;  and,  in  fact,  it  can  never  be 
said  of  an  old  female  pheasant  in  which  the  change  has  com- 
menced, that  it  has  the  plumage  of  a  young  male  pheasant  of 
any  particular  age.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  observations  of  Man- 
dius  has  already  demonstrated,  that  female  pheasants,  when 
they  grow  old,  resemble  males, — that  the  change  of  the  plumage 
is  produced  in  a  gradual  manner,  advancing  more  and  more  as 
the  animal  grows  older, — and  that  the  ovary  diminishes  in  size, 
and  even  disappears,  in  several  of  these  females  with  male  plu- 
mage. It  might  be  presumed,  that  those  in  which  the  ovary 
had  disappeared,  were  those  in  which  the  change  is  most  com- 
plete ;  but  this  is  not  the  case,  since  that  organ  is  not  found  in 
females  which  resembled  males  but  incompletely,  while  I  found 
it  existing  in  one  in  which  the  resemblance  was  perfect. 

To  these  results,  the  observations  which  I  have  related,  add 
the  following  facts :  that  the  change  of  plumage  commences 
much  sooner  in  some  females  than  in  others  ;  that  it  may  only 
shew  itself  several  years  after  the  bird  has  ceased  to  lay,  al- 
though it  must  depend,  more  or  less  directly,  upon  this  pheno- 
menon, with  which  it  may  also  coincide  as  to  time ;  that  it  is 
commonly  in  the  fourth  year  that  the  change  is  complete ;  that 
then  the  female  has  not  only  the  colours,  but  also  the  brilliancy, 
of  the  male,  which  it  resembles  even  in  the  ornamental  appen- 
dages of  its  plumage ;  that  it  may  even  acquire  spurs  like  the 
male  ;  that  the  transition  from  the  dull  colours  to  the  glowing 
tints  of  the  adult  male,  is  effected  in  a  very  different  manner  in 
the  young  male,  and  in  the  adult  female,  although  ultimately 
the  result  is  the  same ;  lastly/,  that  the  change  of  plumage  of 
old  females  is  not  absolutely  a  general  fact,  and  that  it  is  not 
even  certain,  because  it  has  been  observed  in  one  genus  of  a 
family ;  that  it  occurs  in  the  other  genera  of  the  same  family. 


On  Female  Pheasants  assuming  the  Male  Plumage,      309 

although,  on  the  other  hand,  several  groups  separated,  at  great 
distances  from  each  other,  appear  to  present  examples  of  this  re- 
markable phenomenon. 

Note  by  the  Editor. 

The  interesting  fact  of  female  birds  assuming  the  plumage  of  the-  male, 
was,  in  modern  times,  first  attended  to  by  the  celebrated  J.  Hunter,  who,  in 
a  memoir  on  this  subject  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  of  London,  de- 
scribes a  hen  pheasant  and  pea-hen  which  had  in  old  age  assumed  the  male 
plumage.     Mr  G.  St  Hilaire  in  the  preceding  memoir  says,  that  of  the  many 
pea-hens  in  the  menagerie  in  Paris,  no  instance  occurred  of  the  pea-hen  as- 
suming the  male  plumage,— -a  fact  which  shews  such  a  change  is  rarely  met 
with  in  the  peacock.     In  the  Museum  of  this  University  there  is  a  fine  spe- 
cimen of  the  jo^a-^^n  with  the  male  plumage;  presented  to  the  Museum  by 
the  Duchess  of  Buccleuch.     In  the  note  accompanying  the  gift  it  is  said  the 
change  was  effected  during  the  course  of  a  few  years.     The  following  descrip- 
tion will  convey  an  idea  of  the  degree  of  change  experienced  in  this  indivi- 
dual : — The  head  and  neck  have  assumed  the  same  green  and  blue  tints  which 
characterise  the  male,  the  breast  and  belly  also  have  the  same  deep  colour. 
As  in  the  male,  the  primaries  are  pale  brown,  and  a  patch  upon  the  wing 
bright  green.    The  dorsal  feathers,  however,  are  still  more  or  less  mottled 
with  grey;  and  the  green  which  they  have  partially  assumed  is  lighter  than 
in  the  male,  and  not  blended  with  the  coppery  hue  which  in  his  plumage  ex- 
tends from  the  middle  of  the  back  to  the  rump.     The  rump  feathers  are 
elongated,  some  of  them  the  length  of  18  inches,  but  the  train  formed  by 
them  is  scanty,  and  the  ocellar  spots  are  neither  so  large  nor  so  varied  as  in 
the  male.     The  ordinary  tubercles  on  the  tarsi  of  the  female  have  been  deve- 
loped into  thick  regular  conical  spurs,  about  half  the  length  of  those  of  the 
male.    In  short,  the  change  is  so  much  advanced,  that  after  another  moult  it 
would  probably  have  been  complete. 

In  the  Museum  «f  the  University  there  is  a  specimen  of  the  female  phea' 
sant  with  the  male  plumage,  presented  some  years  ago  by  Dr  Hope.  The 
only  differences  which  the  plumage  of  this  individual  exhibits,  when  con- 
trasted with  the  male  bird,  are  the  following :  \st.  The  tail  feathers  are 
shorter  than  those  of  an  adult  male,  although  considerably  longer  than  those 
of  an  ordinary  female ;  2d^  The  lustre  of  the  colours  in  general  is  not  quite 
so  vivid  as  in  the  male,  especially  on  the  back  of  the  wings.  There  is  no  ap- 
pearance of  spurs. 

Sometimes  the  same  sort  of  apparent  change  of  sex  is  observed  among  do- 
mestic  poultry.  Mr  Neill  at  Canonmills  had  a  black  hen,  of  what  is  called 
the  French  breed,  which,  in  her  twelfth  year,  ceased  to  lay  eggs,  and  gradu- 
ally assumed  somewhat  the  appearance,  and  to  a  considerable  degree  the  man- 
ners, of  the  cock.    The  principal  change  of  plumage  consisted  in  the  tuft  on 


310       On  Female  Pheasants  assuming  the  Male  Plumage. 

the  head  becoming  thinner,  and  shewing  some  upright  stray  feathers,  and  in 
a  single  elongated  feather  projecting  from  the  tail.  The  spurs  were  larger 
than  usual  in  hens,  but  these  had  probably  been  increasing  for  some  years. 
The  change  of  manner  of  the  bird  was  quite  remarkable ;  she  strutted  about 
in  an  overbearing  way,  with  a  firm  pace,  and  raised  tail.  She  formed  a  party 
among  the  fowls,  which  she  led  separate  from  the  cock  ;  and  she  roosted  apart 
from  him.  She  became  very  voracious ;  and  when  food  was  set  down,  (losing 
all  resemblance,  in  this  instance,  to  the  generous  male),  she  beat  oiF  the  other 
hens  :  when,  in  these  cases,  she  came  in  contact  with  the  cock,  she  stared  at 
him,  but  without  making  any  attack.  She  soon  became  very  fat,  and  died 
within  a  few  months,  seemingly  of  over  fatness.  Her  cry  was  altered,  but 
had  little  resemblance  to  the  crowing  of  the  cock  ;  less,  indeed,  than  is  some- 
times noticed  in  young  hens. 

In  a  valuable  paper,  by  Dr  Butter  of  Plymouth,  in  the  third  volume  of 
the  Memoirs  of  the  Wernerian  Society,  there  are  many  interesting  facts  on 
this  subject,  and  from  which  we  extract  the  following  table : 


Table  of  stick  hirds  as  have,  in  advanced  life,  assumed  the  plumage  of  the  mule,  with 
the  names  of  those  authors  who  have  noticed  the  fact. 

Ohd.  4 — Galling. — Domestic  Birds, 

Gen.  1.  Pavo,  Pea-hen,  Hunter. 

2.  Meleagris,  Turkey,  Bechstein, 

3.  Phasianus  colchicus.  Pheasant,  common,        -        -        -        Hunter. 

pictus,  golden,  -        -  Blumenbach, 

,  gallus,  Fowl,  domestic,      Aristotle,  Tinker,  Butter. 

4.  Tetrao  Perdix,  Partridge, Montagu, 

5.  Columba,  Pigeon,         ------  Tiedemann, 

Ord.  5 — Grall^ — Waders. 

2d  Family,  Prepirostres,  Gen.  1.  Otis,  Bustard,        -        -  Tiedemann. 

3d  . Cultrirostres,  3d  Tribe,  Gen.  4.  Platalea,  Pelican 

of  America, Cateshy. 

Ord.  C— Pal mipeda —  Web-fco'ed, 

4th  Family,  Lamellirostres,  soft  skin  on  the  beak. 

Gen.  1.  Anas,  Duck,  (Common  and  Wild),     -        -  -        Tiedemann. 


(  sn   ) 

1.  Caventou  on  the  Chemical  Properties  of  Starch,  and  the 
various  Amylaceous  Substances  of  Commerce.  %  Ei^gel- 
HART  on  the  Colouring  Principle  of  the  Blood.  S.  On  Arsenic^ 
its  Oxides,  and  Sulphur ets ;  hy  M.  Guibourt.  4.  Pre- 
paration  of  Chloride  of  Lime.  5.  On  tJie  Detection  of  Ar- 
senic. 6,  On  Cqfeine.  7.  Analysis  of  the  Root  of  the  Bryonia 
alba.  8.  General  Treussart  on  the  Preparation  of  HydraU" 
lie  Cements.  9-  On  a  New  Method  of  Purifying  Crystals  ; 
by  M.  RoBiNET.  10.  Repetition  of  the  Comparison  of  the 
Rate  of  the  Mercurial  and  Spirit  Thermometer. 


1.  Caventou  on  the  Chemical  Properties  of  Starch,  and  the 
various  Amylaceous  Substances  found  in  Commerce. 

xN  order  to  determine  the  relative  nature  of  the  different  kinds 
of  amylaceous  substances,  such  as  Salep,  Sago,  Tapioca,  and 
Arrow-root,  M.  Caventou  found  it  necessary  to  revise  the  chemi- 
cal examination  of  pure  fecula  or  starch ;  and  the  result  is,  that, 
besides  adding  some  interesting  facts  on  the  chemical  properties 
of  that  principle,  he  has  been  able  to  account  satisfactorily  for  the 
differences  which  it  exhibits  in  its  various  natural  states. 

Chemists,  he  says,  have  too  generally  considered  the  action  of 
warm-water  on  starch  as  one  of  simple  solution  or  gelatinization, 
although  they  are  perfectly  aware  that  its  properties  are  mate- 
rially changed.  In  its  unmodified  state,  it  is  insoluble  in  cold 
water;  but  water  at  a  temperature  between  140°  and  160°  Fahr. 
converts  it  into  a  transparent  gelatinous  mass,  which  is  common- 
ly regarded  as  a  hydrate  of  fecula.  It  is  essentially  different 
from  the  true  hydrates,  however,  because  its  former  properties 
cannot  be  restored  by  the  abstraction  of  the  water ;  and  in  par- 
ticular, it  is  rendered  more  or  less  soluble  in  that  fluid,  and  can- 
not in  any  way  recover  its  insolubility.  This  change  is  the 
effect  of  heat ;  for  it  may  be  equally  brought  about  by  expo- 
sing dry  starch  to  heat ;  but  in  that  case  a  higher  tempera- 
ture is  required,  namely,  a  Httle  above  212°,  or  under  the  point 
at  which  decomposition  takes  place.  It  then  acquires  a  red* 
dish  colour,  smells  like  baked  bread,  and  forms  with  cold  water 
a  paste  just  like  that  procured  at  once  in  the  humid  way,  by 


312       Caventou  on  the  CJiemical  Properties  of  Starch. 

the  action  of  hot  water.  In  paste,  therefore,  the  fecula  is  not 
merely  hydrated,  but  is  essentially  modified.  In  this  state,  it 
still  possesses  the  characteristic  and  well  known  property  of 
forming  a  blue  compound  with  iodine.  It  seems  to  be  quite  the 
same  as  the  amidine  of  M.  de  Saussure  ;  w^ho  imagined,  how- 
ever, that  the  principle  he  procured  was  the  result  of  putrefac- 
tion. It  was  not,  according  to  Caventou,  the  result  of  putrefac- 
tion, but  was  formed  in  consequence  of  the  action  of  hot  water 
on  the  undeccmposed  part  of  the  fecula. 

When  amidine  is  boiled  long  in  water,  it  loses  its  property  of 
striking  a  blue  colour  with  iodine,  causes  a  purple  tint  instead, 
and  has  become  much  more  soluble.  The  same  change  of  pro- 
perties may  be  effected  by  mere  heat,  namely  by  a  higher  de- 
gree of  torrefaction  than  that  required  to  form  amidine ;  or  it 
may  likewise  be  very  readily  effected  by  boiling  starch  in  water 
acidulated  with  a  twelfth  part  of  sulphuric  acid.  In  this  state, 
it  has  not  so  great  an  affinity  for  iodine,  as  in  the  state  of  ami- 
dine ;  for  if  a  little  paste  be  mixed  with  the  purple  compound, 
the  colour  becomes  immediately  bhie. 

When  starch  or  amidine  is  boiled  still  longer,  it  becomes  still 
more  soluble ;  and  iodine  does  not  cause  any  change  of  colour  on 
it  at  all.  Most  of  these  facts,  particularly  the  property  pos- 
sessed by  heat,  of  rendering  dry  fecula  soluble,  more  or  less,  in 
cold  water,  have  been  familiar  to  chemists  since  the  researches 
of  Vauquelin  and  Bouillon-la-Grange ;  but  the  merit  of  ta- 
king a  connected  view  of  the  whole  changes  induced  by  heat 
and  water,  and  of  associating  those  caused  by  heat  alone  with 
those  caused  by  boiling  water,  seems  to  belong  to  Caventou. 
He  might  have  stated  more  distinctly,  however,  than  he  has 
done,  where  our  former  knowledge  ended,  and  his  discoveries 
begin. 

Of  the  substances  in  commerce  usually  considered  as  amylace- 
ous, Salep,  according  to  the  analysis  of  Caveqtou,  ought  not  to 
be  accounted  such.  It  yields  a  considerable  quantity  of  matter 
to  cold  water  ;  and  the  properties  of  this  portion,  both  when  dis- 
solved and  when  dried  by  evaporation,  are  almost  precisely  the 
same  with  those  of  gum.  The  residue,  after  the  action  of  cold 
water,  is  a  tremulous,  jelly-like  mass,  which,  when  treated  with 
boiling  water,  enlarges  in  volume,  but  imparts  only  a  small  quan- 


Caventou  ofi  the  Chemical  Properties  of  Starch.      313 

tlty  of  matter  to  the  water.  This  solution  is  turned  blue  on  the 
addition  of  iodine,  and  in  a  few  hours  the  ioduret  of  fecula  falls 
down.  Hence,  salep  contamsjecula,  but  only  in  very  minute  pro- 
portion. The  jelly-like  mass,  remaining  after  the  action  of  boil- 
ing water,  is  of  course  insoluble  in  that  fluid  under  any  circum- 
stances; it  is  very  soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid,  and  yields  ox- 
alic acid  when  treated  with  nitric  acid.  It  is  therefore  the  princi- 
ple discovered  by  Bucholz,  and  known  by  the  name  of  Bassorine. 
This  analysis  shews  that  salep  is  not  an  amylaceous  matter,  but 
is  closely  allied  to  gum  tragacanth,  which,  according  to  Bucholz, 
consists  almost  entirely  of  gum  and  bassorine. 

Sag-o  when  treated  with  successive  portions  of  cold  water,  and 
then  with  boiling  water,  is  almost  entirely  dissolved,  and  appears 
therefore  to  be  homogeneous.  Cold  water  takes  up  a  large 
quantity  of  it,  and  forms  a  transparent  mucilaginous  fluid,  which 
becomes  intensely  blue  on  the  addition  of  iodine.  As  fecula,  in 
its  characteristic  state,  is  insoluble  in  water,  and  as  no  other  sub- 
stance strikes  a  blue  colour  with  iodine,  Caventou  infers,  that  sago 
is  modified  fecula,  the  modification  consisting  in  the  amylaceous 
substance,  (which,  according  to  the  process  followed  in  the  West 
Indies  for  procuring  it,  must  be  insoluble  in  water,  and  therefore 
true  fecula),  being  converted  by  drying  or  roasting  into  amidine. 

Tapioca  when  treated  with  cold  water,  rapidly  yields  a  por- 
tion to  it,  and,  after  several  successive  macerations,  it  is  entirely 
dissolved,  without  the  aid  of  heat.  All  these  fluids  of  macera- 
tion strike  a  strong  blue  colour  with  iodine.  Tapioca,  therefore, 
is  closely  aUied  in  nature  to  sago,  and,  like  it,  is  fecula  modified 
by  roasting,  or  amidine. 

Arrow-root  must  be  dried  without  heat ;  for,  like  the  fecula  of 
wheat  and  the  potato,  it  is  insoluble  in  cold  water,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  mere  trace  of  gummy  matter,  which  it  parts  with  ; 
and  it  forms  a  paste  when  heated  in  water  to  near  the  boiling 
point. 

Several  remarks  are  added  to  this  paper  of  Caventou,  on  the 
opinions  of  another  French  experimenter,  M.  Raspail ;  who  be- 
lieves he  has  discovered,  by  microscopical  observations,  that  the 
grains  of  fecula  are  composed  of  a  membranous  cyst  filled  with 
gum.  Caventou  considers  this  notion  to  be  visionary. — Annales 
de  Chimie  et  de  Physique,  Avril  1826. 


314  Engelhart  on  the 

%  On  the  colouring  principle  of  the  Blood. 

In  1825,  the  medical  faculty  of  Gottingen  decided  their 
prize-question  on  the  Nature  of  the  Colouring  Principle  of  the 
Blood,  in  favour  of  the  thesis  of  Dr  Frederick  Engelhart.  His 
experiments  are  very  interesting,  and  estabhsh  satisfactorily 
some  disputed  points  with  regard  to  the  composition  of  the  blood; 
but  we  cannot  go  altogether  along  with  him  in  considering  that 
he  has  determined  the  colouring  principle  to  consist  of  a  com- 
pound of  iron. 

Two  doctrines  prevail  at  present  among  chemists  and  physi- 
ologists as  to  the  cause  of  the  colour  of  the  blood.  The  oldest 
opinion  is  that  it  depends  on  iron  ;  and  this  opinion  is  believed  to 
derive  support  particularly  from  the  late  analytic  inquiries  of 
Berzelius,  who  found  a  notable  quantity  of  iron  in  the  co- 
louring particles,  namely  about  0.5  per  cent.  Others  main- 
tain the  doctrine  first  proposed  by  Dr  Wells,  that  the  colour 
is  owing  to  a  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  animal  principles,  in- 
dependently of  the  presence  of  iron  ;  and  their  opinion  receives 
confirmation  from  the  unsuccessful  attempts  of  Vauquelin  and 
Brande  to  detect  iron  in  the  quantity  in  which  it  is  represented 
by  Berzelius  to  exist. 

These  contradictory  statements  and  ideas  being  held  in  view, 
Dr  Engelhart  proceeded  to  ascertain,  in  the  first  place,  the  cha- 
racters of  the  pure  colouring  matter  of  the  blood,  and,  secondly, 
the  relation  which  the  three  great  principles  of  the  blood  bear  to 
one  another,  as  to  the  quantity  of  iron  they  contain.  1.  A  preli- 
minary object  of  investigation  under  the  first  head,  was  to  separate 
the  colouring  matter  in  a  state  of  purity.  This  he  succeeded 
in  doing  by  a  new  and  very  simple  process  ;  but,  although  the 
colouring  particles  certainly  appear  to  be  procured  by  his  me- 
thod in  a  state  of  perfect  purity,  it  is  equally  certain  that  this 
object  is  not  gained  without  some  change  being  wrought  upon 
their  properties.  He  first  separated  them  by  the  method  of 
Berzehus,  in  which  state,  however,  they  are  still  mixed  with  a 
little  serum.  Having  found  that  serum  when  much  diluted  is 
not  coagulated  by  heat,  while,  as  Berzelius  formerly  showed, 
the  colouring  particles  are  coagulated  even  in  a  very  diluted  so- 
lution, he  dissolved  the  impure  particles  in  about  fifty  parts  of 
water,  and  then  raised  the  temperature  a  little  above  150°  F. 


Colouring  Pttnciple  of  the  Blood.  315 

Greyish-brown  flocculi  were  thus  separated;  and  a  muddy 
colourless  fluid  remained,  in  which  phosphoric  acid  and  corro- 
sive sublimate  demonstrated  the  presence  of  serum.  The  pre- 
cipitate, when  collected  on  a  filter  and  well  washed,  and  half 
dried,  recovers  its  red  colour,  particularly  when  viewed  by 
transmitted  light.  When  entirely  dry  it  appears  black,  but  when 
a  thin  slice  is  held  between  the  eye  and  the  light,  the  colour  is 
garnet  red.  In  this  state  it  is  hard,  not  easily  broken,  and  has 
a  shining  fracture.  It  consists  of  the  colouring  particles  in  a 
state  of  perfect  purity,  but  modified  by  heat. 

In  this  state,  the  colouring  matter  of  the  blood  is  insoluble  in 
hot  or  cold  water,  or  in  ether,  and  yields  only  a  little  fatty  matter 
to  alcohol.  Sulphuric,  hydrochloric  and  phosphatic  acids  dissolve 
a  part,  and  form  brownish-red  solutions ;  nitric  acid  also  dissolves 
a  part,  but  the  solution  is  muddy,  and  the  residue  is  likewise  al- 
tered in  colour ;  phosphoric  acid  has  no  effect  any  more  than  on 
the  colouring  matter  in  its  ordinary  impure  unmodified  condi- 
tion ;  acetic,  citric,  oxalic,  and  tartaric  acids  dissolve  a  little 
with  the  aid  of  heat.  The  alkalis,  with  the  aid  of  gentle  heat, 
dissolve  it  rapidly  and  completely,  and  form  deep  blood-red  solu- 
tions, which  yield  greyish  brown  flocculi  when  neutralized ;  the 
carbonated  alkalies  have  little  effect. 

The  colouring  particles,  when  not  modified  by  the  foregoing 
process,  but  simply  separated  from  the  serum  as  much  as  possi- 
ble by  Berzelius^s  method,  are  variously  acted  on  by  the  gases. 
Agitation  in  air  makes  them  scarlet-red ;  and  this  change  is  pro- 
duced even  after  arterial  blood  has  become  dark  by  standing  in 
repose,  nay,  even  also  after  it  has  begun  to  decay.     In  hydro- 
gen, carbonic  acid,  nitrogen,  nitrous  oxide,  olefiant,  or  sulphu- 
retted hydrogen  gas,  the  colour,  on  the  contrary,  becomes  dark- 
er, if  it  is  changed  at  all.     A  stream  of  nitric  oxide  transmitted 
through  a  diluted  solution  in  water,  makes  it  brown,  and  subse- 
quently causes  gelatinization.     Sulphuretted  hydrogen,  in  the 
same  way,  makes  it  olive-green ;  sulphurous  acid,  brown ;  and 
chlorine  first  makes  it  brown,  then  dirty  green,  next  grey,  and 
lastly  white ;  and  a  flocculent  colourless  precipitate  falls  down, 
leaving  a  colourless  fluid. 

2.  These  observations  conclude  the  iSrst  part  of  the  inquiry. 
The  next  part  relates  to  the  presence  of  iron  in  the  colouring 


316  Engelhart  (yii  the 

matter  and  other  principles.  If,  as  Berzelius  says,  iron  exists 
in  the  colouring  particles  in  notable  quantity,  and  not  any  where 
else,  Dr  Engelhart  conceives  the  presumption  to  be,  that  it  is  the 
foundation  of  the  red  colour  of  the  blood.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
as  Brande  and  Vauquehn  insist,  there  is  much  less  iron  in  the 
colouring  particles  than  Berzelius  maintains,  and  not  more  than 
in  thefihrine  and  serum,  the  colour  cannot  be  owing  to  the  pre- 
sence of  that  metal. 

The  pure  modified  colouring  matter,  when  charred  in  a  cru- 
cible, had  a  metallic  lustre,  and  was  attracted  by  the  magnet ; 
and  when  the  charred  matter  was  incinerated,  it  acquired  a  yel- 
low colour,  was  almost  entirely  soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid, 
and  then  exhibited,  with  the  ordinary  re-agents,  all  the  characters 
of  the  hydrochlorate  of  iron. 

The  pure  serum  and  fibrine,  when  dried  and  charred,  had 
not  a  metallic  lustre,  and  were  not  attracted  by  the  magnet ; 
and,  when  incinerated,  gave  a  white  powder,  which,  although 
soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid,  evidently  did  not  contain  a  trace  of 
iron.  The  only  kind  of  blood  which  can  be  used  for  these  ex- 
periments is  human  blood,  or  that  of  the  horse ;  the  blood  of 
the  sow,  sheep,  ox,  or  turkey,  does  not  yield  a  serum  free  from 
colouring  particles.  If  care  be  taken  to  avoid  that  fallacy, 
therefore,  it  is  found  that  iron  exists  in  the  colouring  particles 
only. 

Chemists  have  hitherto  succeeded  in  detecting  iron  in  the 
blood,  only  by  the  process  of  incineration.  But  Dr  Engelhart 
has  at  length  discovered  a  method  of  separating  it  in  the  humid 
way  ;  and  the  result  of  his  analysis  gives  the  same  proportion 
as  that  formerly  determined  by  Berzelius.  His'  method  is,  by 
transmitting  a  stream  of  chlorine  through  a  solution  of  the  un- 
modified particles,  or  through  water  containing  the  purer  modi- 
fied colouring  matter  in  suspension.  It  has  been  already  stated, 
that,  in  this  way,  a  white  precipitate  and  colourless  fluid  are 
procured.  The  fluid  after  being  filtered  evidently  contains 
iron  in  the  state  of  a  peroxide  *.  Two  methods  were  em- 
ployed for  discovering  its  quantity.      In  one  process,  he  threw 

•  Care  was  taken  that  particles  of  iron  did  not  pass  over  with  the  chlorine, — 
supposing  even  that  that  was  possible. 


Colouring  Principle  of  the  Blood.  317 

down  the  oxide  with  ammonia,  redissolved  it  in  hydrochloric 
acid,  and  threw  it  down  again  with  carbonate  of  soda.  In  the 
other  process  he  first  threw  it  down  with  hydrosulphuret  of  po- 
tass, then  dissolved  it  in  nitric  acid,  and  threw  it  down  again 
with  carbonate  of  soda.  The  precipitate,  when  dried,  weighed, 
in  one  case,  xoVoo?  ^^^  ^^  the  other  loVoo  ^^  t^^e  pure  colour- 
ing matter  employed  ;  a  result  which  accords  very  nearly  with 
that  of  Berzelius. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  mention  that  serum  and  fibrine  treated 
in  the  same  way  did  not  yield  any  iron.  But  it  is  an  interest- 
ing fact,  which  the  author  thinks  will  apply  to  most  of  the  ani- 
mal fluids  and  soft  solids,  and  consequently  facihtate  ^their  ana- 
lysis, that  chlorine  separates  all  the  Jia,ed  principles  from  the  in- 
soluble animal  matter  which  it  throws  down ;  for  the  precipitate 
is  entirely  dissipated  by  incineration. 

The  paper  concludes  with  some  arguments  from  his  experi- 
ments, in  support  of  the  opinion,  that  the  colour  of  the  blood  is 
owing  to  iron.  The  amount  of  them  is,  that  iron  is  an  essential 
part  of  the  colouring  particles,  while  theother  principles,  the  serum 
and  fibrin,  which  are  colourless,  but  resemble  the  colouring 
particles  very  closely  in  other  respects,  contain  no  iron ;  and  that 
this  metal,  in  all  its  known  combinations,  is  coloured  when  oxida- 
ted, has  a  great  tendency  to  assume  tints  of  red,  and  in  some  com- 
pounds (such  as  the  sulpho-cyanate,  and  a  variety  of  silicious  ore) 
has  almost  exactly  the  colour  of  the  blood.  This  exposition 
may  constitute  a  presumptive  argument,  but  nothing  more. 
For,  in  the  first  place,  it  is  not  yet  proved  that  the  iron  in  the 
blood  is  oxidated,  still  less  that  it  exists  in  the  form  of  a  per- 
oxide, in  which  state  alone  it  imparts  a  red  tint  to  compounds 
into  whose  composition  it  enters ;  and,  secondly,  granting  that  it 
is  peroxidated,  there  is  no  analogous  fact  to  authorise  the  behef, 
that  so  minute  a  proportion  as  a  200th  part  of  oxide  of  iron  can 
give  to  a  compound  so  deep  a  tint  as  that  possessed  by  the 
blood. — Kastner'^s  Archiv  fiir  die  gesammte  Naturlehre,  De- 
cember 1825. 

8.  On  Arsenic,  its  Oxides,  and  Sulphurets,  by  M.  Guibourt. 

M.  Guibourt  of  Paris  has  lately  endeavoured  to  settle  some 
I      of  the  disputed  points  in  the  physical  and  chemical  history  of 


318  Guibourt  on  Arsenic, 

arsenic  and  its  compounds ;  and  has  succeeded  in  explaining  so 
far  some  of  the  anomalies  and  discrepancies  which  the  investiga- 
tions of  previous  experimenters  have  presented. 

According  to  Bergmann,  the  specific  gravity  of  metallic  arse- 
nic, when  melted,  is  8.308,  but  in  its  native  state  only  5.763.  M. 
Guibourt  found,  that  small  portions  of  the  latter  had  a  specific 
gravity  of  5.789 ;  but  larger  fragments,  in  consequence  of  the 
interstices  between  the  conglomerated  crystals,  did  not  exceed 
4.166.  He  failed  in  several  attempts  to  fuse  it  under  pressure, 
and  was  deterred  from  repeating  them  by  a  formidable  explosion. 
But  he  found  the  weight  of  several  fragments,  which  were  agglu- 
tinated by  heat,  to  be  5.959- 

The  oxide  of  arsenic,  though  it  has  been  examined  by  many 
able  chemists,  still  presents  some  obscurities  in  regard  both  to 
its  physical  and  its  chemical  properties.  Guibourt  has  found, 
that  the  discrepancies  among  former  experimenters  may  be  partly 
reconciled  by  a  difference  in  property  which  exists  between  the 
oxide  in  its  transparent,  fresh-prepared  state,  and  in  that  more 
common  opaque  form,  which  it  assumes  after  being  long  kept. 
Transparent  specimens,  he  finds,  have  a  specific  gravity  of 
3.7385 ;  the  opaque  varieties  are  somewhat  lighter,  being  3.695. 
He  has  never  been  able  to  observe  any  specimen  with  the  high 
specific  gravity  of  5.0  assigned  by  Bergmann.  His  results  agree 
with  those  of  our  countryman  Dr  Ure,  who  found  the  specific 
gravity  to  vary  from  3.728  to  3.730.  Very  opposite  statements 
have  been  made  with  respect  to  its  solubility.  The  most  accu- 
rate, however,  have  been  generally  considered  to  be  those  of 
Klaproth  ;  who  found  that  a  hundred  parts  of  water  dissolve  a 
quarter  of  a  part  at  a  mean  temperature,  7.77  parts  at  the  boil- 
ing temperature,  and  retain  3  of  these  on  cooling.  Guibourt  finds, 
that  the  transparent  oxide  is  less  soluble  than  the  opaque  va- 
riety. Of  the  former  100  parts  of  temperate  water  dissolve 
nearly  one  part ;  and  100  parts  of  boiling  water  take  up  9.68 
parts,  and  retain  If  on  cooling.  Of  the  opaque  variety  100 
parts  of  water  dissolve  IJ  at  a  mean  temperature,  11.47  at  the 
boihng  temperature,  and  retain  2.9  on  cooling.  Chemists  are 
as  little  agreed  regarding  the  effects  of  its  solutions  on  vegetable 
colour.  Guibourt  has  remarked,  that  the  transparent  variety 
reddens  litmus  faintly,  bat  that  the  opaque  variety  restores  its 


Us  Oxides  and  Sulphurets,  319 

colour  to  blue,  when  previously  reddened  by  an  acid*.  The  cause 
of  these  differences  has  not  been  examined  with  sufficient  care, 
and  Guibourt  leaves  it  unsettled.  He  says  it  takes  place  in 
consequence  of  the  contact  of  the  air ;  but  the  accuracy  of  this 
opinion  may  be  questioned.  He  has  remarked,  that  it  is  brought 
about  very  rapidly  by  treating  the  transparent  variety  with  am- 
monia ;  but  he  draws  no  conclusions  from  the  fact. 

As  to  the  compounds  of  sulphur  with  arsenic,  the  latest  mi- 
nute researches,  those  of  Berzelius  and  of  Laugier,  seemed  to 
show,  that,  contrary  to  the  opinion  of  Proust,  the  native  and  ar- 
tificial sulphurets  differ  in  no  essential  particular  from  one  ano- 
ther, and  that  none  of  them  contain  oxigen.  Whence  does  it 
happen,  then,  says  Guibourt,  that,  according  to  the  observations 
of  Hoffmann,  and  the  late  experiments  of  Renault,  the  native 
sulphurets,  orpiment  and  realgar,  as  well  as  the  sulphuret  pro- 
cured by  transmitting  sulphuretted  hydrogen  through  a  solu- 
tion of  oxide  of  arsenic,  are  not  poisonous,  while  the  sublimed 
orpiment,  and  even  the  artificial  realgar,  prepared  by  melting 
together  metallic  arsenic  and  an  excess  of  sulphur,  are  exceed- 
ingly deleterious  ?  It  depends,  he  says,  on  the  artificial  sulphu- 
rets always  containing  some  oxide  of  arsenic  intermingled.  The 
artificial  realgar  contains  14  per  cent. ;  the  artificial  orpiment  so 
much  as  40  per  cent.  This  last  fact  we  can  confirm  by  our  own 
experience ;  in  fact,  we  have  seen  fine  tetrahedral  pyramids  of 
the  oxide  on  the  inside  of  the  cakes  sometimes  sold  in  the  shops. 
M .  Guibourt  is  wrong,  however,  in  supposing  that  the  native  sul- 
phurets are  not  poisonous.  Renault,  it  is  true,  found  them 
to  be  much  inferior  to  the  oxide  and  other  soluble  compounds 
of  arsenic,  in  their  effects  on  the  animal  system.  But  instances 
are  to  be  found  in  the  Acta  Germanka,  of  poisoning  with  real- 
gar, and  M.  Pelletan  informed  him,  after  the  composition  of  his 
paper,  that  he  had  known  an  instance  of  poisoning  with  natural 
orpiment.  In  consequence  of  the  opinion  expressed  by  Guibourt, 
Professor  Orfila  has  related,  in  an  ulterior  number  of  the  Journal 
deChimie  Medicale,  some  experiments  he  has  made  expressly  with 
the  native  sulphurets,  and  with  that  procured  by  transmitting  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen  through  a  solution  of  the  oxide ;  and  it  ap- 

•  Our  experience  is  at  variance  with  that  of  the  author ;  a  solution  of  the 
opaque  oxide  faintly  reddens  litmus,  and  restores  reddened  litmus  very  imper- 
fectly. 


320  Preparation  of  Chloride  of  Lime. 

pears,thatallof  them,  when  introduced  into  the  stomach,  or  applied 
tp  wounds,  in  the  quantity  of  forty  or  sixty  grains,  kill  dogs  in 
two,  three,  or  six  days,  and  cause  the  same  symptoms  as  the 
oxide. — Journal  de  Chimie  Midicale,  Fevrier,  Mars  et  Avril 
1826. 

4.  Preparation  qf  Chloride  of  Lime. 
This  substance,  it  is  well  known,  was  recommended  not  long 
ago  by  M.  Labarraque,  a  pharmacien  of  Paris,  for  destroying 
the  odour  of  putrefying  animal  and  vegetable  matters,  and  the 
exhalations  in  apartments  crowded  with  the  sick ;  and  it  has 
been  found  to  answer  his  expectations  so  completely,  that  the 
French  Government  have  given  every  possible  publicity  to  the 
process,  and  have  advised  its  introduction  into  all  hospitals  and 
lazarettos.  The  mode  of  preparing  it  is  well  enough  known  to  che- 
mists; but  as  several  experimenters  have  not  procured  the  effects 
assigned  by  the  discoverer,  and  by  the  official  persons  appointed  to 
inquire  into  the  accuracy  of  his  statements,  and  as  for  this  and  other 
obvious  reasons,  it  is  a  preparation  liable  to  considerable  va- 
riety, M.  Labarraque  has  published  the  following  process  for 
making  it  of  uniform  strength  and  composition.  To  prepare 
the  dry  chloride  for  store,  he  recommends  that  a  twentieth  part 
of  muriate  of  soda  be  mixed  with  the  quicklime,  after  it  is  com- 
pletely slaked,  and  that  the  mixture  be  put  into  deep  earthen 
pots,  and  the  gas  transmitted  through  it  from  a  retort  contain- 
ing the  usual  ingredients,  in  the  proportion  of  576  parts  of  mu- 
riate of  soda,  and  448  of  oxide  of  manganese.  The  quantity  of 
acid  required  to  decompose  this  quantity  is  576  parts,  diluted 
with  448  of  water ;  and  the  acid  is  to  be  introduced  into  the  re- 
tort in  successive  portions,  by  means  of  the  double  bent  tube. 
To  prepare  the  solution,  which  may  be  more  convenient  for  hos- 
pitals and  other  places  where  it  is  used  daily,  he  recommends  a 
pound  and  a  half  of  slaked  lime  to  be  mixed  with  forty  pounds 
of  water,  containing  half  a  pound  of  muriate  of  soda  in  solution. 
The  tube  from  the  retort  is  to  be  plunged  nearly  to  the  bottom 
of  the  vessel  which  contains  the  milk  of  lime ;  and  the  mixture 
is  to  be  stirred  with  a  wooden  agitator  till  it  is  saturated.  In 
this  state  it  is  too  strong  for  use ;  and  may  be  diluted  according 
to  the  purpose  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied  *.     In  this  country 

•  Journal  de  Chimie  M^dicale,  Avril  1826. 


Detection  of  Aisenic.  5^1 

the  trouble  of  preparation  may  be  saved  by  those  who  can  pro- 
cure the  chloride  of  lime,  as  prepared  by  our  chemical  manufac- 
turers, particularly  by  Mr  Tennant  of  Glasgow,  who  has  suc- 
ceeded in  saturating  the  lime  completely,  so  as  to  form  a  true 
bi-chloride, 

5.  On  the  Detection  of  Arsenic. 

In  the  number  of  the  Edinburgh  Philosophical  Journal, 
vol.  xi.  p.  389,  we  gave  an  account  of  a  paper  by  Dr  Christison 
of  this  University,  showing  the  insufficiency  of  the  existing 
processes  for  detecting  small  quantities  of  arsenic  in  mixed  ani- 
mal and  vegetable  fluids,  and  pointing  out  a  new  method,  by 
which  so  small  a  quantity  as  a  quarter  of  a  grain  might  be  pro- 
cured in  its  metallic  state  from  the  most  complex  mixtures. 
The  second  volume  of  the  Medico- Chirurgical  Transactions  of 
Edinburgh,  published  a  few  months  ago,  contains  another  paper 
by  the  same  gentleman  on  the  chemical  and  symptomatological 
evidence  of  poisoning  with  arsenic ;  and  from  this  it  appears 
that  he  has  applied  the  proposed  process  to  two  medico-legal 
cases,  one  of  suicide,  the  other  of  murder  ;  that  he  was  success- 
ful in  both  instances ;  and  that  the  process  is  one  even  of  much 
greater  delicacy  than  was  alleged  in  his  original  paper  on  the 
subject.  In  one  case,  a  portion  of  the  contents  of  the  stomach, 
in  which  the  first  inspectors  had  failed  to  detect  the  poison,  was 
transmitted  by  order  of  the  authorities  from  a  distant  part  of 
the  country,  and  arsenic  was  discovered  to  the  amount  of  a  twen- 
tieth part  of  a  grain.  In  the  other  case,  which  Dr  Christison  him- 
self examined  soon  after  interment,  about  ajifteenth  part  of  a  grain 
was  detected  in  the  contents  and  texture  together  of  the  stomach. 

For  detecting  the  precise  nature  of  the  metallic  crust,  when 
its  quantity  is  too  minute  for  its  physical  characters  to  be  un- 
equivocally ascertained,  the  author  has  added  a  very  elegant 
test,  which  was  suggested  to  him  by  Dr  Turner,  lecturer  on 
chemistry  here.  It  consists  in  chasing  the  crust  up  and  down 
the  tube  by  heat  till  it  is  all  oxidated  ;  when  it  assumes  the  ap- 
pearance of  sparkling'  crystals^  which  may  he  ascertained^  by  a 
microscope  of  Jour  power  s^  to  be  octaedres.  His  process  now  con- 
sists, therefore,  in  presenting  the  same  portion  of  the  poison 

JULY — OCTOBER  1826.  X 


S22  On  the  detection  of  Arsenic. 

successively  in  the  form  of  sulphuret,  metal,  and  oxide ;  and 
he  discards  the  fluid  tests  for  liquid  mixtures  entirely,  except 
as  trial  tests.  Both  he  himself  and  Dr  Turner  have  satisfied 
themselves,  that  the  physical  characters  of  the  metal  and  oxide, 
when  successively  formed  in  a  small  tube  by  reduction  and  sub- 
sequent oxidation,  may  be  determined  accurately  with  a  hu7i- 
dredth  part  of  a  grain.  This  is  a  degree  of  delicacy  which, 
considering  that  decisive  evidence  is  required,  is  not  equalled 
even  by  the  hquid  tests. 

In  the  Annals  of  Philosophy  for  last  July,  Dr  Christison  has 
replied  to  some  comments  which  Mr  Phillips  had  made  not 
long  before  on  his  paper.  As  Mr  Phillips'  criticisms  referred 
only  to  a  defence  of  his  process  for  decolorizing  coloured  ar- 
senical fluids  by  animal  charcoal,  and  Dr  Christison  states,  in 
his  reply,  that  he  considers  the  necessity  of  that  process  to  be 
completely  superseded  by  the  equal,  if  not  superior  delicacy, 
and  universal  applicability,  of  his  own,  it  is  unnecessary  to  say 
any  thing  farther  of  the  dispute,  than  that  Mr  Phillips''  process 
certainly  appears  Uable  to  material  fallacies,  although  Dr  Chris- 
tison, from  misunderstanding  his  directions,  had  somewhat  ex- 
aggerated one  of  them. 

The  Journal  de  Pharmacie  for  last  April  likewise  contains 
some  comments  on  Dr  Christison's  paper  by  M.  Dublanc  of 
Paris.  It  is  evident  that  the  writer  has  wholly  misunderstood 
the  character  of  the  paper  he  criticises,  and  is  utterly  ignorant 
both  of  the  grounds  on  which  Dr  Christison  objects  to  the  pro- 
cesses of  Rose,  Rapp  and  Orfila,  and  of  the  circumstances  on 
which  is  founded  the  proof  of  the  delicacy  and  universal  appli- 
cability of  his  own.  Nor  indeed  is  this  to  be  wondered  at,  as 
M.  Dublanc  has  consulted,  not  the  original  paper,  but  some 
garbled  extract  in  a  German  Journal. 

6.  On  Cqfeine. 
In  1821,  M.  Robiquet  of  Paris  published  an  elaborate  analy- 
sis of  the  coffee-bean,  in  which  he  announced  the  existence  of  a 
new  vegetable  principle  of  a  crystalline  nature.  This  principle, 
which  was  denominated  Cqfeine,  has  been  since  examined  by  M. 
Pelletier,  and  M.  Garot.  Both  of  these  experimenters  have  con- 
firmed completely  the  researches  of  Robiquet,  regarding  the  cha- 


On  Cafeme.  323 

racters  of  the  principle,  and  the  method  of  preparing  it.  M . 
Garot,  however,  has  recommended  a  new  process  for  procuring 
it,  which  consists  in  exhausting  the  unburnt  bean,  by  successive 
infusions  in  boiling  water ;  throwing  down  a  quantity  of  colour- 
ing and  fatty  matter  from  the  filtered  infusions,  by  the  acetate  of 
lead  ;  removing  the  excess  of  lead  by  a  stream  of  sulphuretted 
hydrogen ;  saturating  the  free  acid  with  ammonia ;  and  evaporat- 
ing the  remaining  liquid  with  a  gentle  heat.  Long  silky  crys- 
tals are  thus  procured,  which  are  the  cafeme  in  a  state  of  impu- 
rity, and  which  may  be  got  quite  pure,  by  a  second  solution  and 
crystallisation.  The  researches  of  Pelletier  were  directed  chiefly 
to  determine  whether  this  principle  is  of  an  alkaline  nature ;  be- 
cause certain  circumstances  had  led  him  to  imagine,  that  its  dis- 
coverer was  mistaken  in  denying  to  it  alkaline  properties.  The 
result  has  been,  that  M.  Robiquef  s  views  are  substantiated ;  for 
cafeme  dissolves  in  acids  without  neutralising  them,  crystallises 
in  a  state  of  purity  from  the  diluted  acids,  and  does  not  affect  the 
vegetable  colours.  It  must  therefore  be  arranged  with  the  class 
of  principles,  of  which  Jiarcotme,  one  of  the  principles  of  opium, 
is  the  most  remarkable  and  best  known. 

The  most  interesting  fact  contained  in  the  researches  of  Pelle- 
tiei*  regards  the  composition  of  cafeme.  It  contains  the  largest 
quantity  of  azote  of  all  the  vegetable  principles  hitherto  ana- 
lysed ;  and  contains  more  than  even  any  animal  principle,  urea 
and  uric  acid  excepted.  It  is  composed  of  46.51  carbon,  27.14 
oxigen,  4.81  hydrogen,  and  21.54  azote.  Although  so  highly 
azotised,  it  is,  like  urea  and  uric  acid,  by  no  means  prone  to  pu- 
trefaction,— a  fact  which  accords  with  a  general  law  pointed  out 
by  Robiquet,  that  azotised  principles  of  the  organic  kingdoms, 
although,  in  general,  very  liable  to  decay,  are  not  so,  if  they  are 
crystallised. — Journal  de  Pharmacie,  Avril  1826. 

7.  Analysis  of  the  Root  of  the  Bryonia  alba. 
The  root  of  the  bryony  possesses  properties  in  relation  to  the 
animal  economy,  which  renders  it  an  object  of  some  interest  to 
the  chemist.  It  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  the  vegetable 
acrids, — of  that  order  of  poisons  whose  prominent  character  is  the 
power  of  producing  diffuse  inflammation,  to  whatever  tissue  they 
are  applied.     Accordingly,  it  has  been  examined  by  several  che- 

x2 


824  Analysis  of  the  Root  of  the  Bryonia  alba. 

mists,  namely,  by  Vauquelin,  Brandes,  and  Feirnhaber ;  but  the 
most  complete  analysis  hitherto  made,  is  one  by  M.  Dulong  of 
Astafort,  related  in  the  Journal  de  Pharmacie.  He  has  found 
it  to  consist  of  a  large  quantity  of  fecula,  a  small  quantity  of 
fatty  matter,  resin,  and  vegetable  albumen ;  some  gum,  a  consi- 
derable proportion  of  submalate  of  lime,  a  little  carbonate  of 
lime,  some  other  salts  in  minute  quantity,  and  a  bitter  matter, 
possessing  peculiar  chemical  properties,  and  endowed  with  all 
the  poisonous  qualities  of  the  root. 

This  bitter  principle  is  contained  in  the  juice,  so  that  the  fe- 
cula may  be  separated  from  it  entirely  by  the  usual  process. 
The  fecula,  when  properly  washed,  possesses  all  the  properties 
of  that  procured  from  the  different  kinds  of  grains  ;  and,  conse- 
quently, as  the  quantity  i^  large,  and  the  roots  are  of  enormous 
size,  compared  to  the  stem  (being  often  a  foot  long,  and  three  or 
four  inches  in  diameter),  M.  Dulong  thinks  that  the  extraction 
of  the  fecula  may  be  made  a  subject  of  profit,  at  least  in  years 
of  scarcity.  The  bitter  principle  is  solid,  soft,  and  a  little  vis- 
cous, ""excessively  bitter,  soluble  in  water  and  in  alcohol,  but 
quite  insoluble  in  sulphuric  ether ;  and  its  solutions  have  no  ac- 
tion on  the  vegetable  colours.  Its  aqueous  solution  is  precipi- 
tated by  infusion  of  galls,  subacetate  of  lead,  proto-nitrate  of 
mercury,  nitrate  of  silver,  and  hydrochlorate  of  gold.  Acetate 
of  lead,  nitrate  of  lead,  proto-hydrochlorate  of  tin,  and  tartar 
emetic,  have  no  effect  on  it.  The  acids  dissolve,  and  alter  it, 
rendering  it  insoluble  in  water.  The  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid  forms  with  it  a  rich  green,  nitric  acid  a  golden-yellow,  and 
hydrochloric  acid  a  reddish-brown  fluid  ;  and  the  affusion  of 
water  throws  down  precipitates  possessing  the  colour  of  each  solu- 
tion. In  its  general  properties  M.  Dulong  considers  it  as  closely 
allied  to  the  coloquintine,  a  resinoid  matter,  which  is  procured 
from  another  of  the  same  order  of  poisons,  the  colocynth,  and 
which,  like  the  bitter  principle  of  bryony,  concentrates  in  itself 
the  whole  qualities  of  the  raw  material. — Journal  de  Pharmacie^ 
Mars\SW. 

7.  General  Treussart  on  the  preparation  of  Hydraulic  Cements. 

General  Treussart,  referring  to  some  observations  pubhshed 
at  St  Petersburg  in  1822  by  M.  Raucourt,  and  to  some  experi- 


-    Treussart  on  Hydraulic  Cemenls.  B25 

ments  of  his  own,  related  in  a  late  number  of  the  Memorial  de 
VOfflcier  de  Genie,  states,  that  he  has  since  then  established  an 
important  fact,  which  he  had  previously  been  led  by  Raucourf  s 
remarks  to  anticipate,  with  regard  to  the  preparation  of  artificial 
pozzolan  mortar,  or  hydraulic  cement ;  namely,  that  the  access 
of  air,  during  the  calcination  of  the  argillaceous  cement,  is  of 
great  consequence  to  the  tenacity  of  the  mortar,  and  the  quick- 
ness with  which  it  hardens.  He  first  refers  to  his  former  expe- 
riments (which  we  have  not  yet  seen)  as  proving,  that,  contrary 
to  what  is  generally  supposed,  neither  the  oxide  of  iron,  nor  that 
t)f  manganese,  nor  magnesia,  can  communicate  to  lime  the  pro- 
perty of  hardening  under  water.  He  then  observes,  that,  on 
calcining  an  argillaceous  earth,  procured  near  Frankfort  (and 
consisting  of  silica  and  alumina,  a  66th  part  of  magnesia,  and  a 
trace  of  iron),  and  mixing  it  with  half  its  weight  of  lime  to  form 
a  mortar,  he  found,  that,  if  it  had  been  calcined  under  free  ex- 
posure to  the  air,  it  hardened  under  water  in  two  or  three  days, 
and  at  the  end  of  a  year  required  a  weight  varying  from  390 
to  530  pounds  to  break  it ;  while,  if  the  clay  had  been  calcined 
out  of  reach  of  the  air,  the  mortar  took  thirty  days  to  harden, 
and  broke  with  a  weight  of  40  or  50  pounds.  Analogous  re- 
sults were  obtained  with  a  clay  from  Holzheim,  near  Strasburg  ^ 
and  in  this  instance  he  also  found  that  it  was  useful  to  mix  a 
50th  part  of  lime  with  it  before  calcination.  It  is  not  easy  to 
account  for  these  differences  ;  but  the  General  himself  is  dispos- 
ed to  ascribe  them  to  the  absorption  of  oxigen  by  the  alumina. 
In  proof  of  this,  he  mentions,  that  the  same  difference  is  observ- 
ed, if,  instead  of  impure  clay  and  lime,  the  purest  alumina,  and 
the  lime  of  white  marble,  be  employed.  The  alumina,  when 
calcined  under  a  current  of  air,  makes  a  mortar  which  hardens 
sooner,  and  is  much  stronger  than  when  the  calcination  is  con- 
ducted in  a  close  furnace.  Another  fact  in  support  of  his  con- 
jecture is,  that  alumina,  when  calcined  in  the  air,  dissolves 
more  easily  in  sulphuric  acid.  The  results  of  his  latest  in- 
vestigations are,  that  the  clay  to  be  chosen  for  the  best  hy- 
draulic mortars  should  contain  a  little  lime ;  that  it  should  be 
calcined  under  exposure  to  a  current  of  air,  contrived  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  furnace  ;  that,  after  being  reduced  to  a  fine 
powder,  it  should  be  mixed  with  paste  of  Hme  in  the  proportion 
of  one  of  the  atter  to  two,  or  two  and  a-half,  of  the  former ; 


326  Robiiiet  on  Pur^ying  Crystals. 

that  the  mortar  should  be  kept  for  ten  or  twelve  hours  before  it 
is  used,  in  order  to  acquire  a  certain  degree  of  consistence ;  and 
that  it  may  be  perfectly  relied  on,  if,  by  a  preliminary  trial,  it  is 
found  to  harden  in  three  or  four  days ;  his  experience  having 
invariably  shewn  that  the  mortars  which  harden  soonest,  are  also 
the  most  tenacious. — AnnaUs  de  Chimie  et  de  Physique,  Mars 
1826. 

9.  On  a  New  Method  of  Purifying  Crystals ;  by  M.  Ro- 

BINET. 

Every  practical  chemist  knows  how  difficult  it  often  is,  parti- 
cularly in  the  analysis  of  organic  substances,  to  clear  away  from 
crystalline  products  the  mother  water,  and  other  heterogeneous 
matters,  which  collect  in  their  interstices.     When  the  crystals 
are  very  fine,  and  still  more  when  they  are  soluble  in  the  ordi- 
nary menstruums,  it  is  sometimes  impossible  to  clear  them,  al- 
though perfectly  pure,  by  any  other   method  than   repeated 
crystallization  and  digestion  with   animal  charcoal  ;    both  of 
which  processes  are  troublesome,  and  occasion  considerable  loss. 
M.  Robinet  has  proposed  a  new  and  very  simple  method,  which 
was  suggested  to  him,  in  consequence  of  observing  that,  when  a 
parcel  of  crystals  came  into  contact  with  the  mouth  of  the  pi- 
pette during  the  act  of  suction,  they  were  instantly  and  perfectly 
cleaned.     The  process  depends  on  the  transmission  of  a  current 
of  air  through  the  crystals.    He  has  suggested  various  forms  of 
apparatus  for  the  purpose.     The  simplest  consists  of  a  double- 
mouthed  bottle,  with  a  funnel  in  one  mouth,  and  a  bent  tube  in 
the  other ;  the  lower  opening  of  the  funnel  being  obstructed  by 
a  ball  of  cotton-wool,  and  the  crystals  placed  above  the  cotton. 
On  sucking  the  air  through  the  crystals  by  a  bent  tube,  they  are 
.  cleaned  in  a  few  seconds ;  and,  if  necessary,  the  operation  may 
be  repeated  after  previously  introducing  a  little  water  into  the 
funnel.     A  convenient  way  of  constructing  the  apparatus  so  as 
to  work  of  itself,  is  to  make  the  second  tube  reach  the  bottom 
of  the  bottle  with  one  limb,  and  with  the  other  a  vessel  of  wa- 
ter situated  on  a  lower  level.     The  whole  bottle  and  tube  being 
filled  with  water,  the  funnel  is  to  be  introduced,  and  the  water 
then  allowed  to  run  off  by  the  syphon.     On  the  large  scale  a 
more  suitable  apparatus  will  be  a  tube  from  a  steam-boiler,  by 
which  the  bottle  may  be  filled  with  st^am  from  time  to  time, 


Comparison  of  the  Mercurial  and  Spirit  Thermometer.     3^7 

The  steam  communication  being  shut  off,  and  the  steam  in  the 
bottle  condensed,  the  stream  of  air  will  immediately  carry 
through  with  it  the  whole  of  the  mother  water  from  the  most 
silky  crystals. — Journal  de  Chimie  Medicale^  Fevrier  1826. 


10.  Repetition  of  the  Comparison  of  the  Rate  of  the  Mercurial 
and  Spirit  Thermometer, 
Dr  Wildt  of  Hanover  has  made  a  new  set  of  experiments  for 
ascertaining  the  real  indications  of  the  spirit  thermometer, 
chiefly  with  a  view  to  the  employment  of  that  instrument  in  the 
Register  Thermometer  of  Rutherford.  His  results,  which  are 
stated  below,  do  not  differ  materially  from  those  of  Deluc.  The 
observations  are  made  at  intervals  of  five  degrees  of  Reaumur^'s 
scale. 

Mercury.  Spirit. 

20 16.48 

25 20.9T 

30  ,     .     .    .    .  25.60 

35 30.38 

40 35.31 

45 40.38 

SO 45.60 

55 50.9r 

60 56.48 

65 62.14 

70 67.95 

75 73.90 

80  .....  80.00 

V  fur  die  Gesammte  Naturlehre,  December 


Mercury. 

Spirit 

—  45      ....    —28.50 

40      .    . 

.    .     25.92 

35     . 

23.19 

30      .    . 

20.32 

25      . 

17.30 

20      , 

14.13 

15      . 

,    10.82 

10      . 

7.36 

5      . 

3.76 

0      .     . 

0.00 

+  5      . 

3.90 

10      . 

7.95 

15      . 

12.14 

(Kasfner'^s  Archivfiir 

1825 

) 

Description  of  the  Ciconia  Ardgala^  or  Adjutant  Bird.     By 
J.  Adam,  M.  D  *. 

xV-MONG  the  many  extraordinary  and  striking  objects  in  na- 
tural history  which  present  themselves  to  a  stranger  on  his  ar- 
rival in  Bengal,  perhaps  none  has  been  more  generally  remark- 

*  This  interesting  memoir,  by  my  former  pupil  and  very  intelligent  friend 
Dr  Adam,  is  extracted  from  the  1st  volume  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Medi- 
cal and  Physical  Society  of  Calcutta,  which  has  just  reached  this  country.  It 
is  a  work  highly  creditable  to  the  Calcutta  Society. 


3^8       Dr  Adam  on  the  Ciconia  Jrgala,  or  Adjutant  Bird, 

ed  upon,  and  at  the  same  time  less  studied,  than  the  subject  of 
the  following  description.  We  are  all  familiar  with  the  appear- 
ance of  the  Adjutant  bird,  and  know  something  of  its  habits: 
'its  astonishing  voracity,  for  instance,  is  a  frequent  topic  of  con- 
versation ;  and  the  singular  orange-coloured  bag  depending  from 
the  neck,  while  it  gives  a  peculiarity  to  its  expression  that  can- 
not fail  to  attract  attention,  has  also  furnished  abundant  matter 
of  speculation  as  to  the  purposes  which  it  serves  in  the  economy 
of  the  animal.  Of  these,  however,  we  are  yet  entirely  ignorant ; 
nor  does  it  appear  that  we  are  much  better  informed  regarding 
its  general  internal  structure. 

Adjutant  Bird,  Gigantic  Stork ^  Ciconia  Argala,  Hurgeela. 
— One  of  the  largest  of  the  storks,  whose  general  character  is 
formed  by  his  great  size,  enormous  bill,  bare  head  and  neck, 
long  limbs,  and,  above  all,  by  a  peculiar  solemnity  in  his  gait 
and  general  demeanour,  that  renders  the  appearance  of  the  bird 
extremely  striking  and  interesting.  He  measures  from  the 
crown  of  the  head  to  the  foot  five  feet  two  inches,  and  his  other 
dimensions  are  proportionably  great :  across  the  body,  from  the 
tip  of  one  wing  to  that  of  the  other,  seven  feet ;  length  of  body, 
from  junction  of  the  neck  to  the  vent,  two  feet;  breadth  one; 
bill  in  length,  sixteen  inches;  at  its  broadest  part  two  inches; 
legs  two  feet  and  a  half.  General  colour  of  plumage,  blactc  or 
slate-blue ;  a  few  of  the  small  feathers  surrounding  the  lower 
part  of  the  neck,  white,  and  those  of  the  belly  and  the  under 
part  of  the  wings ;  the  larger  wing-coverts  blackish  or  bluish 
grey  ;  all  the  others  slate-blue,  as  mentioned.  Tail  short ;  bill 
strong,  horny,  almost  bony,  sharp  at  the  edges,  broad  at  the 
base,  straight  and  tapering  towards  the  point;  inferior  man- 
dible composed  of  two  sides,  joined  by  a  membrane  not  capable 
of  much  dilatation  ;  nostrils,  a  slit  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  which 
is  common  to  both,  and  passes  directly  through ;  head  the  size 
of  the  base  of  the  bill,  by  which  it  appears  in  a  great  measure 
to  be  formed,  and  the  one  merely  a  continuation  of  the  other ; 
head  bare  (excepting  a  little  soft  long  hair  at  the  back  part), 
and  scurfy  ;  iris  white.  The  bareness  of  the  head,  and  white 
iris,  combined  with  the  other  peculiarities,  gives  this  bird  an  un- 
commonly grave  aspect;  and  in  his  whole  expression,  but  par- 
ticularly that  of  the   eye,  he  resembles  very  much  a  kindred 


Br  Adam  on  the  Ciconia  Argala,  or  Adjutant  Bird.       3^9 

giant  among  quadrupeds,  the  elephant.  Legs  long  and  strong ; 
breadth  at  the  largest  diameter  three  inches  six  tenths.  Feet 
walkers  composed  of  three  toes  before,  and  one  behind,  the 
outermost  having  five  joints^  the  second/our,  the  third  three,  and 
the  posterior  two ;  claws  short,  strong,  blunt ;  the  colour  of  the 
neck,  and  bag  depending  from  it,  a  bright  orange  (Dutch 
orange,  Werner).  The  bag,  which  constitutes  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal characters  of  this  bird,  is  not  directly  connected  with  the 
gullet  nor  the  trachea,  but  enters  by  a  small  aperture  into  the 
left  side  of  the  pharynx  or  mouth,  and  is  evidently  not  intended 
as  a  receptacle  for  food.  It  is  composed  of  two  coats,  an  inner 
membranous  one,  and  the  outer  orange-coloured  skin  :  within 
this  bag  nothing  is  found  but  air  and  saliva.  The  gullet  is 
ample,  and  folded  into  many  longitudinal  plicae,  increasing  in 
number  and  size  as  they  approach  the  cardiac  orifice.  The  sto- 
mach is  very  large,  compared  with  the  size  of  the  other  viscera, 
and  fills  up  the  whole  of  the  abdomen  from  the  ribs  to  the  vent ; 
it  is  seen  immediately  on  laying  open  the  cavity,  in  the  shape  of 
an  urinal,  and  covered  with  a  fatty  membrane.  The  stomach 
consists  of  two  parts,  which,  from  their  structure,  appear  to  per- 
form separate  functions.  The  upper  portion  is  of  a  glandular 
structure;  the  lower  muscular.  The  former  is  small,  compared 
with  the  latter,  very  narrow,  and  of  an  oblong  figure.  Inte- 
riorly it  is  furnished  with  a  glandular  apparatus,  similar  to  what 
I  have  observed  in  some  other  fowls :  a  small  contraction  marks 
the  division  between  these  two,  and  from  this  line  the  structure 
becomes  very  different,  feeling  harder  to  the  finger,  and  con- 
sisting of  muscle  and  tendon  of  great  thickness  at  some  points. 
The  tendon  is  in  the  centre  of  the  flattened  circle,  and  the 
muscle  sweeps  all  round  the  margin.  The  stomach  in  the  spe- 
cimen was  distended  with  earth,  hair,  and  bones.  The  gut  is  a 
narrow  tube  of  considerable  length,  lying  immediately  behind 
the  stomach,  and  occupying  but  a  small  part  of  the  general  ca- 
vity. The  liver  of  a  dirty  brick  colour,  pahsh,  and  different 
from  those  of  other  fowls  which  I  have  hitherto  examined ; 
heart  of  a  proportional  size,  and  very  firm. 

The  specimen  from  which  this  description  was  taken,  was 
killed  by  me  on  the  banks  of  the  Hoogly,  and  appeared  to  be 
a  full  grown  male  bird. 


330      Dr  Adam  oti  the  Ciconia  Argala,  or  Adjutant  Bird. 

Having  had  greater  opportunities  of  observing  the  habits  of 
this  bird  since  the  foregoing  description  was  drawn  up,  I  shall 
here  add  a  few  remarks,  which,  it  is  hoped,  may  throw  light  on 
some  of  the  peculiarities  alluded  to.  In  the  first  place,  the 
orange-coloured  bag  forming  so  prominent  an  appendage  of  the 
neck,  dissection  reveals  to  us,  contains  merely  air  and  saliva ; 
and  the  latter,  in  all  the  instances  which  I  have  examined, 
has  been  so  trifling  in  quantity,  that  its  presence  could  only  be 
regarded  as  accidental,  having  accumulated  in  all  probability  in 
that  situation  from  the  mere  effect  of  gravity,  after  lubricating 
the  pharynx  and  mouth.  Besides,  the  structure  of  the  bag  does 
not  resemble  that  of  a  secreting  organ.  It  is  also  quite  evident, 
from  the  smallness  of  the  aperture  communicating  with  the 
mouth,  that  it  cannot  serve  as  a  receptacle  for  food,  at  least  of 
such  massive  and  solid  materials  as  we  know  constitute  the  food 
of  the  Adjutant  bird.  In  what,  then,  it  may  be  asked,  consists 
its  use  ?  If  it  perform  any  function,  I  should  conceive  it  to  act 
merely  as  an  air-vessel,  to  be  employed  as  occasion  required,  ei- 
ther in  sustaining  the  bird  in  his  elevated  aerial  flights,  or  en- 
abling him  to  be  more  daring  in  the  water  in  the  search  after 
his  prey.  At  first  sight,  such  an  apparatus  may  appear  super- 
fluous ;  but  on  an  attentive  consideration  of  the  subject,  we  shall 
be  disposed,  I  think,  to  regard  it  in  the  light  rather  of  a  wise 
provision  of  nature,  adapted  to  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the 
bird.  In  order  to  explain  this,  it  will  be  necessary  to  bear  in 
mind,  that  the  Hurgeela,  though  domesticated  in  a  great  mea- 
sure among  ourselves,  is  originally  an  inhabitant  of  the  forest  and 
marsh,  whither  these  birds  yet  resort  annually,  for  the  purpose  of 
breeding,  and  rearing  their  young.  Their  periodical  disappear- 
ance during  the  hot  and  dry  months,  it  may  be  presumed,  has 
this  object  in  view ;  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  in  that  season 
they  retire  to  the  depths  of  the  Sundurbunds,  where  they  con- 
gregate {qua,re  build  in  trees  ?)  like  their  congener,  the  Heron,  in 
more  temperate  regions.  Their  natural  food  in  that  situation, 
consisting  of  reptiles  and  amphibia  of  every  description,  they  must 
be  necessitated,  in  quest  of  it,  to  enter  the  jeels  (lakes)  and 
marshes,  while,  from  the  structure  of  their  limbs,  they  are  not 
endowed  with  the  capacity  of  swimming ;  and  their  bulky  and 
ponderous  beak  must  operate  greatly  to  their  disadvantage  as 


Dr  Adam  on  the  Ciconia  Argala,  or  Adjutant  Bird.      331 

waders,  compared  with  many  other  individuals  of  the  same 
tribe.  To  overcome  these  difficulties,  then,  may  not  the  bird 
have  the  power  of  distending  the  bag  with  air,  so  as  to  counter- 
act the  weight  of  its  enormous  bill,  and  thus  be  enabled  to  pro- 
cure food,  in  situations  where  it  would  otherwise  be  unattain- 
able ?  In  a  communication  lately  received  from  a  friend,  this 
view  of  the  subject  appears  to  be  confirmed  by  what  he  himself 
was  an  eye-witness  of.  An  Adjutant  bird  was  observed  seek- 
ing its  prey  in  a  large  piece  of  water,  and  wading  till  it  reached 
to  so  great  a  distance  from  the  shore,  that  it  attracted  his  atten- 
tion, as  he  conceived  the  depth  at  that  spot  to  exceed  the  per- 
pendicular dimensions  of  the  limbs  and  body  united.  He  had 
the  curiosity  to  inquire  into  the  fact,  and  ascertained  that  the 
bird  had  actually  advanced  into  the  water  beyond  its  depth. 
The  conclusion  which  he  drew  from  the  circumstance  was  simi- 
lar to  what  I  have  now  proposed,  namely,  that  the  bag  had 
acted  as  an  air-vessel,  and  supported  the  bird  where,  without 
such  assistance,  it  must  have  unavoidably  been  submerged  and 
perished. 

The  other  idea,  that  this  appendage  may  perform  a  similar 
office  in  the  ethereal  element,  naturally  suggests  itself,  when  we 
consider  the  anatomical  structure  of  the  parts,  and  compare  it 
with  the  extraordinary  elevation  to  which  these  birds  are  known 
to  soar,  and  the  great  length  of  time  they  frequently  remain  on 
wing  in  the  higher  regions  of  the  atmosphere.  When  the  dense 
vapours  of  the  rainy  months  are  dispersed,  and  the  sun  has  again 
burst  forth  with  undiminished  fervor  on  our  Indian  plains,  then 
the  Adjutant  bird  is  observed  to  avoid  the  meridian  heat  by  taking 
his  elevated  flight,  and  rising  gradually  in  the  atmosphere,  till 
he  appears  a  mere  speck  in  the  distance,  or  attains  a  height  that 
conceals  him  entirely  from  the  view.  In  the  month  of  Oc- 
tober, when  not  a  cloud  obscures  the  vault  of  the  heavens,  it  is 
a  beautiful  spectacle  to  observe  hundreds  of  these  gigantic  birds 
(now  diminished  to  the  size  of  swallows)  performing  their  grace- 
ful evolutions,  and  wheeling  majestically  at  a  vast  elevation 
from  the  earth.  The  painter,  looking  at  the  face  of  nature, 
would  behold  the  scene  as  merely  characteristic  of  a  tropical  cli- 
mate ;  while  the  philosopher,  who  views  every  object  with  refe- 
rence to  an  ultimate  purpose,  cannot  but  admire  its  adaptation 


S8S      t>r  Adam  mi  the  Ciconia  Argala,  or  Adjutant  Bird. 

to  the  peculiar  economy  of  the  animal,  and  regard  the  phenome- 
non as  a  concord  in  the  grand  harmony  of  creation.  The  food 
of  the  Adjutant  bird  being  wholly  of  an  animal  nature,  its  diges- 
tion and  assimilation  must  obviously  augment  the  internal  tempe- 
rature, and  therefore  render  its  frame  less  capable  of  enduring 
heat  from  without.  To  obviate  the  effects  arising  from  this  sus- 
ceptibility, nature,  then,  has  bestowed  on  him  the  instinct  of  as- 
cending to  a  more  rarefied  and  congenial  medium ;  and  that  he  is 
enabled  to  remain  there,  it  would  seem  not  improbable,  is  chiefly 
owing  to  the  agency  of  this  organ.  Even  with  the  aid  of  a  glass, 
we  cannot  perceive  whether  the  bag  is  distended  during  the  time 
the  bird  is  soaring  in  the  atmosphere,  and  so  prove  the  corre- 
spondence of  the  fact  with  the  theory ;  but  as  it  seems  remark- 
able that  so  heavy  a  bird  should  continue  long  poised  in  "  mid 
air"  without  some  provision  of  the  kind,  it  cannot  be  deemed 
unreasonable,  I  think,  if  we  infer  that  such  may  be  supplied  by 
the  appendage  now  under  consideration. 

As  to  any  other  peculiarities  of  structure  which  may  have 
been  noticed  in  the  description,  they  receive  a  ready  explana- 
tion from  the  well  known  habits  of  the  bird.  The  vast  capacity 
of  gullet,  furnished  by  the  numerous  longitudinal  plicae,  extend- 
ing from  the  pharynx  to  the  cardia,  and  the  enormous  size  and 
powers  of  the  stomach,  are  in  perfect  unison  with  his  extraor- 
dinary voracity.  To  relate  instances  of  this  would  be  to  repeat 
an  often  times  told  tale.  In  India  they  are  of  every  day's  oc- 
currence, and  would  scarcely  be  credited  by  those  who  have  not 
had  an  opportunity  of  witnessing  them.  A  leg  of  mutton,  or  a 
litter  of  live  kittens  swallowed  whole,  prove  equally  acceptable 
to  his  all-devouring  maw ;  and  earth,  bones,  and  hair  (as  the 
above  dissection  shewed),  form  a  mixed  mass,  from  which  he 
appears  indiscriminately  to  draw  his  subsistence. 


On  the   Theory  of  the  Air-Thermometer.       By   Mr  Henry 
Metkle.     Communicated  by  the  Author. 


V 


ARious  notions  have  been  at  different  times  advanced  re- 
garding the  rate  of  expansion  in  solids  and  liquids  as  a  measure 

4 


Mr  Meikle  on  the  Theory  of  the  Air-Thermometer.    333 

of  temperature ;  but  it  has  more  generally  been  admitted,  par- 
ticularly of  late,  that  the  expansions  of  gaseous  bodies  under  a 
constant  pressure  follow  the  true  law  of  the  influx  of  heat.  In 
proof  of  the  latter  opinion,  it  has  been  alleged,  that,  when  a  solid 
is  expanded  by  heat,  its  cohesion,  being  greater  at  lower  tempe- 
ratures, resists  the  expanding  power  so  much  the  more ;  and 
therefore,  in  the  lower  parts  of  the  scale,  the  increments  of  vo- 
lume produced  by  equal  additions  of  heat  are  smaller  than  at 
higher  temperatures ;  or,  in  other  words,  that  the  expansion  of 
solids  proceeds  at  an  accelerated  rate,  whilst  the  increase  of  heat 
is  uniform.  Something  of  the  same  kind,  though  in  an  inferior 
degree,  is  said  to  take  place  in  liquids  ;  but  gaseous  bodies  be- 
ing supposed  to  have  no  cohesion  between  their  particles,  are 
accounted  free  to  obey  the  true  law  of  temperature. 

With  this  species  of  argument  I  am  by  no  means  satisfied, 
because  I  really  cannot  pretend  to  see  the  force  or  meaning  of 
it ;  nor  do  I  think  we  are  likely  soon  to  arrive  at  any  certain 
conclusion,  by  reasoning  on  principles  which  are  less  known  per- 
haps than  the  thing  to  be  proved.  Does  analogy  not  rather 
render  it  probable,  that  the  particles  of  gases  attract  each  other 
with  forces  varying  inversely  as  the  squares  of  their  distances  ? 
Many  other  objections,  and  reasonable  ones,  too,  might  be  pro- 
posed, to  which  no  solid  answer  can  be  given.  Such,  however, 
serve  to  shew  on  what  a  slippery  foundation  a  very  general  opi- 
nion may  sometimes  rest, — an  opinion,  in  the  present  instance, 
with  which  many  speculations  must  either  stand  or  fall.  In- 
deed, if  authorities  are  allowed  to  have  any  weight  in  settling  a 
disputed  point,  then  I  believe  by  far  the  greater  number  of  the 
more  enlightened  are  not  only  favourable  to  the  common  theory 
of  the  air-thermometer,  but  scarcely  entertain  a  doubt  on  the 
subject. 

It  must,  however,  be  admitted,  that  conjectures  or  opinions, 
though  supported  by  numerous  and  respectable  authorities,  are 
not  to  be  compared  with  experimental  evidence,  or  with  conclu- 
sions deduced  from  such  evidence  by  sound  reasoning.  I  have, 
therefore,  with  the  view  of  approaching  a  little  nearer  to  cer- 
tainty in  a  point  which  is  any  thing  but  settled,  been  induced 
to  attempt  an  investigation  of  the  theory  of  the  air-thermometer 
on  its  own  principles,  divested  as  much  as  possible  of  hypothe- 


334  Mr  Meikle  on  the  Theory  of 

tical  assumptions.     How  far  I  have  succeeded  will  appear  from 
a  careful  perusal  of  what  follows. 

For  this  purpose,  I  shall  set  out  from  the  same  principles  as 
M.  Poisson  does  in  his  Memoir  on  the  Caloric  of  Gases  and 
Vapours  *  ;  but  it  is  only  for  a  short  way  that  I  can  go  in  with 
the  doctrines  which  that  able  mathematician  endeavours  there 
to  establish  ;  because,  as  will  shortly  appear,  his  data  soon  be- 
come both  redundant  and  inconsistent,  though  not  till  he  has 
investigated  the  law  which  connects  the  density  and  pressure 
with  the  temperature  by  the  common  scale  in  a  mass  of  air, 
when  its  quantity  of  heat  is  constant.  This  law  exactly  agrees 
with  that  which  our  learned  countryman  Mr  Ivory  has  obtained 
by  a  different  process ;  so  that  no  doubt  need  remain  on  this 
part  of  the  subject,  so  far  as  mathematical  reasoning  is  concerned. 
But  it  is  not  necessary  that  I  should  be  first  in  possession  of  this 
law,  to  establish  the  law  which  connects  the  variations  of  vo- 
lume under  a  constant  pressure,  with  the  variations  of  heat, 
though  indeed  they  are  so  intimately  connected,  that  either  of 
them  may  be  deduced  from  the  other. 

The  experiments  of  MM.  Gay  Lussac  and  Welter  are  en- 
titled to  a  considerable  degree  of  confidence,  and  from  these  it 
appears,  that  the  specific  heat  of  air  under  a  constant  volume, 
is  to  its  specific  heat  under  a  constant  pressure,  in  a  ratio  sen- 
sibly constant,  viz.  that  of  1  to  1.375,  nearly  agreeing  with 
l.S54-(-  deduced  from  the  experiments  of  MM.  Desormes  and 
Clement.  Adopting  this,  no  objection  can  be  made  to  M.  Pois- 
son's  reasoning  till  he  gets  past  his  equations  (5).  But  imme- 
diately thereafter,  in  attempting  to  prosecute  the  subject,  and 
supposing  his  data  exhausted,  M.  Poisson,  after  the  example  of 
the  Marquis  Laplace,  adopts  the  well  known  hypothesis  already 
noticed,  that  the  expansions  of  air  under  a  constant  pressure  are 
proportional  to  the  increments  of  heat ;  and  it  is  curious  that 
neither  of  these  distinguished  philosophers  were  aware  that  this 
hypothesis  was  both  unnecessary  and  directly  at  variance  with 
the  above  mentioned  constant  ratio  of  the  specific  heats.     The 

•  Annates  de  Chim.  et  de  Phys.  xxiii.  337. ;  PhU.  Mag.  Ixii.  328. 

•f-  Journal  de  Physique,  Ixxxix.  331.  The  following  investigation,  so  far 
as  regards  the  law  of  temperature,  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  value  of  this 
ratio. 


the  Air-Thermometer.  335 

consequence  is,  that  all  the  subsequent  part  of  that  memoir  con- 
nected with  the  hypothesis  is  erroneous. 

Let  t  be  the  temperature  of  a  mass  of  air,  g  its  density,  and 
p  the  pressure.     Then,  from  known  principles, 

p  =  6c(l+aO*-- (A). 

a  being  the  expansion  for  1°,  and  h  another  constant. 

When  the  quantity  of  heat  in  a  body  varies,  it  is  evident  that 
the  variations  of  temperature  on  the  common  scale  must  be,  ca- 
teris  paribus,  inversely  as  the  specific  heat.  From  the  above 
equation  making  p  and  §  respectively  to  vary  with  t,  whilst  the 
other  is  constant,  we  have 

dt=z .dp,  and  dt  = — — .de. 

ap        ^  a^        ^ 

Also  when  the  quantity  of  heat  changes  in  the  mass  of  air, 
let  this  change  be  denoted  by  q  ;  then  the  specific  heat  will  be 

proportional  to  -^.     Hence  the  specific  heat  of  air  under  a  con- 

stant  volume  will  be  to  that  under  a  constant  pressure  as 

^.p.^-.^.A.k, 

whence 

Now,  supposing  k  constant,  we  have  by  integrating 
?  =  B  (^log^  — log^)  4-C; 

and  if,  whilst  gf  =  o,  we  reckon  the  pressure  and  density  to  be- 
come each  equal  unit  at  the  same  instant,  then  C  =  o ;  hence 

?  =  S  (;^  log/?  — log ?^ (B). 

To  determine  the  proper  form  of  this  integral,  M.  Poisson 
deemed  it  necessary  to  assume  an  additional  hypothesis ;  but  in 
that  assumption  both  he  and  M.  Laplace  have  deceived  them- 
selves.    The  value  they  give  to  q  is 


\     a     /  ^  oae 


*  It  must  be  observed,  that,  though  the  indications  of  an  air-thermometer 
be  here  used,  no  stress  is  laid  on  the  theori/  of  that  instrument. 


336  Mv MeikXe  m  the  Theory  of 

where  A  and  B  are  two  arbitrary  constants.     Hence,  when 


^.-1 


d^=o,dq  «  ^*  dp ;  but,  by  hypothesis,  dq  oc  df  oc  dp,  or 
/?  ec  1,  which  is  absurd.  Indeed  as  we  shall  soon  see,  (B)  is 
the  only  form,  which  constructed  geometrically,  can  agree  with 
the  forementioned  law  connecting  p,  ^  and  t  when  q  =  o;  and 
which  will  make  the  specific  heats  independent  of  the  actual  den- 
sity or  pressure,  as  their  constant  ratio  requires  them  to  be. 

When,  in  equation  (B),  §  =  1,  gr  varies  as  log  p,  that  is,  when 
the  heat  varies  equably,  the  pressure  under  a  constant  volume 
varies  in  geometrical  progression.  If  p  be  constant,  the  varia- 
tions of  q  are  as  those  of  —  log  §,  or  of  +  log  - ;  that  is  as  the 

variations  in  the  logarithm  of  the  volume.  Hence,  when  the 
quantity  of  heat  varies  in  arithmetical  progression,  the  volume 
under  a  constant  pressure  varies  in  geometrical  progression,  or  the 
real  temperatures  are  as  the  logarithms  of  those  on  the  common 
scale  of  an  air-thermometer,  reckoning  from  — 448°  F.  or  — 266°.7 
cent.,  and  placing  the  new  zero  at  —  447°  F.  or  at  ^ —  265°, 1 
cent.  The  absolute  zero  might  thus  correspond  with  the  first 
two  of  these  numbers,  or  with  minus  infinity,  by  the  new  scale ; 
but  this  is  a  point  which  I  do  not  pretend  to  decide. 

The  divisions  on  the  scale  ought  therefore  to  form  a  geome- 
trical progression,  increasing  with  the  temperature,  instead  of 
being,  as  at  present,  equal  parts. 

When  q=^o,  p-^^ (C). 

Let  T  be  the  temperature  when  p  and  §  are  each  equal  unit ; 
then,  if  these. vary  while  q^=.o,  we  have  from  equation  (A), 

f  =  *(l  +  »0  =  4^^  =  e-' (D). 

The  change  of  temperature,  by  the  common  scale,  produced  by 
the  change  of  density  from  unit  being  i. 

Equations  (C)  and  (D)  are  equivalent  to  M.  Poisson's  equa- 
tions (5)  ;  or  to  Mr  Ivory's  equations  (D),  Phil.  Mag.  Ixvi.  9- 
They  form'  the  law  which  connects  the  pressure  and  density  to- 
gether, or  with  the  temperature  on  the  common  scale,  when  the 
heat  in  the  air  is  constant. 

But  the  relations  of  the  different  quantities  may  be  more 
clearly  exhibited  by  means  of  a  geometrical  diagram.  This 
will  appear  whilst  I  proceed  with  the  construction,  illustrating 
it,  at  the  same  time,  by  a  sort  of  example. 


the  Air-Thermometer. 


337 


On  the  common  scale  of  an  air-thermometer,  let  the  straight 
line  AB  =  — .    From  B  draw  BCD  at  right  angles  to 

AB,  making  BC  to  BD  as  the  specific  heat  of  air  under  a  constant 
volume  is  to  its  specific  heat  under  a  constant  pressure,  or  as  1 
to  Tc.  Through  C  and  D  describe  two  rectangular  hyperbolas 
having  A  for  their  centre,  and  AB  for  an  asymptote. 

Let  T  —  r,  the  temperature  of  a  mass  of  air,  be  increased  r 

degrees,  or  from  B  to  E  :  Then  AE  =:  .     Draw  EG  pa- 

rallel to  BD,  and  meeting  the  curves  in  F  and  G  ;  hence 
EF  :  EG  :  :  1  :  A,',  and  so  of  every  such  parallel.  If  this  in- 
crease of  temperature  take  place  under  a  constant  volume,  the 
additional  heat  may  be  represented  by  the  area  BCFE,  but  if 
under  a  constant  pressure,  by  area  BDGE.  For  in  the  hyper- 
bola, as  is  well  known^  the  variations  of  the  area  are  as  those  of 
the  logarithms  of  the  abscissae.  Suppose  the  temperature  to 
have  increased  under  a  constant  pressure,  and  then  let  the  vo- 
lume of  air  be  instantly  reduced  to  its  former  magnitude,  the 
temperature  by  this  operation  will  be  farther  augmented  i  de- 
grees, or  from  E  to  H,  making  area  HIFE  =  CDGF.  For 
the  heat  at  first  added  now  brings  the  temperature  to  the  same 
pitch,  as  if  it  had  been  added  to  the  original  volume  all  the 
while  invariable. 

By  the  property  of  the  hyperbola,  the  area  BCFE  represents 


log 


AE 
AB* 
AH 


Hence  also  area  HIFE  =  CDGF  =  (Ar  — 1)  log  ~ 


,      ....        ,    ,       „      AE*-^      AH 
=  loo^  itf:')  and  thereiore  -r~^       —  -rz^, 
°  AE  AB  AE 


JULY OCTOBER  1826. 


SS8  Mr  Meikle  on  the  Theory  of 

But  AE  =  — ;    AH  =  —J— — — — ,  and  the  compres- 
sion has  evidently  increased  the  density  in  the  ratio  of  unit  to 

AE  „ 

-^  =  ,,     Hence 


I  _  1  -f  ar-k-ai 


1  +  a 


as  in  equation  (D). 


Again,  area  BDGI']  rr  k  log  ^-|  =  area  BCIH  =  log  ^^ 

and  the  compression  has  augmented  the  pressure  in  the  ratio  of 

•.  .     AH  „ 

unit  to  -— -  —  p.     Hence 
AB      ^ 

'p-=i  ^  y  as  in  equation  (C). 
In  the  hyperbola,  as  already  hinted,  the  areas  vary  arithme- 
tically, whilst  the  abscissae  vary  geometrically.  But  the  varia- 
tions of  the  area  represent  variations  of  heat,  and  the  varia- 
tions of  the  abscissa  represent  the  corresponding  variations  of 
volume  under  a  constant  pressure,  or  of  pressure  under  a  con- 
stant volume.  So  that,  besides  agreeing  with  the  other  con- 
elusions,  this  construction  exactly  represents  the  former  result,, 
that  the  real  temperatures  are  as  the  logarithms  of  those  on  the 
common  scale,  reckoning  from  —  448''  F.,  or  —  266°.7  cent.  ; 
and  placing  the  new  zero  at  —  447°  F.,  or  at  — 265°.7  cent. 

The  law  of  temperature  now  given,  stands  on  a  much  surer 
foundation  than  any  other  that  has  been  proposed,  and  affords 
ample  ground  for  questioning  the  present  graduation  of  our 
thermometers.  Were  DG  a  straight  line  parallel  to  AB,  as  the 
ordinary  graduation  supposes,  then,  whatever  CI  might  be,  it 
is  evident,  that,  unless  in  a  few  particular  cases,  very  little 
change  of  temperature  could  be  produced  by  a  change  of  den- 
sity ;  because  there  would  not  then  be  that  inexhaustible  source 
of  both  heat  and  cold  which  experiment  proves,  and  which  a 
line  differing  much  from  the  hyperbola  could  not  supply.  In- 
dependently therefore,  of  more  elaborate  proof,  this  considera- 
tion alone  ought  to  overturn  the  common  theory.  This  law  al- 
so gives  some  countenance  to  the  notion,  that  the  quantity  of 
heat  in  bodies  is  infinite,  compared  with  all  the  change  that  we 
can  effect  on  it.  But  it  ill  agrees  with  the  opinion  of  MM.  Du- 
long  and  Petit,  that  the  absolute  zero  on  the  common  scale  may 


the  Air^Thermometer    . .  339 

,  be  infinitely  remote,  and  yet  the  quantity  of  heat  finite.  In- 
deed, this  opinion  is  itself  a  contradiction  in  terms,  with  re- 
gard to  the  heat  in  a  thermometer,  considered  as  measuring  its 
own  heat. 

Mr  Dalton  supposed  that  mercury  expands  as  the  squares  of 
the  true  temperatures,  reckoned  from  its  freezing  point;  and 
that,  relatively  to  the  degrees  of  this  scale,  taken  in  arithmeti- 
cal progression,  the  expansions  of  the  gases  proceed  in  geome- 
trical progression.  But  the  researches  of  M.  Gay  Lussac,  Dr 
Ure,  and  of  MM.  Dulong  and  Petit,  have  proved  fatal  to  this 
hypothetical  law  of  temperature,  and  have  shewn,  that  mercury 
and  the  gases  observe  the  same  law  through  a  great  range,  only 
at  length  diverging  very  slowly.  So  that  after  Mr  Dalton''s  er- 
roneous progression  in  the  expansion  of  air  relatively  to  the  mer- 
curial thermometer  is  corrected,  the  relation  between  his  scale 
and  that  expansion  is  curiously  metamorphosed.  It  is  thus  evi- 
dent, that  his  scale  bears  a  totally  different  relation  to  the  com- 
mon mercurial  thermometer  from  that  of  the  law  I  have  inves- 
tigated: the  latter  only  differing  about  half  the  quantity  that 
Mr  Dal  ton's  does  from  the  old  scale,  between  the  freezing  and 
boiling  points  of  water ;  especially  since  Mr  Dalton's  scale,  as 
actually  constructed,  differs  less  from  the  old  one  than  his  theory 
strictly  allows.  The  more  scientific  part  of  chemistry  certainly 
owes  much  to  Mr  Dalton ;  but  though  his  law  of  temperature 
had  happened  to  be  that  of  nature,  it  was  still  to  be  considered 
unknown,  and  entitled  to  no  confidence,  so  long  as  nothing  sa- 
tisfactory was  advanced  in  its  behalf. 

The  specific  heat  of  a  given  weight  of  air,  is  cateris  paribus 
independent  of  its  density  or  pressure. 

For^  in  the  former  figure,  let  the  temperature  of  this  air  cor- 
respond to  the  point  E,  and  let  EF  x  1°  and  EG  x  1°  be  re- 
spectively the  specific  heats  under  a  constant  volume  and  con- 
stant pressure ;  suppose  the  air  now  to  be  condensed  till  its  tem- 
perature rise  to  H ;  then  HI  x  1%  which  is  less  than  EF  x  1%  • 
will  be  its  specific  heat  under  a  constant  volume  relatively  to 
the  common  scale  * ;  but  whilst  the  temperature  sinks  to  E, 

•  It  is  obvious  that  the  specific  heat  of  air,  relatively  to  the  true  scale, 
must  be  independent  of  the  temperature. 

y2 


340  Mr  Meiklc  on  the  Theory  of 

stili,  under  the  same  reduced  volume,  the  specific  heat  will  just 
regain  its  former  value  EF  x  1° ;  and  the  same  may  be  proved 
of  EG  X  1°. 

What  a  difference  between  this  simple  result  and  the  com- 
plex conclusions  which  a  gratuitous  hypothesis  has  enabled  the 
Marquis  Laplace  to  state  in  his  Mecanique  Celeste,  and  M.  Pois- 
son  to  copy  from  him,  as  already  quoted  !  And  yet,  had  they 
used  a  diagram  even  with  straight  lines,  as  their  hypothe- 
sis required,  they  might  have  obtained  precisely  the  same  result 
as  I  have  got.  For  inconsistent  data  sometimes  produce  a  cor- 
rect result.  This,  however,  only  happens  when  opposite  errors 
destroy  each  other,  or  when  part  of  the  data  is  allowed  to  lie 
dormant. 

The  specific  heat  of  steam  is  very  likely  independent  of  its 
density  ;  and  if  so,  ought  it  not,  under  a  constant  volume,  to  be 
equal  that  of  water  ?  And  if  the  specific  heats  of  equal  volumes 
of  elastic  fluids,  as  analogy  would  almost  lead  us  to  suppose,  be 
the  same  under  equal  pressures  and  temperatures,  the  specific 
heat  of  air  would  be  'Q9^5  under  a  constant  volume,  and  '883 
under  a  constant  pressure ;  about  three  times  the  common  esti- 
mate, which  is  very  uncertain.  But  this  is  merely  thrown  out  as 
a  conjecture. 

M.  Poisson^s  memoir  being  nearly  related  to  the  foregoing- 
inquiry,  I  have,  for  the  better  pointing  out  the  errors  into  which 
that  illustrious  author  has  fallen,  kept  closer  to  his  method  than 
was  otherwise  necessary.  It  must  now  be  sufficiently  evi- 
dent, that  his  hypothesis,  so  often  mentioned,  was  both  super- 
fluous and  at  variance  with  his  other  principles.  In  the  same 
memoir,  M.  Poisson  acknowledges  that  his  theory  of  the  ex- 
pansive force  of  steam  is  far  from  accounting  for  the  economy 
of  heat,  which  experiment  indicates  in  the  use  of  high  pressure 
engines.  This  furnishes  a  farther  proof  in  favour  of  the  law 
we  have  investigated  ;  for,  according  to  it,  when  the  tempera- 
ture is  elevated,  the  force  even  of  air  having  its  density  con- 
stant, increases  in  an  enormously  higher  ratio  than  the  quantity 
of  heat  does,  viz.  in  geometrical  progression,  whilst  the  heat  in- 
creases in  arithmetical  progression.  Thus,  calling  the  heat  unit, 
which  doubles  the  force  when  the  density  is  constant,  we  shall 
have  the  following  two  series : 


the  Air 'Thermometer.  341 

1,  2,  3,    4s    5,    6,  &c. 

2,  4,  8,  16,  32,  64,  &c. 

the  upper  being  the  additional  heat,  and  the  lower  the  ratio  in 
which  the  force  is  augmented.  But  all  this  is  on  the  supposi- 
tion that  the  density  does  not  increase  with  the  temperature ; 
whereas  the  density  of  steam  in  a  state  of  saturation,  augments 
in  a  ratio  almost  as  much  above  the  second  of  these  series,  as 
that  exceeds  the  first.  Now  the  temperature  of  all  elastic  fluids 
is  increased  by  condensation  ;  that  is,  the  same  weight  of  steam, 
at  a  given  temperature,  contains  less  heat  as  its  density  is  greater. 
These  arguments,  I  presume,  would  more  than  account  for  the 
saving  of  heat  which  experiment  indicates ;  and,  for  this  rea- 
son, they  are  the  more  satisfactory,  because  high  pressure  en- 
gines work  under  many  disadvantages,  the  greater  excess  of 
their  temperature  above  that  of  the  ambient  air  subjects  them 
the  more  to  its  cooling  influence. 

From  what  we  have  seen  above,  it  is  extremely  probable  that 
the  absolute  quantity  of  heat  in  bodies  is  very  great.  This  con- 
sideration may  assist  in  accounting  for  the  heat  which  becomes 
sensible  in  the  case  of  friction,  of  chemical  combinations,  elec- 
trical phenomena,  combustion,  respiration,  and  in  many  of  the 
other  operations  which  take  place  in  the  economy  of  nature. 

The  chief  points  discussed  in  this  brief  essay  are  highly  im- 
portant in  the  doctrine  of  heat;  and  when  once  it  is  known  that 
they  admit  of  such  proof,  I  expect  to  see  them  investigated  dif- 
ferently, and  no  doubt  with  improvements. 

Observations  on  the  Structure  of  some  Silicious  Sponges.  By 
R.E.  Grant,  M.D.,  F.R.S.E.,  F.L.S.,M.  W.S.,  Honoraiy 
Member  of  the  Northern  Institution,  &c.  Communicated  by 
the  Author. 

JL  HE  existence  of  silicious  spicula  in  sponges,  and  in  other 
genera  of  zoophytes,  has  been  long  known.  Pallas  sixty  years 
ago  described  the  Alcyonium  au7'antium,  Alcyonium  cotoneum, 
and  Alcyonium  ashestinum,  as  composed  of  minute  asbestine 
needles,  which  he  compares  in  hardness  to  pumice  (El.  Zooph. 
p.  344,  357,  360.)     Ellis  seventy  years  ago,  Gmelin,  Lamou- 


342  Dr  Grant's  Observations  on  the 

roux,  have  described  the  hard  glassy  needles  composing  the 
axis  of  the  Gorgoma  briareus,  an  animal  which  possesses  re- 
markably large  eight-tentaculated  polypi  (Sol.  &  Ell.  Cor. 
p.  93.)  Montagu  has  described  these  rigid  asbestine  or  pumice- 
like spicula  in  three  of  his  species  of  British  Sponges,  Spongia 
jpenwillus,  S.  verrucosa,  and  S.  pilosa  (Wern.  Mem.  vol.  ii.  p.,  93. 
et  seq.)  ;  and  the  same  hard  glassy  asbestine  or  silicious  needles 
have  since  been  observed  in  different  species  of  Tethya,  Cydo- 
nium,  SpongiUa,  Cliona,  and  in  a  great  variety  of  marine 
sponges.  The  extreme  hardness  of  these  spicula,  however,  is 
the  only  character  mentioned  by  preceding  authors  as  indicating 
silica  to  be  their  component  earth.  Not  only  the  hardness  of 
these  spicula,  and  their  power  of  resisting  heat,  but  also  their 
regular  forms,  their  sharp  points,  and  even  their  mode  of  ar- 
rangement in  several  sponges,  were  known  to  our  countryman 
Ellis,  who  has  described  the  spicula  of  the  Spongia  tomentosay 
and  represented  their  mode  of  grouping  round  the  pores  (Cor. 
PL  xvi.  fig.  D.),  and  mentions,  that  when  they  are  burnt  and 
rubbed  on  the  human  skin,  they  pierce  it,  and  excite  an  itching 
pain.  The  regular  forms  of  the  spicula  of  several  sponges  have 
been  represented  in  the  plates  of  Ellis,  Cordiner,  Lamouroux, 
and  they  have  been  noticed  by  most  writers,  as  Ellis,  Gmelin, 
Montagu,  Lamouroux,  and  Lamarck,  in  their  descriptions  of 
certain  species.  Donati  had  shown  the  example  so  early  as 
1750,  by  describing  and  representing  the  forms  of  the  spicula, 
and  their  mode  of  arrangement  in  other  zoophytes  (Storia  Nat. 
Mar.  deir  Adriat.)  ;  the  useful  example  of  Donati  has  been 
rarely  followed,  but  its  advantages  in  the  study  of  polymorphous 
zoophytes  will  probably  one  day  be  more  highly  appreciated 
from  the  constancy  and  preciseness  of  the  character  it  affords. 
The  sponges  in  which  I  have  found  the  spicula  to  consist  of 
silica,  I  have  termed  silicious  sponges,  to  mark  them  as  a  sepa- 
rate group,  distinct  from  the  horny  and  calcareous  species  al- 
ready described.  The  spicula  of  silicious  sponges  are  generally 
smaller  and  simpler  in  their  forms  than  the  calcareous.  They 
can  be  more  easily  examined  as  the  connecting  animal  matter 
enveloping  them  can  be  completely  removed  by  the  blowpipe, 
or  by  concentrated  acids,  without  injuring  their  symmetrical 
fonns,  and  they  can  thus  be  quickly  obtained  isolated  for  mi-^ 


Structure  of  some  Silicious  Sponges.  S^ 

ctdscbpical  examination,  on  plates  of  glass,  or  between  thin 
scales  of  mica,  where  they  may  be  preserved  for  any  period. 

The  Spongia  papillaris  of  Pallas,  Gmelin,  JMontagu,  and 
Lamourou^,  which  is  by  fkr  the  most  abundant  species  of  this 
animal  inhabiting  the  British  shores,  affords  a  good  illustration 
not  only  of  the  silicious  axis,  but  of  that  peculiar  simple  form 
of  spiculum,  which  I  have  considered  as  the  first  or  most  ele- 
mentary in  marine  sponges.  This  species  is  mentioned  by  Pal- 
las, as  an  inhabitant  of  the  coast  of  America.  Montagu  foimd  it 
common  on  the  coast  of  Devonshire,  and  I  have  found  it  abun- 
dant on  several  parts  of  the  east  and  west  coasts  of  Scotland,  on' 
the  north  coast  of  Ireland,  and  on  the  shores  of  Bute,  Islay, 
lona,  Staffa,  Skye  and  Arran ;  but  I  have  nowhere  met  with  it  so 
large  and  abundant  as  on  the  south  side  of  the  Frith  of  Forth, 
where  it  seems  to  enjoy  its  natural  climate.  It  is  generally 
seen  at  low-water  mark,  spreading  on  the  sides  of  rocks  as  a 
thick  soft  spongy  covering,  of  a  yellow  or  green  colour,  with 
numerous  conical  tubular  papillge  projecting  irregularly  from  its 
surface  ;  its  prominent  papillae  are  all  terminated  by  wide  fecal 
orifices,  with  thin  translucent  margins,  sometimes  quite  circular, 
and  sometimes  presenting  a  very  irregular  broken  outline.  It 
occurs  in  portions,  from  half  an  incli  to  an  inch  thick,  and  from 
a  few  inches  to  more  than  a  foot  in  breadth  ;  sometimes  it  ap- 
pears as  a  single  isolated  papilla,  growing  on  the  side  of  a  rock, 
or  on  the  root  of  a  fucus.  Its  surface  is  sometimes  very  smooth, 
sometimes  slightly  corrugated  and  uneven,  and  is  every  where 
covered  with  very  minute  regularly  formed  pores,  visible  to  the 
naked  eye,  which  give  the  surface  the  appearance  of  the  finest 
gauze.  The  papillaris  not  only  has  a  great  range  of  colour 
from  bright  yellow,  through  the  intermediate  shades,  to  dark 
sea-green,  but  it  likewise  presents  the  greatest  variety  of  surface 
of  any  of  the  spreading  species  met  with  in  the  Frith  of  Forth  ; 
and,  I  have  no  doubt,  that  some  of  these  varieties  of  outward 
form,  have  been  described  and  represented  as  distinct  species. 
The  papillae,  though  generally  very  irregular  in  their  distribu- 
tion, not  unfrequently  unite  from  their  proximity,  so  as  to  form 
elevated  ridges ;  and  when  these  ridges  happen  to  lie  in  a  straight 
and  parallel  direction,  they  give  the  surface  a  crested  appearance, 
as  represented  by  Mr  EUis,  (Phil.  Trans,  v.  55.  Pi.  II.  Fig.  G.) 


344>  Dr  Grants  Observations  on  the 

At  other  times,  we  observe  the  papillae  so  slightly  and  gradually 
raised,  as  to  produce  only  an  undulated  smooth  surface ;  this  is 
frequently  the  case  where  it  is  much  exposed  to  the  direct  force 
of  the  waves  or  currents,  or  where  it  envelopes  the  roots  and 
stems  of  marine  plants.  It  is  more  probable  that  these  varieties 
of  form  depend  on  situation,  or  other  accidental  circumstances, 
than  that  they  are  perpetuated  by  generation  ;  for  we  sometimes 
find  these  different  kinds  of  surface  on  the  same  specimen. 
Where  the  papilla  has  a  regular  conical  form,  the  margins  of  its 
fecal  orifice  are  circular,  thin  and  translucent,  but  in  the  ridged 
portions  the  fecal  orifices  are  often  very  wide,  with  abrupt  irre- 
gular broken  margins ;  when  we  look  down  into  one  of  these  wide 
orifices,  we  distinctly  perceive,  on  every  side,  the  terminations  of 
the  internal  canals,  which  unite  and  widen  as  they  approach  the 
orifice,  and  open  at  such  an  angle,  as  to  throw  their  currents 
nearly  in  the  direction  of  the  main  stream.  This  part  of  the 
anatomy  is  beautifully  exhibited,  by  cutting  a  living  papilla  per- 
pendicularly into  several  sections.  The  ova,  in  this  species,  be- 
gin to  appear  in  the  deeper  parts  of  its  substance  between  the 
canals,  near  the  end  of  February ;  they  are  in  full  maturity  in 
May,  and  not  a  trace  of  them  is  discernible  in  its  texture  at  the 
end  of  June.  The  surface  of  the  papillaris  is  often  quite  green, 
although  its  whole  texture  within  is  filled  with  ova  of  a  lively 
yellow  colour ;  and  sometimes  we  find  a  specimen,  some  parts  of 
which  are  yellow,  and  others  green,  although  the  whole  interior 
is  equally  filled  with  ova.  In  dried  specimens  of  the  papillaris 
the  internal  texture  may  be  rendered  as  soft  as  the  finest  down, 
and  of  a  pure  white  colour,  by  careful  and  repeated  maceration 
in  hot  water  ;  in  this  condition,  the  part  covering  the  whole  outer 
surface  appears  like  a  thin  white  calcareous  crust,  lying  loosely 
over  the  downy  texture,  and  everywhere  closely  perforated  with 
regular  minute  angular  pores,  which  are  now  rendered  more  dis- 
tinct, by  the  removal  of  their  soft  parts,  and  by  the  contraction 
of  the  loose  fasciculi  which  surround  them  This  thin  white  shin- 
ing porous  covering  contains  no  lime,  but  appears  to  have  been 
sometimes  taken  by  authors  for  a  calcareous  crust,  both  in  sponges 
and  in  other  allied  genera. 

When  a  very  thin  portion,  cut  from  the  surface  of  the  recent 
papillaris^  is  viewed  on  a  plate  of  glass  under  the  microscope,  we 


Structure  of  some  Silidous  Sponges.  S45 

observe  the  whole  texture  to  consist  of  polygonal  pores  systema- 
tically, though  somewhat  rudely,  constructed  of  loose  fasciculi  of 
minute  transparent,  colourless,  pointed,  and  slightly  curved, 
needles,  entirely  imbedded  in  a  viscid  yellowish  translucent  mat- 
ter ;  and  we  cannot  fail  to  be  convinced,  on  the  slightest  inspec- 
tion, that  the  form,  size,  composition,  and  arrangement  of  these 
needles  have  a  perfect  relation  to  the  function  they  fulfil  of  form- 
ing and  defending  these  passages,  and  that  the  spicula  could  not 
possibly  have  been  pushed  into  this  dense  systematic  order  round 
the  pores,  by  worms,  insects  or  animalcules  piercing  and  traver- 
sing the  soft  surface,  nor  have  we  the  least  acquaintance  with 
any  inhabitant  of  the  ocean,  capable  of  secreting  such  singular 
crystalUne  bodies,  and  of  piling  them  up  into  so  complicated  a 
fabric  for  the  protection  and  development  of  its  ova.  We  shall 
see  further  proofs  of  this  in  the  anatomy  of  the  soft  parts  of  this 
animal.  By  allowing  a  portion  of  this  sponge  to  remain  a  few 
hours  in  a  watch  glass  with  nitric,  sulphuric,  or  muriatic  acid, 
the  soft  connecting  matter  dissolves,  and  the  spicula  fall  sepa- 
rate to  the  bottom,  without  having  suffered  any  change  in  their 
size,  form,  or  appearance.  If  we  rub  these  spicula  with  a  wooden 
or  glass  rod  against  the  bottom  of  the  watch  glass,  after  pouring 
oflp  the  acid,  and  washing  them  with  water,  we  feel  distinctly, 
that  they  are  of  a  hard  quartzy  nature,  and  that  they  cut  the 
bottom  of  the  glass;  with  a  lens  we  can  perceive  the  minute 
streaks  they  produce,  when  they  are  rubbed  on  the  surface  of 
smooth  glass.  At  a  red  heat  the  spicula  suffer  no  change,  but 
when  they  are  kept  at  a  white  heat  for  a  few  minutes  by  the 
blowpipe,  they  become  semiopaque  and  white,  and  some  of  them, 
are  observed  to  dilate  and  burst.  When  the  spicula  have  beea 
simply  dried,  we  can  perceive  by  the  microscope  a  distinct  cavi- 
ty within  them,  extending  their  whole  length,  and  completely 
shut  at  both  extremities;  probably  some  fluid  matter  within  that 
cavity  prevents  it  from  being  so  distinctly  seen  in  the  recent 
spicula.  To  try  in  a  more  satisfactory  manner  the  silicious  na- 
ture of  these  spicula,  I  removed  the  animal  matter  by  means  of 
the  blowpipe  from  a  portion  of  the  papillaris^  and  formed  the 
remaining  dried  axis  into  a  paste,  with  three  or  four  times  its 
bulk  of  pure  potassa.  On  exposing  this  mixture  of  spicula  and 
potassa,  on  a  tin  plate  for  a  minute  or  two  to  the  flame  of  a  can- 


346'  T>r  GranVs  Observatio7is  091  ihe   ^'^' 

die,  a  white  brittle  dry  crust  was  produced,  which  was  entirety 
sblu'Me  in  [water  ;  on  examining  the  aqueous  sokition  of  this 
crust,  under  the  microscope,  I  found  that  the  siUcious  spicula 
had  been  fused  by  the  aid  of  the  alkaU,  and  had  entirely  disap- 
peared. I  have  now  preserved  the  spicula  of  this  sponge  for 
more  tlian  twenty  months  immersed  in  nitric,  sulphuric,  and 
muriatic  acids,  and  they  have  suffered  no  change  in  their  hard- 
ness, size,  transparency  or  symmetry  ;  they  still  scratch  glass, 
and  retain  their  sharpest  points  unblunted.  From  the  spicula 
suffering  a  diminution  of  their  transparency,  by  the  action  of 
heat,  it  is  probable  that  they  possess  some  animal  matter  in  their 
composition,  which,  however,  would  be  very  difficult  to  demon- 
strate. Mr  Children  is  said  to  have  detected  animal  matter  in 
the  silicious  spicula  of  some  species  of  Tethya,  (An.  of  Phil., 
vol.  ix.  p.  431),  but  his  experiments  have  not  yet  been  made 
known.  I  have  not  had  an  opportunity  of  trying  their  solubili- 
ty in  fluoric  acid,  and  have  relied  on  the  above  chemical  charac- 
ters, in  examining  the  silicious  spicula  of  marine  sponges.  The 
spicula  of  the  Spongia  papillaris  very  much  resemble  those  of 
the  SpongillaJ'riabilis ;  they  are  slightly  curved,  thickest  in  the 
middle,  from  which  they  taper  gradually  to  a  sharp  point  at  each 
end,  they  are  of  one  form  though  of  very  different  sizes,  their  length 
ranges  from  the  tenth  to  the  fifteenth  of  a  line,  and  their  diame- 
ter from  the  sixth  to  the  tenth  of  that  of  a  human  hair.  They  have 
a  vitreous  lustre,  their  texture  appears  quite  homogeneous,  and 
their  internal  cavity  occupies  scarcely  a  third  of  their  diameter. 
They  exhibit  neither  joints,  fibres,  nor  granular  bodies  in  their 
substance,  nor  any  kind  of  motion  of  themselves,  or  within  their 
cavity,  and  appear  incapable  of  contributing  to  produce  the 
currents  of  this  animal,  both  from  their  arrangement  round  the 
pores  and  canals,  and  from  their  internal  cavity  being  complete- 
ly shut  at  both  ends.  A  number  of  these  spicula  lying  in  the 
same  direction,  and  close  to  each  other,  form  a  fasciculus,  the  fas- 
ciculi which  lie  parallel  to  the  surface,  and  form  the  strong 
walls  of  the  pores,  may  be  called  the  hounding  ^fasciculi  of  the 
pores,  to  distinguish  them  from  certain  others,  which  project  from 
the  margin  over  the  entrances  of  the  pores,  and  are  termed  the 
defending  fasciculi  of  the  pores.  Both  bounding  and  defending 
fasciculi  are  seen  also  in  the  course  of  the  canals,  and  the 


Structure  of  some  SiUcious  Sponges.  34*7 

bounding  fasciculi  near  the  pores  are  observed  to  afford  attach- 
ment to  a  very  deHcate  apparatus  calculated  for  the  further  de- 
fence of  these  passages  from  foreign  bodies,  and  for  assisting  in 
the  production  of  the  currents.     To  avoid  erroneous  hypotheses 
in  searching  into  the  nature  of  this  perplexing  substance,  it  will 
be  of  some  advantage  to  notice  every  minute  piece  of  structure 
which  may  illustrate  its  mode  of   existence,  explain  its  functions 
or  help  to  distinguish  the  species,  and  it  will  be  proper  here, 
as  in  other  parts  of  anatomy,  to  adopt  a  technical  language  for 
parts  that  are   of  constant  occurrence,   and  important  in  the 
economy  of  the  animal.     Although  the  spiculum  of  this  sponge 
agrees  with  that  of  the  spongilla  friabilis  in  being  curved,  and' 
pointed  at  both  ends,  it  differs  from  the  latter  in  being  thickest 
in  the  middle,  and  a  little  less  in  size.     This   double  pointed 
fusiform  curved  spiculum  is  met  with  in  several  other  sponges, 
and  always  occurs  unaccompanied  with  any  other  form  but  its  own 
modifications,  so  that  it  affords  a  determinate  and  easy  means  of 
subdividing  the  great  tribe  of  silicious  sponges  into  lesser  groups. 
We  observe  this  first  form  of  spiculum  likewise  in  the  Spongia 
urens  or  tomentosa,  cristata,  coalita,  oculata,  prolifera,  dichoto- 
ma,  palmata,   &c.,  but  in  the  four  last  branched  species  it  is 
very  minute  and  imbedded  in  a  tough  ligamentous  matter, 
which,  in  the  dried  state,  assumes  a  faint  resemblance  to  the  homy 
tubular  fibres  of  the  S.  communis.     It  would  appear  from  ex- 
amination of  some  tropical  species,  that  the  transition  from 
the  silicious  to  the  horny  axis  takes  place  by  the  spicula   be- 
coming more  and  more  minute,  and   their  enveloping  matter 
more  tough  and  fibrous. 

The  second  remarkable  form  of  silicious  spiculum  met  with 
in  marine  sponges,  is  that  which  presents  only  one  pointed  ex- 
tremity, while  the  opposite  end  is  either  simply  rounded,  or  is 
dilated  into  a  distinct  spherical  head,  like  that  of  a  common  pin. 
In  the  species  already  frequently  mentioned  in  this  memoir,  un- 
der the  name  of  Spongia  panicea,  and  which  agrees  with  the 
characters  given  of  that  species  by  Lamouroux,  (Hist,  des 
Polyp,  p.  9Q. )  in  forming  irregular  spreading  masses  more  than 
an  inch  thick,  and  presenting  in  the  dried  state  a  white  cellular 
texture,  Hke  hard  bread,  with  a  flat  and  very  porous  surface, 
we  have  the  most  famihar  and  distinct  example  of  the  one- 
pointed  spiculum,     The  spicula  of  the  panicea  are  silicious, 


S4S  Dr  Grant's  Ohservatimis  cm  the 

straight,  thick,  short,  cyhndrical,  pointed  rather  obtusely  and 
suddenly  at  one  extremity,  and  rounded,  but  not  swelled  at  the 
other ;  they  are  of  various  thickness,  but  of  one  form  and  length, 
they  are  fused  by  the  aid  of  potassa,  resist  heat  and  acids,  scratch 
glass,  &c.  In  specimens  of  the  panicea  which  I  brought  this 
summer  from  the  Island  of  Staffa,  the  spicula  have  the  same 
characters  as  in  those  which  abound  in  the  Frith  of  Forth ; 
and  the  same  form  of  spiculum  is  met  with  in  the  Spmigia  pa^ 
rasitica  of  Montagu.  In  the  large  Spongia  patera  of  the  In- 
dian seas,  many  specimens  of  which  have  been  lately  brought 
to  Europe,  and  six  of  which  are  preserved  in  the  Museum  of 
our  University,  measuring  from  two  to  four  feet  in  height,  the 
spicula  are  silicious,  long,  thick,  cylindrical,  slightly  curved, 
pointed  at  one  end,  and  in  place  of  being  simply  rounded  or 
truncated  at  the  opposite  end,  like  those  of  the  panicea^  we  ob- 
serve them  all  headed  like  pins  with  a  distinct  sphere  or  round 
bead  on  one  extremity,  which  has  twice  the  diameter  of  the  rest 
of  the  spiculum.  I  have  elsewhere  shown  that  this  one-pointed, 
curved,  headed  spiculum,  occurs  in  the  Climia  celata^  a  zoophyte 
possessing  polypi  and  very  distinct  irritability ^  (see  p.  80),  so 
that  it  would  be  highly  interesting  to  examine  whether  the  cup- 
like sponges,  found  so  abundantly  near  Sincapore,  do  not  ma- 
nifest likewise  some  signs  of  contractility  in  the  living  state. 

A  third  distinct  form  of  spiculum,  met  with  in  siUcious  spon- 
ges, is  where  one  of  the  sharp  points  is  lost,  and  the  whole 
spiculum  appears  to  be  composed  of  a  series  of  round  transpa- 
rent beads,  diminishing  in  size  from  one  extremity  to  the  other. 
This  remarkable  form  I  have  yet  observed  only  in  one  species, 
a  thick,  branched,  tubular,  yellowish  brown,  rough,  wiry  sponge 
from  the  Indian  seas,  from  the  zoological  collection  of  a  zealous 
young  naturalist  Mr  John  Coldstream  of  Leith.  The  bran- 
ches are  about  IJ  inch  in  diameter,  cylindrical,  dichotomous, 
tubular,  of  a  hard  and  very  tough  texture,  and  marked  on 
the  outside  with  distinct  open  round  pores,  which  pass  direct- 
ly through  the  thick  parietes,  and  open  into  the  internal  tu- 
bular cavity  by  somewhat  larger  orifices.  These  tubular  branch- 
es are  of  course  open  at  their  free  extremities  for  the  exit 
of  the  currents ;  their  openings  are  cylindrical,  wide,  and 
with  rounded  margins.  The  remarkable  notched  spicula  are 
seen  with   the   naked  eye   projecting   on   every   side   perpen- 


structure  of  some  Silicious  Sponges.  S49 

dicularly  from  the  margins  to  the  centre  of  the  pores,  in 
which  position  they  are  fixed  by  a  tough  and  almost  horny  sub- 
stance enveloping  their  bases.  Notwithstanding,  the  regular 
n  etched  or  jointed  appearance  on  the  outer  surface  of  these  spi- 
cula,  we  perceive  with  the  microscope  that  they  are  formed  of  one 
piece,  and  have  a  distinct  continuous  cavity  within,  shut  at  both 
ends,  like  every  other  cavity  observed  in  marine  spicula.  They 
are  comparatively  strong  spicula,  from  their  thickness  and  short- 
ness, and  are  acutely  pointed  at  one  end.  The  connecting  mat- 
ter enveloping  their  thick  ends,  resolves  itself  by  maceration  into 
bundles  of  delicate  ligamentous  threads ;  but  this  appearance  is 
never  to  be  trusted  in  sponges  wliich  have  once  been  allowed  to 
dry,  as  parts  then  become  hard  and  fibrous,  which  we  observe  in 
the  living  state  to  consist  of  a  soft  homogeneous  pulp.  This 
third  form  of  spiculum  is  so  very  distinct  from  the  two  preced- 
ing, that  it  is  probably  not  confined  to  this  one  species  of  zoo- 
phyte, but  may  be  found,  like  the  other  two  forms,  to  belong  to 
an  extensive  series,  yet  unknown,  however,  to  naturalists,  and 
concealed  like  the  present  species  in  the  depths  of  the  southern 
hemisphere. 

A  fourth  form  of  silicious  spiculum  is  seen  in  the  long  slen- 
der asbestine  filaments,  composing  the  axis  of  the  Spmig'ia  ven- 
tilahru7n,  Linn.  When  a  portion  of  this  fan-shaped  sponge  of 
the  British,  Norwegian  and  American  coasts  is  kept  for  some 
minutes  at  a  white  heat  by  the  blowpipe,  to  remove  the  animal 
matter,  and  is  then  plunged  into  strong  nitric  acid,  it  be- 
comes easy  to  reduce  it  by  the  pressure  of  a  glass  rod,  into  its 
component  spicula,  which  we  feel  by  the  pressure  as  well  as  by 
their  resisting  the  acid,  to  be  of  a  silicious  nature.  They  are 
neither  pointed  at  their  extremities  nor  notched  on  the  surface, 
but  consist  of  smooth,  long,  uniformly  thick,  transparent,  waved 
rods,  obtuse  at  both  ends.  Those  forming  the  so-named  woody 
veins  of  this  species,  lie  close  and  parallel  to  each  other  in  dense 
fasciculi,  which  are  disposed  in  a  longitudinal  direction  from  the 
base  to  the  apex  of  the  sponge.  And  the  spicula  which  form 
the  loose  porous  surface,  have  one  end  inserted  into  the  dense 
central  fasciculi  of  the  woody  veins,  while  their  opposite  end 
projects  outwards  at  right  angles  to  these  fasciculi.  The  waved 
direction  of  the  remarkably  long  silicious  filaments  of  this  sponge 


r  SjSO  Dr  Orant's  Observations  on  tlie 

js  a  necessary  result  of  the  kind  of  basket-work  they  are  em- 
ployed to  construct.  The  same  form  of  spiculum  is  met  with  in 
the  Spongia  hispida  and  S.  fruticosa  Mont. ;  but  in  the  Jruti- 
cosa  it  is  very  short. 

These  general  forms  of  silicious  spicula  are  variously  modifi- 
ed in  different  species  of  sponge,  though  they  are  regular  and 
constant  in  the  same;  and  there  may  be  many  other  general 
forms  which  have  not  fallen  within  my  limited  observation,  or 
belonging  to  species  yet  undiscovered.     As  the  slender  vitreous 
spiculum,  acutely  acuminated  at  both  ends,  is  the  form  met 
with  in  the  simplest  and  most  irregular  of  the  marine  sponges, 
and  also  in  the  fresh- water  sponge,  a  simpler  and  older  zoophyte 
than  any  of  the  marine  species  (see  Ed.  Phil.  Journ,  vol.  xiv. 
p.  283),  this  spiculum  may  be  considered  as  the  first  or  simplest 
in  the  silicious  sponges.     It  is  easy  to  observe,  however,  in  these 
sponges,  that  only  one  of  the  acuminated  points  of  the  spicula  is 
employed  in  the  defence  of  the  pores  and  canals,  while  the  other 
sharp  point  is  fixed  and  imbedded  in   the  tender  substance  of 
the  animal,  which  it  is  apt  to  pierce  and  tear  on  the  slightest 
motion.     The  second  form  of  spiculum,   therefore,  where  the 
unnecessary  and  probably  hurtful  imbedded  point  has  been  re- 
moved, either  by  being  simply  struck  off,  as  in  the  S.  'panicea, 
or  by  being  still  further  softened  by  the  addition  of  an  enlarged 
spherical  head,  as  in  the  S.  patera,  seems  much  better  adapted 
for  insertion  into  the  soft  texture  of  this  animal,  or  for  defending 
its  pores  and  canals,  and  probably  was  of  later  formation  than 
the  preceding  form.     It  is  found  in  some  tropical  species,  and 
in  the  Cliona,  an  animal  already  possessed  of  distinct  irritability. 
The  numerous  inequalities  of  the  waved  surface  and  the  round 
extremity  of  the  third  form  or  jointed  spiculum  must  add  to  the 
safety  and  strength  of  its  attachment  to  the  soft  parts ;  and  the 
shortness  and  thickness  of  this  spiculum  peculiarly  fit  it  for  ward- 
ing off  the  assaults  of  extraneous  bodies  from  the  pores  of  this  ani- 
mal, for  which  office  it  seems  to  be  allotted  in  the  specimen  before 
me.    It  may  be  supposed,  that,  at  the  time  of  its  formation,  ani- 
malcules of  a  larger  magnitude  swarmed  in  the  heated  ocean ;  and 
this  stronger  mechanical  protection  of  the  pores  seems  to  have  been 
the  more  necessary,  as  no  animals  had  yet  been  formed  which 
could  contract  and  shut  their  superficial  pores  by  a  vital  effort  like 


Structure  of  some  Silicious  Sponges.  351 

the  Cliona,  Alcyonium,  Lobularia,  &c.  It  is  interesting  to  ob- 
serve, that  the  earthy  matter  of  the  skeleton  of  these  earhest  in- 
habitants of  the  ocean,  is  the  same  with  what  we  know  to  have 
paved  the  bottom  of  the  vast  abyss  at  the  remotest  periods  we  can 
reach  of  the  earth's  history,  whether  we  imagine  the  silica  of  the 
primitive  rocks  formed  by  the  oxidation  of  the  solid  surface,  or 
precipitated  from  the  superincumbent  fluid.  The  appearance  of 
many  of  their  crystalHne  silicious  pointed  spicula  is  the  same 
with  that  of  the  slender  hexaedral  acuminated  prisms  which  si- 
lica naturally  assumes  in  the  crystallized  state ;  and  the  silicious 
crystals  formed  by  nature  contain  cavities  and  fluids  like  those 
formed  by  organic  life.  The  laws,  therefore,  which  regulate 
the  forms  of  the  simplest  sihcious  spicula  composing  the  skeleton 
of  the  marine  sponge,  do  not  appear  to  difler  much  from  those 
which  regulate  the  forms  of  brute  matter. 


Notice  of  a   Voyage  of  Research.     In  a  Letter  from   Captain 
Basil  Hall,  R.  N.,  to  Professor  Jamesox. 

X  N  answer  to  your  questions  as  to  what  would  be  the  most 
useful  objects  of  inquiry,  were  a  voyage  undertaken  for  the  ex- 
press purpose  of  research,  I  beg  leave  to  offer  you  the  following 
remarks, — the  result  of  a  good  deal  of  reflection  on  the  subject, 
and  of  some  personal  experience  of  those  points  in  the  investiga- 
tion most  important  in  practice. 

Voyages  of  discovery,  as  they  were  formerly  called,  seem  now 
at  an  end ;  since  all,  or  very  nearly  all,  the  navigable  parts  of 
the  earth  have  been  pretty  well  explored.  Much,  however,  re- 
mains to  be  done,  in  order  to  complete  the  work  commenced 
by  former  voyagers,  in  a  manner  suitable  to  the  greatly  improv- 
ed means,  and  the  still  more  enlightened  ideas,  of  the  day. 

It  may  assist  your  apprehension  of  the  subject,  to  class  the 
different  objects  of  inquiry  under  distinct  heads,  that  their  im- 
portance may  be  examined  separately. 

First,  To    make  observations  having  direct  and  immediate 


S52         Captain  HalPs  Notice  of  a  Voyage  of  Research. 

utility  in  the  practice  of  Navigation,  and  the  advance- 
ment of  Geographical  Science. 

Secondly,  To  institute  experiments,  and  series  of  obser- 
vations, calculated  to  improve  the  Theory  of  Naviga- 
tion, by  furnishing  mathematicians  with  data  for  the 
coiTection  of  Nautical  and  Astronomical  Tables. 

Thirdly,  To  ascertain  the,  resources,  Nautical  and  Commer- 
cial, of  remote  countries. 

Fourthly,  To  make  observations  of  a  scientific  nature,  in 
places  distant  from  England,  and  under  circumstances 
of  situation  and  climate  which  are  not  to  be  obtained  at 
home ;  and  which,  independently  of  their  own  local  va- 
lue, would  in  many  cases  enhance  the  importance  and 
utility  of  observations  already  made ;  while,  at  the 
same  time,  the  field  of  new  knowledge  would  be  ex- 
tended and  enclosed,  if  I  may  use  such  an  expression, 
and  that  of  prejudice  and  error  contracted. 

Fifthly,  To  attend  to  that  class  of  topics  called  Popular, 
having  less  in  view  any  precise  object  of  utility,  than 
the  rational  amusement  and  information  of  persons  who 
have  no  means  of  investigating  such  subjects  for  them- 
selves. 

The  desideratum  which  is  unquestionably  of  most  importance 
in  practical  navigation,  is  the  exact  measurement  of  the  Diffe- 
rence of  longitude  between  place  and  place,  especially  between 
those  headlands  and  harbours  generally  used  as  points  of  depar- 
ture by  ships  starting,  or  which  are  looked  out  for  as  land-marks 
on  their  return  voyage.  It  is  not  necessary  this  should  be  done 
with  that  rigorous  precision  used  in  trigonometrical  surveys. 
The  well-being  of  navigation,  however,  certainly  requires  that 
this  element  should  be  determined  within  much  smaller  limits 
than  those  which  at  present  bound  our  information.  Without 
such  knowledge,  indeed,  much  of  the  utility  of  improving  nau- 
tical instruments  and  tables  is  essentially  lost.  It  may  assist 
your  imagination  to  consider,  that  the  evil  of  loosely  settled 
longitudes,  is  quite  as  great  in  practice,  as  if  the  geographical 
positions  of  the  places  on  the  earth'*s  surface  were  supposed 
to  be  actually  shifted  about  from  time  to  time.     No  skill,  it  must 

4 


Captain  HalFs  Notice  of  a  Voyage  of  Research.         S58 

be  obvious  to  the  least  informed  person,  can  obviate  the  perplex- 
ing dilemma  into  which  sailors  are  thrown  by  tables  of  longi- 
tude, which  vary  amongst  themselves.  All  the  requisite  accu- 
racy, it  is  satisfactory  to  know,  might  be  attained,  and  some 
day  will  be  attained,  by  the  judicious  employment  of  chronome- 
ters, and  other  instruments  now  in  the  hands  of  every  seaman. 

The  absolute  longitude  of  those  places,  that  is  to  say,  their 
difference  measured  from  the  meridian  of  Greenwich,  though 
not  so  material  for  the  immediate  or  daily  purposes  of  the  na- 
vigator, is  not  without  its  share  of  importance  in  a  geographi- 
cal, as  well  as  a  nautical,  point  of  view,  and  is  one  branch  of  the 
inquiry  which  would  employ  much  of  the  attention  of  an  offi- 
cer sent  upon  this  service.  Collaterally  it  would  become  an  ob- 
ject of  peculiar  interest  to  ascertain  which  one,  of  all  the  numerous 
methods  for  solving  this  problem,  is  the  most  applicable  to  prac- 
tice, in  a  given  time ;  and  to  determine  with  what  degree  of  pre- 
cision it  can  be  obtained  by  the  means  at  present  in  use.  These 
points  are  far  from  being  settled  in  the  way  they  ought  to  be, 
either  in  the  purely  nautical  case,  where  a  ship  is  out  of  sight  of 
land,  or  on  shore,  at  stations  where  the  sailor  may  have  it  in 
his  power  to  erect  a  temporary  observatory. 

Under  this  head,  therefore,  would  fall  a  series  of  experiments 
on  the  respective  value  of  the  various  instruments  in  the  hands 
of  travellers,  as  well  as  of  seamen.  This  is  the  more  necessary, 
as  there  is  at  present  a  considerable  difference  of  opinion  amongst 
practical  men,  v/hich  leads  to  inconvenience,  and  ill-bestowed 
expence,  and  after  all  the  object  is  not  attained. 

The  difficulty  of  the  longitude  problem,  or,  to  speak  more 
correctly,  the  degree  of  care  requisite  in  its  determination,  for 
there  is  no  other  difficulty  in  the  matter,  have,  perhaps,  by 
giving  it  an  undue  importance,  thrown  some  other  equally  es- 
sential points  too  much  out  of  sight,  though  in  every  respect 
of  as  much  consequence  in  practice.  This  remark  applies  more 
particularly  to  the  latitudes,  and  to  the  variation  of  the  compass 
in  different  parts  of  the  world.  It  often  happens,  absurdly 
enough,  that,  while  much  labour  and  discussion  are  bestowed 
upon  a  single  mile,  or  half  a  mile  of  longitude,  the  neglected 
latitude  is  not  determined  within  twice  the  amount,  merely  be- 
cause it  is  more  easily  obtained.     With  the  variation  of  the 

JULY OCTOBER  1826.  Z 


354         Captain  HalPs  Notice  of  a  Voyage  of  Research. 

compass  it  is  still  worse :  Yet  it  is  obviously  of  the  greatest 
importance,  when  steering  for  any  port,  especially  at  night,  to 
know  what  reliance  is  to  be  placed  on  so  fickle  a  guide  as 
the  compass — a  guide,  it  may  be  remarked,  whose  tendency  at 
every  moment  is  to  deceive — who  never  tells  the  same  story  twice 
— and  who  is  drawn  out  of  his  path  by  a  thousand  attractions, 
which,  if  not  duly  watched  and  counteracted,  render  his  ser- 
vices, like  those  of  a  drowsy  pilot,  the  very  means  of  our  destruc- 
tion. 

This  subject  has  only  very  recently  been  attended  to  in  this 
hemisphere,  scarcely  at  all  in  the  other.  It  is,  however,  a  ques- 
tion of  such  vital  importance  to  navigation,  that  the  experiments 
suggested  by  Professor  Barlow,  and  since  so  ably  followed  up  by 
Captain  Parry  and  Lieutenant  Foster  during  the  recent  expe- 
dition, should  be  carefully  repeated  in  the  south,  and  the  prac- 
tical efficacy  of  the  correcting  plate  invented  by  the  eminent 
philosopher  alluded  to,  practically  examined  in  remote  places, 
and  under  various  circumstances.  We  shall  thus  learn  the  full 
extent  of  this  beautiful  discovery,  which  removes  the  most  dis- 
tracting source  of  erroneous  reckoning  that  has  ever  annoyed 
the  navigator. 

The  phenomena  of  the  winds,  though  less  readily  made  the 
subject  of  observation  than  the  points  already  alluded  to,  ought 
to  be  investigated  in  a  manner  they  have  never  yet  been.  At 
first  sight,  the  winds  appear  less  under  the  influence  of  known 
laws  than  any  other  element  with  which  the  navigator  has  to 
concern  himself.  But  experience  seems  to  show,  that  it  is 
otherwise,  since  a  practised  sailor,  in  a  dull  sailing  ship,  will  ge- 
nerally make  a  better  passage  than  one  who  is  not  experienced, 
though  in  a  faster  sailing  vessel.  In  almost  every  part  of  the 
globe,  the  prevalent  winds  are  found  to  be  more  or  less  under 
the  influence  of  laws  capable  of  being  distinctly  stated,  but 
which  have  not  as  yet  been  recorded  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
be  intelhgible,  and  practically  useful  to  the  seaman.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  has  happened  that  theoretical  men,  by  not  taking 
into  account  local  causes,  of  which,  from  want  of  actual  ex- 
perience, or  any  correct  accounts,  they  could  have  no  just 
knowledge,  have  rather  contributed  to  embarrass  than  to  re- 
lieve the  navigator.  Even  the  well-beaten  track,  where  the 
trade- winds  prevail,  is  imperfectly  and  often  erroneously  de- 


Captain  HalFs  Notice  of  a  Voyage  of  Research.         S55 

scribed  in  most  books  of  navigation ;  and  with  respect  to  the 
winds  in  high  latitudes,  nothing  accurate  is  recorded ;  or  if  re- 
corded, is  not  put  into  that  shape  which  is  best  suited  to  the 
comprehension  of  sailors.  The  whole  of  this  apparently  complex 
subject  might  perhaps  be  treated  in  a  manner  applicable  to 
practice,  thereby  rendering  almost  all  extensive  voyages  more 
expeditious  and  certain. 

The  mysterious  subject  of  currents,  though  it  may  not  differ 
essentially  in  its  nature  from  that  of  the  winds,  differs  materially 
from  it  in  practical  operation.  Not  one  current  in  ten  marked 
on  our  cliarts  has  any  existence ;  and  the  chief  office  of  these 
investigations  would  be  the  negative  but  useful  one  of  removing 
such  misstatements  entirely.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  at  all 
events,  that  the  much-talked  of  current  in  the  east  of  the  At- 
lantic is  imaginary,  and  that  a  behef  of  its  existence  arose  en- 
tirely from  the  local  attraction  of  the  needle :  it  vanishes  entire- 
ly the  instant  Professor  Barlow's  correcting  plate  is  affixed  to 
the  steering-compass,  and  returns  again  whenever  the  plate  is  re- 
moved. 

It  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  state  how  this  curious  effect 
is  produced.  The  local  attraction,  which  is  the  technical  name 
given  to  the  influence  which  the  iron  distributed  over  the  hull 
exerts  upon  the  needle  of  the  compass,  has,  in  most  ships,  the 
effect  of  drawing  its  north  end  forward,  or  towards  the  head  of 
the  vessel.  In  the  southern  hemisphere  the  reverse  takes 
place.  To  shew  how  this  produces  an  apparent  current, 
let  it  be  supposed  that  a  ship  steers  from  the  British  Channel 
towards  Madeira  on  a  SW.  course,  by  compass,  and  that  the 
navigator,  guided  by  the  best  documents  in  his  possession,  al- 
lows two  points  westerly  variation,  it  is  clear  he  will  suppose 
that  his  course  made  good  is  SSW.  But,  owing  to  the  local 
attraction,  the  north  end  of  the  needle  has  been  drawn,  we  shall 
suppose,  half  a  point  more  to  the  westward,  so  that  in  strictness 
the  variation  allowed  ought  to  have  been  2^  points  instead  of  2. 
Thus,  the  course  made  good  has  in  fact  been  S.  by  W.  J  W. 
instead  of  SSW. ;  and  the  difference  of  longitude  between  the 
dead  reckoning  and  that  shewn  by  chronometers,  he  natu- 
rally ascribes  to  a  current  setting  to  the  eastward,  towards  the 
Straits  of  Gibraltar.  On  the  return,  that  is  to  say,  when  he  is 
steering  by  compass  NE.,  and  when,  by  making  the  same  al- 


356         Captain  HalFs  Notice  of  a  Vmjage  of  Research. 

lowance  of  2  points  westerly  variation,  he  conceives  his  course 
made  good  to  be  NNE.  while  in  fact  it  is  J  point  more  to  the 
eastward,  in  consequence  of  the  north  end  of  the  needle  being 
drawn,  as  formerly,  towards  the  ship'^s  head,  the  effect  of  which 
would  of  course  now  be  to  diminish  the  westerly  variation,  just 
as  much  as  the  same  cause  acting  in  the  opposite  direction  had 
augmented  the  variation,  when  the  vessel's  head  was  directed  to 
the  SW,  Therefore,  in  this  case,  namely,  with  the  vessel's  head 
to  the  NE.,  the  real  course  would  be  \  point  more  to  the  east- 
ward than  the  navigator  would  allow  for ;  and  he  would,  as  be- 
fore, naturally  ascribe  the  difference  between  his  position  by 
dead  reckoning,  and  that  by  his  chronometer,  to  a  current  set- 
ting to  the  eastward.  I  have  never  read  or  heard  of  any  cur- 
rent setting  towards  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  from  the  Atlantic 
which  this  theory  would  not  fully  explain.  Certainly,  however^ 
an  exact  account  of  such  undoubted  currents  as  the  Gulf  Stream 
along  the  coast  of  North  America,  and  that  off  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  would  be  useful  and  interesting.  Captain  Sabine's  re- 
searches in  this  respect  have  already  given  us  some  valuable  in- 
formation as  to  currents  near  the  Equator. 

A  very  useful  branch  of  this  class  of  subjects  would  be  the 
measurement  of  the  perpendicular  rise  and  fall  of  the  tides  in 
harbours  much  frequented  by  shipping,  and  also  the  direction 
of  the  stream  ;  both  practical  points  of  considerable  moment,  but 
which  in  most  cases  are  known  only  to  the  pilots  and  fishermen 
of  the  spot,  although  there  is  no  reason  why  it  should  not  be 
known  to  strangers. 

These  seem  the  principal  points  under  the  first  head  of  in- 
quiry ;  but  there  are  many  others  to  which  an  officer  having 
such  objects  constantly  and  exclusively  in  view,  would  of  cout'se 
direct  his  attention. 

NAUTICAL    SCIENCE. 

Under  tliis  topic  might  be  classed  observations,  such  as  those 
recently  made  by  Lieutenant  Foster  at  Port  Bowen,  on  atmo- 
spherical refraction,  the  dip  of  the  needle,  and  the  diurnal  va- 
riation of  the  magnet.  Astronomical  observations  on  the  op- 
positions of  the  planets,  occultations  of  the  fixed  stars  by  the 
moon,  under  favourable  circumstances,  and  various  other  celes-^ 
tial  phenomena,  might  be  made  to  good  purpose.     Correspon- 


Captain  HalFs  Notice  of  a  Voyage  of  Research.         S5T 

dent  observations  of  Jupiter's  satellites,  and  particularly  corre- 
spondent observations  of  moon  culminating  stars,  as  well  as 
of  eclipses,  would  be  very  serviceable  to  the  cause  of  nautical  as* 
tronomy.  It  is  desirable  also  to  ascertain  how  far  the  method 
of  occultations  can  be  practised  at  sea,  and  to  what  magnitude 
of  stars  it  may  be  useful  to  carry  the  computations  in  the  nau* 
tical  almanack.  Men  of  science  who  have  turned  their  atten- 
tion to  these  pursuits,  would  probably  furnish  the  commander 
of  such  an  expedition  with  many  hints  for  inquiry,  which  can- 
not be  suggested  by  a  practical  man.  There  have  as  yet  been  • 
no  regular  and  systematic  trials  made  at  sea  of  the  relative  me- 
rits of  the  various  instruments  contrived  for  measuring  the 
moon's  distance  from  the  sun  and  stars.  Practical  men  are  di- 
vided between  the  sextant,  Troughton's  circle,  and  the  repeat- 
ing circle,  and  much  needless  expence  is  often  incurred  by  per- 
sons who  can  ill  afford  such  outlay.  The  readiest,  as  well  as 
the  most  exact  methods  of  making  lunar  observations  and  chro- 
nometers mutually  assist  one  another,  have  never  yet  been  pro- 
perly stated. 

NAUTICAL  SUPPLIES. 

A  wide  field  for  the  diligence  of  any  officer  so  employed,  is 
presented  under  this  section,  and,  if  duly  explored,  could  not  fail 
to  prove  highly  beneficial  to  the  country.  The  peculiar  resources  * 
of  the  distant  parts  of  the  globe  are  extremely  little  known ; 
indeed  up  to  a  recent  period,  it  was  of  no  great  importance  that 
they  should  be  so.  Now,  however,  that  the  trade  of  the  eastern 
seas  and  of  South  America  is  thrown  open,  and  that  with  China 
and  Japan  will  soon  undoubtedly  follow,  it  becomes  of  the  first 
consequence  that  our  traders  should  have  some  further  knowledge 
of  the  resources  of  ports  far  from  home,  independently  of  all  ob- 
jects merely  commercial.  A  ship  may  be  dismasted  in  the  middle 
of  her  voyage,  or  spring  a  leak,  or  run  short  of  provisions ; — her 
crew  may  become  sickly  ; — she  may  lose  her  anchors  and  cables, 
or  split  her  sails ;  and  it  may  become  essential  to  the  very  ex- 
istence of  the  whole  enterprize,  that  some  re-equipment  should 
take  place.  But  it  is  quite  possible,  that,  under  such  circum- 
stances, the  master  of  the  ship  may  be  entirely  ignorant  in  what 
direction  he  ought  to  proceed  ;  he  may,  and  in  fact  very  often 
does,  make  the  most  ruinous  mistakes.      The  remedy  for  this 


858         Captain  HalPs  Notice  of  a  Voyage  of  Research. 

evil,  which  is  of  perpetual  recurrence,  lies  in  having  distinct  ac- 
counts properly  arranged  and  methodised  of  the  resources  of 
all  the  chief  ports  of  the  world.  It  signifies  nothing  to  tell 
the  seaman  or  shipowner  that  there  have  been  already  hun- 
dreds of  voyages  written,  and  that  the  requisite  information  is 
somewhere  upon  record ;  for,  although  this  may  be  true,  still  it 
is  not  to  be  had  in  a  shape  which  seamen  can  avail  themselves  of. 
Either  the  circumstances  under  which  those  voyages  have  been 
written  are  materially  altered,  as  in  the  case  of  all  the  South  Sea 

*  Islands,  New  Holland,  and  South  America,  or  the  information 
is  scattered  over  long  works,  written  with  no  such  views,  and, 
like  the  nautical  observations  which  most  voyages  contain,  en- 
tangled with  narratives,  or  other  extraneous  matter,  from  which 
it  is  impossible  to  free  them,  or  turn  them  to  account  at  the 
moment  of  need. 

These  remarks  apply  particularly  to  the  necessities  of  trading 
ships;  but  it  would  be  of  use  also  to  ascertain  the  resources 
suitable  to  King's  ships  in  the  same  places,  in  the  event  of  war. 
Much  vexatious  delay  is  often  caused  abroad  by  the  igno- 
rance of  traders  as  to  the  local  regulations  of  the  different  ports ; 
and  it  has  sometimes  happened,  that  unpleasant  discussions  have 
arisen  even  between  the  government  of  those  places  and  the  cap- 
tains of  his  Majesty"'s  ships,  on  points  respecting  which  no  pre- 
vious diligence  on  their  part  could  have  given  them  information. 
Actual  inquiries,  regularly  instituted  on  the  spot,  and  for  this 
express  purpose,  are  the  only  means  of  obtaining  the  local  know- 
ledge which  would  prevent  these  embarrassments.  Every  one  at 
all  acquainted  with  remote  foreign  stations,  knows  how  conti- 
nually such  difficulties  are  produced  by  ignorance  of  what  is 

:  .customary. 

GENERAL  SCIENCE. 

In  considering  the  scientific  observations  which  might  be 
made  on  such  a  voyage,  those  for  determining  the  length  of  the 
seconds  pendulum  occupy  the  first  place.  The  figure  of  the 
earth  is  a  question  which  at  present  occupies  much  of  the  at- 
tention of  the  scientific  world ;  and  this  method  of  determining 
the  point  is  one  which  might  be  pursued  with  great  advantage 
during  the  progress  of  these  inquiries,  without  essentially  inter- 
fering with  the  more  practical  and  useful  objects  already  ad- 


Captain  Hall's  Notice  of  a  Voyage  of  Research.        359 

verted  to.  The  ingenious  contrivances  of  Captain  Kater,  have 
already  been  shewn  to  be  available  in  the  hands  of  seamen,  and 
we  know  also,  that  the  time  requisite  for  the  performance  of 
these  interesting  experiments  is  not  great. 

There  have  already  been  a  considerable  number  of  such  ob- 
servations made  by  different  observers,  and  with  dfferent  in- 
struments. But  the  nature  of  the  experiment  is  such,  that  this 
circumstance,  which  in  most  other  similar  matters  add  to  the 
value  of  the  work  as  a  whole,  in  this  case  are  not  quite  so 
satisfactory ;  for  the  experiments  with  the  invariable  pendulum 
are  so  strictly  comparative  in  their  nature,  that,  in  order  to  de- 
duce any  valuable  conclusions  from  them,  they  ought  to  be  used 
by  the  same  observer  under  similar  circumstances,  but  in  very 
different  situations ;  so  that  the  object  in  view,  the  determination 
of  the  unequal  figure  of  the  earth,  might  be  the  sole  cause  of  dif- 
ference in  the  result.  It  would  be  highly  desirable,  therefore,  to 
ascertain  the  length  of  the  pendulum  at  stations  both  near  to 
and  remote  from  the  equator,  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  where 
the  question  is  fully  of  as  much  importance  as  in  this. 

To  investigate  by  actual  trial  the  effect  of  local  density,  or  that 
which  is  caused  by  the  nature  of  the  ground  at  the  station,  on  the 
vibrations  of  a  pendulum,  has  been  considered  a  most  interest- 
ing desideratum.  To  accomplish  this,  however,  it  is  essential 
that  the  same  instruments  be  used,  swung  at  a  series  of  stations, 
lying  not  in  different  latitudes,  as  in  the  first  case  alluded  to, 
but  along  the  same  parallel,  where,  according  to  theory,  the 
number  of  vibrations  of  the  same  pendulum,  after  allowance  for 
temperature  has  been  made,  ought  to  be  alike ;  and  consequent- 
ly the  amount  by  which  they  should  be  ascertained  to  differ, 
would  express  the  effect  of  this  disturbing  cause.  Once  ascer- 
tained, this  would  become  a  valuable  element  in  the  reductions, 
and  would  be  applicable  generally  to  every  previous  or  subse- 
quent experiment  on  the  length  of  die  pendulum. 

The  measurement  of  the  height  of  mountains,  by  means  of 
the  barometer,  in  conjunction  with  levelling  and  trigonometri- 
cal operations,  and  in  different  climates,  such,  for  example,  as 
Teneriffe  and  Terra  del  Fuego,  might,  if  done  with  care,  fur- 
nish useful  data  in  a  very  interesting  branch  of  geographical 
inquiry.  In  a  similar  spirit,  the  sea  might  be  fathomed,  and 
water  brought  up  from  great  depths, — the  height  and  velocity 


560        Captain  HalPs  Notice  of  a  Voyage  of  Research. 

of  waves  ascertained, — meteorological  tables  framed  in  different 
climates, — ^hygrometers  and  other  instruments  tried, — mineralo- 
gical,  zoological  and  botanical  collections  of  natural  history,  might 
also  be  made,  without  deviating  from  the  path  which  an  atten- 
tion to  the  more  useful  objects  of  the  voyage  would  prescribe. 
The  ingenious  and  valuable  theories  of  Mr  Daniell  on  the  con- 
stitution of  the  atmosphere,  suggest  manv  curious  investiga- 
tions to  the  voyager  who  should  have  leisure  to  follow  them 
up. 

Fifth  Head,  General  Information. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  to  what  extent  a  popular  account  of  the 
state  of  manners,  domestic  and  political,  might  be  rendered  in- 
teresting or  useful,  if  made  to  embrace  so  extensive  a  voyage  as 
that  here  contemplated.  But  it  can  scarcely  be  doubted,  that, 
in  these  days  of  curiosity  and  research,  a  simple  statement  of 
the  characteristic  traits  of  the  inhabitants  at  the  principal  sta- 
tions on  the  different  coasts  of  the  world,  would  not  be  deemed 
an  unimportant  addition  to  our  knowledge.  It  would  be  cu- 
rious, for  example,  to  point  out  the  operation  of  the  causes 
which  have  been  in  action  in  the  South  Sea  Islands  since  the 
days  of  Cook  ;  and,  generally  speaking,  to  mark  the  eff'ect  of  our 
attempts  to  civilise  and  convert  the  ruder  inhabitants  of  the 
globe. 

It  may  be  remarked,  that  there  are  already  several  detached 
expeditions  sent  by  this  country  to  diff'erent  parts  of  the  world. 
But  their  objects  are  all  more  or  less  particular,  and,  though 
highly  useful  in  themselves,  cannot  either,  jointly  or  singly,  be 
expected  to  furnish  the  results  contemplated  here,  the  essential 
value  of  which  lies  in  their  being  part  of  one  connected  series, 
performed  by  one  course  of  service,  and  by  means  of  a  uniform 
set  of  instruments  and  the  same  observers.  Indeed,  it  may  pos- 
sibly be  true,  that  to  give  the  detached  surveys  alluded  to  their 
full  utility,  their  particular  results  ought  to  be  connected  by 
some  such  general  plan  as  that  which  is  here  described. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  precisely  what  would  be  the  best  route  to 
follow,  but  the  following  sketch  includes  most  of  the  places,  the 
geographical  situation  of  which  it  seems  desirable  to  ascertain 
more  precisely  than  is  at  present  known,  while,  at  the  same  time, 
i\,  takes  in  those  stations  at  which  the  pendulum  might  be  swung. 


Captain  HalPs  Notice  of  a  Voyage  ofResearcli.        S61 


and  other  scientific  observations  made,  without  interfering  with 
the  primary  object  of  useful  and  practical  investigation. 

The  first  part  of  the  voyage  might  include  Madeira,  Tene- 
rifFe,  one  of  the  Cape  de  Verds,  Bahia,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Monte 
Video,  Buenos  Ayres.  The  next  would  include  the  Falkland 
Islands,  where  there  is  a  harbour  exactly  in  the  correspondent 
latitude  of  that  of  London ;  Cape  Horn,  where  there  is  a  secure 
port  almost  in  the  opposite  latitude  to  that  of  Leith  Port,  and 
consequently  affording  stations  well  suited  for  swinging  the 
pendulum,  in  order  to  have,  as  nearly  as  possible,  similar  obser- 
vations in  the  southern  as  in  the  northern  hemispheres ;  thence 
to  the  coasts  of  Chili,  Peru,  and  Colombia,  as  far  as  the  Equa- 
tor, and  also  to  the  Gallapagos  Islands.  The  third  division 
would  sweep  the  Pacific  as  far  as  New  Holland,  including  the 
various  groups  of  Islands  in  that  interesting  region.  The  next 
would  take  in  various  stations  amongst  the  Islands  of  the  East- 
tern  Archipelago,  lying  between  New  South  Wales  and  China. 
The  fifth  division  would  include  the  Straits  of  Malacca,  the 
Presidencies  of  India,  Ceylon,  the  Mauritius,  and  the  Cape.* 
The  last  would  take  in  St  Helena,  Ascension,  the  West  Indies, 
Bermuda,  Charlestown,  the  Azores,  and  England. 

With  the  exception  of  one  or  two,  there  is  none  of  these 
places  where  it  would  not  be  useful  to  the  practical  seaman  to 
be  well  acquainted  with  all,  or  most,  of  the  points  mentioned  in 
the  foregoing  sketch.  Some  of  the  names  of  the  places  mentioned, 
however,  have  been  introduced  for  the  purpose  of  completing  the 
important  series  of  pendulum  experiments,  having  the  effect  of 
local  density  for  their  object,  and  keeping  in  view  the  necessity 
of  selecting  stations  along  the  same  parallels  of  latitude,  but 
differing  as  much  as  possible  in  the  nature  of  the  ground.  The 
following  may  be  stated  as  two  parallels  singularly  well  suited 
to  establish  the  point  in  question. 


Northern  Series. 


Names. 


Madeira, 
Bermuda, 

Charlestown, 

Mogadore,  coast  \ 
of  Africa,  j 


Latitude.    Nature  of  the  Ground. 


324  jinsular,  volcanic. 
32^         Do.    calcareous. 

„„»  .Continent,    allu- 
^^4         vial. 

324  Do.  Sandy  desert. 


863        Captain  Hall's  Notice  of  a  Voyage  of  Research. 


Southern  Series.                          1 

Names. 

Latitude. 

Nature  of  the  Ground. 

River  Plate, 
Valparaiso, 
Juan  Fernandez, 
New  South  Wales, 
Cape, 

34i 

33| 
33| 
33| 

Continent,  aUuvial. 

Do.         primitive. 
Insular,  volcanic. 
Continent,  sandstone. 

Do.        granite. 

There  are  other  parallels  in  higher  latitudes,  where,  if  it  were 
•necessary,  these  experiments  might  be  repeated,  but  none  which 
offers  such  conveniencies  as  the  above. 

It  will  readily  be  admitted  by  practical  men,  that  such  an  ar- 
duous course  of  service  could  only  be  properly  executed  by  an 
.officer  whose  sole  duty  it  should  be  to  devote  his  time  and  thoughts 
,to  its  accomplishment.  He  would  require  to  be  supported  by 
numerous  and  able  assistants,  and  be  left  in  a  great  measure  to 
the  exercise  of  his  own  discretion  as  to  the  details  of  the  voyage, 
such  as  the  ports  he  should  touch  at,  and  the  periods  of  his  stay 
at  each.  As  it  is  well  known  that  the  ordinary  course  of  naval 
duties  on  foreign  stations,  occupies  the  whole  of  the  commanding 
officer's  time,  it  would  be  essential  to  the  success  of  any  such 
voyage  as  this,  that  the  commander  should  be  left  quite  free,  as 
far  as  the  nature  of  the  service  would  allow,  from  all  extraneous 
duties  unconnected  with  these  objects.  In  war  this  is  impossi- 
ble,— ^in  peace  it  is  easy ;  and  this  is  the  only  time,  therefore, 
that  such  an  enterprise  can  be  thought  of. 


On  Achmite,  Hyalosiderite  and  Trachylyte. 
Breithaupt  of  Freyberg. 

I.  Achmite. 


By  Professor 


X  ROFEssoR  MiTscHERLiCH,  in  Schweigger''s  Journal  of  Che- 
mistry, describes  the  Achmite,  a  Norwegian  mineral,  as  a  new 
species.  On  reading  his  account,  I  was  immediately  struck  with 
the  resemblance  of  this  mineral  to  Augite.  I  soon  had  an  op- 
portunity of  examining  a  small  suite  of  this  mineral,  in  the  col- 
lection of  Heyer  in  Dresden,  and  was  convinced  that  Achmite 
was  a  mere  variety  of  Augite.     I  could  not  find  those  differences 


Professor  Breithaupt  on  Achmite,  and  Hyalosiderite.     868 

in  the  magnitude  of  the  lateral  edges  mentioned  by  Mitscherlich. 
The  inclinations  of  both  lateral  cleavages,  I  found  to  be  essen- 
tially the  same  as  those  which  the  latest  measurements  give  of 
Augite.  The  specific  gravity  =  3.3820.  It  differs  from  Augite 
in  being  rather  softer,  much  more  easily  frangible,  and  in  having 
much  less  lustre  on  the  compact  fracture.  It  comes  nearest  in 
these  characters  to  the  Hedenbergite  of  Berzelius,  which  is  also 
but  a  variety  of  Augite.  These  appearances  alone  are  sufficient 
to  shew,  that  the  mineral  is  no  more  in  a  fresh  condition,  on  the 
contrary,  has  undergone  some  change.  In  this  way,  we  can  ex- 
plain the  difference  in  chemical  composition  observed  in  Augite, 
but  not  of  that  change  by  which  out  of  Augite  green  earth  is 
formed.  As  Professor  Mitscherlich  states  the  specific  gravity 
at  3  2,  it  is  probable  that  the  specimens  he  examined  were  more 
decayed  than  those  I  employed.  It  is  also  possible  that  the  po- 
sition of  the  planes  of  crystallization  may  have  been  altered  by 
decomposition. 

II.  Hyalosiderite. 

Professor  Walchner  has  given  a  very  accurate  mineralogical 
description,  and  also  a  chemical  analysis  of  this  mineral  in 
Schweigger''s  New  Journal,  b.  ix.  h.  i.  s.  63-80.  Its  locality  is 
that  remarkable  conical  hill,  named  Kaiserstuhl,  in  Baden, 
which  is  composed  of  members  of  the  secondary  trap  series.  At 
first  sight,  it  might  pass  for  a  new  mineral ;  but  Professor  Walch- 
ner communicated  to  me  his  doubts  as  to  its  being  a  new  species, 
and  remarked,  that  it  was  probably  only  a  variety  of  Olivine.  On 
examining  some  specimens,  I  found  that  it  bore  the  same  relation 
to  Chrysolite  that  Achmite  does  to  Augite,  viz.  having  an  inferior 
hardness,  and  very  low  lustre  in  the  compact  fractured  surface. 
Measurement  proved,  that  the  Hyalosiderite  is  a  variety  of  Chry- 
solite^ but  in  a  state  of  partial  decomposition.  This  decomposed 
condition,  explains  the  difference  in  chemical  composition  from 
Chrysolite.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that,  when  a  mineral  is  altered 
by  weathering,  that  the  open  cleavages  remained  but  little  af- 
fected. This  is  most  striking  with  the  felspar  family,  as  in  Or- 
thoklase,  which,  when  so  much  decomposed  as  to  be  easily  pressed 
into  a  kind  of  porcelain  earth  between  the  fingers,  yet  retains  its 
most  obvious  cleavages.  But  it  is  without  lustre  in  the  direction 
of  the  compact  fracture.     M.  Kiihn,  inspector  of  the  Royal  Por- 


S64  Professor  Breithaupt  on  Hyahsiderite  and  Trachylyk. 

celain  Manufacture  at  Meissen,  has,  with  an  economical  view, 
undertaken  a  chemical  examination  of  the  Orthoclases,  from  Aue 
near  Schneeberg.  He  finds,  that,  in  those  varieties  which  are  the 
least  decomposed,  there  is  a  smaller  quantity  of  potash  and  more 
alumina,  than  in  the  fresh  or  unaltered  varieties  ;  while  the  more 
completely  decomposed  afford  no  potash,  but  more  alumina. 
These  examples,  we  think,  are  sufficient  to  prove,  that  a  mineral 
can  only  be  considered  as  a  new  species,  when  it  possesses  essen- 
tial differences  from  all  known  species,  and  can  be  examined  in  a 
fresh  state.  It  also  leads  to  erroneous  views  as  to  composition,  if 
the  mineral  is  examined,  not  in  a  fresh,  but  in  a  decomposed  con- 
dition. 

III.   Trachylyte,  probably  a  New  Mineral  Species. 

Ix  Characters  of  Trachylyte. — Colours  velvet,  brownish  and 
greenish  black ;  occurs  massive  and  in  plates ;  lustre  vitreous, 
sometimes  inclining  to  resinous ;  fracture  generally  small  con- 
choidal,  seldom  uneven  ;  no  trace  of  cleavage  ;  fragments  sharp 
edged ;  opaque  ;  streak  dark  ash  grey  ;  easily  frangible ;  hard- 
ness =  8.5.  (between  orthoclase  and  quartz)  specific  gravity 
=  2.50  to  2.54. 

2.  Observations. — It  resembles  Obsidian  more  than  any  other 
mineral,  but  is  distinguished  from  it  by  streak,  greater  specific 
gravity,  &c.  and  certainly  by  its  chemical  composition.  Both 
minerals  appear  members  of  the  same  genus.  In  colour,  lustre, 
and  fracture,  the  Trachylyts  approaches  very  near  to  Gadolinite. 
Its  appearance  before  the  blowpipe  is  remarkable  ;  it  melts  in- 
stantaneously with  intumescence,  into  a  brown  and  sometimes 
vesicular  slag.  Hence  its  name,  which  refers  to  its  rapid  melt- 
ing. 

Hitherto  this  mineral  has  only  been  found  at  Siisebiihl,  be- 
tween Dransfeld  and  Gottingen,  where  it  occurs  in  small  massive 
and  plate  formed  masses,  imbedded  in  basalt  and  wacke.  It 
has  been  confounded  with  conchoidal  Augite  *  ;  but  true  con- 
choidal  Augite  is  sufficiendy  distinguished  from  it,  by  specific 
gravity,  which,  in  that  of  the  Rhon,  is  3.474,  not  to  mention 
that  it  always  exhibits  traces  of  a  cleavage  in  the  direction  of  a 
primary  rhombic  prism. 

•  Hausmann's  Handbuch  der  Mineralogie,  s.  690. 


(    565    ) 

The  Destruction  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  occasioned  by  Volca- 
nic Agency. 

A  HE  destruction  of  the  five  cities  on  the  bordeis  of  the  Lake 
Asphaltites  or  Dead  Sea,  can  be  attributed,  I  conceive,  to  no- 
thing else  than  a  volcanic  eruption,  judging  both  from  the  descrip- 
tion given  by  Moses  of  the  manner  in  which  it  took  place  *,  and 
from  the  present  aspect  of  the  country  itself. 

I  presume  it  is  unnecessary  to  urge,  that  the  reason  assigned 
in  Holy  Writ  for  the  destruction  of  the  cities  alluded  to,  does  not 
exclude  the  operation  of  natural  causes  in  bringing  it  about,  and 
that  there  can  be  no  greater  impropriety  in  supposing  a  volcano 
to  have  executed  the  will  of  the  Deity  against  the  cities  of  So- 
dom and  Gomorrah,  than  it  would  be  to  imagine,  if  such  an 
idea  were  on  other  grounds  admissible,  that  the  sea  might  have 
been  the  instrument  in  the  hands  of  the  same  Being  for  effecting 
the  general  destruction  of  the  human  race  in  the  case  of  the  de- 
luge. 

Whether  indeed  we  chuse  to  suppose  the  fire  which  laid 
waste  these  places,  to  have  originated  from  ahove  or  from  htloWy 
the  employment  of  secondary  causes  seems  equally  implied;  and 
if  it  be  urged,  that  the  words  of  Genesis  denote  that  it  proceeded 
from  the  former  quarter,  it  may,  I  think,  be  replied,  that  a  volcanic 
eruption  seen  from  a  distance  might  be  naturally  mistaken  for 
a  shower  of  stones,  and  that  we  cannot  expect  from  the  sacred 
historian  in  the  case  before  us,  any  greater  insight  into  the  real 
nature  of  such  phenomena,  than  we  attribute  to  him  in  the  ana- 

*  The  following  are  the  words  of  Scripture  :    Gen.  chap.  xix. 

"•  24.  Then  the  Lord  rained  upon  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  brimsto*ie  and  fire 
out  of  heaven. 

"  25.  And  he  overthrew  these  cities,  and  all  the  plain,  aiid  all  the  inhabi- 
tants of  these  cities,  and  that  which  grew  upon  the  ground. 

"  2G.  And  he  (Abraham)  looked  toward  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  and  toward 
all  the  land  of  the  plain,  and  behold,  and  lo,  the  smoke  of  the  country  went  up 
as  the  smoke  of  the  furnace." 

In  Deut.  chap.  xxix.  ver.  23.  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Dead  Sea  is  described 
as  a  country,  "  the  land  of  which  is  brimstone,  and  salt,  and  burning,  which  is 
not  sown  nor  beareth,  nor  has  any  grass  growing  therein." 


566  The  Destruction  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah, 

logous  instance,  in  which  the  sun  is  said  to  have  stood  still  at  the 
command  of  Joshua. 

That  the  individuals,  who  witnessed  the  destruction  of  these 
places  might  have  been  impressed  with  this  notion,  will  be  more 
readily  believed,  when  we  reflect,  that  in  most  eruptions  the  greater 
part  of  the  mischief  occasioned  proceeds  from  the  matters  eject- 
ed, which  are  often  perceived  only  to  fall  from  above  ;  and  those 
who  recollect  the  description  given  by  the  younger  Pliny  of  that 
from  Vesuvius,  will  admit,  that  a  person  who  had  fled  from  the 
neighbourhood  of  that  volcano,  as  Lot  is  stated  to  have  done 
from  the  one  near  the  Dead  Sea,  at  the  commencement  of  the 
eruption,  would  probably  have  formed  the  same  idea  of  what 
was  taking  place  ;  for  it  appears  from  the  Roman  writer,  that  it 
was  long  before  he  was  enabled,  even  at  Misenum,  to  determine, 
in  the  midst  of  the  general  obscurity,  that  the  cloud  of  unusual 
appearance,  which  was  the  precursor  of  the  volcanic  phenomena, 
proceeded  from  the  mountain  itself. 

When  Livy  mentions  the  shower  of  stones,  which,  according 
to  common  report,  fell  from  heaven  on  Mount  Albano,  there  can 
be  little  doubt,  that  the  phenomenon  that  gave  rise  to  such  an 
idea  was  of  an  analogous  description,  and  we  shall  see  hereafter, 
that  the  volcanic  action,  of  which  there  are  such  decided  evi- 
dences in  Phrygia,  was  attributed  by  some  to  heavenly  meteors. 

As,  therefore,  we  have  no  authority  for  supposing  Moses  a 
natural  historian,  or  for  imagining  that  he  possessed  a  know- 
ledge of  physics  beyond  that  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  we 
may  venture  to  apply  to  his  narrative  of  the  destruction  of  these 
cities  the  same  remark  which  Strabo  has  made  respecting  the 
indications  of  igneous  action,   presented  by  the  country  round 

Laodicea  :  '^  ovk  tvXoyov  vtto  roiovruv  TTccdioy  tjjv  toixvtviv  ^co^uv  itcTT^w^nvui 
et6^0£i/g,  ecXXoc  fZoiXXov  vtto  yytyivcv?  Trv^og.''^ 

Volney's  description  of  the  present  state  of  this  country  fully 
coincides  with  this  view. 

The  south  of  Syria,  (he  remarks)  that  is,  the  hollow  through 
which  the  Jordan  flows,  is  a  country  of  volcanoes  :  the  bitumi- 
nous and  sulphureous  sources  of  the  lake  Asphaltites,  the  lava, 
the  pumice  stones  thrown  upon  its  banks,  and  the  hot-baths  of 
Tabaria,  demonstate,  that  this  valley  has  been  the  seat  of  a  sub- 
terraneous fire,  which  is  not  yet  extinguished. 
4 


occasioned  by  Volcanic  Agency.  S6Y 

Clouds  of  smoke  are  often  observed  to  issue  from  the  lake, 
and  new  crevices  to  be  formed  upon  its  banks.  If  conjectures 
in  such  cases  were  not  too  liable  to  error,  we  might  suspect,  that 
the  whole  valley  has  been  formed  only  by  a  violent  sinking  of  a 
country  which  formerly  poured  the  Jordan  into  the  Mediterra- 
nean. It  appears  certain,  at  least,  that  the  catastrophe  of  five 
cities  destroyed  by  fire,  must  have  been  occasioned  by  the  erup- 
tion of  a  volcano  then  burning.  Strabo  expressly  says,  "  that 
the  tradition  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  (that  is  of  the 
Jews  themselves)  was,  that  formerly  the  valley  of  the  lake  was 
peopled  by  thirteen  flourishing  cities,  and  that  they  were  swal- 
lowed up  by  a  volcano."  This  account  seems  to  be  confirmed 
by  the  quantities  of  ruins  still  found  by  travellers  on  the  west* 
ern  border. 

"  The  eruptions  themselves  have  ceased  long  since,  but  the 
effects,  which  usually  succeed  them,  still  continue  to  be  felt  at 
intervals  in  this  country.  The  coast  in  general  is  subject  to 
earthquakes,  and  history  notices  several,  which  have  changed 
the  face  of  Antioch,  Laodicea,  Tripoli,  Berytus,  Tyre,  and  Si- 
don.  In  our  time,  in  the  year  1759,  there  happened  one  which 
caused  the  greatest  ravages.  It  is  said  to  have  destroyed,  in 
the  valley  of  Balbec,  upwards  of  twenty  thousand  persons ;  a 
loss  which  has  never  been  repaired.  For  three  months  the 
shock  of  it  terrified  the  inhabitants  of  Lebanon  so  much,  as  to 
make  them  abandon  their  houses,  and  dwell  under  tents."" 

In  addition  to  these  remarks  of  Volney's,  a  recent  traveller, 
Mr  Legh,  states,  that,  on  the  south-east  side  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
on  the  right  of  the  road  that  leads  to  Karrac,  red  and  brown 
hornstone  porphyry,  in  the  latter  of  which  the  felspar  is  much 
decomposed,  syenite,  breccia,  and  a  heavy  black  amygdaloid, 
containing  white  specks,  apparently  of  zeolite,  are  the  prevailing 
rocks.  Not  far  from  Shubac,  (near  the  spot  marked  in  D'An- 
ville''s  map,  Patriarchatus  Hierosolymitanus),  where  there  were 
formerly  copper  mines,  he  observed  portions  of  scoriae.  Near  the 
fortress  of  Shubao,  on  the  left,  are  two  volcanic  craters ;  on  the 
right,  one. 

The  Roman  road  on  the  same  side  is  formed  of  pieces  of  lava. 
Masses  of  volcanic  rock  also  occur  in  the  valley  of  EUasar. 


4fS  The  Destnidicni  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah, 

The  chemical  properties  of  the  waters  of  the  Dead  Sea,  rather 
lend  countenance  to  the  volganic  origin  of  the  surrounding 
country,  as  they  contain  scarcely  any  thing  except  muriatic 
salts,  Dr  Marcet's  analysis  giving  in  100  parts  of  the  water — 


Muriate  of  lime,  .     .    . 

.       3.920 

Muriate  of  magnesia,    . 

.     10.246 

Muriate  of  soda,   .    .    . 

.     10.360 

Sulphate  of  lime,  .    .    . 

.       0.054 

24.580 

Now,  we  not  only  know  that  muriatic  acid  is  commonly  ex- 
haled from  volcanoes  in  a  state  of  activity,  but  that  muriatic 
salts  are  also  frequent  products  of  their  eruption. 

The'  other  substances  met  with  are  no  less  corroborative  of 
the  cause  assigned.  Great  quantities  of  asphaltum  appear 
floating  on  the  surface  of  the  sea,  and  are  driven  by  the  winds 
to  the  east  and  west  bank,  where  they  remain  fixed.  Ancient 
writers  inform  us,  that  the  neighbouring  inhabitants  went  out  in 
boats  to  collect  this  substance,  and  that  it  constituted  a  con- 
siderable branch  of  commerce.  On  the  south-west  bank  are 
hot  springs  and  deep  gullies,  dangerous  to  the  traveller,  were 
not  their  position  indicated  by  small  pyramidic  edifices  on  the 
sides.  Sulphur  and  bitumen  are  also  met  with  on  the  moun- 
tains round. 

On  the  shore  of  the  lake  Mr  Maundrel  found  a  kind  of 
bituminous  stone,  which  I  infer  from  his  description  to  be 
analogous  to  that  of  Ragusa  in  Sicily,  noticed  in  my  memoir  on 
the  Geology  of  that  island.*  "  It  is  a  black  sort  of  pebble,  which 
being  held  to  the  flame  of  a  candle,  soon  burns,  and  yields  a  smoke 
of  a  most  intolerable  stench.  It  has  this  property,  that  it  loses  a 
part  of  its  weight,  but  not  of  its  bulk,  by  burning.  The  hills 
bordering  on  the  lake  are  said  to  abound  with  this  sort  of  sul- 
phureous (bituminous  ?)  stone.  I  saw  pieces  of  it,  adds  our 
author,  at  the  convent  of  St  John  in  the  wilderness,  two  feet 
square.  They  were  carved  in  basso  relievo,  and  polished  to  so 
high  a  lustre  as  black  marble  is  capable  of,  and  were  designed 
for  the  ornament  of  the  new  church  in  the  convent." 


•  I  have  since  received  a  specimen  of  this  stone,  which  turns  out  to  be  pre- 
cisely similar  to  that  of  Ragusa. 


The  Destruction  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah.  369 

tt  would  appear,  that,  even  antecedently  to  the  eruption  men- 
tioned in  Scripture,  bitumen  pits  abounded  in  the  plain  of  Sid- 
dim.  Thus,  in  the  account  of  the  battle  between  the  kings  of 
Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  and  some  of  the  neighbouring  princes 
(Gen.  ch.  xiv),  it  is  said, — And  the  Vale  of  Siddim  wasfvll  of 
slime-pits,  which  a  learned  friend  assures  me  ought  to  be  trans- 
XoXed.  fountains  of  bitumen. 

Mr  Henderson,  in  his  Travels  in  Iceland,  will  have  it,  that 
phenomena  similar  to  those  of  the  geysers  of  Iceland,  existed 
likewise  in  this  neighbourhood.  The  word  Siddim,  he  says,  is 
derived  from  a  Hebrew  root,  signifying  "  to  gush  out,''  which 
is  the  identical  meaning  of  the  Icelandic  word  geyser ;  and  it  is 
remarkable,  that  there  exists  in  Iceland  a  valley  called  Geysa- 
dal,  which  signifies  the  Valley  of  Geysers,  and  consequently 
corresponds  with  the  ''  Valley  of  Siddim."  The  latter,  therefore, 
he  thinks  should  be  translated  the  Valley  of  the  Gushing  Moun- 
tains. 

Mr  Henderson  further  believes,  tliat  Sheddim,  the  object  of 
the  idolatrous  worship  of  the  Israelites,  (Deut.  xxxii.  IT. 
Psalms  cvi.  37)  translated  in  our  version  "  devils,"  were  boil- 
ing springs  derived  from  volcanoes  ;  and  I  may  add,  as  some  lit- 
tle corroboration  of  this  opinion,  that  somewhat  similar  phenome- 
na at  the  Lucus  Palicorum  in  Sicily,  were  the  objects  among 
the  Greeks  of  peculiar  and  equally  sanguinary  superstition. 

Mr  Henderson  thinks,  that  it  was  in  imitation  of  these  na- 
tural fountains,  that  Solomon  caused  to  be  constructed  a  num- 
ber of  jetting  fountains  (as  he  translates  the  passage),  of  which 
we  read  in  Ecclesiasticus,  cap.  xi.  viii.  My  ignorance  of  the 
Hebrew  language  precludes  me  from  forming  any  opinions  as  to 
the  probability  of  these  conjectures ;  but  the  existence  of  hot 
springs  in  the  valley,  at  a  much  later  period  than  that  to  which 
he  refers,  is  fully  established. 

But  besides  this  volcanic  eruption,  which  brought  about  the 
destruction  of  these  cities,  it  would  appear  that  the  very  plain 
itself  in  which  they  stood  was  obliterated,  and  that  a  lake  was 
formed  in  its  stead.  This  is  collected,  not  only  from  the  appa- 
rent non-existence  of  the  valley  in  which  these  cities  were  placed, 
but  likewise  from  the  express  words  of  Scripture,  where,  in 
speaking  of  the  wars  which   took  place  between  the  Kings  of 

JULY OCTOBER  1826.  A  a 


B^O  The  Destruction  of  Sodom  and  GomorraTi. 

Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  and  certain  adjoining  tribes,  it  is  added 
that  the  latter  assembled  in  the  Valley  of  Siddim  which  is  the 
Salt,  (i.  e.  the  Dead)  Sea.  It  is  therefore  supposed  that  the  lake 
itself  occupies  the  site  of  this  once  fertile  valley ;  and  in  order 
to  account  for  the  change,  Volney  and  others  have  imagined, 
that  the  destruction  of  the  cities  was  followed  by  a  tremendous 
earthquake,  which  sunk  the  whole  country  considerably  below 
its  former  level. 

But  the  sinking  of  a  valley,  besides  that  it  is  quite  an  unprece- 
dented phenomenon  in  the  extent  assumed,  would  hardly  ac- 
count for  the  obliteration  of  the  ancient  bed  of  the  Jordan,  a 
river  which,  though  now  absorbed  in  the  Dead  Sea,  from 
whence  it  is  carried  off  by  the  mere  influence  of  evaporation, 
must,  before  that  lake  existed,  have  continued  its  course  either 
to  the  Red  Sea  or  the  Mediterranean. 

Now,  if  the  Dead  Sea  had  been  formed  by  the  cause  assign- 
ed, the  waters  I  conceive  would  still  continue  to  have  discharg- 
ed themselves  by  their  old  channel,  unless,  indeed,  the  subsi- 
dence had  been  very  considerable ;  and  then  the  course  of  the 
Jordan,  just  north  of  the  Dead  Sea,  would  have  presented, 
what  I  believe  no  traveller,  ancient  or  modern,  has  remarked,  a 
succession  of  rapids  and  cataracts,  proportionate  to  the  greatness 
of  the  descent. 

That  the  Jordan  really  did  discharge  its  waters  at  one  period 
into  the  Red  Sea,  is  rendered  extremely  probable,  by  the  late  in- 
teresting researches  of  Mr  Burckhardt,  who  has  been  the  first  to 
discover  the  existence  of  a  great  longitudinal  valley,  extending, 
in  nearly  a  straight  line  soutli-west,  from  the  Dead  Sea  as  far  as 
Akaba,  at  the  extremity  of  the  eastern  branch  of  the  Red  Sea, 
and  continuous  with  that  in  which  the  Jordan  flows  from  its 
origin  in  the  mountains  near  Damascus.  It  was  probably 
through  this  very  valley  that  the  trade  between  Jerusalem  and 
the  Red  Sea  was  in  former  times  carried  on.  The  caravans, 
loaded  at  Ezengeber  with  the  treasures  of  Ophir,  might,  after  a 
march  of  six  or  seven  days,  deposit  their  loads  in  the  warehouses 
of  Solomon. 

This  important  discovery  seems  to  place  it  beyond  question, 
that  if  there  ever  was  a  time  at  which  the  Jordan  was  not  re- 
ceived into  a  lake,  which  presented  a  surface  considerable  enough 
to  carry  off  its  waters  by  evaporation,  the  latter  would  have 


The  Destruction  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah.  371 

been  discharged  by  this  valley  into  the  Red  Sea,  and  hence 
every  theory  of  the  origin  of  the  lake  Asphaltitis  must  be  re- 
garded as  imperfect,  which  does  not  account  for  the  obliteration 
of  this  channel. 

For  my  own  part  were  I  to  offer  a  conjecture  on  the  subject, 
I  should  suppose,  that  the  same  volcano  which  overwhelmed, 
with  its  ejected  materials,  the  cities  of  the  plain,  threw  out  at 
the  same  time  a  current  of  lava  sufficiently  considerable  to  stop 
the  course  of  the  Jordan,  the  waters  of  which,  unable  to  over- 
come this  barrier,  accumulated  in  the  plain  of  Siddim  until  they 
converted  it  into  the  present  lake.  I  do  not  know  that  any  tra- 
veller has  observed  what  is  the  ordinary  depth  of  the  Dead  Sea ; 
but  if  we  only  imagine  a  current  of  lava,  like  that  which,  in 
1667,  proceeded  from  Etna,  and  flowed  into  the  sea  above 
Catania,  to  have  descended  at  right  angles  to  the  bed  of  the 
River  Jordan,  the  lake  need  not  be  supposed  very  shallow. 

Nor  need  we  be  startled  at  the  magnitude  of  the  effect  that 
we  find  to  have  resulted  from  a  cause  which,  comparatively 
speaking,  appears  so  insignificant ;  for,  if  the  little  rivulet,  that 
flows  at  the  foot  of  the  Puy  de  la  Vache  in  Auvergne,  was  ade- 
quate to  produce  the  lake  of  Aidat,  there  seems  no  dispropor- 
tion, in  attributing  to  a  river  of  the  size  of  Jordan,  to  say  no- 
thing of  the  other  streams,  nowise  inconsiderable,  which  must 
have  been  affected  by  the  same  cause,  the  formation  of  a  piece 
of  water,  which,  according  to  the  best  authorities,  is,  after  all,  not 
more  than  twenty-four  leagues  in  length,  by  six  or  seven  in 
breadth. 

That  the  volcanic  eruption  which  destroyed  the  cities  of  the 
Pentrapolis,  was  accompanied  by  the  flowing  of  a  stream  of  lava, 
may  be  inferred,  I  think,  from  the  very  words  of  Scripture. 
Thus  when  Eliphaz  reminds  Job  of  this  catastrophe,  he  makes  use 
of  the  following  expressions,  according  to  Henderson's  transla- 
tion of  the  passage : 

"  Hast  thou  observed  the  ancient  tract 
That  was  trodden  by  wicked  mortals  ? 
Who  were  arrested  on  a  sudden ; 
Whose  foundation  is  a  molten  flood. 
Who  said  to  God,  depart  from  us, 
What  can  Shaddai  do  to  us  ? 

Aa2 


S72  The  Destruction  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah. 

Though  he  had  filled  their  houses  with  wealth, 
(Far  from  me  be  the  counsel  of  the  wicked) 
The  righteous  beheld  and  rejoiced, 
The  innocent  laughed  them  to  scorn ; 
Surely  their  substance  was  carried  away. 
And  their  riches  devoured  by  fire." 

Job,  xxii.  15-20. 

The  same  fact,  Mr  Henderson  thinks,  is  implied  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  circumstances  connected  with  Lot's  escape. 

"  Why  was  he  prohibited  from  lingering  in  any  part  of  the 
low  land,  if  not  because  he  would  be  there  exposed  to  the  pesti- 
lential volcanic  effluvia  and  to  the  lava  ?  And  what  reason  can 
be  assigned  for  his  obtaining  leave  to  stop  in  Zoar,  but  its  lying 
at  some  distance  from  the  spot  where  the  lava  began  to  act,  as 
likewise  on  an  elevation  whence  he  could  survey  the  approach^ 
ing  ruin  ;  and  retire  before  the  stream  reached  that  place  ?  We 
accordingly  find,  that  however  desirous  he  was  to  stay  there  at 
first,  he  quitted  it  before  night,  for  a  still,  more  elevated  and 
safe  retreat ; — "  And  Lot  weiit^  up  out  of  Zoar,  and  dwelt  in 
the  mountain,  for  he  feared  to  dwell  in  ZoarT — Gen.  xix.  30. 

How  natural  is  the  incrustation  of  his  wife  on  this  hypothesis  ! 
Remaining  in  a  lower  part  of  the  valley,  and  looking  with  a  wist- 
ful eye  towards  Sodom,  she  was  surrounded,  ere  she  was  aware, 
by  the  lava,  which,  rising  and  swelling,  at  length  reached  her, 
and  (whilst  the  volcanic  effluvia  deprived  her  of  life)  incrusted 
her  where  she  stood,  so  that  being,  as  it  were,  embalmed  by  the 
salso-bituminous  mass,  she  became  a  conspicuous  beacon,  and 
admonitory  example  to  future  generations.  The  power  of  this 
asphaltic  substance  in  preserving  from  corruption  is  evident, 
from  its  being  employed  by  the  Egyptians  for  embalming  their 
mummies." 

"  She  is  said  to  have  been  converted  into  a  pillar  of  salt,  on 
account  of  the  quantity  of  that  substance  which  appeared  on 
the  crust ;  and  its  abundance  in  those  countries  is  notorious, 
both  from  sacred  and  profane  history ;  so  much  so,  that  the  lake 
which  now  fills  the  caverns  made  by  the  earthquake,  has,  among 
other  names,  that  of  the  Salt  Sea." 

I  know  not  what  opinion  may  be  entertained  with  regard  to 
this  explanation  of  the  disaster  that  awaited  Lot's  wife,  but  it 
will  at  least  be  allowed,  that  the  eruption  of  a  stream  of  lava. 


The  Destruction  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah.  373 

which  might  have  interfered  with  the  course  of  the  river  Jor- 
dan,  is  not  only  in  itself  a  probable  circumstance,  but  one  that 
derives  some  support  from  the  sacred  writings  themselves. 

Much,  however,  it  is  confessed,  remains  to  be  explored,  be- 
fore this  or  any  other  theory  can  be  finally  adopted;  and  it  is 
to  be  hoped,  that  the  first  individual  who  has  spirit  and  resolu- 
tion enough  to  venture  into  these  inhospitable  regions,  will  pay 
attention  to  the  physical  structure  of  the  country. 

He  should,  in  particular,  search  the  rocks  which  bound  the 
Dead  Sea,  in  order  to  discover,  if  possible,  the  crater  of  the  vol- 
cano which  was  in  a  state  of  eruption  at  the  period  alluded  to ; 
he  should  ascertain,  whether  there  are  any  proofs  of  that  sink- 
ing of  the  ground,  which,  notwithstanding  Volney's  authority,  I 
have  regarded  as  so  problematical ;  whether  traces  of  the  ancient 
bed  of  the  river  can  be  discovered  south  of  the  lake,  or  of  a  bar- 
rier of  lava  stretching  across  it ;  nor  should  he  omit  to  examine, 
whether  the  vestiges  of  these  devoted  cities  have  been  sub- 
merged, as  some  have  stated,  beneath  the  waters,  or  are  buried, 
like  Pompeii,  under  heaps  of  the  ejected  materials. — From  Dr 
Dauhenifs  lately  published  xvork  on  Volcanoes, 


Notice  on  Oil  in  the  Human  Blood,  by  Dr  Adam  ;  and  on  the 
effects  of  the  Bite  of  the  Ceylon  Leech,  by  John  Tytler, 
Esq.  Assistant-Surgeon,  Garrison  of  Monghyr. 

Oil  in  Human  Blood. 

JL  HE  following  brief  notice  may  prove  interesting,  as  it  re- 
lates to  a  peculiarity  in  the  human  subject,  which  I  have  not 
hitherto  met  with ;  nor  do  I  remember  to  have  read  of  a  similar 
occurrence  in  medical  writings.  The  body  of  Serjeant  Macdo- 
nald  was  sent  from  the  garrison  to  the  general  hospital,  for  in- 
spection ;  as  certain  circumstances  had  created  a  suspicion  re- 
garding the  manner  of  his  death.  He  had  gone  to  bed  in  the 
barrack-room  apparently  in  good  health,  and  was  found  in  the 
morning  lying  dead  on  his  couch.  He  had  had  a  quarrel,  it'' 
was  stated,  the  preceding  evening,  with  some  of  his  comrades, 
and,  it  was  currently  surmised,  had  met  with  his  death  by  vio- 


374  Dr  Adam  on  Oil  in  the  Huniaii  Blood. 

lence  through  their  means.  Under  this  impression,  the  body 
was  directed  to  be  examined  with  great  care,  and  a  report  made 
of  the  appearances  on  dissection. 

The  subject  was  rather  corpulent,  and,  from  incipient  putre- 
faction, much  swelling  and  discoloration  existed  about  the  head 
and  neck.  On  removing  the  scull-cap,  some  blood,  which  esca- 
ped from  a  sinus  wounded  in  the  dissection,  was  observed  to 
present  a  singular  oily  appearance  on  its  surface.  When  mi- 
nutely examined,  this  was  found  to  proceed  from  an  oil  swim- 
ming about  in  the  fluid,  in  the  form  of  small  globules.  In  con- 
sistence it  resembled  olive-oil ;  but  in  colour  approached  more 
to  that  of  amber,  or  of  hot-drawn  castor-oil.  In  the  substance 
of  the  brain,  slight  indications  of  congestion  presented  them- 
selves, but  no  decided  inflammatory  appearance.  The  abdo- 
men was  opened,  and  the  blood  in  the  cava  ascendens  found  to 
contain  the  same  oily  matter  in  great  abundance,  as  was  also 
the  case  with  the  femoral,  and  other  vessels  of  the  lower  extre- 
mity ;  and  it  evidently  pervaded  the  whole  venous  system.  In 
proportion  to  the  mass  of  blood,  it  existed  in  considerable  quan- 
tity, and  might  be  collected  by  means  of  a  spoon,  with  great 
ease.  A  quantity  of  the  oil  thus  procured,  with  some  adherent 
blood,  was  set  aside  for  analysis ;  but  putrefaction  speedily 
taking  place,  prevented  the  examination.  No  visible  disease 
existed  in  any  of  the  viscera,  whether  of  the  thorax  or  abdo- 
men. It  was  afterwards  ascertained  that  this  man  had  been  in- 
toxicated the  night  previous  to  his  decease ;  but  he  was  in  ge- 
neral of  sober  habits,  and  enjoyed  a  perfectly  sound  and  healthy 
frame.* 


•  Since  the  above  notice  was  presented  to  the  Calcutta  Medical  and  Phy- 
sical Society,  I  have  observed  in  the  Edinburgh  Philosophical  and  Medical 
Journals,  that  a  similar  oil  is  described  as  having  been  found  in  the  blood  of 
the  living  subject,  by  Dr  S.  Trail  of  Liverpool.  The  oil  in  these  instances 
was  combined  with  the  serum  in  the  form  of  an  emulsion  ;  and  it  is  not  im- 
probable, that  during  life  the  same  union  existed  in  the  case  now  detailed. 
Putrefaction,  however,  having  commenced  before  the  body  was  opened,  we 
had  no  opportunity  of  witnessing  the  natural  appearance  of  the  fluid,  or  of  as- 
certaining the  relations  which  its  elementary  parts  may  have  borne  to  each 
other.  Judging  from  its  appearance,  I  should  say  it  was  much  more  abun- 
dant than  the  proportion  stated  by  Dr  Trail  in  his  cases.     The  blood,  too. 


Mr  Tytler  on  the  Bite  of  the  Ceylon  Leech.  375 

On  the  Bite  of  the  Ceylon  Leech. 

Though  an  invalid  station  does  not  generally  afford  opportu- 
nities of  seeing  disease  in  a  great  variety  of  forms,  yet  it  pos- 
sesses one  advantage  not  always  obtainable  in  places  where  me- 
dical practice  is  more  extensive  ^  I  mean  that  of  seeing  the  last 
stage  and  termination  of  maladies  that  have  been  very  long  pro- 
tracted, and  on  which  a  variety  of  plans  of  treatment  have  from 
time  to  time  been  tried.  To  the  above  observations  I  have 
been  led,  by  having  an  opportunity  at  this  place  of  seeing  some 
cases  of  men  who  have  been  bitten  by  poisonous  leeches  in  the 
island  of  Ceylon  ;  and  as  the  nature  of  the  wounds  inflicted  by 
those  animals  is  not,  I  believe,  very  well  known,  perhaps  the  So- 
ciety may  be  a  little  interested  by  hearing  the  history  of  their 
cases,  as  far  as  can  be  gathered  from  their  own  statement,  and 
an  account  of  their  present  condition. 

Bhawani  Deen,  sipahee,  three  years  ago,  when  sleeping  on 
the  ground  in  the  kingdom  of  Candy,  was  bitten  by  a  leech,  just 
behind  the  inner  ankle  of  the  right  foot.  When  he  awoke,  the 
animal  was  gone,  but  blood  continued  to  flow  for  some  time. 
He  describes  the  leeches  there  as  being  about  four  inches  long, 
slender  and  black,  and  living  in  stony  places  and  among  trees ; 
from  which  habitations  they  issue  in  great  numbers,  when  a 
shower  of  rain  falls.  In  about  two  months,  the  wound  skinned 
over ;  but  in  its  place  a  tumour  arose,  filled  with  pus.  This  was 
opened  by  his  surgeon,  and  the  matter  discharged.  The  orifice 
degenerated  into  a  foul  unhealthy  ulcer,  on  account  of  which 
it  was  finally  necessary  to  send  him  to  this  place  Monghyr.  I 
sa^^'  him  first  in  last  August :  the  ulcer  was  then  open,  since 
which  it  has  gradually  healed  ;  but  there  is  a  considerable  loss 
of  substance ;  the  skin  all  around  is  drawn  in  and  puckered, 
and  has  lost  its  black  colour,  that  is,  no  doubt,  by  the  loss  of 

was  of  a  thicker  consistence,  and  considerably  darker  colour  than  usual ;  and 
the  oil  which  was  swimming  on  the  surface,  as  stated  above,  could  with  ease 
be  separated  from  the  general  mass.  It  may  be  worthy  of  remark,  that  on 
the  evening  this  notice  was  made  to  the  Society,  a  member  then  present,  Mr 
Veterinary-Surgeon  Hodgson,  stated,  that  he  had  more  than  once  observed  a 
similar  oil  in  the  blood  of  the  horse ;  but  although  his  attention  was  parti- 
cularly attracted  to  the  circumstance  at  the  time,  he  was  totally  at  a  loss  to 
account  for  it,--).T.  A. 


376  Mr  Tytler  on  the  Bite  qftlve  Ceylofi  Leech. 

the  rete  mucosum.  The  muscles  of  the  \^g^  particularly  the 
gastrocnemii,  are  so  much  wasted,  as  to  render  him  a  complete 
cripple,  and  he  walks  only  by  the  help  of  a  staff. 

Meer  Wilaet  Alee,  drummer,  was  bitten  in  the  same  coun- 
try, and  about  the  same  time,  in  the  outer  ankle  of  the  left  foot. 
He  describes  the  leeches  as  the  former  patient,  excepting  differ- 
ing as  to  their  size,  which  by  this  man's  account  is  not  above 
two  inches.  On  seeing  the  leech  on  his  foot,  he  tore  it  off,  and 
flung  it  away  ;  and  to  this  circumstance  he  ascribes  the  peculiar 
malignity  of  the  wound  he  received.  A  small  ulcer  appeared, 
which  in  hospital  was  speedily  cured  ;  but  as  soon  as  he  return- 
ed to  duty,  again  broke  out.  He  was  again  cured  in  hospital, 
and  again  the  ulcer  reappeared  on  his  discharge  ;  and  this  was 
repeated  several  times.  Three  times  the  surgeon  cut  out  the  edge 
of  the  ulcer  all  around  its  circumference,  with  a  view,  no  doubt, 
of  removing  the  diseased  or  infected  parts :  but  not  the  least  be- 
nefit resulted  from  the  operation.  The  ulcer  is  now  exceedingly 
foul,  with  a  great  destruction  of  substance,  and  a  constant  and 
copious  discharge  of  sanies.  On  the  upper  part  of  the  foot,  its 
size  and  shape  is  like  that  of  two  rupees  laid  lengthways ;  and 
it  has  eaten  into  the  sole,  and  made  there  an  indentation  of  a- 
bout  two  inches  long,  and  one  broad,  very  deep  and  foul.  This 
man  is  of  course  totally  a  cripple.  He  states  it  to  be  the  gene- 
ral belief,  that  if  tbese  leeches,  upon  fixing  on  a  part,  are  allow- 
ed to  gorge  themselves,  and  come  off  of  their  own  accord,  their 
bite  is  harmless ;  but  that  if  rudely  torn  off,  they  leave  their 
teeth  in  the  wound,  and  the  above  mischievous  consequences  en- 
sue. Supposing  this  account  of  the  -effects  of  disturbing  these 
animals  to  be  true,  is  the  above  account  of  its  cause  also  to  be 
admitted,  or  may  it  be  allowed  to  conjecture,  that  those  leeches 
have,  like  snakes,  two  sets  of  teeth,  one  of  which  they  employ  as 
instruments  in  receiving  their  foodj  and  the  other  as  weapons  of 
injury,  when  they  find  themselves  attacked  .^ 

Kesri  Sing,  sipahee,  was  bitten  on  the  upper  part  of  the  great 
toe.  His  description  of  the  leech  exactly  agrees  with  that  of  the 
last  patient.  Ulceration  took  place,  which  healed,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  a  tumour  containing  pus.  On  being  opened,  this  de- 
generated into  a  sloughing  ulcer,  out  of  which  came  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  extensor  tendon  of  the  toe.     The  ulcer  is  at  length 


Mr  Frembly  on  the  Temperature  of  the  Sea.  3*77 

healed  ;  but  a  very  large  cicatrix  remains,  and  the  patient  has  as 
yet  by.no  means  recovered  the  perfect  use  of  his  foot. 

Thus  we  see  three  men  perfectly  hale  in  other  respects,  ren- 
dered totally  useless  by  this  accident.  It  would  be  very  satisfac- 
tory, could  some  correct  information  be  got  about  the  reptiles 
which  possess  the  power  of  causing  so  much  mischief,  and  the  best 
means  of  preventing  or  alleviating  the  consequences  of  their  bite. 
— Transactions  of  the  Medical  and  Physical  Society  of  Calcutta. 


•A  Series  of  Observations  on  the  Temperature  of  the  Sea  at 
the  Mouth  of  the  Thames,  in  the  year  1824.  By  Mr  J. 
FftEMBLY,  R.  N.     Communicated  by  the  Author. 


Place  of 
Observation. 


Aldborough 
Bay, 


Hollesley 
Bay, 

Harwich 
Harbour, 


Date  and 
Phases  of 
the  Moon. 


Apr.  28. 


29. 


30. 


May    1. 


Tune  of 
Observation. 


10 


0  p.  M. 

0 


8  0  A.  M. 

9  0 
Noon, 

9  0  P.M. 

10  0 

8  0  A.  M. 

10  0 

1  0  p.  M. 

5  0 

10  0 

8  0  a.  m. 

7  0 

11  0 

9  0  A.  M. 

12  30  P.M. 

6  0 

10  0 

8  0  A.  M. 
4  0  P.M. 
6  0 

11  0 

8  30  A.  M. 

8  30  A.  M. 

8  0  A.  M. 

3  0  p.  M. 

11  0 


Temperature  of  Air  and 
Surface. 


Air.      Surface      Diff. 


48.5 
47.5 

52.0 
51.5 
65.0 
50.0 
52.0 

53.0 
55.0 
56.0 
57.0 
50.0 

54.0 
54.0 
50,0 

51.0 
49.0 
48.25 
48.0 

44.5 
47.0 
46.0 
43.5 

49.0 

56.0 

47.0 
52.0 
44.0 


44.0 
44.0 

45.0 
45.0 
45.0 
46.0 
46.0 

46.0 
46.0 
46.0 
48.0 
46.0 

47.0 
48.0 
47.0 

47.0 
47.0 
49.0 
47.0 

50.0 
50.0 
51.0 
51.0 


4.5 

—  3.5 

—  7.0 
6.5 

10.0 

—  4.0 
6.0 

7.0 

—  9.0 
10.0 

—  9.0 
4.0 

—  7.0 
6.0 

—  3.0 

4.0 

—  2.0 
+  0.75 

-    1.0 

+  5.5 

+  3.0 

+  5.0 

+  7.5 


State  of  the 
Surface. 


50.0 

+ 

1.0 

51.0 

— 

5.0 

51.5 

+ 

4.5 

52.0 

0.0 

50.5 

+ 

6.5 

ruffled, 
do. 

ruffled, 

do. 

rough, 

ruffled, 

do. 

ruffled, 

do. 

do. 

do. 

rough, 

ruffled, 

do. 

do. 

ruffled, 
do. 
do. 
do. 

rough, 
do. 
do. 
do. 

ruffled, 

ruffled, 

ruffled, 

do. 

do. 


State 
of  the 
Tide. 


g  flood, 

f  flood, 

4  flood, 
do. 

H.W. 

I  flood, 

do. 

\  flood, 
\  flood, 
H.W. 
I  ebb, 
4  flood, 

\  flood, 
I  ebb, 
I  flood, 

\  flood, 
I  flood, 
4  ebb, 
\  flood, 

L.W. 

iebb, 
4  ebb, 
\,  flood, 

Iebb, 

I  ebb, 

i  flood, 
I  ebb, 
iebb. 


Winds, 

Direction  and 

Force. 


SSW.  fresh. 
...     do. 

S.  fresh. 
...     do. 
...    strong. 
...    fresh. 
...     do. 

SSW.  fresh. 

...     do. 
SSE.    do. 

...     do. 
SSW  strong 

SSW.  fresh. 
...     do. 
...     do. 


378 


Mr  Frembly's  Observations  on  the  Temperature 


Place  of 
Observation. 


Harwich 
Harbour, 

HoUeslej 
Bay, 


Outside  of 
Shipwash  S. 
Hollesley 
Bay, 

Harwich 
Harbour, 


OfF  FeHx- 
stow. 


Orford  Ha- 

ven, 
Harwich 
Harbour, 


Entrance  do 
Off  FeHx- 
stow, 

OfFBaudsey 
Entrance  of 
Harwich 
Harbour, 

Hollesley 
Bay, 


Outside  of 
Shipwash  S. 
Holies.  Bay 
Shottley 
Ferry, 


Date  and 
Phases  of 
the  Moon. 


May  13, 


27. 


28. 


June  1. 


8. 


15. 


16. 


17. 


18. 


19. 


23. 


24. 


Time  of 
Observation. 


0  A.  M, 

0  r.  M. 


10   0  A.M. 

8  0  p.  M. 


A.  M. 
P.  M. 


0  A.  M. 
0  P.  M. 


9   0  A.  M. 
6   0  P.M. 

10   0  A.  M. 

Noon, 
5  0  P.  M. 
8  0  ... 


0  A.  M. 
0  P.  M. 

0  ... 
0  ... 

0  A.  M. 
0  p.  M. 

0  ... 
0  ... 
0  ... 


9  0  A.  M. 
10  0  p.  M. 


9  0 

1  0 

5  0 

10  0 

4  30 

6  0 
9  0 

6  0 

Noon, 

5  0 

10  0 

9  0 

11  0 


9  0 

1  0 

9  0 

7  0 

10  0 

11  0 


A.  M. 
P.M. 


A.  M. 
P.M. 


A.  M. 
P.  M. 

A.  M. 
P.  M. 


A.  M. 
P.M. 

A.  M. 
P.  M. 

A.  M. 


Temperature  of  Air  and 
Surface. 


Air.      Surface      Diff. 


48.0 
51.0 

62.0 
51.0 

55.25 
48.0 

58.0 
50.5 

59.0 
56.0 

53.5 
58.0 
54.3 
52.0 

57.5 
62.5 
53.0 
56.0 

61.0 
57.0 
55.5 
51.0 
49.5 

58.0 
49.0 

56.0 
57.0 
57.0 

62.0 
57.0 
55.5 
53.0 

53.0 
60.0 
56.5 
50.0 

54.0 
55.5 
57.0 
57.5 
52.5 

52.5 
53.0 

56.0 
56.0 

59.0 
58.0 


51.0 
49.5 

52.0 
50.25 

51.0 
50.0 

51.0 
49.5 

52.0 
53.5 

56.0 
57.0 
55.5 
55.5 

56.0 
58.0 
55.0 
56.5 

57.0 
56.5 
54.0 
55.0 
54.0 

54.0 
54.0 

55.5 
55.3 
56.0 

57.5 
55.0 
55.0 
54.0 

54.0 
55.0 
55.5 
56.0 

56.0 
54.0 
54.0 
54.0 
54.0 

52.0 
52.0 

56.0 
58.0 

58.0 
58.0 


+  3.0 

~  1.5 

—  10.0 

—  0.75 

—  4.0 
+  2.0 

_  7.0 

—  1.0 

—  7.0 

—  2.5 

+  2.5 

~  1.0 

+  1.2 

+  3.5 

—  1.5 

—  4.5 
+  2.0 
+  0.5 

—  4.0 

—  0.5 

—  1.5 
+  4.0 
+  4.5 

—  4.0 
+  5.0 

—  0.5 

—  1.7 

—  1.0 

—  4.5 

—  2.0 

—  0.5 
+  1.0 

+  1.0 

—  5.0 

—  1.0 
+  6.0 


2.0 
1.5 
3.0 
3.6 
1.5 

0.5 
1.0 

0.0 
2.0 

1.0 
0.0, 


State  of  the 
Surface. 


ruffled, 
rough, 

calm, 
do. 

ruffled, 
calm, 

calm, 
ruffled, 

ruffled, 
do. 

ruffled, 
do. 
do. 
calm, 

ruffled, 
do. 
do. 
calm, 

calm, 

ruffled, 

do. 

do. 

do. 

cahu, 
ruffled, 

ruffled, 

do. 

do. 

calm, 
ruffled, 
do. 
do. 

V.  rough, 
rough, 
do. 
ruffled, 

ruffled, 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

rough, 
V.  rough, 

rough, 
ruffled, 

ruffled, 
do. 


state 
of  the 
Tide. 


4  flood, 
iebb, 

H.W. 

4  flood, 

k  flood 
I  do. 

\  flood, 
ido. 

\  flood, 
I  ebb, 

I  ebb, 
I  flood, 
H.W. 
I  ebb, 

I  ebb, 
I  flood 
4  ebb, 
I  ebb, 

I  ebb, 
\  flood, 
I  flood, 
H.W. 
iebb. 


Winds, 

Direction  and 

Force. 


E.bS.  fresh. 
...  strong. 

ESE.  light. 
ENE.  do. 

S.  light. 
Calm. 

East,  light. 
...     do. 

NE. 


NNE.  mod. 

...      do. 

...      do. 
Easty.  light. 

NNE. 

Easterly. 

SE.  Ught. 

]!!  do! 
...  do. 
...     do. 

SE.  light. 
ESE.  do. 

SSE.  fresh. 

...     do. 
South,  do. 

Calm. 

ENE.  light, 
do. 
...      do. 

NE.  strong. 

...      do. 
NNE.  do. 

...  fresh. 

NNW.  mod 
...      do. 
...      do. 

ESE.  do. 
.      do. 


SE.  mod. 
...     do. 


of  the  Sea  at  the  Mouth  of  the  Thames. 


379 


Place  of 
Observation. 

Date  and 
Phases  of 
the  Moon. 

Time  of 
Observation. 

Temperature  of  Air  and 
Surface. 

State  of  the 
Surface. 

Winds, 

Direction  and 

Force. 

Air. 

Surface 

Diff. 

Harwich  H. 

June  26. 

8      0  A.M. 

57.0 

58.0 

+      1.0 

ruffled, 

WNW.mo. 

Entrance  do 

9     0     ... 

60.0 

57.5 

—    2.5 

do. 

...     do. 

Shipway, 

11     0     ... 

65.5 

57.5 

—    8.0 

do. 

SW.     do. 

Noon, 

65.5 

57.0 

—    8.5 

do. 

do. 

3     0  p.  M. 

62.0 

56.0 

—    6.0 

do. 

do. 

Outside  of 

7    0     ... 

66.0 

55.0 

—  11.0 

do. 

...       do. 

Shipwash  S. 
Hollesley 

Bay, 
Outside  of 

27. 

10      0   A.  M. 

64.0 

56.5 

_    7.5 

ruffled, 

SW.  do. 

28. 

Noon, 

64.0 

57.5 

—    6.5 

ruffled. 

SSW.  mod. 

Shipwash  S. 

Near  the 

29. 

Noon, 

59.0 

55.5 

—    3.5 

ruffled  t, 

SW.  mod. 

Gabbard 

2     0  p.  M. 

58.0 

55.5 

—    2.5 

do. 

Sands  *, 

6     0     ... 

65.0 

55.7 

—    9.3 

do. 

...  fresh. 

30. 

9      0   A.  M. 

60.0 

55.5 

_    4.5 

V.  rough. 

Outside  of 

July   9. 

10      0   A.  M. 

62.0 

59.0 

—    3.0 

ruffled. 

SW.  mod. 

Shipwash 

2     0  p.  M. 

63.5 

59.0 

_    3.5 

do. 

...     do. 

Sand, 

4     0     ... 

61.0 

58.5 

_    2.5 

do. 

...     do. 

8     0     ... 

61.0 

58.5 

—    2.5 

do. 

South,  do. 

10  30     ... 

60.0 

59.0 

—    1.0 

do. 

...     do. 

On  Inner 

)0 

10      0   A.  M. 

64.0 

59.0 

—    5.0 

ruffled. 

Gabbard  S. 

Noon, 

68.0 

60.0 

—    8.0 

do. 

8     0  p.  M. 

59.0 

58.0 

— .    1.0 

rough. 

Near  Inner 

11. 

5      0   A.  M. 

55.0 

57.5 

+     2.5 

rough. 

Gabbard  S. 

9     0  P.  M. 

61.0 

58.0 

—    3.0 

do. 

12  miles  off 

18. 

8     0  a.  m. 

61.0 

60.5 

—    0.5 

ruffled. 

NE.  Mght. 
do. 

Orfordness, 

10     0     ... 

62.0 

60.0 

—    2.0 

do. 

Near  Inner 

11     0     ... 

62.0 

60.5 

—    1.5 

do. 

...     do. 

Gabbard, 

Noon, 

62.0 

60.5 

— .    1.5 

do. 

...     do. 

On  do. 

Near  the 

19. 

11       0   A.  M. 

60.0 

59.0 

—    1.0 

V.  rough, 

NE.  strong. 

Gabbards, 

3     0  p.  M. 

74.5 

59.0 

—  15.0 

calm, 

calm. 

5     0     ... 

70.0 

59.0 

—  11.0 

do. 

do. 

8     0     ... 

59.5 

59.0 

—    0.5 

ruffled. 

20. 

7      0   A.  M. 

59.0 

59.0 

0.0 

rough. 

11      0      ... 

62.5 

59.5 

—    3.0 

calm, 

calm. 

6     0  p.  M. 

62.0 

59.0 

—    3.0 

do. 

do. 

7    0     ... 

62.0 

59.0 

—    3.0 

do.+ 

do. 

9     0     ... 

59.0 

59.0 

0.0 

do. 

do. 

21. 

8      0   A.  M. 

62.5 

59.0 

—    3.5 

ruffled, 

NbW.  light 

10    0     ... 

63.0 

59.5 

—    3.5 

do. 

...     do. 

Noon, 

6.-5.0 

59.7 

—    5.3 

do. 

NE.  do. 

9     0  P.  M. 

59.7 

59.0 

—    0.7 

do. 

...    do. 

22. 

8      0   A.  M. 

60.0 

59.0 

—    1.0 

ruffled, 

NE.  light. 

3    0  p.  M. 

61.0 

61.5 

+     0.5 

calm. 

...      do. 

7     0     ... 

62.0 

61.5 

+     0.5 

ruffled. 

SSW.  do. 

«  Two  dangerous  shoals  about  15  and  20  miles  SSE.  i  E.  from  Orfordness. 

t  At  the  depth  of  17  fathoms  the  temperature  was  found  to  be  the  same  as  at  the  surface. 

%  At  the  depth  of  16  fathoms;  the  temperature  was  found  to  be  the  same  as  at  the  surface. 


(    S80    ) 

Observations  made  during  a  Visit  to  Madeira^  and  a  Residence 
in  the  Canary  Islands.     By  Baron  Leopold  Von  Buch. 

W  HEN  my  intelligent  and  amiable  friend,  the  distinguished 
botanist  Christian  Smith  of  Drammen  in  Norway,  and  I  were  de- 
tained in  London  in  the  winter  of  1814,  the  similarity  of  our  pur- 
suits soon  produced  a  close  intimacy  between  us.  We  met  frequent- 
ly, and  visited  many  places  together.  Every  thing  we  saw  and 
heard,  and,  perhaps,  my  friend's  peculiar  susceptibility  also,  were 
continually  transporting  our  imaginations  to  the  splendid  pheno- 
mena of  nature  in  warmer  cHmates ;  and  we  witnessed  with  the 
liveliest  emotions  the  great  facility  with  which  people  were  waft- 
ed from  this  immense  port  to  every  quarter  of  the  globe.  Our 
desire,  therefore,  became  so  engrossing,  that  we  believed  it  to  be 
only  fulfilling  our  duty,  when  we  endeavoured  to  profit  by  such 
an  opportunity  of  acquiring  some  knowledge,  however  small,  of 
tropical  vegetation.  While  continually  occupied  with  these 
thoughts,  the  WiUiam  and  Mary,  a  ship  lying  in  the  Thames, 
and  quite  prepared  for  setting  out  on  her  voyage,  finally  fixed 
our  almost  settled  resolution.  We  resolved  to  visit  the  Canary 
Islands. 

The  ship  was  ready  to  sail,  and  we  were  prepared  to  accom- 
pany her  as  early  as  February,  that  we  might  not  miss  the  de- 
licious winter  of  these  happy  islands.  But  the  ratification  of 
peace  with  America,  which  would  cause  the  American  priva- 
teers to  abandon  the  coast,  being  still  unconcluded,  the  vessel, 
to  our  mortification,  was  detained  in  the  harbour.  We  embark- 
ed at  Spithead,  near  Portsmouth,  on  31st  March  1815.  Con- 
trary winds,  and  a  search  of  the  press  for  the  seamen  on  board, 
obliged  us  to  remain  some  days  longer  in  Yarmouth  in  the  Isle 
of  Wight.  On  8th  April,  we  at  length  left  the  Channel,  gained 
the  main  ocean  without  difficulty  or  hardship,  discovered  the 
island  Porto  Santo  on  20th,  and  on  the  21  st  landed  at  Funchal 
in  Madeira. 

Captivated  by  the  powerful  fascination  of  every  object  around 
him,  Smith  was  no  longer  inactive.  In  a  fit  of  transport,  he 
rushed  towards  the  Cactus  bushes  which  covered  the  rocks  in 
the  most  fantastic  forms,  to  ascertain  whether  it  was  reality  or 


Baron  Von  Buch's  Observations  on  Madeira.         381 

deception :  he  leaped  walls  to  reach  the  woods  of  Donax,  whose 
summits  the  breezes  waved  gently  and  delightfully  over  the 
vines  that  grew  among  them.  As  he  ran  enthusiastically 
from  flower  to  flower,  it  was  scarcely  possible  to  prevail  upon 
him  to  enter  the  town.  On  an  elevated  situation,  appeared  a 
lawn  of  lofty  trees,  of  Justicia,  Melia  Azederach,  and  Datura  ar- 
borea,  completely  covered  with  gorgeous  and  gigantic  flowers, 
that  loaded  the  air  with  perfumes.  The  large  leaves  of  the  Ba- 
nana were  waving  over  the  walls,  and  the  splendid  palm  trees 
rose  high  above  the  houses.  The  singular  shape  of  the  Dragon 
tree,  the  all-pervading  fragrance  of  the  blossoms,  and  the  mas- 
sive leaves  of  the  Orange  trees,  attracted  us  involuntarily  to  the 
gardens.  Here  the  Coffee  trees  form  hedges  and  copses,  en- 
closing large  beds,  in  which  Ananas  without  number  are  culti- 
vated in  the  open  air.  Mimosas,  Eucalyptus,  Melaleuca,  Pro- 
tea,  Mamea,  Clitoria  and  Eugenia,  all  plants  of  which  we  ob- 
serve only  mere  fragments  in  our  hot-houses,  are  here  elevated 
to  tall  and  stately  trees,  displaying  their  far  glittering  blossoms 
in  the  most  delightful  climate  upon  earth. 

"  How  shall  I  relate  to  you,''  said  Smith,  in  a  letter  to  his 
friends  in  Norway,  "  how  shall  I  express  what  I  have  seen  and 
felt — how  can  I  convey  to  you  an  idea  of  the  variety  and  singu- 
larity of  these  forms,  of  the  beauty  and  briUiancy  of  these  co- 
lours, and  the  general  glorious  aspect  of  nature  with  which  I 
am  surrounded  !  We  have  climbed  the  declivity  of  the  moun- 
tains that  environ  the  lovely  Funchal ; — we  have  at  length  seat- 
ed ourselves  on  the  margin  of  a  rivulet  which  leaps  from  fall  to 
fall  through  bushes  of  rosemary,  jessamine,  laurel  and  myrtle. 
The  town,  with  its  fortifications,  its  churchs,  its  gardens,  and 
its  vessels  in  the  road-stead,  are  lying  at  our  feet.  Groves  of 
chesnut  and  pine  trees  are  stretched  above  us,  among  which 
are  scattered  flowers  of  spartium  and  lavender.  The  vast 
number  of  Canary  birds  among  the  branches  are  filling  the  air 
with  their  warblings;  and  the  snow,  sometimes  appearing  through 
the  clouds  that  wrap  the  summits  of  the  mountains,  is  the  only 
object  that  can  recall  my  native  land."" 

Every  step  was  instructive,  every  plant  between  the  stones  of 
the  pavement  a  new  discovery.  The  light-hearted  children  of 
the  neighbourhood  collected,  and  accompanied  the  industrious 


38S  Baron  Von  Buch'*s  Ohservatiwis  on  Madeira 

botanist,  leaping  with  joyous  agility  amongst  the  rocks.  They 
brought  flowers  to  him  from  every  quarter ;  they  gathered  toge- 
ther in  close  groups,  waited  silently  and  attentively  to  learn  if  the 
flowers  would  excite  his  attention.  As  soon  as  they  were  deposi- 
ted in  the  boxes,  a  general  shout  of  joy  arose,  and  the  group 
bounded  back,  with  a  thousand  leaps,  to  cull  new  flowers  among 
the  rocks.  From  the  opposite  declivity,  the  abodes  of  hospitality 
glittered  through  the  close  foliage  of  the  encircling  vines ;  the 
waving  bananas  formed  the  roof  of  the  porch ;  a  foaming  stream 
rushed  among  the  banana  roots,  and  lost  itself  among  the  large 
leaves  of  the  Colocasia,  that  adorned  the  declivity  with  their 
lively  verdure.  A  young  woman  with  her  distaff^  in  her  hand, 
sat  upon  a  bank  among  the  bananas :  her  husband  stood  before 
her  with  his  guitar,  to  anticipate  her  wishes  with  tunes  and 
songs,  after  the  finished  labours  of  the  day ;  and  the  neighbours 
were  collected,  to  encourage  the  song  and  the  sport  with  their 
applause. 

The  Island  of  Madeira  was  still  the  same  as  in  former  years, 
when  it  was  described  by  Camoens  the  poet : 

Nam'd  from  her  woods,  with  fragrant  bowers  adorn'd, 

From  fair  Madeira's  purple  coast  we  turned. 

Cyprus'  and  Paphos's  vales,  the  smiling  loves 

Might  leave  with  joy,  for  fair  Madeira's  groves ; 

A  shore  so  flowery,  and  so  sweet  an  air, 

Venus  might  build  her  dearest  temple  there. 

MiCKLE,  Lusiad,  B.  v. 

We  remained  only  twelve  days  on  this  charming  island.  It 
was  the  rainy  season,  and,  on  account  of  the  rains,  many  a  day 
passed  which  we  would  have  gladly  devoted  to  the  prosecution 
of  our  pursuits.  The  mountains  half-way  down  were  conti- 
nually involved  in  clouds ;  and  on  the  higher  parts  of  them, 
the  snows  were  not  yef  dissolved.  We  nevertheless  resolved  to 
ascend  as  high  as  possible,  to  obtain  a  survey,  however  super- 
ficial, of  the  decrease  of  vegetation  on  the  heights. 

We  left  Funchal  on  the  16th  April  at  day-break,  and  soon 
reached  the  magnificent  church  of  Senhora  de  Monte,  which 
commands  one  of  the  most  beautiful  prospects  in  the  world,  and 
from  a  great  distance  serves  as  a  land-mark  to  direct  ships  into 
the  harbour.  According  to  the  barometer,  its  height  is  1774 
French  feet  above  the  sea.     The  gardens  are  elevated  to  the 


and  the  Canary  Islands. 

same  height,  but  there  were  no  more  African  forms,  no  more 
Palms,  no  arborescent  Euphorbias,  no  more  Agavas  or  Cacalia 
Kleinii ;  and  the  Opuntia  that  rose  highest  was  already  left  be- 
hind at  the  elevation  of  1005  feet. 

After  another  hour's  continual  climbing,  we  reached  the  great- 
est height  of  the  rocks  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Funchal ;  it 
is  a  stone  visible  from  below,  and  2435  feet  above  the  sea.  Im- 
mediately behind  this  height,  we  entered  a  thick  grove  of  splen- 
did Laurus  Indica,  whose  wood  almost  rivals  the  beauty  of  ma- 
hogany. Among  them  stood  lofty  trees  of  Laurus  nobilis  the 
laurel  of  the  poets,  and  of  Laurus  Til  (Jhstens),  one  of  the  lar- 
gest trees  of  the  island,  which  no  axe  touches  or  wounds  with 
impunity.  The  stench  emitted  by  the  wood  is  so  violent,  that 
it  compels  the  woodman  to  take  to  flight ;  so  that  a  tree  can  be 
felled  only  in  a  number  of  days,  and  after  long  intervals.  If  it 
is  not  touched  or  inj  ured,  its  ample  foliage  and  its  wide  spread 
branches,  render  it  a  real  ornament  of  the  woods.  We  observed 
also  arborescent  heaths.  Erica  scopana  and  Erica  arbor ea.  The 
road  to  St  Anna,  upon  the  north  side  of  the  island,  and  from 
that  to  the  top  of  the  mountains,  is  here  separated  by  a  water- 
fall. This  point,  by  the  barometer,  was  3251  feet  high.  The 
fog  now  appearing,  covered  every  surrounding  object,  and  we 
were  obliged  to  continue  our  journey  enveloped  in  thick  mist. 
It  was  still  possible,  however,  at  least,  at  first  to  see  so  far  be- 
fore us,  as  in  some  measure  to  trace  the  direction  of  the  road. 
At  one  o'clock  we  attained  an  elevation  of  4162  feet,  and  at  a 
little  distance  we  discovered  through  the  fog  a  mountain  valley 
adorned  with  bushes ;  it  was  the  Val  Ganana.  We  entered,  and 
found,  to  our  no  small  astonishment,  that  it  was  an  entire  wood 
of  billberries  in  blossom  (  Vaccinium  arctystaphyllos)^  small  trees 
from  16  to  20  feet  high,  which  we  were  obliged  to  examine  minute- 
ly, before  we  could  be  satisfied  that  they  were  not  the  common 
billberry  of  our  woods  (  Vaccinium  myrtillus),  grown  to  an  un- 
usual size.  Not  far  from  the  height  stood  the  last  majestic  laurel, 
an  ancient  tree,  covered  with  moss,  and  completely  distorted.  It 
stood  at  the  height  of  4769  feet.  In  the  opposite  valley,  we  came 
up  to  several  trees  of  Erica  arborea,  which  were  6  feet  in  circum- 
ference, and  more  than  30  feet  high.  After  half  an  hour's  walk 
towards  the  west,  there  appeared,  beneath  a  little  crag  opposite 


384       Bai'on  Von  Buch's  Observations  on  Madeira,  Sfc. 

a  precipice  facing  towards  the  north,  a  magnificent  spring,  as 
copious  as  a  rivulet,  and  rushing  violently.  It  was  carefully  in- 
closed with  a  wall.  Its  temperature  was  5°. 75  R.  (7°.25.  C, 
45°.  F.)  The  top  of  it,  and  likewise  of  the  whole  surrounding 
declivity,  was  in  no  place  covered  with  snow.  ^The  spring  had 
the  temperature  of  the  interior,  and  reminded  us  of  the  tempe- 
rature of  northern  climates.  Vaccinium  arctystapTiyllos  creeped 
up  the  declivity  upon  the  north  side,  but  did  not  reach  the  sum- 
mit ;  and,  in  our  farther  progress  towards  the  height,  it  was  no 
longer  visible.  The  rocks  above  the  spring  rose  to  the  height 
of  4849  feet  above  the  sea. 

The  fog  was  now  so  dense,  that  we  could  not  see  a  few 
steps  before  us.  Even  in  this  darkness,  however,  we  ven- 
tured to  climb  still  higher;  for,  being  placed  upon  a  sharp 
ridge,  with  vast  and  precipitous  sides,  we  were  in  little  danger, 
as  long  as  it  continued,  of  wandering  in  a  wrong  direction. 
When  we  reached  the  first  continued  snow,  the  barometer  shew- 
ed an  elevation  of  5148  feet.  The  ridge  now  turned  suddenly 
from  its  former  westerly  direction,  and  ran  from  north  to  south, 
forming  a  large  projecting  bastion,  surrounded  with  horrible 
and  inaccessible  precipices.  The  snow  lay  far  down  on  the 
declivity.  The  highest  peak  was  now  not  far  distant,  for  even 
amidst  this  darkness  it  was  distinguished  by  the  pyramid  of 
stones  erected  upon  it,  and  which  rose  through  the  surrounding 
snow.  The  barometer  was  fixed  on  this  pyramid,  and  carefully 
observed  ;  and  the  height  of  the  peak,  which  is  called  Cima  de 
Tourigas,  was,  by  this  mode  of  measurement,  found  to  be  5484 
French  feet. 

{To  he  Continued.) 


(    385     ) 


List  qf  Rare  Plants  which  have  Flowered  in  the  Royal  Botanic 
Garden,  Edinburgh,  during  the  last  three  months;  with 
Descriptions  qf  several  New  Plants,  Communicated  by 
Dr  Graham. 


Asclepias  tuberosa. 
Flowered  in  the  open  border  in  front 
of  one  of  the  stoves. 

Banksia  aemula. 

This  plant  is  at  present  flowering 
very  freely  in  the  greenhouse.  The 
young  branches  and  leaves  are  co- 
vered with  a  rusty  pubescence. 

Callicarpa  cana. 

The  yellow  anthers,  and  the  decur- 
rent  leaves  with  branching  veins, 
of  the  plant  figured  in  Bot.  Mag. 
t.  2107.,  make  it  doubtful  whether 
our  plant  is  the  same ;  but  I  think 
it  safest  at  present  to  consider  them 
so,  as  in  other  respects  they  seem 
extremely  alike.  I  add,  however, 
the  character  and  description  of 
our  specimen. 

C.  cana ;  foliis  petiolatis,  lanceolatis 
acuminatis,  dentatis,  basi  cuneatis, 
integerrimis,  prsecipue  supra  ner- 
vos,  subtus,  ramisque  tomentosis ; 
cymis  axillaribus,  petiolos  exce- 
dentibus. 

Descript — Shrvh  erect,  stem  round, 
grey.  Branches  decussating,  sub- 
erect,  young  shoots  covered  with  a 
dense,  short,  soft  tomentum.  Bvds 
small,  pointed,  tomentose.  Leaves 
opposite,  petioled,  spreading,  deci- 
duous, about  three  pairs  near  the 
extremity  of  the  branch  remain 
longer  than  the  rest,  lanceolate, 
acuminate,  4-5  inches  long,  2-2^ 
broad,  bluntly  toothed,  entire,  and 
somewhat  wedgeshaped  at  the  base, 
in  no  degree  decurrent  on  the  pe- 
tiole, wrinkled,  tomentose,  espe- 
cially on  the  back,  green  above, 
white  on  the  back  ;  primary  veins 
little  branched,  and,  as  well  as  the 
middle  rib,  woolly  on  both  sides, 
and  prominent  behind.  Petiole  \ 
inch  long,  stout,  flat  above,  densely 
tomentose.  Cymes  axillary,  situ- 
ated near  the  extremities  of  the 
shoots,  on  peduncles  equal  in  length 
to  the  petiole,  dichotomous,  diva- 

JULY — OCTOBER  1826. 


\Oth  September  1826. 

ricated.  Bracteas  small,  awl-shaped. 
Calyx  4-toothed,  tomentose,  green, 
persisting,  teeth  pointed.  Corolla 
deciduous,  twice  the  length  of  the 
calyx,  4-cleft,  segments  rounded. 
Stamens  4  ;  filaments  twice  the 
length  of  the  corolla,  inserted  into 
the  back  of  the  roundish,  flat,  bi- 
locular  anther ;  pollen  whitish.  Pis- 
til single ;  germen  globular,  green  ; 
style  filiform,  swelling  under  the 
stigma,  longer  than  the  filaments ; 
stigmu  flat,  obscurely  bilobular. 

All  the  parts  of  the  flower,  except 
the  germen  and  pollen,  lilac.  To- 
mentum every  where  upon  the  plant 
cream-coloured,  except  on  the  back 
of  the  leaf,  where  it  is  nearly  white : 
on  the  cyme  it  becomes  lighter  up- 
wards to  the  flowers. 

The  plant  was  raised  from  seed  sent 
by  DrWallich  from  India  in  1823, 
and  marked  "  Nepaul."  It  has 
been  kept  in  the  stove. 

Campanula  dichotoma. 

grandiflora. 

Capparis  spinosa,  Caper  hush. 
In  the  open  border,  in  front  of  one  of 
the  stoves. 

Commelina  cyanea. 

Draba  alpina  /3,  siliculae  pilosae. 

Br.  Supplement  to  Appendix  of  Cap- 
tain Parry's  First  Voyage.  The 
seeds  of  this  and  several  other  arc- 
tic plants  were  given  to  me  by  Mr 
Fisher,  after  Captain  Parry's  Se- 
cond Voyage.  Some  of  the  plants 
could  not  be  preserved  after  they 
had  germinated ;  but  this  is  fully 
established. 

Glycine  mollis. 

Iris  verna. 

Sweet's  Brit.  Fl.  Garden,  t.  68. 
Ixora  incarnata. 

Lobelia  corymbosa. 
L.  corymbosa  ;    caule  fruticuloso ;  fo- 
Bb 


386 


Dr  Graham's  List  of  Rare  Plants. 


liis  sparsis,  lanceolato-spathulatis, 
inciso-serratis,  concavis,  decurren- 
tibns ;  corymbis  (demum  spicis) 
axillaribus  terminalibusque  versus 
fines  ramuolrum  congestis. 

Descbipt. — Root  perennial,  fibrous. 
Stem  somewhat  angular,  procum- 
bent, brown,  branched.  Branches 
scattered,  spreading,  green.  Leaves 
lanceolate  -  spathulate,  inciso  -  ser- 
rated, concave,  smooth,  obscurely 
veined,  decurrent,  serratures  acute. 
Flowers  small,  fetid,  numerous,  in 
flattish  corymbs,  afterwards  elon- 
gated into  ovato-cylindrical  spikes, 
which  are  axillary  and  terminal, 
and  collected  at  the  extremities  of 
the  branches.  Pedicels  in  the  axils 
of  small,  pointed,  green  bracteas, 
and  equal  to  them  in  length.  Cali/,r 
5-parted,  segments  equal,  pointed, 
at  first  appUed  to  the  tube  of  the 
corolla,  afterwards  spreading.  Co- 
rolla white  or  pale  pink,  with  two 
rows  of  deep  reddish-purple  spots 
on  the  inside  of  the  limb  at  its 
base,  marcescent ;  limb  5-parted, 
segments  pointed,  and  slightly  bent 
back,  three  middle  segments  near- 
ly parallel,  the  two  lateral  ones 
spreading ;  tube  cleft  to  the  base,  as 
long  as  tlie  segments  of  the  calyx. 
Filaments  as  long  as  the  tube  of  the 
corolla,  nearly  colourless.  Tube  of 
anthers  dark  leaden-coloured,  half 
the  length  of  the  filaments,  with 
two  spreading  awns  at  the  apex ; 
style  purple,  as  long  as  the  stamens ; 
stigma  very  small. 

The  specific  name  I  have  adopted, 
was  suggested  by  Dr  Hooker,  and 
is  that  under  which,  it  is  believed, 
he  will  presently  figure  the  plant 
in  his  excellent  Exotic  Flora,  a 
work  which  has  certainly  no  equal 
among  those  in  course  of  publica- 
tion in  Britain. 

Lonicera  flexuosa. 

Lotus  decumbens. 

Sm.  Engl.  Flor — L.  minor^  Bishop, 
in  Edin.  Phil.  Journal,  Jan.  1826. 
This  plant  we  had  from  Mr  Bishop 
himself,  an*^  I  cannot  hesitate  in 


considaring  it  the  L.  decumbens  of 
Smith. 

Magnolia  grandiflora. 
Flowered  freely  on  the  open  wall. 

Martynia  proboscidea. 

The  se^ds  were  brought  from  Mexico 
by  Mr  Mair,  and  the  plant  is  ripen- 
ing fruit. 

Musa  sapientum. 

Nelumbium  speciosum. 

Nicotiana  vincaeflora. 

Nymphaga  alba,  var.  canadensis. 

This  is  easily  distinguished  from  the 
European  plant  by  the  longer  di- 
visions of  the  stigma,  by  the  very 
unequal  calyx ;  by  the  outer  petals 
being  green  on  the  outside ;  and 
by  the  rounded  overlapping  lobes 
of  the  leaves. 

A  Nuphar  from  Canada  also  flowered 
in  the  pond  this  season.  It  seem-, 
ed  certainly  new ;  but  no  memo- 
randa having  been  taken  at  the 
time,  little  can  be  said  except  that 
the  flowers  very  nearly  resembled 
the  JV.  advena,  while  the  habit  of 
the  plant  was  that  of  the  JV.  lutea ; 
the  leaves  are  not  raised  above  the 
surface  of  the  water. 

Both  these  plants  were  presented  to 
the  Botanic  Garden  by  the  Coun- 
tess of  Dalhousie,  and  both  flower- 
ed in  July. 

Persoonia  lanceolata. 

Polygala  affinis. 

Pycnostachys  coerulea. 

Ruellia  strepens. 

Spatalla  bracteata. 

Staxjhys  angustifolia. 

Thunbergia  alata. 

■       angulata. 

Valeriana  alliarifolia. 

Yucca  filamentosa. 

Zephyranthes  rosea. 


In  the  last  Number  of  this  Journal,  two  species  of  Conosper- 
mum  were  erroneously  stated  to  have  been  sent  by  Mr  Fraser 
from  New  South  Wales.  We  owe  the  possession  of  them  to 
the  often  experienced  liberality  of  Mr  Aiton. 


(     387    ) 


Celestial  Phenomena  from  October  1.  1826  to  January  1.  1827, 
calculated  for  the  Meridian  of  Edinburgh,  Mean  Time.  By 
Mr  George  Innes,  Aberdeen. 

The  times  are  inserted  according  to  the  Civil  reckoning,  the  day  beginning  at  midnight. 
—The  Conjunctions  of  the  Moon  with  the  Stars  are  given  in  Right  Asc&nsioru 


-    OCTOBER.                            1 

NOVEMBER. 

D. 

H.         /       o 

D. 

H.        /       /, 

1. 

15     6  26 

0  New  Moon. 

1. 

5  42     - 

6D^^ 

2. 

13  22  26 

6  D«Tij 

1. 

9  57  57 

61)^^ 

2. 

14     9  50 

dDiTlJ 

1. 

14  29  25 

dDMtTL 

4. 

19  57  14 

61)-^ 

1. 

14  30  44 

^    1)  2/3  T\ 

4. 

23  56  43 

dD? 

1. 

16  58  16 

dDvTIl 

5. 

0  25     5 

61)^^ 

2. 

18  45     5 

6  ])  P  Oph. 

5. 

5     1  23 

6  ])Mni 

3. 

5  44  53 

dD? 

5. 

5     2  44 

6  D  2/3  TTL 

3. 

14  55  10 

6D^f-  t 

5. 

7  35  10 

dDvHL 

3. 

15  29  38 

d})2^  t 

6. 

10  16  11 

6  ])  p  Oph. 

4. 

16  25     3 

dM  ^ 

7. 

3  43  43 

dDc? 

5. 

0  26  27 

d  D¥ 

7.  .. 

,7'    9  25 

6))'^f-  t 

5. 

19  26  18 

d  D/3  n 

7.  " 

■•■■■7  45     7 

6l)^f^  t 

6. 

4  12  26 

Im.  II.  sat.  y. 

7. 

14  16     8 

69^K 

6. 

16  56  16 

])  First  Quarter. 

8. 

5     4     8 

6  ?  2/3  TTt 

7. 

6  32  50 

6  ^¥ 

8, 

6  44  29 

])  First  Quarter. 

7. 

23  16     - 

9  very  near  /  Tl]^ 

8. 

9  28  36 

6  Dd  ^ 

14. 

5  20     - 
15  40  52 

Im.  I.  sat.  y. 
0  FuU  Moon. 

8. 

17  38  57 

c^  ])¥ 

14. 

9. 

13  10  54 

6D(^n 

16. 

13  30  47 

d  ^'  b 

12. 

23  37  20 

Inf.  6  0  9 

17. 

5  48  10 

dJC  « 

13. 

^  greatest  elong. 

18. 

6     6  56 

dD-vn 

14. 

12  28  30 

d  ?  «  TTL 

18. 

7  56  18 

dDb 

15. 

5  44  54 

6  6^t 

20. 

8  27     - 

6  (^  AOph. 

15. 

21   18  48 

0  Full  Moon. 

21. 

5  16  15 

6  ])  1  «  2S 

20. 
20. 

7  10  22 
23  32     - 

X  ^.  1  H 

21. 

6  30  53 

d  ])  2a  2d 

0  i^  '  ^ 

6  K  « 

22. 

17  33  24 

(  Last  Quarter. 

21. 

23  49  40 

6  ])  V  n 

22. 

18  46  54 

0  enters  ^ 

22. 

3  14     8 

dDb 

25. 

13  20  26 

dD^ 

22. 

5     7  33 

Im.  I.  sat.  1/ 

26. 

11   18  45 

6  1)^W 

23. 

20     4  24 

61lr>W 

26. 

11   55  38 

dDiT^ 

23. 

22  19  38 

0  enters  11^ 

28. 

t^  greatest  elong. 

24. 

2  20  27 

(  Last  Quarter. 

28. 

17     8  16 

61)^^ 

24. 

22     4     I 

6  ])   1  a  2x5 

28. 

21  22  35 

d])^=^ 

24. 

23  16  59 

6  ^  2«QS 

29. 

11  32  42 

0  New  Moon. 

25. 

9  20  30 

d  ?  A  Oph. 

29. 

15     0     - 

dD? 

28. 

18  29     7 

d  D7/ 

30. 

3  35  43 

Im.  I.  sat.  y. 

30. 

0  22  30 

6  D"^!^ 

30. 

5  37  46 

6  D  p  Oph. 

30. 

0  59  39 

d))illj 

30. 

22  48  50 

dD? 

30. 

2  36  12 

d(?y 

31. 

1   16  26 

c^  D  li^  ^ 

31. 

0  50  52 

0  New  Moon. 

31. 

1  49  51 

dD2A^  :r 

31. 

20  28  30 

6D9 

31. 

5     7  42 

Em.  IIL  sat.  y 

dh 

AI    1^  -lU'  ii 

Bb2 

388      Celestial  Phen(menafrom  Oct  1. 1826  to  Jan.  1. 1827. 


DECEMBEB. 

B. 

H.      ,        ,, 

D. 

"'      /     // 

2. 

1  55  48 

6^^  t 

23. 

3  44  33 

Im.  I.  sat.  IJ. 

3. 

11  23  20 

d])¥ 

23. 

4     9  38 

Em.  IV.  sat.  11 

3. 

3  58  55 

dMn 

23. 

4  12     8 

61)11 

3. 

19  56  31 

61)S 

23. 

20  10     4 

dD«TT]e 

6. 

6  51  28 

])  First  Quarter. 

23. 

20  49  26 

d  DiTlJ 

7. 

5  29  16 

Im.  I.  sat.  7/ 

24. 

3     2- 

Inf.  <<  0  9 

8. 

3  40  44 

Im.  II.  sat.  % 

24. 

21  50  32 

<?0b 

8. 

6  11  56 

Im.  III.  sat.  11 

26. 

3  51  41 

dDt^^ 

13. 

19  38  29 

dD'   «    - 

26. 

8  12  55 

dDx:^ 

14. 

11   13     3 

O  Full  Moon. 

26. 

12  48     8 

d  D  l/JTTL 

14. 

11  54  48 

d  K  tt 

26. 

12  49  27 

d  ])2/3TTL 

15. 

6  13  33 

Im.  I.  sat.  11 

26. 

18  18  40 

dDvTTL 

15. 

10     8     5 

dDb 

27. 

12  53  37 

d])$ 

15. 

12     5  30 

c^  })v  n 

27. 

17     0  55 

d  ])  p  Oph. 

16. 

5  45     - 

d0$ 

28. 

10  50     - 

dD? 

18. 

11     0  16 

d  D  1  «  225 

28. 

22  10  21 

0  New  Moon. 

18. 

12  15  11 

d  ^  2a  SS 

29. 

13     5  33 

61)d  t 

22. 

6  21   25 

(  Last  Quarter. 

30. 

0  55  55 

dD^ 

22. 

7  28  56 

O  enters  V% 

30. 

5  37  57 

Im.  I.  sat.  1/ 

23. 

2     8  47 

Im.  IV.  sat.  7/ 

30. 

14  35  16 

<<  D^n 

Times  of  the 

Planets  passing  the  Meridian. 

OCTOBER. 

Mercury. 

Venus. 

Mars. 

Jupiter. 

Saturn. 

Georgian. 

D. 

H.        , 

II.       , 

H.       , 

H.        , 

H.        , 

H.        , 

1 

11  20 

14  45 

16  56 

11   15 

5   47 

18  48 

5 

11  31 

14  46 

16  53 

11      2 

5  32 

18  32 

10 

11  42 

14  48 

16  48 

10  46 

5   13 

18  13 

15 

11  51 

14  50 

16  44 

10  31 

4  54 

17  53 

20 

12     4 

14  51 

16  40 

10  18 

4  34 

17  34 

25 

12  15 

14  52 

16  36 

9  58 

4  14 

17  15 

NOVEMBER.                                                                           | 

Mercury. 

Venus. 

Mars. 

Jupiter. 

Saturn. 

Georgian. 

D. 

H.        , 

H.        , 

H.       , 

H.       , 

H.        , 

H.         , 

1 

12  30 

14  52 

16  32 

9  36 

3  46 

16  52 

5 

12  39 

14  60 

16  29 

9  23 

3  30 

16  32 

10 

12  49 

14  47 

16  24 

9     7 

3  10 

16  13 

15 

12  59 

14  41 

16  21 

8  52 

2  50 

15  54 

20 

13  12 

14  34 

16  16 

8  36 

2  30 

15  37 

25 

13  18 

14  21 

16  13 

8  18 

2     8 

15   18 

DECEMBER. 

Mercury. 

Venus. 

Mars. 

Jupiter. 

Saturn. 

Georgian. 

D. 

H.         , 

H.      , 

H.       , 

11.       , 

H.        , 

H.        ^ 

1 

13  19 

14     2 

16     8 

7  58 

1  42 

14  54 

5 

13  11 

13  46 

16     5 

7  45 

1  25 

14  40 

10 

12  47 

13  20 

15  58 

7  27 

1     1 

14  21 

15 

12  10 

12  54 

15  55 

7    6 

0  37 

14     2 

20 

11   18 

12  22 

15  52 

6  52 

0  21 

13  44 

25 

10  46 

11  48 

15  46 

6  35 

23  55 

13  25 

Celestial  Phenomena  from  Oct,  1.  1826  to  Jan,  1.  1827.     389 

On  the  14th  of  November  there  will  be  an  Eclipse  of  the  Moon,  which 
will  be  partly  visible : 

The  Eclipse  begins,              Nov.  14.  13  47  33 

Beginning  of  total  darkness,  -  14  55  18 

Moon  rises  totally  eclipsed,  -  15  36  32 

Ecliptic  opposition,                -  -  15  40  54 

Middle  of  the  eclipse,           *  -  15  43     8 

End  of  total  darkness,          ~  -  16  30  57 

End  of  the  eclipse,                -  -  17  38  42 
Digits  eclipsed,  17°  25'  50"  from  the  north  side  of  the  Earth's  shadow. 

On  the  29th  of  November  there  will  be  an  Eclipse  of  the  Sun,  which  will  be 
visible  if  the  weather  prove  favourable,  A  complete  calculation  of  the  Lunar 
Elements,  using  the  Tables  of  Damoiseau,  and  the  Solar  Elements  as  obtained 
by  using  the  Solar  Tables  of  Delambre,  with  the  results  of  the  principal  steps 
of  a  calculation  for  Edinburgh,  was  published  in  the  Edinburgh  Philosophical 
Journal  for  April  1826.  The  following  are  the  final  results,  as  inserted  in 
that  number : 

The  Eclipse  begins. 

Greatest  obscuration. 

Visible  conjunction. 

End  of  the  eclipse, 

Digits  eclipsed  6°  58'  10^',4,  on  the  north  part  of  the  Sun's  disc.  The  Moon 
will  enter  the  Sun's  disc  on  the  west  limb,  at  37°  56'  1 1"  from  his  zenith, 
in  reference  to  the  horizon. 


SCIENTIFIC   INTELLIGENCE. 

ASTllONOMY. 

1.  The  Moon  and  its  Inhabitants. — Olbers  considers  it  as 
very  probable  that  the  moon  is  inhabited  by  rational  creatures, 
and  that  its  surface  is  more  or  less  covered  with  a  vegetation  not 
very  dissimilar  to  that  of  our  own  earth.  Gruithuisen  maintains, 
that  he  has  discovered,  by  means  of  his  telescope,  great  artificial 
works  in  the  moon,  erected  by  the  Lunarians ;  and  very  lately, 
another  observer  maintains,  from  actual  observation,  that  great 
edifices  do  exist  in  the  moon.  Noggerath,  the  geologist,  does 
not  deny  the  accuracy  of  the  descriptions  published  by  Gruit- 
huisen, but  maintains  that  all  these  appearance  are  owing  to 


Mean  Time. 

Apparent  Time. 

D. 

H.       /        // 

M*     /       // 

Nov.  29. 

9  33  59,9 

9  45  32,4 

- 

10  37  37,7 

10  49     9,9 

. 

10  38  45,0 

10  50  17,2 

- 

11  43     9,5 

11  54  40,9 

S90  Scientific  InteUigence. — Astronomy. 

vast  whin-dikes  or  trap  veins  rising  above  the  general  lunar  sur- 
face. Gruithuisen,  in  a  conversation  with  the  great  astronomer 
Gauss,  after  describing  the  regular  figures  he  had  discovered  in 
the  moon,  spoke  of  the  possibility  of  a  correspondence  with  the 
inhabitants  of  the  moon.  He  brought,  he  says,  to  Gauss's  re- 
collection, the  idea  he  had  communicated  many  years  ago  to 
Zimmerman.  '  Gaus  answered,  that  the  plan  of  erecting  a  geo- 
metrical figure  on  the  plains  of  Siberia  corresponded  with  his 
opinion,  because,  according  to  his  view,  a  correspondence  with 
the  inhabitants  of  the  moon  could  only  be  begun  by  means  of 
such  mathematical  contemplations  and  ideas,  which  we  and  they 
must  have  in  common.  The  vast  circular  hollows  in  the  moon 
have  been  by  some  considered  as  evidences  of  volcanic  action, 
but  they  differ  so  much  in  form  and  structure  from  volcanic 
craters,  that  many  are  now  of  opinion,  and  with  reason,  that 
they  are  vast  circular  valleys. 

METEOROLOGY. 

%  Trafismission  of  Sound.  — "  The  extreme  facility,  with 
which  sounds  are  heard  at  a  considerable  distance,  in  severely 
cold  weather,  has  often  been  a  subject  of  remark  ;  but  a  circum- 
stance occurred  at  Port  Bo  wen,  which  deserves  to  be  noticed, 
as  affording  a  sort  of  measure  of  this  facility.  Lieutenant  Fos- 
ter having  occasion  to  send  a  man  from  the  Observatory  to  the 
opposite  shore  of  the  harbour,  a  measured  distance  of  6696  feet, 
or  about  one  statute  mile  and  two-tenths,  in  order  to  fix  a  meri- 
dian mark,  had  placed  a  person  half  way  between  to  repeat  his 
directions  ;  but  he  found,  on  trial,  that  this  precaution  was  un- 
necessary, as  he  could,  without  difficulty,  keep  up  a  conversa- 
tion with  the  man  at  the  distant  station.'' — Parry.  ^ 

3»  Showers  of  Blood  in  Britain. — In  the  Historian  of  Llane- 
aram  and  the  Saxon  Chronicle,  it  is  said,  "  It  rained  blood  in  Bri- 
tain and  Ireland,  that  butter  and  milk  became  ruddy,  and  the 
moon  became  red.''  These  rains  fell  in  the  reign  of  Prince 
Egfrid,  in  684. 

4.  Bitsherg  Meteoric  Stone. — According  to  Stromeyer,  it  con- 
tains, iron  81.8  ;  nickel  11.9  ;  cobalt  1.0  ;  manganese  0.2;  sul. 
phur  5.1  =  100.0.  Stromeyer  had  not  examined  it  for  chrome, 
but  intended  to  do  so. 


Scientific  Intelligence. — Meteorology.  391 

5.  Morichini  on  Magnetism. — It  results  from  the  experi- 
ments 6f  this  distinguished  philosopher,  that  there  very  proba- 
bly exists  a  magnetic  power  in  light,  particularly  in  the  exterior 
edge  of  the  violet  ray ;  and  also,  that  this  power  is  to  be  ascrib- 
ed more  to  the  chemical  or  deoxydising  rays,  than  to  the  violet 
ray  itself.  If  this  newly  discovered  property  of  light  shall  be 
confirmed  by  the  experiments  of  others,  we  must  not,  as  some 
are  disposed  to  do,  abandon  the  idea  of  the  earth's  magnetism. 
The  earth,  as  Morichini  remarks,  will  absorb  the  magnetic  fluid 
of  the  solar  rays,  as  it  absorbs  heat  and  light.  Iron  will  bear 
the  same  relation  to  the  magnetic  fluid,  as  pyrophorus  to  caloric 
and  phosphorus,  by  isolation,  to  light. 

6.  Luminous  Meteor. — Edinburgh.  On  Sunday,  August 
27th,  about  nine  o'clock  in  the  evening,  a  meteor  shot  over  this 
city,  in  a  direction  from  SW.  to  NE.,  which  was  visible  for  a 
few  seconds,  and  brightly  illuminated  the  sky  in  its  track.  It 
resembled  a  great  sky-rocket.  —  Falkirk.  Sunday  last  was 
marked  for  the  sudden  rise  which  the  thermometer  expe- 
rienced, rendering  the  atmosphere  so  sultry  that  we  were  re- 
minded of  the  late  great  heats,  and  which  was  not  diminished 
by  the  peals  of  distant  thunder  that  continued  to  grumble  du- 
ring the  afternoon.  At  a  quarter  to  nine  o'clock  in  the  even- 
ing, one  of  the  grandest  celestial  phenomena  that  has  occur- 
red in  the  memory  of  the  oldest  person  was  exhibited.  The 
air  was  quite  calm ;  but  there  was  a  heaviness  which  indicated  a 
surcharge  of  electric  matter.  A  vivid  glare  of  light,  tinging 
every  object  with  a  pale  blue  colour,  suddenly  blazed  forth  in 
the  heavens,  rendering  the  minutest  object  visible  as  at  noon- 
day. The  eyes  of  every  person  in  the  street  were  instantly  di- 
rected to  the  east,  where  a  most  sublime  sight  met  their  gaze. 
A  large  body  of  fire,  in  shape  like  a  jargonelle  pear,  and  appa- 
rently of  the  size  of  a  bee-hive,  was  moving  in  a  direction  from 
SW.  to  NE.  with  a  rushing  noise,  something  similar  to  that  of 
a  rocket.  It  left  behind  it  a  very  long  train,  not  of  sparks,  but 
fluid-like,  and  of  the  most  resplendent  prismatic  colours.  It  con- 
tinued visible  for  nearly  fifteen  seconds,  having  gone  over  a 
space  of  about  forty-five  degrees,  and  descended  apparently  so 
low  that  it  actually  seemed  to  approach  within  a  hundred  feet  of 
the  earth.     Having  assumed  a  deep  crimson  tint,  it  was  extin- 


392  Scientific  Intelligence. '^Meteorology. 

guished  without  any  explosion,  several  pieces  of  red  matter,  like 
cinders,  falling  perpendicularly  downwards,  which  were  evident- 
ly the  burnt  remains  of  the  nucleus. — St  Andrew's.  On  Sun- 
day evening  last,  at  about  a  quarter  before  nine,  there  was  seen 
in  this  city  (St  Andrew''s),  a  highly  luminous  meteor  to  the 
south-east  of  the  city.  When  it  was  first  observed,  it  had  the 
appearance  of  a  comet  of  transcendent  brightness,  having  a  nu- 
cleus of  about  half  a  degree  in  diameter.  It  appeared  to  shoot 
forth  in  a  direction  from  SW.  to  NE.  over  a  circular  path  of 
about  35°,  and  gradually  diminishing  in  magnitude,  until  it  fi- 
nally disappeared.  What  was  perhaps  most  remarkable  in  this 
meteor  was,  that  in  its  orbit  it  did  not  present  an  unbroken  vo- 
lume of  light,  but  appeared  to  throw  out  bright  sparks  in  all  di- 
rections, resembling,  in  some  degree,  a  sky-rocket.  The  same 
appearance  was  observed  at  Cupar  at  the  same  time. — Bridling- 
ton. Sunday  evening  27th,  about  nine  o'clock,  a  luminous 
meteor  of  dazzling  brilliancy  was  seen  at  Bridlington,  for  several 
seconds,  in  a  NNE.  direction ;  in  disappearing,  which  might  be 
compared  to  bursting,  it  presented  bright  sparklings  of  a  reddish 
yellow  colour.     The  night  was  beautifully  clear  and  serene. 

7.  RemarJcable  Rainbow. — On  the  18th  May  of  this  year, 
1826,  at  six  o'clock  p.  m.,  lightning  appeared  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  heavens,  and  a  little  rain  fell.  There,  where  it  was 
darkest,  I,  and  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  Lengsfeldt  in  Eise- 
nach, observed  a  very  remarkable  rainbow.  We  saw  not  only, 
as  is  commonly  the  case,  the  feebly  coloured  interior  rainbow, 
and  the  darker  coloured  exterior  rainbow,  with  all  their  transi- 
tion of  colours,  but  among  these  also  the  following  threefold 
repetition  of  them  in  the  following  order  : — Most  exterior  rain- 
bow, violet,  blue,  green,  yellow,  and  red ;  under  a  dark  layer, 
and  below  these  with  diminished  intensity  of  colour,  first  the 
common  interior  bow,  with  red,  orange,  yellow,  green,  blue, 
violet ;  then  the  following  three ;  purple,  orange,  green,  violet ; 
purple,  orange,  green,  violet ;  purple,  orange,  and  finally  a  dull 
green  arched  stripe. — Kdisten  Archiv. 

CHEMISTRY. 

8.  Chemical  Action  of  Diffused  Silica. — The  clay  and  pul- 
verised flints  are  combined  for  the  use  of  the  potter,  by  being 


Scientific  IiitelUgence. — Chemistry.  393 

first  separately  diffused  in  water  to  the  consistence  of  thick 
cream,  and,  when  mixed  in  due  proportion,  are  reduced  to  a 
proper  consistence  by  evaporation.  During  this  process,  if  the 
evaporation  be  not  rapid  and  immediate,  or  if  the  ingredients 
are  left  to  act  on  each  other,  even  for  twenty-four  hours,  the 
flinty  particles  unite  into  sandy  grains,  and  this  mass  becomes 
unfit  for  the  manufacturer.  In  this  case  there  is  apparently  a 
chemical  action. 

9.  Chloride  of  Lime  as  an  Antiseptic,  —  The  chloride  of 
lime  is  remarkable  for  its  antiseptic  powers  :  thus,  if  an  animal 
body,  already  offensive  owing  to  putrefaction,  is  drenched  in  an 
aqueous  solution  of  this  salt,  the  smell  entirely  disappears ;  fur- 
ther, if  fresh  flesh  is  drenched  in  it  soon,  that  is  in  a  few  days, 
it  becomes  converted  into  a  mummy-like  whitish  substance,  and 
does  not  give  out  any  unpleasant  smell ;  hence  it  has  been  re- 
commended to  use  chloride  of  lime,  in  preference  to  all  other 
substances,  in  the  embalming  of  bodies. 

10.  Ammoniac  in  Alder  Water. — Mr  Gleetsmann  has  detected 
ammonia  in  the  aquae  distillatae  Sambuci.  In  a  former  Num- 
ber we  mentioned  the  occurrence  of  ammonia  in  Chenopodium 
faetidum,  Viola  odorata,  the  flower  of  Stapelia,  &c.  &c. 

11.  Acids  and  Salts  of  Soil. — Dr  C.  Sprengel,  private 
teacher  of  chemistry  and  economics  in  Gottingen,  has  published 
in  Karsten''s  Archiv,  a  long  memoir  on  the  characters  of  vege- 
table soil ;  on  the  peculiar  acid  it  contains,  especially  when  in 
the  state  of  peat,  and  on  the  various  natural  combinations  of 
this  acid  of  soil,  met  with  in  soils  of  different  descriptions. 

GEOLOGY. 

\%.  Quader  Sandstone  belongs  to  the  Greensand. — Hausmann 
and  Von  Schlotheim  have  ascertained  that  the  quader  sandstone 
of  Pima,  Quedlenburg,  Blankenburg,  &c.  belongs  to  the  green- 
sand  formation,  and  is  essentially  different  from  the  sandstone 
with  coal  on  the  Weser,  which  is  a  lias  sandstone. 

13.  Structure  of  the  Swiss  Alps. — From  the  foot  of  the  Ce- 
vennes,  by  Marseilles,  Gap,  Grenoble,  Geneva  and  Bex,  similar 
and  very  simple  geognostical  relations  occur.  The  lowest  rock 
is  blackish  marly  limestone,  which,  from  its  fossils,  and  other 
characters,  appears  to  be  a  lias  limestone ;  to  this  succeeds  a 


394  Scientific  hitelligence. — Geology. 

white,  compact,  often  oolitic  limestone,  which  is  Jura  limestone, 
and  is  often  covered  with  clay,  sandstone^  marl,  &c.  that  belong 
to  the  quader  sandstone  and  green  sandstone.  The  valleys  are 
often  filled  with  Molasse.  The  Swiss  Alps  are,  in  all  probabili- 
ty, similarly  constructed.  The  dark  transition  limestone,  with 
its  subordinate  beds  of  gypsum,  belong  to  the  lias  formation ; 
the  true  alpine  limestone  to  the  Jura  hmestone ;  the  green  sand 
and  quader  sandstone  form  the  highest  ridges  of  the  calcareous 
alps,  as  on  the  Mount  Saleve,  Diablerets,  &c.  It  seems  proble- 
matical if  true  transition  limestone  occurs  in  this  part  of  the  Alps. 
If  the  view  now  given  be  correct,  says  KefFerstein,  the  calcare- 
ous alps  and  the  Jura  exhibit  the  same  geognostical  structure 
and  composition,  and  probably  were  at  one  time  connected  to- 
gether (as  is  the  case  at  present  in  the  south  of  France),  forming 
an  extensive  plateau,  which,  at  a  period  not  very  remote,  suf- 
fered violent  elevations  and  depressions,  by  which  the  green 
sand,  for  example,  was  raised  to  the  height  of  10,000  or  12,000 
feet.  These  changes,  which  have  given  the  present  form  to  the 
Alps,  may  have  taken  place  during  or  after  the  deposition  of 
the  chalk  formation. 

14.  Apatite  in  Secondary  Greenstone. — The  Greenstone  of 
Salisbury  Crags,  in  our  vicinity,  contains  crystals  of  Apatite. 
The  well  known  secondary  greenstone  of  the  Blaue  Kuppe,  near 
Eschwege,  in  Germany,  has  also  been  found  to  contain,  along 
with  crystals  of  magnetic  iron  ore,  crystals  of  apatite  or  phos- 
phate  of  lime. 

MINERALOGY. 

15.  Sulphate  of  Strontian  and  Sulphate  of  Barytes  confound- 
ed.— Several  writers  have  mentioned  sulphate  of  strontian  as 
occurring  in  veins  and  cavities  in  different  places,  where  only 
sulphate  of  barytes  is  met  with.  To  those  who  may  not  be  wil- 
ling to  use  the  mineralogical  characters  for  distinguishing  them, 
the  following  chemical  properties  will  answer :  Every  combina- 
tion of  strontian  colours  the  flame  of  the  blowpipe  purplish-red, 
"—every  combination  of  barytes  yellowish-green.  The  caustic  or 
hepatic  smell  before  the  blowpipe,  determines  the  kind  of  acid 
which  existed  in  combination  with  the  earth  before  the  experi- 
ment. 

16.  Telluric  Bismuth. — Berzelius  has  analysed  a  mineral,  of 


Scientific  Intelligence. — Mineralogy.  S95 

a  silver  white  colour,  broad  foliated  fracture,  and  shining  me- 
tallic lustre,  from  Riddarhytta,  and  found  it  to  be  a  telluric  bis- 
muth. It  occurs  in  the  mine  of  Bastnas. — Poggendorff  Jour- 
noil. 

17.  Vesuvian  of  Mussa. — According  to  Dr  Kobell,  in  Kart- 
ner^'s  Archiv.  b.  vri.  heft.  4.,  the  Vesuvian  of  Mussa  contains 
Silica  34.848 ;  Alumina  21.933;  Lime  33.609 ;  and  Oxydule  of 
Iron  5.400  =  97.790. — Vesuvian  of  Montzmii^  Silica  37.644; 
Alumina  16.688;  Lime  38.240;  Oxydule  of  Iron  6.420  = 
98.972.  Rather  more  than  1  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid  was 
found  in  these  Vesuvians ;  but  whether  it  was  a  regular  or  acci- 
dental part,  was  not  determined. 

18.  Garnet. — Kobell  in  Karsten's  Archiv,  b.  v.,  in  a  Me- 
moir on  Garnet,  maintains,  that  cinnamon-stone,  the  Hessonite 
of  Haiiy,  is  a  variety  of  garnet,  and  is  disposed  to  consider  Kel- 
vin also  as  a  variety  of  garnet.  The  hyacinth-red,  and  orange- 
red  garnets  of  Piedmont,  he  says,  are  crystallised  varieties  of 
cinnamon-stone. 

19-  Natural  Alum. — Professor  Breithaupt  has  met  with  na- 
tural alum  crystallized  in  regular  octahedrons,  in  a  slaty-clay, 
near  to  Wetzelstein  in  Germany. — Kdrsten,  Archiv,  h.  vii.  h.  i. 
s.  115. 

ZOOLOGY. 

20.  Entomology. — -The  Highlands  of  Scotland  are  rich  in 
insects.  Last  summer,  Mr  John  Curtis,  the  editor  of  British 
Entomology,  made  a  six  weeks  tour  in  Scotland  ;  and  among 
the  Lepidoptera  alone  he  added  to  his  cabinet,  which  already 
contained  1200  British  species,  thirty  species  that  were  new  to 
him,  and  no  fewer  XhoiXi  thirteen  of  these  non-descrlpt.  At  the 
base  of  Shehallien  he  found  the  rare  Biston  trepidaria. 

21.  Mastodon  found  in  Bahama. — In  a  collection  of  objects 
of  natural  history,  lately  sent  from  Bahama  to  Professor  Jame- 
son, there  is  a  fossil  grinder  of  a  mastodon,  the  first  instance  we 
recollect  of  the  remains  of  that  genus  having  been  found  in  that 
quarter. 

22.  Mammoth  at  HudscnCs  Bay. — Professor  Jameson  has  in 
his  possession  a  fine  fossil  grinder  of  the  mammoth,  which  was 
found  on  the  shore  of  Hudson's  Bay,  by  the  then  Chief  of  that 
country,  William  Auld,  Esq. 


396  Scientific  Intelligence. — Zoology. 

23.  Wlmle-Fishery  at  Van  Dieman's  Land. — Whales  had 
very  frequently  been  seen  in  the  estuary  of  the  Derwent  and  in 
the  bays  adjacent,  and  one  or  two  had  been  occasionally  killed ; 
but  the  first  attempt  to  make  their  capture  a  regular  branch  of 
trade,  took  place  in  May  1824.  Mr  Kelly,  an  enterprizing  re- 
sident at  Hobart  Town,  resolved  to  employ  a  colonial  built 
schooner  in  this  undertaking.  She  was  only  fifteen  tons  bur- 
then, was  manned  with  twenty-two  hands,  and  had  five  whale- 
boats  attached,  furnished  with  the  requisite  implements.  With 
this  little  vessel,  in  the  short  space  oi'  thirteen  days,  Mr  Kelly 
contrived  to  capture  five  whales,  the  blubber  of  which  yielded 
forty-five  tons  of  pure  black  oil.  As  soon  as  a  whale  was  kil- 
led, the  schooner  was  run  up  to  the  carcase,,  and  the  Jlensing 
commenced ;  when  the  blubber  was  stowed  into  the  casks,  the 
vessel  (being  tolerably  well  loaded  with  the  produce  of  one  siza- 
ble whale)  was  immediately  steered  for  the  harbour,  from  which 
she  was  seldom  more  than  eight  or  ten  miles  distant,  frequently 
not  more  than  four  or  five.  The  cargo  being  discharged,  the 
schooner  was  again  at  her  post  in  the  offing  within  a  few  hours. 

24.  Fossil  Insects. — Fossil  insects  occur  in  amber  and  in 
some  other  minerals.  Those  met  with  in  amber  vary  much  in 
species,  according  to  locality.  The  amber  of  Sicily  contains  dif- 
ferent Coleoptera^  that  of  the  Baltic  sea  contains  many  Diptera 
and  Neuroptera.  The  following  genera  have  been  found  in 
amber :  Platypus,  Aractoceros,  Gryllus,  Mantis,  larvae  of  but- 
terflies ;  Phryganea,  Ephemera,  Perea,  Formica,  Evania,  Ti- 
pula,  Bihio,  Empis,  Scolopendra,  Chironomus,  and  many  Arach- 
nidcea.  Of  fossil  insects  in  other  substances,  Parkinson  men- 
tions larvse  of  Libellula  in  limestone,  and  some  Melolonthce  and 
Polistes  have  been  found  in  slate. 

BOTANY. 

25.  Nardus  or  Spikenard. — From  a  species  of  Nardus,  which 
grows  in  vast  abundance  all  over  the  Malivah  in  India,  Dr  Max- 
well, in  the  Transactions  of  the  Medical  and  Physical  Society 
of  Calcutta,  which  has  just  reached  Europe,  informs  us,  there 
is  extracted  a  highly  pungent  essential  oil,  which  he  strongly 
recommends  to  be  used  in  the  way  of  friction  in  rheumatism, 
because  he  has  found  it  very  efficacious  in  greatly  alleviating,  or 
entirely  removing,  that  disease.    Dr  Wallich  says,  this  plant,  the 


Scientific  Intelligence. — Botany.  397 

nardus  or  spikenard  of  the  ancients,  is  either  the  Andropogon 
Ivarancura  of  Dr  Blane,  or  the  Andropogon  Martini  of  Rox- 
burgh :  its  characters  shew  it  to  be  different  from  Andropogon 
schsenanthus,  Fl.  In.  Dr  Wallich  adds,  "  Over  and  above  the 
three  species  of  Andropogon,  (viz.  Schoenanthus,  Ivarancura  and 
Martini,)  which  are  considered  as  the  spikenard  of  the  ancients. 
I  beg  to  observe,  that  Valeriana  Johomouri,  (Vide  Fl.  Ind. 
vol.  i.  p.  ^65.)^  is  also  taken  to  be  a  sort  of  spikenard.  Now, 
two  more  distinct  things  do  not  exist  than  those  two  genera; 
and  the  root  of  the  Valeriana  Johomouri  is  very  little  inferior  in 
fragrance  to  our  common  valerian,  (Val.  offic.)  which  smells  abo- 
minably. 

26.  On  the  Oshac,  or  Gum  Ammoniac  Plvnt. — Captain  Hart 
of  the  5th  Battalion  Native  Regiment,  Bombay,  gives  the 
following  information  as  to  this  interesting  plant,  in  vol.  i. 
of  the  Transactions  of  the  Medical  and  Physical  Society  of 
Calcutta.  "  It  having  been  intimated  to  me,  while  at  Bu- 
shire,  by  the  President,  Captain  Bruce,  that  the  plant  which 
produces  the  gum  ammoniac,  called  by  the  Persians  Oshac, 
would  be  acceptable  to  botanists,  as  it  was  but  imperfectly 
known,  I  procured  the  accompanying  piece  of  stem,  leaf  and 
flower,  and  took  a  drawing  of  one  of  the  finest  plants.  Its 
height  was  7  feet  2  inches,  and  the  circumference  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  stem  4  inches.  It  grows  principally  in  the  plain  be- 
tween Yorde-Kaust  and  Kumisha,  in  the  province  of  Nauk, 
without  cultivation.  The  gum  is  so  abundant,  that,  upon  the 
slightest  puncture  being  made,  it  instantly  oozes  forth,  even  at 
the  ends  of  the  leaves.  When  the  plant  has  attained  perfection, 
innumerable  beetles  pierce  it  in  all  directions  ;  it  soon  becomes 
dry  ;  it  is  then  picked  off,  and  sent  via  Bushire  to  India,  and 
various  parts  of  the  world,  and  is  an  article  of  considerable  ex- 
port. I  am  of  opinion  that  it  might  be  cultivated  with  success 
in  many  parts  of  Katty  war,  and  the  experiment  might  be  worth 
the  attention  of  Government.  The  gum  might  easily  be  pro- 
cured by  artificial  means,  which  would  answer  the  purpose 
equally  well." 

27.  The  bark  of  the  stem  of  the  Pomegranate,  a  specific  in 
cure  of  Tcenia  or  Tape  Worm.—V.  Breton,  Esq.  says,  "  I 
have  repeatedly  put  to  the  test  of  trial,  in  cases  of  taenia,  with 
uniform  success,  the  dried  bark  of  the  stem  of  the  pomegranate 


398  Scientific  Intelligence, — Anthropology. 

shrub,  both  in  decoction  and  in  powder,  without  exciting  any 
other  sensations  than  those  which  arise  from  the  exhibition  of 
the  fresh  bark  of  the  root  of  the  plant.  I  have  also  ascertained, 
by  frequent  trials,  that  the  virtues  of  the  bark  may  be  preser- 
ved several  years ;  a  circumstance  favourable  to  its  transmission 
to  Europe.  Some  bark  of  the  stem,  which  I  have  had  upwards 
of  four  years  packed  in  a  deal  box.  I  have  recently  tried  in  se- 
veral cases  of  taenia  with  perfect  success ;  so  that  I  have  no  he- 
sitation whatever  in  recommending  this  drug,  not  only  as  a  safe, 
but  as  a  perfectly  certain  remedy  for  the  expulsion  of  taenia. 
This  drug  is  equally  efficacious  in  expeUing  from  the  lower  ani- 
mals, (especially  dogs)  taenia,  to  which  they  are  very  subject  in 
this  country.  To  full  grown  dogs  may  be  given  the  same  dose 
as  that  taken  by  adults.  The  powder  mixed  with  butter  or 
minced  meat,  is  as  good  a  form  as  any  ;  some  dogs  will  of  them- 
selves eat  it  when  prepared  in  this  manner.  The  powder  may 
also  be  given  in  balls,  or  the  decoction  may  be  substituted  with 
equal  effect.  We  are  indebted,  it  seems,  for  our  knowledge  of 
this  invaluable  remedy  for  the  tape  worm  to  a  mussulman  fa- 
keer,  named  Azim  Shah,  who,  in  1804,  having  relieved,  in  a 
few  hours,  Mr  Robert  Home  of  Calcutta  of  a  taenia,  which  mea- 
sured 86  feet  in  length,  was  prevailed  on  by  a  reward  of  two 
gold  mohars,  to  disclose  the  secret."" — Transactions  of  the  MedU 
cal  arid  Physical  Society  of  Calcutta,  vol.  i. 

ANTHROPOLOGY. 

28.  Accou7it  of  a  singularly  small  Child,  by  T.  E.  Baker, 
Esq.  of  Buxar. — The  child  is  the  daughter  of  a  Mrs  Green,  the 
wife  of  the  riding-master  of  the  5th  Native  Cavalry,  and  is  now 
with  the  mother,  living  at  this  station  with  Mr  Edwards,  an 
overseer  to  the  Honourable  Company's  depot ;  it  has  been  seen 
by  Mr  Surgeon  Gibb,  the  superintendant  of  the  stud ;  by 
Thompson,  the  civil  surgeon  of  Arrah,  by  Captain  J.  Macken- 
zie, and  other  residents  at  the  station.  The  mother  was  coming 
by  water  from  Agra,  and  was  confined  near  Bandah,  when  she 
thought  herself  about  six  months  and  a  half  gone  with  child, 
and  attributed  her  premature  confinement  to  having  over-exerted 
herself  in  removing  some  boxes,  &c.  On  this  day  (May  24th) 
the  child  is  one  month  and  twenty  days  old ;  it  weighs  exactly 
one  pound  and  thirteen  ounces,  and  is  fourteen  inches  in  length. 

3 


Sciefitific  Intelligence — Anthropology.  399 

The  following  are  the  dimensions  of  the  principal  pai'ts  of  the 

^^«^y-—  Inches. 

Circumference  of  the  head  (longest  diameter),         -        -  »     10 

Ditto  ditto  (shortest  diameter),        -        -         -        -        -  -9.1 

Ditto  of  the  chest,  -  -  -  -  -  -      9 

Ditto  of  the  body,  -  -  -  -  .  -       8 

Ditto  of  the  thigh,  midway  between  the  knee  and  the  hip-joint,     2.6 
Ditto  of  the  fore-arm,  midway  between  the  wrist  and  elbow,     -     \.^ 

I  much  regret  the  weight  and  dimensions  of  the  child  were  not 
taken  when  it  was  first  born,  for  the  mother  informs  me  it  has 
grown  considerably  since  that  time.  At  first  it  would  not  take 
to  the  breast,  but  it  now  sucks  very  well.  The  bones  of  the 
head  are  rather  loose,  and  the  anterior  and  posterior  fontanels 
are  large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  head. — Transactions 
of  the  Medical  and  Physical  Society  of  Calcutta,  vol.  i. 

MENSURATION. 

29-  Tables  for  converting  Scotch  Land  Measure  into  Impe- 
rial  Land  Measure^  and  for  finding  the  Rent,  Produce,  or  Va- 
lue of  an  English  Acre,  having  given  that  of  a  Scots  Acre  *. — 
Before  the  act  for  ascertaining  and  establishing  uniformity  of 
weights  and  measures  was  passed,  there  was  no  certain  rule  for 
determining  the  proportion  of  the  Scots  to  the  English  acre,  on 
account  of  the  want  of  agreement  among  surveyors  as  to  the 
exact  length  of  the  Scotch  ell.  Now,  however,  the  length  of 
the  ell  has  been  ascertained  by  a  careful  and  scientific  measure- 
ment, and  the  result  as  well  as  the  proportion  of  the  Scots  to 
the  English  acre  declared  by  a  Jury  appointed  by  the  Sheriff- 
depute  of  the  county  of  Edinburgh.  Their  verdict,  which  is 
dated  4th  February  1826,  finds,  that  the  standard  Scots  ell,  ^t 
the  temperature  of  62°  of  Fahrenheit,  contains  37.0598  Impe- 
rial standard  inches  ;  and,  consequently,  that  the  Scots  chain 
contains  74.1196  Imperial  standard  feet,  and  that  the  English 
or  Imperial  acre  has  to  the  Scots  acre  the  proportion  of  1  to 
1.26118345.  From  these  data,  the  two  following  concise  Tables 
have  been  constructed.  The  first  serves  to  convert  any  number 
of  Scots  acres,  roods,  falls,  and  ells,  into  Imperial  acres  and  the 
decimal  fraction  of  an  acre ;  and  by  the  second,  having  given 

*  Mr  Elgen  of  Aberdeen  sent  us  for  insertion  in  the  Journal  interesting 
[  Tables  of  the  same  general  nature  with  those  here  given.    These  Tables  were 
examined  by  an  eminent  mathematician,  who  constructed  those  now  publish- 
ed, which  he  considers  more  convenient. 


400  Scientific  Intelligence. — Mensuration. 

the  rent  or  value  of  the  produce  of  one,  or  any  number  of  Scots 
acres,  the  rent  or  value  of  the  produce  of  the  same  number  of 
imperial  acres  may  be  found.  Their  construction  is  sufficiently 
obvious,  and  their  application  must  be  manifest  from  the  ex- 
amples which  follow  them. 

Table  for  converting  Scots  Acres,  Roods,  ^x,  into  Imperial  Acres. 


Scots 

Imperial 

Scots 

Imperial 

Scots 

Imperial 

Scots 

Imperial 

Acre. 

Aaes. 

Roods. 

Acre. 

iFalls. 

Acre. 

Ells. 

Acre. 

1 

1.26110345 

1 

.31530 

1 

.007882 

1 

.000219 

2 

2.52236690 

2 

.63059 

2 

.015765 

2 

.000438 

3 

3.78355035 

3 

.94589 

3 

.023647 

3 

.00067 

4 

5.04473380 

4 

.03153 

4 

.00088 

5 

6.30591725 

5 

.03941 

5 

.00109 

6 

7.56710070 

6 

.04729 

6 

.00131 

7 

8.82828415 

7 

.05518 

7 

.00153 

8 

10.08946760 

8 

.06306 

8 

.00175 

9 

11.35065105 

9 

.07094 

9 

.00197 

Table  for  finding  the  Rent  Produce  of  an  Imperial  Acre,  having  given 
those  of  a  Scotch  Acre. 


Rent,  Produce,  &c.  ] 

Rent,  Produce,  &c. 

Rent,  Produce,  &c.  1 

Scots 

Imperial 

Scots 

Imperial 

Scots 

Imperial 

Acre. 

Acre. 

Acre. 

Acre. 

Acre. 

Acre. 

£ 

£ 

S. 

£ 

D. 

£ 

1 

.79291 

1 

.0396 

1 

.0033 

2 

1.58581 

2 

.0793 

2 

.0066 

3 

2.37872 

3 

.1189 

3 

.0099 

4 

3.17162 

4 

.1586 

4 

.0132 

5 

3.96453 

5 

.1982 

5 

.0165 

6 

A.lblU 

6 

.2379 

6 

.0198 

7 

5.55034 

7 

.2775 

7 

.0231 

8 

6.34325 

8 

.3172 

8 

.0264 

9 

7.13615 

9 

.3568 

9 

.0297 

10 

7.92906 

10 

.3965 

10 
11 

.0330 
.0363 

Example  of  use  of  Table  I — Convert 
3258  Scots  Acres  2  R.  31  F.  28  E. 
into  Imperial  Acres 

3000 

Scots  Acres  — 


Roods 
Falls 

Ells 


{ 


Imperial  Acres. 
3783.55035 
252.23669 
63.05917 
10.08947 
.63059 
/  .23647 
1  .00788 
J  .00438 
1  .00175 


Imperial  Acres,     4109.81675 
=  4109  A.  3  R.  10  P.  20.6  Y. 


Example  of  use  of  Table  II — ^A  Scots 
Acre  was  sold  for  £  82  :  12  :  9  ; 
hence  find  the  value  of  an  Impe- 
rial Acre  ? 


^2 1  Pounds  rr 

^\  I  ShiU.      = 
9     Pence     = 


£  63.4325 

1.5858 

.3965 

.0793 

.0297 


Value  of  Imp.  K.    =    £  65.5238 
=^£65:10:5/5V 


It  may  be  useful  to  surveyors  to  know,  that  the  exact  length  of  the  Im- 
perial Chain  has  been  laid  down  on  the  parapet  in  front  of  the  Edinburgh 
University  buildings. 


Scientific  Intelligence. — Notices  qfNew  Books.        401 

NOTICES  OF  NEW  BOOKS. 

9Q.  Dauheny  cm  Volcanoes. — This  truly  excellent  work  has 
afforded  us  during  its  perusal,  much  unmixed  pleasure  and  de- 
light. We  have  nothing  equal  to  it  on  volcanoes  in  the  English 
language.  The  excellence  of  its  arrangement,  the  accuracy  of 
its  details,  the  extensive  array  of  facts  by  which  it  is  distin- 
guished, the  general  judiciousness  of  Dr  Daubeny's  conclusions, 
all  concur  in  rendering  it  a  most  valuable  addition  to  the  geo- 
logical literature  of  Great  Britain.  Dr  Daubeny  is  already 
advantageously  known  to  the  public  by  his  excellent  memoirs 
in  the  Edinburgh  Philosophical  Journal.  His  work  on  Volca- 
noes gives  him  high  rank  among  the  geologists  of  this  country, 
and,  we  trust,  is  but  the  precursor  of  other  geological  achieve- 
ments. 

30.  Lothian's  County  Atlas  of  Scotland.^^This  work,  which  is 
now  in  progress  of  publication,  in  quarto  size,  we  consider  de- 
serving of  public  encouragement,  on  account  of  its  general  ac- 
curacy, neatness  of  engraving,  convenient  form,  and  cheapness. 
We  shall  notice  it  again  when  completed. 

31.  Dr  Fyf^s  Manual  of  Chemistry. — This  work,  in  one 
volume  of  moderate  size,  and  illustrated  with  numerous,  very 
useful,  wooden  cuts,  we  recommend  to  the  student  of  chemistry, 
from  its  accuracy,  perspicuity,  and  the  practical  details  with 
which  it  abounds.  We  have  not  met  with  any  English  work 
which  contains  in  the  same  space  more  useful  matter  than  the 
Manual  of  Dr  Fyfe.  The  wooden  cuts,  also,  give  a  character 
of  utiHty  to  the  work,  which  will  be  most  particularly  felt  and 
prized  by  the  student  of  chemistry,  for  whose  use  alone  this 
work  has  been  written. 

32.  Captain  Parry'' s  New  Work. — Of  this  work,  just  publish- 
ed in  London,  no  copies  have  as  yet  reached  Edinburgh,  so  that 
we  are  deprived  of  an  opportunity  of  noticing  it. 


JULY OCTOBER  1826.  yUv^^^  .  -  \         c  c 


402  List  of  English  Patents. 

I  AM  of  Patents  granted  in  England  from  ^6th  May  to  ^th  Sep- 
tember 1826. 

1826. 
May  8.  L.  Zachariah  jun.  of  Portsea,  pawnbroker,  for  a  combination  of  ma- 
terials to  be  used  as  fuel. 
23.  D.  Dunn,  King's  Row,  Pentonville,  manufacturer  of  essence  of  cof- 
fee and  spices,  for  improvements  upon  the  screw  press  used  in 
the  pressing  of  paper,  books,  tobacco,  or  bale  goods,  and  in  the 
expressing  of  oil,  extracts,  or  tinctures,  and  for  various  other 
purposes,  in  which  great  pressure  is  required. 
T.  Hughes,  Newbury,  Berks,  miller,  for  improvements  in  the  me- 
thod of  restoring  foul  or  smutty  wheat,  and  rendering  the  same 
fit  for  use. 
F.  MoLiNEux,  Stoke  Saint  Mary,  Somerse,tshire,  for  an  improvement 
in  machinery  for  spinning  and  twisting  silk  and  wool,  and  for 
roving,  spinning,  and  twisting  flax,  hemp,  cotton,  and  other  fi- 
brous substances. 
T.  P.  BiKT,  Strand,  coach-maker,  for  improvements  in  wheel-carriages. 
J.  Parker,  Knightsbridge,  iron  and  wire-fence  manufacturer,  for  im- 
provements to  park  or  other  gates. 
D.  P,  DEURBROUca,  Leicester  Square,  for  an  apparatus  to  cool  wort, 
and  also  for  the  purpose  of  condensing  the  steam  arising  from 
stills  during  the  process  of  distillation. 
May  23.  W.  H.  Gibbs,  Castle  Court,  Lawrence  Lane,  warehouseman,  and  A. 
Dixon,   Huddersfield,  manufacturer,  for  a  new  kind  of  piece 
goods  formed  by  a  combination  of  threads  of  two  or  more  colours, 
the  manner  of  combining  and  displaying  such  colours  in  such 
piece  goods  constituting  the  novelty  thereof. 
J.  Smith,  Tiverton,  Devonshire,  lace  manufacturer,  for  an  improve- 
ment on  the  stocking-frame. 
J.  Loach,  Birmingham,  brass-founder,  for  a  self-acting  sash-festener, 

which  fastening  is  applicable  to  other  purposes. 
R.  Slagg,  Kilnhurst  Forge,  near  Doncaster,  steel  manufacturer,  for 
an  improvement  in  the  manufacture  of  springs  chiefly  applicable 
to  carriages. 
L.  J.  Marie,  Marquis  de  Combis,  Liecester  Square,  for  improve- 
ments in  the  construction  of  rotatory  steam-engines,  and  the  ap- 
paratus connected  therewith. 
J.  B.  Fernandez,  Norfolk  Street,  Strand,  for  improvements  in  the 

construction  of  blinds  or  shades  for  windows,  or  other  purposes. 
R.  Mickleham,  Furnival's  Inn,  civil  engineer  and  architect,  for  im- 
provements in  engines,  moved  by  the  pressure,  elasticity,  or  ex- 
pansion of  steam  gas  or  air,  by  which  a  great  saving  in  fuel  will 
be  effected. 
H.  R.  Fanshaw,  Addle  Street,  silk  embossor,  for  an  improved  wind- 
ing machine. 
J.  Ham,  Holton  Street,  Bristol,  vinegar-maker,  for  an  improved  pro- 
cess for  promoting  the  action  of  acetic  acid  on  metallic  bodies. 
June  13.  To  T.  J.  Knowlys,  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  for  "  a  new  Manu- 
facture of  Ornamental  Metal." 
22.  To  T.  Halahan,  York  Street,  Dublin,  Lieutenant  in  the  Royal 
Navy,  for  "  Machinery  or  Apparatus  for  working  Ordnance." 
July     4.  To  L.  Aubrey,  Two  Waters,  Herts,  engineer,  for  "  an  Improve- 
ment or  Improvements  in  the  Web  or  Wire  for  making  Paper." 
To  J.  Poole,  Sheffield,  shop-keeper,  for  "  Improvements  in  the 
Steam-engine  Boilers,  or  Steam-generators,  applicable  also  to  the 
evaporation  of  other  fluids." 


List  of' English  Patents. 

1826. 

July    4.  To  D.  Preemax,  Wakefield,  sadler,  for  "  Improvements  in  mea- 
suring for,  and  making  Collars  for  horses  and  other  cattle." 

To  P.  Groves,  Liverpool  Street,  for  "  Improvements  in  manufec- 
turing  or  making  "White  Lead." 

To  R.  WoRNAM,  Wigmore  Street,  Cavendish  Square,  pianoforte 
maker,  for  Improvements  on  Pianofortes." 
10.  To  P.  Groves,  Liverpool  Street,  for  "  Improvements  in  making 
Paint  or  Pi^ent,  for  preparing  or  combining  a  substance  or  ma- 
terial with  oil,  turpentine,  and  other  ingredients." 
14.  To  B.  Lowe,  Birmingham,  gilt  toy  manufacturer,  for  "  Improve- 
ments in  useful  and  ornamental  Dressing-pins." 

To  J.  Guy  and  J.  Harrison,  Workington,  Cumberland,  straw- 
hat  manufacturer,  for  "  an  Improved  method  of  preparing  straw 
and  grass,  to  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  Hats  and  Bonnets." 
14.  To  J.  P.  De  la  Fous,  George  Street,  Hanover  Square,  dentist, 
and  W.  Littlewart,  Saint  Mary  Axe,  mathematical  instru- 
ment maker,  for  "  an  Improvement  in  securing  or  mooring  ships 
and  other  floating  bodies,  and  Apparatus  for  performing  the 
same." 

To  E.  Bayliffe,  Kendall,  Westmoreland,  worsted-spinner,  for 
"  Improvements  in  the  Machinery  used  for  the  operations  of 
drawing,  roving,  and  spinning  of  sheep  and  lambs'  wool." 

To  J.  L.  HiGGiNS,  Oxford  Street,  for  "  Improvements  in  the  con- 
struction of  Cat-blocks  and  Fish-hooks,  and  in  the  application 
thereof." 
24.  To  J.  Barron,  Birmingham,  brassfounder  and  Venetian  blind- 
maker,  for  a  "  Combination  of  Machinery  for  feeding  fire  with 
fuel." 

To  W.  Johnston,  Caroline  Street,  Bedford  Square,  jeweller,  for 
"  Improvements  on  Ink-holders." 

To  W.  Robinson,  Craven  Street,  Strand,  for  a  "  New  method  of 
propelling  Vessels  by  steam." 

To  W.  Parsons,  Dock  Yard,  Portsmouth,  naval  architect,  for 
"  Improvements  in  Building  Ships,  which  are  calculated  to  lessen 
the  dangerous  effects  of  internal  or  external  violence." 
Aug.  1.  To  W.  Davidson,  Glasgow,  surgeon  and  druggist,  for  '^'-  Processes 
for  bleaching  or  whitening  of  Bees'wax,  Myrtle-wax  and  Animal 
TaUow." 

To  T.  J.  Knowlys,  Trinity  CoUege,  Oxford,  and  W.  Duesbury, 
Bousal,  Derbyshire,  collar  manuracturer,  for  "  Improvements  in 
Tanning." 


List  of  Patents  granted  in  Scotland  from  9>Qih  May  to  9th  Sep- 
tember 1826. 

1826. 
June  12.    To  Richard  Mee  Raikes  of  London  Wall,  in  the  city  of  Lon- 
don, Esq.,  for  an  invention  communicated  to  him  by  a  foreigner 
re  siding  abroad,  for  "  a  Method  of  applying  Steam  without  pres- 
sure to  Pans,  Boilers,  Coppers,  Stills,  Pipes,  and  Machinery,  in 
I  order  to  produce,  transmit,  and  regulate  various  temperatures  of 

heat  in  the  several  processes  of  Boiling,  Distilluig,  Evaporating, 
Inspissating,  Drying  and  Warming,  and  also  to  produce  Power." 
17.  To  Thomas  John  Knowlys  of  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  Esq.  for 
an  Invention  communicated  to  him  by  a  foreigner  residing 
abroad,  "  of  a  new  Manufacture  of  Ornamental  Metal  or  Me- 
tals." 


404  List  of  Scotch  Patents. 

1826. 

June  26.  To  Francis  Halliday  of  Ham,  in  the  county  of  Surrey,  Esq., 
for  "  certain  Improvements  on  Machinery  to  be  operated  upon 
by  Steam." 
29.  To  William  Thomson,  Cabinetmaker  and  Joiner,  residing  in 
Fountainbridge  Street,  Edinburgh,  and  Malcolm  Muir  of  the 
Glasgow  Veneer  Saw  Mills,  for  "  certain  Machines  and  Im- 
provements on  Machines  and  Instruments  or  Tools  applicable  to 
the  performance  of  Cabinetmaker's  Work,  Joiner's  Work,  Car- 
penter's AVork,  and  to  other  similar  purposes." 

July  1 2.  To  Louis  Joseph  Marie,  Marquis  de  Cambis,  a  native  of  France, 
but  now  residing  in  Leicester  Square,  in  the  parish  of  St  Martin 
in  the  Fields,  and  county  of  Middlesex,  for  an  Invention  commu- 
nicated to  him  by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad,  "  of  certain  im- 
provements in  the  construction  of  Rotatory  Steam  Engines,  and 
in  the  Apparatus  connected  therewith." 
21.  To  Henry  Anthony  Koymans  of  Warnford  Court,  Throgmor- 
ton  Street,  in  the  city  of  London,  Merchant,  for  an  Invention 
communicated  to  him  by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad,  "  of  cer- 
tain Improvements  in  the  construction  and  use  of  Apparatus  and 
Works  for  Inland  Navigation." 

Aug.  7.  To  Moses  Poole  of  the  Patent  OIRce,  Lincoln's  Inn,  in  the  coun- 
ty of  Middlesex,  gentleman,  for  an  invention  communicated  to 
him  by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad,  "  of  certain  improvements  in 
the  Machines  used  for  carding,  stubbing,  slivering,  roving,  or 
spinning  wool,  cotton,  waste  silk,  short  stapled  hemp  and  flax,  or 
any  other  fibrous  materials,  or  mixtures  thereof." 

Sept.  5.  To  John  Guy  and  Jacob  Harrison,  both  of  the  parish  of  Work- 
ington, in  the  county  of  Cumberland,  straw  hat  manufacturers, 
for  "  an  improved  method  of  Preparing  Straw  and  Grass  to  be 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  Hats  and  Bonnets." 
9.  To  Francis  Halliday  of  Ham,  in  the  county  of  Surrey,  Esq., 
for  **  certain  Improvements  in  Engines  or  Machinery  to  be  actu- 
ated by  Steam,  which  Improvements  in  Machinery  with  or  with- 
out the  aid  of  Steam,  are  applicable  to  the  raising  or  forcing  of 
water." 
9.  To  the  ^aid  Francis  Halliday  for  "  an  Apparatus  or  Machinery 
for  preventing  the  inconvenience  arising  from  Smoke  in  Chim- 
neys, which  he  denominates  a  Wind  Guard." 


LIST  OF  PLATES. 

Plate  I.  Fig.  1,  2,  3,  illustrative  of  Mr  Dick's  Description  of  a  new  Reflect- 
ing Telescope,  -  -  -  -  Page  41 
Fig.  4,  illustrative  of  Prof.  Brandos'  Remarks  on  Falling  Stars,  124 
Fig.  5,  6,  7*  illustrative  of  Mr  H.  H.  Blackadder's  Remarks 

on  the  Combustion  of  Alcoholic  Fluids,  Oils,  &c.  in  Lamps,      52 
II.  Illustrative  of  Professor  Jameson's  remarks  on  the  Irish  Elk,      199 

III.  Fig.  1.  illustrative  of  Mr  Wood's  description  of  a  Tumulus  in 

the  Island  of  Sanday,  ...  -  .  216 

Fig.  2.  Geological  representation  of  the  Stratification  near  to 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  We  hope  in  a  future  Number  to 
accompany  it  with  a  detailed  description  by  the  author,  Dr 
And.  Smith,  Superintendant  of  the  South  Afi-ican  Museum. 

IV.  Illustrative  of  Mr  H.  H.  Blackadder's  paper  on  the  Constru- 

tion  of  Meteorological  Instruments,  -  -  238 

V.  Illustrative  of  Mr  J.  White's  Description  of  a  design  for  a  Ro- 
tatory Steam-Engine,  -  -  .  266 
VI.  Fossil  Plants,  illustrative  of  M.  Ad.  Brongniart's  paper  on 

Fossil  Vegetables  of  the  coal  Formation,  -  282 


(     405     ) 


INDEX. 


AcHMiTE,  a  variety  of  augite,  362. 

Adam,  Dr  J.,  his  description  of  Cicoiiia  ardgala,  327. 

his  notice  respecting  oil  found  in  human  blood,  373. 

Adamson,  Rev.  James,  his  sketches  of  our  information  regarding  rail-roads,  23* 

Air-pump,  Mr  W.  Ritchie's  account  of  one  without  artificial  valves,  112. 

Air-thermometer,  Mr  H.  Meikle's  remarks  on  the  theory  of  the,  332. 

Alps,  structure  of  the  Swiss,  396. 

Alum,  natural,  found  in  Germany,  395. 

Ammouia  in  alder  water,  393. 

Ammoniacal  salts,  the  manner  in  which  they  are  formed  in  volcanoes,  193. 

Apparent  nearness  of  objects,  184. 

Anthropology,  notices  in,  392. 

Apatite  in  secondary  greenstone,  394. 

Arnott,  G.  A.  Walker,  Esq.,  his  account  of  a  tour  to  the  south  of  France  and 

the  Pyrenees,  66,  268. 
Arsenic,  notice  respecting  Dr  Christison's  new  mode  of  detecting  it,  321. 

M.  Guibourt's  remarks  on,  317- 

Arts,  notices  in  the,  203. 

Arctic  Land  Expedition,  notice  regarding  it,  161. 

Astronomy,  notices  in,  389. 

Aurora-borealis,  Prof.  Jameson  on  the  noises  that  sometimes  accompany  it,  166. 

Benoiston  de  Chateauneuf,  M.,  his  remarks  on  the  changes  in  the  laws  of 

mortality,  within  the  last  half  century,  275. 
Biographical  memoir  of  Henry  Kuhl,  1. 

of  Dr  Christian  Smith,  209. 

Blackadder,  Henry  Home,  Esq.,  his  remarks  on  the  combustion  of  alcoholic 

fluids,  oils,  &c.  in  lamps,  62 — observations  on  flame,  224. 
Botany,  notices  in,  200,  396. 
Boue,  Dr  A,  his  geological  observations,  78' 

Boyle,  Dr,  his  meteorological  observations  made  at  New  Brunswick,  113. 
Brandes,  Professor,  his  remarks  on  falling  stars,  124. 

Breithaupt,  Prof.,  his  remarks  on  achmite,  hyalosiderite  and  trachylyte,  362. 
Brongniart,  M.  Ad.,  on  some  fossil  vegetables  of  the  coal  formation,  282. 
Bryonia  alba,  analysis  of  its  root,  323. 
Buch,  Baron  Von,  his  observations  on  the  climate  of  the  Canary  Islands,  92. — 

observations  made  during  a  visit  to  Madeira,  380. 
Buchner,  Dr,  his  hypothesis  regarding  magnetism,  236. 

Cafeine,  notice  respecting,  322. 

Canary  Islands,  Baron  Von  Buch's  observations  on  the  climate  of  the,  92. 

Carbonate  of  magnesia,  notice  regarding  its  solubUity,  189. 

Caventou,  on  the  chemical  properties  of  starch,  311. 

Celestial  phenomena  from  July  1.  to  October  1.  1826,  176.— from  October  1. 

1826,  to  January  1,  387. 
Cements,  General  Treussart  on  the  preparation  of  hydraulic,  324. 
Chemistry,  notices  in,  188,  392. 

Child,  Mr  T.  E.  Baker's  account  of  a  singularly  small,  398. 
Christison,  Dr,  notice  respecting  his  new  mode  of  detecting  arsenic,  321. 
Chloride  of  lime,  remarks  on  its  preparation,  320.— its  antiseptic  powers,  393. 
Ciconia  ardgala,  Dr  Adam's  description  of,  327. 
Cliona  celata,  Dr  Grant's  description  of,  78. 

Cod-fishery  at  Newfoundland,  Mr  W.  Cormack's  account  of  the,  32,  205. 
Colour,  analysis  of  a  powder  so  named,  190. 
Comets,  Dr  Lehmann's  inquiries  regarding  the  formation  of  their  tails,  243. 


406 


INDEX. 


Cooking,  inconvenience  of  the  pressure  apparatus  for,  189. 

Combustion  of  alcoholic  fluids,  oil,  &c.  in  lamps,  Mr  H.  H.  Blackadder's  ob- 
servations on  the,  52. 

Commerce,  notices  in,  205. 

Cormack,  W.  E.,  Esq.,  his  account  of  the  cod,  capelin,  cuttle-fish  and  seal,  as 
they  occur  at  Newfoundland,  32. 

Corallines,  Prof.  Schweigger  on  the  anatomy  of  several  species  of,  220. 

Crystals,  M.  Robinet's  new  method  of  purifying,  326. 

Cormack,  Mr  W.  E.,  on  the  fisheries  of  Newfoundland  and  Labrador,  205. 

Deception  occasioned  by  fog,  183. 

Dick,  Thomas,  Esq.,  his  description  of  a  new  reflecting  telescope,  41. 
Don,  Mr  David,  his  observations  on  Philadelpheae  and  Granateae,  132. 
Drummond,  Lieut.,  his  remarks  on  the  means  of  facilitating  the  observations 
of  distant  stations  in  geodesical  operations,  182. 

Echidna,  Dr  Knox  on  the  presence  of  a  rudimentary  spur  in  the  female,  130. 

Engelhart  on  the  colouring  principle  of  the  blood,  312. 

English  silks  and  cottons  inferior  in  respect  to  durability  to  those  of  France 

and  India,  203. 
Expedition,  Arctic  Land,  notice  regarding  Franklin's,  161. 

Falling  stars,  Professor  Brandes  on,  124. 
Fiery  meteors,  M.  Serre's  notice  regarding,  114. 
Fish  used  in  Persia  for  feeding  cattle,  197. 

Fisheries  of  Newfoundland  and  Labrador,  Mr  Cormack  on  the,  32,  205. 
Fishes,  Reverend  Mr  Smith's  account  of  a  shower  of,  1 86. 
Flame,  Mr  H.  H.  Blackadder  on  the  colour  and  constitution  of,  52,  224. 
Fluids  in  the  cavities  of  minerals,  192. 
Foot  race  on  Chapham  Common,  198. 
France,  Mr  Arnott's  tour  in  the  South  of,  66. 

Frembly.  Mr  J.,  his  observations  on  the  temperature  of  the  sea  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Thames,  377- 

Garnet,  cinnamonstone  a  variety  of,  395. 

Gaylussite,  notice  regarding  it,  192. 

Geckoes  used  for  catchiug  flies,  198. 

Geological  observations,  D.  A.  Boue's,  78. 

Geology,  observations  on  its  nature  and  importance,  293. 

notices  in,  192,  393. 

Graham,  Dr,  his  list  and  descriptions  of  rare  plants  flowering  in  the  Edinburgh 
Botanic  Garden,  171,  385. 

Grant,  Dr  R.  E.,  his  description  of  a  new  species  of  zoophyte,  78 observa- 
tions on  the  structure  of  some  calcareous  sponges,  166. — on  the  structure 
of  some  silicious  sponges,  341.— on  the  silicious  spicula  of  two  zoophytes 
195 on  the  spontaneous  motion  of  the  ova  of  zoophytes,  150. 

Gum-ammoniac  plant,  397. 

Guibourt,  M.  on  arsenic,  317. 

Hall,  Captain  Basil,  his  notices  respecting  a  voyage  of  research,  351. 

Herrings  account  of  a  shower  of,  in  Kinrosshire,  187- 

Hills  formed  by  springs,  192. 

Histoire  Naturelle  des  Mammiferes,  notice  regarding,  196. 

Howison,  Dr  W.,  his  account  of  the  management  of  the  water  melon  and 

cucumber  in  Russia,  125. 
Humidity,  compound  for  preserving  substances  from,  189. 
Hyalosiderite,  a  variety  of  chrysolite,  363. 

Insects,  abundant  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  395.— cultivation  of  certain, 

198 found  in  amber,  390. 

Inness,  Mr  George,  his  calculations  of  Celestial  Phenomena,  from  July  to 

October  1826^  196.-~from  October  to  January  1827,  387- 
Iodine,  Mr  Turner  on  its  presence  in  the  mineral  spring  of  Bonnington,  159. 
Irish  elk,  Professor  Jameson's  notice  respecting  it,  199. 


INDEX.  407 

Jameson,  Professor,  his  remarks  on  the  noises  that  sometimes  accompany  the 
aurora  borealis,  156.— notice  respecting  the  Irish'  Elk,  199. 

Knox,  Dr  R.,  his  account  of  the  Wombat  of  Flanders,  104 — notice  regarding 

the  presence  of  a  rudimentary  spur  in  the  female  echidna,  130. 
Kuhl,  Henry,  biographical  memoir  of,  1. 

Lead  found  in  a  meteoric  stone,  391. 

Leech,  Ceylon,  Mr  Tytler's  remarks  on  its  bite,  375. 

Leguminosse,  notice  respecting  a  work  of  De  Candolle's  on  the,  201. 

Lehmann,  l)r,  his  inquiries  regarding  the  formation  of  the  tails  of  comets,  243. 

Lightnin<5,  remarks  on  the  colours  of,  188. 

liOt's  wire,  conjecture  regarding  her  conversion  into  salt,  365 

Madeira,  Baron  Von  Buch's  observations  made  during  a  visit  to,  380. 

Magnesian  limestones,  constituents  of  certain,  190. 

Magnetical  influence  of  the  sun,  Prof.  P.  Prevost's  remarks  on  the,  289. 

Magnetism  in  light,  391. 

Dr  Buchner's  hypothesis  regarding,  236. 

Mantell,  Gideon,  Esq.,  his  remarks  on  the  geological  position  of  the  strata  of 
Tilgate  Forest,  262. 

Marabous,  notice  regarding,  199. 

Mammoth  found  at  Hudson's  Bay,  395. 

Mastodon  found  in  Bahama,  395. 

Meikle,  Mr  H.,  his  remarks  on  the  theory  of  the  air  thermometer,  332. 

Meteoric  stone  of  Bitsberg,  390. — lead  found  in  one,  391. 

stones,  notice  respecting  their  structure,  188. 

Meteorological  instruments  capable  of  discJ.osing  their  indications  at  any  given 
instant,  239. 

Meteorology,  notices  in,  183,  390. 

Meteors,  luminous,  seen  at  Edinburgh,  Falkirk,  St  Andrew's,  Bridlington,  391. 

Mildew  in  barley,  198. 

Mineralogy,  notices  in,  191,  394. 

Mineral  substances,  their  effects  on  animals,  188. 

Mirage  in  Persia,  185. 

Moon  and  its  inhabitants,  conjectures  respecting  the,  389. 

Mortality,  Mr  Bonoiston  de  Chateauneuf,  his  account  of  the  changes  under- 
gone during  the  last  half  century,  by  the  laws  of,  275. 

Natural  Philosophy,  notices  in,  182. 

Neill,  P.  Esq.,  his  account  of  a  rare  fish  found  in  the  Shetland  Seas,  135. 

New  Brunswick,  Dr  Boyle's  meteorological  observations  made  at,  113. 

Newfoundland,  Mr  Cormack's  account  of  the  fisheries  of,  32. 

New  Books,  notices  regarding,  393. 

Observations  of  distant  stations  in  geodesical  operations.  Lieutenant  Drum- 

mond  on  the  means  of  facilitating  the,  182. 
Oil  in  the  human  blood,  373. 

Olbers,  Dr,  his  remarks  on  the  transparency  of  space,  141. 
Ova  of  certain  zoophytes,  Dr  Grant  on  the  spontaneous  motions  of  the,  150. 

Patents  sealed  in  England,  205,  401 — granted  in  Scotland,  208,  103. 
Pheasants,  M.  J.  G.  St  Hilaire,  on  the  change  of  plumage  in  female,  302. 
Philadelphese  and  Granatese,  Mr  D.  Don's  observations  on,  132. 
Plants,  Dr  Graham's  lists  and  descriptions  of  rare  ones  flowering  in  the  Edin- 
burgh Botanic  Garden,  171,  385. 
Poison,  heart  of  the  frog  used  for,  198. 
Poisoning  of  plants,  201. 
Pluvial  trees,  200. 
Prevost,  Prof.  P.,  his  remarks  upon  the  magnetical  influence  of  the  sun,  289. 

Quadersandstein  belongs  to  the  green  sand,  393. 

Rail-roads,  Rev.  W.  Adamson's  sketches  of  our  information  regarding,  23. 
Rain,  coloured,  385. 


^f- 


408  INDEX. 

Jiattlesnakes  tamed  by  music,  198. 

Ritchie,  Mr  W.,  his  account  of  an  air-pump  without  artificial  valves,  112. 

Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  account  of  its  proceedings,  178. 

Salts,  notice  regarding  their  assumption  of  different  primitive  forms,  189. 

Schweigger,  Prof.,  on  the  anatomy  of  Corallina  opuntia,  and  other  species,  220. 

Sciaena  aquila,  Mr  Neill's  account  of  the,  135. 

Serres,  M.  J.  H.,  his  notice  regarding  fiery  meteors  seen  during  the  day,  114. 

Sensitive  tree,  200. 

Shells,  shower  of,  187. 

Shower  of  fishes  in  Argyleshire,  187. 

of  herrings  in  Galloway,  187. 

of  Shells  in  Ireland,  187. 

Silica,  chemical  action  of  diffused,  392. 

Smith,  Christian,  M.  D.,  biographical  memoir  of,  209. 

Dr  Andrew,  his  description  of  the  snakes  of  Southern  Africa,  248. 

Snakes,  Dr  A.  Smith's  description  of  those  of  Southern  Africa,  248. 
Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  conjectures  regarding  the  physical  causes  of  the  de- 
struction of,  365. 
Soil,  acids  and  salts  found  in,  393. 

Solid  substances,  changes  produced  in  their  texture,  189. 
Sound,  transmission  of,  390. 
Space,  Dr  Olbers  on  the  transparency  of,  141. 
Spicula,  Dr  Grant  on  those  of  two  zoophytes  from  Shetland,  195. 
Spikenard,  essential  oil  extracted  from  it^  useful  in  rheumatism,  396. 
Sponges,  Dr  Grant  on  the  structure  of  calcareous,  166 — of  siliceous,  341. 
Springs,  hills  formed  by,  192. 

Steam-engine,  Mr  J.  White's  description  of  a  design  for  a  rotatory,  266. 
St  Hilaire,  M.  J.  G.,  on  female  pheasants  assuming  the  male  plumage,  302. 
Sulphate  of  strontian  and  sulphate  of  bary  tes  confounded,  394. 
Swiftness  of  animals,  197. 

Tacitus,  contested  passage  in,  192.  _ 

Telescope,  Mr  Dick's  description  of  a  new  reflecting,  41. 
Telluric  Bismuth,  394. 

Temperature  of  the  sea  at  the  mouth  of  the  Thames,  Mr  Frembly 's  observa- 
tions on  the,  377- 
Thermometers,  Dr  Wildt  on  the  rate  of  the  mercurial  and  spirit,  327. 
Tenia,  cured  by  pomegranate  bark,  397. 

Tilgate  Forest,  Mr  Mantell  on  the  geological  position  of  the  strata  of,  262. 
Titanium,  a  general  ingredient  in  felspars  and  serpentines,  192. 
Tour  to  the  south  of  France  and  the  Pyrenees,  Mr  Arnott's,  66. 
Trachylyte,  description  of,  362. 

Tumulus,  Mr  Wood's  description  of  the  contents  of  a,  216. 
Turner,  Dr,  on  the  presence  of  iodine  in  the  mineral  spring  of  Bonnington,  159. 
Tytler,  Mr  J.,  his  remarks  on  the  bite  of  the  Ceylon  leech,  375. 

Vegetation  at  the  surface  of  the  globe,  M.  Poiret's  picture  of,  117,  251. 
Vegetables,  fossil,  M.  Ad.  Brongniart's  observations  on  some,  282. 
Vesuvian  of  Mussa,  its  analysis,  395. 

Water-melon  and  Russian  cucumber,  Dr  Howison's  account  of,  125. 

Wernerian  Natural  History  Society,  proceedings  of  the,  178. 

Whale,  account  of  one  killed  in  the  St  Lawrence,  198. 

..  fishery  at  Van  Dieman's  Land,  396. 

White,  Mr  James,  his  description  of  a  design  for  a  rotatory  steam-engine,  266. 

Wombat  of  Flinders,  Dr  Knox's  account  of  the,  104. 

Wood,  W.  Esq.,  his  description  of  the  contents  of  a  tumulus  in  Sanday,  216. 

Zoology,  notices  in,  193,  395. 


P.  Neill,  Printer. 

/^^,  7-?vn: 


J