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EDINBURGH NEW 


PHILOSOPHICAL JOUP™ SL. 


' 


THE 


EDINBURGH NEW 
PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL, 


EXHIBITING A VIEW OF THE 


PROGRESSIVE DISCOVERIES AND IMPROVEMENTS 


IN THE 


SCIENCES AND T 


REGIUS PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY, LECTURER ON MINERALOGY, AND KEEPER OF 
THE MUSEUM IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH 3 


Fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh ; Honorary Member of the Royal Irish Academy ; of the 
Royal Society of Sciences of Denmark ; of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin ; of the Royal Academy of 
Naples ; of the Geological Society of France; Honorary Member of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta; Fellow of 
the Royal Linnean, and of the Geological Societies of London ; of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, and 
of the Cambridge Philosophical Society ; of the Antiquarian Wernerian Natural History, Royal Medical, Royal 
Physieal, and Horticultural Societies of Edinburgh ; of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland ; of 
the Antiquarian and Literary Society of Perth; of the Statistical Society of Glasgow ; of the Royal Dublin 
Society ; of the York, Bristol, Cambrian, Whitby, Northern, and Cork Institutions ; of the Natural History So- 
ciety of Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle ; of the Imperial Pharmaceutical Society of Petersburgh ; of 
he Natural History Society of Wetterau ; of the Mineralogical Society of Jena ; of the Royal Mineralogical So- 
ciety of Dresden ; of the Natural History Society of Paris ; of the Philomathic Society of Paris ; of the Natural 
History Society of Calvados ; of the Senkenberg Society of Natural History ; of the Society of Natural Sciences 
and Medicine of Heidelberg ; Honorary Member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of New York ; of 
the New York Historical Society ; of the American Antiquarian Society ; of the Academy of Natural Sciences of 
Philadelphia ; of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York ; of the Natural History Society of Montreal ; of 
the Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania for the Promotion of the Mechanical Arts 3 of the Geologicai 
Suciety of Pennsylvania ; of the Boston Society of Natural History of the United States ; of the South African 
Institution of the Cape of Good Hope ; Honorary Member of the Statistical Society of France ; Member of the 
Entomological Society of Stettin, &c. &e. &ec. 


APRIL 1849 .... OCTOBER 1849. 


VOL. XLVII. 
TO BE CONTINUED QUARTERLY. 


EDINBURGH: 


ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK. 
LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, & LONGMANS, LONDON. 


1849. 


— 


EDINBURGH: 
PRINTED BY NEILL AND COMPANY, OLD FISHMAREET. 


CONTENTS. 


Art. I. Life and Writings of Berzelius. By M. P. Louver, 


Il. On the Relations of Trap-Rocks with the Ores of Cop- 
per and Iron, and the similarity of the Schalstein 
of Dillenburg, the Blatterstein of the Harz, and 
the Gabbro of Tuscany (Continued from vol. xlvi., 
p: 306) :-— 

1. The Relations of Trap-Rocks with Ores of Copper 
and Iron, 


2. Relations of the Schalstein of Dillenburg, the Blat- 
terstein of the Harz, and the Gabbro of Tuscany, 


III. On an Equation between the Temperature and the 
Maximum Elasticity of Steam and other Vapours. 
By Wii1tam Joun Macquorn Ranuine, Civil 
Engineer. (With a Plate.) Communicated by 
the Author, 


IV. Some Remarks on the Claims to the discovery of the 
Composition of Water. By Jonny Davy, M.D., 
F.R.S., Lond. and Edin., Inspector-General of 
Army Hospitals, &«. Communicated by the Au- 
thor, 


V. On the Acid Springs and Gypsum Deposits of the 
Upper Part of the Silurian System (Onondaga 
Salt Group). By T. 8. Hunz, of the Geological 
Survey of Canada, , ; : ; 


PAGE 


16 


16 


28 


42 


50 


il 


VI. 


WE: 


VIET: 


xT. 


XII. 


XIII. 


XIV. 


Y. 


CONTENTS. 
PAGE 


An Account of Two. Aérolites, and a Mass of Me- 
teoric Iron, recently found in Western India. By 
Hersert Giraup, M.D., Professor of Chemistry 
in the Grant Medical College, Bombay, Assistant- 
Surgeon in the Hon. E.1.C.’s Bombay Medical 
Establishment. Communicated by the Author, 53 


M. Aucipe p’OrBieny on Living and Fossil Molluses, 57 


On the Geology of the German Tyrol and the origin 
of Dolomite. By Professor Favre of Geneva. 
Communicated by the Author, ‘ ; ot eh 
On the Colour-of Water.. By Professor Bunsen, 95 


Geological Changes from Alteration of the Earth’s 
Axis. of Rotation, : : ‘ : sae HELD) 


On the Downward Progress of the Glaciers of the 
Alps. By Ep. Cottoms,  . , : . S0t 


On Trees cleft by the direct action of Electrical 
Storms. By Ca. Martins, . : : | a 


The Carboniferous Fauna of America compared with 
that of Europe.. By Ep, pz VERNEUvIL, . 


1. Flora of the Silurian System. 2. Plants of the 
Anthracite Formation of Savoy. 3. Fossil Plants, 
as illustrative of Geological Climate. 4. Co-ex- 
istence of Certain Saurian and Molluscous Forms 
at Equal Geological Times. 5. Phosphate of 
Lime in the Mineral Kingdom, . FF . 122 


On a New Species of Manna from New South Wales. 
By Tuomas Anperson, M.D., F.R.S.E., Lecturer 
on Chemistry, and Chemist to the Highland and 
Agricultural Society of Scotland. Communicated 
by the Author, . . : E : « Las 


XVI. 


XVII. 


XVIII. 


XIX. 


XX. 


XXI. 


XXII. 


XXIII. 


XXIV. 


CONTENTS. ill 


PAGE 

Statistics of Nutmegs, : : : ; . 1389 
Account of a Craniological Collection, with remarks 
on the Classification of some Families of the Hu- 

man Race. By Dr Samuet G. Morton, 144 


A Description of several extraordinary Displays of 
the Aurora Borealis, as. observed at Prestwich, 
during the winter of 1848-1849 ; with Theoreti- 
cal Remarks. By Wiitram Srurceon, Lecturer 
on Natural and Experimental Philosophy,formerly 
Lecturer at the Honourable East India Company’s 
Military Academy, Addiscombe, and late Editor 
of the ‘Annals of Electricity,” &¢. Communicated 
by the Author, ; : : ea 147 


Oceanic Infusoria, Living and Fossil, : 3 158 


On Grooved and Striated Rocks in the Middle Region 
of Scotland. By Cuarues Macraren, Esq., 
F.R.S.E., &e. (With a Map.) Communicated by 
the Author, . ‘ : ‘ : 5 161 


On a Simple Form of Rain-Gauge. By the Rev. 
Joun Fremine, D.D., &c., Professor of Natural 
Science, New College, Edinburgh. Communicated 
by the Author, ‘ 7 : . : 182 


New Adamantine Mineral from Brazil, . ‘ 187 


Notice of Plants which have recently flowered in the 
Royal Botanic Garden. By J. H. Baxrovr, 
Esq., M.D., Professor of Botany in the University 
of Edinburgh. (With a Plate of the Quassia 
amara.) Communicated by the Author, - . 189 


Scientiric INTELLIGENCE :—— 


METEOROLOGY AND HYDROLOGY. 


1, Climate of Italy. 2. Analysis of the Water of the 
Mediterranean off the Coast of France, . “ 191 


IV CONTENTS. 


MINERALOGY. 
PAGE 


3. Copper of the Lake Superior Region (from a recent 
letter by ©. T. Jackson). 4. Native Silver in Nor- 
way. 5. The Arkansite, . : j F 192 


GEOLOGY. 


6. Movement of Heat in Terrestrial Strata of different 
Geological Natures. By M. Dove, 3 : 193 


ZOOLOGY. 


7. The Dodo arranged with the Gralle. 8. The Fossil 
Rhinoceros of Siberia and the Mammoth Natives of 
the countries where their Fossil Remains are found. 
9. What becomes of the Skeletons of Wild Animals 
° after death? 10. Miraculous Blood Spots on Human 
Food. 11. The Oyster. 12. Process of preparing 

the Spawning Beds by Fishes, F i 194-196 


BOTANY. 


13. The Distribution of Flowers in aGarden. 14. The 
Nutmeg Tree (Myristica oficinalis), 15, Cloves of 
Amboyna, ; ; ; - : 197-199 


XXV,. New Publications, 5 : é ‘ ‘ 199 


XXVI,. List of Patents granted for Scotland from 22d March 
to 22d June 1849, 5 : ‘ 3 201 


4 
4 


CONTENTS. 


Art. I. Biographical Sketch of James Cowes Pricuarp, 
M.D., F.R.S., Corresponding Member of the In- 
stitute of France, &c., late President of the Ethno- 
logical Society, and Author of ‘‘ Researches into 
the Physical History of Man.” By Tuomas 
Hopexin, M.D., 


II. A Description of several extraordinary Displays of 
the Aurora Borealis, as observed at Prestwich, 
during the winter of 1848-1849 ; with Theoreti- 
cal Remarks. By Witiram Srurceon, Lecturer 
on Natural and Experimental Philosophy, formerly 
Lecturer at the Honourable East India Company’s 
Military Academy, Addiscombe, and late Editor of 
the “Annals of Electricity,” &c. Communicated by 
the Author. (Concluded from p. 158), 


III. On a Formula for calculating the Expansion of Li- 


quids by Heat. By Wittiam Joun Macquorn 
Ranxing, Civil Engineer. Communicated by the 


Author, 


IV. On the Geographical Distribution and Uses of the 
Common Oyster (Ostrea edulis), 


V. Comets—Great Number of Recorded Comets—The 
Number of these unrecorded probably much greater 
—General Description of a Comet—Comets with- 
out Tails, or with more than one—Their extreme 
Tenuity — Their probable Structure — Motions 


PAGE 


205 


225 


235 


239 


Wale 


VIl. 


VIil. 


IX. 


Bis 


XII. 


XIII. 


CONTENTS. 


conformable to the Law of Gravity—Actual Di- 
mensions of Comets—Great Interest at present 
attached to Cometary Astronomy, and its Reasons 
—Remarks on Cometary Orbits in general, 


On Oceanic Infusoria, Living and Fossil. (Concluded 
from p. 160), 


Notice of Land-Shells found beneath the surface of 
Sand-hillocks on the Coasts of Cornwall. By 
Ricuarp Epmonps Junior, Esq., 


On the Geographical Distribution of the Languages 
of Abessinia and the Neighbouring Countries. By 
Cuartes T. Bexe, Esq., Ph.D., F.S.A., &c. 
(With a Map.) Communicated by the Ethnolo- 
gical Society, 


Instructions for Collecting and Preserving Inverte- 
brate Animals. By Ricuarp Owen, F.R.S., Hun- 
terian Professor to the Royal College of Surgeons 
of England, 


Remarks upon the General Principles of Philological 
Classification and the Value of Groupes, with par- 
ticular reference to the Languages of the Indo- 
European Class. By R. G. Laruam, M.D. Com- 
municated by the Ethnological Society, 


On the Fall of Rivers, especially that of the Jordan, 
in Palestine; the Thames, Tweed, Clyde, and Dee, 
in Britain ; and the Shannon, in Ireland, 


An Analysis of Plate-Glass. By Messrs J. E. Mayer 
and J. S. Brazier, ; 


On Carbonate of Lime as an ingredient of Sea-Water. 
By Joun Davy, M.D., F.R.S., Lond. and Edin., 
Inspector-General of Army Hospitals, &c., 


PAGE 


248 


261 


263 


265 


280 


2938 


303 


316 


320 


CONTENTS. iil 
PAGE 


XIV. On the Snow-Line in the Himalaya. By Lieutenant 
R. Srracuey, Engineers. | Communicated by 
order of the Honourable the Lieutenant-Governor, 
North-Western Provinces of India, : a opel 


XV. On Comparative Physical Geography, . : . 350 


The Continents of the North considered as the theatre 
of History ; Asia-Kurope ; contrast of the North and 
South ; its influence in history ; conflict of the bar- 
barous nations of the North with the civilized nations 
of the South ; contrast of the Kast and West ; Hastern 
Asia a continent by itself, and complete ; its nature ; 
the Mongolian Race belongs peculiarly to it; cha- 
racter of its civilization ; superiority of the Hindoo 
civilization ; reason why these Nations have remained 
stationary ; Western Asia and Europe; the country 
of the truly historical races; Western Asia, physical 
description; its historical character; Europe the 
best organized for the development of man and of 
societies ; America—future to which it is destined by 
its physical nature, 2 ; ; E see 


XVI. On the Aconitum ferox (Wall.), which has recently 
flowered in the Garden of the Edinburgh Horti- 
cultural Society. By J. H. Barrour, M.D., 
F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the University of 
Edinburgh. (Witha Plate.) Communicated by 
the Author, : 5 : 4 . 366 


XVII. Scientiric INTELLIGENCE :— 


METEOROLOGY AND HYDROLOGY. 


1. Fire-Ball at Bombay. 2. Great mass of Atmospheric 
Ice. 3. Report on the Air and Water of Towns. 
4. On the Dilatation of Ice by Increase of Tempera- 
ture. 5, The buoyancy of the Water of the Dead 
Sea. 6. Currents in the Gut of Gibraltar, . 370-374 


1Vv CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
GEOLOGY. 


7. Barrande on the Trilobites of Bohemia. 8. The 
Fossil Foot-marks of the United States, and the Ani- 
mals that made them. 9. Fossil Foot-marks of a 
Reptilian Quadruped below Coal, : “3742370 


MINERALOGY, 


10, Emery Formation of Asia Minor. 11. Chrome and 
Meerschaum of Asia Minor. 12. Randanite, a native 
Hydrated Silica from Algiers. 13. Analysis of Lar- 
dite from near Voigtsberg, in Saxony. 14. Neolite, 
a new Mineral. 15. On Volknerite, a new Mineral 
from the Mines of Schischimsk. 16. Analysis of 
Pyrophyllite of Spaa. 17. Analysis of Talc of Rhode 
Island and Steatite of Hungary. 18. On a new Hy- 
drosilicate of Alumina. 19. Philippsite and Gismon- 
dine. 20. On the Composition of Heulandite. 21. 
On the Identity of Osmelite and Pectolite. 22. On 
Disterrite, from the Valley of Fassa in Tyrol. 23. On 


Glaucophane, / A : @ ieee 
BOTANY. 

24, Chinese Method of Colouring Green Teas, ». 381 
ZOOLOGY. 


25. Additional Observations on a new living Species of 


Hippopotamus of Western Africa, . . Metco 
ARTS. 
26. The Portland Vase, . : c ~ ooo 
MISCELLANEOUS. 
27. On the Tricks of Fire-eaters and Conjurors, - 884 


XVIII. List of Patents granted for Scotland from 22d June 
to 22d September 1849, : : . 385 


XIX. Inpex, . 4 : : : : : . 9389 


Corrigenda in Dr Davy’s Papers in Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal. 


No. for Oct. 1846, p. 257 line 18, for opalite read apatite; p. 261 line 24, for as read on; p. 261 line 33, for am- 
monia or magnesian read ammoniaco-magnesian ; p. 357 line 11, for in read from; p. 357 line 15, for strata 
read instances ; p. 358 line 25, for Magnesia read Manganese; p. 358 line 38, for influences read inferences; 
p. 360 line 16, for with read by. No. for Jan. 1536, p. 50 tine 10, for there constituted read then instituted ; 
p. 51 line 19, for suggests read suggest; p. 54 line 3, for 97°92 read 98°72. No. for July 1847, p. 2 line 14, for 
10019 read 10,019, No. for Jan. 1848, p. 43 line 16, for 10°036 read 10,036; p. 44 line 18, for atte read pretty; 
p. 44 line 38, for hear read have; p. 45 line 28, for firmness read fineness; p. 49 line 20, for Torerell 


e rea 
considerable. 


THE 


EDINBURGH NEW 


PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL. 


Life and Writings of Berzelius. By M. P. LouyEt.* 


WHENEVER an individual whose life and labours honour 
and ennoble humanity sinks into the grave, we cannot help 
feeling deep regret at the loss of so much intellectual riches. 
We are filled with sorrow when we reflect that the voice we 
were accustomed to honour will be heard by us no more, 
and that we shall no longer benefit by his enlightened in- 
structions; we lament the extinction of the bright torch 
which guided our hesitating steps in difficult paths, and can 
scarcely regard with resignation this terrible proof of death 
to which the Creating Power has subjected us, which so in- 
fallibly brings us all, great and small, weak and powerful, to 
its own inexorable level. 

These reflections arose in our minds three months ago, 
when the journals brought the sad but not unexpected 
news of the death of Berzelius. For several years, this 
calamity had been threatening us. Having suffered, on 
several different occasions, from attacks of apoplexy, he 
never completely rallied. For several months back, the half 
of his body may be said to have been in the grasp of death. 
Every courier from Stockholm might therefore be expected 
to announce one of the greatest losses which it has been the 
fate of scientific Europe to sustain. Berzelius himself was 
fully conscious of his condition; he did not disguise from 
himself that death was near; but he witnessed its approach 
with the calmness of a philosopher, and the faith of a 
Christian. 


* Read in the Academy of Sciences of Brussels on 16th December 1848. 
VOL. XLVII. NO. XCIII.—JULY 1849. A 


2 Life and Writings of Berzelius. 


The death of Berzelius has been considered by Sweden as 
a national grief. All the learned societies of the country, 
which may still be said to be new, have declared their in- 
tention of wearing mourning for two months. The Senate, 
the National Assembly, all the officers of state, of their own 
accord, joined the numerous assemblage which accompanied 
the remains of this incomparable chemist to their last rest- 
ing-place. 

To appreciate the scientific life of Berzelius, and analyse his 
works, which are as numerous as they are varied, would not 
only be a task of great difficulty, but would likewise require 
a considerable time. This arduous task, however, we should 
have ventured to undertake, if this master had not left be- 
hind him a brilliant constellation of zealous disciples, who now 
rank among the most celebrated names of scientific Europe, 
and who, no doubt, will not fail to pay this pious debt of 
gratitude, and fulfil the duties of friendship. My object will 
therefore be confined to laying before you a concise account of 
the course of a life as glorious as it was active and laborious. 


JEAN-JACOB BERZELIUS was born on the 29th August 
1779, at Vasersunda, a village near Linkeping, in the ancient 
province of Ostrogothia. His father was the teacher of a 
parish school in that place,—an employment of some consi- 
deration in Sweden. We have no information respecting 
Berzelius’ early years; it appears to have been his father 
who taught him the first elements of knowledge. At the 
age of seventeen he entered the University of Upsal, with 
the intention of studying medicine. Afzelius, nephew of 
Bergmann, was Professor of Chemistry in that University, 
with Ekeberg as his assistant. 

Poor as science was at this period, the lectures were not 
arranged in such a manner as to present the existing know- 
ledge in a form which might enable the student to under- 
stand it readily ; they were simply read, without being illus- 
trated bv experiments or demonstrations. Afzelius and 
Ekeberg appear to: have given very little interest to their 
courses. A few tolerable analyses which they executed 
constitute their only title to the honour of having guided the 


Life and Writings of Berzelius. 3 


first steps of the greatest chemist of the age on his first 
entrance into the field of science. Berzelius often referred, 
in his private conversations, to his first attempts in the labo- 
ratory of Upsal. He took pleasure in relating that, in order 
to accustom him to chemical manipulations, Afzelius first 
gave him sulphate of iron to calcine in a crucible, for the 
preparation of colcothar. ‘‘ Any one may do work of this 
kind,’ said Berzelius ; “and if this be the way you are to teach 
me, I may as well stay at home.” “A little patience,” replied 
Afzelius ; “ your next preparation shall be more difficult.””, On 
the next occasion he got cream of tartar to burn, in order to 
make potass. “I was so disgusted with this,” said Berzelius, 
“that I swore never to ask for any further employment.” 
However, he did not act upon this threat, but continued to 
frequent the laboratory. At the end of three weeks he was 
found there daily, although, according to the regulations, he 
was entitled to be there as a pupil only once a-week. Afze- 
lius might have sent him away; yet he permitted him to 
come frequently, to engage in experiments, and to break not 
a few of his glasses. What displeased Ekeberg was, that 
the young Berzelius always carried on his operations in 
silence, never asking a single question. “I preferred,’ he 
said, “to endeavour to instruct myself by reading, medita- 
ting, and experimenting, rather than question men without 
experience, who gave me replies, if not evasive, at least very 
little satisfactory on the subject of phenomena which they 
had never observed.” 

After remaining two years at this University, Berzelius 
passed his examination in philosophy, and left it in 1798. 
We find him, the following year, assistant to a doctor who 
superintended the mineral waters of Medevi. To a mind so 
powerful as his, nothing could remain unobserved—all must 
become matter of research; and it was natural that these 
mineral waters should attract his attention. He accordingly 
made a complete analysis of them, which afterwards became 
the subject of a dissertation published in connection with 
Ekeberg, his last professor. This work was the first link in 
that long series of Memoirs which have raised his name to 
such a high degree of estimation. 


4 Life and Writings of Berzelius. 


In 1804, we again find him at Upsal; and he there ob- 
tained the title of Doctor in Medicine on the 24th of May 
in that same year. 

At this period he published his “ Physical Researches on 
the Effects of Galvanism on Organised Bodies.” He was 
already so distinguished by his scientific works, that, on 
going to settle at Stockholm, a place was made expressly 
for him; he was nominated assistant to Sparman, Professor 
of Medicine, Botany, and Chemical Pharmacy, who had tra- 
velled with the illustrious Captain Cook. In consequence of 
the smallness of his income, he was obliged, at times, to prac- 
tise asa medical man. On the death of Sparman in 1806, Ber- 
zelius’ efforts were rewarded by the gift of the vacant chair. 
At this period, there were only three professors in the school 
of medicine, so that each of them was overburdened with 
courses. Afterwards, four others were established, and 
Berzelius could then confine himself to the teaching of 
chemical pharmacy. His lectures in medicine met with the 
greatest success, while those on chemistry were at first very 
little regarded. He does not appear, at first, to have risen 
much, in his mode of teaching, above his former masters, 
Afzelius and Ekeberg. In his method of instruction, he 
retained their vicious mode of reading his lectures; with- 
out any practical demonstrations or experiments. Be- 
ing conscious of his own ability, and sensible of his pro- 
found knowledge, be was somewhat surprised to observe 
that he obtained little more success than the Upsal profes- 
sor. These first attempts, joined to the advice given him 
from time to time by a learned foreigner, Dr Marcet, led 
him to abandon altogether this mode of teaching without 
experiments, which, although conformable to the precepts of 
the ancient logic, was directly opposed to the inductive me- 
thod of the Baconian philosophy. It was necessary to create 
almost entirely the instruments of this important reformation. 
The laboratory left him by his predecessor presented nu- 
merous blanks; there was nothing in it, so to speak, which 
enabled him to develop the laws of chemistry and the pro- 
perties of bodies by a well-arranged system of experiments. 
He zealously applied himself to supply what was wanting, 


Life and Writings of Berzelius. 5 


and when he had added a series of simple experiments, easily 
understood to his own eloquent words, he assembled a con- 
siderable number of auditors, and his course became an 
object of admiration, as well as a model for the other schools 
of Europe. 

It was in 1806 that Berzelius, in connection with Hisin- 
ger, commenced the publication of a periodical work, entitled 
Memoirs relative to Physics, Chemistry, and Mineralogy. One 
of the distinctive features of his scientific character, his mar- 
vellous facility and penetration as an analyst, shone most 
conspicuously in this collection. The number and value of 
the services he thus rendered to science, as well as the ori- 
ginal spirit in which he had conceived his work on Animal 
Chemistry, published a short time after, induced the Royal 
Academy of Sweden to give an annual sum of 200 dollars to 
assist him in continuing his labours. In 1807, the same year 
in which he was named professor of medicine and pharmacy, 
Berzelius, in connection with other eminent men, founded 
the Medical Society of Sweden, an institution now in a most 
flourishing state, and which may be regarded as the soul of 
the Swedish Faculty. In 1808, being then only thirty-one 
years of age, he was nominated member of the Royal Aca- 
demy of Sweden, and in 1810 he was elected president of 
this Society. Berzelius paid numerous visits to France ; and 
in 1812 he visited London, and was worthily received by all 
the friends of science who could appreciate the services he 
had rendered to it. In 1815, the King of Sweden conferred 
on him the Cross of Chevalier of the Order of Wasa. 

He was appointed perpetual secretary to the Academy of 
Sciences in 1818, and this office he retained till his death. 
In 1821, Berzelius became commander of the Order of Wasa, 
and some years afterwards he received the Grand Cross of 
that Order. At the coronation of Charles-Jean (in 1818) he 
was made a noble, and permission was, moreover, gras td 
him to retain his name, which is contrary to Swedish custoa. 
Berzelius was Officer of the Legion of Honour, and Chevalier 
of the Order of Leopold. In 1832 he abandoned the active 
labours of the professorship, entrusting to his pupil, Dr 
Mosander, the duties of a chair which he had occupied 


6 Life and Writings of Berzelius. 


for thirty years: he could then follow his scientifie re- 
searches without interruption, and he devoted almost his 
whole time to them. About this time Berzelius married ; 
and, on the day of his nuptials, King Charles-Jean wrote to 
him a letter with his own hand, announcing that he had no- 
minated him baron (Fretherr), and stating, among other 
things, “ That’ Sweden and the world were the debtors of a 
man whose entire life had been devoted to works as useful to 
all as they were glorious to his native country.” The direc- 
tors of the iron-works of Sweden gave him a pension, in ac- 
knowledgment of the eminent services he had rendered to 
their branch of industry. In 1843, Berzelius had performed 
for a quarter of a century the duties of perpetual secretary 
to the Academy of Sciences. On this occasion, the members 
of the Society assembled at a banquet at which the Prince- 
Royal presided ; in proposing the health of the philosopher, 
the prince expressed to him his personal gratitude for the 
instruction he had given him in his youth. From this period 
till his death, Berzelius occupied himself continually, and with 
his usual patience, with those varied researches which his 
sagacious mind and active imagination constantly suggested 
to him. His life flowed on in an equal current, and death 
approached with slow steps, as a messenger who regretted 
his errand. He was first seized with paralysis of the lower 
extremities, and knew that his end was approaching; but 
nothing could disturb the serenity of his powerful mind: 
he hastened to complete his earthly labours, and like a tra- 
veller whose toil is over, and who has reached the term of 
repose, he slept the sleep of the just, calm and tranquil as he 
had lived. Berzelius died on the 1st August 1848. 

Such, in a few words, was the life of a man whose history 
henceforth belongs to that of chemistry, with which it is in- 
separably connected ; and who, during the long period of half 
a century, constantly wrought with undiminished ardour, in 
increasing the intellectual treasure which the generations 
passing away bequeath to those that follow. 

We have roughly sketched the career of this illustrious 
man; we may now be permitted to dwell, for a few minutes, 


Life and Writings of Berzelius. 7 


on the character of the philosopher, and the merit of his pro- 
ductions. 

What principally characterises the genius of Berzelius, 
and what we especially recommend to the attention of the 
future biographers of this great man, is his indefatigable 
ardour for work, and his inexhaustible patience. Those who 
wish to follow his steps, will do well to remark that these 
qualities were rather an acquisition than a natural endow- 
ment, and that they were indispensable to form the character 
of the greatest analyst of the age. Experiment, long-con- 
tinued, with admirable skill, was the powerful lever he em- 
ployed to advance science and render his name famous. A 
sagacity as lively as it was patient and circumspect, a re- 
markable clearness of apprehension, a skill, precision, and 
accuracy of manipulation in experimenting, gave to the prac- 
tical results he obtained a character of certainty universally 
acknowledged by the learned world. 

Independently of his own personal discoveries, which are 
numerous, and of his theories, almost equal in amount, not 
an experiment of any importance was made in Europe for 
forty years, which was not repeated, confirmed, rectified, or 
combated by him. In the eyes of many of the learned, Ber- 
zelius may perhaps appear of inferior rank when compared 
with the originators of certain general ideas, bold theories, 
and vast relations, which, like the world, comprehend every 
thing within them, but he will be placed at the summit, among 
the most illustrious, when judged of according to the immense 
number and value of the positive facts with which his perse- 
verance and penetration have enriched science. If we take 
a glance at the works which he published, we will find a proof 
of the perpetual activity which he exerted in his labora- 
tory or in his cabinet. The periodical work of which we 
have already spoken, extends over a period of twelve years, 
and contains a condensed view of forty-seven original re- 
searches made by himself. His great Treatise on Chemis- 
try, in eight volumes, which has gone through five edi- 
tions, rewritten almost as many times, is a monument of re- 
search and skill. Besides, Berzelius commenced in 1822, at 
the request of the Stockholm Academy of Sciences, an Annual 


8 Life and Writings of Berzelius. 


Report on the Progress of Physics, Chemistry, and Mineralogy, 
which he continued to the last, and which constitutes the 
most valuable collection of chemical discoveries existing in 
any language. We shall again revert to this work, re- 
markable in so many respects. With respect to his chemi- 
cal discoveries, it is sufficient to mention the titles of the 
most important. Simple bodies,—thorinum, cerium, sele- 
nium, silicium, zirconium, and colombium, were discovered 
by him. He likewise proved the metallic nature of ammo- 
nium, or the radical composing ingredient of ammonia, as 
well as the acid properties of silex, and the different degrees 
in which sulphur combines with platina, phosphorus, &c. 
He made numerous researches respecting the acid salts of 
sulphur, hydrofluoric acid, and the fluorides. The new classi- 
fications which resulted from some of these discoveries 
have been of the greatest practical advantage. He felt the 
necessity of creating new rules for defining all combinations, 
so as to indicate the properties of each body, which was im- 
possible by the ancient nomenclature, except in relation to 
the compound oxids. His work on nomenclature commands 
at once the admiration and gratitude of all who are occupied 
with chemistry. It may be affirmed, that Berzelius has laid 
the foundations of organic chemistry. When the atomic 
theory of Dalton, and the discovery of the alkaline metals by 
Davy, produced a revolution in science, Berzelius immediately 
applied the doctrines of the former to the constitution of 
composite bodies, and to the order of combination of the 
different elements. Revising all the works of his predeces- 
sors, and conducting his experiments with a degree of accu- 
racy hitherto unknown, he determined, by innumerable ana- 
lyses, the laws which regulate chemical combinations, which 
he reduced to a degree of simplicity, which rendered them 
still more admirable. When these laws were once well 
ascertained, it became possible to control the results of ana- 
lyses,—even to foresee a great number of combinations then 
unknown, and to carry into every operation an accuracy pre- 
viously thought altogether unattainable. Not limiting their 
application to the composites which might be formed by the 
chemist, Berzelius soon procured for mineralogy the means 


Life and Writings of Berzelius. 9 


of determining, scientifically, a great portion of the substances 
presented by nature, and which, up to that time, could not be 
made to enter into any classification of a truly scientific cha- 
racter. He united these two sciences so intimately, that the 
study of minerals could no longer be separated from chemistry. 

The explanation of the theory of chemical proportions will 
be always regarded as one of the most important services 
which this chemist has rendered to the science. He pub- 
lished his researches in 1807, before Dalton’s ideas were 
generally known, working according to the almost forgotten 
views of Richter, which demonstrated the constancy of the 
combining proportions of acids and bases. The clear judg- 
ment of Berzelius enabled him to perceive the value of 
Richter’s notions. 

He made very careful analyses of certain salts, and could 
thus determine the composition of many others. In order to 
prove the accuracy of Richter’s theoretical ideas, he under- 
took an extensive examination of salts; and when the atomic 
theory of Dalton subsequently came to his knowledge, he 
found that it perfectly agreed with the results he had ob- 
tained, 

He proved, besides, in the most exact manner, that the 
proportion of oxygen is constant in all the neutral salts of 
the same acid. Berzelius then determined the relative pro- 
portional weights in which the different elements unite in 
order to form compounds. 

This was one of the subjects in which he engaged with the 
greatest ardour. We are likewise indebted to him for the 
greater part of the equivalents of simple bodies. 

This great chemist not only contributed to establish and 
bring to perfection the atomic theory, but he introduced it 
into science, thus giving a powerful impulse to organic and 
mineralogical chemistry. 

The electro-chemical theory, with all its consequences, 
whether realised or yet to come, is also one of the most re- 
markable works. This theory has been vigorously assailed 
in latter times, but up to the present time it has not really 
been shaken; the application of the laws of combination to 
the animal and vegetable organisation is, we believe, one effect 


10 Life and Writings of Berzelius. 


of the most beautiful results obtained by the power of his 
genius. 

In analytical chemistry Berzelius was indefatigable. From 
the time that Bergmann gave the first idea of exact ana- 
lysis, many of the learned have engaged in this important 
branch of chemistry; but Berzelius’ methods excelled all 
that has been done in accuracy. 

We owe to him the best processes for the quantitative 
separation of different substances; and he determined the 
composition of a greater number of natural or artificial com- 
pounds than any other chemist. Among the most important 
analytical processes for which science is indebted to him, we 
may mention the use of hydrofluoric acid in the analysis of 
siliciferous minerals ; also the use of chlore for the separa- 
tion of metals. His analyses of different minerals, of the 
mineral waters of Bohemia and other localities, cannot be sur- 
passed in accuracy. Qualitative analysis was likewise greatly 
improved by his exertions; and the application which he made 
of the blowpipe has rendered the greatest services to mine- 
ralogical researches. 

The Swedish chemists, among whom Gahn deserves to be 
particularly mentioned, have made the most valuable use of the 
blowpipe as a means of testing minerals. Although at that 
time scarcely employed in France, this important instrument 
became, in the hands of Berzelius, one of the most correct 
means that could be employed in the analysis of inorganic 
substances. In a work on this instrument, be has pointed 
out its utility, and the advantages to be derived from the use 
of it. (On the Use of the Blowpipe in Chemical Analysis and 
Mineralogical Determinations. ‘Translated from the Swedish 
by F. Fresnel. Paris, 1827.) 

It would be impossible, without entering into very minute 
details, to enumerate even the titles of all Berzelius’ Me- 
moirs: few chemists have published so great a number. 
Searcely any substance can be mentioned which he did not 
make the subject of experiment, and each of his investiga- 
tions comprehends some new method, or some modification 
of known processes, which may admit of useful application 
in science. 


=e 


Life and Writings of Berzelius. 11 


Berzelius never published a theory which did not rest on 
facts, and was corroborated by long experience. It is not 
long since we witnessed numerous discussions on theoretical 
views; but the illustrious Swede considered a theoretical idea 
as definitive when it had once been admitted into science, 
unless it was overthrown by the force of indisputable facts. 
In chemistry, Berzelius opposed many speculative theories, 
which he admitted, notwithstanding, to be ingenious ; but he 
gave a preference to older opinions, until new results were 
found to have a tendency to strengthen them. If some of 
his own opinions are not adopted by all chemists, this must 
be ascribed to his excessive caution and cireumspection. In 
a science entirely founded on experiment, this reserve may 
prevent the admission of a true idea, but, on the other hand, 
it very seldom leads to error. When he commenced his 
labours at Upsal, the whole science consisted of a mass of 
crude theories soldered together, and hasty attempts were 
made to fill up the most obvious voids by fanciful notions 
having no resemblance to truth. These were the greatest 
obstacles he had to overcome; and hence arose the repug- 
nance he always shewed for that mania for theories, which, 
usurping the place of true philosophy, has built hypothesis 
on hypothesis, and given the name of science to results which 
are nothing less than absurd. It would not, however, be 
quite right to say that Berzelius too much depreciated inves- 
tigations of a purely theoretical kind; but from this ten- 
dency, although carried a little too far, this important advan- 
tage arose, that when Berzelius adopted a theory it might 
be considered as resting on a secure foundation. 

This cireumspection has often exposed him to severe re- 
proach, and yet it was attended with excellent results for 
science ; for no theoretical idea could be introduced into 
chemistry with impunity, when there was such an authority 
to discuss it in all its bearings, and thus test its real value. 
Without wishing to find fault with the meritorious efforts of 
those who have endeavoured to introduce new ideas into the 
science, we nevertheless think that Berzelius has done more 
by his cautious and analytical spirit, than the greater part of 
those who have adopted new ideas without previous examina- 


12 Life and Writings of Berzelius. 


tion, and who, when they have become general, have boasted 
loudly of their foresight and perspicacity. It was natural 
that a man so excessively careful and precise in his own re- 
searches, should judge with severity of the labours, and espe- 
cially the presumed discoveries, of others. Some have pre- 
sumed to ascribe this tendency in our philosopher, when 
acting as a critic, to a jealousy unworthy of his noble nature, 
and have declined to regard it as a proof of the ardent love 
he bore to the science which occupied every hour of his 
existence. 

Berzelius was jealous only for chemistry. Considering his 
extensive experience, he could not be otherwise than opposed 
to the imaginary theories in which the ardent spirit of inno- 
vators delights to indulge. If he clung eagerly to old truths, 
his conduct shews most satisfactorily that such a disposition 
was no way incompatible with persevering research for what 
yet remained to be discovered. 

Berzelius’ investigations on animal chemistry are likewise 
very important ; we may mention particularly, those relating 
to the blood, bile, and other parts of organism, He discover- 
ed the presence of lactic acid in the different animal fluids, 
such as blood, milk, urine, tears, &c., a discovery which 
was of great importance for medical science, that is to say, 
for the chemistry of life. 

Electricity, vegetable chemistry, and physiology, have been 
enriched by the labours of this illustrious chemist. He im- 
proved everything he touched, and we may say of him, with- 
out fear of contradiction, that he was at once the most inde- 
fatigable and most profitable labourer that ever appeared in 
the field of science. 

After having spoken of Berzelius, in relation to his per- 
sonal works, it remains for us to consider him as a critic. In 
this respect, he has unquestionably exercised as much influ- 
ence on the sciences as by his discoveries. 

The examination and criticism to which, for upwards of 
twenty years, Berzelius submitted the works of chemists and. 
and natural philosophers in his Comptes Rendus annuels, have 
often excited against him the anger of authors, who some- 
times thought that he spoke of them with too great freedom. 


Life and Writings of Berzelius. 13 


In our day, it has even been said, that few French works 
found favour in his eyes, unless they were written in the 
spirit of his doctrines, or modelled after his theories. This 
is one of the most unjust accusations that could be advanced 
against him; and we have only to peruse his interesting 
Comptes Rendus, to be convinced that it is altogether false. 
We might have wished, indeed, that the conscientious work 
of Berzelius had been a simple statistical view of the progress 
of the science, instead of being a report on that progress ; 
that is to say, at once a rational exposition, and a judgment, 
with the reasons on which it was founded. 

Others have alleged that these official judgments had no 
object or utility ; that to expose, decide upon, and combat 
researches which required long and laborious study, was a 
bad and ungracious undertaking. Some have even gone the 
length of saying that these reports are not his own work, but 
merely a compilation made by obliging and inexperienced 
pupils ! 

When scientific criticism is conscientiously conducted, we 
shall always plead its defence against detractors; and those 
who love science for its own sake, and not for the reputation 
it sometimes confers, or the profitable employment which it 
still more rarely procures, will certainly be of our opinion. 
It is of the highest importance that error should not be in- 
troduced into science, and it is consequently necessary that 
eminent men should be found willing to devote themselves to 
the toilsome task of examining the discoveries and works 
which every day appear, in order to sanction with their au- 
thority such as are true, to do justice to such as their authors 
produce, and endeavour in this way to enrich the common 
domain. It is even one of the greatest misfortunes we have 
to lament, that the death of Berzelius has left us completely 
destitute of this scientific criticism ; for he alone, if we nay 
so speak, stood as a sentinel in advance surveying the hori- 
zon, ever ready to assail rash or false theories, ill-conducted 
experiments, or factitious explanations. 

Yar from finding fault with Berzelius’ courage in his frank 
and distinctly-expressed appreciations of the deserts of others, 
we eagerly hope that others will be found to imitate his 


14 Life and Writings of Berzelius. 


glorious example. Criticism has the great advantage of ex- 
citing emulation, of drawing the attention of competent 
judges to experiments and theories, which would spring up 
only to perish, if they were not resisted. Who does not 
know, and is not ready to confess, that a serious examina- 
tion, even though hostile and severe, is much preferable to 
the subject being allowed to pass over im silence ? 

But in order to criticise the works of others, and form a 
judicious and intelligent estimate of them, a union of qualities 
is required, which unfortunately are rarely met with in a 
single individual, but which Berzelius possessed in a high 
degree. We do not indeed pretend that this illustrious 
chemist was without faults, that he was a diamond without 
a flaw; Alas! No! he was a man, and as such, liable to 
error. But we maintain against all, that few learned men 
have united in the same degree, eminent and indisputable 
merit, a theoretical and practical superiority universally re- 
cognised, a profound knowledge of all that has been done ; 
and, finally, the consciousness that he had a duty to fulfil, a 
mission to execute. 

Yes, we regret Berzelius, for we can never forget the 
eminent services he rendered every day to science, and we 
lament to see the threshold of the temple henceforth without 
a guardian, admitting the entrance of every crude theory, 
and every vagary of the imagination. Chemistry, in our day, 
is taking a wrong direction, and the eye of the philosopher 
observes it with sorrow again entering upon the dark path 
from which the past century had searcely extricated it. Chan- 
cellor Bacon, the mystic Paracelsus, and before them, our 
countryman Van Helmont, had however pointed out the su- 
periority of experiments to preconceived theories, and the 
worthlessness of systems formed before experiment! In the 
present day, there is no unity in the work: some seek for a 
new classification, or a new system; they imagine that they 
find a system while seeking for it, and giving, according to 
the expression of a modern author (Kiréevsky Historie des 
legislateurs chimistes), a new aspect to the great work; they 
assume altogether the character of the ancient alchemists. 
Others endeavour to teach organic chemistry ; they mystify 


Life and Writings of Berzelius. 15 


it,—they do nothing that is of any use. Ought not a new 
Berzelius to seize the sceptre fallen from the lifeless hands 
of the illustrious critic, in order to recall these fruitless la- 
bourers to order, and shew them by his example, how science 
should be promoted ? 

In his personal relations Berzelius was simple and plain, 
without those pretensions which, arising from an exaggerated 
notion of their own importance, sometimes diminish the plea- 
sure which ought to be derived from the company of men emi- 
nent in science. He rose at an early hour, and no visitor ever 
found him unoccupied. No one, whoever ho might be, could 
ever complain of his reception. He knew th>full value of time, 
and he endeavoured to make others know it also. During a 
career of seventy years, forty-four of which were passed in 
the same city, engaged without intermission in difficult, and 
sometimes painful undertakings, Berzelius knew how to pre- 
serve the attachment of his pupils, the friendship of his col- 
leagues, the esteem of his sovereign, and the respect of all. 
Many of the most distinguished chemists of the age resorted 
to his laboratory, such as Mitscherlich, Gmelin, Henri, and 
Gustavus Rose, Weehler, Magnus, Arfwedson, Mosander, 
&e. All entertained a boundless respect for their master, 
for they regarded him as the primary cause of their success 
in science, as the spirit which formed their minds, and gave 
a proper direction to their studies. 

Perhaps we shall be accused of having attempted an eloge 
of Berzelius; but our ambition has not been so aspiring. 
While defending this great man from the unjust reproaches 
with which he has been assailed, it has been our desire, on 
this solemn occasion, to call to mind his principal titles to 
fame. In describing the course of a life as lengthened as 
it was well employed, we have endeavoured to shew to all 
young chemists, that present tendencies may lead them astray, 
and how they may succeed in laying the foundation of an im- 
perishable reputation, and a glorious name; how, in order 
to advance the experimental sciences, it is necessary to sus- 
tain natural genius by a steadfast perseverance, and a conti- 
nual labour, which nothing should discourage. 


( 16°) 


On the Relations of Trap-Rocks with the Ores of Copper and 
Iron, and the similarity of the Schalstein of Dillenburg, the 
Blatterstein of the Harz, and the Gabbro of Tuscany. 


(Continued from vol. xlvi., p. 306.) 


I. The Relations of Trap-Rocks with Ores of Copper and Iron. 


This extension of geognostic relations between reposito- 
ries exclusively cupriferous and the trap rocks, gives some 
importance to a more detailed examination than we have 
had occasion to make, of the copper ores and traps of Dillen- 
burg. We find, indeed, between the veins of this country 
characterised by copper pyrites and the greenstones, which 
form the principal features of the accidents and composition 
of the country, relations different from those we have pointed 
out in Tuscany, and which add some facts to the relations 
which, in so many instances, render copper ores subordinate 
to trap-rocks. 

If we examine the environs of Dillenburg on the geological 
map of Germany, we will perceive that this country, lying to- 
wards the northern border of Nassau, forms an islet in the 
transition mass remarkable for its peculiar composition. 
Narrow zones, composed of alternations of slates and lime- 
stones, supposed to be Devonian, run from the south-west to 
north-east, following the general direction of the great zone 
of anthraxiferous limestones, which traverse Belgium and 
Rhenish Prussia, more to the north. These slates and De- 
vonian limestones lie above the greywackes and Silurian 
slates of the mass, interrupted by strongly-developed trap- 
rocks, arranged in zones following the same direction. A 
second group of the same rocks, affecting the same disposi- 
tion, is found a little more to the south from Limburg to 
Weilburg and Braunfels. 


II. Relations of the Schalstein of Dillenburg, the Blatterstein of 
the Harz, and the Gabro of Tuscany. : 


The trap-rocks of Dillenburg cover a considerable surface 
(8 to 10 square leagues), without, however, being very conspi- 


Relations of Trap-Rocks with Ores of Copper. 17 


cuous, because their blunted forms present only gentle slopes 
covered by an active vegetation. But they can be studied in 
numerous excavations, where we perceive the massive struc- 
ture of the greenstones, a structure often globular, so as to 
present mammelated surfaces. 

The tissue of these rocks is generally homogeneous and 
compact; their colours deep, often ochreous on the surface, 
but greenish in the fractures which reach the unaltered rock. 
These appearances, moreover, are subject to variations sufh- 
ciently indicated by the multitude of names applied to them, 
such as greenstone, traps, variolites, amphibolites, diorites, 
&e. If we look for analogous formations, these rocks can- 
not be better compared than with those, which, in fact, bear 
the same names in the group of the Harz mountains. 

If we study attentively some 6f the principal trap masses, 
we observe that the central part is pretty constant in its 
characters ; it is a green rock, homogeneous and compact, the 
true type of greenstone. The variations which have caused 
so many different names to be applied to it, occur principally 
towards the exterior zones ; a condition which we have pointed 
out in the serpentine masses of Tuscany, and which likewise 
exists in the greenstone of the Harz. If we examine the 
true rocks of contact, we shall find them exhibiting charac- 
ters still more complex, but which always remind us of some 
of those of the trap type. 

These rocks of contact are designated at Nassau by the 
general denomination of schalstein. 

It is very difficult to define schalstein. It is most fre- 
quently a compact and lithoid rock, green or reddish, much 
rent, especially in the general direction of the stratification ; 
some varieties are even slaty, others are brecciform and 
massive. The red colour of schalstein sometimes becomes 
very deep, and it contains, occasionally, conformable beds 
of red peroxide of iron. Lastly, the variolitie amygdaloids, 
with calcareous nodules, also form part of the schalstein, and 
develop themselves more especially in the parts of the loca- 
lity where the Devonian limestones exist. 

The schalstein has long attracted the attention of those 
who have studied the rocks of Nassau. Becher, Walchner, 


VOL. XLVII. NO. XCIII.—JULY 1849. B 


18 Relations of Trap-Rocks with Ores of Copper. 


Stifft, Leonardt, de Dechen, &c., have described the charac- 
ters of these rocks, and distinguished from the schalstein, 
properly so called, 1st, The kalktrap, which are compact 
rocks, homogeneous, green or red, characterised by a mix- 
ture of limestone with the elements of the greenstone; 2d, 
The mandelstein, which are nothing else than our amygda- 
loids, rocks of contact which connect the preceding with the 
greenstone. 

M. Oppermann published, in 1836, a treatise on the schal- 
stein and kalktrap, in which he reviews all the opinions pre- 
viously published. These rocks, he says, are situate at the 
contact of the greenstone with the greywackes, slates, or 
limestones, in such a manner that, according to the loca- 
lities, they may be studied in very different media, whose 
characters they reflect. M. Becher has studied the schal- 
stein principally in the limestone formation, Walchner in 
the formation of clay-slate, and Stifft in the greenstone; 
so that each of them has characterised these rocks by the 
predominance of lime, clay, or magnesia. 

All these observers appear to agree in regarding the schal- 
stein, kalktrap, and mandelstein, as rocks subordinate to 
greenstone, forming the passage between the crystalline 
rocks and the argillaceous or limestone rocks. Some of 
them, however, have separated the argillaceous schalstein, 
which they consider as a normal rock subordinate to the slaty 
rocks; while the kalktrap and the mandelstein cannot be 
supposed to have any other origin than the greenstone. 
With regard to ourselves, we consider all these varieties as 
metamorphic rocks. 

If we set aside the amygdaloids, the schalstein exhibits the 
greater part of the characters assigned to the green and red 
gabbro of Italy. By the amygdaloids and subordinate beds 
of oligistic iron, they become confounded with the blatter- 
stein of the Harz. 

All the considerations we have brought forward to shew 
that the gabbro is stratified, may be applied to the schal- 
stein and blatterstein, for these three types of rocks present 
remarkable resemblances in the conditions of their posi- 
tions. All the three are found towards the outskirts of the 


Relations of Trap-Rocks with Ores of Copper. 19 


trap-rocks to which they are subordinate, follow the contours 
of the masses, and, at the same time, the stratified direc- 
tions of the upraised deposits. Al] the three exhibit distinct 
mineralogical transitions, which unite, on the one hand, 
the rocks evidently eruptive, and, on the other, the rocks 
evidently stratified. Finally, all the three are partially 
charged with red peroxide of iron, too abundant to admit of 
the supposition that it arises from the superoxidisation of the 
pre-existing iron, and which, according to all probability, 
ought to be ascribed to special emanations. 

On studying the relations of the schalsteins with metalli- 
ferous repositories, we shall find further occasion to point 
out other identities. Let us take an example which will af- 
ford us an opportunity, in the first place, of stating precisely 
the conditions of the position ( gisement) of the greenstones, 
the schalsteins and stratified rocks of Dillenburg, and then to 
describe the direction and composition of the metalliferous 
repositories found in these formations. 

To the north of Dillenburg, the valley of the Dill is en- 
closed by mountainous groups which contain mines of 
copper worked for a long period, but now only on a small 
seale. On the left bank, an English company has opened 
pretty extensive works in the neighbourhood of Nanzenbach ; 
and, on the right bank, many German companies are scat- 
tered about, particularly above the village of Weidmansheil, 
where the mines of Stangenwaage, Bermausgliicke, Gnade- 
Gottes, and Haus-Nassau are situated. The formation con- 
taining these varied repositories is in very strongly inclined 
strata, running north-east, south-west, following the general 
course of the devonian and silurian strata of the country ; so 
that the projection of the different constituent strata forms 
a succession of rather unequal parallel bands which intersect 
the valley of the Dill. These beds belong to the bluish clay- 
‘slate, alternating with some calcareous beds, and form the 
principal mass of the formation; but they are interrupted 
by large masses of greenstone, which are most frequently 
inserted conformably to the planes of stratification, and shew 
themselves with all their rocks annexed. These annexed 
rocks are the red clay-slate, which represents the first de- 


20 Relations of Trap-Rocks nith Ores of Copper. 


gree of alteration in the upraised formation and the schal- 
stein.* 

One may study the different rocks of the formation by 
going to the mines by the narrow road to the north-west of 
Dillenburg, which runs along the side of the naked escarpe- 
ments. We can distinguish the massive and undulated sur- 
faces of the greenstone at a great distance, and, in the mine 
heaps, the most varied specimens are to be found of the rocks 
traversed by the mine galleries, which are mostly pierced 
perpendicularly to the direction of beds, so as to cut across 
the whole of them. By the aid of plans of the mines, where 
the different formations are marked in accordance with the 
description of the metalliferous repositories, we gain a precise 
knowledge of their mineralogical characters, and relative 
position. 

In a mineralogical point of view, the schalstein, whose 
characters are so variable, are the most interesting rocks. 
We find among them brecciform varieties, with green or red- 
dish angular fragments ; amygdaloidal varieties, with a mix- | 
ture of calcareous spar, which is sometimes in irregular veins, 
sometimes in radiated globules; lastly, we find among them 
those green or red varieties, compact and homogeneous, 
which throw so much uncertainty over the origin of these 
rocks. Among the rocks connected with the schalstein, and 
having the same direction, we may mention the red peroxide 
of iron, which forms irregular beds from 1 to 3 or 4 yards 
in thickness. Atthe mine of Stangenwaage there is a thick 
bed of this oligistic iron found on the roof of a bed of schal- 
stein, and which exhibits all the peculiarities of position ob- 
served in banks of oligistic iron subordinate to the blatterstein 
of the valley of Lehrbach, inthe Harz. In the mining heaps 
we are struck with the flat shape of all the fragments of 
schalstein, and on examining the rock in situ, we perceive 
that the principal fissures which produce this structure, and 


* There is still a further approximation to be noticed between the altered 
rocks of Dillenburg and those of Tuscany. The two degrees of alteration are 
represented in the two localities; the first by the red slates of Nassau and the 
red galestri of Tuscany ; the second by the schalstein and the gabbro. 


Relations of Trap-Rocks with Ores of Copper. 21 


even sometimes give the rock a slaty structure, are parallel 
to the planes of stratification. 

With respect to the geological situation of the schalstein, 
we may mention a fact observed in the mine of Stangen- 
waage ; namely, that the beds of schalstein are sometimes 
contained between the slaty or calcareous beds, without be- 
ing in immediate contact with the greenstones. This isola- 
tion is pretty frequent, and, if we connect it with this other 
fact, that the greenstone is still more frequently in imme- 
diate contact with the slaty formation without intermediate 
borders of schalstein, we come to the conclusion, that the 
origin of the schalstein is not simply owing to circumstances 
of contact. These rocks, as well as the beds of oligistic 
iron, to which we shall afterwards advert, probably arise 
from complex and prolonged phenomena of emanations which 
have followed the eruptions of the trap. 

Let us now examine the conditions of the cupriferous re- 
positories. These repositories consist of pretty numerous 
veins; some of them, continuous and rather wide, follow a 
general direction, perpendicular to that of the beds, although 
it is somewhat tortuous. These are the master veins. 
Others, much more numerous, are short and very narrow; 
their direction is generally oblique, and they are often con- 
founded with the planes of stratification. 

The principal vein of Stangenwaage (haupé-gang) tra- 
verses in this way the series of all the beds of the formation, 
and is consequently found in very heterogeneous media. The 
principal contents are quartz, to which may be added, in 
greater or less quantity, peroxide of iron, and the debris 
coming from the rocks of the roof and walls. Copper pyrites, 
pure, and often crystallized, are found in these vein-stones 
(gangues,) and the experience of the miners has long since 
proved, that the veins are never wide and rich in copper py- 
rites, but when they traverse the greenstone and schalstein. 

The works of the mine of Stangenwaage demonstrate the 
truth of this law. The miners have given the name of en- 
richment (edle-mittel) to the parts which contain the copper 
pyrites in largest proportion ; now these enrichments exist 
only when the veins cross the above-mentioned rocks. 


22 Relations of Trap-Rocks with Ores of Copper. 


We may perceive that there is here a law determining the 
richness of veins, which may be explained by this fact ob- 
served in the veins of other countries, namely, that the fis- 
sures are ill developed in slaty formations, so that the veins 
in them are narrow, and filled with steril debris ; while the 
greenstone and schalstein, by the open and distinct nature of 
their fractures, have presented wider and more durable inlets 
to the metalliferous emanations. A second law, however, 
comes to add to the importance of the first, and authorizes 
us to attribute a more direct and decided metalliferous in- 
fluence to these rocks ; namely, that these vein-fissures, which 
from their origin have but little dependence on the enclosing 
rocks, exist only in positions analogous to those we have de- 
scribed, positions really subordinate to the trap-rocks. 

Accordingly, in the vast transition mass of the Rhenish 
Provinces, the characteristics of mineral riches are sparry 
iron, blende,and galena; few copper mines, properly so called, 
exist there, unless it be some veins, forming an exception to 
the general arrangement at Rheinbreitenbach. Throughout 
the whole trap country of Dillenburg, we observe, on the 
contrary, a multitude of veins, exclusively characterized by 
oligistic iron and copper pyrites, and the richest places there 
are always in the relations of vicinity or contact with the 
trap-rock. When we leave the traps, for example, and re- 
pair to the county of Siegen, so rich in ores, we find that the 
copper pyrites becomes only an accidental mineral.* 

The constitution of the metalliferous formation of Dillen- 
burg, and the relations which regulate the richness of the 
veins, give rise to a very interesting arrangement. 

The alternating beds which form the mass of Stangen- 
waage, are highly inclined, and dip at angles from 55 to 75 
degrees. Now, as the veins which cross these alternations 
almost perpendicularly to their direction, become rich in the 
greenstones and schalstein which dip under the same angles, 
it follows that the metalliferous zones of the veins are in- 
clined as the vertical sections of these beds. Thus, then, by 


* Tam indebted to M. Heusler, chief mining-engineer in the district of Siegen, 
for the communication of these results, attested by long practice in the mines 


of the whole of that country. 


Relations of Trap-Rocks with Ores of Copper. 23 


referring the allure of the metalliferous zones to the direction 
and inclination of the veins, we find that the zones of enrichment 
follow inclined lines, diagonal between the inclination and direc- 
tion of the veins. 

This diagonal allure of the metalliferous zones in veins, 
is not an exceptional fact; examples of it are mentioned in 
the veins which occur on the right bank of the Rhine, from 
Holzappel to St Goar; but here this fact is explained by the 
influence and direction of the enclosing rocks. This, then, 
is still another example of the study of the theory of veins 
and their geognostic relations serving as a guide to miners. 
We see, in fact, that vertical works, undertaken to intersect 
at some depth the ascertained profitable parts in the first 
levels, might lead to steril zones ; we might be misled by 
want of success in this way, and be induced to declare that 
the veins presented no guarantee of richness in depth. 

The subterranean origin of ores in the metalliferous repo- 
sitories is no longer, in the present day, considered doubtful ; 
but among the facts which demonstrate this origin, a first 
place must be assigned to their almost constant connection 
with the eruptive rocks. Ali the proofs furnished by the 
characters of volcanoes, or by certain igneous masses which 
contain ores, such as the amphibolites of Tuscany, the traps of 
Kewena Point, the greenstones of Siberia, the serpentines of 
Reichenstein in Silesia, &c., may in strictness be rejected, as 
resulting from local and limited facts, an objection which 
cannot be made to facts so vast and general as geognostic 
relations. These relations change their form, they are more 
or less direct, but when we see them reproduced at the most 
remote points of the globe, and over vast surfaces—when we 
find them inscribed on the plans of mines, and in the lan- 
guage of workmen, we cannot fail to consider them as fur- 
nishing a most convincing argument in favour of the subter- 
ranean origin of ores. 

The greenstones of the neighbourhood of Dillenburg afford 
a remarkable case of the dissemination of ores in the very paste 
of the eruptive rock. It is a dyke, from 5 to 10 yards broad, 
penetrated with sulphuret of nickel in crystals or needles, 
which penetrate the whole paste in such a way as to leave 


24 Relations of Trap-Rocks with Ores of Copper. 


little doubt as to the fact of their being contemporary. The 
mining, which is of old date, has found a source of the pro- 
duction of nickel in these greenstones of great interest, for 
it is employed on an ore hitherto very rare, and whose erup- 
tive origin cannot be doubted. 

The connection of the Dillenburg schalstein with the ores of 
copper, is a consideration to be added to those on which we 
have rested their assimilation to the gabbro of the North West 
of Italy ; on the other hand, their still more intimate connec- 
tion with the repositories of oligistic iron, diffused abundantly 
throughout Nassau, identifies them in a still more direct 
manner with the blatterstein of the Harz. 

We have pointed out this law (“ Etudes sur les mines’’) which 
regulates the positions of the oligistic iron of the Harz, es- 
pecially in the valleys of Lerbach and Altenau, namely, that 
these ores belong to repositories of contact subordinate to the 
blatterstein and greenstone, and even inserted accidentally 
into their own mass. This law is expressed in the mine of 
Stangenwaage, where we see a thick repository of oligistic 
iron forming a salbande to the schalstein, and other small 
beds of less importance entering into the very mass of the 
schalstein and greenstone, always parallel to the general 
plane of stratification. 

The repositories of peroxide of iron are still more numerous 
in Dillenburg than in the Harz, and always in the same con- 
ditions as to position. In order to give an idea of their 
abundance, we may nrention the fact that the foundries in 
the neighbourhood of Herborn may derive their ores from 
forty repositories either mined or known. This richness in 
iron-ore extends to the group of greenstone southfrom Nassau. 
There are likewise banks of oligistic iron, of all dimensions, 
subordinate to the schalstein, so that a certain number of 
them has been mined to levels accessible by drainings not 
of an expensive character, while others have furnished ores 
from time immemorial. These ores, which are rich and of 
good quality, are sold for not more than seven francs a ton. 

Recapitulating what has been stated respecting the rela- 
tiuns of greenstone and schalstein with metalliferous reposi- 
tories, we find, then, the trap-rocks, 1s¢, Exerting enriching 


Relations of Trap-Rocks with Ores of Copper. 25 


influences on numerous cupriferous veins, whose development 
is also subordinate to them ; 2d, Containing accidentally oli- 
gistic iron enclosed in globular shapes in their masses, and 
sulphuret of nickel disseminated in contemporaneous crys- 
tals; 3d, Presenting relations of contact with the multi- 
plied repositories of oligistic iron. 

The schalstein of Dillenburg, the blatterstein of the Harz, 
and the gabbro of Italy, rocks which we have assimilated, as 
resulting, the whole three, from metamorphic influences de- 
veloped at the point of contact with the masses of trap, have 
a common character of the most striking kind, which is the 
strong red colour they impart to a great portion of the rocks 
they contain. In their normal state, these rocks are green, and 
exhibit, in a more or less distinct form, the characters of the 
trap masses to which they happen to be subordinate, establish- 
ing the passage between the eruptive rock and the upraised 
stratified rocks. The proportion of protoxide of iron which 
they contain in this normal state, prevents us supposing the 
reddening here to be the result of a simple superoxidation of 
pre-existing iron; the iron is superadded, and in such quantity 
that the rocks are connected by transitions and relations of 
contact to concentrations of pure ores. 

In order to account for the reddening of these metamorphic 
rocks, we have, therefore, strong reasons to admit the same 
theoretic explanation as for the generation of the subordinate 
ores ; and this explanation necessarily extends to the simple 
reddened clay-slate of Dillenburg, the red flinty slate of 
the Harz, the galestri of Tuscany, and those red jaspers 
which the Italian peasants so expressively name mattoni 
(bricks). Now, in the present state of our geological know- 
ledge, we can only ascribe this generation of oligistic iron 
to subterranean emanations ; these emanations have followed 
the outbursting of the trap-rocks, since we find the products 
of them in certain veins which intersect the traps; they are, 
therefore, to the trap rocks, what the products of So/fataras 
now are to the voleanoes of the present period. 

Concentrations of oligistic iron in highly crystalline re- 
positories such as that of Rio in the island of Elba, leave no 
doubt upon the mind. We ean conceive the posterior arrival 


26 Relations of Trap-Rocks with Ores of Copper. 


of these ores, under a form sufficiently subtile to penetrate 
into all the fissures of a formation, to saturate all the mineral 
mass, and become insulated in wide veins. This Rio repo- 
sitory bears, indeed, all the characters of a slow generation, 
by the prolonged action of vapours analogous to those which 
bring the oligistic iron into the craters of voleanoes. The 
lustre, the geodes incrusted with crystals, the perfect isola- 
tion of the crystals of pyrites which formed special groups, 
and the corrosion of these pyrites, which are often trans- 
formed into oligistic iron ; all these details seem to combine 
in indicating the prolonged action of metalliferous vapours. 
We see that, in many cases, the oligistic iron; when in the 
micaceous form which, under the hammer, affords a light 
and brilliant powder, is posterior to the oligistic iron, which 
is compact or in binoternary crystals. Is not this same sub- 
terranean action further evident in the semi-crystalline re- 
pository of Framont, which has produced the repositories of 
the Harz and Nassau, which differ from it only in their less 
crystalline nature? Ought not the lithoid oligistie iron, 
which impregnates the schalstein, blatterstein, and gabbro, 
be ascribed to the same causes, which are here marked by 
the same conditions of position, and finally the red hue of 
the stratified rocks, such as the red clay-slate, the gallestri, 
mattoni, we. 

By generalising this theory, we shall be led to even more 
extended conclusions. In certain sedimentary formations, 
we find earthy oligistic irons concentrated or disseminated 
in the red-coloured rocks. Formations of the old and new 
red sandstone, the sandstone of the Vosges, the varied co- 
loured marls, and generally the gypseous and saliferous marls 
of the secondary or tertiary formations, present us with 
numerous and well-developed examples, either of the general 
or partial coloration of deposits by oligistic iron. Among 
these deposits we find beds of concentrated ores, compact or 
oolitie (Lavoulte, Laverpillére, Privas, &c.,) and in these beds 
shells, themselves ‘transformed into compact or even crys- 
talline ores. 

What are the phenomena which could have accumulated 
in particular beds, or disseminated, through entire formations, 


Relations of Trap-Rocks with Ores of Copper. 27 


such considerable quantities of peroxide of anhydrous iron; 
while we cannot well conceive the iron deposited from waters, 
in any other state than that of hydrated peroxide? When 
we examine the immense quantity of oligistic iron dissemi- 
nated through red-coloured arenaceous formations, we can 
form only two hypotheses ; either this mass of peroxide has 
been derived, like the other arenaceous elements, from the 
pre-existing rocks ; or, it has been superadded, by means of 
special phenomena, in those same basons where the sedimen- 
tation took place. The first of these suppositions is scarcely 
admissible; and we are led, by every thing that has been 
previously said, to have recourse to the phenomena of sub- 
terranean emanations, contemporary with the deposits, and 
mingling their products with those of the sedimentation. 

In support of this hypothesis, we may mention the remark 
made by M. Elie de Beaumont, that the presence of stratified 
dolomite, gypsum, anhydrite, and rock-salt, almost always 
concurs with the red colour of the deposits. Now, all have 
nearly agreed in regarding all these substances as origina- 
ting in metamorphic actions contemporaneous with the de- 
posits in which they are formed. 

Thus, throughout the whole duration of geological times, 
the interior of the globe should appear to us as a centre of 
continuous emanations, which have sent enormous masses of 
iron to the surface; these emanations mingling their anhy- 
drous products, sometimes with those of sedimentation, at 
other times interposing themselves under the form of concen- 
trated repositories, in the rocks elevated by the eruptive 
masses.— Amédée Burat.* 


* From Annales des Mines, t. xiii., p. 351-378. 


( 28°) 


On an Equation between the Temperature and the Maximum 
Elasticity of Steam and other Vapours. By WILLIAM 
Joun Macquorn RANKINE, Civil Engineer. (With a 
Plate.) Communicated by the Author. 


In the course of a series of investigations founded on a 
peculiar hypothesis respecting the molecular constitution of 
matter, I have obtained, among other results, an equation 
giving a very close approximation to the maximum elasticity 
of vapour in contact with its liquid at all temperatures that 
usually oceur. 

As this equation is easy and expeditious in calculation, 
gives accurate numerical results, and is likely to be practi- 
cally useful, | proceed at once to make it known, without 
waiting until I have reduced the theoretical researches, of 
which it is a consequence, to a form fit for publication. 

The equation is as follows :— 


(1.) Trop Piatra 
t 


Where P represents the maximum pressure of a vapour 
in contact with its liquid :— 
t, the temperature, measured on the air-thermometer, from 
a point which may be called the ABSOLUTE ZERO, and which 
is— 
274°'6 of the centigrade scale below the freezing point of 
water. 
462°:28 of Fahrenheit’s scale below the ordinary zero of 
that scale, supposing the boiling point to have been 
adjusted under a pressure of 29-922 inches of mer- 
cury, so that 180° of Fahrenheit may be exactly equal 
to 100 centigrade degrees. 
461°-93 below the ordinary zero of Fahrenheit’s scale, 
when the boiling point has been adjusted under a pres- 
sure of 30 inches of mercury, 180° of Fahrenheit being 
then equal to 100°:0735 of the centigrade scale. 


W.J. M. Rankine, Esq., on the Elasticity of Vapours. 29 


The form of the equation has been given by theory; but 
three constants, represented by a, 6, and y, have to be de- 
termined for each fluid by experiment. 

The inverse formula, for finding the temperature from the 
pressure, is of course 


(2.) Bee Py el pce. 


It is obvious that for the determination of the three con- 
stants, it is sufficient to know accurately the pressures cor- 
responding to three temperatures ; and that the calculation 
will be facilitated if the reciprocals of those temperatures, as 
measured from the absolute zero, are in arithmetical pro- 
gression. 

In order to calculate the values of the three constants, for 
the vapour of water, the following data have been taken from 
M. Regnault’s experiments :— 


Temperatures in Cen- 
tigrade Degrees. Common 
Logarithms of | 
the Pressure in REMARKS. 
Above the| Above the} Millimétres of 
Freezing | Absolute Mercury. 
Point. Zero. 


Measured by M. Regnault on 
42403 his curve, representing the 
mean results of his experi- 
ments. 


2°8808136 Logarithm of 760 millimétres. 


J Calculated by interpolation 
1°4198 from M. Regnault’s general 
{ table. 


These data give the following results for the vapour of 
water, the pressures being expressed in millimétres of mer- 


30 W. J. M. Rankine, Esq., on the Elasticity of Vapours. 


cury, and the temperatures in centigrade degrees of the air- 
thermometer :— 


Log. y = 5:0827176 Log. 6 = 3:1851091 
a = 7°831247. 


Table I. exhibits a comparison between the results of the 
formula and those of M. Regnault’s experiments, for every 
tenth degree of the centigrade air-thermometer, from 30° be- 
low the freezing point to 230° above it, being within one or 
two degrees of the whole range of the experiments. 

M. Regnault’s values are given, as measured by himself, 
onthecurves representing the mean results of his experiments, 
with the exception of the pressures at 26°86, one of the data 
already mentioned, and that at — 30°, which I have calecu- 
lated by interpolation from his Table, series h. 

Each of the three data used in determining the constants 
is marked with an asterisk”. 

In the columns of differences between the results of the 
formula and those of experiment, the sign + indicates that 
the former exceed the latter, and the sign — the reverse. 

Beside each such column of differences is placed a column | 
of the corresponding differences of temperature, which would 
result in calculating the temperature from the pressure by 
the inverse formula. These are found by multiplying each 


a = dt —dt 
number in the preceding columns by — 7p, or by @ tog. p a8 


the case may require. 


31 


. J. M. Rankine, Esq., on the Elasticity of Vapours. 


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32 W. J. M. Rankine, Esq., on the Elasticity of Vapours. 


In comparing the results of the formula with those of ex- 
periment, as exhibited in Table I., the following cireum- 
stances are to be taken into consideration :— 

First, That the uncertainty of barometric observations 
amounts in general to at least one-tenth of a millimetre. 

Secondly, That the uncertainty of thermometric observations 
is from one-twentieth to one-tenth of a degree, under ordi- 
nary circumstances, and at high temperatures amounts to 
more. 

Thirdly, That, in experiments of the kind referred to in 
the Table, those two sorts of uncertainty are combined. 

The fifth column of the Table shews that, from 30° below 
the freezing point to 20° above it, where the minuteness of 
the pressures makes the barometric errors of mostimportance, 
the greatest difference between experiment and calculation is 
ye of a millimétre, or y45 of an inch of mercury, avery small 
quantity in itself, although, from the slowness with which the 
pressure varies at low temperatures, the corresponding dif- 
ference of temperature amounts to ;%°, of a degree. 

The sixth and tenth columns shew that, from 20° to 280° 
above the freezing point, the greatest of the discrepancies 
between experiment and observation corresponds to a differ- 
ence of temperature of only ;85 of a degree, and that very 
few of those discrepancies exceed the amount corresponding 
to 315 of a degree. 

A comparison between the sixth and tenth columns shews 
that, for four of the temperatures given, viz., 120°, 150°, 
200°, and 210°, the pressures deduced from M. Regnault’s 
curve of actual elasticities, and from his logarithmic curve re- 
spectively, differ from the pressures given by the formula in 
opposite directions. 

If the curves represented by the formula were laid down 
on M. Regnault’s diagram, they would be almost undistin- 
guishable from those which he has himself drawn, except near 
the freezing point, where the scale of pressures is very large, 
the heights of the mercurial column being magnified eight- 
fold on the plate. In the case of the curves of logarithms of 
pressures above one atmosphere, the coincidence would be 
almost perfect. 


W. J. M. Rankine, Esq., on the Elasticity of Vapours. 33 


The formula may therefore be considered as accurately re- 
presenting the results of all M. Regnault’s experiments 
throughout a range of temperatures from 30° of the centigrade 
scale below the freezing point to 230° above it, and of pres- 
sures from 5345 of an atmosphere up to 28 atmospheres. 

It will be observed that equation (1.), bears some resem- 
blance to the formula proposed by Professor Roche in 1828, 
wiz.: 

B 
Log P=). a9 

where T represents the temperature measured from the ordi- 
nary zero point, and A, B, and C, constants, which have to 
be determined from three experimental data. It has been 
shewn, however, by M. Regnault, as well as by others, that 
though this formula agrees very nearly with observation 
throughout a limited range of temperature, it errs widely 
when the range is extensive. I have been unable to find 
Professor Roche’s memoir, and I do not know the reasoning 
from which he has deduced his formula. 

The use in computation of the equations I have given, 
whether to calculate the pressure from the temperature, or 
the temperature from the pressure, is rapid and easy. In 
Table II. they are recapitulated, and the values of the con- 
stants for different measures of pressure and temperature are 
stated. 

In calculating the values of «, the specific gravity of mer- 
eury has been taken as 13-596. 

Temperatures measured by mercurial thermometers are in 
all cases to be reduced to the corresponding temperatures 
on the air-thermometer, which may be done by means of the 
table given by M. Regnault in his memoir on that subject. 


Taste Il. Vapour of Water. 


Formula for calculating the Maximum Elasticity of Steam 
(P), from the Temperature on the Air-Thermometer, 
measured from the Absolute Zero (¢) : 


VOL. XLVI. NO. XCIII.—JuULY 1849. (6) 


34 W. J. M. Rankine, Esq., on the Elasticity of Vapours. 


Inverse Formula for calculating the Temperature from the 
Maximum Elasticity of Steam : 


Oy es GT Na 
sy ak a oa at 
2 


Values of the Constants depending on the Thermometric 
Scale. 


For the centigrade scale :-— 
Absolute zero 274°-6 below the freezing point of water. 


Log B=3:1851091 Log y=5:0827176 
B ey 
—" —0:0063294 ——.=0:00004006 
2y 42 


For Fahrenheit’s scale; boiling point adjusted at 29-922 
inches. 


Absolute zero 462°28 below ordinary zero. 


Log B=3'4403816 Log y=5-5932626 
2 
* _9.0035163 _F” _9.900012864 
2y 4 y* 


For Fahrenheit’s scale ; boiling point adjusted at 30 inches. 
Absolute zero 461°-93 below ordinary zero. 


Log 6=3:4400625 Log y—=5°5926244 
* _9.0035189 F” —9-000012383 
Ge Y 4 a 


Values of the Constant a, depending on the Measure of 


Elasticity. 

For millimétres of mercury : : F . @=7:831247 
English inches of mercury . : d : 6°426421 
Atmospheres of 760 mil. =29:922 

inches = 14°7 lbs. on the square inch 4:950433 
=1:0338 kil. on the centimétre ” 
Atmospheres of 30 inches=761 mil. :99 
=14-74 lbs. on the square nc | 4:949300 
=1-086 kil. on the centimétre ? 
Kilogrammes on the square centimétre ‘ 4:964658 
Pounds Avoirdupois on the square inch j 6°117817 


N.B.—All the Constants are for common logarithms. 


I have applied similar formule to the vapours of alcohol 
and ether, making use of the experiments of Dr Ure. 


rahi ie 7 sear Sk lal es 


. : ae rT 
| 


21V 40 SHOdVA 


Mt 

oe § HLA 0, 20d 
Kk i adund 
14 s 


40 ALIDILS YI 
on or 


iF . = (MNVY wt 40 NOBTAVd INO) 
aeenestes 
eae e SES e 


a 
eco 


W.J.M. Rankine, Esq., on the Elasticity of Vapours. 35 


In order to calculate the constants, the following experi- 
mental data have been taken, assuming that, on Dr Ure’s 
thermometers, 180° were equal to 100 centigrade degrees. 


| 

Temperatures on 
Fahrenheit’s Seale | Pressures 
from in pens REMARKS. 
the ordi-|the abso-| Of *er- 
naryzero./lute zero.) CUTY- 


| 
° 


For Alcohol, of the } 250 | 712-3 |132°30 | From Dr Ure’s Table. 
specific gravity 173 | 635°3| 30-00 Do. 
} 111°02 573°52;| 6°30) Interpolated in the 


0°813. 


same Table. 


For Ether, boiling at | 200 662°3| 142-8 | From Dr Ure’sTable. 
105° F., under 30 }| 148°8| 611°1| 66°24 | Interpolated. 
inches of pressure. { | 105) 567°3) 30°00| From the Table. 


104° F., under 30 66°7 | 529-0| 13°76 | Interpolated. 


For Ether, boiling at 104, 566°3| 30-00 | From DrUre’sTable. 
inches. 84| 496°3| 6°20] From the Table. 


The values of the constants in equation (1.), calculated 
from these data, are as follows, for inches of mercury and 
Fahrenheit’s scale :— 


a Log B. Log y. 


Alcohol, specific gravity, 0°813. | 6-16620| 33165220 5-7602709 
Ether, boiling point, 105° F. 5°33590 | 3:2084573 | 5°5119893 
Ether, boiling point, 104° F. 5°44580 | 3°2571312| 5°3962460 


Absolute zero 462°°3 below ordinary zero. 


The curves represented by the formule for those three fluids 
are laid down on the diagram which accompanies this memoir 
(Plate I.), and which, in the engraving, has been reduced to 
one-fourth of the original scale. The horizontal divisions re- 
present the scale of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, numbered from 
the ordinary zero ;—the vertical divisions, pressures of va- 
pour, according to the scales specified on the respective 
curves. The points corresponding to the experimental data 
are surrounded by small circles. 


36 W.J. M. Rankine, Esq., on the Elasticity of Vapours. 


The curve for alcohol extends from 32° to 264° of Fahren- 
heit. It is divided into two portions, having different verti- 
cal scales, suitable to high and low pressures respectively. 

The curve for the less volatile ether extends from 105° to 
210°; that for the more volatile ether, from 34° to 104°. 

The results of Dr Ure’s experiments are marked by small 
crosses. 

The irregular and sinuous manner in which those crosses 
are distributed, indicates that the errors of observation, espe- 
cially at high temperatures, must have been considerable. 
This does not appear surprising, when we recollect how many 
causes of uncertainty affect all the measurements required 
in such experiments, especially the thermometric observa- 
tions, and how little those causes have been understood until 
very recently. The data from which the constants have been 
calculated, are, of course, affected by the general uncertainty 
of the experiments. 

When those circumstances are taken into account, it is 
obvious, from inspection of the diagram, that the curves re- 
presenting the formule agree with the points representing the 
experiments, as nearly as the irregularity of the latter and the 
uncertainty of the data permit; and that there is good reason 
to anticipate, that, when experiments shall have been made 
on the vapours of alcohol and ether with a degree of preci- 
sion equal to that attained by M. Regnault in the case of 
the vapour of water, the equation will be found to give the 
elasticities of those two vapours as accurately as it does that 
of steam. 

Although the diagram affords the best means of judging’ 
of the agreement between calculation and experiment, three 
Tables (III., IV., and V.) are annexed, in order to shew the 
numerical amount of the discrepancies at certain tempera- 
tures. The data, as before, are marked with asterisks. 

It is worthy of remark, in the case of alcohol, that although 
the lowest of the experimental data is at the temperature of 
111°-02, the formula agrees extremely well with the experi- 
ments throughout the entire range of 79 degrees below that 
point. 


W. J. M. Rankine, Esq., on the Elasticity of Vapours. 37 


Table \11.— Vapour of Alcohol, of the Specific Gravity 0°813. 


Temperature | Pressures in Inches of Mercury | Differences be- 

in Degrees of according to tween Calcula- 
eae viel tion and Expe- 

from the ordi- : Dr Ure’s riment in 
nary Zero. The Formula. Experiments. Inches. 


Corresponding 
Differences of 
Temperature. 


0:41 040 | +001 —0°5 | 
0°57 0°56 +001 | —0O-4 
0°84 DHS WT eH i eer 
to? Te Sea Se eat mere 2 
1°74 bie) SHO le eS 
2°43 2°45 SOO2% 1... +02 
3°36. | 3°40 —0:04 | 
4:56 | 450 | +0°06 
e126} 600 | +4012 
630 | 6°30 0:00 
810 | 8:10 0-00 
10°61 | 10-60 +0:01 
13°73 | 13°90 — 0:17 
17:60 18:00 | -—0-40 
22-32 22°60) a) == 0-28 
28-06 28°30 — 0°24 
30:00 30-00 0:00 
34:96 | 34°73 
43°21 43°20 +0°01 
52°96 53-00 — 0°04 
64:47 65:00 — 0°53 
77-92 78:50 | 
93°54 94:10 
111°58 111:24 
132°30 132°30 
155°98 155-20 
165°58 16610 


(2.) (3.) 


38 W. J. M. Rankine, Esq., on the Elasticity of Vapours. 


_ Table 1V.—Vapour of Ether—Boiling Point 105° F, 


Temperature 
in Degrees of 
Fahrenheit 
above the ordi- 
nary zero. 


Pressures in Inches of Mercury 


according to 


The Formula. 


30°00 
33.08 
39°98 
43°83 
47°95 
57°10 
66°24 
67°53 
79°35 
92°68 
99°94 
107-62 
124-29 
142:80 
152°78 
163°27 


Differences be- 
tom and Expe | Giietnces of 
_ Dr Ure's tice Mer- Temperature. 
Experiments. cury. 

30°00 0-00 0:0 
32°54 +0°54 —0:9 
39°47 4-0°51 —0°7 
43°24 +0°59 —0°8 
47-14 +0°81 —1:0 
56°90 + 0:20 - 0°2 
66°24 0-00 0-0 : 
67°60 — 0:07 +01 | 
80°30 — 0°95 +0°9 
92°80 — 0:12 +01 
99-10 + 0°84 —0°6 

108°30 — 0°68 +0°4 

124°80 —0:51 +03 

142°80 0:00 0:0 

151-30 +1:48 —0°7 

16600 — 2°73 +11 


Table V.—Vapour of Ether—Boiling Point 104° F. 


Temperatures 
in Degrees of 
Fahrenheit 
above the ordi- 

nary zero, 


Pressures in Inches of Mercury 


according to 


The Formula. 


6°20 

8-02 
10°24 
12°94 
13°76 
16°19 
20°06 
24°64 
30°00 


(2.) 


tween Calcu- 
lation and Ex- 
pores, | ramen 
cury. 
6°20 0:00 
8:10 — 0:08 
10°30 — 0°06 
13°00 — 0:06 
13°76 0:00 
16°10 +0°09 
20:00 + 0°06 
24:70 — 0°06 
30:00 0°60 
(3.) (4.) 


Differences be- 


| Corresponding 
Differences of 
Temperature. 


W. J. M. Rankine, Esq., on the Elasticity of Vapours. 39 


The results of Dr Ure’s experiments on the vapours of ¢wr- 
pentine and petroleum, are So irregular (as the diagram shews), 
and the range of temperatures and pressures through which 
they extend so limited, that the value of the constant y can- 7 
not be determined from them with precision. I have, there- 
fore, endeavoured to represent the elasticities of those two 
vapours approximately by the first two terms of the formula 
only, calculating the constants from two experimental data 
for each fluid. The equation thus obtained 


Log P=a—= 


is similar in form to that of Professor Roche. 
The data, and the values of the constants, are as fol- 
lows :— 


Temperature on 


Fahrenheit’s Scale from Values of the Constants for 


Fahrenheit’s Scale and 
Inches of Mercury. 


Pressures in 
Inches of 
the ordinary | the absolute Mercury. 
zero. zero. 


a 


3 - Turpentine. 


360 822°3 60°80 
30°00 


a5'98187 
Log 8=3°5380701 


Petroleum. 


370 832°3 60°70 
30°00 


a=6°19451 
Log P=3°5648490 


Although the temperatures are much higher than the boil- 
ing point of water, I have not endeavoured to reduce them 
to the scale of the air-thermometer, as it is impossible to do 
so correctly, without knowing the nature of the glass of 
which the mercurial thermometer was made. 


40 W.J.M. Rankine, Esq., on the Elasticity of Vapours. 


The diagram shews that the formula agrees with the ex- 
periments as well as their irregularity entitles us to expect. 
The following Tables give some of the numerical results. 


Temper. 


tures in De- 
grees of 
Fahrenheit, 


from the 


dinary zero. 


Table V1.— Vapour of Turpentine. 


al 


The Formula 


ors (of two terms). 


*304 30°00 
310 32°52 
320 37°09 
330 42°16 
340 47°78 
350 53°98 

*360 60°30 
362 62°24 


Pressures in Inches of Mercury 
according to 


Dr Ure’s 
Experiments. 


Differences 
between 
Caiculation and 
Experiment in 
| Inches of Mereury. 
| 


30°00 
33°50 
37°06 
42°10 
47-30 
53°80 
60°80 
62°40 


0-00 


Correspond- 
ing Differ- 
ences of 
‘Tempera- 
ture. 


Table VIIl.—Vupour of Petroleum. 


tnres in De- eee Mereury Differences 
Fahreahert bes Calenlation and 
from the of | The Formula Dr Ure’s Experiment in 
dinary zero.| 0f two terms). Experiments. Inches of Mercury. | 
| 
*316 | 30-00 30-00 0-00 
320 | Snleral } 31°70 + 0°01 
330 | 3635 | 36-40 — 005 
340 | 41°52 41°60 — 0°08 
350 | 47°27 46°86 + 0°41 
360 | 53°65 53°30 + 0°35 
*370 | 60°70 | 60°70 0-00 
375 64°50 64:00 + 0°50 


Correspond- 
ing ditter- 

| ences of 

| Tempera- 


ture, 


I have also endeavoured, by means of the first two terms 
of the formula, to approximate to the elasticity of the vapour 
of mercury, as given by the experiments of M. Regnault. 
The data and the constants are as follows :— 


W. J. M. Rankine, Esq., on the Elasticity of Vapours. 41 


Temperatures in 
Centigrade Degrees | 


Values of the Constants 


from Pressures in in the Formula 
the the | Millimeétres | B 
Freezing | Absolute oa | 25 RRP 
point. zero. 
358 632°6 760:00 a for millimétres = 7°5305 
,, for English inches 6°1259 
1779 452°5 10°72  Log@Centigrade scale 34685511 


,, Fahrenheit’sscale, 
boiling point ad-( 
justed at 29:922/ 
inches, . 


3°7 238236 


The following table exhibits the comparative results of 
observation and experiment. 


Table V1I1.— Vapour of Mercury. 


Temperatures | Pressures in Millimétres of Mer-| Differences 
in Centigrade | cury according to between 
Degrees from | Calculation and 
the Freezing | The Formula | M. Regnault’s | Experiment in 
Point. (of two terms). | Experiments. Millimétres. 
72°74 0115 | 0183 | 0-068 
10011 0-480 0407 | +0:073 
100°6 0°49 0°56 —0:07 
146°3 3°49 3°46 + 0:03 
*177°9 10°72 10°72 0:00 
200°5 21°85 22°01 —0°16 
*358'0 760-00 76000 | 0-00 


The discrepancies are obviously of the order of errors of 
observation, and the formula may be considered correct for 
all temperatures below 200° C., and for a short range above 
that point. From its wanting the third term, however, it 
will probably be found to deviate slightly from the truth be- 
tween 200° and 358°; while above the latter point it must 
not be relied on. 

I have not carried the comparison below 72°, because in 


42 Dr Davy's Remarks on the Claims to the 


that part of the scale the whole pressure becomes of the 
order of errors of observation. 

In conclusion, it appears to me that the following proposi- 
tion, to which I have been led by the theoretical researches 
referred to at the commencement of this paper, is borne out 
by all the experiments I have quoted, especially by those of 
greatest accuracy, and may be safely and usefully applied to 
practice. 

If the maximum elasticity of any vapour in contact with its 
liquid be ascertained for three points on the scale of the air- 
thermometer, then the constants of an equation of the form 


Log pete us 
2 


may be determined, which equation will give, for that vapour, 
with an accuracy limited only by the errors of observation, the 
relation between the temperature (t), measured from the absolute 
zero (274°6 centigrade degrees below the freezing point of water), 
and the maximum elasticity (P), at all temperatures between 
those three points, and for a considerable range beyond them. 


Some Remarks on the Claims to the Discovery of the Compost- 
tion of Water. By Jonn Davy, M.D., F.R.S., Lond. and 
Edin., Inspector-General of Army Hospitals, &e. (Com- 
municated by the Author.) 


In editing the collected works of my brother Sir H. Davy, 
I had occasion to make some observations on the above sub- 
ject, which, at that time (1839), had a good deal of attention 
given to it, in consequence of the claims then brought for- 
ward by the friends of Mr Watt, in favour of the merit of 
the discovery of the composition of water being due to him 
alone, to the disparagement of Mr Cavendish, whom the 
most zealous of those friends evidently wished to exhibit as 
a plagiarist, or as having derived the idea of the composition 
of water from Mr Watt, without acknowledgment. 

In a work, published in 1846, by J. P. Muirhead, Esq., 
entitled, “‘ Correspondence of the late James Watt, on his 
Discovery of the Theory of the Composition o/ Water,” this 


Discovery of the Composition of Water. 43 


intention is most fully displayed, and in a manner, it appears 
to me, characteristic of the advocate—the special pleader 
rather than of the man of science—in the manner of one 
anxious to gain a verdict in favour of his client, rather than 
intent on dispassionate inquiry; and often, in accordance with 
forensic practice, using damaging expressions of an offensive 
kind, which never would have been employed in liberal and 
courteous discussion. 

It is not my intention to enter into any lengthened com- 
mentary on this work (a quarto of 391 pages). After having 
carefully read it, I have found no reason to alter the opinion 
which I had previously formed and expressed, viz. that Mr 
Watt and Mr Cavendish independently arrived at the idea, 
or inference, that water is the compound itis now considered, 
—a conclusion, I have said, alike honourable to Mr Watt 
and to Mr Cavendish, and which is free from all the difficul- 
ties and painful consequences connected with the contrary.* 

Such was my first impression, and thus has it been con- 
firmed. The facts on which it was founded are principally 
the following, as then stated :—Dr Priestley, in his paper 
« On the seeming Conversion of Water into Air,” bearing date 
Birmingham, April 21, 1783, distinctly mentions “‘ an experi- 
ment of Mr Cavendish, concerning the reconversion of air into 
water, by decomposing it, in conjunction with inflammable 
air,’ t a result which he confirmed by repetition. This result, 
derived or learnt from Dr Priestley, was the basis, it would 
appear, of Mr Watt’s hypothesis respecting the nature of wa- 
ter, as stated by him to M. de Lue, and also the true basis of 
that hypothesis, as given in his earlier letter to Dr Priestley. 


* Collected Works of Sir H. Davy, vol. vii., p. 133. 

+ Dr Priestley’s words are,—‘ Still hearing of many objections to the con- 
version of water into air, | now gave particular attention to an experiment of 
Mr Cavendish’s, concerning the reconversion of air into water, by decompos- 
ing it in conjunction with inflammable air.”—Phil. Trans. for 1783, p. 426. 

t Mr Watt, referring to Dr Priestley’s experiment on the firing of a mixture 
of dephlogisticated air (oxygen) and inflammable air, and the production of 
moisture, states, in a note,— I believe that Mr Cavendish was the first who 
discovered that the combustion of dephlogisticated and inflammable air pro- 
duced moisture on the sides of the glass in which they were fired.” Mr Caven- 


44 Dr Davy’s Remarks on the Claims to the 


This, his first letter on the subject, was written in the same 
month as Dr Priestley’s paper, that referred to above, and, as 
will be mentioned further on, was quoted by Mr Cavendish. It 
was dated April 26, 1783. From a passage in Dr Priestley’s 
paper, and from one in Mr Watt’s first letter, that to Dr 
Priestley, it may be inferred that this his hypothetical conclu- 
sion was formed just before that letter was written. He 
mentions in it the abandonment of an opinion that he had 
entertained for many years “that air was a modification of 
water,” “ that, by a great heat, water might be converted into 
air.” 

Now, what is Mr Cavendish’s statement relative to the 
discovery in question? After describing his experiments in 
proof of the production of water by burning hydrogen in close 
vessels with common air and dephlogisticated air, he remarks, 
* All the foregoing experiments on the explosion of inflam- 
mable air with common and dephlogisticated air except those 
which relate to the cause of the acid found in the water, were 
made in the summer of the year 1781, and were mentioned 
by me to Dr Priestley, who, in consequence, made some ex- 
periments of the same kind, as he relates in a paper printed 
in the preceding volume of the Transactions. During the 
last summer also, a friend of mine gave some account of them 
to M. Lavoisier, as well as of the conclusion drawn from 
them, that dephlogisticated air is only water deprived of 
phlogiston ; but at that time so far was M. Lavoisier from 
thinking any such opinion warranted that, till he was pre- 
vailed upon to repeat the experiment himself, he found some 
difficulty in believing that nearly the whole of the two airs 
should be converted into water.’’t 

It has been objected to this passage that it was an inter- 
polation, after Mr Watt’s letter to M. de Luc had been read 


dish obtained 135 grains of water, ‘‘ pure water,” as it seemed, in one of the 
experiments which he mentions. In Waltire’s experiments, which led to Mr 
Cavendish’s, a dew was observed on the inside of the vessel in which the explo- 
sion was made, mixed with soot, attended with a loss of weight. The experi- 
menter referred the dew to moisture previously existing in and deposited from 
the airs used. 


* Phil. Trans. for 1784, p. 134. 


Discovery of the Composition of Water. 45 


at the Royal Society, and farther, that it was in the hand- 
writing of Mr Cavendish’s friend, Sir Charles Blagdon. That 
letter to M. de Luc it was, no doubt, which gave rise to the 
explanation contained in the interpolated statement; and the 
circumstance that it was not in Mr Cavendish’s own hand- 
writing in the MS., it seems most natural to infer would not 
denote that anything unfair was practised. Had Mr Caven- 
dish not been confident that he was acting correctly, had he 
been performing the part of a plagiarist, he would, it may be 
presumed have acted with the caution of a plagiarist at the 
time. The correctness of the statement, it should be remem- 
bered, was net impugned, as, if incorrect, it surely ought to 
have been. 

Ihave spoken of Mr Watt’s conclusion of the compound 
nature of water as an hypothesis, or as an inference from 
an experiment requiring to be confirmed by further expe- 
riments. In that light, he himself evidently first viewed 
it; thus, in his letter to Dr Priestley, of the 21st of April 
1783, he says, ‘‘ On considering your very curious and im- 
portant discoveries on the nature of phlogiston and dephlo- 
gisticated air, and on the conversion of water into air, and 
vice versa, some thoughts have occurred to me on the pro- 
bable causes of these phenomena, which, though they are 
mere conjectures, seem to me more plausible than any I have 
heard on the subject, and, in that view, I have taken the li- 
berty to communicate them to you.’ And he concludes the 
same letter with this remark,—“ If you shall think that a 
hypothesis so hastily compiled, deserves to have the honour 
of being communicated to the Royal Society, or published in 
any other way, with the account of your experiments, I shall 
be obliged to you to present it to the Society, or to the 
public, as you shall think proper.” Again, in his letter 
to Sir Charles Blagdon respecting the publication of his 
paper (his letter to M. de Luc), he says,—“I am really 
at a loss what title to give the paper; but propose the 
following,—conjectures—Thoughts on the constituent parts 
of water, and of dephlogisticated air, with an account of 
some experiments on that subject.” And, in his letter to 
M. de Lue, he prefaces it with the remark, “I feel much 


16 Dr Davy’s Remarks on the Claims to the 


reluctance to lay my thoughts on these subjects (the pro- 
bable causes of the production of water from the deflagra- 
tion of a mixture of dephlogisticated and inflammable air) 
before the public, in their present indigested state, and with- 
out being able to bring them to the test of such experiments, 
as would confirm or refute them, and should therefore have 
delayed the publication of them until these experiments had 
been made, if you, Sir, and some other of my philosophical 
friends, had not thought them as plausible as any other con- 
jectures which have been formed on the subject; and that, 
though they should not be verified by further experiments, 
or approved by men of science in general, they may, perhaps, 
merit discussion, and give rise to experiments which may 
throw light on so important a subject,’ adding “I first 
thought of this way of solving the phenomena, in endeavour- 
ing to account for an experiment of Dr Priestley’s, wherein 
water appeared to be converted into air, and I communicated 
my sentiments in a letter addressed to him, dated April 26, 
1783, with a request that he would do me the honour to lay 
them before the Royal Society ; but as before he had an op- 
portunity of doing me that favour, he found, in the prosecu- 
tion of his experiments, that the apparent conversion of wa- 
ter into air, by exposing it to heat in porous earthen vessels, 
was not a real transmutation, but an exchange of the elastic 
fluid for the liquid, in some manner not yet accounted for ; 
therefore, as my theory was no ways applicable to the explain- 
ing these experiments, I thought proper to delay its publica- 
tion,that I might examine the subject more deliberately, which 
‘my other avocations have prevented me from doing to this 
time.” 

Mr Watt’s paper in the Transactions of the Royal Society, 
bearing the date of November 26, 1783, and which was read 
the 29th April 1784, consisted, it must be remembered, of 
portions of his original letter to Dr Priestley, and of ad- 
ditions, some of which, it may be inferred, were made shortly 
before it was read, viz-, in the “corrected copy,”* and when 


* It is designated, in Mr Watt’s handwriting, “ Corrected copy of a letter 
from James Watt, Engineer, to M. de Luc, dated November 26, 1783, corrected 
April 1784.” It is in the Archives of the Royal Society. 


Discovery of the Composition of Water. 47 


he had a knowledge of the experiments both of Mr Cavendish 
and of Lavoisier and La Place on the composition of water. 
In his published paper, he says, ‘‘I am obliged to your friend- 
ship (De Luc’s) for the account of the experiments which 
have been lately made at Paris on this subject, with large 
quantities of the two kinds of air, by which the essential point 
seems to be clearly proved, that the deflagration or union of 
dephlogisticated and inflammable air, by means of ignition, 
produces a quantity of water equal in weight to the airs ; 
and that the water thus produced appeared to be pure water.” 
M. de Luc’s letter, conveying this information, is of the 9th 
of February 1784. 

Mr Watt, it would appear from this his published statement, 
was induced by his friends to bring forward his views on the 
composition of water. The friend who was most active on 
this occasion, judging from the correspondence, was M. de 
Luc, who seemed to take a pleasure in exciting Mr Watt 
against Mr Cavendish. His letter of the 2d of May, finished 
on the 4th, is an example of the kind, in which he raises the 
suspicion of plagiarism on the part of Mr Cavendish,* and 
to which, in reply, Mr Watt observed, ‘I mean to be in 
London next week, where your demands on my person shall 
be answered, and to which time I must refer particulars, 
having much business, but of another nature than the pla- 
giarism of Mr C., pressing hard upon me. On the slight glance 
I have been able to give your extracts of the paper,t I think 
his theory very different from mine; which of the two is right 
I cannot say; his is more likely to be so, as he has made 
many more experiments, and has, consequently, more facts 
to argue upon. I by no means wish to make any illiberal 
attack on Mr C. It is darely possible he may have heard 
nothing of my theory,” adding, “ as to what you say of mak- 
ing myself ‘ des jaloux, that idea would weigh very little ; for 
were I convinced I had foul play, if I did not assert my 
right, it would either be from a contempt of the modicum of 
reputation which could result from such a theory, or from a 


* Correspondence, p. 48. 
t Sent by Mr Cavendish, in MS., to M. de Lue, at the request of the latter. 


48 Dr Davy’s Remarks on the Claims to the 


conviction in my own mind that I was their superior, or from 
an indolence that makes it easier to me to bear wrongs than 
to seek redress. In point of interest, in so far as is con- 
nected with money, that would be no bar; for though I am 
dependent on the favour of the public, I am not on Mr C. or 
his friends, and could despise the united power of the ‘ élus- 
trious house of Cavendish, as Mr Fox calls them.” He adds, 
“you may, perhaps, be surprised to find so much pride in my 
character. It does not seem very compatible with the dif- 
fidence that attends my conduct in general. I am diffident, 
because I am seldom certain that I am in the right, and be- 
cause I pay respect to the opinions of others where I think 
they may merit it. At present, Je me sens un peu blessé ; 
it seems hard, that in the first attempt I have made to lay 
anything before the public, I should be thus anticipated. It 
will make me cautious how I take the trouble of preparing 
anything for them another time. I defer coming to any reso- 
lution till I see you; but at present I think reading the let- 
ter at the Royal Society to be the proper step.’’* 

M. de Lue, in reply to this letter, writing on the 10th 
April 1784, desires to have a corrected copy of Mr Watt's 
paper retaining the original date. His words are :—“ Mais 
si vous souhaitez que ces lettres soient lues, envoyez moi 
d’avance la nouvelle edition (the corrected copy?) de celle 
que vous m’aviez ecrite le 26 Novembre; en y mettant la 
méme date ; afin que la traduction gue j’en ferai, soit d’accord 
avec ce qui sera lu a la Societé.”” This advice he followed, 
as would appear from a letter from him to Sir Joseph Banks, 
of the 17th April, in which he says, after alluding to certain 
alterations and additions,—‘‘ I thought it right to apprise 
you of these alterations, lest it should be said by any body 
that the letter was fabricated at a later date than it bears.” 

Judging from the letters which are given in the corre- 
spondence of Mr Watt and Sir Joseph Banks, then President 
of the Royal Society, and of Sir Charles Biagdon, the Secre- 
tary of the Society, the most courteous attention was paid by 
them to Mr Watt on the matter under consideration, with an 


* Correspondence, p. 49. 


Discovery of the Composition of Water. 49 


earnest desire to publish his papers in the Transactions, and 
to meet his wishes as to the manner of bringing forward his 
views on the composition of water,—views, it is manifest, 
which gained importance after the careful experiments had 
been made, and made known by Mr Cavendish, and after him 
by Lavoisier and La Place. 

For many years, it is deserving of remark, the honour of 
the discovery of the composition of water was divided be- 
tween Mr Watt and Mr Cavendish,—or rather, I should say, 
given to each undivided,—to Mr Watt for the happy thought 
or conjectures (“ Conjectures on the constituent parts of 
water”)—to Mr Cavendish for the experiments and infer- 
ences from them in proof of the composition of water.* 

Lord Brougham, in commenting on some remarks made 
by the Rev. Vernon Harcourt in support of Mr Cavendish as 
an independent discoverer, not a plagiarist, observes,—“ It 
may be as well to repeat the disclaimer already very dis- 
tinctly made, of all intention to cast the slightest doubt upon 
that great man’s perfect good faith in the whole affair; I 
never having supposed that he borrowed from Mr Watt, 
though M. Arago, Professor Robison, and Sir H. Davy, as 
well as myself, have always been convinced that Mr Watt 
had, unknown to him, anticipated his great discovery.” + This, 
probably, will be the decision of posterity ; and, as I have be- 
fore remarked, it is the one equally honourable to the two 
distinguished men concerned, whose reputations should be 
as cherished and dear to us—if gratitude is not a mere 
word,—as their labours have been glorious and above all 
praise. Is there not a mistake and a meanness in endea- 
vouring to detract from the one, to add, if that be possible, 
to the reputation of the other ? 


* What, it may be asked, constitutes a discovery ? Is not Sir John Herschel 
right in the principle, that “ discovery consists in the certain knowledge of a 
new fact, or a new truth, a knowledge grounded on positive and tangible evi- 
dence as distinct from bare suspicion or surmise that such a fact exists, or that 
such a proposition is true ;”—and is he not right as to the time of a discovery, 
that it is when the discoverer is first enabled to say to himself or to a bye- 
stander, “ J am sure that such is the fact ;’’ and I am sure of it, “ for such and such 
reasons. ’—Address to the Roy. Astron. Soc. in Edin. New Phil. Journal, vol. xlvi., 
p- 256. 

+ Historical note by Lord Brougham. Correspondence, p. 256. 

VOL. XLVII. NO, XCIII.—JULY 1849. D 


50 On the Acid Springs and Gypsum Deposits of the 


It may appear late, on my part, to offer these remarks, 
considering that the work which has called them forth has now 
been nearly four years before the public. My absence from 
England, in the West Indies, during the interval, and my 
want of knowledge, in consequence, of the arguments used 
against Mr Cavendish, require only to be noticed to account 
for it. 


LesketH How, AMBLESIDE, 
April 24, 1849. 


On the Acid Springs and Gypsum Deposits of the Upper Part 
of the Silurian System (Onondaga Salt Group). By T. S. 
Hunt, of the Geological Survey of Canada. 


That portion of the upper Silurian system of New York, 
which has been designated by the geologists of that state the 
Onondaga Salt Group, is characterised not only by the saline 
springs to which it owes its name, but also by numerous de- 
posits of gypsum and springs, which are sour to the taste, 
and contain free sulphuric acid. The one at Byron, New 
York, has long been known, and several others have been 
observed more recently in the same geological district. The 
same region in Canada affords a remarkable spring of this 
kind, which, in the course of my official duties, I had ocea- 
sion to examine in the month of October 1847. It is situated 
in the township of Tuscarora, in the Indian Reserve, about 
twenty miles north of Port Dover, which is the nearest point 
on Lake Erie. The water contains a large amount of free 
sulphuric acid, about 4 parts in 1000, besides sulphates of the 
alkalies, lime, magnesia, aluminum, and iron in small quan- 
tities. The proportion of these ingredients is however not 
constant, as is evident from an analysis made in April 1846, 
by Professor Croft of King’s College, Toronto, which is con- 
firmed by a partial examination by myself, of a specimen of 
water brought from the spring in June 1845. 

The specific gravity of the water was much lower, and the 
amount of foreign ingredients much less, than in that col- 


Upper Part of the Silurian System. 51 


lected by myself, but the proportion of bases to the acid was 
much greater. The proportion of the lime to the acid I found 
to be about 1-15, and that of the magnesia 1:90, while Pro- 
fessor Croft’s determination gave about 1:6, and one to 1:15, 
respectively. That collected in 1845 is a nearly saturated 
solution of gypsum, while that of 1847 contains no more than 
about 7 parts in 10,000. 

These facts indicate a rapid change in the constitution of 
the spring, and its situation shews it to be of comparatively 
recent origin ; for although the powerful acid has destroyed 
all traces of vegetation for a distance of several yards around 
the source, the water issues from beneath the roots of an 
enormous pine-tree, whose decayed stump still stands several 
feet in height, while the crumbling mould, from its slow decay, 
forms the surface soil for some distance around. Without 
overlooking the antiseptic virtues of the mineral substances 
contained in this remarkable spring, this fact shews that its 
antiquity can scarcely be greater than a century, if indeed 
half that cycle may not extend beyond the time of its first 
development, while the rapid decrease in the quantity of the 
saline bases shew that its character remains constant scarcely 
for a twelvemonth. It should have been observed, that 
there are four or five basins within the distance of as many 
yards, and that they are situated on the summit of a low 
mound, which rises with a gradual slope from the marshy 
plain. 

The probable cause of these changes will be seen by ad- 
verting to the character of the gypsum deposits of this for- 
mation, which I regard as having an intimate connection with 
this class of springs. The investigations of Mr Hall, in 
New York, and Mr Murray, in Canada, unite in shewing that 
the gypsum of these rocks always occurs in hillocks or dome- 
shaped masses, varying in size from one foot to 300 or 400 
feet in diameter, and always near the surface of the formation. 
Sections of these masses shew them resting upon undisturbed 
strata of limestone, while the superior strata are thrown up 
and rest upon the flanks of the intruded hillock, often very 
much broken, and, as Mr Hall has remarked, in part con- 
sumed, so that one is at a loss to account for the disappearance 


52 On the Acid Springs and Gypsum Deposits of the 


of a large portion of the overlying strata. In one case ob- 
served by Mr Murray, a slender cylinder of gypsum passes 
through several beds of the limestone, and at last terminates 
in a cone of the usual form, which is entirely superior to the 
limestone formation and surrounded by the tertiary clay of 
the region. The comparatively recent origin which this 
assigns to the gypsum deposits, is confirmed by the common 
experience of the people of Western New York, where it is 
a well known fact that since the settlement of the country, 
walls have been disturbed and houses raised from their 
foundations by a gradual elevation of the surfice, where sub- 
sequent examination has shewn the presence of domes of 


gypsum. 

On comparing these facts with those observed in connection 
with the acid spring, it appears probable that the origin of 
the gypsum is to be ascribed to the action of such mine- 
ral waters upon the calcareous strata. How far the pres- 
sure at a great depth may operate in preventing chemical 
changes, we may not know, but it is easy to see that once 
coming to a situation where it could act upon the limestone, 
it would evolve carbonic acid gas, and form a calcareous 
sulphate which from its sparing solubility would be at once 
deposited in a crystalline form, while the water would pass 
off saturated with the sulphate, and at the same time carry- 
ing with it the soluble sulphates of magnesia, alumina, and 
iron, which would be formed from the other bases generally 
present in the limestones of this region. If the amount of 
acid were copious, or the supply of calcareous matter limited, 
the water might rise to the surface with free acid, as in the 
cases already noticed, and when the deposition of calcareous 
sulphate had extended so far as to protect tlie carbonate from 
farther action, the water would appear with a much smaller 
portion of basis than before, having only the sulphate of lime, 
which it could dissolve from the sides of its channels. 

If, on the contrary, the acid were entirely neutralized, the 
spring would present at the surface the character of an or- 
dinary bitter saline, containing calcareous and magnesian 
sulphates ; two springs of this character are indeed found in 
the same formation not far from here. The ferruginous and 


Upper Part of the Silurian System. 53 


argillaceous substance known as gypsiferous marl, which sur- 
rounds these deposits, seem to be due to the precipitation by 
the carbonate of lime, of the iron and alumina, which have 
been previously taken up by the water yielding a mixture of 
these oxides with carbonate and sulphate of lime. The fact 
that crystalline gypsum occupies nearly twice the space of an 
equivalent quantity of carbonate of lime, will at once explain 
the displacement of the superincumbent materials. The ob- 
servation which is now required to confirm this theory, is to 
find the carbonic acid which should be evolved from the de- 
composition of the limestone actually disengaged from one 
of these springs ; the small quantity of gas which rises from 
the Tuscarora spring was found to be principally carburetted 
hydrogen, which is copiously evolved by the salines of this 
region, but it was collected at a time, when, from the minute 
portion of gypsum inthe water, the action seems to have been 
at anend. I shall not attempt to speculate upon the pro- 
bable source of the sulphuric acid at present, but shall defer 
the consideration of the subject, until the publication of my 
report on the mineral springs of Canada, which will be ac- 
companied with the analyses of this water as collected in 
different years. Hoping that my observations may resolve 
a hitherto unexplained problem in the geology of this region, 
I beg leave to submit them to the notice of the Association.—- 
American Journal of Science and Arts, vol. vii., No. 20, New 
Series, p. 175. 


An Account of Two Aérolites, and a Mass of Meteoric Iron, 
recently found in Western India. By HERBERT GIRAUD, 
M.D., Professor of Chemistry in the Grant Medical Col- 
lege, Bombay, Assistant-Surgeon in the Hon. E.I.C.’s 
Bombay Medical Establishment. Communicated by the 
Author. 


Although the records of science have of late years abounded in 
descriptions of meteorites, yet, from their unearthly origin, and cha- 
racteristic chemical composition, these curious bodies continue to 
claim the peculiar interest which, it is believed, may attach to two 


54 Professor Giraud’s Account of Two Aérolites, 


specimens of aérolites, and one of meteoric iron, that have recently 
been found in Western India. 

Aérolite from Dharwar.—About one o'clock p.m. of the 15th of 
Tebruary of last year, this aérolite fell in a field to the south of Ne- 
gloor, a village situated within a few miles of the junction of the 
Wurda and Toomboodra rivers, and belonging to the Gootul division 
of the Ranee-Bednoor Talook of the Dharwar collectorate. 

The fall of this aérolite is most satisfactorily established. A cul- 
tivator of Negloor, named Ninga, was driving his cattle out to graze 
close by where it fell; at the hour above mentioned, he suddenly 
heard a loud, whirring, rushing noise in the air, but on looking up 
could see nothing. An instant afterwards, however, he observed a 
cloud of dust rise from a spot in an adjoining field, as if something 
had struck the ground there with violence. At this time several 
other villagers were standing by a threshing-floor, close at hand ; 
they also heard the noise, and called out to Ninga, asking whether 
he had done so. He replied, Yes, and that something had fallen in 
the next field, where he saw the dust rise; and on his pointing to 
the spot, the whole party proceeded thither. There they found a 
stone, broken into fragments, imbedded in a hole, which they com- 
pared to the print of a young elephant’s foot. They were naturally 
much puzzled to account for the appearance of the stone, which alto- 
gether differed from any to be met with in their neighbourhood, and 
at length they were constrained to conclude that it had fallen from 
the heavens. The circumstance seemed so extraordinary, that one 
of them was immediately sent to summon the Patel of the village, 
who soon arrived, attended by a crowd of people, who had also heard 
the wonderful tidings. ‘Lhese, too, unanimously adopted the same 
conclusion regarding the fall of the stone, the fragments of which the 
Patel took into his charge, and wrote a report of the whole cireum- 
stances to the Mahulkarree of Gootul, who is the revenue and police 
officer of the district in which Negloor is situate. The Mahulkar- 
ree thought the Patel’s report so extraordinary, that he determined 
at once to proceed tu Negloor himself to inquire into its truth. After 
having examined the stone itself, and the hole in the ground made 
by its fall, and finding that all the accounts of the villagers agreed, 
he could not avoid concluding, as they did, that it fell from the sky. 
He, moreover, took statements in writing from the cultivator Ninga 
and another, who had heard the rushing noise made by the stone in 
its passage through the air, and forwarded their depositions, with his 
own reports, and the fragments of the aérolite, to Mr Goldfinch, the 
the assistant-collector and magistrate in charge of the district, by 
whom they were given to Captain G. Wingate, of the Bombay En- 
gineers, who presented them to the Bombay Geographical Society, 
and by the secretary to this institution the fragments of the stone 
were made over to me for examination and analysis. 

The fragments of the stone being placed together, constituted a 
mass of an ovoidal figure, measuring 15 inches round the larger, and 


and a Mass of Meteoric Iron, found in Vestern India. 55 


11 round the shorter axis, and weighed 4 pounds. One end of it 
was somewhat flattened, as if it had, whilst in a soft state, come in 
contact with some hard substance. Its whole surface was covered 
with a blackish, vitrified-looking crust, about one-twentieth of an inch 
in thickness, whilst the interior resembled a greyish-white soft sand- 
stone, diffused through which were minute brilliant metallic particles, 
about the size of small pin-heads. It crumbled readily under the 
fingers ; and when reduced to powder, the metallic particles could all 
be abstracted from it by a magnet. Its specific gravity was 3-512. 
Hydrochloric and nitric acid acted violently upon it, with evolution 
of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, and solution of the metallic particles. 

Its analysis was conducted by digesting it with heat, in nitrohy- 
drochloric acid, leaving the insoluble earthy silicates: precipitating 
the iron as peroxide by an excess of ammonia, which gave a pale 
sapphire-blue solution: then evaporating to dryness, igniting to ex- 
pel the ammonia salt: dissolving the residue in nitric acid, and pre- 
cijitating the nickel as oxide by potash. Neither cobalt nor chro- 
mium were detected by qualitative methods. After the action of 
nitro-hydrochloric acid, sulphur floated on the liquid, and, moreover, 
much sulphur was given off as sulphuretted hydrogen. 


COMPOSITION. 

Earthy silicates, . ¢ - A 58°3 
Sulphur, A : : p : 74g) 
Nickel, : : ; é . 6°76 
Iron, : ; : : : 22°18 


89°74 

Aérolites, from the Myhee Caunta.—On the 30th of November 
1842, at 4 p.m., some Khoonbees were sowing grain between the vil- 
lages of Jeetala and Mor Monree, in the Myhee Caunta, to the north- 
east of the city of Ahmedabad, when they heard a noise or report 
like the firing of heavy guns, four or five times; this sound came 
from the east, and was instantly followed by a violent gale of wind, 
and the fall of a number of stones,—of these the Khoonbees picked 
up one that fell on the edge of their field; it weighed about Bi 
When first taken up, it smelt strongly of gunpowder. The people 
broke it to pieces, and kept them as curiosities. One of the frag- 
ments having fallen into the hands of a Karkoon, he brought it to 
Captain G. Fulljames, Commandant of the Goozerat Irregular Horse, 
who transmitted a small portion of the stone to the Bombay Geo- 
graphical Society. This fragment presented so exactly the appear- 
ance of the foregoing aérolite from Dharwar, that it might have been 
taken for a portion of it; presenting the same dark vitrified surface, 
the greyish-white siliceous interior, with the brilliant metallic par- 
ticles diffused through it. Its specific gravity was somewhat less 
than that of the preceding aérolite, being 3°360. The portion which 
was placed in my hands for analysis, was unfortunately too small to 


* Professor Giraud’s MS. leaves blank space in place of weight.—£dit. 


56 Meteoric Iron. 


afford other qualitative results ; these, however, pointed to its close 
resemblance to the Dharwar stone, for with the earthy silicates it 
contained sulphur, iron, and nickel. 

Meteoric iron from Singhur, near Poona in the Deccan.—The 
hill fort of Singhur has, of late years, during the hot season, become 
a favourite resort of European officers, stationed at Kirkee and Poona, 
from which latter place it is about fourteen miles distant. The fort, 
situated upon a basaltic hill, is at an elevation of about 2000 feet 
above the surrounding plain, and 4500 above the level of the sea. 

In November 1847, as some workmen were improving the ascent 
to the fort, they stumbled upon a mass of what they supposed to be 
iron ore, lying upon the surface of the ground; but from its being 
so totally unlike any rock in the neighbourhood, they took it as a 
curiosity to the Rev. Mr Reynolds, the chaplain of Kirkee, who was 
at the time residing at Singhur. Mr Reynolds, struck with its singu- 
lar locality and appearance, transmitted it to Dr Buist, the secretary 
to the Bombay Geographical Society, from whom I received it for 
examination. 

The mass is of an irregular three-sided prismatic form, tapering 
and conical at the ends. It is 123 inches long; and at its broadest 
parts the sides are from 5 to 53 inches across. It weighs 31 lb. 
4 oz. The specific gravity of the several pieces that have been de- 
tached from the mass, varies from 4°720 to 4:°900. The whole sur- 
face is of ferruginous colour, with here and there bright metallic- 
looking portions, of the colour aud appearance of malleable iron. One 
of its sides is highly vesicular, as if gases had been extricated from 
it, whilst solidifying from a state of fusion; another of its sides is 
less vesicular than this ; and the third is flattened and metallic-look- 
ing, as if it had been beaten with a sledge-hammer, or had fallen 
while soft upon a hard surface. On boring into the mass for the 
purpose of obtaining portions for analysis, it was found to have large 
irregular vesicular-surfaced cavities in its interior, and the walls of 
these, as well as the borings (which were powdery), were of a deep- 
slate colour, or almost black. 

On having a portion of one of its extremities cut off, small, yel- 
lowish-white, earthy-looking bodies, about the size of peas, were ob- 
served sparingly scattered through and embedded in the iron. The 
mass is so exceedingly tough, that portions could not be detached 
from it by the hammer, and it was found necessary to heat it before 
a piece could be cut from it. It is malleable, powerfully attracts the 
magnet, but has no magnetic poles, as some masses of meteoric iron 
have been found to possess. The analysis of the borings, taken from 
a depth of three inches, gave, of — 


Earthy silicates, . - : : 19°5 
Tron," : 3 y 4 69°16 
Nickel, : : ; j 4°24 


92°93 


M. Alcide d’Orbigny on Living and Fossil Molluscs. 57 


The strict resemblance of this specimen, both in physical and che- 
mical properties, to the many recorded examples of meteoric iron, 
leave no doubt regarding its nature. 

Its vesicular surface indicates a state of fusion, which the power 
of the native furnaces of this country is quite inadequate to produce 
in iron of such toughness and malleability ; and, moreover, its con- 
stituent nickel, so near the average proportion of five per cent., points 
distinctively to its meteoric origin. 

Like the Siberian meteoric iron, described by Pallas, when heated 
strongly, it became brittle, refused to extend under the hammer, and 
broke into grains; and, like the Brazilian specimen described in the 
Philosophical Transactions, it gave abundance of sparks when struck 
with a steel hammer. 


M. ALCIDE D’ORBIGNY on Living and Fossil Molluscs. 


Among the zoologists whose labours have contributed 
most to increase our acquaintance with the relations which 
ancient faunas bear to the animals of the present epoch, M. 
Alcide d’Orbigny occupies a place in the first rank. This 
skilful naturalist has published, within these few years back, 
a series of works,* which, taken together, may be said to 
form an epoch in the history of zoology and paleontology. 
Studying each natural group of the great and important class 
of mollusca in succession, and comparing these animals in 
the different geological periods, and in the existing world, 
he has reached results of the highest interest. We shall 
here explain the most important of these, selecting more 
especially such of them as are connected with those prin- 
ciples of paleontology which we have often had occasion to 
lay before our readers. 

We shall first bring forward the following considerations 
on the geographical distribution of living molluses. No one 


* M. d’Orbigny’s works of which we chiefly wish to speak, are his Paleon- 
tologie Francaise (already consisting of upwards of 170 livraisons,) which is de- 
voted to the fossil molluses of France ; his Paleontologie Etrangére, the companion 
of the former; his History of Living and Fossil Molluscs, a work which will 
be of immense utility, if it be completed. He promises, besides, a Cours de 
Paléontologie Generale et Appliquée. 


58 M. Alcide d’Orbigny on Living and Mossil Molluscs. 


ever enjoyed better opportunities of studying these animals 
in every point of view, than M. d’Orbigny. His early years 
were spent on the shores of the ocean, while a journey of 
seven years’ duration in South America, and immense collec- 
tions, have furnished him with numerous points of comparison. 

“The geographical distribution of molluscs is of great im- 
portance, because, proceeding from the known to the un- 
known, it is calculated to make known to paleontology, by 
the laws which regulate the geographical distribution of liv- 

_ ing beings, what has taken at the different epochs of animals 
appearing on the globe. I shall here mention, in a general 
way, some of the principal results with which my numerous 
investigations on this subject have already furnished me. 

“The study of terrestrial animals has proved to me that 
the species, restricted by limits more or less extensive, were 
distributed each according to special* zones of temperature, 
complicated, nevertheless, by influences determined by the 
orographic form of continents and their phytographic com- 
position. In general, the number of species decreases in 
proportion as we recede from the warm regions and approach 
the cold regions. } 

“The study of marine pelagic animals, or such as belong 
to deep seas, has in like manner demonstrated to me that of 
the cephalopods,} notwithstanding the number of species 
which pass indifferently from one ocean to another, more 
than two-thirds of each sea are peculiar to it. These num- 
bers evidently prove, that the limits of fixed habitation still 
exist in respect to animals, which their power of locomotion, 
and pelagic habits, would distribute throughout every sea, if 
Cape Horn on the one hand, and the Cape of Good Hope on 
the other, were not, in their southern position, altogether be- 
yond the torrid zone, which nearly all the species inhabit, 
and thus form a barrier which they are unable to pass. We 
have, therefore, the certainty that uniformity of temperature, 


* See my observations on this subject, Mollusques de mon Voyage dans l’ Ame- 
rique Meridionale, p. 215. 

t Same work. 

t Memoir read to the Academy of Sciences, 19th July 1841, and inserted in 
the Monographie des Céphalopodes Acétabulijéres. Introduction. 


M. Alcide d’Orbigny on Living and Fossil Molluscs. 59 


more than any other agents, is the true basis of the geogra- 
phical distribution of the animals of the high seas. We may 
add, that they are found to be more complicated in their 
forms, and more numerous in species, the nearer we approach 
the warm regions. The pteropods, although more indifferent 
as to temperature, have afforded me the same general re- 
sults,* with respect to their geographical distribution in the 
oceans. 

« The investigations which I have in like manner under- 
taken, although much more difficult, in order to become ac- 
quainted with the laws which regulate the geographical dis- 
tribution of the molluscs of sea-coasts, have led me to curious 
results.t I have ascertained, for example, the action of 
three different influences,—currents, temperature, and the 
orographical configuration of coasts. 

“We thus perceive, that if currents, by their long-con- 
tinued action, have a tendency to spread the molluses of 
coasts beyond their natural limits of latitude, when they carry 
them to a distance from a continent, or round a cape ad- 
vanced in the direction of the pole,—or when they suddenly 
leave the coasts under the warm regions, we must ascribe 
to them, on the other hand, the isolation and establishment 
of local faunas. 

“T have likewise ascertained that, notwithstanding the 
active influence of currents, the passive action of heat is 
everywhere felt in a very marked manner, by forming col- 
lections of species in more or less restricted limits of latitude. 

«The orographical configuration of the coasts of oceans, 
by offering conditions of existence more or less favourable to 
littoral molluscs, according to their genera, exercises also 
immense influence on the zoological composition of the faunas 
which inhabit them. 

“From the combined effect of these three kinds of in- 
fluences we may infer, with certainty, that the laws which 


* Memoir read to the Academy of Sciences in 1835, and inserted in the 
molluses of my Voyage dans l’ Amerique Meridionale, p. 68. 

t See my Memoir, laid before the Academy of Sciences in November 1844, 
and printed in 1845 in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles. 


60 M. Alcide d’Orbigny on Living and Fossil Molluses. 


regulate the geographical distribution of coast molluses, may 
be reduced to two contrary actions,—currents which have the 
tendency to spread, wherever they pass, the species indiffe- 
rent to temperature; currents, temperature, and orogra- 
phical configuration, which tend, on the contrary, to restrict 
and localise beings within limits more or less extensive. 

“T can further deduce from my researches the following 
conclusions, which are interesting in a paleontological point 
of view :— 

“ Two neighbouring seas, communicating with each other, 
but separated only by a cape advancing in the direction of 
the pole, may have their faunas distinct. 

“ Distinct faunas may exist at the same time, by the sole 
action of temperature, in the same ocean and on the same 
continent, according to the different zones of temperature. 

“ Under the same zone of temperature, and on the neigh- 
bouring coasts of the same continent, currents may deter- 
mine the particular faunas. 

« A distinct fauna from the fauna of the nearest continent 
may exist in an archipelago, when the currents have the 
effect of insulating it. 

“ Distinct faunas, or at least very different from each other, 
may appear on neighbouring coasts, in consequence of the 
sole influence of orographical configuration. 

« When we find the same species over an immense extent 
of latitude, in the same basin, currents must be regarded as 
the cause of it. 

“ Tdentical species, in two neighbouring basins, indicate 
direct communication between them. 

“ The largest tributaries do not absolutely exercise any in- 
fluence on the composition of the marine faunas of sea-coasts.” 


These researches on geographical distribution have afford- 
ed M. d’Orbigny most valuable data for studying the geolo- 
gical distribution of these same animals. 

« After having given a brief view of my investigations re- 
lative to the geographical distribution of living molluscs, I 
ought to say something of the distribution of the species 
buried in the strata which compose the crust of the earth. 


M. Alcide d’Orbigny on Living and Fossil Molluscs. 61 


This subject having been equally the object of my special in- 
vestigations for many years, both in Europe* and America,t 
I shall mention some of the results I have obtained up to the 
present time, until the successive synoptical views, in genera 
and classes, furnish me with more complete and definite so- 
lutions. The following are the conclusions which I can now 
deduce,—conclusions of great interest for the solution of the 
important questions respecting the chronological history of 
animal life on the surface of the earth. 

« Molluses, considered as a whole, have proceeded accord- 
ing to the chronological order of the faunas peculiar to the 
formations, from the simple to the composite. Many genera, 
it is true, have completely disappeared with the ancient for- 
mations ;{ others, appearing at a later period,§ have like- 
wise become extinct with the strata of the cretaceous forma- 
tions ; but the genera, multiplying more and more as we re- 
cede from the first age of the world, have been replaced, dur- 
ing the period of the cretaceous and tertiary formations by a 
multitude of forms which were wanting in the lower beds,]|| 
and these forms are still more diversified in our present seas,§ 
where they reach the maximum of their numerical develop- 
ment. 

** No transition being traceable in the specific forms, mol- 
luses appear to succeed each other on the surface of the globe, 
not by a gradual passage, but by the extinction of existing 
races, and the renovation, or successive creation of species 
at each geological epoch. 

** Molluscs are distributed in zones, according to the geo- 
logical epochs. ach of these epochs, in fact, represents on 


* See my Paleontologie Francaise, and particularly the Synopsis at the end of 
each class, vols. i. ii. 

+ Paleontologie de V Amerique Meridionale ( Voyage dans Amerique Meridionale, 
vol. iii.) See also the Géologie of the same work. 

t The Orthoceratites, Cirthoceras, Goniatites, Productus, and Spirifera. 

§ The Ammonites, Toxoceras, Ancycloceras, Ptychoceras, Erioceras, Ham- 
ites, Acteonella, &c. 

|| A multitude of genera have appeared at this epoch; Voluta, Mitra, Mu- 
rex, &c. 

@ The number of genera not known in a fossil state is a proof of this; Pe- 
dum, Magilus, &c. 


62 M. Alcide d’Orbigny on Living and Fossil Molluses. 


the surface of the globe a distinct fauna, but identical in its 
composition ; thus the silurian, devonian, and carboniferous 
stages, the triasic, jurassic, cretaceous and diluvian forma- 
tions, appear to be the same over the whole earth,* and there 
preserve the same generic forms, along with the same palzon- 
tological facies. 

“ Not only is there the same facies and the same generic 
forms in the lost fauna of the whole globe, but there are also 
some identical species, common everywhere, which prove how 
completely they are contemporaneous. 

“ This contemporaneous existence which we remark at im- 
mense distances from the first period of animalization,t and 
even up to the time when the lower cretaceous strata were 
deposited, seems to depend on a uniform temperature and 
the shallowness of seas; indeed, such conditions would allow 
these beings not only to enjoy everywhere the influence of 
the exterior light, a circumstance indispensable to their ex- 
istence, but also to propagate and spread themselves without 
obstruction from one place to another. But this state of 
things could not be continued after the influence of latitude, 
and, consequently, the inequality of temperature caused by 
the cooling of the earth, on the one hand, and, on the other, 
the elevation of the earth as well as the great depths of the 
ocean produced barriers which the sedentary zoology of the 
coasts could not pass beyond. We must, therefore, suppose 
that the uniformity in the distribution of the earliest beings 
on the globe is owing as much to the equality of tempera- 
ture determined by the central heat, as by the shallowness 
of the seas; while the separation of faunas by basins of 
greater or less extent, arises, as we approach the existing 
period, from the cooling of the earth, the limits of latitude, 
terrestrial barriers caused by continents, and marine barriers 


* I have found it to be the case at least in regard to America and Kurope.— 
Voyage dans l’ Amerique Meridionale, vol. iii. ; Paleontologie, p. 175. 

+ The Productus, the Spirifer, and the species of other genera are found 
simultaneously in Europe and America. 

¢ See my Fossiles de Colombie, 1842, where many species are identical in 
America and Europe. 


M. Alcide d’Orbigny on Living and Fossil Molluscs. 638 


occasioned by the depths of the ocean, all of which have pre- 
sented obstacles to the extension of river and pelagian faunas. 

“If faunas have the same points of separation on differ- 
ent continents, and if they are arrested by limits strongly 
defined in their paleontological composition, we must natur- 
ally infer that the divisions of the formations do not depend 
on partial causes, but that they arise from general causes 
whose influence is felt over the whole earth. 

“From my researches in America, where geological facts 
are observed on a large scale, I am led to believe that the 
partial or total annihilation of faunas peculiar to each forma- 
tion, always arises from the importance of dislocations pro- 
duced on the surface of our planet by the contraction of the 
matters owing to the cooling of the central parts,* and the 
perturbations which have produced these same dislocations. A 
system, or rather a chain of mountains, 50 degrees in length, 
such, for example, as that of the Andes, of whose relief only 
we can judge, without being able to calculate the correspond- 
ing extent of its sinking in the bosom of the ocean, must 
have caused such a movement in the waters, in consequence 
of the displacement of matters, that the effect would be uni- 
versal both on continents and in seas. By this deluge land- 
animals have been swept away from the former; the trans- 
portation of earthy particles has desolated the second, not 
only suffocating the animals living at large in the ocean by 
filling their branchiz, but also the more fixed animals of the 
coast, by covering them up under a deposit. We may like- 
wise suppose that a great disturbing cause has resulted from 
the difference of the levels formed along the whole shore of 
oceans by this terrestrial movement. We may thus explain, 
at the same time, the separation of beings by formation, and 
their extinction at each of the great geological epochs. 

“ The results of these dislocations being general over the 
globe, and having manifested themselves at immense dis- 
tances, we ought to seek in them the systems of elevation or 
effect de bascule, ancient and modern, the cause of the annihi- 
lation of the numerous faunas which have succeeded each 


* This is the opinion of M. Elie de Beaumont. 


64 M. Alcide d’Orbigny on Living and Fossil Molluses. 


other on the surface of our planet. When we fail to find, 
at points in the vicinity of the place where their distinct 
faunas at present appear, a sufficient explanation of the cir- 
cumstance from chains of mountains, we must seek it more 
remotely, in points still unknown to science, or suppose that 
if these terrestrial systems are the cause, many of them have 
been destroyed by new sinkings. Chains of mountains, more- 
over, are only the visible portion of the dislocation of the 
globe, while the sunk portion, perhaps more considerable, 
being for the most part covered, is unknown to us, and will 
always continue to be so. 

“In a word, the separation of stages and formations by 
distinct faunas, is nothing more than the visible consequence 
of the varied elevations and sinkings of the earth’s crust in 
all its parts. 

“ T may further remark, from the uniform distribution of 
the same beings, that, up to the period of the cretaceous for- 
mations,* the internal heat of the earth has destroyed the 
whole influence of latitude and polar cold. If exterior at- 
mospheric influence on the distribution of beings on the earth's 
surface did not then exist, all the faunas anterior to the cre- 
taceous formations certainly owe their limitation by forma- 
tions to the great dislocations of the globe. It would be at 
a posterior date that the influences of latitude rendered the 
division into basins more complicated, multiplied the local 
faunas, as is seen in the tertiary formations, and destroyed 
that uniformity of distribution which is observed in the most 
ancient formations. 

« Assuming as a basis, the superposition and points of 
separation more or less decided among the faunas which have 
succeeded each other, from the first appearance of animals on 
the globe up to the present time, the following, in the order 
of their succession, are the formations and stages deduced 
from geological and palzontological observations. 


Patzxozoic Formation, 
First, Silurian stage. 
Second, Devonian stage. 
Third, Carboniferous stage. 
Fourth, Permian stage. 
Fifth, Triasic stage. 


* See my particular work on Coquilles Fossiles de Colombie. 


M. Alcide d’Orbigny on Living and Fossil Molluscs. 65 


Jurassic Formation. 


Inferior Lias, belonging to the zone of 
Gryphea arcuata, and below it. 
Middle Lias, belonging to the zone of 
First stage, the Lias............ Gryphea cymbium, up to Gryphaea 
arcuata. 
Superior Lias, above Gryphewa cym- 
biwm. 
( Lower Oolite. 
Wit | Great Oolite. 
J Inferior Oxford stage (Kelloway rock). 
Middle Oxford stage (Oxford-clay). 
| Superior Oxford stage (Coral-rag). 
{ Inferior, or Kimmeridgian. 
* | Superior, or Portlandian, 


Second, Bathonian stage 
Third, Oxford stage ............ 


Fourth, Kimmeridgian stage... 


Cretacrous Formation. 


| Neocomian. 


First stage, Neocomian 1 Aptian, 


Second stage, Albian or gault. 


{ Turonian, or chloriteous chalk. 


eee | uromian | Senonian, or white chalk. 


TertTIARY FORMATION. 


First stage, Parisian............ Superior, or coarse limestone and su- 


Inferior, to the coarse limestone. 
perior beds. 


Second stage, Sub-Appenine. 


{ In this latter period we find none but 


Third stage, Diluvian .......... : Ha = 
| species now living. 


After these general considerations, we may add a few 
words on the more special facts, the study of which is of di- 
rect interest to paleontologists ; and we shall begin with the 
simple accidents of fossilisation in shells. 

“ The state of preservation in shells may often deceive the 
observer, and lead him to separate different states of the 
same shell as distinct species. Shells, whether they have 
been buried by the strata of the earth in the place where they 
occur, or have been conveyed by currents, are generally ar- 
ranged in zones in the fossiliferous formations. According to 
their geological age, or the longer or shorter period they 
have remained in these strata, they are completely or par- 

VOL, XLVH, NO. XCUI.—JULY 1849. 1D 


66 M. Alcide d@’Orbigny on Living and Fossil Molluscs. 


tially changed in their nature. Such a shell composed, for 
example, of molecules of carbonate and phosphate of lime, 
and horny or mucous animal molecules, sometimes still re- 
tains, in its composition, some of the carbonate of lime ; but 
then this substance, at least if it be not of a lamellar texture, 
as in the shells of certain genera,* does not preserve its 
original appearance. The mineral matter by which it is 
replaced, is formed of carbonate of lime,} silica,t sulphuret of 
iron,§ hydrated iron, || oligistic iron, sulphate of strontian,** 
sulphate of barytes,t+ lead,t{t or any other substance, no 
longer possesses its primitive internal texture. It is the 
mineral matter in its ordinary aspect which occupies the place 
of the shell. When shells have only changed their nature, 
they preserve all their characters, and it is easy to study 
them. 

‘“ Shells enveloped in particles of clay, marl, or lime, after 
their deposition in ancient seas, which have been afterwards 
entirely destroyed by the action of chemical agents, and left 
their places empty, present greater difficulties. When the 
void has remained untouched, it shews on the one side the 
impression of the exterior characters, and on the other that 
of the internal characters. Itis then for the observer to en- 
deavour to reconstruct, by artificial means, or to recognise 
the character of the genera and species of the shell by the 
union of the two impressions remaining in the rock. A single 
valve of the acephales presenting at once the exterior form 


* Ostrea and Terebratula. 

+ Such are found in France at an infinite number of places. 

{ All the shells of Uchaux (Vaucluse) and Launoy (Ardennes), contained in 
the cretaceous and Oxford strata, are in this state. 

§ The greater part of the shells at Vaches-Noires (Calvados) are thus trans- 
formed. 

|| This transformation is very common. 

q This is met with in the vicinity of Semur (Céte d’Or), in the lias. 

** T have collected some of these in the Neocomian stage, near St Dizier 
(Hautemarne). 

tt I possess belemnites in strontian, discovered by M. Delanoue, in the lias 
of the neighbourhood of Nontron (Dordogre). 

tt I have some gryphées thus transformed, from the neighbourhood of 


Semur. 


M. Alcide d’Orbigny on Living and Fossil Molluscs. 67 


and the hinges, may admit of pretty easy determination; but it 
is not always so with the gasteropods, and particularly the 
bivalves, when they have been shut, and left only what has 
been improperly called the kernel or interior mould, which I 
would designate as the internal impression ; for then a great 
number of conchyliogical characters, such as those of the 
hinges, have often disappeared, and in many cases it is ex- 
tremely difficult to determine the genera and species. But 
if the difficulties begin with the internal impressions of en- 
tire bivalves pretty well preserved, they increase when the 
state of preservation becomes still less complete. I refer to 
counter-impressions, when, for example, the shell has com- 
pletely disappeared, in an argillaceous or calcareous bed in 
a still unsolidified state ; and when the impression produced 
by the weight of the superior beds, tends to make the bed 
more compact by bringing all the parts towards each other ; 
then the void left in place of the shell disappears, and the 
interior and exterior impression, united and brought in con- 
tact, sometimes completely attenuate the internal characters, 
or at least produce an appearance which is neither an inter- 
nal or external impression, but rather a combination of both. 
In these circumstances, of very frequent occurrence, the cha- 
racters are altered, and very difficult to recognise.* It is 
commonly not till after having handled and seen thousands 
of fossil shells of this nature, that we can succeed in per- 
ceiving, in the most fugitive characters, what must have ex- 
isted in the primitive state. 

« A second cause of error is owing to the disappearance 
from certain strata of the substance of shells, and the pre- 
servation of certain others in the same subjects. This mo- 
dification, very common in the ancient formations,t is like- 
wise so in the most modern.t We observe, for example, the 
exterior layer of the shell disappear, and along with it the 
specific characters, leaving a second, which is, for instance, 


* Almost all the fossils of the superior Oxford stage in the vicinity of La 
Rochelle are in this condition. 

+t This is seen in the Productus. 

t In the cretaceous fossils of Maus (Sarthe), alteration is frequent. 


68 M. Alcide d’Orbigny on Living and Fossil Molluscs. 


smooth, while the former was striated,* or striated while the 
first was smooth.t It follows from this, that in many cases, we 
cannot come to positive conclusions, without bringing together 
a greater number of specimens. This is likewise the case 
with states of fossilisation, in which points and tubercles are 
replaced by depressions,{ long points by small drops, &e.§ 
One of the most remarkable modifications is that in which 
the external layers of a shell are always preserved in the 
rock, while the internal fibrous layers almost always dis- 
appear.|| We may thus easily mistake the impression of the 
internal parts destroyed, for bodies fine jae different 
from the first. 

“ A third cause of error, against which it is necessary to 
guard, is the state of preservation in which shells were be- 
fore they became fossil. Every one may perceive, from ex- 
amining the edges, that shells separated from their animal, 
are exposed to numerous causes of destruction. The least 
that can happen is, that they become rubbed, being rolled 
along by the motion of the water. Supposing that the same 
things took place before our epoch that occur in the pre- 
sent time, we must believe that shells exposed on shores to 
the incessant action of the waves, would necessarily become 
rubbed. We find, in point of fact, many beds in which the 
shells are rolled ;** and as they may render striated shells 
smooth, attenuate or change all the characters, it must be 
taken into account in modifications of this kind.” 

The deformation of fossil shells is likewise an important 
fact, and may often cause errors in the specific determina- 
tions. 

“ Although these deformations are of different importance, 


* This is seen in Curdium. 

t The Petunculus especially, and Arca, exhibit this character. 

ft I have seen this particular uS in Cardium productum brought from Uchaux 
(Vaucluse). 

§ This modification is common in the same species. 

|| This takes place in the Hippurites and Radiolites. 

§| Witness M. Defranca’s genus Jodamia. 

** This is seen in the inferior sandstones of the Turonian stage at Maus 
(Sarthe), in the Coral-rag of St Mihiel (Meuse) at Tonnerre (Yonne), &c. 


M. Alcide d’Orbigny on Living and Fossil Molluscs. 69 


and altogether distinet according to the classes to which they 
belong, 1 must mention, in a few words, some of these gene- 
ral characters. 

“ Shells are by no means deposited in the earth’s strata, 
as certain individuals have supposed, according to their speci- 
fie weight ; they are found absolutely in the same conditions, 
according to which they are at present deposited in the sea 
on the shores, or, as we find them in modern deposits recently 
left by the sea.* Bivalve shells, for example, are in their 
normal position, that is to say, placed vertically, the side of 
the tubes upwards, the mouth downwards, in the argillaceous 
or calcareous beds of an infinite number of places belonging 
to all the different epochs.t{ They have been carried along 
by the currents, and deposited under the waters in horizontal 
banks,+ or else heaped up on the shores by the waves.§ In 
the first mentioned case, the bivalves are in their place, as I 
have mentioned ; the gasteropods have the mouth down- 
wards. In the second case, the shells are deposited by 
chance, according to their forms; the flattest will be hori- 
zontally on the side, as the ammonites and the bivalves, and, 
finally, each will be found in the position most favourable to 
the equilibrium of the whole ; but the gasteropods will be 
found with the mouth sometimes upwards, at other times 
downwards. In the third mentioned case, the shells still 
preserve in some degree the position relatively to their form, 
and the equilibrium of the whole ; at the same time, as they 
are not deposited by a slow action, but by a sudden impul- 
sion, they are found in all positions, without following any 
certain rule. It may be easily understood how we may de- 


* Those of the bay of Aiguillon, in the confines of the departments of La 
Vendée and Charente-Inferieure. 

+ I have seen them so placed in the inferior lias of Semur (Coéte-d’Cr), in the 
inferior Oolite of Coulie (Sarthe), in the Kimmeridgean stage of Havre, in 
those of Chatebaillon (Charente-Inferieure), and in the Portlandian stage of St 
Jean D’Angely, in the same department, &. &c., in the Turonian stage of 
Montagnes des Comes (Ande). 

t At Bayeux and Montiers, in the lower Oolite; at Luc, in the large Oolite 
(Calvados), &. &e. 

§ In the localities of the Coral-rag, which I have already mentioned, at St 
Mihiel (Meuse), at Tonnerre (Yonne), &e. 


70M. Aleide d’Orbigny on Living and Fossil Molluses. 


termine, by means of these data, what has been the mode of 
deposition of the fossils contained in any kind of strata. 

“The shells thus deposited, and more or less covered by 
posterior deposits, have so remained, with their shell changed 
into different substances. They have passed into the state 
of impressions, or else they have reached the condition of 
counter impression. If, after their deposition, the beds in 
the state of paste have sunk in their horizontal position, in 
consequence of the pressure of the whole ;* if they have been 
dislocated before this pressure, and a sinking or oblique slip- 
ping of the molecules, in relation to their first horizontal de- 
position, has taken place, it will be perceived that all the 
bodies found in these strata must have been subjected to the 
same pressure, horizontal or oblique, and will then become 
deformed in consequence of their relative position. 

“‘ Horizontal pressure, for example, produces a flattening 
of the shells in the direction of their compression. Accord- 
ingly, the nauliti, ammonites, in all the parts which were con- 
vex, are more or less flattened, and often become as thin as 
a sheet of paper.t Bivalves placed on the side lose half of 
their thickness, or become quite flat, and without convexity.{ 
We may likewise observe this simple compression in shells 
naturally compressed; but when it takes place in conical 
shells it may be conceived to change the specifie characters 
altogether.§ 

“Tf deformation, in the direction of the compression of shells, 
may change their shape, this deformation will be much more 
considerable when it is exerted in the direction of their 
length. This takes place principally when the gasteropodes 
and acephales have preserved their natural position. Indeed, 
conical shells will become entirely flat, or their spire will 
change altogether from a spiral angle, and from being ele- 


This has taken place in all the formations, 
This is seen in many ammonites of the foliated lias, 
The possidonies of the lias present this depression. 


Me ++ + 


This deformation takes place in the Trochi and Pleurotomariz. 
The Patella and Orbicula. 


M. Alcide @’Orbigny on Living and Fossil Molluses. 71 


vated, will become depressed, or even horizontal.* Accord- 
ingly, we must not take into account the spiral angle of the 
shells of the gasteropods in the state of counter-impressions 
deposited in calcareous and argillaceous beds, until we have 
compared them with a great number of individuals not de- 
formed. 

“ In regard to the acephals, deformation is one of the great 
causes of error. Such a shell being naturally oblong, when 
shortened on itself by vertical pressure, may become of 
greater breadth than height,} and undergo such a change in 
appearance as to be readily transferred from one genus to 
another. When, on the contrary, this pressure is exerted in 
the transverse direction of a shell, that is to say, from the 
hooks on the edge of the paleum, such a species, though at 
first round, may become oblong or even elongated,} under- 
going a complete modification. 

“ The deformation produced by an oblique pressure, regard 
being had to the compression, to the length or the breadth of 
the shells, is more easy to determine in certain cases ; but it 
is, on the contrary, the most difficult of all to establish in 
certain others. Oblique pressure has produced in the ce- 
phalopods, and in bellerophon, those elliptical spires which 
haye given rise to separate genera.§ Some authors have 
likewise supposed that they have detected in it a distinctive 
specific character.|| This same deformation likewise renders 
the spiral convolution elliptical in the gasteropods, by throw- 
ing the summit laterally, sometimes on one side, sometimes 
on the other. If these deformations are easily understood 


* I have noticed this deformation in many kinds of Trochus and Pleuroto- 
maria. 

+ I possess the same species in all these deformations, which shall be figured 
at the head of each class. They are the Oardiwm hillanwm and a Panopea from 
La Malle (var). 

t We find these deformations principally in the strata near mountains, as at 
Grasse (var.), at Castellane (Lower Alps), in the Corbieres (Ande), and in a 
multitude of other places where the strata have been dislocated. 

§ The genus Lllipsolites of Montford, originally adopted, since rejected by 
Sowerby. 

|| The Bellerophon obliquus of MM. Potiez and Michaud, is only a deformation 
of this kind in B. Munsterii. 

his is exemplified in some Pleurotomarie in my possession. 


72 Mz. Alcide d@’Orbigny on Living and Fossil Molluscs. 


by experienced eyes, such is by no means the case with the 
oblique deformations of bivalve shells. In these the pres- 
sure may not only render one valve more elevated than the 
other in symmetrical shells, and give them a greater or less 
resemblance to corbula* or thracia; but, besides, when it 
takes place in a vertical direction, passing between the two 
valves, and which it inclines more or less to the side of the 
labrum, this oblique deformation may modify the apical angle 
of a bivalve, and change its form to such a degree, without 
making it cease to be symmetrical,t that it may become very 
difficult to distinguish true species from deformations of this 
nature, which are, however, very common in shells which 
have preserved their normal position in the midst of argilla- 
ceous strata !{ Not only, therefore, is it necessary frequently 
to disregard form, but also, in order to distinguish true spe- 
cies from accidental deformations, it is requisite to commence 
by seeking other exterior characters, and to compare, in this 
point of view, all the specimens that have been collected in 
the same bed and in the same place ; for, in that case, the 
change of place and of strata must be allowed to have some 
influence in determining the limits of a fossil species. 

“ Referring to what I have already stated respecting the diffi- 
culties attending the positive determination of fossil species, I 
would say that these difficulties are so much greater, the more 
ancient the fauna that we investigate. In fact, the lower a bed 
lies, the more must the shells it contains have been exposed 
to dislocations, pressures, and the modifications to fossil forms. 
If, for example, the determination of species of extreme dif- 
ficulty in the transition formations, when it is undertaken con- 
scientiously ; if it is still so in the cretaceous formations, after 
we enter upon the tertiary formations, such as those of the 
Parisian basin, it ceases altogether, and the determination of 
the fossil shells of this epoch enters into the category of that 
of living shells. It is only necessary, for the most part, to 


* This deformation is very frequent. 
+ The Pholadomya are often found in this state, which has caused the species 
to be multiplied without end. 


{ They are found in a great number of places in France. 


Professor Favre on the Geology of the German Tyrol. 73 


take into account the natural variations which I have spoken 


of in treating of other shells.”"—( Bibliotheque Universelle de 
Geneve, No. xxii., p. 123.) 


On the Geology of the German Tyrol and the origin of Dolo- 
mite. By Professor FAVRE of Geneva. Communicated 
by the Author.* 


Desirous of extending the field of m y geological researches, 
which for some time had been almost confined to the Alps 
of Savoy, I eagerly availed myself of a proposal of Professor 
Studer of Berne, to accompany him in an excursion to the 
Alps of the Tyrol. I was fortunate in undertaking this jour- 
ney along with this savant, who is as amiable as he is distin- 
guished. The route he had marked out enabled us to ex- 
amine the different formations which constitute the surface 
of the Tyrol and Salzbourg. 

I have no intention of describing them all; after a rapid 
glance at the topography and ancient formations of this 
country, I shall limit myself to a description of the pass 
of Heiligen-Blut-Tauern, and some considerations on the 
origin of dolomite. 

The Tyrol, whose mountains form the eastern prolonga- 
tion of the Alps of Switzerland, presents some differences 
from the latter, even in a picturesque point of view. The 
large mountains are less elevated and less numerous. The 
glaciers are not so large, they do not descend so far into the 
valley, which indicates that the snow fields of the upper re- 
gions are less extensive. 

The general character of the mountains of the Tyrol is 
that they stand in aline following three great parallel chains, 
running very nearly from west to east. 

The chain of crystalline rocks is situate in the centre ; 
it is placed between Innsbruck and Klausen, or rather it is 
bounded by the upper part of the valley of Salza, and by that 
of the valley of the Drave, so wild in its character. 


= SS 
* Read to the Societe de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle de Geneve, on Ist 


February 1849. 


74 Professor Favre on the Geology of the German Tyrol. 


The two exterior chains are formed by dolomites and lime- 
stones, presenting an arid aspect. These mountains are so 
white, that their rocks are frequently confounded with the 
snows which occupy the most elevated summits. 

The rocks which form these three chains are considerably 
varied in their nature, in the modifications to which they have 
been subjected, and in their age. 

In the extensive depressions of the ground, which separate 
nearly all the exterior chains from the central one, we find 
many sedimentary formations. 

Volcanic actions have here and there pierced the surface 
of this district, which has been so subject to geological acci- 
dents, and have brought various porphyritic rocks to the sur- 
face. They have thus complicated the structure and the na- 
ture of the ground. 

The central chain appears to reach its maximum of eleva- 
tion at Weiss-Kogl (11,840 feet*), near the glaciers of Citz 
and Gross Glockner, which are 11,662 feet above the level of 
the sea. This sharp peak bears a great resemblance to the 
numerous aiguilles situate to the south of the valley of Cha- 
mounix. The Venediger-Spitz, at the bottom of the Pinzgau 
and the Wild Spitz, likewise among the glaciers of (itz, 
almost rival the preceding mountains in height. 

In the secondary chain to the north, the most elevated 
summit appears to be the Dachstein (9234 feett) in the Salz- 
kammergut ; in respect to elevation, then come the Ewiger- 
Schneeberg, the Steinernes-Meer, &c.; while, in the southern 
chain, the rocks of Marmollata, attaining a height of 10,400 
teet, appear to exceed the other parts of the chain. 

The crystalline rocks of the central chain are formed of true 
granite, the component parts differing in size. Often, with- 
out becoming exactly gneiss, this rock assumes an appear- 
ance which Saussure has well named veined granite.{ The 


* These measurements, taken from G. Mayr’s map (Munich, 1846), are in 
French feet. 

+ According to M. Simony, 9493 Viennese feet (Memoires de la Société des 
amis des Sciences de Vienne, t. i., p. 317, 1847). 

t Voyage dans les Alps, § 163. 


Professor Favre on the Geology of the German Tyrol. 75 


granitic rocks are highly developed at the foot of the Zillerthal, 
between St Jacob and Pfunders. This granitic axis is inter- 
sected at Mittelwald by the road from Sterzing to Brixen. 

The central chain likewise contains many other rocks, such 
as true gneiss with white or black mica, as in the Zemm-Thal, 
and in the bottom of the valley of Gastein, where they are 
associated with hypersthenic syenite, at Isselberg, near Lienz, 
and at Dollach, in Carinthia. 

It appears to me that true protogine is wanting in the Alps 
of the Tyrol. 

The metamorphic rocks and stratified formations, not fos- 
siliferous, constitute an ill-defined group, because, in the 
lower part, they pass into crystalline rocks, and, in their upper 
part, into’ sedimentary fossiliferous rocks. They often them- 
selves present characters of crystallisation. 

We have carefully studied these complicated rocks in the 
long pass of Pfitsch-Joch. 

The most widely distributed, most common, and most im- 
portant rock of this group, is an argillo-talcose slate, whose 
characters are very variable. The Tyrolese geologists dis- 
tinguished it by the name of argillaceous mica slate (Thon 
glimmerschiefer). Near Zell, a mine of pyrites and auriferous 
mispickel has been opened in this rock, which, according to 
M. Burat, produces annually 35 marks of gold from 50,000 
quintals of ore. Native gold is sometimes found likewise. 
These ores have been probably formed at the same time with 
the veins of quartz which traverse the rock. 

This argillo-talcose slate, enriched with an immense quan- 
tity of garnets, occupies the summit of the pass of Pfitsch- 
Joch (6741 feet), and is approached by varieties of gneiss, 
slaty serpentine, and clay slate. 

It is well to observe the great analogy which exists be- 
tween these rocks and those of the Canton of Valais. Their 
resemblance is such that we ought not to despair of finding 
fossils in them. In fact, we know that, in the latter country, 
MM. de Charpentier and Lardy have found belemnites in 
these rocks associated with the garnets.* 


* Lardy’s Essay on the geognostic constitution of St Gothard. (Memoires de 


76 Professor Favre on the Geology of the German Tyrol. 


These slates, so varied in character, are evidently mineral 
masses which have been more or less altered by different 
agents, among which we must rank an elevated temperature. 
The proof of this action of heat is the following. These 
slates, as we have mentioned, are more or less crystal- 
line; now, it is in the most crystalline part that we find the 
greatest number of those masses of saccaroidal or granu- 
lar limestone, which, according to Hall’s experiments, in- 
dicate a powerful action of heat. These masses are dis- 
posed in the argillo-talcose slate formations in large lenti- 
cular masses and beds, parallel to the stratification.* In 
general, these limestones are found at the lower part of 
the stratified rocks, as, for example, at the northern ex- 
tremity of Zemm-Thal, where the saccaroidal limestone is 
slaty in contact with the gneiss, but compact, sonorous, and 
breaking like glass, at a distance of ten or fifteen yards. 

Other masses of saccaroidal limestone may be observed in 
the Ziller-Thal. We have found the continuation of them, 
first, to the west of the Brenner road, where the sections, pub- 
lished in the Comptes rendus of the Montanistitche Verein 
(1843), indicate that their beds have a non-conformable stra- 
tification with the mica slate ; and, secondly, twenty leagues 
more to the east of the same chain, at the picturesque pass 
called Alam, at the entrance of the valley of Gastein, near 
Lend. This section, narrow and deep, through which, not- 
withstanding, the waters of this valley are discharged, has 
not always existed, for the valley of Gastein presents all the 
characters of an ancient lake. 

The rocks which form the Klam are white or greyish sacca- 
roidal limestones, more or less charged with mica (tale 2). 
This limestone presents three very distinct appearances ; 
1st, Homogeneous or compact, although saccaroidal; 2d, 
Slaty and slightly grooved, the surface of the slates be- 
ing faintly undulated ; 3d, Bacillary, that is to say, formed 


la Société helvetique des Sciences: Natur., tome 1, p. 241, 1833.) Studer. (Me- 
moires de la Société geologique de France, 2me Serie, t. i., p. 308.) 

* The saceareidal limestones of Meran, which are so skilfully employed in 
the workshops of M. Schwanthaler, at Munich, are probably found in the same 
geological position. 


Professor Favre on the Geology of the German Tyrol. 77 


of prismatic distinct concretions, and fitting to each other, 
as may be seen in small billets of wood split in the 
direction of the fibres; only these small concretions leave no 
empty spaces, and sometimes become so slender that the 
rock resembles hard asbestus. This state is the result of the 
maximum of development in the circumstances which pro- 
duced the slaty structure ;—it is that structure carried to the 
extreme. Certain crystalline slates present some resem- 
plance in their structure to this limestone. Only, these rocks 
being formed of many mineral substances, the structure is 
not so regular. We notice in it nodules, and imperfect cry- 
stals of quartz or felspar, which are enclosed in cavities 
more or less deep, lined by one of the substances of the slate 
in leaflets (mica, tale, or steatite). This substance appears 
to have been subjected to friction, for it is marked with 
small stric on the surface. The greater part of the rocks 
known under the name of satin-slates present this same 
character. 

In a question so complicated as that of the origin of the 
slaty structure, we ought not to have recourse to a single 
action in order to explain it. Accordingly, it is admitted 
that, in certain cases, this structure has been produced by 
the fusion of rocks, which have flowed downwards ;* and that, 
in other circumstances, it represents the remains of stratifi- 
cation. Lastly, we may perceive further, that this pheno- 
menon owes its origin to abrasions and frictions,} which have 
taken place before the complete solidification of the rock. This 
latter mode of formation appears to me evidently demon- 
strated by the resemblance of the crystalline slates to the 
rocks of Klam. The different forms of these limestones, 
taken in connection with the observation made at the en- 
trance of the Zemm-Thal, appear to us to indicate that the 
slaty structure, in the case of which we speak, is the result 
of frictions and etirements. To this it must be added, that the 


* Naumann. (Neues Jahrbuch fiir Minera., 1847, p. 297. Archives de la 
Bibl. Univ., t. vii., p. 322; 1848.) 

+ Studer. (Memoir formerly referred to). Fournet (Annales de la Société 
d’Agriculture de Lyon, t. iv.; 1841 et 1846.) 


78 Professor Favre on the Geology of the German Tyrol. 


saccaroidal limestones of the Tyrol are not eruptive lime- 
stones, because they are placed in the form of bands or beds 
lying parallel to the central chain.* 

Lastly, a locality where we have seen the saccaroidal lime- 
stone developed to a great extent, is the pass of Heiligen- 
Blut-Tauern. 

The pass of Pfitsch-Joch having brought us to the southern 
acclivity of the Alps, we selected the pass of Heiligen-Blut for 
our return to the north, as being elevated (8,051 feet), and very 
near to Gross-Glockner, so that we hoped to find in it as much 
scientific interest as picturesque beauty. Our expectations 
were in no degree disappointed. 

The village of Heiligen-Blut is in a charming situation. 
Its little church, picturesquely placed on a hill, overlooks a 
valley covered with beautiful trees and cottages. The some- 
what steep walls of this valley form a frame in which rises 
the sharp aiguille of the Gross-Glockner, of which the Tyrol- 
ese and Carinthians never speak without admiration. 

Hacquet was one of the first who wrote about this moun- 
tain. He estimated its height at 10,000 feet, in his minera- 
logical and botanical journey from Mont-Terglou in Carnia 
to Gross-Glockner, published in 1784, a little before Saussure 
had ascended to the most elevated point of Europe. From 
that period the environs of Gross-Glockner have not failed to 
be frequently visited, and they always excite a just admiration. 

On leaving Lienz, in order to reach the pass of Heiligen- 
Blut by ascending the valley of the Moll in Carinthia, we 
find crystalline rocks on the northern bank of the Drave. 
Indeed, while passing Isselberg, we walk over rocks of am- 
phibole, embellished with garnets, forming masses of greater 
or smaller size in the mica slates (direction, N. 80, to 85 E.) 
In the upper part of the valley of the Moll (between Dollach 
and Putschal) we fall in with frequent associations of sac- 
caroidal limestone, cipolin, serpentine, serpentineous por- 
phyries, and green slates. 

In traversing the pass of Heiligen-Blut-Tauern, we fancy 
that we would walk over crystalline slates or granites; 


* Fournet. (Comptes Rendus of the Academy of Sciences, p. 406; 1844.) 


Professor Favre on the Geology of the German Tyrol. 79 


but, to our great surprise, we scarcely met with anything 
else than limestones. Above Heiligen-Blut we traverse 
green slates and slaty cipolins with white mica, the strata 
dipping nearly to the south. We soon reach argillo-talcose 
slates containing garnets, accompanied with dolomite and 
saccaroidal limestone. After advancing about three hours, 
we find ourselves on a kind of plateau, terminating in a 
circus, the beds of which are horizontal. When we reach 
the highest part of this circus, formed by argillo-talcose 
garnetiferous slates, the green slates likewise containing 
garnets and quartzite, rather in veins than in beds, we have 
guined the summit of the pass. 

From the commencement of the descent, we find large beds 
of saccaroidal limestone more or less micaceous. The green, 
or argillo-talcose slates, alternate with limestones, and form, 
with some dolomites and cargneules, all the northern acclivity 
of the pass as far as Tauernhaus, where serpentine occurs. 
The horizontality of the beds at the summit of the pass ap- 
pears to continue as far as the junction of the Seidlwinkel- 
Thal and Rauris-Thal, and beyond, the strata dip to the north. 
To recapitulate: We have seen in this pass, ls¢, That the 
central chain was formed, not of crystalline rocks, but in a 
great part of limestones and slates, which are evidently sedi- 
mentary rocks more or less altered; 2d, That these sedimen- 
tary formations form a saddle or arch; for, on the side of Heili- 
gen-Blut, they dip to the south; on the summit of the pass 
they are horizontal, and, on the northern acclivity, they dip 
to the north. It is probable that this arch covers the pro- 
longation of the granitic rocks of the bottom of the valley 
of Gastein, and that the formations composing the actual 
arch are only a very small part of that which formerly had 
a tendency to become formed when the upraising of the cen- 
tral chain heaved up the great masses which form the second- 
ary chains of the Tyrol. 

The argillo-talcose slates and saccaroidal limestones alter- 
nate in a general way with the green slates, which are more or 
less serpentineous, chloriteous, or taleose, and which are no- 
thing more than modifications of the first of these rocks; asa 
proof of this, we may refer to the numerous instances in which 


80 Professor Favre on the Geology of the German Tyrol. 


these two rocks pass into one another. It will be further 
remarked, that the circumstances which have developed the 
garnets in the argillo-taleose slates have produced the same 
effects in the green slates, for in these garnets are abundant. 
The green slates are developed in the neighbourhood of the 
serpentines and amphibolic rocks ; and we may regard both 
of these rocks as being the maximum of alteration in this 
great formation of slates presenting such varied characters. 

On ascending Pfitsch-Joch from Zell, we find porphyroidal 
amphibolites, other varieties in which the amphibole is radi- 
ated, argillo-taleose slates, green garnetiferous slates, and 
dolomites ; these rocks constitute the mountain Greiner (8800 
feet), celebrated for its minerals. It is near the granitic 
chain of the bottom of the Ziller-Thal. 

The green slates, containing a variable quantity of epi- 
dote, form a great part of the mountains of the valley of 
Gastein, particularly between this valley and Rauris. 

The serpentine, as I have mentioned, is disposed in masses 
throughout the formations of which we are treating. In gene- 
ral, it is placed in beds, or in fragments of beds, parallel to the 
central chain. This arrangement indicates that this rock is 
not one of eruption, but that it is the produce of strongly de- 
veloped metamorphic action. I have found this rock at 
Pfitsch-Joch with a species of euphotide, near Dollach in-Ca- 
rinthia, at Matrey between Innsbruck and the Brenner, where 
it is mined along with ophicalce ; it is everywhere surrounded 
with large masses of green slate. 

The non-fossiliferous stratified formations are, therefore, 
composed of argillo-talcose slates, green slates, limestones, 
dolomites, amphibolites, serpentines, and ophicalces, the va- 
rieties of which are infinitely numerous. The principal rock 
is the first of those we have indicated ; the others occur in 
the form of beds, or fragments of beds, parallel to the central 
chain. 

The presence of the Silurian formation in the Tyrol has 
been determined a few years since. The following are our 
observations on this subject. 

When traversing the valley of Gastein, from south to 
north, and receding from the granitic and central chain, we 


Professor avre on the Geology of the German Tyrol. 81 


perceive that the mountains which flank the valley are com- 
posed of the formations we have described ; we then traverse 
the Klam, formed of saccaroidal limestone, and arrive at 
the small town of Lend. If we go from that place towards 
the iron mines of Dienten, we pass over the edge of strata 
which run southwards, and consequently rest on the central 
chain. These strata are formed of grey argillo-talcose slates 
and green slates, alternating with each other, and identical 
in appearance with the most abundant beds of the southern 
Valais; near Dienten (above and below the village), these 
formations contain beds of carbonated iron, which dip at 30° 
to the north. These beds, which are mined, closely resem- 
ble the mines of spathic iron in Dauphiny. They contain 
erystals of spathic iron, rhombohedric, lenticular, &c., which 
often rest on crystals of quartz. The important fact is, that, 
in the interior of these iron mines, a thin bed of graphite is 
found, very nearly pure, containing fossils referrible to the 
Silurian epoch. Those in the collection of the School of 
Mines of Vienna bear the following names :—Cardium gra- 
cile, Munst., Cardiola interrupta, Brod., Orthoceras styloideum, 
Bar., O. gregarium, Munst.* 

Although we examined the geological position of these 
mines, we cannot give any positive opinion respecting their 
age, the fossils in our possession not being sufficiently nume- 
rous. Without venturing on any exact determination, we 
may state that we have been struck with the striking resem- 
blance which exists between the orthoceratites of Dienten, 
which are called Silurian, and those of St Cassian, which are 
evidently from the muschelkalk. It would, indeed, be less 
extraordinary to find at Dienten fossils of this latter forma- 
tion than those of the Silurian epoch. 

However this may be, the discovery of these fossils, which 
was made only a few years ago, promises to be of great im- 
portance in the geology of the Alps; for the rocks of Dien- 
ten are similar to those of the Valais and Dauphiny. 

With regard to the true coal formation, its presence is 


* Morlot. Hrléuterungen. Wxplanation of the Geological Map of the N. E, 
portion of the Alps, p. 131. 1847. 
VOL. XLVI. NO. XCII.—JULY 1849. F 


82 Professor Favre on the Geology of the German Tyrol. 


much more certain than that of the Silurian formation. It 
is developed at Stangalp, to the west of Gmund, and to the 
north of Villach, as is mentioned by M. Morlot, in his ex- 
planation of the Geological Map of the Alps, and as is proved 
by specimens in the Museums of Vienna and Linz; the lat- 
ter come from Rosaninalpe to the south of the Radstadter- 
Tauern. 

Ascending in the geological scale of formations, we find 
the red sandstones, the trias and dolomite, formations which 
are associated with and traversed by the quartziferous and 
pyroxenic porphyries. The observations made by us on these 
varied rocks are the following : 

Turning eastward from Klausen, in the valley of the 
Kisack, by the Grodner-Thal, as far as St Cassian, we pass 
over a transverse section of the most interesting nature. But, 
in order to obtain a general view of the whole, it is neces- 
sary to make several detours, such as those of Castelruth, 
the Seisser-Alp, and Langkogl. The Hisack cuts through 
different porphyritic rocks, which seem to form the base of 
the sedimentary formations; then, ascending to reach the 
Grodner-Thal, we walk over argillo-micaceous and talcose 
slates; and near the village of St Peters, we arrive at 
masses of red quartziferous porphyry, which, considered on 
a large scale, appear to form a bed rising towards the west, 
but to which two systems of fissures, which cross each other, 
have given an irregular prismatic structure. This porphyry 
is usually altered on the surface; it is covered by the red 
sandstone, the beds of which have a stratification conform- 
able with the porphyry. M. de Buch has long since shewn 
that the porphyry was the mother-rock of the red sandstone. 

Above the red sandstone, which is highly developed in the 
neighbourhood of Castelruth, are found different beds which 
are referred to the trias system; but it is not always easy 
to seize exactly their geological position, for the vicinity of 
the quartziferous porphyry, especially that of the pyroxenic 
porphyry and the immen’se quantity of pyroxenic tufa, which, 
after alternating with these, have altered them, and intro- 
duced among them the elements of the plutonic rocks, which 
render their characters very variable. Above the red sand- 


Professor Favre on the Geology of the German Tyrol. 83 


stone we generally find the muschelkalk, the rock of which 
is a pretty compact limestone; sometimes, however, it oc- 
curs in reniform masses, nests, or crusts, of a greenish sub- 
stance, which resembles decomposed pyroxene, and in which 
we observe fragments of pyroxene. 

It is evidently to the trias system, and more especially to 
the muschelkalk, that we must refer the celebrated fossil 
beds of St Cassian. These beds have not the least con- 
nexion, in their geological position, with the neocomian forma- 
tion, in which some geologists have endeavoured to classify 
them. The locality richest in fossils is Steurs, situate two 
hours to the south of St Cassian, on the summit of the 
hills, clothed with pasture and woods, which separate the 
valley of the Badia from that of Livinalongo (likewise called 
Buchenstein or Fodom), near the sources of the Gader. The 
position of the beds which contain these fossils, and of those 
corresponding with them, becomes evident when we arrive 
at St Cassian by the Grodner-Thal, in passing the Col de 
Colfosco. These beds are situate, undoubtedly, below the 
dolomitic masses. They do not always contain the fossils 
which abound at St Cassian, and the variability of their cha- 
racters, caused by the greater or less abundance of the 
elements, arising from the submarine eruptions which have 
taken place in their neighbourhood, are the principal obsta- 
cles to their being recognised over a large extent. How- 
ever, M. Emmerich has found some fossils of St Cassian 
above St Michel, and in the ravine at Pufl. 

If the hills of Steurs, where the St Cassian fossils are 
found, are not covered by dolomite, it must be ascribed to 
an immense denudation which has carried off the latter rock. 

These fossiliferous beds are remarkable for the curious 
association of othoceratites with ammonites, and the develop- 
ment of a mass of small shells, which, for the most part, ap- 
pear to be young. We have ourselves collected these fossils, 
and their position altogether excludes the idea of a remanie- 
ment dans les terrains. 

On examining the position of these fossil beds, we per- 
ceive that, in the bottom of the valley of St Cassian, the 
pyroxenic conglomerate occurs covered by varied sandstones, 


84 Professor Favre on the Geology of the German Tyrol. 


and by a calcareous conglomerate, containing numerous nests 
of a green matter resembling, as we have said, docomposed 
pyroxene, and enclosing fragments of that mineral. These 
sandstones and conglomerates are covered by the muschel- 
kalk, which is a more or jess marly limestone.* We per- 
ceive that the base of Kreutzkogl, near St Cassian, pre- 
sents nearly the same section, and that this mountain, which 
is dolomitic, rests on the muschelkalk. 

The superposition of the dolomites on the muschelkalk is 
likewise seen in the north part of the base of Langkogl and 
at the Col de Colfosco, where we find a greenish sandstone 
partly formed out of the elements of the pyroxenic rocks. 
This sandstone appears to be contemporaneous with the mus- 
chelkalk, and contains small fossils which cannot be deter- 
mined. (Astartes ?) 

On ascending above the baths of Razes, we perceive on the 
muschelkalk the pyroxenic tufas which form the surface of 
the Seisser-Alp. This name is given to a great plateau 
bounded by the Schlerns, the Palat-Spitz, the Blattkogl, the 
Langkogl, and the Grodner-Thal. It is clothed with pas- 
turage and slightly inclined towards this valley. This py- 
roxenic tufa, which is a kind of sand, more or less coarse, con- 
taining numerous small crystals of pyroxene, is evidently de. 
pendent on the pyroxenic porphyry seen at Pufl, St Christine, 
&c. The tufais perfectly stratified; it is formed by alternations 
of substances, loose or of greater consistency. We here ob- 
serve rolled pebbles of all sizes, which have evidently been 
tossed about by the waters, and are a submarine dejection. 
What farther proves this are the numerous alternations of 
this tufa with the limestones and dolomites which may be ob- 
served in a remarkable escarpment situate near the chalets of 
Molignon, not far from the pass which leads from the Seisser- 
Alp to Campidello in the valley of Fassa. 

In this natural section which overlooks the chalets, we 


* The general view which I give here is sufficient for the end I propose, and 
l refer for the details to the Coup d’wil sur la Geologie du Tyrol meridional, by 
M. Emmerich, published in the Alpes del’ Allemagne, by Schaubach, tom. iv. 
1846. 


Professor Favre on the Geology of the German Tyrol. 85 


have counted more than ten beds of dolomitic limestone, se- 
parated by as many strata of pyroxenic tufa. Has there not 
evidently been a contemporaneous formation between the 
plutonic and sedimentary rock ? 

On a geological inspection of the country, it seems as if we 
had left the Alps, and have been suddenly transported into 
the region of extinct volcanoes in the centre of Sicily. Ana- 
logous alternations are seen above Colfosco. 

The ravines which intersect the great plateau of the Seis- 
ser-Alp, disclose to our view spilites with beautiful zeolites, 
and the surface of this plateau is strewed with masses of true 
dolomites containing oysters (?), beautiful remains of polypi 
and stalks of encrinites.* The position of these dolomites 
indicates that they are the remains of the denudation which 
has formed the plain of the Seisser-Alp. 

These pyroxenous porphyries, and the rocks depending on 
them, appear to be completely wanting to the north of the 
central chain. 

The dolomite of the Tyrol, like that of Switzerland, occurs 
in two positions; 1s¢, It is found in the mass accompanying 
rocks more or less crystalline, such as the argillo-talcose 
slates of which we have spoken; in general this dolomite is 
in the neighbourhood of rocks really plutonic. 2d, It consti- 
tutes great masses, and forms almost of itself the two lateral 
chains of the Austrian Alps. These mountains are distinctly 
stratified. It is sufficient to have seen the great mass of the 
Schlerns, from Castelruth or the cemetery of Layen, or still 
better, the more imposing mass of Kreuzkogl from Colfosco, 
to be convinced that their stratification is very nearly hori- 
zontal. However, in the chain of the north, as in that of the 
south, the beds are more or less turned up against the cen- 
tral chain, a circumstance which confirms what we have said 
respecting the correspondence of these two chains. 

I know not at what period in the history of the globe the 
eruptions of melaphyres have ceased to take place. Some 


* M. Morlot points out corals in the dolomite of the Seisser-Alp; M. Ber- 
trand Geslin has found other fossils in the volcanic tufa of this locality (Bulle- 
tin de la Société Geologique de France, Virst Series, iv., p. 8.) 


86 Professor Favre on the Geology of the German Tyrol. 


authors think that they terminated during the tertiary epoch, 
which may be the case. With regard to the epoch at which 
they commenced, M. de Buch says, that the elevation of 
pyroxenic porphyry is posterior to the secondary formations, 
because it pierces the different beds of it. (Annales de 
Chimie et de Physique, 1823, xiii., 293). I think that it is 
necessary to make a distinction here. The eruptions of these 
melaphyres have perhaps continued a very considerable time, 
and even though a portion of these rocks has reached the 
surface after the deposition of the secondary formations, ac- 
cording to the learned geologist of Berlin, it appears to me 
certain that these eruptions have commenced at the period of 
the muschelkalk. Indeed the observations which I have al- 
ready referred to, and which I recapitulate here, demonstrate 
that there were eruptions of melaphyre contemporary with 
the muschelkalk, and anterior to the formation of dolomites. 

As a proof, I have indicated, 1s¢, The superposition of the 
dolomites on the pyroxenic formation, a fact clearly deter- 
mined by the general examination of the country at Grodner- 
Thal, and in the neighbourhood of St Cassian. This super- 
position is seen at the ravine of Pufl, at Palat-Spitz, at Lang- 
kogl, and in the sections given by M. de Buch (Annales de 
Chimie et de Physique, 18238, xxiii.) 2d, The pyroxenic rocks, 
as I have stated, have furnished the materials of certain beds 
of muschelkalk inferior to the dolomites. 3d, It may well be 
that the pyroxenic rocks have been erupted before the forma- 
tion of dolomites, since their stratified tufa alternates with 
dolomitic beds, situate at the inferior portion of the great 
masses of dolomite. 

This is a point which I wished to establish in a positive 
manner, for that was necessary in order to understand the 
origin of the dolomite. 

The formation of dolomite is an important question, and 
one which has given rise to so much writing and discussion, 
that it is dificult not to touch upon the notions which have 
been advanced on the subject; the more so, as certain 
authors have treated of it in a manner so general and 
vague, that they seem to have wished to include in their 
system the greater part of former theories, as well as the 


Professor Favre on the Geology of the German Tyrol. 87 


germ of all future theories. Notwithstanding this, 1 have 
endeavoured, by special reference to certain facts, to bring 
them under one point of view, which appears to me to pre- 
sent some novelty. Moreover, the experiment made by my 
colleague, M. Professor Marignac, and which throws great 
light on the formation of dolomite, is entirely new. 

In spite of the ingenious theories advanced respecting the 
origin of this rock, many doubts still remain im science re- 
garding it, for chemical dg rch have not always con- 
firmed geological theories. 

I here speak only of the dolomites which belong to the 
second of the geological positions I have sndiaatede thes is, 
the dolomites of the great secondary chain of the Tyrol ; and 
I think that they are not a metamorphic rock, in the sense 
usually given to that word—that is to say, that the rocks of 
these chains have not been altered since their formation. I 
am of opinion that these mountains have been composed, 
from their origin, of a double carbonate of lime and magne- 
sia—that is to say, that the formations which constitute them 
have been deposited in the state of dolomites at the bot- 
tom of seas, and are not limestones altered by magnesian 
vapours. 

I rest this affirmation on the beautiful researches of M. 
Haidinger, which have been brought forward by M. Morlot,* 
and on the experiment of Professor Marignac. 

We must not overlook an important fact, well known for 
a long period, which has even given rise to theories as to 
the formation of dolomite, that there exists a certain con- 
nection between the dolomitic chains and the pyroxenic 
rocks, which indicates that it is the latter which have fur- 
nished the magnesia, in whole or in part, to the dolomite. 

M. Haidinger has succeeded in making dolomite, by 
heating to 200°, and under a pressure of 15 atmospheres, a 
mixture of sulphate of magnesia and carbonate of lime— 
that is to say, it is necessary, in order to form dolomite, 
that there should be, 1s¢, sulphate of magnesia and carbonate 


* Comptes Rendus de l’Acad, des Sciences de Paris, 6th March 1848, 
Archives de la Bib. Univ. de Genéve, April 1848. 


88 Professor Favre on the Geology of the German Tyrol. 


of lime; 2d, a temperature of about 200°; 3d, a pressure of 
15 atmospheres. Now, I believe that these circumstances, 
by no means complicated, may have been met with in the 
localities actually occupied by the dolomitic chains of the 
Tyrol. 1s¢, It is evident that in the sea, where the forma- 
tions composing these chains were deposited, lime existed. 
No one has ever doubted this fact; besides, the encrinites, 
oysters (?), and the beautiful corals of the Seisser-Alp, are 
sufficient to prove it. With regard to the sulphate of magne- 
sia, we know that it exists in the waters of the sea; but I am 
of opinion that a more considerable quantity than ordinary 
existed in this sea; and this is my reason—the pyroxenic 
tufa, as we have said, is the produce of submarine eruptions, 
and consequently gases, and, among others, sulphurous 
acid, which always accompanies volcanic eruptions in great 
abundance, are more or less dissolved in the water; they 
have formed different salts with the substances which were 
present. The rocks which were erupted, being very rich in 
magnesia, sulphate of magnesia must have been formed solu- 
ble in twenty parts of cold water, and in much less of boil- 
ing water, according to Berzelius. This salt is met with in 
the neighbourhood of existing volcanoes, and readily passes 
into the state of sulphate of magnesia by the action of the air 
(Thenard). Thus the presence of a notable quantity of sul- 
phate of magnesia in this sea is placed beyond doubt. 

2d, A temperature, I have said, of 200° C. was required. 
Such a temperature assuredly existed at a certain depth 
in a sea where volcanic eruptions took place, and whose 
bottom was covered with a greater or less quantity of muddy 
and sandy substances. 

3d. A pressure of 15 atmospheres. This condition is 
found to be exemplified in a sea whose depth is only from 
150 to 200 yards. It is evident that the sea in which such 
immense masses-as those forming the dolomitic chains of 
the Tyrol were deposited, was of a much greater depth. 

We have thus all the conditions required for the formation 
of dolomite, and which must have been met with in nature, 
according to the ordinary course of things. 

It may also be remarked, that hydrochloric acid is likewise 


Professor Favre on the Geology of theGerman Tyrol. 89 


disengaged in great abundance during volcanic eruptions ; 
and from this chloride of magnesium must be formed, and 
added to that which already exists naturally in marine 
waters in greater quantity than the sulphate. 

This remark has suggested the idea to Professor Mari- 
gnac, to endeavour to ascertain whether the chloride of 
magnesium, brought into contact with carbonate of lime, 
might form dolomite in certain cireumstances. For this 
purpose, he has made an experiment analogous to that of 
M. Haidinger—that is, he has placed a certain quantity of 
carbonate of lime, prepared chemically, and a dissolution of 
chloride of magnesium in excess, in a tube of thick glass. 
The tube was closed after the expulsion of air, and subjected 
to a temperature of 200° C. 

An analysis of the produce was made on 0%°770 of the 
matter taken from the tube. The magnesia was brought to 
the state of phosphate, and the following obtained :— 


Carbonate of lime, . : . 0°370 
Phosphate of magnesia, . : 0533 


We find, then, as the result of the operation— 


Ca. 27 
C. 21 
Mg. 25 
Gi. 227 


Ca. C. 48 { 


Mg ©. 52 { 


which shews, that a double decomposition took place in the 
tube; that there is formed a double carbonate of lime and 
magnesia, and of chloride of calcium, which remained in 
dissolution. Not only has the decomposition been sufficiently 
complete to form dolomite, but, further, a double carbonate 
is formed, containing a quantity of magnesia exceeding that 
of true dolomite. This kind of rock is frequently met with 
in nature.* The chloride of magnesium may therefore form 
dulomite with the limestone, when it is subjected to the same 


* In Dauphiny. Gueymard (Bulletin de la Société Geologique de France, 1™¢ 
Serie, xi., p. 458.) 


90 Professor Favre on the Geology of the German Tyrol. 


conditions as the sulphate of magnesia. M. Marignac, haying 
made the same experiment by exposing the tube only two 
hours to a temperature of 200°, found that the result was 
only a magnesian limestone but little charged with magnesia. 
Thus, then, the length of time during which combination 
may take place, is one of the numerous circumstances which 
have an influence on the formation of dolomite. By sup- 
posing it to be the only agent, we may be able to compre- 
hend how it is that we find in nature, magnesian limestones, 
dolomites, and surdolomitic limestones. 

After these different considerations, we have no doubt that 
hydrochloric acid, the different acids of sulphur, and in par- 
ticular, sulphurous acid, which have accompanied the sub- 
marine dejections of the pyroxenic tufa, have acted upon this 
rock only in producing different salts of magnesia, which, 
under the double action of a pressure of about 15 atmospheres, 
and a temperature of 200°, have formed dolomite and mag- 
nesian limestone by means of the lime, whose presence, in seas, 
is attested by the corals and shells still found in dolomite. 

It is necessary, however, to remark, that dolomite presents 
a particular character not found in rocks as at first formed, 
and which seems to indicate that it has undergone modifica- 
tions since its formation. This character is given to it by the 
numerous cells or small cavities, and by the multitude of 
pores or empty places which it presents. 

These cells, according to M. Elie de Beaumont,* are the 
result of the difference which exists between the atomic vo- 
lume of the magnesia and that of the lime, and prove that the 
dolomite is an altered limestone, in which an atom of lime 
has been replaced by an atom of magnesia. M. Morlot has 
confirmed this view, by shewing that the empty spaces or cells 
of the dolomite exactly represent the difference of the volume 
of an atom of magnesia and that of an atom of lime. 

This character, the cavernosity of dolomites, is therefore 
important ; it must be taken into account. Now, the follow- 
ing is the way in which things may have proceeded in nature. 


* Bulletin de la Société Geol. de France, viii., p. 174; 1837. 


Professor Favre on the Geology of the German Tyrol. 91 


It is not necessary to suppose that the beds which form the 
great dolomitic masses of the Tyrol were at first deposited in 
the state of limestone, and that they were then changed into 
dolomite at a period more or less remote from the time of 
their deposit ; that is to say, after these beds had attained 
the enormous thickness which they now present. It is by 
no means probable that these beds of cellular dolomite were 
deposited in the state of dolomite, for the rock would be 
compact ;* but we may conceive an intermediate between the 
two modes of formation in order to explain the origin of the 
Tyrolese dolomites, which are cellular throughout the whole 
of their enormous mass, and admit that as fast as the lime- 
stone was precipitated, in a form more or less pulverulent, it 
was changed into dolomite; and this kind of metamorphism 
of the limestone, which took place after its formation, well 
explains the cavernosity of the dolomites, and enables us to 
understand their stratification. 

Saline substances may have been more abundant in ancient 
seas than in the present ones, without organic life being 
thereby destroyed ; this is proved by an observation of M. 
de Verneuil who saw in the Crimea a species of cardium and 
other shells living in lakes where the saline substances were 
so abundant that they frequently crystallised in summer.t 
This is the reason why we find fossils in the dolomites of the 
Tyrol, although they are not very abundant, and the mode in 
which dolomite is formed, explains why the shell of these fos- 
sils is frequently dolomitic.} 

In these ancient seas, as in the present ones, shells and 
corals lived at a small depth below the surface of the water ; 
there they secreted lime, and, it is probable, that the trans- 
formation into dolomite only took place when the precipitated 


* T may say, however, that compact dolomites are found in sedimentary for- 
mations of different ages, and, consequently, we may suppose that there is a cer- 
tain class of these rocks which were at first deposited in the state of double car- 
bonate of lime and magnesia. 

t Verneuil (Mem. de la Société Geolog. de France, iii., p. 9). 

{ Collegno (Mem. de la Soc. Geolog. de France, x., p. 310). 


92 Professor Favre on the Geology of the German Tyrol. 


lime reached a certain depth, that is to say, a certain pres- 
sure. 

According to this mode of viewing the great phenomenon 
of the formation of the dolomites of the Tyrol, we perceive 
why these rocks approach, to a certain point, the eruptions 
of pyroxenic porphyries, without, however, being completely 
connected with them; in fact, the sea, where these volcanic 
eruptions took place, and in which the circumstances fitted 
for forming dolomite were united, extended to a great dis- 
tance. Yet, the dolomitic sediments must have been made 
with greater activity in the neighbourhood of the centres of 
eruption. We may thus explain why the secondary chain, 
placed on the northern declivity of the central chain, is like- 
wise dolomitic, although there was no pyroxenic eruption in 
that place ; for, at this remote epoch the central chain was not 
yet elevated, and the formations which ata later period were 
to form the secondary chains of the Tyrol were deposited in 
the same sea. 

From the decomposition of the sulphate of magnesia by the 
carbonate of lime, the sulphate of lime must have resulted, 
and this salt has been precipitated in a warm state ; for a 
more elevated temperature than ordinary was a consequence 
of the submarine eruptions of which we have spoken. Now, 
Mr Forbes has remarked, that the sulphate of lime so pre- 
cipitated was anhydrous.* Here then, we have the explana- 
tion of the formation of anhydrite, a substance which, accord- 
ing to the observations of M. de Charpentier, has furnished 
the gypsum of the Alps. We know that this latter rock is 
frequently met with in the Tyrol, near Vigo, at the Seisser- 
Alp (De Buch), and in the valleys of St Vigile and Unter- 
meyer; besides, the gypsum being a soluble rock, it is pro- 
bable that it is now found in fewer places than it was formed. 
However this may be, the presence of this rock indicates 
that sulphuric acid’ has not been a stranger to the formation 
of dolomite. 

We have distinguished two species of dolomite ; their geo- 


* Letter to M. Morlot (Comptes Rendus, already quoted) 


P| 


Professor Favre on the Geology of the German Tyrol. 93 


logical position is found to be sufficiently explained by this 
theory. Some of them are regularly stratified, as in the moun- 
tains of the Tyrol; thisis a regular sedimentary formation simi- 
lar to that of limestone, although, perhaps more complicated. 
The other dolomites are crystalline, saccaroidal (at St Goth- 
ard, Pfilsch-Joch), in their position corresponding to that of 
the saccaroidal limestone ; they have undergone a metamor- 
phism similar to that of this rock ; and, as M. Fournet says, 
in speaking of predazzite, we may assert that we ought not 
to see in saccaroidal dolomite an effect of magnesian cemen- 
tation, but rather the simple fusion of a limestone already 
magnesiferous.* 

We perceive, then, that this theory on the origin of dolo- 
mites does not rest on the vaporisation of the magnesia, an 
occurrence which is known neither in nature nor in labora- 
tories, but is founded, 1s¢, On the consideration that the 
eruptions of melaphyres (magnesiferous rocks) are anterior 
to the formation of dolomites ; 2d, That these eruptions were 
submarine ; 3d, That they were accompanied with acid vapours 
which formed salts of magnesia, which, under the circum- 
stances of pressure, and suitable temperature (somewhat high), 
have modified the composition of the newly-formed limestone. 
There is no fact in this theory which was not previously 
known, and which is not daily repeated, so to speak, both in 
nature and in laboratories. 

“ More to the west, in Switzerland and in Savoy,” says 
M. de Buch, in the conclusion of his celebrated Memoir on 
the Dolomites of the Tyrol, ‘‘ we observe none of those pheno- 
mena we have been discussing, and which, considered in their 
mutual connection, may throw some light on the formation of 
the high chain of the Alps.”—(Annales de Chimie, xxiii., 
p- 407 ; 1823.) 

This assertion,appears to us to be too positive. Indeed, 
although we can see nowhere in Savoy great chains of moun- 
tains formed by dolomites so white and remarkable as those 
of the Tyrol, this rock is still abundant in the regularly stra- 


* Annales de la Société d’Agriculture de Lyon, iv., p. 12. 


94 Professor Favre on the Geology of the German Tyrol. 


tified formations, and in particular in Chablais and Faucigny. 
Is the dolomite, in these localities, the result of submarine 
eruptions, analogous to those of the Tyrol? that is to say, 
did there exist in the sea which deposited this rock, a greater 
quantity of sulphate of magnesia and chloride of magnesium 
than in the present seas? Without being certain, this appears 
to us probable; for we likewise find in Savoy evident traces 
of submarine eruptions. These traces are furnished by the 
rock long known under the name of Taviglianaz sandstone,* 
in a locality in the chain of Diablerets, where it is much de- 
veloped. 

This rock, which is widely diffused in Savoy, and in the Can- 
tons of Vaud and Berne, has not the same composition as the 
pyroxenic rocks of the Tyrol; but it has a close relation, in 
its geological position, with the pyroxenic tufas of this 
country. 

The sandstone of Taviglianaz, of which we can distinguish 
many varieties, is usually formed of white felspar in small 
erystallized fragments; blackish or greenish amphibole, in 
fragments of imperfect crystals, but in which we can deter- 
mine an angle of 124°; of white or black mica in scales by 
no means abundant, and of quartz in small fragments, some 
of which are so rounded that they appear to have been rolled. 
Some specimens of these rocks effervesce with acids. This 
is not, therefore, a pyroxenic tufa; but rather, if we might 
venture to make this supposition, a syenitic tufa. This rock 
has a position analogous to pyroxenic tufa; in this sense, 
that it is stratified, and alternates with beds really formed 
by way of sediment, such as limestones more or less argil- 
laceous. It is a rock of igneous origin, triturated and stra- 
tified by the waters. With regard to the age of its for- 
mation, it differs considerably from that of pyroxenic tufas, 
with which we are at present specially pccupied; for it 
usually covers the nummulitic formations, and is itself covered 
by the flysch, or Alpine macigno. 

Is this rock connected with the pyroxenic eruptions which 


* As early as 1834, M. Studer, in his work on the Western Alps, compared 
the sandstone of Taviglianaz to a volcanic tufa. 


Professor Bunsen on the Colour of Water. 95 


have taken place, according to some authors, in the tertiary 
epoch? This is a point we cannot now decide. However 
this may be, it is not less true that the eruptions which have 
furnished the materials of the Taviglianaz sandstones, may 
have been accompanied with disengagements of sulphurous 
acid and hydrochloric acid, and exercised an influence on the 
formation of the dolomites of Savoy analogous to that which 
the pyroxenic eruptions of the Tyrol have exerted on the ori- 
gin of the dulomite of that country. 


On the Colour of Water. By Professor BUNSEN. 


The hot springs which occur in many parts of Iceland, and 
are especially remarkable at Reykir, are, says that excellent 
observer Bunsen, characterised by extreme beauty. In the 
depths of the clear unruffled blue waters of these basins, from 
which rises a light vapour, the dark outlines of what once 
formed the mouth of a Geyser may be faintly traced amid the 
fantastic forms of the white stalactic walls. Nowhere can 
the beautiful greenish-blue tint of water be seen in greater 
purity than in these springs. 

A few remarks on the causes from which they are derived 
will hardly be superfluous. 

Chemically-pure water is not colourless, as is usually sup- 
posed, but naturally possesses a pure bluish tint, which is only 
rendered visible to the eye when the light penetrates through 
a stratum of water of considerable depth. That such is the 
fact, may easily be shewn by taking a glass tube, two inches 
wide and two yards long, which has been blackened internally 
with lamp-black and wax to within half an inch of the end, 
the latter being closed by a cork. Throw a few pieces of 
white porcelain into this tube, which, after being filled with 
chemically-pure water, must be set vertically on a white 
plate, and looking through the column of water (of two yards) 
at the pieces of porcelain, which can only be illumined from 
below by white light, we shall observe that the objects will, 
under these circumstances, acquire a pure blue tint, the in- 


96 Professor Bunsen on the Oolour of Water. 


tensity of which will diminish in proportion as the column of 
water is shortened, so that the shade of colour becomes at 
length too faint to be perceived. This blue coloration may 
also be recognised when a white object is illuminated through 
the column of water by sunlight, and seen at the bottom of 
the tube through a small lateral opening in the black coating. 
The blue tint so frequently observed in water cannot, there- 
fore, be regarded as in any way strange. The question there- 
fore arises, why this blue colour is not seen everywhere, and 
why it should not occur in many seas? Why, for instance, 
the lakes of Switzerland, the waters of the Geysers in Iceland, 
and in the South Sea Islands, should exhibit every shade of 
green, whilst the waters of the Mediterranean and Adriatic 
are occasionally of so deep a blue as to vie with indigo ? 
These questions are easily answered, since clearness and 
depth are the primary, if not the sole requirements for im- 
parting to water its natural colour. Where these fail, the 
blue tint will likewise be wanting. The smallest quantity of 
coloured elements which the water may take from the sand or 
mud of its bottom, the smallest quantity of humus held in so- 
lution, the reflection of a dark and strongly-coloured bottom, 
are all sufficient to disguise or alter the colour of water. It 
is well known, that the yellowish-red colour of the waters 
which traverse the lower group of the trias formations de- 
pends upon hydrated oxide of iron, contained in the mud of 
the variegated sandstone. From a similar cause, the vast 
glacier streams of Iceland, which, in these desolate regions 
where there are neither roads nor bridges, the traveller finds, 
to his discomfort, that he must ford, are rendered opaque and 
milk-white from the detritus of dark volcanic rocks, which, 
crushed into a white powder by the overwhelming mass of 
the descending glaciers, are carried to the sea, in the form 
of white mud and sand, and again deposited there in vast 
deltas. 

In like manner, the natural colour of the small lakes in the 
marshy districts of northern Germany is concealed by the 
black tint imparted by the dissolved humus derived from the 
turf. These waters often appear brownish or black, like the 
water in most of the craters of the Eifel and Auvergne, where 


Professor Bunsen on the Colour of Water. 97 


the sombre volcanic rocks obstruct the reflection of the inci- 
dent light. It will, therefore, easily be understood that it is 
only where these disturbing influences do not exist that the 
colour of the water will be seen in all its beauty. Amongst the 
places at which this requirement is most completely fulfilled, 
we may especially instance the Blue Grotto at Capri, in the 
Gulf of Naples. The sea is there most remarkably clear to a 
very great depth, so that the smallest objects may be dis- 
tinetly seen on the light bottom at a depth of several hundred 
feet. All the light that enters the grotto, the entrance of 
which is only a few feet above the level of the sea, in the 
precipitous rock opening upon the surface of the water, must 
penetrate the whole depth of the sea, probably several hun- 
dred feet, before it can be reflected into the grotto from the 
clear bottom. The light acquires, by these means, so deep 
a blue colouration from the vast strata of water through which 
it has passed, that the dark walls of the cavern are illumined 
by a pure blue radiance, and the most differently coloured 
objects below the surface of the water are made to appear 
bright blue. 

An equally remarkable example of this fact presents itself 
in the glaciers of Iceland, as well as in those of Switzerland, 
which shews that water does not lose its original colour even 
when in a solid condition. At the distance of many miles, 
the eye may distinguish, on the flat heights of the “ Jokull,” 
the boundaries that separate the bluish ice of the glaciers 
from the white inaccessible plains of snow that rise to the 
summit of these mountains. Ona closer examination of these 
glaciers, one is surprised to observe the purity and transpa- 
rency of the ice, which often appears to be wholly free in large 
masses from vesicles of air and foreign admixtures, whilst its 
vast fissures and cavities are coloured all shades, from the 
lightest to the darkest blue, according to the thickness of the 
strata through which the light has penetrated. 

The blue tint of the cloudless and vapoury atmosphere is 
probably dependent on similar phenomena, if we are justified 
in concluding, from the colour of solid and fluid water, that 
aqueous vapour has a similar colour. On considering all 
these facts, we can scarcely doubt for a moment that the blue 

VOL, XLVII. NO. XCIM,—JULY 1849. G 


98 Geological Changes from Alteration of the 


colour of water is a peculiar and not accidental characteristic 
of that substance. This natural colour of water will also 
afford us an easy explanation of a light green tint which is even 
more strongly manifested in the crystal-like siliceous springs 
of Iceland than in the lakes of Switzerland; for the yellow 
colour derived from traces of the hydrated oxide of iron, in 
the siliceous sinter walls surrounding the water, blends with 
the original blue to produce the same greenish tint, which, 
in the Swiss lakes, is derived from the yellow bottom; the 
most different rocks experiencing a superficial decomposition 
- from the continued action of water, and becoming tinged with 
yellow by the formation of hydrated oxide of iron. Hence it 
will be easily conceived that the blue, which continues to in- 
crease in intensity with the increased depth of the strata of 
water, may obliterate the action of this yellow reflection, and 
thus either weaken or wholly destroy this greenish tint. The 
green grotto on the shores of Capri affords a most striking 
proof of this fact. The green colour, which is produced by 
the reflection at an inconsiderable depth of water, from the 
yellowish limestone constituting the bottom and the walls of 
the grotto, illuminated by the light from without, wholly dis- 
appears in the enormous depths of the water of the blue 
grotto ; there a pure blue colour takes the place of the green, 
observed in the shallower cavern, although the water and 
rocks are the same in both cases.* 


Geological Changes from Alteration of the Earth’s Axis of 
- Rotation.t+ 


Respecting a possible change of climate resulting from a change 
in the earth’s axis of rotation,—an hypothesis which has from time 
to time engaged attention, as one which might serve to account for 
the occurrence of organic remains, supposed to be those of animals 
and plants requiring a higher temperature than that of the regions 
where such remains ‘are found, we have had two communications. 
In one from Mr Saull, he calls attention to the undoubted evidences 


* Vide Works of the Cavendish Society, vol. i., 1848. 
+ Sir H. J. Ne la Beche’s (President of the Geological Society) Anniversary 
Address to the Society for 1849, 


Earth's Axis of Rotation. 99 


of the land being at intervals above and beneath the waters, and to 
changes of temperature over the same area. These effects he attri- 
butes to a change in the earth’s axis of rotation, arising from astro- 
nomical causes, and describes the results which would follow from 
such conditions. As to the possibility of a change in the earth’s 
axis of rotation, we had a paper from Sir John Lubbock, in which 
he first adverts to the revolution of a solid body on its principal 
axis, and its continuing to do so for ever, unless such solid body be 
acted upon by some extraneous force. He further observes that on 
this supposition no change of climate would obtain on any given lati- 
tude on the earth’s surface, except from a change in internal tempe- 
rature or the heat of the sun. 

He then notices that a change of climate alone is not sufficient to 
account for geological changes, such as water covering a part of the 
earth’s surface at one time and not at another: and remarks that 
the moon’s attraction and the causes which produce the precession of 
the equinoxes do not modify these conclusions. 

Sir John Lubbock then states, that ‘ it is unlikely that when the 
earth was first set spinning, the axis of rotation should exactly coin- 
cide with the axis of figure, unless indeed it were all perfectly fluid.” 
He subsequently takes a period not so remote, when the earth, from 
the different fusibility of its component parts, might have been 
partly solid in irregular masses and partly fluid, and afterwards a 
still more advanced state, in which land and water irregularly occurred 
on its surface, suited to the existence of animal life, always suppos- 
ing the axis of rotation not to coincide with the axis of figure. If 
any resistance exists, “the pole of the axis of rotation would describe 
a spiral round the axis of figure, until finally it would become, as at 
present, identical with it.” Supposing a displacement of the axis, 
the movement of the water from one equator to another and the con- 
sequent changes of climate are pointed out. Glancing at friction 
on the surface of the earth rendering the invariability of geographi- 
eal latitude, otherwise existing, not a necessary consequence,—at our 
ignorance of the earth’s structure beneath its crust,—and of the his- 
tory of the changes effected during the process of cooling, —Sir John 
considers that ‘ the utmost that can be accomplished by mathematics 
is to explain under what hypothesis a change of the position of the 
axis of rotation is possible or not.” Adverting to the dictum of 
Laplace, that the changes on the earth’s surface and in the relative 
positions of land and water cannot be accounted for by a change in 
the position of the axis of rotation, he observes that in this state- 
ment Laplace did not take into consideration either (1.), the disloca- 
tion of the strata by cooling, or (2.), the friction of the surface. 
Finally, our colleague, after admitting that if at any remote period 
the earth had been a homogeneous spheroid of any pure metal in a 
state of fusion, it would in cooling always rovolve about the principal 
axis of rotation, that of figure, considers that there is sufficient evi- 


100 Geological Changes from Alterations of the 


dence of want of homogeneity on the earth’s surface to bring a change 
of axis of rotation within the limits of possibility. 

It is always gratifying to find mathematicians so far interested in 
our science as to.occupy themselves with the solution of problems, 
which, when we consider their important bearing, scarcely seem to 
occupy the attention they would appear to deserve. The early con- 
dition of our planet is one of these. By carefully considering the 
possible and probable conditions connected with that state, we dis- 
miss or retain, as the case may be, much that is of great importance 
in theoretical geology. Hence the value of such communications as 
this before us, wherein the conditions for a possible change in the 
earth’s axis are considered. As you are familiar with the reasoning 
founded on the figure of the earth, it is merely necessary to remind 
you of its bearing upon the original fluidity of our planet, a fluidity 
which there has been a difficulty in referring to any other cause than 
to a heat sufficient to keep the component particles asunder, in such 
a manner that even to the centre of the mass the pressure was insuf- 
ficient to prevent a free motion of the particles of matter. 

Sir John Lubbock would appear to have adopted the idea of a 
cooling body, but referring to the want of homogeneity observed 
among the parts of the earth thrust up into the atmosphere, and 
known to us, he calls attention to the effects which might follow this 
want of homogeneity in our globe. It hence becomes important to 
learn the value which can be attributnd to such a cause. The depth 
to which we may limit that portion of our spheroid, which is formed 
of such substances as we find composing masses of rock exposed to 
our examination, is necessarily very difficult to fix. The highest 
mountains, rising even in the warmest regions of our globe so far 
into the atm»sphere as to feel the influences of the low temperature 
surrounding our planet, however vast they may appear to us, merely 
give a few miles of thickness ; and when we fairly estimate the real 
depth of the various ascertained accumulations of different geological 
ages, we still arrive at such an insignificant portion of the earth’s 
radius, as to see how very little of the component parts of its mass 
can be known tous. Still we are bound to examine the evidence as 
to the differences which may exist as regards homogeneity in the 
rock masses. Some years since (fifteen), having occasion to estimate 
the probable specific gravity of fifty miles in depth of the earth's 
crust,* we found, from direct experiment upon such rocks as appeared 
important, that these varied from 2°49 (chalk) to 8:03 (diallage 
rock from the Lizard, Cornwall). Upon estimating the masses, 
taking the surface into consideration, and, therefore, probably giving 
ure differences to the depth supposed, fifty miles, than should be 
allowed, the mean specific gravity came out as 2°59 higher than the 


* Researches in Theoretical Geology. 


Earth's Axis of Rotation. 101 


density of 2°5, that commonly adopted, and yet sufficiently near that 
density for the purpose intended. 

Laplace estimated the mean density of our planet as 1:50, the 
solid surface being considered as 1, hence taking the interior density 
higher than that of the external parts. We see, looking at such mi- 
neral substances as form masses of rock, that they are all oxides; but 
of the depth to which these oxides may descend we know nothing. 
Unless we suppose them oxides from the beginning, that is, from 
the time the matter of our earth may have been gathered together as 
a body revolving around the sun, an hypothesis for which it would 
appear difficult to find much reason, the various metals, such as sili- 
cium, aluminum, calcium, and the rest, became oxides from coming 
in contact with oxygen. We have sufficient oxygen in our atmo- 
sphere, supporting the animal and vegetable life which now exists, 
and which probably also during a long lapse of geological time has 
existed on the earth’s surface, to permit the assumption that in an 
early state of our globe oxygen may readily have been far more 
abundant among the gaseous portion of the matter forming our 
planet, including its atmosphere, than at present, when animal and 
vegetable life is adjusted to the quantity remaining. 

As far as we are acquainted with the substances forming our globe, 
we may have an oxidized solid crust, supporting in parts a compa- 
ratively thin and irregularly-disposed covering of saline water, and 
enveloped by a gaseous covering, the interior not composed of oxides, 
but more or less homogeneous, allowing for the effects of any heat, 
which may be supposed to remain in it, and for the densities due to 
the gravitation towards its centre of all the particles of matter of 
which the earth is composed. 

When we have to consider any changes in the earth’s- axis of 
rotation due to the absence of homogeneity in its component parts, 
we have also to regard the probability of this want of homogeneity 
extending to a depth at which it would have any appreciable value. 
As far as the distribution on the face of the earth of the igneous rocks 
is known to us,—rocks whence, with the exception chiefly of lime- 
stone deposits (many of which have been accumulated. by means of 
animal life), so many others have been formed,—we do not find any 
accumulation of masses of very different. density in one part more 
than another, so as-to have produced very marked differences in 
density on at least the surface of our spheroid. On the contrary, 
we find the probable distribution of granite and granitic rocks with 
the same density, very uniform in various parts of the earth’s surface, 
and their abrasion has furnished abundant materials for other rocks. 
The like happens with the heavier compounds of hornblendic and 
felspathic substances, and the strata derived from them. Masses of 
limestone are indeed here and there more irregularly distributed ; 
but as the limestones do not differ much from the granites in specific 
gravity, no great effects would follow their unequal distribution, more 


102 Geological Changes from Alterations of the 


particularly when we take into consideration the small depth to which 
they would probably descend in the earth’s crust. 

We have also to regard the effects arising from the dislocation of 
the strata, as noticed by Sir John Lubbock. There are few geolo- 
gists who are not now prepared to admit that the surface of the 
earth, since we may assume any solidity in that surface, has been in 
an unquiet state, some large areas moving upwards, some downwards, 
and these movements sometimes repeated in the same area ; deposits 
crushed and folded against each other here and there in long lines, 
so that parts of them are thrust high up above the level of the sea, 
while masses of accumulations are forced asunder in other situations, 
and mineral matter raised from beneath occupies parts of the area 
over which they previously spread. Up to the present time mineral 
matter is here and there vomited forth in fusion, or blown out of 
vents by the discharge of vapours and gases, and large tracts of 
the solid surface of the earth are violently shaken, and portions of 
land raised or depressed. We also know that at the present, slow 
changes in the relative levels of sea and land are being effected. 
Thus from our own experience and from the study of what has 
formerly happened, we find that the surface of our planet is and has 
been, during the lapse of such geological time as we can trace, in an 
unquiet state. We of course know nothing of the height to which 
the crushing or elevating of rocks into mountain-chains may have 
forced mineral accumulations, though we may often infer that very 
great heights are but the remains of rocks, the removed portion of 
which rose still further into the atmosphere ; but, taking the Hima- 
layan chain as the highest land, we have nothing rising six miles 
above the sea-level. If we increase this height to ten miles, we should 
still have an insignificant fraction of the earth’s radius. 

The researches of Mr Hopkins lead him to infer that at present 
the solid crust of the earth cannot be less than 800 to 1000 miles 
thick, Supposing this to be so, the hypothesis of a cooling globe 
would give a less thickness in past geological times, one gradually 
diminishing to the early period when solid matter could be first 
formed. 1 need scarcely call your attention to the view which has 
been taking of the forcing-up of mountain-chains, and the unequal 
tilting and adjustment of masses of the surface to accommodate the 
¢rust to the still fluid mass beneath, as cooling proceeded. Neither 
need IJ speak of the effects which would follow from the action of the 
heated and still fluid mass upon the portions of the fragments which 
may have descended different depths into its surface, or of the intru- 
sion of the molten matter amid the broken masses ; we have only to 
inquire how far these breakings-up and squeezings of the previously 
solid crust at different times is likely to have interfered materially 
with its general uniformity, so that any important change in the 
earth’s axis, with its geological consequences, may have resulted. 

As regards the mineral matter thrust up into the atmosphere, we 


Earth’s Axis of Rotation. 103 


see that, as soon as this is effected, it is attacked along the sea-level 
by the breakers, and both on coasts and inland by atmospheric in- 
fluences, all tending to lower the altitude of the mass so elevated, 
and to carry its component parts into the sea, filling up any inequalities 
which may have been formed beneath it, in consequence of this 
surface-movement of the rocks. It is during this removal of mineral 
matter and its spread in various directions, that the remains of the 
animal and vegetable life of succeeding geological times become 
entombed, adding, and in many instances most materially, to the 
masses accumulated in various ways upon the previously moved rocks. 
This action, therefore, tends to plane down the unequal surface above 
the sea and fill up inequalities in its bed. While this proceeded, 
we should expect that the heated matter beneath would also melt 
down any portions of the solid masses, squeezed and forced into it 
by these movements, to a distance from the surface corresponding 
with the general heat of the globe at the time, and therefore the 
deeper as geological time advanced and the earth gradually parted 
with its heat, by radiation, into surrounding space. 

Under this view there would be a tendency over the face of the 
globe to retain a general crust upon it of a thickness increasing with 
the lapse of geological time, less uneven beneath, as a whole, than 
above, from the kind of action to which it would be subjected, and 
yet no part protruding so far as to cause any very material difference 
in the figure of the earth, or of density, in the parts of such crust. 
Viewing the subject on the large scale, it would not appear im- 
probable, that notwithstanding the dislocation, unequal tilting, and 
squeezing together of masses, the adjustments were such as to keep 
a spheroidal coating of the mass beneath, which did not very mate- 
rially differ as a whole in density. Should this not have been so, we 
have in our geological hypotheses to take into account the effects 
pointed out by Sir John Lubbock as resulting from the modification 
or absence of the general conditions above inferred, their amount 
or geological value necessarily depending upon the magnitude of the 
causes to which he adverts. 


( 104 ) 


On the Downward Progress of the Glaciers of the Alps.. 
By Ep. COLLOMB. 


Glaciers being the definite result of meteorological and 
climatological phenomena, their secular encroachment upon 
the lower valleys of the Alps may serve as a term of com- 
parison to determine the changes that have taken place in 
the climate of the country. 

This encroachment may take place in two ways, either 
by the progression of their frontal portion, or by the swelling 
out of their lateral parts. 

We may have the case of a glacier with the frontal part 
alone advanced forward, without the parts situate towards 
the middle undergoing any dilatation. The reverse of this 
may, on the other hand, present itself; that is to say, the ter- 
minal talus may remain many years nearly stationary, and 
yet we may observe a sensible expansion of the surface in 
the middle region. Glaciers, therefore, exhibit two modes 
of proceeding in encroaching upon the land, one frontal, the 
other lateral. 

These phenomena depend on three causes which act inces- 
santly on the physiology of glaciers, if we may use such an 
expression. These are the alimentation, movement, and abla- 
tion. 

The alimentation of glaciers, in other words the cause of 
their existence, is to be found in the quantity of snow which 
falls in the whole zone of the Alps situate above from 2800 
to 3000 metres. At this altitude, the solar or ambient heat 
is insufficient to melt the snow that falls in the course of the 
year. In these high regions the alimentation exceeds the 
melting power, and if a movement did not take place from 
the first origin of the glaciers, at the end of a few ages such 
an accumulation of nevé would ensue in these regions, that. 
the conditions of existence in which the valleys of the Alps: 
now are, would be completely changed. 

At a height of 3000 metres, about 17 metres of snow fall 
annually ; and its primitive density. according to M. Dollfus’s 
experiments, is 85 kilogrammes* the cubic metre. By sinking, 


* Kilogramme is equal to 2 pounds 4 ounces avoirdupois. 


On the Downward Progress of the Glaciers of the Alps. 105 


pressure, and evaporation, these 17 metres become reduced 
to 5 metres of névé, or ice of névé, the density of which is 
250 kilogrammes the cubic metre. During the three warm- 
est months of the year, or rather the three in which there is 
least cold, the ablation does not exceed one metre of the sur- 
face; there remain, therefore, four metres every year, which 
the sun cannot melt at that altitude. If no movement took 
place in these four metres, if the property they possess of 
moving onwards, and gradually reaching the lower regions, 
were taken away, and they were thus rendered immoveable, 
four new metres would be added every year to those of preced- 
ing years; and even during historical times, the néves accu- 
mulated in the upper regions would surpass the height of the 
most elevated summits of the chain. 

Thus, by reference to facts, we obtain a proof that the 
movement alluded to takes place on all the cols or passes 
and most elevated summits of the Alps, wherever the heat 
of summer is not sufficient to melt the entire snows of winter. 

This movement, therefore, has its point of departure in the 
circuses, passes, and summits; it commences at the upper limit 
of all the basins of the glaciers, propagates and develops it- 
self throughout their whole mass, and the whole extent of their 
course ; very feeble at first, it gradually aequires some de- 
gree of speed in the middle regions, and again becomes slower 
in the lower regions. All the snows above 3000 metres being 
destined by nature to be melted, that they may not accumu- 
late indefinitely, they are made to descend to the lower re- 
gions where they are exposed to a warmer sun which allows 
them to dissolve into water. 

The alimentation and movement are, therefore, two forces, 
one of which accumulates the snows of the higher regions in 
a vertical direction, and the other spreads them over a greater 
surface in a longitudinal direction. If these two forces ex- 
isted alone in nature, nothing would arrest the glaciers in 
their downward progress, and they would invade all the val- 
leys of the Alps; but a third important element is added to 
the two others, namely, ablation ; it is proportionate to the 
surrounding temperature, and acts in the inverse ratio of al- 
titude. In the upper regions there is scarcely any ablation ; 


106 On the Downward Progress 


it does not, as we have mentioned, carry off as an annual 
mean, much above one metre of the surface of the névés; in 
the middle region it carries off two to two-and-a-half metres 
of the ice ; and in the lower regions of the glaciers, three to 
three-and-a-half metres ; consequently, all the bodies of ice 
which the movement carries from above downwards, are suc- 
cessively exposed to a stronger ablation. 

To recapitulate what has been said regarding the three 
causes which concur in the mechanism of the formation of 
glaciers, we may state : 

1st, The alimentation and movement of pisateislies would 
cause an extraordinary extension in the length. 

2d, Alimentation and ablation alone would produce an in- 
definite extension in a vertical direction; the glaciers would 
not descend into the valleys, but continue in the higher re- 
gions. 

3d, Movement and ablation, apart from alimentation, would 
put an end to their existence. 

It is the combination and influence of these three causes 
which regulate the glaciers, and maintain them in their pre- 
sent state; this is the law of their existence, the condition of 
their being. 

These preliminaries were necessary to enable us to per- 
ceive the force of the observations which follow; the more so, 
since we know that this equilibrium between the natural 
forces which confine glaciers within their present limits, has 
not always existed on the surface of the earth. At a period 
of its history comparatively recent, geologically speaking, the 
equilibrium has been disturbed, the alimentary force has pre- 
vailed over the melting force, and glaciers have acquired a 
considerable development. 

In present times, since attention began to be paid to 
glaciers, we find that they have been subject to perpetual 
changes: some years they are advancing, in others retreat- 
ing; or one glacier may be advancing while a neighbouring 
one is receding. As a general rule, the front of glaciers ad- 
vances in winter, and recedes more or less during the warm 
season ; because, in the winter there is no ablation, alimenta- 
‘tion and movement alone continuing to exert themselves. 
Yet we are about to make an endeavour to shew that glaciers, 


of the Glaciers of the Alps. 107 


taken as a whole, are not stationary : going backwards many 
centuries, we find, as a definitive result, that they encroach 
slowly, and in the course of an age, upon the lower valleys. We 
shall enter into some details, and cite some examples in sup- 
port of this opinion, derived from notes made on the spots 
last summer. 

The glacier of Aletsch, the largest of all, about 24 kilo- 
meters* long, and 110 square kilometers of surface, forms a 
mass approaching to 30 milliards of metrical cubes of ice ; 
its direction is from north to south, its lateral expansion in 
the course of ages produces very remarkable effects. 

On the left side, it is bounded by a chain of mountains 
which is a continuation of the Zggishorn. These mountains 
are partly covered by a very dense forest of pines, and, for a 
space of 4 kilometres of its length, measured from the ter- 
minal talus upwards, the glacier ravages and destroys a great 
number of these trees. The left lateral moraine reaches them, 
and attacking them first by the roots, the tree falls, and is car- 
ried along by the motion of the ice. Those which are caught 
between the ice and the boundary rock are speedily torn in 
pieces, while such as fall on the surface share in the general 
movement, but are not long before being dragged under the 
glacier. At the terminal talus we observe them issuing from 
below the masses of ice, some half entangled, others com- 
pletely free, the latter pushed forward and precipitated into 
the torrent. All these trees are completely stripped of their 
bark and torn, nothing remaining but the principal trunk and 
some of the strongest-branches crushed and twisted. 

With regard to the age of these pines, it may perhaps be 
estimated at a minimum of 200 years; they are large, strong, 
and thick, and it is well known that, in these elevated re- 
gions, at the limit of arborescent vegetation, pines continue 
many years before attaining a large diameter. There must, 
therefore, have been a period of at least 200 years during 
which the glacier did not reach the margin of the forest which 
it now lays waste. 

If we pass from the left bank to the right, we also find proofs 
of its dilatation. On a lateral piece of land, situate a little 


* Kilometer is equal to 10932 yards. 


108 On the Downward Progress 


below the tributary of the Unter-Aletsch, rich pasturages still 
exist, which the inhabitants of the country formerly turned 
to profitable account. The road leading to this locality ran 
along the foot of the mountain, leaving the glacier at a dis- 
tance ; now, the right lateral moraine has destroyed the road, 
and advanced to the foot of the mountain, so that the passage 
has become impracticable. But, as they were unwilling to 
lose these fine pastures altogether, horses and mules are still 
sent to them, along a road cut with hatchets in the glacier 
itself, but this mode of communication is not practicable for 
COWS. 

Some kilometres further down on the same side, there is 
another lateral spot equally rich in pasture, and on which we 
observe twenty-four wooden houses scattered about; these 
houses were formerly inhabited, and formed a village which 
bore the name of Aletsch. For several years back many of 
these houses have been destroyed by the lateral intrusion of 
the glacier; they no longer serve as permanent habitations, 
but are converted into barns, some of them only being inha- 
bited for a few months of the year. At the time when we 
examined the spot, one of these houses was just about to be 
overwhelmed by the stones and enormous blocks, detached 
from time to time from the moraine, which had nearly en- 
veloped the frail edifice. 

The erection of a village at this point goes back to a very 
remote period. Although the inhabitants of the country could 
give us no information on this point, still, it is obvious, that 
the first inhabitants who took up their residence here, would 
never have been guilty of the folly of building permanent 
houses, with the prospect of seeing them every instant swal- 
lowed up by the glacier. We may, therefore, conclude that 
the glacier, at that time, was at a great distance from the 
village, and by reckoning it to have been built 200 years ago, 
we remain within the minimum. The same thing, then, has 
taken place on the right as on the left bank; the glacier, by its 
increase, now arrives at localities which it had not touched 
upon for many ages. 

In the glacier of Zmutt, in the valley of Zermatt, it is 
rather a frontal progression than a lateral expansion that we 


of the Glaciers of the Alps. 109 


have observed. This glacier is partly fed by the snows of 
the northern acclivity of Mont Cervin. Its surface is covered 
with rocky debris ; its lateral and median moraines are very 
large, and they mingle and expand in a fan-shape, so as com- 
pletely to cover the glacier; the ice disappears under this 
mass of rubbish ; but these circumstances are favourable to a 
rapid advance, and it penetrates far forward into the valley. 
The advance was so great in 1848, that it laid waste a forest 
of larches, overthrew and destroyed large trees, whose age 
was estimated at 300 years, independently of a great num- 
ber of dead larches which it pushed forward along with the 
stones, blocks, and sands of the frontal moraine ; it surrounds, 
on all sides, an islet of rocks from 35 to 40 metres in height, 
on which three large larches, from 25 to 30 metres, are still 
standing and vegetating. They stand on the rock like three 
condemned sentinels; the attacks of the cold are sensibly 
felt, and although they are living, half of their branches are 
already dead. 

It is evident that these larches have not taken root on the 
rock since it became surrounded with ice; a medium so cold 
is not favourable to vegetation. On the other hand, if the 
glacier carried before it trees 300 years of age, it follows 
that, in this valley, the ice has been advancing for three cen- 
turies. 

In this same valley of Zermatt, the glacier of Gorner, 
which descends from Mont Rosa and the Lyskamm, ad- 
vances in a way disastrous to the proprietors of lands situate 
towards the front of the glacier. The meadows immediately 
in contact with the moraine are ploughed up, the turf raised 
in rolled masses a metre in diameter. Many of the habita- 
tions in this locality are abandoned, and serve only as barns 
for preserving fodder. It is a fact well known to the people 
of the country, that, about fifty years ago, twenty barns, 
stables, and inhabited houses, existed in a locality on the left 
bank, which is now completely covered with ice. The house 
nearest the moraine on this side, was distant 8 metres in 
August last ; those who built the house did not suspect that 
this formidable neighbour would approach so near. I like- 
wise observed, among the materials of the frontal moraine of 


110 On the Downward Progress 


Gorner, in the midst of blocks of serpentine, gravels, earth, 
and sand, fragments of large trunks of pines, which the gla- 
cier had torn from the forest at the foot of the Riffelhorn, a 
kilometre distant. 

It is, then, with the glacier of Gorner as with the preced- 
ing; it has been in a state of progression many ages. 

The glacier of Viesch, on advancing into the valley of the 
same name, encounters a formidable obstacle of rocks in sétu, 
which form a promontory in the middle of the ice, and forces 
it to diverge to the right and left. This promontory is covered 
by a forest of pines a century old, but the ice-fields always 
advance and destroy a great quantity of trees every year; 
between the forest and glacier, there was this year a zone 
of pines intermingled with the debris of rocks forming part 
of the lateral moraine. 

The guides of the place assured me, without mentioning 
~ exactly the period, that a village, called Auf der Burg, for- 
merly existed not far from the obstacle just spoken of. Of this 
village not a trace remains ; the ice has overwhelmed all. 

According to M. Vénetz, the inhabitants of this valley 
were accustomed to communicate, three centuries ago, with 
those of the Grindelwald. There was a chapel on the upper 
pass, the bell of which has not been lost, being preserved at 
Grindelwald. This passage is now one of the most perilous 
among the Alps, and great experience and skill in glaciers 
are necessary to enable one to accomplish it. 

In regard to the glacier of the Aar, M. Agassiz concludes, 
that an advancement of 800 metres has taken place in a 
hundred years, according to documents obtained from a work 
of Altmann in 1751.* Since M. Agassiz’ departure, M. Doll- 
fus and myself have attentively watched the progress of this 
glacier, and have observed this year a fact very conclusive as 
to its advancement. On the left bank, in a locality indicated 
on M. Agassiz’ map by the name Brandlamm, there exist on 
the sides of the enclosing mountain a few rugged last summer 
stumps of Pinus cembra ; one of these pines has been reached 
by the glacier; we have sawn the trunk and ascertained the 


* Agassiz, Nouvelles Etudes sur les Glaciers, p. 542. 


of the Glaciers of the Alps. 111 


age, which is 200 years. By the side of this trunk we ob- 
served ancient beds of the same substance, passed into the 
state of rotten wood, which must go back to a more remote 
period; but it was impossible to determine its precise age. 
All the observers who annually visit this glacier, observe 
that the pines which still grow on the sides of this mountain 
are gradually disappearing, and in a few years none will re- 
main. 

At two kilometres further down, on the road from the 
glacier to the hospice of Grimsel, a small peat-moss has been 
dug, and the workmen frequently find there, at the depth of 
a metre, old trunks of pines of very large diameter, such trees 
as could not grow there in the present temperature of the 
locality. 

At the pass of Saint Theodule (3111 m.), there is an old 
military structure which goes back as far as the time when 
Lombardy was occupied by the Spaniards. It is a dry wall, 
coarsely built with slabs of gneiss and slaty serpentine, and 
pierced with loopholes turned towards Switzerland. In order 
to reach this pass, whether on the south or north side, we walk 
for an hour and a half over glaciers of very difficult access, 
especially on the side of Italy. At the time when I passed 
it, in the month of September, the fresh snow was all gone, 
all the néves were conveniently hardened. The establish- 
ment of a military post at this point would be inexplicable, 
in consequence of the difficulty of the passage even in the 
most favourable season. On visiting the spot, we cannot but 
suppose that at the time when the redoubt was built, the 
passage was not only more frequented, but of much easier 
access, and that for some ages the pass has become more 
encumbered with ice. 

The greater part of the glaciers on the southern acclivity of 
Mont Blane are likewise in progress ; that of La Brenva has 
advanced thirty-one metres this year, according to the state- 
ment of M. the Canon Gal. 

We might multiply examples ; but the preceding facts are 
sufficient to demonstrate the advancement in the course of 
ages of the glaciers of the Alps: if there be any of them which 
recede, this is only an exception to the general rile. 


112 : On the Downward Progress 


The glaciers we have mentioned, are situate at points wide- 
ly remote from each other ; some form part of the group of 
the Jungfrau, others of the group of Mont Rosa, the last of 
the group of Mont Blane. Some run from south to north, 
others from north to south, others from east to west. All 
are included within the parallels of 45° 45’, and 46° 35’ north. 
Some are protected by superficial moraines, in others these 
are insignificant. 

Must we conclude from these facts, that we are advancing 
towards a slow and continuous sinking of the mean tempera- 
ture of our hemisphere? This conclusion would be prema- 
ture ; it would be opposed to the recent and skilful observa- 
tions of MM. Dureau and Malle on the Comparative Climatology 
of Ancient and Modern Italy,-—observations intended to prove, 
that “ since the age of Augustus up to the present period, 
the climate of Italy has undergone no sensible modifications 
in the annual, and even monthly, mean temperature.”* MM. 
Dureau and Malle having assured themselves, that “ in re- 
gard to the same places and the same altitudes, the periods 
of sowing, flowering, mowing, harvest, ripening, and vintage, 
were almost the same in ancient as they are in modern Italy, 
we think we have it in our power to deduce the duration of 
the cycle in which the complete work of annual vegetation 
took place, and to obtain from it the proof of the constancy 
of the climate of Italy during twenty centuries.” + 

MM. Dureau and Malle have taken their examples from ve- 
getation. It is indeed immediately dependent on meteorolo- 
gical causes ; it may give valuable indications respecting cli- 
matology, thermometrical means, and the secular changes 
which take place in the ambient medium. 

But glaciers are not to be overlooked ; they ought to enter 
as a considerable element into the solution of the question ; 
their advancing or retrograde movements depend on the same 
atmospheric causes. It has been said of glaciers, that they 
may be compared to gigantic natural thermometers ; in cold 
and moist years they descend into the valleys, in warm sea- 
sons they ascend towards the snowy peaks. 


* Comptes Rendus de l’Acad. des Sciences, t. xxvii., p. 356. f Ibid., p. 333. 


eas eS en oT 


of the Glaciers of the Alps. 115 


We have seen at the outset, that their reason of existence 
is subject to three conditions, which consist of alimentation, 
ablation, and movement. The two first are essentially me- 
teorological ; the third, the dynamic force, is nothing more 
than a property of matter. Passing over it, it only remains 
for us to inquire what may have been the modifications that 
have taken place in the alimentation and ablation. 

The fluctuations in the alimentation, or in the quantity of 
snow fallen on a spot in a given time, are not directly connected 
with a lowering of the temperature ; they do not necessarily 
imply a variation in the thermometrical mean. More snow 
may fall in a medium whose temperature maintains itself be- 
tween + 1° and—12° C., than in that where the temperature 
remains within the limits of—12°—24° C. We know that 
the coldest winters are not the most snowy. 

It would not be a sinking of the temperature, therefore, 
that we would have to regard as the origin of the super- 
abundant alimentation of glaciers; it would arise from a 
more considerable evaporation in the low and warm regions, 
because it is the hygrometrical state of the air. or the quan- 
tity of vapour which is converted into snow on the great 
condensers of the Alps, which is the primary cause of the 
alimentation. 

The melting or ablation is in direct ratio with the tem- 
perature, as the experiments of M. Agassiz on the glacier of 
the Aar sufficiently demonstrate. If we could succeed in 
shewing that the secular advancement of the glaciers arose 
from a less active ablation in the present times, we might 
thence immediately conclude, that the mean summer temper- 
ature has sunk for some ages, but this conclusion would ap- 
ply only to the fraction comprehending the four warmest 
months of the year; during the eight other months, the 
ablation scarcely amounts to anything, because during this 
period the glaciers are covered with a mantle of fresh snow, 
which protects them from melting. 

from the preceding facts, we may perceive that the problem 
is very complex ; yet, if we set aside useless terms, it is only 
in the study of meteorological phenomena that we can find 
the solution of it; it may even be found in two propositions 

VOL. XLVII. NO. XCIII.— JULY 1849. H 


114 M. Ch. Martins on Trees Cleft by the 


which may be combined or regarded singly, and may be 
briefly expressed in the following terms:— 

1s¢, That the heat of the summers is no longer sufficient 
among the Alps to arrest the progression of the glaciers into 
the lower valleys. 

2d, That the winters, without exactly being colder, pro- 
duce in our day a greater quantity of snow than in past 
ages.* 


On Trees cleft by the direct action of Electrical Storms. 
By Cu. MARTINS. 


The passage of electrical storms over the wooded parts of 
the country is marked by varied effects on the trees which 
cover it. A great number of them are merely torn up and 
thrown on the earth, others are uprooted and transported 
parallel to themselves to great distances. A great number 
have the heads broken off, and the country is strewed with 
branches and twigs broken and scattered to a distance. All 
these effects are well explained by the action of the violent 
wind which drives the clouds charged with the electricity 
constituting the electric storm. It is not the same with 
the cleft trees of which we are about to speak. The ac- 
tion of the wind cannot explain the appearances which they 
present. At leaving the ground, or more frequently from 2 
to 0™-50 from the ground, and for a length varying from 2 
to 5 metres, these trees are divided into laths, in shreds or 
splinters, often as small as matches. The Society may ob- 
serve this in the numerous trunks which I now exhibit, and 
which were cut in the neighbourhood of Montville and Ma- 
launay after the celebrated storm of the 19th August 1845, 
This cleavage never extends to the whole of the tree, but 
only the half or three-quarters of its thickness. The cleft part 
is turned sometimes to the side from which the meteor came, 
at other times to the opposite side. The tree is broken in 


* Bibloth. Univ. de Genéve, Jan. 1849, p. 30. 


Direct Action of Electrical Storms. 115 


the middle of the length of the cleavage, and the top is not 
carried off as in the decapitated trees. 

A still more essential character is, that these laths and 
splinters are completely dried immediately after the passage 
of the meteor. M. Preisser assured himself of this at Mont- 
ville; MM. Decaisne and Bouchard in the trunks struck by 
the storm at Chatenay ; M. de Gasparin in the poplars broken 
by the storm of Courthezon. The dryness of these splinters 
renders them extremely fragile. M. d’Arcet found only 
7 parts in 100 of water in the cleft trunks of Chatenay. Now, 
standing trees contain from 30 to 40 parts in the 100; and 
such as have been felled for five years still contain from 24 
to 25 parts in 100. The bark of the cleft trees is split, torn, 
rolled upon itself, and cut into shreds, adhering to the tree or 
scattered around it. 

A fact related by M. Boussingault perfectly explains this 
evaporation of the sap under the influence of electricity. On 
the 22d May 1842, the lightning fell upon a large pear-tree, 
at Bechelbronn in Alsace; a thick column of vapour, like the 
smoke which issues from a forge fed by coals, arose, and splin- 
ters of wood were thrown to a distance of many metres; the 
bark had disappeared ; the tree appeared entirely white. M. 
Boussingault does not doubt that it was the vapour of water 
which made this tree fly in pieces. Iam entirely of this 
opinion. It appears to me that cleft trees may be compared 
to boilers burst by the expansion of steam. 

In cleft trees the sap mostly evaporates, the trunk is split 
into a thousand pieces, and the wind acts on the cleft por- 
tion, which evidently offers less resistance than the rest of 
thetrunk. This evaporated sap resembles thick smoke, hence 
the mistake of the onlookers at Montville, who all supposed 
that a fire had broken out in the forests over which the storm 
passed. 

The deep colour of the evaporated sap was probably owing 
to the earthy particles which the wind and the electrical 
attraction raised into the air. Lastly, to finish the demon- 
stration, MM. Becquerel, father and son, have succeeded in 
reproducing, by means of strong electrical discharges, clea- 
vage of trees, in branches of the size of the little finger. 


116 M. Ch. Martins on Trees Cleft by the 


The cleft trees produced by the direct action of the elec- 
trical cloud mark out to us its line of passage above the 
ground ; they always occupy the centre of the ravaged zone. 
On the plateau of Malaunay, its total breadth was 220 
metres ; in the centre they occupied a width of 89 metres. 

The cleavage presents different characters in different 
trees. It is in oaks that it is most perfect ; the tree is divided 
in laths which, towards the interior, are often not larger than 
small flexible baguettes, or even common matches. The di- 
rection of the cleavage always corresponds to that of the me- 
dullary rays ; the tree being always broken across towards the 
middle of the length of the cleavage, the baguettes which can 
be detached are in general only the half of their entire length. 
I have separated two from the upper broken part of an oak 
which are, the one 2™-50, the other 2™-27 in length. The first 
measured eight, the second five millimetres on the side. 

In beech-trees, the cleavage is coarser than in oaks; we 
rarely observe matches ; they are laths always two or three 
centimetres broad, but often very long. It was in a large 
beech 0™-38 diameter at the base, that I observed the longest 
cleavage ; it began at the surface of the ground, and rose 
upwards to 7™:°50 ; the tree was broken in the middle of this 
length. Beeches were likewise the only trees, some of which, 
four in number, remained standing after having been cleft 
from the surface of the ground for a third or fourth of their 
circumference, up to a height of from two to tive metres. 
These trees in every respect resembled trees struck with 
lightning. 

The cleavage of poplars differs much from that of the trees 
we have mentioned ; instead of being parallel, the planes of 
cleavage are perpendicular to the rays of the tree. The 
greatest breadth of the laths is in the direction of the layers 
of white wood, which are separated from each other and dis- 
jointed. Sometimes even the wood may be drawn out from 
the white wood, as we withdraw the piston from a pump. 

In the valley of Montville, no resinous tree (pines, firs, 
larches) was cleft. I counted twenty of them more or less 
injured, but none were cleft, although they were in the direct 
passage of the storm, and surrounded with others whose 


Direct Action of Electrical Storms. 117 


trunk was like a bundle of laths. Now we know that the 
conifere contain little sap, but much resin, especially between 
the bark and wood. The resin being a body which is a very 
bad conductor of electricity, we suppose that the fluid did 
not traverse these trees. This observation is a new proof 
that the cleavage is owing to the evaporation of the sap 
heated by an electrical current of great energy. 


The Carboniferous Fauna of America compared with that of 
Europe. By Ev. DE VERNEUIL. 


When we compare the carboniferous Fauna of America 
with that of Europe, we see with astonishment, that, notwith- 
standing the distance which separates these countries, the 
genera and the species present the same modifications, the 
same differences, from the preceding fauna.” 

In fact, while the persevering researches of Mr King, in 
Pennsylvania,t go to prove to us the existence of large 
air-breathing animals at this epoch, the discovery of a Sau- 
rian, recently made in the carboniferous beds in Germany.t 


* The analogy between the two continents appears to be more marked at 
this epoch than at the anterior epochs, the number of identical species being 
relatively more considerable. If we seek the cause of this, we are led to attri- 
bute it to more analogous physical conditions, which proves the uniformity of 
the deposits of this epoch, and perhaps also to a peculiar disposition of the sub- 
marine outline, that is to say, the bottom and the islands which extended from 
Europe towards America. M. Elie de Beaumont explains this disposition in a 
very natural manner. He regards it as an effect of the WNW. upheaving, 
which preceded the establishment of the carboniferous system, and which he has 
called the system du Ballon of the Alsace. We are happy to see the beautiful 
theory of our illustrious friend thus confirmed by independent researches. 

+ See the interesting letter of Mr Lyell upon the evidence of the foot-prints 
of a quadruped resembling the Cheirotherium, in the carboniferous strata of 
Pennsylvania (American Journal of Science and Arts, 2d ser., vol. ii., p. 25). 

t This discovery, of which we have been informed by Von Buch, destroys 
the principal objection which could be made to the extent which we have given 
to the Palwozoic formation, in our work on Russia, by comprising in it the Per- 
mian system ; for this objection was founded on the opinion then established 
that the Saurians appeared for the first time in this system ; and the importance 
of the appearance of animals of this class to determine the point of departure 


of the secondary formation. 


118 The Carboniferous Fauna of America 


proves that the appearance of this class of animals, more 
ancient than has been believed until now, was contempora- 
neous on the two continents. 

The trilobites follow a similar order of decrease, and are 
reduced in America as in Europe, to small species of the 
genus Phillipsia. The Goniatites offer also for the first time 
the new type, where the dorsal lobe, instead of being simple, 
is divided by a small medial saddle. 

The distribution of the Productus offers another remark- 
able coincidence. Unknown in America in the Silurian sys- 
tem, appearing under one or two small forms in the Devonian 
epoch, the species assume in the carboniferous rocks a de- 
velopment altogether in harmony with the facts observed in 
Europe. The Spirifers of this epoch present also in America 
the character of having the plications often dichotomous, 
which M. d’Archiac has already indicated in Europe,* and 
by which they are distinguished from those of the Devonian 
epoch, which have them always simple.t 

As to the Terebratule, we will mention the interesting fact 
of the simultaneous disappearance of two species, the 7’. re- 
ticularis and T. aspera, which, during the Devonian and 
upper Silurian epochs, were spread with great profusion from 
the Altai and Ural to the Missouri. We will cite also, as 
simultaneous phenomena upon the two continents, the appear- 
ance of those Crinoids forming a passage to the Echinoderms, 
such as the Palwechinus or Melonites, the extinction of those 
great corals, such as the Favosites Gothlandica, Porites inter- 
stincta, &c., and their replacement by the Cheetetes and Lith- 
ostrotion, nearly identical in Europe and America. The ana- 
logy between the two continents continues open to the Fo- 
raminifera and the plants. We have seen, indeed, that the 


* Memoir on the Palwoz. For. (Trans. Geol., vol. v., p. 319). See also Geo- 
logy of Russia in Europe, vol. ii., p. 126. Von Buch, in his interesting Me- 
moir which he has published upon Cherry Island (Baren Insel) has insisted, with 
reason, on the importance of this character, which might be thought insignifi- 
cant. 

t It is also only at the Devonian epoch that we find the Spirifers in which 
the hack is divided by a slight furrow, as in S. mucronatus and Bouchoidi. 


compared with that of Europe. 119 


Fusulina cylindrica, so characteristic of the carboniferous 
limestone of Russia, occurs in the slates or siliceous beds of 
the coal sandstones of Ohio. And as to plants, the immense 
quantity of terrestrial species identical on the two sides of 
the Atlantic, proves that the coal was formed in the neigh- 
bourhood of lands already emerged, and placed in similar 
physical conditions. 

With the carboniferous system terminates the palzozoic 
formation in North America. During all the time of its de- 
position, the surface was free from great disturbances. Slow 
and insensible oscillations had caused to emerge areas, more 
or less circular, of the submarine surface, where the Silurian 
and Devonian deposits were made, and had contracted the 
limits of carboniferous deposits ; but the horizontality of the 
beds was not disturbed. It is only after the carboniferous 
that an energetic force, folding and raising the terrestrial 
erust, gave birth to the chain of the Alleghanies. The manner 
in which the plications, largely undulated at first, contract, 
multiply, and fold over, in going from northwest to southeast, 
towards the metamorphic and granitic rocks, situated most 
frequently beyond the chain, properly so called, has been per- 
feetly elucidated by the two Professors Rogers.* 

It does not enter into our design further to extend this 
notice ;} having fulfilled, according to our ability, the end 
which we proposed, to establish a parallel between the pa- 
leozoic formations of North America and Europe. Permit 
us, in conclusion, to present a resumé of the course we have 
followed, and the principal results at which we have arrived. 
In order to make the interest and importance of this paral- 
lelism fully understood, and the light which it throws upon 
the knowledge of paleozoic deposits in general, we have shewn 
the advantageous geological conditions of North America, 
and how, owing to the horizontality of the beds over great 


* On the Physical Structure of the Appalachian Chain, as exemplifying the 
Laws which have regulated the Elevation of Great Mountain Chains generally. 
By W. B. and H. D. Rogers. 

tT We have only extracted that part of M. de Verneuil’s notice which refers 


to the Carboniferous Fauna.—Edit. Phil. Journ. 


120 The Carboniferous Fauna of America 


extent of surface, to their concordant and uninterrupted 
superposition, it is possible to arrive at an absolute certainty 
as to the duration of species, that is to say, the point in the 
series where they first appear, and where they become extinct. 

In order to compare North America with Europe, it has 
been necessary for us to give a rapid glance at the groups 
and stages of which the paleozoic class is there composed. 
The differences which are presented to us in the geognostic 
conditions of the state of New York, and the Western 
States, such as Ohio and Indiana, have revealed to us the 
degree of importance which it is necessary to attach to these 
different groups. We have seen that their number, variable 
according to their vicinity or distance from lands emerged at 
the epoch of their formation, had little importance, as regards 
the establishment of systems founded upon paleontological 
characters. We have seen also, that in general the lime- 
stones are more constant than the shaly or arenaceous beds, 
that they form more extensive horizons, and furnish a surer 
guide to the geologist.* 

Passing afterwards to a comparison of the two continents, 
we have shewn, supporting our views by geological analysis, 
how the American sub-stages should be grouped to correspond 
with the Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous systems of 
Europe. We have not disguised the fact, that the divi- 
sions introduced upon this principle did not correspond, in 
certain countries, with the divisions indicated by the miner- 
alogical character of the rocks ; thus the limit between the 
two stages of the Silurian system, very well marked in the 
state of New York, is observed near the Mississippi, in con- 
sequence of the predominance of magnesian limestone ; it is 
the same with the Silurian and Devonian systems, the limit 
between which is found in the upper part of the great cal- 
careous formation called cliff-limestone ; as well also as with 
the carboniferous system, in parts of the state of Ohio, where 
it is in contact with the Devonian psammites of Portage. 


* M. C. Prevost, in his Memoir upon the Synchronism of Formations (Comptes 
Rendus, April 1845), has clearly shewn the importance of the pelagic calcareous 
deposits, as compared with the arenaceous beds formed under the influences of 
coasts. 


compared with that of Europe. 121 


These mineralogical transitions, which one would expect in 
a country free from disturbances, would not, however, obscure 
the proofs of a parallel development of the animal kingdom 
in the two continents ; for if, leaving aside the difficulties of 
fixing the limits between the systems, we compare the sys- 
tems together, or, still better, one by one the groups of which 
they are composed, we acquire the conviction that identical 
species have lived at the same epoch in America and in 
Europe, that they have had nearly the same duration, and 
that they succeeded each other in the same order. We have 
endeavoured to prove that the first traces of organic life in 
countries the most remote, appear under forms nearly alike, 
at the base of the Silurian system, and that the same types, 
often the same species, are successively, and in parallel 
order, developed through the entire series of the palzozoic 
beds. If we have not succeeded in lifting the veil which still 
hides from us the cause of this grand phenomenon, perhaps at 
least our observations demonstrate the insufficiency of those 
causes by which certain authors seek to explain it. They 
prove, in effect, that the phenomenon itself is independent of 
the influences which the depth of seas* exercise upon the dis- 
tribution of animals; for if, in certain countries, the Silurian 
deposits prove a deep sea, they have, on the contrary, in the 
state of New York, a littoral character. They prove, in 
fine, that in its general character it is equally independent of 
the upheavings which have affected the surface of the globe ; 
for, from the eastern frontier of Russia even to Missouri, dis- 
tant from or near the lines of dislocation, in the horizontal 
beds, as well as in those which are disturbed, the law accord- 
ing to which it is accomplished appears to be uniform.—( The 
American Journal of Science and Arts, vol. vii., p. 48.) 


* We do not pretend to say that the differences of depth in the seas had not 
already an influence upon the distribution of animals; it is to this circumstance, 
on the contrary, that we attribute the more or less local fauna which we often 
discover in the palwozoic class. But these local faune always afford some 
species which connect them with the epoch to which they belong. They are 
the exceptions (hors d’euvre), which do not derange the general symmetry. 


(daa 


1. Flora of the Silurian System. 2. Plants of the Anthracite 
Formation of Savoy. 3. Fossil Plants, as illustrative of 
Geological Climate. 4. Co-existence of Certain Saurian 
and Molluscous Forms at Equal Geological Times. 5. 
Phosphate of Lime in the Mineral Kingdom.* 


1. The Flora of the Silurian System.—In a memoir on the geo- 
logy of the neighbourhood of Oporto, including the Silurian coal of 
Vallongo, Mr Sharpe furnished us with a detailed account of a part 
of Portugal, of which, in 1832, he presented a brief notice to this 
Society. After mention of the crystalline rocks near Oporto, his 
section shewing the granite of Oporto, covered on the WSW. and 
ENE. by gneiss, mica slate, and chlorite slate, he describes a band of 
rocks, chiefly formed of clay-slates, resting upon the eastern flank 
of the latter, and which, from the character of the organic remains 
obtained from it, he refers to the Lower Silurian deposits, The low- 
est part of this series is remarkable for containing several beds of 
anthracite, worked at San Pedro da Cora, cight miles ENE. from 
Oporto. Mr Sharpe states that the section is clear, and that these 
lower beds, which repose on chlorite slate, evidently dip beneath 
deposits containing Lower Silurian fossils. The upper part of the 
group is formed of a thick accumulation of micaceous sandstone, 
usually yellow, with some grey carbonaceous sandstone near the bot- 
tom. This rests on a black carbonaceous slate, among which are 
bands of indurated ferruginous clay, passing into clay ironstone. Be- 
neath this comes a dark grey or black hard clay-slate, with softer 
chloritic beds of a pink or yellow colour in the lower part, Not- 
withstanding its contortion, this slate series is considered to have 
considerable thickness. ‘The lower beds of the dark grey slates, and 
those lighter coloured and softer at the base of the series, are rich 
in organic remains (Calymene, Ogygia, Isotelus, Illenus, Chirurus, 
Beyrichia, Orthis,Orthoceras, Bellerophon, Graptolithus, and others), 
possessing a character from which Mr Sharpe refers these deposits 
_ to the Lower Silurian period. 

Beneath these strata, in descending order, the carboniferous accu- 
mulations of San Pedro da Cora occur, gradually passing into the 
beds above them. These carboniferous beds consist in descending 
order of (a) red sandstone, (b) coarse conglomerates alternating with 
black carbonaceous shales, (c) coal, 6 feet thick, (d) coarse micaceous 
conglomerate, alternating with black carbonaceous shales, (e) coal, 
thin bed, (f) coarse carbonaceous conglomerate, (g) coal, four beds, 
from 2 to 5 feet thick, variable however in thickness in different 
places, the beds separated from each other by 3 or 4 feet of black 


* The interesting details and views in this article we owe to Sir Henry de 
la Beche’s valuable Anniversary Address for 1849 to the Geological Society, a 
copy of which was forwarded to us by the Author. 


Flora of the Silurian System. 123 


shale, and resting on black shale, and (h) slates apparently composed 
of the debris of the chloritic schists on which they rest. The carbo- 
naceous series is estimated at from 1000 to 1500 feet thick, and is 
seen on the north bank of the Douro, at Jeremunde, twelve miles 
from Oporto. North of San Pedro da Cora this series rapidly thins 
away, and disappears about a mile and a half from that place. 

Having given a detailed account of the rocks referable to the Si- 
lurian series, noticed by him in Portugal, Mr Sharpe refers to the 
beds described by Dr Rebello de Carvalha as forming the chain of 
the Serra de Marao, near Amarante; those mentioned by M. Schulz 
on the eastern side of Gallicia, by Link in the province of Tres os 
Montes, and by Le Play in Spanish Estremadura, and infers that 
these also may belong to the Silurian series. 

The lithological characters of the carboniferous deposit of Val- 
longo, thus plunging beneath beds containing organic remains re- 
ferred to the date of the Lower Silurian deposits, are important, as 
shewing the physical conditions under which the accumulations have 
been effected, and their general agreement with many other deposits, 
in which sheets of vegetable matter have been so formed, as eventually 
to have been turned into coal and anthracite, amid mud charged with 
carbonaceous matter and beds of shingles. Why we should not ex- 
pect accumulations of the kind at this period, the fitting conditions 
for the gathering together of plants or their remains, either by growth 
on the spot or drift from their place of growth, so that they were 
mixed with little or no common mud or other sedimentary matter, 
does not appear. We find old mud accumulations, now forming 
black slates, common enough in some parts of the Silurian series, 
and there is no want of carbonaceous matter in the black slates of 
North Wales and Ireland beneath the whole mass of the beds com- 
monly referred to that series. 

The occurrence of the anthracite beds in the position and under 
the conditions stated by Mr Sharpe, would be highly interesting in 
itself, as shewing to what extent clean or nearly clean accumulations 
of vegetable matter may have been effected amid deposits in which 
the carbonaceous, and, we may fairly conclude, vegetable matter was 
generally more diffused amid mud and gravel; but the remains of 
fossil plants detected in connection with this carbonaceous series are 
still more interesting, always assuming that the sections seen by Mr 
Sharpe are unequivocal, as his certainly would appear to be, unless 
we suppose a most enormous reversal of these deposits. 

The remains of the plants found by Mr Sharpe were submitted 
to the examination of our Foreign Secretary, Mr Bunbury, who, 
though the specimens of ferns were in bad preservation, considered 
that one bore a strong resemblance to Pecopteris Cyathea, of the 
coal-measures ; another reminded him of Pecopteris muricata, and 
a third of Newropteris tenuifolia. Mr Sharpe calls attention to the 
evidence, as far as it goes, afforded by these plants, of a vegetation 


124 Plants of the Anthracite Formation of Savoy. 


having existed similar to that of the coal-measures at a geological 
date long anterior to them. It would indeed be of the greatest geo- 
logical importance to arrive at an insight into the kind of vegetation 
that clothed the land, which furnished by its disintegration, abrasion, 
and removal, by river and breaker action, into fitting places of de- 
posit, those thick accumulations now known as the Silurian series. 
We appear to have fair reason for concluding that, while the seas 
swarmed with trilobites and molluses, the dry land, supplying the 
detritus amid which these remains were entombed, was not a desert 
waste, a mere mass of rocks decomposing under the action of the 
atmosphere, and worn away along the sea-level by the breakers; in 
fact, nothing but a storehouse for the production of the marine sedi- 
ments of the time. We require a marine vegetation as a base for 
the existence of the sea animal life of the period; and we may fairly 
infer no lack of terrestrial vegetation flourishing beneath the atmo- 
sphere at the same time. What that vegetation may have been we 
have yet to learn ; but as the range of the Silurian deposits becomes 
more known over the earth’s surface, in regions where they have 
either never been covered by more modern deposits, or having been 
so covered, are now bared by denudation,—and every day we learn 
more and more of their distribution,—we may expect to obtain a 
better insight into the kind of plants existing at that remote geolo- 
gical period. 


2. Plants of the Anthracite Formation of Savoy—Among the 
labours of our Foreign Secretary, Mr Bunbury, during his late travels 
on the continent, was included an examination of the fossil plants 
from the anthracite formation of the Savoy Alps. The results of 
this investigation he communicated to us in a memoir, in which he 
not only describes the species of plants that came under his observa- 
tion, but also gave us a history of the researches and opinions con- 
nected with the mode of occurrence of these plants, adding general 
views of his own. 

As you are aware, M. Elie de Beaumont was the first, in 1828, to 
announce the fact, that near Petit Coeur in the Tarentaise, beds con- 
taining an abundance of plants, of the same species as those disco-~ 
vered in the coal-measures of the paleeozoic period, alternated with 
other beds containing belemnites, and referred the whole to the 
_ period of the lias. The plants were determined by M. Adolphe 

Brongniart. Subsequently M. Elie de Beaumont published an ac- 
count of beds occurring between Briangon and St Jeane de Maurienne, 
and included them in the same series. Plants obtained from these 
rocks were examined by M. Adolphe Brongniart, and identified by 
him with those of the coal-measures. From all the facts, M. Elie de 
Beaumont inferred that the beds with belemnites and ammonites, 
and those containing the plants, were parts of one whole, and that 
whole referable to the date of the lias and part of the oolitic series. 

This announcement was startling to those who were accustomed to 


Plants of the Anthracite Formation of Savoy. 125 


consider that the animal and vegetable life existing at each geological 
period had been so entirely swept away, and replaced by new species 
at another, that no species of one geological period would have its 
existence prolonged into another. The view of M. Elie de Beaumont 
was in consequence considered to require confirmation, and thus the 
subject remained, as Mr Bunbury has pointed out, until the meeting 
of the Geological Society of France, at Chambery, in 1844, when 
the observations of the members present led them to adopt the opin- 
ions of M. Elie de Beaumont. 

When at Turin in 1848, Mr Bunbury carefully examined the fos- 
sil plants from the Tarentaise in the Museum. In this examination 
he experienced difficulties from the imperfect preservation of the 
plants, their confused mixture and distortion, and from the injury to 
the structure caused by their replacement by a coating of tale. The 
specimens in the Turin Museum afforded Mr Bunbury fourteen dif- 
ferent forms (for he will not venture to call them species), of which 
nine are Ferns, two Calamites, and three Asterophyllites, or Annula- 
rie. ‘Two of these ferns,’ he observes, ‘* Odontopteris Brardii 
and Pecopteris cyathea, may be pronounced, with tolerable certainty, 
to be identical with characteristic and well-known plants of the coal- 
measures. ‘Three, or perhaps four, others have a strong resemblance 
to coal-measure plants, with which they may probably be specifically 
identical ; but,’’ he continues, ‘‘ I cannot feel certain of them. An- 
other seems to be a remarkable and hitherto unnoticed variety of 
Odontopteris Brardii, connecting that species with O. obtusa of 
Brongniart. The eighth is perhaps a new species, but its nearest 
allies are plants of the coal-formation. Of the ninth, the specimens 
are too imperfect to admit of determination. Of the remaining plants, 
Calamites approximatus and Annularia longifolia appear to be ab- 
solutely identical with coal-measure plants ; and the other two, An- 
nularie or Asterophyllites, are at least very similar to carboniferous 
forms. The other Calamite is undeterminable.”’ 

The occurrence of similar plants at the Col de Balme, and in the 
mountains above Servoz and Martigny, is then noticed, as also the 
absence of belemnites in beds interstratified with the others in those 
localities. The plants obtained by Mr Bunbury from the neigh- 
bourhood of Chamonix, and those seen by him in the Museum at 
Geneva, consisted of eight Ferns, one Calamite (species undetermi- 
nable) and one Asterophyllite. A well-preserved specimen of Lepi- 
dodendron ornatissimum, of Brongniart, was pointed out to him by 
M. Elie de Beaumont in the collection at the Ecole des Mines at 
Paris, brought from beds at the Col de Chardonet, near Briancon, 
eferred “to the uppermost part of the Alpine anthracite formation, 
and probably equivalent to the Oxford clay.”’ It thus appears that 
the researches of Mr Bunbury lead him to conclude, with M. Adolphe 
Brongniart, that the plants from the beds noticed present a general 
agreement with those found in the coal-measures. 

It will be fresh in your recollection, that the mixture or rather al- 


126 Fossil Land, Plants as illustrative of 


ternation of beds containing belemnites with others full of plants re- 
sembling those commonly found in our coal-measures, engaged the 
attention of my predecessor in this chair, Mr Horner, and that he 
pointed to the probability that it might be an instance of species 
which had a wide range in space having had also a long duration in 
time, calling your attention to the wide spread of similar plants over 
certain northern regions of our globe at apparently the same geologi- 
cal time. This explanation does not satisfy Mr Bunbury, inasmuch 
as other plants are known to be found elsewhere in European accu- 
mulations between the periods of the coal-ieasures and the oolitic 
series inclusive, admitting, however, that in the Permian system of 
Sir Roderick Murchison the character of the entombed plants closely 
resembles that of those of the coal-measures. He more particularly 
observes on the difference of the plants in the grés bigarré of Alsace, 
remarking on the common spread of certain ferns at the present day 
over Europe, and of the same tribe of plants over wide areas at the 
period of the coal-measures. He also points out the small geogra- 
phical distance of localities in which the remains of these dissimilar 
plants are found in the rocks noticed, and calls attention to the 
observations of M. Scipion Gras, who states that the Jurassic rocks, 
occurring in their ordinary condition in the department of the Iseére, 
contain impressions of plants entirely different from those of the 
Alpine anthracite. He admits, however, at the same time, that there 
are instances of the isolated occurrence of tropical plants, especially 
Ferns and Lycopodia, in temperate regions, far beyond their ordinary 
geographical range, as, for example, the growth of Trichomanes ra- 
dicans in Ireland, and of Lycopodium cernuum in the Azores. Mr 
Bunbury then adverts to the hypothesis of M. Adolphe Brongniart, 
that the plants in question may have been drifted from regions in 
which the coal-measure plants still continued to grow,—in the same 
manner as seeds are now drifted from the tropical regions on the 
American side of the Atlantic to the shores of Europe,—in part, per- 
haps, becoming enveloped in deposits near land where plants similar 
to those producing such seeds do not occur. While he admits that 
this hypothesis is the most plausible under existing information, and 
that he has none more satisfactory to offer, Mr Bunbury does not 
see his way out of the difficulty. 


3. Fossil Land Plants, as illustrative of Geological Climate — 
Of all organic remains; perhaps those of land plants would appear 
to afford us the least direct information as to the climate, at different 
geological periods, of the low or slightly-elevated countries bordering 
seas in various parts of the world, except we can obtain something 
like evidence of the plants themselves having flourished so near the 
level of the seas of the time, that slight changes in that level pro- 
duced alternations of deposits, which should at one time contain the 
remains of marine animals which inhabited the coast seas, and were 
quietly entombed, and at another the remains of plants, shewing 


Geological Climate. 127 


their growth on the spot. Such evidence we seem to possess at two 
Bietiiet periods in the north of England, where we detect alterna- 
tions of coal-beds, with their under clays, and limestones with marine 
animal remains of the carboniferous time: and also find a coal accu- 
mulation, with some plants, apparently in the position in which 
they grew, of the oolitic series. In both cases the evidence would 
be in favour of quiet depressions, low districts, with land plants grow- 
ing upon them, so sinking beneath sea-water, that marine creatures 
swarmed over the previous dry land, their remains entombed amid 
detrital deposits effected at the time. 

Viewing the actual and varied altitudes above the sea-level of 
lakes in different parts of the world, the plants which may be drifted 
into them and preserved amid any mud, sand, or calcareous matter 
deposited in such lakes, give us no just idea of the climate of the 
time, at the sea-level in the same latitudes. For instance, the plants 
drifted into the lakes of Switzerland and Northern Italy, some of 
which may even be swept from heights approaching lines of perpe- 
tual snow, would not give us the climate of the coast of the Bay of 
Biscay between the Sadne and the Gironde, though in the same general 
latitude. Then, again, as to the conditions for the transport of 
plants or their parts to situations where portions of them may be 
more or less preserved in detrital matter, much has to be considered. 
Thongh floods in high regions tear up trees and smaller plants in 
their course, the chances of any of the plants reaching sea-coasts, 
depend upon a variety of conditions, among which proximity to the 
sea is one of no inconsiderable importance. Thus we have seen the 
arborescent ferns and other plants of the higher lands of Jamaica 
swept by floods into the adjoining seas (becoming entangled in part 
among the mangrove swamps at the mouths of the rivers), the dis- 
tance having been so short, that many stems of the fern tree, their 
fronds, and those of other ferns of the higher regions, were not much 
injured. No mere swelling of the rivers from rains on the lower 
grounds, which did not cause torrents to wash away plants in 
the higher lands, would bring down a frond of these ferns ; it would, 
however, sweep on many a lowland plant, and not a fai of those 
which grew in the river courses during the dry weather, into the 
mangrove swamps and the sea. 

In great rivers, the leaves, as they fall from trees overhanging 
the water, are floated onwards and often carried quietly to sea, some-~ 
times from long distances inland. Plants and their parts may, 
under favourable conditions, be washed into, and be preserved in the 
mud of climates where they do not grow. They may be thus 
brought by the Mississippi, the Paraguay, the Nile, and the great 
rivers of Northern Asia flowing from south to north, and be pre- 
served under climates differing from those where they flourished, 
We have no reason to suppose that the conditions of continents, as 
regards the flow of rivers into the sea, were not very various durin 
long lapses of geological time; and we should very carefully avoid 


128 Fossil Land Plants, as illustrative of 


permitting our vicw of the relative disposition of land and water at- 
former periods to be biased too far by their present arrangement. 

Every autumn our European rivers are full of leaves which have 
quietly fallen into them. Some get washed on the banks, while 
others are left upon low grounds when the waters may have been 
more swollen at one time than another. Some get borne backwards 
and forwards by the tides in estuaries, and are accumulated in the 
mud, entangled with the remains of estuary animals and plants ; 
but many get washed to sea, particularly if off-shore winds prevail 
at the time. Probably many of these become saturated with sea- 
water and fall to the bottom amid the remains of marine molluscs 
and other animals, and are thus eutombed with them amid any de- 
tritus there accumulating. Some we know are thrown on shore, at 
various distances from the river-mouths, according to the prevalence 
of the winds at the time, and the relative bearing of these upon the 
coasts of the locality, and become intermingled with various marine 
animal and vegetable remains. 

The extent to which trees and smaller plants are washed during 
floods out of the great rivers of the world, and floated outwards to 
situations where they fall within the influence of ocean currents 
and prevalent winds, is very considerable ; and it is very needful to 
bear this in mind when we have no satisfactory evidence as to the 
growth of plants at or near the localities where we find their fossil 
remains. Little islets of matted plants are thus sometimes floated 
away, and it will depend upon the weather they may encounter how 
long they may keep together before they become broken up by the 
seas, and fall to the bottom. Although the counter-current along 
the Atlantic shore of the United States may tend to carry plants 
washed out from the rivers of that part of North America to the 
southward, the Gulf Stream is still enabled to transport plants and 
their parts from Cuba and the Bahamas (the prevalent trade-winds 
even perhaps drifting them from Hayti) northerly towards New- 
foundland. Taking the Gulf Stream and its counter-current along 
the American shore as constants, we may have two north and south 
belts beneath, in one of which the remains of plants from the north 
are accumulated, and in the other those from the south, indicating 
climates which do not correspond with those of the dry land of 
America in the same latitudes. Such lines of transport—and there 
would appear to be many of them—and the probable falling of 
plants and their parts.to the bottom during a long period of time, 
have to be regarded when we consider deposits wherein the remains 
of plants which may not have grown on the spot are entombed. 
There may be situations where little detrital matter now settles, 
but where drifted vegetable matter may accumulate from the repe- 
tition of certain annual effects continued through long time, as well 
as those deposits which we infer have been the result of the 
growth of plants on or near the spot where their remains are now 


Co-existence of Saurian and Molluscous Forms. 129 


found. When we consider all the conditions under which the re- 
mains of plants may be accumulated, and the difficulty often of de- 
termining the real character of the plants themselves, it would ap- 
pear desirable to obtain more information respecting the distribution 
of fossil plants at different geological times than we now possess, 
before we conclude that we have evidence enough to speak of the 
characteristic plants of different geological epochs with the confidence 
sometimes used. It would appear very desirable, under present in- 
formation, to regard the subject more loeally, and always with refer- 
ence to the probable physical conditions under which the plants may 


have been entombed. 


4, Co-existence of certain Saurian and Molluscous Forms at 
Equal Geological Times.—To Professor Owen we are indebted for 
a description of saurian remains discovered by Professor Henry 
Rogers in a greensand deposit of the United States, considered re- 
ferable to the age of part of the cretaceous accumulations of Europe. 
The specimens placed before Professor Owen enabled him to add 
some facts to the osteology of the Mosasaurus, and to discover some 
species of saurians, especially of the proccelian form of crocodile, not 
previously known in strata older than the tertiary deposits termed 
eocene. After very important osteological details respecting the 
Mosasaurus, which require to be studied in the memoir itself, in order 
fully to appreciate the labours of our colleague upon this subject, he 
states, that, considering certain of the bones to belong to the Mosa- 
saurus, “ they indicate the extremities of that great saurian to have 
been organised according to the type of the existing Lacertia, and 
not of the Enaliosauria or marine lizards ;’’ and adds, ‘‘ two species, 
at least, of true Lacertia have left their remains in our English 
chalk.” 

Professor Owen next notices some remains of a proceelian reptile, 
and proposes to indicate the saurian and probably mosasauroid 
genus to which it belongs. by the name of Macrosaurus. Upon 
other remains he establishes the genus Hyposaurus, an Amphicolian 
crocodile, and then notices specimens from the same localities laid 
before him by Professor Henry Rogers, which he remarks are “ the 
first evidences of the genus of the modern Crocodilus or Alligator 
that have been discovered in strata older than the eocene tertiary.’ 

The accumulations amid which these saurians have been detected 
are inferred, from the marine remains found in them, to be of the 
same age as part of the cretaceous series of Western Europe, simi- 
lar marine molluscs having been considered to exist and to have been 
entombed in mineral matter at the same geological period in the 
seas surrounding the shores of land iu the areas now occupied by 
the United States and Western Europe. The remains described by 
Professor Owen thus possess not only high interest, as additions to the 
forms of life which have existed at different times on our earth, but 


VOL. XLVIIJ. NO. XCIII.— JULY 1849. I 


130 Phosphate of Lime in the Mineral Kingdom. 


also as shewing the co-existence of certain saurian and molluscous 
forms at equal geological times. We have thus the modern croco- 
dile or alligator (living probably much in the same way as the spe- 
cies of the same genus do in the present day, namely, in rivers and 
estuaries) borne into seas in which molluses of the same kinds as 
have their remains entombed in our cretaceous rocks, were living. 

From the general characters of the other saurians found we should 
also infer that their habits were not such as to render the sea among 
their usual haunts, but rather that they lived in rivers and estuaries, 
occasionally coming.on the adjoining lands. When we look at the 
lithological characters of the beds in which these remains are en- 
tombed, as well as to the state in which the bones are preserved, it 
at once becomes evident that they have been carried to the situations 
at or near which they are now discovered, by being rendered specifi- 
eally lighter than they now are, or formerly could have been. In 
fact we seem required to consider that flesh was on the bones when 
they were borne into the seas, amid the deposits and creatures living 
at the time, in which they are detected. However dificult it may 
be to wash crocodilian animals into the adjoining seas from out 
many of the great rivers of the world where these creatures live in 
multitudes, more particularly where mangrove swamps abound at 
their embouchures, this is not the case with the short torrent rivers 
descending from high lands into the seas surrounding islands, as, for 
instance, Jamaica and Hayti. During a great flood in the Yellahs 
river, one which takes its rise in the Blue Mountains of Jamaica, 
and at whose mouth and in the adjoining mangrove swamps the 
caimans are common, the body of water was so great as to sweep 
these crocodilians off to sea, where it may be presumed some 
perished, to leave their bones, at least such as were not swallowed by 
the large fish, to be mingled with the remains of marine molluses 
now living in those seas. In cases of floods of this kind, the sudden- 
ness of which can be scarcely appreciated by those whe have not 
witnessed the waters of heavy tropical rains discharged by means of 
a short steep course from high mountains into the sea, many a river 
and estuary air-breathing creature gets overpowered and carried off 
before it can reach the protection of eddies near the banks; and 
should there be a heavy sea going at the time, as sometimes happens 
when a hurricane is accompanied by floods of rain, there is a poor 
chance of their escape from drowning, however well fitted for living 
in rivers and estuaries under ordinary conditions. 


5. Phosphate of Lime in the Mineral Kingdom.—The agricul- 
tural importance of phosphate of lime has of late years caused more 
search to be made for this substance than formerly, though its oc- 
currence, as a component part of certain organic remains and of some 
rocks, has been long known, Mr Paine, of Farnham, having pointed 
out that certain beds contained phosphate of lime in sufficient abun- 


Phosphate of Lime in the Mineral Kingdom. 131 


dance to render them of much agricultural value, our colleague, Mr 
Austen, was induced to investigate the mode of occurrence of the 
phosphate of lime in his own neighbourhood, that of Guildford. He 
found that the phosphate of lime nodules are abundant in the upper 
greensand, They also occur in the gault, in two distinct beds, re- 
markably persistent, in the district. 

Mr Austen regards the phosphoric acid of the nodules as of animal 
origin. When the nodules are rubbed down they present a concen- 
tric arrangement of parts, resembling bodies formed, like agates, by 
infiltration into cavities; and our colleague points out that, where 
the casts of bivalve shells and ammonites are filled with matter con- 
taining phosphate of lime, these forms must have been first inclosed 
in the sand, that then the proper shelly matter was removed, and 
finally that the earthy phosphate occupied the place of the hollow. 
He supposes that the phosphoric acid may have formed part of the 
coprolitic matter of the time, this matter in part preserved with its 
original external form, while more frequently it was broken up and 
the component portions diffused amid the sand and ooze. He also 
draws attention to the conditions to which the beds containing these 
substances have been exposed since their formation, having been 
covered by thick deposits, and having descended to depths beneath 
the level of the sea, where they were exposed to an elevated tem- 
perature corresponding with the depth and the amount of bad heat- 
conducting bodies above them, so that many chemical changes were 
effected, and among them a more general diffusion of phosphoric acid 
in the mass. 

Mr Nesbit has also communicated to us some remarks on the pre- 
sence of phosphoric acid in the subordinate members of the creta- 
ceous series. He states that he mentioned to Mr Paine, in Novem- 
ber 1847, the existence of a large amount of phosphoric ee ina fer- 
tile Farnham marl, and that he subsequently obtained 28 per cent. 
of phosphoric acid from portions of this marl, the general mass con- 
taining about 2 per cent. Nodules from the Maidstone gault also 
gave him 28 per cent. of phosphoric acid. Other localities are no- 
ticed, and as much as 69 per cent. of phosphoric acid is mentioned 
as contained in a dark red sandstone rock occurring in masses in the 
upper portion of the lower greensand at Hind Hill. 

Mr Wiggins has sent us a notice of the fossil bones and corproli- 
tic Setetances discovered in the crag of Suffolk, remarking on the 
value of the latter for agricultural purposes,—200 tons of them having 
been obtained from about a rood uf ground; an additional instance 
of the remains of animals and their fisese aniouihed in rocks of dif- 
ferent geological ages, becoming available for the growth of existing 
plants. 

As regards phosphate of lime and its dissemination, which modern 
researches have shewn is much greater, when sufficient quantities of 
rocks are examined, than appear from the analyses of the small pors 


132 On a New Species of Manna 


tions usually employed,—a matter of interest when we consider the 
phosphate of lime required for certain plants,—we should recollect 
that when free carbonic acid is present in water, the phosphate, like 
carbonate of lime, though not to the same amount, is very soluble. 
Hence, especially when, as noticed by Mr Austen, phosphate of lime 
is disseminated in the state of fresh corprolites amid detrital matter, 
and water containing free carbonic acid is present and can have ac- 
cess to it, the phosphate of lime would be in a condition to be re- 
moved and disseminated. Mr Austen has alluded to the mixture of 
such bodies with vegetable matter, to the decomposition of which, 
with animal matter also, we might look for some, at least, of the car- 
bonic acid that would aid the solution of the phosphate of lime. As in 
the case of the carbonate of lime previously noticed, when the solution 
of this phosphate met with the silicates of potash or soda, whilst per- 
colating amid the rocks, the silicates would be decomposed by the car- 
bonic acid, and the phosphate of lime thrown down. We should ex- 
pect,—in the same manner as carbonate of lime often replaces the 
original matter of a shell which has been decomposed and removed 
from the body of a rock, leaving those cavities commonly termed 
casts,—that phosphate of lime, in localities where, from accidental 
circumstances, it was somewhat abundantly filtering through rocks, 
would also enter these and any other cavities, filling them under the 
needful conditions of deposit. In like manner as we find carbonate 
of lime separating itself from mud and silt in which it was dissemi- 
nated, forming the nodules so common in calcareo-argillaceous depo- 
sits, should we also expect disseminated phosphates of lime to do the 
same under fitting conditions; so that it would not necessarily fol- 
low, however true in numerous cases, that nodules containing much 
phosphate of lime were coprolitic. We can readily imagine cireum- 
stances very favourable for the solution and spread of these phos- 
phates amid layers of mud and silt. We find such phosphates sur- 
rounding some fossils, such as crustaceans from the London clay, 
leading us to infer a connection between the animal matter and this 


substance. 


On a New Species of Manna from New South Wales. By 
Tuomas ANDERSON, M.D., F.R.S.E., Lecturer on Chemis- 
try, and Chemist to the Highland and Agricultural Society 
of Scotland. Communicated by the Author. 


The saccharine exudations of plants which have been classed 
under the generic term of Mannas, present, in all instances, 
a close resemblance in their chemical constitution. Their 


from New South Wales. 133 


principal constituents are, gum, sugar, and the peculiar prin- 
ciple called mannite, which derives its name from its source, 
and has been considered as the characteristic constituent of 
amanna. All the varieties of manna obtained from Kuro- 
pean or Asiatic plants which have been examined contain this 
substance in greater or less abundance, and it appears also 
to be acommon constituent of the fluid exudation of the leaves 
known by the name of Honey-dew. At least, this is certainly 
the case under certain circumstances, as it was observed by 
Langlois* in the honey-dew of the lime, which, during the 
hot summer of 1842, occurred in such abundance in the neigh- 
bourhood of Strasburg, that it fell from the trees in the form 
of small rain. 

About 30 years since, a species of manna was brought to 
this country from New South Wales, which was obtained 
from the Eucalyptus mannifera, and differed in many of its 
properties from the European mannas. This substance was 
examined by Dr Thomas Thomson}, who ascertained it to 
contain a species of sugar resembling, and yet different from, 
mannite. It was afterwards examined by Professor Johnston 
who confirmed Dr Thomson’s observation, and by analysis 
obtained for this new species of sugar the formula C,, H,, 0,4, 
which removes it altogether from mannite, and brings it into 
the class of the true sugars, containing hydrogen and oxygen 
in the proportion to form water, and further establishes its 
isomerism with grape-sugar, from which, however, itmanifestly 
differs in all its properties. This was the first manna ex- 
amined which contained no mannite; and I have now to add 
to the list another, similar in this respect, but differing in 
every other, and peculiarly remarkable from its possessing a 
regularly-organised structure. 

The specimen subjected to analysis, I owe to the kindness 
of Mr Sheriff Cay, by whose son, Mr Robert Cay, the sub- 
stance was originally discovered in the interior of Australia 
Felix, to the north and northwest of Melbourne. An immense 


* Journal fiir Practische Chimie, vol. xxix., p. 444. 
t Organic Chemistry, Vegetables, p. 642. 
t Journal fiir Practische Chimie, vol. xxix., p. 485. 


134 On a new Species of Manna 


tract of country in this district is entirely occupied by @ 
* serub,” as it is called in Colonial language, consisting of the 
mallee plant, Eucalyptus dumosa, the leaves of which at 
certain seasons become covered with this species of manna, 
which is known to the natives by the name of Lerp, the / being 
pronounced like the Italian g/. This substance was first ob- 
served by Mr Cay in the latter part of the year 1844, when 
he explored a considerable district lying between lat. 36° 20’, 
and 37° 10’ S., and long. 142° 40’, and 144° 20’ E. in search of 
pasturage for sheep. He returned in 1845 to occupy the 
ground, and, in the course of his journey was obliged to leave 
his party, in pursuit of a native guide who had decamped 
with a gun. In mentioning this incident, Mr Cay writes 
(25th March 1845) : “« I was rather cold that night, as I had 
come off after him in my shirt-sleeves; moreover, | had no 
dinner, but I got plenty of lerp. Lerp is very sweet, and 
is formed by an insect on the leaves of gum-trees ; in size 
and appearance like a flake of snow, it feels like matted wool, 
and tastes like the ice on a wedding-cake.” 

On Mr Cay’s arrival in Scotland in 1847, he gave some 
further particulars regarding this substance, stating that it 
was produced in great abundance, and covered large tracts 
of the scrub like snow; that it is very nutritive, the natives 
becoming fat during the season in which it is found, and that 
he himself had subsisted for a day or two upon it; that it 
adheres with very little tenacity to the leaves, and is imme- 
diately washed off by a shower of rain. 

As it appeared from this description, that the substance 
was unknown in this country, Mr Cay, at his father’s re- 
quest, wrote to his overseer in Australia, who sent over the 
quantity of lerp which has formed the material for my ob- 
servations, accompanied by a letter, dated 25th February 
1848, of which the following is an extract :-—“ The Blacks 
say the lerp is not in any way produced by an insect, but 
that it is a spontaneous production of the mallee or gum- 
scrub when very young, say a foot or eighteen inches high, 
and that it grows on either side of the leaf; that old mallee 
or mallee about eighteen inches high, does not produce lerp. 


from New South Wales. 135 


Therefore, this year they have burned as much of the mallee 
as they could to admit of the young mallee springing up.” 
The only published notice of this substance I have met 
with, is contained in Westgarth’s Australia Felix, page 73, 
where it is mentioned in the following terms :—‘* Mr Robin- 
son, the chief protector (of the Aborigines), ascertained dur- 
ing his expedition. in 1845, to the north-west of Australia 
Felix, that the natives of the Wimmera prepare a luscious 
drink from the Laap, a sweet exudation from the mallee 
(Eucalyptus dumosa.) This liquor is manufactured in the 
months of February and March, on which occasions there is 
commonly a festival and adjustment of mutual disputes.” 
The substance to which these observations refer, differs 
very strikingly in its external appearance, from all the other 
Species of manna. It consists of numerous small conical 
cups of the average diameter of one-sixth of an inch, with a 
more or less distinetly striated structure, and covered ex- 
ternally with a number of white hairs curled in various 
directions. These hairs are not distributed over the whole 
external surface of the cup, but are generally attached to the 
middle portion between its base and apex. The cup itself is 
generally sharply acuminated, and bears a pretty close re- 
semblance to some of the smaller species of patella. Its in- 
terior is pretty smooth, its exterior rough, and its edge per- 
fectly regular and round. The cup and hairs are translu- 
cent, except on the edge of the former, which is frequently 
opaque. No traces of attachment to the leaves of the plant 
were to be detected, and though fragments of leaves, obvi- 
ously those of a species of Kucalyptus, were found in the 
substance, none of them had any of the cups attached to 
them. The cups were not generally isolated, but usually 
adhered loosely to one another by the edges, and this attach- 
ment was always such that the mouths of the cups were in 
one plane, and there can be little doubt that it was by this 
surface they were attached to the leaves. The bairs, when 
examined under the microscope, were found to be distinctly 
organized. Each hair formed a uniform tube, which, under 
a high magnifying power, presented a granular structure, 


136 On a New Species of Manna 


with imperfect indications of transverse strize. When treated 
with potash under the microscope, they became very trans- 
parent, and lost their granular appearance, and a drop of 
solution of iodine coloured them uniformly blue ; thus indi- 
cating starch as one of their constituents. The cup itself is 
composed entirely of a mass of cells resembling starch-glo- 
bules, but so closely compacted together, that their charac- 
ters can only with difficulty be made out. A thin slice, how- 
ever, when macerated for some time in water, admitted of 
disintegration, and though most of the cells were broken up, 
a few could be distinguished in a pretty perfect state, and 
agreed in their appearance with those of starch. The whole 
cup is coloured blue by iodine. 

The taste of lerp is distinctly saccharine, but this is confined 
entirely to the hairs; the cup when completely separated 
presenting only a slight mucilaginous taste. 

The chemical examination shewed that it differed’ as re- 
markably in constitution as it does in form, from all hitherto 
examined species of manna. When boiled with alcohol, a 
large proportion is dissolved; but the solution deposits no 
mannite on standing, and when evaporated on the water- 
bath, yields a thick syrup, which cannot be brought to crys- 
tallise. It is obvious, from this fact, that it contains neither 
mannite nor the sugar obtained by Johnston from the manna 
of Eucalyptus mannifera. The sugar separated from lerp 
had all the characters of the uncrystallisable sugar obtained 
from fruits, and entered rapidly into fermentation when 
mixed with yeast. The residue from which the sugar had 
been extracted yielded to cold water a small portion of 
gummy matter, and, when boiled with water, a considerable 
part of it dissolved, and the filtered solution, on cooling, 
deposited a large quantity of a white powder, of sparing 
solubility in cold water. The fluid from which this sub- 
stance had separated gave, with iodine, a strong reaction of 
starch. 

The substance which deposited from the hot solution, when 
washed with hot water until it no longer gave the reaction 
of starch, was found to agree, in all its characters, with 


from New South Wales. 137 


inulin; but in order fully to establish its identity, an analysis 
was made of the substance dried at 310°, of which the fol- 
lowing are the details :— 
6°441 grains gave 
10°398  ... of carbonic acid, and 
3:652 ... of water, 


giving the following results per cent. :— 


Carbon, : : : 43°90 
Hydrogen, . . : 6:29 
Oxygen, . 3 : 49°81 

100-00 


which agrees perfectly with the results obtained for inulin 
from other sources. 

The insoluble residue was likewise carefully washed with 
boiling water, and then constituted a white substance in- 
soluble in water, alcohol, acids, and alkalies, and agreeing in 
its characters with cellulose. That it actually was this 
substance, was determined by the following analysis of the 
substance at 212° :— 


3:953 grains of cellulose gave 

6°334 ... of carbonic acid, and 

2°494 ... of water. 

Carbon, 3 : ; 43°69 

Hydrogen, . : ‘ 7:00 

Oxygen, 3 : : 49°31 
100-00 


Traces of nitrogen, and of a waxy or resinous matter, 
were also detected; but of these, and more especially of the 
former, the quantity was too minute to admit of determi- 
nation. When burnt in the air, it left behind 1:13 per cent. 
of a white ash. 

The quantitative analysis of lerp presented some difficul- 
ties. These were chiefly experienced in determining the 
quantity of starch, which I at first attempted to do in the 
usual manner, by washing it out; but the hairs disintegrated 
under pressure, and passed in fragments through the cloth, 


1388 Ona New Species of Manna from New South Wales. 


so that I was under the necessity of abandoning this process, 
and determining it by difference. This was effected in the 
following manner :—The residue, after extraction by alcohol 
and cold water, and which, of course, contained the starch, 
inulin, and cellulose, was weighed, and then boiled with 
water. The insoluble residue of this process, which was 
cellulose, was washed, dried, and weighed ; the inulin which 
deposited from the boiling solution on cooling, was likewise 
washed, dried, and weighed. The difference between the sum 
of these weights, and that of the whole original residue, was 
reckoned as starch. This method, which was the best the 
circumstances admitted of, is not one of very high accuracy ; 
but I believe it to approximate pretty closely to the truth. 
I think it likely, however, that the starch is rather under, 


and the inulin overrated, as, owing to the slight solubility 


of the latter substance, it was impossible to carry the 
washing very far. The following are the results I ob- 
tained :— 


Water, . : ; : ‘ é F 15:01 
Sugar, with a little resinous matter, . 3 49°06 
Gun, ; : f ; : : ; SFL 
Starch, “ 5 : . 5 : : 4:29 
Tnulin, ; ; : 5 : : 13°80 
Cellulose, . : 5 ; : ; 5 12°04 

100°00 
Ash, : : “ é 5 ; é 1:13 


Such being the constitution of this curious substance, the 
question of its origin becomes of very great difficulty. All 
the species of manna regarding which we have explicit in- 
formation appear to be exudations consequent upon the punc- 
ture of an insect, and they are composed of substances en- 
tirely soluble in water, which may easily be conceived to ex- 
ude in solution, and gradually dry up in the rays of the sun, 
as indeed is actually the case with common commercial 
manna. But in this manna, we have present the insoluble 
cellulose, wit!: starch, which is absolutely insoluble, and inu- 
lin, which is sparingly soluble in cold water ; and it is very 
dificult, under any circumstances, to suppose that these sub- 


a 


Statistics of Nutmegs. 139 


stances could have been produced as a consequence of a punc- 
ture, and still more so, when it is taken into consideration, 
that the whole substance is possessed of a definite organisa- 
tion. It is true that certain insect punctures are followed by 
the production of a sort of organised excrescence on some 
plants ; but in every instance these are excrescences in the 
strictest sense in the word, and are part of the plant upon 
which they are developed, but lerp is manifestly an indepen- 
dent substance, the very attachment of which is not distin- 
guishable ; and I apprehend that far more distinct evidence 
than we now possess is required to establish its insect origin. 
The natives, as has been already mentioned, state that it is 
not produced by an insect, and though, under any other cir- 
cumstances, the opinion of a tribe so unintelligent as the 
New Holland aborigines is not deserving of any attention, it 
is still of some importance when it tallies with the conclusion 
to which I think the chemical examination leads us. Ento- 
mologists to whom this substance has been shewn, are of a 
different opinion ; and Mr Newport, to whom specimens were 
sent, has gone so far as to establish, on the strength of it, an 
entirely new genus of insects, to which he has given the name 
of Aspisarcus, from aeons a shield, and agavg a net.* The con- 
sideration of this point, however, must be left to those who 
are more competent than I am to form an opinion. I have 
confined myself to determining its constitution, which appears 
to me altogether at variance with the idea of its being a sim- 
ple exudation consequent upon the puncture of an insect. 


Statistics of Nutmegs. 


The statistics of nutmegs are very imperfect, but still we 
have sufficient data to enable us to form some estimate of the 
cultivation and production in the different parts of the Indian 
Archipelago, where the plant is cultivated. In the Straits 


* Pyofessor Balfour, in his Manual of Botany, p. 412, says: “ A saccharine 
substance, mixed with cellular hairs, which arise from a cup-like body, has been 
sent to this country by Mr Cay, found upon the leaves of Lucalyptus dumosa. 
It is called Layurp by the natives, and is thought, by Mr Newport, to be the 
produce of an insect of the tribe Coccidw.’’—Ep. 


140 Statistics of Nutmegs. 


Settlements the cultivation is extending very largely, and the 
production, of course, keeps pace with it. It was only in the 
beginning of the present century that nutmeg planting was 
introduced into Pinang, a number of spice plants having been 
imported from Amboyna by the East India Company.* The 
Government, after some time, sold their gardens in which 
they had planted the clove and nutmeg trees, but the culti- 
vation would appear to have made little progress at first, as, 
in 1810, we find that there were only about 13,000 trees on 
the island, a few hundreds being all that were in bearing. 
In 1818, the number of bearing trees had increased to 6900. 
In 1843, there were 75,402 trees in bearing, and 111,289 not 
in bearing, besides males, and 52,510 in nurseries. The cul- 
tivation has been steadily increasing since that date, and the 
greater part of the trees then planted out, but not bearing, 
must now be yielding fruit. The number of bearing trees in 
Province Wellesley, in 1843, was 10,500, not bearing 7307, 
besides males, and a number in the nursery. The total num- 
ber of nuts produced by the Pinang and Province Wellesley 
trees, in 1842, were 18,560,281, and 42,866 lb. of mace. 
Nutmeg trees were first introduced into Singapore in 1818. 
In 1848, the total number of trees were estimated at 43,344, 
of which 5317 were in bearing, the produce being stated at 
842,328 nuts. In 1848, according to the table given by Dr 
Oxley.} the total number of trees planted out was estimated 
at 55,925, of which, the numbers in bearing were 14,914, and 
the produce 4,085,361 nuts, besides mace, which is estimated 
about 11b. for every 433 nutmegs. In Singapore, the culti- 
vation is extending very rapidly. The increase does not take 
place gradually, but every now and then. When some person 
with capital enters upon it, it seems to receive a large impe- 
tus, the example set by one appearing to incite others to em- 
bark in it. In one district in Singapore this has been very 
apparent. The district of Tanglin, in the beginning of 1843, 
consisted of barren-looking hills, covered with short brush- 
wood and lalang, which had sprung up in deserted Gambia 
plantations. lnmediately upon the regulations for granting 


* Low’s Dissertation on Pinang and Province Wellesley. 
+ Journal of the Indian Archipelago for October 1848. 


Statistics of Nutmegs. 141 


lands in perpetuity being promulgated in the middle of that 
year, a great part of the district was cleared, and nutmeg 
plantations formed, and there cannot now be less than 10,000 
trees planted out in it. A number of Chinese are at present 
forming plantations in different parts of the island; one 
Chinaman has commenced planting, which he intends doing 
to the extent of 5000 trees, and we are aware of various in- 
dividuals who propose to form plantations of greater or less 
extent. 

During the occupation of Bencoolen by the English, the 
nutmeg and clove were introduced from the Moluccas, and 
in 1819, the number of nutmeg trees were stated at 109,429. 
Regarding their present number we have no information. 

The spice trade of the Molucca islands being a strict mo- 
nopoly, very few particulars are known regarding the extent 
of the cultivation, or the amount of the produce. The average 
quantity of nutmegs annually sold by the Dutch Kast India 
Company in Europe, during the last century, has been esti- 
mated at 250,000 lb., besides about 100,000 lb. sold in India. 
Of mace, the average quantity soldin Europe was reckoned at 
90,000 Ib. per annum, and 10,000 1b. in India. The trade, 
although so jealously guarded by the Dutch, has never been a 
very profitable one to them, the expenses being heavy. The 
large quantities of spices frequently burned in Holland, on 
which heavy charges for freight, &c., must have been incurred, 
must have also formed a serious deduction from the gross 
profit from those sold.* In 1814, when in possession of the 
English, the number of nutmeg trees planted out were esti- 
mated at 570,500, of which, 480,000 were in bearing, includ- 
ing 65,000 mocecious trees. The produce of the Moluccas 
has been reckoned at from 600,000 to 700,000 lb. per annum, 
of which one-half goes to Europe, and about one-fourth that 
quantity of mace. The imports into Java, from the Kastern 
Archipelago in 1843, consisted of nutmegs 740,033 piculs, and 
of mace 218,006 piculs, and the exports consisted of nutmegs 
2,135,029 piculs, and of mace 486,063 piculs. The amount 
of nutmegs exported from Java, during the ten years ending 


* Stavorinus’ Voyages. 


{42 Statistics of Nutmegs. 


in 1834, averaged yearly about 352,226 lb., and, during the 
eleven years ending 1845, about 664,060 lb. yearly. The 
quautity of mace exported, during the first period, averaged 
94,304 Ib. yearly, and during the last 169,460 Ib. yearly. 

The average yearly consumption of nutmegs and mace in 
Great Britain is estimated at about 140,000 lb. The pro- 
duce of the Straits settlements in 1842, was reckoned at, nut- 
megs 147,034 lb., and mace 44,822 lb., thus being more 
than equal to the whole consumption of Great Britain. The 
rest of Europe, it has been estimated, takes about 280,100 
Ib. of nutmegs, and 33,000 lb. of mace ; India about 216,000 
lb. of nutmegs, and 30,000 lb. of mace ; and China about 15,000 
Ib. of nutmegs, and about 2000 Ib. of mace. As these quan- 
tities, however, would leave a surplus production of nutmegs 
alone above 250,000 lb., it is probable they are now con- 
siderably under the real amounts. In ten years, from 1832 
to 1842, the exports of nutmegs and mace from Pinang were 
trebled, and from the very great extension in the cultivation 
which is constantly going on, it is probable that the same re- 
sult at least, will také place in the ten years succeeding to 
the above period, viz., from 1842 to 1852. During these ten 
years, from 1832 to 1842, the price of nutmegs in Pinang fell 
from ten and twelve dollars per 1000, to from four to five dol- 
lars per 1000. They have since kept at the latter rate, owing 
no doubt to the means taken by the Dutch, who at present 
regulate the market, to maintain the price ; but it must be no 
less evident, that, with the large accumulations which this 
occasions, and the enormous increase in the production, the 
price must sooner or later give way, as it has done before, 
and go down permanently to a considerably lower rate. If 
a decrease takes place at longer or shorter intervals, notwith- 
standing all the pains used by the Dutch to keep up the mar- 
ket, what would be the result were the spice monopoly abo- 
lished, and the trade and cultivation rendered free and unre- 
stricted? There would, without any extension of the culti- 
vation in the Moluccas, but merely from greater care and 
skill being applied by the persons who would probably em- 
bark in it, be a very considerable increase in the production 
from the present plantations. The produce being sent at once 


Statistics of Nutmegs. 143 


into the market, in increased quantities, to be sold for what 
it would bring (for private cultivators or merchants could not 
afford to hold back and regulate the quantity like the Govern- 
ment), a very serious fall would inevitably result, which would 
no doubt be permanent and steady ; because, as regards nut- 
megs, it may be safely stated that the supply already exceeds 
the demand, and that any increase in the supply can only be 
got off by submitting to a reduction in price. That we may 
not be suspected of exaggerating in regard to the Moluccan 
plantations, we refer the reader to Count Hogendorp’s Ac- 
count of them, and of the wretched management to which 
they were subjected at the time when he wrote, and which 
prevails at the present moment. ‘Throwing them open to 
private enterprise, could not but have the effect of improving 
and probably extending the cultivation to a large extent, and 
of course causing a very large increase in the production. 
The Dutch Government at present derive little or no profit 
from the monopoly, so that it is very likely it will be soon 
abolished, in compliance with the demand which is now made 
in Holland, as well as in the colonies, for a more liberal sys- 
tem of trade ; and there is no doubt that the giving it up would 
be a popular measure. Already, the influence of free trade 
has penetrated into that so long jealously-guarded region, and 
the making Menado and Kima, which are under the Molucea 
Government, free ports, may only be the prelude to opening 
the Spice Islands themselves to the general trade, a measure 
which, of course, would entail along with it the necessity of 
abolishing the monopoly of spices. 

It may appear that we have written rather discouragingly 
regarding nutmeg planting, and that the picture we have 
drawn of it is as much too sombre as that of Dr Oxley was 
too bright and glowing. We have, however, only given such 
facts and information as we could collect: from these we 
leave others to draw their own conclusions. It is probable 
that persons who have plantations already at maturity, or 
who, having capital, can afford to form their plantations with 
rapidity, and by high culture force the production, may still, 
for a considerable time to come, find nutmeg cultivation a 
source of profit, but to those who embark in it with but limit- 
ed means, and can only extend their cultivation by gradual 


144 Dr Morton’s Craniological Collection. 


and slow degrees, it will certainly, in our opinion, prove a 
hazardous speculation, and one which prudence would seem 
to counsel them to avoid. Above all, to those who, like the 
Chinese, in their nutmeg planting in general, cultivate imper- 
fectly, and, therefore, to a certain extent with less profit, it 
must in the long run leave anything but a satisfactory re- 
sult—(Journal of the Indian Archipelago, vol. ili., No. 1, p. 3.) 


Account of a Craniological Collection, with remarks on the 
Classification of some Families of the Human Race. By Dr 
SAMUEL G. Morton.* 


PHILADELPHIA, December 1, 1846. 


My pear S1r,—I have great pleasure in giving you the informa- 
tion requested in your last letter ; and, in so doing, shall endeavour 
to be as brief as possible. 

Having had occasion, in the summer of 1830, to deliver an in- 
troductory lecture to a course of anatomy, I chose for my subject, 
“The different forms of the skull, as exhibited in the five races of 
men.” Strange to say, I could neither buy nor borrow a cranium 
of each of these races; and I finished my discourse without shewing 
either the Mongolian or the Malay. 

Forcibly impressed with this great deficiency in a most important 
branch of science, I at once resolved to make a collection for myself ; 
and now, after a lapse of sixteen years, I have deposited in the 
Academy of Natural Sciences a series, embracing upwards of 700 
human crania, and an equal number of the inferior animals. 

The human skulls are derived from all the five great races, Cau- 
casian, Mongolian, Malay, American, and Negro, and from many 
different tribes and nations of each. 

A primary object with me had been to compare the osteological 
conformation of our aboriginal tribes with each other, and also with 
the other races of men; and, in pursuit of this inquiry, I have ac- 
cumulated upwards of 400 American crania, pertaining to tribes 
placed at the remotest geographical distances, and subjected to al- 
most every vicissitude of climate and locality of which this continent 
affords examples. I have already, in my Crania Americana, given 
the result of my observations ; and I shall now repeat them with 
the greatest possible brevity. 


* The following letter from Dr Morton is in reply to a request made to him 
by Mr John R. Bartlet, secretary of the American Ethnological Society, for an 
account of his craniological collection, with a view to incorporate it in his 
“ Progress of Ethnology.” It was, however, found to be of so interesting a 
nature, that the Society determined to present it entire in the second volume 
of its Transactions. 


Dr Morton’s Crantological Collection. 145 


The anatomical facts, considered in conjunction with every other spe- 
cies of evidence to which I have had access, lead me to regard all the 
American nations, excepting the Esquimaux, as people of one great 
race or group. From Cape Horn to Canada, from ocean to ocean, 
they present a common type of physical organisation, and a not less 
remarkable similarity of moral and mental endowments, which appear 
to isolate them from the rest of mankind; and we have yet to dis- 
cover the unequivocal links that connect them with the people of the 
Old World. 

Both Europeans and Asiatics may, in former times, have visited 
this continent by accident or design. That the Northmen did so, is 
matter of history. The Phenicians, Welsh, and Gauls, may possibly 
have done the same thing. They may have had some influence on 
the language and institutions of the country, and modified and ex- 
tended its civilization. But, granting all this (for the entire evi- 
dence is wanting), where are now these intrusive strangers? We 
answer, that if they ever inhabited this continent, they have long 
since been swallowed up in the waves of a vast indigenous population, 
which, in its present physical characteristics, preserves no trace of 
exotic intermixture. The Indian, in all his numberless localities, is 
the same exterior man, and unlike the being of any other race. His 
multitudinous tribes are not only linked by a common physiognomy 
and complexion, and by the same moral and mental attributes, but 
also, as the learned and justly distinguished Mr Gallatin has shewn,* 
by the structure of their languages, and by their archeological re- 
mains. The latter (wherever we find them) present evidences of 
the same constructive talent, varying only in the degree or extent 
of its development. It is seen on the grand and imposing scale in 
Yucatan and Palenque, and in the sepulchral islands of Titicaca ; 
and it is not less obvious in those humbler efforts tliat are every- 
where scattered over the great valley of the Mississippi. Open the 
mounds, as Dr Davis, Mr Squier, and Dr Dickeson have so labo- 
riously and successfully done ; and the very same arts and inventions, 
though in a mere rudimentary state, everywhere meet the eye. All 
point to one vast and singularly homogeneous race. 

But it is necéssary to explain what is here meant by the word race, 
T do not use it to imply that all its divisions are derived from a single 
pair; on the contrary, I believe that they have originated from 
several, perhaps even from many pairs which were adopted from the 
beginning, to the varied localities they were designed to occupy ; 
and the Fuegians, less migratory than the cognate tribes, will serve 
to illustrate this idea. In other words, I regard the American na- 


* Mr Gallatin includes the Esquimaux dialect in this great family of lan- 
guages. Further investigations may prove them to be an element of the great 
American race ; but I confess my own materials for this investigation have 
hitherto been altogether inadequate. 


VOL. XLVII. NO. XCIII.—JULY 1849. K 


146 Dr Morton’s Craniological Collection. 


tions as the true Antochthones, the primeval inhabitants of this vast 
continent ; and when I speak of their being of one race, or of one ori- 
gin, I allude only to their indigenous relation to each other, as shewn 
in all those attributes of mind and body which have been so amply 
illustrated by modern ethnography. 

But to return to my collection of skulls. It also contains the em- 
balmed heads of upwards of 130 ancient Egyptians, taken from the 
tombs of Memphis, Thebes, Abidos, &c, These unexampled ma- 
terials, for which I am chiefly indebted to the kindness and zeal of my 
friend Mr George R. Gleddon, have enabled me to prove, I believe, 
incontestably, that the Egyptains had no national affiliation with the 
Negro race. Their cranial characteristics can be distinguished at a 
glance ; and the two nations, who are constantly represented side by 
side on the pictorial monuments of the Nile, are as different from 
each other as the White man and the Negro of the present day ; and 
yet these contrasts look back to a period of time little short of 5000 
years from the present day.* 

My later investigations have confirmed me in the opinion, that 
the valley of the Nile was inhabited by an indigenous race before 
the invasion of the Hamitic and other Asiatic nations; and that 
this primeval people, who occupied the whole of Northern Africa, 
bore much the same relation to the Berber or Berabra tribes of Nu- 
bia, that the Saracens of the middle ages bore to their wandering 
and untutored, yet cognate brethren, the Bedouins of the desert. 

Eeypt, during the historical period, bears ample evidence of an 
Asiatic civilization engrafted on the rudimentary arts of the pri- 
meval inhabitants of the valley of the Nile ; at the same time that our 
present knowledge, vastly augmented as it has been of late years, 
does not yet enable us to decide how much to ascribe to the con- 
quering and how much to the conquered nation. 

But with respect to the ancient Egyptians themselves, the denizens 
of the soil during the Pharaonic dynasties, how completely are they 
everywhere identified, on the monuments and in their tombs, as a 
people of peculiar national physiognomy, which mingles the Japetic 
conformation, on the one hand, with the Semetic on the other; thus 
placing them, in the ethnographic scale, intermediate between the 
two! 

While, however, the pure Egyptian of the monuments is every- 
where identified at a glance, those same monuments and the asso- 
ciated tombs, enable us also to detect the various exotic races with 
whom the Egyptians had intercourse in war or in peace. Among 
these are seen the people of Pelasgic origin, whose enbalmed 
bodies are so frequent in Memphis, and whose great number is ac- 
counted for by the long period of Ptolemaic rule ;—the Semitic na- 
tions, as seen in the Hebrew and Arab cast of features ;—the Scythians, 


* See Bockh, Bunsen, Henry, &c. 


Mr William Sturgeon on the Aurora. Borealis. 147 


who are always stigmatised as enemies, and branded with a curse ;— 
the Negroes, who are represented on the monuments as slaves and 
captives, and share the same anathemaas the Scythians; and lastly, 
without enumerating the many subordinate subdivisions of the 
human race, the Negroid population, which seems to have been nu- 
merous and well protected. These Negroid inhabitants are obviously 
a mixed race between the Egyptian and Negro (or rather negress), 
in which the features of the latter are in preponderance. I have a 
considerable number of their heads from the catacombs, especially of 
Thebes. It will be inquired, if Negroes were so much despised in 
Egypt, if they were in the position of slaves or bondsmen, how does 
it happen that their embalmed remains are of so frequent occur- 
rence in the catacombs? This question is answered by a passage 
in Diodorus, wherein the historian informs us that every child whose 
father was an Eoyptian, was from that circumstance free, and en- 
joyed the privileges of citizenship even when the mother was a slave. 

But to revert again to the collection of skulls, from which I have 
been able to derive so many interesting facts, I shall merely add that 
it contains a fine series of the more distant Caucasian nations, Cir- 
cassians, Armenians, Arabs, Persians, and Hindoos, with a smaller 
but characteristic group of Malays, Chinese, Polynesians, and Austra- 
lians. Yet this large collection does not yet contain a single Esqui- 
maux or Fuegian head! The extremes of this continent are not 
represented. 

Pray make such use of this communication as your studies may 
suggest, and believe me, dear Sir, very sincerely yours, 


SamMuEL GEorce Morton.* 
J. R. Barrier, Esq. 


A Description of several extraordinary Displays of the Aurora 
Borealis, as observed at Prestwich,+ during the winter of 
1848-1849 ; with Theoretical Remarks. By WILLIAM 
SturGHON, Lecturer on Natural and Experimental Philo- 
sophy, formerly Lecturer at the Honourable East India 
Company’s Military Academy, Addiscombe, and late Editor 
of the “ Annals of Electricity.” &c.{ Communicated by 
the Author. 


Having had opportunities of observing several fine displays of the 
Aurora Borealis since the commencement of last autumn, some of 


* Transactions of the American Ethnological Society, vol. ii., p. 217. 

t Prestwich is a village at the distance of four miles from Manchester, in a 
north-west direction, on the new road to Bury, from which it is also four miles 
distant. 

{ Read at the Royal Institution, Manchester, March 28, 1849. 


a 


148 Mr William Sturgeon on the Aurora Borealis. 


which presented phenomena of very rare occurrence, a description of 
them, as they appeared at this place, can hardly fail to be interest- 
ing to philosophical inquirers, more especially as data are still want- 
ing to establish a foundation for a true theory of the meteor, a phy- 
sical problem of long standing, and, hitherto, without any satisfactory 
solution. 

The first grand display of the aurora borealis, in this list, occurred 
on Wednesday evening, 18th October 1848. It began with the 
close of the day, and lasted, with various degrees of brilliancy, till 
ten o'clock, or probably later ; for, labouring under the effects of a 
severe cold, I could not watch it closely out of doors. It consisted 
of an extensive arch of light, which crossed the magnetic meridian 
at nearly right angles (which, however, was not its invariable posi- 
tion, but that which it assumed during the greater part of the dis- 
play), and immense floods of lambent streamers, which occasionally 
flowed gently upwards and downwards, from various parts of the arch. 
The average colour of the light was that of a candle-flame, though 
in some parts, and especially towards the eastern extremity, the 
colour was red, inclining to violet. I observed nothing extraordinary 
in these streamers, nor in the general aspect of the aurora; but for 
reasons already stated I could not make a minute survey. 

For several days previous to this aurora, the atmosphere had been 
highly charged with the electric fluid. On the preceding Saturday, I 
had the electrical kite elevated about 400 yards, from the string of 
which a small jar was rapidly and frequently charged ; a steel needle 
was magnetized, and its poles reversed several times, by the dis- 
charge of the jar, and also by sparks direct from the kite-string. The 
magnetic polarity of the needle indicated a downward current in the 
string, which was the case in other experiments on several days pre- 
viously, though not to the same extent of power. 

This aurora was observed at many places wide apart, which shewed 
that it occupied an immense space in the heavens. It has been dif- 
ferently described by different observers, to whom it appears to have 
presented different aspects. The brief description given above, is 
copied from my journal, the particulars being written down on slips 
of paper as the phenomena occurred, and afterwards copied into the 
journal, which is my usual mode; for it is next to impossible to re- 
member all the varied features which the meteor presents during the 
several hours that is sometimes required to watch its manifold and 
rapid transformations. 

The next display of the aurora borealis, of any consequence, oc- 
eurred 27th October. During the morning and all the forenoon we 
had continuous rain, which cleared off about two p.m. I had been 
looking out for the aurora all the evening, and about six o’clock an 
arch of dim light appeared in the northern heavens. It was very 
low, and not of that extensive horizontal span occupied by the aurora 
of the 18th instant. The western extremity reached a little west- 


Mr William Sturgeon on ‘he Aurora Borealis. 149 


ward of Arcturus ; the star being much higher than the auroral arch, 
but as it was fast descending towards the horizon, it passed through 
the arch, whilst the latter remained stationary, or nearly so. Some 
fine groups of lambent streamers occasionally flowed upwards from 
different parts of the glowing bow; and also another feature which 
the aurora sometimes displays—the gentle blushes of pale soft light, 
were frequently seen in the dim haze that almost invariably accom- 
panies the aurora borealis. Between seven and eight o’clock, a few 
straggling clouds came floating across the aurora. Such interruptions 
to the observer's view are exceedingly interesting events, for they 
never fail to shew that the auroral light is at a greater distance from 
the place of observation than the clouds themselves, which is one step, 
at least, gained towards obtaining a true theory of the cause of the 
meteor; but should nothing farther be ascertained, by the interpo- 
sition of these clouds, than the locality or region of the atmosphere 
in which the aurora is situated, it would be the means of setting at 
rest an inquiry of great interest, concerning the real height of the 
meteor. 

There are other features occasionally conspicuous in the aurora 
borealis, which have long been noticed, and rendered as the most 
astonishing appearance of the whole, I allude to the colours that 
sometimes adorn the meteor. They have for a long time appeared 
to me to arise from a decomposition of the true auroral light (white 
light, or rather that of a soft, pale candle-flame), accomplished by 
refractions and reflections amongst the abundance of aqueous par- 
ticles hanging in the regions of air, where the electric fluid is in mo- 
tion, or between those regions and the eye of the spectator. There 
can be no doubt of the electric origin of the aurora borealis, since 
many of its characteristics can be beautifully imitated by the electri- 
cal apparatus. The violet tint is easily produced by an electrical 
discharge through highly-attenuated air; but the green, the blue, 
the orange, the yellow, and the deep red, cannot be imitated by any 
form of electrical experiment hitherto known, in which the light is 
shewn in common air, however much it may be attenuated. But 
these colours may easily be accounted for, under the supposition of 
an abundance of aqueous vapour in the regions of an auroral display, 
a concession by no means unreasonable, when we take into account 
the season of the year (from about the autumnal to the vernal equi- 
nox), in which such spectacles are most frequent, the hazy appear- 
ance of the sky at the time, and the occurrence of wet weather that 
usually follows. 

By looking over my journal for several years past, I find that 
the grandest displays of the aurora borealis have been closely fol- 
lowed by wet weather ; and the following extract from the deserip- 
tion of an aurora which I observed in the vicinity of London, on the 
evening of 8d September 1839, will probably appear more eminently 
calculated to develop the true character of the spectral colours ac- 


150 Mr William Sturgeon on the Aurora Borealis. 


companying the aurora borealis than any other attempt at explana- 
tion hitherto on record. The observations were made whilst walk- 
ing from Brixton to my residence in Pomeroy Street, Old Kent 
Road, 

“« The sky was partially covered with thin vapoury clouds, which 
had an obvious influence on the colour, and the apparent horizontal 
motion of the light, which was easily discerned to be behind or be- 
yond these thin clouds of vapour, and assumed a deeper tinge of red- 
ness as the vapour became more dense between it and the spectator. 
As this was the first time of my observing a red light during the 
display of an aurora borealis, I became anxious to know the cause, 
for I never saw the electrical light, in artificially-attenuated air, any 
thing like the colour of the light which I observed on this occasion. 
It was sometimes of a deep crimson, at other times of an almost 
fiery red; then pink, very light pink; next the yellowish- white 
colour which the aurora most usually displays ; and so on for several 
alternate successions. At other times the aurora would seem to re- 
verse the order of colours, beginning with the white light, and pass- 
ing through the different red tints down to a perfect crimson, and 
then return gradually to the ordinary white. I had several oppor- 
tunities of observing the curious changes of colour in the auroral 
light before I arrived at Camberwell. Just before I entered the 
Grove, at Camberwell, then about half-past nine o’clock, the northern 
sky was illuminated, throughout an immense horizontal range, with a 
rich red light ; but when I arrived at the churchyard, about five 
minutes afterwards, the red light had nearly disappeared, a small 
portion only remaining on the northern edge of a thin fleece of va- 
pour, at a considerable height above the western horizon, being suc- 
ceeded by several fine groups of the usual white streamers.’’* 

On this occasion I had an excellent opportunity of observing that 
the red light never appeared when the sky was pretty clear of those 
thin vapoury clouds ; which frequently skimmed across the aurora 
and I eventually became so perfectly convinced of the effects they 
produced on the colour of the light, that I could predict the appear- 
ance of the red colour by observing the approach of the thin: fleeces 
of vapour, before coming within the limits of the aurora. From 
these facts, it would appear that the prismatic colours which occa- 
sionally adorn the aurora borealis, are secondary phenomena, pro- 
duced by the ordinary decomposition of the original light, and need 
not be looked upon as any thing extraordinary beyond the certainty 
of an abundance of aqueous vapour, either in the region of the elec- 
trical disturbance, or at a lower altitude in the atmosphere. 

But to return to the aurora of the 27th October. The luminous 


* Annals of Electricity, &c., vol. iv., p. 403. 


Mr William Sturgeon on the Aurora Borealis. 151 


arch, by admeasurement, never exceeded 12° of altitude; its high- 
est point being close upon the magnetic north of this place. Its 
horizontal span was about 105°, but, in consequence of the diffused 
character of the light constituting this principal feature of the aurora, 
these dimensions can only be considered as close approximations to 
the truth. Before nine o'clock, dense clouds shrouded the aurora 
from view, and as the sky soon became covered with clouds, the spec- 
tacle closed for the night. I had a magnetic needle delicately sus- 
pended by a single fibre from the cocoon of the silkworm, which was 
closely watched, at every opportunity, during the whole time ; about 
half-past seven it became slightly agitated, but made not any excur- 
sion either eastward or westward ; its motion being a mere nodding 
in a vertical plane, which was continued for some time, probably 
much longer than the cause continued to operate upon it, as is al- 
ways the case when needles are thus delicately suspended, 

The next grand appearance of the aurora borealis was on Friday 
night, 17th November. A strong south wind with heavy rain began 
about six in the morning, and lasted till ten in the forenoon, about 
which time the wind veered westward until it arrived at north-west ; 
and the rain cleared away. The wind still continued high ; the 
thermometer was 50°. Slight showers towards evening, and the 
night was introduced by the most extensive aurora borealis I had 
ever beheld. 

It began with the close of day, and lasted all night. I observed 
till twelve o'clock, at which hour, though cloudy, and scarce a speck 
of clear sky to be seen, the whole canopy was illuminated by the 
aurora; and the light generally, even in the southern regions of the 
heavens, was much stronger than that afforded by a thinly-clouded 
full moon. 

I was in Manchester at the time of its commencement, and had 
no opportunity of seeing it till after my arrival at Prestwich, by the 
omnibus, about a quarter before eight o'clock, At that moment my 
attention was attracted by the unusual glare of light, and on looking 
up, I perceived immense floods of streamers flowing in almost every 
direction, and on every side excepting the south, which appeared 
totally devoid of them, though strongly illuminated. The east and 
west parts of the heavens appeared the most luminous of the whole, 
although all around the north was in a blaze of hazy streamers ; in- 
deed, every part of the aurora appeared as if composed of illuminated 
aqueous vapour, distributed in various forms in different parts of the 
circumambient aérial space. From the east, round by the north, to 
the west, these streamers appeared to flow upwards, in the usual 
way ; but in the zenith, all about that point, they arranged them- 
selves directly across the meridian ; and on both rings of this line of 
streamers, and southwards, the auroral light consisted of fine, steady 
blushes, without any attendant streamers whatever. 

Light fleecy clouds were passing over, with a brisk NW. wind at 


152. Mr William Sturgeon on the Aurora Borealis. 


the time, and some rain had fallen whilst I was in the omnibus; 
but every streak and other form of cloud, all of which were exceed- 
ingly thin or attenuated, seemed to take a part in the auroral dis- 
play ; and those parts of the heavens which were not covered with 
cloud, appeared as if full of a luminous mist or haze, through which 
some of the principal stars were seen. 

Such was the state of the aurora borealis when I arrived at home, 
then about a quarter before eight o’clock; but I was soon made to 
understand that I had lost the grandest part of the spectacle, which, 
as I was told, occurred about seven o’clock. The aurora had been 
watched by my family from about six in the evening, at which time 
the streamers were very fine; they occupied an extensive lateral range, 
and were of the usual pale colour. A little before seven, the 
streamers became more abundant, intensely brilliant, and reached 
over the zenith southwards, to the distance of twenty or more de- 
grees ; and, what increased the splendour of the scene, was a brilliant 
crimson canopy in the heavens, which became gradually transcoloured 
into a lively purple. On the eastern side, also, about 15° above the 
horizon, was an immense blush of red light, which gradually faded 
away and was lost. 

These were the principal features of the aurora till about seven 
o’clock, after which hour its appearance was nearly the same as when 
I first saw it. Shortly after eight, an abundance of detached clouds 
floated over this locality, and partly obliterated the splendour of the 
meteor, which was now only oceasionally exhibited in_the openings 
amongst them. The wind being brisk, the groups of clouds that 
passed over made a quick transit, and soon gave place to a full dis- 
play of the auroral glare, which, though strongest about the northern 
heavens, spread more or less over every part of the celestial vault. 

Before nine o'clock the sky was again completely covered with 
thin clouds, but still a strong light passed through them, which gave 
a distinctness to objects, and to boundaries of land, as though it had 
been the twilight of a fine evening. About ten, an extensive blush 
of red light hovered in the southern parts of the heavens, at an alti- 
tude of about 40°, and continued nearly stationary for several minutes, 
with every appearance of the usual aérial spectra of an intense confla- 
gration below. ‘The curtain now dropped till nearly eleven, when 
an intense light, in the east and west, with a few streamers in the 
north, burst into view as if by magic ; for thin clouds still obscured 
the stars except at occasional openings, where they were seen as 
bright spangles behind a luminous mist. 

In one of these openings, an extensive blush of fiery red light ap- 
peared in the west, and gradually floated, southwards, along with the 
group of clouds that surrounded it, until it reached a little eastward 
of the southern meridian, where it appeared to remain stationary for 
a short time, gradually diminishing in intensity and dimensions till 
it finally disappeared. From this time till twelve o'clock, nothing 


Aaah wat 


Mr William Sturgeon on the Aurora Borealis. 153 


remarkable was observed beyond a strong glare of light, which 
pierced the clouds and illuminated the whole expanse of country be- 
neath. 

The Seven Stars and Aldebaran were immersed in a strong auroral 
light at midnight, when the clouds had partly cleared away. The 
luminous bow or arch, which frequently attends the aurora borealis, 
never appeared during any part of the scene. 

An aurora borealis appeared on the 18th of November, which con- 
sisted of a glare of light in the north, attended by a few shooting 
streamers. 

Tuesday, November 21.—The morning was gloomy, with a light 
west wind. The thermometer stood at 40°, but rose to 44° in the 
forenoon. The afternoon was cloudy, with light showers of rain, 
and a brisk west wind. The sun set very red, and gave a glowing 
redness to the vicinal clouds, which were arranged in bands, in the 
direction of the wind from west to east ; and shortly afterwards traces 
of an aurora borealis were depicted in the heavens, 

The usual auroral bow appeared in the north before six o'clock, 
and, at a quarter past six, bands of streamers appeared in various 
parts of the heavens; and, at the same time, a broad field of red 
light hovered, for about two minutes, in the north-east. The bow, 
at this time, was not so high as the lower pointer in the Great Bear. 
At half-past six the arch or bow reached to an altitude of about 15”, 
but was very imperfectly formed ; it became more and more diffused, 
spreading its light, in a short time, till it nearly covered the whole 
of the Great Bear. A few short streamers appeared at a low alti- 
tude in the north, as if they proceeded from a thin streak of cloud 
which crossed the meridian beneath, and parallel to the luminous 
arch, 

About seven o'clock, several bands of dim red light started from 
the west, passed through the zenith, through Cassiopie, and extended 
to the eastern horizon; they were obviously illuminated streaks or 
bands of vapour, arranged by the westerly wind. There was scarcely 
any auroral light in the north at the time, and the stars looked very 
dim. At a quarter past seven a broad band of dim redness formed 
from west to east; it passed through the zenith and Cassiopiw, and 
travelled slowly southward, until its eastern limb pass:d over the 
Pleiades. It broke up within three minutes after its formation ; the 
eastern part quite vanished, but the western limb continued visible 
for a much longer time; it was always broadest and brightest on the 
western side. This phenomenon was imniediately succeeded by a 
band of dim whitish light, which stretched across the northern 
heavens, having a hovizontal span of 120°, and an altitude reaching 
that of the Great Bear, About this time, the whole of the northern 
parts of the concave seemed to be filled with broad dim bands of a 
smoky reddish colour, which had every appearance of being illumi- 
nated bands of vapour, arranged by the wind, at this time very feeble. 


154° Mr William Sturgeon on the Aurora Borealis. 


Several streaks of white light, at a higher altitude, but parallel to 
the former, were also observed, all of which were arranged in the 
direction of the wind. 

At about ten minutes before eight, a number of flashes of dim white 
light shot across the heavens in various directions, and lighted up the 
streaks of vapour as they came at them in succession. At eight 
o’clock the thermometer had fallen to 42°, and there was a dead calm. 
At half-past eight several broad patches of feeble white light passed 
swiftly along the sky, in almost every direction; these were suc- 
ceeded by a dim luminous white haze that seemed to fill all the 
northern heavens up to the zenith; it gradually waned, and, in a 
short time, finally disappeared, closing the seene for the night. 

Sunday, December 17.—Fine frosty morning, with some fog. 
The day turned out fine, and the thermometer rose to 36°. At 
night we had a grand display of the aurora borealis. It began be- 
fore seven o'clock, and lasted till after midnight. At half past 
seven the aurora consisted of three large patches of light, one in the 
east, one in the west, and the other just beneath the north star. 
Streamers shot from all these occasionally, but the principal light 
was in the west. About a quarter before eight an extensive range 
of streamers burst out all round the northern heavens, from the west 
to the east points, some of which assumed a dingy red hue for a mo- 
ment, and then changed again to the soft white. There were two 
ranges of these streamers, one considerably higher than the other, 
with an unilluminated vacant space between them, though at first view 
the whole seemed to be but one group. The streamers of the upper- 
most range reached the altitude of Cassiopie, at that time a little 
westward of the meridian. Between eight and nine o'clock, several 
flashes or waves of light swept across the zenith and many other 
parts of the sky, in different directions; several of these waves pro- 
ceeded from west to east, many from north to south, some of which 
reached the Seven Stars, and others traversed the heavens oblique to the 
former—all denoting an electric disturbance in the higher regions of 
theair, illuminating the highly-attenuated vapourin which it took place. 
These flashes or waves were of precisely the same character as those 
which appeared on the 21st of November, but their transit was much 
slower, so that the eye could follow them in their progress to their 
apparent destination. During this period of the aurora, several light 
rain-clouds scudded across from south to north, at a low altitude, and 
obscured the waves of light, evincing, as on other occasions, that the 
electrical meteor was above the clouds, 

About nine o'clock, the whole of the celestial concave partook of 
the auroral scene, which exhibited very different aspects in different 
quarters. The northern parts had now become the brightest, though 
continually changing in intensity and tint of colour; the latter 
varying between a soft yellowish: white and a dingy red. In the south 
there appeared nothing but a lurid red haze, which gave a dimness 


ane 


Mr William Sturgeon on the Aurora Borealis. ~ 155 


to the stars, though some of them occasionally shone without any 
perceptible interruption. At one time Orion appeared as if com- 
pletely covered with a flimsy mantle of a deep red colour ; so flimsy, 
indeed, that the principal stars, Beteigeuse, Bellatrix, and Rigel, suf- 
fered but little from their usual splendour; the natural red tint of 
the former, however, was obviously enhanced by the auroral haze, 
and the others slightly partook of the flimsy red tinge ; indeed, the 
whole of the stars in the southern heavens were more or less dimmed, 
and many of the smaller ones completely obscured. In the north, 
also, and, indeed, on every side, a thin haze prevailed in obstructing 
the natural refulgence of the stars, rendering them dim and gloomy. 
There was a brisk south wind all the evening, and the thermo- 
meter stood at about 34°. The whole display of the meteor on this 
occasion, and also on the 18th of, November, appeared to take place 
in an atmosphere of highly-attenuated nubiferous matter. 

1849. Sunday, January 14.—Stormy morning of west wind and 
heavy rain. The thermometer 50°, Very windy all day, with 
heavy showers. A loud clap of thunder about noon, which was heard, 
for several miles round this place; and in the neighbourhood of 
Warrington there were several flashes of lightning seen, accompanied 
with loud thunder. At three in the afternoon, the thermometer fell 
to 43° and to 40° at night. The clouds entirely disappeared in the 
evening, and the stars shone with a feeble lustre, indicating a great 
abundance of aqueous vapour in the air. 

About half past eight a beautiful aurora borealis presented itself 
in the shape of a well-defined luminous arch, which crossed the 
northern heavens, and from which proceeded various groups of 
streamers; but nothing extraordinary was observed, though closely 
watched, till eleven o’clock. The arch, in this case, was nearly, if 
not exactly, at right angles to the true meridian. 

Monday, February 19.—Stormy west wind, with heavy rain- 
clouds in the morning. Thermometer 47°; it rose to 50°, and much 
rain fell during the day. The wind continued high until evening, 
when it slackened a little, but still kept up astrong cold breeze. At 
night, there appeared an aurora borealis of the most extraordinary 
character hitherto recorded in the history of the meteor. It com- 
menced with the close of the day, with a strong glare of light in the 
northern heavens, but without any definite shape or boundaries, and 
continued in this condition till nearly eight o’clock, about which 
time some faint colourless streamers appeared, and, occasionally, dim 
flashes of light swept across the sky, generally from east to west, and 
at a higher altitude than was reached by any cf the streamers ; but 
neither appeared to have any reference to the northern glare of light, 
which continued nearly steady from first to last. The horizontal 
span of this light reached from beneath the tail of the Great Bear, 
or about the shoulder of Bootes on the eastern side, to nearly the 
chest of Pegasus, on the western side; but the boundaries were so 


156- Mr William Sturgeon on the Aurora Borealis. 


badly defined that no exact point in the heavens could be selected 
to mark the precise dimensions, ‘The altitude of this northern light 
was quite as difficult to ascertain as its horizontal range, because of 
its gradual softening into the ordinary nocturnal colour of the sky. 
I can only say that it embraced « Lyre and « Cygni, which were 
seen within it ; the latter star just within its upper edge. 

Such were the characteristics of the meteor till nearly nine o'clock, 
about which time commenced the first novelty in the history of the 
aurora borealis. A glow of light made its appearance close to the 
tail of the Great Bear, which waxed to a considerable degree of 
brightness, and after remaining for about half a minute, it gradually 
waned in splendour, until it finally disappeared. This spectacle had 
just ended, when a horizontal arrangement of short glowing beams, 
of the usual shape of streamers, began to parade the northern 
heavens, about half-way between the steady glare of light already 
described, and the Pole-star. They came into existence on the east- 
ern side of the meridian, and marched very orderly, one after an- 
other, westward, in the same regular order of succession as they 
sprang into existence, until they reached a point directly beneath 
Cassiopia’s Chair, where they became extinct, and were successively 
lost in the sky at the moment of their respective arrival at this spot, 
their apparent destination, This scene lasted several minutes, almost 
without interruption. During some part of the time the line of 
columns, between the two points in the heavens, was complete 
from one to the other, and had very much the appearance of an army 
of soldiers marching in single file, where the observer could just see 
them coming into view on his right, and vanish on his left ; the whole 
marching past as if for his especial review. The bases of these lumi- 
nous beams were flat and well defined, but the upper extremities 
were of a diffused radiant character, and gradually softened off till 
lost. During the time of this strange spectacle, several minor groups 
made momentary displays in different parts of the northern sky, and 
all seemed to move in the same direction, from east to west. 

The next scene in the drama was partly similar to that just de- 
scribed, but of far greater splendour and extent. It began about 
half-past nine, at a point near the tip of the tail of the Great Bear, 
with a steady glow of pale light, from which issued an immense host 
of bright glowing beams, which marched across the meridian, with 
their centres at the altitude of the Pole-star, until they reached nearly 
to Venus. The movements of this grand array were slower than 
those of the first described columns, and also different in character. 
The first glided smoothly along without much vibratory motion ; but 
these exhibited a kind of dancing or jog-trot sort of march; which 
appeared as regular as the march of an army of soldiers guided by a 
band of music; all hands, from front to rear, keeping step in a very 
orderly manner. The length of these beams much exceeded the 
length of the former group, and their upper extremities were so well 


Mr William Sturgeon on the Aurora Borealis. 157 


defined that they formed, whilst the line was complete, a beautiful 
arch, the highest point of which was considerably higher that the 
Pole-star ; but their lower parts shot downwards in variously -pointed 
terminations, like a series of inverted streamers, and were lost, at 
many different altitudes, amongst the stars, but never reached so low 
as the northern glow of light. Like the former group, these beams 
or columns sprang into existence individually, and in regular succes- 
sion, from the same source, near the tail of the Great Bear, and took 
up the line of march from the commencement of their respective 
births, so that the individuals forming the moving line were every 
one of a different age, the foremost the eldest, and all the rest in the 
order of succession, from front to rear ; and they appeared to vanish 
in the same order of succession, at a point in the heavens close upon 
the planet Venus, so that the last which sprang into existence in the 
east, kept its position in the rear of the line all the way to the west, 
and was the last that was seen, individually, in this part of the aérial 
spectacle. But this was not the conclusion of the scene ; for in- 
stead of these luminous beams vanishing entirely, in the manner of 
the previous group, they seemed to assemble, in a close compact 
body, in the west, where they disappeared as individuals, and to form 
a broad luminous streak, which reached downwards almost to the 
horizon, and which, for a while, increased in splendour and dimen- 
sions in proportion to the number of beams assembled. This extra- 
ordinary streak of light continued in full splendour for about two 
minutes, when it began to waver; and its gradual decrease in both 
intensity and dimensions, until its final disappearance, formed the 
closing part of this second grand act of the meteoric drama. 

We now come to the last, and by far the most magnificent spee- 
tacle of the whole. It began about ten o’clock. Its general cha- 
racter was similar to that last described, but its splendour and dura- 
tion far exceeded it. The luminous beams, in this case, issued, as 
before, from a point in the heavens near to the tail of the Great 
Bear, at that time a considerable height above the north-eastern hori- 
zon, and formed an arched line of march (for a march it really was 
above the Pole-star, reaching exactly to the Pleiades westward. The 
length of these auroral beams was greater than that of the last de- 
scribed group, and terminated, both upwards and downwards, in the 
manner that streamers usually terminate upwards. These aérial 
spectres seemed to form a division of grenadiers, when compared with 
the hosts that had preceded them, not only with respect to their 
magnitude, but also as regards the stateliness of their movement, 
which was truly solemn and majestic, and well calculated to furnish 
the sublimest imagery for the poet, and to store the imagination of 
the superstitious with the most awful portentions. From the well- 
known interpretations which the ancients have given to certain ap- 
pearances of the aurora borealis, some persons have been led to think 


158 On Oceanic Infusoria, Living and Fossil. 


that the writer of the Second Book of Maccabees alluded to some-~ 
thing of this kind : 

“ Through all the city, for the space of forty days, there were 
seen horsemen running in the air in cloths of gold, and armed with 
lances like a band of soldiers, and troops of horsemen in array, en- 
countering and running against one another, with shaking of shields 
and multitudes of pikes, and drawing of swords, and casting of darts, 
and golden ornaments and harness.’’—Book ii., ¢. 5. 

Although there appeared nothing like horsemen in the aurora I 
am describing, it was hardly possible to resist the idea of a very for- 
mal and well regulated march of soldiers, in single rank, being 
strikingly imitated in this very extraordinary display of the meteor, 
which concluded with a long broad streak of yellowish-white light, 
the upper extremity of which reached nearly to the Pleiades, and the 
lower almost to the horizon, forming a brilliant tail, as it were, to 
that group of stars; this association of the Seven Stars, and sloping 
streak of auroral light, was no inapt representation of the head and 
tail of a comet, only that the stellar group was too dull to represent 
the prominent part alluded to, being completely thrown into the shade 
by the refulgence of the auroral light. 

This streak of light continued for some minutes in nearly the 
same position, and gradually faded away in the same part of the 
heavens as that in which it was formed. It began in the same man- 
ner as the streak of light previously described ; that is, on the 
arrival of the first beams of the group, and gradually waxed in 
splendour in proportion to the number accumulated at this terminal 
of the line, until the arrival of the last beam; and after shining in 
full glory for a short time, it gradually waned, until finally lost 
amongst the stars. With this grand spectacle the most interesting 
part of the aurora terminated; but a glow of light illuminated a 
great portion of the northern heayens the remainder of the night, 
and until three or four o’clock next morning. ‘The wind was strong 
from the west, and piercing cold during the whole night. 


(To be concluded in next Number.) 


On Oceanic Infusoria, Living and Fossil. 


“Theimprovements effected of late years inthe microscope,” says Dr 
Harvey, in his interesting volume just published,* “ may well be said 
to have opened tous a material world of whose existence we should other- 
wise be wholly ignorant. The number of species of animals and plants 


* The Sea-Side Rook; by W. H. Harvey, M.D., Member of the Royal Irish 
Academy. Van Voorst, London, 1849. 


x 


On Oceanic Infusoria, Living and Fossil. 159 


now known, whose forms are so minute that they are individually in- 
visible to the naked eye, and only appreciable when collected together in 
masses, is very great; and the catalogue is daily enlarging as the waters 
of the sea, and of lakes and ponds, are more carefully subjected to ex- 
amination. What to the naked eye seems like a green or brownish 
slimy scum, attached to the stalks of water-plants, or floating on the 
surface of stagnant pools, displays to the microscope a series of ele- 
gant and curious forms, endowed with a most perfect symmetry and 
delicate structure of parts, each acting in the circle of its narrow 
sphere as perfectly as the more bulky creations above it. The great 
work of Ehrenberg has made the forms of many of those curious 
creatures sufficiently known; and a most elaborate monograph of a 
portion of them,* recently published in this country, has added much 
to the general history of the subject, while it affords to British stu- 
dents exquisitely-accurate figures and careful descriptions of all the 
British species of the group illustrated. The plants included in this 
microscopic world are classed by botanists under two families, the 
Desmidez, which exclusively inhabit fresh water, and the Diatomacez, 
a great number of which are marine. The forms of these minute 
organisms are strange; they exhibit mathematical figures, circles, 
triangles, and parallelograms, such as we find in no other plants, and 
their surface is often most elaborately sculptured. Isthmia obliquata 
is found in spring and early summer on the stems of many of the 
filiform alge, where it forms little glittering tufts a line or two in 
height. It has been brought from many distant parts of the world, 
both of the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans. Many other species 
accompany it in our own and other seas. The Licmophora or Fan- 
bearer is one of the most beautiful of our native kinds, and is very 
common in April and May on the leaves of Zostera, as well as on 
many of the smaller alow. It is very generally distributed round 
the British Coasts, forming gelatinous masses of a clear brown co- 
lour on the plants it frequents. Under the microscope, however, its 
colours are much more gay, a yellow shade, variously banded and 
marked with deeper-coloured spots, tinging the fan-like leaves, which 
are borne on slender threads transparent as glass. The pieces or 
joints of which these plants are composed are called frustules; and 
each frustule consists of a single cell, whose coat is composed of a 
very delicate membrane made of organised silex. That these plants 
have thus the power of withdrawing silex or flint earth in some 
manner from the waters of the sea, and fixing it in their tissues is 
certain, but the exact method in which this is effected has not been 
ascertained. A remarkable point in their history results from this 
power of feeding on flint. It is this: their bodies are indestructible. 
Thus their constantly accumulating remains are gradually deposited 
in strata, under the waters of the sea, as well as in lakes and ponds. 


* Ralfs on British Desmidee. London, 1848, Thirty-five coloured plates. 


160 On Oceanic Infusoria, Living and Fossil. 


At first the effect produced by things so small, thousands of which 
might be contained in a drop, and millions packed together in a 
cubic inch, may appear of trifling moment, when speaking of so grand 
an operation as the deposition of submarine strata. But as each 
moment has its value in the measurement of time, to whatever ex- 
tent of ages the succession may be prolonged, so each of these atoms 
has a definite relation to space, and their constant production and de- 
position will at length result in mountains, The examination of the 
most ancient of the stratified rocks, and of all others in the ascending 
scale, and the investigation of deposits now in course of formation, 
teach us that, from the first dawn of animated nature, up to the pre- 
sent hour, this prolific family has never ceased its activity. Eng- 
land may boast that the sun never sets upon her empire, but 
here is an ocean realm whose subjects are literally more nume- 
rous than the sands of the sea. We cannot count them by 
millions simply, but by hundreds of thousands of millions. Indeed, 
it is futile to speak of numbers in relation to things so uncount- 
able. Extensive rocky strata, chains of hills, beds of marl, almost 
every description of soil, whether superficial or raised from a great 
depth, contain the remains of these little plants in greater or less 
abundance. Some great tracts of country are literally built up of 
their skeletons. No country is destitute of such monuments, and in 
some they constitute the leading features in the structure of the soil. 
The world is a vast catacomb of diatomacee ; nor is the growth of 
those old dwellers on our earth diminished in its latter days. 
These earliest inhabitants of the world seem destined to outlive 
~beings of larger growth, whose race has a definite limit, both ends 
of its existence comprised far within the duration of a species of dia- 
tomacee. Many of the existing species are found in a fossil state, 
even in early beds. No part of our modern seas is without this 
ever-springing vegetation. Of this fact, the late antarctic expe- 
dition * afforded many striking proofs. One of the objects of 
that expedition was to obtain soundings of the deep sea; and 
these were made at depths which would have engulphed Chim- 
borazo in the abyss; yet the lead constantly brought up diato- 
macee, even if nothing else. Nor did the eternal winter of the 
antarctic sea diminish the number of these vegetables. Other 
sea-plants ceased at Cockburn Island, in the low latitude of 64° S. - 
and, thenceforward, the diatomacee formed the whole vegetation. 
The icy wall, called Victoria Barrier, which, at length, stopped 
the southward progress of the intrepid navigators, was found em- 
browned with them. Floating masses of ice, when melted, yielded 
them in millions. In many places they formed a scum on the 
surface of the icy sea. 
(To be continued in our newt.) 


* See Hooker’s “ Flora Antarctica,” vol. ii. 


e 161) 


On Grooved and Striated Rocks in the Middle Region of Scot- 
land. By CHARLES MACLAREN, Esq., F.R.S.E., &c. (With 
a Map.) Communicated by the Author.* 


Sir James Hall first called attention to the polished and 
striated rocks in the valley of the Forth, in a remarkable paper, 
read before this Society in 1812, and printed in the seventh 
volume of our Transactions. He specifies four localities 
where he observed them: At Torwood, about 4 miles north- 
west from Falkirk ; at Corstorphine Hill; at Fenton Tower, 
in Kast Lothian ; and at Fass Castle, in Berwickshire. With 
the striated rocks at these places he associated a peculiarity 
of form, which is conspicuous in nearly all the low hills of 
the same district, namely, that they present crags of bare 
rock on their west, and deposits of soil on their east sides. 
To this peculiarity he gave the descriptive name of “ Crag- 
and-Tail.” The direction of the striz was nearly east and 
west at Corstorphine Hill, WNW. and ESE. at Torwood, 
Fenton Tower, and Fass Castle. He found examples of 
crag-and-tail also in the west and south of Scotland, but 
with different bearings. In the former, the crag faced the 
east ; in the latter, it faced the north. After careful consi- 
deration of the facts, aided by collateral lights derived from 
other natural phenomena, he concluded that the striz and 
grooves, and the smoothing of the surface, to which he gave 
the name of dressing, must have been produced by fragments 
of rock, gravel, and sand, driven over the land by a great 
wave, or succession of waves, rushing from the Atlantic in 
an east or south-east direction; that one part of the wave 
passed right across Scotland, grooving the rocks in its course, 
laying bare the western fronts of the hills over which it 
swept, and depositing tails of soil in the sheltered spaces be- 
hind them; that another portion of the wave was arrested 
by the high mountains, and turned back, flowing off to the 


* Read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh on 2d April 1849. 
VOL XLVII. NO. XCIII.—JULY 1849. L 


162 Charles Maclaren, Esq., on Grooved and Striated Rocks 


sea, westward or southward, producing groovings on the 
rocks, and the phenomena of crag-and-tail, in directions cor- 
responding to the course of the return waves. 

This theory bears the stamp of the acute and original 
mind of its author, and it offered perhaps the best explana- 
tion of the phenomena, which the range of geological infor- 
mation at that time could supply. In the same year we find 
Specimens of striated rocks and crag-and-tail noticed by 
Colonel Imrie, in his paper on the Campsie Hills, in the se- 
cond volume of the Wernerian Society’s Transactions, and 
an idea somewhat similar as to their origin thrown out. Sir 
James Hall’s explanation of the phenomena was pretty ge- 
nerally accepted by geologists in this country ; and it is still, 
I believe, adopted, though perhaps in a modified form, by 
some able men. I shall notice very briefly a few of the lead- 
ing objections to it. 

1st, Striz must have been produced by a sliding motion, 
like that of a plane or graving tool, while stones propelled 
over a firm surface, by a current of water, would have a roll- 
ing motion, which might polish the rocks, but could not cut 
groves in them. 2d, Supposing stones impelled by water to 
cut grooves, these grooves would not occupy such positions 
as we find them in, on sloping surfaces like the steep sides 
of valleys; the force of gravity would render them more or 
less inclined, while, in such situations, we find them horizon- 
tal. 3d, The groovings so cut would be deflected to the 
right or left, by slight inequalities of surface, and would not 
possess that wonderful straightness and parallelism which 
they generally exhibit, and which Mr Lyell has seen extend- 
ing over a length of 100 yards in the United States. 4th, A 
great wave or debacle of the magnitude assumed, coming 
from the west or north-west, would have filled up deep val- 
leys transverse to its course, like that called the Great Glen. 
Now, that glen, so far from being filled up, has a depth of 
770 feet in Loch Ness, measured from the surface of the 
water,—a depth exceeding that of the German Ocean. The 
fact, that this deep fissure has not been filled up, is presump- 
tive evidence, that no such wave has ever passed over the 


in the Middle Region of Scotland. 163 


island. 5th, The cause assigned does not explain how boul- 
ders weighing many tons were carried from the Grampians 
across the central valley of Scotland, the bottom of which is 
only 200 feet above the sea, and deposited on the Pent- 
lands, at spots 800 feet higher. A current of water, how- 
ever powerful, would have dropt them in the low country. 
6th, The debacle does not explain other distinct traces of the 
action of water upon our hills. Mr Chambers, in his recent 
work, has shewn that satisfactory evidence exists of the pre- 
sence of the ocean in its proper form of a horizontal sheet of 
water, up to 1500 feet above its present level. Had this fact 
been known, and carefully studied, Sir James Hall would 
have been spared the necessity of resorting to a great hypo- 
thetical Atlantic wave. 

No agent yet known but ice, or ice conjunctly with water, 
seems capable of explaining the phenomena for which Sir 
James Hall called in the aid of a debacle. Those who have 
read the excellent works of Professor Forbes and Professor 
Agassiz, are aware that a glacier, during its slow progres- 
sive motion, transports vast masses of rock over a distance 
of many miles; secondly, that it grooves and polishes the 
bottom and sides of the valley containing it, by means of the 
stones and gravel which it brings down; and, thirdly, that 
many of these stones are themselves grooved by the attrition 
they have undergone in sliding over the fixed rocks. We 
know also, that as floating ice lifts large stones from the bot- 
tom and sides of rivers, or the shores of the sea, and carries 
them away, it may leave striz on rocks over which it passes. 
Mr Lyell found well-marked striz cut on a rock in the Bay 
of Fundy, which he attributed, on good grounds, to the 
packed ice of the preceding season, or of a period very little 
farther back. The pack ice accumulates there to the depth 
of fifteen feet.* If this was effected on the shore by so small 
a mass, it is easy to conceive that our plains might be grooved 
and abraded by icebergs, armed at bottom with stones or 
gravel, and floating in a sea 500 or 1000 feet deep. These 


* Travels in North America, 1845, vol. ii., p. 173. 


164 Charles Maclaren, Esq., on Grooved and Striated Rocks 


moving mountains of ice are known to have reached to a 
greater depth than this. 

If the grooves, scratches, and polishing, seen on our rocks, 
were produced by ice, those in the deep valleys must be due 
to the action of glaciers, which are found in the Alps to glide 
downward at the rate of one or two feet per day, with gravel, 
stones, and sand adhering to their bottom. In this case the 
largest grooves should be on that side of prominent rocks 
which is toward the head of the valley, and this, it will be 
seen, holds true in Scotland. On the other hand, if the 
scratches, grooves, and polishing, were caused by an irrup- 
tion of the ocean from the west, it is evident that the direct 
wave setting eastward would be vastly more powerful than 
the indirect or return wave, produced by the supposed recoil 
of the water from the hills, and setting westward. It fol- 
lows, that in the west of Scotland, where the effect of both 
waves must be best seen, the grooving and abrasion should 
be greatest on the west side, and least on the east side, of 
exposed rocks. It will be found that the case is just the 
reverse. 

Glaciers are rivers of ice, which have their source at a 
higher level in the mountains, in what the Swiss call Mers 
de Glace, or “ Seas of Ice.” To account for glaciers in the 
valleys shortly to be noticed, we must suppose that Scotland, 
at some former period, had a climate as cold as Labrador or 
Greenland, and that a permanent envelope of ice and snow 
covered all the higher region of the Grampians. There is 
nothing extravagant in the magnitude assigned to this en- 
velope, for Agassiz informs us, that among the numerous 
mers de glace in the Alps, there are some 20 or 30 leagues* 
(50 or 75 miles) square. Glaciers or efflux streams of ice 
from this central mass would glide slowly downward through 
the openings at the outskirts of the mountains, such as the 
valleys of Loch Fine, Loch Long, Loch Etive, Loch Earn, 
and others; and if the hypothesis be correct, the sides and 


* Agassiz Etudes Sur les Glaciers, p. 22. 


Edin’ Nw Pll Jour Plate AVA LIV p 165 


f GROOVED ROCKS 
es IN 


SCOTLAND. 


a BEN NEVIS f 


17- 


@ wv 
Linlithgow Ro 
Ww 


in the Middle Region of Scotland. 165 


bottom of these valleys should be grooved and abraded, and 
the marks of abrasion and grooving should be most conspi- 
cuous on that side of prominent rocks facing the head of the 
valley. We shall see how far this conclusion is confirmed 
by facts. 

I begin with Gareloch, because the markings there are 
peculiarly distinct ; and I was able to examine them more 
carefully than those of any other locality. It will be sufh- 
cient here to give a condensed outline of the two papers I 
published in 1845. 

Gareloch._—The arrows 8 and 9, in the map (Plate IT.), indi- 
eate the direction of the striz and groovings here. They all 
point SSE., corresponding very correctly with the axis of the 
loch. They are very numerous, and while some of them are 
fine scratches only visible when the surface is wetted, others 
are grooves several inches, or even feet, in breadth. There 
is one face of rock 8 feet high and 2 feet broad, in a position 
not far from vertical, which is entirely covered with groovings, 
generally about an inch broad, and nearly horizontal. The 
markings are found several feet wnder ‘he high-water line, and, 
though most abundant in low positions, some may be traced 
at a height of 300 feet above the sea, and three grooves were 
seen at an elevation of 600 feet, on the top of the ridge which 
divides Gareloch from Loch Long, and quite conformable in 
their bearing with those below. The grooves are cut on the 
edges of the lamine of the mica-slate ; and all those portions 
of the surface which are not striated are smoothed as if by 
abrasion. There are many dome-shaped prominent rocks ; 
and the sides of these which face the head of the valley, are 
more abraded than those which look in the opposite direc- 
tion, shewing that the abrading and grooving agent (agent 
sulcateur of the French geologists) moved from the NNW. 
to the SSE. Masses of rocks weighing many tons have also 
been moved in this direction. Stones with striated surfaces 
are found on the beach ; and on the east side of the valley, 
at a height of 500 feet, fragments of what seems to be a 
lateral moraine are visible. In short, marks of the ancient 
existence of a glacier in the valley are numerous and re- 
markably complete. 


166 Charles Maclaren, Esq., on Grooved and Striated Rocks 


Loch Long—Arrows 7 and 8.—I found grooves on the 
beach, on the east side, at a hamlet called Letter, though the 
coarse texture of the slate here is ill fitted to retain them. 
They run parallel to the line of the loch. A friend of mine 
saw others on the west side, a mile or two north of Holy 
Loch. But the most conspicuous and characteristic are ona 
vertical surface of rock on the west side, immediately below the 
junction of Loch Goil with Loch Long They are horizontal, 
from one to two inches broad, and cover some square yards. 
When the rock is wet they are seen from the deck of the 
Loch Goil steamer at the distance of 50 feet. Large grooves 
of this kind, on a vertical surface (and the examples are not 
rare), a8 they could only be produced by an immense /atera/ 
pressure, acting at right angles to the force of gravity, seem 
to me of themselves conclusive against the hypothesis which 
ascribes their production to currents of water charged with 
stones and gravel. 

The local position of these well-marked grooves seems to 
illustrate an opinion lately put forth by Agassiz, Desor, and 
Charles Martins. They say 11 is necessary to the formation 
of a glacier that a cavity (cirque, amphitheatre) much wider 
than itself should exist above it on the mountain, to serve as 
a reservoir for the collection of the ice and snow which feed 
it.* Now, Loch Goil meets Loch Long at an angle of about 
40°, forming with it a figure resembling the letter Y. When 
ice and snow filled both valleys to the depth of 1200 feet, 
the comparatively low hill in the bifurcation, called Argyle’s 
Bowling-Green, would be nearly covered, and the upper por- 
tion of the valley would form a reservoir or mer de glace six 
or seven miles wide, such as Agassiz describes. But taking 
them in their present state, each of the lochs, before they 
join, is as broad as the united loch after the junction; and if 
they were filled with ice moving slowly southwards, that ice 
would be powerfully compressed when the united mass was 
forced into a channei only half as broad as the two channels 


* Paper by Charles Martins, Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, No. 
Ixxxv., p. 54. 


in the Middle Region of Scotland. 167 


it had previously occupied, and would exert an immense 
lateral pressure on the walls of the valley confining it. Hence 
it is in situations like this that deep groovings, and especially 
on yertical surfaces, should be looked for. 

Something of the same kind is seen at Gareloch, which has 
a form resembling the figure annexed. 
Striz and grooves abound in the circular 
valley 2, where the ice must have collected ; 
those in the bottom are few and large; 
those on the sides numerous, but generally 
small. At y, where the valley is contracted 
to a gorge half a mile in breadth, the bot- 
tom, being covered with salt water, can no 
longer be seen; but great numbers of striz are found on the 
sides, and of various sizes, up to 6 or 8 inches in breadth. 
At z, where the loch widens out to a mile in breadth, and 
where the lateral pressure would, of course, be greatly re- 
laxed, the strize disappear, and are no more seen till we come 
to Row, five miles southward, where the breadth of the loch 
is again contracted by the point of land at Roseneath. At 
this place a few are visible (one 16 inches broad) scooped 
out across the lamine of the clay-slate, which here succeeds 
to the mica and chlorite slate. 

The cavity x would serve as a reservoir for the ice, or mer 
de glace, when the glacier occupying the valley was small ; 
but the grooves found on the top of the ridge dividing 
Gareloch from Loch Long (on a surface wonderfully smoothed 
and levelled) point to glacial phenomena on a grander scale. 
They can only be accounted for, in my opinion, by assuming 
that one vast mass of ice filled Gareloch and Loch Long, 
covering the ridge which divides them, and that the whole 
moved simultaneously in a SSE. direction, constituting a gla- 
cier four miles broad, and probably 1000 feet in depth.* 

The smooth sides, and even or gently-undulating outlines 
of the hills between Gareloch and Loch Lomond, which 
contrast so remarkably with the rough surface and serrated 


* See my paper in Edinburgh New Philosophical Journul, No. lxxxiii., p, 35. 


168 Charles Maclaren, Esq., on Grooved and Striated Rocks 


ridges of the mountains northward, led me, at first, to think 
that the protuberances and salient points of the former had 
been ground off by icebergs. I had then no data in my pos- 
session, authorising me to conclude that glaciers ever attained 
the depth of 2400 feet, necessary to cover the ridge on the 
west side of Loch Lomond; but the objection on this ground 
is now removed. The able French geologist named (M. 
Martins), has found traces of an ancient glacier on the Alps, 
758 metres (2468 English feet) above the bottom of the 
valley which contained it. There is no difficulty now, there- 
fore, in admitting, that a glacier might abrade the surfaces 
of the highest of these ridges. 

Loch Eck—Arrow 6.—The rocks on the two sides of this 
loch are smoothed and rounded off in a manner so conspi- 
cuous, that it cannot fail to strike the most careless ob- 
server. Ina hasty journey through it, I saw no strie; but 
the coarse surface of the slate is ill fitted to shew them. 
Dome-shaped rocks, however, with one side rough, clearly 
shew that the abrading agent moved in the same direction 
as at Gareloch,—namely, SSE. 

Loch Fine—Arrow 5.—I found some distinct groovings on 
the beach at St Catherines, opposite Inverary. Their bear- 
ing was conformable to that of the loch, or about SSW. 
It is worth remarking that there is a bifurcation here, caused 
by the meeting of two valleys, in the form of Y, like that 
which occurs at the junction of Loch Long and Loch Goil. 

Loch Awe—Arrow 4.—Smoothed rocks of gneiss are 
numerous at the foot of the hill of Stobacherachrun, on the 
north side of the loch, and many of the islets in it seem to 
be low, abraded domes. On the south side of the loch, about 
a mile west from Dalmally Inn, there are two little hills on 
the right and left sides of the road, which exhibit the crag- 
and-tail form, on a small scale, in a position the reverse of 
that we are accustomed to. The east side of each is laid 
bare and smoothed, while a mass of stones and soil covers 
the west side. On the face of the hill lying on the left or 
south side of the road, I found a few grooves, which pointed 
ENE. and WSW. Taken in connection with the crag- 
and-tail, they indicate that the abrasion and grooving were 


in the Middle Region of Scotland. 169 


produced by agents coming from WSW., where the deep 
glen, the Orchay, is situate, which may once have been the 
seat of a glacier. I found traces of broad grooves also on 
two small hills which rise abruptly from the valley, about a 
mile south from the inn. 

Loch Etive—Arrow 3.—I examined only a small portion 
of the southern shore of this loch, extending about a mile 
and a half westward from Connel- Ferry. The coast here is 
formed of basaltic clinkstone, which pushes out a series of 
salient points, sloping gently to the sea, and each resembling 
a segment of a discus. They are finely rounded and polished, 
though the rock is divided into thousands of polygons a few 
inches broad, by fissures, in which fuci have their roots. I 
found striz on several of these points, in the space between 
high and low water, where the smaller fuci grow. They 
were narrow, about the breadth of straws, but were rendered 
quite distinct by washing the surface. They were all on 
that face of each discus which sloped eastward or south-east- 
ward, and which was generally more abraded than the face 
which sloped north-westward. Their bearing surprised me. 
It was not conformable to the line of the shore—that is, east 
and west, but ESE. and WNW., as if produced by agents 
coming from Loch Awe, which is ten miles distant, and 
divided from Loch Etive here by hills from 300 to 500 feet 
high. Professor Forbes has shewn, that glacier-ice has a 
considerable degree of plasticity; and Agassiz infers, from 
the occasionally-oblique position of the striz, that it mounts 
over obstructing masses of rock. Shall we, then, assume, 
that the basin of Loch Awe was filled with it to the height 
of 1000 feet, and that a portion of it might find its way over 
the broad hilly barrier in this direction? The facts yet 
observed are inadequate to support such a conclusion ; but I 
give them as they presented themselves. 

Loch Leven—Arrow 2.—About a mile westward of Bala- 
hulish Ferry are two small outliers of the granite mountain, 
which skirts the shore there. They are about 80 feet long, 
and rise about 6 feet above the high water level. The eastern 
has the sea on three sides, the western is an island at high 
water. 


170 Charles Maciaren, Esq., on Grooved and Striated Rocks 


hk is the line of the shore, which runs east and west; A 
the western rock, B the eastern. A portion of the surface of 
both rocks is grooved, and the position of the grooved surfaces 
is highly instructive. The north-eastern face of B, from g 
to r, which is nearly vertical in its lower part, and rounded 
off above, is almost entirely covered with grooves, which are 
horizontal, straight, and parallel, generally about one inch 
broad, and so uniform and close together, as to remind one 
of the flutings of a Doric column. They cease at 7, precisely 
at the point where the rock begins to face the north-west ; 
and the north-west, as well as the west face, is entirely 
ungrooved, but considerably abraded. The east face p is 
partially grooved. The islet A presents appearances pre- 
cisely similar. The north face, and a portion of the east 
end,—that is, from m to n,—are beautifully marked with 
horizontal grooves, which entirely disappear on the part 
from » too. The grooving agent, then, had power to cut 
furrows in rocks facing the ENE. and N., but no power 
to furrow rocks facing the WNW., or even NNW.,— 
so rigid and steady was its westerly motion. Could water 
act in this way? All the ungrooved sides of the rock are, 
less or more, smoothed, and the roughest part is the west 
end 0. There is one distinct groove on the top of the islet 
3 or 4 feet long, and 13 inch broad, pointing exactly east 
and west. 


nea 
Fig. 2. 


The above is a view of the north face of the islet, drawn 
shortly after the visit, from memory, and not pretending to 
literal accuracy ; mm the grooved part. ” 0 the ungrooved part. 
It is a curious fact, that the most distinct grooves are in the 
space between high and low water. Above the high water line 
mw they become fainter and fainter, till they disappear. This 


in the Middle Region of Scotland. ITE 


holds true of both A and B. It seems strange that the action 
of the tide, which might be expected to obliterate the grooves, 
should be the means of preserving them. Such, however, is 
the fact ; and perhaps it admits of explanation. ‘The agent 
chiefly concerned in wasting the surface of the granite above 
the water, appears to be a sort of grey fog (a cryptogram, I 
suppose), everywhere visible, which takes root upon it, and, 
falling off, and being renewed periodically, carries minute 
grains of the rock with it, and thus gradually wears down 
the surface, and obliterates all fine markings upon it. The 
part beneath the high water line is protected from this vege- 
tation by the tide, and still more, by a sort of black pigment 
which the sea deposits upon the rock. To the eye, it has ex- 
actly the aspect of a coat of paint, and is probably about the 
100th part of an inch thick. When examined with a lens, it 
is seen to be divided by innumerable cracks into polygonal 
facets, from a 40th to a 200th part of an inch in breadth. 
This coating is probably permanent, or at least very durable ; 
and it covers most of the large groovings which are under the 
high water level, apparently without rendering them less con- 
spicuous. I found it also on the basaltic clinkstone at: Loch 
Etive (arrow 3); but there it seemed to be confined to the 
parts of the rock near the high water line, and probably to 
those daily wetted by the spray. It was thick enough to con- 
ceal the fine strise, which were visible at a greater depth. 
These two granitic masses seem to me to present a crucial 
test for Sir James Hall’s theory, and entirely to disprove his 
fundamental proposition. From the facts detailed, two con- 
clusions inevitably result: First, that the agent which pro- 
duced the grooves moved from east to west; secondly, that 
no agent capable of producing groovings, and acting contem- 
poraneously, moved in the opposite direction, or from west to 
east. We have here the advantage so seldom obtainable, of 
proving a negative. Sir James Hall, according to his theory, 
would have said that the grooves on the east ends of A and 
B were produced by the recoil wave, thrown back by the 
mountains ; but if the recoil or secondary wave, forming but 
a fraction of the great debacle, had sufficient power to do this, 
the direct and primary wave which immediately preceded it, 


172 Charles Maclaren, Esq., on Grooved and Striated Rocks 


consisting of the whole mass of water, and moving here 
freely over an open bay 5 miles wide, would have had much 
more. The west ends of A and B, then, should have been 
much more deeply grooved than the east ; while, in point of 
fact, the former are not grooved at all. It is plain, therefore, 
that the hypothetical wave had no existence. 

On a flat surface of the rock, at / in front of the granite 
quarry, striz and grooves running E. and W.., and beautifully 
distinct, cover several square yards. The north front of the 
granite hill presents abundant marks of abrasion, but I saw 
no grooves, though, doubtless, they once existed there. 

On the edges of the clay-slate, which is quarried for roof- 
ing, 2 miles east of the ferry, there are large conspicuous 
grooves running horizontally at an elevation of probably 40 
feet above the sea. Some of them seemed to be 5 or 6 inches 
broad. 

Glen Spean—Arrow 1.—From the Catholic chapel, a short 
distance eastward of Glen Roy, to the granite hill towards 
Loch Laggan (represented by an oval, shaded space, on the 
map) a line of 4 miles, abraded rocks are very numerous: 
strie were not common, but they were found at four or five 
places. They were horizontal, and on vertical or inclined 
surfaces. That the motion of the body which produced them 
was from east to west, might be inferred from the abrasion 
being greatest on the eastern sides of the rocks; but a 
more direct proof was afforded by the distribution of the 
granite boulders. These are scattered in thousands over the 
surface of the mica-slate for a mile westward of the gra- 
nite hill, and of all sizes, up to blocks weighing ten tons. 
Smaller masses are found as far west as the bridge of Roy, 
and beyond it. Granite blocks are also met with on the ter- 
races of the parallel roads. I counted twelve on two miles 
of the lower and second terraces, varying in bulk from half a 
cubic yard to two cubic yards. As they had lost their angles by 
weathering, specimens were not easily procured, but I was 
able to satisfy myself that some of them were identical with 
the rock eastward, alluded to. Others may belong to the 
granite mass seven miles northward, at the head of the River 
Roy. Mr Darwin found granite blocks on the hills between 


in the Middle Region of Scotland. 173 


Glen Roy and Loch Lochy, at the height of 2200 feet above 
the sea. 

Loch Earn—Two arrows 14.—At the west end of the vil- 
lage of Comrie there is a broad platform or shelf of clay-slate, 
projecting ten yards from the hill above, and of which Fig. 3 


Fig. 3. Fig. 4. 


wa 


is a section lengthways. It rises 25 feet above the road, is 
about 200 feet long from a to d, flat on the top dc, truncated 
at the east end, ¢ d, but terminating in a beautifully rounded 
and smoothed declivity a 4, at the west end. This form is 
shewn in the section, and prevails among the adjacent rocks: 
The platform, 6 c, exhibits a fine specimen of grooving. The 
whole area is smoothed, and the grooves appear at intervals 
over all the flat part of it, of which they cover a considerable 
proportion. They are from i inch to a full inch in breadth, 
straight as mathematical lines, and everywhere rigorously 
parallel. Their bearing is WNW. and ESE., or more cor- 
rectly N. 60 W., and S. 60 E., and they cross the planes of 
the slate at an angle of 25° or 30°. One space, 10 feet by 3, 
is entirely grooved. 

In the picturesque and beautiful district from Comrie to 
St Fillans, at the east end of Loch Earn, a succession of rocks 
oceur on both sides of the road, which present smoothed and 
abraded faces, ef (Fig. 4), to the west, while the eastern side, 
fg, is rugged or uneven. 

At the east end of the loch, on the south side, there is a sec- 
tion of the rock exposed, close to the cart-road. It is 10 feet 
long and 6 feet high, and is entirely covered with grooves 
from } to 13 inch in breadth, and nearly horizontal. The 
grooved area faces the NNW., crossing the axis of the loch 
at 15° or 20°, and is inclined to the horizon at 35°. It is 
about 5 or 6 yards above the level of the water. I found 
stri also on the north side of the loch at two places, running 


174 Charles Maclaren, Esq., ox Grooved and Striated Rocks 


east and west. The surface was wet with rain ; in a dry day 
they would have escaped observation. 

Loch Lubnig—Arrow 12.—Strie were seen on the east 
side of the loch, close to the road, one mile from the south 
end. They ran north and south, were on a surface highly 
inclined, and would not have been visible if the rock had 
not been wet. 

Loch Katrine—Arrow 11.—At one spot on the north side, 
near the east end, striz were seen, running nearly E. and W. 
on a horizontal surface. 

Callender—Arrow 13.—On the top of the hill, which rises 
like a wall behind the village, I found grooves running 
nearly east and west. The hill consists of beds of coarse con- 
glomerate, mixed with beds of red sandstone, all very highly 
inclined. The grooves were on a portion of the edges of the 
sandstone, which was nearly level. 

I consider the proofs of an easterly motion in the grooving 
agent at Loch Earn and Comrie, to be quite conclusive, and 
on the strength of this evidence, have assumed that the mo- 
tion was easterly also at Loch Katrine and Callender, and 
southward at Loch Lubnig, as the arrows 11, 12, 13, indicate. 

The dotted line in the map, extending from Bute to Crieff, 
and onward to the River Tay, shews the junction of the old 
red sandstone and clay-slate, and marks the eastern boundary 
of the mountainous country. 

Horizontal groovings are seen at the west end of the 
Crinan Canal, on a vertical surface (No. 10), a little above 
the level of the water; but there is nothing to indicate in 
what direction the object which caused them moved. 

In the basin of the Forth the striz run in lines approach- 
ing to east and west ; and the appearance of the hills, which 
present the phenomena of crag-and-tail, entitles us to con- 
clude that the agents which produced the strie moved from 
the west to the east. In the map an attempt has not been 
made, except in a few instances, to give the direction of the 
lines within less than one point of the exact bearing, many 
of the observations having been made some years ago, when 
a minute attention to this matter was not thought necessary. 
Some of them, too, are on vertical surfaces, and so placed as 


in the Middle Region of Scotland. 175 


to indicate that the grooving agent was deflected from its 
original course. In the district generally, the uniformity of 
direction being so great, a mere list of the localities is nearly 
all that is requisite. 

Arrow No. 15. On the west shoulder of Demyat, three 
miles from Stirling, 500 feet above the sea, direction ESE. 

16. At Torwood, four miles NW. from Falkirk, arrow 16, 
direction ESE., observed by Sir J. Hall. In this and the 
preceding, the bearing of the strie corresponds with that of 
the upper part of the Frith of Forth, and with the remark- 
able furrows on the rock of Stirling Castle, of which the 
figure below is a rough sketch, borrowed from the “ Sketch 
of the Geology of Fife and the Lothians.” 


Fig. 5. 


==} 
J 


This rock forms an isolated hill, rising 300 feet, at S, 
above the plain which surrounds it. The highest part is an 
escarpment of trap, a, 6, c, d, e, fronting the north-west. The 
furrow, or rather ravine, dividing the ridge a, from the ridge 
b, is about 60 feet deep, and sharply cut. The others, be- 
tween 6 and c, c and d, d and e, are from 15 to 40 feet, and 
they all point north-westward. The coincidence in bearing 
of these furrows with the striz on Demyat, 3 miles northward, 
and with the others at Torwood (arrow 16) is interesting. 

17. On trap, one mile south from Borrowstounness, about 
150 or 200 feet above the sea. 


176 Charles Maclaren, Esq., on Grooved and Striated Rocks 


18. On sandstone, at Hillhouse Quarry, one mile south 
from Linlithgow. 

19. On the shore at Granton Pier, nearly one point north 
of east—(Dr Fleming). 

20. On Corstorphine Hill, nearly one point north of east— 
(Sir J. Hall); also at Ravelston and Craigleith Quarry, seen 
by myself. 

21. On the north limb of Arthur Seat, 500 feet above the 
sea—(Dr Fleming); and on the Queen’s Drive, south side of 
the hill. 

23. Westward of Craigmillar Castle, exposed in a quarry 
some years ago. 

24, 25, 26. On Pentland Hills. Few groovings have been 
found on the Pentland Hills, but those known are interest- 
ing. I found well-marked striz on the banks of Westwater 
(arrow 26), about a mile north from Dunsyre, at an eleva- 
tion of 800 or 900 feet above the sea. The valley, which was 
not deep, runs south and north, and the striz crossed it, run- 
ning exactly east and west. , The grooving agent, therefore, 
did not move downward from the summits of the Pentlands, 
but crossed one of their southern declivities at an angle of 
45°, with the direction of the chain. That agent, therefore, 
could not be a glacier descending from the Pentlands. Ar- 
row 25 marks the situation of strive near a place called 
“ Thomson’s Wa’s,” and about 1400 feet above the sea. 
They were seen by Dr Fleming, who described them as run- 
ning east and west. On a recent visit to the place, I could 
not discover a trace of them; owing, no doubt, to the blocks 
of sandstone on which they were, having been removed in 
quarrying. They were on or near the ridge which consti- 
tutes the watershed, and about half a mile east from East 
Cairn Hill, whose height is stated to be 1800 feet. 

Arrow 26. Very distinct striz have been recently exposed 
about half a mile west from Bonally, where a reservoir is 
now constructing. Mr Leslie, the engineer who planned the 
works, obligingly called my attention to them. They occur 
on the north face of Torduff Hill, about 30 or 35 feet above 
the bottom (the real bottom of rock) of the deep and nar- 
row valley between that hill and Warklaw Hill. The face 


in the Middle Region of Scotland. 177 


of the rock (a felspathic claystone), dips at 40°; the striz are 
horizontal, parallel, and quite straight, and extend over a 
surface from 1 to 3 feet in breadth (vertically), and about 25 
feet in length. Their direction corresponds with that of the 
valley at the place, being precisely ENE. and WSW. The 
valley is about 300 feet in depth, and, including the upper 
portion, which curves round the west end of Torduff Hill, 
about three quarters of a mile in length. It is such a valley 
as might give birth to a glacier at a glacial epoch. On the 
top of the same hill, about 900 feet above the sea, striz and 
grooves, in short lines, can be detected at intervals, pointing 
also very uniformly ENE. and WSW. A floating body, 
such as ice, coming hither from the west, would have a course 
perfectly unobstructed for 20 miles ; for the high ground in a 
WSW. direction presents the aspect of aplain. Such a body, 
as it passed along, would graze the western front, the top, 
and the flanks of this hill; and accordingly we find that, like 
the hills in the low country, it has the crag-and-tail form, 
with the crag to the west. Both the head and foot of the 
hill exhibit proofs of abrasion and grooving, but whether by 
glacier ice, or floating ice, or both, is still a problem. 

27. At Fenton Tower, direction ESE. and WSW., noticed 
by Sir James Hall. 

28, 29. At Old Markle and Gosford Spittle, on the North 
British Railway, the groovings horizontal, and very distinct, 
but the surfaces are vertical, they seem to me to give no sure 
indication of the line of motion. 

My principal object in this paper was to register the phe- 
nomena observed ; and, in speaking of their probable causes, 
I shall endeavour to be brief. 

The Grampian District—We have seen that, on the east 
side of this district, at Loch Tay, the abrading and grooving 
agents moved eastward ; that on the west side, at Glen Spean, 
Loch Leven, and Loch Etive, they moved westward; and 
that on the south side, at Loch Fine, Loch Eck, Loch Long, 
and Gareloch, they moved southward. It follows that 
the nucleus of this physical force, the common centre from 
which the agents moved, was in the group of mountains ex- 
tending from Loch Goil northward to Loch Laggan, dividing the 

VOL, XLVII. NO. XCIII.— JULY 1849. M 


178 Charles Maclaren, Esq., on Grooved and Striated Rocks 


springs of the Spean, the Leven, and the Orchay, from those 
of the Spey, the Tay, the Earn, and the Forth. And the force 
must have resided in some substance which admitted of ac- 
cumulation to a vast extent, for the abrasion produced by it 
can be traced to the height of more than 2000 feet. Now 
water could not be so accumulated here except in the form of 
snow and ice, and even if it were so accumulated in the liquid 
state, it could not, as has been shewn, produce the effects 
fairly ascribable to it. These effects are such as cannot be 
ascribed to any agency known, except that of glaciers, aided 
perhaps, in some cases, by floating ice. 

Professor Forbes, in his paper on the Cuchullin Hills in 
Skye (in No. 79 of this Journal), describes well-marked grooy- 
ings on their sides, radiating from the hills in different direc- 
tions, as from a common centre, so disposed, he observes, 
that they can be accounted for neither by mountain lakes 
nor great oceanic waves, nor by any great agent known but 
glaciers. 

I have not yet examined the channels of the Spey, the 
Findhorn, or the Dee, but I have no doubt that groovings 
pointing northward and eastward, will be found in them. I 
infer that the mountainous country, west of the Great Glen, 
from Morvern northward to Sunderland, was another centre 
of glacial action ; and further, that the Great Glen itself was 
probably the seat of a glacier which found an exit by its 
north and south ends, and was fed by the smaller glaciers 
flowing into it from the east and west. 

The striz, groovings, and kindred phenomena, in the great 
central valley between the Frith of Forth and the Frith of 
Clyde, and on the hills contained in it, do not seem to admit 
of explanation on precisely the same principles. The striz 
in this district have a direction always approximating to east 
and west, and there is good evidence to shew that the abrad- 
ing agent moved eastward. No glacial markings have yet 
been discovered, so far as I know, running in lines at right 
angles to the sides of the Pentlands, such as glaciers in the 
transverse valleys would produce. On the other hand, the 
strie found on their summits and flanks (arrows 24, 25, 26), 
either run along the chain, or hold their course independently 
of it. 


in the Middle Region of Scotland. 179 


Much remains yet to be done before adequate materials 
for a satisfactory theory are collected. In the mean time, a 
few conjectures may be indulged in provisionally. 

The transportation of a block of mica slate, weighing 8 
or 10 tons, from the Grampians, across the low land, to a 
point in the Pentlands 1000 feet above the sea, is scarcely 
susceptible of explanation, except by calling in the agency 
of ice floating on an ocean at a far higher level than the pre- 
sent. The existence of such an ocean, with masses of ice 
floating on it, whether in the shape of icebergs, field-ice, or 
coast-ice, being admitted, it seems a legitimate inference, 
that the ice, borne eastward by a current, and having pro- 
bably stones and gravel adhering to it, or imbedded in it, 
might produce the striz on the top of Torduff Hill, arrow 
24, and those at the other high localities 25 and 26. Far- 
ther, as the ocean, in ascending to its higher position, or de- 
scending from it, must have assumed different levels in suc- 
cession, the striz on Arthur Seat, and Corstorphine and 
Ravelstone Hills, and at all the other localities, high and 
low, from Stirling to Gosford and Fenton Tower, might be 
the result of the same agency. This seems a more reason- 
able hypothesis than that which assumes, that a vast sheet 
of ice covered the country from the Grampians to the Lam- 
mermuirs (a breadth of 50 miles), and, in moving eastward, 
grooved both the high lands and the low. It seems to afford 
a better explanation of the phenomena. 

The craig-and-tail form is so often accompanied with grooy- 
ings, that it is due probably, in a greater degree, to floating 
masses of ice than to the current which bore them along. 

There is a class of phenomena best accounted for by the 
agency of coast-ice, which is well known to lift stones and 
gravel from the bottom and sides of rivers and bays, and 
transport them over moderate distances. Mr Lyell cites ex- 
amples of blocks weighing 50 tons, being removed in this 
manner by the ice of the St Lawrence. In this way we may 
explain such facts as the following. 1. Thousands of gra- 
nite blocks lifted from the hill in Glen Spean (arrow 1), near 
Loch Laggan, and carried westward ; a vast number of them 
dropped within a furlong or half a mile of their original site, 
a smaller number conveyed a mile, and a few to much greater 


180 Charles Maclaren, Esq., on Grooved and Striated Rocks 


distances ; here, however, part of the effect may be due to 
glaciers. 2. Travelled masses of trap and other enduring 
rocks in the basin of the Forth, carried eastward from their 
parent rock in great numbers, and chiefly for short distances. 
3. Numerous blocks of the greenstone of Salisbury Crag, torn 
from the top of the precipice, and carried eastward, most of 
them only for a space of one or two furlongs, but some trans- 
ported across the ravine, and lodged on Arthur Seat. On the 
same principle, the removal of the multitude of angular blocks 
of porphyritic basalt, resting on the skirts of the south-east 
limb of Arthur Seat, and evidently torn from the upper part 
of that limb, may be accounted for. 

Rarity of ancient moraines.—I looked in the grooved valleys 
of the Grampians for remnants of ancient lateral moraines, 
but saw nothing that could be considered as such, except in 
one instance at Gareloch. Perhaps their disappearance may 
be referred to certain geological changes, of which, in the 
opinion of Agassiz, and some American geologists, distinct 
traces exist. They think that at the close of the glacial 
epoch the sea rose and covered the mountains of the northern 
parts of Europe and America to a great height, and then 
again subsided and left the land dry as before, though not 
perhaps at the same level. During the rise and fall of the 
water, deposits of moveable matter, like these moraines, must 
have been very often remodelled or swept away. We have 
evidence in support of the alleged changes of relative level 
in the fact that strie and grooving, certainly produced by 
glaciers on terra firma, are found covered by the old boul- 
der clay, which has been deposited from water, and which 
ascends to the height of 800 feet at least above the present 
seas. 

A similar inference may be drawn from facts which the beds 
of our rivers present, and which indicate three successive 
conditions. First, the bed was a channel cut on the dry land 
by the stream; next, the land was submerged, and the channel 
was filled up by the boulder clay; thirdly, the land rose 
again above the sea, when the river began to resume pos- 
session of its old channel, or in some instances, perhaps, 
formed a new one. I refer, as an example of these changes, 
to a section on the River Allan near Stirling. 


in the Middle Region of Scotland. 181 


The rock O R consists of beds of conglomerate and sand- 
stone dipping to the west at an angle of 5° or 10°. The ra- 
vine at the Bridge of Allan is from 150 to 200 feet deep. OC 
is a deposit of clay, of which the lower half has distinctly the 
character of the older diluvium, being very firm, and inclosing 
striated blocks of chlorite slate and other travelled stones. 
It descends to the water-course at a, and the deep cut dre 
made on it for the railway, which occupies the hollow +, as- 
sures us that the clay is not a mere superficial covering which 
may have slid down from above and concealed the face of the 
rock, but the remnant of a deposit which once filled, or 
nearly filled, the ravine. The depth, in the direction 7 ¢, 
is, at least, 80 feet. The rock is not visible on this side, but 
it reappears in a quarry half a mile westward with the usual 
dip, at an elevation exceeding that of the point c, and is also 
seen on the left of the railway farther north. The legitimate 
conclusions deducible from the facts, I think, are these; that 
the ravine was excavated in the rock by a river, and nearly to 
its present depth; that the land then sunk under the sea, 
and remained there during the deposition of the older and 
newer boulder clay, which filled up the ravine wholly or par- 
tially ; that after this the land rose again above the water, 
when the river sought out and re-opened its old channel. 

Examples of similar phenomena are probably not rare. 
There is a mass of dark coloured clay, 40 feet in height, 
forming the south bank of the Water of Leith at Coltbridge, 
which seems to indicate that that portion of the bed of the 
stream was excavated before the diluvium was deposited. It 
is alluded to in Sir James Hall’s paper. In the parish of 
Muiravonside, westward from Linlithgow, the River Avon 
flows between two precipices of the old boulder clay from 100 
to 150 feet in height. For the space of a mile above Side. 


182. Dr Fleming on a Simple Form of Rain-Gauge. 


trees, no rock is visible in the water-course, except a vein of 
trap at a mill; the distance from bank to bank varies from a 
furlong to a quarter of a mile, and the clay is so hard and 
tenacious that it rises at several points almost vertically, like 
a wall, from the water edge to the height of more than 100 
feet. Where the clay was laid open by lateral rivulets, I 
found grooved stones embedded in it, some of them of chlorite 
slate. Farther south, sandstone is seen on both sides. The 
ravine seems, in short, to be an ancient water-course re- 
opened. The absence of visible rock on the west side, be- 
hind the clay, may, indeed, suggest the idea that there is 
nothing but clay in that direction ; but the height and form 
of the land there, and other circumstances, satisfy me that 
this is not the case. Perhaps some of the ancient channels, 
when filled up with the boulder clay, were in the condition 
described by Playfair, namely, chains of lakes connected 
by streams whose channels abounded in cataracts. If the 
idea here thrown out be correct, that some of our rivers are 
now flowing in ancient channels reopened, it follows that 
the subsidence and re-elevation of the land through a space 
of more than 1000 feet, had done very little to disturb the 
levels. But the subject yet requires investigation. 


On a Simple Form of Rain-Gauge. By the Rey. JOHN 
Fiemine, D.D., &c., Professor of Natural Science, New 
College, Edinburgh. Communicated by the Author.* 


The defects with which rain-gauges may be charged, at 
present, seem referable to inattention to the influence of the 
wind on the falling ratn-drop. If the drop was influenced 
only by gravity in its descent to the earth, the form and posi- 
tion of the rain-gauge would be comparatively of little im- 
portance. But in addition to its centripetal tendency, regu- 
lated in velocity by its size and the height of the fall, the 
rain-drop is frequently acted upon by the wind, and deflected 
more or less from its normal path, according to the velocity 
and direction of the current. While the wind thus influences 


* Read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 16th April 1849. 


ye 


Dr Fleming on a Simple Form of Rain-Gauge. 183 


the rain-drop, it likewise, in its turn, is modified in its hori- 
zontal direction by every projecting obstacle, and deflected, 
according to circumstances, laterally, upwards, or down- 
wards, carrying the rain-drop along with it in its course. 
Whoever has watched the falling of rain under the influence 
of wind, and in the neighbourhood of houses, walls, or other 
obstacles, must have observed, as the result of the eddies 
generated, that it is deposited in defect in some places, and 
in excess in others. In the case of falling snow, the derange- 
ment is of the same character, but more obvious. Had these 
influences been duly attended to, there would have been fewer 
confident assertions respecting the smaller quantity of rain 
which falls on elevated buildings than at lower levels, and 
more inquiry respecting the cause of a less quantity being 
collected in such circumstances. 

When a rain-gauge is elevated three or four feet above the 
level of the ground, it is easily observed and emptied of its 
contents, and, in calm weather, may be considered trust- 
worthy. During a moderately stiff breeze, however, the rain- 
drops may be seen whirled about in the funnel, and even 
carried out and lost after they had nearly reached their des- 
tination. But independent of the eddies in the funnel, there 
are deflections of the current produced externally, which ex- 
ercise corresponding influence. 

The late Mr Thom of Ascog, Bute, a well-known and ju- 
dicious hydraulic engineer, was in the habit of measuring 
the fall of rain, in order to predicate respecting the quantity 
of water which might be derived from a natural or artificial 
lake or pond, as a motive power for mill purposes. The gauge 
which he employed was similar to the one figured by Cavallo, 
in his “ Natural Philosophy,” vol. ii., p. 424, tab. xv., p. 3. 
It was defective, however, in the want of a rim to the funnel, 
so as to prevent the dispersion of any drops impinging di- 
rectly on the sloping sides. But if defective in respect of the 
rim, the position which he assigned to the gauge itself, namely, 
placing it in a grass plot, and on a level with the surface, 
constituted a decided improvement. The mouth of the funnel, 
although unnecessarily large, does not present space enough 
to permit any perceptible acceleration of the current of wind, 


184 Dr Fleming on a Simple Form of Rain-Gauge. 


on the free surface, which had been uniformly retarded on 
the grass plot, and consequently receives a fair proportion of 
the falling rain. 

The body of the gauge, for receiving the water collected 
by the mouth or funnel, by being placed in the ground, is 
protected against changes of temperature ; little or no evapo- 
ration can take place, so that the emptying and adjusting 
may be effected at distant intervals. 

Having employed for several years, at Aberdeen, an instru- 
ment presented to me by Mr Thom, I was satisfied that it 
fulfilled nearly all the conditions of a trustworthy instru- 
ment, differing, however, in its humble appearance, from those 
eye-traps or gimcracks usually set up as rain-gauges. The 
process of emptying, however, was a troublesome one, as the 
funnel required to be removed, the float lifted out, and then 
the water in the cylinder taken up by means of a cup or 
sponge, at the end of every month or two, according to cir- 
cumstances. 

To remedy this evil, it occurred to me, that by employing 
an external cylinder, permanently placed in the ground, for 
receiving the cylinder forming the rain-gauge, a consider- 
able improvement might be effected. 1. The necessity of 
removing the funnel at every adjustment, might be got rid 
of by having a stopcock at the bottom of the receiver, so that 
upon the gauge being lifted out of the ground, or rather out 
of its external case, the water might, without trouble, be let 
off, and the float adjusted to zero, by the addition of the re- 
quisite quantity of water by the mouth of the instrument. 
2. By getting quit of the funnel, the whole gauge may be a 
single cylinder, with the mouth of the same diameter as the 
body of the instrument, whereby errors of workmanship, pro- 
ducing unequal areas, may be avoided. 3. By simplifying the 
instrument, and thereby greatly reducing the expense, it is 
expected that observers will be increased, and additional data 
procured for determining the distribution of rain over the 
globe, by details furnished by comparable gauges. 

The preceding remarks will render any minute description 
of the instrument unnecessary, but the following notices may 
be of use. 


Dr Fleming on a Simple Form of Rain-Gauge. 185 


Fig. 1 is the external cy- 
linder, closed at bottom, and 
sunk perpendicularly into the 
ground, with its margin on a Ml oe om 
level with the earthy surface. LON NA 
Fig. 2 is the inner cylinder or PN 
rain-gauge, open at top, to act \RiN7/ 
as a funnel for receiving the LOI 
rain, but closed at the bottom, //3/4/% 
except the central stop-cock, eat 
fig. 3, for letting off the water. on 
This inner cylinder or gauge, AP ONY 
is no narrower than its case, /\\\ 
unless in so far as to allowof /2\ 
its being easily lifted out for BOX; 
the purposes of adjustment. } ie, 

This inner cylinder is fur- LNG aN Pr if Rae DIRS SIN 
nished with a shoulder or UT Dy PN arent DY ah 
flange, fig. 4, to close upon the mouth of the case, and prevent 
the entrance of any earth, sand, or leaves, so as to obstruct 
the easy elevation of the gauge. 

Fig. 5 is the surface of the grass plot in which the gauge 
is placed, and which must be kept in a trim condition in its 
immediate neighbourhood. 

Fig. 6 is the hollow float to which the index-rod 7 is at- 
tached. The rain which falls into the mouth of the cylinder 
will be conducted by the funnel, fig. 8, situate an inch and a 
half within the margin (to which it is soldered) into the re- 
ceiver, fig. 2, and raise the float to a corresponding degree. 

Fig. 9 is a thin vertical strip extending across the middle 
of the mouth, with a sheath at the centre to embrace the rod, 
as a guide, and to serve as determining the zero of the scale 
and the indications of change. When the stopcock, fig. 3, 
has been open, and the water let off, the beginning of the 
seale on fig. 10 will usually be a little lower than the mark- 
ing edge, fig. 9. In this case, a little water is poured into 
the cylinder, in order to bring the commencement of the scale 
to zero, or fig. 10, and, on the falling of rain, the index rises, 
and, being divided into inches and tenths, numbered down- 
wards on the rod, the quantity is readily seen by inspection. 


AZ &. 


——\, 
io 


ef 


186 = Dr Fleming on a Simple Form of Rain-Gauge. 


The position of the gauge in a well-trimmed grass plot, at 
a distance from houses, walls, or trees, seems to me to ob- 
viate all risk of any extra water getting in, as the points of 
the grass effectually prevent any such occurrence, Those ob- 
servers, however, who are particularly fastidious on the sub- 
ject, may adopt a brush to be placed around the margin of 
the gauge, as recommended by Mr Thomas Stevenson, civil 
engineer, in this Journal for July 1842. 

The séze of the gauge, or the area requisite for receiving a 
fair amount of the falling rain, can scarcely be said to have 
attracted sufficient notice. If we assume that the accele- 
ration of the current would take place, by passing from a 
grassy surface over the open space of the mouth of the 
gauge, and a corresponding derangement of the motion of 
the rain-drop, then it must follow, that the larger the area, 
the greater will be the amount of error from this source. In 
order to put this to the test, I placed in the same grass-plot 
with a Thom’s gauge of seven inches in diameter, three other 
gauges of one, two, and three inches in diameter, and ob- 
tained the results for three months, viz. :— 


1842. 
Sept. Oct. Nov. 
No. 1. Diam. =1 inch, 3°689 3°086 5°3255 
Des nee ee, SOOT 3°261 5°2589 
3 Someta (oro oll 3°346 51829 
a eat) ty, pean ets OO 3°300 5:3750 


The grass-plot was not free from eddies, arising from 
buildings, trees, and walls; but as all the gauges were 
nearly similarly exposed, and as they gave nearly similar 
results, | am inclined to think, that a receiver of one inch 
in diameter is as trustworthy as one of seven inches. When 
the instrument is to be made of copper (the most suitable 
ingredient), the small size reduces the expense. I have 
noticed the index-rod as divided into inches and tenths. 
The eye, after a short practice, has little difficulty in halving 
or quartering the tenths; and this is a degree of accuracy 
as great as the circumstances of the case warrant us in 
aiming at. The inequality in the fall of rain, at two places 
within less than a mile of each other, forbid us to expect any 
very accurate correspondence among gauges, even at mo- 


New Adamantine Mineral from Brazil. 187 


derate distances apart, although similar in form and position. 
The gauge exhibited to the Society, and which was three 
inches in diameter, and two feet in depth, was constructed 
for me by Mr James Bryson, Princes Street, Edinburgh, 
who has furnished several similar instruments, now in ope- 
ration in different parts of the country. 

In conclusion, I may add, that the average annual fall of 
rain at Aberdeen, according to six years’ observations with 
Mr Thom’s gauge, was =30-4 inches. According to Mr 
Thom, the average of thirty years at Rothesay, in Bute, was 
=—48-29 inches. The maximum annual quantity =71:37 
inches, fell in 1811, and the minimum quantity =38-45, in 
1803. 


New CoLLece, EDINBURGH, 
June 18, 1849. 


New Adamantine Mineral from Brazil. 


M. Dufrenoy lately exhibited before the French Academy a 
specimen of a mineral from Brazil, which appears to be to the 
diamond what emery is to corundum, as stated by M. Elie 
de Beaumont. Among some specimens recently sent to the 
Ecole des Mines, by M. Hoffman, a dealer in minerals, were 
two which were stated to be hard enough to polish the dia- 
mond; and, in fact, the hardness of these specimens was 
found to be superior to that of the topaz. 

This substance was analysed by M. Rivot, mining-engineer, 
who had at his disposal one large fragment weighing 65-760 
grs., and several small pieces, weighing rather less than 0:50 
gr.; the latter only were analysed. The large fragment ap- 

eared to come from the same alluvial formation as that in 
which the Brazilian diamonds occur. Its edges are rounded 
by long friction ; but it has not the appearance of a rolled 
flint. Itis of a slightly brownish dull black colour. Viewed 
with a glass, it appears riddled with small cavities separat- 
ing very small, irregular lamine, which are slightly translu- 
cent and iridescent. The brown colour is very unequally dis- 
tributed throughout the mass. On one of the faces the cavi- 
ties are linear, which gives it a fibrous aspect similar to ob- 
sidian. It cuts glass readily, and scratches quartz and topaz ; 
its density is only 3-012. The small fragments subjected to 
analysis weighed, 0-444 gr., 0-410 ger., and 0°332 gr.; their 
densities were respectively 3:141, 3-416, and 3-255. 

These numbers indicate great difference in the porosity of 
the specimens ; they lead, however, to the conclusion, that 


188 Dr Balfour’s Descriptionof Rare Plants. 


the density of the substance is very nearly the same as that 
of the diamond. By means of long calcination at a bright- 
red heat in a covered crucible, the specimens were not altered ; 
they retained their aspect, hardness, and weight; they do 
not, therefore, contain any substance volatilizable by calcina- 
tion out of contact of the air. This result, certainly, does not 
prove the igneous origin of these diamonds, but renders im- 
probable the idea expressed by M. Liebig, that diamonds 
are derived from the transformation of organic vegetable 
matter. 

The three specimens were successively. burned in pure 
oxygen gas in the apparatus employed by M. Dumas for the 
combustion of the diamond. The oxygen obtained from chlo- 
rate of potash was contained in a gasometer ; it was dried and 
purified before it reached the combustion tube, by passing 
through two tubes containing sulphuric acid and pumice, and 
one tube with potash; employing this method with the pre- 
cautions indicated by M. Dumas, 100 of the first specimen 
gave, carbon 96°84, ash 2:03; loss 1:13: second specimen 
gave, carbon 99°73, a “10:24 ; loss 0:03: third specimen gave, 
earbon 99-87, ash @.7 ; loss 0-36. 

In the combustion of the first specimen, only one bulb-tube 
with potash was employed, so that a portion of the carbonic 
acid produced by the combustion was lost ; but in the other 
two experiments, in which two bulb-tubes, containing pot- 
ash, were used, the second increased in weight some centi- 
grammes. 

The last two analyses prove perfectly that the specimens 
are composed entirely of carbon and ash. The ash was yel- 
lowish ; and in the first specimen it had retained the form of 
the diamond. When examined by the microscope, the ash 
appeared to be composed of ferruginous alumina and small 
transparent crystals, the form of which could not be ascer- 
tained.—(L’ Institut, Mars 2, 1849: Philosophical Magazine, 
vol, xxxiv., 38d series, No. 230, May 1849, p. 397.) 


Notice of some Plants which have flowered recently in the Royal 
Botanic Garden. By J. H. BALFour, M.D., Professor of 
Botany in the University of Edinburgh. (With a Plate of 
the Quassia amara.) Communicated by the Author. 


QUASSIA AMARA, Linn. Spec. Plant. ed. Willd., tom. ii., 
p- 567. Linn. fil. Suppl., p.235. Lamarck Illust., t. 434. 
Decandolle, Annales du Museum, xvii. 323; Prodromus I. 
733. Ad. Jussieu, Mémoires du Museum, xii., tab. 27, 
No. 48. Hayne, Darstellung und Beschreibung der in 
der Arzneikunde gebraiichlichen Gewiachse, ix. 14 (tab.). 


Dr Balfour’s Description of Rare Plants. 189 


Curt. Bot. Mag., pl. 497. Lodd. Bot. Cab., pl. 172.— 
Nat. Ord. Simarubaceze. 


In the April number of this Journal a description was given of the 
Quassia plant in the Botanic Garden, in so far as regards its 
stem, branches, leaves, and flower-buds. At the time the de- 
scription was written, there seemed to be no prospect of any 
flowers expanding, for they fell off in the state of bud. By 
bending the branches, however, Mr M‘Nab has succeeded in 
making the plant send out several recemes, the flowers of which 
have come to perfection, and I am thus enabled to add a deserip- 
tion of the flower, along with a characteristic drawing. 

Flowers of a scarlet colour, in terminal bracteated racemes. Pe- 
duncle terminal, about 2 inches in length, dark crimson, covered 
with small, acute, dark-coloured, hairy bracts, the lower ones 
empty, upper ones bearing each a pedicellate flower. Pedicels 
about 51, of an inch in length, as long as the bracts, which 
are recurved at the apex ; a contraction occurs where the flower 
is attached to the pedicel. Peduncles, pedicels, and bracts have 
scattered hairs. Calyx dark crimson, bibracteolate at the base ; 
limb divided into five smal]l, rounded, ovate segments, which are 
toothed at the margin. Corolla brig % crimson, contorto-im- 
bricate in estivation, when fully deve: 1d still retaining a 
twisted appearance. Petals 5, with scattered hairs outside, more 
or less imbricated, and often slightly rolled in at the margin, 
rather more than an inch in length, ovate-lanceolate, blunt at the 
apex, curved at the lower part, where, by their apposition, they 
form a sort of sac. Stamens 10, longer than the corolla; fila- 
ments about 11 inch in length, of a pink colour, each with a white, 
scale-like, curved, hairy appendage at its base ; anthers versatile, 
dithecal, lobes separated at the base, introrse, with longitudinal 
dehiscence ; pollen trigonous, with 3 points where the intine pro- 
trudes. Ovary consisting of 5 united but easily separable car- 
pels, supported on a large discoid gynophore, the lower part of 
which is adherent to the calycine tube. The 5 styles which pro- 
ceed from the carpels are twisted together, and become blended 
so as to form at the upper part a single style, ending in a lobed 
and discoid blunt stigma; ovule solitary in each carpel, suspended, 
anatropal; embryo exalbuminous. fruit (not perfect in the 
plant in the garden, and described therefore from a dried speci- 
men communicated by Dr Christison) consists of five drupes 
spreading out horizontally from the gynophore, occasionally one 
or more are abortive; each drupe when dried is surrounded by a 
keel, which is very prominent on the upper side; epicarp dark- 
brown, with projecting reticulated veins. Seed suspended from 
the inner angle of the drupe. Embryo exalbuminous, cotyledons 
fleshy, radicle superior. 


Explanation of the Drawing. 
The drawing (Plate III.) has been executed by Mr James M‘Nab, the 
Superintendent of the Botanic Garden. 
1. Flowering branch, with impari-pinnate leaf and winged petiole. 


190 Dr Balfour’s Description of Rare Plants. 


2. Jointed leaf, with winged petiole and undivided blade. 3. Stamen, 
with hairy scale at its base. 4. Lateral view of a staminal scale. 5. 
Ovary, consisting of 5 carpels, seated on a large gynophore, with divided 
persistent calyx at the base, single style and lobed stigma. 


CINNAMOMUM NITIDUM, Nees ad Esenb. Shining-leaved 
Cinnamon. Nat. Ord. Lauracesee——Enneandria Mono- 
gynia. 

Generic Cuaracter.—F lores hermaphroditi vel polygami. Peri- 
anthium sexfidum, coriaceum, limbi parte superiore vel toto limbo 
a tubo cupuliformi deciduo. Stamina fertilia novem, triplici serie, 
quorum tria interna staminodiis binis sessilibus glanduliformi- 
bus ad basin stipata; anthere ovate, sex exteriores introrse, 
tres interiores extrorse, omnes quadri-ocellate, valvulis totiden 
adscendentibus dehiscentes, locellis inferioribus magis lateralibus. 
Staminodia tria capitulo ovato in serie magis interiore. Ovarium 
uniloculare, uniovulatum. Stigma discoideum. Bacca monosper- 
ma, perianthii basi cupuliformi subsexfida stipata.—Arbores In- 
diz Orientalis, ob corticem aromaticum celebres ; foliis nervosis 
per paria approximatis vel suboppositis ; floribus paniculatis, 
rariusve fasciculatis, exinvolueratis, gemmis nudis. N. ab E. 


Sprcrric Cuaracter.—Ramis teretibus glabris, foliis ovato-ellip- 
ticis basi apiceque subattenuato-obtusis, triplinerviis, obsolete 
venulosis, superioribus majoribus, paniculis subterminalibus axil- 
laribusque, inferioribus sessilibus elongatis, floribus argenteo- 
sericeis, laciniis ellipticis medio deciduis. Nees ab Esenbeck, 
Syst. Laurin., p. 43. Plant. Officin. Suppl. Fase. iv., tab. 8, 
Wallich, Plant. Asiat. rar., p. 73, No. 6. 

The specimen in the Edinburgh Botanic Garden is a tree upwards 
of 20 feet high, and 7} inches in circumference at its base. Bark 
has a slight taste of cinnamon ; that of the trunk is of a greyish- 
brown colour; that of the young branches dark green. Leaves 
have a marked cinnamon flavour. They are ali more or less 
broadly ovate, and attenuated towards the apex, blunt and slightly 
unequal at the base, usually placed alternately, but sometimes be- 
coming opposite : Petioles about an inch in length, flattened and 
grooved on the upper surface: Laminw subcoriaceous, varying 
from 2 to 6 inches in length, and from 1} to 4 inches in breadth ; 
dark green, shining and smooth on the upper surface, glaucous 
below, triplinerved, ribs prominent, lateral ribs vanishing towards 
the apex of the lamina, and giving off occasionally near the base 
subsidiary slender ribs, which only proceed for a short way up ; 
sometimes an obscure rib runs along the outer margin of the 
leaves on each side; transverse veins somewhat arched and par- 
allel, forming ultimately an angular net-work,. Panicles terminal 
and lateral, cyuose, somewhat corymbose, lax and spreading. 
Rachis, peduncles, and pedicels more or less hairy, becoming 
thickly covered towards their apex with short hoary pubescence. 
Primary divisions of the rachis (peduncles) diverge in pairs, bear- 
ing from 6 to 12 or more flowers. -dstivation imbricated. Pe- 
riamth sulphur-yellow, 6-partite, pubescent, segments ovate, blunt 
at the apex (3 outer ones rather acute), concave on the inner sur- 


Scientific Intelligence —Meteorology. 191 


face, spreading when in flower. Stamens 9 fertile, the 6 outer 
in two rows, having introrse anthers, the 3 inner forming the 
third whorl, having extrorse anthers, and each bearing at the 
base of the filaments two very shortly-stalked yellow cordate- 

. ovate glands. The fourth or innermost staminal whorl consists 
of 3 staminodia or abortive stamens, having yellow heads, which 
are triangular-cordate in front. Filaments and stalks of the 
glands and staminodia hairy. Anthers opening by 4 recurved 
valves. Ovary oblong, as long as the style. Style simple. 
Stigma capitate. 

The plant has been in flower in the garden for 2 months. Mr 
M‘Nab states that “the plant is growing freely in a mixture of 
rough loam and peat, about two parts of the former to one of the 
latter. It luxuriates in a warm, shady stovehouse, and requires 
a good deal of water, with frequent syringing amongst the leaves 
and branches. It may be increased by cuttings, covered with a 
bell-glass and placed in bottom heat.” In Dr Neill’s garden, 
Canonmills, there is a specimen of this plant twenty years old 
which has repeatedly flowered. The specimen figured as Cin- 
namomum nitidum by Hooker in Exotie Flora, vol. iii., p. 176, 
and in Hayne’s work on Medical Botany, vol. xii., p. 22, as 
well as that preserved as Laurus nitida in the Hamiltonian Her- 
barium in the University of Edinburgh, appear to be C. eucalyp- 
toides of Nees, which has more elliptical and not acuminated 
leaves. In the last-mentioned species the bark and leaves are 
said to have rather the taste of cloves, and the glands have dis- 
tinct stalks. The present species resembles, in the form of its 
leaves, a variety of the true cinnamon, C. Zeylanicum. 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


METEOROLOGY AND HYDROLOGY. 


1. Climate of Italy—M. Dureau de la Malle closes an elabo- 
rate investigation into the climate of ancient Italy, with the con- 
clusion that the limits for different agricultural products were the 
same in the earlier as in more recent periods; and that, from the 
time of Augustus till the present, there has been no sensible modifi- 
cation of temperature, either as regards the months or years. 

2. Analysis of the Water of the Mediterranean off the Coast of 
France.—M. J. Usiglio analysed the water taken from the foot of 
Mount St Clair, about 4000 metres from the port of Cette. 

100 parts gave, chloride of sodium, 2°9424; bromide of sodium, 
0:0556; chloride of potassium, 0:0505; chloride of magnesium, 
0:3219; sulphate of magnesia, 0°2477; sulphate of lime, 0°1357 ; 
carbonate of lime, 0°0114; peroxide of iron, 0:0003 ; water, 96°2345 
= 100:000.—(Comptes Rendus, October 1848.) 


192 Scientific Intelligence— Mineralogy. 


MINERALOGY. 


3. Copper of the Lake Superior Region.—(From a recent letter 
by C. T'. Jackson.)—The native copper mines of this region are 
truly wonderful, both for the quantities that are exposed in the 
mines, and the magnitude of the masses of native metal. Truly they 
are copper veins. I have seen the most noble lumps in this place, 
and one has lately been blown off in stopping the Cliff mine, Eagle 
River, that will weigh 50 tons. It is now cutting up into pieces of 
two or three tons weight, so that it may be sent to market. The 
supply furnished by that mine is as regular as it is in most mines 
furnishing ore. ‘This spring the miners had 400 tons on hand, and 
they have sent down to Baltimore 600 tons at this time; and they 
estimate the amount of copper that they will ship at from 900 to 
1000 tons before the close of navigation in November next. This 
mine has been wrought with proper energy, and will richly repay the 
owners, ‘There are several other native copper mines here that are 
equally promising, and will produce well when wrought with proper 
energy and skill. 

Copper Falls mine is an example, and is doing well. The north- 
west is another full of promise, and I have seen others which look 
very rich, but which are not yet opened deep enough to exhibit their 
contents. The shafts at the Cliff mine are 205 feet deep, and the 
hill above shews the vein in the face 213 feet higher, so that we 
know that the copper extends at least 418 feet. Those who were 
surprised that I recommended working mines for native copper, 
should come and see, and they would believe. The case is indeed a 
new one, and we watch with interest the results. 

Native Silver is found mostly at and near the junction of the trap 
and sandstone where the veins end, not passing into the sandstone. 
—(American Journal of Science and Arts, vol, vii., Second Series, 
March 1849, p. 286.) 

4. Native Silver in Norway.—lIt is reported in the Swedish 
official paper of the 27th October, that at the King’s mine, at 
Kongsberg, two lumps of native silver, severally 238 and 436 pounds, 
were obtained within the preceding two months. This mine was of- 
fered for sale in London twenty years ago for £10,000, but failed of 
purchasers. It now brings to the Government more than this sum 
annually. 

5. The Arkansite, according to the examination of Mr Whitney, 
is pure titanic acid, with only a trace of iron (and not a niobate, as 
inferred by Professor Shephard), and has the crystalline form and 
specific gravity of Brookite. His trials make the specific gravity 
4°085. Its insolubility in acids is strong presumptive proof that it 
is not titanic acid in combination with a base, since all the known 
titanates are soluble in acids —(American Journal of Science and 
Arts, vol. vii., No, 21, p. 433. 


Scientific Intelligence—G eology. 193 


GEOLOGY. 


6. Movement of Heat in Terrestrial Strata of different Geological 
Natures. By M. Dove——%In a work published in the Memoirs of 
the Academy of Berlin for 1844, on the relation of the changes of 
the temperature of the atmosphere and the development of plants, the 
author has endeavoured to determine to what changes of temperature 
a plant was subjected at different periods of the year. These inves- 
tigations naturally divided themselves into two parts ;—to what 
changes of temperature are the different parts of plants subjected 
which grow freely in the open air; and what temperatures act upon 
the rvots which penetrate deeply into the earth. The first point 
could be determined pretty correctly, by a series of observations, car- 
ried on for a great number of years in the Botanic Garden of Chis- 
wick, for the purpose of comparing the calorific phenomena presented 
by plants in the shade, with the temperatures indicated by plants 
exposed on all sides, in a place open to the whole influence of the 
sun, and of nocturnal radiation. With regard to the second part, 
the decennial series of observations on the heat of the ground at 
Brussels, presented valuable materials; but as the ground had always 
been of the same nature, we could obtain from these only the differ- 
ence between the shade and the radiation, and not the modifications 
which might arise, in formations of diverse natures, from their dif- 
ferent conducting power, their capacity of radiation and their speci- 
fic heat, relatively to the movement of the heat in the interior of va- 
riable strata. As these differences are by no means unimportant, a 
comparison has been established between the observations of Heidel- 
berg and those of Schwetzinger, the former of which were made on 
a compact clayey soil, and the second, on a light sandy formation, 
but which was not above five feet deep, and presented great irregu- 
larities. The blanks may be filled up by the calculation of observa- 
tions which have been made, since 1837, at the depth of 3, 6, 12, 
and 24 French feet, at Edinburgh, in the trap of the Calton Hill, 
the sandstone of the coal-formation at Craigleith, and the sand of the 
Experimental Garden. 

It follows from these calculations, that the extent of the changes, 
whether periodical or non-periodical, is unimportant or insensible 
in the trap, more considerable in the sand, and reaches its maxi- 
mum in the sandstone; so that the further the roots of a plant pe- 
netrate into the soil, the more it lives in conditions approaching these 
of a maritime climate ; and, on the other hand, when the roots are 
of equal depth, the same effect becomes so much the more sensible as 
the roots penetrate into a soil of inferior conducting powers. Whence 
it evidently follows, that the geological nature of a formation is 
important for the development of plants, not only in a chemical 
point of view, but also in a physical.—(L’Institut, No. 711, 
p- 169.) 

VOL. XLVII. NO. XCIII.—JULY 1849. N 


194 Scientific Intelligence— Zoology. 


ZOOLOGY. 


7. The Dodo arranged with the Gralle—Mr Brandt, at pre- 
sent engaged with an extensive memoir on aquatic birds, has had 
his attention drawn aside from that subject by the receipt of inte- 
resting details regarding the dodo, furnished to him by Dr Hamel 
and the Directors of the Museum of Natural History of Copenhagen. 
This remarkable bird, a former inhabitant of the Mauritius, but ex- 
tinct for 200 years, is placed by Mr Brandt among the Gralle, and 
he announces the discovery of certain osselets peculiar to the cranium 
of the Grallee, which have furnished him with new characters for the 
classification of that order, so rich in species. 

8. The Fossil Rhinoceros of Siberia and the Mammoth Natives 
of the countries where their Fossil Remains are found.—Mr Brandt, 
at the request of Humboldt, has communicated to the Petersburg 
Imperial Academy the results of his microscopical examination of 
the remains of food found in the hollows of the teeth of the antedilu- 
vian rhinoceros, of which the Academy possesses a complete cranium, 
still covered with skin. According to his researches, it appears that 
this species of rhinoceros fed on the leaves and fruit of coniferous 
plants ; hence there is no reason for supposing that the great fossil 
animals found buried in arctic countries have ever lived in a tropical 
one. The bushy hair with which they were clothed, and the ex- 
amples of mammoths found in an upright position, rather incline him 
to the opinion that these species lived in the countries and climate 
where their fossil remains are now found, than to have recourse to the 
hypothesis of a sudden change of temperature of the climate, or to 
the opinion of the transportation, by inundation, of their remains from 
a far distant country. 

9. What becomes of the Skeletons of Wild Animals after death? 
—The following interesting fact is related by the Count de Mont- 
losier, in his Memoirs, published in Paris. It is, as far as we 
have found, perfectly new, and the general observation, of which the 
fact is illustrative (that of the extreme rarity of meeting with any 
instances of wild animals dying of what is called a natural death), has 
been less attended to and investigated than almost any other that 
could be named, though it is one of singular interest, and of great 
importance as connected with the study of natural history. The 
Count de Montlosier says, that his thoughts had long been occupied 
on the manner in which animals living in a natural state,—hares, 
rabbits, and game of all kinds,—met their death, and what became 
of their remains; and he had repeatedly promised large rewards to 
gamekeepers and others, who would procure him any animal in that 
state, but had never been able to meet with one. He then adds, 
that, having long made himself acquainted with nearly all the caves 
and caverns in the mountains neighbouring the spot where he resided, 
there was one which had hitherto remained unexamined even by 
himself, and was quite unknown to every one else; which he had, 


Scientific Intelligence—Zoology. 195 


neglected to examine minutely, on account of the extremely small 
opening to it, which prevented entrance, except by creeping on the 
hands and knees, and even then allowed it with great difficulty. One 
day, however, he succeeded in getting in, and his surprise was great 
on finding himself in a large vaulted cavern, so high that his hand 
could not reach the top of it. He advanced a little way, but finding 
it perfectly dark, and that he was in danger of losing sight of the 
orifice by which he had entered, he immediately got out again, and 
went in search of light and assistance. On returning, and making 
their way again into the cavern, they discovered that it contained a 
vast number of skeletons, which appeared to be those of hares or rab- 
bits. They were extended on the ground, all placed in a nearly 
similar manner, and shewing at once that they could not have been 
brought there by any beasts of prey, as the bones were all perfect, 
and even the cartilages were preserved ; and on of some of them there 
were even portions of the hair and flesh not decayed. 

10. Miraculous Blood spots on Human Food.—Under the in- 
fluence of certain circumstances, of which it is difficult, if not impos- 
sible, now to form any precise idea, there has appeared upon bread, 
and food of other kinds, spots of a vivid red colour, closely resem- 
bling drops of blood. During the siege of Tyre, Alexander was 
alarmed by the appearance of bloody spots on the soldiers’ bread. At 
a period nearer our own age, in 1510, similar stains were seen upon 
the consecrated wafers, and thirty-eight unfortunate Jews were ac- 
cused of having caused, by their sorceries, this phenomenon, and suf- 
fered death, by burning, for their supposed sacrilege. In 1819, simi- 
lar kinds of red spots appeared amongst the inhabitants of Padua and 
its environs. At the commencement of the month of August in that 
year, a farmer of Segnaro, named Pittarello, was frightened by see- 
ing drops of blood sprinkled upon his porridge, made of the maize 
which grew in the neighbourhood of his village. His alarm was 
greatly increased, when, tor many days following, he saw the same 
red spots appear on all his food—new bread, rice, veal, fish, boiled 
and roast fowls. The curé was appealed to, that he might exercise 
his sacred functions to expel the evil spirit which produced these 
alarming appearances ; but prayers were ineffectual, and the neigh- 
bours of the unfortunate Pittarello supposed that he was under a 
celestial malediction. Incited by curiosity, a large number of per- 
sons went to Segnaro, and a commission was eventually named to 
investigate the nature and causes of this phenomenon. M., Sette 
was appointed to this task. On examining under the microscope 
these miraculous red spots, he discovered that they were formed by 
myriads of small bodies, which appeared to be microscopic fungi, 
and to which he gave the name of zaogalactina imetropha, He suc- 
ceeded in propagating these minute organic productions, and in a 
memoir published at Venice in 1824, he gives a detailed history of 
them. During the year 1848, the same phenomenon appeared at 
Berlin, and fixed the attention of Ehrenberg. This celebrated micro- 


196 Scientific Intelligence— Botany. 


grapher has closely studied these red spots, and he believes them to 
be, not as M. Sette supposes, microscopic fungi, but animalcule of 
inferior degree, a monade to which he has given the name of Monas 
prodigiosa, on account of their extreme smallness, These little 
beings appear as corpuscles, almost round, of one three-thousandth 
to one eight-thousandth of a line in length ; transparent when sepa- 
rately examined, but in a mass of the colour of blood. M. Ehren- 
berg calculates, that in the space of a cubic inch there are from 
46,656,000,000,000 to 884,836,000,000,000 of these monades.— 
(Medical Times, No. 497, vol. xix., April 1849.) 

11. The Oyster —M. de Quatrefages has recently ascertained 
that, contrary to the common opinion, the sexes are separate in the 
oysters. M. Blanchard’s observations confirm those of M. de 
Quatrefages. In his investigations into the Nervous System of 
Mollusca, he has had oceasion to examine a great number of these 
animals, and in the proper season he has always found the eggs and 
the spermatozoa isolated in different individuals —(American Jour- 
nal of Science and Arts, vol. vii., No. 21, p. 487.) 

12. Process of preparing the Spawning Beds by Fishes—The 
process of preparing the spawning beds ts curious. ‘The two fish 
come up together to a convenient place, shallow and gravelly. Here 
they commence digging a trench across the stream, sometimes making 
it several inches deep. In this the female deposits her eggs or ova; 
and she having left the bed, the male takes her place and deposits his 
spawn on the ova of the female. The difference may be, perhaps, 
easily exemplified by the soft and hard roe of a herring,—the for- 
mer being that of the male, and without this the hard roe or ova of 
the female fish would be barren. When the male has performed his 
share of the work, they both make a fresh trench immediately above 
the former one, thus covering up the spawn in the first trench with 
the gravel taken out of the second. The same process is repeated 
till the whole of their spawn is deposited, when the fish gradually 
work their way down to the salt water to recruit their lost strength 
and energy. 

The spawn is thus left to be hatched in due time, but is some- 
times destroyed by floods, which bury it too deep, or sweep it en- 
tirely away ; at other times it is destroyed by want of water, a dry sea- 
son reducing the river to so small a size as to leave the beds exposed 
tothe air. The time required to hatch the eggs depends much on the 
state of the weather; in warm seasons they are hatched much 
quicker than in cold. The details F have here given are very im- 
perfect ; but, perhaps, they may induce those interested in the sub- 
ject to read a little work published by Mr Young, the result of his 
observations and experience for many years.— (Field Notes and 
Tour in Sutherland, by Charles St John, vol. i. p. 55.) 


BOTANY. 
13. The Distribution of Flowers in a Garden.—Amongst the 


Scientifie Intelligence— Botany. 197 


pleasures presented to us by the culture of flowering plants, there 
are few that exceed what we experience from the sight of a multi- 
tude of flowers, varying in their colour, form, and size, and in their 
arrangement upon the stem that supports them. It is probably 
owing to the admiration bestowed individually upon each, and to the 
attachment bestowed upon them in consequence of the great care they 
have required, that care has hitherto not been taken to arrange them 
in such a manner as to produce the best possible effect upon the eye, 
not only separately, but collectively. Nothing, therefore, is more 
common than a defect of proportion observed in the manner in which 
flowers of the same colour are made to recur in a garden. At one 
time the eye sees nothing but blue or white, at another it is dazzled 
by yellow scattered around in profusion ; the evil effect of a predo- 
minating colour may be further augmented when the flowers are of 
approximating, but still different shades of colour. For instance, in 
the spring, we meet with the jonquil of a brilliant yellow, side by 
side with the pale yellow of the narcissus ; in the autumn the Indian 
pink may be seen next to the China rose and the aster, and dahlias of 
different red grouped together, &e. Approximations like these pro- 
duce upon the eye of a person accustomed to judge of the effects of 
the contrast of colours, sensations that are quite as disagreeable as 
those experienced by the ear of the musician, when struck by dis- 
cordant sounds. 

The principal rule to be observed in the arrangement of flowers is 
to place the blue next to the orange, and the violet next to the yel- 
low, whilst red and pink flowers are never seen to greater advantage 
than when surrounded by verdure and by white flowers ; the latter 
may also be advantageously dispersed among groups formed of blue 
and orange, and of violet and yellow flowers. For although a clump 
of white flowers may produce but little effect when seen apart, it 
cannot be denied that the same flowers must be considered as indis- 
pensable to the adornment of a garden when they are seen suitably 
distributed amongst groups of flowers whose colours have been 
assorted according to the law of contrast ; it will be observed by those 
who may be desirous of putting in practice the precepts we have been 
inculeating, that there are periods of the horticultural year when 
white flowers are not sufficiently multiplied by cultivation to enable 
us to derive the greatest possible advantage from the flora of our 
gardens. I will further add, that plants, whose flowers are to pro- 
duce a contrast, should be of the same size, and, in many cases, the 
colour of the sand or gravel composing the ground of the walks or 
beds of a garden, may be made to conduce to the general effect. 

In laying down the preceding rules, I do not pretend to assert 
that an arrangement of colours, different from those mentioned may 
not please the eye; but I mean to say that, in adhering to them, 
we may always be certain of producing assemblages of colour con- 
formable to good taste, whilst we should not be equally sure of suc- 
cess in making other arrangements. I shall, however, revert to this 
point. 


198 Scientific Intelligence—Botany. 


I will reserve for a special article the consideration of the number 
of plants in flower at the same time, which admit of being grouped 
together, and of those details of execution which would here be out of 
place. I must, however, reply to the objection that might be made, that 
the green of the leaves, which serves, as it were, for a ground for the 
flowers, destroys the effect of the contrast of the latter. Such, how- 
ever, is not the case, and, to prove this, it is only necessary to fix on 
a screen of green silk two kinds of flowers, conformably to the ar- 
rangement of the coloured stripes, and to look at them at the dis- 
tance of some ten paces. This admits of a very simple explanation ; 
for as soon as the eye distinctly and simultaneously sees two colours, 
the attention is so rivetted that contiguous objects, especially when 
on a receding plane, and where they are of a sombre colour, and 
present themselves in a confused manner to the sight, produce but a 
very feeble impression.—(Chemical Reports and Memoirs of the 
Cavendish Society, p. 207.) 

14. The Nutmeg Tree (Myristica officinalis) —Banda can furnish 
annually 500,000 Ib. of nutmegs and 150,000 lb. of mace: this 
latter is not, as some persons suppose, the flower of the nutmeg, but 
the immediate internal cover of the brown shining shell, covering the 
kernel, which is the nutmeg ; it is found as a beautifully reticulated 
scarlet arillus between these and the husk or exterior green skin. 

The tree which furnishes these two productions, is one of the most 
agreeable to the eye, at least I thought so, when, for the first time, 
I saw a number loaded with fruit at Pondokgede, where they border 
the large walks of the magnificent garden belonging to the Nestor of 
our eastern possessions, the worthy M. W. Engelhard, The nutmeg 
tree attains a height of thirty-five to forty fect ; it has some resem- 
blance to our European pear-tree ; its leaf is of a deep and shining 
green. Commencing to bear fruit about its ninth year, the tree 
produces, during more than half a century, if care be taken to shelter 
it properly, which is done at Banda, by placing it in plantations of 
canari trees, or of wild nutmegs, which the inhabitants call pala boeig ; 
these have the same leaf and flower, but they give no fruit, 

When the flower of the nutmeg falls, it is replaced by the nut ; 
this requires several months to attain maturity, when it is of the size 
and the form of an apricot ; its skin, of a yellowish-green, opens and 
displays the nutmeg, covered with its mace, of a beautiful red colour. 
The average annual produce of a tree is calculated at 5 or 6 lb, of 
nuts; there are some, however, which give from 15 to 20 lb. Al- 
though the nutmeg bears during the greater part of the year, the prin- 
cipal crop is in August, and a second, in November and December. 
These crops are liable to turn out more or less good. Good nuts are 
sometimes ill provided with mace, and often, on the contrary, very 
inferior nuts are accompanied by a superior mace. 

The nuts, carefully withdrawn from their green exterior skin, and 
from the mace, are exposed to the smoke during two or three months 
upon frames or hurdles, in buildings constructed for the purpose 


List of New Publications. 199 


(Kombuisen), and then deprived of a last interior and very hard 
shell, an operation which is called afklopping van de noot, in order 
speedily to be steeped in lime mixed with sea-water. This method 
of preparing the produce requires the greatest precautions, for it 
is very delicate, and very easily deteriorated. The mace ought to be 
thoroughly dried, but by the sun or wind ; sometimes the planters, 
when the season is humid, secretely avail themselves of the smoking 
frames (rook pavia pavias) to accelerate the operation ; but then the 
mace acquires an inferior colour, and sweats more slowly, when it is 
exposed during the voyage to the heat at the bottom of the hold.— 
(Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia, vol, iil., 
No. 1, p. 12.) 

15. Cloves of Amboyna.—But that which, above all, has made 
Amboyna so precious, is the culture of the clove (the flower-buds of 
the Caryophyllus aromaticus). 

In an average year, the crop of cloves may be reckoned at 250,000 
or 300,000 lb. There are years, like those of 1819 and 1820, 
when this quantity has been much surpassed ; but then in others, the 
crops have been less ; in 1821, it did not amount to 100,000 lb.— 
(The Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia, vol. ii., 
No. 1, p. 10.) 


NEW PUBLICATIONS. 


1. Kosmos. By Alexander Von Humboldt. Translated by Colonel 
Sabine, F.R.S. Fourth edition, 2 vols. Longmans, and John Murray, 
London, 1849. The cheapest, most correct, and best translation of the 
renowned work ** Kosmos” we have seen. 

2. A Manual of Botany, being an Introduction to the Study of the 
Structure, Physiology, and Classification of Plants. By Jobn Hutton 
Balfour, M.D., Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. 
Illustrated by numerous Woodcuts. One vol. 8vo. Griffin & Co., 
London. Glasgow: Griffin & Co., 1849. Although there is a great 
deficiency of elementary works in Zoology in this country, we rejoice, as 
botanists, that we possess such Botanical manuals as those of Jussieu, 
Schleiden, Lindley, Henfrey; and we now add the recently-published 
excellent Manual of Professor Balfowr, which is equal, and in some re- 
spects superior, to the other manuals in owr language at present in ea- 
tensive circulation. 

3. The Elements of Botany. By M. Advien de Jussieu, Member of the 
Institute of France, &c., &c. Translated by J. H. Wilson, F.L.S., &c. 
One vol., pp. 750. Van Voorst, London, 1849. We had much to say 
of this classical work, but the limits of our Journal do not admit of de- 
tail. We can only remark that the translation is good, the additions 
well selected, the numerous engraved illustrations very creditable to the 
artist, and the typography beautiful. 

4, Introduction to Meteorology. By D. P. Thomson, M.D. One 
vol. 8vo, pp. 487. Blackwoods, Edinburgh and London, 1549. This 
meritorious compilation we recommend to the attention of students of 
Meteorology. The industrious author has made ample use of the Lee- 


200 List of New Publications. 


tures on this branch of Natural History—and hence its fulness of 
detail. 

5. Principles of Scientific Botany ; or Botany as an Inductive Science. 
By Dr J. M. Schleiden, Professor of Botany in the University of Jena. 
Translated by EK. Lankester, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., &e. One vol. 8vo, 
pp. 616. Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, London, 1849. We 
congratulate our readers on the appearance of an English edition of this 
remarkable work, by a gentleman so capable to do full justice to it as 
Dr Lankester. It cannot fail to interest deeply all true lovers of 
Botanical Science, and we believe it will be considered a valuable addi- 
tion to our Botanical literature. 

6. The Isle of Man: its History, Physical, Ecclesiastical, Civil, and 
Legendary. By the Rev. J. G. Cumming, M.A., F.G.S., Vice-Principal 
of King William’s College, Castletown. 8vyo, pp. 376, with numerous 
Illustrations. J. Van Voorst, London, 1848. Mr Cumming’s interest- 
ing volume gives the most satisfactory and comprehensive view of the 
statistics and geology of the Isle of Man hitherto published. 

7. Histoire des Progress de la Geologie de 1834 a 1845, par Le 
Vicomte d’Archiac. Tome Premiere. Cosmogonie, Geogonie, Physique 
du Globe, Geographie Physique, Terrain Modern. Paris, 1847. Count 
@ Archiac’s very useful work, publishing by the Geological Society of 
Paris, and under the sanction of the Minister of Public Instruction, 
so well begun, we trust will be continued, and without interruption, not- 
withstanding the present disordered political state of Paris. 

§. Explication de la Carte Geologique de la France, redigée par 
MM. Dufrenoy et Elie de Beaumont. Tome 2. 2to, pp. 813. Paris, 
1848. The present volume of the celebrated Geological Survey of France, 
like that already published, is remarkable for its rich display of facts 
illustrative of the varied geognostical and economical relations of the 
rock formations of that empire. This volume is dedicated to the Trias 
system, including the variegated sandstone, shell limestone, and varie- 
gated marls, and the Jura system, consequently including the Lias, 
and the lower, middle,and upper Oolite. These systems wre illustrated 
by 105 interesting sections and plans. It is announced that the third 
volume will contain an account of the remaining Neptunian formations ; 
and that a separate volume will be published, with descriptions and 
Jigures of the Fossil Molluscs characteristic of the different fossiliferous 
deposits of France. 

9. Lectures on the Study of Chemistry, in connection with the Atmo- 
sphere, the Earth, and the Ocean: and Discourses on Agriculture ; with 
Introductions on the present state of the West Indies, and on the Agricul- 
tural Societies of Barbados. By John Davy, M.D., Inspector-General of 
Army Hospitals. Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans. London, 
1849. This interesting little volume, worthy the reputation of its 
distinguished author, cannot but prove both instructive and acceptable 
to the numerous class of readers for which it is intended. 

10. Manual of Mineralogy ; or the Natural History of the Mineral 
Kingdom. By James Nicol, F.R.S., Assistant-Secretary to the Geological 
Society of London. 8vo, pp. 576. Adam and Charles Black, Edin- 
burgh, and Longmans, London. Mr Nicol, in his Manual, one of the 
best elementary works on Mineralogy lately published in our language, 
arranges minerals according to the system of the celebrated Prussian 


List of Patents. 201 


mineralogist Weiss, thus following the example of Hartmann, in his 
System of Mineralogy. The method is good, in so far as the general 
chemistry of minerals is concerned, but the want of physical character- 
istics of classes, orders, families, and genera, renders the work less imme- 
diately useful than it would otherwise be, to the young mineralogist, 
who, owing to these omissions, is left to the uncertain mode of discovering 
the place of the species in the system by an appeal to the index. In the 
next edition of Mr Nicol’s Manual, we would recommend him to supply 
this deficiency, which we know he is fully competent to do. 

11. Passages in the History of Geology. By Professor Ramsay, of 
University College, London. These pages contain @ short, judicious, 
clearly-written, and well-timed sketch of the progress of Geology, up to 
the time of the celebrated Hutton and Playfair of Edinburgh, authors 
of the present generally-adopted speculative views in Geology. 

12. Tour in Sutherlandshire. By Charles St John, Esq. 2 vols. 8vo. 
John Murray, London, 1849. These amusing volumes, & continuation 
of Mr St John’s former work, will be found equal to it, im usefulness and 
interest, especially to those who may visit the romantic wilds and pic- 
twresque coasts of the remote Sutherland. 


List of Patents granted for Scotland from 22d March to 
22d June 1849. 


1. To Cuartes-Henry Parts, of Paris, in the republic of France, 
manufacturer, “improvements in preventing the oxidation of iron,” 
being a communication from his brother, Cuarces-Emite Paris, residing 
abroad.—26th March 1849. 
~ 2. To Witt1aM-Epwarp Newron, of the Office for Patents, 66 Chan- 
cery Lane, in the county of Middlesex, civil engineer, ‘‘ improvements in 
machinery for hulling and polishing rice and other grain or seeds,” being 
a communication from a foreigner residing abroad. — 26th March 1849. 

3. To James Frercuer, of Salford, in the county of Laneaster, mana- 
ger at the works of Messrs William Collier and Company, of Salford 
aforesaid, machinists and tool-makers ; and Tuomas Fourr, of Salford 
aforesaid, machinist and tool-maker, a partner in the said firm, “‘ certain 
improvements in machinery, tools, or apparatus for turning, boring, 
planing, and cutting metal and other materials.” —26th March 1849. 

4. To Waxrer Nettson, of Hyde Park Street, in the city of Glasgow, 
North Britain, engineer, “a certain improvement or improvements in 
locomotive engines.” —27th March 1849. 

5. To Jean-Apotpue Carteron, of Paris, in the republic of France, 
now of the Haymarket, in the county of Middlesex, chemist, “ certain 
improvements in dyeing.” —27th March 1849. 

6. To Davip Henperson, of the London Works, in the parish and 
county of Renfrew, Scotland, engineer, “ improvements in the manufac- 
ture of metal-castings.”—29th March 1849. 

7, Wittram Lonemar, of Beaumont Square, in the county of Mid- 
dlesex, gentleman, ‘‘ improvements in treating the oxides of iron, and in 
obtaining various products therefrom,”—4th April 1849. 


VOL. XLVII. NO. XCUI.—sULY 1849. , 9) 


202 List of Patents. 


8. Francis Hay-Tuomson, of Hope Street, in the city of Glasgow, 
North Britain, doctor of medicine, “‘an improvement or improvements in 
smelting copper or other ores.’”-—11th April 1849. 

9. To Cremencr-Avcustus Kurtz, of Wandsworth, in the county of 
Surrey, gentleman, “certain improvements in looms for weaving,’ being 
a communication from a foreigner residing abroad.—11th April 1849. 

10. To BartHetenny Tuimovunier-Aine, of Amplepuis Department 
Du Rhone, in the republic of France, engineer, “‘ improvements in ma- 
chinery for sewing, embroidering, and for making cords or plats.” —11th 
April 1849. 

11. To Arraur Duyn, of Dalston, chemist, ‘‘ improvements in ascer- 
taining and indicating the temperature and pressure of fluids.”—13th 
April 1849. 

12. To Atrrep-Vincent Newton, of the Office for Patents, 66 Chan- 
cery Lane, in the County of Middlesex, mechanical draughtsman, “ im- 
provements in the manufacture of piled fabries,” being a communication 
from a foreigner residing abroad.—13th April 1849. 

13. To Jeremian Brown, of Kingswinford, in the county of Stafford, 
roll-turner, “ certain improvements in rolls and machinery used in the 
manufacture of iron, also in rolls and machinery for shaping or fashion- 
ing iron for various purposes.’—13th April 1849. 

14. Witiiam M‘Brive jun., of Sligo, in the kingdom of Ireland, but 
now of Havre, in the republic of France, merchant, “ improvements in 
the apparatus and process for converting salt water into fresh water, and 
in oxygenating water,” being a communication from abroad.—16th April 
1849. 

15. To Jonn Ruruven, Engineer, Edinburgh, Scotland, “ improve- 
ments in preserving lives and property from water and fire, and in pro- 
ducing pressure for various useful purposes.”—17th April 1849. 

16. To Wittram-Henry Batmarn, and Epwarp-ANnpREW ParneELtL, 
both of St Andrews, in the county of Lancaster, manufacturing che- 
mists, “‘ improvements in the manufacture of glass, and in the prepara- 
tion of certain materials to be used therein, parts of which improvements 
are also applicable to the manufacture of alkalies.”—17th April 1849. 

17. To StepHen Wuire, of Victoria Place, Bury, New Road, Man- 
chester, in the county of Lancaster, gas-engineer, “ improvements in the 
manufacture of gases, and in the application thereof to the purposes of 
heating, and consuming smoke; also, improvements in furnaces, for eco- 
nomizing heat, and an apparatus for the consumption of gases.’”’—19th 
April 1849. 

18. To Loren H’sortH, of Jewry Street, Aldgate, in the city of Lon- 
don, “ certain improvements in the use of electro-magnetism, and its ap- 
plication as a motive power; and also other improvements in its applica- 
tion generally by engines, ships, and railways.”—20th April 1849. 

19. To James Hart, of Bermondsey Square, engineer, ‘“ improve- 
ments in machinery for manufacturing bricks and tiles, parts of which 
machinery are applicable to moulding other substances.”—13th April 
1849. 

20. To Cuartes ALEXANDER Broquetrte, of Rue Neuve St Nicholas, 
St Martin, in the republic of France, chemist, ‘ improvements in print- 
ing and dyeing fibrous and other materials,”—20th April 1849. 


List of Patents. 208 


21. To Mever Jacoss, of Spittalfields, Middlesex, “ certain improve- 
ments in the manufacture, stamping, and treatment generally, of woven 
fabrics of all kinds.”—25th April 1849. 

22. To James Roosr, of Darleston, in the county of Stafford, tube-manu- 
facturer, and Witt1am Hapen-Ricuarpson the younger, of the same 
place, tube-manufacturer, ‘‘ improvements in the manufacture of tubing.” 
—30th April 1849. 

23. To Roserr Oxuanp, of Plymouth, chemist, and Joun Oxnanp of 
the same place, chemist, “ improvements in the manufacture of sugar.” 
—4th May 1849. 

24. To Frepericx Sreier, of Hyndburn, near Accrington in the county 
of Lancaster, turkey-red dyer, ‘“‘ improved processes and apparatus to be 
used in the turkey-red dye, on cotton and its fabrics.” —7th May 1849. 

25. To Joun Datrton, of Hollingworth, in the county of Chester, calico- 
printer, “‘ a certain improvement or certain improvements in printing 
calicoes and other surfaces.’—9th May 1849. 

26. To Atexanper Mounxirrricx, of Manchester, in the county of Lan- 
caster, merchant, “ an improved corporation of matter, which is applicable, 
as a substitute for oil, to the lubrication of machinery, and for other pur- 
poses,’ which has been communicated to him by a foreigner residing 
abroad.—10th May 1849. 

27. To James Anperson, of Abbotsford Place, in the city of Glasgow, 
North Britain, starch-manufacturer, “ a certain improved mode of sepa- 
rating different qualities of potatoes and other vegetables.” —11th May 
1849. 

28. To Atexanper Swan, of Kirkcaldy, in the county of Fife, manu- 
facturer, “ improvements in heating apparatus, and in applying hot and 
warm air to manufacturing and other purposes, where the same are re- 
quired.” —14th May 1849. 

29. To Samuet Apams, of West Bromwich, in the county of Stafford, 
organist, ‘‘ improvements in mills for grinding.”—16th May 1849. 

30. To Rees Reece, of St John Street, Smithfield, and AstLry 
Paston-Price, of Margate, in the county of Kent, chemists, ‘“‘ improve- 
ments in the manufacture and refining of sugar, or saccharine matters.” 
—21st May 1849. 

31. To Danrex Mitte, civil engineer, of No. 186 St George’s Road, 
in the city of Glasgow, in Scotland, “ certain improvements in the mode 
of drawing ships up an inclined plane out of water; for which mode a 
patent was granted to the late Thomas Morton, of Leith, shipbuilder, 
on the 23d day of March 1819, and which mode has been commonly 
known as ‘ Morton’s Slip.’”—21st May 1849. 

32. To Atrnonse Garnier, of Paris, in the republic of France, but 
now of South Street, Finsbury, in the county of Middlesex, merchant, 
“certain improvements in extracting and preparing colouring matter 
from orchil,” being a communication from a foreigner residing abroad.— 
21st May 1849. 

33. To Moses Pootr, of the Patent Office, London, gentleman, “ im- 
provements in apparatus for drawing fluids from the human or animal 
body,” being a communication from a certain foreigner residing abroad. 
—23d May 1849. 

34, To Wittiam Newron, of the Office for Patents, 66 Chancery 


204 List of Patents. 


Lane, in the county of Middlesex, civil engineer, “improvements in the 
Jacquard machine,” being a communication from a foreigner residing 
abroad.— 28th May 1849. 

35. To Henry Vint, of St Mary’s Lodge, Colchester, in the county 
of Essex, “ improvements in propelling ships and other vessels.” —29th 
May 1849. 

36. To Matcotm Macraruane, of Thistle Street, in the city of Glas- 
gow, North Britain, coppersmith, “ certain improvements in machinery, 
or apparatus for the drying and finishing of woven fabrics.” — 29th May 
1849. 

37. To Exisan Stack, of Orchard Street, in the burgh of Renfrew, 
North Britain, gum-manufacturer, ‘‘ an improvement or improvements in 
the preparation of materials to be used in the manufacture of textile fa- 
brics.’—31st May 1849. 

38. To Epwarp Bucxter, of the city of London, merchant, ‘ im- 
provements in the manufacture of boots and shoes, also applicable to 
other purposes,” being a communication from a foreigner residing abroad. 
—5th June 1849. 

39. Jacques Hunor, of Rue St Joseph, Paris, in the republic of France, 
manufacturer of fabrics, “‘ improvements in the manufacture of the fronts 
of shirts.”—7th June 1849. 

40. To Tuomas Greenwoop, of Goodman Fields, in the city of Lon- 
don, sugar-refiner, and Freperick Parxer, of New Gravel Lane, Shad- 
well, animal charcoal-manufacturer, ‘‘ improvements in filtering syrups 
and other liquors.” —8th June 1849. 

41. Witram Tart, Ironside, in the county of Warwick, printer and 
bookseller, “ an improved method or methods of producing outlines on 
paper, pasteboard, parchment, papier maché, and other like fabrics.”— 
8th June 1849. 

42. Grorce Simpson, of Buchanan Street, in the city of Glasgow, 
North Britain, civil and mining engineer, ‘‘a certain improvement or 
improvements in the machinery, apparatus, or means of raising, lower- 
ing, supporting, moving, or transporting heavy bodies, such improve- 
ments being applicable to various useful purposes.” —11th June 1849. 

43. To JoserH Harrison, of Blackburn, in the county of Lancaster, 
machine-maker, “ certain improvements in and applicable to looms for 
weaving.”—11th June 1849. ‘ 

44. To Wiitram Grarerx, of Salford, in the county of Lancaster, 
bleacher and dyer, “ certain improvements in the method or process of 
drying and finishing woven and other fabrics, and in the machinery or 
apparatus for performing the same, parts of which improvements are ap- 
plicable to stretching woven fabrics.’”—12th June 1849. 

45. To Oscoop Fietp, of London, merchant, ‘‘ improvements in an- 
chors,” being a communication from a foreigner residing abroad.—14th 
May 1849. 

46. To Rosert Netson-Cotuins, of Oxford Court, Cannon Street, in 
the city of London, wholesale druggist, “ certain improved compounds to 
be used for the prevention of injury to health under certain circum- 
stances.” —14th June 1849. 


EDINBURGH: 
PRINTED BY NEILL AND COMPANY, OLD FISHMARKET. 


THE 


EDINBURGH NEW 


PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL. 


Biographical Sketch of James Cowles Prichard, M.D., F.R.S., 
Corresponding Member of the Institute of France, §c., late 
President of the Ethnological Society, and Author of * Re- 
searches into the Physical History of Man.’’ By THOMAS 
Hopexin, M.D.* 


JAMES COWLES PRICHARD was born on the 11th of 2d month 
(Feb.) 1786, at Ross, in Herefordshire, where his family had 
resided for several generations. His parents were members 
of the Society of Friends, and in its principles he was himself 
educated. After the usual preliminary school education he 
made choice of the medical profession, in which he was in- 
structed in the London Hospitals, and afterwards in the Uni- 
versity of Edinburgh, where he took his medical degree ; the 
subject of his Thesis being the Physical History of Man. In 
1810 he settled at Bristol asa physician. There, towards the 
close of the year 1813, he brought out the first edition of his 
celebrated work, “On the Physical History of Man.” The 
views which he had at that time adopted, and the scope em- 
braced by this work, the extension of which in subsequent 
editions occupied so large a portion of his attention, and 
justly procured him universal reputation, cannot be better 
stated that in the Doctor’s own words :— 

“The nature and causes of the physical diversities which 
characterize different races of men, though a curious and in- 
teresting subject of inquiry, is one which has rarely engaged 
the notice of writers of our own country. The few English 
authors who have treated of it, at least those who have entered 


* Read at the Meeting of the Ethnological Society, on the 28th February 1849, 
VOL. XLVI. NO. XCIV.— OCTOBER 1849. P 


206 Biographical Sketch of Dr Prichard. 


into the investigation on physiological grounds, have, for the 
most part, maintained the opinion, that there exist in mankind 
several distinct species. A considerable and very respectable 
class of foreign writers, at the head of whom we reckon Buf- 
fon and Blumenbach, have given their suffrages on the con- 
trary side of this question, and have entered more diffusely 
into the proof of the doctrine they advocate. 

‘“‘ My attention was strongly excited to this inquiry many 
years ago, by happening to hear the truth of the Mosaic re- 
cords implicated in it, and denied, on the alleged impossibi- 
lity of reconciling the history contained in them with the phe- 
nomena of nature, and particularly with the diversified cha- 
racters of the several races of men. The arguments of those 
who assert that these races constitute distinct species ap- 
peared to me at first irresistible, and I found no satisfactory 
proof in the vague and conjectural reasonings by which the 
opposite opinion has generally been defended. I was at last 
convinced that most of the theories current concerning the 
effects of climate and other modifying causes are in great part 
hypothetical, and irreconcilable with facts that cannot be dis- 
puted. 

“ In the course of this essay I have maintained the opinion, 
that all mankind constitute but one race, or proceed from a 
single family, but I am far from wishing to interest any re- 
ligious predilections in favour of my conclusions. On the 
contrary, I am ready to admit, and shall be glad to believe, 
if it can be made to appear, that the truth of the Scriptures 
is not involved in the decision of this question. I have made 
no reference to the writings of Moses, except with relation 
to events concerning which the authority of those most an- 
cient records may be received as common historical testimony ; 
being aware that, one class of persons would refuse to admit 
any such appeal, and that others would rather wish to see 
the points in dispute established on distinct and independent 
grounds.” 

In this work Dr Prichard set forth the differences of 
colour, hair, stature, and form, and examined the value of each 
as an evidence of difference of race ; and inferred from the 
occurrence of these and similar differences, where identity of 


Biographical Sketch of Dr Prichard. 207 


race could not be doubted, that they must not be received as 
evidences against the unity of our species. He successfully 
combated the old opinion that the influence of the sun, con- 
tinued through several generations, has produced the black- 
ness of the Negro, and adduced instances in proof of the con- _ 
tinuance of black or brown and the white complexion through 

numerous generations, in almost every latitude and climate. 

He inquired into the production and permanency of varieties 

in man and in inferior animals ; examined some of the causes — 
which may tend to produce them ; and following up an idea 

adopted by John Hunter, that cultivation is a powerful cause 

of producing variety, and of lowering the intensity of colour 

in animals and plants, he makes the suggestion, that civiliza- 

tion has been the operative cause which has produced the 

white varieties of the human species, of which he supposed 

that the first pair were black. He related many curious facts 

collected from several parts of the globe in support of this 

bold and ingenious theory, the announcement of which excited 

both surprise and interest. Though the Doctor ventured to 

offer this conjecture, the work was throughout an appeal to 

fact and evidence: and not satisfied with merely inferring that 

resemblance in form, colour, language, and habits, are proofs 

of a community of origin amongst the inhabitants of distant 

islands, he adduced the instances of canoes with their crews 

having lost their way, and being conveyed by winds or cur- 

rents to a distance of hundreds of miles across the ocean. 

The work contains a description of the known varieties of 

man, in which the author adopted the division proposed by 

Blumenbach, and exhibited a great amount of research in the 

number of authors from whom his descriptions were collected. 

Even at this early period of the author’s researches, a large 

amount of labour and erudition were devoted to the ancient 

Egyptians and Hindoos. 

About thirteen years intervened between the publication 
of the first and second editions of the Doctor's work ; and as 
his growing celebrity as a physician had in the mean time 
raised him to eminence in his profession, it may not be amiss 
here to make a digression from his history as an ethnologist, 
in order to speak of him as a medical man, in which charac- 
ter he would have been distinguished had he written nothing 


208 Biographical Sketch of Dr Prichard. 


upon ethnology. It has already been stated that Dr Prichard 
did not embrace the profession of medicine from any strong 
and early predilection. But what is of far greater import- 
ance to the study of the wide range of subjects which the 
science of medicine embraces, he brought to it that accurate 
observation which is the result of habitual exercise ; and that 
aptitude for continued and varied study, which springs from 
the union of talent with early education, and is the surest pre- 
paration for sound professional knowledge, and safe and suc- 
cessful practice. And I may here be allowed to remark that 
nothing is more absurd than the vulgar error, that there may 
be an intuitive knowledge and natural gift which of them- 
selves confer on their possessors a marvellous skill in the 
healing art. Dr Prichard applied himself with as much zeal 
to the practice as he had done to the study of his profession. 
He established a dispensary. He became physician to some 
of the principal Medical Institutions of Bristol. He had not 
only alarge practice in his own neighbourhood, but was often 
called to distant consultations. Notwithstanding the en- 
grossing nature of these occupations, he found time to pre- 
pare and deliver lectures on Physiology and Medicine, and 
wrote an essay on Fever and one on Epilepsy, and subse- 
quently a larger work on Nervous Diseases. 

Amongst the patients who came under the Doctor's care in 
public practice were the inmates of a lunatic asylum ; and 
combining the results of his own observation and experience 
with that laborious research which he was accustomed to em- 
ploy on all the subjects to which he directed his attention, 
he was enabled to produce an excellent treatise on Insanity, 
which was first published as one of the articles which he con- 
tributed to the “ Encyclopedia of Practical Medicine.” 

Notwithstanding his numerous avocations, Dr Prichard 
continued his literary and scientific studies ; yet many of these 
had more or less a bearing upon his favourite subject—the 
History of Man. He acquired the German language, in which 
so many profound works on philology and history are com- 
posed ; and as an excercise, he prepared and published, in con- 
junction with his friend W. Tothill, a translation of Miiller’s 
General History. He wrote an article on the Mithridates of 


Biographical Sketch of Dr Prichard. 209 


Adelung. He continued his researches on Egyptian mytho- 
logy and history, in which he investigated their relations to 
those of India. He contributed various articles to reviews and 
other periodicals, of which I have not been able to obtain a 
complete list, but the following may be mentioned: A paper 
on Snowden—three papers on the Mosaic Cosmogony, in 
Tilloch’s Journal—Papers on the Universities—on the Zodiac 
—on Isis and Osiris—on Faln and Schlegel—Articles on 
Delirium, Hypochondriasis, Somnambulism, Animal Magnet- 
ism, Scundness of Mind, and Temperament, in the “ Cyclo- 
pedia of Practical Medicine ;” and several chapters on similar 
subjects in the “ Library of Medicine.’’ Also a small volume 
on Insanity connected with Jurisprudence, and a highly in- 
teresting essay on the Vital Principle. 

The study of the Hebrew language was alike congenial to 
his religious feelings and to his philological taste. An essay 
on the Song of Deborah, which he wrote for the gratification 
of his friends, is an interesting piece, in which, though short, 
the Doctor appears in both characters. 

Study was so thoroughly identified with his life, that even 
the hours which he could spare from social intercourse were 
made subservient to his literary pursuits, and Greek readings 
with a few learned friends occupied the time which other men 
devote to light or frivolous pursuits. A poetical translation 
of the Birds of Aristophanes may be mentioned amongst the 
fruits of these horw subseciva. 

In the year 1826 the Doctor published the second edition 
of his “ Researches into the Physical History of Man.” In 
the interval of nearly thirteen years which had elapsed, he 
had not only collected a great amount of valuable materials, 
but had brought to bear upon the difficult questions which 
his subject presents a variety of collateral knowledge for 
their elucidation, thereby not only enhancing the value of his 
own researches, but pointing out to future inquirers the path 
to truth, in which he made such important advances. In the 
first volume he treated largely on the curious subject of the 
diffusion of organised beings, both vegetable and animal, 
entering into a most minute examination of a question which 
had previously occupied the attention of the great Linneus, 


210 Biographical Sketch of Dr Prichard. 


who maintained, that in every species of plants, as well as 
of animals, only one pair was originally produced. “ Unum 
individuum ex hermaphroditis et unicum par reliquorum 
viventium fuisse. primulis creatum sana ratio videtur 
clarissimé ostendere.” 

In this edition increased precision was given to character- 
istic differences of form, complexion, hair and stature, the 
circumstances under which they occur, and the causes by 
which they may be influenced. The descriptions of the nume- 
rous families of mankind were greatly multiplied, and at the 
same time given with greater minuteness. But it must be 
observed, that in a work of this kind the author’s own personal 
observations must, even in the case of a great traveller, be 
comparatively limited ; whilst the author who writes in his 
own fixed residence, though he enjoys the largest amount of 
collected materials, must nevertheless be subjected to the 
serious inconvenience of being supplied with statements which 
may be either seriously defective, or absolutely inaccurate, 
without his being able at the time to correct or even to de- 
tect them. Renewed research and the division of labour are 
indispensable for the completion of the task, in the progress 
of which there will be much to interest and reward the ethno- 
logist who will take Dr Prichard for his guide and instructor. 

The diffusion of mankind presents one characteristic of the 
highest importance for its elucidation, which is altogether 
peculiar to our species. The characteristic to which I allude 
is that of language. It may be said, that in this respect it 
resembles many other characteristics resulting from the pro- 
gressive cultivation of successive generations, which is the 
peculiar privilege of our race. Language, it is true, is sub- 
jected to the influence of this progressive cultivation, and 
preserves an important record of its advances. Yet there is, 
nevertheless, something peculiar in the subject of language, 
which places philology, as applied to the study of the human 
race generally, in a most exalted and important position 
amongst the abstruse sciences. I have only to appeal to the 
elaborate disquisitions of our learned associate, Dr Latham, 
for the proof of this assertion. 

But to return to Dr Prichard. The philological portion of 


Biographical Sketch of Dr Prichard. 211 


the subject, in the second edition of the work, was greatly 
enriched by a survey of the different relations of languages to 
each other ; by the announcement of his discovery of the affi- 
nity of the Celtic languages with Sanskrit and other members 
of the Indo-Kuropean family ; and by a tabular view of the 
known families of man, with their localities and languages, 
arranged according to their geographical distribution. 

The affinities of the Celtic languages formed the subject of 
a separate volume, which Dr Prichard published in 1831. 

To facilitate the appreciation of the value and importance, 
as well as of the difficulty of the discovery which it was the 
object of this work to exhibit, I may perhaps be allowed to 
offer a few brief remarks on the affinities of languages. 

The degrees of affinity which may exist between languages 
are so very various, that it is absolutely necessary to define 
the meaning which it is intended to attach to the term affinity, 
as applied to languages. For want of a right understanding 
of this term, I have heard men, learned in many languages, 
seriously disagree as to the admission of such affinity. There 
are differences so slight as merely to affect the modification 
of words evidently the same. They scarcely affect the mutual 
intelligibility of the parties who use them. There is no dis- 
pute as to the identity of their language, and the differences 
are regarded as dialectic ; but let parties meet each other with 
a somewhat greater difference of language, which prevents 
their interchange of ideas, and they will probably separate, 
each saying that the other speaks a different language. Such 
for example, might be the case were a Frenchman to meet 
with a Spaniard or an Italian, provided both parties were 
uneducatedmen. Yet the philologian, whether he regard the 
grammatical structure, or the derivation of the most ordinary 
words, would not hesitate to pronounce that the two languages 
are very closely related ; and most readily to admit that they, 
and a few other European languages, such as the Portuguese 
and the Provengal, are twigs of the same bough. If one of the 
parties had happened to be a German or an Englishmen, there 
would have been the same mutual difficulty of comprehension ; 
but the philologian would pronounce that the difference was 
more considerable ; that instead of being twigs of the same 


212 Biographical Sketch of Dr Prichard 


bough, they might belong to boughs of the same branch. But 
besides discovering such a connection as would indicate this 
degree of community of origin, he would discover many words 
so far common to both, that they might be compared to the 
artificial union which the horticulturist may effect between 
branches towards their extremities after they had forked off 
below. It is in relation to the connection of languages, as 
branches proceeding from a common arm of the same tree, 
that modern philologians have made such great and important 
discoveries. Amongst the most remarkable of these disco- 
veries is that of the affinity demonstrated by Jules Klaproth 
and some other German Philologists, between the Sanskrit and 
some other dead and living Asiatic languages and the Greek, 
Latin, German, and other languages, boughs of the same 
branch. The Celtic dialects, the remnants of the most ancient 
and westerly of the European languages, had not been shewn 
to belong to the same principal branch or arm ; and I believe 
that it was doubted if such connection existed, until our late 
President, by means of his extensive acquaintance with nu- 
merous languages, and by a sagacious as well as perserving 
investigation of characteristics exhibited by the mode in which 
the changes of words and syllables are brought about, was 
enabled to make evidenta connection dependent on community 
of origin, which must have existed at a most remote period, 
anterior to tradition as well as to history. 

When we consider that there are languages so distinct that 
they cannot be brought within that very distant affinity which 
has been proved to exist between the Celtic and the Sanskrit, 
but which may be assembled together in one common group, 
like that which comprehendsthe American languages, amount- 
ing to some hundreds in number, and spoken from the North 
Frozen Ocean as far South as Terra del Fuego, by numerous 
tribes resembling each other in physiognomy more closely than 
the inhabitants of different districts of Great Britain, some 
idea may be formed of the interest as well as of the magni- 
tude of the subjects which engage the attention of an Ethno- 
logist who, like Dr Prichard, applied himself to the study of 
the human race as a whole. 

If the accession of words received from a language of the 


Biographical Sketch of Dr Prichard. 213 


same stock may be compared to the operations of horticultu- 
rists who unite the branches of the same tree, or if they more 
nearly resemble the anastomoses of bloodvessels, there are 
instances in which languages receive isolated words from lan- 
guages of the most distant and distinct groups, which may be 
compared to the insertion of a graft from a totally different 
tree, or to the still more remote connection which exists 
between a parasitic plant and the tree to which it is attached. 
A familiar example of such introduction is furnished in our 
adoption of the word ¢aboo from the South Sea Islanders. 
Now, it is possible for many such additions to be made, and 
indeed they have actually taken place in the opposite direction, 
the Polynesian language being enriched by European words, 
without any evidence being afforded of affinity between these 
remote languages. Such accessions, however, become im- 
portant Ethnological characteristics, affording, it may be, the 
only recordsof the communications which have existed between 
distinct people. The history of the widely spread Polynesian 
race seems to admit of some such elucidation, from the traces 
which have been left by such introduction of Asiatic words. 

It will be readily understood, that, bya man of Dr Prichard’s 
learning and strong predilection for linguistic study, the philo- 
logical element of Ethnology would be by no means under- 
rated. In two able Reports, which he presented to the British 
Association for the Advancement of Science, he assigns to it 
its true and important place. In the Report of 1832, he suc- 
cessfully employed it as a corrective of classification founded 
on external characters only, which had led even the great and 
learned Cuvier to fall into palpable inaccuracies in his princi- 
pal divisions of the human race. 

In 1838, Dr Prichard published an Analysis of the Egyptian 
Mythology, which was a considerable extension of a former 
work which he had published on the same subject, with a 
critical examination of the remains of Egyptian Chronology. 
This earlier treatise had arrested the attention of German an- 
tiquarians, and the distinguished Professor A. W. von Schlegel 
had published a translation of it, with a preliminary essay. I 
am indebted to our associate, D. W. Nash, a common friend 


214 Biographical Sketch of Dr Prichard. 


of Dr Prichard and myself, and who is also an Egyptian anti- 
quarian, for the following notice of these works. 

The discoveries of Dr Young, founded upon the inscription 
of the Rosetta stone, and the labours of De Sacy and Akerblad, 
had awakened great interest in Egyptian research inthe minds 
of the learned of Europe. The great work of the French 
Scientific Commission, chief product of Napoleon’s Egyptian 
expedition, had revealed the grandeur and extent of the re- 
mains of antiquity preserved in the valley of the Nile. The 
publication of M. Champollion’s Letter to M. Dacier, in 1822, 
containing his hieroglyphic alphabet, gave promise that the 
obscurity which had so long enveloped the monuments of 
ancient Egypt would at length be dissipated. But, at the time 
when Dr Prichard published his “ Analysis,’’ the interpretation 
of the Egyptian historical monuments was a matter of hope 
and expectation only. It was not until the following year 
(1824), that Champollion’s important work, the ‘ Précis du 
Systéme Hiéroglyphique des Anciens Egyptiens,’ was present- 
ed to the public. The labours of Dr Prichard were there- 
fore unassisted by and wholly independent of those monumen- 
tal records which form the groundwork of recent Egyptian 
research. 

But Dr Prichard was no mere Egyptologer. He took his 
stand upon a higher and broader ground, and treated the sub- 
ject of Egyptian history as a branch of general ethnology,—a 
chapter in the great book of the Universal History of Mankind. 

In his own words, in the preface to the first edition of his 
« Analysis,” in 1823, the motive which originally induced him 
“to enter on the inquiries contained in this work, was the de- 
sire to elucidate, through the mythology of the ancient Egyp- 
tians, the relations of that people to other branches of the 
human family.” It had frequently been asserted, and amongst 
others, by Champollion, that the Egyptians were a peculiarly 
African people, altogether distinct from the races of the 
Asiatic continent, and even wholly separate in origin from 
the rest of mankind. 

It was particularly necessary for Dr Prichard to examine 
into the groundwork and foundation of such an opinion, so en- 


Biographical Sketch of Dr Prichard. 215 


tirely at variance with the views deduced by him from his 
ethnological researches. The method which he pursued in 
the investigation, in this particular work, was a comparison 
of the mythological and philosophic doctrines and civil insti- 
tutions of the ancient Egyptians with those which were de- 
veloped among the worshippers of Brahma in Eastern Asia. 
The language of ancient Egypt was so entirely unknown, that 
no assistance could be derived from that source ; the only 
method, therefore, which could be followed with any prospect 
of success, was the kind of analysis and comparison entered 
on by Dr Prichard. The result of this analysis undoubtedly 
presents a remarkable series of striking points of resem- 
blance, in mythic dogmas, religious ceremonies, sacerdotal 
customs, cosmogonic and physical doctrines, and even, to a 
certain extent, in civil institutions. 

This treatise was translated into the German language at 
the wish of Professor Welcke, of Bonn, and a preface to it 
written by the learned archeologist, Augustus William von 
Schlegel. Professor Schlegel, while paying a just tribute to 
the learning and acuteness of the author, and to the profound 
character of the work in question, combats the general con- 
clusion derived by Dr Prichard from his comparison of Egypt 
with ancient India, in regard to the most important elements 
of their religion and political constitution. That general 
conclusion is, “ that the same fundamental principles are to 
be traced as forming the groundwork of religious institutions, 
of philosophy, and of superstitious observances and ceremonies 
among the Egyptians and several Asiatic nations, more es- 
pecially the Indians.”” It would be out of place here to enter 
at length into the character of the evidences adduced by Dr 
Prichard in support of this conclusion. The treatise itself 
presents an ample and methodical arrangement of the autho- 
rities on the subject of Egyptian mythology and philosophy, 
from the writings of Pagan and Christian authors. What 
remains of ancient literature and philosophy, bearing upon 
Egyptian history, has been copiously collected and carefully 
applied to the illustration of this obscure and intricate branch 
of the history of mankind. As in all other of Dr Prichard’s 
writings, there is no straining of evidence to support a 


216 Biographical Sketch of Dr Prichard. 


favourite hypothesis, but a careful statement of facts and cir- 
cumstances, with a view to the elucidation of truth. The 
conclusion drawn from the remarkable coincidences and re- 
lations which Dr Prichard pointed out as existing between 
Egyptian and Indian modes of thought, has received consi- 
derable support from a quarter the least expected. Recent 
investigations into the structure of the old Egyptian language, 
revealed to us by the successful interpretation of the hiero- 
grammatic writing, have demonstrated an early original con- 
nection between the language of Egypt and the old Asiatic 
tongues. By this discovery, the Semitic barrier interposed 
between the Egyptian and the Asiatic races is broken down, 
and a community of origin established, which requires the 
hypothesis neither of the immigration of sacerdotal colonies, 
nor the doubtful navigation of the Erythrean sea. The pro- 
found views which led Dr Prichard to assert, that, “ although 
many obstacles present themselves to the supposition that 
direct intercourse subsisted between the Egyptians and the 
nations of Eastern Asia, there appear, even on very super- 
ficial comparison, so many phenomena of striking congruity 
in the intellectual and moral habits, and in the peculiar cha- 
racter of mental culture displayed by those nations, and par- 
ticularly by the Egyptians, when compared with the ancient 
Indians, that it is extremely difficult to refer all these analogies 
to merely accidental coincidence,” have thus been remarkably 
confirmed. His comparisons of individual personages of the 
mythologic system of either nation may not bear the test of 
measurement by the more extended knowledge of the subject 
which a quarter of a century has produced; but the terms 
of the general conclusions which are deduced from his “ An- 
alysis” may be fairly taken to be past all dispute. 

The “Critical Examination of the remains of Egyptian 
Chronology”’ is a remarkable monument of Dr Prichard’s 
sagacity, and of his aptitude for the elucidation of an obscure 
and intricate subject. The difficulty of the task which he 
here undertook he has not overrated, when, after laying be- 
fore the reader the lists of Manetho and EHratosthenes, the 
old Chronicle, and the dynastic chronology of Herodotus and 
Diodorus, he says, ‘‘ nothing can be more discouraging than 


Biographical Sketch of Dr Prichard. 217 


the first survey of the fragments we have extracted. When 
I first examined these fragments, with a view of computing 
from them the Egyptian chronology, they appeared to me to 
be an inextricable tissue of error and contradiction. I re- 
peated my attempt several times, at intervals, before I ob- 
tained the smallest hope of success, or a ray of light to guide 
me through the labyrinth. At length I thought I discovered 
a clue, which I have followed, and have persuaded myself 
that it has enabled me to unravel the mystery.” 

That clue was discovered by the same kind of investiga- 
tory process which has been applied in all Dr Prichard’s re- 
searches,—the obtaining fixed points of coincidence or agree- 
ment, with which to form a standard of comparison for appa- 
rently discordant materials. 

Discordant as the several lists of the Egyptian Pharaohs 
appeared, there were various points of agreement and cor- 
respondence between them, clearly demonstrating a derivation 
from some common source. The collation of the various 
lists, thus shewn to possess a certain authenticity, produced 
a series of historical synchronisms, which served as fixed 
points for computation in an upward and downward direction. 

Rejecting the untenable doctrines of Marsham and Scaliger 
as to the contemporaneous character of the several dynasties 
of Manetho, and the division of Egypt into various districts 
and independent kingdoms, whose sovereigns appear in the 
lists in a false order of succession, Dr Prichard commenced 
by treating the various historical fragments as authentic 
history, whose discrepancies were capable of being recon- 
ciled by the application of judicious critical comparison. Pro- 
fessor Schlegel imputes to him, as a fault inherent in an 
English author, a want of frankness and of freedom from 
prejudice, which causes him to incline, in his chronological 
views, “to the errors of the Harmonists, who, for the last 
1500 years, have been vainly labouring to bring into seeming 
accordance the contradictions of the so-called profane his- 
tory and of the traditons which are deemed sacred.’ How 
little this reproach, if it be one, was deserved, is evident, not 
only from the general tenor of the investigation pursued, but 
from the author’s own statement of the rule by which he was 


218 Biographical Sketch of Dr Prichard. 


guided in his research. “ Various attempts,” says Dr Pri- 
chard (Critical Exam., p. 88), “ have been made to reconcile 
the chronology of Manetho with that of Moses. Perizonius 
allows the Egyptian annalist to be correct through the latter 
half of the chronicle ; but not knowing what to do with the 
first fifteen dynasties, he boldly erases them at once, and de- 
clares them to be a forgery of the author. He has been fol- 
lowed by several later authors, particularly by Dr Hales. 
This way of proceeding is more like cutting the Gordian 
knot than untying it. We have no right to act in so sum- 
mary a manner. If we cannot reconcile the antiquity as- 
sumed by the annals of one nation with the dates assigned 
for the origin of empires and of the world in the records of 
the others, we have no other course to pursue than to ac- 
knowledge the contradiction between them. We may have 
good reasons for placing confidence in one record rather than 
another ; but we have no right to cut off from the archives 
of Egypt all that extends too far, as if we were shortening 
the limbs of Procrustes, and then pretend that we have re- 
conciled them with the computation of the Hebrew Scrip- 
tures. 

“ But though we ought to abstain from new modelling the 
Egyptian antiquities after the pattern of the Hebrew, no objec- 
tion can be made to our comparing all the documents we pos- 
sess that relate to the chronology of Egypt, and endeavouring 


to find some method of reconciling them with themselves. We 


are only bound, while proceeding in this attempt, to exclude 
all prejudice in favour of those particular methods that lead 
to conclusions which we are, from other considerations, in- 
clined to adopt.” 

These are undoubtedly the sentiments of genuine historical 
criticism. 

The view taken by Dr Prichard, founded on the internal 
evidences of the documents themselves, as to the relative cha- 
racters of the lists of Manetho and Eratosthenes, is in its 
leading features, and especially as relates to the earlier period 
of the Egyptian chronology, fully borne out and confirmed by 
later experience. 

The conclusion deduced from a comparison of the lists that 


— 


Biographical Sketch of Dr Prichard. 219 


the third, fourth, and sixth of Manetho contain a succession 
coeval with that of the first twenty-two sovereigns of the 
Latenculus of Eratosthenes, is very nearly the same with that 
arrived at by the Chevalier Bunsen, aided by an examination 
of original and all but complete monumental and documentary 
chronological records of Egypt. Bunsen makes the first 
twenty-two sovereigns of Eratosthenes correspond to the first, 
third, fourth and sixth dynasties of Manetho, rejecting from 
the list of Manetho the second and fifth dynasties, as had 
been done by Dr Prichard. 

That in other points the chronological comparisons insti- 
tuted by Dr Prichard should not have been confirmed by sub- 
sequent disoveries, is by no means extraordinary. Unaided 
by the evidence derived from the monuments, the analysis of 
Egyptian chronology, immediately subsequent to the Hyksos 
domination, is far more difficult and more intricate than for 
the preceding period. To the conquering monarchs of the 
eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties are ascribed the myths 
and traditions which belong of right to the heroes of a remoter 
age ; and an investigation, based of necessity solely on a com- 
parison of names and fragmentary historical notices of indi- 
vidual sovereigns, is involved in an endless maze of conflicting 
testimony. Professor Schlegel has truly observed of this 
treatise, that the learned industry and the intelligence of the 
procedure of its author are worthy of all commendation ; and 
it may be safely affirmed, that its production at a period when 
the chronology of Egypt was almost a blank in history, is an 
enduring testimony to the critical acumen and profound sa- 
gacity, no less than to the extensive learning, of its author. 

Dr Prichard’s singularly retiring manners kept him much 
aloof from public affairs ; yet, when occasion required it, he 
could exert himself with successful zeal. He felt personally 
interested in the importance of placing the means of a liberal 
education within the ready access of the youth of Bristol ; and 
with the co-operation of several gentlemen in his neighbour- 
hood, amongst whom may be mentioned his particular friends 
Eden, Tothill, and Conybeare, he established the Bristol Col- 
lege, and he had the satisfaction of seeing one of his own sons 
amongst the first who acquired distinction under its professors. 


220 Biographical Sketch of Dr Prichard. 


Dr Prichard’s interest in the varieties of the human race 
was not limited to making their physcial characters, their lan- 
guages, their manners, and often obscure history, the objects of 
scientific or learned research. He felt the interest of a philan- 
thropist and a Christian, in the protection and amelioration of 
the weak and oppressed branches of the human family. He 
hailed the formation of the Aborigines’ Protection Society, and 
was one of its early advocates. Though his residence at 
Bristol did not allow him to take an active part in the Society, 
his name was on the first list of its honorary members ; and 
I may be allowed to quote the following passage from his 
pen, which was printed in one of the earliest of the Society’s 
publications :— 

“JT much regret that circumstances over which I have no 
control will prevent me from attending the Anniversary 
Meeting of the Society for the Protection of the Aborigines. 
I hardly need say to you that there is no undertaking of 
this comparatively enlightend, and, as I trust it may be 
called, Christian age, which appears to me calculated to ex- 
cite a deeper and more lively interest than this truly admi- 
rable attempt to preserve from utter ruin and extermination 
many whole tribes and families of men, who, without such 
interference, are doomed to be swept away from the face of 
the earth. Certainly there is no undertaking of the present 
time that has a stronger claim on humanity, and even on the 
justice of enlightened men. For what a stigma will be placed 
on Christian and civilized nations when it shall appear, that, 
by a selfish pursuit of their own advantage, they have destroy- 
ed and rooted out so many families and nations of their fel- 
low-creatures, and this, if not by actually murdering them, 
—which indeed appears to be even now a practice very fre- 
quently pursued,—by depriving them of the means of subsis- 
tence, and by tempting them to poison and ruin themselves. 
For such a work, when it shall have been accomplished, the 
only excuse or extenuation will be, just what the first mur- 
derer made for the slaughter of his brother ; and we might 
almost be tempted to suppose that the narrative was designed 
to be typical of the time when Christianized Europeans shall 
have left on the earth no living relic of the numerous races 


Biographical Sketch of Dr Prichard. 221 


who now inhabit distant regions, but who will soon find their 
allotted doom, if we proceed on the method of conduct thus 
far pursued, from the time of Pizarro and Cortez to that of 
our English Colonists of South Africa. But independently 
of the claim of humanity and justice which this admirable 
undertaking presents, there are numerous points of view in 
which it is particularly interesting to the philosopher and to 
men devoted to the pursuit of science. How many problems 
of the most curious and interesting kind will have been left 
unsolved if the various races of mankind become diminish- 
ed in number, and when the diversified tribes of America, 
Australia, and many parts of Asia, shall have ceased to exist ! 
At present we are but very imperfectly acquainted with the 
physiological character of many of these races, and the op- 
portunity of obtaining a more accurate and satisfactory know- 
ledge will have been for ever taken away. The physical his- 
tory of mankind, certainly a most interesting branch of human 
knowledge, will have been left for ever imperfect, and but 
half explored,” 

I know that Dr Prichard had the Aborigines’ Protection 
Society in view in giving an important paper on the Extinction 
of Races, to the British Association for the Advancement of 
Science at its Meeting in Birmingham in 1838. 

On accepting the office of Inspector of the Lunatic Asylums, 
Dr Prichard relinquished private practice, resigned his post 
as Physician to the Infirmary, which he had held for more 
than twenty-six years, and transferred his residence from 
Bristol to London. To this change our Society is indebted 
for the privilege which we have enjoyed of having the great- 
est of ethnologists as our President. He succeeded our first 
President, Sir Charles Malcolm, to whose able exertions at 
its origin, and during the progress of its formation, the Eth- 
nological Society of London is incalculably indebted. 

After his settlement in London, Dr Prichard completed the 
third edition of his work, which extended to five closely- 
printed volumes, forming a mass of learned and scientific re- 
search and laborious compilation far superior to anything 
which had been previously produced on Ethnology, and 
scarcely surpassed in the literature of any other science. 


VOL. XLVII. NO. XCIV.—OCTOBER 1849. Q 


222 Biographical Sketch of Dr Prichard. 


In this Edition Dr Prichard introduced the distinctive appel- 
lations of Stenobregmate and Platybregmate, as character- 
istics of different forms of skull ; and he subsequently gave 
directions for the different aspects in which skulls are to be 
viewed for the purpose of noticing ethnological points. A 
somewhat analogous service has been performed by the dis- 
tinguished Professor Retzius of Stockholm, who, having de- 
voted special attention to this part of Ethnology, has classified 
nations according to the prevalent forms of their heads, and 
employed the distinctive terms, Dolico-cephalic and Brachy- 
cephalic, each of which are again divided into Prognate and 
Orthognate. 

Having myself paid some attention to the ethnological 
grouping of human skulls, I must confess that I have found 
very considerable difficulty in adopting points of character- 
istic difference; and in this very difficulty I find an argument 
in favour of the unity of our species, and of the differences 
which we observe being those of variety only. I cannot ad- 

‘duce a better illustration of this remark than that which is 
afforded by the skulls and portraits of American Indians. 
The unmixed Indians of North and South America form as 
well marked and distinct a group of the human race as can 
be pointed out; and I have noticed greater differences in the 
form of the head between individuals of the same tribe, than 
between those of individuals of different tribes, separated 
from each other by thousands of miles, and between which 
the most remote connection cannot be traced. 

Having already noticed the principal divisions of the sub- 
ject in speaking of the Doctor's previous writings, I will not 
now trespass on the time of the Society with any further ob- 
servations on this third edition. Whilst the publication of 
this great work was in progress, Dr Prichard produced a 
smaller one on the same subject, which appeared in illustrated 
numbers, designed to encourage and popularize the study of 
ethnology by consulting the taste of the day. On the com- 
pletion of the larger work, Dr Prichard observed that he con- 
sidered his literary labours as accomplished ; yet we cannot 
doubt, that, had his life and health been spared, his ever active 
mind and confirmed habits of study and labour would have 


Biographical Sketch of Dr Prichard. 223 


continued to gratify and instruct us by further productions 
of his well-stored mind; in fact the subject of my last conver- 
sation with him, as we walked together from the last meeting 
of this Society at which he presided, was the publication of a 
collection of plates of human skulls, illustrative of ethnology, 
somewhat on the plan of the “Crania Americana’’ of myfriend 
Dr Morton, of Philadelphia. 

It cannot fail to be a matter of surprise and wonder, when 
the nature of the Doctor’s private practice, and the character 
of his official duties, which called him much from home, are 
considered, how he was able to accomplish so much. I have 
been informed that he not only had acquired the rare and in- 
valuable habit of saving and occupying those detached frag- 
ments of time which it is most difficult not to lose, but that 
he also possessed the remarkable faculty of being able at once 
to resume and proceed with his compositions at the point at 
which he had left them. 

Dr Prichard appeared to be in possession of his usual health 
till within a few weeks of his death ; yet it is probable that 
the unusual dampness of the latter part of the last year, to 
which may be ascribed the remarkably low and atonic cha- 
racters of almost every case of illness, had produced a latent 
influence on his system, and prepared it to yield to the exciting 
causes which were applied. 

He had left his home, and was engaged in one of his offi- 
cial tours, when he was seized with a severe feverish attack 
while visiting the Lunatic Asylums in the neighbourhood of 
Salisbury, on the 4th of December 1848, and was confined 
in that city until the 17th, when he was conveyed to his own 
house in London. The fever proved to be of a rheumatic 
and gouty character, baffling all the efforts of medicai skill, 
and terminating his life, after much suffering, by pericarditis 
(inflammation of the membrane containing the heart) and 
extensive suppuration in the knee-joint. 

As a practitioner of medicine, Dr Prichard was remarkable 
for decision on the character of disease, and for a promptness 
and energy in the application of remedies. Many have been 
the instances where, in extreme cases, the boldness of his 


224 Biographical Sketch of Dr Prichard. 


practice was followed by unexpectedly happy results. In his 
intercourse with professional brethren and colleagues his con- 
duct was straightforward, honourable, and generous: to his 
patients he was gentle, attentive, and kind. 

High moral and religious principle, an affectionate dispo- 
sition, an instinctive sentiment of delicacy, propriety, and con- 
sideration of the feelings of others, and retiring modesty and 
simplicity of deportment, as much distinguished and endeared 
him in the domestic and social relations of life, as his literary 
and scientific attainments elevated him to the eminence he 
held in public estimation ; he furnished, indeed, a bright ex- 
ample of the scholar, the gentleman, and the Christian. 

Dr Prichard’s great attainments and learned and important 
works justly acquired universal reputation, and the honours 
and distinctions of Literary and Scientific Societies were 
poured in upon him. When he attended the meeting of the 
Provincial Medical Association at Oxford, the University con- 
ferred upon him the Doctor’s degree. The National Institute 
of France elected him a Corresponding Member,* and he re- 
ceived the same distinction from the Academy of Medicine 
and Statistical Society there, from the Academy of Natural 
Sciences of Philadelphia, the American Philosophical Society, 
the Oriental Society of America, the Ethnologial Society of 
New York, the Scientific Academy of Vienna, and from other 
bodies. He was likewise Fellow of the Royal Society, and 
Member of the Royal Irish Academy, and of the Royal Geogra- 
phical Society. 


* I cannot deny myself the pleasure of stating a fact in relation to the 
Doctor’s election to the distinguished honour of Corresponding Member of the 
Institute of France. Whilst paying a visit to Paris, in conversing with one 
of my friends who was a member of the Institute, he talked of nominating 
some English associate, and proposed one or two names, which led me to sug- 
gest that of Dr Prichard. It was highly approved by my friend, who con- 
sequently brought it before his colleagues, and the Doctor was elected ac- 
cordingly. 


EA ede Tokg E 


— 


} 
{ 


(2255) 


A Description of several extraordinary Displays of the Aurora 
Borealis, as observed at Prestwich, during the winter of 
1848-1849 ; with Theoretical Remarks. By WILLIAM 
SturGEON, Lecturer on Natural and Experimental Philo- 
sophy, formerly Lecturer at the Honourable East India 
Company’s Military Academy, Addiscombe, and late Editor 
of the ‘* Annals of Electricity,” &e. Communicated by 
the Author. 

(Concluded from page 158.) 


Theoretical Views. 


With respect to the cause of this meteor, I can form no other 
opinion, than that it originates in a sudden change of temperature 
in the upper regions of the atmosphere, which gives rise to a corre- 
sponding disturbance of the electric fluid, causing extensive move- 
ments of it amongst the attenuated air and aqueous vapour, illumi- 
nating them as it spreads in various directions, according as their 
different parts are prepared for its reception and diffusion, It is no 
unusual circumstance to observe preparations as it were, during the 
evening, before daylight has disappeared, for a display of auroral 
beams or streamers after nightfall. These preludes consist of certain 
arrangements of thin streaks of nubiferous matter, floating at high al- 
titudes, and often stretching quite across the heavens, and appearing 
to converge at two opposite points near the horizon ; forming what 
some people call Noah’s Ark. These streaks or bands of vapour, 
when traversed by the electric fluid at the night time, become lumi- 
nous conductors, and form streamers of the aurora borealis ; display- 
ing different degrees of brilliancy, in correspondence with the atten- 
uation of the nubiferous arrangement and the quantity of electric uid 
flowing through it. From this simple fact, which I have myself 
witnessed, and from the high probability that similar arrangements 
of still more attenuated aqueous vapour are frequently formed at al- 
titudes where they are far beyond the reach of observation, until illu- 
minated by electrical disturbances, there can appear no great degree 
of extravagance by supposing that most, if not all, streamers assume 
their peculiar forms from a like cause. It is possible, however, that 
on many occasions, the electrical disturbances may take place even at 
higher altitudes, and the light be transmitted through the thinnest 
bands of these nubiferous arrangements, which would give the ap- 
pearance of streamers or luminous beams, as decidedly as if they 
were themselves the conductors or channels of electrical transmis- 
sion. 

The streamers, which mostly constitute a conspicuous feature in 
the aurora borealis, are not often suddenly formed ; they generally 


226 =©Mr William Sturgeon on the Aurora Borealis. 


spring from some definite speck in the heavens, and wax gradually 
to their full dimensions, and then as gradually fade away. Some 
streamers, it is true, shoot rapidly to their full growth, and almost 
as suddenly disappear; but in all cases, they can be seen expanding 
lengthwise, whatever may be the rapidity of their growth; they some- 
times lengthen in both directions, but most frequently in one direc- 
tion only, a circumstance more favourable to the idea of the nubifer- 
ous bands being the media of transit, than in the capacity of trans- 
parent screens, permeated by an electric light from above. 

In many displays of the aurora, floods of streamers appear to flow 
upwards, from every part of a luminous bow, which crosses the 
meridian in the north, and stretch to various angles of altitude to- 
wards the spectator; some of them reaching to his zenith, whilst 
others terminate their career before they arrive midway, but in no 
instance do streamers spring into existence mature or full grown, 
This fact also gives countenance to the idea of their consisting of 
streaks or bands of thin aqueous vapour, gradually, though rapidly 
in some cases, illuminated longitudinally, by transmissions of the elec- 
tric fluid. This view is still further supported by the fact that, in 
whatever direction streamers may be elongated, the point from which 
they spring is the most intensely luminous of the whole, and becomes 
the base of the group; from this base or starting point, the light be- 
comes more and more attenuated, until at last it softens gradually 
and melts into the normal light of the sky and is lost. This gradual 
decay of brilliancy during the progress of streamers, from their birth- 
place to their terminal points, has every appearance of a gradual 
dispersion, and consequent attenuation of the electric fluid, as it flows 
along the aqueous conductors, until eventually it becomes so enfeebled 
as to be incapable of displaying a sufficiency of light to be traced by 
the eye, any further in its progress towards its destination. Hence 
also, the different distances to which streamers reach from their re- 
spective birth-places ; some fade away and are lost within a range of 
a few degrees, whilst others progress through an immense span in 
the heavens, but in all cases terminating in nearly the same manner, 

Nor are these the only indications of the aurora being within the 
limits of the atmosphere. The colour of the meteor is not that of 
an electrical light in a vacuum, nor in very highly attenuated air ; 
but such as would be produced by floods of the electric fluid amongst 
attenuated aqueous vapour. The auroral light is that of a pure 
candle flame, and sometimes of a silvery white, neither of which can 
be imitated by electrical transmissions through a vacuum. 

Philosophers have long been endeavouring to ascertain the height 
of the auroral arch, when displayed in the northern heavens, but 
hitherto, no two of them have arrived at similar conclusions. Some 
have supposed it to be only a few miles above the earth’s surface, and 
others have given it a height of above a thousand miles. From some 
calculations made by the late Dr Dalton, he infers that ‘“ the height 


Mr William Sturgeon on the Aurora Borealis. 227 


of the rainbow-like arches of the aurora, above the earth’s surface 
is about 150 English miles.’-—(Meteorological Observations, &c.) 

If the aurora be an electrical meteor, as is now generally admit- 
ted, the northern arch, which invariably assumes the white flame 
colour, must necessarily be situated within the limits of the atmo- 
sphere, for the reasons already stated ; the streamers also, which are 
generally of the colour of the arch, are obviously within a similar 
range from the earth’s surface, and from the hazy condition of the 
air through which they sometimes appear to progress, added to the 
fact, that they often conform theniselves to the figure and position of 
certain formations of cloud, there appears much reason to believe, 
that streamers ave displayed within the regions of aqueous vapour. 

With respect to the apparent ascent of streamers, it is nothing 
more than the effect of perspective, and ought not to be understood, 
that those parts of the meteor rise to a higher region from the earth’s 
surface ; but, in the same sense as a cloud is said to rise, or the sun, 
moon, or any other heavenly body is understood to rise, which im- 
plies no increase of distance between the earth and the body, but 
merely an increase in the vertical angle, formed by visual ray from 
the body, and the plane of the horizon; it is therefore the elonga- 
tion of a streamer towards the zenith of the observer, that causes 
the appearance of ascent or shooting upwards, and no real increase 
of distance from the earth’s surface. When streamers pass the zenith, 
their increase in length gives them the appearance of a downward 
motion, which is also the case, whatever may be their course, pro- 
vided the progress of elongation is from the spectator. 

From the observed influence of electrical forces in giving forms to 
and prod ucing intestine commotions in thunder-clouds, there is rea- 
son to infer, that similar forces are productive of peculiar forms and 
arrangements of aqueous vapour, in regions much higher than those 
groups of heavy clouds; and that electrical transmissions may be 
accomplished through conductors which had been formed by electrical 
forces, but such formations of conducting material could take place 
exterior to the atmosphere, where none is in existence. 

It is a well-ascertained fact, that the electric fluid is more abun- 
dant in the upper parts of the atmosphere than in the inferior strata ; 
and that this is the normal state of the air when undisturbed by 
clouds or other causes. Hence, were this normal state to remain 
 unruffled, there would be a steady equilibrium of electric forces 
throughout the atmosphere, and an electrical tranquillity would 
be permanently established in every part of it. Such a tranquillity, 
however, cannot possibly exist in an atmosphere that is subject to 
continual fluctuations of temperature, moisture, and consequent 
winds ; hence the natural tendency to an electrical equilibrium is 
ever being interrupted, and electrical commotions, of more or less 
magnitude, are continually going on. 

When the air is highly charged with aqueous vapour, and suffers 


228 Mr William Sturgeon on the Aurora Borealis. 


a sudden depression of temperature, dense clouds are formed with 
amazing rapidity, and the electric fluid being condensed in them to 
a higher degree of intensity than they can retain it, liberates itself 
from this aqueous imprisonment in the shape of lightning. In the 
upper regions of the air, where the insulation is much less perfect, 
no lightning cloud can possibly be formed ; because the electric fluid 
finding but little resistance to its movements, however suddenly it 
may be distubed, by change of temperature, flows from one part to 
another before its intensity gets sufficiently high to form lightning 
or discharge itself in a close compact body; hence any sudden dis- 
turbance of the electric fluid in the upper regions of the atmosphere, 
instead of producing lightning, would cause it to move in waves, or 
as a diffused ocean, in those directions offering the least resistance ; 
covering an extensive area in its transit; such an electric tide, occur- 
ring at night-time, would be visible, and partake of all forms of the 
conducting media through which it passed. 

Now, it being a well-established fact that attenuated air is a 
better conductor than air of greater density, and that a vacuum is a 
better conductor then attenuated air; and as the attenuated regions 
of the atmosphere are more highly charged with the electric fluid 
than the dense air below; analogy would lead to the inference, that 
the electric fluid is still more abundant exterior to the shell of 
air than anywhere within it; an inference which will readily be 
conceded by those who allow that the aurora borealis is an electrical 
phenomenon displayed at elevations far beyond the reach of the at- 
mosphere. But here it is that an insuperable difficulty presents 
itself in finding the disturbing agent. Within the atmosphere, elec- 
trical disturbances are easily accounted for by the influence of well- 
known agents; but at the distance that some philosophers have 
placed the aurora from the earth, such agents are not known to 
exist. 

The electrical theory of the aurora’ borealis, as it exists at the 
present day, is considerably alloyed with the magnetism of the earth. 
Halley appears to be the first on the list of those philosophers who 
have called in terrestrial magnetism to assist in explaining the cause 
of the aurora borealis; but the circulating magnetic efluvia of this 
eminent philosopher appearing insufficient for the views of Dalton, 
the latter invented ‘an elastic fluid partaking of the properties of 
tron, or rather of magnetic steel,” which he placed in the upper re- 
gions of the atmosphere, in “ the form of cylindrical beams,’’ which, 
when illuminated by the electric fluid, become the beams or streamers 
of the aurora borealis; and “the rainbow-like arches,” says this 
philosopher, “are a sort of rings of the same fluid, which encompass 
the earth’s northern magnetic pole, like as the parallels of latitude 
do the other poles.* 


* Meteorological Essays, p. 169. 


Mr William Sturgeon on the Aurora Borealis. 229 


The frequent position of the auroral arch with respect to the mag- 
netic meridian, and the occasional disturbance of the magnetic needle 
during an auroral display, are well calculated to associate terrestrial 
magnetism with the theory of the meteor; but it would be difficult 
to imagine how the extravagant appendages of Dalton could be re- 
quired to give “an irregular oscillation to the horizontal needle,” 
which amounted to no more than “half a degree” on each side of 
its “ mean daily position;’’* especially as the principles of electro- 
magnetism were as well known at the time the last edition of the 
Hypothesis was published (1836), as they are at the present day ; 
and would as easily have accounted for the needle’s movements in- 
dependently of those appendages as with them; and although other 
observers have met with much greater movements of the magnetic 
needle during an aurora, I can see no reason for supposing that they 
were due to ferruginous matter, floating in the atmosphere, because 
the well-known principles of electro-magnetism are, independently 
of any such ferruginous elements, quite sufficient to accomplish their 
production. 

The hypothesis of Dalton, with some slight modifications, being 
that in most repute at the present day, and favoured by the views 
of some of our most illustrious philosophers, require more than an 
ordinary consideration ; and, fortunately, being expressed in terms 
that cannot well be misunderstood, it may be examined without 
any apprehensions of mistaking the principles on which it is founded. 

Tn order that our author might not be obscure in his views, he 
particularly states the difference between the magnetic efluvia of 
Halley, and the ferruginous matter of which he constructs his eylin- 
drical magnetic beams. “It may perhaps be necessary here, before 
the subject is dismissed,’ says Dalton, “ to caution my readers not 
to form an idea, that the elastic fluid of magnetic matter, which I 
have all along conceived to exist in the higher regions of the atmo- 
sphere, is the same thing as the magnetic fluid or efiuvia of most 
writers on the subject of magnetism. This last they consider as 
the efficient cause of all the magnetic phenomena; but it is a mere 
hypothesis, and the existence of the effuvia has never been proved. 
My fluid of magnetic matter is, like magnetic steel, a substance 
possessed of the properties of magnetism, or, if these writers please, 
a substance capable of being acted upon by the magnetic efluvia, and 
not the magnetic efluvia themselves.” 

It is somewhat remarkable that, after such an abrupt dismissal of 
all preceding attempts at explanation, the hypothesis of Dalton should 
appear the most extravagant that has hitherto appeared in the his- 
tory of the aurora borealis. We have no knowledge whatever of the 
existence of this imaginary ferruginous efluvium; nor would any 


* Meteorological Essays, p. 171. 


- 


230 Mr William Sturgeon ox the Aurora Borealis. 


magnetist ever suppose that such a fluid, even were it admitted to 
have an existence, would put on the form of cylindrical beams, and 
at the same time adapt itself into rings round the magnetic poles of 
the earth. Moreover, as this imaginary fluid is supposed to be float- 
ing within the atmosphere, the hypothesis is left in a state of im- 
perfection from a want of information respecting the author’s mode 
of expanding the shell of air to the thickness of 150 miles, the 
height at which he has placed the aurora borealis. 

The same hypothesis supposes that the auroral beams “ are simi- 
lar and equal in their real dimensions to one another,’’ an assertion 
by no means sanctioned by observation ; but, on the contrary, perfectly 
at variance with the appearances generally. The hypothesis also 
supposes that the auroral beams are all “ parallel to the dipping 
needle at the places over which they appear ;” and that ‘the point 
in the heavens to which the beams of the avrora appear to converge 
at any place, is the same as that to which the south pole of the 
dipping needle points at that place.’’ With all due respect for the 
philosophical ability and skill of Dr Dalton, the cause of science has 
a predominating claim to our regards over all other considerations 
in discussions of this nature; there can, therefore, be no impropriety 
in stating that, were there no other observations to discountenance 
this part of the hypothesis, those on the aurora of the 17th Novem- 
ber last would be sufficient to prove its inaccuracy. 

That the auroral arches, when they appear in the north of these 
latitudes, cross the magnetic meridian at nearly right angles, is a 
fact very frequently observed, though it is by no means its universal 
position. The highest point of the arch is probably as frequently 
in other positions as in the magnetic north: it is sometimes several 
degrees eastward of the true north, at other times due north; and, 
on many occasions, it never appears at all. To admit that the arch 
is a visible part of a complete ring that surrounds the magnetic pole 
of the earth, and that at the same time it crosses, at right angles, 
the magnetic meridians of every place of observation, would be to 
admit a complete system of confusion—in fact, an absurdity. Ac- 
cording to Hansteen’s and Barlow’s maps, the curve of equal varia- 
tion that passes through Great Britain, passes also a little north of 
the Western Isles, through Newfoundland and into Hudson’s Bay ; 
and in the other direction, it passes through the North Sea, the 
Shetland Islands, and thence almost direct north past Spitzbergen. 
No circular ring that could possibly be imagined to surround the 
north-western magnetic pole of the earth, would answer the other 
parts of the hypothesis for all the magnetic meridians of that parti- 
cular curve of equal variation. In Hudson’s Bay, the magnetic 
meridian would be at right angles to the magnetic meridan of Great 
Britain; and in many parts of the curve there would be such obli- 
quities of the magnetic meridians to each other, that but very few 
of them would cross tangents to the supposed ring, at right angles, 


Se Sn ee ee ee 


Mr William Sturgeon on the Aurora Borealis. 231 


and at the point of contact,—circumstances required by the hypothe- 
sis; or, in other words, there are but very few magnetic meridians 
in this curve of equal variation, that run sufficiently close to the 
north-western magnetic pole of the earth, to satisfy the conditions 
of the hypothesis. In Great Britain, and throughout the northern 
parts of the curve, the magnetic meridians pass north of the pole; 
and the magnetic meridian, for the same curve, opposite the coast of 
Spitzbergen, would pass the magnetic pole northward upwards of 
10° of latitude. Westward, over the Atlantic Ocean, the magnetic 
meridians of this curve would approach the north magnetic pole 
more closely ; and in Newfoundland, the magnetic meridians would 
probably pass through that pole; but on the American Continent, 
towards Hudson’s Bay, the magnetic meridians would pass the north- 
western pole, some 3° or 4° on its south side. 

I have selected this particular curve of equal variation, as it 
stands in Professor Barlow’s map, because it is that which passes 
through the north of England, and corresponds with the variation 
at Kendal (25°), when Dr Dalton made his observations. Had the 
selection been made on the curve of 20°, which passes through the 
most western parts of Spitzbergen, through Norway, France, Al- 
giers, and the Canary Islands, thence across the Atlantic to Nova 
Scotia, Canada, and Hudson’s Bay, the deviations of the magnetic 
meridians from the magnetic pole would have been much greater, 
especially in Europe, where the meridians have been more exactly 
ascertained than in any other part of the curve,—that is, through 
the whole of the curve from the Mediterranean to Spitzbergen ; in 
which the magnetic meridians would cross the meridian in which 
the north-western magnetic pole is situated on its northern side, and 
the magnetic meridian of Spitzbergen would cross the meridian of 
the pole 15° or more north of it. In the western portion of the 
curve, however, from Algiers to Hudson’s Bay, the magnetic meri- 
dians would run sufficiently close upon the magnetic pole to answer 
the conditions of the hypothesis. But the deviation of the western 
line of no variation, from the meridian of the magnetic pole, would 
alone be sufficient evidence of the incorrectness of the hypothesis. 

In all these cases, the north-western magnetic pole is supposed to 
be situated in 69° 53’ north latitude, and 93° 33’ west longitude, 
as calculated for the year 1800, which is the nearest date on record 
to 1793, the year in which Dr Dalton first published his theoretical 
views of the aurora borealis, and which are those that still appear in 
his last edition, published in 1836. 

In referring again to that part of the hypothesis which places the 
auroral beams “ parallel to each other,” and at the same time, “ pa- 
rallel to the dipping needle at the places over which they appear,” 
it is obvious, that, to fulfil these conditions, the dipping needle would 
have to assume one and the same position, both in dip and direction, 
at all places over which the auroral beams appear at any one time ; 


232 Mr William Sturgeon on the Aurora Borealis. 


that is, the dipping needle would have to be parallel to one indivi- 
dual right line, at all places of observation, however wide apart. 
Now, without taking into consideration the difference of dip at dif- 
ferent places over which auroral beams often appear at the same 
time, the different positions of the magnetic meridians, in the planes 
of which the axis of the dipping needle would repose at those places, 
would be quite sufficient to shew the fallacy of that part of the hy- 
pothesis, 

It is somewhat remarkable, that neither Dalton nor any other 
philosopher that I am aware of, has taken into consideration the 
electro-magnetic forces of auroral beams or streamers, in disturbing 
the magnetic needle. These forces are brought into play by every 
movement of the electric fluid, whether ferruginous or other metal- 
lic matter be present or not,—as well in the most perfect vacuum 
as in dense air; and when such immense floods of the electric fluid 
are put into motion as constitute a grand aurora borealis, the prin- 
cipal features of which are extensive groups of streamers, it is to be 
expected that the electro-magnetic forces of those streamers will dis- 
turb the compass-needle, causing deflections of different degrees of 
magnitude, and in different directions, in correspondence with the 
intensity and direction of the disturbing forces ; and, all other things 
being the same, the greatest deflections of the horizontal needle 
would be accomplished by electric streamers that were parallel to it, 
and, consequently, parallel to the earth’s surface, at the place of 
observation. The supposition of the auroral beams being vertical, 
or nearly so, and at remote regions above the atmosphere, may pos- 
sibly have been the cause of the electro-magnetic forces of streamers 
being so generally overlooked; but it has long appeared to me that, 
to their influence the observed disturbances of the needle are prin- 
cipally if not solely owing. 

Although the theoretical views which I have taken dispenses en- 
tirely with the ferruginous effluvium supposed to be floating in the 
air, I by no means attempt to deny its absolute existence, nor the 
existence of other metallic effluvia. My motive for contending 
against the influence of such an agent in producing auroral beams, 
is to shew that it is quite unnecessary for the purpose it was in- 
tended, and the manner in which it has been applied preposterous. 
The manner in which I have attempted to explain the several phe- 
nomena attending the aurora borealis, requires no other elements 
nor forces than those well known and understood. The same cause, 
a sudden depression of temperature, that produces lightning amongst 
the clouds, would produce an aurora borealis in a higher region of 
the air; a depression of temperature at the earth’s surface invari- 
ably succeeds a lightning-storm, and almost as certainly closely fol- 
lows an aurora borealis ; and very often both of these electrical phe- 
nomena appear at the same time,—shewing that the disturbance ex- 
tends to a great height in the atmosphere, and the fall of tempera- 


Mr William Sturgeon on the Aurora Borealis. 233 


ture below, that succeeds these phenomena, as well as the immense 
hail-storms that attend lightning, infer that the change of tempera- 
ture commences far above the earth’s surface, and that it progresses 
downwards with various degrees of speed. 

The observations which I have myself made on the predisposition 
of clouds for a display of the aurora borealis, are similar to the ob- 
servations of Captain Back at Fort Reliance, (north latitude 62° 46’, 
and west longitude 109°.) “The aurora was frequently seen at 
twilight, and as often to the eastward as the westward. Clouds, also, 
were often perceived in the daytime, in form and disposition very 
much resembling the aurora.”’ 

The same scientific officer observed also, that “a dense fog, in 
conjunction with an active aurora, was uniformly favourable to the 
disturbance of the needle;”’ and, “ when seen through a hazy at- 
mosphere, and exhibiting the prismatic colours, almost invariably 
affected the needle.’’ These observations are of great interest, both 
as regards the decomposition of the electrical light, and the produc- 
tion of magnetic disturbance: shewing, in my opinion, that the fog 
was essential in the production of colours, as well as to the transit of 
a portion of the electrical fluid at no great distance from the needle ; 
and this view is strongly supported by the opposite effects of the 
aurora when no fog or haze was present. ‘ On the contrary,” says 
Captain Back, “a very bright aurora, though attended by motion, 
and even tinged with a dullish red-yellow, in a clear blue sky, seldom 
produced any sensible change (of the needle) beyond, at most, a tre- 
mulous motion.’’* 

There is a great difference in the character of auroral displays, 
scarcely any two being alike: some of them appear to be of such a 
complex and mysterious character as to bid defiance to scientific in- 
vestigation : whilst others develop a peculiarity of features that can 
hardly be misunderstood ; and may, with propriety, be considered as 
keys of admission to the whole. Amongst the latter may be enume- 
rated those in which are observed a predisposition of nubiferous mat- 
ter during daylight,—the luminous streaks or bands of vapour,—the 
waves of light that shine across the eye of the spectator,—the hazy 
character of the atmosphere,—and also the transcolourations of the 
light; all of which have appeared in unusual abundance during the 
past season, or since the commencement of last autumn. 

Dr Halley gives a very precise account of the appearance of lu- 
minous vapour, haze, and streaks of light, in the aurora of 16th March 
1716. This eminent philosopher tells us, that he did not see the 


* Mr Dancer, optician, of Manchester, whilst observing the white light of 
one of the aurore described in this paper, breathed upon a pane of glass through 
which he was looking, and immediately the prismatic colours appeared. The 
same effect is produced to passengers travelling in a close coach, and looking at 
the gas-lights through a window covered with aqueous particles from breath- 
ing; a beautiful prismatic iris is seen around the burning gas. 


234 Mr William Sturgeon on the Aurora Borealis. 


aurora till about nine o’clock; but, at that time, he “ immediately 
perceived, towards the south and south-west quarter, that, though the 
sky was clear, yet it was tinged with a strange sort of light; so that 
the smaller stars were scarce to be seen, and much as it is when the 
moon of four days old appears after twilight. I perceived, at the 
same time, a very thin vapour to pass before us, which arose from 
the precise east of the horizon, ascending obliquely, so as to leave 
the zenith about fifteen or twenty degrees to the northward. But the 
swiftness wherewith it proceeded was scarce to be believed, seem- 
ing not inferior to that of lightning, and exhibiting, as it passed on, 
a sort of momentaneous nubecula, which discovered itself by a diluted 
and faint whiteness ; and was no sooner formed, but before the eye 
could well take it, it was gone, and left no signs behind it. Nor was 
this a single appearance ; but for several minutes, about six or seven 
times in a minute, the same was again and again repeated, these 
waves of vapour, regularly succeeding one another, and at intervals 
nearly equal, all of them in their ascent producing a like transient 
nubecula. By this particular we were at first assured, that the 
vapour we saw became conspicuous by its own proper light.” 

In this noted aurora, there was no light seen in the north till about 
eleven o’clock. ‘‘ On the western side of the northern horizon, viz., 
between west and north-west, not much past ten o’clock, I observed,” 
says our author, ‘‘ the representation of a very bright twilight, con- 
tiguous to the horizon, out of which arose very long beams of light, 
not exactly erect towards the vertex, but something declining towards 
the south,—which ascending by a quick and undulating motion to a 
considerable height, vanished in a little time, whilst others, at cer 
tain intervals, supplied their place. But, at the same time, through 
all the rest of the northern horizon, viz., from the north-west to the 
true east, there did not appear any sign of light to arise from, or 
join to, the horizon, but what appeared to be an exceedingly black 
cloud seemed to hang over all that part of it; yet it was no cloud, 
but only the serene sky, more than ordinary pure and limpid, so that 
the bright stars shone clearly in it.’ 

The Doctor next mentions “two laminew, or streaks’ of light, 
“‘lying in a position from the north by east to the north east, and 
were each about a degree broad ; the undermost about eight or nine 
degrees high, and the other about four or five degrees over it: these 
kept their places for a long time, and made the sky so light, that I 
believe a man might easily have read an ordinary print by the help 
thereof.” And again: ‘“ It being now past eleven of the clock, and 
nothing new offering itself to our view but repeated phases of the 
same spectacle. I observed, that the two lamine or streaks, parallel to 
the horizon, had now wholly disappeared; and the whole spectacle 
reduced itself to the resemblance of a very bright crepusculum, 
setting on the northern horizon, so as to be brightest and highest 


i ee en 


<< ~ "ieee 


Formula for calculating Expansion of Liquids. 235 


under the pole-star itself, from whence it spread both ways into the 
north-east and north-west.” 

About the time that this aurora appeared, the variation at Lon- 
don, the place of observation, was about 18° westward ; and, conse- 
quently, neither the two steaks of light, nor the crepusculum in the 
north, had any relation to the magnetic meridian. The nubecula 
seen by Dr Halley, seems to have been of the same character as the 
flashes or waves of luminous vapour, seen at Prestwich during the 
auroree of November 21st and December 17th last; they were ob- 
viously at no very great altitude, certainly within the range of 
aqueous vapour; the colour of these waves was that of a dim silvery 
whiteness. 

I perfectly agree with Halley, Hansteen, Brewster, and many 
other eminent philosophers, in the belief of a magnetic element or 
effluvium, pervading the atmosphere, and perhaps all space ; but the 
principles of Electro-magnetism do not allow of electric currents 
traversing the magnetic lines of force in the direction of their 
length, unless constrained by other influences than any known to 
exist in the regions of the aurora borealis. It is possible, however, 
that the theoretical views which I have here advanced may be open 
to objections that I do not myself perceive, and may require the cor- 
rections of a more diligent observer, and a sounder reasoner on the 
facts observed. 


On a Formula for calculating the Expansion of Liquids by 
Heat. By Witu1AM Jonn Macquorn RANKINE, Ksq., 
Civil Engineer. Communicated by the Author. 


Having been lately much engaged in researches involving 
the comparative volumes of liquids at various temperatures, 
I have found the following formula very useful : 


Cc 
Log V=Bt+ 7A 


Log V represents the common logarithm of the volume of 
a given mass of liquid, as compared with its volume at a cer- 
tain standard temperature, which, for water, is the tempera- 
ture of its maximum density, or 4°-1 centigrade, and for other 
liquids 0° centigrade. 


236 W. J. M. Rankine, Esq., on a Formula for calculating 


éis the temperature measured from the absolute zero men- 
tioned in my paper on the Elasticity of Vapours, in the Edin- 
burgh New Philosophical Journal for July 1849, and is found 
by adding 274°6 to the temperature according to the centi- 
grade scale. 

A, B, and C, are three constants. depending on the nature 
of the liquid, whose values for the centigrade scale, corre- 
sponding to water, mercury, alcohol, and sulphuret of carbon, 
are given below. 


A. Log B. Log C. 
Water, . . 0°4414907  4:8987546 17890286 
Mercury, . 0°0229130 += 59048766 ~—-_ 13703897 
Alcohol, . .  0:2615033 = 48414452 —-:1:2893056 


Sulphuret of Carbon, 0°2540074 48483872  =1-2192054 


The data from which the constants have been computed 
have been taken from the following authorities :—for water, 
from the experiments of Hallstrém ; for mercury, from those 
of Regnault; and for alcohol and sulphuret of carbon, from 
those of Gay-Lussac. As the experiments of M. Gay-Lussac 
give only the apparent expansion of the liquids in glass, I 
have assumed, in order to calculate the true expansion, that 
the dilatation of the glass used by him was -0000258 of its 
volume for each centigrade degree. This is very nearly the 
mean dilatation of the different kinds of glass. M. Regnault 
has shewn that, according to the composition and treatment 
of glass, the coefficient varies between the limits ‘000022 and 
‘000028. 

Annexed are given tables of comparison between the re- 
sults of the formula and those of experiment. The data from 
which the constants were calculated are marked with aster- 
isks. 

The table for water shews, that between 0° and 30° centi- 
grade, the formula agrees closely with the experiments of 
Hallstrém, and that from 30° to 100° its results lie between 
those of the experiments of Gay-Lussac and Delue. 

The experiments of Gay-Lussac originally gave the appa- 
rent volume of water in glass, as compared with that at 100°. 


the Expansion of Liquids by Heat. 237 


They have been reduced to the unit of minimum volume by 
means of Hallstrém’s value of the expansion between 4°-1 
and 30°, and the coefficient of expansion of glass already 
mentioned. 

In the fifth column of the table of comparison for mercury 
it is stated which of the experimental results were taken 
from M. Regnault’s own measurements on the curve, repre- 
senting the mean results of his experiments, and which from 
his tables of actual experiments, distinguishing the series. 

In the experimental results for alcohol and sulphuret of 
carbon, the respective units of volume are the volumes of 
those liquids at their boiling points, and the volumes given 
by the formula have been reduced to the same units. 


Expansion of Water. 


Volume as compared 
with that at 4°1 C. 
according to 


Difference 
between 
Calculation 
and 


Temperature 
on the 
Centigrade 


Authorities 
for the 
Experiments. 


Scale. 


the 
Formula. 


10001120 
10000000 
10002234 
10015668 
10040245 
1-00750 

101718 


103007 


104579 


the 
Experiments. 


1:0001082 
1-0000000 
1:0002200 
1:0015490 
1°0040245 
1:0041489 
100748 
100774 
1:01670 
1:01773 
1°02865 
1:03092 
1°04290 
1°04664 


Experiment. 


+°0000038 
“0000000 
+°0000034 
+:0000178 
‘0000000 
—:0001244 
+:00002 
— 00024 
+°00048 
—'00055 
+°00142 
—'00085 
+:00289 
— 00085 


VOL. XLVII. NO. XCIV.—OCTOBER 1849. 


Hallstrom. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Delue. 
Gay-Lussac. 
Deluc. 
Gay-Lussac. 
Delue. 
Gay-Lussace. 
Deluc. 
Gay-Lussac. 
Delue. 


238 W. J. M. Rankine, Esq., on a Formula for calculating 


Expansion of Mercury. 


Temperature 
on the 
Centigrade | 


Scale. the 


Formula. 


1:000000 
1:016333 
1:018154 
1:018230 
1027419 
1:036597 
1037786 
1:037905 
1:055973 


Volume as compared 
with that at 0° C. 
according to 


Experiments. 


1:000000 
1016361 
1:018153 
1:018267 
1:027419 
1:056468 
1037805 
1:037910 
1:055973 


|M. Regnault’s 


Difference 
between 
Calculation 
and 


“000000 
— 000028 
— 000019 
— 000037 

-000000 
+°'000129 
— ‘000019 
— 000005 

“000000 


Expansion of Alcohol. 


Temperature 
on the 
Centigrade 
Scale. 


the 
Formula. 


91795 
"93269 
94803 
‘96449 
98183 
100000 


Volume as compared 
with that at 78°41 C. 


according to 


M. Gay-Lussac’s 
Experiments. 


91796 
"93269 
94799 
"96449 
“98210 
1:00000 


Experiment. 


Remarks. 


Curve. 
Series I. 
Curve. 
Series I. 
Curve. 
Series IT. 
Series IV. 
Series III. 
Curve. 


Difference 
between 
Calculation 
and 
Experiment. 


— 00001 
“00000 
+°00004 
“00000 
—°00027 
“00000 


the Expansion of Liquids by Heat. 239 


Expansion of Sulphuret of Carbon. 


Volume as compared | 


Temperature with that at 46°-60 C. beter 
on the according to Calculation 
Centigrade and 
Scale. the M. Gay-Lussac’s Experiment. 
Formula Experiments. 


93224 93224 | “00000 
94768 94776 —+00008 


96417 °96417 -00000 
"98163 *98163 00000 
1:00000 1:00000 “00000 


On the Geographical Distribution and Uses of the Common 
Oyster (Ostrea edulis.) 


The Os¢rea edulis may be said to have its capital in Britain ; 
for though found elsewhere on the coasts of Europe, both 
northwards and southwards, in no part of them does it attain 
such perfection as in our seas, through which it is generally 
distributed, sparingly in some places, abundantly, and in gre- 
garious assemblages in others, chiefly inhabiting the lamina- 
rian and coralline zones. The ancient Romans valued our na- 
tive oysters even as we do now, and must have held them in 
higher estimation than those of Italian shores, or they would 
not have brought them from so far for their luxurious feasts. 

In Bishop Spratt’s “ History of the Royal Society,” is con- 
tained the first paper of importance on the Oyster-fisheries of 
England. It is selected by the Bishop as one of the examples 
which he gives of the various kinds of papers read before the 
Royal Society at that time, and respecting it he well remarks, 
“It may, perhaps, seem a subject too mean to be particularly 
alleged, but to me it appears worthy to be produced. For 
though the British oysters have been famous in the world 
ever since this island was discovered, yet the skill how to 
order them aright has been so little considered among our- 


240 On the Geographical Distribution and Uses of the 


selves that we see, at this day, it is confined to some narrow 
creeks of one single county.” The paper is so short, con- 
cise, and important, in its bearing on the history of British 
oyster-fisheries, that we transcribe it nearly entire. It is en- 
titled “ The History of the Generation and Ordering of Green 
Oysters, commonly called Colchester Oysters,” and runs 
thus :—‘‘ In the month of May the oysters cast their spawn 
(which the dredgers call their spat): it is. like to a drop of 
caudle, and about the bigness of an halfpenny. The spat 
cleaves to stones, old oyster-shells, pieces of wood, and such 
like things, at the bottom of the sea, which they call cultch. 
It is probably conjectured that the spat, in twenty-four hours, 
begins to have a shell. In the month of May the dredgers (by 
the lawof the Admiralty Court) have liberty to catch all manner 
of oysters of what size soever. When they have taken them, 
with a knife they gently raise the small brood from the cultch, 
and then they throw the cultch in again, to preserve the 
ground for the future, unless they be so newly spat that they 
cannot be safely severed from the cultch ; in that case they 
are permitted to take the stone or shell, &c., that the spat is 
upon, one shell having, many times, twenty spats. After the 
month of May it is felony to carry away the cultch, and 
punishable to take any other oysters, unless it be those of 
size (that is to say) about the bigness of an half-crown piece, 
or when, the two shells being shut, a fair shilling will rattle 
between them. The places where these oysters are chiefly 
catched are called the Pont-Burnham, Malden, and Calne- 
water. * * * This brood, and other oysters, they carry 
to creeks of the sea at Brickelsea, Mersey, Langro, Fringrego, 
Wivenho, Tolesbury, and Saltcoase, and there throw them 
into the channel, which they call their beds or layers, where 
they grow and fatten, and, in two or three years, the smallest 
brood will be oysters of the size aforesaid. Those oysters 
which they would have green they put into pits about three 
foot deep, in the salt marshes, which are overflowed only at 
spring-tides, to which they have sluices, and let out the sea- 
water until it is about a foot-and-a-half deep. These pits, 
from some quality in the soil co-operating with the heat of 
the sun, will become green, and communicate their colour to 


Common Oyster (Ostrea edulis). 241 


the oysters that are put into them in four or five days, though 
they commonly let them continue there six weeks or two 
months, in which time they will be of adark green. * * 
The oysters, when the tide comes in, lie with their hollow 
shell downwards, and when it goes out they turn on the other 
side ; they remove not from their places unless in cold wea- 
ther to cover themselves in the ooze. The reason of the 
scarcity of oysters, and consequently of their dearness, is, 
because they are of late years bought up by the Dutch. 
There are great penalties by the Admiralty Court laid upon 
those that fish out of those grounds which the Court 
appoints, or that destroy the cultch, or that take any 
oysters that are not of size, or that do not tread under 
their feet, or throw upon the shore a fish which they call 
a Five-finger, resembling a spur-rowel, because that fish 
gets into the oysters when they gape, and sucks them out. 
* * * — The oysters are sick after they have their spat; 
but in June and July they begin to mend, and in August are 
perfectly well. The male oyster is black-sick, having a black 
substance in the fin; the female white-sick, having a milky 
substance in the fin. They are salt in the pits, salter in the 
layers, saltest at sea.” 

From this old paper the greater part of the matter con- 
tained in articles on the subject of oyster-fisheries in the seve- 
ral Encyclopedias has been derived. In the earlier volumes 
of the ‘‘ Philosophical Transactions” are several notices on 
the subject of oysters, especially a short account of the spat 
by the celebrated Leuwenhoek, and a letter from the Rev. 
Mr Rowland to Dr Derham, in which it is stated that though 
the beds in the Menai furnished then (1720), as they do now, 
abundant oysters, twenty-four years previously none existed 
in the locality ; they were originally laid down there by a 
private gentleman. These beds are now recruited from the 
Trish coast. 

In order to obtain the most recent information respecting 
the oyster-beds which supply the London market, the extent 
of the supply, and the opinions of those practically concerned 
in their management, and in the sale of their products, on 
points in the history and value of what may be termed cud/ti- 


242 On the Geographical Distribution and Uses of the 


vated oysters, we drew up a series of queries, to which, 
chiefly through the obliging interest taken in the inquiry by 
Mr J. S. Sweeting, of 159 Cheapside, we have received from 
that gentleman, and from other well-informed quarters, very 
full replies, the results of which we now give in a condensed 
form. 

The oyster-beds from which the principal supply for the 
London market is procured, are those of Whitstable, Roches- 
ter, Milton, Colchester, Burnham, Faversham, and Queenbo- 
rough, all artificial beds, furnishing natives. Since the intro- 
duction of steamboats and railrods, considerable quantities of 
sea-oysters are brought from Falmouth and Helford in Corn- 
wall, from the coast of Wales, the Isle of Wight, and neigh- 
bourhood of Sussex, and even from Ireland and Scotland, after 
the winter sets in, as before they would not keep fresh enough 
when brought from long distances. The supply derived from 
natural beds varies much, since on some of them the oysters 
are not sufficiently abundant to pay for dredging. The sea- 
oyster is often, before being brought to market, kept for a 
time in artificial beds, in order to improve its flavour. 

The most esteemed oysters are those of the small, ovate, 
but deep-shelled variety, called Natives, among which those 
of the river Crouch, or Burnham oysters, are pre-eminent 
for their marine flavour, probably on account of the facilities 
for rapid importation of them in fine condition. Much of 
the quality depends on the ground and condition of the beds ; 
and oysters of different years from the same place often 
vary very materially in this respect. They are considered 
full-grown for the market when from five to seven years 
old; sea-oysters, at four years. The age is shewn by the 
annual layers of growth, or “ shoots,’ on the convex valve. 
Up to three or four years, each annual growth is easily ob- 
served, but after their maturity it is not so easy to count the 
layers. Aged oysters become very thick in the shell. In the 
neighbourhood of fresh water the oyster grows fast, and im- 
proves in body and flavour. The flavour is said by some to 
improve by shifting the oysters as they approach their full 
growth. Frost kills numbers ; and when they are left dry at 
low ebbs, the run of fresh water from the land turns them 


. 


Common Oyster (Ostrea edulis). 243 


what is called “foxy,” of a brownish-red colour. They are 
sometimes seized with sickness during the spawning season, 
and considerable numbers may die. Much labour is required 
to keep the beds in good order, cleansed from shells and 
rubbish, star-fishes, barnacles, corallines, and sea-weed, 
which grow freely in the spring of the year. On the clean- 
liness of the ground, the prolific character of the bed, if the 
oysters breed there, depends. If carefully attended to, a bed 
may last any length of time; but if neglected, it will become 
overgrown with weed and buried in mud, so that it can only be 
reclaimed by restocking at a great expense, or is altogether 
destroyed. Artificial beds, for the purpose of keeping a sup- 
ply at hand for the London market are said to have been 
commenced about the year 1700, by the Kent and Essex 
Companies of Dredgers. The oyster does not breed freely, 
often not at all, on artificial beds, so that they require to be 
constantly restocked ; and when they do spawn under such 
circumstances, the fry are said seldom to come to perfection. 
On their natural grounds they spawn profusely during the 
season, 7. e., during the summer months. The developing 
spawn is technically called “ spat.” 

The oyster has not a few enemies. Star-fishes, especially 
the Uraster rubens, and Solaster papposa, are supposed to do 
great injury to the beds ; the dredgers call them Five-fingers. 
Whelks, called by the fishermen whelk-tingle, or sting- 
winkle,—are also said to do much damage,—perforate the 
shells with small holes, selecting especially those of from one 
to two years’ growth. They are popularly supposed to strike 
directly for the heart of the oyster. That most curious 
sponge, the Cliona, perforates the shell in all directions, and 
directs its operations, with a wonderful symmetry, as we now 
know, through the curious investigations of Mr Albany Han- 
cock. Milne-Edwards states, that in some places on the 
coast of France, the oyster-beds run a risk of being destroyed 
through the tube-constructing powers of certain annelides 
(hermelle), becoming buried under masses of their curious 
habitations framed of agglutinated particles of sand. 

In London, the chief consumption of common vysters is 
from the 4th of August to January, and of natives from Oc- 


244 On the Geographical Distribution and Uses of the 


tober to March. The consumption is said to be greatest 
during the hottest months after the commencement of the 
oyster season; the warmer the weather, the more oysters 
are consumed. They are brought to market in craft of va- 
rious sizes; they are packed in bulk closely in the hold; in 
some cases, a cask of salt-water is kept, from which to 
sprinkle them superficially. Those that come by rail are 
packed with their convex shells downwards in bags and bar- 
rels. From the boats they are transferred to the salesmen, 
who keep them in a little salt and spring water, and shift 
them every twelve hours. Some pretend to improve them 
by “ feeding” them with oatmeal. Oysters, like other bi- 
valves, live chiefly on infusoria. The quantity consumed an- 
nually in London varies in different seasons. One informant 
states 20,000 bushels of natives, and 100,000 bushels of com- 
mon oysters, to be about the mark; another estimates the 
quantity sold in the season, from the 4th day of August to the 
12th day of May, to be nearly 100,000 London bushels, each 
bushel being 8 Manchester or imperial bushels; and that 
about 30,000 bushels of natives are sold during the same pe- 
riod by various companies. During the season commencing 
on August 4, 1848, and ending May 12, 1849, Mr Wickenden 
estimates about 130,000 bushels of oysters to have been sold 
in London, though of that quantity about one-fourth was 
sent away to various parts of the United Kingdom and the 
Continent. 

The oyster-fisheries are protected by legislative enact- 
ments. Various acts of Parliament have been passed for the 
better preservation of the oyster-beds, and prevention of 
trespass upon them. To steal oysters is a larceny ;* to 
dredge on an oyster-bed unlawfully or wilfully, is being 
guilty of a misdemeanor, punishable by fine—the fine not to 
exceed £20—or imprisonment three calendar months. Itis 
as well that ardent conchologists should know these (to them) 
obnoxious enactments, for otherwise they may find the search 
for a new or rare species, at the wrong season of the year, 


* 3st Geo. III. c. 51; 48th Geo. III, c. 144; 7th and 8th Geo. LV., ec. 29. 


Common Oyster (Ostrea edulis). 245 


cost more trouble and expense than it is worth. It is not 
only artificial oyster-beds which are claimed as private pro- 
perty, but many of those in the open sea, on various parts of 
our coasts. 

Oysters of good repute are fished in the neighbourhood of 
the Channel Islands. There are two oyster-banks, the one 
off Guernsey and the other off Jersey. The former is of 
little importance, the latter of considerable value. They 
belong to the region of oyster-banks which extends along the 
coasts of Normandy and Brittany. Dr Knapp informs us 
that the number procured annually from them, for the use 
of the Channel Islands and English markets, cannot be 
less than 800,000 tubs, each tub containing two English 
bushels; and in some years thrice that quantity is be- 
lieved to be procured from those banks during the season. 
As many as three hundred cutters have been employed upon 
them dredging. The oysters on the J ersey bank are of large 
size, and are sold at from five to seven shillings the tub, or 
from three to four pence the dozen. Milne-Edwards and 
Audouin state (in their Histoire Naturelle du Littoral de la 
France), that, during the year 1828, the total number 
dredged on the French banks of this region was about 
52,000,000, the average price of which was three francs 
fifty cents for every “miller,” ¢.e., twelve hundred. These 
French oyster-banks are stated, by the authors quoted, to 
yield a produce valued at from eight to nine hundred thou- 
sand francs a-year. Before the French oyster-fisheries were 
put under restrictions, the banks were deteriorating through 
continual fishing. 

The oyster-fishery of most consequence in Scotland is that 
of the Frith of Forth, respecting which some valuable infor- 
mation has been communicated to us by Dr Knapp. The 
oyster-beds there extend about twenty miles, from the island 
of Mucra to Cockenzie, and are dredged in from four to six 
or seven fathoms water. The best are procured near Burnt- 
island, on a bed belonging to the Earl of Morton,—on the 
rocky ground opposite Portobello,—and at Prestonpans. The 
price varies, wholesale, from two shillings to two shillings 
and sixpence per hundred ; the retail price from two shillings 


246 On the Geographical Distribution and Uses of the 


and sixpence to four shillings and sixpence, or even five 
shillings. Eight or ten years ago the price was much less; 
but an individual having taken the ground off Newhaven for 
a high rent,—which he is said never to have paid,—so cleared 
the beds that they have since been comparatively rare.* 

Natural oyster-beds, of small extent, occur at some dis- 
tance from land in several places around the Isle of Man. 
The principal is that off Lascey; but, though the oysters are 
fine and well flavoured, their abundance is not sufficient to 
induce a regular fishery. 


* Note on the Oyster-Fisheries which supply the Edinburgh Market. By Mr 
George D, Mojat.—Twenty-five boats, working for four months, viz., Septem- 
ber, October, March, and April, say sixty-four days (four days per week), 
dredye at an average 480 oysters per boat per day. Inde, 


25 x 64 x 480 = : ; 5 - 768,000 


Hight boats, working for four months, viz., November, Decem- 

ber, January, and February, say sixty-four days (four days per 

week) dredge at an average 480 oysters per day per boat. Inde, 
8 x 64 x 480 = : : : : 245,760 


Number of oysters dredged at an average in the season at 
Newhaven, ; : - c “ : 1,013,760 


Fisherrow, Prestonpans, and Cockenzie, may be taken in, a// at the same 
ratio. Therefore, doubling the above, makes 2,027,520 oysters, which may be 
calculated to be dredged in the Forth in the season; only three-fourth parts of 
which, however, it is believed are sent to Edinburgh, being 1,520,640. 

From the foregoing average, the quantity dredged per day may be stated as 


follows :— 
Boats. Oysters. 


Principal season, four months, 25 x 480 = : . 12,000 
Secondary season, four months, 8 x 480 = 5 5 3,840 


Per day, for Newhaven, 15,840 


The same number for Fisherrow, Prestonpans, and Cockenzie, makes 31,680, 
three-fourth parts of which, as before mentioned, come to Edinburgh, being 
23,760. 

With regard to the consumption in Edinburgh, it will be apparent, that out 
of the season of eight months, only 128 days are stated, these being the men’s 
working days. But the days of the consumption of these molluscs in town, 
are (excluding Sundays), out of eight months, 207 days. Inde, as before, 

1,520,640 ~ 207 = 7346 oysters, being the average daily consumed in 
Edinburgh during the season, from the beginning of September till the end of 
April. 


Common Oyster (Ostrea edulis), 247 


On both sides of Ireland oysters abound in many places, 
and some of the banks are valuable, producing oysters in 
abundance, and of good quality. In the west, the most 
famous are Burton Bindon’s oysters, which are highly 
esteemed in Dublin. They are the Burran oysters, brought 
from the Burran bank in Galway Bay, where they are laid 
down artificially, after having been originally dredged chiefly 
near Achil Head. There are oyster-beds in the Shannon, 
said, in 1836, to yield a revenue of £1400 annually, and to 
employ seventy men and sixteen boats. Some small oyster- 
beds in Clare are private property, and yield various incomes, 
as do those also in Cork harbour, but none of them are of 
any extent. Oysters are dredged from natural beds on the 
coast of Wexford and elsewhere, in order to be laid down on 
the Beaumaris beds. The most renowned of the Irish oyster- 
fisheries is that of Carlingford. The shell-fish are there 
dredged by boats, each manned by from three to five men, 
who take about fifty dozen a-day. The oysters of each boat 
are deposited within a ring of large stones till sold, the place 
being marked by a buoy. They are sold to dealers only, at 
from 8d. to 2s. per ten dozen. A yearly fee of 5s. is paid by 
each boat to the Marquis of Anglesey. The fishermen earn 
from 4d. to 1s. 6d. per diem, and are mostly landholders.* 

There are natural oyster-beds in Belfast Bay, on banks at 
a depth of from 12 to 25 fathoms. Mr W. Thomson informs 
us that, in March 1848, he had the four largest oysters se- 
lected from about five hundred taken on these beds, and by 
weighing them before their being opened, found two to be 
each one pound and a-half, the third one pound and three- 
quarters, and the fourth two pounds imperial weight. ‘The 
two largest oysters,’ he states, “on being taken from their 
shells, weighed each an ounce and a-half, and the others 
somewhat less. The oysters from which these were selected 
were sold at the rate of sixteen shillings for the one hundred 
and twenty-four. The shells were in length from 53 to 63 
inches; in breadth, from 5 inches to 53; and in depth, with 
the valves closed, 2} inches.” There are oyster-beds partly 


* Report on Irish lisheries for 1836. 


248 Comets. 


private, and increased by planting in Loch Swilly. Irish 
oyster-dredgers have a notion that the more the banks are 
dredged, the more the oysters breed.* 


Comets—Great Number of Recorded Comets—The Number of 
those unrecorded probably much greater—General Descrip- 
tion of a Comet—Comets without Tails, or with more than 
one— Their extreme Tenuity—Their probable Structure— 
Motions conformable to the Law of Gravity—<Actual Dimen- 
sions of Comets—Great Interest at present attached to Come- 
tary Astronomy, and its Reasons—Remarks on Cometary 
Orbits in general. 


In the admirable Outlines of Astronomy, by Sir John F. 
W. Herschel, just published, where all is excellent, we were 
deeply interested with the account of those wonderful mem- 
bers of our system—the Comets. From this masterpiece of 
thought and writing, we now lay before our readers the fol- 
lowing extracts :}|— 


The extraordinary aspect of comets, their rapid and seem- 
ingly irregular motions, the unexpected manner in which 
they often burst upon us, and the imposing magnitudes which 
they occasionally assume, have, in all ages, rendered them 
objects of astonishment, not unmixed with superstitious dread 
to the uninstructed, and an enigma to those most conversant 
with the wonders of creation, and the operations of natural 
causes. Even now, that we have ceased to regard their 
movements as irregular, or as governed by other laws than 
those which retain the planets in their orbits, their intimate 
nature, and the offices they perform in the economy of our 


* The above observations are from Part XX. of Messrs Forbes and Stanley’s 
valuable History of British Mollusca. To those interested in the natural and 
ceconomic history of the common oyster, we recommend the perusal of a paper 
on the Danish Oyster-Beds, by M. H. Kroyer, at page 28 of vol. xxix. of this 
Journal. 

+ Outlines of Astronomy. By Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., &c. &c. &. 
1 vol. 8vo, pp.661. London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans ; and J. 
Taylor. 1849. 


— 2 


Comets. 249 


system, are aS much unknown as ever. No distinct and sa- 
tisfactory account has yet been rendered of those immensely 
voluminous appendages which they bear about with them, 
and which are known by the name of their tails (though im- 
properly, since they often precede them in their motions), any 
more than of several other singularities which they present. 

The number of comets which have been astronomically 
observed, or of which notices have been recorded in history, 
is very great, amounting to several hundreds; and when we 
consider that, in the earlier ages of astronomy, and indeed 
in more recent times, before the invention of the telescope, 
only large and conspicuous ones were noticed, and that, since 
due attention has been paid to the subject, scarcely a year 
has passed without the observation of one or two of these 
bodies, and that sometimes two, and even three, have ap- 
peared at once,—it will be easily supposed that their actual 
number must be at least many thousands. Multitudes, in- 
deed, must escape all observation, by reason of their paths 
traversing only that part of the heavens which is above the 
horizon in the day-time. Comets so circumstanced can only 
become visible by the rare coincidence of a total eclipse of 
the sun,—a coincidence which happened, as related by Se- 
neca, sixty-two years before Christ, when a large comet was 
actually observed very near the sun. Several, however, stand 
on record as having been bright enough to be seen with the 
naked eye in the day-time, even at noon and in bright sun- 
shine. Such were the comets of 1402, 1532, and 1843, and 
that of 43 B.C. which appeared during the games celebrated 
by Augustus in honour of Venus shortly after the death of 
Cesar, and which the flattery of poets declared to be the soul 
of that hero taking its place among the divinities. 

That feelings of awe and astonishment should be excited 
by the sudden and unexpected appearance of a great comet, 
is no way surprising; being, in fact, according to the ac- 
counts we have of such events, one of the most imposing of 
all natural phenomena. Comets consist for the most part 
of a large and more or less splendid, but ill-defined nebu- 
lous mass of light, called the head, which is usually much 
brighter towards its centre, and offers the appearance of a 


250 Comets. 


vivid nucleus, like a star or planet. From the head, and in 
a direction opposite to that in which the sun is situated from 
the comet appear to diverge two streams of light, which 
grow broader and more diffused at a distance from the head, 
and which most commonly close in and unite at a little dis- 
tance behind it, but sometimes continue distinct for a great 
part of their course; producing an effect like that of the 
trains left by some bright meteors, or like the diverging fire 
of a sky-rocket (only without sparks or perceptible motion) : 
This is the tail. This magnificent appendage attains occa- 
sionally an immense apparent length. Aristotle relates of 
the tail of the comet of 371 B.C., that it occupied a third 
of the hemisphere, or 60°; that of A.D. 1618, is stated to 
have been attended by a train no less than 104° in length. 
The comet of 1680, the most celebrated of modern times, 
and on many accounts, the most remarkable of all, with a 
head not exceeding in brightness a star of the second mag- 
nitude, covered with its tail an extent of more than 70° of 
the heavens, or, aS some accounts state, 90°; that of the 
comet of 1769, extended 97°; and that of the last great 
comet (1843), was estimated at about 65° when longest. 
The figure (Fig. 2, Plate II.)* is a representation of the comet 
of 1819,—by no means one of the most considerable, but 
which was, however, very conspicuous to the naked eye. 
The tail is, however, by no means an invariable appen- 
dage of comets. Many of the brightest have been observed to 
have short and feeble tails, and a few great comets have 
been entirely without them. Those of 1585 and 1763 offered 
no vestige of a tail; and Cassini describes the comets of 1665 
and 1682 as being as round} and as well defined as Jupiter. 
On the other hand, instances are not wanting of comets fur- 
nished with many tails or streams of diverging light. That 


* his refers to a Plate in the ‘“ Outlines,’ but not copied here. 

{+ This description however applies to the “disc” of the head of these 
comets as seen in a telescope. Cassini’s expressions are, “ Aussi rond, aussi 
net, et aussi clair que Jupiter” (where, it is to be observed, that the latter 
epithet must by no means be translated bright). To understand this passage 
fully, the reader must refer to the description given further on, of the “ disc” 
of Halley’s comet, after its perihelion passage in 1835-6. 


Comets. 25. 


of 1744 had no less than six, spread out like an immense 
fan, extending to a distance of nearly 30° in length. The 
small comet of 1823 had two, making an angle of about 160°, 
—the brighter turned as usual from the sun; the fainter, 
towards it, or nearly so. The tails of comets, too, are often 
somewhat curved, bending, in general, towards the region 
which the comet has left, as if moving somewhat more slowly, 
or as if resisted in their course. 

The smaller comets, such as are visible only in telescopes, 
or with difficulty by the naked eye, and which are by far the 
most numerous, offer very frequently no appearance of a tail, 
and appear only as round or somewhat oval vaporous masses, 
more dense towards the centre, where, however, they ap- 
pear to have no distinct nucleus, or anything which seems 
entitled to be considered as a solid body. Stars of the small- 
est magnitudes remain distinctly visible, though covered by 
what appears to be the densest portion of their substance ; 
although the same stars would be completely obliterated by 
a moderate fog, extending only a few yards from the surface 
of the earth. And since it is an observed fact, that even 
those larger comets which have presented the appearance of 
a nucleus have yet exhibited no phases; though we cannot 
doubt that they shine by the reflected solar light, it follows 
that even these can only be regarded as great masses of thin 
vapour, susceptible of being penetrated through their whole 
substance by the sunbeams, and reflecting them alike from 
their interior parts and from their surfaces. Nor will any 
one regard this explanation as forced, or feel disposed to re- 
sort to a phosphorescent quality in the comet itself, to ac- 
count for the phenomena in question, when we consider (what 
will be hereafter shewn) the enormous magnitude of the 
space thus illuminated, and the extremely small mass which 
there is ground to attribute to these bodies. It will then 
be evident that the most unsubstantial clouds which float in 
the highest regions of our atmosphere, and seem at sunset 
to be drenched in light, and to glow throughout their whole 
depth as if in actual ignition, without any shadow or dark 
side, must be looked upon as dense and massive bodies, com- 
pared with the filmy and all but spiritual texture of a comet. 


DAS Comets. 


Accordingly, whenever powerful telescopes have been turned 
on these bodies, they have not failed to dispel the illusion 
which attributes solidity to that more condensed part of the 
head, which appears to the naked eye as a nucleus; though 
it is true that in some a very minute stellar point has been 
seen, indicating the existence of a solid body. 

It is in all probability to the feeble coercion of the elastic 
power of their gaseous parts, by the gravitation of so small 
a central mass, that we must attribute this extraordinary 
development of the atmospheres of comets. If the earth, re- 
taining its present size, were reduced, by any internal change 
(as by hollowing out its central parts) to one-thousandth 
part of its actual mass, its coercive power over the atmo- 
sphere would be diminished in the same proportion, and, in 
consequence, the latter would expand to a thousand times its 
actual bulk; and indeed much more, owing to the still 
further diminution of gravity, by the recess of the upper 
parts from the centre.* An atmosphere, however, free to 
expand equally in all directions, would envelope the nucleus 
spherically, so that it becomes necessary to admit the action 
of other causes to account for its enormous extension in the 
direction of the tail,—a subject to which we shall presently 
take occasion to recur. 

That the luminous part of a comet is something in the 
nature of a smoke, fog, or cloud, suspended in a transparent 
atmosphere is evident from a fact which has been often no- 
ticed, viz., that the portion of the tail where it comes up and 
surrounds the head, is yet separate from it by an interval less 
luminous, as if sustained and kept off from contact by a trans- 
parent stratum, as we often see one layer of clouds over an- 
other, with a considerable clear space between. These, and 
most of the other facts observed in the history of comets, 


* Newton has calculated (Princ. iii., p. 512) that a globe of air of ordinary 
density at the earth’s surface, of one inch in diameter, if reduced to the density 
due to the altitude above the surface of one radius of the earth, would occupy 
a sphere exceeding in radius the orbit of Saturn. The tail of a great comet, 
then, for aught we can tell, may consist of only a very few pounds or even 
ounces of matter. 


Comets. 253 


appear to indicate that the structure of a comet, must be 
that of a hollow envelope, of a parabolic form, enclosing 
near its vortex the nucleus and head. This would ac- 
count for the apparent division of the tail into two princi- 
pal lateral branches, the envelope being oblique to the line 
of sight at its borders, and therefore a greater depth of illu- 
minated matter being there exposed to the eye. In all pro- 
bability, however, they admit great varieties of structure, and 
among them may very possibly be bodies of widely different 
physical constitution, and there is no doubt that one and the 
Same comet at different epochs undergoes great changes, 
both in the disposition of its materials and in their physical 
state. 

We come now to speak of the motions of comets. These 
are apparently most irregular and capricious. Sometimes 
they remain in sight only for a few days, at others for many 
months ; some move with extreme slowness, others with ex- 
traordinary velocity; while not unfrequently the two ex- 
tremes of apparent speed are exhibited by the same comet 
in different parts of its course. The comet of 1472 described 
an are of the heavens of 40° of a great circle* ina single day. 
Some pursue a direct, some retrograde, and others a tortuous 
and very irregular course; nor do they confine themselves, 
like the planets, within any certain region of the heavens, 
but traverse indifferently every part. Their variations in 
apparent size, during the time they continue visible, are no 
less remarkable than those of their velocity ; sometimes they 
make their first appearance as faint and slow-moving objects, 
with little or no tail; but by degrees accelerate, enlarge, and 
throw out from them this appendage, which increases in 
length and brightness till (as always happens in such cases) 
they approach the sun, and are lost in his beams. After a 
time they again emerge, on the other side, receding from the 
sun with a velocity at first rapid, but gradually decaying. 
It is for the most part after thus. passing the sun, that they 
shine forth in all their splendour, and that their tails acquire 


* 120° in extent in the former editions; but this was the are described in 
longitude, and the comet at the time referred to had great north latitude, 
VOL. XLVII. NO. XCIV.—OCTOBER 1849. 8 


254 Comets. 


their greatest length and development; thus indicating 
plainly the action of the sun’s rays as the exciting cause of 
that extraordinary emanation. As they continue to recede 
from the sun, their motion diminishes, and the tail dies away, 
or is absorbed into the head, which itself grows continually 
feebler, and is at length altogether lost sight of, in by far 
the greater number of cases never to be seen more. 

Without the clue furnished by the theory of gravitation, 
the enigma of these seemingly irregular and capricious move- 
ments might have remained for ever unresolved. But New- 
ton, having demonstrated the possibility of any conic section 
whatever being described about the sun, by a body revolving 
under the dominion of that law, immediately perceived the ap- 
plicability of the general proposition to the case of cometary 
orbits ; and the great comet of 1680, one of the most remark- 
able on record, both for the immense length of its tail and 
for the excessive closeness of its approach to the sun (within 
one-sixth of the diameter of that luminary), afforded him an 
excellent opportunity for the trial of his theory. The success 
of the attempt was complete. He ascertained that this comet 
described about the sun as its focus an elliptic orbit of so great 
an excentricity as to be undistinguishable from a parabola 
(which is the extreme, or limiting form of the ellipse when 
the axis becomes infinite), and that in this orbit the areas 
described about the sun were, as in the planetary ellipses, 
proportional to the times. The representation of the appa- 
rent motions of this comet by such an orbit, throughout its 
whole observed course, was found to be as satisfactory as 
those of the motions of the planets in their nearly circular 
paths. From that time it became a received truth, that 
the motions of comets are regulated by the same general laws 
as those of the planets,—the difference of the cases consist- 
ing only in the extravagant elongation of their ellipses, and 
in the absence of any limit to the inclinations of their 
planes to that of the ecliptic,—or any general coincidence 
in the direction of their motions from west to east, rather 
than from east to west, like what is observed among the 
planets. 

It is a problem of pure geometry, from the general laws of 


Comets. 255 


elliptic or parabolic motion, to find the situation and dimen- 
sions of the ellipse or parabola which shall represent the 
motion of any given comet. In general, three complete ob- 
servations of its right ascension and declination, with the 
times at which they were made, suffice for the solution of this 
problem, (which is, however, byno means an easy one), and for 
the determination of the elements of the orbit. These consist, 
mutatis mutandis, of the same data as are required for the 
computation of the motion of a planet; (that is to say, the 
longitude of the perihelion, that of the ascending node, the 
inclination to the ecliptic, the semi-axis, excentricity, and 
time of perihelion passage, as also whether the motion is di- 
rect or retrograde) ; and, once determined, it becomes very 
easy to compare them with the whole observed course of the 
comet, by a process exactly similar to that of Art. 502 of 
this work, and thus at once to ascertain their correctness, 
and to put to the severest trial the truth of those general 
laws on which all such calculations are founded. 

For the most part, it is found that the motions of comets 
may be sufficiently well represented by parabolic orbits,—that 
is to say, ellipses whose axes are of infinite length, or, at 
least, so very long that no appreciable error in the calcula- 
tion of their motions, during all the time they continue visible, 
would be incurred by supposing them actually infinite. The 
parabola is that conic section which is the limit between the 
ellipse on the one hand, which returns into itself, and the 
hyperbola on the other, which runs out to infinity. A comet, 
therefore, which should describe an elliptic path, however 
long its axis, must have visited the sun before, and must 
again return (unless disturbed) in some determinate period,— 
but should its orbit be of the hyperbolic character, when once 
it had passed its perihelion, it could never more return within 
the sphere of our observation, but must run off to visit other 
systems, or be lost in the immensity of space. A very few 
comets have been ascertained to move in hyperbolas,* but 


* Por example, that of 1723, calculated by Burckhardt ; that of 1771, by both 
Burckhardt and Hncke; and the second comet of 1818, by Rosenberg and 
Schwabe, 


256 Comets. 


many more in ellipses. These latter, in so far as their orbits 
can remain unaltered by the attraction of the planets, must 
be regarded as permanent members of our system. 

We must now say a few words on the actual dimensions 
of comets. The calculation of the diameter of their heads, 
and the lengths and breadths of their tails, offers not the 
slightest difficulty when once the elements of their orbits are 
known, for by these we know their real distances from the 
earth at any time, and the true direction of the tail, which 
we see only foreshortened. Now calculations instituted on 
these principles lead to the surprising fact, that the comets 
are by far the most voluminous bodies in our system. The 
following are the dimensions of some of those which have 
been made the subjects of such inquiry. 

The tail of the great comet of 1680, immediately after its 
perihelion passage, was found by Newton to have been no 
less than 20,000,000 of leagues in length, and to have oceupied 
only two days in its emission from the comet’s body, a decisive 
proof this of its being darted forth by some active force; the 
origin of which, to judge from the direction of the tail, must 
be sought in the sun itself. Its greatest length amounted 
to 41,000,000 leagues, a length much exceeding the whole 
interval between the sun and the earth. The tail of the 
comet of 1769 extended 16,000,000 leagues, and that of the 
great comet of 1811, 36,000,000. The portion of the head of 
this last, comprised within the transparent atmospheric en- 
velope which separated it from the tail, was 180,000 leagues 
in diameter. It is hardly conceivable, that matter once pro- 
jected to such enormous distances, should ever be collected 
again, by the feeble attraction of such a body as a comet— 
a consideration which accounts for the surmised progressive 
diminution of the tails of such as have been frequently ob- 
served. 

We have been somewhat diffuse on the subject of this 
comet,* for the sake of shewing the degree and kind of in- 
terest which attaches to cometic astronomy in the present 


* This refers to the Author’s Account of the Great Comet of 1843, which we 
have not, from want of space, extracted.—Zdit. 


Comets. 257 


state of the science. In fact, there is no branch of astronomy 
more replete with interest, and we may add more eagerly 
pursued at present, inasmuch as the hold which exact caleu- 
lation gives us on it may be regarded as completely esta- 
blished ; so that whatever may be concluded as to the motions 
of any comet which shall henceforward come to be observed, 
will be concluded on new grounds and with numerical pre- 
cision ; while the improvements which have been introduced 
into the calculation of cometary perturbation, and the daily 
increasing familiarity of numerous astronomers with compu- 
tations of this nature, enable us to trace their past and 
future history with a certainty, which, at the commencement 
of the present century could hardly have been looked upon 
as attainable. Every comet newly discovered is at once sub- 
jected to the ordeal of a most rigorous inquiry. Its elements, 
roughly calculated within a few days of its appearance, are 
gradually approximated to as observations accumulate, by a 
multitude of ardent and expert computists. On the least 
indication of a deviation from a parabolic orbit, its elliptic 
elements become a subject of universal and lively interest 
and discussion. Old records are ransacked, and old obser- 
vations reduced, with all the advantage of improved data 
and methods, so as to rescue from oblivion the orbits of 
ancient comets which present any similarity to that of the 
new visitor. The disturbances undergone in the interval by 
the action of the planets are investigated, and the past, thus 
brought into unbroken connexion with the present, is made 
to afford substantial ground for prediction of the future. A 
great impulse meanwhile has been given of late years to the 
discovery of comets by the establishment in 1840,* by His 
late Majesty the King of Denmark, of a prize medal to be 
awarded for every such discovery, to the first observer (the 
influence of which may be most unequivocally traced in the 
great number of these bodies which every successive year 
has added to our list), and by the circulation of notices, by 
special letter,t of every such discovery (accompanied, when 


* See the announcement of this Institution in Astron. Nach. No. 400. 
T By Prof, Schumacher, Director of the Royal Observatory of Altona. 


258 Comets. 


possible, by an ephemeris), to all observers who have shewn 
that they take an interest in the inquiry, so as to ensure the 
full and complete observation of the new comet, so long as 
it remains within the reach of our telescopes. 

It is by no means merely as a subject of antiquarian inte- 
rest, or on account of the brilliant spectacle which comets oc- 
casionally afford, that astronomers attach a high degree of 
importance to all that regards them. Apart even from the 
singularity and mystery which appertain to their physical 
constitution, they have become, through the medium of exact 
calculation, unexpected instruments of inquiry into points 
connected with the planetary system itself, of no small im- 
portance. We have seen that the movements of the comet 
of Encke, thus minutely and perseveringly traced by the emi- 
nent astronomer whose name is used to distinguish it, has 
afforded ground for believing in the presence of a resisting 
medium filling the whole of our system. Similar inquiries 
prosecuted in the cases of other periodical comets, will 
extend, confirm, or modify our conclusions on this head. 
The perturbations, too, which comets experience in passing 
near any of the planets, may afford, and have afforded, 
information as to the magnitude of the disturbing masses, 
which could not well be otherwise obtained. Thus the ap- 
proach of this comet to the planet Mercury in 1838 af- 
forded an estimation of the mass of that planet the more 
precious, by reason of the great uncertainty under which all 
previous determinations of that element laboured. Its ap- 
proach to the same planet in the present year (1848) will be 
still nearer. On the 22d of November their mutual distance 
will be only fifteen times the moon’s distance from the earth. 
It is, however, in a physical point of view that these bodies 
offer the greatest stimulus to our curiosity. There is, beyond 
question, some profound secret and mystery of nature con- 
cerned in the phenomenon of their tails. Perhaps it is not 
too much to hope that future observation, borrowing every 
aid from rational speculation, grounded on the progress of 
physical science generally (especially those branches of it 
which relate to the etherial or imponderable element), may 
ere long enable us to penetrate this mystery, and to declare 


Comets. 259 


whether it is really matter in the ordinary acceptation of the 
term which is projected from their heads with such extrava- 
gant velocity, and if not impelled, at least directed in its course 
by a reference to the sun, as its point of avoidance. In no 
respect is the question as to the materiality of the tail more 
forcibly pressed on us for consideration, than in that of the 
enormous sweep which it makes round the sun én perthelio, in 
the manner of a straight and rigid rod, in defiance of the law of 
gravitation, nay,even of the received laws of motion, extending 
(as we have seen in the comets of 1680 and 1843) from near 
the sun’s surface to the earth’s orbit, yet whirled round un- 
broken ; in the latter case through an angle of 180° in little 
more than two hours. It seems utterly incredible that in 
such a case, it is one and the same material object which is 
thus brandished. If there could be conceived such a thing 
as a negative shadow, a momentary impression made upon the 
luminiferous ether behind the comet, this would represent, in 
some degree the conception such a phenomenon irresistibly 
calls up. But this is not all. Even such an extraordinary 
excitement of the ether, conceive it as we will, will afford 
no account of the projection of lateral streamers ; of the effu- 
sion of light from the nucleus of a comet towards the sun ; 
and its subsequent rejection ; of the irregular and capricious 
mode in which that effusion has been seen to take place; 
none of the clear indications of alternate evaporation and 
condensation going on in the immense regions of space occu- 
pied by the tail and coma,—none, in short, of innumerable 
other facts which link themselves with almost equally irre- 
sistible cogency to our ordinary notions of matter and force. 

The great number of comets which appear to move in para- 
bolic orbits, or orbits at least undistinguishable from para- 
bolas during their description of that comparatively small 
part within the range of their visibility to us, has given rise 
to an impression that they are bodies extraneous to our sys- 
tem, wandering through space, and merely yielding a local 
and temporary obedience to its laws during their sojourn. 
What truth there may be in this view, we may never have 
satisfactory grounds for deciding. On such an hypothesis, 
our elliptic comets owe their permanent denizenship within 


260 Comets. 


the sphere of the sun’s predominant attraction to the action 
of one or other of the planets near which they may have 
passed, in such a manner as to diminish their velocity, and 
render it compatible with elliptic motion.* A similar cause 
acting the other way, might with equal probability, give rise 
to a hyperbolic motion. But whereas in the former case, 
the comet would remain in the system, and might make an 
indefinite number of revolutions, in the latter it would return 
no more. This may possibly be the cause of the exceedingly 
rare occurrence of a hyperbolic comet as compared with el- 
liptic ones. 

All the planets without exception, and almost all the sa- 
tellites, move in one direction round the sun. Retrograde 
comets, however, are of very common occurrence, which cer- 
tainly would go to assign them an exterior or at least an in- 
dependent origin. Laplace, from a consideration of all the 
cometary orbits known in the earlier part of the present 
century, concluded, that the mean or average situation of the 
planes of all the cometary orbits, with respect to the ecliptic, 
was so nearly that of perpendicularity, as to afford no presump- 
tion of any cause biassing their directions in this respect. 
Yet we think it worth noticing that among the comets which 
are as yet known to describe elliptic orbits, not one whose 
inclination is under 17° is retrograde ; and that out of thirty- 
Six comets which have had elliptic elements assigned to 
them, whether of great or small excentricities, and without 
any limit of inclination, only five are retrograde, and of these 
only two, viz., Halley’s and the Great Comet of 1843, can be 
regarded as satisfactorily made out. Finally, of the 125 
comets whose elements are given in the collection of Schuma- 
cher and Olbers, up to 1823, the number of retrograde comets 
under 10° of inclination is only two out of nine, and under 
20°, seven out of twenty-three. A plane of motion therefore, 
nearly coincident with the ecliptic, and a periodical return, 
are circumstances eminently favourable to direct revolution 
in the cometary as they are decisive among the planetary 
orbits. 


* The velocity in an ellipse is always less than in a parabola, at equal dis- 
tances from the sun; ina hyperbola always greater. 


( 261 ) 


On Oceanic Infusoria, Living and Fossil. 


(Concluded from p. 160.) 


But, perhaps, the most remarkable fact observed, is the re- 
sult of soundings continued for 400 miles along the Victoria Bar- 
rier, where the existence of a bank, of unknown thickness, but, 
at least, of the extent of surface stated, was found, composed 
almost wholly of skeletons of these microscopic vegetables. No- 
thing else come up with the lead. Here, then, was a submarine 
deposit in process of formation, equalling, in extent, any similar 
deposit of the earlier world. Such strata are doubtless in course 
of accumulation in most parts of the ocean, and may be observed 
on our own shores; but this antarctic bank is the grandest ex- 
ample of the kind which has been carefully investigated by an able 
artist. But it is not only the sea and the land which yield the relics 
of these plants; the Diatomacez perform long journeys through the 
air. This remarkable fact rests on the authority of the accurate 
Darwin, who collected, at sea, small dust, which fell from the atmo- 
sphere on the planks and rigging of the ship, which dust, when ex- 
amined with the microscope, was found composed of Diatomacee. 
These were on their flight from America to Africa. From their si- 
liceous nature, they resist even the strong heat of volcanoes, and 
their remains are found thrown up in the pumice and dust from the 
crater. In fact, it is difficult to name a nook on the face of the 
earth, or in the depths of the sea, where they are wholly absent, 
either in a dead or living state ; and their office, in the general eco- 
nomy, besides affording food for the humble members of the animal 
kingdom, seems to be the preparation of a soil for a higher class of 
vegetables. This they effect by the minute division of the siliceous 
particles laid up in their tissues, and probably make this nearly in- 
soluble earth more fit for assimilation by other plants. We must also 
suppose them endowed, like other vegetables, with the power of de- 
composing carbonic acid, and liberating oxygen; and thus, in their 
countless myriads, exercising no mean place in the household of Na- 
ture. Like their mistress, these, her humblest servants, work in 
secret. We know not what we owe them. But, continued as their 
existence is through all time, and dispersed as they are through 
every part of the world,—even where the ice-bound sea is peopled by 
nothing else,—we may rest assured that they do perform some work 
which renders them worthy the care of a Providence who creates no- 
thing superfluous. I have spoken of the Diatomacee as vegetables. 
Ehrenberg and many other writers regard them as infusorial animals ; 
and, indeed, they have been bandied about from the animal to the 
vegetable kingdom at various times, according to the views of different 
naturalists. Latterly, the evidence seems to have preponderated on 


262 On Oceanic Infusoria, Living and Fossil. 


the vegetable side, especially since the brilliant discoveries of Mr 
Thwaites,* communicated to a late meeting of the British Associa- 
tion, have shewn that their fructification is precisely analogous to 
that of some of the lower algze, and that the fruit resembles a spore. 

A similar mode of fruiting is now discovered among Desmidier, 
which were also classed with infusoria by Ehrenberg, and, of these, 
a large number, in fruit, are figured in the work of Mr Ralfs, before 
alluded to; but, as they are natives of fresh water, it is out of place 
to enter on their history here. I may, however, remark, that the 
curious spiny bodies found fossilized in flint, which often pass for 
Xanthidia, are now proved to be only the spores of various genera of 
Desmidiee, whose full-grown fronds are amazingly unlike the spore 
in form. The mode of forming fruit in both these families, Desmi- 
dice and Diatemacee, which is also the mode among undoubted alge, 
is by the coupling together of two cells or frustules, when a passage 
is gradually formed between them, through which the contents of one 
cell are discharged into the other, where a dense mass of granular 
matter collects, which, at length, solidifies into a spore, and bursts 
through the walls of the cell. As such a process of reproduction is 
more analogous to what takes place in the vegetable than in the ani- 
mal kingdom, naturalists seem now generally agreed to class them 
with vegetables. ‘The advocates for their animal nature appeal to 
certain motions, having the character of voluntary motion, observed 
in many species. Thus, Bacillaria paradowa alternately propels its 
frustules forward, and draws them back, opening out the filament of 
which the compound body consists into a straight line, and contract- 
ing it again into a narrow compass. ‘This little plant resembles a 
pack of narrow cards, joined together at one of the angles of their 
smaller end ; when extended, they are ranged in a straight line, and 
when contracted, they are folded back on each other, and lie as if in 
a pack, It is highly curious to watch the regular manner in which 
this motion is continued. Some of the other species have movements 
of a similar character, but many have not been observed in motion ; 
and such motions as are seen, more resemble the regulated movement 
of a machine than the voluntary changes of place which animals ex- 
hibit. No doubt it is difficult, perhaps impossible, to draw a rigid 
line between the irritability of a vegetable and the muscular and ner- 
vous contractions of an animal, when we come to investigate such 
minute organisms as those we are now considering ; but it is, at 
least, certain that mere motion, such as has been observed in the 
Diatomacez, is no proof of animality. And as the other points in 
their history ally them to the vegetable kingdom, the fact of their 
vegetability, if not quite proved (as I believe it to be), is, at least, 
extremely probable. 


* See Thwaites, in “ An. Nat. Hist.,” N. S., vol. i. p. 162, &c. 


On Oceanic Infusoria, Living and Fossil. 263 


Before dismissing the subject of microscopic vegetables, 1 may re- 
mark, that the colouring of the waters of the Red Sea is now gene- 
rally supposed to be caused by the presence of countless multitudes 
of a minute alga, which is perfectly invisible to the naked eye, except 
when great numbers are congregated together. Some writers have 
denied that the water of the Red Sea has any peculiar colour, or that 
its name is owing to the colour of its waters. Others, on the con- 
trary, describe a red shade, of a very singular character, as present, 
and various explanations of the phenomena have been given. The 
differences among travellers in their account of this sea may be re- 
conciled by supposing their observations to have been made at dif- 
ferent seasons of the year; for, if the colour of the water depends on 
the presence of the vegetable matter, it is highly probable that it 
will vary in degree at different seasons. ‘That its waters are occa- 
sionally coated with a scum of a red colour is certain, and portions of 
it have been brought home and carefully examined by several na- 
turalists. M. Montagne has given an elaborate account of speci- 
mens which he had received, and has proved that the scum is 
entirely made up of a very minute alga, which consists of delicate 
threads, collected in bundles, and contains rings of a red matter, 
within a slender tube. This little plant has a structure very similar 
to the Oscillatoria, which form green scums on stagnant pools; or 
perhaps it more nearly resembles the pretty little fresh water alga, 
called (by the somewhat jaw-breaking name of) Aphanizomenon. 
Minute algz of this description are by no means confined to the 
waters of the Red Sea, but are met with in many parts of the ocean, 
sometimes extending in broad bands for hundreds of miles. Mr Dar- 
win, in his interesting Voyage, gives an acccount of several extraor- 
dinary bands of this description which he met with in the Pacific 
Ocean. I have had the advantage of inspecting some of the speci- 
mens brought home by this naturalist. They are very similar to 
the species of the Red Sea—(The Sea-Side Book, by Harvey, 
p- 174.) 


Notice of Land-Shells found beneath the surface of Sand- 
hillocks on the Coasts of Cornwall.* By RicHARD EDMONDS 
Junior, Esq. 

In my Paper on the origin of our sand-hillocks, read before the 

Society in 1846,} it is stated that in one of the deep cuttings in the 


Towans of Phillack, within the space of a few inches, was found a 
great number of the shells of the Hew pulchella, a species now sel- 


* 'l'ransactions of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall for 1848, p. 70. 
Read 5th October 1848. 
f See Jameson’s Journal for July 1847, p. 181. 


264 Richard Edmond’s Notice of Land-shelis. 


dom met with in the living state in the west of Cornwall; and it was 
remarked by the Author of the Cornish Fauna, that “ should fur- 
ther research shew they are of frequent occurrence in other parts of the 
Towans, we must come to the conclusion that they were once abundant 
in Cornwall but are now gradually becoming extinct in this locality.”’ 
To ascertain the fact, 1 again went thither last summer with my 
nephew and two other young conchologists ; and in the short space 
of two hours we picked up (amongst numerous other species) hun- 
dreds of these little shells in different parts of the sands, at depths 
varying from 1 foot to 80: they appeared almost as numerous, and 
as generally distributed throughout the hillocks, beneath the surface, 
as any species we saw. The Zua lubrica and some species of Pupa 
were also very abundant, particularly the Pupa marginata. We had 
not leisure to examine the surface for living individuals of any of the 
smaller species ; but amongst the larger, we observed the Helix as- 
persa, virgata, ericetorum, caperata, and fusca, and the Bulimus 
acutus. 

The exuvice of the Helix pulchella we found also in the sand-hills 
of Whitesand Bay, and in those near Gunwalloe and Mullion in 
Mounts Bay ; “they! “are abundant, too, in the sand-hills of Gorran, 
on the southern coast 6f* East Cornwall; where also many living spe- 
cimens have been obsefved on the aie) The last-mentioned sand- 
hills have been frequently visited by Mr Peach, to whom fossil geo- 
logy is so much indebted; and his observations on them, at the last 
meeting of this Society, confirm the hypothesis suggested in my for- 
mer Paper respecting the origin of our sand-hillocks. 

The following is a list of the land-shells which we found last sum- 
mer beneath the surface of the Phillack Towans ; to which is added 
the Zonites pygmeus that we found in the Whitesand Bay Towans. 
Specimens of these 27 species are deposited at the Museum of the 
Penzance Natural History and Antiquarian Society, with the excep- 
tion of the Conovulus bidentatus, which was accidentally lost after 
being brought home. Those marked with asterisks are not now 
found in the living state within ten miles of Penzance.— 


Bulimus acutus. 
obscurus. 
Carychium minimum. 
Clausilia biplicata. 
Conovulus bidentatus. 


Helix aspersa. 
caperata. 
ericetorum. 
fulva.* 
fusca. 
hortensis. 
nemoralis. 
pulchella. 


PENZANCE, 6th October 1848. 


denticulatus. 


Helix virgata. 
Pupa Anglica. 
marginata.* 
umbilicata. 
Vertigo edentula. 
palustris.* 
pygmea.* 
Vitrina pellucida. 
Zonites alliarius. 
cellarius. 
nitidulus. 
——— pygmeus.* 
——- rotundatus. 


Bdin® New Phil’ Journal, vol. XINU p 265: 


BISHA BY 


x | M A P 
x of the 


| 

| 

| | 
“LANCUAGESorABESSINyA | 
| 

| 


and the 


Pp Neigh bouring. Countries 
: ; 


oe 


| 


4 = 
_ Pe pe 


nguages of Abessinia 
SHARLES T. BEKE, 
ip.) Communicated 


anguages of Africa, 
‘ciation for the Ad- 
at Oxford in 1847,+ 
le addition to that 
lying map, showing 
ie several classes of 
xhbouring countries, 
aal classification of 


am to consist of the 


ja). 


Barea. 
to make a few brief 


8 belong to countries 
purpose of defining 
renumerated. They 
ia Proper, to come 
ions. 

3 class Dr Latham 
id Kamémil. From 


‘itish Association for the 
on the 14th August 1848 ; 
1e 22d November 1848, 
847, p. 154, et seg. 


Fdan* New Phal 


ss 


( 265 ) 


On the Geographical Distribution of the Languages of Abessinia 
and the Neighbouring Countries. By CHARLES T. BEKE, 
Esq., Ph.D., F.S.A., &e.* (With a Map.) Communicated 
by the Ethnological Society. 


A consideration of the Report on the Languages of Africa, 
made by Dr Latham to the British Association for the Ad- 
vancement of Science, at the Meeting at Oxford in 1847, 
has led me to believe that an acceptable addition to that 
Report will be afforded by the accompanying map, showing 
the approximate geographical limits of the several classes of 
languages spoken in Abessinia and the neighbouring countries, 
according to that philologist’s provisional classification of 
them. 

These languages are made by Dr Latham to consist of the 
following groups or classes :— 

xIv. The Nubian. 

xv. The Fatsokl (Fazoglo). 

Xvi. The Bisharye or Bidja (Beja). 
xvii. The Ethiopic. 
xvul. The Agau (Agow). 

xIx. The Galla. 
~ xx. The Gonga. 

xx. The Shankala. 

xxu. The Dalla. 
xxi. The Takue (or Bodje,) and Barea. 

Upon each of these classes I propose to make a few brief 
remarks, in explanation of the map. 

xiv. The Nubian Class. These languages belong to countries 
which are partially shown, merely for the purpose of defining 
the limits of thiosé ayhich are subsequently enumerated. They 
are themselves too-remote from Abessinia Proper, to come 
within the scope of the present observations. 

xv. The Fétsokl Languages. In this class Dr Latham 
places only the languages of Fatsokl and Kamamil. From 


* Read before the Section of Ethnology of the British Association for the 
Advancement of Science, at the Meeting at Swansea, on the 14th August 1848 ; 
and before the Ethnological Society of London, on the 22d November 1848, 

+ See Report of the Seventeenth Meeting at Oxford, 1847, p. 154, et seq. 


266 Dr Beke on the Languages of 


the immediate contiguity of the Gindjar of Abu-Ramla and 
El ‘Atish,* I would suggest the probability that this lan- 
guage belongs to the same class. In the second volume of 
the Proceedings of the Philological Society,; I have given 
forty-two words of the Gindjar tongue. Of these the greater 
number are evidently a corrupt Arabic; but the following 
eleven words may be regarded as native expressions :— 


earth wota. mouth shamdak. 
grass gesh. nose ndhhera. 
mountain gédllah. bread  kissera. 
boy djenna. good  sammt. 
leg kurah. bad Sassi. 
foot kafat kurai. 


Xvi. The Bisharye or Bidja (Beja) Language. The probable 
affinities of this tongue are stated by Dr Latham, on the 
authority of Dr Lepsius, to be with the Coptic; but, at the 
same time, the language of Sudkin, which is classed with it, 
is said to have affinities with the Argébba of Abessinia. As 
this latter dialect belongs to the Ethiopic Class (XvI1.), it 
would seem that the Sudkin language ought to be ranged 
under the same head. ; 

xvul. The Ethiopic Class of Languages. This class com- 
prehends the Tigre, Arkiko, Amhara, Argébba, Harrargie 
(Hurrur) or Adhari, Guragie, and Gafat. I cannot agree to 
Dr Latham’s proposition, in accordance with the opinion 
generally entertained, that these languages are the original 
ones of Abessinia. I can scarcely admit them to be those of 
the greater part of the country. On the contrary, I look 
upon the Agau languages (XVIII.) as holding a higher rank 
in the former respect, and probably in the latter likewise. 
The Geez, which is the ancient language of Tigre,—the most 
north-easterly province next the coast,—is that of the reli- 
gion and literature of the country; and, when Tigre was 
dominant, it was that of the court. The Amharic, which is 
spoken in the south-east, is that of the present dominant 
race, and is used by the court, the army, and the merchants. 
It is that, too, with which alone travellers, who penetrate 


* See Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xiv. p. 9. {i 2.95; 


Li. AL We 


Abessinia and the neighbouring Countries. 267 


into Abessinia beyond Tigre, have ordinarily occasion to be- 
come familiar. But the Agau, in its various dialects, is the 
language of the people ; in some provinces almost exclusively, 
and in others, where it has been superseded by the language 
of the dominant race, it still exists among the lowest classes ; 
some of which, such as the Zal4ns, Kam4Aunts, Waitos, &c., 
may, from their entire separation from the other races, be 
looked on in the light of castes. 

From the affinity of the Geez, Amharic, and cognate dia- 
lects, to the Arabic, it is reasonable to consider that they were 
introduced by conquerors or settlers from the opposite shores 
of the Red Sea. The traditions of the country are decidedly 
in favour of such an origin. 

Xvill. The Agau Languages. The remarks made on the 
preceding class, render any additional ones unnecessary here. 

XIX. The Galla Class of Languages. 'These are spoken by 
other intrusive people from the south, who have surrounded, 
and in part overrun Abessinia at a comparatively recent period. 
Their advance, which has been great and is still going on, 
is not so apparent as it might be, owing to the fact that, in 
many cases, the Gallas have adopted the language of the 
people whose place they have usurped. The Galla element 
is, however, fast becoming the predominant one in Abessinia. 
At the present day almost every principal ruler throughout 
the empire is, in the male line, of Galla extraction. 

xx. The Gonga Class of Languages. To the languages and 
dialects of this class already furnished by myself,* one or two 
will probably have to be added from the vocabularies which 
M. d’Abbadie informs us he has collected. It is, however, 
expedient to defer the consideration of these additions, till 
after Dr Latham’s list has been gone through. 

XXI. The Shankala Language. Dr Latham identifies the 
language of Dabanja of the Mithridates with my Shankala 
of Agaumider. The chief place of the province of Agaumi- 
der is Bdndja,t which name is apparently identical with 
Dabanja (= Dar-Bindja). The inhabitants of this province 
say that it was formerly inhabited by the Shankalas, whom 


* Proceedings of the Philological Society, vol. ii., pp. 97-107. 
+ See Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xiv. p. 7. 


268 Dr Beke on the Languages of 


they subdued and drove westwards into the valleys of the 
Blue River and its tributary streams.* Dr Latham suggests 
the restriction of the name of Shdnka/a to the negroes of the 
low country bordering on Agaumider, to the exclusion of those 
of the valley of the Takkazie. A recent traveller, M. Russegger, 
informs us,}+ that one of the tribes of the valley of the Blue 
River is called Shangollo, and he protests against the gene- 
ral application of the name Shangollo or Shankala to all the 
black people inhabiting the low lands surrounding Abessinia 
to the west and north. Whatever may be the derivation of 
the word, it is certain that among the Abessinians it has be- 
come an appellative, signifying “‘ negro ;” and hence it is ap- 
plied by them, though as it would seem improperly, to the 
black people of the north of Abessinia—the “ Shankalas of 
the Takkazie”—who do not at present appear to have any 
affinity with the true Shankalas of the south-west. 

It has yet to be ascertained whether the tongue of these 
true Shankalas of Agaumider is cognate with the languages 
of Class XV., with which it is conterminous. 

xxu. The Dalia Language is that of the “ Shankalas of 
the Takkazie,” above referred to. 

Xx. The Takue (or Boje) and Barea. These languages are 
stated by Dr Latham to have affinities equally with the Dalla 
(XX1I.) and with the Agau(Xxvil.). This might be inferred from 
the position of the country in which they are spoken. But 
this alleged affinity with the Agau tongue suggests the pro- 
bability, that, when we shall have acquired a more intimate 
knowledge of the languages and dialects of the tribes skirt- 
ing Abessinia to the north and west,—the Shankalas of 
Agaumider, the Dalla, and the Takue,—we shall find these 
people to be, all of them, offsets from the aboriginal race of 
Abessinia, the Agaus, who have retired from the high table- 
land into the valleys of the rivers, before the advances of 
intruders of the Ethiopic class. 

In the Amharic language, the word Barea means “ slave ;”’ 
that is to say, a “ Shankala,” negro, or black slave—since, in 


* Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xiv. p. 10. 
+ Reise in Europa, Asien und Afrika, vol. ii. part 2, p. 231. 


Abessinia and the neighbouring Countries. 269 


the estimation of the Abessinians, the negroes, as the alleged 
descendants of Ham, are alone doomed to slavery. It seems, 
therefore, that ‘‘ Barea” is only another name for the Dalla 
negroes or “ Shankalas of the Takkazie.”’ 


In terminating his list of the languages of Abessinia, Dr 
Latham inquires, “Is it exhaustive?” and he refers to a 
number of vocabularies mentioned by M. d’Abbadie in the 
Atheneum of April 12, 1845,* as having been collected by 
him during his residence in that country. As even now we 
possess nothing more of these vocabularies than their names, 
we must be content to investigate them from the names alone. 
These are, however, quite sufficient to show, that, when the 
vocabularies themselves are given to the public, they are 
likely to present but little novelty, whatever value they may, 
and doubtless do, otherwise possess. 

The languages to which M. d’Abbadie’s vocabularies re- 
late are stated to be as follows :— 


A. Tue AGau (AGow) LANGUAGES. 

1. The Khamtina (Khamtinga), “spoken by the Khamta 
or Agaus of Way or Wag.” This is manifestly my WVaag- 
Agau or Hhamara,—the Agow of Bruce and Salt. (Latham, 
Xvi. 1, 2, 3.) 

2. The Auta (Awnga), “ spoken by the Awawa, or Agaws 
bordering on Little Damot.”t This, again, is my Aghagha, 
or Agau of Agaumider, of which a vocabulary is also given 
by Bruce. (xvul. 6, 7.) 

3. The Hwarasa, ‘spoken in Kwara or Hwara, and by the 
Falosha (Falocha) of Gallagar, Kayla, and of the Awawa ;” 
which is the Faldsha of Bruce and myself. (xvull. 4, 5.) 

M. d’Abbadie adds, that “short vocabularies show that 
the Agau languages are closely allied to the Gabi, spoken by 
the Bileu (probably the Blemmyi of the Romans), and to the 
languages of Atala in Simen [Samien], of Alafa and of Kwara, 
or Hwara;” and he alludes also to the “ kindred dialect 


* No. 911, pp. 359, 360. 
+t By “ Little Damot,” M. d’Abbadie means the ‘“ Damot”’ of the maps. 


VOL. XLVII. NO. XCIV.—OCTOBER 1849, T 


270 Dr Beke on the Languages of 


of the Gimant [Kamaunts].” All this is in conformity with 
my views as to the aboriginal character of the Agau class 
of languages, and of their great extension throughout Abes- 
sinia,* which has already been adverted to under No. XVII. 


B. THE GALLA CLASS, which consists of— 


1. The Afar Proper, “ spoken by the Add/, Taltal, 'Talfen, 
&e. ;” which is no other than the Adda/, or Dankéli (plur. 
Danakil) of modern travellers in Abessinia (Latham, XIX. 
By, 235, 6;.7548): , 

2. The Saho, “spoken by the Hazaorta and Toroua,”’ is, 
in like manner, the language of the Shihos, or Shohos, who 
dwell between Mass6wah and the high land of Tigre (xIx. 
B. 3, 4). 

3. The Ilmorma, spoken “by the Orme or Oromo, better 
known under the name of Galla.’ Of course, this is the widely- 
spread Gadla tongue, with which we have now become so 
well acquainted, through the labours of Krapf and Tutschek 
Exim A). 

4. “The Szomaliod, spoken by the Szoma/,” which again is 
merely the language of the equally well known Somaulis or 
Somalis (x1x. C.), of which name the Arabic plural is Somdl. 

The Tufte (Toufte) is stated by M. d’Abbadie to be 
“spoken by a small nation near the Tambaro, and issued, 
according to their own traditions, from the same ancestors 
as the Orme,” 7. e. the Gallas. Of this language, the tra- 
veller’s collection consists of ¢en words, which, as he himself 
observes, “is only better than nothing at all.” I would add, 
that such a number of words is scarcely sufficient to enable 
us to class this language, which, even in spite of the tradi- 
tion alluded to, I am inclined to place among those of the 
Gonga class (XX.), by which it is geographically surrounded. 

My opinion is the same with respect to the neighbouring 
language of 'Tambaro, which M. d’Abbadie considers to be 
“a member of the Amhara family” (xvu.), but which I 
would equally place in the Gonga class (XX.). 


* These opinions were first expressed by me in A Statement of Facts relative 
to the Transactions between the Writer and the late British Political Mission to the 
Court of Shoa, p. 13, n. 


Abessinia and the neighbouring Countries. 271 


In support of this opinion as to both these languages of 
Tufte and Tamb4ro, I may cite the authority of Dr Krapf, as 
repeated by Major Harris,* that the language of Kaffa “is 
common to Gobo, Tufftee, and Dumbaro.’ This latter mode 
of spelling the name, which, correctly pronounced, is 7’am- 
baro or TsambAro, arises from the habit so common among 
the natives of Upper Germany, of confounding the sounds of 
the hard and soft consonants. 


C. Tue Gonea Group, styled by M. d’Abbadie “ the Cha- 
mitic languages of Great Damot.” These consist of— 

1. The Sidama. 

2. The Daurua (Dawrooa). 

3. The Yamma or Yangara. 

4. The Shay. 

Dr Latham has already adverted to the fact that the first 
three of these languages are identical with those of Kaffa, 
Wordatta, and YAngaro, of which vocabularies have been 
given by me in the Proceedings of the Philological Society. 
Sid4ma is the name by which Kaffa is known to the Gallas ;+ 
Dawaro (Dawrua) is either the same with, or a part of, the 
country of Woratta ;{ and Yamma is, as M. d’Abbadie himself 
shows, the same as Yangara, that is to say, my Yangaro or 

Djandjaro, which is the Gingiro of the maps. As to that 
 trayeller’s Shay, which he describes as “a language spoken 
by the Gimira, Gamaru (Gamarou), or Gamru,”’ and which, he 
says, “a collection of 400 words induces him to place side by 
side with the Sidama,” this tongue seems, from another state- 
ment of the same traveller, to be merely a dialect of the lan- 
guage of Kaffa, if it be not absolutely identical with it. In 
speaking of the country of Kaffa, he says, “ Kaffa est le nom 
des Gallas, les Abyssins disent Sidama, e¢ les indigenes appel- 
lent leur pays Gomara.’§ In this statement there is, how- 
ever, an error: it is the Abessinians who say Kaffa, and the 
Gallas who say Sid4ma. 


* Highlands of Aithiopia, vol. iii. p. 6. 

t Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xiii. p. 261. 

} Ibid., map. 

§ Bulletin de la Société de Géographie de Paris, 2d Series, vol. xviii. p. 355, 


272 Dr Beke on the Languages of 


M. d’Abbadie further mentions the Nao language as ap- 
pearing to be “a mere dialect of the Shay,” and that of 
Hadiya-Wanbe as being ‘“‘in close contact with the Dawrua 
tongue.’ Ido not possess the means of determining the 
precise locality in which the former of these dialects is spoken, 
but it is manifestly in the immediate vicinity of Kaffa, if, 
indeed, it does not form a portion of that country. Hadiya 
is the Hadea of the maps, and it lies to the south-west of 
Gurigie,* and to the north-east of the other countries in 
which the cognate languages of the Gonga class are spoken. 

M. d’Abbadie remarks, that “ the Gonga language spoken 
on both sides of the Abai, is closely allied to the Sid4ma.” 
This has already been demonstrated by my published lists,} 
which comprise a copious vocabulary of the Gonga tongue of 
Shinasha, a district situate in the valley of the Abai, to the 
south of Damot ;t and it is on account of the affinity which all 
the languages comprised in this class have to one another, 
that I have attributed to them the generic denomination of 
Gonga. The irruption of the Gallas has much contracted the 
limits within which the languages of this class are spoken. 
Ludolf informs us,§ that the Gonga tongue was formerly that 
of En4rea, and he cites one word, donzo, as meaning “ lord,” 
or “master,” which corresponds with the dondjo (Gonga of 
Shinasha) and dono (Kaffa) of my vocabularies. 


D. Tue BipsA LANGUAGE spoken at Sudkin, with respect 
to which it is sufficient to refer to the remarks already made 
on Dr Latham’s Class, XVI. 


E. SEVERAL NEGRO LANGUAGES, of which M. d’Abbadie 
says he has collected trifling vocabularies, remain “ un- 
placed” by Dr Latham. They are as follows :-— 


1. Gwinza. 4. Yambo. 
2. Suro (Souro). 5. Gamo. 
3. Doko (Dokko). 6. Barea. 


To which has to be added, (7.) The K6nfal. 


* See Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc., vol. xvii. p. 60, n. 
t Proceedings of the Philological Society, vol. ii. pp. 97-107. 
t Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc., vol. xiv. p. 39. § Hist. Athiop., lib. i. cap. 15. 


Abessinia and the neighbouring Countries. 273 


Respecting the Gwinza and Gamo, I am not able to say any- 
thing. But the others may be thus classed :— 

The Suro and Doko are two dark-coloured if not absolutely 
negro people, dwelling in the vicinity of Kaffa.* Of the 
country of Suro, I have already said, in another place,} that 
it “is two days’ journey to the west of Bonga, and is subject 
to Kaffa. The country is both highland and valley, but the 
people are all Shankalas or negroes. The men go naked, and 
the women wear only asmallapron. The king of the country 
alone is clothed. They are pagans. They take out two of 
the lower front teeth, and cut a hole in the lower lip, into 
which they insert a wooden plug. They also pierce the gristle 
of the ear for the insertion of grass.” It can scarcely be 


* Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc., vol. xiii. pp. 264, 265. t Ibid. 

t The country of these Suro negroes was, at the same time, described by 
*Omar ibn Nedjat, the intelligent Abessinian merchant from whom I obtained 
the above information respecting them, as lying in the valley of the river Godjeb, 
at a short distance to the west of Kaffa. (See his map, in Journ. Roy. Geogr. 
Soc., vol. xvii. part i.). 

M. Ferdinand Werne, who accompanied the second Egyptian expedition up 
the White River, has recently published an account of his voyage (Hzpedition 
zur Entdeckung der Quellen des Weissen Nil, Berlin, 1848), in various parts of 
which similar customs are described as prevailing among the black inhabitants 
of the valley of that river. The traveller states, that, as far south as Bari, a 
country in the fourth parallel of north latitude, all the natives are in the habit 
of extracting several of the incisors, both of the upper and of the lower jaw, “in 
order that they may not resemble beasts of prey” (p. 188); and that they also 
“pierce the cartilage of the ear all round, and, in the absence of beads or other 
ornaments, they insert in the orifices small pieces of wood” (p. 428). The 
natives of Bari alone form an exception, being “ distinguished” (says M. Werne) 
“ from all the people we have hitherto seen, by the circumstance, that they do 
not pierce the ears for the insertion of ornaments; and also, that they are not 
tattooed’’ (p. 293); and higher up the river than Bari, which country was the 
extreme point reached by the expedition, the natives are said to “ keep in all 
their teeth” (p. 325). 

From a comparison of these particulars, the conclusion may fairly be drawn, 
that the Suro negroes are of the same race as the inhabitants of the valley of 
the White River below Bari, but not as those above that country; and as they 
occupy the valley of the Godjeb, which is now known to be an affluent of the 
Nile ; and as there is no important stream joining the White River from the 
east below Bari, except the Sobat, Télfi, or River of Habesh; it results that this 
latter river is the lower course of the Godjeb. his conclusion is, of course, 
quite independent of all other arguments already adduced by me in support of 
the same position. See Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, 


274 Dr Beke on the Languages of 


doubted that they are of cognate origin with the negro in- 
habitants of the valley of the White River, and that, conse- 
quently, their language belongs to the Nubian class (XIV.) 

As regards the Dokos, I believe I was the first, in 1841, to 
make public mention of these people,* from information ob- 
tained by Dr Krapf and myself from a slave of the king of 
Shoa, named Dilbo ; but the particulars then furnished were 
far from going to the extent of those which have since been 
given by Dr Krapf, and after him by Major Harris. Ethnolo- 
gists will remember the marvellous stories related respecting 
these Dokos, who are described as a nation of pigmies, of 
scarcely human character, “ not taller than boys nine or ten 
years of age, and never exceeding that height, even in the 
most advanced age,’’ and who are said to be employed as do- 
mestic servants by the people of Kaffa. It is sufficient to re- 
fer to Dr Prichard’s Natural History of Man,+ for Dr Krapf’s 
Report on this subject, which was originally published in the 
Monatsberichte of the Geographical Society of Berlin.{ 

I must here repeat the expression of the doubts which I 
entertained from the outset,§ on many of the points thus re- 
lated by Dilbo. When questioned by Dr Krapf and myself, 
his statements were such as to entitle him to full credit ; and 
I am afraid that he was subsequently induced to enter into 
these fanciful and exaggerated details, by a feeling not un- 
common among uneducated persons, when pressed to furnish 
information, that the more wonderful they make their story, 
the greater praise they will obtain; and probably, also, the 
greater reward. 

The description given by M. d’Abbadie of the Dokos, is re- 
markably at variance with that furnished by Dilbo to Dr Krapf. 
The former traveller says,|—“ My Sidama interpreter was 
a Dokko, freed by his master’s death. This man remained 
nearly two years with me, and was eighteen centimétres 


vol, xvii. p. 44, et seg.; Bulletin de la Société de Géographie de Paris, 3d Series, 
vol. vill. p. 356, et seq.; Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, vol. xlv. p. 238, 
et seg.—22d November 1848. 

* See Friend of Africa (October 1841), vol. i. p. 187 ; Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc., 
vol. xii. p. 87; vol. xiii. p. 265, et seq. 

} 2d Hdit., p. 553, et seg. ft Vol. iv. p. 181, et seg. 

§ See Literary Gazette of Dec. 30, 1843, No. 1406. 

|| Athenceum, of March 8, 1845, No. 906, p. 243. 


Abessinia and the neighbouring Countries. 275 


[seven English inches] shorter than myself. I have seen 
three other Dokko, all black-like negroes, but with a fine 
facial angle like the Mozambique natives, and rather small, 
—what we call ¢rapu in France, but nothing like pigmies. 

. Their forms are the most perfect mezzo-termine between 
Ethiopians and negroes. They use, according to their own 
account, the Sorghum vulgare to make bread, and have a 
name (elmos), for bread.” In another place,* the same tra- 


_ veller describes the Dokos as being “ ¢rés gros et bien musclés, 


absolument comme les Sawahily.” 

It is necessary to explain, that the word Doko is not to be 
regarded as the proper name of any particular people. In 
the Galla language it is an appellative, signifying ‘* igno- 
rant,” “ stupid; and it appears to be used in the same in- 
definite sense as our expression ‘“ savage.” 

The evident mixing up of monkeys in the description given 
of these Dokos or savages, may be accounted for in the same 
way, probably, as a statement made in Sir Gardner Wilkin- 
son’s Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, respect- 
ing the employment of those animals as domestic servants in 
Djimma,a country to the south of Abessinia, situated between 
Enirea and Kaffa. Djimma is also adjoining to Yangaro, 
which latter country, as I have already mentioned, is called 
Djandjaro by the Gallas. In the wars which are continually 
taking place between Djimma and Yangaro, many natives of 
the latter country are made prisoners, some of whom are re- 
tained in domestic slavery, while others are sold into capti- 
vity. Hence, the number of Yangaro or Djandjaro slaves 
that are met with in the markets of Abessinia and the Red 
Sea. But in Abessinia, the name Djandjaro has, partly 
through ignorance and partly by way of ridicule, been changed 
into Zéndjero, which word in the Amharic language means 
“ Monkey.” If, then, in the enunciation of what is unques- 
tionably a fact, it were stated that the people of Djimma and 
Kaffa are waited on by Djéndjaro servants, or, as it would be 
repeated in Amharic, by Zéndjero servants ; nothing would be 
more natural among an ignorant and marvel-loving people, 
than to imagine these “ Zéndjero” to be monkey servants. 


* Bulletin, 24 Series, vol. xix. v. 439. t Vol. ii. p. 151. 


276 Dr Beke on the Languages of 


I was once gravely informed by an Abessinian slave-mer- 
chant of the market of Baso in Godjam, that beyond Kaffa 
there is a country, the male inhabitants of which are all dogs, 
and the females are women ; and that the dogs go out to tend 
the cattle, while the women occupy themselves with domestic 
affairs. It was of little avail to inquire how it came to pass 
that the progeny of this strange union should be canine on 
the male side, and human on the female. That my informant 
did not know: the other he did know; though he honestly 
admitted that he had not been so far as to have seen it him- 
self. This story I consider to have originated in the fact, 
that beyond Kaffa there is truly a ‘‘ Dog” country, just as, 
adjoining to Djimma there is a “ Monkey” country; that is 
to say, in Wordtta there is a place or district named Usha,* 
which word in Amharic means “ dog,” in the same way that 
Zéndjero means “ monkey.” As is usual in such cases, the 
story was afterwards invented to account for the name.t 


* See my map in Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc., vol. xiii. 

t According to M. Werne (EZupedition zur Entdeckung der Quellen des Weissen 
* Nil, p: 325), a fable prevails among the natives of the valley of the White River, 
respecting a race of cannibals, having heads like dogs and going on all-fours, who 
are said to inhabit the mountains of Logaya, to the east of Bari. The following 
reasonable explanation of this monstrous story was, however, given to that 
traveller by Lakono, the intelligent king of the giant race of Bari. He stated 
that, “in reality, these wicked people have heads like those of other human 
beings; only they keep in all their teeth. [It has been remarked (p. 273, note) that 
the negro inhabitants of the valley of the Nile extract the incisors, in order 
that they may not resemble wild beasts] ; and when they come to eat up others, 
they creep in on all-fours.”’ On this M. Werne himself remarks, that “ most 
likely the simple meaning of this is, that these alleged cannibals do not engage 
in open war with their neighbours, but sneak in among them like dogs, and 
carry away individuals, whom perhaps they may devour.” 

For myself, I question much the existence of cannibalism among these moun- 
taineers, whom the mere fact of their not extracting their teeth proves to be of 
less barbarous habits than the natives of the low country. 

From the earliest times cannibalism has been said to prevail among the inha- 
bitants of Africa. Itis only necessary to allude to the A’ Siores aw europaryor 
of Ptolemy, and to the Nyam-Nyam, Lem-Lem, Dum-a-Dum, &c., of the Arabian 
geographers and of the modern Arabs. But stories of this kind require in- 
disputable evidence to establish their truth; and there is no doubt that they 
often originate in ignorance, if not in interested motives, on the part of their 
promulgators. 


Abessinia and the neighbourmg Countries. 277 


Of the language of these Dokos M. d’Abbadie states that he 
possesses only éwenty-nine words ; which is rather surprising, 
when we consider that he says he had one of these people by 
him as an interpreter for nearly two years. Its affinity with 
the language of Wordtta is, however, asserted by that travel- 
ler.* This will place it in the Gonga class, which is quite in ac- 
cordance with its geographical position. The only word of the 
language cited by M. d’Abbadie is e/mos, signifying ‘“ bread ;” 
which expression, however, I cannot connect with any word in 
my vocabularies. Dr Krapf states, } that “ the language of the 
Dokos is a kind of murmuring, which is understood by no one 
but themselves and their hunters.’ But he also mentions, that 


Mr Robertson, in his Notes on Africa (London, 1819), pp. 353-354, when 
treating of the natives of the south bank of the river Congo, says : “ The opinion 
that these, or any other people on this [the west] coast, are Anthropophagi, is 
ridiculous. One of the traders at Bonny did, indeed, once tell me so plausible 
a story concerning the Quas eating those who fell into their power, that I was 
half inclined to believe him. But subsequent inquiry convinced me that there 
was no truth whatever init. . . . The Portuguese having taken so much 
trouble to impress other nations with the dreadful effects of man-eating, they, 
of course, consider this country of some value ; but from their not having been de- 
voured themselves, it seems other animal food is plentiful; or, perhaps, the 
aboriginal inhabitants think the Portuguese rather coarse meat, and like cattle 
or fish better.” 

A similar tale of cannibalism is related in Shoa, and for a somewhat similar 
reason. The wilderness of Gédem, a province in the north of that kingdom, 
which I visited in April 1841, is “ the place of refuge for all the fugitives and 
bad characters of Shoa” (Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc., vol. xii. p. 92). The Dankali 
slave-merchants trading between Shoa and the coast take care to impress on the 
minds of their slaves that the people of Gédem are cannibals, who will be sure 
to eat them up if they run away. Hence, the poor children are content to remain 
with their (often cruel) masters, rather than run the chance of being devoured 
by the wicked man-eaters of Gédem! 

To shew the little value, generally, of these stories of the existence of canni- 
balism among unknown nations, I may cite, further, the following passage from 
the interesting Notes sur les Mceurs, Coutumes et Traditions des Amakoua of 
M. Eugéne de Froberville, published in the Bulletin de la Société de Géoyraphie, 
3d Ser., vol. viii. p. 324 :—“ Les traditions les plus effrayantes sont répandues 
par toute l'Afrique orientale touchant le sort des esclaves transportés dans le 
pays des blancs. Mes informateurs m’ont unanimement déclaré que Von croyait 
généralement que les blancs mangeaient les esclaves qu’ils viennent chercher en 
Afrique.” —Mutato nomine, de te fabula narratur !-—22d November 1848, 

* Bulletin, 20 Ser., vol. xix. p. 439. 

t Prichard, Natural History of Man, p. 556. 


278 Dr Beke on the Languages of 


they address the Supreme Being by crying, “‘ Yer! Yer!” 
Now Yero, in the Kaffa language, means “ God ;” so that we 
have here a further proof that the language of these Dokos 
belongs to the Gonga class. 

In commenting, on a former occasion, on a few words given 
by Dr Krapf, apparently from the mouth of Dilbo, as speci- 
mens of the language of Kaffa, I remarked,* that “ they do 
not altogether agree with my Kaffa words, which I obtained 
from persons who were most assuredly natives of Bonga, the 
capital of that country. From Dilbo’s physical appearance 
and other circumstances, I have reason to believe that he 
was a native, not of Kaffa itself, but of some neighbouring 
country, which will account for the difference of language.’ 
I may now add, that the description given by M. d’Abbadie 
of the physical character of the Dokos corresponds so closely 
with that of Dilbo, that I am inclined to think he was him- 
self one of those savages. Should this really be the case, 
the words inserted between brackets in my Kaffa vocabulary 
will most probably belong to some Doko dialect. 

The next of M. d’Abbadie’s unplaced languages is that of 
Yambo, which is the name given by that traveller to the negro 
inhabitants of certain islands formed by the Bahr el Abyad, 
or the direct stream of the Nile. These islands are placed by 
him as high up the stream as about 6° N. lat. ; but, as has been 
shown by me in a communication recently made to the Geo- 
graphical Society of Paris,t their true position is in about 
9° N. lat., below the confluence of the Sobat or River of 
Habesh. Thus, these Yambos appear to be Denka negroes, 
and their language will consequently belong to the Nubian 
class (XIV.). 

The Barea is said by M. d’Abbadie to be “ spoken by the 
semi-negroes near the Takkazie ;” that is to say, the “ Shan- 
kalas” of that river ; so that this language is identical with 
either the Barea of Salt (xxuI.), or with the Dalla (xxi) 

And lastly, we have the Kénfal, who are stated to “live 
between Kwara and the Awawa’’—that is to say, the Agha- 


* Proceedings of the Philological Society, vol. ii. p. 94, n. 
} Bulletin, 3d Ser., vol. viii. p. 356, et seq. 


Abessinia and the neighbouring Countries. 279 


gha or Agaus of Agaumider. Of this language M. d’Abbadie 
says, that he has “no sample beyond the first ten numbers, 
which are partly Giis ;’ and he adds that “the all-but-un- 
known K6nfal tribes are the most perfect medium between the 
straight-nosed Ethiopian and the grovelling negro.” But the 
position thus attributed to the Kénfal corresponds precisely 
with that of the black inhabitants of Gindjar already men- 
tioned; and when M.d’ Abbadie asserts that their numerals are 
partly Geez, z. e., Ethiopic, he should rather have said Arabic ; 
since the fact is beyond dispute that the language of Gindjar 
is, in great part, a corrupt Arabic, and it is not less a fact 
that the Ethiopic and Arabic numerals are almost identical. 

The conclusion to be drawn from this investigation is, that 
Dr Latham’s list, whatever modifications increased informa- 
tion may eventually give occasion to introduce into its arrange- 
ment, is, in fact, exhaustive of the languages of Abessinia 
and the countries immediately adjoining. 

The map in which the results thus arrived at have been 
embodied, makes no pretensions to strict accuracy in the 
limits that are assigned in it to the several classes of lan- 
guages. Our materials are still too imperfect to admit of 
precision in this respect. The only merit that this map can 
lay claim to, is that of affording a general coup-d’il of the 
geographical distribution of the various languages spoken in 
that portion of Africa which has more immediately fallen 
within my cognizance ; and thus of obviating, so far as Abes- 
sinia and the neighbouring countries are concerned, the dif- 
ficulty which, as the author of the Report justly complains, so 
frequently arises from the absence of any geographical notice 
respecting the districts within which a particular language 
is spoken. 


Lonvon, 31st May 1848. 


280 Professor Owen on Collecting 


Instructions for Collecting and Preserving Invertebrate Ani- 
mals. By RICHARD OWEN, F.R.S., Hunterian Professor to 
the Royal College of Surgeons of England. 


As water is the element in which the greater number of the 
classes of animals exist, and as the sea is the scene of such exist- 
ence, and the field of research which will be most commonly pre- 
sented to those for whom the following instructions for collecting 
and preserving animals have been drawn up, they will commence 
with the marine species, and the lowest forms of animal life. 


Alge, Sponges, Corallines, and Corals. 


The line of demarcation between the vegetable and animal king- 
doms is so obscurely marked in the lowly organised marine species, 
and the modes of collecting and preserving these are so similar, that 
the kindred groups above named are associated together as the sub- 
jects of the following remarks. 

Alge, commonly called sea-weeds, may be divided, for the con- 
venience of the collector, into three kinds, according to their co- 
lour :— 

1. Olive-coloured (Fuci), generally of large size and leathery 
texture, rarely gelatinous; usually laminate or leafy, rarely fila- 
mentous or thready. 

2. Red-coloured (Floridee), firm, fleshy, or gelatinous; usually 
filamentous, sometimes membranaceous, 

3. Green (Chlorosperms), membranaceous or filamentous ; rarely 
horny. 

Sponges are bodies usually adherent in irregular or amorphous 
masses, rarely in the form of hollow reticulate cones ; composed of a 
soft, jelly-like tissue, supported by siliceous or calcareous spicule, 
or by horny filaments. They are divided, accordingly, into horny, 
or “‘ keratose,’’ siliceous and “ calcareous” sponges. Their soft, or- 
ganic substance is commonly diffluent, and drops from the firmer 
basis, when removed from the water, or it is easily washed away. 
It exhibits no signs of sensibility ; no contraction or retraction when 
touched or otherwise stimulated. The evidence of life is afforded, as 
in the corallines and algze, by the flow of currents of water through 
canals, entering by pores, and in the sponges escaping by larger ori- 
fices; and an appearance of animal life is given to both alge and 
sponges by the locomotion of the sporules or gemmules, 

Corallines are plants coated with a calcareous covering, either red 
or green when fresh, becoming white and brittle on exposure to the 
alr. ; 

Corals, though called “ zoophytes,” are true animals; the cur- 


and Preserving Animals. 281 


rents which permeate them enter by ‘‘ mouths,” always provided 
with a crown of feelers or seizers, called tentacles, and communi- 
cating with digestive sacs or “ stomachs,’ into which the pores of 
the nutrient canals open. The tentaculated mouths are called 
“polypes.”’ Their fleshy tissue, as well as that which connects 
them together into an organic whole, when the coral is compound, 
or has more than one mouth, is “ sensitive,”’ or retracts and shrinks 
when touched. For the purposes of the collector, corals may be divi- 
ded into the “ fleshy”? (Polypi carnosi), in which the flesh has no firm 
supporting part ; the “ horny or flexible,’”’ usually having this support- 
ing substance as an external tube; and the “ calcareous,” in which 
the supporting substance is usually covered by the animal matter 
or flesh, forming an internal skeleton, usually of one piece, rarely 
jointed. 

The above-defined classes of organised beings, which all present 
the “habit,” or outward form, more or less, of plants, are found 
from the extreme high water mark to a depth of from 50 to 100 
fathoms. Living alge rarely descend below 50 fathoms, but corals 
of the genera Lepralia, Retepora, and Hornera, have been dredged 
up from 270 fathoms, and fragments of dead coral from 400 fa- 
thoms.* Specimens within the reach of the tide are to be collected 
at low water, especially of spring tides; the most interesting species 
occur at the verge of low water mark. Those that dwell at greater 
depth must be sought by dredging, or by dragging after a boat an 
iron cross furnished with numerous strong hooks. One or more 
strong glass bottles with wide mouths, or a hand-basket lined with 
japanned tin, should be provided for the purpose of bringing on 
board the smaller and more delicate species in sea-water, and they 
should be kept in it, the ‘* Floridee’’ more especially, until they 
can be arranged for drying, or other modes of permanent preserva-~ 
tion can be attended to, 

In collecting alge, corallines, or the branched, horny, or calca- 
reous corals, care should be taken to bring the entire specimen, with 
its base or root. With respect to the coarser algze, it is merely re- 
quisite. for the purpose of transmission, to spread the specimens im- 
mediately on being brought fresh from the sea, without previous 
washing, in an airy situation to dry, but not to expose them to too 
powerful a sun; if turned over a few times, they will dry very ra- 
pidly. When thoroughly dried, they may be packed loosely in paper 
bags or boxes, and will require only to be remoistened and properly 
pressed, in order to make cabinet specimens, For the purpose of 
transmission, it is better not to wash the specimens in fresh water 
previous to drying, as the salt they contain tends both to preserve 
them and to keep them pliable, and more ready to imbibe water on 


* Capt. Sir J. Ross’s ‘‘ Antarctic Voyage,’ Appendix, No. IV. 


282 Professor Owen on Collecting 


reimmersion. With respect to the delicate algze,—* The collector 
should have two or three flat dishes, one of which is to be filled with 
salt water and two with fresh; in the first of these the specimens 
are to be rinsed and pruned, to get rid of any dirt or parasites, or 
other extraneous matter ; they are then to be floated in one of the 
dishes of fresh water for a few minutes, care being taken not to 
leave them too long in this medium, and then one by one removed 
to the third dish, and a piece of white paper, of the size suited to 
that of each specimen, is to be introduced underneath it. The paper 
is to be carefully brought to the surface of the water, the specimen 
remaining displayed upon it, with the help of a pair of forceps or a 
porcupine’s quill, or any fine-pointed instrument; and it is then to 
be gently drawn out of the water, keeping the specimen displayed. 
These wet papers, with their specimens, are then placed between 
sheets of soft soaking-paper, and put under pressure, and in most 
cases the specimen adheres in drying to the paper on which it is laid 
out. Care must be taken to prevent the bloating-paper sticking to 
the specimens, and destroying them. Frequent changes of drying- 
paper (once in six hours), and cotton rags laid over the specimens, 
are the best preservatives. The collector should have at hand four 
or five dozen pieces of unglazed thin calico (such as sells for 2d. or 
3d. per yard), each piece about eighteen inches long and twelve 
inches wide, one of which, with two or three sheets of paper, should 
be laid over every sheet of specimens as it is put in the press. These 
cloths are only required in the first two or three changes of drying- 
papers; for, once the specimen has begun to dry, it will adhere to 
the paper on which it has been floated in preference to the blotting- 
paper laid over it.”* 

For dried specimens of corallines, corals, and sponges, it is advisable 
to soak the specimen for a time in fresh water before drying. They 
may then be packed among the rough-dried sea-weeds, in boxes ; but 
the more delicate specimens should be placed in separate chip-boxes 
with cotton. 

With regard to corals, &c., it must be remembered that dried spe- 
cimens are but the skeletons of those animals, and that only the 
“horny” and “ calcareous” species can be so preserved. The 
“fleshy” kinds, commonly known as “ polypes,” ‘ sea-anemones,” 
or “ animal-flowers,’’ must be preserved entire in alcohol or saline 
solution, and of the latter the following (No. 1 of Goadby’s recipes) 
has been found successful :— 


Solution, No. 1. 


Bay salt, . ; ; ; 4 oz. 
Alum, . p 4 - 2 2 oz. 
Corrosive sublimate, f : : 2 grains. 
Rain water, x a - 5 1 quart. 


* Dr Harvey, in Mr Ball’s Report on the Dublin University Magazine, p. 3. 


and Preserving Animals. 283 


In order to preserve the specimens expanded, they should be remo- 
ved and placed alive in a dish of sea-water; and when they have 
protruded and expanded their tentacles, the solution should be 
slowly and quietly added to the sea-water, when the animal may be 
killed and fixed in its expanded state. So prepared, the specimens 
should be transferred to a bottle of fresh solution. 

In like manner the minute polypes of the flexible or horny corals 
may be preserved, protruded from their cells, and expanded. If a 
small piece of corrosive sublimate is put into the vessel of sea-water 
containing such living polypes, it will kill or paralyse them when 
protruded, as it slowly dissolves; but they must be removed as soon 
as they have lost their power of retraction, otherwise their tissue is 
rendered fragile, or is decomposed. The polypes, or animal part 
of the calcareous kinds, called ‘* Madrepores,’’ ‘ Millepores,”’ 
* Fungee,”’ “ Red Coral,’ “ Gorgoniz,” &c., require for their pre- 
secvation} in connection with their supporting asia, the following so- 
lution (No. 2.) :-— 


Solution, No. 2 


Bay Salt, c ; 2 lb. 

Arsenious acid, or white oxide of arsenic, 20 grains. 
Corrosive sublimate, - : 2 grains. 
Boiling rain-water, . a : 1 quart. 


All the polypes concerned in the formation of coral reefs, atolls, 
or coral islands, may be preserved in the above solution, provided 
they be killed by its gradual application as above described, and be 
afterwards transferred into fresh solution, With regard to the struc- 
ture and formation, and mode of observation of coral islands and 
reefs, the work by Charles Darwin, Esq., on the Structure and Dis- 
tribution of Coral Reefs (8v0, 1842), should be consulted.* Never 
fail to ascertain, if possible, to what depth below the surface of the 
sea the corals descend, and on what basis they rest ; and for particu- 
lar instructions with reference to coral reefs, see Mr Darwin's re 
marks under the head of ‘* Geology.” 


Infusorial Animalcules (Polygastria, Polythalmia, Phytolitharia.) 


Some idea of the value and importance of attending to the collec- 
tion cf these microscopical organized beings may be had by reference 
to Ehrenberg’s observations, forming Appendix, No. V. of Captain 
Sir James C. Ross's Antarctic Voyage, vol. i., p. 3389; a better 
idea by the perusal of Ehrenberg’s numerous communications to 
scientific journals, some of which have been translated in Taylor's 


* See also, on this subject, Lieutenant Nelson’s paper ‘On the Geology of 
the Bermudas ;” Geological Transactions, Second Series, vol. v., pp. 103-123. 


284 Professor Owen on Collecting 


Annals of Science ; and the best idea by the study of Ehrenberg’s 
great work, Entwickelung Lebensdauer und Struktur der Magen- 
thiere und Réderthiere, &c., folio, 1832. The important relations 
of these minutest forms of animal life to great questions in geology, 
to the alteration of coast-lines, and to the phenomena of oceanic 
luminosity, make it indispensable to include them in directions for 
collecting facts in natural history. 

Whenever the surface of the sea presents a difference of colour 
and density, in the form of pellicles, streaks, or shining oil-like 
spots, lift up portions by dipping in thin plates of mica, or stout 
paper, and raising them horizontally ; dry these and preserve them 
in a book, noting the latitude and longitude, the time of day, and 
the temperature of the sea. The animalcules remain attached to the 
pieces of paper or mica employed in their capture, and may be de- 
termined by subsequent microscopical observation. 

Where the sea seems pure and colourless, a bucketful may be 
raised and strained through fine linen; by repeating this act, a por- 
tion will commonly remain on the filter, which is then generally 
rich in invisible animaleules, and should be preserved in small glass 
bottles or tubes, with a buble of air between the cork or stopper, 
and the water. Any visible gelatinous acalephe should be removed 
and placed in spirit of wine, or the solution No. 1. Specimens of 
sea-water thus saturated with animalcules should be prepared at 
each degree of latitude and longitude traversed on the voyage, by 
which means the geographical distribution of these minute organisms 
may be ascertained, when the species so collected are determined, 
after the voyage, by microscopic observation. 

Small bottles or tubes of the water of each mineral spring or hot 
spring should be preserved for the same purpose. In a deposit from 
melted pancake-ice from the Barrier, in 78° 10’ S. lat., 162° W. 
long., brought home in Ross’s antarctic voyage, Ehrenberg de- 
tected of siliceous-shelled polygastria fifty-one species, including four 
new genera; siliceous phytolitharia, twenty-four species ; and of cal- 
careous-shelled polythalmia, four species. Small packets of the 
sand of each coast that may be visited, and of the sand or mud 
brought up with the anchor or the sounding-line, should be pre- 
served ; the localities or latitude and longitude being precisely noted 
in each case. 


Acalephe (Sea-blubber or Meduse, Portuguese Men-of-war, Jelly- 
Fish, and other floating Marine Gelatinous Animals.) 


The brilliant but evanescent hues of many of this class of animals 
can only be preserved by coloured drawings executed at the time of 
capture. The solution, No. 1, will suffice for the preservation of 
the animals themselves, provided it be changed after they have re- 
mained in it about twenty-four hours, for most of the gelatinous 


| 


and Preserving Animals. 285 


animals, especially the Medusz, contain a great quantity of fluid, 
which, mixing with the preserving liquid, dilutes it, and renders: it 
unfit for long-continued preservation. The best preserved specimens 
of these delicate animals are those that have been placed immediately 
after capture in the solution No. 1, diluted with an additional pint 
of rain-water, and which have been afterwards transferred to fresh 
solution of the proper strength. Glass-stoppered bottles with wide 
mouths are the best adapted for the larger Acalephe. 


Echinoderms (Star-Fish [Asterias], Sea-Urchins | Echinide}, 
Trepang or Sea-Cucumbers { Holothurie)). 


For the preservation of the entire animal, with the soft parts of 
a Star-fish (Asterias), or a Sea-urchin (Echinus), the arsenical solu- 
tion (No. 2) is preferable ; the softer Trepangs (Holothurie) may be 
preserved in either solution. It should be gradually added to the 
vessel of water in which the living specimen is at rest, in order to kill 
it, with the soft appendages protruded or elongated. This is particu- 
larly requisite in the case of the Holothurie, which, if plunged sudden- 
ly in solution, are apt to squeeze out and rupture their viscera. With 
regard, however, to long and slender Star-fishes (Ophiuree), sometimes 
called ‘* brittle stars,’ from their habit of breaking themselves into 
pieces when captured, these should be instantly plunged into a large 
basin of cold fresh water, when they die in a state of expansion, and 
too quickly for the acts of contraction by which the rays are broken 
off. After lying for an hour or so in the fresh water, they may be 
transferred to the solution ; if preserved dry, they should be dipped 
for a moment in boiling water, then dried in the sun or in a current 
of air, and packed in paper. When the specimens have soaked in 
solution one or two days, according to the temperature, they should 
be removed into fresh solution. The Echini should be sewed up 
each in a separate bag of muslin, and not be crowded so as to press 
upon each other in the same bottle. The Star-fish and Sea-urchins 
that are preserved dry should be emptied of their viscera or soft con- 
tents by the mouth or larger (lower) aperture, and should then be 
soaked in fresh water, changed two or three times, for so many hours, 
or until the saline particles of their native element have been ex- 


‘tracted, before they are dried. The Echini should be wrapped up 


in cotton, and sewed up, each in its separate bag, in order to pre- 
serve the spines, which may become detached in the course of a 
voyage, and are apt to become so if the precaution of soaking away 
the saline particles be not previously taken. All Echini and Star- 
fish should be examined for small shells (Stylifer of Broderip, for 
example), which nestle in and among the rays, and at the roots of 
the spines, and for other parasites. 

Recent Pentacrini (Lily-stars), especially their bases, will be 
valuable acquisitions. They may be dredged up of large size in 
tropical seas; as those of Guadaloupe, for example. 


VOL. XLVII, NO. XCIV.— OCTOBER 1849. U 


286 Professor Owen on Collecting 


Entozoa (Intestinul Worms and other internal parasites). 


These are to be preserved either in solution No. 1, or in colour- 
less proof-spirit. This class of animals has been too much neglected 
by collectors, Every animal that is opened and dissected, especially 
fishes, may present rare or undescribed species of Entozoa. The eyes 
of fishes are often the seat of such ; the noses of sharks are frequently 
infested by them. They may be found not only in the alimentary 
canal, but in the tissues of most of the organs. When the parasite 
is adherent, the part to which it adheres should be removed with it, 
care being taken to secure the whole mouth or proboscis of the pa- 
rasite. When it is encysted in an organ, the cyst is to be removed 
entire with the surrounding tissue of the organ. Portions of muscle 
or other tissue which appear speckled with minute white spots should 
be preserved, as these may be occasioned by the cyst of Trichine, or 
allied microscopic Entozoa. The number attached to the specimen 
should correspond with that in the list, having reference to the ani- 
mal, and part or organ infested by the parasite. 


Epizoa (Lernee or Fish-lice, and other external parasites) : An- 
nelides (Leeches, Worms, Nereids, or Sea-centipedes, Tube- 
worms, &¢.). 


The exterior surface, the mouth, and the gills of all fishes, should 
be examined for parasitic animals, some of which exhibit the most 
extraordinary forms and combinations of structure, as, e. g., the 
Diplozoon of Nordmann, a genus of Entozoa, from the gills of the 
bream. When the parasites adhere firmly to the part, they should 
be cut out with the adhering organ entire, which sometimes pene- 
trates to a great depth in the flesh. The exterior surface of por- 
poises, grampuses, and the larger species of the whale tribe, should 
be scrutinised for adherent parasitic animals. are kinds of leeches 
may be found on fishes, as, for example, the Bramhellion of the 
torpedo. A species of leech, with external tufted gills, Hirudo 
branchiata, has been detected on a marine tortoise or turtle in the 
Pacific, the anatomical examination of which is especially recom- 
mended by Cuvier. Leeches, and all the various kinds of sea-worms, 
comprehended under the class-name “ Annelides,’”’ and including the 
Nereids, or Sea-centipedes, usually found amongst sea-weed or under 
stones, sometimes attaining the length of twelve feet ;* and the tube- 
worms usually crowned with brilliant coloured tentacles, may be pre- 
served in the solution No. I., or in colourless spirit. Those, how- 
ever, as the Serpulide, that form calcareous tubes, should be pre- 


* See the specimen, from Bermuda, of Leodice Gigantea, No. 253, A. Mu- 
seum, College of Surgeons, London. 


and Preserving Animals. 287 
LY 


served in the solution No. II. In all cases it is desirable that the 
specimens should be allowed to die gradually in the water they in- 
habit, when they commonly display their natural external form and 
appendages in a relaxed state ; they should then be immediately put 
into the solution or spirit, to prevent putrefaction, which otherwise 
takes place rapidly. 


Cirripedia (Barnacles and Acorn-shells, or Crown-shells). 


The barnacles, or pedunculated Cirripedes, with soft stalks, should 
be preserved in the solution No. II., or in spirits; they are com- 
monly attached to floating timber, and the smaller species to sea- 
weed, shells, &c. The sessile kinds (acorn-shells, &¢.), which en- 
crust the coast rocks all over the world, and are found parasitic on 
turtles, whales, &c., should likewise be preserved in spirit, or solu- 
tion No. II., as the included animal is necessary in some genera 
for the recognition of the species. The colours of the pedunculated 
should be noted whilst fresh. If the sessile kinds are preserved dry, 
the included animal ought never to be taken out. In removing all the 
kinds from their points of attachment care must be taken that in 
some specimens, at least, the base, which is either membranous or 
calcareous, be preserved. It is particularly desirable that some 
young, as well as large specimens, should be collected. In the tro- 
pical seas certain corals and shells contain embedded in them singu- 
lar forms of cirripedes, which, presenting externally little more than 
a single aperture, are easily overlooked; such kinds had better be 
preserved in the coral. Others live embedded in sponges; two 
genera live on whale’s skin (Coronula and T'ubicinella), the develop- 
ment of which needs to be studied by specimens of the ova and 
young; another less-known genus (Chelonobia) lives partly em- 
bedded in the skin of turtles; a third attaches itself to the manatee 
or sea-cow ; and some small and interesting species of barnacle are 
parasitic on sea-snakes. Lobsters, crals, bivalve and other shells, 
as well as floating pieces of wood, or even net corks, become the 
habitat of animals of the class Cirripedia. It should always be 
noted to what animals these parasitic Cirripedes are attached, as well 
as any circumstances that may determine the period during which 
they have remained attached. 


Crustacea (Shrimps, Sea-mantises, Cray-fish, Lobsters, Crabs, 
and King-crabs). 


All the animals of this class are most profitably preserved in spirit 
or solution. If they be defended by a soft, flexible, or horny cover- 
ing, the solution No. I. answers well; if by hard, calcareous plates, 
the solution No. II. is preferable. They vary in size from micros- 
copic minuteness to upwards of a yard in length. The larger and 


288 Professor Owen on Collecting 


middle-sized specimens should be kept by themselves, or sewed up in 
a bag, if placed with others in the same jar or bottle. Rare and 
beautiful kinds, with transparent glass-like shells, may be captured 
by the towing-net in tropical seas. The minuter kinds have been 
commonly neglected, especially those of fresh water; any such 
species observed darting about in the fresh water of foreign countries 
should be preserved in tubes, in spirit or solution No. I. The 
larger kinds of marine crustacea should be suffered to die in fresh 
water before immersion in the preserving liquor. The different 
kinds of King-crab (Limulus), usually found on sandy or muddy 
coasts, are particularly worthy of preservation in spirits or solution, 
with the ova or young. 

In preparing Crustacea for drying, care is to be taken to preserve 
all their external parts as perfect, and as expressive of the natural 
progressive action, as possible. Crabs and lobsters should be cleaned 
out as soon as practicable, 7. ¢., the soft internal parts and the flesh 
should be removed, and they should be soaked in fresh water pre- 
vious to drying. The claws when large require to be separated at 
each joint for the purpose, and then refixed, or a small piece may be 
neatly removed and afterwards replaced. When dried, the specimens 
should be wrapped in very soft paper, and then packed in cotton, so 
as not to allow of their being displaced in the case, nor to touch one 
another. It is desirable, with regard to brilliantly-coloured crabs, 
to wash them over, after they are dried, with a thin coat of the fol- 
lowing varnish :— 


Varnish for Crabs, Eggs, dc., No. I. 


Common gum, : : : ; 4 072. 
Gum tragacanth, . 5 A - 4 02. 


Dissolve these in three pints of water, add to the solution 20 grains 
of corrosive sublimate, and 20 drops of oil of thyme, dissolved in four 
oz. of spirit of wine; mix it well, and let it stand for a few days to 
separate; the clearer partis to be used as varnish; the thicker part 
forms an excellent cement. 

A very important subject of investigation is the development of 
the Crustacea, from the earliest period at which they can be observed, 
‘to the assumption of the mature or parent form. The eggs, usually 
of some bright colour, attached beneath the tail of the female crab, 
lobster, or shrimp, should be examined for this purpose ; the embryo, 
if in course of development, may be readily seen by opening the egg 
under a moderately magnifying power (see the note on microscopes). 
Drawings of the different forms or shapes of the embryo should be 
made, if possible, and the eggs and embryos preserved in spirits or 
solution in small glass tubes. 


and Preserving Animals. 289 


Insecta. 


Some specimens of all kinds of insects should be preserved, for ana- 
tomical examination, in spirit, or the solution No. I. Many of the 
softer kinds of insects and spiders can only be profitably so pre- 
served. Care must be taken that the softer kinds of insects are not 
put into the same bottle with the harder kinds. Gauze nets must 
be used for catching the Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) on the 
wing, anda fine muslin net, like a landing-net, for the water insects. 
Many species may be taken by spreading a cloak, or placing an open 
umbrella reversed under trees or bushes, and shaking or beating the 
latter. Caterpillars should be carefully placed in a perforated box 
with the leaves of the plants on which they are found feeding: they 
will often undergo their metamorphosis in this captivity; and no 
Lepidoptera are more perfect than those thus bred, as it is termed, 
if carefully watched. The perfect insect should be accompanied, if 
possible, by its larva (caterpillar), and pupa (chrysalis or cocoon), 
together with a specimen of the plant on which it is found feeding. 
The latter should be kept in an herbarium set apart for the pur- 
pose, and should have a number corresponding with that of the in- 
sect. Larva and pupe may be preserved in spirit or solution, as 
well as a specimen of every perfect insect that can be spared, with 
a view to anatomical investigation. It must be remembered that the 
larvee will very soon lose their colours when so treated, and, in order 
to retain these, a specimen or two of the larger ones and of their 
pupe may be opened, the viscera removed, and the inside, after it 
has been brushed with arseniate soap, stuffed with cotton. Boxes 
lined with cork are the best conveyances for dried butterflies, moths, 
and indeed for insects in general; or they may be pinned in the 
crown of the hat until they can be transferred to a place of safety. 
The more delicate insects, such as butterflies, moths, sphinxes, the 
different species of mantis, the locusts, dragon-flies, &c., after being 
killed by pressure on the thorax, should be pinned down, while in a 
relaxed state, with the wings and legs kept close to the body, to save 
space, and prevent collision. The pin should be greased or oiled, 
to prevent rust; and if pointed at both ends the specimen more 
readily admits of being turned. The pin should be made fast, so as 
to allow of the motion of the box in all directions, and the fastening 
must be adjusted to the weight of the insect. The harder winged 
insects may be killed by immersion in hot water, and after having 
been dried on blotting paper, may be laid carefully in boxes upon 
cotton, so as not to interfere with or injure each other. A ready 
mode of preserving beetles (Coleoptera), when found in abundance on 
any foreign coast, is to put them, when dried, in a box, in the bot- 
tom of which a layer of fine dry sand has been strewed. When the 
layer is overspread with beetles, they must be covered with another 
layer of sand, and the packer must proceed with layers of beetles and 


290 Professor Owen on Collecting 


sand alternately, till the box, which should be water-tight, is quite 
full, when it should be screwed down, and pitched at the seams. Mr 
Darwin preserved all his dry specimens of insects, excepting the Lepi- 
doptera, between layers of rag in pill-boxes, placing at the bottom a 
bit of camphor, and they arrived in an excellent state. 


Mollusca (Cuttles, Squids, Snails, land and sea), Slugs (land 
and sea), Shell-fish, Cowries, Limpets, and Bivalves, as 
Mussels, Oysters, &c. 

*« A superficial towing net, another, so constructed as to be kept 

a fathom or two below the surface, and the deep-sea trawl, are the 
principal agents for capturing these animals, But when the tide is 
at the lowest, the collector should wade among the rocks and pools 
near the shore, and search under overhanging ledges of rock, as far 
as his arms can reach. An iron rake, with long close-set teeth, will 
be a useful implement on such occasions. He should turn over all 
loose stones and growing sea-weeds, taking care to protect his hands 
with gloves, and his feet with shoes and stockings, against the sharp 
spines of Echini, the back fins of Weavers (sting-fishes), and the stings 
of Meduse (sea-nettles). In detaching chitons and patelle (limpets), 
which are all to be sought for on rocky coasts, the surgeon’s spatula* 
will prove a valuable assistant. Those who have paid particular at- 
tention to preserving chitons have found it necessary to suffer them 
to die under pressure between two boards. Haliotides (sea-ears), 
may be removed from the rocks to which they adhere, by throwing 
a little warm water over them, and then giving them a sharp push 
with the foot sideways, when mere violence would be of no ayail with- 
out injuring the shell. Rolled madrepores and loose fragments of 
rock should be turned over. Cyprae@ (cowries), and other Testacea, 
are frequently harboured under them. Numbers of mollusca, con- 
chifera, and radiata, are generally to be found about coral reefs.” 
— Brodrip. 

Among the floating mollusca likely to be met with in the tropical 
latitudes is the spirula, a small cephalopod with a chambered shell. 
An entire specimen of this rare mollusc is a great desideratum ; and 
if it should be captured alive, its movements should be watched in a 
vessel of sea-water, with reference more especially to the power of 
rising and sinking at will, and the position of the shell during those 
actions. The chambered parts of the shell should be opened under 
water, in order to determine if it contains a gas; the nature of this 
gas should likewise, if possible, be ascertained. As a part of the 
shell of the spirula projects externally at the posterior part of the 


* A case knife, in experienced hands, is even a better instrument ; but great 
care must be taken not to wound the ligamentous border of the shell of the 
chitons, and not to injure the edges of the limpets. 


and Preserving Animals. 291 


animal, this part should be laid open in the living spirula, in order 
to ascertain how far such mutilation would affect its power of rising 
or sinking in the water. 

In the event of a living pearly nautilus (Nautilus Pompilius) be- 
ing captured, the same observations and experiments should be made 
on that species, in which they would be attended with more precision 
and facility, as the species is much larger than the spirula, and its 
shell external. 

The towing-net should be kept overboard at all practicable periods, 

and drawn up and examined at stated intervals, as some of the rarest 
marine animals have been taken by thus sweeping the surface of the 
sea. 
A sketch or drawing of molluscous and radiate animals, of which 
the form and colour are liable to be materially altered by death, or 
when put in spirit, will aid materially in rendering the description of 
the species useful and intelligible. 

Some of each species should be preserved in spirit, or the solution 
No. II. If they have died with their soft parts protruded, they 
should be suspended so as to prevent distortion from pressure. If 
the shell be of a spiral form, the whorls should be perforated with 
a fine awl so as to allow the spirit or solution to enter ; otherwise, 
as the main body of the animal fills up the whole mouth of the shell, 
the deeper seated and softer parts would become putrid before the 
preserving liquor could get to them. 

Where the animal has been detached from its shell, the soft parts 
and the shell should be marked with corresponding numbers. When 
the animal is furnished with an operculum (the little door which 
closes the mouth of many turbinated shells), it should be carefully 
preserved ; and if detached from the animal, should be so numbered 
as to prevent the possibility of its being attributed to the wrong 
species. Shells should never be cleaned, but should be preserved 
as they come from the sea, taking care only to fill the mouths of 
those which are turbinated, with tow or cotton, to prevent fracture. 
It may be sometimes requisite to put a live shell into hot water and 
boil it a minute or two, in order to dislodge the animal, which may 
then be removed with a crooked pin. 

The land-shells are found in various situations ; as in humid spots 
covered by herbage, rank grass, &c.; beneath the bark or within 
the hollows of old trees, crevices of rocks, walls, bones, &c.; about 
the drainage of houses, or in the dry season by digging near the roots 
of trees. Early in the morning, especially in rainy weather, is the 
best time for taking them. The fresh water kinds may be sought 
for in quiet inlets, on the sides of lakes, rivers, and brooks ; the 
greater number of univalves occur at or near the surface, under the 
leaves of aquatic plants, and among decayed vegetables; while the 
bivalves and certain univalves keep at the bottom, and are often 


292 Professor Owen on Collecting and Preserving Animals. 


more or less embedded in the sand or mud, from which they may be 
raked into a landing-net. 

With regard to the marine bivalves, rocks, sub-marine clay banks 
piles, stones, and indurated sand, should “ carefully inspected for’ 
Pholades, Lithodomi, and other boring species. If the collector should 
find any of these perforators in the ruins of an ancient temple, or 
in the remains of any ancient works of art, or any adhering shells 
(serpules for instance), attached to the surface of such works, the 
specimens become doubly interesting, especially in a geological point 
of view. Jn such eases, the situation should be accurately noted, as 
well as the distance of the perforations from the surface of the sea, 
either above or below. 

By digging with a wide-pronged fork in sand-banks at low water, 
many bivalves, such as Solens, Cardia, Telline, &c., will be procured 
alive ; and if the inhabitants of the coast be accustomed to diving, 
their services should be procured for deeper water. Care must be 
taken not to separate the ligament which binds the hinge. When 
the animal is dead the shell will gape, and the soft parts may be then 
removed without injury. Attempts to open bivalves, while the ani- 
mals are alive, generally terminate in great injury to the shells. 

For deep-sea shells, the dredge is indispensable. Dredging re- 
quires experience to judge of the length of rope to be used ; if there 
be too much on a sandy bottom, the dredge will bury itself; if too 
little, it will not scrape properly; on rocky bottoms the rope must 
be kept as short as possible ; in deep water, the dredge can only be 
made to act effectually by placing a weight on the line, which as a 
rule, may be about one-third of the weight of the dredge, and placed 
on the line at about two-thirds of the depth of the water ; the object 
is to sink the rope, and counteract the tendency it has to float the 
dredge. The contents of the dredge are best examined by means of 
sieves, of which three should be used, one over the other, first a riddle, 
next a wheat sieve, and third an oat sieve; these may be fastened 
together, the contents of the dredge being emptied into the riddle, 
and water being poured upon them, the mud, &c., will be washed off 
and the contents separated, so as to be very easily examined; by this 
plan, a hundredfold more will be discovered than can be found by 
searching in mud or sand in the usual manner. Besides shells, num- 
bers of crabs, star-fishes, sea-urchins, worms, corals, zoophytes, alge, 
&ec., are procured by the dredge.—The Admiralty Manual of Scten- 
tific Enquiry, published by the authority of the Lords Commis-- 
stoners of the Admiralty, 1849. 


( 293 ) 


Remarks upon the General Principles of Philological Classijica- 
tion and the Value of Groupes, with particular reference 
to the Languages of the Indo-European Class. By R. G. 
LatHAm, M.D. Communicated by the Ethnological So- 
ciety.* 


In respect to the languages of the Indo-European class, it 
is considered that the most important questions connected 
with their systematic arrangement, and viewed with refer- 
ence to the extent to which they engage the attention of the 
present writers of philology, are the three following :— 

1. The question of the Fundamental Elements of certain 
Languages. The particular example of an investigation of 
this kind is to be found in the discussion concerning the ex- 
tent to which it is a language akin to the Sanskrit, ora 
language akin to the Tamul, which forms the basis of certain 
dialects of mzddle and even northern India. In this is involved 
the question as to the relative value of grammatical and glos- 
sarial coincidences. 

2. The question of the Independent or Subordinate Cha- 
racter of certain Groupes. Under this head comes the in- 
vestigation, as to whether the Slavonic and Lithuanic tongues 
form separate groupes, in the way that the Slavonic and 
Gothic tongues form separate groupes, or whether they are 
each members of some higher group. The same inquiry ap- 
plies to the languages (real or supposed) derived from the 
Zend, and the languages (real or supposed) derived from the 
Sanskrit. 

3. The question of Extension and Addition. It is to this 
that the forthcoming observations are limited. 

Taking as the centre of a group, those languages which 
have been recognised as Indo-European (or Indo-Germanic), 
from the first recognition of the group itself, we find the 
languages derived from the ancient Sanskrit, the languages 
derived from the ancient Persian, the languages of Greece and 
Rome, the Slavonic and Lithuanic languages, and the lan- 


* Read before the Society, 28th Mebruary 1849. 


294 ~ Dr R. G. Latham on the 


guages of the Gothic stock; Scandinavian, as well as Ger- 
manic. The affinity between any two of these groupes has 
currently been considered to represent the affinity between 
them all at large. 

The way in which the class under which these divisions 
were contained, as subordinate groupes, has received either 
addition or extension, is a point of philological history, which 
can only be briefly noticed ; previous to which a difference 
of meaning between the words addition and extension should 
be explained. 

1. To draw an illustration from the common ties of rela- 
tionship, as between man and man, it is clear that a family 
may be enlarged in two ways. 

a. A brother, or a cousin, may be discovered, of which 
the existence was previously unknown. Herein the family 
is enlarged, or increased, by the rea/ addition of a new mem- 
ber, in a recognised degree of relationship. 

6. A degree of relationship previously unrecognised may be 
recognised, 7. e., a family wherein it was previously considered 
that a second-cousinship was as much as could be admitted 
within its pale, may incorporate third, fourth, or fifth cousins. 
Here the family is enlarged, or increased, by a verbal exten- 
sion of the term. 

Now it is believed that the distinction between increase 
by the way of real addition, and increase by the way of ver- 
bal extension, has not been sufficiently attended to. Yet, 
that it should be more closely attended to, is evident; since, 
in mistaking a verbal increase for a real one, the whole end 
and aim of classification is overlooked. 

I. The Celtic —The publication of Dr Prichard’s Eastern 
Origin of the Celtic Nations, in 1831, supplied philologists 
with the most definite addition that has, perhaps, yet been 
made to ethnographical philology. 

Ever since then, the Celtic has been considered to be Indo- 
European. Indeed its position in the same group with the 
Tranian, Classical, Slavono-Lithuanic, and Gothic tongues, 
supplied the reason for substituting the term Indo-European 
for the previous one Indo-Germanic. 

2. Since the fixation of the Celtic, it has been considered 


ora 


Indo- European Languages. 295 


that the Armenian is Indo-European. Perhaps the well- 
known affinity between the Armenian and Phrygian lan- 
guages directed philologists to a comparison between the 
Armenian and Greek. Miiller, in his Dorians, points out the 
inflexion of the Armenian verb-substantive. 

3. Since the fixation of the Celtic, it has been considered 
that the old Etruscan is Indo-European. 

4. Since the fixation of the Celtic, it has been considered 
that the Albanian is Indo-European. 

5. Since the fixation of the Celtic, Indo-European elements 
have been indicated in the Malay. 

6. Since the fixation of the Celtic, Indo-European elements 
have been indicated in the Laplandic. 

7. Since the fixation of the Celtic, it has been considered 
that the Ossetic is Indo-European. 

8. Since the consideration of the Ossetic as Indo-European, 
the Georgian has been considered as Indo-European likewise. 

Now the criticism of the theory which makes the Georgian 
to be Indo-European, is closely connected with the criticism 
of the theory which makes the Ossetic and the Malay to be 
Polynesian; and this the writer reserves for a separate pa- 
per. All that he does at present is to express his opinion, 
that if any of the seven last-named languages are Indo-Eu- 
ropean, they are Indo-European not by real addition, in the 
way of recognised relationship, but by verbal extension of the 
power of the term Indo-European. He also believes that this 
is the view which is taken, more or less consciously or un- 
consciously, by the different authors of the different classifi- 
cations themselves. If he be wrong in this notion, he is at 
issue with them as to a matter of fact ; since, admitting some 
affinity on the part of the languages in question,’ he denies 
that it is that affinity which connects the Greek and German, 
the Latin and Lithuanian. 

On the other hand, if he rightly imagine that they are 
considered as Indo-European on the strength of some other 
affinity, wider and more distant than that which connects the 
Greek with the German, or the Latin with the Lithuanic, he 
regrets that such an extension of a term should have been 
made without an exposition of the principle that suggested 


296 Dr R. G. Latham on the 


it, or the facts by which it is supported ; principles and facts 
which, when examined by himself, have convinced him that 
most of the later movements in this department of ethnogra- 
phical philology, have been movements in the wrong direc- 
tion. 

There are two principles upon which languages may be 
classified. 

1. According to the first, we take two or more languages 
as we find them, ascertain certain of their characteristics, . 
and then inquire how far these characteristics coincide. 

Two or more languages thus taken might agree in having 
a large per-centage of words in common, or a large per- 
centage of grammatical inflexions ; in which case they would 
agree in certain positive characters. On the other hand, two 
or more such languages might agree in the negative fact of hay- 
ing a small and scanty vocabulary, and an inflexional system 
equally limited; whilst, again, the scantiness of inflexion 
might arise from one of two causes. It might arise from 
the fact of inflexions having never been developed at all, or 
it might arise from inflexions having been lost subsequent 
to a full development of the same. In all such cases as these, 
the principle of classification would be founded upon the ex- 
tent to which languages agreed or differed in certain exter- 
nal characteristics ; and it would be the principle upon which 
the mineralogist classifies minerals. It is not worth while 
to recommend the adoption of the particular term mineralo- 
gical, although mineralogy is the science that best illustrates 
the distinction. It is sufficient to state, that in the principle 
here indicated, there is no notion of descent. 

2. It is well known that in ethnographical philology (in- 
deed in ethnology at large) the mineralogical principle is not 
recognised ; and that the principle that ¢s recognised is what 
may be called the Aistorica’ principle. Languages are ar- 
ranged in the same class, not because they agree in having 
a copious grammar or scanty grammar, but because they are 
descended (or are supposed to be descended) from some 
common stock ; whilst similarity of grammatical structure, 
and glossarial identity are recognised as elements of classi- 
fication only so far as they are evidence of such community 


Indo-European Languages. 297 


of origin. Just as two brothers will always be two brothers, 
notwithstanding differences of stature, feature, and disposi- 
tion, so will two languages which have parted from the com- 
mon stock within the same decennium, be more closely allied 
to each other, at any time and at all times, than two languages 
separated within the same century ; and two languages sepa- 
rated within the same century, will always be more cognate 
than two within the same millennium. This will be the case 
irrespective of any amount of subsequent similarity or dis- 
similarity. 

Indeed, for the purposes of ethnology, the phenomena of 
subsequent similarity or dissimilarity are of subordinate im- 
portance. Why they are so, is involved in the question as 
to the rate of change in language. Of two tongues separated 
at the same time from a common stock, one may change ra- 
pidly, the other slowly ; and, hence, a dissimilar physiognomy 
at the end of a given period. If the English of Austra- 
lia were to change rapidly in one direction, and the Eng- 
lish of America in another, great as would be the difference 
resulting from such changes, their ethnological relation would 
be the same. They would still have the same affiliation with 
the same mother-tongue, dating from nearly the same epoch. 

In ethnological philology, as in natural history, descent is 
the paramount fact ; and without asking how far the value 
thus given to it is liable to be refined on, we leave it, in each 
science, as we find it, until some future investigator shall 
have shewn that either for a pair of animals not descended 
_ from a common stock, or for a pair of languages not origi- 
nating from the same mother-tongue, a great number of 
general propositions can be predicated than is the case with 
the two most dissimilar instances (animal or language) de- 
rived from a common origin. 

Languages are allied just in proportion as they were sepa- 
rated from the same language at the same epoch. 

The same epoch.—The word epoch is an equivocal word, 
and it is used designedly because it is so. Its two meanings 
require to be indicated, and, then, it will be necessary to ask 
which of them is to be adopted here. 

The epoch, as a period in the duration of a language, may 


298 Dr R. G. Latham on the 


be simply chronological, or it may be philological, properly so 
called. 

The space of ten, twenty, a hundred, or a thousand years, 
is a strictly chronological epoch. The first fifty years after 
the Norman conquest is an epoch in the history of the Eng- 
lish language; so is the reign of Henry the Third, or the 
Protectorship of Oliver Cromwell. A definite period of this 
sort is an epoch in language, just as the term of twenty or 
thirty years is an epoch in the life of a man. 

On the other hand, a period that, chronologically speak- 
ing, is indefinite, shall be an epoch. The interval between 
one change and another, whether long or short, is an epoch. 
The duration of English like the English of Chaucer, is an 
epoch in the history of the English language ; and so is the 
duration of English like the English of the Bible translation. 
For such epochs there are no fixed periods. With a lan- 
guage that changes rapidly they are short; with a language 
that changes slowly they are long. 

Now, in which of these two meanings should the word be 
used in ethnographical philology? The answer to the ques- 
tion is supplied by the circumstances of the case, rather than 
by any abstract propriety. Wecannot give it the first mean- 
ing, even if we wish todo so. To say in what year of the 
duration of a common mother-tongue the Greek separated 
from the stock that was common to it and to the Latin is an 
impossibility ; indeed, ifit could be answered at once, it would 
be a question of simple history, not an inference from eth- 
nology: since ethnology, with its paleontological reason- 
ing from effect to cause, speaks only where history, with its 
direct testimony, is silent. 

We cannot, then, in ethnological reasoning get, at the pre- 
cise year in which any one or two languages separated from 
a common stock; so as to say that this separated so long be- 
fore the other. 

The order, however, of separation we can get at, since we 
can infer it from condition of the mother-tongue at the time 
of such separation, this condition being denoted by the con- 
dition of the derived language. 

Hence the philological epoch is an approximation to the 


Indo-European Languages. 299 


chronological epoch, and as it is nearest approximation that 
ean possibly be attained, it is practically identical with it, so 
that the enunciation of the principle at which we wish to ar- 
rive may change its wording, and now stand as follows,— 
Languages are allied, just in proportion as they were separated 
from the same language in the same stage. 

Now, if there be a certain number of well-marked forms 
(say three) of development, and if the one of these coincide 
with an early period in the history of language, and another 
with a later one, and the third with a period later still, we 
have three epochs wherein we may fix the date of the sepa- 
ration of the different languages from their different parent- 
stocks ; and these epochs are natural, just in proportion as 
the forms that characterise them are natural. 

Again, if each epoch fall into minor and subordinate 
periods, characterised by the changes and modifications of 
the then generally characteristic forms, we have the basis 
for subordinate groups, and a more minute classification. 

It is not saying too much to say that all this is no hypothesis, 
but a reality. There are real distinctions of characteristic 
forms corresponding with real stages of development; and 
the number of these is three; besides which, one, at least, 
of the three great stages falls into divisions and subdivisions. 

1. The stage anterior to the evolution of inflexion.—Here 
each word has but one form, and relation is expressed by 
mere juxtaposition, with or without the superaddition of a 
change of accent. The tendencies of the stage are to com- 
bine words in the way of composition, but not to go further. 
Each word retains, throughout, its separate substantive in- 
dependent character, and has a meaning independent of its 
juxtaposition with the words with which it combines. 

2. The stage wherein inflexions are developed.—Here, 
words originally separate, and afterwards placed in juxta- 
position with others, as elements of a compound term, so far 
change in form, or so far lose their separate signification, as 
to pass for adjuncts, either prefixed or postfixed to the main 
word. What was once a word is now the part of a word 
and what was once Composition is now Derivation, certain 
sorts of Derivation being called Inflexions, and certain In- 


300 Dr R. G. Latham on the 


flexions being called Declensions or Conjugations, as the case 
may be. 

3. The stage wherein inflexions become lost, and are re- 
placed by separate words. Here case-endings, like the 7 in 
patr-t, are replaced by prepositions (in some cases by post- 
positions), like the ¢oin ¢o father ; and personal endings, like 
the o in voc-o, are replaced by pronouns, like the J in J call. 

Of the jirst of these stages, the Chinese is the language 
which affords the most typical specimen that can be found in 
the present /aée date of languages—/aée, considering that we 
are looking for a sample of its earliest forms. 

Of the Jast of these stages the English of the year 1849 
affords the most typical specimen that can be found in the 
present early date of language—early, considering that we 
are looking for a sample of its latest forms. 

Of the second of these stages we must take two languages 
as the samples. 

1. The Greek.—Here we have the inflexional character in 
its most perfect form ; 7. e., the existence, as separate words, 
of those sounds and syllables that form inflexions, is at its 
maximum of concealment ; @. e., their amalgamation with the 
primary word (the essence of inflexion) is most perfect. 

2. The Circassian, Coptic, or Turkish—In one of these (it 
is difficult to say which) the existence as separate words of 
those sounds and syllables which form inflexions, is at its 
minimum of concealment ; 7. ¢., their amalgamation with the 
primary word (the essence of inflexion) being most imperfect. 

This classification is, necessarily, liable to an element of 
confusion common to all classifications where the evidence is 
not exactly of the sort required by the nature of the question. 
The nature of the question here dealt with requires the evi- 
dence of the historical kind, 7. e., direct testimony. The only 
evidence, however, we can get at is indirect and inferential. 
This engenders the following difficulty. The newest lan- 
guage of (say) the languages of the secondary formation may 
be nearer in chronology, to the oldest language of the third, 
than to the first formed language of its own class. In- 
deed, unless we assume the suspension of all change for 
long epochs, and that those correspond with the epochs 


5 
E 


Indo-European Languages. 301 


at which certain languages are given off from their parent 
stocks, such must be the case. 

Now, although this is a difficulty, it is no greater difficulty 
than the geologists must put up with. With them also there 
are the phenomena of transition, and such: phenomena en- 
gender unavoidable complication. They doso, however, with- 
out overthrowing the principles of their classification. 

The position of a language in respect to its stage of de- 
velopment is one thing,—the position in respect to its allied 
tongues another. 

Two languages may be in the same stage (and, as such, 
agree), yet be very distant from each other in respect to affi- 
liation or affinity. Stage for stage the French is more closely 
connected with the English, than the English with the Meso- 
Gothic. In the way of affiliation, the converse is the case. 

Languages are allied (or, what is the same thing, bear 
evidence of their alliance), according to the number of forms 
that they have in common; since (subject to one exception) 
these common forms must have been taken from the com 
mon mother-tongue. : 

Two languages separated from the common mother-tongue, 
subsequent to the evolution of (say) a form for the dative 
case, are more allied than two languages similarly separated 
anterior to such an evolution. 

Subject to one exception. This means, that it is possible 
that two languages may appear under certain circumstances 
more allied than they really are, and vice versd. 

They may appear more allied than they really are, when, 
after separating from the common mother-tongue during the 
ante-inflexionary stage, they develop their inflexions out of 
the same principle, although independently. This case is 
more possible than proved. 

They may appear less allied than they really are, when, 
although separated from the common mother-tongue after 
the evolution of a considerable amount of inflexion, each 
taking with it those inflexions, the one may retain them, 
whilst the other loses them in toto. This case also is more 
possible than proved. 

VOL. XLVII. NO. XCIV.— OCTOBER 1849, Xx 


302 Dr R. G. Latham on the 


Each of these cases involves a complex question in philolo- 
gy:—the one the phenomena connected with the rate of 
change; the other the uniformity of independent processes. 

These questions are likely to affect future researches more 
than they had affected the researches hitherto established. 
Another question has affected the researches hitherto esta- 
blished more than it is likely to affect future ones. This is 
the question as to the fundamental unity, or non-unity of 
language. Upon this the present writer has expressed an 
opinion elsewhere. At present he suggests that the more 
the general unity of the human language is admitted, the 
clearer will be the way for those who work at the details of the 
different affiliations. As long as it is an open question, whether 
one class of languages is wholly unconnected with others, any 
connection engenders an inclination to arrange it under the 
group previously recognised. I believe that this determined 
the position of the Celtic in the Indo-European group. I have 
great doubts whether if some affinity had been recognisedfrom 
the beginning, it would even have stood where it now does. 
The question, when Dr Prichard undertook his investigations, 
was not so much whether the Celtic was in the exact ratio 
to any or all of the then recognised European languages in 
which they were to each other, but whether it was in any re- 
lation at all. This being proved, it fell into the class at 
once. 

The present writer believes that the Celtic tongues were 
separated from their mother-tongue at a comparatively early 
period of the second stage; ¢. e., when but few inflexions 
had been evolved ; whilst the Classic, Gothic, Lithuano-Sla- 
vonic (Sarmatian), and Indo-Persian (Iranian) were separated 
at comparatively late periods of the same stage, 7. e., when 
many inflexions had been evolved. 

Hence he believes that, in order to admit the Celtic, the 
meaning of the term Indo-European was extended. 

Regretting this (at the same time admitting that the Cel- 
tic tongue is more Indo-European than any other), he be- 
lieves that it is too late to go back to the older and more re- 
stricted use of the term; and suggests (as the next best 


Indo-European Languages. 303 


change), the propriety of considering the Indo-European 
class as divided into two divisions, the older containing the 
Celtic, the newer containing the Iranian, Classical, Sarma- 
tian, and Gothic tongues. All further extensions of the 
term he believes to be prejudicial tofuture philology; believing 
also that all supposed additions to the Indo-European class 
have (with the exception, perhaps, of the Armenian) involved 
such farther extension. 
* * * * CR ae 

Note.—After the statement of the preceding remarks, Mr 
Kingsford suggested the possibility of languages becoming 
wholly uninfiexional, and, as such, reduced to a condition like 
the languages of the first period, in which case they might 
(as in a eycle) undergo a second series of similar developments 
de novo ; and so on, ad infinitum. This the present writer 
believed to be a philological possibility ; indeed, in his Inau- 
gural lecture at University College, he had expressed a 
similar notion. 


Note——Since this was written, a heavy loss has fallen upon 
the learned world, in the death of Dr Prichard. This induces 
me to insist more strongly than I should otherwise have done, 
upon the exception taken to his position of the Celtic being 
more verbal than real. High as I put his work upon the Phy- 
sical History of Mankind (especially as it appeared in the first 
edition, where, though less learned, it was more critical, 
more original, and more in advance of contemporary thinkers, 
than in its final form), I put his Eastern Origin of the Celtic 
Nations equally high; and, as a definite addition to ethno- 
graphical philology, even higher. 


On the Fall of Rivers, especially that of the Jordan, in Pales- 
tine; the Thames, Tweed, Clyde, and Dee, in Britain ; and 
the Shannon, in Ireland. 


Mr Augustus Petermann, the geographer, in an interesting 
paper, read to the Geographical Society of London, “ On the 
Depression of the Dead Sea, and the Fall of the Jordan,’’ com- 


304 On the Fall of Rivers. 


municates the following observations on the fall of rivers in 
general, and on that of the Jordan, in Palestine, of the 
Thames, Tweed, Clyde, and Dee, in Britain, and the Shan- 
non, in Ireland. 

The data regarding the British rivers, Mr Petermann in- 
forms us, “are a part of the results of laborious researches 
into the physical and statistic geography of the British 
Isles, which he hopes ere long to lay before the public in a 
Series of maps. 


1. The Fail of Rivers.—This interesting branch of physical 
geography presents, in its comparative results, such strik- 
ing anomalies as perhaps have never before been anticipated. 
There are rivers in this country that are of the same aggre- 
gate size and descent, and the one forms in its course a 
Series of considerable waterfalls, the heights of some of 
which approach nearly to 100 feet; whilst the other, equi- 
valent, as before mentioned, in size and fall, presents not 
even a single waterfall or cataract, nay, not even one decided 
rapid. 

To ascertain the rate of fall, there are two points, the ac- 
curate knowledge of which is necessary,—I1st, The length of 
the river in question; 2d, Its elevation. 

The length of the river, that is to say, the development of 
its course, is greatly influenced by the extent of its windings. 
These windings, in their true extent, can only be delineated 
with sufficient accuracy in maps of a very large scale, such 
as is adapted for national maps, as the windings which rivers 
generally exhibit disappear in reduced maps to such a degree 
that a great difference is produced in the calculations. 

For the purpose of forming a judgment of the rate of the 
decrease of a river’s course by constructing different maps in 
decreasing scales, I made the following inquiry regarding a 
river which is not uncommonly meandering in its course. I 
here allude to a portion of the Severn, from its source to 
Shrewsbury, and I found the following numerical results :— 


On the Fall of Rivers. 305 


| 
Seale. |Length. i 
Miles. | Miles. | Per Cent. 


Difference. 


On the Ordnance or National Map | 1 mile tol inch) 81:8 
“37 Index Map of the Ord-\ }19 mile tol inch| 68-5 | 13-3 | 168 
nance Map : f 
Petermann’s River Map| |,-_. See a irre ; , 
eet Bie Gaui Telco j 25 mile tolinch| 62:5 | 193 | 23-6 
Useful Knowledge So- | 
ciety Map of the Bri- 42 mile tolinch, 58-0 | 23:8 
tish Isles 5 


| 


The first, the Ordnance Map, forms the basis of the other 
three. By comparing the Index Map with the Ordnance 
Map itself, the scale of which is ten times larger, the figures 
shew that the windings of the river in the Index Map disap- 
pear to such a degree as to give a decrease of 13°3 miles for 
a length of 81-8 miles, or 16-3 per cent.; and so a map on a 
scale 25 times smaller gives a decrease of 23-6 per cent., and 
a map on a scale 42 times smaller 29-1 per cent.,—that is, 
measuring off the length of a river in a map of a scale of 42 
miles to 1 inch, the results, however carefully measured, are 
nearly one-third too small. 

Thus with regard to the Jordan, although not a meander- 
ing river, and forming almost a straight line from the Lake 
of Tiberias to the Dead Sea, yet the few bendings and wind- 
ings of the river, when taken into account, give it a length 
of 80 English miles,* which is 11 miles longer than Professor 
Tobinson’s statement of 60 geographical miles. The 14°3 feet 
of fall per mile which he thus calculates, will be reduced by 
the 80 English miles to 12:3 feet. And I have no doubt 
that when the course of the Jordan is thoroughly explored, 
it will exhibit a still greater development, and the rate of 
fall will be still more reduced.t 

The fall of a river influences in part the velocity or force 


* According to Robinson’s Map, in his Biblical Researches. 

+ The Jordan, as appears from Lieut. Molyneux’s account, is extremely 
winding in its course ; the American expedition under Captain Lynch found 
that it serpentines 200 miles, and the fact confirms Mr Petermann’s argu- 
ment.—Lditor of Journal of Geographical Society. 


306 On the Fall of Rivers. 


of its current, but not to such an extent as that the rate of 
fall can be taken as a scale for the rate of the velocity and 
force of the current. We call the Danube, the Rhine, and 
the Elbe, very rapid rivers, and they only exhibit a fall of 1 
and 2 feet, and very seldom 3 feet, per mile; but we should 
not place the Tweed in the same rank of velocity, and yet it 
has an average fall of nearly 8 feet in its main course from 
the point of affluence of Biggar Water to the sea, which is a 
length of 80 miles, and with this fall is freely navigated by 
small boats, at least so far up as Peebles;* while a descent 
of only 2 feet in the Danube presents the greatest obstacles 
to navigation. Thus the mighty Amazon falls but 12 feet 
in the last 700 miles of its course, or one-fifth of an inch per 
mile; yet, from the immense volume of its waters, the colli- 
sion of its current with the tide of the Atlantic is of the 
most tremendous description. 

It is obvious from the preceding remarks, that, in com- 
paring the rate of fall of one river with another, the size, 
that is, the depth and width, of the rivers, should be taken 
into account. 

The Jordan in point of magnitude ranks with several rivers 
of Great Britain. Legh compares the Jordan to the Thames 
below Oxford; and it appears, in collecting all the different 
statements for the size of the Jordan between the two lakes, 
that the average breadth may be considered to be about 30 
yards, and the depth 8 or 9 feet.+ The Dee of Aberdeenshire 
ranks in size with the Jordan, although it is only the twenty- 
ninth of the British rivers, in regard to the extent of its basin, 
and stands also far below the Jordan in this point of com- 
parison; but this difference is balanced by the nature of the 
climate in which the two basins are situated. The basin of 
the Dee lies in a very humid region, as it drains a part of 
those mountainous districts of Scotland which give birth to so 
many perennial streams ; whilst the basin of the Jordan lies 
in a region so arid that its tributaries are almost dried up 
during the summer season ; and amongst those which it does 


* Wullerton’s Parliamentary Gazetteer of Scotland, vol. ii., p. 775. 
+ Kitto’s Pictorial History of Palestine, vol. ii., p. clxxiv. 


On the Fall of Rivers. 307 


_eive from the eastern water-slopes of Palestine Proper, 
__ re is not one perennial stream. 

» conclude, from various measurements of the breadth and 
# <} . th of the Dee, that it conveys as great a quantity of water 
"+. not greater) to the German Ocean, as the Jordan to the 
_ Seeaa Sea. The mean annual breadth of the river Dee at 
»  Glenmuick parish is 70 yards, and the mean depth 4 feet ; 
the portion of the river within this parish is 38 to 53 miles 
distant from its mouth; in other parts, further down, the 
breadth is 80 yards, and the depth 12 feet: thus the average 
breadth, in its lower course, for a distance of about 50 miles, 
may be taken at 7 0 yards, and the depth from 4 to 12 feet ;* 
and as the average size of the Jordan between the two lakes 
is only computed at 30 yards broad, and 8 to 9 feet deep, the 
river Dee may fairly be ranked with the Jordan in point of 
magnitude. 

The entire length of the Dee is 87:5 English miles, and its 
fall 4060 feet; The greatest portion of this fall naturally 
belongs to the upper course, the limit of which and the 
middle course may be best fixed at a distance of 15:3 miles 
from the source ; that is, at the Linn of Dee—a spot where 
the river has cut through opposing rocks a long nar- 
row passage between 30 and 40 feet deep, and forms four 
small waterfalls, the central one about 10 or 12 feet, the 
others not above half that height. Below the fail the water 
has scooped out a series of basins, in which it rests, deep, 
dark, and motionless. 

From the Linn of Dee to the sea, a distance of 72-2 miles, 
it has yet to descend 1190 feet, which makes an average fall 
of 16:5 feet per mile. This is about one-fourth more than 
the average descent of the Jordan; and yet in the whole 
course of the Dee below the Linn it does not present a single 
waterfall or decided rapid. In some places the Dee exhibits 
even a fall of more than 20 feet per mile, owing to the un- 
equal distribution of fall, to which all rivers are more or less 


—‘\ 


_)) ee EER GEE Ee 1 Oo a 


* New Statistical Account of Scotland, vol. xii., pp. 776, 832, 875. 

+ Ibid., p. 648, The Dee takes its rise high up on Mount Braeriach, the top 
of which is 4220 feet high; the well or fountain whence the river springs is 
4060 feet, according to Dr Skene Keith. 


308 On the Fall of Rivers. 


subject, but still there are no waterfalls or other sudden de- 
scents. ' 

There is another river in Scotland, the fall of which, al- 
though larger, approaches nearly to that of the Jordan. 
This is the famous border stream, the placid Tweed. The 
entire length of this river is 96:4 English miles, and the total 
descent is 1500 feet; thus the average fall per mile would 
be about 16 feet; but the actual distribution of fall for the 
different portions of the river is thus :— 


County. Length. | Height. eee 


Engl. M.| Engl. ft. Feet. 
From the source . f Peebles. ais 1500 


To affluence of Biggar Water Bae 16'5 605 54°2 
Altarstone ; ae 16 582 14:2 
Neidpath Castle a thile : : 

before Peebles) . | oo 518 8:0 
Cardrona Mains , : ane 674 472 2 
Boundary between the | 

Counties of Peebles and Pais 63 400 11°4 

4 Selkirk . J 

{ Affiluence of Cadon Water Selkirk . 5:0 362 7-6 
Fairnielee Bridge . : fe 1:3 348 108 
Affluence of Gala Water Roxburgh 4:4. 301 10°7 
Affluence of Leader Water | Berwick . 4:5 260 9-1 
Kelso Bridge ° Roxburgh 15°4 110 9°7 


The Sea . : J j Berwick . 27°0 0 41 


Total length and fall = 


The affluence of Biggar Water is a very good limit be- 
tween the upper and middle course of the Tweed; the dis- 
tance from that point to the sea is 80 miles, which is nearly 
the same as the Jordan between the two lakes. We see from 
the preceding table that the fall of the Tweed within its 
middle and lower course approaches in many places very 
mearly to the supposed average fall of 12 feet in the Jordan, 
as near as 11:4 feet; and in a short distance from Biggar 
Water to Altarstone, the rate of fall reaches even 14:2 feet 
per mile; and yet from the affluence of Biggar Water to the 
sea the Tweed possesses neither waterfalls nor rapids; and 
small boats, such as are used in salmon-fishing, are freely 
navigated. 

Thus the fall of the Jordan of 12 feet per mile, even with- 
out waterfalls, does not present such a great contrast to the 


On the Fall of Rivers. 309 


falls of rivers in general, as is shewn by the adduced in- 
stances. 

Lieutenant Symond’s measurements may therefore prove 
perfectly correct ; and it is not at all necessary that any falls 
should be discovered to account for the descent of the Jordan. 

But certainly there must be something to account for the 
striking anomaly of Professor Robinson’s results and my 
own. The rivers which he draws up for comparison with 
the Jordan exhibit more or less falls. and the two rivers 
which I adduce here exhibit none. One might naturally sup- 
pose that this was the consequence of incorrect data on either 
side, upon which our results are based; but it is not so—it 
is the anomaly which this feature of hydrographical develop- 
ment exhibits; and it is only from the deficiency of study in this 
branch of physical geography, or rather the scarcity of data 
for such a study, that this anomaly has not been fully explained. 

As the velocity of rivers does not altogether depend upon 
the rate of their descent, in like manner the average fall does 
not determine the formation of cataracts. It is much more 
the geological character of the country through which the 
river runs which causes those sudden descents ; and countries 
where sudden declivities abound are chiefly of primary or 
transition formation. We find striking examples in every 
direction. 

The Severn and the Shannon, for example, are much alike 
in magnitude. The latter descends, from Lough Allen to its 
mouth, a distance of 213-8 English miles, 161 feet; the Se- 
vern, from Newtown to its mouth, a distance of 210 miles, 
descends 465 feet. This gives an average descent per mile 
of 9 inches for the Shannon, and 26°6 inches for the Severn. 
And yet the Severn pursues its course to the sea without any 
rapids or falls; whilst the Shannon, with its average fall of 
one-third less than the Severn, forms those magnificent 
Rapids of Doonas, which, for grandeur and effect, rank with 
the most celebrated European waterfalls. 

The Tweed and the Clyde exhibit a still more remarkable 
anomaly. Both are very much alike in point of magnitude : 
the extent of their basins is 1870 English square miles for 
the Tweed, and 1580 for the Clyde; and they are still more 
alike in point of their aggregate length and fall: the length 


310 On the Fall of Rivers. 


of the Tweed being 96-4 miles, and its total fall 1500 feet ; 
the length of the Clyde 98 miles, with 1400 feet of fall. In- 
deed both rivers for many miles from their source flow nearly 
in one direction, never diverging to any great distance from 
each other; and so long as they continue nearly parallel, 
they flow almost upon the same level, and keep on a high 
table-land of country, as if hesitating whether to mingle their 
waters or to remain separate, and whether to turn their 
courses to the eastern or western slope. Thus they pursue 
their sympathetic career till near Biggar, when they termi- 
nate their upper course, and like two wanderers descending 
from the mountains together, and separating by cross-roads 
when they have reached the low country, they at last part, 
the one turning eastward and the other westward. At this 
spot the rivers are only 63 miles distant from each other— 
are on the same level, and have the same distance to travel 
ere they reach the sea—yet what a difference in their de- 
scent; the Tweed pursues its course evenly and gently ; 
while the Clyde has not parted from its former companion 
for a greater distance than 18 miles, before it boldly dashes 
over a whole series of those well-known falls, the principal 
of which are the Bonnington and Stonebyres Fall, and Corra 
Linn. The descent over all these falls is computed at 230 
feet.* 

Thus the preceding examples sufficiently attest that the 
occurrence of cataracts and other sudden descents in a river 
depends but little on its aggregate fall. 

Thus there is certainly “room in the Jordan for three cata- 
racts, each equal in height to the Niagara,”’ as Professor Ro- 
binson remarks ; but, on the other hand, if there should not 
be discovered one single rapid in it, there is still nothing of 
a remarkable phenomenon about it. 

The different points on the subject thus adduced are reca- 
pitulated as follows :— 

1s¢, Lieutenant Symonds’ results for the depression of the 
Dead Sea (1512 feet), compared with the different barome- 
trical results, do not prove such an amount of discrepancy as 
to justify a doubt in their accuracy. 


* Fullarton’s Parliamentary Gazetteer of Scotland, vol. i., p. 232. 


On the Fall of Rivers dll 


2d, The same results for the Lake of Tiberias are so much 
at variance with the barometrical results, that it seems pro- 
bable the latter (756 feet) would prove nearer to the true level. 

3d, The fall of the Jordan of 984 feet between the two 
lakes, as computed from the trigonometrical results, does not 
exhibit an “immense contrast with all similar phenomena.” 
And, moreover, owing to our present defective knowledge of 
the entire course of the Jordan, and the anomaly of the fall of 
rivers in general, inferences drawn from the aggregate fall 
of the Jordan can scarcely prove of sufficient weight to con- 
trol the results of trigonometrical operations. 

I now beg leave to add a few data on the fall of some 
rivers in this country, selecting such as might give a view of 
the great variety of descents. 

The British Isles afford a wide field for the study of 
hydrography ; and I have no hesitation in saying that it pos- 
sesses for that study such extensive and valuable materials 
and data as no other country can boast of; but, compara- 
tively speaking, these materials have been drawn forward, 
sifted, and made applicable for the promotion of science to a 
very limited extent. For example, the country has been 
levelled in all directions, and especially along all rivers 
of note, for the purpose of laying out canals and railways, 
and yet we find little information in any work regarding ge- 
neral results of the comparative fall of rivers. 

The levels in the following data are based upon authentic 
documents, and relate entirely to the surface of the river 
above the sea at low water. The distances have been for 
the first time attempted to be ascertained with accuracy. 

I. The Shannon.—This is the third largest river in the 
United Kingdom, in regard to its basin.* As the fall of 
rivers in general is greatest at their sources, and decreases 
proportionately towards their mouths, the Shannon in its de- 
scent presents one of the rare exceptions to the general fall 
of rivers, as it is greater in its lower than in its upper course. 
Its source, the Shannon Pot, or more generally called Legna- 
shinna, rises in the county of Cavan, between Upper Lough 


* The two larger rivers are the Humber (including the Trent and the Ouse) 
and the Severn. 


312 On the Fall of Rivers. 


Macnean and Lough Allen, and is 345 feet above the sea. 
After a course of 11:6 miles, it enters Lough Allen, up to 
which it is rendered navigable, owing to the little descent 
from that place. The distance to which it is navigable is 
213-8 miles from its mouth; and in this respect it is superior" 
to all other British rivers—the navigation of the Severn ex- 
tending only 192, and that of the Thames 193 miles from 
their mouths. From the head of Lough Allen to the foot of 
Lough Derg, a distance of 131'8 miles, it descends only 50:5 
fect, or 4} inches per mile. After leaving Lough Derg, the 
inclination of its course changes considerably, and gradually 
increases, till it reaches a fall of nearly 17 feet per mile be- 
twecn the town of Castle Connel and Castle Troy, a distance 
of 3:3 miles. It is in this portion where the mighty Shannon, 
40 feet deep and 300 yards wide, forms the magnificent 
Rapids of Doonas. 


The Fall of the Shannon. 


County. Length. Height. es 


: Engl. M. | Engl. Ft. Feet. 
From source, Legnashinna . Cavan 7 aris 345 


To Lough Allen, entrance . Leitrim . ; 161 15-9 
Lough Allen, issue . = Bt 161 ae 
Carrick-on-Shannon, Bridge ot . 155 0:5 
Lough Boderg and Lough 
Bofin, entrance . 131 2:0 
Lough Boderg and Lough A 


Bofin, issue . 131 


Lough Forbes, entrance . Longford . . 128 0-7 

Laugh Forbes, issue 7 vie y 128 

Lough Ree, entrance (at } 
the Bridge of Lanes- \ 
borough : Ph 

Lough Ree, issue (1° 8 miles | 


125°5 0-2 


above the DPE of 
Athlone) 

Shannon Bridge. 

Lough Derg, entrance fal 
mile 8. from Portumna 
Bridge) 

Lough Derg, issue > (1 | 


Roscommon = 125°5 
116 


Tipperary ; 110°5 


mile N. from pees of 
Killaloe) 
Castle Connel . F 5 Limerick . 
Castle Troy . 
Limerick, Southern Bridge - 
The Sea, between pe! Clare 
and Kerry Head . - ; 


Total length = 


On the Fall of Rivers. 313 
The Fall of the Thames. 


County. Length. 


Engl. M. 


From thesource, Thames Head 
(1; miles N. of Kemble) at) 

To affluence of Coln (0°8 miles 
SW. of Lechlade Bridge) 
Tadpole Bridge, near } 


Wilts . 
Gloucester 


Bampton Oxford 


Skinner’s Wear (2 mile 8. 

from Ensham Bridge) 
Oxford Bridge to Botley 
Abingdon Bridge 
Clifton Ferry : . 
Affluence of Kennet at 

Reading : 7 } 
Henley Bridge . . 
Great Marlow Bridge 
Windsor Bridge oe 
Affiuence of Coln at Egham Surrey 
Affluence of Wey, near 

Wey Bridge as 
Teddington, first ick Middlesex 
Mesnclocr London Bridge se 
The Sea at Nore Light Kent 


Total length and fall = 


Il. The Thames.—This noble river, although the most 
important in Great Britain in a commercial point of view, is 
only the fourth in point of magnitude. The entire length of 
its course is 215-2 miles, which is 9 miles less than the 
Shannon ; its descent is 376°3 feet. Unlike the Shannon, it 
has a more equally distributed fall throughout its course ; 
from its head to Lechlade, a distance of 22-0 miles, its fall is 
6 feet; and from thence to its mouth its average fall is only 
1:2 feet per mile.* 

Ill. The Tweed.—We have already fully treated of this 
river in the foregoing observations ; in point of area of its 
basin it ranks ninth amongst British rivers. 

IV. The Clyde—My results respecting the fall of this and 
the preceding river are almost entirely based upon levellings ; 


* From Teddington to London Bridge it is 16 ft. 9 in. at low, and J ft. Gin. 
at high water. 


314 On the Fall of Rivers. 


the sources only of the two rivers are ascertained barometri- 
cally, and the portion of the Clyde comprising the falls has 
likewise not been ascertained by levelling instruments ; how- 
ever, that does not influence the accuracy of the general 
results, as the exact levels of the Clyde above and below the 
Falls check the intervening portion. 


The Fall of the Clyde. 


Length. Height. Fall per 


Mile. 
Engl. M. Engl. Ft. Feet. 
From source é Lanark Be 1400 5 
To Clydesburn, near Little | : } 
Clyde HEM : 5 i) wee ee 
Bodsberryside . 3:0 872 42:3 
Crawford 3:7 807 17'6 
Affluence of Dankeator Water 5:0 734 14°6 
Hardington Hall 37 686 13:0 
eat Clyde Pele near ; 6-0 632 9-0 
iggar 
Eastfield . 8:4 605 32 
Bonnington Fall, abun thé 
Fall “(height of fall ao} 10:0 2 400 20°5 
feet) . 
Corra Linn (height 84 feet) 
above the Fall : ea as v1 
Stonebyres Fall (height 80 
feet) below the Fall* } =? UL WF 
+ eae: near Duldowie ‘| 20-2 46 7.6 
ouse . 
(9:0) 2 2 


Glasgow, Glasgow Bridge 
Sea at Dumbarton . 


Dumbarton 


Total length and fall = 


The accuracy of the data both for the Clyde and Tweed, 
which I ascertained from two lines of levellings quite inde- 
pendent of each other, are checked by a phenomenon which 
it might not be uninteresting to record in this place. 

Both rivers are very nearly at the same level near Biggar. 
This very spot exhibits the remarkable phenomenon of a 


* There are two other falls of smaller dimensions, viz., the Dundaf Linn, 
3 mile below Corra J.inn, 4 feet high ; and one which is } mile below Bonnington 
Fall. The total descent of the river from the first to the last fall—a distance 
of 3°7 miles,— amounts to 230 feet. 

+ The Falls excluded. 


On the Fall of Rivers. 315 


bifurcation of the two rivers—a bifurcation which differs 
from other larger (and more important) examples only so far 
as to depend upon the state of water in the Clyde. I give 
the words of the attentive angler who describes it :*—* It is 
a singular circumstance that salmon and their fry have occa- 
sionally been taken in the upper parts of the Clyde, above its 
loftiest fall, which, being 80 feet in height, it is utterly im- 
possible for fish of any kind to surmount. The fact is ac- 
counted for in this way. After passing Tinto Hill, the bed 
of the Clyde approaches to a level with that of the Biggar 
Water, which is close at hand, and discharges itself into the 
Tweed. On the occasion of a large flood the two streams 
become connected, and the Clyde actually pours a portion of 
its waters into one of the tributaries of the Tweed, which is 
accessible to and frequented by salmon.” 

V. The Dee-—We have already noticed at some length 
the fall of this river. The results for the Dee I have based 
upon levels ascertained by repeated barometrical measure- 
ments by Dr Skene Keith and Dr Dickie of Aberdeen, which 
have been kindly communicated to me by the latter. This 
gentleman also confirms my statements by his personal know- 
ledge of the Dee—that it does not exhibit any cataract from 
its mouth up to the Linn. 


The Fall of the Dee. 


County. Length. | Height. bern ae 
Engl. M, | Engl. Ft. Feet. 
From source A Aberdeen . oe 4060 Ae 
To Affluence of G archary Ate 1984 482°8 
Affluence of Guisachan 1640 114:7 
Affluence of Geauly 1294 §9:2 
Linn of Dee 1190 34:7 
Ballater Bridge ‘ 780 156 
Belwade, Bridge (not in (310) 
maps) 
Peaetiry - Ternan (afl u- Pe . * : 
ence of Feugh W. ) 7 Kincardine 172 23+4 
Drumoak Aberdeen 90 11-4 
Affluence of Ocular’ Ward aaa 60 79 
Sea at Aberdeen 0 6:8 
Total length and fall = 


* Stoddart’s Angler’s Companion for Scotland. 


316 An Analysis of Plate-Glass. 


The source of the Dee, rising between Ben MacDhui on the 
east and Braeriach on the west, is 4060 feet high, and most 
probably it is the highest source in the United Kingdom. 
The highest spring on Ben Nevis is only 3602 feet, accord- 
ing to my barometrical measurements—that is, 766 feet be- 
low the top of the hill; another spring, on one of the highest 
hills of the Grampians, Ben Aulder, reaches a height of 3650 
feet. 


An Analysis of Plate-Glass. By Messrs J. E. MAYER and 
J. 8. BRAZIER. 


In going over the analyses of the different varieties of 
glass which have been recorded, we find that but little at- 
tention has been paid to the composition of plate-glass, a 
material which is almost becoming a necessary of life. It 
is, moreover, remarkable that no analysis of the plate-glass 
manufactured in Great Britain has ever been published. 

The following pages contain the results obtained from the 
analyses of three different specimens of plate-glass, which 
we undertook at the request of Dr Hofmann.* These speci- 
mens were procured at the three most extensive plate-glass 
manufactories of England, which are, 

1. The British Plate-Glass Company, St Helens, Liver- 
pool. 

2. The London Thames Plate-Glass Company, Bow Creek, 
Blackwall. 

3. The London and Manchester Plate-Glass Company, 
Sutton, St Helens, Liverpool. | 

For the purpose of analysis, these specimens of glass were 
reduced to the most minute state of division, which was 
effected by levigating in the usual manner. None of the 


* T am indebted for these specimens to the kindness of Mr Fincham of the 
British Plate-Glass Works.—Dr A. W. Hofmann. 


An Analysis of Plate-Glass. 317 


Specimens, whilst digesting in water, gave any reaction with 
the most delicate test-papers. 

To determine the extent of their solubility in water, from 
four to five grammes were digested in that menstruum for 
about forty-eight hours, the clear solution in each case yielded 
on evaporation but a slight residue, too small for determina- 
tion. 

The specific gravity of these specimens of glass is as fol- 
lows :— 


British Plate-Glass, : s : 2°319 
London Thames Plate-Glass, ; ‘ 2°242 
London and Manchester Plate-Glass, z 2°408 


A qualitative examination shewed the presence of silicic 
acid, potash, soda, sesquioxide of iron, alumina, lime, and, in 
one case, traces of manganese. 

The silicic acid was determined in the usual manner by 
fusion with pure carbonate of potash. The sesquioxide of 
iron, the alumina, and the lime, were afterwards precipitated 
from the hydrochloric filtrate. 

To determine the alkalies the glasses were decomposed by 
means of hydrofluoric acid, in an apparatus recommended by 
Brunner,* which consists of a leaden capsula with a flat 
bottom, about 6 inches in diameter, and 4 inches high, in the 
centre of which is placed a small leaden ring about an inch 
and a half high, which serves as a support for a platinum 
dish. The leaden capsula has a cover fitting perfectly tight. 

To set the apparatus in action it is necessary to cover the 
bottom of the capsula with a layer of pulverised fluor-spar 
about half an inch in thickness, and to pour upon it some 
sulphuric acid, sufficient to form a thick paste. A weighed 
portion of the finely-powdered glass, after being put in the 
platinum dish, is covered with water, and placed on the 
leaden ring. The whole is then kept at a gentle heat either 
on a sand-bath, or by means of a spirit-lamp. 

By a few preliminary experiments we found the action on 


* Poggendorff’s Annalen, xliv., p. 134. 
VOL. XLVII. NO. XCIV.—OCTOBER 1849. Y 


318 An Analysis of Plate-Glass. 


the glass to be exceedingly slow when covered merely with 
water ; it was then suggested to us by Dr Hofmann to try, 
instead of water, a strong solution of ammonia; we found 
that the hydrofluoric acid being much more rapidly absorbed 
by this latter agent, the decomposition was facilitated in a 
remarkable manner. 

The first of the two following Tables shews the amount of 
substance employed; the results obtained are exhibited in 
Table IT. 


Table 1. 


I. Il. Il. 
British Plate- London Thames | London and Man- 
Glass. Plate-Glass. chester Plate-Glass, 


+ 1 2. 1 2 1 


Grm. Grm. Grm. Grn. Grm. 


Quantity of Glass for | }.3499 |1-1750 | 1-1579 | 1-1906 | 1-0508 | 1:1095 
general analysis, 


Quantity of Glass for 
estimation of alka- | 1:9400 | 2°1500 | 1:4200 | 1-6800 | 1:0200 | 2:0700 
lies, 3 : 


Table II. 


Il. Ill. 
London Thames | London and Man- 
Plate-Glass. chester Plate-Glass 


‘ 


I. 
British Plate- 
Glass. 


1 2 1 2 1 2 
Grm. Grm. Grm. Grm. Grm. Grm. 
Silicic acid, - {1/0402 |0:9180 |0°9090 |0:9300 | 0°8200 


Chlorides of Potassium 
and Sodium, } 
Bichloride of Platinum 
and Potassium, | 
Chloride of Sodium, 
Sesquioxide of Ironand |} 


0:5700 | 06460 0°2675 


0°3100 | 0°3610 
0°4735 | 0°5360 
0:0127 |0-0105 
0°1266 | 0°1135 


0°0925 
02390 
0:0373 
0:0887 


0°0320 | 0-:0495 
0°1245 | 0-1305 
0°4105 | 0:4940 
0°6645*| 07960 


Alumina, 
Carbonate of Lime, 
Sulphates of Potashand 
Soda, . 
Sulphate of Bary ta, : 


* These numbers were obtained in an indirect determination of the alkalies. 


An Analysis of Plate-Glass. 319 


The following numbers correspond with the foregoing re- 
sults :— 


I.—British Plate-Glass. 


Le Il. Mean. 
Silicie Acid, . : 774592 77°2700 77°3646 
Potash, . : : 2°8110 3°2192 3°0151 
Soda, . ; 4 12-9232 132028 13°0630 
Mime. »-. 3 ‘ 5°2192 5°4096 5°3144 
Manganese, : wae ane Det 
Sesquioxide of iron, 0°9457 08936 0°9197 
Alumina, : 3 trace. trace. trace. 


99°3583 99°9952 99°6768 


II.—London Thames Plate-Glass. 


lip II. Mean. 
Silicic acid, . . 785050 788669 } 78-6859 
Potash, : ‘ 12744 1°4176 1°3460 
Soda, . : : 11°5919 11°6724 11°6322 
Lime, . : - 6°0605 6°1380 6:0992 
Manganese, : oh #5 nia 
Sesquioxide of iron, trace. trace. trace. 


Alumina, 3 : 2°7636 2°5970 2°6803 


10071954 1006919 100°4436 


III.— London and Manchester Plate-Glass. 


L Il. Mean. 

Silicie acid, . : 78°0357 17°7827 779092 
Potash, . : a 1°7453 17062 1°7257 
Soda, . - , 12°4373 12°2822 12°3598 
Lime, . : ‘ 4°7270 4'9816 4°8543 
Manganese, . é traces. traces. traces. 
Sesquioxide of iron, ater no sae 

Alumina, c : 3°5495 3°6502 3°5998 


— ——————_——__—. ———— 


100°4948  100°4029 100°4488 


A Table is subjoined, containing analyses of several varie- 
ties of plate-glass, in order that the composition of the plate- 
glass in this country may be compared with that manufactured 
abroad. The Venetian glass was analysed by M. Berthier, 
the Bohemian mirror-glass by Peligot, and the French glasses 
by Dumas.* 


* Comp. Knapp’s Technology, vol. ii., p. 16. 


320 Dr Davy on Carbonate of Lime 


London 
r . . FE ol -.. 4 |Lond 
Venetian Boyemio"| Plate-Glass. | iui |fhames “tua 
Glass. Glass. No.1. | No.2. Glass (Ciece cel 
Silicie Acid, 68-6 67°7 759 | 73°85] 77°36] 78:68] 77-90 
Potash, 3 6:9 21:0 “3, 5°50} 3:01} 1:34 1:72 
Soda; 3 & 81 ane 17°5 | 12:05] 13:06] 11°68] 12-35 
Lime, 11:0 9°9 38 5:60] 5:31] 6:09 4°85 
Magnesia, . a1 ae Hs ata aon ee 
Manganese, Ol SG as ae ion nee trace 
Oxide of Iron, 0:2 ae oe we 0°91] trace Sh 
Alumina, . alee 1-4 2:8 3°50} traces} 2°68 3°59 
eee — LA 
98:2 100:0 {1000 |100-00 | 99°65 |100-42 | 100-41 


Plate-glass is usually considered as a double silicate of 
lime and soda, or of lime and potash. The following atomic 
expressions represent the different analyses contained in the 
above table ; the amount of potash contained in the English 
varieties of glass being very trifling, this oxide has been ne- 
glected altogether in the construction of their formule. 


Venetian plate-glass, . 2KO, 3Na0O, 5CaO, 22Si0, 


Bohemian mirror-glass, KO CaO, 4Si0, 
French plate-glass, No. 1, 4NaO, CaO, 115810, 
French plate-glass, No. 2, KO, 3Na0O, 2CaO, 148i 0, 
British plate-glass, c 2NaO, CaO, 9Si0; 
London Thames plate-glass, 2Na0O, CaO, 8SiO; 
London and Manchester | 2Na0, (CaO, 9Si0 

plate-glass, f 3 


— Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society, No. vii. for Oc- 
tober 1849, p. 208. 


On Carbonate of Lime as an ingredient of Sea-Water. By 
Joun Davy, M-D., F.R.S. Lond. and Edin., Inspector- 
General of Army Hospitals, &e. 


The manner in which limestone-cliffs, rising above deep 
water, are worn by the action of the sea, as it were by a 
weak acid, such as we know it contains, viz., the carbonic ; 
the manner, further, in which the sand, on low shores where 


a 


as an Ingredient of Sea- Water. 321 


the waves break, becomes consolidated, converted into sand- 
stone, by the deposition of carbonate of lime from sea-water, 
owing to the escape of carbonic acid gas, are facts clearly 
proving that carbonate of lime is, as a constituent of sea- 
water, neither rare of occurrence, nor unimportant in the 
economy of nature, inasmuch as the phenomena alluded to,— 
the one destructive, the other restorative,—have been ob- 
served in most parts of our globe where geological inquiry 
has been instituted. 

Reflecting on the subject, it seemed to me desirable to as- 
certain whether carbonate of lime, as an ingredient of sea- 
water, is chiefly confined to the proximity of coasts, or, not 
so limited, enters into the composition of the ocean in its 
widest expanse. 

On a voyage from Barbadoes, in the West Indies, to Eng- 
land, in November last (1848), I availed myself of the op- 
portunity to make some trials to endeavour to determine this, 
the results of which I shall now briefly relate. 

First, I may mention that water from Carlisle Bay in Bar- 
badoes, tested for carbonate of lime, gave strong indications 
of its presence ; thus, a well-marked precipitate was produced 
by ammonia, after the addition of muriate of ammonia in ex- 
cess, that is, more than was sufficient to prevent the separa- 
tion of the magnesia, which enters so largely into the compo- 
sition of sea-water; and a like effect was produced either by 
boiling the water, so as to expel the carbonic acid, or by eva- 
poration to dryness, and resolution of the soluble salts. 

On the voyage across the Atlantic, the test, by means of 
ammonia and muriate of ammonia, was employed, acting on 
about a pint of water taken from the surface. The first trial 
was made on the 15th of November, when in latitude 20° 30’ 
north, and longitude 63° 20’ west, more than a hundred miles 
from any land; the result was negative. Further trials were 
made on the 22d of the same month, in lat. 32° 53’, long. 45° 
10’; on the 24th, in lat. 36° 23’, long. 37° 21’; on the 25th, 
in lat. 37° 21’, long. 33° 34’; on the 26th, in lat. 38° 28’, long. 
80° 2’; on the 27th, when off Funchal of the Western 
Islands, in lat. 38° 32’, long. 28° 40’, about a mile and a half 


322 Dr Davy on Carbonate of Lime 


from the shore, the water deep blue, as it always is out of 
soundings ; in all these instances, likewise, the results were 
negative ; the transparency of the water was nowise impaired 
by the test applied. The last trial was made on the 3d of 
December, when in the channel off Portland Head about 
fifteen miles; now, slight traces of carbonate of lime were 
obtained, a just perceptible turbidness being produced. 

The sea-water from Carlisle Bay, the shore of which and 
the adjoining coast are calcareous, yielded about 1 per 
10,000 of carbonate of lime, after evaporation of the water to 
dryness, and the resolution of the saline matter. A speci- 
men of water taken up on the voyage off the volcanic island 
of Fayal, about a mile from land, yielded a residue which 
consisted chiefly of sulphate of lime, with a very little car- 
bonate of lime,—a mere trace; acted on by an acid, it gave 
off only a very few minute air-bubbles. A specimen taken 
up off Portland Head about fifteen miles, yielded an evapo- 
ration and resolution of the saline matter only a very minute 
residue, about 4 only per 10,000; it consisted in part of 
carbonate, and in part of sulphate of lime. 

What may be inferred from these results? Do they not 
tend to prove that carbonate of lime, except in very minute 
proportion, does not belong to water of the ocean at any 
great distance from land? And, further, do they not favour 
the inference, that, when in notable proportion, it is in conse- 
quence of proximity to land, and of land the shores of which 
are formed chiefly of caleareous rock? In using the word 
proximity, I would not limit the distance implied to a few 
miles, but rather to fifty or a hundred, as I am acquainted 
with shores consisting of voleanic islands in the Caribbean 
Sea, destitute of caleareous rock, on which, in certain situa- 
tions, sandstone is now forming by the deposition from the 
sea-water of carbonate of lime. 

Should these inferences be confirmed by more extensive 
inquiry, they will harmonise well with the facts first referred 
to, the solvent power, on one hand, of sea-water impreg- 
nated with carbonic acid, on cliffs of calcareous rock, in 
situations not favourable to the disengagement of carbonic 


ial 


aan 2 


| 
i 
; 
4 
| 


as an Ingredient of Sea-Vater. 323 


acid gas; and the deposition, on the other hand, of carbonate 
of lime, to perform the part of a cement on sand, converting 
it into sandstone, in warm shallows, where the waves break 
under circumstances, such as these are, favourable to the 
disengagement of this gas; and, I hardly need add, that the 
same inferences will accord well with what may be supposed 
to be the requirements of organization, in the instances of 
all those living things inhabiting the sea, into the hard parts 
of which carbonate of lime enters as an element. 

Apart from the economy of nature, the subject under con- 
sideration is not without interest in another relation,—I 
allude to steam navigation. The boilers of sea-going steam- 
vessels are liable to suffer from an incrustation of solid 
matters firmly adhering, and with difficulty detached, liable 
to be formed on their inside, owing to a deposition which 
takes place from the salt water used for the production of 
steam. On one occasion that I examined a portion of such 
an incrustation taken from the boiler of the ‘ Conway,” a 
vessel belonging to the West Indian Steam-Packet Com- 
pany, I found it to consist principally of sulphate of lime, 
and to contain a small proportion only of carbonate of lime. 
This vessel had been employed previously in transatlantic 
voyages, and also in intercolonial ones, plying between Ber- 
mudas and the island of St Thomas, and in the Caribbean 
Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. 

The composition of this incrustation, like the preceding 
results, would seem to denote, if any satisfactory inference 
may be drawn from it, that carbonate of lime is in small 
proportion in deep water distant from the land, and that 
sulphate of lime is commonly more abundant. The results 
of a few trials I have made, whilst rather confirmatory of 
this conclusion, shewed marked differences as to the propor- 
tion of sulphate of lime in sea-water in different situations. 
That from Carlisle Bay was found to contain 11-3 per 10,000. 
A specimen taken up in lat. 29° 19’, and long. 50°45, yielded 
about 2 per 10,000, with a trace of carbonate of lime. A 
specimen taken up off Fayal yielded about 9 per 10,000, also 
with a trace of carbonate of lime. One taken up off Port- 


324 Lieutenant R. Strachey on the 


land Head, about fifteen miles distant, yielded, as already 
remarked, only 4 per 10,000, part of which was sulphate, 
part carbonate of lime. 

By certain management, I am informed, as by not allowing 
the sea-water in the boilers to be concentrated beyond a 
certain degree, the incrustation, in the instances of the 
transatlantic steamers, is in a great measure prevented. 
Perhaps it might be prevented altogether, were sea-water 
never used but with this precaution, and taken up at a good 
distance from land, and in situations where it is known that 
the proportion of sulphate of lime is small. If this sugges- 
tion be of any worth, further, more extensive and exact in- 
quiry will be requisite to determine the proportion of sul- 
phate of lime in different parts of the ocean, and more espe- 
cially towards land. By the aid of the Transatlantic Steam 
Navigation Companies, means for such an inquiry may easily 
be obtained ; and it can hardly be doubted that the results 
will amply repay any cost or trouble incurred.—( Proceedings 
of the Royal Society of London, March 29, 1849.) 


On the Snow-Line in the Himalaya. By Lieutenant R. 
STRACHEY, Engineers. Communicated by order of the 
Honourable the Lieutenant-Governor, North-Western 
Provinces of India. 


The height at which perpetual snow is found at different 
parts of the earth’s surface, has become an object of inquiry, 
not only as a mere physical fact, but as a phenomenon inti- 
mately connected with the distribution of heat on the globe. 
In M. Humboldt’s efforts to throw the light of his knowledge 
on this question, he has, when treating of the Himalaya, been 
unfortunately led much astray by the very authorities on 
whom he placed most reliance; and his conclusions, though 
in part correct, cannot lay claim to any pretension to exact- 
ness. That he was, indeed, himself conscious of the defi- 
ciencies in the evidence before him, is manifest from his end- 
ing his disquisition by a declaration, that it was necessary, 


a ae a 


Snow- Line in the Himalaya. 325 


“de rectifier de nouveau et par des mesures bien précises 
dont toute le détail hypsométrique soit publié, ce qui reste de 
douteux sur la hauteur comparative des deux pentes de 
V Himalaya, sur l’influence de révérbération du plateau Tubé- 
tain, et sur celle que l’on suppose au courant ascendant de 
Yair chaud des plaines de l’Inde. C’est un travail & recom- 
meneer.” (Asie Centrale, t. iii., p. 325.) Men of science will 
still long have to regret that this illustrious traveller was 
prevented from visiting the East; Englishmen alone need 
remember that he was prevented by them. 

The result of M. Humboldt’s investigations on the position 
of the snow-line in this part of the Himalaya is thus given 
by himself :—“ The limit of perpetual snow on the southern 
declivity of the Himalaya chain is 2030 toises (13,000* feet, 
English) above the level of the sea; on the northern declivity, 
or rather on the peaks which rise above the Tartarian pla- 
teau, this limit is 2600 toises (16,600 feet) from 303° to 32° of 
latitude; while, under the equator, in the Andes of Quito, it 
is 2470 toises (15,800 feet). I have deduced this result from 
the collection and combination of many data furnished by 
Webb, Gerard, Herbert, and Moorcroft. The greater eleva- 
tion to which the snow-line recedes on the Thibetian decli- 
vity, is the result conjointly of the radiation of heat from the 
neighbouring elevated plains, the serenity of the sky, and 
the infrequent formation of snow in very cold and dry air.” 
—(Cosmos, Trans., t. i., p. 363, note 5.) 

The portion of the Himalaya to which allusion has most 
generally been made, in treating of the snow-line, is that 
which lies between the north-western frontier of Nipal and 
the river Sutlej, and it is solely to this part of the chain that 
my remarks are intended to apply. It extends from about 
the 77th to the 81st degree of east longitude, and its entire 
breadth, from the plains of India on the south to the plains of 
Thibet on the north, is about 120 miles. The mountains on 


* The reduction of toises into English feet is everywhere given to the 
nearest hundred only. 


326 Lieutenant R. Strachey on the 


which perpetual snow is found, are confined within a belt of 
about 35 miles in width, running along the northern boun- 
dary of the chain, and they all lie between the 30th and 32d 
degree of north latitude. 

If we now examine the structure of the mountains more 
closely (vide sheets 47, 48, 65, and 66, of the Indian Atlas), 
we shall find that from the sources of the Touse (long. 78° 
30’) to those of the Kali (long. 81° 0’), a space which in- 
cludes the provinces of Garhwal and Kumaon, all the great 
rivers, viz., the Bhagirati, Vishna-ganga, Dauli (of Niti), Gori, 
Dauli (of Darma), and Kali, run in directions not far from 
perpendicular to the general direction of the Himalaya. 
Further, that they are separated, one from another, by great 
transverse ranges, on which all the highest of the measured 
peaks of this region are to be found. It will also be seen 
that the sources of these rivers* are in the main water-shed 
of the chain, beyond which a declivity of a few miles leads 
directly to the plains of Thibet. A line drawn through the 
great peaks will be almost parallel to the water-shed, but 
about 30 miles to the south of it. 

To the west of the Touse the arrangement of the drainage 
is very different. From the source of this river an unbroken 
ridge extends to the Sutlej, almost on the prolongation of 
the line of the great eastern peaks, but more nearly east and 
west. On this range, which separates Kunawar from the 
more southern parts of Bissehir, and which, as it has hitherto 
received no distinctive name, I shall call the Bissehir range, 
are the Rapin, Gunds, Burendo, and Shatél passes; and no 
perpetual snow is to be found further south among these 
western mountains. To the north of this range, and almost 
parallel to it, run several others of somewhat greater alti- 
tude, between which the streams of eastern Kunawar flow 
into the Sutlej from-south-east to north-west, nearly parallel 
to the upper, and perpendicular to the lower part of the 
course of that river. 


* IT mean the most distant sources of the tributaries, for several of the rivers 
that I have mentioned, nominally end in glaciers to the south of the water- 
shed. 


te o 


j 
r 
. 
. 
‘ 
‘ 


Snow-Line in the Himalaya. 327 


If we now follow two travellers into Thibet, one from Ku- 
maon or Garhwél, and the other from Simla, or the western 
hills, we shall be prepared to find that the circumstances 
under which they will cross the snowy mountains will be 
very different. The former will proceed up the course of one 
of the great rivers before alluded to, and ascending the gorge, 
by which it breaks through the line of the great peaks, will 
pass unobserved the true southern limit of the perpetual 
snow ; he will leave the great peaks themselves far behind him, 
and will finally reach the water-shed of the chain, where he 
may, possibly for the first time, find glaciers and snow. He 
will here cross straight into Thibet, from what will appear 
to him the southern, to what he will call the northern decli- 
vity of the Himalaya.* 

The western traveller, on the other hand, will find, almost 
at his first step, a snowy barrier drawn across his path, and 
he will naturally suppose that he crosses from the southern 
to the northern face of the snowy range, when he descends 
from the Shatal, or some neighbouring pass, into the valley 
of Kun4war; and in this idea he will probably be confirmed, 
by the total change of the climate which he will perceive, 
and by his being able to penetrate to Shipke, the frontier vil- 
lage of Thibet in this quarter, without meeting any further 
obstacle on his road at all comparable to that he has passed, 
or perhaps even without again crossing snow.t} 

Without waiting to inquire whether either of our travel- 
lers has in fact come to a just conclusion, it will be sufficient 
for my purpose to point out that they mean totally different 
things by their north and south declivities ; and it will be in- 
deed surprising if they agree as to the position of the snow- 
line. It is manifest, therefore, that, before we can expect to 
arrive at any correct results, we must get rid of the confu- 
sion caused by the ambiguity of the terms north and south 
declivity ; terms which, at the best, are very ill adapted to 


* This does not exactly apply to the passes usually crossed between Juhar 
and Thibet, which will be mentioned more particularly hereafter. There is a 
pass, however, the “ Lashar,” though from its badness it is not used, which 
affords a direct communication. 

+ The ordinary route lies up the bank of the Sutlej. 


328 Lieutenant R. Strachey on the 


convey definite ideas of position in so vast and complicated 
amass of mountains. In spite of every care, they will con- 
stantly be liable to misconception, as must always be the 
case where a restricted signification is arbitrarily applied, in 
a discussion of this sort, to expressions which of themselves 
have an extended general meaning.* 

As a substitute for the declivities, then, the best standard 
that occurs to me, to which to refer when alluding to the ele- 
vation of the snow-line at any place, is the general mass of 
perpetual snow, found on the more elevated parts of the 
Himalaya, the belt of perpetual snow, which, as I before 
stated, is about 35 miles in breadth, and runs along the 
northern boundary of the chain. Instead of the height of the 
snow-line on the northern or southern declivity, I shall there- 
fore say, the height a¢ the northern or southern limit of the 
belt of perpetual snow, where the limits of the belt of perpetual 
snow are to be understood as having exactly the same rela- 
tion to the snowy surface in a horizontal plane that the snow- 
line has in a vertical. 

It remains for me to define clearly what is meant by the 
snow-line, and I cannot do better than adopt the words of M. 
Humboldt, who says, “ the lower limit of perpetual snow in 
a given latitude is the boundary line of the snow which re- 
sists the effect of summer; it is the highest elevation to 
which the snow-line recedes in the course of the whole year. 
We must distinguish between the limit thus defined, and 
three other phenomena; viz., the annual fluctuation of the 
snow-line ; the phenomena of sporadic falls of snow, and the 
existence of glaciers.”—(Cosmos, Trans., t. i., p. 327.) 

Having disposed of these preliminaries, which are essen- 
tial to the proper apprehension of the subject, I shall pro- 
ceed to examine the data from which the elevation of the 
snow-line is to be determined. In doing this, it will, I think, 
be more convenient for me, both for the northern and south- 
ern limits, to explain, first, my own views, and afterwards to 
follow M. Humboldt’s authorities, and point out the errors 
into which they have fallen. 


* As a specimen, vide Captain Hutton’s l’apers, noticed hereafter. 


Snow-Line in the Himalaya. 329 


1. Southern limit of the belt of perpetual snow.—In this part 
of the Himalaya, it is not, on an average of years, till the be- 
ginning of December, that the snow-line appears decidedly to 
descend for the winter. After the end of September, indeed, 
when the rains are quite over, light falls of snow are not of 
very uncommon occurrence on the higher mountains, even 
down to 12,000 feet; but their effects usually disappear very 
quickly, often in a few hours. The latter part of October, 
the whole of November, and the beginning of December, are 
here generally characterised by the beautiful serenity of the 
sky; and it is at this season, on the southern edge of the 
belt, that the line of perpetual snow is seen to attain its 
greatest elevation. 

The following are the results of trigonometrical measure- 
ments of the elevation of the inferior edge of snow on spurs 
of the Tresla and Nandadevi groups of peaks, made, before 
the winter snow had begun, in November 1848.* 


Height as observed on face exposed to the East. Heieduenreee 


Point exposed to West. 


observed. : observed from 
From Almorah From Binsar Mennik Ajenonahl 


(height 5586 ft.).|(height 7969 ft.). 


—S | —— 


16,599 feet. | 16,767 feet. | 16,683 feet. | 15,872 feet. 


16,969 ... W7A00 Sige. 16,987 ... 


ie eor cee 2 Ure eH pe WSS cee 14,878 ... 


15,293 ... 15,361 ... 15,327 ... 


The points 1, 2, and 3, are in ridges that run from the 


* These measurements make no pretension to accuracy, but are sufficiently 
good approximations for the purpose for which they areintended. The heights 
are given as calculated from observations made both at Almorah and Binsar, to 
shew, in some degree, what confidence may be attached to them. The heights 
of Almorah and Binsar are on the authority of Captain Webb’s survey ; the dis- 
tance of these places, which is used as the base from which to calculate the se- 
veral distances of the points observed, was got from a map of trigonometri- 
cally determined stations obtained from the Surveyor-General’s Office. 


330 Lieutenant R. Strachey on the 


peaks Nos. 11 and 12 in a south-westerly direction. The dip 
of the strata being to the north-east, the faces exposed to 
view from the south are for the most part very abrupt, and 
snow never accumulates on them to any great extent. This 
in some measure will account for the height to which the 
snow is seen to have receded on the eastern exposures, that 
is, upwards of 17,000 feet. On the western exposures, the 
ground is less steep, and the snow is seen to have been ob- 
served at a considerable less elevation; but it was in very 
small quantities, and had probably fallen lately, so that I 
am inclined to think that its height, viz., about 15,000 feet, 
rather indicates the elevation below which the light autum- 
nal falls of snow were incapable of lying, than that of the 
inferior edge of the perpetual snow. It is further to be un- 
derstood, that below this level of 15,000 feet, the moun- 
tains were absolutely without snow, excepting those small iso- 
lated patches that are seen in ravines, or at the head of gla- 
ciers, which, of course, do not affect such calculations as 
these. On the whole, therefore, I consider that the height 
of the snow-line on the more prominent points of the south- 
ern edge of the belt, may be fairly reckoned at 16,000 feet 
at the very least. 

The point No. 4 was selected as being in a much more 
retired position than the others. It is situate not far from 
the head of the Pindur river, and lies between the peaks 
Nos. 14 and 15. It was quite free from snow at 15,300 feet, 
and I shall therefore consider 15,000 feet as the elevation of 
the snow-line in the re-entering angles of the chain. 

I conclude, then, that 15,500 feet, the mean of the heights 
at the most and least prominent points, should be assigned 
as the mean elevation of the snow-line at the southern limit 
of the belt of perpetual snow in Kumaon; and I conceive 
that whatever error there may be in this estimate, will be 
found to lie on the side of diminution rather than of exagge- 
ration. 

This result appears to accord well with what has been 
observed in the Bissehir range. The account given by Dr 
Gerard of his visit to the Shatal Pass, on this range, which he 
undertook expressly for the purpose of determining the height 


Snow-Line in the Himalaya. 3d 1 


of the snow-line, contains the only definite information as to 
the limit of the perpetual snow at the southern edge of the 
belt, that is to be found in the whole of the published writ- 
ings of the Gerards; and the following is a short abstract of 
his observations. Dr Gerard reached the summit of the 
Shétal Pass, the elevation of which is 15,500 feet, on the 9th 
of August 1822, and remained there till the 15th of the same 
month. He found the southern slope of the range generally 
free from snow, and he states that it is sometimes left with- 
out any whatever. On the top of the pass itself there was 
no snow ; but on the northern slope of the mountain it lay 
as far down as about 14,000 feet. On his arrival, rain was 
falling, and out of the four days of his stay on this pass, it 
either rained or snowed for the greater part of three. The 
fresh snow that fell during this time did not lie below 16,000 
feet, and some of the more precipitous rocks remained clear 
even up to 17,000 feet.* 

The conclusion to which Dr Gerard comes from these 
facts, is, that the snow-line on the southern face of the Bis- 
sehir range is at 15,000 feet above the sea. But I should 
myself be more inclined, from his account, to consider that 
15,500 feet was nearer the truth; and in this view, I am 
confirmed by verbal accounts of the state of the passes on 
this range, which I have obtained from persons of my ac- 
quaintance, who have crossed them somewhat later in the 
year. The difference, however, is after all trifling. 

Such is the direct evidence that can be offered on the 
height of the snow-line at the southern limit of the belt of 
perpetual snow, some additional light may however be 


* Tours in Himalaya, t. i., pp. 289-347. M. Humboldt apparently inter- 
prets Dr Gerard a little too literally, when, with reference to Dr Gerard’s 
statement, that “ Hans Bussun,” a peak, said to be 17,500 feet high, “ had lost 
all its snow,” and looked quite black and dreary,” he asks, “‘ Quelle peut étre 
la cause d’un phénomeéne local si extraordinaire ?”’ (Asie Centrale, t. iii., p. 318, 
note.) The extreme summit of the peak of Nandadevi, which appears to be a 
perfect precipice for several thousand feet, is often in much the same predica- 
ment of “black and dreary,” and many people are disappointed with its appear- 
ance for this reason, contrasting it with the beautiful pyramidal peak of No. 19 
Panch-chfili, which is always entirely covered with the purest snow. 


332 Lieutenant R. Strachey on the 


thrown on the subject generally, by my shortly explaining 
the state in which I have found the higher parts of the 
mountains, at the different seasons during which I have 
visited them. 

In the beginning of May, on the mountains to the east of 
the Ramganga river, near Namik, I found the ground on the 
summit of the ridge, called Champw4, not only perfectly free 
from snow at an elevation of 12,000 feet, but covered with 
flowers, in some places golden with Caltha and Ranunculus 
polypetalus, in others purple with primulus. The snow had 
in fact already receded to upwards of 12,500 feet, beyond 
which even a few little gentians proclaimed the advent of 
spring. 

Towards the end of the same month, at the head of the 
Pindur, near the glacier from which that river rises, an open 
spot on which I could pitch my tent could not be found above 
12,000 feet. But here the accumulation of snow, which was 
considerable in all ravines even below 11,000 feet, is mani- 
festly the result of avalanches and drift. The surface of 
the glacier, clear ice as well as moraines, was quite free 
from snow up to nearly 13,000 feet; but the effect of the 
more retired position of the place in retarding the melting 
of the snow, was manifest from the less advanced state of 
the vegetation. During my stay at Pinduri, the weather 
was very bad, and several inches of snow fell ; but excepting 
where it had fallen on the old snow, it all melted off again 
in a few hours, even without the assistance of the sun’s di- 
rect rays. On the glacier at 13,000 feet, it had all disap- 
peared twelve hours after it fell. 

On revisiting Pinduri about the middle of October, the 
change that had taken place was very striking. Now not a 
sign of snow was to be seen on any part of the road up to 
the very head of the glacier; a luxuriant vegetation had 
sprung up, but had already almost entirely perished, and its 
remains covered the ground as far as I went. From this ele- 
vation, about 13,000 feet, evident signs of vegetation could 
be seen to extend far up the less precipitous mountains. 
The place is not one at which the height of the perpetual 
snow can be easily estimated, for on all sides are glaciers, 


| 


Snow-Line in the Himalaya. 333 


and the vast accumulations of snow from which they are sup- 
plied, and these cannot always be readily distinguished from 
snow in situ; but as far as I could judge, those places which 
might be considered as offering a fair criterion, were free 
from snow up to 15,000 or even 16,000 feet. 

Towards the end of August I crossed the Barjikang pass 
between Rilam and Juhir, the elevation of which is about 
15,300 feet.* There was here no vestige of snow on the 
ascent to the pass from the south-east, and only a very 
small patch remained on the north-western face. The view 
of the continuation of the ridge in a southerly direction was 
cut off by a prominent point, but no snow lay on that side 
within 500 feet of the pass, while to the north I estimated 
that there was no snow in considerable quantity within 1500 
feet or more, that is, nearly up to 17,000 feet. The vegeta- 
tion on the very summit of the pass was far from scanty, 
though it had already begun to break up into tufts, and had 
lost that character of continuity which it had maintained to 
within a height of 500 or 600 feet. Species of Potentilla, 
Sedum, Saxifraga, Corydalis, Aconitum, Delphinium, Tha- 
lictrum, Ranunculus, Saussurea, Gentiana, Pedicularis, 
Primula, Rheum, and Polygonum, all evidently flourishing 
in a congenial climate, shewed that the limits of vegetation 
and region of perpetual snow were still far distant. 

In addition to these facts it may not be out of place to 
mention that there are two mountains visible from Almorah, 
Rigoli-gidri in Garhw4l between the Kailganga and Nand- 
4kni and Chipula in Kumaon, between the Gori and Dauli 
(of Darma), both upwards of 13,000 feet in elevation, from 
the summits of which the snow disappears long before the 
end of the summer months, and which do not usually again 
become covered for the winter till late in December. 

The authorities cited by M. Humboldt in his Asée Centrale 
give the following heights to the snow-line on the southern 
slope of the Himalaya.t 


* This pass is so far within the belt of perpetual snow that it cannot be held 
to afford any just arguments as to the position of the snow-line on the extreme 
southern edge of the belt. 

t Asie Centrale, t. iii., p. 295. I take no account of the height assigned by 


VOL. XLVII. NO. XCIV.— OCTOBER 1849. Z 


334 Lieutenant R. Strachey on the 


Toises. English Feet. 


Webb, : : : ; 1954 or 12,500 
Colebrooke, . " : : 2032 ... 13,000 
Hodgson, ; : : : 2110 ... 13,500 
A. Gerard, . : ; : 2080 ... 13,300 
Jacquemont, . : 3 ; 1800 ... 11,500 


Webb, Colebrooke, Hodgson.—Immediately before the list of 
heights just given, M. Humboldt quotes the following part 
of a letter from Mr Colebrooke :—* There is a paper of mine 
in the Journal of the Royal Institution for 1819 (Vol. xvii., 
No. 13), on the limit of snow. I deduced from the materials 
which I had, that the limit of constant congelation was 13,000 
feet, in the parallel of 31° according to Captain Hodgson’s 
information, and 13,500 feet at lat. 30° according to Captain 
Webb’s.”* I am unable to refer to the paper here alluded 
to, but a number of the Quarterly Journal of Science (t. vi., 
No. 11, pp. 51, 57) has come into my hands, in which is a 
paper entitled, “ Height of the Himalaya Mountains,” signed 
H.T.C., and evidently written by Mr Colebrooke. From 
this I extract the following sentences :—‘ The limit of con- 
gelation is specified by him (Captain Webb), where he states 
the elevation of the spot at which the Gori river emerges 
from the snow, viz., 11,543 feet. This observation, it may 
be right to remark, is consonant enough to theory, which 
would assign 11,400 for the boundary of congelation in lat. 
30° 25'?? Now, as Mr Colebrooke was not an orginal ob- 
server, the way in which he talks of the limit of snow and 
then of the limit of congelation, using them as synonymous 
terms, would, independently of any other error into which 
he may have fallen, afford strong grounds for our supposing 
that he had no very precise ideas as to the meaning of the 
expression, limit of snow. But all doubt on the subject 
ceases when we learn “ that the spot at which the Gori river 
emerges from the snow” is neither more nor less than the 
extremity of an immense glacier; and when we see, as I 


MM. Hiigel and Vigne, as they do not refer to the region to which I confine 
myself. 

* The numbers in M. Humboldt’s list do no not agree with this; they have 
possibly been transposed by accident. 


Snow-Line in the Himalaya. 300 


have done, that at an elevation not 150 feet less great, and 
within a mile of this spot, said to be at the limit of constant 
congelation, is situated Milam, one of the largest villages in 
Kumaon, where crops of wheat, barley, buckwheat, and 
mustard, are regularly ripened every year ; and that no snow 
is to be found in the neighbourhood in August or September, 
at an elevation of at least 16,000 feet,* or 4500 feet above 
the spot alluded to; it is evident that M. Colebrooke either 
used the term /imit of snow in a sense very different from 
that now applied to it, or has been left altogether in the 
dark as to those facts on which alone an opinion of any value 
could be formed. 

Iam without any means of discovering whether Captains 
Webb or Hodgson ever published any distinct opinions as to 
the height of the snow-line, but it appears probable that the 
information to which M. Colebrooke alludes is simply their 
record of the heights of places. Atall events, however, their 
evidence must be considered of little value, as they neither of 
them knew what a glacier was. Captain Webb, as we have 
seen, talks of the Gori emerging from the snow, when we 
know that in reality it rises from a glacier. Captain Hodgson 
falls into a similar error in his description of the source of 
the Ganges (Vide Asiatic Researches, vol. xiv., pp. 114-117). 
He says “the Bhagirati or Ganges issues from under a very 
low arch at the foot of the grand snow-bed;’’ and from the 
almost exact coincidence of the heights, it is plain that this 
is his limit of snow. There is not, however, the slightest 
doubt that the low arch was merely the terminal cave of a 
glacier, and that it was far below the lower limit of perpetual 
snow, though when Captain Hodgson was there in the spring 
the place was probably snowy enough. 

A. Gerard.—I have not the means of reference to the 
passage quoted by M. Humboldt in support of the height 
given by Captain Gerard ; but in the “ Account of Koonawur,” 
which may be presumed to shew Captain Gerard’s latest 
views on these matters, he says :—‘‘ The limit of perpetual 


* T say 16,000 feet, as up to that height I am certain; but 18,000 is more 
probably the truth. 


336 Lieutenant R. Strachey on the 


snow is lowest on the outer Himalaya,” (by which he means 
the Bissehir range); “and here the continuous snow-beds 
exposed to the south are about 15,000.* It is not impossible 
that the height which M. Humboldt gives refers to some 
line of perpetual congelation on a number of different va- 
rieties, of which Captain Gerard remarks, such as where it 
always freezes, freezes more than it thaws, freezes every 
night, or finally, where the mean temperature is 32° Fahren- 
heit. These, however interesting in their own way, are not 
the snow-line. 

Jacquemont.—The height given by this traveller is fully 
explained by the note that M. Humboldt adds, “ Au nord de 
Cursali et de Jumnautri ou la limite des neiges est horizon- 
talement trés tranchée.”’ (Jacg., Voy. dans l Inde, p. 99.) Now 
M. Jacquemont visited Jamnotri in the middle of May, when 
no doubt he found the snow-line, “ trés tranchée,’’ at 11,500 
feet. I have already shewn that I found the same thing 
myself at Pinduri, where the snow in the autumn had all 
disappeared up to 15,000 feet or more. If his visit had been 
made in January, he would probably have found the snow 
below 8000 feet ; but this is not perpetual snow. 

These heights, therefore, must all be rejected ; nor can it 
be considered at all surprising that any amount of mistake, 
as to the height of the snow-line, should be made, as long as 
travellers cannot distinguish snow from glacier ice, or look 
for the boundary of perpetual snow at the beginning of the 
spring. 

2. Northern limit of the belt of perpetual snow.—My own 
observations on the snow-line in the northern part of the 
chain were made in September 1848, on my way from Milam 


* Account of Koonawar, p. 159. It appears to me possible that the Gerards, 
who knew as little of glaciers as Webb or Hodgson, did not fall into a similar 
mistake in their estimate of the height of the snow-line on the Bissehir range, 
because there are no glaciers, or none of any size, on that face, owing to the 
small height, less than 2000 feet, that the average line of summit rises above 
the snow-line. This, however, is only conjecture, for though I am satisfied that 
glaciers do exist on the north face of that range, I have in vain endeavoured 
to come to any conclusion as to the southern face. It may be proper to add 
that I have never been there myself, 


: 


Snow-Line in the Himalaya. 337 


into Hundes vid Unta-dhira, Kyungar-ghat, and Balch-dhira, 
at the beginning of the month ; and on the road back again, 
vid Lakhur-ghat, at the end of the month. 

Of the three passes that we crossed on our way from Mi- 
lam, all of them being about 17,700 feet in elevation, the first 
is Unta-dhtra, and we saw no snow on any part of the way 
up to its very top, which we reached about 4 P.M., ina very 
disagreeable drizzle of rain and snow. The final ascent to 
the pass from the south is about 1000 feet ; it is very steep 
at the bottom, and covered with fragments of black slaty 
limestone. The path leads up the side of a ravine, down 
which a small stream trickles, the ground having a generally 
even and rounded surface. Neither on any part of this, nor 
on the summit of the pass itself, which is tolerably level, 
were there any remains of snow whatever; the ground being 
worked up into deep black mud by the feet of the cattle that 
had been lately returning to Milam. On the ridge to the 
right and left there were patches of snow a few hundred feet 
above ; and on the northern face of the pass an accumulation 
remained that extended about 200 feet down, apparently the 
effect of the drift through the gap in which the pass lies. 
Below this again the ground was everywhere quite free from 
snow. On the ascent to Unta-dhira, at, perhaps, 17,000 feet, 
a few blades of grass were seen; but, on the whole, it may 
said to have been utterly devoid of vegetation. On the north 
side of the pass, 300 or 400 feet below the summit, a Cruci- 
ferous plant was the first that was met with. 

The Kyungar pass, which is five or six miles north of Unta- 
dhira, was found equally free from snow on its southern 
face and summit, which latter is particularly open and level. 
The mountains on either side were also free from snow to 
some height; but on the north, as at Unta-dhira, a large bed 
lay a little way down the slope, and extended to about 500 
feet from the top. On this pass a Boragineous plant in flower 
was found above 17,000 feet; a species of Urtica was also 
got about the same altitude, and we afterwards saw it again 
nearly as high up on the Lékhur pass. 

From the Kyungar-gh4t, a considerable portion of the 
southern face of the Balch range, distant about ten miles. 


338 - Lieutenant R. Strachey on the 


was distinctly seen, apparently quite free from snow. In our 
ascent to the Balch pass no snow was observed on any of the 
southern spurs of the range, and only one or two very small 
patches could be seen from the summit on the north side. 
The average height of the top of this range can hardly be 
more than 500 feet greater than that of the pass; and as a 
whole it certainly does not enter the region of perpetual snow. 
As viewed from the plains of Hundes, it cannot be said to 
appear snowy, a few only of the peaks being tipped. 

We returned to Milam vd@ Chirchun. The whole of the 
ascent to the Lakhur pass was perfectly free from snow to 
the very top, z.e., 18,300 feet, and many of the neighbouring 
mountains were bare still higher. The next ridge on this 
route is Jainti-dhira, which is passed at an elevation of 
18,500 feet, but still without crossing the least portion of 
snow. The line of perpetual snow is, however, evidently 
near ; for though the Jainti ridge was quite free, and some 
of the peaks near us were clear probably to upwards of 
19,000 feet, yet in more sheltered situations unbroken snow 
could be seen considerably below us, and, on the whole, I 
think that 18,500 feet must be nearly the average height of 
the snow-line at this place. 

M. Humboldt’s list of heights for the northern slope is as 
follows :— 

Toises. English feet. 


Webb, : : : : : 2600 or 16,600 
Moorcroft, : : é : 2900 ... 18,500 
A. Gerard, : : : ; 3200 ... 20,500 
Jacquemont, ; ; 3078 ... 19,700 


Webb.—The height given on the authority of Captain Webb 
is simply that of the Niti pass, which Captain Webb crossed 
without snow in August 1819, and Moorcroft in June* and 
August 1811. The Niti pass is notoriously the easiest of all 
the Garhwél and Kumaon passes, and remains open long 
after taose from Juhar, which I have described above, have 
become impracticable ; and it is held to be a certain way of 
escape from Thibet, by the Juhéris, should a fall of snow more 


* Not January, as is erroneously printed in the “ Asie Centrale.” Vide 
Asiatic Researches, vol. xii., pp. 417-494. 


. 


Snow-Line in the Himalaya. 339 


early than usual stop their own passes, while they are to the 
north of the Himalaya. It may, therefore, be fairly con- 
cluded, that the snow-line recedes considerably above the 
Niti pass, as it should do if my estimate of its height be cor- 
rect. 

Moorcroft—The passage quoted in support of this height 
is as follows :—* Now Mr Moorcroft had his tent covered 
2 inches deep (with snow), when close to Manasarowar, and 
on the surface of the ground it lay in greater quantities ; 
and if his elevation was 17,000 feet,* we have clear evidence 
that the climate of the table-land, notwithstanding the in- 
creased heat from the reverberation of a bright sun, is equal- 
ly as cold as in the regions of eternal snow in the Himalayan 
chain, although the country of the former exhibits no perpe- 
tual snow except at heights of 18,000 and 19,000 feet.”— 
(Tours in the Himalaya, t. i., p. 319.) The words are those 
of Dr Gerard, who, on his own authority, thus gives 18,000 
or 19,000 feet as the elevation of the snow-line in the part 
of Thibet near the Sutlej; and this, as far as it goes, corro- 
borates the conclusion to which I have come. 

A. Gerard.—In the absence of the books to which M. Hum- 
boldt refers, I conclude that the height here given is that to 
which Captain Gerard supposed the snow receded on the 
ridge above Nako. But this is to the north of the Sutlej, 
and therefore is not in the region to which I have confined 
myself. In the “ Account of Kunawar,” however, the fol- 
lowing remark that is applicable, is to be found :—* In 
ascending the Keoobrung pass, 18,313 feet high, in July, no 
snow was found on the road.”—(P. 159.) This pass is si- 
tuated on the water-shed of the Himalaya, about 20 miles 
east of the great bend in the Sutlej, and about 8 miles to the 
south of that river; it is on the northern limit of the belt of 
perpetual snow, the ground between it and the Sutlej not being 
of sufficient height to be permanently covered with snow. 

Jacquemont.—The Keoobrung pass of Captain Gerard, un- 
der a name slightly changed, is the same as that from which 


* The elevation of Manasarowar, as M. Humboldt correctly conjectured, is 
about 15,200 feet only. 


340 Lieutenant R. Strachey on the 


M. Jacquemont made his observations, “ Sur le col de Kiou- 
brong (entre les riviéres de Buspa et de Shipke ou de Lang 
Zing Khampa), & 5581 métres (18,313 feet) de hauteur selon 
le Capitaine Gerard, je me trouvai encore de beaucoup au- 
dessous de la limite des neiges perpétuelles dans cette par- 
tie de Himalaya (lat. 31° 35’, long. 76° 38’).” “ Je crois 
pouvoir porter la hauteur des neiges permanentes dans cette 
region de Himalaya a 6000 métres’’ (19,700 feet).—(Asée 
Centrale, t. iii., p. 804.) I will admit that M. Jacquemont’s 
estimate of the height of the snow-line on the southern face of 
the range, is not such as to induce me to place implicit confi- 
dence in this either ; but allowing for some little exaggera- 
tion, there can be no room for doubting that the snow-line 
must here recede nearly to 19,000 feet. 

Whether the result at which I have arrived, from what I 
saw on the Juhar passes, be too little, or this too great, or 
whether there may not be, in fact, a difference of elevation, 
are matters of comparatively small importance. As I pur- 
pose to point out hereafter, the chances of error in the de- 
termination of great altitudes by single barometrical obser- 
vations are very considerable, more particularly when, as is 
most generally the case, there is no corresponding observa- 
tion within 60 or 70 miles. Allof these heights are deduced 
from such observations, and errors of 150, or even 200 feet, 
on either side of the truth, or differences of 300 or 400 feet, 
may, I am satisfied, quite easily arise in the calculation. I 
shall therefore continue to call the height of the snow-line at 
the northern limit of the belt of perpetual snow 18,500 feet ; 
not that I consider my own calculation as worthy of more con- 
fidence than Captain Gerard’s or M. Jacquemont’s, but that 
it is, in the present state of our knowledge, sufficiently ex- 
act, and certainly not exaggerated. 

As the principal object of the present inquiry is the eleva- 
tion of the snow-line in the Himalaya, I have, in the fore- 
going observations, confined myself strictly to that region of 
these mountains that I at first specified; but it is not the 
less important to notice the heights at which we find perpe- 
tual snow still farther to the north. Captain Gerard, after 
mentioning the Keoobrung pass, goes on to say, “ In August 


ee 


SS eS eee 


St be 2. oil » 
nibh dckaeas eee oS ee ae 


ths Rees 


St eee PETES 


re 


17 Rag 


Snow-Line in the Himalaya. 341 


when I crossed Manerung pass, 18,612 feet,—a pass on the 
range that divides Piti from Kunawar,—*“ there was onl y about 
a foot of snow, which was new, and had fallen a few days be- 
fore. In October, on the ridge above Nako,”—about five 
miles north of the great bend in the Sutlej,—“ we ascended 
to 19,411 feet, and the snow, which was all new, and no more 
than a few inches deep, was only met with in the last 400 or 
500 feet; this was on the face of the range exposed to the 
west, but on the opposite side no snow was seen, at almost 
20,000 feet.” (P. 160.) During the whole of our expedition 
into Hundes in September 1848, we only saw very small 
patches of snow in two places, on both occasions in sheltered 
ravines; but, in the part of the country through which we 
passed, perpetual snow is not to be looked for, the highest 
mountains probably not exceeding 18,000 feet in height. In 
the true plains of Thibet, snow would be just as difficult to 
find in the summer months as in the plains of India. From 
my own observations made in this journey, I infer that 
the height of the limit of snow, on the southern face of 
Kailas, is not less than 19,500 feet ; and there is nothing 
now on record that I know of that indicates the latitude be- 
yond which the snow-line again begins to descend. 

From a review of the whole of the facts that have been 
brought forward, it may, I think, be considered as fully esta- 
blished, that M. Humboldt, though under-estimating the 
actual elevation of the snow-line, was certainly right in what 
he advanced as to the relative height on the two opposite faces 
of the chain. The doubts that were raised by Captain Hut- 
ton on this point, in his paper entitled, “‘ Correction of the 
erroneous doctrine, that the snow lies longer and deeper on 
the southern than on the northern aspect of the Himalaya,” 
were perhaps almost sufficiently answered by Mr Batton at 
the time they were first brought forward ; but, as I have re- 
opened the whole question, I will add a few words on this 
subject also.* 


* Vide M Clelland’s Journal, Nos. xiv., xvi., xix., xxi. Captain Hutton’s first 
letter begins thus: “ Previous to my trip through Kunawar in 1838, I had 
frequently heard it contended, that the snow lay longer, deeper, and farther 


342 Lieutenant R. Strachey on the 


The doctrine that Captain Hutton attacks as erroneous 
undoubtedly is so; but it is a doctrine that was never incul- 
cated by any one. Captain Hutton having misunderstood 
the true enunciation of a proposition, reproduces it accord- 
ing to his own mistaken views, and then destroys the phan- 
tom that he has raised. The fact that Captain Hutton saw 
to be true was this, that, as a general rule, snow, sporadic as 
well as perpetual, will be found to lie at a lower level on the 
northern than on the southern aspect, on any individual 
range in these or any other mountains. In drawing his con- 
clusions from this fact, the first error into which he fell was 
to confound the north and south aspects of the individual ridges 
with the north and south aspects of ¢he chain; and he some- 
what complicates matters by neglecting to distinguish between 
snow and perpetual snow. These mistakes having been 
pointed out to him, he tried to correct them, but still could 
not get over the terms north and south declivity; for he 
ends by assuming that they apply to the north and south 
aspects of the Bissehir range, which he conceives to be the 
true “ Himalaya,” the central or main line of snowy peaks ! 
Here he falls into an error of logic no less flagrant than the 
former ; he restricts the term “ Himalaya” to this range, 
which may or may not be central, for that has nothing to do 
with the matter, and then assumes that this Himalaya of his 
own, is the Himalaya of whose north and south declivities 
we speak, when we repeat that the snow-line is at a greater 


down on the southern exposure of the Himalaya than it was found to do on the 
northern aspect; you may, therefore, easily imagine my astonishment, when, 
crossing the higher passes through Kunawar, Hungrung, and Pitti, I found the 
actual phenomena to be diametrically opposite to such a doctrine, and that the 
northern slopes invariably carried more snow than the southern exposure.” 
(No. xiv., 275.) In his last letter he says, “ I have already acknowledged the 
faultiness of my first letter, in so far as regards my having omitted to state, in 
sufficiently distinct terms, that my remarks referred to the actual northern and 
southern aspects of the true Himalaya, or central or main range of snowy 
peaks, and not to the aspects of secondary groups and minor ranges.” This 
true Himalaya is the Bissehir range of which I have often spoken. I say no- 
thing of Captain Hutton’s views regarding perpetual snow, the existence of 
which, as far as I can understand him, he appears to doubt. 


ao ee 


Snow-Line in the Himalaya. 343 


elevation on the northern than on the southern face of the 
chain.* 

The height to which the snow-line has been shewn to re- 
cede on the southern face of the Himalaya, though consider- 
ably greater than had been supposed by M. Humboldt, still 
does not exceed what the analogy of mountains in similar 
latitudes in the other hemisphere might have led us to ex- 
pect. In the Central part of Chili, in lat. 33° S., we find 
that the lower limit of perpetual snow is at 14,500 or 15,000 
feet, while in Bolivia, in lat. 18° S., it reaches 16,000, and 
even on some of the peaks 19.600 feet.; There is therefore 
no appearance of any thing unusual in the general height of 
the snow-line, which need induce us to suppose the existence 
of any extraordinary ascending current of heated air, regard- 
ing which M. Humboldt enquires. The exceedingly high tem- 
perature, surpassing that known at any other part of the 
earth’s surface, which the air over the plains of North 
Western India acquires during the summer, must of course 
produce a sensible effect in heating the upper strata of the 
atmosphere. But as far as I am enabled to form an opinion 
from the few facts that have come to my knowledge, regard- 
ing the temperature of the higher regions in these mountains, 
I think there is little doubt that the same cause which pro- 
duces this great temperature in the plain, that is, the direct 


* The word “ Himalaya,” which, to the natives of these mountains, means 


only the snowy peaks, is in the language of science applied to the whole chain, 
and in my opinion properly. Any division of the chain into “ Himalaya” or 
snowy ranges, and “ sub-Himalaya’” ranges not snowy, such as has, I believe, 
been made, appears to me objectionable, not only as unusual in the terminology 
of physical geography, and therefore likely to lead to confusion, such as that 
of which we have just had a specimen, but as artificial and unnecessary ; I re- 
peat artificial, for, in spite of the specious appearance of the distinction, it will 
not bear examination. The association of mountains into chains should be 
based upon the physical character and affinities of the mountains themselves, 
quite irrespective of any adventitious circumstances of snow, or of vegetable 
and animal life. Botanical or zoological regions will almost always be found 
to follow closely the configurations of the earth’s surface, on the accidents of 
which they chiefly depend; but to make the classification of the latter depend 
upon the former would be a manifest absurdity. 
{ Asie Centrale, T. iii., pp. 275, 277, 329. 


344 Lieutenant R. Strachey on the 


radiation of the sun, acts immediately so powerfully in heat- 
ing the surface of the mountains, and thereby raising the 
temperature of the air over them, and in melting the snow, 
that the secondary effects of the heated air that rises from 
the plains of India must be almost imperceptible. 

From the way in which the term north declivity was in- 
troduced into the enunciation of the phenomenon of the 
greater elevation of the snow-line, at the northern edge of 
the belt of perpetual snow, an idea naturally arose, that 
it was observed only on the declivity immediately facing the 
plains of Thibet, and M. Humboldt, in the quotation I before 
gave from Cosmos, is careful to restrict it to the peaks 
which rise above the Tartarian plateau. But this, as may 
have been inferred from what I have already said on the 
state of the three ranges that are crossed in succession be- 
tween Milam and Thibet, is quite a mistake ; the fact being 
that the greater elevation is observed on the Thibetan face in 
common with the whole of the more northern part of the 
chain. From the remarks before made on the state in which 
I found the Barj-Kang pass, it will be seen that even so near 
as it is to the southern limit of the belt of perpetual snow, 
a perceptible increase of elevation had already taken place. 
M. Jacquemont, as quoted by M. Humboldt, says “ Les neiges 
perpetuelles descendent plus bas sur la pente méridionale de 
? Himalaya, que sur les pentes septentrionales, et leur limite 
s’éléve constamment 4 mesure que l’on s’éloigne vers le nord 
de la chaine qui bordel’Inde.” (Asie Centrale, t. iii., p. 303.) 
With the proviso that the rise here spoken of is not regular, 
but more rapid as we cross the first great masses of perpetual 
snow, I entirely concur in M. Jacquemont’s way of putting 
the case. 

That the radiation from the plains of Thibet can have no- 
thing to do with the greater height to which the snow-line 
recedes generally in the northern part of the Himalaya, is 
evident, for it must be all intercepted by the outer face of 
the chain ; and that its effects even on this outer face are of 
a secondary order, seems to me sufficiently proved by the 
consideration, that on the Balch range, which rises imme- 
diately from those plains, what little snow is to be seen is 


Snow-Line in the Himalaya. 345 


on the northern slope exposed to the radiation, while none 
whatever remains on the southern slope, which is quite pro- 
tected from it, exactly as is the case with every mountain 
anywhere. 

It may therefore be concluded that some other influence 
must be in operation, the effects of which are generally felt 
over the whole of the more northern parts of the Himalaya, 
and such an influence is, I conceive, readily to be found in the 
diminished quantity of snow that falls on the northern, as 
compared to the southern part of the chain. 

The comparative dryness of the climate to the north of 
the first great mass of snowy mountains is not now no- 
ticed for the first time; it is indeed notorious to the in- 
habitants of Simla, and travellers often go into Kunawar with 
the express object of avoiding the rains. Captain Gerard 
thus describes the climate of the western part of the Hima- 
laya :—“ In the interior (7. e. of Kunawar), at 9000 and 
10,000 feet, snow is scarcely ever above a foot in depth, and 
at 12,000 it is very rarely two feet, although nearer the outer 
range four or five feet are usual at heights of 7000 or 8000 
feet. In these last places there is rain in July, August, and 
September, but it is not near so heavy in the lower hills. 
When Hindustan is deluged for three months, the upper 
parts of Kunawar are refreshed by partial showers ; and, with 
the exception of the valley of the Buspa, the periodical rains 
do not extend further to the eastward than long. 77°.”*—(Ae- 
count of Kundwar, p.61.) He again says, relative to the most 
northern parts of Kunéwar and the neighbouring portion of 
Thibet, ‘« With the exception of March and April, in which 
months there are a few showers, the uniform reports of the 
inhabitants represent the rest of the year to be almost per- 
petual sunshine, the few clouds hang about the highest 
mountains, and a heavy fall of snow or rain is almost un- 
known.” —(Ibid., p. 95.) 


* hat the fall of snow at 7000 feet is ever five feet in any part of these hills 
may, I think, be doubted. ‘The Buspa is the river that runs immediately at 
the foot of the north declivity of the Bissehir range ; and I suppose that Cap- 
tain Gerard means, that the rains do not extend up the Sutlej beyond the 
point where the Buspa falls into it. 


346 Lieutenant R. Strachey on the 


The testimony of Captain J. Cunningham, who passed a 
winter in the most northern part of Kundwar, as to the small 
quantity of snow that falls, is particularly valuable. He says, 
* In this country a southerly wind and the sun together, keep 
slopes with a southern exposure and 12,000 and 13,000 feet 
high, quite clear of snow, (except when it is actually snow- 
ing.) And this too, towards the end of January and begin- 
ning of February, or I may say at all times.”” Also, “Here lam 
(April 6th 1842,) about 9000 or 9500 feet high, wind generally 
southerly, no snow whatever on southern slopes, within 15,000 
or 16,000 feet, apricot trees budding ; but on northern slopes, 
and in hollows, abundance ofsnow.”* (M*Clelland’s Calcutta 
Journal of Natural History, No. xiv., pp. 281, 282.) 

From my own experience, I can also speak of the remark- 
able change of climate that is met with in the month of 
August, in passing from the south to the north of the line of 
great peaks, by the valleys of the Gori and Ralam rivers. 
A straight line joining the peaks No. 14 (Nandadevi), and 
No. 18 (the northern of the Panch-Chuli Cluster), cuts the 
Gori a little below Tola and the Rélam River, about 5 miles 
further to the east, near the village of Ralam. The road up 
the Gori being at that season impracticable, I went up the 
Ralam river to Rélam, and thence crossed over the Gori by 
the Bargi-Kang pass, which is on the ridge that separates 
the two rivers, and that terminates in the peak No. 16 
(Hansa-Ung.) From the limit of forest to the village of 
Ralam, the elevation of which is about 12,000 feet, the vege- 
tation, chiefly herbaceous, was of the most luxuriant growth 
and boundless variety, and the soil was saturated with mois- 
ture. On crossing the Bargi-K4ng pass, and descending to 
the Gori, we were immediately struck with the remarkable 
change in the character of the vegetation, which had already 
lost all its rankness.’ But a mile or two above the village of 


* These paragraphs are taken from extracts of letters of Captain Cunning- 
ham, given by Captain Hutton, in support of his arguments, as to snow lying 
lower on north than on south exposures, which accounts for the last sentence. 
But whatever the quantity of snow may have been on the north slopes, compare 
the heights here given as being clear of snow, early in April, viz., 15,000 feet, 
with what I have above shewn to be the limit to the south of the great peaks, 
as late as the middle of May, viz., 12,500 feet. 


Pees Mietih. 4 af be eed 


Snow-Line in the Himalaya. 347 


Tola, the alteration was complete; the flora had shrunk within 
the most scanty limits, the bushes hardly ever deserving the 
name of shrubs ; the few herbs that were there were stunted 
and parched, the soil dry, and the roads quite dusty. At 
Melam the still closer approximation of the climate to that 
of Thibet, is clearly shewn by the occurrence of several plants 
undoubtedly Thibetan, that are not found further to the south. 
Such are Caragana versicolor, the (Dama) of the Bhotias, 
which covers the plains of Thibet ; a Clematis, dwarf Hippo- 
phaé, Lonicera, and two or three Potentillas ; and no doubt 
several others might be named. 

Now although it is to the winter and not to the summer 
rains,* that the precipitation of snow on these mountains is 
to be ascribed, yet the circumstances under which the vapour 
is condensed, appeared to be the same at both seasons. 
Southerly winds blow throughout the year over the Hima- 
laya, in the winter with peculiar violence ;+ and whatever 
be the more remote cause of the periodical recurrence of the 
rains, there can I think be little doubt, that the proximate 
cause of the condensation of by far the greater portion of the 
snow or rain that falls on the snowy mountains, is that the 
current from the south is more damp or hot than the air in 
contact with the mountains against which it blows; a rela- 
tion which holds good in the winter as well as in the sum- 
mer. 

Thus the air that comes up from the south no sooner 
reaches the southern boundary of the belt of perpetual snow, 
where the mountains suddenly rise from an average of per- 
haps 8,000 or 10,000 feet, to nearly 19,000 or 20,000, then it 
is deprived of a very large proportion of its moisture, which is 
converted into cloud, rain, or snow, according to circumstances. 
And the current, in its progress to the north, will be incapa- 


* Although it does not appear to be so well known, the winter rains of North 
Western India are as strictly periodical as those of the summer. 

t The southerly winds that prevail at considerable heights in the Hima- 
laya, and in the countries to the north, are diurnal phenomena, evidently de- 
pendent on the apparent motion of the sun; and in their time of beginning 
of maximum and of ending, greatly resemble the hot winds of the plains of 
India, which have a similar origin. 


348 Lieutenant R. Strachey on the 


ble of carrying with it more moisture, than is allowed by the 
very low temperature to which the air is of necessity reduced 
in surmounting the snowy barrier, 19,000 or 20,000 feet in 
altitude, that it has to pass. Nor can any further condensa- 
tion be expected at all comparable in amount to what has 
already taken place, as it would manifestly demand a much 
more than corresponding depression of temperature ; and 
this is not at all likely to occur, for the most elevated peaks be- 
ing situated near the southern limit of perpetual snow, the 
current on passing them will more probably meet with hotter 
than with colder air. 

It is, I conceive, to precisely similar causes that we should 
attribute the great amount of rain that is known to fall 
at Mahabaleshwar, on the Western Ghats, at Chira-punji, 
in Sylhet, and generally, though the quantity is far less, 
along the most southern range of the Himalaya itself; and 
it is curious to observe that the comparative dryness of the 
less elevated country to leeward also holds good in these 
eases. In the Deccan, the country immediately to the east 
of the Western Ghats, Colonel Sykes tells us, that “ the rains 
are light, uncertain, and in all years barely sufficient for the 
wants of the husbandman.” On the same authority we find, 
that while the mean fall of rain for three years at Poona, was 
about 27 inches,* that at Mahabaleshwar for 1834 was no less 
than 302 inches.} Although I have not the exact figures to 
refer to, I know that the rain at Nainee Tal, on the external 
range of the Himalaya, is about double what falls at Almorah, 
not thirty miles to the north. 

It will therefore be seen that as I hold the direct action of 


the sun to be the primary cause of the great general height. 


to which the snow-line recedes, so I consider that the increase 
of the height in the northern part of the chain, chiefly de- 
pends, not on any additional destructive action, but on the 
smaller resistance offered by a diminished quantity of snow 
to destructive forces, which are not indeed constant through- 
out the whole breadth of the chain, but whose increase ap- 


* British Association’s Seventh Report, p. 236. 
t Ibid., Ninth Report, p. 15 (Sections). The exact amount is 302-21 inches, 


ee ee 


Snow-Line in the Himalaya. 349 


pears to have no dependence on increase of distance from the 
southern limit of the belt of perpetual snow. Among the 
more evident causes of the irregularities in the melting of 
the snow, may be mentioned, the powerful action of the heavy 
summer rain on the southern face, as compared with what 
falls as little more than a drizzle on the northern ; the pro- 
tection afforded from the radiation of the sun by the heavy 
clouds so frequent in the south, contrasted with the relative 
slight resistance of the less dense but not uncommon clouds 
on the north ; the differences in the temperature of the air 
that acts on the lower edge of the suow produeed by the 
difference of height of the snow-line on the opposite faces of 
the chain ; and, lastly, the differences of the temperature of 
the air, and of the amount of radiation and reflection depend- 
ent on the differences in the state of the surface of the earth, 
which on the south is densely clothed with vegetation, while 
on the north it is almost bare. 

Before concluding I will observe, that the height at which 
it is certain that snow will fall every year, in this region of 
the Himalaya, is about 6500 feet; and at an elevation of 
5000 feet it will not fail more than one year out of ten. The 
least height to which sporadic falls of snow are known to 
extend, is about 2500 feet ; and of such falls there are only 
two authentic instances on record, since the British took pos- 
session of Kumaon, viz., in 1817 and 1847. Thus we see that 
the regular annual fluctuation of the snow-line is from 9000 
feet to 10,500 feet, and it occasionally reaches even 13,000 
feet. M. Humboldt informs us that under the equator at Quito, 
the fluctuation is 600 toises (3800) ; that at Mexico it reaches 
1350 toises (8600 feet) ; and the greatest fluctuation that he 
mentions is that in the south of Spain, which amounts to 
1700 toises (10,900).* 

A brief recapitulation of the principal results of this inquiry 
will shew us, that the snow-line, or the southern edge of the 
belt of perpetual snow in this portion of the Himalaya, is at 
an elevation of 15,500 feet, while on the northern edge it 
reaches 18,500 feet ; and that on the mountains to the north 


* Asie Centrale, t. iii. p. 279. 


VOL. XLVII. NO. XCIV.—OCTOBER 1849. 2k 


350 ; Comparative Physical Geography. 


of the Sutlej, or still farther, recedes even beyond 19,000 
feet. The greater elevation which the snow-line attains on 
the northern edge of the belt of perpetual snow, is a pheno- 
menon not confined to the Thibetan declivity alone, but ex- 
tending far into the interior of the chain ; and it appears to 
be chiefly caused by the quantity of snow that falls on the 
northern portion of the mountains being much less than that 
which falls further to the south, along the line where the 
peaks, covered with perpetual snow, first rise above the less 
elevated ranges of the Himalaya—(Journal of the Asiatic 
Society of Bengal. New Series. No. xxviii., p. 287.) 


On Comparative Physical Geography. 


It may interest our readers to be informed that Physical 
Geography, founded on the views of Ritter, Humboldt, 
Steffens, &c., has been explained and illustrated in an inte- 
resting course of lectures delivered at Boston, in, North 
America, by a distinguished Swiss naturalist, Professor 
Guyot, formerly of Neufchatel, now resident in the New 
World. Professor Felton, of Harvard University, U. S., 
has published, under the superintendence of M. Guyot, an 
English version of these lectures (the Lectures were delivered 
in the French language), under the title, “The Earth and 
Man: Lectures on Comparative Physical Geography, in its 
relation to the History of Mankind.” Men of science speak 
of them in high terms. Thus the celebrated Agassiz says 
of Guyot, “ He has not only been in the best school, that 
of Ritter and Humboldt, and become familiar with the pre- 
sent state of the science of our earth, but he has himself, in 
many instances, drawn new conclusions from the facts now 
ascertained, and presented most of them in a new point of 
view. Several of the most brilliant generalizations developed 
in his lectures are his; and if more extensively circulated, 
will not only render the study of geography more attractive, 
but actually shew it in its true light ; namely, as the science 
of the relations which exist between nature and man through- 
out history ; of the contrasts observed between the different 


Remarks on its importance. 351 


parts of the globe; of the laws of horizontal and vertical 
forms of the dry land, in its contact with the sea; of cli- 
mate, &c.;” and Professor Felton remarks, ‘‘ That although 
physical science in general lies beyond his sphere of studies, 
he may venture to express the opinion, that physical geo- 
graphy, as treated of late years by Humboldt, Ritter, and 
other European investigators, has risen to a rank of para- 
mount importance, in its bearing upon the history and the 
destinies of the human race. It is not too much, perhaps, 
to say, that the history of man cannot be properly under- 
stood unless it rest on the basis of this science ; and to come 
nearer to my own pursuits, I know that comparative philo- 
logy, especially in connection with the affinities of the differ- 
ent branches of the family of man, receives important light 
from the great conclusions of physical geography. The 
physical characteristics of our globe, and their influences 
upon human societies, are described in these Lectures with 
vivacity and elegance. The contrasts between the different 
portions of the earth, their reactions upon each other, their 
adaptation to the special part that each, in the order of Pro- 
vidence, has been called upon to perform in the drama of 
human history, are given in a most interesting manner. It 
cannot escape the attention of the readers of these Lectures, 
how constantly the relations of the earth to the Creator— 
the reference of all things to the designs of Infinite Goodness, 
Wisdom, and Power—and how earnestly the moral and re- 
ligious lessons drawn from a profound conviction of the truth 
of Christianity, are brought forward and enforced by Pro- 
fessor Guyot, as forming the great central and binding facts 
which give a living energy to the system of nature, and ex- 
plain the course of the world.” As Guyot’s work is scarcely 
known in Britain, we embrace this opportunity of laying be- 
fore our readers one of the Lectures (the 11th Lecture), as 
a specimen of the manner in which the Swiss naturalist 
treats his subject. 


352 Comparative Physical Geography. 


The continents of the North considered as the theatre of His- 
tory ; Asia-Europe ; contrast of the North and South ; tts in- 
Jiuence in history ; conflict of the barbarous nations of the 
North nith the civilized nations of the South ; contrast of 
the East and West; Eastern Asia a continent by itself, and 
complete; its nature ; the Mongolian Race belongs peculiarly 
to it ; character of its civilization; superiority of the Hindoo 
Civilization ; reason why these Nations have remained sta- 
tionary ; Western Asia and Europe ; the country of the truly 
historical races ; Western Asia ; physical description ; tts his- 
torical character ; Europe—the best organized for the deve- 
lopment of man and of societies ; America—future to which it 
tis destined by its physical nature. 


The result of the comparison which we bave made between the 
northern continents and the southern continents,* in their most ge- 
neral characteristics, has convinced us, if I do not deceive myself, 
that what distinguishes the former is not the wealth of nature and 
the abundance of physical life, but the aptitude which their struc- 
ture, their situation, and their climate, give them, to minister to the 
development of man, and to become thus the seat of a life much su- 
perior to that of nature. The three continents of the north, with 
their more perfect races, their civilized people, have appeared as the 
historical continents, which form a marked contrast to those of the 
south, with their inferior races and their savage tribes. 

Since this is the salient feature which distinguishes them, and 
which secures to them decidedly the first place, we shall proceed to 
study them more in detail as the theatre of history. 

We know beforehand, that the condition of an active, complete de- 
velopment, is the multiplicity of the contrasts, of the differences— 
springs of action and reaction, of mutual exchanges, which excite 
and manifest life under a thousand diverse forms. To this principle 
corresponds, in the organization of the animal, the greater number 
of its special organs ; in the continents, the variety of the plastic 
forms of the soil, the localization of the strongly characterised phy- 
sical districts, the nature of which stamps upon the people inhabit- 
ing them a special seal, and makes them so many complicated but 
distinct individuals. 

The various combinations of grouping, of situation, with regard 
to each other, placing them in a permanent relation of friendship or 
hostility, of sympathy or of antipathy, of peace or of war, of inter- 
change of religions, of manners, of civilization, complete this work, 
and give that impulse, that progressive movement, which is the trait 
whereby the historical nations are recognised. 


* The northern continents are Europe, Asia, and North America ; the south- 
ern continents are Africa, Southern Asia, and South America. 


ae ee 


Asia- Europe—Theaire of History. 353 


We may then expect to see the great facts of the life of the na- 
tions connect themselves essentially with these differences of soil and 
climate, with these contrasts that nature herself presents in the in- 
terior of the continents, and whose influence on the social develop- 
ment of man, although variable according to the times, is no less 
evident in all the periods of his history. 

Let us commence our inquiry with the true theatre of history— 
with Asia-Europe. 

We have already had occasion to call attention to the unity of 
plan exhibited in this great triangular mass, which authorises us to 
consider it as forming, in a natural point of view, a single continent, 
the subdivisions of which bear the imprint of only secondary differ- 
ences. We have also indicated, as the most remarkable trait of its 
structure, that great dorsal ridge, composed of systems of the loftiest 
mountains, traversing it from one end to the other in the direction 
of the length, which may even be regarded as the axis of the conti- 
nent. It is, in fact, on the two sides of this long line of more than 
5000 miles, on the north and south of the Himalaya, of the Cau- 
casus, of the Balkan, the Alps, and the Pyrenees, that the high 
lands of the interior of the continent extend. It splits Asia-Europe 
into two portions, unequal in size, and differing from each other in 
their configuration and their climate. On the south, the areas are 
less vast; the lands are more indented, more detached,—on the 
whole, perhaps, more elevated ; it is the maritime zone of penin- 
sulas. On the north, the great plains prevail; the peninsulas are 
rare, or of slight importance ; the ground less varied. 

But what chiefly distinguishes one of the two parts from the other, 
what gives to each a peculiar nature, is the climate. Those lofty 
barriers which we have just named, almost everywhere separate the 
climates, as well as the areas. The gradual elevation of the ter- 
races towards the south, up to this ridge of the continent, by pro- 
longing in the southern direction the frosts of the north, augments 
still further, in Eastern Asia and in Europe, the difference of tem- 
perature between their sides, and renders it more sensible. Thus, 
almost everywhere, the transition is abrupt, the two natures wide 
apart. These high ridges arrest at once the icy winds of the poles, 
and the softened breezes of the south, and separate their domains. 
The Italian of our days, like the Roman of former times, boasts of 
his blue sky and his mild climate, and speaks with an ill-concealed 
contempt of the frosts and the ice of the countries beyond the Alps. 

To the father of the Grecian poets, to Homer, who only knows 
the Ionian sky, the countries beyond the Hamus are the regions of 
darkness, where rugged Boreas reigns supreme, At the northern 
foot of the Caucasus, the dry steppes of the Manytsch are swept by 
the frozen winds of the north; on the south, the warm and fertile 
plains of Georgia and of Imereth feel no longer their assaults. In 
eastern Asia, finally, the contrast is pushed to an extreme. The 


304 Comparative Physical Geography. 


traveller, crossing the lofty chain of the Himalaya, passes suddenly 
from the polar climate of the high table-lands of Thibet to the tropical 
heats and the rich nature of the plains of the Indus and the Ganges. 
Yet, as we have said, this great wall, which separates the north from 
the south, is rent at several points. Between the Hindoo-Khu and the 
Caucasus, the depressed edge of the table-land of Khorasan, between 
the Caucasus and the Balkan, the plains of the Black Sea and of the 
Danube open wide their gates to the winds and to the nations of the 
shores of the Caspian and the Volga. Between the Pyrenees and 
the Alps, the climates and the people of the south penetrate into the 
north. 

Thus two opposite regions are confronted, one on the north, in 
the cool temperate zone, with its vast steppes and desert table-lands, 
its rigorous climates, its intense colds, its dry and starveling nature ; 
the other on the south, in the warm temperate zone, with its beauti- 
ful peninsulas, its fertile plains, its blue heavens, and its soft climate, 
its delicate fruits, its trees always green, its lovely and smiling na- 
ture. 

The contrast of these two natures cannot fail to have a great in- 
fluence on the people of the two regions, It is repeated, from the 
history of the very earliest ages, in the most remarkable manner. In 
the north, the arid table-lands, the steppes, and the forests, condemn 
man to the life of shepherds and hunters; the people are nomadic 
and barbarous. In the south, the fruitful plains, and a more facile 
nature, invite the people to agriculture; they form fixed establish- 
ments and become civilized. Thus, in the very interior of the his- 
torical continent we find, placed side by side, a civilized and a bar- 
barous world. 

Two worlds so different cannot remain in contact without reacting 
upon each other. The conflict begins, one might say, with history 
itself, and continues throughout its entire duration. There is scarcely 
one of the great evolutions, particularly in Asia, not connected with 
this incessant action and reaction of the north upon the south, and 
of the south upon the north, of the barbarian world upon the civi- 
lized world. At all periods we see torrents of barbarous nations of 
the north issuing from their borders and flooding the regions of 
civilization with their destroying waves. Like the boisterous and 
icy winds of the regions they inhabit, they come suddenly as the 
tempest, and overturn everything in their way; nothing resists their 
rage. But as after the storm nature assumes a new strength, so the 
civilized nations, enervated by too long prosperity, are restored to 
life and youth by the mixture of these rough but vigorous children 
of the north. Such is the spectacle presented to us by the history of 
the great monarchies of Asia and of their dynasties ; that of Europe 
is scarcely less fertile in struggles of this kind. Some examples 
which I proceed to recal to your memory will be enough to convince 
you of the powerful influence of this contrast. 


See 


Contrast of the North and South. 355 


As far as the memorials of history ascend, it shews us, on the 
table-land of Iran, and in the neighbouring plains of Bactriana, one 
of the earliest civilized nations, the ancient people of Zend. The 
Zendavesta, the sacred book of their legislator, displays everywhere 
deep traces of the conflict of Iran, of the southern region, of the light 
of civilization—the good—with the Turan, the countries of the North, 
the darkness, the barbarous peoples—the evil. Who can say that 
even the idea of this dualism—of good and evil—which is the very 
foundation of the religious philosophy of Zoroaster, is not, to a cer- 
tain extent, the result of the hostile relations between two countries 
so completely different? Six centuries before Christ, the barbarous 
Scythians come down from the North, pass like a whirlwind through 
the same gate of the Khorasan upon the plateau of Iran, overrun the 
flourishing kingdom of Media, and spread themselves as far as Egypt. 
A whole generation was necessary to restore to Cyaxares his crown, 
and to efface the traces of this rude attack. In the eleventh century 
of our era, the Seldjouks—Turks,—descend from the heights of 
Bolor and Turkestan, invade first Eastern Persia, overturn the power 
of the Gaznevide Sultans, put an end to that of the Caliphs, and lord 
it over Western Asia. But nothing equals the tremendous shock 
caused through the whole of Asia by the invasion of the Mongolians. 
Issuing from their steppes and their deserts, under the conduct of 
the daring Gengis-Khan, the hero of his nation, their ferocious hordes 
spread like a devastating torrent from one end of Asia to another. 
Nothing withstands their onset; even Europe itself is threatened 
by these barbarians ; all Russia is subjected, and scarcely can the 
assembled warriors of Germany drive them back from their frontiers, 
and save the nascent civilization of the West. China herself beholds 
a succession of conquerors establish in the North a brilliant empire, 
and for the first time the two Asias are subject to one and the same 
dominant people. India alone had been spared; she yields before a 
fresh invasion, and Sultan Babur—who already is no more a barba~ 
rian—founds, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, the mighty 
Mongolian empire, which, in spite of its vicissitudes, has existed 
down to our days, and has yielded only to the power of the nations 
of civilized Europe. The history of China, lastly, is crowded with 
the struggles of the civilized people of the plain with the roving 
tribes of the neighbouring table-lands, and the last of these invasions, 
so frequent,—that of the Manchou Tartars,—has given to China its 
present rulers. 

In Europe, the war of the North against the South, though seem- 
ingly not so long continued, is not less serious. Six centuries before 
our era, bands of Celts, enticed by the attractions of the fertile coun- 
tries of the South, set forth from Gaul, under the lead of Bellovese 
and Sigovese, cross the Alps, and proceed to establish themselves in 
the smiling Plains of the Po, Other bands follow them thither, and 
found a new Gaul beyond the Alps. These impetuous children of 
the North soon press upon Etruria, and Rome, which has drawn upon 


356 Comparative Physical Geography. Pi rks 


herself their anger, suffers the penalty of her rashness. About 
390 B.C. the city was burnt, and the future mistress of the world 
wellnigh perished in her cradle, by the strong hand of the very men 
of the North whom she was destined afterwards to subject to her laws. 
A century later, these same Gauls, who find Rome victorious and 
Italy shut against them, rush upon enervated Greece, give her up 
to pillage, and, profaning the sacred temple at Delphi, announce the 
fall of Greece, and the last days of her glory and her liberty. An- 
other troop of these bold adventurers cut their way into Asia Minor ; 
they maintain themselves there, objects of terror in the land which 
bears their name, to the very moment when the power of Rome 
forced all the nations to bow beneath her iron yoke. 

A century before the birth of our Saviour, the men of the north 
are again in motion. The Cimbri and the Teutons appear at the 
gates of Italy, and spread terror even to Rome herself. Forty years 
have scarce rolled away when Rome, in her turn, assails the 
Northern world. Czesar marches to conquer the Gauls, formerly so 
terrible, and in the course of ages they are won to civilization. Thus, 
by the third gate which opens the wall of separation, the Southern 
world penetrates into that of the North. 

But a still more earnest struggle then commences. The Germans 
have preserved their native energy, and are still free. Rome is de- 
clining, and, little by little, the sources of life in that immense body 
are drying up. ‘The weaker it grows, the more the men of the 
North press upon the mighty colossus, whose head is still of iron, 
though its feet are of clay. It falls for its own happiness and that 
of humanity ; for a new sap—the fresh vitality of the Northmen— 
is to circulate through it, and soon shall it be born again, full of 
strength and life. 

You see, from the beginning to the end of history, the contrast 
of these two natures exercises its mighty influence. The struggle 
between the people of the two worlds is constant. In Asia it may 
be again renewed, for nature there is unconquerable, and the con- 
trast still exists. In Europe, the coarse struggle of brute strength 
of the early days has ended, since, culture having passed into the 
North, conquerors and conquered, civilized men and barbarians, have 
melted down into one and the same people, to rise to a civilization 
far superior to the preceding. But we behold it reappear, less ma- 
terial but not less evident, between the free and intelligent thinker, 
the Protestant of the North, and the artistic, impassioned, supersti- 
tious Catholic man of the South. 

Let us now pass to a second feature of the structure of the con- 
tinent Asia-Europe, which has almost as much weight as that we 
have just discussed. 

Long chains, extending from the North to the South, in the direc- 
tion of the meridians, the Bolor and Mount Soliman, cut at right 
angles the great east-west axis. The Bolor forms the western mar- 


ge er Oy ee a ee 


ee a 


i 


Eastern Asia. 357 


gin of the high central plateau ; the Soliman the eastern margin of 
the table-land of Iran,—the one on the north, the other on the 
south ; so that these two solid masses touch each other at their op- 
posite angles, south-west and north-east. The remarkable point 
where these high ranges intersect, and the table-land and the plains, 
spread out at their feet, touch each other, is the Hindo-Khu. These 
features of relief sever the continent into two parts, of almost equal 
extent, but of very unequal importance; Eastern Asia on the one 
side, and Western Asia and Europe on the other,—the Mongolian 
races and the White races. 

This separation is so deeply marked in nature and in the nations, 
that even the ancients, with the practical sense belonging to them, 
made a division of Asia intra Imaum and Asia extra Imaum, that 
is, Asia this side, and Asia beyond the Bolor and the Hindo-Khu, as 
they also divided the north and the south into Scythia—Nomadic 
Asia—and Asia Proper, or civilized Asia. 

Eastern Asia forms, in fact, a continent by itself alone. A vast 
pile of high lands, a plateau in the form of a trapezium, occupies the 
entire centre, and forms the principal mass. It seems to invade 
everything ; it is the prominent feature, and gives a distinctive phy- 
siognomy to the continent. It is surrounded on all sides by lofty 
ranges capped with snow, which seem, like towering ramparts, to 
guard it from attack, and to isolate it on every side. On the south 
the Himalaya, on the west the Bolor, on the north the Altai, on the 
east the Khin-gan, and the Yun-Ling form an enclosure almost un~ 
broken, the detached summits of which belong to the loftiest moun- 
tains of the earth. A small number of natural entrances lead to 
the interior, or give an exit from it. The only gate which offers 
some facility is Zungary, between the Thian-Shan and the Altai ; 
everywhere else, high and frozen passes. 

The interior of this vast enclosure is cut by numerous chains, the 
highest of which—those of the Kuenlun on the south, and of the 
the Thian-Shan on the north—are parallel to the Himalaya and 
the Altai, and divide the soil into several basins or high bot- 
toms. In all this extent, no fertile and easily cultivated plain; 
everywhere stretch the steppes, a dry and cold desert, or seas of 
drifting sand. Nevertheless, a considerable depression in Eastern 
Turkestan, where the Tarim flows, and whose bottom is marked by 
Lake Lop, allows the cultivation of the vine and the cotton-tree, at 
the foot of the Thian-Shan; but this is an exception. Apart from 
some privileged localities, nature here does not permit a regular till- 
age, and dooms the tribes of these regions to the life of shepherds 
and herdsmen,—the nomadic life. 

Around this central mass, towards the four winds of heaven, ex- 
tend, at its feet, broad and low plains, watered by the rivers pouring 
down from its heights, which rank among the largest in the world. 
On the north is the most extensive but the least important, the 


358 Comparative Physical Geography. 


frozen and barren plain of Siberia, with the streams of the Obi, the 
Jenisey, the Lena; on the east the low country of China, where meet 
and unite the two giant rivers of the Old World,—those two twin 
rivers, which, born in the same cradle, flow on to die in the same 
ocean ; on the south the plain of Hindostan, moistened by the fresh 
and abundant waters of the Himalaya, and the sacred streams of 
the Indus and the Ganges; on the west, finally, the plain of ‘Turan, 
with the two rivers of Gihon and Sihon, and its salt seas, to which 
Western Asia already lays claim. It is in these plains, with fruitful 
alluvial soil, and on the banks of these blessed rivers, that were de- 
veloped the earliest, almost the only, civilized nations belonging to 
this continent. But the warm and maritime region of the east and 
the south, connected with the rich peninsulas of India, is by far the 
most favoured of all. China and India, therefore, have given birth 
to the two great cultivated nations of Eastern Asia. 

Nevertheless, as the great central ridge swerves obliquely towards 
the south, this warm and fortunate region forms only a narrow strip, 
not to be compared in extent with the cold, and steril, and bar- 
barous world of the North. This predominates, and gives its cha- 
racter, 

Such are the distinctive features of Eastern Asia. What strikes 
us in this world of the remotest East, is its gigantic proportions. 
The loftiest mountains of the earth, the most massive table-lands, 
the most extensive plains, peninsulas which are small continents, 
rivers which have no rivals in the Old World, give to it a character 
of grandeur and majesty nowhere else to be found. But it is easily 
understood ; nowhere are the differences also so strongly drawn, so 
huge, so invincible. Nowhere is the contrast between the high lands 
and the low lands, between the heat and the cold, between the mois- 
ture and the dryness, abundance and sterility, presented on so vast a 
scale. See, by the side of the low, burning, and productive plains 
of Hindostan, 10,000 or 15,000 feet higher up, the cold and arid 
high land plain of Thibet and Tangout; by the side of China and 
its populous cities, the elevated deserts and the tents of the nomades 
of Mongolia. The differences are everywhere pushed to their utmost 
limit. 

Furthermore—and this characteristic completes the picture—the 
communications from one region to another are always difficult. 
One thoroughfare alone, the valley of the Peschawer, leads from Per- 
sia to India, and has been the highway of all the conquerors from 
Alexander to Babur and the English. No practicable road for ar- 
mies or for regular commerce unites India and China; the peninsu- 
las communicate only by sea. The passes of the Himalaya are at 
an elevation of from 10,000 to 18,000 feet; those of the Bolor are 
frozen in the middle of summer. At all times the passage of the 
plateau is a difficult and tedious undertaking, and at certain points 
almost impossible. 


7 


Eastern Civilization. 359 


Eastern Asia is, then, pre-eminently the country of contrasts, of 
isolated and strongly characterised regions; for each forms a world 
apart, and is sufficient unto itself. 

What must be the effect of this strong and massive nature upon 
the nations who live under its influence, history will inform us. 

As Eastern Asia has a physical nature which belongs especially 
to itself, so it has a particular race of men, the Mongolian race. 
We have already pointed out the external characteristics of the 
Mongolian family. With it the melancholic temperament seems to 
prevail ; the intellect, moderate in range, exercises itself upon the 
details, but never rises to the general ideas or high speculations of 
science and philosophy. Ingenious, inventive, full of sagacity for 
the useful arts and the conveniences of life, the Mongolian, never- 
theless, is incompetent to generalize their application. Wholly 
turned to the things of earth, the world of ideas, the spiritual world, 
seems closed against him. His whole philosophy and religion are 
reduced to a code of social morals, limited to the expression of those 
principles of human conscience, without the observance of which so- 
ciety is impossible. 

The principal seat of the Mongolian race is the central table-land 
of Asia. The roaming life and the patriarchal form of their socie- 
ties are the necessary consequence of the steril and avid nature of 
the regions they inhabit. In this social state, the relations and the 
ties which unite the individuals of the same nation are imposed by 
kindred, by birth—that is, by nature. Association is compulsive, 
not of free consent, as in more improved societies. Thus, the greater 
part of Eastern Asia seems doomed to remain in this inferior state 
of culture; for the whole North—Siberia and its vast areas—is 
scarcely more suited to favour the unfolding of a superior nature. 

Nevertheless, in the warm and maritime zone, in the fertile and 
happy plains of China and India, along those rivers which support 
life and abundance on their banks, nations, invited by so many ad- 
vantages, establish themselves, and fix their dwelling-places. Their 
number soon augments; they demand their support from the soil, 
which an easy tillage yields them in abundance. They become hus- 
bandmen; cultivated societies are formed; civilization rises to a 
height unknown to the tribes of the table-land. 

The Chinese, of Mongolian race, preserves, even in his civilization, 
the character as well as the social principle stamped upon his race 
by nature,—the patriarchal form. The whole nation is a large 
family ; the Emperor is the father of the family, whose absolute, des- 
potic, but benevolent power governs all things by his will alone. 
China, then, in the order of civilized nations, is the purest represen- 
tative of Eastern Asia, and shews us to what point the patriarchal 
principle of the earliest communities is compatible with a higher 
cultivation. 


360 Comparative Physical Geography. 


In India, the nations of the White race, sprung from the West, 
have founded a civilization wholly different, the character of which 
is explained at once by the primitive qualities of the race and the 
climate. 

Endowed with a higher intelligence, with a power of generaliza- 
tion, with a profound religious sentiment, the Hindoo is the oppo- 
site of the Chinese. For him the invisible world, unknown by 
the Chinese, seems alone to exist. But the influence of the cli- 
mate of the tropics gives to the intuitive faculties an exaggerated 
preponderance over the active faculties. The real, positive world 
disappears from his eyes. Thus in his literature, so rich in works 
of high philosophy, of poetry, and religion, we seek in vain for the 
annals of his history, or any treatise on science, any of those col- 
lections of observations so numerous among the Chinese. In spite 
of these defects the Hindoo civilization, compared to that of China, 
bears a character of superiority which betrays its noble origin. It 
is the civilization of the western races transported and placed under 
the influence of the East. 

But there is one characteristic common to all these civilizations of 
the uttermost East, which deserves our particular attention. Born 
in the earliest ages of the world (for without admitting,—far from 
it,—the fabulous antiquity their own traditions assign them, we may 
regard them as belonging to the most ancient in the world), they 
seem to grow rapidly at first; and, at the remotest period recorded 
by history, they have already acquired the degree of development, 
and all the leading features which distinguish them at the present 
day. Nearly 1500 years before Christ,—others say 2000,—India 
already possessed the Vedas,—those religious and philosophical 
works, which already suppose a high culture and its accompanying 
social state. Alexander finds it flourishing and brilliant still, but 
little changed; the description the historians of his conquests have 
left, is true of modern India when invaded by the English. As much 
may be said of China, whose existing condition seems to present the 
same essential features which we know it to have possessed from a 
time long before our era. Thus, these nations offer us the astonish- 
ing spectacle of civilized communities remaining perfectly stationary. 
3000 years of existence have made no essential change in their con- 
dition,—have taught them nothing,—have brought about no real 
progress,—have developed none of those great ideas, which effect, in 
the life of nations, a complete transformation. They are, as it were, 
stereotyped. 

_ What, then, has been wanting to these people, that they have not 
been favoured with a further progress? Why do they all stop short 
in the career upon which they have entered in so brilliant a manner, 
—even the Hindoos of noble race,—of the race eminently progres- 
sive ¢ 

What has been wanting to the communities of Eastern Asia 


Pera reer 


Western Asia and Europe. 361 


is the possibility of actions and re-actions upon each other, more 
intimate, more permanent; it is the possibility of a common life. 

These nations are too isolated by nature,—too opposite in race 
and character, to be able to blend in one common civilization. The 
Hindoos are separated from China by the snowy terraces of the 
Himalaya and of the Yun-Nan; from Western Asia by the high 
table-lands of Caboul. These forms of relief are too huge—the con- 
trasts resulting from them are too violent; they are unconquerable 
by man. Meantime, each of these rich districts may suffice, of it- 
self alone, for a beautiful career of improvement; their excellences, 
as well as their defects, run into excess ; nothing tempers or corrects 
them ; their character is more individual. Such is the strength of 
these civilizations, that clouds of conquerors are successively absorbed, 
without modifying them, almost without leaving a trace behind. 

But individuality is here carried to egoism. Of this very isolation 
which causes their inferiority, and which kills all progress, they make 
a conservative principle. ‘The Hindoo cannot leave his country ex- 
cept by sea: the Vedas forbid it under pain of pollution. Japan and 
China obstinately close their borders against all the nations of Europe, 
and it is only at the cannon’s mouth that the English have opened 
the gates so long shut, and forced them to the life of interchange 
which will restore them to progress and vitality. Thus, while every 
thing around them is advancing, India and China have remained sta- 
tionary. For it is not given to one people alone, any more than to 
one individual alone, to run through the whole compass of the seale of 
human progress by themselves, and without the aid of their brethren. 

Eastern Asia is, then, the continent of extreme contrasts and of 
isolated regions,—of races essentially Mongolian,—of stationary civi- 
lizations,—of the semi-historical nations. It is not there that the 
work of the development of humanity can be achieved. ; 

The second half of the Old World, in the temperate region, Western 
Asia and Europe, forms another whole, in which we are able to point 
out several common characteristics. Besides the division into a North 
and a South, on the two sides of the continental axis, the most salient 
feature is the long table-land of Iran, which stretches uninterruptedly 
from India to the extremity of Asia Minor, and even prolongs itself, 
without losing its nature, across the peninsulas of the Mediterranean, 
as far as Spain. 

From one end of these regions to the other nature wears a charac- 
ter of uniformity. Everywhere the same cretaceous and jurassic 
limestone-deposits form the greater part of the ground; everywhere 
volcanoes rise from the earth, and shake it with their convulsions. 
The climate, also, is alike; for in Asia a more southern latitude is 
counterbalanced by a greater elevation of the plateaux. The flora 
is analogous ; the cultivated plants, the fruits, the domestic animals, 
are the same, with the exception of the camel of the desert, useless 
to Europe. Finally, the white Caucasian race, the most noble, the 


362 Comparative Physical Geography. 


most intellectual of the human species, dwells there, and all the na- 
tions of progressive civilization. If we add Egypt and the vicinage 
of the Atlas, which belong to the Mediterranean, it is the true 
theatre of history, in the proper meaning of that word. Neverthe- 
less, in spite of this real community of characteristics, it is easy to 
detect, in Western Asia and Europe, certain differences not less im- 
portant, which force us to consider them still as two distinct conti- 
nents. 

In Europe, in the southern zone, the plateau loses its continuity, 
and splits into peninsulas. In the northern zone, the arid steppes 
and the deserts are changed beyond the Ural into a fertile soil, more 
elevated, well watered, covered with forests, and susceptible of culti- 
vation. The areas become gradually smaller, and the whole conti- 
nent is only a great peninsula, of which the headland, turning towards 
the west, juts out into the ocean. ‘The north-east direction of the 
continental axis, crowding the lands farther north, and the influence 
of the ocean, give it a wetter and a more temperate climate. Let 
us further examine these two portions of Asia-Europe considered in 
the historical point of view. Western Asia is placed in the middle 
portion of the continent; Asia-urope between the two extreme 
parts. Like Eastern Asia it has for its centre and prominent fea- 
ture a table-land encircled with mountains, the plateau of Iran and 
of Asia Minor ; but it is narrower, more elongated. The mountain- 
chains are less elevated, less continuous. The mountains of Kur- 
distan and of the Taurus, which edge it on the south, attain a height 
of 10,000 or 12,000 feet only at a few points, The higher 
mountains, as the Ararat, are isolated, or form a chain detached 
from the mass, like the Caucasus. We have already said that the 
north-east side is low and entirely open. The deep valley of Pesch- 
awer cuts its eastern side and opens a passage towards India. Not 
only is this plateau more accessible than that of Eastern Asia, by 
reason of these forms of relief, but very different from the latter, 
which is far from any ocean ; it is bathed at its very feet, on the four 
corners, by inland seas, which are so many new outlets. On the 
south, the Arabian Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the Mediterranean ; 
‘on the north, the Caspian, and the Black Seas. 

Low and fertile plains, watered by twin streams, stretch at the 
foot of the table-land of Iran. On the south, the plains of the 
Euphrates and the Tigris, the unequalled fertility of which ceases 
with the rich alluvial lands of those rivers; on the north, the no less 
happy plains of Bactriana, watered by the Gihon and the Sihon. 
Beyond these living rivers, the steppes of the deserts establish their 
empire. 

The climate of Western Asia no longer offers those extreme con- 
trasts which strike us in Eastern Asia. The plateau is on the south 
of the central ridge, and not on the north, and enjoys a favoured 
climate. It is less dry, more fertile ; the desert there is less con- 


Western Asia—Civilization. 363 


tinuous ; these southern plains are not under the tropics ; the dif- 
ference between the plain and the table-land is softened. 

The true Western Asia, the Asia of history, is reduced thus to a 
plateau flanked by two plains. Add the Soristan, which connects it 
with Egypt and this last-mentioned country, and you will have all 
the great countries of civilization of the centre of this continent ; on 
the north the nomades of the steppes of the Caspian, on the south 
the nomades of Arabia and its deserts form the natural limits of the 
civilized world of these countries. Compared with the east, the 
areas are less vast, the reliefs less elevated, the nature less continental, 
notwithstanding its more central position, the contrasts less strongly 
pronounced, the whole more accessible. 

Here, as we have said, is the original country of the White race, 
the most perfect in body and mind. If, taking tradition for our 
guide, we follow, step by step, the march of the primitive nations, as 
we ascend to their point of departure, it is at the very centre of this 
plateau that they irresistibly lead us. Now, it is in this central 
part also, in Upper Armenia and in Persia, if you remember, that 
we find the purest type of the historical nations. Thence we behold 
them descend into the arable plains, and spread towards all the quar- 
ters of the horizon. The ancient people of Assyria and Babylonia 
pass down the Euphrates and the Tigris into the plains of the south, 
and there unfold, perhaps, the most ancient of all human civilization. 
First, the Zend nation dwells along the Araxes, then, by the road 
of the plateau, proceeds to found, in the plains of the Oxus, one of 
the most remarkable and most mysterious of the primitive commu- 
nities of Asia. A branch of the same people, or a kindred people,— 
the intimate connection of their language confirms it,—descends into 
India, and there puts forth that brilliant and flourishing civilization 
of the Brahmins, of which we have already spoken. Arabia and the 
north of Africa receive their inhabitants by Soristan. South Europe, 
pethaps, by the same routes, through Asia Minor ; the North, finally, 
through the Caucasus, whence issue in succession, the Celts, the Ger- 
mans, and many other tribes, who hold in reserve their native vigour 
for the future destinies of this continent. There, then, is the cradle 
of the White race—at least of the historical people—if it is not that 
of all mankind. 

The civilizations of Western Asia also, as well as those of Eastern 
Asia, spring up in the alluvial plains, which are easily tilled, and 
alike connect themselves with the great rivers, and not, as in Nurope, 
with the seas. The plains of Babylonia and of Bactriana are conti- 
nental, and not maritime, like India and China. The contrasts of 
nature are still strongly expressed, but yet less so than in the east. 
There are still vast spaces, and, consequently, vast states. The re- 
ligions, the political and social condition of the people, still betray 
the influence of a nature which man has not yet succeeded in over- 
mastering. 

The civilizations are still local, and each has its special principle ; 


364 Comparative Physical Geography. 


and yet there is no more of isolation. The accessible nature of all 
these regions, as we have seen, makes contact easy, and facilitates 
their action upon each other; a blending is possible, and it takes 
place. ‘The formation of great monarchies, embracing the whole of 
Western Asia, from India to Asia Minor, from the steppes of Turan 
to the deserts of Arabia, is a fact renewed at every period of their 
history. Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, reunite successively, under the 
dominion of the same conqueror, all these various nations. But no 
one knew so well as Alexander how to break down all the fences 
which kept them apart. The lofty idea which reigned in the mind 
of that great conqueror, that of fusing together the East and the 
West, carried with it the ruin of the special civilizations of the East, 
and the universal communication of Hellenic culture, which should 
combine them in one spirit, and drew the whole of that part of the 
world into the progressive movement which Greece herself had im- 
pressed on the countries of the West. 

Egypt, alone, in her isolation, represents, up to a certain point, 
the nature of Eastern Asia. Yet she, too, was compelled to yield to 
the social and progressive spirit of Greece, which soon brought her 
into the circle of relations with the nations of the West. 

Thus the people and the civilizations of Western Asia were saved 
from the isolation and egoism so fatal to China and to India, They 
perished in appearance, but it was only to sow among the very na- 
tions who were their conquerors, the prolific seeds of a fairer growth, 
of which the future should gather the fruits. 

Europe, in her turn, has a character quite special, the principal 
features of which we have already pointed out in a former Lecture. 
Although constructed upon the same fundamental plan with the two 
Asias, it is only the peninsular headland of all this continent. Here 
are no more of those gigantesque forms of Eastern Asia, no more of 
those boundless spaces, no more of those obstacles against which the 
forces of man are powerless, of those contrasts which sunder the op- 
posite natures, even to incompatibility. The areas contract and shrink; 
the plateaux and the mountains are lowered, and the continent opens 
on all sides. None of those mortal deserts to cross,—none of those 
impassable mountain chains, which imprison the nations. From the 
foot of Italy to the North-Cape, from the coasts of the Atlantic to 
the shores of the Caspian, there is no obstacle which a little art may 
not overcome without. much effort. The whole continent is more 
accessible, it seems more wieldy, better fashioned for man. 

And yet, all the contrasts of both Asias exist, but they are soft- 
ened, tempered. There is a Northern world, and a Southern world, 
but they are less different, less hostile; their climates are more 
alike. Instead of the tropical plains of India, we find there the 
fields of Lombardy ; instead of the Himalaya, the Alps; instead 
of the plateaux of Thibet, those of Bavaria. The contrasts are even 
more varied, more numerous still. The table-land of the South is 


a ee 


7 
h 


Europe fitted for Improvement of Man. 365 


broken up into peninsulas and islands; Greece and its archipelago, 
Italy and its isles, Spain and its sierras, are so many new individuals, 
exciting each other reciprocally to animation, The ground is every- 
where cut and crossed by chains of mountains, moulded in a thousand 
fashions, in such a way as to present, within the smallest possible 
space, the greatest number of districts physically independent. 

Add to all these advantages that of a temperate climate, rather 
cold than hot, requiring of men more labour and effort, and you 
will be satisfied that nature is nowhere better suited to exalt man, 
by the exertion of his powers, to the grandeur of his destination. 

Nevertheless, the earliest civilized societies do not spring up in 
Europe ; she is too far removed from the cradle of the nations, and 
the beginnings are less easy there. But these first difficulties once 
overcome, civilization grows and prospers with a vigour unknown 
to Asia. In Asia it is in the great plains, on the banks of the 
rivers, that civilization first shews itself. In Europe, it is on the 
peninsulas and the margin of the seas. 

Europe is thus the continent most favoured, considered with re- 
spect to the education of man, and the wise discipline it exercises 
upon him. More than any other it calls into full play his latent 
forces. which cannot appear and display themselves except by their 
own activity. Nowhere can man better learn to subdue nature, 
and make her minister to his ends. No continent is more fitted, 
by the multiplicity of the physical regions it presents, to bring into 
being, and to raise up, so many different nations and peoples. 

But it is not alone for the individual education of each people 
that Europe excels; it is still more admirably adapted than any 
other continent to favour the mutual relations of the countries with 
each other ; to increase their reciprocal influence, to stimulate them 
to mutual intercourse. The smallness of the areas, the near neigh- 
bourhood, the midland seas thick strown with islands, the perme- 
ability of the entire continent— pardon me the word—everything con- 
spires to establish between the European nations that community 
of life and of civilization which forms one of the most essential and 
precious characteristics of their social state. 

Awerica, finally, the third continent of the North, presents itself 
to us under an aspect entirely different. We are already acquainted 
with its structure, founded on a plan widely departing from that of 
Asia-Europe ; we know that its characteristic is simplicity, unity. 
Add to this feature, its vast extents, its fruitful plains, its number- 
less rivers, the prodigious facility of communication, nowhere im- 
peded by serious obstacles, its oceanic position, finally, and we shall 
see that it is made, not to give birth and growth to a new civiliza- 
tion, but to receive one ready made, and to furnish fourth for man, 
whose education the Old World has completed, the most magnificent 
theatre, the scene most worthy of his activity. It is here that all 
the peoples of Europe may meet together with room enough to move 


VOL. XLVII. NO. XCIV.—-OCTOBER 1849. 2B 


366 Dr Balfour’s Description of Rare Plants. 


in ; may commingle their efforts and their gifts, and carry out upon 
a scale of grandeur hitherto unknown, the life-giving principle of 
modern times—the principle of free association. 

The internal contrasts which assisted the development of the 
nations in their infancy and youth, exist not here; they would be 
useless. They are reduced to two general contrasts, which will pre- 
serve their importance ; the coast and interior on one side, and the 
North and the South on the other. The last will be further softened 
down, when slavery, that fatal heritage of another age, which the 
Union still drags after it, as the convict drags his chain and ball, 
shall have disappeared from this free soil, freed in the name of 
liberty and Christian brotherhood, as it has disappeared from the 
fundamental principles of its law. 

Thus America also seems invited, by its physical nature, and by 
its position, to play a part in the history of humanity. very‘different 
indeed from that of Asia and Europe, but not less glorious, not less 
useful to all mankind—(Arnold Guyot's Physical Geography, 
p- 249.* 


On the Aconitum ferox, Wall., which has recently flowered 
in the Garden of the Edinburgh Horticultural Society. By 
J. H. Batrour, M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the 
University of Edinburgh. (With a Plate.) Communicated 
by the Author. 


ACONITUM FEROX, Wallich apud Seringe Mus. Helvet. i., 
p. 160, t. 15, f. 43, 44; Plant. Asiat. Rar. vol. i, p. 35, 
t.41. De Candolle Prod. i., 64; Royle Flor. Himal., 
p- 46, 47; A. virosum, Don. Prod. Flor. Nepal., p. 196. 

Nat. Ord. Ranunculacee, Sub.-Ord. Helleborex, Class 
Polyandria, Ord. Tri-Pentagynia. 


Generic Cuaracter.—Calya coloratus, pentaphyllus, foliolis zs- 
tivatione imbricatis, valde inzequalibus, postico (galea) maximo, 
concayo, cassideformi, duobus lateralibus (alis) orbiculatis, duobus 
anticis oblongis. Corolle petala quinque vel interdum pauciora, 
tria antica minima, unguiformia, sepius in stamina conversa, duo 
postiea (cuculli) sub galea ineumbentia, longe unguiculata, basi 
eucullata, cucullo superne calloso, ineurvo, basi in limbum ob- 
longum emarginatum producto. Stamina plurima, hypogyna. 


* We trust that ere long a British edition of this remarkable volume, with 
illustrative seetions and maps, will be added to our literature.— Editor. 


Dr Balfour’s Description of Rare Plants. 367 


Ovaria 3-5 libera, unilocularia. Ovulis ad suturam ventralem 
plurimis biseriatis. Capsule folliculares, membranacee, stylis 
rostrate, intus longitudinaliter dehiscentes. Semia rugosa, testa 
crassiuscula, spongiosa, raphe valida.—Herbe perennes, vene- 
nate, in Hemisphere Borealis temperatis et frigidis, montanis 
et alpinis obvie ; radicibus tuberosis, tuberibus nunc fibrilliferis, 
f nunc napiformibus ; foliis petiolatis, palmatim tri-quinque par- 
titis, lobis inciso-dentatis vel multifidis; racemis terminalibus, 
pedicellis ¢ bractearum axillis solitariis, wnifloris, bibracteolatis ; 
floribus ochroleucis, ceruleis purpureis vel albis. Endlicher. 
Sprciric CHaracter.—Floribus racemosis, paniculatis, villosis ; 


2 Eee 


galea semicirculari, antice acute porrecta, deorsum attenuata ; cu- 
cullorum sacco longo, angusto, caleare inclinato, labio elongato, 
recurvo ; filamentis alatis, subsagittatis, ciliatis ; ovariis, capsulis, 
ramisque villosis; foliis quinquepartito-palmatis, subtus pubes- 
centibus, lobis inciso-pinnatifidis, basi cuneatis, lobulis acutis 
divaricatis. 

The plant has been found in the Himalaya at Gossain Than, at Sir- 
more and Kamaon, and on the summit of Sheopore in Nipal. It oc- 
cupies the highest situation in the forest-belt investing the sides 
of the Himalaya. It flowers during the rainy season, and perfects 
its fruit in October and November. The name of the plant in 
Sanscrit is Visha, which means poison, and Ativisha, or virulent 
poison. In Hindustanee it is called Vish, Bish, or Bikh. It was 
introduced into the Saharunpore garden by Dr Royle, and the 
present specimen was raised from seeds sent by the energetic and 
talented superintendent, Dr William Jameson, nephew of Pro- 
fessor Jameson. 

The specimen in the Horticultural Society’s Garden (where it has 
flowered under Mr Evans's care), is about five feet high. Root 
perennial, having 2-3 fasciculated fusiform attenuated tubers, 
some of the recent ones being nearly 5 inches long and 1} inch in 
circumference, dark-brown externally, white within, sending off 
sparse longish branching fibres. Stem erect, nearly round, about 
the thickness of a swan quill, attenuated upwards, smooth at the 
lower part, pubescent above where it gives off flowering branches. 
Leaves alternate, remote, deep-green above, smooth and furrowed 
in the course of the ribs, paler below, covered with minute vesi- 
cular-like spots, and haying prominent radiating veins, which 
form a beautiful angular net-work; lower and middle leaves 
petiolate, upper ones sessile; petioles varying in length, shorter 
than the lamina, smooth, deeply furrowed above, especially near 


368 Dr Balfour’s Description of Rare Plants. 


the lamine, slightly swollen where they join the stem; lamina 
orbiculato-cordate in circumscription, palmate, deeply five-lobed, 
lobes incised, lobules toothed, ending in sharp points. Bracts 
trifid, the divisions being cut or entire, two empty alternate brac- 
teoles occurring about the middle of each single-flowered pedicel. 
Inflorescence laxly panicled, the peduncles and pedicels being 
erect, swollen upwards and covered with a glandular pubescence. 
Receptacle of the flower swollen and oblique. dstivation im- 
bricate. Flowers large, blue. Calyw covered with glandular 
pubescence, helmet-shaped sepal gibbously-semicircular, prolonged 
in front into a short greenish point, which is turned upwards, two 
lateral sepals (wings) rounded, reniform with reflexed margins, 
lower sepals oblong, acute, deflexed, spreading, one usually larger 
than the other, occasionally three. Petals varying in size and 
form, upper ones cuculliform with scattered hairs and having 
narrowed grooved stalks ending in hollow incuryed lamine, which 
have their apices prolonged in a reflexed manner, other petals 
either wanting or mere filiform processes. Stamens indefinite. Fi- 
laments hairy, thickened below where they are margined with a 
broadish membrane. <Anthers 2-lobed, with longitudinal dehi- 
scence. Ovaries five, villous. Style single. Stigma obscurely 
2-lobed. Ovules numerous, somewhat angular and winged, rugose. 
Fruit follicular, follicles oblong, villous, reticulated. Seeds 
black and pitted. 

The specimen does not agree completely, more especially as regards 
the form of the leaves, with the figure in Wallich’s Plante Asia- 
tice Rariores. The variation may depend on situation, for Wal- 
lich remarks, that on Sheopore in Nipal, where he gathered the 
plant at the height of 10,000 feet, it was a smaller, more slender, 
and smoother plant than in other parts of India, with an almost 
simple stem, narrow segments of the leaves, and thin racemes. 
As it approaches higher elevations, towards the Snowy Moun- 
tains, it attains a larger size and habit, and is covered with soft 
greyish hairs, the divisions of the leaves become broader, the 
spikes larger, and the flowers more dense and numerous. 

In Dr Hamilton’s herbarium, in the University of Edinburgh, there 
are certain species of Aconite which are marked Caltha? The 
first, No. 1247, is called Bisma, Bishma, or Bikhma, Snowy 
Mountains, 1810. The second, No. 1248, Nirbisia, Nirbishi, or 
Nirbikhi, Snowy Mountains, 1810; pointed oat by the moun- 
taineers as a very poisonous root. There is a third in the cata- 
logue, No. 1249, marked Codoa, Kodoya, Bish, or Bikh. This 
last, according to Dr Wallich’s statement, is Aconitum ferox. The 


Dr Balfour’s Description of Rare Plants. 369 


specimen, however, is not to be found in Dr Hamilton’s herba- 
rium at present. 

The root of the plant possesses extreme acrimony, and very marked 
narcotic properties. It is said to be the most poisonous of the 
genus, and as such has been employed in India. Wallich says, 
that in the Turraye, or low forest lands which skirt the approach 
to Nipal, and among the lower range of hills, especially at a 
place called Hetounra, quantities of the bruised root were thrown 
into wells and reservoirs, for the purpose of poisoning our men 
and cattle. By the vigilant precaution of our troops, however, 
these nefarious designs were providentially frustrated. In the 
northern parts of Hindustan, arrows poisoned with the root of 
Bikh are used for destroying tigers. The root, according to 
Royle, is sent down into the plains, and used in the cure of 
chronic rheumatism, under the name of Meetha tellia. Roots, 
apparently of this plant, were sent to Dr Christison from Madras 
under the name of Nabee. Pereira made a series of experiments 
on roots of Bikh, which had been kept for ten years in Dr Wal- 
lich’s herbarium. These experiments are detailed in the Journal 
of Natural and Geographical Science for 1830, vol. ii., p. 235. 
The roots were administered to animals in the form of powder, and 
spirituous and watery extract. The spirituous extract was the 
most energetic. The poison was introduced into the stomach, 
the jugular vein, the cavity of the peritonzum, and the cellular 
tissue of the back. The effects produced were difficulty of breath- 
ing, weakness, and subsequently paralysis, which generally shewed 
itself first in the posterior extremities, vertigo, convulsions, dila- 
tation of the pupil, and death apparently from asphyxia. One 
grain of the alcoholic extract, introduced into the peritoneal sac of 
a small rabbit, caused death in 94 minutes ; and a similar quan- 
tity, introduced into the cellular tissue of the left lumbar region, 
proved fatal in 15 minutes. Two grains and a half of the same 
extract, introduced into the jugular vein of a strong dog, caused 
death in 3 minutes. 


Explanation of Plate V. 


The beautiful drawing has been executed by Mr James M‘Nab, Super- 
intendent of the Royal Botanic Garden. 

1. Part of a flowering panicle of Aconitum ferox. 2. Five-lobed pal- 
mate leaf. 3. Peduncle and bracts, receptacle, stamens, and the two cucul- 
liform petals. 4. A single cuculliform petal separated. 5. Five fol- 
licles forming the fruit. 


( 370 ) 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


METEOROLOGY AND HYDROLOGY. 


1. Fire-Ball at Bombay.—On the evening of Monday the 19th 
February, about half-past six o’clock, just as the sun had set, and twi- 
light was yet strong, a magnificent fire-ball was seen to shoot across 
the island from south-west to north-east, and burst over the moun- 
tain range beyond. It was so large, so luminous, and so rapid in 
its movements, that it appeared to many as if within a hundred feet 
or so of the ground, It was of the most beautiful greenish-white, of 
dazzling splendour ; on bursting, the fragments were of a strong, 
rather darkish, red. It was seen over the whole of the island of 
Bombay, and at almost every intermediate part for some 300 miles 
into the interior. It appears to have been at a great elevation, and, 
as suggested by a Poonah correspondent, was probably some hundreds 
of miles from the nearest spectator when first seen. The volume of 
the mass, the length of its course, and the velocity with which it 
rushed along, may from this be imagined. As above observed, when 
first seen at Bombay it appeared as if nearly over the dockyard; in 
this all the observers who noticed it in different parts of the island 
concur. Curiously enough, we have not been favoured witha single 
notice of it from any one on board the ships in the harbour; from 
the anchorage we have no doubt it would also appear to the east- 
ward, At Poonah, lat. 18° 30’ N., long. 72° 2’ E., it was observed 
at a quarter-past six at the altitude of about 30° ; it was visible from 
Poorundhur, twenty-six miles east of Poonah. It was observed at 
Aurungabad, lat. 19° 45’ N., long. 75° 30’ E.. as if to the south ; 
and from Sholapore, lat. 17° 40’ N., long. 76° E., where its appear- 
ance was most carefully described as seen in a north-easterly direc- 
tion. It was also carefully observed at Surat, 21° 11’ N., 73° 7’ E. 
It has thus been described as visible over an area of above 3° of 
longitude and 2° of latitude—from Bombay, 18° 53’ N., and 
72° 49’ E., to Sholapore and Aurungabad ; though in all likelihood 
it may have been observed over a much more extensive area than 
this, from which as yet no observations have reached us. From the 
explosions heard at Aurungabad it is possible that in this neighbour- 
hood it burst. We have already alluded to the very great interest 
attached to notices of matters such as these, and our anxiety on all 
occasions to be furnished with them. With a few more notices such 
as those given below, we should very probably obtain the means of 
guessing very nearly at the distance and velocity, and course pursued 
by fire-balls. As we have now had abundance of time to have heard 
from the most remote of our outstations, and our friends have been 
obliging enough to respond so extensively as they have done to our 
call for information, we infer that the meteor was not visible much 


Scientific Intelligence— Hydrology. 371 


to the southward of Sholapore or northward of Surat, or greatly to 
the westward of Bombay or eastward of Asseerghur—that is, be- 
twixt the parallels of 17° and 22° and meridians of 72° and 77°, or 
over an area of 300 miles north and south, and as much east and 
west, or 90,000 square miles in all. The western margin of this 
space for about 30 miles is a little above the level of the sea ; the 
eastern portion for about 250 miles varies in elevation from 1900 to 
2000 feet.—(From the Bombay Monthly Times, March 1849.)* 

2. Great mass of Atmospheric Ice.—A curious phenomenon oc- 
curred at the farm of Balvullich, on the estate of Ord, occupied by 
Mr Moffat, on the evening of Monday last. Immediately after one 
of the loudest peals of thunder heard there, a large and irregular- 
shaped mass of ice, reckoned to be nearly 20 feet in circumference, 
and of a proportionate thickness, fell near the farm-house. It had 
a beautiful crystalline appearance, being nearly all quite transparent, 
if we except a small portion of it which consisted of hailstones of un- 
common size, fixed together. It was principally composed of small 
squares, diamond-shaped, of from 1 to 3 inches in size, all firmly con- 
gealed together. The weight of this large piece of ice could not be 
ascertained ; but it is a most fortunate circumstance, that it did not 
fall on Mr Moffat’s house, or it would have crushed it, and undoubt- 
edly have caused the death of some of the inmates. No appearance 
whatever of either hail or snow was discernible in the surrounding dis- 
trict.—(Ross-shire Advertiser.—Scotsman, August 11, 1849.) 

3. Report on the Air and Water of Towns. By Dr Smith 
(Pro. Brit. Assoc.)—In commencing his report, the author says, 
it has long been believed that air and water have the most im- 
portant influence on health, and superstitions have therefore con- 
stantly attached themselves to receptacles of the one, and ema- 
nations from the other. The town has always been found to differ 
from the country; this general feeling is a more decisive experi- 
ment than any that can be made in a laboratory. The author 
proceeds to examine all the sources from which the air or water can 
be contaminated. The various manufactories of large towns, the 
necessary conditions to which the inhabitants are subjected, and 
the deteriorating influences of man himself are explained. If 
air be passed through water, a certain amount of the organic 
matter poured off from the lungs is to be detected in it. By 
continuing this experiment for three months, Dr Smith detected 
sulphuric acid, chlorine, and a substance resembling impure albumen. 
These substances are constantly being condensed upon cold bodies ; 
and, in a warm atmosphere, the albuminous matter very soon putri- 
fies, and emits disagreeable odours. The changes which this sub- 
stance undergoes by oxidation, &c., were next examined, and shewn 


* Mr Dawson's account of the halo observed at Pictou, Nova Scotia, arrived 
too late ; but will appear in our next, with an engraving.— Edit. 


372 Scientific Intelligence— Hydrology. 


to give rise to carbonic acid, ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen, and 
probably other gases. The ammonia generated, fortunately from the 
same sources as the sulphuretted hydrogen, materially modifies its 
influences. The consequences of the varying pressure of the atmo- 
sphere have been observed; and it is shewn, that the exhalations of 
sewers, &c., are poured out in abundance from every outlet where the 
barometric pressure is lowered. By collecting the moisture of a 
crowded room, by means of cold glasses, and also dew in the open 
air, it was found that one was thick, oily, and smelling of perspira- 
tion, capable of decomposition and production of animalcules and 
confervee,—but the dew beautifully clear and limpid. Large quan- 
tities of rain-water have frequently been collected and examined by 
Dr Smith; and he says, I am now satisfied that dust even comes 
down with the purest rain, and that is simply coal-ashes. No doubt 
this accounts for the quantity of sulphites and chlorides in the rain, 
and for the soot, which are the chief ingredients. The rain is also 
often alkaline,—arising, probably, from the ammonia of burnt coal, 
which is no doubt a valuable agent for neutralizing the sulphuric 
acid so often formed. The rain-water of Manchester is about 23° of 
hardness,—harder, in fact, than the water from the neighbouring 
hills, which the town intends to use. This can arise only from the 
ingredients obtained in the town atmosphere ; but the most curious 
point is the fact, that organic matter is never absent, although the 
rain continues for whole days. The state of the air is closely con- 
nected with that of the water ; what the air contains the water may 
absorb,—what the water has dissolved or absorbed it may give out 
to the air. The enormous quantity of impure matter, filtering from 
all parts of a large town into its many natural and artificial outlets, 
does at first view present us with a terrible picture of our under- 
ground sources of water; but, when we examine the soil of a town, 
we do not find the state of matters to present that exaggerated 
character which we might suppose. The sand at the Chelsea Water- 
works contains only 1:48 per cent. of organic matter, after being used 
for weeks. In 1627, Liebig found nitrates in twelve wells in Gies- 
sen, but none in wells two or three hundred yards from the town, 
Dr Smith has examined thirty wells in Manchester, and he finds 
nitrates in them all. Many contained a surprising quantity, and 
were very nauseous. The examination of various wells in the me- 
tropolis shewed the constant formation of nitric acid; and, in many 
wells, an enormous quantity was detected. It was discovered that 
all organic matter, in filrating through the soil, was very rapidly 
oxidized. ‘lhe presence of the nitrates in the London water pre- 
vents the formation of any vegetable matter; no vegetation can be 
detected, even by a microscope, after a long period. The Thames 
water has been examined, from near its source to the metropolis, and 
an increasing amount of impurity detected. In the summary to this 
report, Dr Smith states, that the pollution of air in crowded rooms is 


Scientific Intelligence—Hydrology. 373 


really owing to organic matter, and not merely carbonic acid,—that 
all the water of great towns contains organic matter,—that water 
purifies itself from organic matter in various ways, but particularly 
by converting into nitrates,—that water can never stand long with 
advantage unless on a large scale, and should be used when collested 
or as soon as filtered. 

4. On the Dilatation of Ice by Increase of Temperature.—Three 
observers have undertaken to solve this problem by independent trials 
made in the Observatory of Poulkowa. They have found that the 
linear dilatation of the ice for 80° R. is 


0:0052356 (M. Schumacher sen.). 
0°0051270 (M. Pohrt). 
0-0051813 (M. Moritz). 


The probable error in this latter determination does not exceed 
= 0:0000190. It is a result so much the more important in the 
science of caloric, since the only estimate hitherto known on the 
same subject (that of Placide Heinrich) is almost five times more 
considerable. 

The observations made at Poulkowa shew that the dilatation of 
the ice is a simple linear function of temperature, and that it is 
equal for all possible directions in a block of ice. 

The quantity of atmospheric carbonic acid increases until we reach 
a height of 3365°8 metres; at that elevation is the limit of a con- 
stant maximum. Farther, at greater heights, the variations in quan- 
tity of carbonic acid are less considerable than in lower places. The 
immediate glacier atmosphere contains less carbonic acid than the 
neighbourhood. The ascending currents of air have a greater influ- 
ence in the distribution of carbonic acid than the common winds. 

5. The Buoyancy of the Water of the Dead Sea.—About sunset, 
we tried whether a horse and a donkey could swim in the sea (the 
Dead Sea) without turning over. The result was, that, although the 
animals turned a little on one side, they did not lose their balance. 
As Mr Stephens tried his experiment earlier in the season, and 
nearer the north end of the sea; his horse could not have turned 
over from the greater density of the water there than here. His 
animal may have been weaker, or, at the time, more exhausted than 
ours. A muscular man floated nearly breast-high, without the least 
exertion. 

A horse taken into the bay could, with difficulty, keep himself 
upright. Two fresh hen-eggs floated up one-third of their length. 
They would have sunk in the water of the Mediterranean or the At- 
lantic. 

The water of the sea was very buoyant; with great difficulty I 
kept my feet down; and when I laid upon my back, and, drawing 
up my knees, placed my hands upon them, I rolled immediately 
over. 


374 Scientific Intelligence—Geology. 


Tried the relative density of the water of this sea and of the At- 
lantic,—the latter from 25° N. latitude, and 52° W. longitude ; dis- 
tilled water being as 1. The water of the Atlantic was 1:02, and 
of this sea 1:13. The last dissolved p,, the water of the Atlantic 3, 
and the distilled water ;°, of its weight of salt. The salt used was 
a little damp. On leaving the Jordan, we carefully noted the 
draught of the boats. With the same loads, they drew 1 inch less 
water when afloat on this sea than in the river.* (Expedition to the 
Dead Sea and the Jordan. By W. F. Lynch.) 

6. Currents in the Gut of Gibraltar.—Some curious investigations 
have been for some time carried on in the Gut of Gibraltar, by M. 
Coupvent des Bois. He has proved, as a certainty, the existence of 
a superficial current flowing from the ocean into the Mediterranean, 
and of a deep under current flowing from the Mediterranean into the 
ocean. He has also ascertained that between these two currents 
there exists a bed of water which is in perfect repose.—(Atheneum, 


No. 1138, p. 842.) 


GEOLOGY. 
7. Barrande on the Trilobites of Bohemia.—Sir Roderick Mur- 


chison has recently received a letter from M. Barrande of Prague, 
who is preparing a work on the Silurian System of Bohemia, 
and who in studying the numerous trilobites which he has col- 
lected in that country, has made a remarkable discovery in respect 
to these the most ancient fossil crustaceans in the crust of the 
globe. M. Barrande has traced for the first time the develop- 
ment of a trilobite (his Sao hirsuta) from its embryonary state 
to its adult condition ; and has observed twenty successive stages, 
during which this one species undergoes very remarkable changes 
of organization, passing from a simple disc-like body to a fully 
formed trilobite with seventeen free thoracic segments and two 
caudal joints. This discovery is not only most interesting to phy- 
siologists, but highly important to geologists, as diminishing the num- 
ber of the so-called species ; it being ascertained that in a work re- 
cently published by MM. Hawle and Corda upon the trilobites of Bo- 
hemia, the authors made no less than ten genera and eighteen species 
out of a part only by the stages of metamorphosis of the Sao her- 
suta (Barr.)—(A theneum, No. 1132, p. 696, 7th July 1849.) 

8. The Fossil Foot-marks of the United States, and the Ani- 
mals that made them. By Edward Hitchcock, D.D., LL.D., 
President of Amherst College, and Professor of Natural Theology 
and Geology. (From the Transactions of the American Academy 


* Since our return, some of the water of the Dead Sea has been subjected to 
a powerful microscope, and no animalcule or vestige of animal matter could 
be detected. 


Scientific Intelligence— Mineralogy. 375 


of Arts and Sciences, 2d Ser., vol. iii. Boston, 1848.‘—This elabo- 
rate memoir extends to 128 pages quarto, and is illustrated by 24 
plates, together with a large table, giving a general view of the dis- 
tinctive characters of the species. The learned author has pursued 
the course usual in paleontology, of distinguishing the genera and 
species of the animals indicated by the fossil remains, and naming 
them accordingly. Although the remains are but foot-marks, they 
point out, under the guidance of the unerring principles of compara- 
tive anatomy, the habits of several animals, the classes to which 
they pertain, and the peculiarities, to some extent, of the species. 
These characters have been seized, and upon them the descriptions 
and names are based. 451 species are included in the memoir, 12 of 
which are of quadrupeds, 4 probably of lizards, 2 chelonian, 6 ba- 
trachian, 2 annelids or molluscs, 34 bipeds, 3 doubtful; and of the 
bipeds 8 were thick-toed tridactylous birds, 16 were narrow-toed 
tridactylous or tetradactylous birds, 2 were batrachian, and the re- 
maining 8 either birds or reptiles, and probably the latter. We 
have to defer to our next number a farther account of the genera 
and species.—(American Journal of Science and Arts, vol. viii., 
No. 22, 2d Series, July 1849, p. 151.) 

9. Fossil Foot-marks of a Reptilian Quadruped below Coal. 
—At a late hour we have received the following letter from Mr 
Isaac Lea (dated Philadelphia, June 17), on Foot-prints in Pennsyl- 
vania in rock below the coal; a further notice is necessarily deferred 
to our next number :—“I am sure it will greatly interest you to 
Jearn that it has been my good fortune to have discovered ‘ fossil 
foot-marks’ of a reptilian quadruped in the series below any here- 
tofore observed. In a late visit to the southern coal-field of Penn- 
sylvania, while making some geological investigations, I found six 
distinct double impressions in regular progression, in the old red 
sandstone. These were accompanied by numerous ‘ ripple-marks,’ 
and ‘ pits of rain-drops,’ over the whole exposed surface of the rock. 
The lowest heretofore observed, I believe, are of the Cheirotherium, 
described by Dr King in the coal-formation near Greensburg Pa., 
and those mentioned by Dr Logan in the same formation of Nova 
Scotia. The name I have proposed for this reptile is Sauwropus 
primevus.”—(American Journal of Science and Arts, vol. viii., 


2d Series, No. 22, p. 160.) 


MINERALOGY. 


10. Emery Formation of Asia Minor. By J. Lawrence Smith. 
—The following communication, received in a letter from Dr Smith, 
dated Constantinople, January 5, 1849, is a translation of a com- 
munication addressed by him to Elie de Beaumont, 

“These lines are written with reference to an extract of a letter 
from M. Pierre de Tchihatcheff, published in the Comptes Rendus 
de Académie des Sciences, the 20th March 1848. It is only 
lately that my attention was attracted by this letter, more especially 


376 Scientific Intelligence—Mineralogy. 


by the last’ phrase (‘ I have communicated all the necessary indica- 
tions to Mr Lawrence Smith, American mineralogist in the service 
of the Porte, and he proposes to develop my discovery’); because, 
in reading this it would appear that I was entirely ignorant of the 
existence of the emery alluded to, in Asia Minor, and that the first 
information given me was by M. Tchihatcheff, on returning from 
his voyage in December 1847. I wish in no way to affect his right 
to the observations upon the emery which he found between Eski- 
hissar and Melas, in December 1847, situated more southerly than 
any of the localities to which my own observations had extended ; 
but I am equally desirous to have my own discoveries attributed 
to me. 

“It was in the month of November 1846 that a merchant in 
Smyrna shewed me specimens of emery, said to come from Kula 
(about 80 miles east of Smyrna). The importance of this mineral 
led me, early in 1847, to visit Smyrna for the purpose of investigat- 
ing this matter. On my second visit to this city I was shewn other 
specimens coming from the neighbourhood of Ephesus, and which, 
being nearer than Kula, I at once visited. About 12 miles to the 
east of Ephesus, near to the village of Gumuchkeny, and on the 
summit of Gumuchdagh, I discovered emery in situ; however, be- 
fore arriving there, I saw this same mineral more or less scattered 
over the country. The Turkish Government, to whom I communi- 
cated the importance of this discovery, sent a commission with me 
to examine the region in the month of May 1847, a fact which was 
announced publicly in the Journal of Constantinople, the 16th May 
1847, in the following words :—‘ It is some time since Monsieur le 
Docteur Smith, American mineralogist, of whom we have had fre- 
quent occasion to speak, discovered at Magnesia, near to Gumuch- 
keny, an emery mine, and of which he brought specimens to Con- 
stantinople. The Government has sent to the place a commission 
composed of Dr Smith and some of the officers of the Imperial 
Powder Works, to examine thoroughly into the importance of this 
mine, and, according to the report that will be made, the Govern- 
ment will decide on the steps to be taken with reference to it,’ &c. 

* On our return, and after we had made our report on the develop- 
ment of the emery formation in three distinct places, distant from 
each other, to wit, in Gumuchdagh ; near to Kula; and to the north 
of Smyrna; the monopoly of this mineral was offered for sale, and 
purchased first by Mr Latigdon of Smyrna, and subsequently by the 
house of Abbott and Company, for the sum of 12,000,000 piastres 
per annum (55,000 dollars), and about the month of August some 
800 tons from the summit of Gumuchdagh were in England. Thus 
when M. Tchihatcheff thought to have discovered this emery for 
the first time in situ, in December 1847, and when he wrote to you 
the following words :—‘ The brilliant prospect that Asia Minor pre- 
sents in reference to this mineral, and which I am happy to have 
first pointed out, &c.,’ and at the end,—‘I have communicated the 


Scientific Intelligence—Mineralogy. O17 


necessary indications to Mr Lawrence Smith, American mineral- 
ogist in the service of the Porte, who proposes to develop my dis- 
covery ;’—I say, when this was written to you, already nearly a year 
had expired since I had made the discovery ; it was publicly known 
by the announcement in the Journal of Constantinople, the 16th 
May 1847, and the “ brilliant prospect?’ was already appreciated by 
the Turkish Government, and 800 tons from the summit of Gumuch- 
dagh were in England. Wherefore I claim the priority of the 
discovery of emery in Asia Minor in situ, and to have been the first 
to have made known publicly this discovery to the scientific world. 

The reason why I did not make this discovery known to the scientific 
world was because I intended to make a complete memoir on this sub- 
ject after an examination of certain points which is not yet finished ; I 
will mention only one or two to which my investigations have led 
me ; they are the discovery of the existence of the oxide of zirconium 
in emery, and of a new mineral that I have found associated with 
emery coming from all the localities of Asia Minor and of Naxos. 
It is a micaceous mineral having for composition silex 30, alumina 
50, zirconia 4, lime 13, oxide of iron, manganese, and potash 8. I 
have decided to call it Emerylite, and to give at some future time a 
full description of it. 

‘One word upon the aspect of emery, which M. Tchihatcheff has 
compared to the hydrated oxide of iron. In all my observations I 
have not yet seen a specimen that can be compared to this oxide, even 
at first sight it resembles more nearly the protoxide, the silicates, 
and anhydrous oxides of iron. The fracture is irregular, except in 
a species of inferior quality from Gumuchdagh, which has a con- 
choidal fracture, and the aspect of black limestone. I have made 
other observations more or less interesting, but I reserve them for 
another time.” —(American Journal of Science and Arts, 2d Series, 
vol. vii., No. 20, p. 283.)* 

11. Chrome and Mecerschaum of Asia Minor ; By J. Lawrence 
Smith. (Communicated with the preceding.)}—In my journey to 
the south of Broosa (Anatoly, Asia Minor), I crossed a forma- 
tion of serpentine and other magnesian rocks of considerable ex- 
tent. Fifty miles from this I discovered chromate of iron dis- 
seminated in these rocks; and ten or fifteen miles further south 
(near the city of Harmanjick), there is an abundant deposit of 
this mineral. A circumstance worthy of remark, is, that this 
chromate of iron (the first that has been discovered in Asia Minor) 
is found in serpentine as elsewhere. This important fact can ex- 
plain, to a certain extent, the formation of this chromate. It is 
well known that serpentine contains all the elements of chromate 
of iron, which, during the consolidation of this rock, might separate 
themselves by the force of segregation, so well known to operate in 


%* It is to be regretted that Mr Smith does not give an intelligible descrip- 
tion of his emery.— Lditor Hd. Phil. Jour. d 


378 Scientific Intelligence— Mineralogy. 


many geological phenomena. Two facts, which seem to confirm this 
supposition, are, first, the existence of the chromate of iron in masses, 
and not in veins; and, secondly, the pale colour of the serpentine 
associated with the chromate. One small specimen that I have, con- 
sists of a white rock, composed principally of carbonate of magnesia, 
in which small specks of chromate of iron are visible. It is possible 
that this carbonate is the result of the decomposition of the serpentine 
at the surface, by the action of water containing carbonic acid. It 
is only at this locality that I found crystals of the chromate, octahe- 
dral, but very small. 

This discovery is of great importance to the arts, and to the 
Turkish government, which proposes exploring the mine. 

In quitting the locality of chrome, and going north-east, I tra- 
versed, in several places, the serpentine containing veins of carbonate 
of magnesia, quite pure; and this occurs until we arrive at the 
plains of Eskihi-sher, It is from different parts of this plain that 
comes the meerschaum most esteemed in the arts. Its geological 
position is very different from what I had expected. The plain in 
which it is found is a deposit of drift; a valley filled up with the 
debris of the neighbouring mountains, consolidated by lime in which 
I found no fossils. 

The meerschaum is found in this drift in masses more or less 
rounded ; the other pebbles are fragments of magnesian and horn- 
blende rocks. 

I have examined, with care, the neighbouring mountains which 
surround the plain, and have found that the rocks are of the same 
nature as the pebbles in the plain, except those of the meerschaum ; 
but, on the other hand, I found carbonate of magnesia in the moun- 
tains, which is not to be found in the plains, And this makes me sup- 
pose that the meerschaum owes its origin to the carbonate of mag- 
nesia of the mountains, decomposed after its separation, by water 
containing silica. 

If this supposition be true, we should naturally find meerschaum 
which, not being completely altered, contains the carbonate of mag- 
nesia. A chemical examination of several specimens has served to 
establish this fact. I have the honour to send you a specimen taken 
at the depth of ten feet ; and if you desire to make the experiment 
yourself, put a small piece of the specimen, well cleaned, in hydro- 
chloric acid. You will have immediately an effervescence which 
will continue for some time; the picce will not change its form, it 
only absorbs the acid ; the solution will be found to contain chloride 
of magnesium nearly pure. Another proof that the meerschaum 
probably owes its origin to the carbonate of magnesia, is, that I have 
found attached to the meerschaum, serpentine, similar to that found 
in contact with the carbonate of magnesia of the mountains. 

The meerschaum of LHskihi-sher differs completely from several 
other specimens that I have seen coming from the localities, and 
which exist in the fissures of rocks. It is certain that the quality of 


Scientific Intelligence—Mineralogy. 379 


the first is most esteemed.—(American Journal of Science and 
Arts, vol. vii., Second Series, No. 20, March 1849, p. 285.) 

12. Randanite, a native Hydrated Silica from Algiers. By 
M. Salvetat.——This hydrated silica exists abundantly near Algiers, 
and was taken for Kaolin. It is pulverulent and friable, forming 
an excessively light powder. It is infusible, but loses colour and be- 
comes grayish, contracting a little. It gives out water at 16° C., 
but still retains a portion at 100° C., losing the whole only at an in- 
tense heat. It was found to consist of 80 parts of gelatinous silica, 
9 of water, 6°48 of insoluble silica, with 1-41 alumina, 0°55 oxide 
of iron, 0-56 lime, 2:00 of potash, soda, and loss, and a trace of 
magnesia. Of the water 4-04 per cent. escaped at 16°C., and 
3-96 at 190° C., and 1 per cent. is combined with the alumina. 

The composition resembles that of a similar material from Ceys- 

sat, and near Randan, in the Puy de Dome, analysed by M. Fournet. 

This chemist obtained in his analysis, gelatinous silica 87-20, water, 
carbonic acid, and organic matters 10°00, alumina and oxide of 
iron 2-00, sand by decantation 0-80, with traces of lime, mag- 
nesia, &c,—(Ann. de Ch. et de Phys., November 1848, t. xxiv., 
p- 348). 

13. Analysis of Lardite from near Voigtsberg, in Saxony.— 
Lardite, which has been referred to agalmatolite, is an anhydrous mag- 
nesian silicate, consisting, according to Karsten’s analysis, of silica 
66-02, magnesia 31-94, protoxide of iron 0-81, soda and potassa 0-75, 
loss by ignition 0-20, chloride of sodium and sulphate of potash, a 
trace=99-72. It whitens before the blow-pipe, and in a tube 
gives no trace of moisture, but exhales a disagreeable odour, like many 
other magnesian minerals. In the exterior flame it becomes wax 
yellow. It dissolves slowly but completely in borax, forming a 
glass which is pale yellow when hot, but becomes white on cooling. 
Density 2°795.—Karsten (Jour. fiir Prak. Chem., xxxvii., s. 162.) 

14. Neolite, a new Mineral.-—Neolite is a talc-like mineral from 
some old mines near Arendal, Norway, where it occurs as modern in- 
crustations in fissures, and on detached stones. It is often crystalline, 
either in folia or in concentric fibrous aggregations like Waveilite. 
It is greenish, with a greasy lustre, and a specific gravity 2-77 after 
long desiccation. Hardness, that of tale. The analyses vary much. 
In one, Scheerer obtained silica 52:28, alumina 7°33, magnesia 
31-24, protoxide of iron 3°79, protoxide of manganese 0°89, lime 
0:28, water 4:04=99-85. In another, silica 47°35, alumina 10-27, 
magnesia 24°73, protoxide of iron 7:92, protoxide of manganese 
2-64, water 6-28 = 99:19.—M. Scheerer. 

15. On Vélknerite, anew Mineral from the Mines of Schischimsk. 
By M. Hermann (Jour. f. Prak. Ch., xl. 11).—V6lknerite occurs 
in white pearly laminz on talc-slate, and sometimes in hexagonal 
tables, with a perfect basal cleavage. Feel greasy ; density 2-04 ; 
composition Al 38 H+6 (Mg 2 H). 


380 Scientific Intelligence—Mineralogy. 


16. Analysis of Pyrophyllite of Spaa. By M. Rammelsberg 
(Pogg. Annalen, Ixviii., 505).—The analysis afforded, silica 66°14 
alumina 25°87, magnesia 1:49, lime 0°39, water 5°59 = 99-48. 

17. Analysis of Tale of Rhode Island and Steatite of Hungary. 
By M. A. Delesse (Rev. Sci. et Indust., xxv., 107).—The tale of 
Rhode Island occurs in large clear foliated masses. It has two 
optical axes intersecting at a small angle; density = 2°5657 ; after 
calcination = 1:64. Hardness = 1; after calcination = 6, so that 
it scratches glass, although with some difficulty. It exfoliates when 
heated. On analysis it afforded silica 61°75, magnesia 31°68, protoxide 
of iron 1°70, water 4°83 = 99-96. 

18. On a new Hydrosilicate of Alumina. By MM. Damour 
and Salvetat (Ann. de Ch. et de Ph., 3e Ser., xxi., 376),—This 
mineral occurs massive in nests in a brownish clay near Montmo- 
rillon (Vienna). It has a soapy feel, and a pure rose colour, and 
becomes (plastic in water. Composition, according to Damour, 
silica 50-04, alumina 20°16, sesquioxide of iron 0°68, lime, 1-46, 
potash 1:27, magnesia 0-23, water 26-00. It is hence allied to 
Halloysite. 

19. Philippsite and Gismondine. By M. Marignac (Ann. de 
Ch. et de Phys., 3¢ ser., xiv., 41).—Marignac separates these spe- 
cies, which Kobell and Brooke had united. Under Gismondine he in- 
cludes specimens having an octahedral form, and rarely mammillated, 
and faces not striated; and under Philippsite, those whose crystals 
have a rectangular prismatic form terminated by a four-sided pyra- 
mid, with the faces striated in two directions oblique to one another. 
Density of Gismondine 2-265, of Philippsite 2-213. 

20. On the Composition of Heulandite. By M. Damour (Comp- 
tes Rendus, xxii., 926 ; Annuaire de Chim., 1847).—Damour has 
detected in Ileulandite a portion of soda and potash which simplifies 
the formula. His analysis gives, silica 59°64, alumina 16°33, 
lime 7-44, soda 1:16, potash 0-74, water 14:33 = 99-64. Hence, 
this mineral differs from stilbite only in the proportion of water. 

21. On the Identity of Osmelite and Pectolite (Annuaire de 
Chem., 1848, p. 166).—An analysis by M. Adam indicates that 
osmelite of Breithaupt is identical with Kobell’s pectolite. It con- 
tains, silica 52°91, lime 32-96, protoxide of manganese 1°44, soda 
6-10, potash 2°79, alumina and oxide of iron 0-54, water 4-01. 

22. On Disterrite, from the Valley of Fassain Tyrol. By M. 
Von Kobell (Jour. of Prak. Ch., xli, 154; Annuaire de Ch., 
1848, 173).—Disterrite crystallizes in hexagonal prisms, cleaving 
parallel to the base, and has a pearly lustre on the terminal faces, 
with a vitreous lustre on the sides of the prism. H = 0 to 63 
(Breithaupt’s scale); sp. gr. 3-042 — 3-051; Composition, silica 
20:00, alumina 43-22, peroxide of iron 3°60, magnesia 25-01, 
lime 4:00, potash 0-57, water 3-60. 

23. On Glaucophane. By M. Hausmann (Jour. of Prak. Ch., 


Scientific Intelligence— Botany. 381 


xxxiv., 238; Annuaire de Chimie, 1846, p. 271).—Glaucophane 
comes from the island of the Cyclades, and resembles indicolite. It 
has a prismatic foliated structure, a pure blue colour seen by re- 
fraction; sp. gr. 3:103 — 3-113; powder feebly attracted by 
the needle. The mean result of two analyses is as follows :— 
silica 56°49, alumina 12-23, protoxide of iron 10-91, protoxide of 
manganese 0°60, magnesia 7:97, lime 2°25, soda with traces of 
potash 9:28 = 99-63. Itresembles Wichtyne from Finland in com- 
position. 


BOTANY. 


24. Chinese Method of Colouring Green Teas.—During a visit 
which I paid to a tea manufactory in the city of Shanghae, I hap- 
pened to meet some merchants who came from the celebrated green 
tea district of Wheychou. Thinking this a good opportunity for ob- 
taining some information regarding the mode of colouring green 
teas, and, as I was accompanied by Mr M. Donald, an excellent 
Chinese scholar, I had some questions put to them on this subject. 
They would not acknowledge that any colouring matter was used in 
the manufacture of their teas, and pretended to laugh at the idea of 
such a thing. They said, moreover, that they were aware the prac- 
tice of colouring was a common one about Canton, where inferior 
teas were made, but that they never coloured their teas in Whey- 
chou. They then skilfully enough tried to change the subject by 
telling us, that we should not give credence to all we heard, “If 
we did so,’’ said they, ‘‘ we would make some strange mistakes with 
regard to the productions and manufactures of your country. Tor 
example,’ they continued, “ it is commonly reported that you buy 
your teas in order to convert them into opium, and resell them in 
that form to us. Now, we do not believe that you do that; and 
neither should you believe all you hear about the colouring of our 
green teas.” After giving us this sage advice, they asked us very 
gravely, how we used this tea in England,—and if it was true that 
we had the leaves boiled and beat up with sugar and milk ! 

It is, however, a difficult thing to get the truth out of a China- 
man: and from information which I had received, I knew quite well 
that our Wheychou friends were deceiving us in the present in- 
stance. Shortly afterwards I had an opportunity of seeing the whole 
process ; and as it is one of considerable interest, I noted it down at 
the time with great care, and now send you a copy of my observa- 
tions. 

The superintendent of the tea makers managed the colouring part 
of the business himself. In the first place, he procured a portion of 
indigo, which he threw into a porcelain bowl, not unlike a chemist’s 
mortar, and crushed it into a fine powder. He then burned a quan- 
tity of gypsum in the charcoal fires which were roasting the tea. 
The object of this was to soften the gypsum, in order that it might 


VOL. XLVI. NO. XCIV.—OCTOBER 1849. 2¢ 


382 Scientific Intelligence— Botany. 


easily be pounded into a fine powder in the same manner as the in- 
digo had been. When taken from the fire it readily crumbled down, 
and was reduced to powder in the mortar. These two substances 
having been thus prepared, were then mixed up in the proportion of 
four parts gypsum to three of indigo, and together formed a light- 
blue powder, which, in this state, was ready for use. This colouring 
matter was applied to the tea during the last process of roasting. 
The Chinese manufacturer having no watch to guide him, uses a joss 
stick* to regulate his movements with regard to time. He knows 
exactly how long the joss stick burns, and it, of course, answers the 
purpose of a watch. About five minutes before the tea was taken 
out of the pans, the superintendent took a small porcelain spoon, 
lifted out a portion of the colouring matter from the bason, and scat- 
tered it over the tea in the first pan ; he did the same to the whole, 
and the workmen turned the leaves rapidly round with their hands, 
in order that the colour might be well diffused. 

During this part of the operation, the hands of the men at the 
pans were quite blue. I could not help thinking, that if any drinker 
of green tea had been present during this part of the process, his 
taste would have been corrected ; and, I hope, I may be allowed to 
add, improved. It seemed perfectly ridiculous, that a civilized people 
should prefer these dyed teas to those of a natural green. No won- 
der that the Chinese consider the nations of the West as ‘* barba- 
rians.’’ One day Mr Shaw, a merchant in Shanghae, asked the 
Wheychou Chinamen their reasons for dyeing their teas ; they quietly 
replied, that as foreigners always paid a higher price for such teas, 
they, of course, preferred them; and that such being the case, the 
Chinese manufacturer could have no objection to supply them. 

I took some trouble to ascertain precisely the quantity of colour- 
ing matter used in the process of dyeing green teas ; certainly not 
with the view of assisting others, either at home or abroad, in the 
art of colouring, but simply to shew green tea drinkers in England, 
and more particularly in the United States of America, what quan- 
tity of gypsum and indigo they eat or drink in the course of a year. 
To 143 Ib. of tea were applied rather more than an ounce of colour- 
ing matter. For every hundred pounds of green tea which are con- 
sumed in England or America, the consumer really eats more than 
half a pound of gypsum and indigo; and I have little doubt, that in 
many instances Prussian blue is substituted for indigo. And yet, 
tell these green tea drinkers, that the Chinese eat dogs, cats, and rats, 
and they will hold up their hands in amazement, and pity the taste 
of the poor Celestials. 

In five minutes from the time of the colour being thrown into the 
pan, the desired effect was produced. Before the tea was removed, 


* An incense burner, 


Scientific Intelligence— Zoology—Arts. 383 


the superintendent took a tray and placed a handful from each pan 
upon it. These he examined at the window, to see if they were uni- 
form in colour ; and if the examination was satisfactory, he gave the 
order to remove the tea from the pans, and the process was complete. 
It sometimes happened, that there was a slight difference amongst 
the samples ; and in that case, it was necessary to add more colour, 
and, consequently, keep the tea a little longer in the pan.—(R. ie 
Atheneum, No. 1136, p. 790.) 


ZOOLOGY. 


25. Additional Observations on a new living Species of Hippo- 
potamus of Western Africa. By S. G. Morton, M.D., Penn. and 
Edin., Vice-President Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia. (From the 
Journal of the Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1849.)—This new 
species of Hippopotamus was first described by Dr Morton in the 
Proceedings of the Academy, for February 1844, and there named 
H. minor.* As this name was previously used by Cuvier for a 
fossil species, it is now changed to Hippopotamus (Tetraprotodon) 
Liberiensis. The animal is slow and heavy in its motions, and 
weighs 400 to 700 pounds. It lives on the river St Paul’s, a 
stream that rises in the mountains of Guinea, and passing through 
the Dey country and Liberia, empties into the Atlantic to the north 
of Cape Messurado. ‘The description of the animal by Dr Morton 
is drawn from two skulls in his possession, the only specimens which 
have hitherto been brought from the African coast.—( The American 
Journal of Science and Arts, vol. viii., No. 22, p. 152.) 


ARTS. 


26. The Portland Vase.—An account of the Portland Vase was 
published by the late Mr Wedgwood, the father of the potteries, and an 
accomplished philosopher ; it is, like its author, truthful and accurate. 
On this famed vase being offered for sale, Wedgwood, considering that 
many persons, to whom the original was unattainable, might be will- 
ing to pay a handsome price for a good imitation of it, endeavoured to 
purchase it, and for some time continued to offer an advance upon each 
bidding of the Duchess of Portland, until, at length, his motive be- 
ing ascertained, he was oflered the loan of the vase on condition of 
withdrawing his opposition. Consequently, the Duchess became 
the purchaser at the price of eighteen hundred guineas. It is stated 
that a limited number of copies were sold at fifty guineas each, and 
that the model cost five hundred guineas ; probably, the celebrated 


* Sce Silliman’s Journal, xlvii., p. 406, where woodcuts are given. 


384 Scientific Intelligence— Miscellaneous. 


Flaxman was the artist who was so liberally rewarded. Sir Joseph 
Banks and Sir Joshua Reynolds bore testimony to the excellent 
execution of these copies, which were chased by a steel rifle, after 
the bas-relief had been wholly or partially fired.—(Curiosities of 
Glass-making, by Apsley Pellatt, p. 21.)* 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


27. On the Tricks of Fire-eaters and Conjurors.—M. P. H. Bou- 
tigny, whose beautiful experiments on the spheroidal condition of 
water created so much interest at the meeting of the British As- 
sociation at Cambridge, has lately been pressing his researches on 
heat in a somewhat novel direction. He has now proved that 
metals in a melted state have, in a remarkable manner, the repul- 
sive force of incandescent surfaces, and that the tricks of fire-eaters 
and conjurors belong to a high class of physical facts. He says, 
“T have made the following experiments:—I divided or cut with 
my hand a jet of melted metal of five centimetres, which escaped 
by the tap. I immediately plunged the other hand into a pot 
filled with incandescent metal which was truly fearful to look at. I 
involuntarily shuddered, but both hands came out of the ordeal vic- 
torious. * * * * {J shall of course be asked,” he continues, 
““ What are the precautions necessary to prevent the disorganizing 
action of the incandescent mass? I answer none. Have no fear— 
make the experiment with confidence—pass the hand rapidly, but 
not too rapidly, in the metal in full fusion, The experiment suc- 
ceeds perfectly when the skin is moist, and the dread usually felt at 
facing masses of fire supplies the necessary moisture; but by taking 
some precaution, we may become truly invulnerable. The follow- 
ing succeeds best with me: I rub my hands with soap, so as to give 
them a polished surface; then, at the instant of trying the experi- 
ment, I dip my hand into a cold solution of sub-ammoniac saturated 
with sulphurous acid.” The experiment has been tried by Boutigny 
with melted lead, bronze, and cast-iron.—(Atheneum, No. 11388, 
p- 842.) 


* One of these beautiful copies is preserved in the Natural History Museum 
of the University of Edinburgh. 


( 385 ) 


List of Patents granted for Scotland from 22d June to 
22d September 1849. 


1. To Davip Sirs, of the city of New York, in the United States 
of America, lead-manufacturer, and a citizen of the said United States, 
“ certain new and useful improvements in the means of manufacturing 
certain articles in lead.”—24th June 1849. 


2. To Watter Nettson, of Hyde Park Street, in the city of Glasgow, 
North Britain, engineer, ‘‘ an improvement or improvements in the ap- 
plication of steam for raising, lowering, moving, or transporting heavy 
bodies.” —24th June 1849. 


3. To Epmunp Gronpy, of Bury, in the county of Lancaster, woollen 
manufacturer, and Jacop Farrow, of the same place, manager, “ certain 
improvements in machinery or apparatus for preparing wool for spin- 
ning, and also improvements in machinery or apparatus for spinning wool 
and other fibrous substances.’’—25th June 1849. 


4. To Rosert Witx1am Lawnrtr, of Carlton Place, in the city of 
Glasgow, North Britain, “ improvements in means or apparatus to be 
employed for the preservation of life and property, such improvements, 
or parts thereof, being applicable to various other articles of furniture 
dress, and travelling apparatus.”—29th June 1849. 


5. To Epwarp Hawsins Payne, of Great Queen Street, in the county 
of Middlesex, coach-lace manufacturer, and Henry Witiram Corrir, 
engineer, “ improvements in the manufacture of coach-lace, and other 
similar looped or cut pile fabrics.” —9th July 1849. 


6. To Rozerr Urwin, of Ashford, in the county of Kent, engineer, 
“ certain improvements in steam-engines, which may in whole or in part 
be applicable to pumps and other machines not worked by steam-power.” 
—9th July 1849. 


7. To Wix11am Witson junior, residing at Campbellfield of Glasgow, 
in the county of Lanark, Scotland, ‘“‘ improvements in casting plastic 
tubes or tiles.” —10th July 1849. 


8. To James Goprrey Wutson, of Millman Row, Chelsea, in the 
county of Middlesex, engineer, ‘‘ certain improvements in obtaining per- 
fect combustion, and in apparatus relating thereto, the same being appli- 
cable generally to furnaces and fire-places, as also to other purposes 
where inflammable matter or material is made use of.” —11th July 1849. 


9. To Grorce Bensamin THorNneycrort, of Wolverhampton, in the 
county of Stafford, iron-master, ‘“ improvements in manufacturing rail- 
way tyres, axles, and other iron where great strength and durability is 
required.” —16th July 1849. 


386 List of Patents. 


10. To Witu1am Kenworrny, of Blackburn, in the county of Lan- 


easter, cotton-spinner, ‘‘ certain improvements in power-looms for weay- 
ing.”—16th July 1840. 


11. To Writt1am Crorron Moat, of Upper Berkeley Street, in the 
county of Middlesex, surgeon, “‘ improvements in engines to be worked 
by steam, air, or gas.”’—16th July 1849. 


12. To Epwarp Ives Futter, of Margaret Street, Cavendish Square, 
in the county of Middlesex, carriage-builder, and Georcr TaBErRnacte, 
of Mount Row, Westminster Road, in the county of Surrey, coach-iron- 
founder, “ certain improvements in metallic springs for carriages.” — 
17th July 1849. 


13. To Joun Grantuam, of Liverpool, engineer, “ improvements in 
sheathing ships and vessels.”—18th July 1849. 


14. To Perer Avaustine Goprrrey, of Wilson Street, Finsbury Square, 
chemical colour-manufacturer, “ certain improvements in dressing and 
finishing woyen fabrics.” —18th July 1849. 


15. To Josrren Eocues, of Moorgate Fold-Mill, near Blackburn, in the 
county of Lancaster, cotton-spinner and manufacturer, and James Brap- 
sHaw and Witt1am Brapsuaw, of Blackburn, in the same county, watch- 
makers, “ certain improvements in and applicable to looms for weaving 
various descriptions of plain and ornamental textile fabrics.” —19th July 
1849. 


16. To James Wuire, of Lambeth, in the county of Surrey, civil ex- 
gineer, ‘‘ improvements in machinery or apparatus for sowing seed.””— 
25th July 1849. 


17. To James Green Grisson, of Ardwick, near Manchester, in the 
county of Lancaster, machinist, “ certain improvements in machines used 
for preparing to be spun and spinning cotton and other fibrous substances, 
and for preparing to be woven and weaving such substances when spun.” 
—30th July 1849. 


18. To Anprew Prppie How, of the United States, but now residing 
at Basinghall Street, in the city of London, engineer in the United States 
Navy, “an instrument or instruments for ascertaining the saltness of 
water in boilers,” being a communication from abroad.—Ist August 1849. 


19. To Huen Lxre Partinson, of Washington House, Gateshead, in 
the county of Durham, chemical manufacturer, ‘“‘ improvements in manu- 
facturing a certain compound or certain compounds of lead, and the ap- 
plication of a certain compound or certain compounds of lead to various 
useful purposes.” —6th August 1849. 


20. To Francois AMepEr Remonp, of Birmingham, “ improvements in 
machinery for folding envelopes, and in the manufacture of envelopes.” — 
6th August 1849. 


List of Patents. 387 


21. To Ricnarp Kemstry Day, of Stratford, in the county of Essex, 
hydrofuse manufacturer, “ improvements in the manufacture of emery 
paper, emery cloth, and other scouring fabrics.”—7th August 1849. 


22. To Jonn Tuom, of Ardwick, near Manchester, in the county of 
Lancaster, calico-printer,‘‘ improvements in cleansing, scouring, or bleach- 
ing silk, woollen, cotton, and other woven fabrics and yarns, and in aging 
fabrics and yarns when printed.”—7th August 1849, 


23. To Josrru Finptay, of New Snedden Street, Paisley, in the county 
of Renfrew, North Britain, manufacturer, and AnpREw WIxkr®, of the 
same place, turner, “ an improvement or improvements in machinery or 
apparatus for turning, cutting, shaping, and reducing wood, or other sub- 
stances.”—10th August 1849. 


24. To Epwarp Lorp, of Todmorton, in the county of Lancaster, 
machinist, “‘ certain improvements in machinery or apparatus applicable 
to the preparation of cotton and other fibrous substances.” —15th August 
1849. 


25. To James THomson Whitson, of Middlesex, chemist, “ improve- 
ment in the manufacture of sulphuric acid and alum.”—15th August 
1849. 


26. To Pierre Armanp Le Comre pe Fonrarnemoreav, of No. 4 
South Street, Finsbury (English and Foreign Patent Office), “ certain 
improvements in weaving,” being a communication from abroad.—22d 
August 1849. 


27. To James Naysmirn, of Patricroft, near Manchester, in the 
county of Lancaster, engineer, “ certain improvements in the methods of, 
and apparatus for communicating and regulating the power for, driving 
or working machines employed in manufacturing, dyeing, printing, and 
finishing textile fabrics.” —24th August 1849. 


28. To Jos Curter, of Birmingham, in the county of Warwick, gen- 
tleman, ‘‘ certain improvements in the manufacture of metallic tubes or 
pipes.” —28th August 1849. 


29. To Henry Gitsert, of Suffolk Place, Pall-Mall East, in the 
county of Middlesex, surgeon, ‘‘ an improved mode, or improved modes, 
of operating in dental surgery, and improved apparatus or instruments to 
be used therein.” —25th August 1849. 


30. To Witi1AM Cuamber Day, of Birmingham, in the county of War- 
wick, iron-founder and weighing-machine manufacturer, ‘‘ improvements 
in machinery for weighing.” —29th August 1849. 


31. To James Rosertson, of Huddersfield, in the county of York, orchil 
and cudbear manufacturer, “‘ improvements in preparing or manufactur- 
ing orchil and cudbear.”—29th August 1849. 


388 List of Patents. 


32. To Ropert Witi1aM THomson, of Leicester Square, in the county 
of Middlesex, civil engineer, “ certain improvements in writing and 
drawing instruments.” —31st August 1849. 


33. To Jonn Hottanp, of Larkhall Rise, in the parish of Clapham, in 
the county of Surrey, gentleman, “ anew mode of making steel,” being a 
communication from a foreigner residing abroad.—11th September 1849. 


34. To Epwin Heyrwoop, of Glasburn, in the county of York, designer 
to Messrs Thomas and Mathew Bairstow, of Sutton, in the county 
aforesaid, ‘“‘ improvements in plain and ornamental weaving.” —11th Sep- 
tember 1849. 


35. To Rozerr Piummer, of the town and county of Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne, manufacturer, “ certain improvements in machinery, instruments, 
and processes, employed in the preparation and manufacture of flax and 
other fibrous materials.”—12th September 1849. 


36. To Writ1t1am Bocerrt, of Saint Martin’s Lane, in the county of 
Middlesex, gentleman, “ improvements in heating and evaporating fluids, 
and in obtaining and applying motive power.”—14th September 1849. 


37. To Witt1am Epwarp Newton, of the Office for Patents, 66 Chan- 
cery Lane, in the county of Middlesex, civil engineer, “ certain improve- 
ments in steam-boilers,” being a communication from a foreigner resid- 
ing abroad.—17th September 1849. 


38. To James Goopier, of Mode Wheel, Manchester, in the county of 
Lancaster, miller, “ certain improvements in mills for grinding wheat 
and other grain.” —17th September 1849. 


39. To AtexanpER Hate, of 52 Smith Street, Stepney, in the county 
of Middlesex, engineer, “improved apparatus for exhausting and driy- 
ing atmospheric air and other gases, and for giving motion to other ma- 
chinery.”"—18th September 1849. 


40. To Sir Jonn M‘Nerxt, Knight, of Dublin, and THomas Barry, of 


Lyons, near Dublin, mechanic, “‘ improvements in locomotive engines, 


and in the construction of railways.” —19th September 1849. 


41. To Witiiam Henry Puittirs, of York Terrace, Camberwell New 
Road, in the county of Surrey, engineer, “ improvements in extinguish- 
ing fire, in the preparation of materials to be used for that purpose, and 
improvements to assist in saving life and property.”—19th September 
1849. 


INDEX. 


Abessinia, languages of, remarks on, by Dr Beke, 265. 

Acid springs and gypsum deposits of the upper part of the Silurian 
system, by T. S. Hunt, of the Geological Survey of Canada, 
50. 

Adamantine mineral, a new species from Brazil, described, 187. 

Aérolites, and a mass of meteoric iron, found in Western India, ac- 
count of, by Dr H. Giraud, 53. 

Air and water of towns, observations on, 371. 

Anderson, Thomas, M.D., on a new species of manna, 132. 

Anthracite formation, its plants considered, 121. 

Arkansite, a new mineral, discovered by Professor Shephard, and ana- 
lysed by Mr Whitney, 192. 

Atmospheric carbonic acid, observations on, 373. 

Atmospheric ice, great mass of, 371. 

Aurora borealis observed at Prestwich, near Manchester, described 
by William Sturgeon, 147 ; his theory of the aurora borealis, 
225. 


Balfour, Professor, his Manual of Botany noticed, 199 ; his notice 
of some Plants which have flowered in the Royal Botanic Gar- 
den, 188; his account of Aconitum ferox, raised in the Edin- 
burgh Horticultural Garden, 366. 

Beke, C. T., Ph. D., on the languages of Abessinia, 265. 

Berzelius, his life and writings, by M. P. Louyet, 1. 

Blood spots, miraculous, on human food, explained, 195. 

Bunsen, Professor, on the colour of water, 95. 


Carboniferous fauna of America compared with that of Europe, by 
Ed. de Verneuil, 117. 

Chrome and Meerschaum of Asia Minor, 377. 

Climate of Italy, 191. 

Cloves of Amboyna, account of, 198. 

Co-existence of certain Saurian and Molluscous forms at equal geo- 
logical times, 129, 

Comets, account of, by Sir J. F. W. Herschel, 248. 


VOL. XLVII. NO. XCIV.— OCTOBER 1849. 2D 


390 Index. 


Copper of the Lake Superior region, 192, 

Cumming, the Rev. J. G., his Account of the Isle of Man noticed, 
280. 

Currents in the Gut of Gibraltar, 374. 


Davy, John, M.D., his remarks on the claims to the discovery of 
the composition of water, 42; his Lectures on Chemistry no- 
ticed, 200 ; his observations on carbonate of lime as an ingre- 
dient in sea-water, 220. 

D’Archiac’s Histoire des Progress de la Geologie, de 1834—45, 200. 

Dead Sea, its bouyancy, observations on, 373. 

Dodo arranged with the Gralle, 194. 


Emery formation of Asia Minor, 375. 


Favre, Professor, on the geology of the German Tyrol, and the ori- 
gin of dolomite, 78. 

Fire-ball at Bombay, account of, 370. 

Fire-eaters and conjurors, their tricks explained, 384. 

Fishes, spawning beds of, how prepared, 196. 

Fleming, Professor John, on a simple form of a rain-gauge, 182. 

Flowers, distribution of, in a garden, 196. 

Fossil foot-marks of the United States, 374. 

Fossil foot-marks of a reptilian quadruped below coal, 375. 


Geological Map of France, by MM. Dufrenoy and Elie de Beaumont, 
noticed, 200. 

Geological changes from alteration of the earth’s axis of rotation, 98. 

Glaciers, their downward progress, by Ed. Collomb, 104. 

Glass, plate, analysis of, by Messrs J. E. Mayer and J. 8. Brazier, 
316. 

Guyot, Professor, his Comparative Physical Geography recommended, 
350. 


Heat, movement of, in terrestrial strata of different geological na- 
tures, by M. Dove, 193. 

Herschel, Sir J. F. W., on comets, 248, 

Himalaya snow-line, account of, 224. 

Hippopotamus, new species, from Western Africa, 384. 


Ice, its dilatation, by increase of temperature, 373. 
Indo-European languages, observations on, 293. 
Infusoria, oceanic, living and fossil, account of, 261. 


Index. 391 


Instructions for collecting and preserving invertebrate animals, by 
R. Owen, F.R.S., Hunterian Professor to the Royal College 
of Surgeons of England, 280. 


Jussieu, Adrien, his Elements of Botany, translated by J. H. Wilson, 
F.L.S., noticed, 199. 


Kosmos noticed, 199. 


Languages of Abessinia, their distribution, by T. Beke, Esq., Ph. D., 
F.S.A., &c., 265. 

Latham, R. G., M.D., remarks upon the general principles of philo- 
logical classification, and the value of groupes, with particular 
reference to the languages of the Indo-European class, 293. 


Manna, a new species of, from New South Wales, analysed by 
Thomas Anderson, M.D., F.R.S.E., &., 182. 

Mediterranean, water of, analysed, 191. 

Meteorology, Introduction to, by D. P. Thomson, M.D., noticed, 
199. 

Minerals, the following noticed, viz., Randanite, 379—Lardite, 379 
—Neolite, 379—Véilknerite, 379—Pyrophyllite, 380—Tale 
of Rhode Island and Steatite of Hungary, 380—-New hydro- 
silicate of alumina, 380—Philippsite and Gismondine, 380— 
Heulandite, 380—Osmelite and Pectolite, 380—Disterrite from 
Fassa, 880—Glaucophane, 380. 

Morton, Dr S. G., his account of a craniological collection, with re- 
marks on the classification of some families of the human race, 
144. 


Nicol, James, F.R.S.E., his Mineralogy noticed, 200. 
Nutmegs, statistics of, 139. 


Oceanic infusoria, living and fossil, 158, 261. 

Orbigny, Alcide de, on living and fossil molluses, 57. 

Oyster, the sexes of, 196.—The geographical distribution and uses 
of the common oyster, 239. 

Owen, Professor Richard, on preserving invertebrate animals, 280. 


Patents granted for Scotland from 22d March to 22d June 1849, 
201—from 22d June to 22d September, 385. 
Phosphate of lime in the mineral kingdom, 130. 


ie 


2 fe 
G? 
392 Index. 


Physical Geography, comparative, observations on, by M. Guyot, 
350, 

Plants of the Silurian system, 122.—Of the Anthracite formation, 
124,.—Fossil land plants, as illustrative of geological climate, 
126. 

Plate-glass, analysis of, 316. 

Portland Vase, account of, 383. 

Prichard, James Cowles, M.D., F.R.S., &c., biographical sketch of, 
205. 


Ramsay, Professor, his Passages in the History of Geology noticed, 
201. 

Rankine, W. J. M., civil engineer, on an equation between the tem- 
perature and the maximum elasticity of steam and other vapours, 
28.—On a Formula for calculating the expansion of liquids by 
heat, 235. 

Rhinoceros, fossil, of Siberia, and mammoth natives of Siberia, 194. 

Rivers, their fall considered, 303. 

Rocks, grooved and striated, in the middle region of Scotland, by 
Charles Maclaren, F.R.S.E., 161. 


Schleiden, Professor, his Principles of Scientific Botany, translated 
by Dr Lankester, noticed, 200. 

Shells, land, found beneath the surface of sand-hillocks on the coasts 
of Cornwall, by R. Edmonds Jun., Esq., 263. 

Silver, native, of Norway, 192. 

Skeletons of wild animals, how disposed of, 194. 

Snow-line on the Himalaya, account of, by Lieutenant Strachey, 324. 

Sutherland, Tour in, by Charles St John, Esq., noticed, 201. 

Sturgeon, William, on the aurora borealis, 147-225. 


Tea, green, mode of colouring, 381. 

Trees cleft by the direct action of electrical storms, by Ch. Martins, 
114. 

Trilobites of Bohemia, observations on, by M. Barrande, 374. 


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