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GbUCATIOR 


A  Monthly  Magazine 


DKVOTBD    TO 


THE  SCIENCE,  ART,  PHILOSOPHY,  AND 
LITERATURE  OF  EDUCATION, 

WILLIAM  A.  MOWRr 

EDITOR 


VOLUME  IX. 

September,  1888 — June,  1889 


BOSTON 
EASTERN  EDUCATIONAL  BUREAU 

50    BROMFIELD     STREET 
1889 


UBRMRY  OF  THB 

lElAUD  SI  Hi,  imERBnt, 

^^y  17  woe 


CONTENTS. 


Volume  IX.  — 1888 -'89. 


PAOK 


About  English.     Mary  A.  Ripley 537 

Adams  as  a  Schoolmaster,  John.     Elizabeth  Porter  Gould       .  503 
Advantages  of  State  Examinations,  The.     Supt.  W.  P.  Beck- 

with          ..........  693 

Agassiz,  The  Student  Life  of.     F.  Treudley     ....  595 

Algebra  Inductively,  A  Consistent  plan  for  the  Teaching  of. 

George  William  Evans 384 

Algebra  Teaching,   Historical  Basis  for  Certain  Methods  in. 

George  William  Evans 334 

Algebra  to  Beginners,  Teaching.     John  F.  Casey    .         .  172,  247 

Amherst  College,  Preparation  for  Citizenship  at.     Anson  D. 

Morse,  A.  M. 236 

Among  the  Books          67,  141,  207,  284,  360,  428,  49S,  562,  635,  709 
*' Ancipiti."     Prof.  W.  S.  Scarborough,  LL.  D.     .                  .  263 
Arbutus,  On  the  Accent  and  Meaning  of.     Prof.  W.  S.  Scar- 
borough, LL.  D. 396 

Arithmetic,  Economy  of  Memory  in  the  Study  of     Simon  N. 

Patten,  Ph.  D '     .         .         •      6,  79 

Art,  On  the  Teaching  of  the  History  of.     Prof.    Hiram  M. 

Stanley     ..........  407 

Author  and  Library  Work  in  Schools.     Supt.  L.  R.  Halsey     .  390 
Barrell,  James  S.,  A.  M.     Helps  and  Hindrances  in  Teaching 

Morals  in  the  Public  Schools     ......  530 

Bates,  Joshua,  and  his  Times.     Granville  B.  Putnam       .         .  22 
Beckwith,  Supt.  W.  P.     The  Advantages  of  State  Examina- 
tions         ..........  693 

Bibliography  of  Current  Periodical  Literature  upon  Education. 

64,   137,  204,  280,  356,  425,  495,  559,  632,  706 

Biography,  The  Study  of  History  Through.     William  Wallace  346 

Bradbury,  W.  F.-    Homogeneous  Equations    ....  554 

Bradford,  William.     Rev.  F.  H.  Kasson,  A.  M.     .         .         .  644 

Bradley,  John  E.,  Ph.  D.     The  Teacher's  Preparation     .         .  253 

Brown,  George  P.     Educational  Value  of  Manual  Training     .  664 
Bush,  George  Gary,   Ph.  D.      The    Educational  Outlook  in 

Florida 312 


iv  COXTEXTS, 

PAGE. 

Capen,   Samuel  B.     The  Teaching  of  Morals  in  the   Public 

Schools, — What  and  How?     .         .         .         .         .         •         524 
Casey,  John  F.     Teaching  Algebra  to  Beginners  .  172,  247 

Child-Life  on  a  New  England  Farm.  Helen  M.  Winslow  .  466 
Child  Speech,  and  the  Law  of  Mispronunciation.     Edmund 

Noble        . 44,  117,  18S 

Citizenship,  Preparation  for  :  — 

—  At  Amherst  College.     Anson  D.  Morse,  A.  M.  .         .         236 

—  At  Smith  College.     Prof.  J.  B.  Clark  ....         403 

—  At  Williams  College.  Arthur  Latham  Perry  .  .  513 
Civil  Rights  Guaranteed  by  the  State  Constitutions.     Francis 

Newton  Thorpe,  Ph.  D 601,687 

Clark,  C.  Goodwin 550 

Clark,  Prof.  J.  B.     Preparation  for  Citizenship  at  Amherst 

College 403 

Classical  Languages,  The  Teaching  of  the  .  i,  89,  182,  263,  396 
College  Course,  The  Study  of  English  in  the.     Horace  Howard 

Furness,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.,  L.  H.  D.  .         .        .         .         441 

College  Expenses.     Hon.  William  C.  Todd     .         .         .         .  14 

College  Growth  in  Ohio.  John  Eaton,  LL.  D.  .  .  .  433 
College  of  William  and  Mary,  The.     A  Recent  Grafting  on  an 

Old  Shoot.     Prof.  Hugh  S.  Bird,  A.  M 5S6 

Commissioner  of  Education,  Report  of  the,  for  1886- '87  130,  485 

Consistent  Plan  for  the  Teaching  of  Algebra  Inductively,  A. 

George  William  Evans      .......         384 

Cook,  Prof.  Webster.     Evolution  and  Education      .         .  367,  456 

Crehore,  C.  F.,  M.  D.     School  Records  of  Physical  Conditions        399 

—  Some  Practical  Suggestions  Regarding  Schoolhouses  . 
Davenport,  Eugene.     The  Origin  of  English  . 
Deaf,  The  Horace  Mann  School  for  the.     Elsa  L.  Hobart 
Discipline.     Poem.     Julia  H.  May  .... 
Discipline  the  Price  of  Freedom.     Charles  E.  Lowrey,  Ph.  D 
Does  it  Pay?     Poem.     Elizabeth  Porter  Gould 
Dunton,  Larkin,  LL.  D.     Methods  of  Teaching  Morals  . 
Eaton,  John,  LL.  D.     College  Growth  in  Ohio 
Economy  of  Memory  in  the  Study  of  Arithmetic.     Simon  N 

Patten,  Ph.  D 

Editorial  .         .      53,  123,  195,  269,  340,  411,  475,  541, 

Educated,  How  they  were.     Frank  H.  Kasson,  A.  M. 
Education,  Evolution  and.     Prof.  Webster  Cook 
Education,  Excessive  Helps  in.     William  T.  Harris,  LL.D. 
Educational  Outlook  in  Florida,  The.     Geo.  Gary  Bush,  Ph.  D 


6S3 
608 
322 
410 
103 
194 
521 

433 

61  79 
616,  695 

86 

3671  456 
215 

312 


COXTEXTS.  y 

PAOK. 

Educational  Value  of  Manual  Training.  George  P.  Brown  .  664. 
Emerson,  O.  F.     Onward,  Christian  Soldiers.     Poem     .         .         187 

English,  About.     Mary  A.  Ripley  .....         537 

English  Language  and  Literature,  The  Teaching  of  the    .  73,  178, 

229'  326,  390,  441,  537,  608 
English  Literature,  Methods  of  Study  in.     H.  E.  Shepherd, 

LL.  D 73,  178 

English   Literature,   The   Study  of.      Mrs.  Laura  Sanderson 

Hines,  A.  M.    .         . 229 

English,  The  Origin  of.  Eugene  Davenport  .  .  .  .  608 
Equations,  Homogeneous.  W.  F.  Bradbury  ....  554 
Equations,  Homogeneous.  G.  W.  Evans  ....  701 
Essay  on  English  in  Secondary  Schools,  Fifty  Dollar  Prize  for 

the  Best    ......*...         421 

Evans,  George  William.      The  Historical  Basis  for  Certain 

Methods  in  Algebra  Teaching  ......         334 

—  A  Consistent  Plan  for  the  Teaching  of  Algebra  Inductively,         384 

—  Homogeneous  Equations     .......         7^^ 

Evolution  and  Education.     Prof.  Webster  Cook  .         367,  456 

Examinations,  The  Advantages  of  State.     Supt.  W.  P.  Beck- 

with  ..........         693. 

Excessive  Helps  in  Education.  W.  T.  Harris,  LL.  D.  .  .  215 
Examinations,  Written, — Their  Abuse  and  their  Use.     Agnes 

M.  Lathe 45^ 

Fairchild,  James  H.,  D.  D.     How  the  Fathers  Builded  in  Ohio         152 
Ferguson,  W.  B.     The  Recitation  .         .         .         .         .         .         220 

Fernald,  Frederik  A.      School  Rank  as  Evidence  of  Mental 

Capacity  ..........         622 

Fifty  Dollar  Prize  for  the  Best  Essay  on  English  in  Secondary 

Schools    ..........         421 

First  Year  in  Latin,  The.     Adeline  A.  Knight         .         .         .  89,  182 
Flavel,  Thomas.     Notes  from  New  Zealand    ....  57,  63a 

Florida,  The  Educational  Outlook  in.     Geo.  Gary  Bush,  Ph.  D.         312 
yfJ^oreign  Notes  .         .         .      61,201,276,352,422,491,555,627 

Freedom,  Discipline  the  Price  of.  Charles  E.  Lowrey,  Ph.  D.  103 
Furness,  Horace  Howard,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.,  L.  H.  D.     The 

Study  of  English  in  the  College  Course     .         .         .         .         441 
•Gardner,  Ida  M.     Outline  Notes  on  the  Renaissance  and  the 

Reformation 35 »  '^9 

Glacier  Stream,  The.     Poem,     Emma  Shaw  .         .         .         122 

Gould,  Elizabeth  Porter.     Does  it  Pay  .»*     Poem       .  .         194 

—  John  Adams  as  a  Schoolmaster    ......         503. 


vl 


COXTEXTS. 


PAGE. 


—  The  Massachusetts  Society  for  Promoting  Good  Citizenship 
Greenwood,  J.  M.     Normal  Institutes     .... 
Halsey,  Supt.  L.  R.     Author  and  Library  Work  in  Schools 
Harris,  W.  T.,  LL.  D.    Philosophy  in  Colleges  and  Universities 

—  Excessive  Helps  in  Education      ..... 

—  The  Psychology  of  Manual  Training    .         .         .         .  571 
Helps  and  Hindrances  in  Teaching  Morals  in  the  Public  Schools. 

James  S.  Barrell,  A.  M.  . 
Hines,  Mrs.  Laura  Sanderson,  A.  M.     The  Study  of  English 

Literature  ........ 

Hints  upon  the  Science  and  Art  of  Teaching,  Some.     John  M. 

Richardson        ........ 

Historical  Basis  for  Certain  Methods  in  Algebra  Teaching,  The. 

George  William  Evans     ....  .         . 

History  of  Art,  On  the   Teaching  of  the.     Prof.  Hiram  M. 

Stanlev      ......... 

History,  The  Teacher's  Independent  Study  of.     W.  A.  Mowry 

Hobart,  Elsa  L.     The  Horace  Mann  School  for  the  Deaf 

Holland,  Primary  and  Secondary  Schools  of.     L.  A.  Stager 

Homogeneous  Equations.     W.  F.  Bradbury    . 

Homogeneous  Equations.     Geo.  W.  Evans 

Horace  Mann  School  for  the  Deaf,  The.     Elsa  L.  Hobart 

How  the  Fathers  Builded  in  Ohio.     James  H.  Fairchild,D.  D. 

How  thev  were  Educated.     Frank  H.  Kasson,  A.  M.     . 

Humphreys,  E.  R.,  LL.  D.     The  Teaching  of  Latin 

In  Memoriam.     Mrs.  J.  M.  Lord     ..... 

Independent  Study  of  History,  The  Teacher's.     W.  A.  Mowry, 
Influence  of  Manual  Training  uix)n  the  Pupils,  The 
Institutes,  Normal.     J.  M.  Greenwood    .... 

John  Adams  as  a  Schoolmaster.     Elizabeth  Porter  Gould 
Johnson,  G.  T.     Not  Always  Thus.     Poem    . 
Johonnot,  James      ........ 

Joshua  Bates  and  his  Times.     Granville  B.  Putnam 
Kasson,  Rev.  Frank  H.,  A.  M.     How  they  were  Educated 

—  William  Bradford         ....... 

Knight,  Adeline  A.     The  First  Year  in  Latin         .         .  89, 

Lathe,  Agnes  M.     Written  Examinations — their  Abuse  and 

their  Use  ........ 


Latin,  The  First  Year  in.     Adeline  A.  Knight 
Latin,  The  Teaching  of.     E.  R.  Humphreys,  LL.  D.     . 
Lectures  for  Young  People,  Old  South    .... 
*' Libraries  as  Related  to  the  Educational  Work  of  the  State" 


S9, 


552 

305 

390 

97 

215 
656 

530 
229 

375 

334 

407 
134 

160 

554 
701 

322 

152 

86 


700 


134 
698 

305 

503 

474 

34 
22 

86 

644 

182 

453 
182 

I 

273 
274 


CONTEXTS.  vll 

PAGE* 

Library  Work  in  Schools,  Author  and.  Supt.  L.  R.  Halsey  .  390 
Locy,  William  A.  On  Teaching  Zoology  to  College  Classes  .  673 
Longfellow,  and  What   he   Taught  Us,  A  Year  with.     May 

Mackintosh        .........         326 

Lowrey,  Charles  E.,  Ph.  D.  Discipline  the  Price  of  Freedom  103 
Macdonald,  R.  Cyrene.       The  Relative   Mental   Capacity  of 

the  Sexes  .........         446 

Mackintosh,  May.     A  Year  with  Longfellow  and  What  he 

Taught  Us         ........         .         326 

Magazines  Received  .  .  72,  2*14,  294,  366,  432,  501,  569,  641 
Manual  Training,  Educational  Value  of.  George  P.  Brown  .  664 
Manual  Training,  The  Psychology  of.  W.  T.  Harris,  LL.  D.  571,  656 
Manual  Training  upon  the  Pupils,  The  Influence  of  .  .  698 
Marble,  A  P.  N.  E.  Association  1889,  Nashville,  Tenn.  349,  489,  625 
Massachusetts  Society  for  Promoting  Good  Citizenship,  The. 

Elizabeth  Porter  Gould     . 552 

Mathematics,  The  Teaching  of  .  .6,  79,  172,  247,  334,  384 
May,  Julia  H.     The  Silent  Prayer.     Poem     ....  43 

—  Discipline.     Poem       ........         410 

Mental  Capacity,  School  Rank  as  Evidence  of.     Frederik  A. 

Fernald     ..........         622 

Meritorious  Discoveries  and  Inventions,  Rewards  for  .  .  419 
Methods  of  Study  in  English  Literature.     H.   E.   Shepherd, 

LL.  D. 735  178 

Methods  of  Teaching  Morals.     Larkin  Dunton,  LL.  D.  .         .         521 

Miscellany 57,   126,349,490 

Mispronunciation,  Child  Speech  and  the  Law  of.      Edmund 

Noble 44,  117,  188 

Morals  in  the  Public  Schools  :  — 

—  Methods  of  Teaching  Morals.     Larkin  Dunton,  LL.  D.        .         521 

—  The  Teaching  of  Morals  in  the  Public  Schools,  —  What  and 

How?     Samuel  B.  Capen  .         .         .         .         .         524 

—  Helps  and  Hindrances  in  Teaching  Morals  in  the  Public 

Schools.     James  S.  Barrell,  A.  M 530 

Morgan,  General  T.  J.     Training  the  Sensibilities  .  295 
Morse,  Anson  D.,  A.  M.     Preparation  for  Citizenship  at  Am- 
herst College     .........  236 

Mowry,  W.  A.      The  Teacher's  Independent  Study  of  History  134 

—  The  Promotion  of  Patriotism 197 

Museum  at  Washington,  The  National.     A   Tolman  Smith     .  277 

Nashville  Campaign,  N.  E.  A.,  1889,  The.  A.  P.  Marble  .  625 
National  Educational  Association  1889.     A.  P.  Marble     .         349,  489 


viii  COyTENTS. 

PAGE. 

National  Museum  at  Washington,  The.     A.  Tolman  Smith  277 
New  England  Farm,  Child-Life  on  a.     Helen  M.  Winslow     .  466 
New  Zealand,  Notes  from.     Thomas  Flavel     ....  57,  630 
Noble,  Edmund.     Child  Speech,  and  the  Law  of  Mispronun- 
ciation        44,  117,  18S 

Normal  Institutes.     J.  M.  Greenwood 305 

Not  Always  Thus.     Poem.     G.  T.  Johnson    ....  474 

Notes  from  New  Zealand.     Thomas  Flavel     ....  57,  630 

Notes  on  the  Report  of  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1886  -'87,  485 

Ohio,  College  Growth  in.     John  Eaton,  LL.  D.      .         .         .  433 

Ohio,  How  the  Fathers  Builded  in.     James  H.  Fairchild,  D.  D.  152 

Old  South  Lectures  for  Young  People 273 

On  Teaching  Zoology  to  College  Classes.     William  A.  Locy.  673 
On  the  Accent  and  Meaning  of  Arbutus.     Prof.  W.  S.  Scar- 
borough, LL.  D. 396 

On  the  Teaching  of  the  History  of  Art.      Prof.    Hiram  M. 

Stanley     ..........  407 

Onward,  Christian  Soldiers.     Poem,     O.  F.  Emerson     .         .  1S7 

Origin  of  English,  The.     Eugene  Davenport  ....  60S 

Outline  Notes  on  the  Renaissance  and  the  Reformation.     Ida 

M.  Gardner 35,  109 

Pamphlets  Received         ....  294,  359,  432,  570,  642 

Patriotism,  The  Promotion  of.  William  A.  Mo  wry  .  .  197 
Patten,  Simon  N.  Ph.  D.     Economy  of  Memory  in  the  Study 

of  Arithmetic    .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  6,  79 

Payne,  William  H.,  LL.  D.     W.  H.  M 483 

Perry,  Arthur  Latham.     Preparation  for  Citizenship  at  Will- 
iams College     ...  513 

Philosophy  in   Colleges  and    Universities.      W.    T.   Harris, 

LL.D 96 

Physical  Conditions,  School  Records  of.  C.  F.  Crehore,  M.  D.  399 
Practical  Suggestions  Regarding  Schoolhouses,  Some.     C.  F. 

Crehore,  M.  D 683 

Prayer,  The  Silent.  Poem,  Julia  H.  May  ....  43 
Preparation  for  Citizenship  :  — 

—  At  Amherst  College.     Anson  D.  Morse,  A.  M.         .         .  236 

—  At  Smith  College.  Prof.  J.  B.  Clark  ....  403 
-^  At  Williams  College.  Arthur  Latham  Perry.  .  .  .  513 
Preparation,  The  Teacher's.  John  E.  Bradley,  Ph.  D.  .  .  253 
Primary  and  Secondary  Schools  of  Holland.  L.  A.  Stager  .  160 
Promotion  of  Patriotism,  The.  W.  A.  Mo  wry  .  .  .  197 
Promotion  of  Pupils,  The.     E.  E.  White,  LL.  D.    .         .         .  415 


CONTENTS.  ix 

PAGE. 

Psychology  of  Manual  Training,  The.     W.  T.  Harris,  LL.D.  571,  656 

Pupils  Read,  What  do  the 615 

Putnam,  Granville  B.     Joshua  Bates  and  his  Times         .         .  22 

Quick,  R.  H.  Renascence  Tendencies  .  .  .  ,  .  583 
Recent  Grafting  on  an  Old  Shoot,  A.     The  College  of  William 

and  Mar>'.     Prof.  Hugh  S.  Bird,  A.  M 586 

Recitation,  The.  W.  B.  Ferguson  .  .  .  .  .  220 
Relative  Mental  Capacity  of  the  Sexes,  The.     R.  Cyrene  Mac- 

donald      ..........  4^6 

Renaissance  and  the  Reformation,  Outline  Notes  on  the.     Ida 

M.  Gardner      ........  35,  109 

Renascence  Tendencies.     R.  H.  Quick    .....  583 

Report  of  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1886 -'87.  Notes  on  485 

Report  of  the  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1886 -'87  130 

Rewards  for  Meritorious  Discoveries  and  Inventions         .         .  419 

Ripley,  Mary  A.     About  English  ......  537 

Scarborough,  Prof.  W.  S.,  LL.  D.     "  Ancipiti."             .         .  263 

—  On  the  Accent  and  Meaning  of  Arbutus       ....  396 

School  Records  of  Physical  Conditions.  C.  F.  Crehore,  M.D.  399 
Schoolhouses,  Some  Practical  Suggestions  Regarding.     C.  F. 

Crehore,  M.  D.         .......         .  683 

Schoolmaster,  John  Adams  as  a.  Elizabeth  Porter  Gould  .  503 
School  Rank  as  Evidence  of  Mental  Capacity.     Frederik  A. 

Femald    ..........  622 

School  Reports  Received         .......  502 

Science,  The  Teaching  of        ......         .  673 

Science  in  the  Schools     ........  547 

Sensibilities,  Training  the.  Gen.  Thomas  J.  Morgan  .  .  295 
Sexes,  The  Relative  Mental  Capacity  of  the.     R.  Cyrene  Mac- 

donald      ..........  446 

Shaw,  Emma.  The  Glacier  Stream.  Poem,  .  .  .  122 
Shepherd,  H.  E.  LL.  D.  Methods  of  Study  in  English  Litera- 
ture            73»  178 

Silent  Prayer,  The.     Poem    Julia  H.  May     ....  43 

Smith,  A.  Tolman.     The  National  Museum  at  Washington     .  277 

Smith  College,  Preparation  for  Citizenship  at.  J.  B.  Clark  .  403 
Some  Hints  upon  the  Science  and  Art  of  Teaching.     John  M. 

Richardson 375 

Some  Practical  Suggestions  Regarding  Schoolhouses.     C.  F. 

Crehore,  M.  D 683 

Stager,  L.  A.,  Primary  and  Secondary  Schools  of  Holland  .  160 
Stanley,  Prof.  Hiram  M.     On  the  Teaching  of  the  History  of 

Art 407 


X  coNTEyrs. 

PAGE. 

State  Examinations,  The  Advantages  of.     Supt.  W.  P.  Beck- 

with          ..........  693 

Student  Life  of  Agassiz,  The.     F.  Treudley     ....  595 

Study  of  English  in  the  College  Course,  The.     Horace  How- 
ard Furness,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.,  L.  H.  D.    .         .         .         .  441 

Study  of  English   Literature,    The.     Mrs.    Laura   Sanderson 

Hines,  A.  M.    .........  229 

Study  of  History  through  Biography,  The.     William  Wallace  346 

Teacher's  Independent  Study  of  History,  The.     W.  A.  Mowry  134 

Teacher's  Preparation,  The.     John  E.  Bradley,  Ph.  D.            .  253 
Teaching  Algebra  to  Beginners.     John  F.  Casey     .         .          172,  247 

Teaching  of  Latin,  The.     E.  R.  Humphreys,  LL.  D.     .         .  i 
Teaching  of  Mathematics,  The.         .         .         6,  79,  172,  247,  334,  384 
Teaching  of  Morals  in  the  Public  Schools,  —  What  and  How  ? 

The.     Samuel  B.  Capen  .         .         .         .         .         .         .  524 

Teaching  of  Science,  The         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  673 

Teaching  of  the  Classical  Languages,  The        .         i,  89,  182,  263,  396 

Teaching  of  the  English  Language  and  Literature,  The.     73,  178,  229, 

326,  390,441,  537,  608 
Teaching,  Some  Hints  upon  the  Science  and  Art  of.     John  M. 

Richardson        . 375 

Thorpe,  Francis  Newton,  Ph.  D.     Civil  Rights  Guaranteed  by 

the  State  Constitutions       ......         601 ,  SS*/ 

Todd,  Hon.  William  C.     College  Expenses     ....  14 

Training  the  Sensibilities.     Gen.  Thomas  J.  Morgan        .         .  295 

Treudley,  F.     The  Student  Life  of  Agassiz     ....  595 

Wallace,  William.     The  Study  of  History  through  Biography,  346 

What  do  the  Pupils  Read  ? 615 

White,  E.  E.,  LL.  D.     The  Promotion  of  Pupils     .         .         .  415 

William  H.  Payne,  LL.  D.     W.  H.  M 483 

William's   College,    Preparation  for   Citizenship   at.      Arthur 

Latham  Perry  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  513 

Winslow,  Helen  M.     Child-Life  on  a  New  England  Farm       .  466 
Written  Examinations — Their  Abuse  and  their  Use.     Agnes 

M.  Lathe 452 

Year  with  Longfellow,  and   What  he   Taught  us,  A.     May 

Mackintosh       .........  326 

Zoology  to  College  Classes,  On  Teaching.     William  A.  Locy  673 


QDUeTATIOR 


DEVOTED  TO  THE    SCIENCE,  ART,  PHILOSOPHY,  AND 

LITERATURE  OF  EDUCATION. 


Vol.   IX.  SEPTEMBER,    1888.  No.    i. 

THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  CLASSICAL  LANGUAGES.^ 

I. 

THE    TEACHIXG    OF    LATIN.^ 
BY  E.   R.  HUMPHREYS,  LL.  D.,   BOSTON. 

THE  excitement  which  prevailed  so  widely  in  the  educational 
world  a  few  years  ago  in  discussing  the  relative  merits  and 
claims  of  the  ''old"  theory  of  basing  the  higher  education  of 
schools  and  colleges  mainly  upon  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages, 
and  the  ''  new  "  utilitarian  proposal  of  substituting  for  these  the 
readier  and  more  "'  practical "  Ixisis  of  first, —  natural  and  applied 
science,  second, —  a  longer  and  fuller  training  in  pure,  or  theoreti- 
cal science,  and,  third, —  more  thorough  instruction  in  the  English 
Language  and  Literature,  subsided  some  time  ago,  and  has  now 
practically  ceased.  Peace  has  been  concluded  between  the  bellig- 
erents upon  what  most  thoughtfid  educators  will  admit  to  be 
rational  and  fair  terms  of  compromise,  out  of  which  will  ultimately 
Ix?  developed,  it  is  hoped,  a  sound  and  healthy  system  of  secondary 
education,  in  which  all  that  was  wise  and  good  in  the  old,  shall 
be  loyally  preserved,  the  obsolete  or  useless  eliminated,  and  the 
altered  needs  of  the  present  generation  met  and  supplied  in 
accordance  with  sound  philosophic  and  pedagogic  princix)les,  strict 

^  Copyright,  1888,  Eastern  Educational  Bureau. 

«  Thk  Teaching  op  Latin  by  M.  M.  Fisher,  Professor  of  Latin  in  the  University  of  Mis- 
soari. 


2  ED  UCA  TION.  [September, 

care  being  taken  to  distinguish  justly  and  firmly  between  real 
needs,  and  imaginary  cravings  or  fancies,  from  which  the  cause  of 
Education,  no  less  than  that  of  Freedom,  has  oft^jn  suffered  serious 
injuries. 

In  the  higher  School  and  College  system  of  England  three 
quarters  of  a  century  ago,  and  in  the  colleges  and  academies 
organized  in  this  country  on  the  same  plan  and  model,  undue 
prominence  was  certainly  given,  for  reasons,  however,  deemed  of 
great  weight  then,  to  the  t^jaching  of  Greek  and  Latin  ;  and  our 
own  language  and  literature,  except  in  elementary  training,  were 
proportionately  slighted.  During  the  last  thirty  or  forty  yeai^s  the 
efforts  of  the  modern  reformer  have  l)een  so  intently  and  zeal- 
ously directed  to  the  overthrow  of  the  old  Classical  foundation, 
that,  as  is  now  generally  felt,  injustice  in  that  direction  was  to  a 
considerable  ext^jnt  aggravated  by  the  failure  to  supply  adecjuately 
a  widely  and  intensely  felt  want  in  another.  To  go  to  the  extreme 
of  excluding  the  (Jreek  and  Latin  languages  entirely,  or  even 
largely,  from  the  foundation  of  our  scholastic  training  would,  it  is 
now  fully  acknowledged,  be  a  violation  of  the  soundest  and  wisest 
principles  of  philosophic  and  enlightened  education.  On  the 
other  hand,  while,  during  this  period  of  transition  and  discussion, 
measures  have  been  slowly  adopted  in  college  courses  to  remedy 
or  rectify  to  some  extent  the  injustice  thus  done  to  the  most  impor- 
tant part  of  Education  —  our  own  language  and  literature  —  the 
amoiuit  has  been  small  compared  with  the  difficulty  and  injury 
experienced  by  two  generations  of  students,  and  still  largely  felt 
by  a  third.  Very  much  remains  still  to  be  accomplished  before  the 
scale  of  higher  education  shall  be  justly  graduated.  This  will  only 
be  done  when  that  which  was  for  a  long  period  "  last "  shall  have 
been  advanced  to  its  right  and  lawful  place  of  "  first "  in  the  edu- 
cation of  all  the  youth  of  New  and  Old  England.  The  English 
language  is  today  second  to  none  in  world-wide  diffusion  and 
practical  utility,  and  its  literature,  the  common  property  of 
America  and  England,  taken  as  a  whole,  will  compare,  at  least, 
very  favorably  with  that  of  any  modern  nation.  This  is  a  heri- 
tage tliat  should  be  gratefully  prized  and  carefully  guarded  and 
cherished  even  on  patriotic  grounds  alone ;  while  the  highest  and 
soundest  scholars  and  teachers  are  now  generally  agreed  upon  its 
being  the  most  natural,  just,  and  solid  base  of  all  our  intellectual 
training,  even  on  purely  educational  principles.     While  here  and 


1888.]  CLASSICAL  LAXGUAQES.  3 

there  may  still  l)e  found  some  ardent  champion  of  one  or  the  other 
of  the  special,  antagonistic  schools,  striving  to  rekindle  the  embers 
of  their  former  fires,  the  great  majority  of  thoughtful,  cultivated 
people,  vividly  remembering  the  great  labor  by  which  they  liad 
individually  to  supplement  for  themselves  this  deficiency  in  their 
college  training,  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  a  judicious, 
sound,  progressive  course  of  instruction,  graduated  on  a  steadily 
ascending  scale,  from  the  elementary  teaching  of  the  Grammar 
School,  up  to  the  very  close  of  the  college  courae,  ought  to  form  the 
strong  and  solid  Ixise  of  our  whole  educational  system.  ^Moreover 
that  both  in  the  "'  Art^  "  and  the  scientific  ''  Schools  "  of  Colleges, 
and  in  Technological  and  Professional  Schools,  the  course  of 
"  English  Language  and  Literature ''  studies  should,  within  cer- 
tain reasonable  limits,  be  "  prescribed,"  not  optional ;  and  should, 
as  has  now  for  several  years  been  the  case  in  the  English  Uni- 
vei*sities,  offer  rewards  and  Honors  at  the  final  examination,  on  a 
par  at  least  with  classics,  mathematics,  and  modern  languages,  to 
superior  proficiency. 

This  we  hold  to  be  the  safest  and  surest  means  at  once  of  effect- 
ing the  rightful  and  natural  graduation  and  connection  between 
the  schools  and  colleges  of  America,  and  of  remedying  the  diffi- 
culties and  deficiencies  from  which  school  and  college  are  now , 
constantly  and  painfully  suffering.  Impressed,  as  we  know  many 
able  presidents  and  professors  of  colleges,  and  other  educators 
of  proved  judgment  and  ability  to  be,  with  the  need  and  justice  of 
thus  developing,  raising,  and  completing  this  English  base  and  solid 
framework  of  National  Education,  we  feel  convinced  a  few  more 
years  will  see  it  accomplished.  This  once  firmly  established,  many 
of  the  experimental  steps  already  taken,  perhaps  in  some  cases 
with  unwise  haste,  will  either  be  retraced  or  modified  and  adjusted 
in  such  a  way  as  to  enforce  upon  all  college  graduates  the  acquire- 
ment of  a  certain  amount  of  advanced  and  systematically  devel- 
oped linguistic,  scientific,  and  philosophic  knowledge,  harmonized 
and  solidified  by  prescribed  courses  in  each,  and  varied  and  liberal- 
ized by  optiayial  courses. 

All  the  circumstances  and  needs  of  the  present  age  inculcate  the 
advantage  of  due  attention  to  the  natural  and  applied  sciences, 
and  these  must  have  as  their  base  a  sound,  elementary  training  in 
pure  science,  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  geometr}^  Nor  will  any 
sound  educator  dispute  the  wisdom  of  demanding  from  every  col- 


4  EDUCATIOX.  [September, 

lege  graduate  a  practical  and  available  knowledge  of  two  modern 
languages  in  addition  to  English.  Whether  this  can  l^e  always 
secured  under  the  system  pursued  at  most  American  Colleges,  can 
be  l)est  and  most  impartially  decided  by  the  tstiHifnta^  on  whose 
voluntary  diligence  in  study  so  much  reliance  Ls  generously  placed. 
But,  however  these  and  many  other  imporUint  points  may  be 
decided,  it  is  a  settled  fact  that  Latin  and  Greek  shall  still  form 
important  fundamental  parts  of  the  Higher  Education.  The 
writer  does  not  hesitate  to  express  his  hope  and  l)elief  that  even 
Harvard  Univei'sity,  after  testing  its  new  experiment  in  permit- 
ting, after  entrance,  so  extensive  an  option  of  other  subjects  in  the 
coui-ses  of  actual  college  studies  as  renders  it  possible  for  its 
undergraduates  to  terminate  the  study  of  Latin  and  Greek  at 
their  entrance  examination, —  which  in  equivalent  to  having  lost  all 
knowledge  of  them  at  the  time  of  graduation  —  will  see  cause  to 
reconsider  that  part  of  its  reformed  curriculum,  and  to  decide  that 
a  fair  amount  at  least  of  classical  scholai*ship  shall  be  possessed 
by  every  graduate  in  ^-Arts. "  That  a  strong  conviction  of  the 
value  of  the  two  chissical  languages  was  felt  even  by  the  majority 
whose  vote  carried  the  adoption  of  the  new  system  at  Harvard 
University  is  proved  by  their  only  permitting  either  Greek  or  Latin 
to  be  omitted  from  the  entmnce  electives  on  the  condition  of  sul>- 
stituting  therefor  a  very  heavy  amount  of  advanced  mathematics. 
If  the  ancient  languages  are  assigned  so  high  a  value  at  entrance, 
it  is  hard  to  see  why  they  should  so  greatly  and  suddenly  depreciate 
as  not  to  l)e  securely  retained  to  some  extent  in  the  undergraduate 
courses.  There  is  at  all  eventi*  good  reason  to  believe  that  in  the 
majority  of  American,  as  well  as  of  European  Colleges,  Latin  cand 
Greek  will  continue  to  l)e  important  parts  of  the  four  years'  cur- 
riculum. 

flverything,  therefore,  which  tends  to  facilitate  and  improve  the 
methods  of  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  languages  and  literature 
of  Greece  and  of  Rome,  deserves  to  he  welcomed  as  a  valuable  aid 
by  teachers  and  learners ;  and  nothing  is  l)etter  calculated  to  do 
tliis  than  a  plain,  unadorned  account  of  the  plan  pursued  with 
remarkable  success  by  an  accomplished  and  sound  scholar  in  a  long 
series  of  years  with  large  chisses  of  pu[)ils.  Such,  in  regard  to 
Latin,  is  precisely  the  nature  of  this  brochure  by  Professor  ^I.  ^L 
FLsher,  the  title  of  which  is  prefixed  U)  this  paper,  and  which 
originally  appeared  in   this  magazine.     Professor  Fisher's   w^U- 


1888.]  CLASSICAL   LANGUAGES.  6 

known  reputation  as  a  Latin  scholar  and  teacher  is  as  familiar  to 
New  England  as  to  liis  own  University.  His  work  on  the  ''  Three 
Pronunciations  of  Latin "  attracted  much  attention  at  its  tu'st 
appearance  some  ten  or  twelve  yeai-s  ago,  and  the  sale  of  the  third 
edition,  published  by  Appletons  of  New  York  and  Boston  in  1885, 
has  been  such  as  to  prove  its  undiminished  interest.  Candor 
obliges  the  writer  to  state  that,  while  not  himself  in  favor  of  the 
English  pronunciation  of  the  voiveh  in  which  he  had  been  trained, 
and  which,  so  far  from  being  a  part  of  the  "  old  "  English  pronun- 
ciation of  Latin,  dates  back  no  farther  than  the  latter  part  of  the 
sixteenth  century  —  he  was  strongly  impressed  with  the  force  of 
Professor  Fisher  s  arguments  introducing  the  so<*alled  '-  Roman  " 
system,  as  now  established  in  the  University  of  Harvard.  En- 
gaged as  he  was,  and  is,  as  a  tutor  for  that  Univei*sity  he  felt  it  to 
be  his  duty,  after  putting  forth  a  stiitement  of  hLs  reasons  for  dis- 
sent, to  submit  in  his  teacliing  to  the  authority  of  the  University. 
But  every  year  convinces  him  more  and  more  that  his  anticipation 
of  a  very  evil  effect  upon  our  Mother  Tongue  and  its  literature 
was  too  well  founded.  As  a  critical  time  has  come,  wlien  duty 
demands  a  fuller  statement  and  discussion  of  this  subject  than 
would  be  appropriate  to  this  pa[)er,  he  will  content  himself  with 
emphasizing  a  part  of  a  letter  received  by  him  in  1876,  from  tliat 
eminent  scholar  and  schoolmaster,  who  recentlv  retired  from  liis 
successful  mastership  of  Rugby,  and  is  now  the  respected  Presi- 
dent of  the  College  of  Preceptors  of  England,  Dr.  T.  Jex-Blake. 
** '  Reformed  Latin  pronunciation '  is  mere  waste  of  time,  and,  if 
done  on  a  fictitious,  professor-made  plan,  absurd.  The  only  rea- 
sonable reform  would  be  to  take  the  existing  Italian  pronunciation, 
where  you  have  a  living^  natural  guide.  Leave  pronunciation  as 
it  is,  would  be  my  advice,  and  spend  your  time  in  clearer  teaching 
of  the  idioms  and  syntax  of  the  flexible,  terse  old  language,  and  in 
a  higher  treatment  of  its  literary  wealth."  (This  letter  is  cited  in 
Fisher's  Three  Pronunciations  of  Latin,  page  126.) 

As  notice  has  just  appeared  of  a  soon-forthcoming  edition  of 
Professor  Fisher's  present  work,  "  The  Teaching  of  Latin,"  it 
becomes  unnecessary  to  enter  here  into  a  detailed  account  of  its 
purport  and  contents.  They  are  practical,  judicious,  combining 
the  natural  and  lively  method  of  conversation,  so  advantageously 
used  by  the  Latin  teachei*s  of  old  England  in  the  last  century  and 
before,  with  the  solidity  and  accuiacy  essential  to  sound  scholar- 


6  EDUCATION.  [September, 

ship.  The  writer  does  not  fear  any  charge  of  presumption  or 
egotism,  after  teaching  Latin  and  Greek  so  long  in  Boston,  when 
he  states  that  by  a  most  remarkable  coincidence,  most  of  Professor 
Fisher's  methods  have  been  mutaiis  mutandis^  —  with  varieties  of 
application,  —  similar  to  those  pursued  by  himself  for  nearly  thirty 
years. 


THE  TEACHING  OF  MATHEMATICS.^ 

I. 

THE   ECONOMY  OF   MEMORY   IN   THE   STUDY   OF   ARITHMETIC. 

BY  SIMON  N.  PATTEN,   PH.D., 

Professor  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 

IF  we  examine  the  method  of  teaching  primaiy  numbers  now  in 
use,  it  will  be  perceived  that  great  progress  has  been  made 
towards  making  the  perception  of  the  relations  of  numbers  easy  to 
children.  The  use  of  objects  and  the  presentation  of  the  smaller 
numbers  first  have  removed  many  of  the  old  difficulties  of  teach- 
ing arithmetic.  Little  or  no  progress,  however,  has  been  made 
towards  a  presentation  of  the  subject  so  that  the  memorj"  may  be 
relieved  of  the  enormous  burden  which  is  required  by  even  the 
best  of  the  present  methods  of  teaching.  In  fact  the  possibility 
of  such  a  relief  is  seldom  considered.  When  the  teacher  has 
acquired  a  method  of  j)resenting  the  subject  easy  for  the  child  to 
comprehend,  she  considers  that  she  has  done  all  that  is  possible  to 
relieve  the  child.  She  then  proceeds  by  drills  and  frequent  repe- 
titions to  fasten  in  the  child's  mind  the  ideas  which  have  been 
presented. 

It  is  the  result  of  teaching  in  tliis  way  that  so  many  disconnected 
facts  are  presented  as  to  burden  the  memory  and  render  the  study 
of  arithmetic  tedious  to  most  children.  Fii-st^  the  relations  of  two 
are  learned,  then  of  three,  and  so  on.  As  the  numbers  increase  in 
size  the  numl^er  of  their  relations  also  rapidlv  increase.  Bv  the 
time  the  child  has  learned  the  first  ten  numbers,  he  has  such  a 
multitude  of  relations  to  remember  that  he  becomes  confused  and 
progress  is  delayed  and  often  stopped.     A  child  liaving  blocks 

^  Copyright,  1888,  Eastern  Educational  Bureau. 


1888.]  MATHEMATICS,  7 

before  him  may  be  able  to  pick  out  all  the  parts  into  which  the 
number  ten  can  be  divided,  and  yet  when  he  is  required  to  think 
independently,  he  gets  the  many  relations  of  ten  confused  with 
one  another,  with  those  of  nine  and  of  the  other  smaller  numbers 
w^liich  have  been  crowded  into  his  mind  by  his  teacher.  A  small 
number  of  objects  can  be  more  easily  perceived  and  their  relations 
determined  than  a  larger  number.  From  tliis,  however,  we  can- 
not justly  infer  that  the  relations  of  a  small  number  can  l)e  more 
easily  recollected  than  those  of  a  larger  number.  The  mind  must 
have  the  different  things  to  be  rememl)ered  so  arranged  that  one 
thought  will  bring  up  another  similar  to  it  according  to  the  well- 
known  laws  of  association. 

We  will  not  have  to  search  far  to  find  why  the  present  methods 
of  studying  numbers  cause  such  a  multitude  of  disconnected  facts 
to  be  remembered  by  the  pupil.  It  arises  from  the  system  of  nota- 
tion now  in  use.  The  unit  of  our  system  is  ten  and  the  amount 
of  memorizing  needed  by  us  arises  from  the  use  of  so  large  a 
number  as  the  unit  of  our  system.  The  larger  the  unit  of  the 
system  in  use  the  greater  is  the  amount  of  memorizing  needed  for 
a  ready  use  of  the  system.  This  may  seem  strange  to  any  one  who 
has  not  thought  of  this  point,  but  by  a  brief  presentation  it  can  be 
made  clear.  The  addition  of  numbers  above  the  unit  of  any  sys- 
tem is  but  a  repetition  of  the  processes  used  in  combining  the 
numbers  below  the  unit  and  they  contain  nothing  new.  Suppose 
we  desire  to  add  32  to  26.  We  first  add  the  units  2  and  6,  and 
then  the  tens  3  and  2  and  get  the  result,  58.  Now  what  facts  have 
we  in  memory  to  readily  perform  this  operation  ?  Only  that  6  and 
2  are  8,  and  3  and  2  are  5.  That  is  merely  those  combinations 
w^hich  are  less  than  the  unit  of  our  system,  10.  Any  other  exam- 
ple in  addition  will  show  the  same  fact.  If  we  wish  to  add  280  to 
327,  4976  to  7280,  or  any  other  two  or  more  numbers,  it  can  be 
readily  performed  if  we  have  well  in  mind  all  the  combinations  of 
the  numbers  below  the  unit  of  our  decimal  system. 

Suppose  that  use  be  made  of  a  higher  number  than  ten,  say 
sixteen,  for  a  unit  of  a  system.  Then  all  the  combinations  of 
numbers  below  sixteen  must  be  learned  with  that  thoroughness 
with  which  we  now  learn  the  combinations  of  numbers  below  ten. 
To  know  the  sum  of  12  and  14,  or  13  and  15,  would  be  as  necessary 
to  any  one  using  tliis  system  as  it  now  is  to  know  the  sum  of  0  and 
8  or  7  and  9.     On  the  other  hand,  if  a  smaller  number  than  ten  be 


8  ED  UCA  TION.  [September, 

used  as  the  unit  of  our  svstem,  sav  six,  then  combinations  of  num- 
hem  hirger  than  six  need  not  be  learned.  Their  sum  could  Ije 
inferred.  Seven  and  nine  could  be  added  in  the  same  way  that 
we  now  add  12  and  13.  Seven  would  become  1  six  -|-  1,  nine 
would  l)e  1  six  -|-  3,  and  their  sum  would  be  2  sixes  -|-  4. 

If  a  yet  smaller  unit  Ixi  used,  say  four,  the  numlxir  of  combina- 
tions which  must  Ix;  memorized  would  Ixj  still  further  reduced. 
For  example,  6  would  l)ecome  1  four  -\-  2,  and  9  would  be  2  fours 
+  1,  and  their  sum  would  be  3  fours  -[-  3,  a  result  that  could  Ije 
readily  obtained  by  any  child  who  was  familiar  with  all  the  com- 
binations of  the  number's  smaller  than  four.  The  smallest  unit 
possible  is  two,  and  by  its  use  the  amount  of  necessary  memorizing 
would  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  If  this  syst<;m  were  in  vogue 
instead  of  the  cumbrous  decimal  system  the  terrors  of  arithmetic 
would  disapi>ear.  Two  and  it«  combinations  would  \)e  all  that 
would  ]>e  needed  by  the  child,  and  as  all  higher  numlwi-s  would  be 
represented  in  t^rms  of  two,  their  combinations  could  l>e  inferred 
without  memorizing,  just  as  the  numl)ers.  greater  than  ten  can  l>e 
when  the  decimal  system  is  in  use.  Were  we  in  a  position  to 
choose  a  system  of  notation  it  is  not  prol>able  that  any  thoughtful 
person  would  favor  so  large  a  unit  as  ten,  and  a  binary  system,  being 
the  simplest  of  all,  has  had  many  advocates,  among  whom  was  the 
illustrious  Leibnitz,  Xewtcm's  only  equal  in  mathematics.  While 
it  is  not  possible  at  the  })resent  time  to  introduce  into  general  use 
any  other  system  than  the  decimal  one,  there  is  no  good  reason 
why  children  should  not  be  taught  to  think  in  a  more  simple  sys- 
tem of  notation  l>efore  they  have  reached  that  maturity  wliich  is 
necessaiy  to  think  by  tens.  To  the  child,  ten  is  as  difficult  to 
comprehend  as  is  a  thousand  to  a  fully  developed  mind,  and  the 
same  stei)s  should  be  taken  to  teach  a  child  ten  that  men  use  to 
comprehend  a  thousand.  No  man  thinks  of  a  thousand  as  that 
numl)er  of  disconnected  units,  but  as  ten  hundreds,  and  each  hun- 
dred is  thought  of  as  ten  tens.  We  think  of  a  thousand  then  in 
terms  of  tens,  and  if  we  would  be  successful  in  makhig  a  child 
comprehend  ten,  it  can  l)e  done  only  by  teaching  the  child  to  think 
by  twos.  By  this,  however,  I  mean  something  different  from  what 
is  understood  by  it  in  the  methods  of  presenting  numlx^rs  now  in 
use.  We  miLst  not  only  use  two  as  a  measure  of  other  numlxjrs, 
but  they  must  Ije  thought  of  in  terms  of  two  and  not  as  a  mere 
collection  of  units.     Three  should  be  thought  of  as  1  two  -\-  1  and 


1888.]  »    MATHEMATICS.  9 

not  as  three  unite;  four  as  2  twos,  and  five  as  2  twos  +  1.  A 
child  who  comprehends  what  1  two  is  can  also  comprehend  what 
2  twos  are,  or  what  two  and  one  or  2  twos  and  1  are.  There  are 
no  more  elemente  required  to  think  of  five  as  2  twos  -|-  1  than 
there  are  to  think  of  two  alone,  since  five  is  thought  of  in  terms  of 
two  and  one  and  both  of  these  are  required  to  think  of  two. 
When  the  child  can  think  of  these  numbers  readily  in  terms  of 
two,  then  the  next  higher  numl)ers  can  be  comprehended  with  their 
aid.  Six  becomes  three  twos,  seven  is  3  twos  -\-  1,  eight  is  4  twos, 
while  nine  is  4  twos  +  1^  ^^^  ten  is  5  twos.  If  the  fii*st  ten  num- 
bers are  thought  of  in  this  way,  all  their  combinations  become  as 
easy  to  work  out  without  memorizing  as  is  now  the  case  with 
numbers  larger  than  ten,  the  unit  of  our  system  of  notation. 
Without  knowing  the  sum  of  3  -|-  5,  it  can  be  worked  out ;  3  =  1 
two  +  1  and  5  =  2  twos  +  1, 1  two  and  2  twos  are  3  twos  and  1 
-|-  1  are  two,  3  twos  and  2  are  4  twos,  and  4  twos  are  8.  Take  4 
-|-  5  as  another  example :  4  =  2  twos,  5  =  2  twos  and  1,  2  twos 
and  2  twos  -|- 1  are  4  twos  -|- 1,  and  4  twos  +  1  are  9.  If  then,  a 
child  knows  how  to  express  the  n umbel's  up  to  ten  in  a  system  of 
twos,  it  can  solve  any  problem  which  involves  no  numl)er  greater 
than  ten  without  that  burden  on  ite  memory  which  the  present 
methods  of  teaching  numbers  necessitates. 

We  hear  it  often  said  a  child  should  be  taught  to  reason  ;  but  so 
long  as  the  subject  is  merely  talked  about  in  a  general  way  and  no 
analysis  is  made  of  what  really  constitutes  reasoning,  no  real  im- 
provement will  be  made.  Reasoning  is  a  process  of  substituting 
one  equal  for  another.  If  A  is  equal  to  B,  and  B  to  C,  we  can 
substitute  A  the  equal  of  B  in  the  proposition  B  is  equal  to  C, 
and  then  we  can  affirm  that  A  is  equal  to  C.  Again,  as  two  twos 
are  four  and  three  and  one  are  four,  we  can  in  the  first  equation 
suljstitute  three  plus  one  for  four  and  conclude  that  two  twos  are 
equal  to  three  plus  one.  The  study  of  numbers  furnishes  an 
abundance  of  examples  where  the  doctrine  of  substitution  may  l)e 
taught  the  child,  if  the  subject  be  so  presented  that  in  the  differ- 
ent groups  of  objecte  the  idea  of  equality  can  be  clearly  perceived 
by  the  child.  The  ease  with  which  the  equality  of  different  groups 
of  objecte  can  be  inferred  depends  upon  the  plan  of  arrangement. 
If  we  arrange  the  oljjecte  by  twos  or  fours,  we  can  perceive  their 
equality  more  readily  than  if  there  l>e  no  arrangement  and  they 
be  thought  of  only  as  simple  unite.     So  too,  the  manner  of  giving 


10  EDUCATIOS.  [September, 

names  to  the  different  numbers  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  The 
name  given  to  a  number  of  object**  in  a  group  may  be  either  an 
absolute  name  or  a  relative  name.  Four  is  an  absolute  name  for 
a  given  number  of  objects ;  two  twos  is  a  relative  name  for  the 
same  group.  Tlie  first  twelve  numbers  have  absolute  names,  the 
others  (thirteen,  etc.)  have  relative  names ;  that  is,  their  names 
indicate  their  relation  to  ten.  To  sav  that  there  are  two  twos  in 
a  given  place  tells  more  than  to  say  there  are  four  objects  there. 
Four  tells  merely  the  number,  two  twos  tells  both  the  number  of 
objects  and  also  their  arrangement. 

If  a  child  were  taught  numbers  by  some  system  using  relative 
names  he  could  think  out  the  different  combinations  and  thus  be 
freed  from  the  drudgery  which  memorizing  involves.  Nor  is  a 
system  of  counting,  using  absolute  names,  natural  to  a  child.  Its 
use  is  forced  on  him  by  the  example  of  his  elders.  Any  child  will 
say  that  he  hiis  two  apples  and  one  more  before  he  will  use  the 
t^rm  three.  If  childi-en  were  allowed  to  develop  naturally  they 
woidd  use  two  as  a  measure  of  larger  objects  and  thus  make  use 
of  relative  instead  of  absolute  names  for  numbers. 

The  use  of  a  system  of  relative  names  require  that  some  num- 
ber Ix;  used  as  a  unit  for  measiuing  other  numbers  and  that  they 
be  so  named  as  to  express  the  result  of  the  measurement.  If  two 
be  used  as  the  unit  of  measurement,  to  call  five  two  twos  and  one 
would  correspond  to  the  current  expression  of  twenty-one  by 
which  we  name  a  group  of  twenty-<me  objects  by  the  number  of 
tens  it  contains.  The  use  of  the  terms  twenty,  thirty,  thirteen 
instead  of  the  full  form  two  tens,  three  tens,  one  ten  and  three, 
etc.,  somewhat  conceals  the  fact  that  these  t^rms  are  only  relative 
names ;  yet  a  moment's  thought  will  reveal  their  origin  and  the 
analogy  of  these  t^rms  to  that  of  two  twos  and  one  as  a  name  of  a 
group  of  five  units.  The  use  of  two  as  a  unit  of  measurement 
would  allow  the  greatest  use  of  relative  terms  and  with  it  as  a  unit 
we  would  count  as  follows :  one,  two,  one  two  and  one,  two  twos^ 
two  twos  and  one,  three  twos,  three  twos  and  one,  four  twos,  eto. 
No  system  can  be  devoid  of  absolute  terms  even  for  numbei's 
higher  than  the  unit  of  measurement.  For  ten  t^ns  we  sul>stitut^ 
the  al^olute  name  himdred,  and  ten  hundreik  likewise  receives  the 
name  thousand.  We  always  think  of  hundred  and  thoiLsand  in 
terms  of  ten  and  so  also  should  we,  when  iLsing  two  as  a  unit  of 
measurement,  tliink  of  tliree,  four  and  other  absolute  names  in 


1888.]  MATHEMATICS.  11 

terms  of  two  and  not  use  them  until  the  relative  name  is  so  famil- 
iar that  the  absolute  name  will  immediately  suggest  the  relative 
name.  If  the  term  five  does  not  suggest  two  twos  and  one  and 
the  term  four  two  twos,  that  their  difference  is  one  and  their  sum 
is  nine  cannot  be  thought  out  by  the  child.  If  he  knows  these 
facts  it  will  not  be  from  any  use  of  reasoning,  but  because  he  has 
been  drilled  by  his  teacher  until  his  memory  calls  up  nine  in  con- 
nection with  four  plus  five  and  one  when  he  thinks  of  their  differ- 
ence. By  teaching  a  child  te  use  the  relative  t^rms  before  he  uses 
the  absolute  ones,  this  drill  is  avoided.  In  this  way  each  term 
suggests  its  relation  te  every  other  term  and  thus  affords  a  clue 
by  which  the  solution  of  any  problem  may  be  thought  out. 

With  absolute  numerical  names  we  cannot  reason  directly ;  with 
relative  names  we  can  reason.  The  names  of  six  and  eight  give 
us  no  clue  of  what  their  sum  or  difference  is,  while  from  twenty 
and  thirty  we  can  readily  infer  that  their  sum  is  fifty  (five  tens), 
and  their  difference  is  ten.  If  we  know  the  sum  or  difference  of 
two  numbers  which  have  absolute  names,  it  is  due  solely  te  the 
use  of  memory,  and  the  great  amount  of  memorizing  needed  by 
the  present  methods  of  teaching  numbers  arises  from  the  use  of 
absolute  names  for  the  first  twelve  numbers. 

If  this  method  be  compared  with  the  Griibe  method  they  will 
be  seen  to  differ  in  two  important  ways.  Griibe  has  each  number 
thought  of  as  so  many  units  first,  and  then  it  is  measured  by  each 
smaller  number.  Each  number  is  thought  of  as  a  whole  first,  and 
then  as  composed  of  parts.  I  would  have  each  number  thought 
of  in  terms  of  the  smaller  numbers.  Eight  and  ten  should  be  first 
known  to  the  child  as  4  twos  and  5  twos,  and  only  after  the  child 
becomes  thoroughly  familiar  with  a  number  in  terms  of  two  should 
it  be  represented  te  the  child  as  so  many  units  and  its  name 
taught. 

At  first  sight  it  may  seem  difficult  te  teach  a  child  how  to  meas- 
ure a  number  containing  more  units  than  he  can  count,  but  this 
difficulty  will  disappear  when  the  method  of  procedure  becomes 
apparent.  Suppose  a  child  can  count  te  four  and  can  measui'e  by 
two.  If  seven  objects  are  given  him  by  arranging  them  by  twos 
he  can  see  that  he  has  tliree  twos  and  one.  If  nine  objects  are 
given  him  he  can  discover  that  he  has  four  twos  and  one.  All  the 
numbers  under  ten  can  be  arranged  in  twos  and  then  he  can  com- 
prehend how  many  objects  he  has,  even  if  he  cannot  count  them. 


12  ED  UCA  TIOX.  [September, 

Suppose  further,  that  an  unknown  numl)er  of  objects,  for  example 
buttons,  be  phiced  at  his  right  hand.  Tell  him  to  take  three  twos 
and  one  of  the  buttons  and  place  them  at  his  left  hand.  Can  he 
not  both  perform  and  undei^stand  this  operation  even  if  he  cannot 
count  the  buttons  at  his  right  hand  ?  Now  tell  him  to  take  four 
twos  of  the  buttons  from  his  right  and  place  them  on  his  left. 
Then  have  him  take  tlu-ee  twos  from  his  left  and  place  them  on 
his  right  and  ask  how  many  are  remaining  on  his  left.  All  of 
these  operations  and  many  more  of  the  same  kind  can  readily  be 
performed  by  any  child  who  can  count  four  and  measure  by  two, 
even  though  all  the  numbers  are  larger  than  he  can  count.  It  is 
not  necessary  for  intelligent  work  that  the  gross  sum  of  the  num- 
bere  handled  should  1^  known  if  each  operation  is  within  the  limit 
of  the  cliild's  knowledge  and  no  question  is  asked  which  involves 
a  greater  number  than  the  child  can  measure.  There  is  a  great 
advantage  in  using  larger  numbers  than  the  child  can  count.  In 
this  case  the  child  must  use  its  intelligence  in  so  arranging  the 
numbei's  that  he  can  measure  them,  while  if  he  can  count  he  is  apt 
to  resort  to  counting  as  a  means  of  solving  the  problem  and  thus 
drag  along  without  really  undei'standing  the  im[)ort  of  measuring, 
the  most  important  part  of  all  arithmetical  operations. 

The  order  in  which  the  different  combinations  should  be  tuught 
should  not  be  determined  solely  by  the  size  of  the  numbers,  the 
smallest  first  and  then  each  of  the  others  in  their  numerical  order. 
The  simplicity  of  the  relation  between  one  number  and  another  in 
a  combination  is  of  even  more  importance  than  is  the  size  of  the 
numbers.  The  relation  of  four  or  six  to  twelve  is  more  simple 
than  is  the  relation  of  either  of  these  numbers  to  eleven.  Yards 
stand  in  a  less  simple  relation  to  rods  than  do  inches  to  feet,  or 
quarts  to  gallons.  Although  twelve  is  larger  than  five  and  a  half, 
yet  it  requires  a  much  greater  maturity  of  mind  to  change  yards 
into  rods  than  it  does  to  change  inches  into  feet.  The  relation  of 
two  to  four  is  more  simple  than  that  of  two  to  three,  and  for  tliis 
reason,  after  a  child  has  l>een  taught  to  think  by  twos,  a  scale  of 
fours  is  more  simple  than  a  scale  of  threes.  Two  twos  make  a 
four,  one  and  a  half  twos  make  a  three.  The  fraction  can  l)e 
avoided  by  teacliing  four  first  and  postponing  the  study  of  three 
until  a  later  period,  except  in  terms  of  two  and  four,  as  one  two 
and  one,  and  one  four  less  one.  Three  and  seven  are  really  the 
most  difficult  of  the  digits  to  comprehend  fully  and  their  study 


1888.]  MATHEMATICS.  13 

should  be  delayed  until  the  more  easy  numl)er8  are  taught. 
The  second  way  in  which  the  Griilx?  method  differs  •  from  the 
one  here  presented  is  in  the  manner  in  wliich  each  numl)er  is 
measured.  Griibe  measures  each  number  directly  with  each 
smaller  number  and  no  one  measure  is  taken  in  terms  of  which  all 
comparisons  of  the  various  numlxji's  are  to  be  expressed.  That 
this  method  of  procedure  is  confusing  can  be  eiisily  illiLstmted. 
To  measure  one  numlDer  by  another  is  the  same  as  to  express  the 
first  number  in  a  system  of  notation  of  which  the  second  numlxir 
is  the  unit.  To  measure  ten  by  nine  is  to  express  ten  in  a  system 
of  which  nine  is  the  unit ;  to  measure  it  by  eight  is  to  express  it 
in  a  system  of  eights  and  the  same  is  true  of  each  smaller  number. 
To  make  a  child  measure  ten  directly  by  each  smaller  number  and 
to  remember  the  result  of  each  measurement  is  in  reality  com- 
pelling  it  to  use  all  the  systems  of  notation  from  two  Xk)  ten.  To 
see  how  difficult  this  must  be  for  a  child,  we  have  only  to  test 
ourselves  by  the  same  process  on  numl)ers  but  a  little  larger  than 
ten.  Suppose  we  take  ninety,  wliich  certainly  ought  to  be  as  easy 
for  a  mature  mind  to  comprehend  as  ten  is  for  a  child.  How 
many  of  us  can  measure  90  directly  by  13,  17,  23,  or  any  other 
chosen  number  with  ease,  and  who  would  think  it  a  great  accom- 
plishment to  burden  the  memory  with  so  many  disconnected  facts  ? 
However  good  a  memory  any  one  may  have,  somewhere  its  limits 
will  l>e  reached  and  higher  numbers  must  be  thought  of  in  terms 
of  the  lower  by  means  of  some  system  of  notation.  What  must 
be  finally  done  should  be  done  at  the  very  sturt  and  all  unneces- 
sary burdening  of  the  memory  should  l)e  avoided  and  this  most 
useful  faculty  be  reserved  for  other  and  Ixjtter  purposes.  We 
know  enough  of  ninety  when  we  can  think  of  it  readily  as  nine 
tens,  and  a  child  knows  ten  sufficiently  for  all  its  present  uses  when 
it  can  think  of  it  readily  as  five  twos. 


We  too  often  forget  that  the  raison  d  \*fre  of  the  school  master 
is  the  instruction,  not  of  the  minority  who  will  and  can  teach 
themselves,  but  of  the  majority  who  can  but  will  not.  Our 
teaching  force  should  regulate  the  movements  rather  of  the 
ordinary  planets  than  of  the  comets  of  the  system. 

Joseph  Payne. 


14  EDUCATIOy.  [September, 


COLLEGE  EXPENSES, 

BY  HON.  WM.  C.  TODD,   ATKINSON,   N.  H. 

HOW  to  obtain  a  collegiate  education  is  now  a  serious  question 
with  many  poor  young  men,  conscious  of  ability,  and  anx- 
ious to  cultivate  it.  In  notliing  lias  the  great  increase  in  expenses 
within  the  last  fifty  years  been  more  marked  than  in  the  cost  of  a 
college  course.  A  catalogue  of  Dartmouth  College  in  1840  gives 
the  following  table  of  expenses  for  the  college  year :  — 

Tuition,  $27  00 

Ordinary  incidentals,  3  24 
Library,  according  to  use, 

Boom  rent,  average,  8  50 

Board,  from  $1  to  $2,  average  for  38  weeks,  57  00 

Wood,  lights,  washing,  9  00 

Lectures  on  Anatomy,  1  00 

Total,  $105  74 

In  the  Dartmouth  catalogue  for  1885,  the  expenses  are  estimated 

as  follows :  — 

Tuition, 

Library  and  reading-room  tax, 

Room-rent, 

Board,  from  $3  to  $4.50,  37  weeks. 

Fuel  and  lights, 

ToUl,  $232  00    to  $312  00 

In  1840,  the  expenses  at  Amherst  College  were  estimated  as 

follows :  — 

Tuition, 

Room-rent, 

Recitation  rooms  and  ordinary  incidentals, 

Board,  from  $1.25  to  $2.00,  for  40  weeks, 

Fuel  and  lights. 

Washing, 

Total,  $118  00    to  $152  00 

The  following  is  the  present  estimate  :  — 

General  term  bill,  including  tuition,  library,  gymnasium, 

and  all  other  ordinary  incidentals,  $100  00         $100  00 

Room-rent  in  College,  18  00    to       45  00 


$90  00 

$90  00 

6  00 

6  00 

10  00 

to   25  00 

111  00 

to  166  00 

15  00 

to   25  00 

$38  00 

$38  00 

9  00 

9  00 

6  00 

6  00 

50  00 

to 

80  00 

9  00 

to 

11  00 

6  00 

to 

8  00 

1888.]                                     COLLEGE  EXPENSES.  15 

Room-rent  In  private  houses,  $40  00  to  $60  00 

Board  from  $3  to  85,  for  38  weeks,  114  00  to  190  00 

Total,  with  rooms  in  College,  244  00  to  353  00 

Total,  with  rooms  in  private  houses,  266  00  to  368  00 

At  Williams  College  the  expenses  were  thus  estimated  in  1840 : 

Tuition  810  per  term,  $30  00  $30  00 

Room-rent,  library  and  incidentals,  9  00  9  00 

Board,  from  $1.12^  to  $2.12i&  per  week,  48  75    to  83  00 

Washing,  5  00    to  10  00 

Fuel,  5  00    to  10  00 


Total,  $95  75  to  $142  00 

The  expenses  are  now  thus  estimated :  — 

• 

Tuition,  $30  per  term,  $90  00  $90  00 

Library  charge,  4  00  4  00 

Gymnasium,  3  00  3  00 

Room-rent,  $5  to  $10  per  term,  15  00  to      30  00 

Care  of  recitation-rooms,  repairs,  etc.,  15  00  15  00 

Treasurer's  bill,  $127  00  to  $142  00 

GENERAL  EXPENSES. 

Board,  from  $2.50  to  $5,  for  38  weeks,  $95  00  to  $190  00 

Washing,  15  00  to       20  00 

Fuel  and  lights,  8  00  to       12  00 


Total  expenses,  $245  00  to  $364  00 

Dartmouth,  Amherst,  and  Williams  Colleges  are  all  similarly- 
situated  in  country  villages.  Yale  and  Harvard,  the  two  leading 
colleges  of  New  England,  are  located  in  or  near  great  cities,  where 
the  expenses  are  naturally  larger,  and  are  patronized,  as  a  rule,  by 
the  wealthier  classes,  more  inclined,  and  better  able,  to  spend 
money.     In  1840,  the  expenses  at  Yale  were  estimated  as  follows : 

Instruction,  three  terms, 
Room-rent,  average. 
Repairs  and  contingencies. 
General  damages. 
Expenses  of  recitation-rooms. 

Treasurer's  bill, 

OTHER  EXPENSES. 

Board  in  commons,  40  weeks. 

Fuel  and  lights. 

Use  of  books  and  stationery. 

Use  of  furniture,  bed,  and  bedding. 

Washing, 

Taxes  in  the  classes, 

ToUl,  $140  00     to  $210  00 


$33  00 

12  00 

2  40 

3  60 

3  00 

$54  00 

$60  00 

to 

$90  00 

6  00 

to 

15  00 

5  00 

to 

15  00 

5  00 

to 

15  00 

5  00 

to 

15  00 

5  00 

to 

6  00 

16  ED  UCA  TlOy.  LSeptember, 

A  late  catalogue  gives  the  expenses  as  follows :  — 

Treasurer's  bill,  according  to  location  of  room,  8160  00  to  $220  00 

Board,  37  weeks,  110  00  to     260  00 

Fuel,  lights,  and  washing,  30  00  to      60  00 

Use  of  textbooks  and  furniture,  30  00  to      60  00 

8330  00  to  8600  00 

According  to  an  educational  journal,  the  actual  expenses  of  a 
class  that  recently  graduated,  as  nearly  as  could  l^e  ascertained  by 
careful  inquiry,  were  for  eacli  student,  on  an  average,  for  the  four 
successive  years,  *933,  -^959,  *952,  5^981 ;  a  total  of  *3,824  for  the 
coui*se,  or  more  than  fifty  per  cent,  above  the  highest  college  esti- 
mate. 

The  Harvard  University  catalogue  of  1841-2  estimates  the 
expenses  as  follows:  — 

Instruction,  library  and  lecture-rooms,  875  00 

Rent  and  care  of  room,  15  00 

Board,  40  weeks,  82.25  per  week,  90  00 

Textbooks,  12  00 

Special  repairs,  about  3  00 

8105  00 
These   are   the   necessary  expenses   included  in  college  bills. 

Other  expenses  vary  with  the  student.     Washing,  from  '^3  to  $5  a 

term.     Wood,  '$7.50  a  cord ;  coal,  $8. 

Tlie  expenses  at  Harvard  are  thus  stated  in  the  catalogue  for 

1884-5. 

The  following  table  exhibits  four  scales  of  annual  expenditure,  the  expenses 
of  the  long  vacation  not  being  included :  — 


Econom- 

Moder- 

Very- 

Least. 

ical. 

ate. 

Liberal. 

Tuition, 

8150  00 

8150  00 

8150  00 

8150  00 

Books  and  stationery. 

28  00 

35  00 

45  00 

61  00 

Clothing, 

70  00 

120  00 

150  00 

300  00 

Room, 

22  00 

30  00 

100  00 

175  00 

Furniture  (annual  average). 

10  00 

15  00 

25  00 

50  00 

Board, 

133  00 

152  00 

152  00 

304  00 

Fuel  and  lights. 

11  00 

15  00 

30  00 

45  00 

Washing, 

15  00 

20  00 

40  00 

50  00 

Societies  and  sports  (annual  average). 

35  00 

50  00 

Servant, 

25  00 

Sundries, 

45  00 

55  00 

85  00 

150  00 

Total,  8484  00     8502  00     8812  00  81,360  00 

President  Eliot  discussed  in  a  recent  report  the  present  cost 
of  an  education  at  Harvard,  after  liaving  addressed  letters  of  in- 


1888.]  COLLEGE  EXPENSES.  17 

quiiy  to  parents  and  guardians.  He  found  the  smallest  sum  for 
the  nine  montlis  of  college  year  to  be  -WTl,  in  the  ease  of  the  son 
of  a  poor  meclmnic,  who  supported  himself  in  the  three  montlis 
of  vacation  by  working  at  his  trade.  The  largest  sum  reported 
was  the  case  of  a  rich  man's  son,  who  spent  55«2500  in  the  same 
time.  Few  spent  less  than  .$500  or  more  than  ?i«loOO.  No  allow- 
ance was  made  for  secret  societies  or  sports.  To  bring  the  ex- 
penses witliin  'f500,  he  said,  ''  requires  an  extreme  economy  at 
every  point,  and  that  faculty  of  making  a  little  go  a  great  way, 
which  not  many  possess." 

The  causes  that  have  produced  this  great  increase  in  college 
expenses,  as  shown  in  the  above  tables,  are  well  undei*stood.  The 
changes  of  centuries  of  old  life  have  been  compressed  into  the 
existence  of  this  generation.  The  discovery  of  California  gold  and 
its  results,  the  immense  material  development  of  the  age,  with  the 
introduction  of  new  luxuries,  the  late  war,  etc.,  etc.,  have  had  an 
inflj^ence  that  need  not  be  dwelt  upon. 

College  life  was  very  simple  forty-five  yeara  ago,  as  all  old  grad- 
uates can  testify.  Of  one  of  the  first  named  colleges,  the  writer 
can  speak  from  personal  knowledge.  There  were  many  more 
students  and  fewer  professors  than  now.  The  professors  heard 
two  and  three  recitations  daily  and  were  in  excellent  health,  and 
several  retired  professors  lived  near  the  college,  advanced  in  years 
but  fresh  and  youthful  in  body  and  spirit,  leaving  the  impression 
that  a  college  professorship  was  the  sure  path  to  a  green  old  age. 

Whatever  might  be  the  wealth  of  the  student,  custom  dictated 
no  extravagancies.  Not  half  a  dozen  rooms  in  the  college  had  car- 
pets, and  the  ordinary  furniture  consisted  simply  of  a  bed,  table, 
and  a  few  chairs,  all  costing  from  $10  to  i20.  These,  as  well  as 
the  textbooks,  were  usually  bought  second-hand,  descending 
through  generations  of  students,  each  year  falling  a  little  in  price, 
till,  their  service  ended,  they  were  consigned  to  the  flames.  Every 
student  took  care  of  Ins  own  room,  built  his  own  fire,  brought  his 
own  water  from  the  college  pump,  and  swept  and  dusted  his  own 
room  once  a  day,  or  once  a  month,  as  his  tastes  and  habits  of  neat- 
ness prompted.  His  laundress  came  once  a  week  for  his  bundle 
of  soiled  linen,  her  charge  being  twenty-five  cents,  without  count- 
ing the  pieces.  Students  had  boats  in  which  they  rowed  on  the 
river  flowing  near,  and  foot-ball  and  base-ball  were  earnestly 
played,  but  they  were  attended  with  no  expense,  and  no  rivalries 


18  EDUCATlOy.  [September, 

and  jealousies.  Secret  societies  (it  is  not  the  place  here  to  discuss 
whether  they  are  a  curse  or  blessing  to  college  life),  which  now 
directly  and  indirectly  tax  the  funds  of  the  student  so  heayfly,  had 
not  been  organized. 

Many  of  the  students  had  limited  means  and  were  obliged  to 
calculate  closely  their  college  expenses-  Tliey  were  largely  from 
the  country,  farmers'  sons,  determined  to  have  an  education,  at 
whatever  sacrifice,  and  having  only  their  ovni  strong  arms  and 
brave  hearts  to  depend  upon.  It  was  the  custom  for  these  to  teach 
a  district  school  in  winter  and  in  that  way  to  earn  a  large  part  of 
the  sum  required  for  their  college  expenses,  and  as  the  district 
schools  of  New  England  were  then  always  taught  in  winter  by 
males,  there  was  no  difficulty  in  securing  a  situation  with  good  pay. 
So  necessaiy  was  this  to  the  student,  that  the  college  vacations 
were  made  longest  in  winter,  and  if  sometimes  the  student's  school 
encroached  on  term  time,  he  could  study  harder  on  his  return  to 
make  up  for  his  al)sence.  The  poor  student,  too,  thought  it  no 
disgrace  in  haying  time  to  liire  himself  to  a  farmer,  for  mo^ving 
macliines,  etc.,  etc.,  had  not  tlien  l>een  invented  to  take  the  place 
of  hand  lal)or  on  the  farm  in  its  busiest  season.  And  so  many,  very 
many,  worked  their  way  through  college  unaided,  and  came  out 
stronger  and  better  for  the  struggle — stronger,  because  they  had 
met  and  conquered  difficulties  —  better,  because  their  poverty  had 
kept  them  from  the  temptation  and  dissipation  so  dangerous  to 
college  life. 

It  appears  from  the  tables  that  in  every  college  the  lowest  esti- 
mated expenses  now  are  more  than  double  those  of  1840.  Unfor- 
tunately, however,  it  is  not  alone  the  increase  in  the  ordinary 
college  bilLs  that  l)ears  so  hea\dly  now  on  the  poor  student.  Col- 
lege life  has  lost  its  old  simplicity,  and  luxurious  habits  and  many 
expensive  associations  of  students  for  various  purposes  have  been 
introduced.  The  rooms  of  many  American  students  are  more  ex- 
pensively furnished  than  those  of  Oxford  students,  as  the  Ameri- 
can father,  with  his  newly  acquired  wealth,  can  afford  to  spend 
more  than  the  father  of  many  a  young  lord  tracing  his  pedigree 
back  to  the  time  of  William  the  Conqueror.  Boating  clubs,  base- 
ball clubs,  and  clubs  and  secret  societies  for  many  objects,  with 
their  regular  and  irregular  assessments  and  entertainments,  make 
large  drafts  on  the  purse,  and  though  all  are  optional,  it  is  hard  for 
the  student  of  limited  means  to  resist  the  popular  current  and  keep 


1888.]  COLLEGE  EXPENSES.  '    19 

aloof.  If  ever  *'  pride  and  poverty  go  together/'  it  is  in  the  breast 
of  a  poor  young  student,  struggling  for  an  education,  and  feeling 
keenly  the  assumptions  of  his  rich  fellow  students  and  the  respect 
paid  to  the  wealth  of  his  inferiors  in  all  but  worldly  position. 
How  much  is  spent  in  these  ways,  unknown  to  students  years  ago, 
it  is  not  easy  to  estimate,  as  it  varies  with  the  college  and  circum- 
stances. President  Eliot  estimates  it  for  Harvard  at  from  $35  to 
$50,  as  the  annual  average.  The  ambition  and  rivalry  of  diflferent 
societies  have  caused  the  erection  of  many  costly  edifices  for  their 
meetings,  their  members  not  content  with  a  hired  hall.  Of  course, 
most  of  the  contributions  for  such  purposes  are  voluntarj%  but  it  is 
hard  for  a  student  to  confess  his  poverty  by  withholding  his  gift. 
The  writer  well  remembere  the  arrogance  with  which  a  wealthy 
member  of  his  class  attempted  to  humiliate  a  poor  student  who 
objected  to  a  measure  from  its  expense  by  offering  to  pay  his  pro- 
portion. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  great  increase  in  college  expenses,  it 
may  be  stated  that  a  young  man  recently  applied  for  aid  to  a  gen- 
tleman, and  named  as  the  lowest  sum  for  which  he  could  pay  a 
year's  college  bills  an  amount  greater  than  the  gentleman  had 
expended  in  his  whole  course. 

While  the  expenses  have  so  much  increased,  the  means  of  earn- 
ing open  to  a  student  have  been  diminished.  Winter  ternLs  of 
district  schools,  the  old  unfailing  resource,  are  all  taught  by  ladies ; 
the  farmer  finds  machinery  cheaper  than  men  in  the  haying  sea- 
son ;  and  the  poor  student  seeks  in  vain  for  temporary  work  to 
add  to  his  limited  means. 

It  will  be  observed,  that  while  the  increase  has  been  large  in 
expenses  for  board  and  other  charges,  to  a  large  extent  indepen- 
dent of  college  control,  the  regular  college  bills  have  increased  in 
a  still  higher  ratio.  For  example,  while  the  price  of  board  at 
Dartmouth  has  doubled,  the  price  of  tuition  has  trebled.  And  the 
tendency  is  nowhere  to  a  reduction.  A  recent  circular  to  the 
Alumni  of  an  old  New  England  college  appealing  for  funds  says, 
that  the  college  expenses  cannot  be  reduced,  but  must  be  increased. 
Yet  this  college  and  the  other  leading  New  England  colleges  have 
received  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars  in  the  unexampled  lib- 
erality of  the  last  few  years.  The  educational  l)enefactions  for 
the  year  ending  June  30,  1885,  alone  were  ii9,314,081,  of  wliich 
more  than  half  was  to  colleges  and  universities.     In  1873  the  total 


20  ED  UCA  TION,  [Sep  tern  ber, 

was  Jifll,226,977.  New  and  expensive  buildings  are  erected,  in 
striking  contrast  to  those  of  mast  European  universities,  which, 
if  needed  at  all,  should  be  of  the  plainest  nature ;  new  pro- 
fessorships are  created,  and  special  courses  multiplied,  giving 
the  student  hom<i»opathic  doses  of  many  studies  on  the  princi- 
ple that  the  smaller  tlie  dose  the  greater  the  effect  —  all,  it  is 
said,  to  keep  tlie  college  up  to  the  spirit  of  the  age,  and  show 
that  it  is  progressive.  A  college  president  in  a  recent  appeal  for 
funds  begged  that  gifts  might  not  l>e  restricted,  but  left  to  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  college  authorities.  From  tlie  way  much  given  to 
colleges  has  Ijeen  expended  in  the  past,  there  seems  occjision  for 
the  remark,  tliat  practical  men  who  earn  money  are  often  wiser  in 
its  application  than  men  whose  wisdom  is  mainly  in  books. 

The  reply  to  tliose  who  complain  of  the  growing  expense  of  a 
college  education  is,  that  poor  young  men  can  be  aided  by  schol- 
arships and  funds  devoted  to  that  object.  Yet  nearly  all  this  aid 
is  restricted  to  students  preparing  for  the  ministry,  or  to  superior 
scholarship.  It  scarcely  need  1x3  remarked  how  little  can  often- 
times Ixj  judged  of  the  future  success  and  usefulness  of  a  young 
man  from  his  college  career.  The  highest  abilities  may  be  dor- 
mant in  college  to  l>e  called  forth  by  the  exigencies  of  after  life. 
Certainly,  to  mention  no  other  example.  General  (rrant  would 
have  received  no  assistance  from  college  funds  for  proficiency  in 
any  department.  No  other  country  spends  so  much  as  we  for  edu- 
cation, and  in  none  is  so  much  wasted.  England  has  two  great 
universities,  and  at  Oxford  a  student  can  bring  his  expenses  within 
$500.  We  have  in  the  United  States  365  colleges,  so  called,  with 
4,836  instructor  and  65,728  students,  an  income  from  productive 
fluids  of  $3,018,624,  and  from  tuition  of  *2,105,565.  Ohio  alone 
has  33  colleges  and  327  instructors,  with  2,601  students,  less  than 
half  the  numljer  in  some  German  universities.  Put  all  these  Ohio 
students  into  one  college,  and  with  their  present  funds  there  could 
be  free  instruction,  abler  professors,  and  l)etter  results. 

The  object  of  this  article  is  to  call  attention  to  the  need  of 
reducing  the  cost  of  a  higher  education,  that  a  remedy  may  be 
applied.  Many  of  oiu-  greatest  and  best  men  have  l)een  poor  in 
early  life,  gaining  their  education  by  severe  struggles.  A  poor 
young  man  cannot  now  pay  his  college  expenses,  as  he  could  have 
done  forty  years  ago.  The  number  of  college  graduates  has  largely 
fallen  off  in  proportion  to  our  population.     In  Paris,  at  the  Col- 


1888.]  COLLEGE  EXPENSES.  21 

lege  of  France,  established  by  Francis  I.  in  1530,  men  of  world- 
wide reputation  give  instruction  free  to  all,  in  every  branch  of 
knowledge,  and  it  is  easier  for  a  poor  young  man  to  get  his  edu- 
cation in  Europe  than  here.  Our  common  schools  are  free,  but 
our  colleges  are  dear.  It  should  he  the  aim  not  so  much  to 
enlarge  the  advantages  of  our  colleges  as  to  make  the  present 
facilities  accessible  to  a  larger  number.  Let  rich  men  in  their 
donations  provide  for  free  instruction.  Harvard  has  just  received 
a  million  or  more,  and  the  President  of  Yale  asks  for  two  millions 
of  dollars  to  enlarge  the  library,  establish  new  professorships,  etc., 
etc.,  yet  no  one  proposes  a  reduction  of  college  charges. 

If  the  general  government  is  to  appropriate  large  sums  for  edu- 
cation, as  is  proposed  by  the  Blair  bill,  why  not  establish  a'  great 
national  university,  worthy  of  our  nation,  with  the  ablest  profes- 
sors and  free  tuition  ?  Eighty  years  ago  Jefferson  said  such  an  in- 
stitution was  a  necessity,  and  should  at  once  be  created,  and  such 
was  the  opinion  of  Washington,  Adams,  and  Madison.  Shall  not 
the  idea  in  the  minds  of  these  wise  men  be  revived,  and  Congress 
be  turned  from  the  lower  objects  engrossing  it  to  the  creation  of  a 
university  equal  to  any  other  of  which  the  world  can  now  boast  ? 
No  other  nation  has  made  such  material  progress,  but  it  is  far 
nobler  to  seek  intellectual  and  moral  advancement,  so  necessary  to 
the  perpetuity  of  our  free  institutions. 


BOOKS  give  to  all  who  will  faithfully  use  them,  the  society 
and  the  presence  of  the  best  and  greatest  of  our  race.  No 
matter  how  poor  I  am ;  no  matter  though  the  prosperous  of  my 
own  time  will  not  enter  my  obscure  dwelling,  if  learned  men  and 
poets  will  enter  and  take  up  their  abode  under  my  roof, —  if  Milton 
will  cross  my  threshold  and  sing  to  me  of  Paradise ;  and  Shake- 
speare open  to  me  the  world  of  imagination  and  the  workings  of 
the  human  heart ;  and  Franklin  enrich  me  with  his  practical  wis- 
dom,—  I  shall  not  pine  for  want  of  intellectual  companionship,  and 
I  may  become  a  cultivated  man,  though  excluded  from  what  is 
called  the  best  society  in  the  place  where  I  live.  Nothing  can  sup- 
ply the  place  of  books.  Channing. 


22  ED  UCA  TIOX.  [September, 


JOSHUA  BATES  AND  HIS  TIMES. 

BY  GRANVILLE  B.   PUTNAM,   FRANKLIN  SCHOOL,   BOSTON. 

THE  centurj^  of  the  centuries  is  nearly  ended.  Its  record  will 
soon  be  closed.  Its  history  will  soon  be  written.  The  unri- 
valled i)rogress  of  which  we  hear  so  much  is  not  an  idle  boast. 
The  world  is  a  witness  to  it. 

In  New  England  were  early  planted  seeds  of  influence  which  in 
their  "development  must  stimulate  thought  and  incite  to  noble 
deeds.  While  the  soil  of  imperial  states  was  yet  untrodden,  wliile 
a  host  of  cities,  of  which  the  nation,  today,  is  justly  proud,  were 
not  yet  dreamed  of,  the  cliurch  and  the  school  were  here  exerting 
a  mighty  power  over  her  sons,  many  of  whom  were  subsequently 
to  go  forth  to  found  these  later  commonwealtlLS  and  l)uild  these 
cities.  To  those  who  planted  these  seeds,  especially  to  those  who 
filled  her  pulpits  and  taught  her  schools,  should  willing  honor  be 
I)aid.  Tlie  product  of  her  institutiims  is  seen  in  every  depaitment 
of  her  own  life,  and  is  felt  wlierever  her  sons  have  made  their 
homes. 

Law  boasts  its  Evarts,  medicine  its  Bowditch,  the  pulpit  its 
Brooks,  art  its  Greenough,  statesmansliip  its  Sumner,  eloquence 
its  Phillips,  the  speaker's  desk  its  Wintln-op,  and  the  governor's 
chair  its  Everett,  all  Boston  school-lx)ys,  illustrious  sons  of  a 
mother  worthy  of  the  honor  which  their  names  confer.  Hundreds 
more,  well  known  to  fame,  might  be  adduced,  but  these  will  serve 
to  indicate  the  results  of  the  teacliing  and  tmining,  the  conditions 
and  circumstances  by  which  her  lx)ys  were  reared. 

For  nearly  half  of  this  century,  so  potent  in  its  influence,  Joshua 
Bates  was  faitlifully  instructing  the  minds,  and  moulding  the  char- 
actei*s  of  children  living  within  the  present  limits  of  this  city.  It 
is  fitting  then,  now  that  his  lal)oi*s  are  ended,  that  we  should  recall 
the  story  of  his  life,  and  something  of  the  times  in  which  his  work 
was  accomplished. 

There  was  a  period  during  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  and 
the  fiiTst  of  the  present  centuiy,  in  which  educational  interests 
sadly  declined  throughout  the  country.     During  the   Revolution 


1888.]  JOSHUA  BATES,  2? 

the  public  schools,  even  in  Boston,  had  been  suspended,  and  the 
effects  of  this  struggle  for  independence  were  felt  for  many  years. 
Before  its  baneful  influence  was  overcome  the  war  of  1812  oc- 
curred, and  it,  too,  had  ite  attendant  evils,  serving  as  an  incubus 
upon  the  schools  during  the  years  that  followed.  Tlie  interest  of 
the  public,  so  marked  at  the  first,  when  many  of  the  settlers  were 
men  of  letters  who  had  brought  w^ith  them  their  love  of  learning, 
h^d  waned.  Teachers  were  largely  incompetent  and  were  poorly- 
paid.  Schoolhouses  were  neglected  and  were  provided  with  none 
of  the  equipments  now  considered  essential.  One  large  room,  with 
perhaps  two  hundred  pupils,  the  master  at  one  end  and  the  usher 
at  the  other,  two  recitations  in  progress  at  the  same  time,  a  large 
stove  near  the  door,  with  pipe  extending  the  length  of  the  room, 
desks  sloping  towards  a  central  aisle,  no  globe,  nor  wall-map,  nor 
blackboard ;  this  is  the  picture  of  the  schoolroom  as  presented  in 
1830.  There  was  no  vocal  music,  no  drawing,  no  object  lesson,  no 
geography  worthy  the  name,  no  vocal  training,  no  i)liysical  exer- 
cises, no  physiology  or  hygiene,  and  no  instruction  in  the  elements 
of  science.  A  great  part  of  the  time  was  given  to  reading  and 
writing  and  to  arithmetic,  without  any  attention  to  principles. 

It  w411  thus  be  seen  that  the  unique  educational  progress  of  the 
nineteenth  century  did  not  commence  until  the  finst  third  of  it 
was  nearly  ended. 

It  \nll  be  my  purpose  to  show  the  origin  of  some  of  the  impor- 
tant movements  inaugurated  during  the  second  third,  and  the  part 
which  Mr.  Bates  had  in  their  inception  and  progress.  But  be- 
fore doing  this,  it  were  well  to  present  a  brief  account  of  his 
early  life. 

Mr.  Bat^s  was  born  in  Dedham,  Mass.,  where  his  father  was 
pastor  of  the  Congregational  church,  on  the  17th  of  March,  1810. 
In  1818  the  latter  was  elected  president  of  the  college  at  Middle- 
burj',  Vt.,  to  which  town  he  then  removed.  That  Joshua  might 
the  better  complete  his  preparation  for  college,  he  was  sent  to 
Phillips  Academy  at  Andover,  where  he  remained  till  1828,  when 
he  entered  the  freshman  class  of  the  institution  over  which  his 
father  presided.  He  graduated  with  honors  in  the  class  of  1832. 
During  his  college  course,  he  taught  two  or  more  wintere  in  dis- 
trict schools,  and  at  its  close  he  wjus  engaged  for  one  year  in  a 
private  school  at  Springfield.  In  the  fall  of  1833,  he  was  elected 
to  the  position  of  a  master  in  the  "'Old  Training  Field  School"  in 


^  EDUCATION.  [September, 

Charlestown,  at  a  salary  of  ♦700.  This  was  aflenvarAs  known  as 
the  Winthrop,  and  is  now  the  Frothingham  School. 

Although  the  English  High  School  of  Boston  had  been  estab- 
lished as  early  as  1821,  most  of  the  towns  in  its  vicinity  were  still 
without  schools  of  this  grade.  In  Charlestown,  Mr.  Bat^s  was 
selected  to  receive  from  all  parts  of  the  town  those  pupils  who 
desired  an  advanced  course,  or  preparation  for  college,  so  that  his 
work  was,  to  some  extent,  that  of  the  High  School  teacher  of  the 
present  day. 

The  firet  movement  towards  an  educational  revival  seems  to 
have  been  made  in  Essex  County,  where  an  association  of  teachers 
was  formed  in  Topsfield  in  1829.  This  is  l)elieved  to  l^e  the  first 
attempt  in  this  countrj'  to  bring  together  the  scattered  teachers 
for  consultation  and  mutual  improvement.  The  late  Gen.  Henry 
K.  Oliver  was  its  first  president. 

On  the  15th  of  March,  1830,  a  few  friends  of  educfition  met  at 
Columbian  Hall,  Boston,  to  consider  what  could  be  done  to 
strengthen  and  advance  the  cause  in  which  they  were  engaged. 
As  a  result  of  this  conference,  another  and  more  general  meeting 
was  held  in  Representatives'  Hall  at  the  Stiite  House,  in  August 
of  the  same  year.  Eleven  states  were  represented.  It  was  the 
wish  of  many  to  form  a  State  Association,  but  the  pleas  of  those 
from  other  states  were  heeded  and  the  American  Institute  of 
Instruction,  which  has  just  held  its  fifty-ninth  annual  meeting  at 
Newport,  was  organized  with  William  B.  Calhoun  of  Springfield, 
as  its  president.  The  object  of  the  Institute  as  then  set  forth  was 
"  to  promote  the  cause  of  popular  education,  to  elevate  the  char- 
acter of  instruction,  to  widen  its  sphere,  to  perfect  its  methods,  as 
well  as  to  compare  opinions  upon  topics  relating  to  it." 

That  the  teachers  of  New  England  were  ready  for  such  an  asso- 
ciation is  evident  from  its  strength  and  vigor  from  the  very  first. 
Twelve  to  seventeen  lectures  were  given  each  year  by  the  ablest 
men  among  them.  Among  the  many,  I  select  a  few :  Warren 
Colburn  lectured  on  Arithmetic ;  Thomas  Sherwin  on  Geometry ; 
George  D.  Tichnor  on  Language ;  William  Kussell  on  Reading ; 
Horace  Mann  on  Spelling ;  Richard  Green  Parker  on  Composition  ; 
Goold  Brown  on  Grammar;  George  S.  Hilliard  on  Histor}%  and 
James  Murdock  on  Elocution.  The  words  of  such  men  upon  topics 
in  which  each  was  an  expert,  could  not  fail  to  arouse  a  lively  inter- 
est.    The  name  of  President  Bates  appears  in  the  list  of  early 


1888.]  JOSHUA  BATES,  26 

officers  and  lecturers,  and  in  1847  Joshua  Bates  of  Boston  was  one 
of  the  vice-presidents  and  was  cliairman  of  the  Committee  on 
Nominations. 

In  August,  1852,  the  Institute  met  at  Troy,  N.  Y.,  and  he  gave 
his  well-remembered  lecture  upon  Thomas  Arnold,  wliich  won  for 
him  great  praise.  It  was  felt,  however,  by  members  of  the  Essex 
County  Association,  and  doubtless  by  othera,  that  the  Institute 
did  not  fully  meet  their  wants,  and  that  there  was  still  need  of  a 
state  association.  A  committee,  of  which  Charles  Northend  was 
chairman,  was  appointed  to  take  measures  to  secure  its  formation. 
In  response  to  a  circular  issued  by  this  committee,  a  convention 
was  held  at  Brinley  Hall  in  Worcester,  on  Monday,  Noveml:)er 
24, 1845. 

The  Massachusetts  Teachers'  Association  was  then  and  there 
formed.  Oliver  Carlton  of  Salem  was  its  fii*st  president,  and 
Joshua  Bates  one  of  its  vice-presidents.  At  its  third  annual 
meeting,  a  committee,  of  which  he  was  chaiiman,  was  appointed  to 
bring  to  the  legislature  the  subject  of  "  Truancy,"  and  in  1850  he 
gave  a  lecture  upon  *'  The  Enactment  of  a  law  to  prevent  Truancy 
and  Irregular  Attendance."  At  the  meeting  in  1845,  at  which  the 
Association  was  formed,  a  committee  was  appointed  to  consider 
the  expediency  of  establishing  a  "  Teachers'  Journal "  to  be  its 
organ.  As  it  would  assume  no  pecuniary  responsibility,  there  was 
some  delay,  and  it  was  not  till  December,  1847,  that  four  gentle- 
men met  in  Mr.  Bates'  room  at  the  United  States  Hotel  to  decide 
upon  the  name  the  magazine  should  bear,  and  to  read  the  first 
proof.  For  several  years  this  room  and  the  study  of  Mr.  Philbrick 
at  his  own  home  were  the  editorial  rooms  of  the  Massachusetts 
Teacher. 

We  can  form  but  little  idea  of  the  pecuniary  sacrifice,  the  time 
and  effort  freely  given  by  these  gentlemen  that  it  might  be  estab- 
lished upon  a  firm  basis.  The  first  year  there  were  but  250  paying 
subscribers,  and  ten  years  elapsed  before  the  list  was  increased  to 
2,000.  Educational  magazines  had  before  existed  as  private  enter- 
prises. The  first  in  the  country^  was  published  from  1826  to  1830. 
It  was  edited  by  William  Russell,  and  called  The  Journal  of  Edu- 
cation.    This  was  succeeded  by  the  Annals  of  Education  which 

*'*  The  Academioian,"  a  semi-mnntbly  majirazine,  "containinK  the  elements  of  scholas- 
tic science  and  the  oatlines  of  Philosophic  EOucation.  predicated  on  the  analysis  of  the 
butnan  mind  and  exhibiting  the  improved  methods  of  instruction,"  was  published  in 
Kew  York  from  1818  to  1820,  and  edited  by  Albert  Picket  and  John  W.  Picket.— [Bditor. 


26  EDUCATJOy.  [September* 

continued  from  1831  to  1839,  under  the  editorship  of  William  C. 
Woodbridge. 

In  November,  1838,  Horace  Mann  started  the  Common  School 
Journal,  which  was  published  in  Boston  until  1852,  William  B. 
Fowle  being  its  editor  during  the  last  few  years  of  its  existence. 
While  Mr.  Bates  was  still  in  Charlestown  the  State  Board  of  Edu- 
cation was  organized,  being  created  by  an  Act  of  the  Legislature 
in  April,  1837.  Horace  Mann,  who  had  been  largely  instrumental 
in  securing  it,  was  secretary,  and  Edward  Everett  president. 
Mr.  Mann  used  the  Common  School  Journal  as  the  semi-official 
organ  of  the  Board. 

For  ten  years  or  more,  efforts  had  been  made  to  secure  Noimal 
Schools  in  Massachusetts.  The  idea  was  deemed  by  many  men 
of  influence  at  the  State  House,  to  be  both  visionary  and  imprac- 
ticable. The  elocjuence  of  John  Quincy  Adams,  Webster,  Ran- 
toul,  and  Everett  was  enlisted  in  their  behalf,  but  they  were  not 
secured  until  Edmund  Dwight  pledged  810,000  for  their  support^ 
on  condition  that  the  State  provide  an  equal  sum. 

On  the  3d  day  of  July,  1839,  the  doors  of  the  first  Normal 
School  in  America  were  opened.  Rev.  Cyrus  Peirce,  who  had 
said :  '*  I  had  ratlier  die  than  fail,"  was  its  first  principal.  In  an 
hired  building,  an  old  academy  at  Lexington,  on  the  morning  of 
that  day  assembled  three  pupils.  These  girls,  the  first  female 
Normal  School  students  in  the  world,  took  turns  in  sweeping  the 
room  and  Father  Peirce,  as  the  weather  became  cool,  made  the 
fire. 

What  small  l^eginnings,  yet  less  than  fifty  years  have  passed 
and  now  every  State  and  almost  every  large  city  has  its  Normal 
schools.  Let  Julv  3,  1889,  witness  a  worthv  semi-centennial  cele- 
bration.  The  names  of  James  G.  Carter,  Charles  Brooks,  Edmund 
Dwight,  and  Horace  Mann  should  ever  be  held  in  remembrance,  in 
connection  with  these  schools  so  indispensable  to  a  complete  sys- 
tem of  public  instruction. 

In  1852,  wliile  Barnas  Sears  was  secretary  of  the  Board,  the  first 
Teachers'  Institute,  or  "  Flying  Normal  School,"  was  held  in  Bos- 
ton, although  they  had  l)een  held  in  other  cities  before  this.  The 
afternoons  and  evenings  of  four  days  were  given  to  it  and  schools 
were  dismissed  that  teachers  might  attend.  The  meetings  were 
held  in  the  Lowell  Institute,  and  at  the  close,  Mr.  Bates  as  chair- 
man of  a  committee  on  Resolutions,  in  behalf  of  the  teachers  of 


1888.]  JOSHUA  BATES,  27 

the  city,  presented  tlianks  to  the  Legislature  for  the  establishment 
of  the  Institutes. 

Lowell  Mason,  on  his  return  from  Europe  in  1840,  set  himself 
to  secure  the  introduction  of  music  into  the  schools.  This  took 
place  in  Boston  in  1844,  and  drawing  was  introduced  at  about  the 
same  time.  School  supervision  became  also  a  subject  of  discussion, 
and  after  years  of  agitation  the  Boston  School  Committee,  in  1851^ 
decided  to  employ  a  Superintendent  of  Schools,  and  Nathan  Bishop 
was  elected  to  the  position. 

Space  will  not  permit  me  to  give  any  account  of  the  introduc- 
tion of  evening  schools,  changes  in  school  buildings,  grading  of 
pupils,  and  many  other  improvements  aflfecting  the  schools  of  this 
commonwealth,  and,  through  it,  the  schools  of  the  civilized  world. 
It  will  be  observed  that  a  large  part  of  the  educational  agencies 
which  are  still  influential,  had  their  origin  in  the  early  part  of  the 
active  life  of  Mr.  Bates,  and  that  he  had  no  small  share  in  their 
adoption  and  continuance.  When  he  entered  the  Brimmer  School 
as  Master  of  the  Grammar  department  in  1844,  it  had  just  been 
organized  in  Common  Street,  upon  the  site  where  the  Franklin 
School  had  stood  before  its  removal  to  Washington  Street.  There 
were  then  nineteen  schools  in  the  city  of  the  Grammar  grade. 
These  were  the  Eliot,  Hancock,  Endicott,  Mayhew,  Bowdoin, 
Boylston,  AtUims,  Franklin,  Johnson,  Wells,  Hawes,  Mather,  Win- 
throp.  Brimmer,  Otis,  PliillijKS,  Lyman,  New  South,  and  Smith. 
The  latter  was  for  colored  children.  All  of  these,  except  the  last 
three,  were  upon  the  "  double-headed  "  plan,  one  master  at  the  head 
of  the  Reading  and  another  of  the  Writing  department.  This  anom- 
alous plan  was  not  entirely  discontinued  until  1850,  although  the 
present  one  was  introduced  at  the  Quincy  School  in  1848,  under 
the  charge  of  John  D.  Philbrick.  But  nine  of  the  nineteen  schools 
of  forty  years  ago,  still  remain.  The  demands  of  business  occasion 
changes  in  population,  which  result  in  the  depletion  of  some  and 
the  erection  of  many  more  new  ones. 

The  Brimmer  School  had,  in  1845,  513  pupils.  Thirty-six  of 
these  were  in  the  first  class,  and  their  average  age  at  graduation 
was  thirteen  years.  The  agitation  of  Horace  Mann  had  led  the 
Boston  School  Committee  to  fear  that  the  schools  of  the  city  were 
not  in  a  desirable  condition.  In  view  of  this,  a  sub-committee  was^ 
appointed  in  1845  to  examine  them.  The  committee  was  an  able 
one,  consisting  of  Theophilus  Parsons,  S.  G.  Howe,  and  RoUin  H» 


28  ED  UCA  TIOX.  [September, 

Neale.  In  due  time,  they  presented  a  moat  elal>orate  and  detailed 
report  of  every  school,  in  each  branch  of  study,  and  pronounced 
the  results  unsatLsfactorv. 

I  give  a  few  of  these,  as  examples  showing  the  per  cent,  of  cor- 
rect answers  which  were  obtained : 

Highest  K.  Lowest )(. 

Geography,  Winthrop,  46  Otis,         18 

Histor}*,  Adams,  59  Phillips,     8 

Philosophy,  Bowdoin,  36  Johnson,  12 

Grammar,  Adams,  61  Otis,         15 

Definitions,  Eliot,  55  Phillips,     8 

Written  examinations  alone  are  never  a  just  test  of  the  condi- 
tion of  a  school,  especially  if  the  questions  are  prepared  by  out- 
siders and,  if,  as  in  this  case,  the  pupils  are  unaccustomed  to  such 
examinations.  I  must  admit,  however,  that  there  was  some  good 
ground  for  the  decision  of  the  committee.  This  comparison  of 
schools  engendered  strife  and  ill-will  which  twenty  years  did  not 
wholly  remove.     If  it  secured  good,  it  was  not  unalloyed. 

Although  Mr.  Bates  had  l)een  but  a  year  in  the  Brimmer,  wliich 
seems  to  have  been  neither  the  highest  or  the  lowest  in  rank,  in 
any  study,  the  committee  speak  of  its  *-  excellent  master "  and 
say :  "  We  regard  his  methods  and  principles  of  discipline  and 
instruction  entitled  to  pniise  and  of  much  promise." 

The  report  of  1847  says :  "  Of  the  boys'  schools,  we  give  the 
Brimmer  School  the  first  rank.  The  mind  of  the  energetic  teacher 
has  been  brought  in  contact  with  the  mintls  of  his  pui)ils  and  a 
spirit  of  reatling,  of  inquiry,  and  general  activity  has  been  excited." 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  for  more  than  thirty  years  it  continued  to 
rank  among  the  veiy  first.  Of  his  work  in  the  routine  of  the 
schoolroom,  I  can  say  but  little,  except  to  point  to  the  results 
secured.  A  former  sub-master,  Mr.  Boardman,  for  many  years 
master  of  the  Lewis  School,  writes :  "  His  influence  on  his  own 
class  and  upon  the  lx)ys  of  the  entire  school  was  always  of  the 
right  kind.  He  inspired  in  the  lx)ys  a  feeling  of  self-respect,  a 
disposition  to  gentlemanly  bearing,  an  ambition  to  go  to  the  High 
School  and  afterwards  to  seek  eligible  and  honorable  positions  in 
the  work  of  the  world.  The  boys  in  whom  he  encouraged  self- 
respect  have  shown  the  highest  regard  for  him  in  maturer  years. 
He  ever  sought  the  best  teachers  and  with  beginners  was  patient, 
giving  helpful  advice  and  suggestion.     He  was  careful  never,  by 


1888.]  JOSHUA  BATES,  29 

word  or  act,  to  weaken  or  impair  the  influence  of  a  teacher  with 
her  class.  His  devotion  to  the  interests  of  his  school  did  more 
than  any  rules  or  precepts  to  create  a  like  spirit  in  his  assistants. 
If  one  brought  a  divided  interest  she  was  '  not  to  his  mind.'  Dur- 
ing the  fourteen  years  and  more  that  I  was  with  him  my  confidence 
in  and  respect  for  him  was  constantly  increasing,  and  has  contin- 
ued to  do  so,  as  I  have  been  in  a  way  to  know  better  the  nature  of 
the  duties  devolving  upon  him." 

The  teacher  of  a  Primary  class  in  his  district  says :  "  I  always 
found  him  a  gentleman,  just  and  conscientious  in  his  frequent 
visits." 

The  graduates  of  the  Brimmer  School  were  perhaps  the  first  in 
the  city  to  form  an  Alumni  Association.  Two  or  three  years 
since  it  was  my  pleasure  to  be  present  as  an  invited  guest  at  one 
of  their  annual  reunions,  and  it  was  a  delight  to  see  his  former 
pupils,  many  of  whom  were  already  bearing  the  mark  of  advancing 
years,  gather  around  Mr.  Bates  as  children  around  a  loved  father 
at  the  family  Thanksgiving  festival. 

Among  my  many  associates  in  the  ranks  of  the  Boston  Masters, 
I  can  recall  no  one  who  aimed  so  much  as  he  did  to  improve  the 
moral  nature  of  his  pupils.  He  not  only  seized  the  opportunity 
as  the  events  of  the  day  brought  a  subject  to  the  attention  of  the 
school,  but  he  took  occasion  to  give  more  formal  talks  on  morals 
to  his  boys,  who  were  so  soon  to  take  a  place  amid  the  activities 
and  temptations  of  city  life.  It  was  not  so  much  the  curriculum 
of  the  school  as  the  character  of  the  man  and  his  desire  for  their 
moral  well-being,  which  occasioned  this  strong  hold  upon  the  affec- 
tions of  his  graduates,  to  which  Mr.  Boardman  has  referred. 

For  nearly  fifty  years  the  Masters  have  met  once  a  month  at  the 
social  board.  At  first  they  assembled  at  the  residence  of  each  in 
turn,  or  at  some  hotel  as  he  might  elect;  but  for  many  years  the 
meeting  has  been  at  the  School  Committee  rooms  at  4.30  p.  m. 
We  have  there  considered  topics  of  vital  interest  to  the  schools. 
Mr.  Bates  was  an  active  participant  in  our  discussions  and  was 
always  earnest  in  the  advocacy  of  what  he  deemed  the  right. 
The  welfare  of  the  schools  was  dear  to  him  and  to  wound  them 
was  to  wound  him.  His  convictions  were  strong  and  so  often  was 
the  language  he  used  to  express  them.  The  "  hallucinations " 
of  the  "  zamzumons,"  to  use  two  of  his  favorite  words,  were  sure 
to  arouse  his  indignation  and  call  forth  his  vigorous  protests.     His 


30  EDUCATIOX,  [September, 

voice  and  pen  were  often  called  into  requisition  to  condemn  the 
course  of  some  official,  or  to  expose  the  fantastic  tricks  of  some 
educational  humbug.  If  there  were  those  who  doubted  the  jus- 
tice of  his  censure,  there  were  none  who  questioned  his  sincerity 
or  devotion. 

From  these  rooms  we  adjourned  to  a  6  o'clock  dinner  at  Parker's. 
By  common  consent  the  place  of  honor,  the  head  of  the  table,  was 
for  years  assigned  to  him.  He  was  our  Nestor,  without  a  rival. 
His  massive  head,  his  portly  form,  and  genial  face  became  the  place 
and  well  did  he  adorn  it. 

The  last  meeting  at  which  he  presided  was  on  the  first  Tuesday 
of  October,  1874.  In  the  course  of  his  remarks  at  the  table,  he 
said :  "  From  whatever  eLse  you  deprive  me,  cut  me  not  off  from 
these  monthly  gatherings,  and  you  will  not,  while  these  eyes  can 
see  the  way  and  these  feet  can  tread  the  path  to  these  meetings 
and  to  a  seat  at  this  board.  Let  us  cling  to  this  association  as  our 
first  love,  advising  one  another,  helping  one  another  and  so  con- 
secrating our  whole  energies  to  our  noble  callmg,  that  when 
we  shall  be  laid  '  each  in  his  narrow  cell  where  heaves  the  turf 
in  many  a  mouldering  heap,'  this,  the  noblest  of  epitaphs,  shall 
be  engraved  on  our  tombstones :  '  Here  lies  a  faithful,  devoted 
teacher.' " 

At  story-telling,  when  in  a  mood  for  it,  Mr.  Bates  was  an  adept, 
but  when  not  inclined  to  tell  one,  no  amount  of  persuasion  was  of 
any  avail.  The  presentation  of  a  good  one  by  another,  however, 
would  sometimes  remind  him  of  a  better,  which  he  could  not  for- 
bear to  tell.  I  have  seen  the  company  convulsed  with  laughter 
upon  hearing  the  same  story  from  liim  for  the  twentieth  time  and 
of  its  repetition  they  seemed  never  to  tire  if  it  came  from  his  lips. 

On  one  occasion,  many  years  ago,  with  a  party  of  gentlemen,  I 
spent  the  day  in  an  excursion  from  Bethlehem,  N.  H.,  to  the  Pro- 
file and  the  Flume.  The  journey,  both  there  and  back,  was  enliv- 
ened with  song,  and  wit,  and  story.  Chief  among  those  who 
contributed  to  the  pleasure  of  that  memorable  day  was  Mr.  Bates. 
The  pure  mountain  air  and  genial  company  served  to  exhilarate 
both  brain  and  tongue,  and  none  present  will  forget  him  or  the 
occasion. 

Prompted  by  ill  health,  Mr.  Bates  presented  his  resignation  on 
the  26th  of  May,  1876,  to  take  effect  September  1st.  A  leave  of 
absence  was  immediately  granted  and  a  committee  appointed  to 


1888.]  JOSHUA  BATES.  31 

present  suitable  resolutions  at  the  next  meeting,  which  was  held 
June  27th.  At  that  time,  Godfrey  Morse,  Esq.,  offered  the  fol- 
lowing, which  was  unanimously  adopted :  — 

"  Besolved^  that  the  School  Committee  of  the  city  of  Boston,  recognizing  the 
faithful  and  successful  labors  of  Joshua  Bates,  who  for  thirty-two  years  was 
principal  of  the  Brimmer  School,  desire  to  place  on  record  their  approbation 
of  the  fidelity  with  which  he  performed  his  duties,  and  attest  to  the  success 
which  has  crowned  his  persevering  labors.  The  Committee  regret  the  loss  to 
the  city  of  so  valued  an  instructor  and  hope  that  relaxation  from  active  service 
will  restore  him  to  the  enjoyment  of  his  health,  while  the  best  wishes  of  the 
Committee  for  his  well-earned  rest  and  happiness  accompany  him  to  his  retire- 
ment." 

It  is  evident  that  he  was  not  content  to  be  idle,  for  writing  from 
Florida  the  following  March,  he  said :  ''  My  health  is,  I  think, 
somewhat  improved  of  late.  At  times,  I  feel  quite  uneasy  and 
long  for  the  profession  of  my  choice,  in  which  I  have  spent  so 
many  happy  years,  but  I  will  not  repine,  for  I  feel  most  grateful 
that  I  have  had  so  many  years  granted  me  to  work  in  one  of  the 
noblest  fields  of  usefulness." 

I  have  often  heard  him  say  that  if  he  was  to  live  his  life  over 
again  he  would  select  the  same  occupation,  the  profession  he  so 
nobly  adorned.  He  often  said,  too,  that  he  was  thankful  that  his 
life-work  was  done  when  it  was ;  for  he  saw  ominous  clouds  already 
above  the  horizon. 

There  have  been  teachers,  I  fear,  even  in  Boston,  who  seemed 
to  feel  that  wisdom  was  so  embodied  in  themselves,  that  little 
could  be  gained  from  without  and  consequently  have  kept  aloof 
from  familiar  contact  with  their  associates.  Not  so  Mr.  Bates. 
Whenever  we  assembled  for  consultation  or  to  listen  to  words  of 
counsel  from  our  Superintendent,  he  was  habitually  present. 
After  he  had,  by  his  resignation,  severed  his  official  connection 
with  the  schools,  and  even  after  he  had  come  to  feel  deeply  the 
effect  of  physical  infirmities,  again  and  again  have  I  seen  him 
toiling  up  the  two  long  flights  of  stairs  at  Mason  Street,  that  he 
might  enjoy  the  reading  of  some  paper  or  listen  to  a  discussion 
upon  some  subject  in  which  he  continued  to  take  a  profound 
interest. 

No  one,  who  has  left  our  ranks  and  was  not  in  some  capacity 
still  connected  with  the  schools,  retained  to  such  a  degree  as  did 
he,  his  hearifelt  interest  in  them.  In  1865,  when  less  than  thirty 
years  of  age,  I  was  elected  Master  of  the  Franklin  School,  and  I 


32  EDUCATIOX,  [September, 

desire  to  bear  witness  here  to  the  cordiality  with  which  I  was 
received  by  this  veteran  in  the  service,  who  was  my  next  neighbor. 
This  spirit  was  continued  to  the  end,  and  I  recall  with  satisfaction 
his  many  kindly  words.  I  am  sure  that  others,  could  they  testify, 
would  speak  of  like  treatment  at  his  hands. 

Upon  the  return  of  Mr.  Philbrick  from  Europe,  in  October, 
1873,  Mr.  Bat^s  was  selected  by  the  Mjist^rs  to  offer  liim  in  their 
behalf  an  address  of  welcome.  Usually,  upon  the  death  of  one  of 
our  numl^er,  Mr.  Bates  was  appointed  chairman  of  a  committee  on 
resolutions.  For  this  position,  he  was  eminently  adapted,  in  view 
of  his  large-hearted  sympathy,  his  just  appreciation  of  men,  as 
well  {IS  his  power  of  felicitous  expression. 

In  1877  a  portrait  of  Mr.  Bates  was  presented  publicly  to  the 
Brimmer  School.  He  Wiis  deeply  moved  by  this  act  and  by  the 
words  si)oken  upon  the  occasion.  I  quote  from  a  letter  bearing 
date  of  March  24,  1877  :  — 

^^  The  many  kind  thini^s  said  of  ine  there  by  past  pupils  and  friends  have 
touched  nie.  I  feel  that  I  liave  not  merited  all  the  liindness  and  warm  expres- 
sions of  regard  so  generously  lavished  on  me  in  my  old  age.  After  so  many 
years  of  service  in  the  Boston  schools,  I  can  but  continue  still  to  feel  the  liveli- 
est intere<;t  in  their  welfare  and  in  all  that  pertains  to  their  success  and  pros- 
perity. [  am  often  living  over  the  many  happy  days  I  have  spent  in  the  school- 
room and  in  the  monthly  meetings  of  the  Masters  for  educational  improvement 
and  social  interchange,  where  so  many  good  suggestions  were  made  and  where 
those  teachers  most  interested  in  their  work  caught  a  new  enthusiasm  and 
entered  again  on  their  labors  with  fresh  motives  for  action  and  new  ideas  in 
plans  and  methods  of  instruction. '' 

In  1880,  the  degree  LL.  D.  was  given  liim  by  his  Alma  Mater» 
and  of  this  he  writes :  — 

'*  This  honor  conferred  upon  me  was  doubly  gratifying,  not  only  because  it 
is  the  first  instance  in  which  such  a  degree  has  been  conferred  upon  a  Boston 
Grammar  Master,  but  also  because  it  is  one  more  evidence  that  Teaching  is  fast 
becoming  more  properly  recognized  as  among  the  learned  and  honorable  pro- 
fessions, where  it  certainly  deserves  to  be  ranked.'^ 

Mr.  Bates  continued  to  the  last  a  firm  and  devoted  friend  of  Mr. 
Philbrick,  and  he  could  hardly  find  words  to  express  his  detesta- 
tion of  the  acts  of  those  who  were  instrumental  in  his  removal 
from  office.     In  writing  him  on  one  occasion  he  said :  — 

*^  It  would  seem  amusing,  if  the  subject  were  not  too  serious  for  Jesting,  that 
men,  most  of  whom  are  babes  in  educational  matters,  should  pretend  to  know 
more  about  the  management  of  schools  than  yourself,  who  for  twenty  years 
have  made  it  the  study  of  your  useful  and  laborious  life.  My  indignation  has 
been  roused  that  some  men  in  Boston,  and  even  some  on  the  School  Committee, 


1888.]  JOSHUA    BATES,  33 

should  ignore  your  plans  and  methods.  In  a  short  tirae  they  will  sink  into 
ignoble  and  forgotten  graves,  while  your  name  will  continue  to  live  on,  as  one 
who  has  done  more  for  the  success  and  prosperity  of  the  Boston  schools  than 
any  other  man.  Continue  firm,  my  dear  friend,  in  the  views  you  have  expressed 
and  stand  unmoved  on  the  ground  you  have  taken,  and  I  know  the  better  sense 
of  all  true  and  practical  friends  of  education  will  sustain  you.'* 

These  were  prophetic  words  and  Mr.  Bates  lived  to  see  them 
fulfilled,  for  nearly  everything  for  which  Mr.  Philbrick  contended 
has  since  been  adopted,  while  that  which  he  opposed  has  been  dis- 
carded. Upon  learning  that  the  Memorial  Volume  of  Mr.  Phil- 
brick  was  to  be  issued,  he  wrote  to  Mrs.  Philbrick :  — 

^^  If  any  man  deserves  posthumous  reputation,  that  man  is  Dr.  Philbrick ;  so 
distinguished  an  educator  and  so  noble  a  man.'* 

After  an  examination  of  the  book  he  wrote  again :  — 

'^  Now,  that  I  have  finished  reading  the  various  tributes  to  his  memory,  I 
have  been  most  deeply  impressed  with  the  nobleness  of  his  character  and  life. 
I  have  always  esteemed  and  honored  your  beloved  husband,  but  never  have 
I  been  so  impressed  with  his  greatness  as  I  have  since  reading  the  tributes  to 
his  character  from  distinguished  educators.  His  influence  will  live  on  in  future 
years  as  one  of  the  greatest  benefactors  of  his  race.'' 

At  the  early  age  of  fifteen,  Mr.  Bates  became  connected  with 
the  Congregational  Church  at  Middlebury,  but  in  later  life  was  a 
regular  attendant  at  the  service  of  the  Episcopal  Church.  He  was 
conservative  in  his  religious  views,  and  as  I  learned  from  his  own 
lips,  in  words  spoken  with  strong  emotion,  he  had  a  firm  convic- 
tion of  the  truths  of  evangelical  religion  and  the  highest  esteem 
for  those,  who,  trusting  to  atoning  blood  for  their  own  salvation, 
sought  in  daily  life  to  exemplify  the  spirit  of  the  Master. 

He  married,  somewhat  late  in  life,  a  daughter  of  Hall  J.  How, 
of  Boston,  who,  with  Frank  C,  his  only  child,  survives  him.  For 
twelve  years  after  his  resignation  he  lived,  honored  and  beloved 
by  former  pupils,  associates,  and  friends. 

On  Monday,  June  25,  1888,  at  the  age  of  seventy-eight,  he  died 
at  Beverly,  where  for  many  years  he  had  made  his  summer  home. 
In  the  absence  of  his  own  pastor,  the  rector  of  Emmanuel  Church, 
Boston,  Rev.  EUery  C.  Butler,  of  Beverly,  a  warm,  personal 
friend,  oflBciated  at  the  funeral.  The  service  was  short  and  sim- 
ple. As  it  was  understood  to  be  private,  many  who  would  gladly 
have  been  present  to  pay  respect  to  his  memory  were  denied  the 
privilege.  His  body  rests,  where  lie  so  many  of  Boston's  great 
and  good,  at  Mount  Auburn. 


i 


34  EDUCATION,  [September, 

His  dignified  bearing  and  commanding  presence  will  be  seen  no 
more,  but  he  is  not  dead.  Influence  is  immortal.  The  infant 
dying,  still  lives  in  the  l>etter  thought  and  life  of  those  who  loved 
it  here. 

The  herald  of  the  cross,  in  foreign  lands  although  called  to  die, 
ere  yet  he  has  learned  to  utter  one  intelligible  word  in  the  ear  of 
those  he  would  save,  yet  speaks  to  them  by  the  consecration  which 
led  him  to  their  shores. 

What  shall  we  say,  then,  of  the  undying  influence  of  him,  who 
for  almost  half  a  century  labored  and  taught,  that  he  might  train, 
inspire,  and  elevate  thousands  of  boys,  who  vnW  ever  revere  the 
precious  memory  of  **  Master  Bates." 


JAMES  JOHONNOT,  who,  for  many  years,  lias  been  prominent 
in  educational  work,  and  is  the  author  of  a  number  of  popu- 
lar schoolbooks,  died,  June  18th,  at  Tarpon  Springs,  Florida. 

He  early  advocated  many  reforms  in  school  methods  and  school 
economy,  which  he  lived  to  see,  in  a  great  measure,  accomplished. 
Though  somewhat  radical  in  Ids  views,  because  in  advance  of  cur- 
rent opinions  upon  many  subjects,  his  chief  aim  was  to  place  the 
common  schools  upon  a  scientific  and  philosophic  basis,  arousing 
the  mental  powers,  and  making  practical  morals  the  educational 
means  for  the  cultivation  of  sound  character.  The  latter  years  of 
his  life  were  given  mainly  to  literary  work,  and  at  the  present  time 
there  have  been  published  the  following  books,  written  and  edited 
by  him :  "  Principles  and  Practice  of  Teaching,"  *'  Geograpliical 
Reader,"  "  Natural  History  Series  of  Instructive  Reading-Books," 
consisting  of  "Book  of  Cats  and  Dogs,"  '" Friends  in  Feathers  and 
Fur,"  "  Neighbors  with  Wings  and  Fins,"  "  Neighbors  with  Claws 
and  Hoofs,"  "Some  Curious  Flyers,  Creepers,  and  Swimmers," 
and  "The  Animate  World,"  "How  we  Live,"  an  elementary 
physiology,  "Historical  Series  of  Instructive  Reading-Books," 
seven  volumes,  and  "  The  Sentence  and  Word-Book." 

Two  different  editions  of  "  Principles  and  Practice  of  Teach- 
ing "  have  been  published  in  Japan,  in  the  Japanese  language,  for 
the  use  of  the  native  teachers  of  that  country.  His  death  will  be 
mourned  widely  and  sincerely,  as  the  loss  of  one  of  the  foremost 
educators  of  America. 


1888.]  OUTLINE  NOTES.  35 


OUTLINE    NOTES    ON    THE   RENAISSANCE    AND 

THE  REFORMATION.^ 

BY  IDA  M.  GARDNEB. 

[These  outlines  are  based  upon  notes  on  leotures  delivered  before  the  Rhode  Island 
State  Normal  School  by  the  late  Prof.  J.  Lewis  Dlman,  D.  D.,  of  Brown  University.  No 
attempt  has  been  made  to  develop  them  into  anything  more  than  a  connected  whole. 
Such  as  they  are,  they  embody  the  permanent  impression  made  by  the  lectures  upon  a 
comparatively  immature  mind;  and  may  therefore  serve  to  illustrate  Professor  Diman's 
clear  presentation  of  a  subject,  and  its  careftil  analysis.  It  is  believed  that  the  notes 
will  be  helptal  to  teachers,  not  only  in  the  lines  of  study  suggested,  but  in  presenting  to 
classes  a  short,  concise  statement  of  this  interesting  period  of  modem  history.] 

I.  —  THE   REFORMATION. 

THE  year  1517,  when  Luther  nailed  the  ninety-five  theses  on 
the  church  door  at  Wittenberg,  may  be  taken  as  the  approx- 
imate date  of  the  Reformation ;  but  in  reality,  the  Reformation 
began  in  the  twelfth  century,  when  Arnold  of  Brescia,  accepting 
all  the  doctrines  of  the  Church,  denied  its  political  supremacy  as 
claimed  by  the  MedisBval  Popes. 

In  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  another  grand  move- 
ment occurred.  This  was  the  Rise  of  the  Mendicant  Orders. 
Ever  since  the  sixth  century,  the  ruling  monastic  orders  had  been 
founded  on  the  Benedictine  system.  The  rule  of  St.  Benedict  had 
done  an  immense  amount  of  good  in  Europe.  When  civilization 
went  to  the  lowest  point  in  the  Dark  Ages,  the  Benedictines  kept 
knowledge  alive.  This  system  began  with  vows  of  poverty,  that 
is,  for  individuals,  but  the  Order  might  hold  property.  The  life 
was  a  pleasant  one.  The  leaders  became  powerful  men.  Abbots 
and  Archbishops  often  sat  in  the  House  of  Lords.  Young  men 
became  eager  to  secure  such  positions,  and  went  into  the  monas- 
tery from  worldly  motives.  The  Order  became  in  time  very 
wealthy.  Benedict  lived  at  a  time  when  a  man  could  hardly  help 
being  wicked ;  he  must  seclude  himself  to  be  pure.  He  thought 
of  his  own  salvation,  and  was  separated  from  sympathy  with  the 
world.  But  now  men  began  to  feel  that  religion  had  something 
more  to  do ;  that  man  had  relations  and  duties  to  other  men. 

*■  Copsrright,  1888,  by  Ida  M.  Gardner. 


36  EDUCATION.  [September, 

I.  St.  Francis  of  Assissi  was  the  most  remarkable  character  of 
Mediaeval  times.  He  was  a  gay,  pleasant^  fashionable,  loving  Ital- 
ian. A  religious  experience  through  which  he  passed,  produced  a 
conviction  that  religion  ought  to  be  a  spiritual  life.  He  became 
the  founder  of  the  Franciscans,  or  White  Friars.  They  diflFered 
from  the  Benedictines  in  requiring  absolute  poverty  for  the  Order, 
as  well  as  for  the  individual.  They  took  the  triple  vow  of  "  chasti- 
ty, obedience,  and  poverty."  Their  whole  aim  was  to  imitate 
Christ.  The  Order  did  not  oppose  the  Church,  but  introduced  the 
new  idea  of  spirituality.  It  was  a  mystical  theology  —  "a  sort  of 
modem  Quakerism."  The  Order  became  very  popular.  Feudal- 
ism prevailed,  and  nine-tenths  of  the  people  were  in  servitude. 
The  system  of  St.  Francis  was  a  Gospel  to  the  poor.  They  were 
made  to  feel  that  they  too  might  imitate  Christ.  The  rise  of  the 
Franciscans  aided  in  paving  the  way  for  the  Reformation,  in  that 
a  spiritual  religion  would  tend  to  lessen  the  value  of  the  ordinances 
of  the  Church.  St.  Francis  was  a  genial,  loving  mystic.  Not  so 
was 

II.  St.  Dominic  of  Spain.  He  was  a  practical  man.  He  saw 
the  Church  doing  nothing  for  the  people.  "  He  was  the  Moody  of 
the  thirteenth  century."  He  made  preaching  prominent.  The 
Dominicans,  or  Black  Friars,  were  preaching  friars.  They  had 
great  influence  at  Oxford.  (  The  college  gowns  of  to-day  a  relic 
of  Dominican  influence.)  The  Dominicans  gave  plain  preaching 
on  practical  matters.  Dominic  might  be  called  "  the  father  of 
modern  Methodism."  The  Dominicans  preached  in  the  streets  — 
the  beginning  of  itinerant  preaching.  The  Franciscans  urged  to 
spiritual  living ;  the  Dominicans,  to  reform  in  preaching.  The 
results  can  hardly  be  over-estimated.  These  two  gave  back  to 
Rome  great  masses  of  people  who  had  become  indifferent,  and 
gave  to  Latin  Christianity  three  hundred  years  more  of  life.  The 
influence  has  been  felt  even  down  to  the  present  day.  Wherever 
there  has  been  found  any  religious  life  in  Europe,  we  almost  alwaya 
find  that  one  of  these  two  influences  has  been  at  work. 

The  Mystical  movement  occurred  in  Germany.  None  of  the 
Mystics  departed  from  the  Church,  but  their  influence  was  another 
aid  to  the  Reformation.  In  the  fourteenth  century,  all  through 
the  Rhine  towns,  went  men  who  called  themselves  "  Friends  of 
God."  They  formed  no  order  or  association,  though  there  was  a 
very  strong  sympathy  of   opinion  among    them.     Among  their 


1888.]  OUTLINE   NOTES.  37 

preachers  John  Tauler  upheld  the  most  spiritual  idea  —  the  inter- 
nal influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  It  was  a  remarkable  movement. 
It  never  took  the  form' of  antagonism  to  the  Church,  but  gradually 
leavened  large  portions  of  Germany.  No  one  took  a  stand  for 
distinct  views,  but  they  prepared  the  way  for  others  to  do  so. 

After  the  fifteenth  century,  the  religious  movement  becomes 
sharper.  Savonarola  was  the  first  of  the  open  reformers.  He 
denounced  doctrines.  He  was  a  man  of  intense  spirit,  but  narrow 
in  intellect.  His  lectures  on  the  Apocalypse  produced  a  profound 
effect.  (  Read  "  Romola.")  As  a  reformer,  Savonarola  presents 
himself  in  three  attitudes,  and  we  find  he  was  not  quite  up  to  the 
standard  of  a  real  reformer. 

1.  As  a  religious  reformer.  He  denounced  the  wickedness  of 
the  clergy;  attended  the  death-bed  of  Lorenzo  di  Medici  and 
denounced  his  sins.  He  did  not  fear  to  face  Alexander  VI.  and 
declare  his  wickedness. 

2.  As  a  moral  reformer.  He  denounced  the  extravagance  of 
the  times  in  living,  dress,  etc.  So  great  was  the  effect  of  his 
preaching  that  the  ladies  of  Florence  gave  up  their  jewels  and 
treasures  to  be  burned  in  the  street. 

3.  In  regard  to  education.  Savonarola  opposed  an  extremely 
classical  education.     Claimed  it  should  be  Christian. 

After  a  career  of  great  successes,  Savonarola  was  put  to  death. 
Why  did  he  fail,  apparently,  to  produce  a  lasting  effect?  His 
training  had  been  defective.  He  looked  on  religion  as  an  external 
thing.  The  belief  of  men  was  untouched.  He  did  not  reach  the 
vital  point. 

II. 

All  great  periods  have  their  representative  men,  from  whom  the 
age  is  named.  Thus  we  speak  of  the  "  Age  of  Pericles,"  the  "  Age 
of  Augustus,"  etc.  The  first  quarter  of  the  sixteenth  century 
may  be  called  the  age  of  Leo  X.  To  understand  the  shipwreck 
of  Latin  Christianity,  we  must  understand  the  characteristics  of 
the  Age  of  Leo  X. 

Leo's  own  name  was  John  di  Medici,  the  second  son  of  Lorenzo 
the  Magnificent.  He  was  bom  in  1475,  when  liis  father  was  at 
the  height  of  his  power  and  splendor.  He  had  every  advantage, 
social  and  intellectual.  In  accordance  with  the  custom  of  the 
times,  John  was  dedicated  to  God,  receiving  the  ecclesiastical  ton- 


88  EDUCATION.  [September, 

sure  at  seven  years  of  age,  and  became  Abbot  of  a  large  monas- 
tery. In  the  Middle  Ages  such  ecclesiastical  preferment  was  very 
common.  At  thirteen  John  became  a  Cardinal,  but  this  was  a  step 
beyond  any  that  had  yet  been  taken.  There  was  some  question 
about  putting  a  boy  into  the  Pope's  Board  of  Advisers,  so  he  was 
not  to  enter  upon  the  duties  of  his  oflBce  until  seventeen.  From 
this  time  he  became  a  candidate  for  the  papacy.  The  fact  illus- 
trates the  condition  of  things,  when  the  highest  and  most  sacred 
offices  were  thrown  open  to  a  child. 

John  became  very  proficient  in  classical  studies.  He  had  all 
the  attributes  and  qualities  for  a  high  literary  career.  Had  he 
been  born  in  other  circumstances,  he  would  have  been  a  famous 
scholar.  He  was  fond  of  art,  and  became  a  munificent  patron 
of  Art. 

The  condition  of  Italy  wliile  John  was  growing  up,  had  its  influ- 
ence upon  him.  The  attempted  reform  under  Savonarola  was  a 
genuine  movement  in  the  Church.  Notwithstanding  the  perfectly 
shameless  life  of  Alexander  VI.  and  his  court,  there  were  signs  of 
a  strong  reaction  in  favor  of  a  high  tone  in  private  and  public 
morals.  Savonarola's  preaching  produced  a  profound  impression ; 
but  after  his  death  came  a  reaction,  and  Florence  was  worse  than 
before.  All  thought  of  reform  seemed  to  have  passed  away. 
Then  the  papacy  fell  into  the  hands  of  a  man  who,  if  he  had  vices, 
had  the  decency  to  cover  them.  This  was  Julius  II.  All  his 
tastes  and  inclinations  led  him  away  from  ecclesiastical  concerns.* 
He  was  never  happy  unless  fighting  on  horseback,  at  the  head  of 
his  army.  His  influence,  though  not  immoral,  was  almost  as  bad 
as  Alexander's  had  been.  It  tended  to  secularize  the  papacy,  and 
make  men  forget  that  the  Pope  was  the  Vicar  of  Clirist. 

Another  downward  tendency  at  this  time,  came  from  the  change 
in  Art.  Julius's  influence  on  Art  was  pernicious.  The  pure  period 
of  Italian  Art  closed  with  Da  Vinci.  His  "  Last  Supper  "  may  be 
taken  as  the  culmination  of  Art  as  religious.  After  that  time  Art 
changed.  Julius  II.  was  not  the  man  to  appreciate  an  artist  like 
Fra  Angelico.  He  had  no  taste  for  the  simple  and  pure.  He 
loved  splendor,  and  looked  on  Art  as  a  means  of  decorating  great 
buildings.  This  was  the  occasion  of  the  frescoes  in  the  Sistine 
Chapel.  Julius  was  a  munificent  patron  of  Art,  but  he  had  a  bad 
influence  on  Michael  Angelo  and  Raphael.  In  the  time  of  Julius 
there  were  already  signs  of  the  decay  in  Art. 


1888.]  OUTLINE   NOTES,  39> 

In  1513  John  di  Medici  became  Pope  under  the  title  of  Leo  X. 
He  made  great  changes  in  the  papacy.  We  study  him  in  three 
aspects :  1.  As  a  politician.  2.  As  patron  of  Art.  3.  In  con- 
nection with  religious  reform. 

As  a  politician,  Leo  was  able.  Julius  gave  a  word  and  a  blow. 
Leo  followed  a  pacific  policy.  To  avoid  trouble  he  balanced  the 
states  of  Italy  one  against  the  other.  He  wished  to  be  the  arbiter 
of  Italy.  This  policy  succeeded  for  a  time,  but  it  always  breeds 
suspicion  and  discontent,  and  generally  alienates  all  parties.  Leo 
escaped  war,  and  kept  the  papacy  from  entanglements  of  any  kind. 
He  kept  Italy  in  equilibrium ;  but  was  obliged  to  play  "  fast  and 
loose,"  now  on  this  side,  now  on  that.  All  the  powers  of  Europe 
came  to  look  upon  the  papacy  with  indifference.  From  watching 
Leo's  course,  they  began  to  act  in  the  same  way,  and  this  period  is 
known  as  the  Era  of  Diplomacy.  It  lasted  till  the  French  Revo- 
lution. Leo  was  adroit,  skilful,  often  successful,  but  had  no  politi- 
cal reputation,  advanced  no  political  idea,  roused  no  enthusiasm, 
inspired  no  devotion.  He  presents  a  great  contrast  to  Gregory 
VII.  A  man  who  has  moral  earnestness  never  fails  to  inspire 
devotion ;  and  has  followers  ready,  if  need  be,  to  die  for  liim. 
Leo  was  polite,  elegant,  and  well-bred;  would  hardly  speak  of 
religion.  He  was  fond  of  hunting,  and  the  stage.  This  was  the 
man  who  stood  at  the  head  of  the  Church,  "  who  opened  heaven  or 
hell  to  men  I "  Leo  had  about  him  pleasant,  refined  men  for  Car- 
dinals. Scholars  were  such  purists  that  they  would  not  speak  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  except  as  "the  Divine  Afflatus."  The  i)apal 
court  was  elegant,  literary,  polished ;  but  made  no  mark  on  Euro- 
pean society.  The  age  was  one  of  indifference,  and  therefore  a 
weak  age. 

Leo  as  a  patron  of  Art,  was  a  striking  and  magnificent  character. 
He  had  a  genuine  appreciation  of  the  beautiful,  and  a  love  for 
literature  and  art.  He  was  a  great  friend  of  Raphael,  but  cor- 
rupted his  art.  It  is  not  the  richest  patrons  who  aid  Art  most.  It 
must  often  develop  in  struggle.  Inspiration  comes  when  no  patron 
asks  for  it.  Raphael  changed  greatly,  in  his  endeavors  to  please 
his  courtly  patron,  and  lost  the  high  religious  sentiment  that  marks 
his  earlier  works.  Looking  on  Leo  in  contrast  with  other  princes 
of  his  day,  we  find  liim  far  above  all,  and  deserving  to  rank  liigh. 

We  now  study  Leo  as  a  religious  reformer ;  not  in  personal 
religion,  but  in  ecclesiastical  concerns.     Here  his  idea,  as  in  his 


40  ED  UCA  TION,  [September, 

temporal  rule,  was  to  have  tilings  pleasant  and  easy.  Unfortu- 
nately he  came  where  two  seas  met,  and  the  storm  was  beyond  his 
skill.  Leo  was  eager  in  his  plans  for  carrying  on  the  work  on  St, 
Peter's.  He  meant  to  improve  on  the  plans  of  Julius  II.,  but  his 
expenses  were  heavy,  he  lived  handsomely,  and  he  became  short 
of  money.  He  could  get  it  by  remitting  the  sins  of  the  people. 
He  knew  the  conscientious  character  of  the  Germans.  He  chose 
a  coarse,  vulgar,  Dominican  monk,  John  Tetzel,  to  go  to  Ger- 
many and  sell  indulgences.  Tetzel  sold  indulgences  "  as  a  trader 
sells  fish."  The  Germans  did  not  seem  to  like  tliis  idea.  Tetzel 
ran  against  Luther,  and  trouble  followed.  Leo  was  surprised  at 
the  Germans.  He  could  not  understand  what  he  had  never  experi- 
enced. He  had  no  religious  feeling  himself,  to  be  outraged.  He 
regarded  this  disturl>ance  in  Germany  as  a  monkish  quarrel,  and 
poohed  when  asked  to  do  something  about  it.  So  little  did  he 
understand  religious  sentiment.  Yet  this  was  to  divide  Latin 
Christianity  I  It  is  remarkable  as  showing  that  a  sharp,  shrewd 
man  may  at  times  be  the  least  penetrating.  The  builtling  of  St. 
Peter's  precipitated  the  Reformation. 

III. 

Martin  Luther  is  generally  looked  upon  as  the  central  figure  of 
the  Protestant  Reformation.  He  was  a  great  man,  but  Charles  V. 
or  Leo  X.  might  just  as  truthfully  be  given  a  central  position. 
The  fact  is  that  the  Reformation  was  due  to  a  great  variety  of 
causes  acting  together. 

Martin  Luther  was  hon\  at  Eisle]>en,  in  1483.  His  boyhood 
forms  a  striking  c(mtrast  to  that  of  Leo  X.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
I)oor  miner,  but  had  a  good  education  for  that  age.  His  parents 
were  godly  people,  and  brought  uj)  their  boy  to  know  right  from 
wrong ;  but  he  afterward  shuddered  at  the  severity  of  their  disci- 
pline. His  school-training  was  not  dissimilar.  In  his  ''Table 
Talk  "  he  speaks  of  having  l>een  flogged  sixteen  times  over  a  Latin 
verl).  At  last  Martin  was  sent  to  Magdeburg.  Here  he  studied 
hard,  supporting  liimself  by  singing  in  the  streets.  He  was 
intended  for  the  law ;  but  he  very  early  became  subject  to  religious 
impressions,  and  at  last  entered  a  convent.  Here  for  a  time 
Luther's  life  passed  uneventfully  to  the  casual  observer,  but  his 
religious  life  was  one  of  struggle.  The  turning-point  in  his  career 
was  his  visit  to  Rome  in  1510.     His  emotions  on  approaching  the 


1888.]  OUTLINE   NOTES.  41 

Holy  City  were  intense,  but  he  was  doomed  to  bitter  disappoint- 
ment. Religion  was  the  last  thing  to  be  talked  about.  Julius  II. 
was  then  Pope.  The  mysteries  of  the  faith  were  scoffed  at  by 
ecclesiastics.  There  was  the  most  utter  indifference  to  religion. 
The  effect  upon  such  a  nature  as  Luther's  was  incalculable.  He 
returned  to  Germany  and  began  to  think.  The  University  of 
Wittenberg  had  been  founded  in  1502,  for  the  study  of  Greek  and 
Hebrew ;  and  in  1508  Luther  was  called  to  be  a  professor  at  Wit- 
tenberg. Here  he  became  the  centre  of  an  intense  intellectual 
life.  Melancthon  soon  joined  him,  and  they  quietly  pursued  their 
course  for  some  years.  Luther  turned  his  attention  to  the  study 
of  the  Scriptures.  He  read  the  Bible  now  in  the  original  tongue, 
and  lectured  on  it.  The  University  became  famoiLs.  Scholars 
flocked  thither,  drawn  by  his  powerful  eloquence.  Luther  was  a 
good  monk,  but  his  mind  was  working.  He  was  an  independent, 
plain-spoken  man,  known  as  a  ''jolly,  good-hearted  fellow."  He 
entered  into  life  heartily,  which  was  one  secret  of  his  popularity. 

In  1513,  Leo  X.  became  Pope.  Tetzel  came  to  Germany  to  sell 
indulgences,  that  Leo  might  go  on  with  his  work  of  decorating  St. 
Peter's.  Luther  was  revolted  at  Tetzel's  ideas.  After  thinking 
the  matter  over,  he  wrote  out  ninety-five  propositions,  or  theses, 
and  nailed  them  up  on  the  Church  door.  This  was  a  common 
way  of  holding  disputations  on  any  subject.  It  was  only  the  sub- 
ject which  was  unusual  —  '*  The  just  shall  live  by  faith."  This 
was  in  1517,  and  it  made  a  great  stir  in  Wittenberg  and  Germany. 
Tetzel  was  a  coarse  man,  not  at  all  agreeable  to  the  sober  Germans, 
and  their  minds  were  all  ready  for  the  discussion.  Observe  Luther's 
position.  He  did  only  what  a  hundred  others  had  done.  His  step 
was  not  so  far-reaching  as  that  of  Arnold  of  Brescia,  or  of  Savon- 
arola. He  denied  no  doctrine,  sacrament,  or  authority  of  the 
Church.  When  he  found  how  he  was  assailed,  he  wrote  a  letter 
to  the  Pope,  protesting  his  entire  submission  to  the  Holy  See. 
On  the  one  point  only,  he  differed. 

Three  steps  may  be  noted  in  Luther's  career :  I.  As  a  reform- 
er, by  the  theses  of  1517,  when  he  was  not  out  of  the  pale  of  ortho- 
doxy. II.  As  the  antagonist  of  Leo  X.  After  many  discussions 
an  ai)peal  was  finally  made  to  the  Pope.  He  was  not  inclined  to 
interfere.  Thought  it  a  mere  monkish  quarrel  which  would  all 
come  right.  Unfortunately  it  did  not,  and  many  joined  themselves 
to  Luther.     At  last  Leo  was  forced  to  condenm  him.     This  put 


4S  EDUCATION.  [September, 

Luther  in  a  new  position.  "  Leo  could  n't  give  up,  and  Luther 
would  n't."  Opposed  by  the  authority  of  the  Pope,  Luther  was 
now  forced  to  question  it.  This  led  to  the  great  discussion  at 
Leipsic. 

In  1519,  Maximilian  died.  Charles  I.  of  Spain,  and  Francis  I. 
of  France,  were  rivals  for  the  Imperial  crown.  During  the  inter- 
regnum, Frederic  of  Saxony  governed  Germany.  He  protected 
Luther,  who  felt  secure  and  took  another  position.  The  Reforma- 
tion began  to  assume  the  appearance  of  a  struggle  between  Luther 
and  the  Pope.  Leo  did  not  wish  to  excommunicate  Luther,  if 
avoidable  ;  but  it  was  necessary  to  stop  him,  and  at  last  the  Papal 
Bull  was  issued  against  him  in  December  of  1520.  Luther  burned 
the  Pope's  Bull.  There  was  now  no  possibility  of  his  return  to 
the  Church. 

The  Pope  now  did  a  very  foolish  thing,  in  appealing  to  the  Ger- 
man princes  to  aid  him  in  making  Luther  an  outcast.  The  separate 
princes  must  be  gained  to  his  side.  There  were  nearly  four  hun- 
dred princes,  claiming  the  rights  of  sovereign  power.  There  was 
no  one  head  to  appeal  to.  The  matter  dragged  on,  till  at  last 
Charles  I.  of  Spain  was  crowned  emperor  in  1520,  as  Charles  V. 
of  Germany.  Immediately  after  his  election,  the  Diet  of  Worms 
occurred.  Leo  applied  to  the  Diet.  It  was  proposed  that  Luther 
should  come  before  the  Diet  and  tell  his  story.  This  was  the  last 
thing  the  Pope  ought  to  have  done.  It  enabled  Luther  to  take 
the  next  step  in  his  career.  III.  The  appeal  to  the  civil  power. 
Luther's  ^vritings  had  been  well  circulated  through  Germany,  and 
many  of  the  German  nobles  at  the  Diet  were  well  inclined  toward 
him.  On  being  urged  to  retract,  Luther  took  the  position  he  had 
so  often  taken  before  —  "I  will  retract  whatever  I  have  said  that 
is  contrary  to  the  Word  of  God."  His  answers  and  arguments 
produced  a  profound  impression.  Charles  was  perplexed,  the  Diet 
not  unanimous.  It  was  the  crisis  of  Modern  Europe.  Before, 
Luther  had  been  a  private  person.  He  went  from  the  Diet  a 
national  hero.  It  was  no  longer  a  question  for  monks  to  settle, 
but  for  princes.  On  his  way  from  the  Diet,  Luther  was  seized  and 
confined  in  the  Wartburg.  Here  in  a  certain  sense  his  career 
ended.  The  movement  now  ceased  to  be  theological,  and  became 
a  great  political  question.  Luther  was  no  longer  the  leading 
spirit.  He  did  not  like  mixing  religious  reform  with  political 
matters. 


1888.]  OUTLINE   NOTES.  45 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  Luther  and  Savonarola,  and  the 
result  of  their  work.  Both  were  monks  of  the  Mendicant  order. 
Savonarola  was  a  Dominican,  Luther  an  Augustinian.  Both  were 
yearning  for  a  spiritual,  personal  religious  life.  Savonarola  never 
went  beyond  externals ;  did  not  touch  doctrines  nor  the  question 
of  the  soul.  He  was  destitute  of  an  inner  experience  of  spiritual 
truth.  Luther,  too,  was  moved  by  externals,  but  also  by  deepest 
spiritual  convictions.  Great  movements  have  their  roots  in  strug- 
gle. Savonarola  had  none.  Luther  began  early  to  doubt,  and 
from  his  own  personal  experience  he  came  to  believe^  "  The  just 
shall  live  by  faith."  Savonarola  died  without  touching  the  hearts 
of  men.  Luther's  work  is  still  living.  Never  was  there  such  a 
leader  of  common  men,  as  Luther.  He  had  an  intense,  personal 
magnetism.  He  loved  human  things,  domestic  life,  etc.  His 
words  were  half  battles.  He  used  language  in  his  own  way ;  may 
be  said  to  have  created  German  prose.  His  translation  of  the  Bible 
while  at  the  Wartburg  is  the  standard  of  vernacular  and  idio- 
matic German. 


THE   SILENT  PR  A  TER, 

BY   JULIA  H.  MAT. 

MY  little  boy  had  done  a  naughty  deed 
And  then  was  sorry,  but  he  did  not  know 
What  words  to  use  to  tell  his  father  so, 
Nor  how  to  speak  them.     I  could  plainly  read 
His  sorrow  in  his  face,  and  felt  his  need 
Of  speech ;  but  when  I  saw  the  baby  throw 
Himself  before  me,  then,  oh !  then,  although 
He  could  not  speak,  but,  shaking  like  a  reed. 
Clung  to  my  knees, —  I  clasped  him  to  my  heart, 
And  kissed  forgiveness. 

Thus  for  my  weak  prayer 
That  finds  no  fitting  words,  or  unexpressed 
Lies  syllabled  within,  my  God  may  care 
Before  the  trembling  lip  has  half  confessed 
Its  sorrow,  for  the  Father's  eye  can  see 
Repentant  hearts,  though  voices  silent  be. 


44  EDUCATIOy,  [September, 


CHILD  SPEECH,  AND  THE  LA  W  OF  MISPRONUN- 

CIA  TION. 

BY  EDMUND  NOBLE,  BOSTON. 
I. 

DO  children  mispronounce  in  a  haphazard  way,  without  system 
of  any  kind,  or  is  method  manifested  in  their  errors  of  pro- 
nunciation ?  Do  they  lisp  incorrectly  in  all  sorts  of  fashions,  and 
by  all  sorts  of  irregularities,  or  is  their  failure  to  rightly  enunciate 
established  sounds  reducible  in  detail  to  conformity  with  unvary- 
ing rule  and  inexorable  law  ?  The  answei^s  to  these  questions  are 
of  clear  and  direct  interest  to  teachei*s,  but  their  meaning  for 
certain  aspects  of  the  science  of  education  is  great  enough  to  i*aise 
the  whole  subject  into  a  position  of  high  importance.  This,  at  any 
rate,  is  the  conclusion  at  which  the  writer  has  arrived  after  several 
years'  study  in  the  fascinating  realm  of  child-speech,  and  it  is 
because  he  believes  that  we  may  have  here,  in  this  little  known 
realm,  a  new  source  of  help  for  natui^al  methods  of  tuition,  a  new 
treasure-house  of  facts  for  the  science  of  man,  that  he  ventures  to 
offer  some  of  the  results  of  liis  inquiries  to  the  readers  of  Educa- 
tion. 

Let  me  begin  by  stating  the  general  character  of  the  conclusions 
which  studies  of  child-speech  in  such  languages  as  English,  French, 
German,  Russian,  Italian,  Danish,  Swedish,  Magyar,  Calmuck,  New 
Greek,  and  Finnish,  have  seemed  to  afford  abundant  justifica- 
tion. At  an  early  period  of  the  inquiry,  there  were  discovered 
in  the  more  prominent  mistakes  of  child  pronunciation,  tendencies 
to  error  in  certain  common  directions  such  as  clearly  implied  some 
law  as  their  inciting  cause.  I  found,  for  example,  that  the  sounds 
most  imperfectly  pronounced  by  children  are  sounds  the  formation 
of  which  by  the  organs  of  speech  is  obscure  as  a  process  when 
compared  with  the  process  necessary  to  the  formation  of  other 
sounds ;  and  that  the  souniLs  most  accurately  and  soonest  uttered 
by  children  are  sounds  the  formation  of  which  is  clear  and  obvious 
as  a  process  when  compared  with  the  process  followed  by  the  vocal 


1888.]  CHILD    SPEECH.  45 

organs  in  the  creation  of  other  sounds.  That  is  to  say,  when  chil- 
dren make  mistakes  of  pronunciation,  the  tendency  is  to  make 
them  in  the  case  of  sounds  which  are  produced  either  in  the  throat 
or  the  posterior  part  of  the  mouth,  or  by  some  arrangement  of  the 
organs  of  speech  which  is  either  not  visible  as  an  arrangement,  or 
which  leads  to  a  partial  suppression  of  the  sound  within  the  mouth, 
or  which  gives  rise  to  a  sound  of  such  faintness  or  complexity  that 
it  cannot  easily  be  imitated.  On  the  other  hand,  when  children 
are  correct  in  their  pronunciation  at  a  time  when  their  speech  is 
naturally  imperfect,  the  sounds  correctly  pronounced  will  be 
found,  as  a  rule,  to  be  those  sounds  whose  formation  by  the  organs 
of  speech  is  not  obscure  but  obvious  —  sounds,  in  fact,  which  are 
produced  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  mouth,  by  the  lips,  or  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  give  rise  to  a  clear  and  forcible  impression  in  the 
mind  of  the  hearer. 

Before  a  child  can  reproduce  a  sound  once  heard,  two  processes 
are  necessary.  The  brain  of  the  child  must  first  receive  the  im- 
pression, or  the  percept,  of  that  sound.  Then,  the  moment  before 
reproduction  of  the  impression  as  sound,  the  percept  must  be 
reproduced  as  re-percept.  Now,  the  resemblance  between  the 
sound  as  uttered  by  a  teacher  and  the  sound  as  reproduced  by  the 
vocal  organs  of  the  child,  will  depend  —  first,  on  the  vividness  of 
the  percept ;  second,  on  the  faithfulness  of  the  re-percept  to  the 
percept ;  and  third,  on  the  completeness  of  the  response  yielded 
by  the  organs  of  the  voice  to  the  nerve  stimulus  setting  them  in 
motion.  Yet  we  have  here  to  do  simply  with  the  percept.  If  that 
be  vivid,  it  will  assert  its  character  in  the  correctness  of  the  repro- 
duced sound.  But  if  it  is  weak  or  faulty  in  any  respect,  then  its 
defect  will  be  reproduced  in  an  erroneous  pronunciation. 

By  what  circumstances,  then,  or  conditions  is  the  character  of 
the  percept  determined?  It  must  first  be  remembered  that,  for 
purely  human  experiences  like  those  of  speech  and  of  listening  to 
speech,  the  senses  need  organization ;  and  that  in  the  child  their 
progress  to  the  degree  of  acuteness  which  belongs  to  human  beings 
fully  matured  is  definite  and  gradual.  The  period  of  the  acquire- 
ment of  speech  is  also  the  period  in  which  the  sense  of  sight,  and 
particularly  that  of  hearing,  undergo  a  cumulative  improvement 
of  considerable  range.  Hence  it  is  in  this  period  that  such  senses 
are  only  fully  awake  to  the  strongest  and  most  vivid  impressions 
The  circumstances  under  which  a  sound  is  produced  or  an  objec 


46  EDUCATION.  [Septembei, 

is  seen  will  thus  have  a  much  more  important  effect  upon  the  char- 
acter of  the  percept  created  by  the  sonorous  or  visible  object  than 
they  can  possibly  have  at  a  later  period,  when  the  senses  have 
acquired  their  full  acuteness.  Any  obstacle  in  the  way  of  the 
sonorous  wave  will  exert  an  inhibitory  effect  upon  the  percept 
larger  than  that  which  would  be  exerted  in  the  case  of  an  adult, 
and  it  will  therefore  be  of  considerable  importance  to  the  hearing 
of  a  child,  and  to  its  perception  of  a  vocal  sound,  whether  that 
sound  is  uttered  in  the  posterior  part  of  the  mouth,  or  is  produced 
by  the  lips,  or  with  the  cooperation  of  the  tongue  and  teeth.  Nor 
do  very  young  children  depend  alone  for  the  imitation  of  a  sound 
upon  the  sense  of  hearing.  In  the  early  stage  of  their  acquire- 
ment of  speech,  at  any  rate,  they  usually  gaze  at  the  speaker's 
mouth,  with  an  apparent,  and  verj"^  real,  though  only  sub-conscious, 
purpose  of  observing  the  position  of  the  lips  and  tongue,  or  the 
movements  of  both,  in  the  act  of  articulation.  This  attention  to 
the  visible  phenomena  of  speech  —  this  application  of  all  the 
available  means  of  successful  imitation  —  seems  to  pass  away  as 
the  child  gains  the  rudiments  of  articulate  language ;  but  while  it 
continues,  the  testimony  of  vision  is  as  clearly  in  favor  of  the 
acquirement  of  visible  arrangements  of  the  mouth  and  tongue,  as 
is  the  testimony  of  hearing  in  favor  of  the  more  audible  to  the 
disadvantage  of  the  less  audible  sounds.  In  other  words,  the 
sounds  modified  in  the  fore-part  of  the  mouth,  where  there  is  no 
obstacle  in  the  way  of  the  sonorous  vibrations,  and  where  the 
physical  arrangements  of  vocal  utterance  may  be  clearly  seen,  have 
a  tendency  to  be  selected  for  earlier  acquirement  than  the  sounds 
which  are  modified  in  the  posterior  part  of  the  mouth,  where  there 
are  obstacles  in  the  path  of  the  sonorous  vibrations,  and  where  the 
organic  positions  that  produce  those  vibrations  cannot  be  observed. 
Now,  if  there  be  such  a  selection  as  this,  children  must  find  it 
on  the  one  hand  easier  to  pronounce  labials  and  dentals,  on  the 
other,  more  difficult  to  enunciate  medials  and  gutturals  —  easy  or 
difficult,  in  fact,  to  produce  sounds  according  as  they  possess  the 
conditions  of  ease  and  difficulty  as  just  described.  Moreover,  a 
law  like  this  requires,  as  proof  of  its  existence  and  operation,  not 
only  that  certain  sounds  shall  be  easy  to  acquire,  and  certain  other 
sounds  difficult  to  acquire,  but  that  in  the  child  speech  to  which 
the  alleged  law  is  applicable  there  shall  occur  more  of  the  "  easy  " 
than  of  the  difficult  sounds,  and  that  the  blunders  of  children  in 


1888.]  CHILD    SPEECH.  47 

pronunciation  shall  be  mainly  blunders  arising  out  of  the  improper 
rejection  of  the  difficult  sounds  and  the  improper  selection  of  the 
easy  ones. 

The  first  examination  of  child  speech  to  which  I  shall  draw 
attention  was  recorded  in  the  Transactions  of  the  American  Philo- 
logical Association  for  1877.  It  resulted  in  the  preparation  of  a 
tabular  statement  presenting  the  whole  of  the  words  known  by  a 
child  two  years  of  age.  The  list  showed  the  use  of  the  different 
letters  of  the  alphabet  in  the  following  proportion: 


A, 

14 

G, 

15 

M, 

32 

T,  37 

B, 

53 

H, 

29 

N, 

17 

UV,  5 

c, 

51 

I, 

5 

0, 

12 

W,  25 

D, 

22 

J, 

8 

P, 

34 

X,   3 

E,  5        K,      8         Q  R,  21         Y,       3 

F,  16        L,     16        S,      60        Z,       3 

Unfortunately,  proportions  like  these  give  us  no  direct  clue  to 
the  child's  ability  to  utter  certain  sounds  with  greater  ease  than 
certain  other  sounds.  Its  milieu^  the  conversation  of  its  parents, 
a  hundred  accidental  circumstances,  may  have  decided  it  in  the 
choice  of  words  for  imitation.  But  if  we  believe  that  it  would  be 
more  likely  to  acquire  a  word  beginning  with  an  easy  letter  than 
a  word  beginning  with  a  difficult  letter,  then  the  table  may  be 
admitted  to  have  a  certain  significance.  And  if  we  regard  as  easy 
letters  B,  D,  F,  M,  N,  P,  S,  T  —  each  of  which  is  an  obvious  sound 
in  the  sense  already  laid  down  —  then  we  shall  have  271  separate 
utterances  as  compared  with  210  utterances  of  the  more  difficult 
sounds.  The  result  would  stand  in  a  more  explicit  statement 
thus:  — 

Eight  letters  of  the  alphabet,  representing  easy  sounds,  yield 
271  repetitions. 

Eighteen  letters  of  the  alphabet,  representing  difficult  sounds, 
yield  210  repetitions. 

In  a  further  examination  with  a  second  child,  also  at  the  age  of 
two  years,  the  largest  number  of  repetitions  were  of  the  following 
letters :  — 

B,     47        C,     39        S,     45        T,     32 

The  B,  S,  T,  labial,  sibilant,  and  dental  respectively,  are  clearly 
"  obvious,"  markedly  visible  and  audible  sounds.     The  C  is  too 


48  ED  UCA  TION.  [  September, 

obscure  to  lie  taken  account  of,  since  it  may  frequently  form  part 
of  the  combination  *'  ch,"  or  may  occasionally  be  used  as  a  sibil- 
ant —  in  both  of  which  cases  it  would,  like  the  rest,  be  an  obvious 
sound.  Mr.  Holden's  C  words  do  actually  include  **  comer," 
'* chair,"  *••  cellar,"  while  reckoned  as  an  S  word  we  find  "sugar." 
The  third  experiment,  with  a  boy  two  years  old  for  subject^ 
yielded  the  following  results :  — 


B, 

16 

S. 

13 

c, 

18 

M, 

12 

H, 

16 

In  the  year  1879  another  investigator,^  having  noted  all  the 
words  known  by  a  girl  two  years  old,  arranged  them  so  as  to  show 
the  frequency  of  occurrence  of  different  letters  as  initial  letters  of 
the  words.2  The  following  are  the  largest  number  of  repetitions 
recorded :  — 

S,        161  C,        95 

B,         126  P,        97 

It  will  be  seen  that  whatever  limitations  properly  belong  to  the 
experiments  cited,  the  tendency  to  repetition  has  in  every  case 
been  overwhelmingly  in  favor  of  those  sounds  which  peld  vivid 
percepts,  and  which  are  easily  followed  in  their  "  physical "  aspects 
by  the  eye. 

Much  more  suited  to  our  purpose  are  the  observations  of  Preyer, 
a  well-known  German  investigator,  who  has  given  an  exhaustive 
account  of  errors  made  in  pronunciation  by  certain  German  chil- 
dren whose  earliest  experiments  in  speech  he  was  enabled  to  follow 
closely.^  It  may  be  said  at  once  that  the  results  thus  obtained 
give  a  general  confirmation  of  tlie  view  advanced  in  these  pages. 
At  times,  exceptions  may  be  found,  or  a  law  fully  operative  in  the 
early  period  of  a  child's  struggles  with  vocal  sounds  may  seem 
much  less  a  power  in  the  later  period  of  those  struggles ;  yet  gen- 
erally there  will  be  found  a  distinct  preference  by  children  for  the 
sounds  designated  easy  or  obvious,  and  a  distinct  inability  to  pro- 
nounce, or  to  pronounce  well,  those  sounds  which  I  have  called 
difficult.     That  guttural  or  throat  sounds,  for  example,  have  a 

^  Mr.  W.  Humphreys,  in  Transactions  of  tbe  Amerioan  PhUological  Association  for 
1879.    Page  5. 

*  With  a  purpose,  of  course,  quite  distinct  fkt>m  mine. 

>  See  "  Die  Seele  des  Kindes." 


1888.] 


CHILD  SPEECH. 


49 


tendency  to  be  rejected,  is  well  shown  by  the  following  errors,  as 
cited  by  Herr  Preyer :  — 


Word. 

Mispronun- 
ciation. 

Word. 

Mispronnn 
ciation. 

Hin, 

in. 

Karl, 

all. 

Herz, 

atz. 

Grete, 

ete. 

Klatschen, 

atsen. 

Gewesen, 

wesen. 

Garten, 
Gasse, 

atten. 
asse. 

Kopf, 

opf. 

The  "  sh  "  is  also  a  difficult  sound,  pronounced  entirely  within 
the  mouth,  and  by  a  rather  complex  arrangement  of  the  vocal 
organs.  How  children  deal  with  it  is  shown  by  the  fcJllowing 
examples :  — 

Schule,  tule  Schwein,  wein. 

Schaf,  saf.  Tisch,  tiss. 

Schlafen,  lafen,  slafen.  Ding,  din. 

Hirsch,  iss.  Singt,  int. 

Stuhl,  tul. 

R  represents  another  difficult  sound,  which  most  children  fail  to 
pronounce  clearly.  That  the  German  child  does  not  enunciate  it 
readily  is  thus  shown :  — 

Durch,  duch.  Traurig,  taotech. 

Bret,  bot.  Rohe,  ule. 

Unter,  ante. 

The  L  is  frequently  interchanged  in  language  by  R,  probably 
owing  to  the  likeness  existing  between  the  physiological  arrange- 
ments needed  to  produce  the  sounds.  That  they  are  alike  in  diffi- 
culty is  shown  by  such  cases  of  mispronunciation  as :  — 

Licht,  icht.  Blatt,  batn. 

Vogel,  voge.  Mantel,  mante. 

Laterne,  atenne. 

The  following  are  examples  of  complex  rejection :  — 

Rike,  itte.  Gross,  toss. 

Finger,  finne.  Katze,  tatze. 

Klein,  tein.. 

In  the  first  example,  the  difficult  R  is  rejected,  and  the  easy  TT 
put  in  place  of  the  difficult  K.  In  the  second  case,  the  difficult 
NG  is  replaced  by  the  easy  NN.     In  the  third,  the  easy  T  takes 


60  EDUCATJOX.  [September, 

the  place  of  the  two  difficult  sounds  of  KL.  In  the  fourth,  GR, 
each  of  which  letters  represents  a  difficult  sound,  yields  to  the 
easy  sound  of  T.  In  the  fifth  example,  the  easy  T  replaces  the 
difficult  K.     Not  less  significant  are  such  changes  as :  — 

Hase,  ade.  Besen,  l>ebe. 

Wasser,  webbe.  Schwalbe,         baubee. 

Bos,  beb. 

It  will  be  noted  that  in  the  fii^st  of  these  examples,  the  difficult 
H  disappears  altogether,  and  tliat  the  easy  S  (pronounced  as  Z,) 
is  replaced  by  the  still  easier  I).  In  the  second,  the  easy  SS  is 
rejected«in  favor  of  the  easiest  of  all  sounds,  that  of  the  B.  In  the 
third,  B  takes  tiie  place  of  the  less  easy  S  (Z)  ;  in  the  fourth, 
there  is  a  similar  change ;  wliile  in  the  fifth,  the  B  is  made  to  do 
duty  for  the  difficult  SCH  and  the  L. 

The  next  group  of  errora  noted  by  Herr  Preyer  may  be  given 
as  follows :  — 

Morgen, 
Martha, 
Arnold, 

These  supply  us — fii*st,  with  two  rejections  of  the  difficult  R, 
with  the  substitution  of  a  vowel  and  an  easy  T,  then  \\4th  an  easy 
N,  replacing  a  third  R,  a  still  easier  M  taking  the  place  of  a  fouilh 
R,  and  an  interchange  m  the  last  example  of  L  for  R. 

The  same  story  is  told  by  the  following  cases :  — 

Bild,  bind.  Legen,  degen. 

Lampe,  bampc.  Lowe,  wewe. 

Stille,  tinne. 

Here,  easy  N  replaces  difficult  L ;  still  easier  B  takes  the  place  of 
difficult  L ;  easy  T  replaces  difficult  SH ;  easy  D  is  preferred  to 
difficult  L;  and  easy  W  (V  sound)  excludes  difficult  L. 

The  following  are  miscellaneous  illustrations :  — 

Ohr,  oa.  Blatt,  batn. 

Hemd,  hem.  Tuch,  tubs. 

Hand,  hann.  Vater,  fa-ata. 

The  most  noticeable  characteristic  of  these  seven  cases  of  error 
is  the  omission  or  the  replacement  of  the  R  and  L.  The  difficult 
guttural  CH  is  rejected  in  one  of  the  examples.  In  two  cases,  a 
final  D  is  omitted,  probably  out  of  sheer  laziness,  the  potency  of 


moigjen. 

Warum, 

amum. 

matta. 

Werfen, 

welfen. 

annold. 

1888.] 


CHILD  SPEECH. 


61 


which  in  lingual  development,  has  been  abundantly  acknowledged. 
In  such  examples  as  — 


Auge, 

autse. 

Zahne, 

tane. 

Bart, 

baat. 

Schulter, 

alter. 

KinD, 

tenn. 

the  reader  will  recognize  in  every  case  the  rejection  of  a  difficult 
for  an  easy  sound  —  of  S  (Z)  for  N,  of  II  for  A,  of  K  for  T,  of  Z 
(TS)  for  T  —  and  the  complete  dropping  of  SCH. 

The  last  errora  I  shall  add  on  the  authority  of  Ilerr  Preyer,  are : 


Schlittcn, 

Kamm, 

Trommel, 

Korb, 

Schlussel, 

Nichts, 

Klopfen, 

LiifteD, 

Kleben, 

Verbrochen, 

Abscheiden, 


lita.  litta. 

dam,  lamm,  namm. 

tommel. 

torb. 

littl. 

nits. 

topf. 

aflfle. 

leben. 

versprochen. 

abneiden. 

nepf. 

Messer  neiden. 

tain  Milch  da. 

dass-la-okk. 


Knopfc, 

Mit  dem  Messer  schneiden, 
£s  ist  kein  Milch  da, 
Das  ist  der  Schlafrock, 

With  infrequent  exceptions,  easy  sounds  are  sulistituted  for  dif- 
ficult ones  in  all  the  al)ove-cited  cases. 

Some  other  noteworthy  experiments,  errors  of  pronunciation  by 
children  have  lx»en  collected  by  Frau  von  Strumpell,  ^amongst 
them  the  mistakes  made  by  a  child  ten  montlis  old.  They  are 
presented  in  the  following  order :  — 

Fahren, 

Fallen, 

Brot, 

Augen, 

Artig, 

Stirn, 

Wange, 

A  clear  preference  for  easy  sounds  to  the  exclusion  of  sounds 
that  are  difficult  is  shown  by  every  one  of  these  thirt43en  examples. 


paren. 

August, 

aua. 

pallen. 

Trinken, 

tinken. 

hot. 

Gabel, 

dabcl. 

aujcn. 

Schliissel, 

lussel. 

atig. 

Nichts, 

nits. 

tirn. 

Ileiss, 

eiss. 

wanne. 

62  EDUCATION.  [September, 

The  changes,  taken  in  the  order  of  their  occurrence,  may  be 
described  thus :  Substitution  of  easy  P  for  less  easy  F  (twice) ; 
omission  of  difficult  R ;  rejection  of  difficult  G  for  easy  (vowel) 
J ;  omission  of  difficult  R ;  use  of  easy  T  in  place  of  difficult  ST ; 
omission  of  difficult  G  (twice);  omission  of  difficult  R;  substitu- 
tion of  easy  D  for  difficult  G;  omission  of  difficult  SCH;  omission 
of  difficult  (guttural)  CH;  omission  of  difficult  (aspirate)  H. 

Vierordt,  the  German  physiologist,  writing  in  the  Deutsches 
Revue  for  Januaiy,  1879,  gave  the  following  examples  of  mispro- 
nunciation by  a  child  between  two  and  three  years  old:  — 


Bos, 

beb. 

Lowe, 

wewe. 

Besen, 

bebe. 

Blasebalg, 

babaube. 

Wasser, 

webbe. 

Schemel, 

emele. 

That  is  to  say:  use  of  easy  B  for  less  easy  S  (Z);  substitution 
of  Cixsy  BB  for  less  easy  SS ;  employment  of  easy  W  (V)  in  place 
of  difficult  L;  omission  of  difficult  L  and  substitution  of  easy  BE 
for  difficult  LG;  omission  of  difficult  SCII. 

Herr  I.  E.  Lobisch,  another  investigator  in  the  field  of  infant 
speech,^  states  that  the  fii*st  consonants  uttered  by  childi*en  are 
those  which  are  formed  by  the  opening  and  closing  of  the  mouth 
or  lips,  namely,  M,  B,  P.  M.  A.  de  la  Calle  tells  of  a  child  whose 
first  attempt  to  utter  the  word  heau  resulted  in  the  sound  M-BE, 
showing  the  ease  with  which  two  classes  of  labials  may  be  inter- 
changed.2  The  same  child  made  the  following  errors  in  pronun- 
ciation :  — 

Otes-toi,  6t-ta.  Mouchoir,        moussoir. 

Clou,  cou.  La-haut,  la-lo. 

In  the  first  case,  01  is  avoided  as  being  too  difficult ;  in  the  sec- 
ond, the  child  rejects  L;  in  the  third,  the  01  is  at  last  accom- 
plished, but  the  difficult  C/H  has  to  be  replaced  by  the  easy  SS ; 
in  the  fourth  (probably  separated  from  the  first  by  an  interval  of 
time),  the  L  has  been  acquired,  and  is  found  easier  to  pronounce 
than  the  guttural  H.  M.  A.  de  la  Calle  found  it  necessary  to 
employ  the  formula  RGH  in  representation  of  the  sound  of  R, 
wliich  he  says  '4es  enfants  ne  peuvent  prononcer  pendant  long- 
temps." 

1  See  **  Entwickelungsgeschichto  der  Scele  des  Kindes." 

*Iu  New  Greek  the  sound  B  is  expressed  by  the  two  consonants  MP.    The  Romaic 
method  of  spelling  a  well-known  poet's  name  is,  therefore,  not  Byron,  but  Mpyron. 


1888.]  EDITORIAL.  53 


EDITORIAL, 

PRESIDENT  ELIOT,  of  Harvard  College,  is,  just  now,  putting 
forth  some  valuable  papers ;  none  more  worthy  of  attention 
than  his  essay,  in  the  August  number  of  the  Atlantic  Monthly,  on 
the  reaiTangement  of  the  couree  of  study  for  seeondarj'^  and  graded 
schools.  The  President  urges  that  too  much  time  is  given  to 
irrelevant  instruction  in  the  earlier  years  of  schooling ;  and  that 
our  children  are  more  damaged  by  the  confusion  of  our  ambitious 
schemes  of  elementaiy  education  than  they  would  be  by  steady 
work  that  would  present  important  topics,  treated  in  an  attrac- 
tive way. 

He  suggests  that  foreign  languages  may  l^etter  come  in  at  eight 
than  twelve  years  of  age ;  and  that,  because  of  the  postponement 
of  the  preparatory  department,  the  time  of  entering  college  is  so 
delayed  that  the  average  graduate  can  hardly  be  expected  to 
become  self-supporting  till  nearer  thirty  than  twenty  yeai's  of  age. 
He  maintains  that  the  boys  in  the  French  schools  are  so  handled 
that  they  accomplish  a  larger  amount  of  solid  work  and  are  farther 
advanced  in  preparatory  studies,  at  a  given  age,  than  our  own ; 
and,  although  he  deprecates  hasty  changes,  he  urges  a  movement 
in  the  direction  indicated  and  insists  that  this  reform  would  be 
invaluable  to  schools  of  every  sort.  We  believe  a  good  deal  in 
the  President's  theory.  The  expert  instruction  in  the  elementary 
and  grammar  school  work  of  our  cities  has  reached  a  point  of 
elaboration,  diffusion,  and  almost  distraction  that  calls  loudly  for 
WLse  condensation,  the  weeding  out  of  superfluous  matter  and  the 
bringing  forward,  more  rapidly,  of  the  points  of  real  importance. 
We  somewhat  distrust,  however,  the  value  of  such  parallels  as  the 
President  and  a  large  class  of  our  University  men  are  fond  of 
drawing  between  European  and  American  cliildien,  in  this  respect. 
The  European  continental  boy  and  girl  live  in  a  world  so  different 
from  our  own  that  there  is  little,  comparatively,  to  divert  their 
attention  from  steady,  quiet,  and  often  severe  school  work.  Be- 
tween eight  and  fifteen,  the  American  cliild  is  in  contact  with  a 
whole  class  of  ideas,  stimulants,  impressions,  and  aspirations  which 


64  EDUCATION.  [September, 

must  prevent  the  same  kind  of  absorbing  interest  and  steady 
application.  And  this  environment  of  the  American  youth,  though 
often  disparaged  by  the  school-men,  is  really  ^an  indispensable, 
sometimes  the  most  valuable,  portion  of  his  educational  outfit  for 
American  life. 

The  essay,  moreover,  regards  the  educational  question  chiefly 
from  the  University  point  of  view,  which  is  not  that  of  a  grow- 
ing majority  of  the  more  thoughtful  American  people.  There  is, 
certainly,  as  much  need  of  readjustment  and  adaptation  in  the 
College  and  University  as  in  the  reform  suggested  in  the  elemen- 
tary and  secondary  schools.  But  essays  like  tliis  will  certainly 
help  to  bridge  the  chasm,  so  long  maintained  by  the  stubborn 
managers  of  the  higher  education,  and  hasten  the  day  when  there 
shall  be  a  true  national  system  of  instruction,  from  the  Kinder- 
garten to  the  University. 

THE  great  excitement  in  Boston  over  the  case  of  Mr.  Travis  and 
his  teaching  of  history  continues,  and  is  likely  to  enter  as 
an  important  factor  into  the  coming  election  of  the  school  com- 
mittee of  that  city.  The  controversy  is  rather  upon  questions 
of  fact  than  of  theory.  These,  too,  are  of  such  a  natm^e  that 
there  would  seem  to  be  little  difficulty  in  determining  them. 

No  one  should  object  to  the  teaching  in  the  schools  of  the  facts 
of  the  Salem  Witchcraft,  the  banishment  of  Roger  Williams,  or 
the  cruel  punishment  of  the  Quakers  in  the  early  history  of  the 
Massachusetts  Bay  Colony.  In  like  manner  the  ugly  facts  of  the 
fires  of  Smithfield,  the  trial  of  Galileo,  or  the  sale  of  TetzeFs 
indulgences  may  be  taught  as  passages  in  the  history  of  Europe. 
The  human  race  is  advancing,  and  better  principles  are  now  gov- 
erning men  than  in  the  earlier  ages.  Let  us  rejoice  in  that,  and 
while  teaching  the  facts  of  the  past,  let  it  be  done  with  such  can- 
dor and  good  will  to  men  as  not  to  stir  up  the  worst  passions  of 
the  race,  but  in  recognition  of  the  fact  that  God  has  made  of  one 
blood  the  entire  race,  and  that  blood  should  everywhere  prove  to 
be  thicker  than  water.  But  the  tiling  above  all  others  to  be  jeal- 
ously guarded,  preserved  and  fostered  is  our  system  of  free,  pub- 
lic schools,  and  no  portion  of  our  cosmopolitan  community  should 
be  permitted  to  interfere  with  this  essential  American  institution. 


1888.]  EDITOBIAL,  M 

EFFICIENT  arrangements  are  now  making  for  an  appropriate 
celebration  at  Washington  of  the  one  hundredth  anniver- 
sary of  the  adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution,  and  the  four 
hundredth  anniversary  of  the  discovery  of  this  continent  by 
Columbus.  An  association  called  the  "  Board  of  Promotion,  Per- 
manent Exposition  of  the  Three  Americas,"  with  Mr.  Alex.  D. 
Anderson  as  secretary,  has  been  organized,  and  measures  are  now 
being  taken  to  insure  general  interest  in  the  matter  throughout 
this  country  and  in  Europe.  Spain  has  already  signified  her  inten- 
tion to  participate,  and  the  American  Congress  has  taken  the  pre- 
liminary steps.  The  site  proposed  for  the  permanent  exposition 
and  the  celebration  is  on  the  public  lands  between  the  Washington 
monument  and  the  Potomac,  and  handsome  buildings  are  to  be 
erected  for  the  purpose.  The  Board  of  Promotion  have  published 
a  beautiful  bird's-eye  view  of  Washington,  in  colors,  which  would 
be  a  useful  and  artistic  ornament  to  any  school. 

THE  education  of  the  young  in  sentiments  and  principles  of 
patriotism  should  form  one  of  the  most  importiint  functions 
of  our  public  schools.  Chicago  has  set  a  good  example  in  offering 
prizes  to  the  pupils  in  the  schools  for  essays  on  "  Patriotism." 
The  income  of  $10,000  has  been  given  to  the  school  department 
of  the  city  by  Mr.  V.  F.  Lawson,  the  publisher  of  The  Chicago 
Daily  News,  to  be  expended  in  procuring  suitable  medals  to  be 
awarded  each  year.  Mr.  Lawson  states  the  object  he  has  in  view, 
in  the  following  words :  ''  For  the  purpose  of  stimulating  interest 
in  the  study  of  patriotic  literature  by  the  pupils  of  our  public 
schools  to  the  end  that  familiarity  with  the  causes  which  led  to  the 
founding  of  the  American  Republic,  and  with  the  motives  which 
inspired  the  struggles  and  sacrifices  of  the  fathers  may  develop  a 
higher  standard  of  American  citizenship."  Here  is  an  example 
worthy  to  be  followed  in  other  cities. 

THE  meeting  of  the  National  Educational  Association  at  San 
Francisco  proved  to  be  of  very  high  order.  It  was  well 
planned  and  the  admirable  plan  was  equally  well  carried  out. 
The  people  of  that  great  city  are  deserving  of  all  praise  for  their 
abundant  hospitality  and  generosity.  The  cause  of  education 
upon  the  Pacific  coast  must  inevitably  be  a  great  gainer  for  such 
a  stimulating  meeting.  Now  let  the  next  meeting  be  at  Boston, 
and  let  it  be  worthy  of  that  cultured  city. 


66  EDUCATION,  [September, 

PROFESSIONAL  study  for  teachers  is  constantly  gaining 
ground  in  this  country.  New  facilities  for  such  study  are 
being  furnished  from  tinie  to  time  and  in  various  ways.  It  is  a 
pleasure  to  announce  that  the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York 
has  undertaken  to  give,  for  the  benefit  of  teachers,  courses  of  lec- 
tures upon  pedagogy,  and  has  appointed  Prof.  Jerome  Allen, 
Ph.  D.,  the  editor  of  the  New  York  School  Journal,  to  that  depart- 
ment. The  first  course  was  given  last  year,  and  the  experiment 
proved  a  success.  During  the  coming  scholastic  year,  a  course 
will  be  given  on  Saturdays  at  eleven  o'clock,  beginning  October 
4th.  These  lectures  will  be  the  foundation  for  a  thorough  course 
of  study,  to  cover  three  years.  The  first  course  comprises  the 
"  History  of  Educational  Thouglit "  ;  the  second,  "  The  Science  of 
Education  "  ;  and  the  third,  '*  Methodology."  The  last  named  in- 
cludes '^  the  organization,  supervision,  and  management  of  schools ; 
the  art  of  grading  and  arranging  school  work,  and  the  conduct  of 
Institutes ;  school  law ;  the  art  of  teaching  and  governing ;  the 
philosophy  and  methods  of  instruction  in  the  various  branches ; 
general  school-room  practice ;  school  hygiene,  etc."  This  advance 
movement  will  receive  the  cordial  approval  of  all  friends  of 
American  Education,  and  it  is  hoped  that  it  will  prove  a  decided 
success. 

IT  is  not  sufficiently  understr^od  that,  j)erhaps,  the  gi-eatest  gain 
in  our  new  educational  methods  is  not  found  in  our  improved 
ways  of  instruction,  but  in  the  organization,  spirit  of  discipline, 
moral  and  social  training,  and  general  conduct  of  the  entire  realm 
of  school  life.  Here  the  ultra  advocates  of  the  religious  and 
moral  element  show  their  narrowness,  in  leaving  out  of  account 
the  prodigious  moral  advantage  to  the  cliild  in  the  kind  of  place 
a  good  school  has  now  become.  It  would  have  Ix^en  impossible  to 
work  the  improved  modern  methods  of  instruction  in  the  old-time 
schoolhouse  under  the  narrow  limitations  there  existing.  Outside 
a  superior  family,  there  is  no  position  in  wliich  the  mass  of  our 
children  are  now  surrounded  by  so  many  inducements  to  virtue, 
where  it  is  so  easy  to  grow  up  into  good  morals  and  gentle  man- 
ners, as  in  the  better  class  of  our  graded  schools. 


1888.]  MISCELLANY.  57 


^fISCELLANr. 

THE  following  extract  from  a  letter  from  New  Zealand  will 
be  of  interest  to  our  readers,  giving  as  it  does  particulars 
of  educational  work  and  progress  in  this  distant  and  (comparatively 
unknown  part  of  the  world :  — 

The  underlying  principle  of  our  primary  83'8tcm  of  education  is  ex- 
pressed in  the  three  words — /ree,  secular^  and  compulsory.  The  money 
for  the  maintenance  of  our  primary  schools  is  voted  by  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives —  our  House  of  Commons  —  on  the  application  of  the  Min- 
ister of  Education,  who  presents  his  report  to  Parliament,  in  which  report 
the  estimate  for  the  year  is  given  and  asked  for.  Tliis  year,  the  sum 
applied  for  was  £360,624;  the  sum  granted  was  £360,619,  being  less 
by  five  pounds  than  requested.  The  motion  that  the  vote  be  reduced  by 
this  small  amount  was  a  mere  technical  matter  to  atford  the  opposition 
members  an  opportunity  to  discuss  the  whole  question  of  retrenchment. 
The  above  sum  is  supplemented  by  moneys  accruing  from  reserves  set 
apart  for  primary  education  when  New  Zealand  was  divided  into  seven 
self-governing  Provinces.  These  Provinces  were  abolished  twelve  3'ears 
ago,  and  the  whole  Colony  placed  under  a  general  government.  The 
whole  moneys  available  from  direct  vote  out  of  the  consolidated  fund, 
and  from  these  reserves,  amounts  roughl}'  to  over  £400.000.  This 
amount  is  paid  u|>on  the  daily  average  attendance  which  last  year 
amounted  to  83.405,  the  number  on  the  roll  having  been  106,328.  This 
money  is  distributed  by  the  Central  Department  among  the  thirteen 
Boards  of  Education,  who  again  distribute  it  among  the  local  com- 
mittees. 

The  vote  for  Buildings  has  for  several  years  been  paid  out  of  loans ; 
but  this  mode  of  payment  is  now  stopped,  and  there  is  a  battle  going  on 
as  to  whether  the  local  Boards  shall  have  i)ower  to  impose  rates  for  this 
purpose,  or  whether  the  approaching  Parliament  shall  be  asked  to  pay 
both  the  money  for  teaciiing  and  the  mone}'  for  building  out  of  the  con- 
solidated fund.  Before  leaving  this  part  of  the  subject  I  may  state  that, 
in  the  opinion  of  many,  we  are  on  the  eve  of  some  changes  as  to  admin- 
istration. The  opinion  is  growing  that  we  have  too  much  machinery. 
Boards  and  Committees  and  a  Central  DepartmiMit  are  not  all  needed 
to  do  the  educational  work  of  a  colonv  containintc  but  six  hundred  thou- 
sand  people,  and  less  than  one-sixth  of  that  number  of  children.     As 


68  EDUCATION.  [Sept«mber^ 

things  are.  Boards  have  the  appointment  of  teachers,  and  yet  by  the 
terms  of  the  act,  thev  are  to  ''''consult"  the  local  committee  before  an 
appointment  can  be  made.  Some  boards  consult  by  practically  allowing 
the  committees  to  appoint  or  dismiss  the  teacher ;  others  select  a  few 
competent  men,  and  send  their  names  to  the  committee  for  final  dioioe. 
This  question  and  some  others  often  gives  rise  to  serious  friction.  Some- 
times a  complete  dead-lock  occurs,  and  at  present  there  can  be  no  appeal 
to  the  Minister  of  Education  Then  again,  Boards  have  the  appoint- 
ment of  Inspectors  (corresponding,  I  presume,  to  your  Superintendents), 
and  the  payment  of  teachers ;  accordingly,  the  standard  of  inspection 
varies  in  different  districts,  and  the  salaries  of  the  teachers  show  glaring^ 
irregularities.  There  is  reason  for  thinking  that  most  of  these  serious 
defects  will  be  removed  from  the  system  by  special  legislation  in  the 
immediate  future.  I  am  strongly  of  opinion,  that  local  committees  could 
be  swept  away  and  their  places  taken  by  a  visiting  commissioner.  As 
to  Boards,  six  of  them  could  very  well  do  the  work  required.  Both 
Inspectors  and  teachers  should  be  appointed  by  the  Minister  of  Edu- 
cation. 

It  follows  from  the  above  principle,  that  parents  have  no  fees  to  pay. 
In  some  parts  the}*  do  not  even  pay  for  stationer}',  pens,  and  ink  —  these 
being  provided  by  the  local  committee  out  of  what  is  called  the  Fund  for 
Incidental  Expenses,  voted  by  the  Boards.  It  is  really  a  question 
whether  if.  is  the  quintessence  of  wisdom  thus  to  let  the  parent  off  scot- 
free.  People  usually  value  most  what  they  give  something  for.  In  these 
circumstances,  you  would  expect  parents  to  send  their  children  with 
considerable  regularity.  Yet  they  do  not.  Professedly,  compulsory 
powers  are  given  to  committees  to  enforce  one-half  of  possible  attend- 
ance ;  but  this  power  is  rarely  exercised,  mainly  because  of  the  expense 
of  putting  the  legal  raachiner}*  in  action,  aud  the  further  uncertainty  of 
the  magistrate's  decision.  In  two  cities,  however,  a  truant  officer  has 
been  appointed,  and  the  results  have  been  signally  satisfactory  As  the 
Parliamentary  vote  depends  upon  the  strict  average  attendance,  the  ques- 
tion of  regular  attendance  is  thus  seen  to  be  a  very  important  one.  On 
the  question  of  fees  it  is  fair  to  say,  that  before  a  special  commission 
which  recently  sat,  ten  out  of  thirt\'  witnesses  were  in  favor  of  imposing 
fees  on  parents  whose  children  are  in  the  higher  standards.  In  view  of 
the  absolute  need  for  retrenclnnent,  some  such  course  as  this  is  likely  to 
be  adopted  at  no  very  distant  date. 

It  may  be  well  to  complete  the  trilogy  of  words  by  glancing  at  the 
secular  character  of  the  system.  The  IVaraer  of  the  present  education 
act  intended  all  schools  to  open  with  reading  a  portion  of  Holy  Scripture 
and  reciting  the  Lord's  Prayer.  He  was,  however,  overruled.  By  the 
terms  of  the  act,  there  must  be  two  hours'  consecutive  secular  instruc- 


1888.]  MISCELLANY.  69» 

tion  in  the  morning,  and  two  hours*  cx)n8ecutive  secular  instruction  in  the 
afternoon ;  but  the  committee  may  allow  the  schoolroom  to  be  used  by 
any  minister  of  religion  for  the  purpose  of  giving  religious  instruction 
after  or  before  school  hours.  A  very  small  fraction  of  ministers  —  and 
those  Episcopalians  —  really  use  the  opportunity  afforded  them.  When 
the  people  have  been  tested  by  Plebiscite,  they  have  almost  to  a  man 
voted  in  favor  of  securing  religious  instruction  for  their  children  during 
school  hours,  so  that  there  is  some  likelihood  of  a  change  being  made  ia 
that  direction  erelong. 

It  should  be  mentioned  that  the  Boards  of  Education  amongst  them 
provide  for  forty  scholarships  at  £30  each,  to  enable  the  highest  of  the 
primary  scholars  to  pass  into  the  secondary  schools ;  while  there  again,, 
the  University  of  New  Zealand  provides  junior  scholarships  worth  £40 
a  year  to  pass  these  on  to  the  University,  and  while  at  the  University, 
such  scholars  may  win  senior  scholarships  to  completely  carry  them  on  ta 
the  M.  A.  degree.  Thus  a  career  is  open  to  talent.  We  already  —  in 
ten  years  —  have  men  who  began  at  the  lowest,  and  who  have  passed  to- 
the  highest  educational  positions  in  the  land.  t.  f. 

THE  proprietor  of  the  Chicago  Daily  News,  Victor  Lawson,  has  re- 
cently given  ten  thousand  dollars  to  establish  a  Public  School 
Patriotic  Fund.  An  income  of  five  per  cent,  on  this  fund  is  guaranteed, 
which  is  to  be  used  in  providing  medals  to  be  awarded  for  the  best  essays- 
on  American  Patriotism,  prepared  by  the  pupils  of  the  Grammar  and 
High  .schools  of  the  city.  To  each  High  school  are  offered  one  gold 
medal  and  two  bronze  medals,  and  to  each  Grammar  scho(»l,  one  silver 
medal  and  two  bronze  medals.  Nothing  could  be  more  opportune  than 
this  effort  to  impress  upon  the  minds  of  the  school  children  the  impor- 
tance and  nobility  of  patriotism,  and  especially  so  in  a  city  where  two- 
thirds  of  the  people  are  foreign  born,  or  have  foreign  born  parents.  In 
Chicago,  and,  I  think,  in  most  of  our  cities,  the  young  people  study 
American  history  during  the  entire  last  two  years  of  the  Grammar  school 
course.  The  prime  object  of  this  study  is  to  make  patriots,  to  awaken 
an  admiration  and  love  for  our  country  which  shall  be  akin  to  family 
pride  and  affection,  and  which  will  lead  to  the  sacrifice  of  personal  inter- 
ests for  the  national  welfare.  This  effort  to  cultivate  patriotism  is  simi- 
lar to  that  of  the  Old  South  in  Boston. 

The  award  of  a  medal  is  a  simple  record  of  honor,  but  it  will  do  much 
to  stimulate  the  3'oung  people  to  study  the  career  of  our  noblest  men, 
and  it  will  keep  before  them,  with  a  good  deal  of  personal  interest,  dur- 
ing the  whole  two  years,  the  most  important  phases  of  American  history  ; 
and,  what  is  of  almost  equal  value,  it  will  be  a  constant  leading  string  to- 


60  EDUCATION.  [September, 

the  teacher,  steadily  guiding  the  work  through  the  great  movements  and 
important  crises  of  our  country.  The  offer  of  three  medals  to  each 
school,  instead  of  one,  gives  a  wider  range  and  greater  hope  to  the  com- 
petitors, and  the  extension  of  the  offer  to  the  High  schools  encourages 
the  study  of  American  patriotism  after  the  class  work  in  American  his- 
tory is  endeil.  The  pupils  of  sixty  or  seventy  schools  will  compete  for 
these  prizes,  and  nearly  two  hundred  medals  will  be  awarded  among  the 
public  schools  of  Chicago,  for  prize  essays,  on  the  one  subject  which  is 
of  supreme  importance  in  our  public  school  education,  while  several 
times  as  many  pupils  will  have  tested  their  knowledge  and  feeling  in  the 
same  effort. 

This  is  a  large  measure  of  leaven,  which  will  be  sure  to  work  more  or 
less  through  the  whole  lump  of  public  school  life.  Was  ten  thousand 
dollars  ever  more  wisely  invested?  One  boy,  who  took  one  of  the  silver 
medals,  in  June,  by  a  notably  good  essay,  entered  school  one  morning, 
two  years  ago,  with  an  anarchist  flag  in  his  button-hole. 

Mary  £.  Beedt. 

MERRICK  LYON,  LL.  D.  —The  death  of  this  distinguished  edu- 
cator  takes  from  our  sight  another  staunch  friend  of  *'good 
learning."  Few  men  have  presided  over  one  school  for  more  than  forty 
years,  annually  sending  young  men  to  their  college  course  of  study. 
Dr.  Lyon  became  principal  of  the  University  Grammar  School  in  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.,  in  1845,  which  position  he  retained  till  the  day  of  his  death. 
Seldom  has  one  man  fltted  more  bo3's  for  college  than  he,  or  done  the 
work  better,  or  during  a  long  life  shown  himself  a  firmer  or  wiser  friend 
of  education.  He  was  always  active,  and  generally  wise.  He  was  an 
eflicient  member  of  the  school  board  of  Providence  for  more  than  thirty 
years.  He  was  president  of  the  Rhode  Island  Institute  of  Instruction, 
and  of  the  American  Institute  of  Instruction,  aud  a  member  of  the 
National  Council  of  Education.  He  was  a  trustee  of  Brown  University, 
and  later  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Fellows  of  that  institution.  For 
thirty-three  years  he  filled  the  office  of  deacon  in  the  Baptist  Church, 
and  by  the  symmetry  of  his  Christian  character,  his  example  was  f\ill 
of  good  fruits. 

MISS  MARGARET  K.  SMITH,  of  Oswego,  New  York,  well 
known  as  a  teacher,  author,  and  translator,  who  has  lately 
returned  from  Euroi>e,  after  two  years*  study,  chiefly  in  Germany  and 
France,  is  at  present  translating  Herbart's  Manual  of  Psychology  and 
Lange's  Apperception. 


1888.]  FOREIGN  NOTES.  61 


FOREIGN  NOTES. 

Germany.  The  Classics  vs.  Science.  —  One  of  the  most  important 
contributions  to  the  discussion  of  the  classics  in  schools  in  Germany  is 
an  article  by  Prnfessor  Preyer,  which  appeared  in  the  *'  Revue  Scien- 
tifique"  for  April  28th. 

Professor  Preyer  insists  that  the  study  of  the  ancient  languages  as 
conducted  in  the  ^^  Gymnasia/*  is  an  obstacle  to  the  development  of  in- 
telligence and  that  the  advantage  which  the  ^'  Gj'mnasia"  have  over  the 
^^  Real  Schools  *'  by  the  admission  of  their  pupils  to  all  the  university 
faculties,  is  unjust  and  artificial.  In  1869  the  Prussian  Minister  of 
Public  Instruction  submitted  the  following  question  to  the  universities : 
Should  the  graduates  of  ''  Real  Schools "  be  admitted  to  the  several 
faculties,  and  upon  what  conditions  ? 

The  eleven  faculties  of  theology  responded  in  the  negative.  Six  of 
the  nine  faculties  of  law  did  the  same.  The  nine  faculties  of  medicine 
were  divided,  four  being  in  favor  of  admission,  four  opposed  to  it,  and 
one  neutral. 

According  to  Professor  Preyer,  since  1869  a  great  change  has  taken 
place.  While  the  theological  faculties  remain  favorable  to  the  old  pro- 
grammes, among  the  other  faculties  a  majority  would  be  found  to  favor 
placing  all  secondary  schools  on  the  same  footing. 

The  greater  importance  attaching  to  science  courses  at  the  present 
date  as  compared  with  1869  is  shown  by  the  relative  increase  in  the 
number  of  professors.  The  faculty  of  law  shows  a  numerical  increase 
of  3.3  per  cent.;  that  of  theology,  of  5.2  per  cent.;  while  the  increase 
in  the  faculties  of  philosophy,  science,  and  medicine  was  23.4  per  cent., 
46.4  per  cent,  and  55.7  per  cent,  respectively.  The  increase  in  the 
number  of  students  is  also  much  less  in  the  faculties  of  law  and  of 
theology  than  in  the  other  faculties.  The  tendency  is  illustrated  by  the 
attendance  upon  the  University  of  Berlin.  Here  the  faculties  of  medi- 
cine and  of  science  have  gained  over  the  other  faculties  more  than  700 
pupils,  or  a  number  in  itself  sufficient  to  fill  a  university.  ^^  These  fig- 
ures show  conclusively,"  says  Professor  Preyer,  '^  that  the  study  of  the 
natural  sciences  has  made  incessant  progress  in  the  last  few  years,  and 
has  necessitated  the  creation  of  a  much  greater  number  of  chairs  than 
are  required  in  the  faculties  of  law,  theology,  and  classical  philology. 
Gradually  but  surelj^*'  he  observes,  *^the  natural  sciences  are  taking  in 


•62  EDUCATION,  [September, 

the  higher  seat  of  learning  the  place  which  belongs  to  them,  and  it  is 
•certain  that  the  vivif3ing  influence  which  they  have  already  exercised 
upon  the  universities  will  be  felt  at  no  distant  day  in  the  secondary 
schools." 

France.  Address  of  the  Minister  op  Public  Instruction.  —  The 
spirit  which  animates  republican  France  is  well  illustrated  by  the  utter- 
ances of  successive  ministers  of  public  instruction.  The  changes  of 
government  have  brought  six  different  men  to  that  position  within  a 
decade  ;  but  it  has  wrought  no  material  change  either  in  the  conduct  of 
the  department  or  in  the  educational  ideals  maintained. 

The  present  minister,  Mons.  Edward  Lockroy,  delivered  an  address  on 
the  occasion  of  the  recent  annual  distribution  of  the  prizes  of  the  Poly- 
technic Association,  which,  saving  only  the  absence  of  the  impetuous 
florid  eloquence  of  Jules  Ferry,  might  have  been  his  own  speech  on  a 
similar  occasion  half  a  dozen  years  ago. 

While  understanding  perfectly  the  importance  of  technical  instruction, 
no  people  evince  a  Ailler  appreciation  than  the  French  of  the  narrowing 
tendencies  of  the  training  and  the  necessity  of  offsetting  these  in  the 
education  of  a  people. 

Mons.  LfOckroy  presented  these  conditions  in  a  manner  so  clear  and 
impressive  that  his  words  may  well  be  rehearsed  among  us :  — 

''You  have  understood,"  he  said,  addressing  the  members  of  the 
association,  ''  that  in  a  democracy  like  our  own,  it  is  not  only  necessary 
to  make  men  useful  and  honest,  —  without  honestj',  a  democracy  must 
soon  cease  to  exist,  —  but  also  to  make  citizens  familiar  with  general 
ideas,  having  notions  of  law,  of  political  economy,  of  history ;  capable 
of  comprehending  the  great  questions  that  agitate  Parliament,  capable 
also  of  judging  of  doctrines,  and  of  men  when  called  to  elect  representa- 
tives in  the  exercise  of  the  right  of  sovereignty. 

"  You  have  recognized  the  importance  of  raising  men  above  the  anxi- 
eties of  daily  life,  the  perpetual  routine  of  a  painful  existence,  above 
their  cares,  their  disappointments,  their  sorrows,  by  imparting  to  them 
an  interest  in  the  great  discoveries  of  science,  a  taste  for  general  knowl- 
edge, and  by  bringing  them  in  contact  with  great  writers  and  poets  who 
are  the  true  consolers  of  humanity." 

Physical  Training  in  French  Secondary  Schools.  —  A  committee 
has  been  formed  in  France  under  the  presidency  of  Jules  Simon,  for  the 
promotion  of  physical  training  as  a  part  of  the  education  of  the  young. 

This  committee  includes  a  number  of  men  holding  high  civil  positions 
or  distinguished  as  doctors  and  educators.  Recently,  under  the  guidance 
of  Mons.  Simon,  they  visited  the  Monge  school  to  investigate  the  first 


1888.]  FOREIGN  NOTES.  63 

experiment  made  in  France  for  including  physical  exercise  in  the  daily 
routine. 

The  director  of  this  school,  Mons.  Godard,  maintains  that  eleven 
hours'  intellectual  work  for  young  pupils  and  thirteen  hours  for  those  a 
little  older  is  too  much,  and  following  the  example  of  English  schools, 
he  has  decided  to  reduce  the  hours  of  stud}*  in  order  to  secure  time  for 
exercise  and  play  in  the  open  air,  — games  have  been  instituted  and  pro- 
vision made  for  riding  and  boating. 

Jules  Simon,  who  has  been  endeavoring  for  a  long  time  to  convince 
his  countrymen  that  French  students  are  overworked,  was  delighted 
with  what  he  saw  at  this  school.  It  is  his  purpose  to  create  three  school 
parks :  one  at  Saint  Cloud,  and  the  others  upon  appropriate  sites,  thus 
giving  substantial  proof  of  his  devotion  to  the  cause  which  he  has  so 
long  advocated. 

England.  Married  Teachers  under  the  London  School  Board. — 
The  motion  introduced  into  the  London  School  Board  by  Hon.  Conrad 
Dillon,  to  prevent  married  women  teachers  in  the  fhture  entering  upon 
or  remaining  in  the  service  of  the  Board,  excited  opposition  not  unmixed 
with  indignation.  The  most  satisfactory  endorsement  of  the  services  of 
the  married  teachers  was  the  loss  of  the  motion  by  a  vote  of  twenty^ 
seven  against  three. 

Sir  Henry  Roscoe  on  Technical  Training. — In  an  address  upon 
*' Technical  Instruction,"  delivered  June  20th,  on  the  occasion  of  the 
fifty-first  annual  meeting  of  the  Yorkshire  Union  of  Mechanics'  Insti- 
tute, Sir  Henry  Roscoe  examined  the  provisions  of  the  Technical  Bill 
now  before  Parliament.  While  he  took  a  more  favorable  view  of  many 
of  its  provisions  than  other  critics  have  done,  he  noted  as  a  grave  defect 
that  the  limit  of  the  instruction  is  placed  at  the  seventh  standard.  He 
urged  the  importance  of  a  provision  similar  to  that  in  the  Scotch  Bill, 
by  which  the  Boards  are  empowered  to  use  the  rates  for  the  maintenance 
of  higher  grade  schools.  *'  All,**  he  says,  *'  acknowledge  the  importance 
of  this  higher  training.  If  the  head  is  not  educated,  the  hands  are  apt 
to  get  into  mischief.**  And  again,  commenting  upon  the  adage  that 
victory  comes  to  the  strong,  he  said,  *'  But  remember  that  it  is  not  to 
the  bodily  strong,  but  only  to  the  strong  mentall}'  and  morally'  that  the 
victory  comes.**  a.  t.  s. 


64 


ED  UCA  TIOX. 


[Septeinbert 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF   CURRENT  PERIODICAL    LIT- 

ERATURE    UPON  EDUCATION. 


The  followlngr  bibliography  of  current  periodical  literatare  includes  articles  upon 
education  and  other  subjects  calculated  to  intei*est  teachers.  Only  articles  from  peri- 
odicals not  nominally  educational  are  mentioned.  ArticleH  of  special  importance  to 
teachers  will,  as  a  rule,  be  mentioned  in  notes. 


American  Party  Convention,  The. 
Alexander  Johnston.  iVeto  Princeton 
Bevievo^  July. 

Astres,  Sur  rA^randissement  des 
Astresdl  Horizon.  G.  Lechalas.  Re- 
vue Philosophique^  July. 

Bologna,  Die  Universit&tsfeier  von, 
in  ihrer  Bedentung  fur  die  italienisch- 
deutsche  Rei;ht8-und  Staatswissen- 
sehaf t.    Deutsche  Rundschau.  August. 

Bologne,  Le  Huiti^me  Centeuaire  de 
I'Universit^  de.  Gaston  Boissier.  Re- 
vue des  Deux  Mondes,  1  August. 

Botany  as  it  may  be  taught.  B.  D. 
Halsted.  Popular  Science  Monthly. 
July. 

British  Intellect,  The  Geographical 
Distribution  of.  Dr.  A.  Conan  Doyle. 
Nineteenth  Century^  August. 

British  Museum,  The,  and  the  Peo- 
ple who  go  there.  Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine^ August. 

Bruno,  Giordano,  Before  the  Vene- 
tian Inquisition .  Scottish  Review,  *^"IZ' 

Capital  and  Culture  in  America.  K. 
A.  Proctor.  Fortnightly  Review,  Au- 
gust. 

Catholic  University,  The  Present 
Standing  of  the.  Catholic  World,  Au- 
gust. 

Christianity.  What  Is  Left  of  Chris- 
tianity ?  W.  8.  Lilly.  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury, August. 

City  Life,  Injurious  Influences  of. 
Walter  B.  Piatt,  M.  D.  Popular  Sci- 
ence Monthly,  August.    Suggestive. 

Conkling,  Roscoe.  Isaac  Smlthson 
Hartley.  Magazine  of  American  His- 
tory^ August. 

Coal  and  Iron  Interests  of  the  Pa- 
cific Coast.  Henry  G.  Hanks.  Over- 
land Monthly.  August. 

Countlng-Out  Rhymes  of  Children. 
H.  Carrington  Bolton.  Journal  of 
American  Folk-Lore,  April-June. 

On  the  principle  that  things  which 
occupy  the  serious  attention  of  men  in 


the  savage  st^te  become  the  play- 
things of  children  In  a  civilized  period^ 
the  writer  holds  ''that  ^ countlng-out *^ 
is  a  survival  of  the  practice  of  the  sor- 
cerer, using  this  word  In  its  restrlctcni 
and  etymological  meaning.*^ 

Courage.  General  Viscount  Wolse- 
ley.    Fortnightly  Review,  August. 

Criminal,  The  Study  of  the.  Ando- 
ver  Review,  Aufi^uH.    Editorial. 

Culture  and  Science.  Theodore  GUI. 
American  Naturalist,  June. 

Darwinism  and  the  Christian  Faith. 
III.  (Concluded.)  Popular  Science 
Monthly,  July.  Reprinted  from  The 
Guardian. 

Dialectlque  Soclale,  La.  G.  Tarde. 
Revue  Philosophique,  July. 

Education  and  Hinduism  in  Bengal. 
F.  H.  Barrow,  C.  S.  Calcutta  Review^ 
July. 

Education  In  America.  J.  H.  Cal- 
cutta Review,  July. 

Education,  The  New.  Prof.  Geo. 
M.  Forbes.  Baptist  Quarterly  BevieWy 
July. 

Engineering  Schools.  George  Fran- 
cis Fitzgerald.    Nature,  August  2. 

English  Dictionaries,  Some  Curiosi- 
ties of.  G.  L.  Apperson.  Chntle- 
man^s  Magazine,  August. 

English  Elementary  Schools,  Short- 
comings of.  J.  H.  Yoxall.  Long- 
man-s  Magazine,  August. 

English  Pronunciation.  Knowledgcy 
July  and  August. 

Epicure,  son  ^poque,  sa  religion, 
d'  apr^A  de  r^cens  travaux.  L.  Car- 
tau.  Bevue  des  Deux  MondeSy  1  Au- 
gust. 

Essen,  Ueber  Gebr&uche  und 
Aberglauben  beim.  Carl  Haberland. 
Zeitschrift  fur  Volkerpsychologie  und 
Sprachwissenschaft,  Drittes  Heft. 

Evolution  and  Ethics.  Rev.  James 
Eastwood.  Universalist  Quarterly^ 
July. 


1888.] 


BIBLIOOBAPHT. 


65 


Faust  Legend,  The.  T.  B.  Saun- 
ders.    Scottish  Revietc^  July. 

Frankreich  im  siebzehnten  und 
achtzehnten  pohrhundert.  Fenlinund 
I^theissen.  Deutsche  Btmdschau,  Au- 
gust. 

Freedom  of  Education  in  Massachu- 
setts, The  Attack  on.  Prof.  Thomas 
D wight,  M.  D.  American  Catholic 
Quarterly  Remew^  August. 

'*  The  protest  against  the  Mnjority 
Report  of  the  Joint  Special  Committee 
of  the  General  Court  of  1887  on  the 
Employment  and  Schooling  of  Chil- 
dren and  against  any  Legislative  In- 
terference with  Private  Schools.'' 

Genius  and  Talent.  Grant  Allen. 
Fortnightly  Review^  August. 

German  University  as  a  Pattern, 
The.  James  T.  Bixby.  Unitarian 
Review^  August. 

Argues  especially  for  the  German 
Freedom  of  instruction. 

Grant,  General,  Personal  Recollec- 
tions of.  Charles  K.  Tuckerman. 
Magazine  of  Americ<in  History^  Au- 
gust. 

Great  Men,  Their  Tastes  and  Hab- 
its. W.  H.  D.  Adams.  Gentleman's 
Magazine,  August. 

Homeric  Life  in  Greece  Today.  J. 
Theodore  Bent.  National  Review^  Au- 
gust. 

Shows  many  interesting  parallels  to 
Homeric  life  in  the  life  of  today  in  the 
remoter  Greek  islands. 

Humanistic  Religion.  Alexander  T. 
Ormond.     New  Princeton  Review,,  July. 

"Increment"  Dogma  of  Henry 
George  a  Delusion,  The.  David  >f. 
Johnson.    Uhiveraalist  Quarterly ^  July, 

Inter-Collegiate  Contents;  Are  they 
Pernicious?  Andover  Review,  July. 
An  editorial. 

Israel.  Etudes  d*histoire  Israelite. 
H.  Ernest  Renan.  Revue  des  Deux 
Mondes^  15  July  et  1  August. 

Judiciaiire.  I  At  Pouvoir  Judicial  re 
aux  li^tats-Unis.  Due  de  Noailles. 
Revue  des  Deux  Mondes^  1  August. 

Literature  In  the  Public  Schools. 
Horace  E.  Scudder.    Atlantic,  August. 

A  forcible  argument  ft)r  the  free  use 
of  the  classical  American  authors  in 
the  schools.  *'  The  place  of  literature 
in  our  pi^blic  school  education  is  in 
spiritualizing  life.*' 

Literature.  The  study  of  Eigh- 
teenth-Century Literature.  Edmund 
Gosse.     New  Princeton  Review,  July. 

Manual  or  Industrial  Training.  G. 
Von  Taube.  Popular  Science  Monthly, 
July. 


Math^matiques,  Les  Notions  Pre- 
mieres en.  A.  Galinon.  Revue  Philo- 
sophique,  July. 

Memory.  Westminster  Review,  Au- 
gust. 

Gives  a  good  account  of  Pick's  sys- 
tem of  mnemonics,  and  notices  the  r^ 
cent  books  that  show  Loisette's  system 
to  be  essentially  the  same. 

Menacing  Irruption,  A.  T.  V.  Pow- 
derly.  North  American  Review,  Au- 
gust. 

Mental  Deterioration :  Some  of  Its 
Avoidable  Causes.  Westminster  Re- 
view, July. 

Discusses  the  alcohol  habit,  tobacco 
habit,  excessive  mental  work,  etc.,  as 
causes  of  menial  deterioration. 

Mental  Science:  Experiments  in 
Thought-Transferrence.  Science,  Ju- 
ly 27. 

A  criticism  of  Charles  Rlchet's  arti- 
cle in  the  last  Issue  of  the  Proceedings 
of  the  English  Society  for  the  Psychi- 
cal Research. 

Mental  Science :  The  Nature  of  Mus- 
cular Sensation.  Memory  of  Move- 
ments.    Science,  July  13. 

Misquotations,  Current.  E.  A. 
Meredith.    Andover  Review^  August. 

Names,  History  in.  Rev.  G.  H. 
Hubbard.     Yale  Review,  August. 

Naval  Academy,  The  United  States. 
J.  D.  Jerrold  Kelly.    Harper*s,  July. 

Neo-Scholasticism,  The  Lesson  of. 
F.  Winterton.     Mind,  July. 

New  Departure  In  Education,  The. 
James  Runclman.  Contemporary  Re- 
view, July. 

A  very  bright  criticism  of  prevalent 
methods  in  English  schools,  with  ap- 
proval of  the  present  movement  for 
manual  instruction. 

New  England  Educational  Institu- 
tions. XII.  Colby  University.  Prof. 
Albion  W.  Small.  XIII.  Newton 
Theological  Institution.  New  England 
Magazine,  August. 

New  England,  The  Awakening  of. 
Francis  H.  Underwood.  Contempo- 
rary Review,  August. 

New  York  after  Paris.  VV.  C.  Brow- 
nell.     New  Princeton  Review,  July. 

Octroi  at  Issoire,  The :  A  City  made 
Rich  by  Taxation.  Prof.  David  Starr 
Jordan.  Popular  Science  Monthly,  Au- 
gust. 

Shows  in  a  most  readable  manner 
the  fallacies  of  some  of  the  ordinary 
arguments  for  protective  taxes. 

Parlor  Game  Cure,  The.  Rev.  Thom- 
as Hill.  Popular  Science  Monthly,  Au- 
gust. 


66 


EDUCATION. 


[September, 


Pensiero  logico,  La  eostanza  del  dos- 
tro,  e  la  scienza  e  la  pratlca  delT  Ed- 
ucazioue.  Bivista  di  Filosojia  Scienti/i-' 
ca^  M&gg\o, 

Philosuphisehe  Kriticismus,  Der. 
Th.  Aohelis.     Unsere  Zeit^  Achtes  Heft, 

Physiology.  Teaching  Physiology 
In  the  Public  Schools.  A  Teacher. 
Popular  Science  Monthly^  August. 

Au  interesting  article. 

Programmes.  Can  School  Pro- 
grammes be  Shortened  and  Enriched? 
C.  W.  Eliot.    Atlantic,  August. 

Contains  valuable  suggestions  for 
the  improvement  of  our  school  sys- 
tem. 

Prohibitory  Law  and  Personal  Lib- 
erty. President  Seelye  et  al.  North 
American  Beview^  August. 

Prometheus  of  ..^schylus.  Part  L 
William  Cranston  Lawtou.  Atlantic, 
August. 

Protection.  Abbot  Kinney.  Over- 
land Monthly,  August. 

Psychologic.  Zur  Psychologic  der 
Scholastik.  H.  Siebeck.  Arcnir  fur 
Oeschichte  der  Fhilosophie,  Heft  3  u.  4. 

Psychology,  The  Uerbartlau.  G.  F. 
Stout.     Mind,  July. 

Gives  a  systematic  summary  of  the 
synthetical  portion  of  ilerbart's  Psy- 
chology. 

Psychology.  The  Relation  of  Will 
to  the  Conservation  of  Energy.  E.  D. 
Cope.    American  Naturalist,  June. 

Abstract  of  a  paper  read  before  the 
Philosophical  Society  of  Washington. 
The  writer  lays  down  and  Illus- 
trates the  following  law :  **  The  Dyn- 
amic expenditure  of  au  act  of  will  has 
no  dynamic  relation  to  the  nature  of 
the  decision  involved  in  it."  The  will 
does  not  create  energy,  but  directs  it. 

Psychology,  The  Teaching  of.  M. 
Paul  Janet.  Popular  Science  Monthly, 
July. 

Translated  from  the  Bevue  des  Deux 
Mondes,  An  interesting  discussion  of 
physiological  psychology. 

Questions,  Our  One  Hundred.  Lip- 
pincotVs,  August. 

Reality  and  Thought.  F.  H.  Brad- 
ley.   Mind,  July. 

Reform  Essential,  Educational.  G. 
T.  Ferris.  North  American  Beview, 
August. 

Rivers  and  Valleys.  N.  S.  Shaler. 
8cribner*8,  August. 

Rousseau  und  Kant.  K.  Heinrich  von 
Stein.    Deutsche  Bundschau,  August. 

Rugby  Ramble,  A.  H.  A.  Newton. 
English  Illustrated  Magazine,  August. 

Sagenhafte  Volker   des  Altertums 


und  Mittela Iters,  Ueber.  LudwigTob- 
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Science,  The  Unity  of.  M.  Jacob 
Moleschott.  Popular  Science  Monthly, 
August. 

Scientitic  Spirit  of  the  Age,  The. 
Frances  Power  Cobbe.  Contemporary 
Beview,  July. 

Shows  the  dangers  that  beset  scien- 
tific education. 

Send  the  Whole  Boy  to  School.  Au- 
gustus D.  Small.  Catholic  World,  Au- 
gust. A  criticism  of  Professor  Stu- 
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son  d'Etre  of  the  Public  High  School," 
and  an  argument  for  religious  instruc- 
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Social  Question,  Aspects  of  the.  W. 
M.  Salter  and  the  Editor.  Unitarian 
Beview,  August. 

An  account  of  the  Chicago  Eco- 
nomic Conferences,  with  comments  by 
the  editor. 

Social  Science,  Instruction  in.  Lend 
a  Hand,  July. 

Stat«  Socialism.  John  Rae.  Con- 
temporary Beview,  August. 

Statesmen,  American  (concluded). 
Prof.  Goldwin  Smith.  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury, August. 

Storage  of  Life  as  a  Sanitary  Study. 
B.  W.  Richardson.  Longman's  Maga- 
zine, August. 

Technical  Education,  Lord  Arm- 
strong on.     Nature,  August  2. 

Technical  Education,  The  Vague 
Cry  for.  Lord  Armstrong.  Nineteenth 
Century,  July. 

Telepathic.  Wilhelm  Bolsche.  Nord 
und  SUd,  August. 

Based  on  the  studies  of  Mr.  Gurney 
of  the  English  Psychical  Rese^irch  So- 
ciety. 

True  Theory  of  Identity,  The  Philo- 
sophical Importance  of  a.  B.  Bosau- 
quet.     Mind,  July. 

Trusts.  What  shall  be  Done  with 
Trusts?  Morrison  I.  Swift.  Andover 
Beview,  August. 

Truth,  The  Unity  of  the.  Rev. 
Francis  H.  Johnson.  Andover  Beview, 
August. 

Vacation,  the  Teacher's.  H.  W. 
Camptou.     Century,  August. 

What  Shall  the  Public  Schools 
Teach?  Bishop  R.  Gilmour.  Forum, 
June. 

An  argument  for  religious  instruc- 
tion. 

What  Shall  the  Public  Schools 
Teach?  Prof.  L.  H.  Ward.  Forum, 
July. 


1888.] 


AMONG  THE  BOOKS. 


«7 


AMONG   THE  BOOKS. 


Academic  Trigonometry.  Plane  and 
Spherical.  BvT.  M.  Ulakslee,  PH.D., 
Professor  of  Mathematics  in  the 
University  of  Des  Moin«'S.  Boston : 
Giiin  &  Co.  ISSS.  Pp.  33.  80  cents. 
Paper,  mailin*;:  price,  20  cents ;  for 
introduction,  15  cents. 

The  plane  and  spherical  portions 
are  arranged  on  opposite  pages.  The 
memory  is  aided  by  analo<^ies,  and 
the  author  believes  that  the  entire 
subject  can  be  mastered  in  less  time 
than  is  usually  given  to  plane  trigo- 
nometry alone,  as  the  work  contains 
but  twenty-nine  pages  of  text.  The 
plane  portion  is  compact,  and  com- 
plete in  itself. 

Warman's  Practical  Ortho^pt 
AND  CiUTiQUE.  By  K.  B.  Warman, 
a.m.,  author  of  "  Principles  of  Pro- 
nunciation'* in  Worcester's  Diction- 
ary, **  School-room  Friend,"  etc. 
Chicago,  111.:  W.  H.  Harrison,  Jr. 
Publishing  Co.  1888.  448  pages. 
Cloth,  $2. 

A  volume  from  the  pen  of  one  so 
widely  and  favorably  known  as  is  Mr. 
Warman,  and  one  which  shows  such 
an  immense  amount  of  time  spent  in 
its  preparation,  will  attract  the  atten- 
tion and  will  receive  the  careful  exam- 
ination and  study  of  thoughtful  edu- 
cators. Mr.  Warman  has  achieved 
an  enviable  reputation  as  an  oithoO- 
pist  and  a  master  of  ])honetization. 
His  •'Principles  of  Pronunciation" 
having  been  adopted  by  the  publishers 
of  Worcester's  dictionaries  and  issued 
by  them  in  the  school  edition,  War- 
man*s  Scries,  prove  him  to  be  acknowl- 
edge<l  authority.  We  have  not  room 
to  mention  the  headings  even  of  the 
various  subjects  so  ably  discussed  in 


this  valuable  work.  The  two  princi- 
pal subjects,  however,  are  his  **  Criti- 
cal Survey  ''  of  our  dictionaries,  which 
is  the  fruit  of  nine  years*  earnest 
labor,  and  is  a  bold,  vigorous  attack ; 
and  a  list  of  6,399  words  usually  mis- 
pronounced. Every  pronunciation 
accords  with  both  Webster  and  Wor- 
cester. When  the  authorities  do  not 
agree,  both  are  quoted.  The  volume 
is  certainly  worthy  the  perusal  and 
study  of  every  student  and  scholar  in 
the  country. 

BuFFON.  By  H.  Lebasteur.  Illus- 
trated. Paper  covers.  Paris:  H. 
Lecene  and  II.  Oudin.    Pp.  237. 

This  new  volume,  by  the  editors, 
Lecene  and  Oudin,  belong  to  their 
series  of  Popular  Classics.  Lebas- 
teur has  divided  his  work  into  six 
chapters:  (1)  Life  and  character  of 
Buffon;  (2)  Nature;  (3)  Man  and 
the  animals ;  (4)  Description  and  pict- 
ures ;  (5)  Epochs  of  Nature,  and  (0) 
Discourse  upon  style.  The  work  is 
admirably  dcme  and  will  prove  of  in- 
terest to  American  readers. 

Proceedings  of  the  Trustees  of 
THE  Peabodv  Education  Fund. 
1881-1887.  Vol.  111.  Cambridge: 
John  Wilson  &  Son.    1888.    Pp.  4:)"). 

This  volume  of  proceedings  of  the 
trustees  of  this  great  fund  should 
be  read  with  care  by  all  who  desire 
to  keep  ahead  of  the  times  in  matters 
showing  the  condition  and  progress 
of  education  in  this  country.  It 
contains  a  record  of  proceedings  dur- 
ing the  four  and  more  years  of  Dr. 
Curry's  general  agency,  and  the  sub- 
sequent   service   of    Dr.    Green    as 


68 


SDVCATIOK. 


[September, 


general  agent,  pro  tempore.  All  will 
be  glad  to  leiirn  that  Dr.  Curry,  who 
has  so  won  the  respect  of,  and  en- 
deared himself  to,  the  educators  of 
this  country,  both  North  and  South, 
is  expected  soon  to  accept  a  reap- 
pointment as  general  agent  of  this 
fund.  He  will  be  cordially  welcomed 
on  his  return  to  this  country,  and  we 
may  expect  to  be  richly  benefited  by 
what  will  appear  from  his  pen  con- 
cerning Spain  and  its  past  relations 
to  our  country. 

Max  O'Rell.  John  Bull,  Junior  ; 
OK,  French  as  shk  is  Traduced. 
By  the  author  of  *^  John  Bull  and 
His  J  Aland/*  etc.  With  a  preface 
by  George  Eggleston.  New  York : 
Cassell  A,  Co.,  104  Fourth  Ave. 
For  sale  in  Boston  by  Clarke  & 
Carruth.    Price,  $1.00. 

Mr.  Eggleston,  in  his  preface,  says 
that  in  his  opinion  this  is  the  best  of 
Max  O'Reirs  books.  A  very  wise 
and  distinguished  educator  has  de- 
clared that  ^^  the  whole  theory  of 
education  is  to  be  extracted  from  these 
humorous  sketches.**  In  this  work, 
as  in  his  others,  thei*e  is  much  of  wit 
and  humor,  but  the  main  purpose  is 
earnest,  and  the  wit  is  but  an  aid  to 
its  accomplishment. 

Christopher  Sower  and  his  De- 
scendants. 

This  is  a  remarkably  unique  chart 
about  four  feet  wide  and  ten  feet 
long,  exhibiting  by  an  original  design 
a  list  of  the  descendants  in  families 
of  that  worthy  settler  in  the  early 
days  of  Pennsylvania,  ^^  Christopher 
Sower,  Printer."  Compiled  by  Charles 
G.  Sower,  the  senior  member  of  the 
former  firms  of  Sower  &  Barnes; 
Sower,  Barnes  &  Potts ;  Sower,  Potts 
&  Co.,  and  now  Christopher  Sower 
Company.  Mr.  Charles  G.  Sower 
was  bookseller  in  Norristown  from 
1836  to  1844,  since  which  time  he 
has  been  a  publisher   of   excellent 


school   and   other   books   in   Phila- 
delphia. 

The  original  Christopher  Sower 
published  the  first  Bible  printed  in 
America  in  any  language  of  Europe. 
It  was  a  German  Bible  and  was  pub- 
lished in  Germantown  in  1743.  It 
was  in  quarto  form,  1,281  pages,  and 
was  sold  for  twelve  shillings  —  less 
than  two  dollars.  ^^  But  for  the  poor 
and  needy  we  have  no  price.*^  This 
work  of  Mr.  Sower  is  a  beautiful 
tribute  of  affection  and  appreciation 
to  a  noble  ancestor  by  a  worthy 
descendant. 

Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
English  Literature.  II.  Six 
Lectures.  By  G^eorge  C.  S.  South- 
worth.  Boston  and  New  York: 
Leach,  Shewell,  &  Sanborn. 

These  lectures  are  intended  to  give 
a  glimpse  of  the  proportions  of  the 
subject  to  a  class  about  to  begin  the 
study  of  the  successive  periods  of 
English  literature,  and  also  to  point 
out  models  of  English  style,  and  to 
delineate  the  epochs  of  national 
growth.  The  marginal  references 
will  be  found  to  be  of  great  value, 
aud  the  book  is  one  which  should  be 
upon  the  table  of  all  students  of  Eng- 
lish literature. 

Roger  Ascham  the  Schoolmaster. 
Edited  by  Edward  Arber,  f.s.a., 
etc..  Fellow  of  King's  College,  Lon- 
don.   Boston :  Willard  Small.    1888. 

This  book  belongs  to  the  series  of 
English  reprints.  It  was  written  be- 
tween 1563-08.  The  first  edition  was 
published  1570,  and  was  collated  with 
the  second  edit  ion,  1572.  In  our  rush 
for  the  new  we  overlook  the  value  of 
those  works  which  are  older.  The 
book  is  not  only  of  great  value  to 
those  who  are  teaching  I^atln,  but 
also  to  all  who  are  intei-ested  in  the 
subject  of  the  intellectual  and  ruoral 
development  of  the  young.  The  mar- 
ginal references  are  a  great  addition 
to  the  book. 


isdd.j 


AMONG  tBE  BOOltS, 


m 


British  Novelists  and  their 
Styles.  By  David  Masson,  m.a., 
Professor  of  English  Literature  in 
ttie  University  of  Edinburgh,  au- 
thor of  "The  Life  and  Times  of 
John  Milton,"  etc.  Boston:  Wii- 
lard  Small. 

This  critical  sketch  of  the  history 
of  British  fiction  is  made  up  of  four 
lectures,  llie  first  lecture  is  on  the 
novel  as  a  form  of  literature,  and  on 
early  British  prose  fiction ;  the  second, 
British  novelists  of  the  eight^^nth 
century ;  the  third,  on  Scott  and  his 
influence ;  the  fourth,  on  British  nov- 
elists since  Scott.  The  lectures  are 
full,  IntereAting,  and  critical. 

The  Blessed  Dead.  By  Rev.  J.  M. 
Greene,  d.d.  Boston  and  Chicago: 
CongTogational  Sunday-School  and 
Publishing  Society.  Price,  75  cents. 

Here  are  five  sermons  concerning 
death  and  life  beyond  the  grave,  which 
are  tender,  comforting,  and  assuring. 
Those  questions  are  answered  which 
are  in  the  minds  of  all  who  have  lost 
friends,  sometimes  much  to  their 
troubling.  The  book  is  very  taste- 
fully gotten  up,  and  is  worthy  both 
of  the  author  and  the  publishers. 

How  TO  Teach  Vocal  Music.  The 
Teacher's  Eclectic  Manual.  By 
Alfred  Andrews.  New  York: 
Fowler  &  Wells  Co.,  775  Broad- 
way. 

A  complete  course  of  study  is  here 
mapped  out  from  the  beginning  of 
"  learning  the  scale,"  and  which  may 
be  carried  through  several  years* 
practice,  if  desired.  Teachers  who 
have  vocal  music  as  a  part  of  their 
course  will  find  this  work  of  great 
value. 

The  Print  of  His  Shoe.  By  Rev. 
William  Wye  Smith.  Square.  Bos- 
ton and  Chicago:  Congreffational 
Sunday-School  and  Publishing  So- 
ciety.   Pp.  160.    Price,  75  cents. 

A  series  of  short  essays  on  Bible 
themes,  which  have  the  pungency  and 


directness  of  familiar  talks.  The 
author  has  a  happy  way  of  making 
his  readers  feel  that  they  are  pernon- 
ally  addressed.  The  essays  are  bright, 
readable,  and  short. 

Theological  EfiSAvs.  Ho  Deu- 
TEROS  Thanator;  or.  The  Second 
Death.  Dives  and  Lazarus.  By  an 
Orthodox  Minister  of  Fifty  Years' 
Standing.  Published  for  the  author. 
Syracuse,  N.  Y. :  C.  W.  Bardeeu, 
publisher. 

This  is  one  of  the  great  questions 
of  the  day.  Arguments  appear,  first 
on  one  side  and  then  upon  the  other. 
The  periodical  press  is  full  of  the 
subject.  In  this  little  work  by  "An 
Orthodox  Minister,"  he  who  enjoys 
this  sort  of  thing  will  find  the  sort  of 
thing  he  enjoys. 

Responsive  Readings  in  the  Re- 
vised Version.  With  Morning 
and  Vesper  Services.  By  Rev.  J. 
T.  Duryea,  d.d.  Boston  and 
Chicago :  Congregational  Sunday- 
School  and  Publishing  Society. 
Introduction  price,  50  cents.  Retail 
price,  70  cents. 

In  the  first  part  of  this  beautiful 
book  are  given  selections  from  the 
Psalms  and  other  Scriptures  In  the 
Revised  Version,  to  be  used  as  respon- 
sive reading  in  church  services  and 
on  special  occasions.  In  the  back  of 
the  book  a  morning  and  vesper  ser- 
vice are  given  for  the  use  of  congre- 
gations, colleges,  schools,  and  acade- 
mies, which,  bound  with  the  respon- 
sive readings,  add  much  to  the  value 
of  the  work.  In  the  readings  and 
in  the  services,  the  scholarly  and 
the  refined  taste  of  Dr.  Duryea  is 
everywhere  evident.  The  volume  Is 
printed  In  large  clear  type,  and  the 
book  presents  a  very  attractive  ap- 
pearance. The  morning  and  vesper 
services  are  bound  separately  and 
may  be  had  for  30  cents,  or  for  intro- 
duction at  25  cents. 


70 


EDUCATION, 


[September, 


Grammar  School  Reader.  Vol.  I. 
Price,  90  cents. 

History  and  Science  Reader. 
'i'he  Interstate  Publishing  Ck)., 
Boston:  30  Franklin  Street.  Chi- 
cago :  183  Wabash  Ave.  Price,  50 
cents. 

Vol.  I  of  the  Grammar  School 
Rc4ider  contains  three  hundred  and 
eighteen  pages,  is  fully  illustrated, 
and  finely  bound  In  cloth.  Stories 
and  sketches  by  best  authors.  An 
excellent  book  for  a  reader,  since  It 
is  made  up  of  stories  that  cannot  fail 
of  interesting  the  pupils.  It  is  also  a 
book  that  will  be  held  as  a  treasure 
in  any  family. 

The  Ili.-^tory  and  Science  Reader 
contains  one  h  indred  and  ninety-four 
pages,  with  continued  articles  under 
titles,  "Magna  Charta  Stories,'' 
*'  Little  Biographies  —  Music,"  ''  The 
Traveling  Law  School,"  "  Old  Ocean," 
"  Health  and  Strength  Papers,"  etc., 
by  famous  authors,  beautifully  illus- 
trated, and  tastefully  bound  in  cloth, 
for  school  use.  This  book  also  is  one 
from  which  the  children  will  learn 
much  that  is  valuable. 

These  two  books  arc  made  from 
material  which  has  been  used  the  past 
two  years  in  the  monthly  '•  Grammar 
School,"  the  first  being  made  up  of 
stories,  the  latter  of  the  **  Supple- 
ment" or  ''History  and  Science  De- 
partment." 

The  Lki)-1Iorsk  Claim.  By  Mary 
Hallook  Foote,  author  of  "Friend 
Barton's  Concern,"  "  A  Story  of 
the  Dry  Season,"  etc.  Boston: 
Ticknor  &  Co.    Price,  oO  cents. 

This  romance  of  the  mining  camp 
combines  some  description  of  the 
miner's  life  and  surroundings  of  the 
camp  with  a  novel  such  as  will  inter- 
est many  who  deliglit  in  n»ading  of 
the  wild,  rougli  manners  of  the  fron- 
tier life,  or  the  lumberman's  hut,  or 
the  miner's  camp. 


Helps  to  the  Intelligent  Study 
OF  College  Preparatory  Latin. 
By  Karl  P.  Harrington,  m.a.  Bos- 
ton :  Ginn  &  Co.    1888. 

This  little  work  is  intended  to  help 
the  student,  as  well  as  the  teticher, 
find  the  answers,  in  the  briefest  pos- 
sible time,  to  such  questions  as, 
**  Who  was  Caesar?"  **  Who  were  the 
Gauls?"  ''Why  did  Caisar  subdue 
them?"  "What  kind  of  a  soldier 
was  he?"  "  How  did  Virgil  look?" 
"What  sort  of  a  man  was  he?" 
"WTiat  kind  of  hexameter  did  he 
write?"  "Was  Catiline  as  bad  as 
Cicero  makes  him  out?"  "How 
may  Cicero's  literary  style  be  de- 
scribed?" etc.  These  are  questions 
which  tlie  students  in  our  preparatory 
schools  cannot  answer.  This  book 
will  show  them  where  to  find  the 
answers,  and  will  serve  to  encourage 
individual  research. 

Laboratory  Year  Book  for  1S8S. 
By  John  Howard  Appleton,  a.m., 
I*rofessor  of  Chemistry  in  Brown 
University.  Providence,  H.  L: 
Gordon,  'Boscoe  &  Co.  Pp.  32. 
Price,  12  cents. 

Among  the  large  number  of  mod- 
em calendars,  here  is  one  for  the 
chemist.  Revised  to  date,  it  is  an 
excellent  handbook  for  the  desk  of 
every  science  teacher. 

Cassell's  National  Library.  Sub- 
scription price  per  year,  $o.00; 
t<»n  cents  a  copy.  Cassell  &  Co., 
739  Broadway,  New  York. 

No.  104.  An  Essay  upon  Pro- 
.JECTS.  By  Daniel  Defoe.  No.  105. 
Crickkt  on  the  Hkarth.  With 
selections  from  *'  Sketches  by  Boz.'' 
By  Charles  Dicke'ns.  No.  106.  Anec- 
dotes of  the  Late  Samuel  John- 
son, LL.D.  By  Hester  Ljnich  l*io/zi. 
No.  107.  Plutauch's  Lives  of 
Solon,  Publicola  Philopoewkn, 
Titus  Quinctius  Flamininus,  and 
Caius   Mauius.    No.  108.     Prome- 


1888.] 


ciMOXG  TUE  BOOKS. 


71 


THEUS  Unbound.  With  Adonais,  The 
Cloud,  Hymn  to  Intellectual  Beauty, 
and  An  Exhortation.  By  Percy 
Bysshe  Shelley.  No.  109.  The  Re- 
public OF  THE  FuTUKE.  By  Anna 
Bowman  Dodd.  No.  110.  Kino 
Lear.  By  William  Shakespeare. 
No.  111.  Seven  Discourses  on 
Art.    By  Sir  Joslma  Reynolds.    No. 

112.       A     IllSTORY    OF     THE     EaRLY 

Part  of  the  Reign  of  James  the 
Second.    By  Charles  James  Fox. 

Riverside  Literature  Series.  No. 
;W.  Tales  OF  a  Wayside  Inn.  By 
Henry  W.  Lonj^fellow.  With  an  in- 
troduction }in(i  notes.  In  tliree 
parts.  Tart  I.  No.  34.  Part  II.  No. 
30.  Sharp  Eves  and  Other  Pa- 
pers. By  John  Burrou«:hs.  No.  3"). 
Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn.  By  IL 
W.  Lonjjjfcllow.  With  an  hitrodur- 
tion  and  notes.  In  three  num- 
bers. III.  lioston  and  New  Yorlv : 
IJoujjliron,  Mittlin  &  Co.  Single 
numbers,  15  cents.  Yearly  8ul>- 
scription  (9  numbers),  91.2o. 

Cassell's  National  Library. 
Price,  ten  cents  each.  Subscripti<m 
price  per  year,  8.5.00.  New  York : 
Cassell&Co.  No.  113.  The  Diary 
OP  Sajviuel  Pepys.  From  October, 
1607,  to  March,  IfiOS.  No.  114. 
London  in  1731.  By  Don  Manoel 
Gonzales.  No.  ll.'i.  The  Apolo<jy 
OF  the  Church  of  England.  By 
John  Jewel.  No.  110.  Much  Ado 
About  Nothing.  By  William 
Shakespeare.  No.  117.  Sketches 
of  Persia.  By  Sir  .folin  Malcolm. 
Vol.1.  No.  118.  The  Shepherds' 
Calendar.  By  Ednmnd  Six»nser. 
No.  119.  The  Black  Death  and 
the  Dancing  Mania.  By  J.  F.  C. 
Ilecker.  No.  120.  Sketches  of 
Persia.  By  Sir  John  Malcolm. 
Vol.  11.  No.  121.  The  Diary  of 
Samuel  Pepys  from  March  to 
November,  1008. 

Old  South  Leaflets.  General 
Series.  Price,  5  cents  per  copy ;  one 
hundred  copies.  $3.00.  Published  by 
D.  C.  Hejith  &  Co.,  Boston.  No.  1. 
The  Constitution  of  the  United 
States.  No.  2.  The  Articles 
of  Confederation.    No.  3.    The 


Declaration  of  Independence. 
No.  4.  Washington's  Farewell 
Address.  No.  5.  MagnaCharta. 
No.  6.  A  Healing  Question. 
By  Sir  Henry  Vane.  No.  9.  Frank- 
lin's Plan  of  Union,  17.*i4.  No. 
10.  Washington's  Inaugurals. 
No.  12.  The  Federalist,  N«»s.  1. 
and  2.  No.  13.  The  Ordinance 
OF  17S7. 

The  latest  volumes  of  the  Ticknor 
Paper  Series  are  Next  Door  and 
The  Minister's  Ch ar(je.  The  former 
of  these  two  popular  novels  is  writ- 
ten by  Clara  T^ouise  Buruham  and  is 
one  of  the  few  stories  in  which  the 
characters  and  plot  are  true  to 
nature.  This  delightful  and  domes- 
tic story  is  full  of  bright  humor 
and  pure  healthful  sentiment.  The 
character  sketches  are  wonderfully 
natural,  piquant,  and  attractive.  The 
Minister's  Charge,  by  William  D. 
Uowells,  Avlll  need  no  recouunen- 
dation  to  those  who  so  enthusias- 
tically welcome  anything  from  the  pen 
of  this  popular  author,  llowells's 
pure,  inimitable  fun  is  enough  to 
carry  any  story  he  may  write. 

We  have  received  from  Ilenry  Holt 
&,  Co.,  New  York,  A  Manual  of 
Qeiuian  Prefixes  and  Suffixes. 
By  J.  S.  Blackwell,  PH.D.,  Professor 
of  Semitic  and  Modern  Languages 
in  the  University  of  Missouri.  Tlie 
book  is  designed  as  a  practical  aid  to 
students  who  may  wish  to  gain  a 
nearer  sense  than  even  the  best  dic- 
tionaries give  of  the  meaning  of  Ger- 
man words.  The  work  gives  in  a 
small  compass  a  great  deal  of  matter 
that  cannot  be  found  elsewhere  in  so 
convenient  form.  The  plan  of  the 
Manual  does  not  include  the  etymol- 
ogy of  the  pretixes  and  suOlxes. 
Students  of  German  will  hail  with 
delight  this  work  which  gives  such 
an  insight  to  the  German  language. 


72 


EDUCATION. 


[September, 


The  Social  Influence  of  Chris- 
tianity, with  special  reference  to 
Conteinporary  Problems.  By  Da- 
vid J.  Hill,  LL.D.,  President  of  Buck- 
nell  UniYersity.  The  Newton  I-eo- 
turoj*  for  188*7.  231  pages.  Full 
Cloth,  Gilt,  Price,  $1.25.  Boston: 
Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.  Publishers. 

This  work  by  President  Hill  is  unique 
and  scholarly,  rather  than  a  mere  com- 
pilation of  current  thoughts  intended 
for  temporary  popular  efft»ct.  It  is  a 
work  of  a  really  philosophical  charac- 
ter presented  in  a  most  inviting  form. 
Ten  years  of  experience  as  a  teacher 
of  economics  and  sociology  have  ena- 
bled the  author  to  grasp  the  Issues  of 
his  subject  in  a  scientific  manner,  and 
his  extended  travel  in  Europe  has  en- 
riched his  knowledge  of  the  contem- 
porary condition  of  society  with  the 
fruits  of  observation.  The  leading 
views  regarding  the  nature  of  society, 
both  ancient  and  modern,  are  com- 
prehensively stated,  traced  In  their 
development,  and  intelligently  criti- 


cised from  a  scientific,  Christian,  and 
American  point  of  view.  The  central 
Ideas  of  Christianity,  which  the  au- 
thor carefully  distinguishes  from  the 
Church,  are  admirably  defined,  and 
their  Influence  upon  society  histori- 
cally studied.  In  typography,  bind- 
ing, etc.,  the  book  Is  a  gem^  and  adds 
another  to  the  beautiful  specimens  of 
book-making  recently  given  to  the 
public  by  Its  publishers.  It  should 
find  a  place  In  the  library  of  every 
thoughtful  student. 

Trie  Blue;  Mother  Goose's  Cam- 
paign Melodies.  Edited  by  a  well- 
known  American  author.  Published 
by  the  Campaign  Publishing  Com- 
pany, 707  Filbert  Street,  Philadel- 
phia. 

Bright  with  wit,  sparkling  with 
good  sense,  and.  In  a  happy  vein,  puts 
some  logical  political  arguments  terse- 
ly and  with  becoming  gravity.  Sent 
by  mall  for  ten  cents. 


MAGAZINES. 


PoMiibly  no  other  departmont  of  our  lit- 
erature has  made  more  rapid  Improve- 
ment within  the  last  ten  or  a  dozen  yearn 
than  the  maKazineo.  The  Century ^  Scrib- 
ner*tt  The  Forum,  The  American  Magazine, 
The  Atlantic,  The  Xetc  Princeton,  The  North 
Amerimn  Jievitw,  The  Catholic  m»rld.  The 
Popular  Science  Monthly,  LippincotVa,  Sew 
EnyUtmler,  Awlover  Revtcw  Presbyterian  /?e- 
riew,  Frank  Leslie,  Cosmopolitan,  and  a  hotit 
of  olhera  "  too  numerouM  to  mt* ntlon,"  are 
all  witne»«e8  to  the  Mlaut  Htridei*  of  Im- 

{)roveinent  made  In  this  direction.  We 
lave  not  ttpace  to  speak  of  them  all  in  de- 
tail, but  Hhall  from  month  to  month  call 
the  eHpeolal  attention  of  our  readern  par* 
tlonlarly  to  those  articles  which  seem  to 
have  the  greatest  interest  and  to  be  of  the 
greatest  value  to  the  e<lucatlonal  frater- 
nity. Every  teacher  should,  however,  c<m- 
slantly  bt>ar  in  mind  that  much  reading 
should  be  done  outside  ofprofessional  lines. 
—Mrs.  Martha  J.  l^mb  gives,  in  the  Septem- 
ber number  of  The  American  Magazine  of 
History,  an  especlall}'  interesting  and 
wellllluMtrate<l  account  of  Marietta,  Ohio, 
speaking  particularly  of  the  foundation 
of  civil  government  beyond  the  Ohio  Kiv- 
er.— **  Tne  Story  of   Boston  Common  "  is 

given  in  Edward  Everett  Hale's  usual 
right,  attractive  style,  in  the  September 
Ifide  AuHil-e.—The  torum  for  September 
gives  a  glowing  tribute  to  the  Government 
of  the  I  nited  States,  fnnn  the  pen  of  the 
Marquis  of  Lome.  Ever>-  American  citi- 
zen ought  to  be  more  proud  of  his  country 
after  reading  this  answer  to  an  "eminent 
American  writer."  The  article  is  entitleil 
**  Distrust  of  Popular  Government." — Paul 
B.  Cleveland  discusaea  in  the  Augoat  Cos- 


mopolitan the  question,  **  Is  Literature 
Bread-winningi'^'  — All  lovers  of  history 
and  civil  government  will  be  glad  to 
rea<l  .John  Fiske's  account  of  the  **  First 
Year  of  the  Continental  Congress,"  in  the 
September  number  of  the  Atlantic  Monthly. 
—A  unique  article  on  **  History  in  Names  " 
by  Rev.  G.  H.  llubbard,  of  North  Cam- 
bridge,  is  given  in  the  Xew  Englander  and 
Yale  Review.— The  question,  ••What  is  a 
Royal  Commission?  *'  is  answered  in  the 
September  number  of  CasselVs,  by  George 
Howell,  M.  P.— i>rof.  John  W.  Burgess  gives 
an  account  of  ••  The  German  £mperor,"  in 
the  Political  Science  Quarterly.— Tho  excel- 
lent articles  on  Abraham  Lincoln  still  con> 
tinue  In  the  Century,  The  August  number 
gives  the  history  connected  with  Tennes- 
see and  Kentucky.— TAt;  Overland  Monthly 
for  August  opens  with  an  article  about  the 
great  artesian  belt  of  the  I'pper  San  .Joa- 
quin Valley.— A  most  instructive  as  well  as 
interesting  article  is  to  bti  found  in  the  Au- 
gust Scribner*s,  by  N.  S.  8haler,  on  **  Rivers 
and  Valleys."— In  the  September  Wide 
Awake,  Rev.  H.  O.  Ladd,  President  of  the 
University  of  New  Mexico.  <lescribes  the 
Ramona  Industrial  School  at  Santa  Fc^  and 
the  Ramona  Memorial  Hall,  a  beautiful 
school  for  Indian  Girls  which  Is  being  built 
as  a  monument  to  ••  H.  H."  The  JTide 
Awake  children  are  invited  to  build  the  Re- 
fectory in  the  school,  giving  two  cents  a 
weeJ:  for  a  year.  This  dining-nall  is  to  cost 
a  thousand  dollars,  and  is  to  be  known  as 
the  IFiile  Awake  R^ectory.  The  names  of 
the  ••  Ri-fectory  Thousand  "  — the  givers— 
are  to  be  hung  in  the  hall,  and  are  also  to 
be  printed  in  WkU  Awake, 


€3d  U  CTATI 0  R 

DEVOTED  TO  THE   SCIENCE,  ART,  PHILOSOPHY,  AND 

LITERATURE  OF  EDUCATION. 


Vol.   IX.  OCTOBER,    1888.  No.   2. 


THE    TEACHING   OF   THE    ENGLISH  LANGUAGE 

AND  LITERATURE,^ 

BY  n.   E.   SHEPHERD,  LL.  D. 
Preiident  of  CkarUtion  CoUege^  CharUttont  8.  C. 

I. 

METHODS   OF   STUDY   IN  ENGLISH   LITERATURE. 

THE  prominence  assigned  in  our  contemporary  educational  lit- 
erature, as  well  as  in  our  practice,  to  the  art  of  methodology, 
has  led  to  a  revulsion  which  is  both  logical  in  its  character  and 
salutary  in  its  effects.  The  untempered  zeal  of  the  extreme  meth- 
odologists  has  caused  them  to  assign  to  their  shallow  artifices  a 
sort  of  magical  efficacy,  as  though  the  highest  ends  of  insti'uction 
were  to  be  accomplished  by  mere  dexterity,  pure  attainment,  culti- 
vated judgment,  delicate  scholarship,  lofty  idealism,  all  being  of 
secondary  import  in  this  dispensation  of  sciolism.  In  the  develop- 
ment of  his  philosophic  system  Bacon  seems  to  have  anticipated 
some  of  the  characteristic  features  of  our  modern  educational  em- 
piricism. The  Novum  Organum  which  he  believed  was  to  revo- 
lutionize existing  methods  of  philosophic  investigation,  was  to 
achieve  success  not  by  force  of  individual  skill  or  aptitude,  but  by 
the  intrinsic  excellence  of  the  mode  pursued.  Original  differences 
of  genius,  temperament,  character,  were  to  be  effaced  by  the  adop- 
tion of  a  system  which  ignored  them  and  accomplished  its  ends  by 
the  supreme  merit  of  method  alone.     Bacon's  scheme  of  levelling 

1  Copyright,  1888,  by  Eastern  Educational  Bureau. 


74  EDUCATION.  [October, 

all  original  differences  and  setting  aside  all  native  or  acquired  fac- 
ulties is  a  suggestive  and  entertaining  commentary  when  read  in 
the  light  of  modern  developments.  Still,  it  is  neither  wise  nor 
salutary  to  press  reactionary  movements  to  an  extreme  degree,  and 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  metliods  may  be  effectively  employed 
as  an  auxiliary  to  the  higher  condition  of  true  scholarship.  In 
any  sphere  of  educational  work,  their  function  must  be  secondary 
and  subordinate,  not  primary  or  exclusive. 

So  much  has  been  written  and  said  in  regard  to  modes  of  instruc- 
tion in  primary  schools  tliat  the  world  has  grown  weary  of  the 
theme.  The  loftier  spheres  of  scientific,  literary,  and  historical 
teacliing  have  happily  escaped  the  empirical  epidemic,  and  will 
remain  free  from  its  tainting  touch.  The  field  of  English  Litera- 
ture and  the  English  Language  —  in  its  higher  forms  —  seems  to 
have  been  thus  far  undesolated  by  the  oracles  of  empirical  edu- 
cation. 

I  pur|)Ose  in  the  present  paper  to  set  forth  concisely  some  results, 
gathered  from  a  varied  and  changeful  career  as  teacher  of  English 
Literature.  They  are  offered  in  no  spirit  of  dogmatism  —  merely 
as  suggestions  for  consideration  —  for  scholarly  reflection  —  by  no 
means  for  necessary  acceptance  or  approval. 

First  of  all,  it  is  the  tendency  of  modern  teaching  to  divorce 
the  literature  from  its  natural  cognate  and  interpreter  —  the  de- 
paHment  of  history.  For  literature  is  the  artistic  expression  of 
the  historic  life.  The  one  elucidates  and  illumines  the  other; 
their  separation  is  illogical  and  empirical.  A  broad,  critical,  and 
sympathetic  knowledge  of  the  great  lines  of  historic  growth,  is  an 
essential  requisite  on  the  part  of  every  teacher  of  English  litera- 
ture. It  is  in  the  bewildering  complexity  of  modern  historic  life 
that  tliis  harmony  of  relation  is  most  perceptible  and  most  impress- 
ive, yet  it  may  be  traced  in  the  simpler  liistoric  development  of 
antiquity — a  notable  illustration  being  the  advance  of  Athens  to 
the  literary  and  political  supremacy  of  Greece,  under  the  stimu- 
lating influence  of  the  Persian  wars.  Other  instances  may  be 
gathered  from  the  elder  world,  but  the  modem  ages  abound  in 
examples  and  illustrations.  Let  us  select  from  the  rich  field  at 
our  disposal,  elaborating  our  selections,  so  as  to  confirm  the  truth 
of  the  general  proposition.  The  Elizabethan  age  is  a  mirror  held 
up  to  nature,  in  wliich  is  reflected  the  form  and  pressure  of  the 
historic  life.     Every  phase  of  its  luxuriant  and  versatile  growth, 


1888.]  THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANOUAOE.  76 

is  suggestive  of  some  distinctive  feature  of  its  political,  moral,  or 
material  expansion.  The  creative  form  assumed  by  its  litemry 
types,  the  surrender  of  its  noblest  writers  rather  to  impulse  than 
to  critical  guidance,  point  to  the  quickening  force  of  certain  his- 
toric influences  which  we  shall  now  endeavor  to  indicate. 

As  a  matter  of  historic  record,  when  Elizabeth  ascended  the 
throne  in  1558  both  language  and  people  were  in  a  disorganized 
and  distracted  condition.  The  sweet  strains  of  English  song  that 
had  arisen  with  Chaucer  died  away  almost  as  suddenly  as  they  had 
begun,  leaving  only  fitful  echoes  of  their  melody  during  the  dreary 
age  that  extends  from  the  advent  of  the  fifteenth  century  to  the 
preluding  symphonies  of  Surrey  and  Wyatt.  The  nation  had  been 
convulsed  by  the  thirty  years'  war  of  York  and  Lancaster  —  a 
struggle  involving  no  grave  constitutional  or  moral  principle,  but 
leaving  an  abiding  impress  upon  the  character  of  English  history 
and  of  English  speech.  The  introduction  of  printing  stimulated 
in  its  first  effects  prevailing  linguistic  disorder.  The  Renaissance 
and  The  Reformation  followed  in  its  train.  Classical  learning,  at 
first  pursued  in  accordance  with  logical  and  rational  methods, 
soon  degenerated  into  an  elegant  affectation,  and  instead  of  striv- 
ing to  domesticate  the  acknowledged  graces  of  Greek  and  Roman 
artists,  strove  to  engraft  upon  the  simple  structure  of  our  lan- 
guage, the  complicated  periods  of  the  ancients.  The  acrimonious 
strife  of  the  Reformation  absorbed  the  minds  of  scholars,  and 
diverted  their  energies  from  the  ennobling  pursuits  of  literature. 
The  structure  of  the  language  was  unsettled,  its  syntax  was  fluc- 
tuating, its  vocabulary  not  ascertained,  its  metrical  principles  and 
combinations  undetermined.  Its  verbal  richness  was  being  steadi- 
ly increased  by  translations  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  classics,  by  the 
spirit  of  commercial  adventure,  geographical  enterprise,  and  knight- 
ly daring.  For  the  higher  purposes  of  scholarly  composition,  the 
language  was  had  in  slight  esteem,  and  Ascham  apologizes  for 
employing  it,  "  doubting  not  that  he  should  be  blamed  "  for  this 
act  of  supposed  condescension  to  the  rights  of  the  native  speech. 

At  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  there  was  no  clear  foreshadowing 
of  the  most  brilliant  creative  epoch  that  has  been  developed  in 
modern  literature.  Yet  in  thirty  years  from  the  beginning  of  her 
reign  it  was  ripening  into  supreme  vigor  and  splendor  —  the  trans- 
formation is  complete. 


I 


76  EDUCATIOy.  [October, 

Let  118  note  the  historic  influences  that  had  produced  this  mar- 
velous result.  First  of  all  —  preeminent  above  all  —  was  the  lofty 
sense  of  self-respect,  the  stimulus  to  national  consciousness,  re- 
sulting from  the  splendid  victory  over  the  Spanish  Armada,  an 
achievement  that  may  be  justly  described  as  the  English  Salamis. 
Other  influences  are  to  be  enumerated.  The  knightly  love  of  ad- 
venture ;  the  spirit  of  heroic  emprise  ;  the  expansion  of  geograph- 
ical and  commercial  knowledge ;  colonization ;  the  quest  of  strange 
lands  in  the  "  unformed  Occident,"  were  all  determining  forces, 
exhilarating  agencies.  Then  too,  was  the  relation  of  England  to 
foreign  powers,  growing  out  of  the  complex  struggles  of  the 
Reformation  to  esttiblish  itself  in  the  Low  Countries,  the  Hugue- 
not struggles  in  France,  and  the  almost  ceaseless  strife  with  the 
power  of  the  Spanish  monarchy.  The  revolt  of  the  Netherlands 
began  in  1568.  Sidney  was  then  fourteen  years  of  age ;  Bacon, 
eight ;  Shakespeare,  four ;  Raleigh  and  Spenser  were  sixteen,  being 
both  born  in  1552.  In  the  midst  of  all,  and  in  one  sense  above 
all,  was  the  brilliant  figure  of  Mary  Stuart,  the  inspiration  of  the 
Catholic  cause ;  the  object  of  an  unfailing  homage,  whose  tragic 
death  at  Fotheringay,  in  February,  1587,  was  the  immediate  occa- 
sion of  the  descent  of  the  Armada  upon  England.  Sir  Philip 
Sidney,  the  purest  expression  of  all  that  was  noble  and  lovely  in 
the  manhood  of  Elizabethan  England  breathed  out  his  young  life 
in  October,  1586.  During  this  year  it  is  probable  that  Shakes- 
peare came  to  London  in  quest  of  a  livelihood.  In  1587  appeared 
Marlowe's  Tamerlaine,  wliich  forever  fixed  the  place  of  blank 
verse  in  the  English  drama.  During  these  same  eventful  years, 
Raleigh  was  founding  the  first  English  colonies  on  Roanoke  Island, 
and  Drake  was  circumnavigating  the  globe.  The  age  was  a  drama 
in  constant  progress ;  its  moulding  influences  were  dramatic  ;  that 
its  literature  should  have  in  large  measure  assumed  the  di-amatic 
form  is  but  the  logical  outcome  of  the  events  that  fashioned  it. 
Much  even  of  its  non-dramatic  poetry  is  tinged  by  a  dramatic 
radiance.  The  noblest  allegorical  expression  of  contemporary  life 
has  its  dramatic  features  and  its  dramatic  tone.  The  peculiar 
blending  of  the  spirit  of  chivalry,  the  fantasies  of  the  mediajval 
era  with  the  rising  realism  of  the  modern  world,  is  a  marked  char- 
act^jristic  of  the  Elizabethan  age.  Its  Sidneys  and  Raleighs,  its 
Galahads  and  Lancelots,  had  not  outlived  the  fascination  of  the 
romantic  day,  at  the  same  time  they  had  developed  some  of  the 


1888.]  THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  77 

distinctive  features  of  our  modern  materialistic  and  realistic  life. 
They  stand  on  the  border  land,  where  the  charm  of  one  age  is 
receding,  and  the  strongly  marked  outline  of  another  is  rising  into 
view.  The  old  order  is  changing,  but  the  ancient  economy  lin- 
gers, its  brilliance  and  its  glamor  are  still  reflected,  and  the  new 
dispensation  has  not  lost  the  freshness  and  the  vigor  of  novelty. 
That  the  literature  of  Elizabethan  days  should  have  assumed  a 
creative  and  dramatic  caste,  would  seem  to  be  the  mere  logic  of 
events,  every  historic  influence  converging  to  this  grand  result. 
No  teacher  is  capable  of  estimating  the  character  or  the  causes  of 
this  unparalleled  era,  who  is  not  acquainted  with  the  complex 
historic  life  of  the  sixteenth  century.  If  we  select  the  age  of 
Anne,  we  find  that  the  general  law  of  literary  and  historic  rela- 
tion holds  good.  If  we  investigate  the  closing  decades  of  the 
Georgian  era,  the  epoch  coincident  with  the  dawn  of  the  first 
French  Revolution,  the  revival  of  romanticism,  and  the  decay  of 
classicism,  we  find  that  our  principle  applies  in  undiminished 
vigor.  It  is  one  of  the  peculiar  charms  of  literary  history,  if  it 
be  pursued  in  accordance  with  rational  or  scientific  spirit,  that  the 
seminal  forces,  the  germs  which  are  to  ripen  into  mature  activity 
in  a  given  age,  may  be  detected  in  the  age  which  precedes  it. 
The  neologism  or  barbarism  of  one  era  becomes  the  reputable 
idiom,  the  recognized  type  of  the  next.  The  scholastic  genius  of 
our  Augustan  age  is  not  only  potentially  present,  but  vigorously 
developed  in  the  literary  work  and  character  of  Ben  Jonson.  The 
philosophic  scheme  of  Bacon  was  unfolding  just  as  Shakespeare 
had  reached  the  highest  point  of  our  romantic  drama. 

When  we  pass  from  the  "  spacious  times  of  great  Elizabeth," 
into  the  reign  of  the  second  Stuart  monarch,  we  note  the  gradual 
but  steady  development  of  that  "obstinate  questioning,"  that 
rationalistic  temper  which  at  a  subsequent  day  is  to  come  to  ma- 
turity in  the  Principia  of  Newton,  the  philosophy  of  Hobbes  and 
of  Locke,  the  structural  charm  and  "  golden  cadence  "  of  Addison 
and  Pope.  In  political  development,  in  the  struggles  of  the  Long 
Parliament,  in  the  constitutional  revolution  of  1688,  in  the  expan- 
sion of  physical  science  by  scholars  and  thinkers  during  the  dis- 
tractions of  the  civil  war,  in  its  mature  development  under  the 
culture  of  Newton,  in  every  phase  of  intellectual  life,  we  detect 
the  presence  of  this  same  critical  arid  regulative  spirit.  It  is  seen 
in  the  decline  of  our  periodical  syntax,  in  the  development  of  our 


78  EDUCATIOX.  [October, 

modern  prose  form,  in  the  perfection  of  the  heroic  couplet,  in  the 
Bentley-Boyle  controversy,  as  well  as  in  the  struggles  against 
monarchical  absolutism.  The  entire  range  of  literature  will  fur- 
nish scarcely  an  exception  to  the  fundamental  law  enunciated. 

Take  the  decline  of  German  national  spirit  and  the  consequent 
decay  of  German  literary  aspiration  aft^r  the  Thirty  Yeara'  War ; 
the  subjection  of  Germany  to  Parisian  influences,  intellectual  as 
well  as  political ;  the  falling  off  of  English  literature  from  the 
death  of  Chaucer  to  the  advent  of  Surrey  and  Wyatt,  in  whom  we 
see  the  first-fruits  of  the  English  Renaissance ;  the  classic  type 
assumed  by  French  literature  in  consequence  of  the  political  in- 
fluences that  controlled  the  age  of  Louis  XIV. ;  the  vice  of 
romanticism  in  France  during  the  era  succeeding  the  revolution, 
when  in  Great  Britain  the  genius  of  Wordsworth,  Burns,  and 
Scott  had  laid  bare  the  very  springs  of  native  life  and  romantic 
spirit. 

Let  us  insist  rigidly  upon  the  observance  of  the  principle,  that 
literature  and  history  elucidate  and  interpret  each  other ;  that  the 
scheme  of  instruction  which  divorces  the  one  from  the  other  is 
illogical,  misleading,  and  irrational. 

In  the  next  place  I  would  impress  the  need  of  restraint  and 
moderation  in  the  pursuit  of  this  study.  Nowhere  in  the  range 
of  instruction  is  the  necessity  greater  for  regarding  the  laws  of 
harmony,  the  principle  of  adjustment. 


THE  marvelous  changes,  political,  social,  moral,  intellectual, 
and  physical,  which  give  character  to  the  nineteenth  century, 
are  but  the  prelude  to  a  drama  which  shall  make  all  past  acliieve- 
ments  of  our  race  appear  weak  and  contemptible.  To  imagine 
that  our  superiority  is  merely  mechanical  and  material  is  to  fail  to 
see  things  as  they  are.  Greater  individuals  may  have  lived  than 
are  now  living,  but  never  l)efore  has  the  world  been  governed 
with  so  much  wisdom  and  so  much  justice ;  and  the  power  back 
of  our  progress  is  intellectual,  moral,  and  religious.  Science  is 
not  material.     It  is  the  product  of  intellect  and  will. 

•        Bishop  John  Lancaster  Siwldixg,  of  Peoria. 


1888.]  THE  TEACHING  OF  MATHEMATICS.  79 


THE  TEACHING  OF  MATHEMATICS.^ 

II. 

THE  ECONOMY   OF   MEMORY   IN   THE   STUDY   OF    ARITHMETIC.  —  II. 

BY  SIMON  N.   PATTEN,   PH.  D., 
ProfuMor  in  the  Untveraitff  of  Penntylvania. 

TO  use  correctly  different  systems  of  measurement  is  not  so 
easy  as  it  may  seem  at  fii-st  sight.  Even  mature  minds 
easily  become  confused  when  they  attempt  to  use  different  stan- 
dards. Take  for  example  the  case  of  thermometers.  How  many 
persons  are  there  who  can  readily  tell  how  forty-eight  degrees 
alx)ve  zero  Fahrenheit  is  expressed  in  both  of  the  other  methods  of 
measuring  temperature  ?  To  do  this,  a  person  must  have  the  three 
different  units  of  measurement  well  in  hand,  and  this  requires  a 
great  effort  even  for  a  mature  mind.  Persons  living  in  foreign 
countries  always  have  great  difficulty  in  using  the  new  standards 
of  money,  weights,  etc.,  and  this  can  be  true  only  because  it  re- 
quires so  much  effort  to  acquire  a  ready  use  of  any  one  system 
of  measurement.  If  the  changing  of  the  standard  of  measure- 
ment requires  a  great  effort  even  on  the  part  of  mature  persons, 
why  should  we  compel  children  to  measure  each  numl)er  directly 
by  every  smaller  number  instead  of  allowing  them  to  measure 
them  all  by  that  system  which  is  most  familiar  —  the  system  of 
twos  ?  If  a  child  had  twenty  sticks,  in  what  way  would  he  ac- 
quire the  best  idea  of  their  relative  lengtlis  —  by  using  everj'^  stick 
in  turn  as  a  measure  of  the  others,  or  by  using  some  one  stick 
until  he  became  so  familiar  with  its  use  that  he  thought  of  every 
other  stick  only  in  terms  of  this  one  stick?  Suppose  again,  that 
a  mother  wished  to  teach  her  child  the  capacity  of  all  the  dishes 
she  used.  Should  she  measure  each  dish  by  each  smaller  one  — 
the  dipper  by  the  cup,  the  kettle  by  the  dipper,  and  the  tub  by 
the  kettle  ?  Or  would  she  succeed  better  if  she  used  some  one 
dish,  say  the  quart  biusin  as  the  unit  in  whose  terms  the  capacity 
of  all  the  dishes  is  expressed  ? 

>  Copyright,  1888,  by  Eastern  Educational  Bureau. 


80  EDUCATION.  [October, 

Now  these  questions  are  of  the  greatest  importance.  From  the 
difficulty  in  changing  from  one  standard  of  measurement  to  an- 
other must  we  determine  whether  we  should  use  some  one  number 
as  the  measure  of  all  others,  or  whether  we  should  measure  each 
number  directly  by  every  smaller  number.  We  can  compare  each 
number  with  everj"^  smaller  number  and  still  use  one  unit  of  meas- 
urement ;  for  example,  five  can  be  compared  with  three  by  using 
two  as  the  unit  of  measurement ;  three  equals  one  two-j-l,  and 
five  equals  two  twos-j-l*  Their  difference,  therefore,  is  two,  and 
their  sum  eight.  When,  however,  we  measure  five  directly  by 
three,  we  attempt  a  difficult  task  for  a  child,  and  one  that  should 
be  deferred  until  a  later  period. 

Commencing  with  the  smallest  combination  of  numbers  and 
learning  each  larger  one  in  turn  in  a  disconnected  way  is  just  as 
confusing  and  burdensome  as  it  is  in  history  to  leani  the  first  fact 
of  any  period,  then  the  second  one,  and  so  on,  making  no  grouping 
of  the  isolated  facts  around  the  more  important  events  with  which 
tliey  are  associated.  A  teacher  who  teaches  history  in  a  discon- 
nected way  is  not  now  regarded  as  very  progressive,  nor  should 
that  teacher  be  ranked  any  higher  who  in  numl>ei*s  commences 
with  the  smallest  combination  and  then  proceeds  to  the  larger  ones 
in  order,  thus  comi)elling  the  child  to  keep  them  all  distinct  in 
memory  without  the  aid  of  any  system  of  notation. 

Griibe  was  right  when  he  advocated  that  all  four  primary  oper- 
ations, addition,  subtraction,  midtiplication,  and  division,  be  taught 
in  connection  with  one  another.  lie  overlooked,  however,  the 
fifth  primary  operation,  the  need  of  a  system  of  notation  to  ex- 
press numbei's  and  the  relief  which  is  thereby  given  to  the  memo- 
ry.  This  also  should  1x3  taught  from  the  Ixjginning,  and  this  can 
only  be  done  when,  for  the  time  being,  the  decimal  system  is  dis- 
carded and  in  its  place  a  system  of  twos  —  the  most  simple  of  all 
systems  —  is  substituted.  A  child  should  be  taught  to  think  in 
this  system,  and  no  other  way  of  measuring  numbere  shoidd  l>e 
used  until  the  child  can  exi)ress  all  the  small  numbers  readily  in 
terms  of  two,  and  can,  by  substitution,  find  the  sum  of  any  two  of 
the  small  numbei's.  Then  he  should  be  taught  to  think  by  the 
system  of  fours,  which  is  \\(tyii  to  the  system  of  twos  in  simplicity ; 
two  twos  make  four,  and  it  is  as  easy  for  a  child  to  think  by  fours 
if  he  can  already  think  by  twos,  as  it  was  in  the  beginning  to  go 
from  a  system  of  units  to  the  system  of  twos. 


1888.]  THE  TEACHIXO  OF  MATHEMATICS.  81 

When  these  two  systems  have  been  thorouglily  acquired,  the 
child  is  ready  for  the  decimal  system,  and  with  the  aid  of  what  he 
already  knows  he  can  soon  master  this  system  if  it  be  correctly 
presented.  We  must  not,  however,  rely  on  mere  memorizing,  but 
the  facts  should  be  so  presented  that  their  relations  can  be  seen 
and  thought  out.  The  digits  are  related  to  one  another  according 
to  their  position  in  the  decimal  scale,  and  those  numbers  should 
be  taught  together  which  are  nearest  related  and  not  in  their 
numerical  order.  Nine  should  be  thought  of  as  10 — 1 ;  eight  as 
10 — 2;  seven  as  10 — 3,  and  six  as  10 — 4.  When  this  is  done, 
any  one  who  is  familiar  with  the  combinations  of  four  and  the 
smaller  numbers  can  perform  any  of  the  operations  of  the  decimal 
system.     The  following  tables  will  show  clearly  what  I  mean :  — 


0 

90 

0 

80 

0 

60 

0 

70 

1 

81 

2 

72 

4 

54 

3 

63 

2 

72 

4 

64 

8 

48 

6 

56 

3 

63 

6 

56 

12 

42 

9 

49 

4 

54 

8 

48 

16 

36 

12 

42 

5 

45 

10 

40 

20 

30 

15 

35 

6 

36 

12 

32 

24 

24 

18 

28 

7 

27 

14 

24 

28 

18 

21 

21 

8 

18 

16 

16 

•    32 

12 

24 

14 

9 

9 

18 

8 

36 

6 

27 

7 

From  these  tables  it  will  be  seen  that  the  order  in  which  the 
digits  occur  in  the  last  figure  of  each  number  is  the  same  for  ones 
in  addition  as  for  nines  in  subtraction,  for  twos  in  addition  as  for 
eights  in  subtraction,  and  for  fours  in  addition  as  for  sixes  in  sub- 
traction. The  revei"se  is  also  true.  The  order  of  ones  in  subtrac- 
tion is  the  same  as  of  nines  in  addition ;  twos  in  subtraction  is  the 
same  as  eights  in  addition,  and  foui-s  in  subtraction  as  sixes  in 
addition.  A  summary  of  these  facts  can  perhaps  be  best  illus- 
trated by  placing  the  final  figures  of  each  set  in  a  circle :  — 


Fo 

r  Ones  and  Nines. 

For  Threes  and  Sevens. 

0 

0 

1 

9 

3 

7 

2 

8 

6 

4 

3 

7 

9 

1 

4 

6 

9 

8 

82  EDUCATIOX.  [October, 

For  Twos  and  Eigbts.  For  Fours  and  Sizes. 

0  0 

2  8  4  6 

4        0  8        2 

If  in  any  of  these  circles  we  begin  at  any  point  going  to  the 
right,  we  add  by  the  larger  number  and  subtract  by  the  smaller 
numl^er,  thus :  beginning  with  3  in  the  second  circle  if  we  add 
by  seven,  we  have  the  last  figure  of  each  of  the  numbers  in  turn 
moving  to  the  right,  3,  10,  17,  24,  31,  38,  45,  52,  59,  66,  73,  80. 
If  we  desire  to  subtract  by  seven,  we  must  go  the  other  way 
around  the  circle,  thus :  93,  86,  79,  72,  65,  58,  51,  44,  37,  30,  23, 
and  so  on,  ever  repeating  the  circle.  For  the  even  numbers  the 
series  is  more  simple,  as  there  is  but  one-half  the  numbers  in  it ;  thus, 
in  adding  by  six  beginning  with  8,  we  have  8,  14,  20,  26,  32,  and 
then  the  circle  is  again  repeated,  38,  44,  50,  56,  62.  We  have 
also  the  same  series  of  final  figures  in  subtracting  by  fours,  thus : 
58,  54,  50,  46,  42,  38,  etc.  Go  around  the  same  circle  the  other 
way  and  we  subtract  by  six  or  add  by  four ;  thus,  subtracting  by 
six  we  have  94,  88,  82,  76,  70,  64,  etc.,  or  in  adding  by  four  we 
have  4,  8,  12,  16,  20,  24,  etc. 

If  these  facts  be  generalized  it  will  l)e  seen  that  all  the  opera- 
tions, whether  in  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication  or  division, 
have  at  tlieir  basis  a  regular  order  of  repeating  the  final  figures, 
and  if  numbers  be  taught  so  that  the  child  can  perceive  this  fact, 
the  burden  on  tlie  child's  memory  will  be  greatly  reduced.  Ones 
and  nines  should  be  taught  in  connection,  l)ecause  they  repeat  the 
final  figures  in  the  same  order.  For  the  same  reason  the  twos  and 
the  eights  go  together,  the  fours  with  the  sixes,  and  the  threes  with 
the  sevens.  When  the  larger  numbei's  are  thus  taught  in  connec- 
tion with  the  smaller  numl>ers,  they  can  be  learned  without  burden- 
ing the  memory.  If  nine  be  taught  as  10 — 1,  and  eight  as  10 — 2, 
any  one  who  understands  the  decimal  system  and  knows  the  ones 
and  twos,  can  add  or  subtract  by  eight  or  nine.  When  ten  is 
added  and  two  is  sul)tract^d  we  add  eight,  and  if  we  subtract  ten 
and  add  two  we  subtract  eight.  In  a  like  manner  six  becomes 
10 — I  and  seven  becomes  10 — 3.  When  we  subtract  ten  and  add 
three  we  subtract  bv  seven,  and  to  add  by  seven  we  must  add  ten 
and  subtract  three.     All  the  combinations  of  the  digits  are  really 


1888.]  THE  TEACHING  OF  MATHEMATICS.  83 

nothing  but  those  of  the  first  four  numbers,  and  if  tlie  pupil  keeps 
in  mind  the  decimal  system  and  the  order  in  which  the  last  fig*e 
of  each  series  repeats  itself,  the  whole  subject  becomes  very  sim- 
ple indeed.  The  great  difficulty  in  teacliing  the  use  of  the  larger 
digits  arises  from  the  endeavor  to  teach  them  before  the  child  really 
comprehends  the  decimal  system.  Addition  by  tens  should  precede 
the  addition  by  any  digit  larger  than  four.  If  a  child  cannot  readi- 
ly see  that  G3-|-10^73,  or  26+10=36,  he  has  not  that  maturity 
needed  to  add  by  any  of  the  larger  digits  and  he  should  be  re- 
quired to  think  by  twos  or  fours  until  the  proper  age  has  arrived. 

The  multiplication  and  division  tables  are  of  course  but  a  form 
of  adding  or  subtracting  continually  by  the  same  number.  Care 
should  be  taken  by  the  teacher  to  see  that  these  tables  are  thought 
out  by  the  pupil,  and  that  they  are  not  acquired  by  mere  memoriz- 
ing. The  child  should  be  made  to  comprehend  all  those  facts 
which  will  enable  him  to  think  from  one  step  to  another.  This  he 
will  do  but  slowly  at  first.  Soon,  however,  he  can  think  out  the 
steps  as  rapidly  as  he  could  if  he  liad  memorized  them  and  without 
the  liability  of  becoming  confused  by  a  failure  of  memory.  To 
think  of  nine  as  10 — 1  is  at  first  a  slow  process ;  but  when  this 
habit  has  been  once  acquired,  the  act  can  be  performed  as  readily 
as  if  all  the  combinations  of  nine  had  been  learned  outright. 

It  may  seem  at  first  sight  that  what  I  call  thinking  out  the  sum 
of  two  numbers  is  in  reality  but  another  name  for  memorizing  it ; 
but  a  closer  examination  will  show  a  radical  difference.  There 
are  three  different  ways  in  which  we  determine  the  sum  or  differ- 
ence of  two  numbers.  Suppose  the  sum  of  three  and  five  be 
required.  We  may  first  take  three  objects  and  then  five  more 
objects  and  placing  them  all  in  conjunction,  we  can  determine  that 
their  sum  is  eight.  This  way  I  should  call  working  out  the 
answer.  Secondly,  we  may  think  of  three  and  five  in  terms  of 
two.  Then  three  becomes  one  two  and  one,  while  five  becomes 
two  twos  and  one  ;  two  twos  and  one  two  are  three  twos ;  one  and 
one  are  one  two ;  tliree  twos  and  one  two  are  four  twos,  and  four 
twos  are  eight.  In  this  way  we  reason  out  the  result,  using  as  a 
basis  of  our  reasoning  our  knowledge  of  a  number  smaller  than 
those  about  which  we  wish  to  reason.  Tliis  is  what  I  call  think- 
ing out  the  answer.  The  third  way  Ls  to  memorize  all  the  possible 
combinations  so  that  when  the  sum  of  three  and  five  is  desired  we 
can   remember  it  is  eight.     This   third   way  is  what  sliould  be 


84  EDUCATION.  [October. 

avoided.  A  skillful  iise  of  the  fii-st  two  will  accomplish  all  that 
is^esired  and  at  the  same  time  call  into  exercise  those  faculties  in 
the  child  of  which  he  stands  in  the  greatest  need.  By  the  first 
method  the  perception  is  developed,  and  by  the  second  a  habit 
of  accurate  thinking  is  acquired  and  only  by  the  proper  develop- 
ment of  both  of  these  faculties  can  the  child  make  that  progress 
which  we  desire. 

When  the  tables  are  learned  by  memory  alone  the  child  has  no 
idea  of  the  relations  in  which  the  numbers  stand  to  one  another. 
When  the  child  says  2  X  6=12,  2x  7=14,  etc.,  the  relation  which  ex- 
ists between  twelve  and  fourteen  is  not  brought  out.  If  it  be  said 
A  is  six  miles,  B  is  eight  miles,  and  C  is  ten  miles  from  Boston,  there 
is  no  ground  for  the  inference  that  all  three  places  are  in  the  same 
direction  from  Boston,  and  that  B  is  two  miles  from  A  and  C,  and 
that  C  is  four  miles  from  A.  They  might  l^  in  different  direc- 
tions from  Boston  and  be  ten  or  twelve  miles  apart,  and  yet  the 
statement  l)e  true.  The  usual  manner  of  learning  tlie  tables  has 
the  same  defect  as  the  above  statement  alx)Ut  the  places  around 
Boston.  They  do  not  bring  out  the  relation  that  exists  l^etween 
the  various  products  and  thus  connect  the  facts  here  learned  with 
the  previously  acquired  knowledge  of  these  numbers.  To  show 
the  relation  existing  between  the  various  products,  the  tables 
should  l)e  thought  out  in  the  following  manner  until  the  child  is 
thoroughly  familiar  with  the  table  :  — 

2x1+2=4  2X4      =  8 

2X2      =4  2x4+2=10 

2x2+2=0  2x5      =10 

2x3      =6  2x5+2=12 

2x3+2=8  2x6      =12 

This  form  of  the  table  keeps  vivid  in  the  child's  mind  the  con- 
nection Iwjtween  addition  and  multiplication.  The  child  can  see 
that  two  added  to  the  product  of  two  multiplied  by  any  number  is 
the  same  as  tlie  product  of  two  multiplied  by  the  next  higher 
number.  All  the  steps  in  the  tal)le  are  l)rought  out  clearly  and 
the  child  can  see  liow  to  construct  a  like  table  for  himself.  When 
all  the  steps  are  visible  the  child  can  think  out  a  tal)le  for  himself 
without  memorizing ;  but  when  any  of  them  are  left  out,  the  child 
has  no  other  resource  tlmn  its  memory. 

« 

To  keep  clearly  in  a  child's  mind  the  connection  bet\Yeen  addi- 
tion and  multiplication  is  the  first  essential  in  giving  him  a  clear 


1888.]  THE  TEACHING  OF  MATHEMATICS.  85 

conception  of  numbers.  For  this  reason  it  is  best  always  to  give 
some  work  in  addition  in  direct  connection  with  the  multiplication 
table.  The  utility  of  such  work  is  greatly  increased  from  the  fact 
that  in  practice  there  is  almost  always  something  to  add  to  each 
product  —  the  tens  of  the  previous  product.  In  multiplying  8234 
by  9,  we  have  in  each  product  after  the  first  some  tens  to  carry, 
which  must  be  added  to  the  product  of  the  next  number  multiplied 
by  nine.  As  in  actual  work  we  are  compelled  to  carry  and  add, 
we  should  teach  the  tables  so  as  to  accustom  the  child  to  such 
work.  For  example,  instead  of  telling  the  child  to  say  the  fours 
alone  we  should  give  it  some  number  to  add  to  each  product. 
The  child  should  be  taught  to  say  the  fours  and  carry  one,  then  to 
carry  two,  and  then  three.  With  each  table  each  of  the  numbers 
smaller  than  the  multiplicand  in  the  table  should  be  made  use  of 
as  a  number  to  carry.  In  actual  practice  each  of  these  numbers 
would  occur  as  a  number  to  carry  and  all  that  the  child  will  meet 
in  real  work  should  be  taught  him  in  his  preliminary  practice. 
Tables  with  a  number  to  carry  would  be  formed  thus :  — 

6x1+4=10  8x1+5=13 

6x2+4=16  8x2+5=21 

6  X  3+4=22  8  X  3+5=29 

6  X  4+4=28  8  X  4+5=37 

6x5+4=34  8x5+5=45 

There  would  also  be  a  great  advantage  in  such  work  from  the 
means  it  would  offer  to  test  each  child  as  to  whether  he  really 
understood  the  tables,  or  had  merely  learned  them  by  rote. 
While  a  child  can  learn  the  simple  tables  by  rote  without  under- 
standing them,  he  cannot  in  this  manner  learn  all  the  varieties  of 
them  which  could  be  fonned  by  carrying.  All  these  varieties 
could  be  readily  thought  out  by  the  child  who  understood  the  sub- 
ject, and  thiLs  the  teacher  would  have  a  ready  means  of  determin- 
ing the  real  knowledge  of  each  child. 

The  single  rule  that  must  be  kept  in  mind  in  using  the  method 
I  have  presented  is  to  think  of  the  larger  numbers  in  terms  of  the 
smaller  ones.  When  this  is  done  all  the  operations  of  primary 
arithmetic  l)ecome  very  simple  and  there  is  no  need  of  much 
memorizing.  The  child  should  be  first  taught  to  think  by  twos 
and  each  number  should  be  thought  of  as  so  many  twos  and  all 
operations  should  be  performed  in  tenns  of  twos.     After  the  child 


86  EDUCATION.  [October, 

can  think  readily  in  the  system  of  twos  he  should  be  taught  to 
think  by  fours,  and  when  he  can  do  this  easily  the  decimal  system 
should  be  presented.  Each  of  the  digits  should  be  taught  in  con- 
nection with  the  number  expressing  its  difference  from  ten,  and 
all  numbers  should  be  taught  as  relative  terms  before  they  are 
taught  as  absolute  terms.  By  this  means  alone  can  a  child  be 
taught  to  reason  correctly  and  the  use  of  memory  l)e  so  econo- 
mized as  to  render  the  study  of  arithmetic  a  pleasure  instead  of  a 
dreary  task  which  it  too  often  becomes  when  presented  by  other 
methods. 


HOW  THET  WERE  EDUCATED. 

BT  FRANK  U.   KASSON,   A.  M. 

AMONG  the  very  interesting  series  of  papers  recently  published 
in  the  Forum  under  the  heading,  *'  How  I  was  Educated," 
three  are  of  special  interest.  They  were  written  by  Rev.  Dr. 
Edward  Everett  Hale,  Col.  Thomas  W.  Higginson,  and  President 
S.  C.  Bartlett,  of  Dartmouth.  A  comparison  of  their  experiences 
may  not  be  uninteresting.  These  three  men  were  born  about  the 
same  time ;  Doctor  Hale  In  1822,  Colonel  Higginson  in  1824,  and 
President  Bartlett  in  1817.  Dr.  Hale  was  the  fourth  of  seven 
children,  Colonel  Higginson  "  the  youngest  of  a  large  family,"  and 
President  Bartlett  one  of  five  brothers,  three  of  whom  had  a  col- 
lege education. 

Each  of  these  famous  men  had  parents  of  whom  he  was  justly 
proud.  Doctor  Hale's  father  was  a  distinguished  Boston  editor, 
and  he  it  was  who  "  introduced  the  railway  system  into  New  Eng- 
land." His  mother  was  a  thoroughly  sensible  woman  who  made 
him  this  answer  when  he  thought  she  would  be  displeased  because 
he  stood  only  nmth  in  a  class  of  fifteen :  "  O,  tliat  is  no  matter. 
Probably  the  other  boys  are  brighter  than  you.  God  made  them 
fio,  and  you  cannot  help  that.  But  the  report  says  you  are  among 
the  boys  who  behave  well.  That  you  can  see  to,  and  that  is  all  I 
care  about."  And  the  Doctor  adds  his  own  later  estimate,  that 
conduct  is  '*  the  most  important  affair  in  earth  or  heaven." 

Colonel  Higginson  came  of  a  noted  clerical  and  literary  family. 
His  grandfather  was  the  reputed  author  of  the  "  Laco  "  letters,  his 
father  "wTOt«  several  pamphlets"  and  his  mother  "some  chil- 
dren's books,  in  one  or  two  of  which  I  figured."     He  came  hon- 


1888.]  HOW  THEY  WEBE  EDUCATED.  87 

estly  by  his  love  of  authorship,  and  also  by  his  ardent  anti-slavery 
principles,  for  he  tells  us  that  his  eldest  brother  wrote  ''  a  little 
book  against  slavery."  President  Bartlett  speaks  in  high  terms 
of  his  parents.  His  grandfather  was  a  physician  and  his  father  a 
successful  country  trader.  The  latter  was  noted  for  liis  "integ- 
rity, energy,  skill,  prudence,  and  executive  ability."  Of  his  moth- 
er he  remarks,  she  was  "  in  her  sphere  fully  the  equal  of  my 
father."  When  he  was  eight  years  old  she  gave  him  a  Bible  for 
having  read  it  through.  Thus  we  see  that  each  of  these  distin- 
guished men  was  exceptionally  well  born.  And  tliis  is  a  very 
great  advantage  to  anyone. 

Dr.  Hale  began  to  go  to  school  to  Miss  Susan  Whitney  when 
very  young,  because  the  older  children  went.  And  here  he  stayed 
three  hours  in  the  morning  and  two  in  the  after^^oon  till  he  was 
five  years  old.  Of  this  early  period  he  recollects  four  things :  the 
flickering  of  motes  of  dust  in  the  sunbeams,  making  sand-pies  on 
the  floor,  the  first  page  of  the  New  York  Primer,  and  sitting  in  a 
yellow  chair  reading  an  interesting  book.  At  five  years  of  age  he 
began  attending  a  boys'  school.  At  six  years  he  was  studying 
Latin  paradigms,  and  at  eight,  limped  through  a  Latin  version  of 
"  Robinson  Crusoe."  At  nine  he  went  to  Boston's  famous  Latin 
School  —  the  oldest  school  in  America  —  in  wliich  such  men  as 
Benjamin  Franklin,  Samuel  Adams,  John  Adams,  John  Hancock, 
Edward  Everett,  Charles  Sumner,  and  Wendell  Phillips  have  been 
trained.  Four  years  of  faithful  work  here  fitted  him  to  enter 
Harvard  College  in  1835. 

Colonel  Higginson  was  born  next  door  to  Oliver  Wendell 
Holmes,  just  in  front  of  the  Jefferson  Physical  Laboratory,  being 
then  just  outside  of  the  Harvard  College  grounds.  The  poet's 
birthplace  has  already  given  way  to  a  "  great  academic  structure." 
Higginson's  advantages  were  exceptional.  He  "  tumbled  about " 
in  the  very  same  library  with  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  and  at 
home  in  a  "  comfortable  library  of  Queen  Anne  literature."  At 
four  he  could  read  or  lie  on  the  hearth-rug  and  hear  his  mother 
read  Scott's  novels.  Many  distinguished  people  visited  his  home 
and  added  a  keen  literary  stimulus  to  the  active  young  mind. 
After  being  taught  for  a  time  by  a  woman,  he,  at  eight  years  of 
age,  went  to  William  Wells's  preparatory  school.  Being  a  day 
scholar  he  walked  the  mile  each  way  twice  a  day.  Among  his 
schoolmates  were  Lowell  and  Story,  though  they  were  five  years 
older  than  Higginson. 


88  ED  UCA  TION.  [October, 

President  Bartlett  early  began  attending  the  large  district  school 
at  Salisbury,  N.  H.,  six  houi-s  a  day  being  spent  in  study,  and 
the  rest  of  his  time  being  given  to  outdoor  sports.  His  teach- 
ers were  largely  Dartmouth  students.  Though  attending  this 
district  school  in  winter  till  about  twelve,  he  began  at  nine  to 
attend  the  Salisbury  Academy  in  summer,  and  was  thoroughly 
drilled  in  Latin.  At  eleven  he  spent  some  time  at  the  Boscawen 
Academy,  under  the  stimulating  instruction  of  JarvLs  Gregg,  and 
began  the  mastery  of  the  Greek  language.  The  next  winter  he 
was  placed  for  a  time  under  the  private  tuition  of  a  young  cler- 
gyman. Then  followed  two  years  of  hard  study  at  Pinkerton 
Academy  (Derry,  N.  H.),  and  he  was  ready  to  enter  college. 

Each  of  these  three  young  men  entered  college  at  a  very  early 
age ;  Doctor  Hale  and  Colonel  Higginson  at  thirteen  yeai's,  and 
President  Bartlett  before  he  was  fifteen.  The  first  two  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1839  and  1841,  respectively,  being  each  but  seven- 
teen years  of  age.  President  Bartlett  studied  at  Dailmouth,  and, 
though  yoimg,  by  his  energy  and  remarkable  faculty  of  continu- 
ous application,  stood  at  the  head  of  his  class.  Among  those 
whom  Doctor  Hale  regards  as  his  chief  teachers,  and  of  whom  he 
speaks  most  feelingly,  were  Professors  Edward  T.  Channing  and 
Longfellow ;  also,  his  father,  his  mother,  and  an  elder  brother. 
Colonel  Higginson  makes  special  reference  to  Professoi-s  Chan- 
ning, Longfellow,  and  Peirce.  For  the  latter  he  has  the  strongest 
words  of  kindly  recollection.  Other  powerful  influences  came 
from  Jared  Sparks,  Ralph  Waldo  Emeraon,  and,  after  graduation, 
from  a  cousin,  Stephen  H.  Perkins.  President  Bartlett  gratefully 
recalls  the  stimulating  influences  of  his  father,  his  mother,  and 
her  two  sisters,  highly  educated  teachers,  as  well  as  J.  J.  San- 
bom,  Jarvis  Gregg,  and  Professor  Haddock.  And  then  some 
years  later,  the  powerful  influence  of  those  great  Andover  pro- 
fessors, B.  B.  Edwards,  Moses  Stuart,  and  chief  of  all,  Edwards 
A.  Park. 

The  ripe  fruits  of  the  matured  intellects  of  these  three  great 
scholars.  Hale,  Higginson,  and  Bartlett,  justify  and  elucidate  the 
remark  of  President  Bartlett,  that  "  all  higher  education  is  essen- 
tially self-education."  College  life  and  good  teachers  greatly  assist 
the  young  scholar  to  get  a  start  and  awaken  his  dormant  faculties 
and  set  them  in  the  right  direction,  but  success  only  comes  by  long 
and  assiduous  study  and  reflection.  May  these  examples  incite 
many  of  our  best  youth  to  wise  and  noble  endeavor. 


1888.]  TEACHING  OF  THE  CLASSICAL  LANGUAGES.  89 


THE    TEACHING    OF    THE   CLASSICAL 

LANGUAGES,^ 

II. 

THE   FIRST   YEAR    IN   I^VTIN. — I. 
BT    ADELINE   A.    KNIGHT. 

MANY  a  reader  must  have  smiled  with  ready  sympathy  over 
Dr.  Muuger's  remark  in  a  late  article  of  his  that  he  really 
supposed,  during  his  boyish  conflict  with  Homer  that  the  Iliad  was 
written  to  bear  out  the  assertions  of  the  Greek  grammai*.  But  the 
unnatural  devotion  to  syntax,  which  was  an  unwelcome  and  gro- 
tesque fact  about  very  much  of  the  teaching  of  twenty-five  years 
ago,  remains  in  full  force  in  the  heginning  year  of  any  language. 
The  first  textbook  —  be  it  ancient  Jacobs  or  the  brightly  man- 
aged and  seductive  modern  Lessons — has  been  "written  to  bear 
out  the  assertions"  of  the  Latin  Grammar;  precisely  tliat,  and 
not  much  more.  It  is  all  prose,  literally  and  figuratively.  It  calls 
for  and  calls  forth  the  same  quality  of  teaching  faculty  as  does  the 
needful  drill  of  little  people  in  the  introductory  years  of  English ; 
it  calls  for  this,  plus  as  ripe  scholarship  as  one  can  possibly  pos- 
sess, that  the  Latin  class  may  be  taught  wisely,  with  due  regard 
for  the  imperious  necessity  of  differing  presentations  of  the  facts 
to  differing  orders  of  minds.  Beginners  should  never  be  put  to 
teach  beginners.  Just  as  in  morals,  the  weak,  worst  people  need 
the  best  and  rarest  people  immediately  next  them,  so  the  begin- 
ners of  a  language  heed  teachers  who  have  found  out  its  secret 
somewhat. 

The  matter  of  the  pages  of  the  grammar  must  be  gone  over 
much  and  over-much,  and  this  is  also  true  of  the  incessant,  vigilant, 
varying  application  and  illustration  of  the  matter.  The  dry  bones 
of  nominative  and  verb  must  be  treated  patiently.  Seldom  allow 
yourself  to  relate  an  incident.  Reserve  it,  usually,  for  the  lesson 
in  Roman  history.  All  standard  Latin  Lessons  present  their  meth- 
ods in  the  order  of  a  recitation,  and  thus  are  to  the  inexperienced 

1  Copyright,  1888,  by  Eastern  Edacational  Bureau. 


90  EDUCATION.  [October, 

teacher  an  indispensable  help ;  and  to  the  experienced,  they  are 
a  daily  bread  of  suggestions.  To  this  prosy  aid  we  must  cling, 
sternly  watching  ourselves  lest  for  a  few  indolent  minutes  we  "  let 
up "  on  the  drill.  Rapidity  of  work  is,  of  course,  so  largely  a 
matter  of  class  material  and  of  personal  genius  for  teaching  that 
it  has  to  be  left  to  the  individual  worker. 

Unavoidably  there  are  many  workers  in  comparative  isolation, 
with  a  very  limited  opportunity  to  study  methods  other  than  their 
own.  Unavoidably  and  in  consequence,  there  is  a  great  waste  of 
nervous  force  in  anxiety  and  depression  about  apparent  results. 
It  is  a  very  true  thing,  and  one  which  will  bear  passing  on  from 
one  generation  of  teachei*s  to  another,  that  you  cannot  really  esti- 
mate results  by  appearances,  and  that  a  dull  first-year  class  is  apt 
to  be  roused  astonishingly  by  Caesar.  But  the  little  flask  of  bitter 
tonic  must  be  handed  along  also,  that  the  average  success  of  any 
class  —  dull  or  clever  —  in  the  examinations  depends  upon  the 
amount  of  prosy,  tiring,  half-doubting,  and  somewhat  discouraged 
drill  you  have  given  it. 

It  is  possible  that  some  teacher  who  vexes  her  conscientious  soul 
may  be  comforted  by  the  presentment  of  what  appears  to  an  old 
teacher  an  ordinary  progress  of  a  recitation  in  Latiii  Lessons,  with 
fiuch  results  in  the  quality  of  blackboard  work  as  are  often  found 
there. 

We  will  call  the  recitation  period  forty  minutes,  and  we  will 
follow  the  order  of  work  given  in  Jones's  Lessons.  Thus  there 
will  be  a  few  paragraphs  of  syntax  to  be  thoroughly  memorized, 
three  or  four  examples  in  English  and  Latin  illustrative  of  the 
syntax,  a  Latin  exercise  to  be  pronounced  and  translated,  a  couple 
of  selected  sentences  of  this  to  be  analyzed,  a  necessary  note  or 
two  at  the  foot  of  the  lesson  to  be  noticed,  and  six  or  eight  sen- 
tences of  English  to  be  turned  into  Latin.  This  English  into 
Latin  is  the  real  test. 

The  lesson  may  be  the  use  of  the  Ablative.  In  this  case  a 
couple  of  girls  will  go  to  the  board  with  directions  to  write  out 
paragraphs  250,  251  of  Allen  and  Greenough.  You  should  always 
cause  them  to  depend  upon  numbers  only,  without  any  sort  of  aid 
in  the  way  of  mention  of  the  subject  of  the  proposed  paragraph. 
While  they  write,  four  others  will  be  called  upon  for  the  Latin  of 
the  examples.  Three  more  will  pronounce  the  sentences  of  Latin 
text  and  three  others  translate  them.     By  this  time  the  pupils  at 


1888.]  TEACHING  OF  THE  CLASSICAL  LANGUAGES,  91 

the  board  have  probably  finished  their  tasks  and  must  be  called 
upon  directly  to  read  the  paragraphs,  with  class  corrections  of 
text,  spelling,  and  punctuation.  The  entire  class  is  now  at  liberty 
for  the  second  exercise  which  must  be  carefully  written  upon  the 
board.  The  fourth  sentence  of  the  English-Latin  exercise  of  the 
lesson  on  the  Use  of  the  Ablative  is  a  representative  one.  Let  us 
read  it  in  English  and  then  examine  the  ordinary  facility  with 
which  it  will  be  rewritten  in  Latin. 

The  lieutenant  led  his  army  into  winter-quarters  among  the  Aedui 
a  little  sooner  than  the  time  of  year  dejnanded. 

Legatus  eum  exercitun  in  hiberna  in  Aedos  paulo  facilius  quam 
tempus  anni  postulavit  deduxit. 

Or  the  lesson  may  be  the  Use  of  the  Dative.  The  writer  thinks 
teachers  will  agree  that  the  example  illustrative  of  the  Dative  of 
The  Person  Possessing, — 

/  have  a  father  at  home^ 
will  pretty  surely  be  (according  to  the  unlucky  beginner), 

Est  domi  pater. 

And  the  example  of  the  Double  Dative, — 

Th£y  were  a  protection  to  the  hindmost^ 
will  turn  out, 

Novissimis  subsidio  erant. 

These  things,  using  the  language  of  Mr.  Micawber,  may  be 
expected  with  confidence,  and  must  be  borne  with  philosophy, 
unless  a  teacher  pleases  to  send  the  cleverest  girls  to  the  board 
with  marked  frequency. 

If  the  sentence  happens  to  hold  an  ablative  absolute  and  a  sub- 
junctive clause,  like  the  following :  — 

Ccesar^  after  removing  his  horse  out  of  sights  urged  his  men  to  fight 
bravely^ 

she  need  not  be  at  all  surprised  if  one  pupil,  if  no  more,  utterly 
breaks  down  after  writing  out  — 

Caesar  equo  conspectu 

and  if  there  is  more  or  less  of  a  procession  of  unfortunates  to  the 
board  before  the  Latin  equivalent  is  achieved  in  passable  fashion : 

Caesar  remoto  ex  conspectu  suo  equo  suos  hortatus  est  ut  fortiter 
pugnarent. 

Translation  work  from  Latin  to  English  is  often  quite  as  dis- 
couragingly  done.     Take,  for  instance,  a  sentence  like, — 


92  EDUCATIOy.  [October, 

Nam  equitatuU  quern  auxilio  Cceaari  Aedui  miserant  Dumnorix 
prceerat ; 

Tlie  translator  will  most  likely  begin, — 

For  Dumnorix  had  ruled  over  the  cavalry,  etc. ; 
a  translation  full  of  clumsiness  as  well  as  of  inaccumcy. 

JSrit  co7iHuli  niatpius  exercitus 
will  very  likely  be  rendered, — 

The  consuls  will  have  a  large  army. 

As  was  above  said,  these  tilings  will  happen  if  you  call  upon 
the  rank  and  file  of  your  class  without  fear  or  favor.  Teachers 
are  familiar  with  this  sort  of  sentence, — 

Boii  et  Tulhufi^  qui  hominum  milihus  eirciter  quindecim  aymen 
hostium  claudebant^  ex  itinere  nontros  circumvenere. 

And  with  the  perennial  tmnslation  by  some  handsomely  dressed 
little  dunce, — 

The  Boii  and  Tulingi  drew  up  the  rear  of  the  enemy,  who  were 
about  fifteen  thousand  in  number,  etc. ; 
and  with  the  depressing  effort  of  the  next, — 

The  Boii  and  Tulingi  who  had  drawn  up  the  rear  of  the  enemy, 
about  fifteen  thousand  men  m  number,  etc., 

A  time  of  general  trial  and  trouble  following  and  bringing  to 
the  surface  the  fact  that  the  clever  ones  only  were  aware  that  eir- 
cumvetiere  is  a  form  of  the  perfect. 

How  many  women  have  felt  like  giving  up  teaching  in  the  face 
of  Latin  perpetrated  over  this :  — 

It  wa4t  a  great  hindrance  to  us  in  battle  that  we  could  not  fight  with 
sufficient  ease^ 

with  —  as  a  usual  thing,  its  flat  and  senseless  equivalent  put  upon 
the  board  in  fully  as  silly  a  way  as  the  following :  — 

Impedimento  erat  satis  commode  ad  pugnam  vobis. 

A  luckless  friend  of  mine  once  bade  a  pupil,  who  it  is  fair  to 
state  was  an  uncommonly  stupid  girl  with  small  fitness  for  Latin, 
but  with  ambitious  parents  who  were  determined  she  should  have 
it,  turn  so  simple  a  sentence  as  this  into  Latin :  — 

Mg  friend  has  faur  sans  ;  obtaining  this  strange  garment  for  it : 

Filii  meam  amico  sumus. 

Courage  !  "  Rome  was  not  built  in  a  day."  Uncompromising 
thoroughness  is  to  the  last  degree  important ;  so  it  may  be  well  to 
devote  another  five  minutes  to  the  syntax  on  the  boards.  Section 
251,  A.  &  G.,  for  example,  has  been  legibly  written  thereon :  — 


1888.]  TEACHING  OF  THE  CLASSICAL  LANGUAGES.  93 

The  Ablative,  with  ax  Adjective  or  limiting  Genitive 
is  used  to  denote  quality. 

As  you  are  quite  aware  that  the  girls  have  a  narrow  range  of 
English  and  an  apathy  about  grasping  ideas,  you  had  best  ask 
the  meaning  of  Section  251  of  the  one  who  wrote  it,  and  beg  her 
to  illustrate  with  an  example  in  English.  Her  definition  and 
example  may  be  distressingly  wide  of  the  mark,  but  probably  you 
will  see  that  barely  a  half  dozen  of  the  class  dare  raise  their  hands. 
Of  the  half  dozen,  two  are  likely  to  give  accurate  statements,  put- 
ting their  comprehension  of  the  matter  beyond  doubt.  So  you 
give  yourself  up  to  illustrations  in  English  and  Latin.  In  Section 
250,  ask  the  meaning  of  the  phrase  Comparatives  and  tvords  imply' 
ing  comparison.  You  are  sure  to  feel  disagreeably  about  the  qual- 
ity of  your  teaching  wliich  has  led  girls  to  write  out,  foinUime^ 
syntax  which  they  really  know  next  to  nothing  of.  So  you  try  to 
do  your  best  at  this  gap,  and — the  bell  rings.  You  look  up  to 
see  that  the  sun  has  slipped  a  little  down  tlie  sky,  and  that  its 
light  has  a  trifle  more  of  the  afternoon  look.  You  bow,  and  the 
girls  file  out. 

The  teacher  is  fortunate  who  finishes  tlie  allotted  amount  of 
work  in  a  formal  lesson  in  forty  minutes.  She  is  fortunate  if  she 
finishes  tluee-fourths  of  it.  Miss  Smith  is  unusually  dense  and 
has  to  try  a  sentence  many  times,  and  Miss  Brown  fails  to  accent 
the  right  syllable  of  the  word,  and  is  able  to  correct  herself  and 
give  the  rule  of  proof  after  reflection  only ;  and  for  one  reason  or 
another  the  bell  seems  always  to  ring  unduly  soon.  ''  If  I  could 
only  have  time  enough ! "  the  teacher  thinks  as  she  closes  the 
books.  But  *'  if  "  is  always  in  the  way  about  most  things  in  this 
world. 

It  is  especially  well  for  a  class  to  begin  Roman  history  during 
the  first  year  in  Latin,  using  also  the  section  of  Latin  literature  in 
Mrs.  Lynch-Botta's  General  Literature,  or  some  primer  of  Latin 
literature.  The  department  of  Rome  in  Anderson's  General  His- 
tory is  very  much  what  beginners  require,  and  witli  proper  sup- 
plementing from  the  desk  will  furnish  a  term  of  history  lessons. 

Tlie  objection  may  be  felt  if  left  unexpressed  tliat  it  is  a  pity  to 
introduce  immature  girLs,  standing 

*'  Where  the  brook  aud  river  meet,'' 
to  the  evils  of  a  whole  national  life,  which  is,  after  all,  so  much 
like,  and  only  so  much  more  than  the  history  of  a  whole  human 


U  EDUCATION.  [October, 

life.  There  is  force  in  the  objection  ;  but  perhaps  the  objectors  are 
unacquainted  with  the  present  type  of  young  girl  character.  The 
writer,  for  one,  always  hangs  with  affection  over  Bjornstone's 
description  of  a  swarm  of  girls  of  Norway,  at  a  nutting  party  : — 

^^  The  girls  laughed  for  nothing  at  all ;  if  three  laughed,  then  five 
would  laugh  just  because  those  three  laughed.  Altogether,  they  behaved 
as  if  they  had  lived  with  each  other  all  their  lives ;  and  yet  there  were 
several  of  them  who  had  never  met  before  that  very  day.  When  they 
caught  the  bough  they  jumped  afler  they  laughed,  and  when  they  did  not 
catch  it  they  laughed  also ;  when  they  did  not  find  any  nuts,  they  laughed 
because  they  found  none ;  and  when  they  did  find  some,  they  also 
laughed.  They  fought  for  the  nutting  hook  ;  those  who  got  it  laughed, 
and  those  who  did  not  get  it  laughed  also.  Godfather  limped  after  them, 
trying  to  beat  them  with  his  stick  and  making  all  the  mischief  he  was 
good  for ;  those  he  hit  laughed  because  he  hit  them,  and  those  he  missed 
laughed  because  he  missed  them.  But  the  whole  lot  laughed  at  Arne 
(the  solitary  boy,)  because  he  was  so  grave ;  and  when  he  could  not  help 
laughing,  they  all  laughed  because  he  laughed." 

Tfiere  is  the  true  giggle  of  fifteen  I  How  ashamed  I  used  to  be 
of  laughing  so  much,  and  how  I  thought  I  never  should  be  able  to 
leave  off  giggling  indecorously  I  and  could  not  imagine  what  life 
would  be  like  when  I  should  be  tamed  enough  to  no  more  do  thus. 
I  was  not  wrong,  maybe,  in  thinking  it  would  be  difficult  to  leave 
it  off ;  I  had  no  idea  how  easily  it  would  leave  me  off. 

There  seems  less  gaiety  and  sparkle  about  schoolgirl  daily  liv- 
ing now.  They  appear  to  be  missing  some  of  the  keen  delight  of 
their  life's  June.  A  part  of  the  change  —  be  it  real  or  apparent 
—  is  due  to  the  different  sort  of  teaching  required  for  them  today, 
in  place  of  the  desultory  species  of  education  bestowed  formerly, 
when  one  attended,  to  acquire  one's  learning  and  one's  accomplish- 
ments, some  private  school  or  other  of  excellent  reputation,  kept 
in  a  fine  old  house,  roomy,  airy,  bright,  sunny,  cheerful,  with 
lawns  turned  into  capital  playgrounds.  There  is  no  doubt  that  a 
lack  of  assiduity  in  studies  was  less  severely  treated  than  was  well 
for  heedless  offenders.  The  curriculum  was  elastic,  and  subjects 
that  were  uncongenial  matters,  which  the  mind  was  unable  or  un- 
willing to  assimilate  were  waived  with  a  regard  for  individual 
development  exceedingly  and  necessarily  rare  in  the  admirably 
arranged  courses  which  have  destroyed  the  old  method  of  study- 
ing whatever  our  people  chose  for  us,  as  we  sat  upon  long  benches 
in  the  "day  schoolroom"  through  whose  open  windows  came  the 


1888.]  TEACHING  OF  THE  CLASSICAL  LANQUAOES.  95 

powerful,  spicy  odor  of  pinks  like  a  warm  breath  of  summer 
sweetness.  Recesses  were  long,  and  the  lofty,  oil-clothed  halls 
were  very  dim  and  cool ;  and  probably  too  large  a  portion  of  our 
abundant  leisure  slipped  away  in  promenades,  and  somewhat  envi- 
ous regard  of  the  boarders,  who  joined  only  in  some  of  the  les- 
sons. In  general,  these  ladies  had  nothing  to  do  with  us ;  they 
had  privileged  places  everywhere,  and  led  a  life  of  dignified  sep- 
aration from  the  day  scholars.  How  desirable  were  even  the 
ostrich  tips  upon  their  awkward,  "  sky-scraping  "  bonnets,  which 
were  perched  in  those  days  with  nearly  alike  unbecomingness 
above  wrinkled  countenances  and  sweet  young  faces.  There  were 
also  occasional  erratic  vacations  when  the  elders  at  home  noticed 
that  a  small  back  threatened  to  become  bent,  or  when  headaches 
seemed  frequent  —  weeks  when  we  ransacked  the  high  pastures 
for  berries,  and  the  sweet  and  solemn  presence  of  the  woods  and 
hills  and  meadows  and  the  forms  and  movements  of  the  clouds 
were  influences  whose  powerful  spell  was  felt  rather  than  perceived 
by  matter  of  fact  young  creatures  who  hardly  knew  how  divine  a 
ministration  they  were  receiving  from  everything  that  surrounded 
them.  In  some  such  fallow  time,  began  for  some  of  us  an  epoch 
of  indiscriminate,  omnivorous  reading  —  a  doubtful  good  —  which 
lasted  until  we  began  to  t^ach,  when  such  delights  were  unavoida- 
bly given  up  for  the  practice  of  our  profession.  Vastly  different 
from  rambles  through  pleasaunces  which  the  rising  tide  of  im- 
provement has  since  swept  away  and  growing  towns  have  rolled 
over  and  beyond,  is  the  steady  work  and  are  the  serious  examina- 
tions expected  of  those  whom  we  teach.  The  training  of  the 
present  is  begun  early  and,  "  without  haste,  without  rest,"  pro- 
gresses steadily  through  a  term  of  years,  subduing  the  body  to  an 
absolute  responsiveness  to  the  will  practically  unknown  in  the 
schooldays  of  twenty-five  years  ago,  when  lessons  in  all  other 
books  than  the  all-engrossing /ai'oriY^  study,  whatever  this  chanced 
to  be,  were  deferred  disgracefully  and  committed  at  the  last  min- 
ute with  a  fitful  and  thoughtless  spurt  of  resolution  which  was 
enough  to  electroplate  us  with  cheap  and  hasty  half  knowledge. 
Mental  processes  now  go,  or  are  expected  to  go  true  to  a  hair 
along  the  upward  ways  of  many  a  subject  which  used  to  be  treated 
in  a  rudimentary  fashion  ;  although  we  were  not  wholly  brainless 

and  our  classics  were  not 

"  Ladles'  Greek 
Without  the  accents." 


06  EDUCATION,  [October, 

And  the  graceful  women  who  superintended  our  tutors  and  our 
exercises  managed  successfully  all  their  pupiLs,  becoming  objects 
of  enthusiastic  devotion  to  the  elder  ones  whom  they  admitted  to 
companioiLship. 

These  girls  of  fifteen  are  a  trifle  older  and  very  much  wiser 
than  were  we. 


PHILOSOPHT IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES.^ 

BY   WILLIAM  T.  HARRIS,    LL.  I>. 

IN  this  paper  I  shall  not  undertake  to  furnish  the  statistics  of 
courses  of  study  in  our  colleges,  nor  to  discuss  the  trend 
of  philo80i)hic  instruction  in  view  of  such  statistics.  I  shall  as- 
sume nither  tliat  the  present  trend  in  higher  instruction  is  to 
undervalue  philosophy  and  its  methotls.  And  accordingly  I  shall 
endeavor  to  sliow  that  philosophy  is  indispensable  to  any  and  all 
courses  of  higher  instruction.  I  shall  also  endeavor  to  show  that 
philosophy  is  the  most  practical  of  all  studies,  l>ecause  it  furnishes 
the  will  power  or  the  executive  personality  of  the  soul  with  the 
results  of  the  intellect  (or  tlie  discui'sive  power  of  the  soul). 

I. 

T  ask  attention  fii'st,  to  a  brief  stjit^ment  of  the  nature  of  plii- 
losophy  and  it«  method,  in  order  that  we  may  see  clearly  it«  rela- 
tion to  all  other  dei)artments  of  knowledge,  and  hence,  to  all 
higlier  instruction.  Philosophy  is  that  science  (if  we  may  call  it 
science,)  which  investigates  the  ultimate  i)resup[)Ositions  of  exist- 
ence. It  seeks  a  iii-st  [)rinciple  of  all.  Accordingly,  it  sets  out 
from  any  given  fact,  tiling,  or  event,  and  begins  at  once  to  elim- 
inate from  it  what  is  accidental  or  contingent  and  drop  it  out  of 
consideration.  Any  science — all  sciences  deal  in  unity.  They 
unite  phenomena  in  a  princii)le.  If  they  have  lK>come  genuine 
sciences,  they  find  for  a  i)rineiple  a  definite  causal  energy  which 
unfolds  or  acts  according  to  laws.  These  laws  exi)ress  the  nature 
or  constitution  of  that  causal  energy.  A  science  tliat  rests  on 
mere  classification  has  not  yet  arrived  at  a  true  scientific  form 
because  it  has  not  yet  shown  how  its  general  principle  produces 
its  details  and  api)lications.     Such  an  imperfect  science  reaches 

1  Read  before  the  National  Educational  Association,  Departraentof  Higher  Instruction, 
July  18.  1888. 


1888.]  PHILOSOPHY  AV  COLLEGES  AND  UmVERSITIES.  97 

merely  subjective  unities — mere  aggregates  of  things  or  events 
more  or  less  independent  of  each  other. 

The  word  process  names  the  important  idea  in  science.  All  the 
material  of  a  science  should  be  united  in  one  process.  To  consti- 
tute a  process  it  is  clear  that  there  must  be  an  active  cause  and 
its  operation  according  to  a  fixed  method. 

Keeping  in  mind  this  consideration  of  special  sciences  for  a 
moment,  we  may  notice  that  all  science  discusses  presuppositions, 
and  that  philosophy  is  not  the  only  knowledge  of  presuppositions. 
Given  a  thing  or  event,  science  proceeds  to  discover  its  ante- 
cedents and  consequences — in  short,  to  find  its  place  in  some 
process.  This  investigation  on  the  part  of  science  aims  to  learn 
the  history  of  the  object — which  is  a  thing  or  an  event.  Its  his- 
tory reveals  to  us  its  former  states  and  transmutations,  in  other 
words,  the  activity  of  its  energy  or  cause  by  which  it  has  come 
to  be. 

The  true  method  of  science,  it  is  pretty  generally  conceded 
now,  is  the  historical  one  —  the  method  of  discovering  one  by  one 
the  antecedent  stages  of  thing.s  or  events,  and  learning  by  this 
means  the  nature  of  the  principle  that  reveals  itself  in  the 
process. 

This  method  of  Natural  Science  points  towards  Philosophy  as  a 
sort  of  science  of  science.  For,  that  there  is  a  general  scientific 
method  implies  that  all  the  sciences  are  related  one  to  another 
through  some  universal  underlying  condition,  so  that  all  objects 
must  have  antecedent  conditions,  belong  to  processes,  and  have 
their  explanation  in  principles.  This  underlying  condition  in 
which  all  objects  find  their  unity  is  time  and  si)ace,  and  all  sci- 
ences presuppose  the  possibility  of  a  science  of  time  and  space. 

The  doctrine  of  time  and  space  as  explained  through  the  idea 
of  causality  furnishes  ultimate  science  because  it  explains  how  the 
special  sciences  get  their  form. 

It  is  ultimate  science,  or  philosophy,  too,  inasmuch  as  it  shows 
causality  as  transcending  time  and  space,  and  it  discovers  this 
form  of  absolute  or  independent  causality  to  be  Mind  or  RecOson  — 
Self-conscious,  Absolute  Personality. 

Such  ultimate  science  shows  the  place  of  each  and  every  thing 
or  event  in  the  system  of  the  universe  and  reveals  its  origin  and 
destiny.  It  explains  things  and  events  through  the  self-revela- 
tion of  the  Absolute  Mind. 


98  EDUCATION.  [October, 

At  this  point  we  must  note  that  philosophy  does  not  affect 
omniscience,  no  matter  how  much  the  above  statements  may 
seem  to  imply  it.  Philosophy  does  not  inventory  anything  what- 
ever; it  explains  only  what  is  furnished  it  —  something  being 
given  in  a  definite  manner,  philosophy  will  discover  one  by  one 
it«  pre-suppositions  and  find  it«  place  and  function  in  the  absolute 
system.  If  the  thing  or  event  is  not  so  far  defined  by  one  of  the 
special  sciences,  that  it  can  be  referred  to  some  one  of  their  princi- 
ples, then  only  a  very  vague  utterance  about  it  can  be  made  by 
philosophy.  If  it  is  only  a  thing  or  event,  and  it  is  not  said 
whether  it  is  animal,  vegetable,  or  mineral,  or  some  activity  of  one 
of  them,  then  only  the  vague  di  ctum  can  be  pronounced  that  it 
arises  somewhere  in  the  creative  process  of  the  absolute,  —  or  as 
religion  states  it,  '*It  has  arisen  in  the  wisdom  of  God's  Provi- 
dence,"— and  we  are  sure  in  advance  of  all  examination  of  the 
thing  or  event  that  it  has  a  place  and  a  purpose. 

If  the  thing  or  event  is  defined  as  a  plant,  or  some  activity  of 
it,  we  can  speak  more  definitely  and  predicate  of  it  what  philoso- 
phy has  discovered  in  regard  to  the  place  and  function  of  vegeta- 
tion in  the  world. 

I  repeat  it — for  the  reason  that  philosophy  does  not  inventory 
any  facts  or  events,  but  assumes  them  as  thus  inventoried  by 
other  sciences,  it  cannot  be  accused  of  affecting  omniscience.  It 
is  in  fact  a  special  department  of  human  knowledge  and  requires 
special  study  and  investigation  just  like  other  departments. 

Here  we  encounter  another  great  word  in  tliis  dispute  as  to  the 
place  of  philosophy,  namely  the  word  specializatimu  We  are  told 
that  specialization  is  the  principle  of  all  progress ;  that  philosophy 
deals  with  ultimate  unities,  and  therefore  can  make  no  progress. 
All  progress  comes  through  inventorying  anew  some  minute  prov- 
ince— division  or  subdivision  is  best  because  the  minuter  the  field 
the  more  completely  and  exhaustively  it  may  be  inventoried. 
Philosophy,  it  is  said,  is  the  enemy  to  this  specializing  and  inven- 
torying ;  it  is  content  with  any  results  that  are  handed  to  it,  and 
managed;  to  deal  quite  as  well  with  imaginary  things  and  events 
as  with  real  ones.  It  can  explain  equally  well  the  unicorn,  the 
phcenix-bird,  the  polar  bear,  and  the  kangaroo. 

For  the  reasons  I  have  mentioned,  namely,  that  philosophy  does 
not  inventory  nor  reduce  to  subordinate  scientific  unities,  we  must 
admit  the  validity  of  the  objection  in  so  far  as  it  condemns  philos- 


1888.]  PHILOSOPHY  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES.  99 

ophy  as  unfit  to  substitute  for  any  one  or  all  of  the  special  sciences. 
It  is  true  that  philosophy  can  explain  one  fact  as  well  as  another, 
and  just  as  completely  as  said  fact  is  offered  or  presented  to  it  by 
one  of  the  special  sciences.  Tliis  does  not,  however,  render  the 
explanation  of  real  facts  empty  and  void,  any  more  than  a  mistaken 
application  invalidates  the  religious  doctrine  of  Divine  Provi- 
dence. 

Another  objection  urges :  That  the  nature  of  philosophy  as  here 
set  forth  seems  to  assume  that  philosophy  has  only  one  form,  or 
that  all  its  forms  arrive  at  an  Absolute  Personal  Reason  as  ulti- 
mate principle,  whereas  there  are  many  philosophies  and  divers 
first  principles.  To  this  objection  it  must  be  replied,  that  all  phi- 
losophies do  imply  this  personal  first  principle,  although  they  do 
not  all  unfold  it  as  the  presupposition.  To  make  this  clear  it  is 
only  necessary  to  state  it  generally.  Every  philosophy  sets  up  a 
first  principle  as  the  origin  of  all,  the  cause  of  all,  and  the  ulti- 
mate destiny  of  all.  Let  such  principle  be  called  X.  Then  X  is 
assumed  as  originating  all  through  its  own  activity,  and  hence  X 
is  a  self-activity.  Self-activity  is  what  we  call  living  intelligent 
being  when  we  behold  it. 

Let  us  n8w  notice  the  utility  of  this  reference  of  things  to  a 
supreme  unity  — in  other  words,  the  utility  of  philosophy. 

II. 

Philosophy  is  the  form  of  thinking  which  is  exercised  or  em- 
ployed whenever  one  closes  a  train  of  reflection  and  resolves  to 
act.  Deliberation  belongs  to  the  intellect,  it  holds  action  in  sus- 
pense until  it  shall  get  a  complete  survey  of  the  subject.  Such  a 
survey  implies  an  inventory  and  an  act  of  systematizing.  But  by 
the  nature  of  the  case  an  inventory  of  an  objective  sphere  can 
never  be  completed,  by  reason  of  the  infinitude  of  its  details. 
Each  detail  can  be  subdivided  again  and  again.  If  the  will 
waited  and  held  back  its  action  until  absolutely  all  the  data  were 
in,  it  would  never  act  at  all.  The  deed  would  be  "sicklied  o'er 
with  the  pale  cast  of  thought."  What  is  necessary  is  this :  the 
inventory  must  be  stopped,  and  all  the  facts  must  be  assumed  to 
be  in  hand.  Then  they  must  be  summed  up  and  their  trend  and 
bearing  ascertained.  This  being  done,  it  is  now  in  readiness  to 
act.  All  action  of  the  will  assumes  that  the  inventory  is  com- 
pleted, and  that  the   ultimate   bearing   of   the   data   is   known. 


100  EDUCATION.  [October, 

Hence  all  practical  action  deserts  the  scientific  or  discursive  form 
of  thought,  and  put«  on  the  philosophical  attitude,  assuming  its 
survey  to  be  a  complete  and  absolute  one. 

With  this  insight  into  the  relation  of  the  philosophical  attitude 
of  the  mind  to  the  practical  will-activity,  we  may  now  demonstrate 
the  utilit}%  or  even  the  necessity  of  philosophy,  as  an  indispens- 
able branch  of  higher  instruction. 

III. 

The  object  of  all  instruction  is  said  to  be  self-knowledge.  Ad- 
mitting that  there  is  a  discrimination  between  two  selves — a  finite 
self  and  an  infinite  self — this  proposition  maybe  admitted.  Then 
it  would  mean  that  all  instruction  has  for  its  object  the  conscious- 
ness of  the  relation  of  the  finite  self  to  the  infinite  self — or,  less 
technically,  the  relation  of  man  and  the  universe  to  God. 

The  occasion  of  all  human  activity  moreover,  is  some  relation 
between  the  individual  and  the  universe  or  the  Author  of  the  uni- 
verse. It  is  evident  that  the  ultimate  ground  of  action  must 
always  be  a  moral  one,  therefore,  because  the  motive,  express  or 
implied,  must  always  be  some  relation  to  God  or  to  God's  purpose 
in  the  univei'se.  Now  these  relations  are  defined  fh  onlv  two 
ways — by  religion  or  by  philosophy — or  only  in  one  way,  inas- 
much as  religion  always  grounds  itself  and  its  mandates  in  the- 
ology. 

Higher  instruction  diffei*s  from  lower  instruction  chiefly  in  this, 
lower  instruction  concerns  more  the  inventory  of  things  and 
events,  and  hence  has  less  to  do  with  inquiring  into  the  unity  of 
things  and  events.  Higher  instruction  deals  more  with  relations 
and  the  dependence  of  one  phase  of  being  upon  another,  and  it 
deals  especially  with  the  practical  relation  of  all  species  of  knowl- 
edge to  man  as  individual  and  as  social  whole.  Such  relation  it 
is  admitted  is  ethical.  Now,  since  the  doctrine  of  the  ethical 
rests  on  the  nature  of  the  first  principle,  and  philosophy  is  the 
investigation  of  that  principle,  it  follows  that  philosophy,  express 
or  imi)lied,  must  be  the  basis  of  higher  education. 

It  is  singular  to  note  how  exactly  this  is  true,  even  in  those  col- 
leges and  univei'sities  where  agnosticism  prevails.  For  agnosti- 
cism is  a  world-view  founded  on  philosophy.  It  is,  so  to  speak,  an 
arrested  development  of  philosophy,  for  it  is  a  world-view  adopted 
by  cutting  short  the  philosophical  process  near  the  beginning. 


1888.]  PHILOSOPHY  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES.  101 

Insight  gets  so  far  as  to  see  the  uiisubstantiality  of  material 
things  in  time  and  space — in  other  words,  all  such  material  things 
are  ''phenomenal,"  or  dependent  on  something  that  transcends 
their  sphere.  At  this  point  the  doctrine  is  negative  only — it  ends 
in  negating  the  substantiality  of  the  material  world  and  denying 
its  finality.  The  real  and  substantial  is  something  that  transcends, 
but  it  is  not  said  positively  what  it  is.  Like  the  "persistent 
force"  of  Spencer  it  may  be  called  an  "unknowable"  or  an  "ulti- 
mate unknowable."  It  makes  forms  and  it  swallows  them  up 
again  through  the  changes  of  time.  Itself  is  no  form,  no  tiling, 
no  special  force.  Hence  it  is  negative  and  the  thinker  calls  it  the 
"unknowable." 

This  standpoint  is  pantheism.  Pantheism  is  objectionable  as  a 
world-view  because  it  denies  personality  to  God,  and  likewise  de- 
nies immortality  and  freedom  to  man.  But  pantheism  is  not  the 
legitimate  or  logical  outcome  of  philosophy.  If  one  moves  for- 
ward to  the  logical  conclusion,  he  reaches  affirmative  ground  and 
arrives  at  theism.  For  persistent  force  implies  self-activity  as  its 
true  nature,  inasmuch  as  the  persistent  force  is  not  correlated  with 
any  one  or  with  all  of  the  particular  forces  (heat,  light,  electricity^ 
magnetism,  gravity,  etc.),  but  it  is  the  foundation  of  all  of  them, 
and  they  arise  through  its  energy.  It  is  self-related  or  self-active, 
and  hence  it  is  of  the  nature  of  life  and  mind,  absolute  and  infi- 
nite. It  is  absolute,  because  being  self-active  it  does  not  depend 
on  anything  else  for  its  manifestation  and  constitution.  It  is 
infinite  because  it  is  self-limited,  or,  in  ot)ier  words,  it  makes  its 
special  limitations,  the  particular  forces  (heat,  light,  etc.),  by  its 
own  act,  instead  of  receiving  a  check  through  another  being  out- 
side of  it.  It  is  not  limited  by  others  but  only  self-limited — it  is 
the  absolute  creator  of  its  particular  forces.  Thus  even  the  agnostic 
doctrines  taught  in  the  schools  under  the  influence  of  George  Henry 
Lewes  and  Herbert  Spencer  are  only  premature  or  unripe  philos- 
ophies— even  their  own  doctrines  pointing  toward  theism. 

Hence  the  present  decadence  of  philosophy  in  schools  is  only 
apparent  and  not  real.  It  is  simply  the  Avatara  of  pantheism 
imder  a  new  form — the  form  of  mental  incapacity  to  comprehend 
what  is  already  defined  to  be  the  negative  of  all  attributes.  Such 
an  absolute  is  easy  to  comprehend,  in  fact,  because  there  is  noth- 
ing left  in  it  to  be  comprehended.  By  its  definition,  abstraction 
has  already  removed  all  distinctions  from  it  and  left  nothing  in  it 


102  EDUCATION,  [October, 

of  a  determinate  nature ;  if  reflection  finds  anything  to  think  in 
such  an  absolute,  it  must  supply  what  it  thinks  out  of  its  own 
store  of  ideas. 

It  is  clear  from  this  that  there  is  a  philosophy  presupposed  in 
those  schools,  and  that  it  is  a  bad  philosophy  because  it  is  a  pan- 
theistic philosophy — a  revival  of  Orientalism. 

In  this  theoiy  of  pantheism,  there  lie  coiled  up  all  the  princi- 
ples opposed  to  our  ci\Hlization.  The  history  of  the  past  two 
thousand  years  is  one  unbroken  contest  between  pantheistic  sur- 
vivals from  the  oriental  world  and  the  new  spirit  of  Christianity. 
There  has  been  a  tendency  to  lapse  back  into  some  doctrine  that 
denied  the  divine-human  nature  of  God,  or  the  individual  immor- 
tality of  man,  and  set  up  fatalism  in  the  place  of  moral  freedom. 
But  the  Church  has  always  had  the  clear  discernment  to  condemn 
as  heresy  all  such  doctrines.  Mohammedanism  was  the  most  formid- 
able bearer  of  this  spirit  of  the  east  against  the  spirit  of  Europe  and 
the'west.  Charles  Martel,  and  afterwards  the  Crusaders  defeated 
ite  armies  in  the  field,  while  Thomas  Aquinas  and  the  Scliolastic 
Theology  defeated  its  intellectual  heroes  and  established  the  doc- 
trines of  a  truly  Personal  God  against  an  abstract  Unity  as  the 
first  principle. 

It  is  the  true  function  of  our  higher  education  to  defend  and 
preserve  this  precious  doctrine  in  our  time,  and  in  no  way  can  it 
be  done  except  by  teaching  a  thorough-going  philosophy  which 
traces  out  the  presuppositions  of  matter  and  mind  to  their  ulti- 
mate implications  and  discovers  Personality  in  the  Absolute, 
and  immortality  and  freedom  in  man.  For  these  ideas  alone 
make  possible  our  civilization. 


We  cannot  help  rejoicing  in  the  increasing  prominence  of  the 
idea  that  every  being  whom  the  world  contains  has  his  true  place, 
written  in  the  very  make  of  his  nature,  and  that  to  find  that 
place  and  fill  it  is  success  for  him.  To  help  him  find  that  place 
and  make  him  fit  to  fill  it,  is  the  duty  of  his  educators  in  all  their 
various  degrees.  Phillips  Brooks. 


1888.]  DISCIPLINE  THE  PRICE  OF  FREEDOM.  108 


DISCIPLINE  THE  PRICE  OF  FREEDOM 

BY  CHARLES  E.   LOWREY,   PH.D. 

I 

OF  the  desirability  of  true  freedom  as  the  goal  of  human  en- 
deavor no  one  has  spoken  more  appropriately  than  Gen- 
eral Thomas  J.  Morgan  (Education,  May,  1888).  Far  be  it  from 
the  purpose  of  the  present  comment  to  detract  from  the  merit  and 
spirit  of  his  noble  article,  "  Education  and  Freedom."  Only  that 
freedom  may  be  a  reality,  and  not  a  sentiment,  is  there  need  to 
supplement. 

General  Morgan  says:  "The  only  discipline  that  fits  for  free- 
dom is  liberty."  That  liberty  is  a  discipline  is  granted.  But  tliat 
it  is  not  the  ordy  discipline  that  "fits  for  freedom"  is  wherein  lib- 
erty differs  from  freedom  itself.  Freedom  is  a  conscious  personal 
product  in  which  liberty  and  necessity  have  become  organically 
and  spiritually  a  living  unit. 

To  imperfect  activity  in  man,  freedom  assumes  a  double  face, 
essential  and  propaedeutic  to  the  personal  possession  of  it, — this 
apparent  contradiction,  an  incentive  to  complete  self-knowledge. 
We  must  will  to  act  the  perfect  way.  So  long  as  our  liberty  is  an 
offence  to  due  proportion  and  harmony,  Our  comprehension  of  its 
true  office  must  be  enriched  by  the  apparent  opposition  of  spirit- 
ual authority,  or  necessity.  Liberty  truly  is  God's  pledge  of  son- 
ship  ;  but  necessity  supplies  the  conditions  upon  which  conscious 
acCj^ptance  with  God  may  be  a  reality  in  our  personal  experience. 

"  There  is  nothing  new  under  the  sun,"  not  even  General  Mor- 
gan's statement,  that  "  discipline  is  much  milder  than  formerly." 
The  teachers  of  today  were  the  pupils  of  the  last  generation ; 
they  are  the  product  of  its  discipline.  Is  it  not  too  soon  to  say, 
granting  the  above  statement,  that  the  pupils  of  today  are  proving 
themselves  more  worthy  of  citizenship  under  the  "  milder  disci- 
pline" of  their  sires?  —  sires  who  forget  the  mother  and  source 
of  their  own  freedom  in  the  vain  hope  of  buying  for  their  off- 
spring some  easy  road  to  the  knowledge  of  themselves  and  of 
their  obligations  to  society. 


104  EDUCATION.  [October, 

In  all  time  and  in  all  conditions  of  society  discipline  has  made 
men  teachers  and  has  delegat<;d  them  the  guides  of  inexperience. 
To  be  sure  we  are  all  sons  of  God ;  but  only  by  self-conquest  are 
we  conscious  of  that  fact,  however.  As  children  are  not  full 
grown  at  birth,  so  wisdom  is  not  always  justified  at  the  hand  of 
her  unconscious  offspring. 

There  is  a  common  error  of  our  day  that  children  have  but  to 
be  told  the  truth  of  experience  to  do  it,  sometliing  analogous  is 
that  common  error  of  the  past  that  among  children  there  were  no 
seeds  of  righteousness  —  no,  not  one.  Let  it  be  observed  in  cor- 
rection of  both  these  extremes,  that  in  the  neglect  of  any  factor 
of  human  development  for  the  purpose  of  emphasizing  another 
possibly  equally  important,  but  not  more  essential,  the  abnormal 
"swing  of  the  pendulum"  is  inevitable.  Let  it  be  further  ob- 
served that  in  the  normal  development  of  the  perfect  man  there  is 
no  need  of  the  "  swing  of  the  pendulum."  That  is  merely  the 
corrective  of  human  limitation  and  perversion. 

Self-control  as  the  result  of  conscious  knowledge  of  divine  rela- 
tions is  the  authority  for  and  the  secret  of  all  control  over  others. 
This  admirable  quality  is  the  child  of  a  discipline  that  has  over- 
come the  world  bv  an  intellectual  conquest  of  the  reaso7i  for  the 
world's  opposition  to  human  desire. 

When  children  not  exercised  in  this  school  of  discipline  shall 
come  to  protect  the  souls  committed  to  their  charge,  shall  find 
human  nature  stubborn,  shall  find  in  their  own  experience  no 
solution  for  this  new  trouble,  we  may  expect  a  return  to  blows 
from  the  beautiful  product  of  mildness,  instead  of  progress  toward 
perfection. 

Man's  growth  is  an  intensifying  of  the  knowledge  of  the  ever- 
present,  ever-perfect  activity  of  God.  Man  in  his  personal  sq^a- 
tion  sees  a  progress  from  outline  insight  to  immortal  vital  partici- 
pation. The  procession  is  due  to  our  ability  to  review  the  suc- 
cessive stages  of  that  one  experience.  There  is  an  apparent 
progress  from  imperfection  to  perfection  of  insight.  Because  of 
obedience  and  an  acceptance  of  the  suggestions  of  discipline,  God 
is  making  His  reflection  of  Himself  in  the  world  better  for  this 
particular  servant  now  blossoming  into  sonship  and  conscious  im- 
mortality. That  son  mistakes  the  teaching  of  his  own  experience 
not  to  recognize  that  God's  way  has  been  perfect  from  all  eternity, 
today  as  yesterday  the  same,  that  there  is  no  growth  in  the  divine 


1888.1  DISCIPLINE  THE  PBICE  OF  FREEDOM.  106 

economy,  that  God  is  process^  not  progress^  and  that  man  in  the  full 
knowledge  of  his  privilege  is  like  Him,  hence  immortal. 

In  any  broad  philosophic  estimate  of  human  experience,  there 
is  place  neither  for  universal  pessimism  nor  for  universal  optimism. 
There  is  a  chance  for  either  in  that  at  will  we  may  be  demon  or 
like  God,  as  a  matter  of  personal  experience.  But  the  privilege 
of  self-mastery  or  the  contrary  as  a  decision  based  on  personal  dis- 
position to  know  and  be  free  or  to  act  blindly  and  be  a  slave  is  no 
prejudice  to  the  perfect  adjustment  of  the  divine  activity.  "  All 
things  work  together  for  good."  Even  the  wrath  of  wilful  imper- 
fection is  made  to  praise  this  perfection.  Not  that  God  forcibly 
restrains  and  thus  relieves  human  responsibility  —  God  does  not. 
But  it  is  in  the  nature  of  man  as  God's  image  that  wilful  and 
abnormal  perversion  shall  fail  of  its  purpose  and  produce  its  cor- 
rection. Out  of  man's  wilful  imperfection  and  self-correction 
grows  God's  perfection.  Otherwise,  spiritual  darkness  as  a  mat- 
ter of  disposition,  i.  e.,  eternal  death  — "  Who  hath  not  eternal 
life,  hath  eternal  death  already." 

As  before  suggested,  normal  growth  is  not  a  "swing  of  the 
pendulum,"  but  the  straight  and  narrow  way  that  grows  brighter 
until  the  perfect  day.  Man's  self-revelation  is  from  God  as  a  cen- 
tre in  all  directions.  That  God  is  the  spirit  of  which  all  the  ob- 
jects that  appear  to  imperfect  activity  in  man  are  the  manifesta- 
tions. In  the  conquest  of  the  significance  of  these  symbols  of 
the  richness  of  the  Divine  nature,  we  become  in  tnith  what  we 
are,  in  fact,  whether  conscious  of  it  or  not,  the  divine  activity^ 
sons  of  God,  spirits  like  unto  himself,  privileged  to  be  conscious  of 
God's  immortal  life,  like  Him  in  fullness  as  we  have  been  like 
Him  in  kind  from  all  eternity.  And  this  the  only  complete  answer, 
and  God's  own  answer,  to  the  niystery  of  our  nature. 

But  our  equality  of  privilege  with  God  is  not  an  equality  of 
"  rights  "  without  conquest.  So  far  as  we  are  not  perfect  we  are 
subordinate  to  the  "  perfect  law  of  liberty,"  and  this  law  is  neces- 
sary. No  fondness  or  indulgence  of  teachers  can  pervert  the 
divine  economy.  Wherein  the  inclinations  of  the  child  controvert 
the  experience  of  the  teacher  their  gratification  is  a  violation  of  a 
sacred  trust  that  shall  reap  condemnation  and  disrespect  when 
mature  manhood  has  revealed  the  truth. 

There  is  the  rankest  heresy  in  the  indiscriminate  allowance  of 
choice  in  matters  of  which  the  child  has  but  the  slightest  concep- 

t    ' 


106  EDUCATION.  [October, 

tion.  As  men  of  mature  yeare  we  see  no  kindness  in  the  per- 
mission tliat  encouraged  us  blindly  to  make  mistakes  that  the 
consensn4s  of  the  ages  had  judged  inevitable.  We  now  love  the 
teachers  who  encouraged  us  never  to  make  a  specialty  of  any 
particular  aptitude  before  we  were  conscious  of  ability  to  grasp 
the  whole,  without  a  knowledge  of  which  we  could  have,  in  our- 
selves, no  adequate  criterion  of  the  value  of  our  special  work. 

Many  of  us  go  farther,  and  declare  that  the  educational  spirit 
of  the  times  is  deficient  and  a  discouragement  to  honest  endeavor 
to  develop  well-rounded  manhood  as  the  necessary  basis  for  any 
particular  duties  in  life  whatsoever.  We  call  upon  the  profession 
in  general  and  on  all  who  have  been  subject  to  educational  influ- 
ences in  particular,  if  we  have  heard  as  much  as  we  ought  about 
making  specialties  of  our  weak  members  and  letting  the  apt  ones 
lend  a  helping  hand ;  the  rather  abnormal  proclivities  are  encour- 
aged to  assert  their  authority  for  the  purpose  of  perverting  the 
normal  development  of  the  divine  image  and  establishing  a  tem- 
poral monstrosity,  notorious  for  the  proclamation  of  mistakes  long 
since  known  to  be  inaccuracies  of  ignorance,  as  though  original 
wisdom  and  genius. 

We  can  predict  in  advance  the  absolute  success  of  the  noble 
spirit  that  will  study  his  own  weakness  and  that,  too,  discovered 
as  such  by  his  fellows;  and  then  without  proclaiming  himself 
shall  face  all  discouragements,  and  scoffs,  and  suggestions,  and 
rebuffs  from  narrow-minded  specialists  in  our  colleges  and  uni- 
versities, and  make  this  special  weakness  the  crowning  factor  in  a 
well-rounded  manhood. 

Such  an  one  can  never  be  surprised ;  he  is  fitted  for  any  emer- 
gency that  the  providence  of  God  may  present.  That  man  pos- 
sesses the  key  to  the  solution  of  every  industrial  and  social  prob- 
lem so  far  as  it  applies  to  his  own  experience.  That  man  has  as 
the  reward  of  the  bitter,  cruel  discipline  of  distrust  —  from  those 
who,  had  they  been  truly  wdse,  would  have  detected  the  pearl  — 
the  wonderful  freedom  of  the  divme  approval  and  guidance. 
That  man  is  the  product  of  a  self  discipline  that  should  have  been 
encouraged  and  suggested  by  those  to  whom  in  all  respect  and 
modesty  he  was  looking  for  assistance,  only  to  be  cruelly  disap- 
pointed. Such  an  one,  however,  dwells  "in  the  secret  place  of 
the  Most  High  " ;  he  abides  "  under  the  shadow  of  the  Almighty." 

We  have  no  desire  to  specify  any  particular  form  of  discipline^ 


1888.]  DISCIPLmE  THE  PBICS  OF  FREEDOM.  107 

only  to  impress  that  liberty  as  usually  understood  is  not  sufficient 
to  ensure  freedom.  Legislation  that  makes  the  attempt  infringes 
upon  the  proper  authority  of  the  teacher.  Neither  would  we 
return  or  advance  to  any  particular  aspect  of  the  term  dUciplhie. 
We  may  say  in  passing,  however,  that  there  never  had  been  the 
**  rod  "  without  the  occasion  for  it.  And  whether  the  exercise  be 
vested  in  the  teacher  or  in  the  civil  police,  there  are  always  pres- 
ent with  us  elements  of  character  calling  for  the  supremacy  of 
physical  suffering  to  correct  the  cruelty  and  ignorance  of  blind 
physical  self-assertion. 

We  contend  that  discipline  be  adequate  to  its  purpose.  What 
that  discipline  shall  be,  the  wise  teacher  sets  not  in  specific  rules 
to  be  misconstrued,  but  determines  on  occasion  as  cool  judgment 
may  suggest.  To  handicap  the  teacher  by  legal  enactment  is  to 
discredit  the  judgment  of  tlie  profession  and  to  provoke  pupils  so 
inclined  to  insubordination  in  the  very  particular  in  which  the 
teacher  is  powerless. 

The  teacher  should  suffer  the  consequences  of  a  lack  of  judg- 
ment in  correction  as  a  member  of  society,  but  should  not  other- 
wise have  his  authority  restricted.  Education  is  primarily  a  dis- 
cipline and  to  place  restrictions  on  discipline  means  in  some  cases 
a  necessary  failure  of  the  object  of  education. 

Expulsion  from  school,  for  example,  may  have  a  moral  effect  on 
those  who  remain,  but  it  is  not  a  correction  for  physical  insubordi- 
nation in  the  individual ;  and  the  discipline,  so  far  as  society  as  a 
whole  is  concerned,  is  simply  transferred  from  the  teacher  to  the 
police,  with  far  less  likelihood  that  the  corrective  be  accepted  as  a 
lesson. 

God-likeness  is  the  only  door  to  personal  freedom.  Any  grant- 
ing of  privileges  to  those  who  do  not  accept  that  as  the  goal  of 
human  striving,  is  a  license  for  which  succeeding  generations 
must  suffer.  "  The  government  of  the  people  by  the  people  "  in 
form  merely,  we  have  learned  to  our  sorrow  as  a  nation,  may  sig- 
nify a  perversion  of  proper  government  as  abhorrent  as  absolute 
despotism.  We  ask  the  pertinent  question.  If  children  are  capa- 
ble of  personal  freedom,  why  from  birth  to  maturity  not  give  them 
the  franchise  ? 

The  fact  stares  us  in  the  face  that  formal  emancipation  is  not 
freedom  without  the  free  act  and  effort  of  personal  individual 
experience.     There  are  kings  and  princes  of  character  under  every 


108  EDUCATION.  [October, 

form  of  government.  This  does  not  alter  that  other  truth,  that 
with  equally  favorable  opportunities  some  exercise  their  right  as 
free  men  but  as  the  license  of  slaves. 

We  do  not  deny  the  privilege  of  any  to  be  sons  of  God,  but  we 
do  assert  the  impossibility  of  a  person  who  has  not  earned  the 
right  of  freedom  by  self-conquest  and  discipline  making  anything 
but  license  of  a  formal  removal  of  restrictions. 

Much  of  the  discussion  concerning  autonomy  might  be  omitted 
as  irrelevant,  by  mere  recognition  that  autonomy  is  not  by  exter- 
nal removal  of  restriction,  but  by  a  law  as  eternal  as  God  himself. 
We  are  masters  by  being  like  God,  nothing  short.  There  is  no 
such  experience  as  freedom  without  the  conscious  authority  to  sub- 
ordinate imperfection  to  discipline. 

It  is  not,  however,  as  some  think,  a  question  of  dismembering 
man.  We  have  no  more  right  to  emphasize  authority  than  liberty. 
One  is  as  essential  as  the  other.  Without  faith  to  act  we  should 
never  know  the  opposition  of  perfect  law.  Without  faith  in  our 
ability  to  discover  the  teaching  of  opposition  we  should  never 
know  freedom.  Authority  and  liberty  are  members  of  the  same 
organism. 

The  lesson  of  these  particular  times  is  that  lack  of  discipline 
incapacitates  citizens  for  distinguishing  practically  liberty  from 
license.  Who  are  not  a  law  to  themselves  have  not  the  discern- 
ment to  govern.  Their  "  freedom  "  is  self-destruction.  Children 
do  not  see  the  necessity  of  obedience,  unless  by  experience  they 
know  the  healthy  thrill  of  self-conquest  and  consequent  useful- 
ness. 

As  the  world  reads  God's  dispensations  and  discipline,  "  Whom 
God  loveth  He  chasteneth  " ;  nevertheless,  such  is  the  road  to  free- 
dom and  consciousness  of  sonship.  Compulsion  is  for  ignorance ; 
for  knowledge  that  very  compulsion  is  a  privilege  willingly  exer- 
cised as  the  highest  freedom. 


A  man  conscious  of  enthusiasm  for  worthy  aims,  is  sustained 
under  petty  hostilities  by  the  memory  of  great  workers  who  had  to 
fight  their  way  not  without  wounds,  and  who  hover  in  his  mind 
as  patron  saints,  invisibly  helping.  Geokge  Eliot. 


1888.]  THE  RENAISSAXCE  AND  THE  REFORMATION.  109 


OUTLINE    NOTES    ON    THE    RENAISSANCE    AND 

THE    REFORMATION^ 

BY  IDA  M.  GARDNER. 

[These  outlines  are  based  apon  notes  on  lectures  delivered  before  the  Rhode  Island 
State  Normal  School  by  the  late  Prof.  J.  Lewis  Dlman,  D.  D.,  of  Brown  University.  No 
attempt  has  been  made  to  develop  them  into  anything  more  than  a  connected  whole. 
Such  as  they  are,  they  embody  the  permanent  Impression  made  by  the  lectures  upon  a 
comparatively  immature  mind ;  and  may  therefore  serve  to  illustrate  Professor  Diman's 
clear  presentation  of  a  subject,  and  its  careful  analysis.  It  is  believed  that  the  notes 
will  be  helpful  to  teachers,  not  only  in  the  lines  of  study  suggested,  but  in  presenting  to 
classes  a  short,  concise  statement  of  this  interesting  period  of  modern  history.] 

II.  —  THE   REFORMATION. 

IV. 

"TTXHILE  the  Lutheran  movement  was  going  on  in  Germany, 
▼  V  another  movement  was  going  on  in  Switzerland,  which 
led  to  different  results ;  though  both  were  movements  toward  reli- 
gious reform.  To  understand  the  Swiss  movement,  we  must  think 
of  the  difference  between  Germany  and  Switzerland.  Germany 
was  a  plain,  open  to  invasion,  cut  up  into  political  states.  Switz- 
erland was  a  land  of  mountains,  where  the  states  were  formed  by 
nature.  While  in  Germany  the  Feudal  System  prevailed,  Switz- 
erland was  comparatively  free.  When  Germany  had  grown  into 
an  empire  of  four  hundred  states  under  one  Emperor,  Switzerland 
was  only  a  collection  of  cantons,  held  very  loosely  together.  Ger- 
many was  a  feudal  aristocracy ;  Switzerland,  a  republic  and  free. 
But  political  circumstances  made  changes.  Charles  the  Bold, 
Duke  of  Burgundy,  was  more  wealthy  and  powerful  than  Louis 
XL  of  whom  he  held  his  fief.  Louis  occasioned  a  quarrel  between 
Charles  and  the  Swiss,  in  the  hope  that  both  would  become  ex- 
hausted. It  ended  in  the  death  and  overthrow  of  Charles.  The 
Swiss  became  famous  soldiers.  When  Louis  found  he  could  not 
exterminate  them,  he  took  them  into  his  pay,  and  formed  the 
famous  Swiss  guard.  The  Pope  saw  the  advantage,  so  he  had 
Swiss  soldiers  too.  This  led  to  unexpected  results.  The  Swiss 
had  been  good  Catholics,  noted  for  their  piety;  but  the  young 
men  after  serving  in  the  army,  came  home  with  very  different 

^  Copyright,  1888,  by  Ida  H.  Gardner. 


110  EDUCATJOX.  [October, 

ideas,  obtained  at  the  French  court  with  its  vices,  and  with  an 
independent  way  of  thinking.  Those  who  served  in  Italy,  came 
home  still  worse.  Under  Julius  II.  they  had  lost  their  old  rever- 
ence for  the  Pope.  Thus  at  the  beginning  of  the  Reformation, 
Switzerland  was  the  reverse  of  religious.  The  French,  to  get 
hold  of  the  Swiss,  paid  more ;  but  the  Church  gave  ecclesiastical 
indulgences.  Thus  Switzerland  became  worldly  and  profligate, 
and  free  from  ecclesiastical  control. 

In  1484,  Ulrich  Zwingle  was  born  at  St.  Gall.  He  was  high- 
spirited,  proud,  truthful.  He  was  sent  to  Zurich  where  the 
humanistic  studies  were  taught.  Erasmus  was  there.  Zwingle 
caught  the  inspiration,  and  became  a  fine  classical  scholar.  Zwin- 
gle was  a  minister,  and  early  took  high  grounds  for  personal 
morals.  He  opposed  the  foreign  service  of  his  countrymen.  He 
touched  no  doctrine  of  the  Church ;  but  as  a  teacher  of  morals 
insisted  on  a  higher  code  of  morals,  and  denounced  the  vices  of 
the  times.  Zwingle  had  good  qualities  for  a  leader.  He  was 
high  in  favor  with  the  ecclesiastical  authorities ;  a  very  fine,  noble- 
hearted,  brave  man. 

When  Zwingle  heard  of  Luther's  preacliing  against  the  sale  of 
indulgences,  he  gave  his  assent,  but  did  not  deny  the  authority  of 
the  Church.  He  was  in  high  favor  long  after  he  was  known  as  an 
opposer  of  indulgences,  and  was  promoted  to  Zurich,  one  of  the 
most  important  positions  in  Switzerland.  He  made  vigorous  ef- 
forts to  reform  the  Cathedral  system,  and  compelled  the  lazy 
canons  to  preach  a  course  of  sermons.  He  boldly  denounced  all 
sorts  of  profligacy.  He  was  a  moral,  rather  than  a  theological, 
reformer.     So  far  Zwingle  was  wholly  independent  of  Luther. 

Thus  things  went  on  until  all  Germany  was  in  an  uproar,  and 
all  Europe  divided;  until  the  time  had  come  when  every  man 
must  choose  the  side  on  which  he  would  stand.  Zwingle  did  not 
hesitate,  but  came  out  as  a  bold  reformer.  He  was  a  classical 
scholar,  but  he  coupled  the  Scriptures  with  the  classics.  As  he 
lectured  on  the  Bible,  liis  views  began  to  diverge  from  the  Catho- 
lic standard.  So  he  moved  off  on  to  a  new  platform,  until  at  last 
he  stood  side  by  side  with  Luther.  The  two  movements  had  dif- 
ferent origins,  under  different  circumstances,  and  were  carried  on 
in  a  different  spiiit.  Luther's  theology  lay  in  the  doctrine  — 
"The  just  shall  live  by  faith."  Zwingle  did  not  lay  stress  upon 
any  particular  doctrine,  but  inclined  toward  Luther. 


1888.]  THE  BEXAISSAXCE  AND  THE  REFOBMATION.  Ill 

Soon  after,  Zwingle  fell  in  battle,  for  he  believed  that  the 
Protestant  cantons  must  assert  their  rights  by  force  of  arms.  His 
movement  did  not  stop.  The  followers  of  Zwingle  put  forth 
views  which  Luther  rejected,  and  this  led  to  a  split  between  the 
two  parties.  Luther  was  still  two-thirds  Catholic ;  he  changed 
only  specific  points.  He  was  a  conservative ;  had  been  forced 
into  a  position  he  did  not  choose.  He  never  designed  that  the 
movement  should  take  a  political  tendency.  His  maxim  was, 
"  Cut  out  the  rotten  and  leave  the  rest."  The  Lutheran  Church 
was  much  like  the  Catholic  in  its  service.  Two  years  after  the 
Diet  of  Worms,  Luther  opposed  the  Revolt  of  the  Peasants.  He 
said  the  people  had  no  right  to  change  matters.  Changes  should 
be  made  by  authority.     But  he  could  not  stay  the  movement. 

Zwingle  with  his  well-balanced  mind  had  a  clearer  understand- 
ing, and  went  farther.  He  attacked  the  mass.  The  Roman  Cath- 
olic Communion  is  not  a  mere  commemoration.  The  Catholics  be- 
lieve that  they  partake  literally  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  into 
which  the  bread  and  wine  are  miraculoiLsly  changed  with  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  Host.  Luther  could  not  get  over  this  idea.  He  believed 
that  we  must  literally  partake  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ. 
Zwingle  was  not  a  scholastic.  He  had  a  ''harder  head"  than  Lu- 
ther. He  denied  the  miracle  in  the  mass,  and  believed  that  the 
Communion  was  simply  symbolical.  Luther  flew  into  a  passion, 
and  said  that  Zwingle  was  cutting  at  the  very  roots  of  faith.  The 
discussion  over  this  question  waxed  deep  and  strong.  At  last  Lu- 
ther said,  if  he  could  not  have  transubstantiation,  he  would  have 
consubstantiation.  The  doctrine  of  Luther  adopted  by  the  Diet  of 
Augsburg  was  this  doctrine  of  consubsttmtiation.^  But  the  Swiss 
and  others,  twenty  years  later,  adopted  the  Heidelberg  confession, 
which  embodied  Zwingle's  idea.  This  caused  a  division  in  the 
reformed  party.  When  this  schism  in  the  reformed  churches  took 
place,  the  Reformation  stopped. 

V. 

A  great  error,  into  which  most  historians  fall,  is  that  of  suppos- 
ing that  the  Reformation  was  a  movement  which  took  place  simply 
on  the  part  of  those  who  came  out  of  the  Church.     There  was  a 

1 "  Luther  maiDtained  the  real  and  substantial  presence  of  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ,  taking  place,  not  by  u  transmutation  of  the  external  elements,  but  by  a  super- 
natural and  Inconceivable  union  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  with  the  consecrated 
breaAland  wine."  • 


112  EDUCATION.  [October, 

great  reform  in  the  Church.  There  was  a  more  complete  trans- 
formation in  the  Church  of  Rome  than  in  any  other.  From  the 
time  of  Julius  II.  and  Leo  X.,  down  to  the  Council  of  Trent,  the 
Romish  Church  was  perhai)s  more  changed  than  the  Protestant. 
The  prevailing  temper  in  the  time  of  Leo  X.  was  indifference, 
utter  and  entire.  Never  had  there  been  such  neglect  and  denial 
and  utter  indifference  on  the  part  of  the  ministers,  as  in  the  time 
of  Alexander  VI.  and  Leo  X.  Look  ahead  fifty  years,  and  we  see 
the  Church  transformed.  We  find  it  full  of  zeal,  producing  con- 
fessors and  missionaries  in  great  numbers.  Not  since  the  time  of 
Benedict  had  there  been  such  a  missionary  spirit.  Alissionaries 
were  sent  into  every  part  of  the  world.  The  Popes  were  full  of 
zeal.  The  Inquisition  was  revived.  Heretical  books  were  sup- 
pressed. All  this,  Protestants  are  apt  to  overlook.  Their  move- 
ment reacted  on  the  Chuich,  yet  the  reform  was  not  wholly  a 
reaction.  It  took  a  tremendous  impulse  from  Luther  and  Zwingle ; 
but  there  was  a  genuine  religious  life  in  the  Church,  independent 
of  the  Lutlieran  movement.  Before  Luther  began  to  preach,  a 
very  singular  religious  movement  had  broken  out  in  Italy,  caused 
by  a  reaction  against  the  excessive  vice  of  Alexander  VI.,  and  the 
worldliness  of  JuliiLS  II. 

In  the  Italian  Renaissance,  certain  societies  called  Academies 
had  been  formed,  for  the  discussion  of  matters  literary  and  classi- 
cal. These  Academies  suggested  another  movement.  Religious 
societies  were  formed  on  the  same  plan,  called  Oratories.  (This 
term  was  often  applied  to  a  private  chapel ;  but,  originally,  to  an 
association,  not  a  room.)  The  most  famous  Oratory  was  one  of 
seventy  members.  They  met  in  the  evening  to  disciLS  topics  of 
religion,  usually  mattei*s  of  personal  experience.  There  was  noth- 
ing ecclesiastical  about  it.  All  were  members  of  the  Church. 
Laymen,  clergy,  and  ecclesiastics  were  all  on  the  same  grade. 
Tliere  was  nothing  antagonistic  to  the  Church. 

The  rise  of  Oratories  was  a  significant  feature  in  the  religious 
history  of  this  century.  It  roused  a  deep,  religious  feeling  in 
Italy.  The  movement  went  on  —  Leo  did  not  care  — until  Luther 
began  to  preach ;  and  his  books  got  into  circulation.  They  reached 
Italy,  and  attracted  the  attention  of  members  of  the  Oratories. 
Tliey  "  believed  just  so."  Strange  to  say,  the  doctrines  of  Luther 
had  been  widely  discussed,  before  Luther  liad  been  heard  of.  He 
had  not  then  been  excommunicated,  but  was  giving  great  impulse 


1888.]  THE  RENAISSANCE  AND  THE  REFORMATION  113 

to  thought.  While  the  Reformation  was  going  on  in  Switzerland, 
in  Rome,  in  Naples,  and  in  Northern  Italy  a  strong  but  quiet  move- 
ment was  going  on,  condemning  Luther,  yet  claiming  that  his 
doctrines  were  substantially  correct.  In  Spain,  the  more  intelli- 
gent Catholics  adopted  the  same  views.  There  was  great  progress 
in  religious  feeling,  and  reform  in  the  teacliings  of  the  Cliurch. 

The  Secretary  of  Charles  V.,  Juan  Valdez,  was  with  Charles  at 
the  Diet  of  Worms,  and  became  much  interested  in  Luther.  After 
this,  Valdez  went  to  Naples,  and  was  naturally  tlu-own  much  into 
high  society.  Here  he  commenced  a  singular  career.  He  wrote 
a  book  on  evangelical  religion,  which  for  a  long  time  was  supposed 
to  be  lost.  About  twenty-five  years  ago,  a  copy  of  it  was  found 
by  an  English  gentleman,  who  had  it  translated  and  published.  It 
is  known  as  *'One  Hundred  and  Ten  Considerations."  Valdez 
belonged  to  an  Oratory  in  Naples,  and  wrote  out  these  short  ser- 
mons on  personal  religion,  to  be  given  there.  It  is  a  remarkable 
book,  to  be  read  with  profit  by  any  Christian  of  today ;  a  remarka- 
ble instance  of  lay  influence.  Valdez  lived  in  the  elegance  and 
splendor  of  the  best  society  in  Naples,  yet  carried  alxiut  with  him 
the  earnest  influence  of  a  Christian  man.  His  example  exerted  an 
immense  influence. 

The  regular  meetings  of  the  Oratories  were  something  like  our 
"Conference  meetings."  Members  gave  free  expression  to  their 
personal  convictions.  In  the  citadel  of  Catholicism,  views  were 
held,  differing  from  Luther's  doctrine  only  "  by  the  shadow  of  a 
shade."  The  movement  went  on  to  1530.  The  way  was  prepared 
in  the  Church  for  the  Reformation.  Catholics  were  feeling  that 
they  must  choose  different  Popes.  In  the  next  ten  years  the  pa- 
pacy was  gieatly  changed.  Popes  had  unexceptionable  private 
characters.  Now,  the  connection  between  profession  and  life  was 
quite  as  respectable  as  in  case  of  some  of  the  reformers. 

The  movement  outside  of  the  Church,  culminated  in  the  Peace 
of  Augsburg,  1555;  also  in  the  Swiss  Church,  and  the  movement  in 
England.  That  inside  the  Church  was  carried  on  by  men  just  as 
pure  and  good.  Melancthon  and  Cardinal  Contarini,  representa- 
tives of  the  two  movements,  were  equally  devout,  equally  sincere, 
equally  anxious  to  have  truth  and  religion  settled  on  a  proper 
basis. 

From  1530,  the  breach  went  on  widening  between  northern  and 
southern  Europe;  yet  good  men  never  ceased  to  pray  that  it  might 


114  EDUCATION.  [October, 

be  healed.  It  continued  to  widen  until  1541,  when  the  Diet  of 
Ratisbon  met.  •  This  was  the  last  attempt  to  heal  the  breach.  It 
almost  succeeded.  The  two  parties  discussed  doctrines,  point  by 
point,  and  found  that  they  did  not  differ  so  verj^  much.  They 
were  on  the  verge  of  agreement,  when  it  was  blocked  by  two  in- 
fluences. Luther  had  received  so  many  hard  knocks,  that  he  had 
a  spirit  of  controversy,  and  did  not  believe  in  the  professions  made. 
He  used  his  influence  against  settlement.  The  other  influence 
was  that  of  Francis  I.,  who  was  a  genuine  disciple  of  the  Italian 
Renaissance.  He  had  just  about  as  much  religion  as  Leo  X.  He 
stood  by  the  faith  that  was  best  for  the  king.  Had  the  Diet  of 
Ratisbon  succeeded,  it  would  perhaps  have  led  to  an  alliance  of 
Charles  V.  and  the  Pope,  to  drive  France  out  of  Italy.  Francis 
did  not  wish  Charles  to  unite  with  the  Pope.  He  therefore  inter- 
fered privately,  and  Ratisbon  failed  of  success.  Reconciliation 
was  never  again  attempted. 

VI. 

Why  did  the  Reformation  happen?  The  answer  may  be  given 
in  one  sentence.  It  was  due  to  the  peculiar  conjunction  of  cir- 
cumstances; the  conjunction  of  a  religious,  spiritual  movement, 
with  political  changes.  The  results  were  due  to  political  influ- 
ences. The  Renaissance  gave  to  the  Reformation  its  intellectual 
features.  Other  characteristics  were  stamped  upon  it,  both  on  the 
Continent  and  in  Pingland,  by  the  personal  views  of  the  sovereigns 
of  the  period. 

Charles  V.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  was  present  at  the  Diet  of 
Worms.  He  was  then  a  mere  lad ;  but  though  young  in  years,  he 
was  mature,  clear,  profound,  in  his  political  ideas.  He  had  the 
largest  dominion  ever  inherited  by  a  prince.  He  was  the  monarch 
of  (Jermany,  a  large  part  of  Italy,  Spain,  the  Low  Countries, 
and  exclusive  monarch  of  the  New  World.  He  had  a  great  re- 
sponsibility, was  closely  connected  with  the  Church.  He  was  the 
head  of  Christendom,  in  liis  own  eyes  and  in  those  of  his  subjects. 
He  was  the  vice-gerent  of  Clirist  in  temporal  matters,  as  the  Pope 
was  in  mattera  spiritual.  Charles  felt  this  responsibility  deeply. 
He  was  grave  and  serious,  sometimes  unjust  and  severe.  He  car- 
ried his  Spanish  gravity  into  all  liis  duties.  He  wished  to  guard 
the  interests  of  Christendom.  His  position  was  complicated.  No 
ruler  ever  stood  in  such  a  conflict  of  interests  and  responsibilities. 


1888.]  THE  BENAJSSANCE  AND  THE  REFORMATION.  115 

Germany  was  composed  of  many  states.  All  the  great  men  of 
Germany  were  in  Feudal  relations  to  him.  He  was  bound  to 
guard  their  interests,  and  depended  on  them  for  support.  Had 
there  been  only  this,  it  had  been  an  easy  matter.  There  was  a 
disposition  on  the  part  of  the  German  princes,  to  oppose  the 
Church;  and  Charles  might  have  carried  through  the  reform. 
Charles  was  also  King  of  Spain,  where  he  ruled,  not  by  Feudal 
relations,  but  as  a  proper  monarch.  Public  sentiment  here  was 
just  the  reverse  of  that  in  Germany.  The  Spaniards  were  most 
bigoted  Catholics,  and  rebellion  was  easily  brought  about. 
Charles's  position  was  a  delicate  one.  In  the  Low  Countries^ 
the  wealthiest  part  of  Europe,  he  inherited  patrimonial  estates, 
and  ruled  by  an  independent  title.  In  Italy  he  inherited  from 
the  Aragonese,  Naples  and  Sicily,  and  had  claims  on  Milan.  It 
was  necessary  to  be  on  the  Pope's  side,  or  he  might  be  stripped  of 
his  Italian  possessions. 

Charles  V.  is  harshly  judged ;  is  acciLsed  of  vacillation,  of  hav- 
ing no  clear  political  principles.  This  is,  in  the  main,  unjust.  We 
must  bear  in  mind  the  complexity  of  his  position.  He  could  not 
move  without  alienating  somebody.  The  invasion  of  Italy  by 
Charles  VIII.  had  accomplished  nothing  permanent,  but  entailed 
great  consequences  on  Europe.  It  created  an  antagonism  be- 
tween Gennany  and  France,  through  the  union  of  Germany  and 
Spain.  The  old  sore  wiis  still  open.  The  rivalry  created  by 
Charles  VIII.  is,  in  a  political  sense,  the  clue  to  the  Reformation. 

The  whole  movement  aft^r  the  Diet  of  Worms  was  an  antago- 
nism between  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.  The  contrast  between 
the  two  men  is  marked — Charles,  grave  and  serioiLs,  with  a  high- 
toned  honor ;  Francis,  of  the  House  of  Valois,  a  type  of  the  Ren- 
aissance period,  excelling  in  every  accomplishment  and  in  every 
vice ;  a  patron  of  art,  in  hearty  sympathy  with  the  Art  movement, 
but  with  no  moral  tone  whatever.  He  was  called  the  ''Most 
Catholic  King,"  yet  the  whole  policy  of  Francis  was  free  from  any 
religious  tone  or  tendency.  While  professing  loyalty  to  the 
Church,  he  cared  nothing  for  it.  His  dominions,  though  not  so 
extensive  as  those  of  Charles,  were  more  closely  compacted. 
Louis  XI.  had  made  France  the  most  consolidated,  best  organized 
government  in  Europe. 

To  the  Turks,  or  rather  to  their  Sultan,  Solyman  the  Magnifi- 
cent, we  owe  much.     The  Turks  took  Constantinople  in  1453,  and 


116  EDUCATION.  [October, 

the  same  dynasty  had  ruled  ever  since.  When  they  first  came 
into  Europe  they  were  war-like,  full  of  enterprise  and  intellectual 
spirit,  though  differing  from  the  Europeans,  with  whom  they  came 
little  in  contact.  The  Turkish  power  came  to  be  well  established. 
At  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  the  prince  on  the  Turkish  throne 
differed  from  his  predecessors.  Solyman  was  well  educated, 
versed  in  European  history,  and  in  the  relations  of  European  states. 
The  Danube  was  the  key  to  the  river-system  of  Europe.  To  one 
holding  Constantinople,  it  gave  access  to  Central  Europe.  In 
case  of  the  advance  of  the  Turks,  the  first  state  to  oppose  them 
was  Hungary,  then  the  hereditary  states  of  Austria.  It  was  sim- 
ply the  Duchy  of  Austria  under  the  Hapsburg  family.  Vienna  was 
the  objective  point  to  the  Turks ;  but  as  long  as  the  Turks  did  not 
advance,  it  was  no  matter. 

Solyman  was  ambitious  of  military  gloiy.  He  had  the  finest 
military  power  in  Europe,  a  well-disciplined  army  against  which 
no  state  could  stand.  As  Solyman  sat  in  his  capital,  dreaming  of 
extending  his  frontiers,  he  heard  the  mutters  of  trouble  in  Ger- 
many. He  learned  how  the  German  princes  were  disposed;  how 
Germany  was  in  danger  of  a  split.  He  saw  it  all,  and  framed  his 
policy.  The  Reformation  was  his  opportunity.  His  first  great 
invasion  was  in  1522.  He  overran  Hungary.  Europe  cared  little 
for  the  loss  of  Constantinople ;  but  this  was  another  thing  when 
the  Turks  came  up  the  Danube,  and  occupied  nearly  all  of  Hun- 
gary. The  first  person  to  suffer  was  Charles  himself.  Defence 
must  be  immediately  prepared.  Austria  could  not  do  it.  The 
only  way  was  to  secure  the  support  of  Germany,  and  especially  of 
the  towns.  Money  and  ammunitions  were  to  be  found  there. 
But  in  the  towns  the  new  doctrines  had  made  most  progress.  All 
the  cities  favored  the  Reformation,  hence  Charles  must  show  the 
reform  party  some  favor.  From  1522  onward,  whenever  the  Turks 
were  victorious,  the  Protestants  flourished.  This  was  kept  up  all 
through  the  early  years  of  the  Reformation.  We  owe  to  Solyman 
a  great  deal  of  the  religious  liberty  of  Europe.  Charles  V.,  Fran- 
cis I.,  and  Solyman  played  a  three-cornered  game.  Francis  was  in 
secret  alliance  with  Solyman,  urging  him  to  push  up  the  Danube. 
This  kept  the  Reformation  moving  on.  But  for  this  conjunction, 
Luther  might  have  been  silenced;  and  Germany  might  have  taken 
another  direction.  By  1531  the  Reformation  was  so  far  along, 
that  it  was  impossible  to  effect  a  settlement.     Charles,  up  to  this 


1888,] 


CHILD  SPEECH. 


117 


time,  had  tried  to  preserve  the  unity  of  Christendom;  but  he  was 
willing  to  make  concessions.  If  his  policy  seemed  vacillating,  the 
underlying  motives  must  command  respect.  Francis  did  nothing 
worthy  of  approbation. 

Had  Europe  been  as  it  was  three  centuries  before,  the  Reforma- 
tion could  not  have  taken  place.  Also  had  the  rulers  been  less 
powerful,  or  the  Turks  been  other  than  they  were. 

The  last  days  of  Luther,  though  happy  in  his  domestic  life,  were 
full  of  sadness.  The  wars  of  religion  that  deluged  Germany  with 
blood  for  a  hundred  years,  had  already  begun.  He  died  in  1546. 
In  1555,  by  the  Peace  of  Augsburg,  the  German  states  obtained 
permission  to  choose  their  own  form  of  worship ;  and  the  perma- 
nent division  of  the  Church  was  accomplished. 


CHILD  SPEECH,  AND  THE  LAW  OF  MISPRONUN- 

CIA  TION, 

BY  EDMUND  NOBLE,  BOSTON. 
II. 

IN  the  formation  of  certain  nouns  and  pronouns  strongly  per- 
gonal in  their  character,  there  is  a  striking  recurrence  of  the 
same  consonantal  elements,  and  this  similarity  may  be  observed  in 
languages  widely  separated  from  each  other.  It  is  further  note- 
worthy that  the  recurrence  is  always  of  easy,  never  of  difficult, 
sounds.  The  first  personal  pronoun  I,  for  example,  is  compounded 
in  a  large  number  of  tongues  with  the  labial  consonant  M  (inter- 
changeable with  N),  as  shown  in  the  following  list :  — 


Language. 

Word 
for  "  I." 

Language. 

Word 
for  "  I.»» 

Basque, 

Ni. 

Votyak, 

Mon. 

Georgian, 

Me. 

Zamnea, 

Nu. 

Korean, 

Nai. 

Aymara, 

Na. 

Mpougwe, 

M',  mi,  or  mie. 

Chiquita, 

Ni. 

Fiunish, 

Mina. 

Mandan, 

Mi. 

Mordv, 

Mon. 

Greek, 

Me. 

Ostiak, 

Ma. 

Latin, 

Me. 

Sirjan, 

Me. 

French, 

Moi. 

Cheremiss, 

Min. 

English, 

Me. 

Chavach, 

Maninn. 

German, 

Mich.i 

Vogul, 

Am. 

1  The  accasatlve  of  the  personal  prononn  is  older  than  the  nominative.  The  human 
body  is  a  **  me,"  or  **  it,"  —  a  thing  acted  upon—  before  it  becomes  an  **  I,"  a  subject,  or 
aotiiig  and  thinking  personality. 


118  EDUCATION.  [October, 

There  is  a  not  less  striking  recurrence  of  the  same  consonants 
in  the  names  given  by  different  races  to  personalities  of  the  fami- 
ly, such  as  *' father,"  "mother."  Herr  Buschmann  found  the 
sounds  PA  and  TA  (AP  and  AT)  to  predominate  as  names  for 
"  father  "  in  a  large  number  of  languages  examined  by  him,  wliile 
the  forms  for  "mother"  were  in  the  largest  proportion  of  the 
cases  MA  and  NA  (AM  and  AN). 

Let  us  turn  now  to  child  speech,  especially  to  the  earlier  sounds 
made  in  infant  attempts  to  imitate  spoken  words,  or  even  to  the 
incoherent  prattling  into  which  all  imperfect  child  language  has 
a  perj^etual  tendency  to  degenerate.  Here  there  will  be  found  a 
remarkable  and  unquestionable  resemblance  between  racial  and 
individual  recurrence  of  sound.  Preyer  cites  from  Air.  Darwin 
a  record  of  child  speech  in  which  the  sound  SHU-MUM  (with  the 
sense  of  "eatables")  is  mentioned,  and  goes  on  to  say  that  his 
own  infant  frequently  uttered  the  syllable  MOMM  to  indicate 
that  it  was  hungry.  Vierordt  heard  a  child  in  its  third  and  fourth 
month  repeat  frequently  the  syllables  and  dysyllables  MAM, 
AMMA,  FU,  PFU,  etc.  Preyer  records  of  a  Thuringian  child 
that  its  first  utterances  were  MA,  BA,  BU,  APPA,  AUGE,  etc. 
Sigismund,  another  observer,  mentions  a  child  that  utters  its  earli- 
est sounds  as  follows:  BA,  FBU,  FU,  BABABA,  DADADA, 
also  ADA!)  and  EDEI).  Amongst  the  meaningless  sounds  re- 
peated frequently  by  a  child  of  sixteen  months,  were :  PU JEH, 
TUPE,  AMMAM,  ATTA.  Sigismund  and  Preyer  give  the  fol- 
lowing as  names  applied  to  father  and  mother  at  successive  periods 
by  a  child  in  its  second  year :  — 


Vater, 

atte. 

Mutter, 

amme. 

Vater, 

atte. 

Mutter, 

amme. 

Vater, 

tate. 

Mutter, 

ammam. 

Vater, 

fatte. 

Mutter, 

matte. 

If  we  now  place  in  juxtaposition  some  of  the  more  suggestive 
of  the  sounds,  as  on  the  one  hand  heard  in  child  speech,  and  as  on 
the  other  actually  existing  in  names  taken  from  languages  with 
which  neither  German  nor  English  has  any  sort  of  aifinitj'^  what- 
soever, the  result  will  be,  to  say  the  least,  striking.     Thus :  — 

Cbild  Sounds.  Actual  Names. 

APPA.  APPA.i 

(Dravidian  for  "  Father.") 

i  M.  A.  de  la  Calle  mentions  in  Iiis  La  Glosaologrie  that  his  child's  first  pronunciation 
of  '*  Papa  *'  was  APPA. 


1888.]  CHILD  SPEECH,  119 

Child  Sounds.  Actual  Names. 

PAPA. 
(Indo-European  for  **  Father.") 
ATTA.  ATYA. 

(Hungarian  for  '*  Father.") 
MAM.  MAMAN  (French),  Mama. 

AMME.  AMMA  (Dravidian),  Mother. 

MA.  AMA  (Mongol),  Father. 

MAMMA.  EME  (Mongol),  Mother. 

BA.  BAB  A  (Carih),  Father. 

BABABA.  BIBI  (Carih),  Mother. 

ADAI).  DADA  (English),  Father. 

DADADA.  TYATYA  (Russian),  Father. 

The  conclusion  that  generic  names  given  to  parents  arise  in  the 
more  or  less  imperfect  language  of  children  themselves  thus  seems 
unavoidable.  Infants  utter  earliest  and.  oftenest  those  sounds 
which,  being  finally  modified,  by  the  lips  or  in  the  anterior  part  of 
the  mouth,  are  the  easiest  to  imitate  and.  to  pronounce.  And  it  is 
of  this  class  of  sounds  that  almost  all  names  of  ''father"  and 
"  mother  "  are  made  up.  For  such  names  as  these,  therefore,  and 
above  all  for  their  recurrence  amongst  so  many  different  races, 
there  is  a  simple,  and,  I  believe,  a  true  explanation.  The  firat 
sounds  uttered  by  an  infant  being  the  easiest  —  that  is  to  say,  of 
P,  D,  T,  M,  N, —  it  is  these  sounds,  or  some  of  them,  that  the  child 
will  apply  or  seem  to  apply  to  one  of  its  parents,  or  to  both.  The 
parents,  or  one  of  them,  will  naturally  note  any  striking  iteration 
of  a  particular  sound,  and  will  thereupon  begin  to  lay  emphasis 
upon  it  by  repeating  it  themselves,  and  further,  by  applying  it  to 
one  or  other  of  the  parents.  One  sound  may  be  chosen  to  repre- 
sent '*  father,"  another  to  mean  "  mother."  From  merely  uttering 
the  sounds  at  random,  the  cliild,  led  by  its  parents,  comes  to  attach 
meanings  at  first  vague,  afterwards  clear,  to  particular  sounds,  and 
at  last  associates  its  father  with  one  utterance,  its  mother  with 
another.  The  association  thus  set  uj)  establishes  the  names  of  the 
parents,  who  employ  them  in  self-designation,  and  transmit  them 
to  a  succeeding  generation.  Children  go  on  babbling  the  same 
-consonants  from  age  to  age,  but  after  the  names  io%  '*  father  "  and 
"  mother  "  have  once  arisen  in  the  natural  way  described  —  or  in 
jsome  way  closely  resembling  it  —  they  are  simply  inherited  as  part 
of  the  lingual  property  of  each  race.  Why,  amongst  some  peo- 
ple, B,  and  amongst  others  P,  should  be  selected  —  why  the  choice 


120  EDUCATION.  [October, 

should  at  times  fall  upon  D,  and  at  others  upon  T  —  why  in  some 
cases  M  should  be  used  for  a  particular  name,  and  in  others  N  — 
all  this  is  determined  by  some  accidental  circumstance  out  of  a 
complex  of  circumstances  which  affects  the  choice  at  the  time  it  is 
made.  If  a  child  is  in  the  habit,  at  intervals,  of  uttering  all  these 
sounds,  there  will  be  abundant  scope  for  any  one  of  them  to  be 
selected  as  the  predominant  sound  of  a  name  rather  than  any 
other.  It  is  the  particular  circumstances  of  each  case  that  deter- 
mine which  of  the  easy  consonantal  sounds  shall  bs  chosen.  It  is 
the  general  law  of  preference  for  easy  sounds  which  determines 
that  the  selection  shall  be  made  from  those  sounds,  and  from  no 
others.  And  the  explanation  thus  offered  of  the  recurrence  of 
the  same  sounds  in  the  words  for  "  father  "  and  "  mother  "  applies 
with  equal  validity  to  the  case  of  recurrent  M  (N)  sounds  in  the 
first  personal  pronouns  of  so  many  languages.  This  M  in  all 
probability  indicates  the  objective  relation  in  which  the  child  stood 
towards  its  parents,  to  whom  it  wotild  be  —  to  coin  a  dissyllable  — 
the  EMMer  (the  MOer,  MAer  or  MEer,  that  is  to  say,  the  maker 
or  utterer  of  the  M  sound).  That  the  P  and  B  were  not  em- 
ployed to  describe  the  objective  relation  of  the  child  to  its  parents 
may  be  attributed  to  the  fact  that  the  other  sounds  had  already 
acquired  definite  associations.  Or  some,  in  view  of  the  insepara- 
bleness  of  mother  and  child,  may  prefer  to  regard  the  personal 
ME  sound  as  a  sort  of  polarized  differentiation  of  the  generic 
sound  heard  in  "  Mamma,"  **  Mother."  That  the  ME  word  was 
invented  (or  applied)  by  parents,  and  the  I  word  originated  by 
the  individual  himself,  seems  at  least  probable. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  there  are  races  whose  speech  is  more 
or  less  wanting  in  labial  or  easy  sounds.  The  Hurons,  for  exam- 
ple, have  no  B,  F,  M,  P,  or  V.  The  sounds  of  B,  D,  F,  G,  S,  and 
X  are  said  to  be  absent  from  the  tongue  spoken  by  the  natives  of 
Peru.  That  the  Chinese  have  no  B,  D,  S,  and  Z  is  notorious. 
The  language  of  the  Indians  of  British  Columbia  is  wanting  in  B, 
D,  F,  J,  P,  V,  and  X  sounds.  Yet  it  would  be  much  easier  to 
exaggerate  than  to  underestimate  the  importance  of  these  deficien- 
cies. Compar^  with  the  number  of  languages  in  which  the  easy 
sounds  are  represented,  the  few  exceptions  cited  sink  into  insig- 
nificance. Moreover,  to  show  that  a  particular  consonantal  sound 
does  not  occur  in  an  alphabet  is  by  no  means  to  prove  that  such  a 


1888.]  CHILD  SPEECH,  '  121 

sound  may  not  exist  in  the  form  of  a  combination.^  Granted  that 
all  the  sounds  named  are  actually  absent  as  stated,  the  fact  estab- 
lishes nothing  more  than  that  whatever  the  tendencies  of  infant 
speech  may  be,  children  learn  languages  as  they  have  been  formed 
by  habit.  It  is  notable,  moreover,  and  proves  the  existence  of  law 
even  in  apparent  exceptions  to  its  operation,  that  the  exceptions 
go  in  classes,  no  easy  sound  and  no  difficult  sound  being  absent 
alone.     This  may  be  seen  from  the  following  arrangement :  — 

Race.  Easy  Sounds.  Dlfflcult  Sounds. 

Hurons,  No  B,  F,  M,  P,  V,  N. 

Peruvians,  No  B,  D,  F,  S.  No  G,  X. 

Chinese,  No  B,  D,  S,    Z. 

B.  C.  Indians,  No  B,  D,  F,  V,  P.  No  J,  X. 

The  alliance  of  sounds  in  classes  is  further  shown  by  the  fact 
that  in  the  Polynesian  dialects  no  distinction  is  made  between  the 
sounds  of  P  and  B,  of  T  and  D,  of  G  and  K.  That  the  Chinese^ 
turn  R  into  L,  and  the  Japanese,  L  into  R,  is  notorious.  Indeed, 
the  confusion  of  these  two  letters  took  place  in  ancient  Egyptian, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  also  characteristic  of  early  Aryan  speech. 
Professor  Sayce,  judging  by  its  alphabet,  is  of  opinion  that  Sans- 
crit once  confounded  B  and  V,  and  mentions  that  in  Assyrian,  M 
and  V  are  written  with  the  same  character. 


Forenoon  and  afternoon  and  night; 
Forenoon  and  afternoon  and  night; 
Forenoon  and  afternoon, —  the  empty  rhyme 
Repeats  itself .     No  more?     Yes;  this  is  life. 
Make  this  forenoon  sublime,  this  afternoon 
A  psalm,  this  night  a  prayer,  and  life 
Is  conquered,  and  thy  crown  is  won. 

£.  R.  Sill. 

1  It  may  be  truly  said,  for  example,  that  there  Is  no  B  and  no  D  In  New  Greek.  It  is 
none  the  less  true  that  the  B  sound  appears  In  the  MP  sound,  while  D  acquires  phonic 
existence  in  the  combination  NT.  When  preceded  by  N,  the  Romaic  T  takes  the  sound 
of  D. 

>  The  Chinese  pronounce  Christ  as  '*  Kilissetu." 


122  EDUCATION,  [October. 


THE  GLACIER   STREAM. 

BT  MISS    EMMA   SHAW. 
[Written  at  tho  foot  of  the  Glacier,  Glacier  House.  British  Columbia.] 

0  rapid  river  racing  down 

From  yonder  glacier's  snowy  crown, 

Entranced,  I  watch  thee  hurry  by 

With  spray  and  foam-wreatlis  tossing  high ! 

I,  listening,  try  to  catch  some  word 

Or  message,  and  my  heart  is  stirred. 

Wliat  old-time  secrets  thou  could'st  tell 

Yon  icy  heights  have  guarded  well, 

As,  year  on  year,  the  frozen  tide 

Has  crowded  down  the  mountain  side. 

Held  by  a  strong,  relentless  will  — 

A  wondrous  ice-field  white  and  still; 

Now,  now,  from  its  stern  thraldom  free, 

Resistlessly  thou  seek'st  the  sea, 

A  glacial  torrent  wildly  glad 

To  leave  the  peaks  all  snowy^  clad. 

Naught  save  the  whisper  of  the  trees 

Touched  gently  by  the  summer  breeze, 

And  the  glad  music  of  thy  tide 

Comes  to  me  through  the  forest  wide ; 

Each  passing  wave  in  spmy  laughs  out, 

Each  tiny  wavelet  seems  to  shout 

A  pagan  of  joy,  "We're  free  !     We're  free! 

We  're  hasting  on  to  join  the  sea ! " 

And  see !  afar  a  silver  gleam 

Points  out  a  hurrying  sister  stream 

That,  from  yon  adamantine  wall, 

Has  heard  thy  gleeful  waters  call. 

And,  downwara  through  a  dark  ravine, 

Where  sunny  gleams  are  rarely  seen, 

With  Titan  force  it  cleaves  the  way. 

Nor  rock,  nor  tree  its  force  can  stay ; 

And,  where  its  waves  thy  volum'b  swell, 

1  waft  to  thee  a  fond  "  Farewell  I  " 

Augu%t  23,  1888. 


1888.]  EDITORIAL,  123 


EDITORIAL. 

JUST  what  Professor  Charles  Eliot  Norton  meant  by  his  sweep- 
ing assertion,  at  the  late  dinner  of  the  Sanderson  Academy  at 
Ashfield,  Mass.,  that  '*the  aid  of  the  imagination  in  New  England 
education  had  been  overlooked,"  it  is  not  quite  safe  to  guess. 
For,  just  now,  a  class  of  educational  critics  in  the  higher  walks  of 
literature,  journalism,  and  divinity  seem  moved  to  utterances, 
sometimes  so  wide  of  the  mark  that  we  ask.  Where  has  this  man 
lived  that  he  should  stumble  upon  such  misleading  or  even  gro- 
tesque conceits  on  matters  open  to  e very-day  observation?  Of 
course,  from  the  high  ground  of  ideal  education.  New  England  is 
lacking,  in  all  ways,  in  its  practical  handling  of  school  life.  But, 
surely,  the  education  of  a  regime  that,  up  to  the  present  day,  has 
led  the  western  continent  on  every  line  of  production  fairly  in- 
cluded in  Imagination  cannot  be  so  far  defective.  The  leading 
poets  and  novelists,  the  most  accomplished  orators,  the  foremost  art- 
ists, and  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  most  distinguished  inventors 
of  the  country  are  the  product  of  New  England  education.  The 
instruction  in  music  in  the  common  schools  was  a  "Yankee 
notion  "  years  before  it  was  adopted  beyond  New  England.  Mas- 
sachusetts led  the  way  in  the  introduction  of  di*awing  in  the 
public  schools ;  and  the  Normal  Art  School,  with  the  School  of 
Technology  and  the  Normal  and  High  Schools  are  sending  forth 
men  like  Ordway,  the  Woodwards,  and  scores  beside  as  leaders, 
to  all  portions  of  the  Union.  It  was  a  New  Hamj)shire  graduate 
of  Dartmouth  that  inaugurated  tree  planting  and  the  celebration 
of  Authors'  Days  in  the  West.  The  village  improvement  move- 
ment began  in  Massachusetts,  and  its  apostle  to  the  nation  is  from 
Connecticut.  For  combined  economy  and  beauty,  Wellesley  Col- 
lege for  Girls  is  unsurpassed.  The  New  England  Conservatory 
of  Music,  with  its  2,500  students,  is  a  national  institution.  In  short, 
tliis  dry  and  dusty  skeleton  that  figures  in  the  imagination  of  the 
Cambridge  Professor  turns  out  to  be  a  creature  of  altogether  dif- 
ferent style.  Much  doubtless  remains  to  be  achieved ;  but  New 
England,  like  Old  England,  is  many-sided,  and  not  only  leads  in 
the  realm  of  the  practical  intellect,  but  of  the  philosophic  reason 


124  EDUCATIOy.  [October, 

and  poetic  imagination  as  well.  By  the  way, —  why  is  it  that, 
along  with  a  good  deal  that  is  elevating  and  suggestive,  a  larger 
number  of  absurd  and  incorrect  statements  have  been  made  con- 
cerning popular  education  at  the  annual  Sanderson  Academy  din- 
ner than  on  any  similar  occasion  in  the  country  ? 

PRESIDENT  PAYNE,  of  the  Peabody  Normal  School  at  Na^h- 
ville,  Tenn.,  has  again  put  on  record  his  disapproval  of  the 
practise  department  of  the  State  Normal  and  City  Training  School 
for  Teachei's,  which  he  styles,  '*  experimental  schools  where  chil- 
dren are  to  be  practised  upon  by  novices/'  If  President  Payne 
refers  to  a  certain  class  of  tmining  schools  where  a  lot  of  green 
girls  are  placed  in  charge  of  a  building,  on  half  or  quarter  salary, 
with  the  expectation  that  the  principal  shall  not  only  supervise  in 
school  hours,  but  give  pedagogic  instruction  at  intervals,  there  may 
be  a  ground  for  this  characterization..  But  even  this  is  a  long  step 
ahead  of  the  state  of  tilings  in  nine-tenths  of  the  public  and  too 
many  even  famous  private  schools,  w^hich  are  ''  prtictised  upon  " 
and  often  superintended  by  untrained  young  persons  who  never 
gave  a  month's  study  to  their  profession  and  whose  work  must  be 
emphatically  "experimenting  upon"  children  and  youth.  But 
how  can  a  man  of  the  reputation  of  Professor  Payne  use  such  lan- 
guage concerning  the  practise  department,  as  it  is  now  found  in 
connection  with  all  but  a  vanishing  minority  of  the  Normal  and 
Training  schools  of  our  own  and  all  civilized  countries  ?  To  speak 
of  the  work  done  by  pupil  teachers  who  liave  abeady  had  and  are 
still  receiving  instruction  in  the  art  of  teaching,  under  the  con- 
stant supervision  of  experts,  the  whole  work  subject  to  a  daily 
searching  criticism,  in  such  contemptuous  terms,  seems  to  us  wide 
of  the  mark.  So  far  from  the  children  in  a  genuine  practise  school 
being  at  a  disadvantage,  there  is  probably  no  class  of  pupils  in 
elementary  schools  under  such  favorable  conditions  or  so  well  off 
as  they.  One  of  the  amazing  things  about  the  Academical  and 
College  mind  is  its  insistence  on  special  training,  illustrated  by  the 
largest  field  of  observation  and  experiment,  in  every  profession 
and  department  of  the  higher  culture  w^hile  holding  that  a  "  good 
general  education,"  w4th,  possibly,  the  addition  of  a  course  of  lec- 
tures and  lessons  from  a  Professor,  is  the  best  furnishing  for  the 
science  and  practise  of  pedagogy, —  the  most  profound  science  and 
difficult  profession  of  all. 


1888.]  EDITORIAL.  126 

A  GOOD  deal  of  the  talk  so  abundant  among  the  Industrial 
Education  fraternity,  concerning  the  feasibility  of  keeping 
up  the  standard  of  common  school  acquirement  with  a  variety  of 
manual  occupations  thrown  in,  leaves  out  of  account  the  capacity 
of  the  average  child,  under  twelve  or  fourteen,  for  concentrated 
work.  Certainly,  a  trained  mind  could  do  this  work  better  in  one- 
fourth  of  the  time.  But  this  is  just  what  an  elementary  school  is : 
an  arrangement  for  training  the  average  child,  who  is  "  all  afloat," 
into  some  orderly  and  persistent  use  of  his  faculties ;  training  him 
in  that  cautious,  gentle,  and  inevitable  way  that  will  save  him  from 
over-weariness,  confusion,  or  a  sense  of  huriy  and  worry.  Now, 
it  is  possible  that  the  mass  of  childi-en,  as  is  affirmed,  can  do  their 
present  school  work,  with  the  addition  of  a  new  and  trying  disci- 
pline, of  a  kind  that  thousands  of  them  have  in  too  great  abund- 
ance at  home.  But  let  us  remember  that  children  must  have  "  a 
longer  rope  "  than  college  students ;  must  be  favored  and  worked 
with  by  all  the  devices  that  patient  skill  can  employ ;  and  that 
whatever  is  done  in  this  new  department  must  be  so  handled  as 
to  avoid  that  rage  for  getting  a  man's  and  woman's  work  out  of  a 
child  which  is  alike  the  insanity  of  an  ignorant  parent  and  an  edu- 
cational crank. 

"VTT'E  expect,  of  course,  that  the  average  politician  and  journal- 
V  V  ist  will  be  found  incapable  of  considering  toth  sides  of  any 
question  of  national  importance.  But,  when  the  great  statesman 
from  Texas,  and  a  journal  like  the  New  York  Nation,  are  found 
together,  reiterating  the  stupid  misapprehension  or  misrepresenta- 
tion, that  the  Blair  Educational  Bill  is  ''a  movement  towards 
concentrating  the  whole  common  school  system  of  the  country  in 
the  executive  branch  of  the  national  government,"  we  are  re- 
minded of  the  solemn  warning  of  Scripture  not  to  put  our  trust 
in  the  high  and  mighty  ones  of  the  land.  A  more  absurd  misstate- 
ment of  the  whole  scope,  intention,  and  application  of  this  meas- 
ure, can  hardly  be  conceived.  The  controversy  now  concerning 
National  Aid  to  Education  seems  to  be, —  How  long  can  ignorant 
or  mischievous  misrepresentation  outside,  and  the  shameless  pack- 
ing of  committees  inside  Congress,  hold  back  the  people  of  the 
United  States  from  giving  the  New  South  the  same  lielping  hand 
in  behalf  of  the  children  as,  for  the  past  half  century,  has  been 
extended,  with  such  boundless  liberality  and  blessed  result,  to  the 
New  Northwest  ? 


I 


126  EDUCATION,  [October, 


MIS  CELL  ANT. 

THREE  Removes  but  No  Fire.  —  This  office  was  moved 
from  3  Somerset  street  to  50  Bromfield  street,  December 
Ist,  1886.  We  first  secured  room  No.  10,  the  smallest  of  all  the 
rooms  on  the  floor.  Nine  months  later  No.  10  was  exchanged  for 
No.  14,  which  was  much  larger.  This  office  from  time  to  time, 
as  the  number  of  clerks  and  desks  increased,  appeared  to  grow 
smaller.  The  editor  and  one  clerk  did  all  the  business  at  first  in 
No.  10.  Then  a  second  clerk,  or  bookkeeper,  was  needed,  then  a 
proofreader,  a  little  later  a  subscription  clerk,  then  the  Teachers' 
Agency  required  a  manager,  an  office  boy  was  a  necessity,  and 
finally  a  business  manager  was  indispensable.  The  business  hav- 
ing entirely  outgrown  the  capacity  of  No.  14,  that  office  had  to  be 
abandoned  and  larger  accommodations  must  be  sought.  But  No. 
60  Bromfield  street  is  too  good  a  location,  the  building  is  too 
choice  a  one,  the  landlord  is  too  obliging,  the  tenants  too  good 
neighbors,  to  make  a  remove  from  tliis  location  at  all  agreeable  to 
think  of.  No.  14  has  kept  us  as  long  as  it  was  possible  for  us  to 
stay  without  overflowing,  by  either  an  occupancy  of  the  adjoining 
hall  or  hanging  out  of  the  windows. 

But  patient  waiting  has  had  its  reward.  Mr.  Holt's  Normal 
Music  Hall,  No.  8,  was  the  largest  room  upon  the  floor,  and  that, 
being  vacated  for  more  commodious  quarters  elsewhere,  has  been 
thoroughly  fitted  up  to  accommodate  the  growing  business  of  the 
Eastern  Educational  Bureau.  No.  8  has  now  been  divided  into 
three  rooms,  with  a  large  space  for  merchandise  and  packing. 
The  main  office  is  large,  airy,  and  convenient.  It  has  a  cheerful 
lobby  cut  off  from  the  counting-room  by  a  rail  and  gate,  a  counter, 
large  bins  for  books,  and  a  roomy  closet  for  maps  and  charts. 
The  main  office,  or  counting-room,  has  six  desks,  a  Caligraph  and 
a  Remington  type-writer,  a  long  table  for  the  display  of  our  books 
and  magazines,  a  reading  desk  filled  with  our  educational  ex- 
changes, and  a  large,  handsome  case  for  samples  of  our  wall 
maps.  Space  will  permit  only  a  brief  mention  of  the  editor's 
room  and  a  consultation  room  for  the  Teachers'  Agency,  with 


1888.]  MISCELLANY,  127 

large  book-cases  filled  with  the  choicest  educational  literature, 
reference  books,  atlases,  etc.  We  shall  be  glad  to  show  our  new 
quarters,  with  all  their  attractions  and  conveniences,  to  every  one 
of  our  subscribers. 

Here  we  shall  have  better  accommodations  for  the  easy  and 
rapid  transaction  of  our  business  than  have  been  hitherto  enjoyed. 
With  six  other  educational  establishments  in  the  same  building 
this  may  very  properly  be  considered,  what  many  now  regard  it, 
the  ^^Educational  Headquarter%^^  of  this  city. 

Thanking  our  numerous  patrons  for  past  favors  and  respectfully 
soliciting  their  patronage  for  the  future,  it  will  be  our  determin- 
ation to  furnish  to  teachers  and  educators  of  all  grades  the  best 
aids  and  the  most  important  means  of  improving  the  teaching  in 
our  schools  possible. 

THE  attention  of  teachers  is  hereby  called  to  the  Bibliography 
of  Current  Periodical  Literature  in  each  month's  issue  of 
Education.  It  is  probably  safe  to  say  that  never  before  was  so 
much  space  in  general  periodical  literature  devoted  to  educational 
topics  as  at  the  present  time.  Of  the  one  hundred  and  seventeen 
articles  mentioned  in  our  bibliography  this  month,  a  large  number 
treat  of  strictly  educational  topics.  Many  others,  though  nomi- 
nally upon  other  subjects,  contain  much  of  interest  and  value  to 
teachers.  The  aim  is  to  have  this  bibliography  mention,  in  addi- 
tion to  strictly  educational  articles,  the  most  important  articles 
upon  Psychology,  the  science  upon  which  the  art  of  teaching  is 
based ;  upon  Political  Economy  and  Sociology,  sciences  in  which 
every  philanthropic  and  patriotic  teacher  should  he  interested ; 
upon  Literature,  of  which  every  teacher  must  know  something ; 
and  also  upon  topics  of  general  interest  in  Science,  Philosophy, 
Ethics,  and  the  like. 

It  is  hoped  that  such  a  bibliography  will  be  of  use  to  many  teach- 
ers and  pupils.  Most  good  teachers  have  some  subject  in  which 
they  are  especially  interested,  and  desire  to  see  the  latest  words 
written  upon  the  subject.  But  few  teachers  have  access  to  the 
large  number  of  periodicals  that  our  bibliographer  considts  each 
month.  Yet  if  they  only  know  just  where  a  particular  subject  is 
treated,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  order  from  some  bookseller  a  single 
number  of  the  periodical  containing  the  desired  article.     Some  of 


128  EDUCATION,  [October. 

the  best  educational  articles  are  found  in  out-of-the-way  places, 
and  even  if  teachers  have  access  to  large  libi-aries,  they  often  lack 
the  time  needed  to  hunt  through  a  list  of  magazines.  Again,  in 
academies  and  high  schools,  teachers  are  often  besieged  by  pupils 
preparing  for  compositions  or  debates  who  inquire  where  informa- 
tion upon  this  subject  or  that  can  be  found.  In  many  cases  the 
pupils  may  find  assistance  by  turning  to  the  files  of  Education 
and  consulting  this  department.  This  bibliography  is  the  most 
expensive  part  of  this  magazine,  but  the  editor  desires  to  keep  it 
up,  provided  it  is  properly  appreciated  and  proves  useful.  He 
will  be  pleased  to  hear  from  any  who  find  it  of  value. 

THE  Final  Report  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Education  in  Eng- 
land has  been  made  and  published.  This  report  is  from  the  Com- 
missioners appointed  to  examine  into  the  sj'stem  upon  which  Elementary 
Education  is  conducted  in  that  country*.  There  was  a  majority  and  a 
minority  report.  The  question  of  religious  instruction  receives  s|>ecial 
attention.  They  very  strongl}'  commend  **the  religion  which  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  has  taught  the  world  *'  as  the  only  safe  foundation  on  which 
to  construct  a  theory  of  morals,  or  to  secure  high  moral  conduct,  and 
they  look  to  the  Bible  as  the  ''  inspired  source  for  the  sanctions  by  which 
men  may  be  led  to  practise  what  is  there  taught,  and  for  instruction  con- 
cerning the  help  b}'  which  they  ma}'  be  enabled  to  do  what  they  have 
learned  to  be  right."  They  say,  *'  In  some  board  schools  the  provision 
for  religious  training  is  very  meagre,  but  in  very  few  is  Christianity  ex- 
cluded altogether.  A  great  increase  is  noted  in  the  number  of  voluntary 
schools  in  which  the  whole  basis  of  education  is  religious." 

The  system  of  payment  by  results  seems  to  give  them  much  trouble. 
It  would  seem  that  great  efforts  have  been  made,  especially  b}'  the  teach- 
ers, to  do  awa}'  with  this  miserable  plan,  but  hitherto  without  avail. 
Mr.  George  Givling,  formerly  president  of  the  National  Union  of  Ele- 
mentar}'^  Teachers,  writes  a  bright  letter  to  the  Morning  Post,  London, 
of  late  date,  in  which  he  says  :  — 

*'  For  years  the  teachers  of  the  country  have  been  ])ointing  out  the  defects 
of  the  system  of  payment  by  results  as  applied  to  children,  and  have  shown 
how  destructive  the  system  i?  to  the  best  development  of  the  intelligence  of 
the  children  in  our  elenientjiry  schools.  The  National  Union  of  Elementary 
Teachers,  which  comprises  14,000  of  the  most  earnest  teachers  in  the  country, 
have  tried  every  possible  means  to  get  this  system  changed.  Petitions  have 
been  sent  to  the  Houses  of  Parliament,  IVcsldents  and  Vice-Presidents  of  the 
Committee  of  Council  have  been  approached,  members  of  Parliament  have 
heew  interviewed,  public  meetings  have  been  held,  literature  on  the  subject  has 
been  spread  broadcast  through  the  land,  evidence  has  been  given  before  the 
Ro3'al  Commission  on  Education,  and  yet  the  wretched  system  seems  as  vigor- 


1888.]  MISCELLANY.  129 

ous  as  ever.  It  is  exceedingly  ungenerous  to  make  a  cast-iron,  irrational  sys- 
tem, compel  the  teachers  to  work  in  it,  and  then  turn  round  and  say  the  teach- 
ers are  incapable.  The  teachers  of  the  country,  feeling  keenly  the  importance 
of  their  work,  and  realizing  intensely  the  truth  of  this  axiom,  ^  O'est  le  peuple 
qui  a  les  raeilleures  ecoles  qui  est  le  premier  peuple :  sUl  ne  Test  pas  aujourdhui, 
il  le  sera  demain '  have  done  all  they  could  through  their  organizations  to  bring 
about  a  better  state  of  things.  They  have  sent  some  of  their  number  to  study 
continental  systems,  and  their  representatives  have  come  to  the  same  conclusion 
that  Mr.  Matthew  Arnold  did  when  he  made  a  similar  Inquiry  on  behalf  of  the 
Government  —  viz.,  that  continental  systems  are  more  rational  than  ours.  De- 
velopment of  intelligence  Is  the  main  thing  considered,  and  not  the  securing 
of  accurate  but  mechanical  results.  The  teachers  of  England  and  Wales  are  so 
deadly  in  earnest  in  wishing  for  an  improved  educational  system  that  they  have 
agreed  to  raise  a  fund  to  try  and  place  a  practical  teacher  In  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, with  the  view  of  helping  to  influence  legislation  In  favor  of  a  more 
rational  scheme.'* 

Another  topic  which  this  writer  discusses  with  much  ability  is  the 
special  training  of  teachers.  His  ringing  words  should  have  great  weight, 
not  only  in  that  country^,  but  also  in  this  :  — 

^^  It  is  also  worth  while  considering  whether  the  State  Is  doing  sufficient  in 
the  training  of  teachers  for  our  elementary  schools.  There  are  a  number  of 
training  colleges  under  private  control,  but  subsidized  by  the  State.  Nearly 
fifty  per  cent,  of  our  teachers  never  enter  these  colleges.  Every  year  the 
Government,  b}'  means  of  an  examination,  admits  a  large  number  of  teachers 
who  have  never  been  to  college,  and  whose  educational  qualifications  cannot 
be  of  such  a  high  order  as  If  they  had  spent  two  or  more  years  In  special  study 
for  their  profession.  Many  managers  of  schools,  driven  by  the  poverty  of  the 
school  funds,  secure  these  teachers  at  a  lower  rate.  This  has  been  going  on  to 
such  an  extent  that  it  Is  exceedingly  difficult  to  place  the  trained  teachers  when 
they  leave  college.  In  fact,  the  better  you  are  qualified  for  your  work  educa- 
tionally the  more  dlfiicult  does  It  become  to  obtain  work.  On  the  Continent 
the  greatest  possible  care  Is  taken  to  train  teachers.  In  this  country  In  many 
cases  It  Is,  How  shall  we  secure  the  cheapest  teacher?  Thus,  there  are  3,000 
teachers  In  this  country  who  get  less  than  £50  a  year.  On  the  Continent  inspec- 
tors are  educators  cooperating  with  the  teachers.  Here  the  Inspectors  are 
merely  critics.  On  the  Continent  Inspectors  have  been  teachers ;  In  England 
they  are  gentlemen  of  birth  and  position,  who  have  never  entered  an  elementa- 
ry school  until  they  Inspect  one.  Many  of  them  are  amiable  and  accomplished 
gentlemen,  but  the  system  is  frequently  as  bad  for  them  as  the  teachers. 
They  are  grant  assessors  and  not  educators.  Reports  on  schools  by  men  who 
have  never  taught  must  necessarily  at  times  be  taken  cum  grano.  The  conten- 
tion of  the  teachers  for  a  long  time  has  been  this:  ^ Train  us  well  for  the 
work,  give  us  a  rational  system  and  fair-play,  and  we  will  make  the  education 
of  this  country  second  to  none  In  the  world.' " 

The  general  principles  of  education  are  the  same  in  both  countries. 
We  may  learn  some  practical  lessons  from  such  a  sharp  discussion  of 
these  important  topics.  Competent  teachers,  well  paid  in  schools  entirel}' 
free,  will  inevitably  produce  good  results.  But  the  moral  teaching  should 
have  a  high  place. 


130  ED  UCA  TIOX,  [October, 


REPORT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  COMMISSIONER 

OF  EDUCATION  FOR  1886-' 87, 

THE  annual  report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education 
Is  the  most  comprehensive  work  of  the  kind  published  in  the 
world.  To  its  exhibit  of  home  conditions  a  summary  of  foreign  statis- 
tics is  added,  and  as  the  main  features  have  been  continued  for  above 
fifteen  years,  the  series  of  reports  forms  the  most  valuable  and  complete 
reference  book  upon  the  subject  treated  and  is  so  regarded  wherever  that 
subject  excites  attention.  Great  exertions  have  been  made  to  bring  the 
publication  as  near  as  |)ossible  to  the  date  of  the  information.  The 
report  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1887,  is  alreadj'  in  print,  although  its 
general  circulation  must  be  deferred  for  some  time.  80  far  as  regards 
the  work  of  the  office,  greater  promptness  can  hardl}'  be  expected  in 
view  of  the  immense  amount  of  information  to  be  reduced  to  intelligent 
and  systematic  representation. 

STATE   SCHOOL    SYSTEMS. 

The  fullness  and  precision  of  the  statistical  exhibit  of  our  public  school 
systems  in  the  rei)ort  in  question  leave  no  chance  for  any  misunderstand- 
ing either  of  the  facts  or  of  their  bearings.  Perhaps  the  most  impress- 
ive lesson  to  be  drawn  from  them  is  the  fallacy*  of  totals  ;  it  is  certainl}'  to 
be  hoped  that  the  orators  who  love  to  conjure  with  these  deceptive  quan- 
tities will  heed  the  warnings  direct  and  indirect,  b}*  which  the  faithful 
statistician  has  endeavored  to  keep  his  figures  from  degenerating  into 
rhetorical  flourishes. 

For  example:  Table  17  shows  conclusively  that  the  increase  in  the 
school  population  of  the  United  States  during  the  last  decade  has  been 
surpassed  b}'  the  increase  in  public  school  enrolment,  and  that  the  latter 
has  been  greatly  exceeded  by  the  increase  in  expenditures.  Neverthe- 
less the  very  particulars  from  which  this  conclusion  is  derived  suggest 
the  possibility  of  decadence  in  the  most  flourishing  centres  of  the  sys- 
tem ;  for  while  there  has  been  an  absolute  increase  of  enrolment  in  every 
section,  when  enrolment  is  compared  with  the  i)opulation  six  to  fourteen 
years  of  age,  decrease  is  found  in  the  North  Atlantic,  the  North  Central 
and  the  Western  Divisions. 

The  table  indicated  is  indeed  one  of  the  most  valuable  contributions 
that  has  ever  been  made  to  the  statistics  of  education.  It  is  the  result 
of  a  searching  analysis  of  the  ten  years*  record  and  a  dispassionate  state- 


1888.]       BEPOBT  OF  U,  S.  COMMISSIONER  OF  EDUCATION.  131 


ment  of  what  is  thereby  disclosed.     The  following  brief  summary  it  is 
hoped  will  excite  in  every  reader  a  desire  to  know  the  full  particulars : 


■  Estimated  Popu- 
!    lation  6  to  14. 
!    Percentage  of 
I    Increase  in  ten 
:    years. 


North  Atlantic  Division 

South  Atlantic  Division.... 


South  Central  Division 
North  Central  Division 


Western  Division 


United  States 


Enrolment     Per-  Expenditure  Per> 


centage  of  in- 
crease in  ten 
years. 


centage  of  in- 
crease in  ten 
years. 


21.7 
50.4 
65.4 
51.1 
75.9 
41.1 


The  comparison  of  the  first  and  second  columns  in  the  foregoing  table 
gives  the  following  ratio  of  increase  or  of  decrease  in  the  number  of  chil- 
dren enrolled  to  ever}'  one  hundred  children  6  to  14  years  of  age. 

Per  Cent. 

North  Atlantic  Division Decrease,    9.3 

South  Atlantic  Division Increase,  25.3 

South  Central  Division Inirrease,  34.1 

North  Central  Division Decrease,    1.7 

Western  Division Decrease,   8.0 

The  United  States Increase,    1.6 

The  phenomenal  increase  in  school  enrolment  in  the  Southern  States 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  public  school  system  is  of  recent  adoption  in 
that  section.  As  stated  in  the  report,  '*The  actual  proiK)rtion  of  chil- 
dren enrolled  in  the  public  schools  is  still  at  the  present  time  less  in  the 
South  than  in  the  North.  If  the  extension  of  the  public  school  system 
in  the  South,  however,  should  continue  at  the  marvelous  and  unpre- 
cedented rate  it  has  exhibited  during  the  past  decade,  the  two  sections 
would  be  placed  nearly  on  an  equal  footing  in  this  respect  (though  not 
in  regard  to  length  of  school  term)." 

Such  continuance  is  of  course  dependent  upon  the  growth  in  material 
prosperity.  The  slight  decrease  in  the  expenditure  per  capita  of  enrol- 
ment in  the  two  Southern  divisions  shows  how  heavily*  the  school  burden 
already  presses  upon  the  tax  payers.  The  child  population  here,  it  must 
be  remembered,  bears  a  much  greater  ratio  to  the  adult  population  than 
in  the  North  and  West,  and  the  funds  for  educating  both  the  whites  and 
the  colored  people  are,  and  for  some  time  to  come  must  be,  supplied 
mainly  by  the  whites. 


132  EDUCATIOX.  [October, 

While  the  record  of  the  decade  has  been  thoroughly  and  impartially 
discussed  in  the  report  before  us,  the  information  for  the  current  year 
will  be  found  as  exhaustive  as  in  previous  reports.  We  note  in  passing 
that  the  total  public  school  enrolment,  as  made  up  from  the  latest  data 
attainable,  is  11,805,660.  In  respect  to  the  proportion  of  children  en- 
rolled, the  North  Central  States  take  the  lead,  having  121  pupils  in  the 
public  schools  for  every  one  hundred  children  6  to  14  years  of  age.  In 
the  South  Atlantic  States  the  corresponding  ratio  is  89  and  in  the  South 
Central  States,  79. 

The  total  average  attendance  for  the  United  States  is  7,571,416. 
This  is  emphatically  one  of  the  totals  which  has  little  meaning  apart 
fh)m  the  particulars  on  account  of  the  varying  average  of  the  several 
States  and  the  causes  of  such  variance.  As  compared  with  1885-86, 
the  greatest  increase  in  average  attendance  is  obser>'able  in  the  South. 
It  is  not  only  remarkably  large,  but  exceeds  the  increase  in  enrolment,  a 
very  satisfactory  evidence  of  the  growing  appreciation  of  public  schools  in 
southern  communities.  The  total  amount  expended  for  common  schools 
in  the  United  States  during  the  year  1886-87,  was  •115,103,886.  This 
it  is  stated  was  equivalent  "to  an  average  expenditure  of  81.99  per 
capita  of  total  population  ;  $10.27  per  capita  of  (X)pulation  6  to  14  years 
of  age,  and  $15.40  per  capita  of  average  attendance.  The  schools  were 
kept  open  a  moan  length  of  135  da^'s  so  that  each  dollar  expended  fur- 
nished about  nine  days'  schooling  on  an  average. 

PRIVATE    INSTITUTIONS    FOR    SECONDARY   AND    SUPERIOR   INSTRUCTION. 

The  great  activity  at  the  present  time  in  all  classes  of  private  and 
endowed  institutions  gives  especial  interest  to  the  chapters  of  the  rei>ort 
in  which  these  are  treated.  It  is  indeed  a  fortunate  circumstance  that 
the  official  report  as  originally  developed  by  General  Eaton  included  in 
its  scope  all  scholastic  agencies.  Meagre  and  defective  and  incongruous 
as  the  information  supplied  by  individual  institutions  has  often  been,  the 
persistent  call  for  it  has  brought  about  a  fair  degree  of  order,  uniformity, 
and  significance  in  its  tabulation.  Many  a  private-venture  school  has 
been  saved  from  utter  confhsion  as  to  its  own  status  by  the  mere  act  of 
reporting,  while  the  relation  between  steady  patronage  and  unwavering 
standards  on  the  one  hand  and  financial  soundness  on  the  other  has  been 
demonstrated  in  the  continued  record  of  endowed  secondary  and  superior 
schools.  Eighteen  private  secondar}*  schools  for  boys  and  107  for  both 
sexes  report  endowment  funds  ranging  from  $1,500  to  $800,000,  twenty- 
one  of  the  number  being  above  850,000  each. 

There  are  eight  endowments  which  upon  a  five  per  cent,  investment 
would  vield  as  rich  an  income  as  the  fund  which  the  lamented  Edward 
Thwing  found  at  his  disi)osal  for  the  development  of  *'  Uppingham"  and 


1888.]       REPORT  OF  U.  S.  COMMISSIONER  OF  EDUCATIOX.  133 

seven,  whose  incomes  would  bear  comparison  with  those  of  the  famous 
"  nine  public  schools  of  England." 

The  varied  outcome  of  these  endowments  is  well  shown  in  the  Com- 
missioner's report  by  the  classification  of  pupils  with  respect  to  certain 
leading  studies.  Of  the  seven  schools  having  largest  endowments,  one 
is  essentially  "classical";  one,  essentially  ''modern";  one  has  an 
English  division  and  a  classical  division  about  equal  in  vigor,  while  io 
the  remaining  four,  the  division  is  between  a  classical  course  and  a  sci- 
entific course  with  French  and  German.  These  are  free  schools  in  the 
highest  scholastic  sense  of  the  word. 

The  representation  of  the  superior  institutions  of  learning  in  the  United 
States  forms  as  usual  one  of  the  most  impressive  features  of  the  annual 
report.  Under  this  general  head  arc  included  colleges,  schools  of  sci- 
ence, professional  schools,  and  universities.  The  experiment  made  in 
1885-'86  of  giving  separate  tabulation  to  the  foundations  particularly 
distinguished  by  university  features,  or  which  have  been  organized  and 
maintained  as  State  universities,  is  here  carried  into  full  effect.  This  is 
an  arrangement  of  double  advantage ;  it  facilitates  the  study  of  the 
foundations  specified  and  prevents  the  reduplication  of  particulars. 

The  comparative  view  of  the  undergraduate  work  of  colleges,  Table  46, 
shows  that  for  the  country  at  large,  sixty  per  cent,  of  college  students 
are  in  degree  courses,  the  remainder  being  in  normal,  business,  partial, 
and  special  courses.  Of  the  students  in  degree  courses,  sixty-two  per 
cent,  are  in  the  classical  course ;  twenty-two  per  cent,  in  the  scientific 
course ;  eight  per  cent,  in  combined  classical  and  scientific  courses  ;  and 
eight  per  cent,  in  other  first  degree  courses.  With  the  present  status  of 
the  work  thus  clearly  defined,  it  will  be  comparatively  easy  in  the  fUture 
to  measure  the  force  and  rapidity  of  the  movement  away  fh)m  the  tra- 
ditional curriculum. 

The  statistical  exhibit  includes  also  the  results  of  an  important  study, 
showing  the  ratio  of  attendance  upon  colleges  and  scientific  schools  as 
compared  with  population  in  1875-76  and  in  1885-*86. 

The  populations  have  been  estimated  f^om  the  data  fhmished  by  the 
census  of  1870  and  of  1880,  and  the  attendance  from  the  reports  of  the 
office.     Students  in  preparatory  courses  have  not  been  included. 

As  regards  the  institutions  involved  in  the  discussion,  there  was  a 
decrease  of  nine  in  the  number  of  colleges  from  1875-76  to  1885-'86, 
and  an  increase  of  ten  in  the  number  of  scientific  schools.  The  attend- 
ance upon  the  smaller  number  of  colleges  in  1885-86  exceeded  the 
attendance  in  1875-'76  by  7,072,  or  twenty-seven  per  cent. ;  the  attend- 
ance upon  both  colleges  and  scientific  schools  increased  by  8,950,  or 
twenty-eight  per  cent. ;  whilst  the  increase  in  the  estimated  population 


184  EDUCATIOX,  [October, 

was  11,355,972,  or  twenty-five  per  cent.  In  other  words,  as  compared 
with  the  increase  of  population,  college  attendance  showed  the  slight 
excess  of  1.52  per  cent.,  and  attendance  upon  both  colleges  and  scien- 
tific schools  an  excess  equivalent  to  2.4  per  cent. 

The  statistics  are  given  in  full  for  each  State  in  the  table  before  us, 
and  are  placed  in  comparison  with  a  similar  showing  published  in  Doc- 
tor Bow's  review  in  1857. 

ALASKA. 

The  limits  of  this  article  preclude  further  attention  to  the  details  of 
the  Commissioner's  report.  In  his  general  statement  Colonel  Dawson 
presents  the  results  of  his  personal  inspection  of  the  educational  wants 
and  prospects  of  Alaska,  tc^ether  with  an  interesting  account  of  its 
physical  and  social  aspects. 

The  plan  devised  by  him  for  the  establishment  and  conduct  of  Alaskan 
schools  and  adopted  by  Secretary  Lamar  is  given  in  Chapter  III.  of  the 
current  report.  This,  with  the  Commissioner's  tour  of  observation,  has 
inspired  new  hope  io  the  devoted  friends  of  education  in  that  distant 
Territory.  a.  t.  s 


THE  TEACHER* S  INDEPENDENT  STUDY  OF 

HISTORY. 

THE  successAil  teacher  of  history,  doubtless,  should  do  much  origi- 
nal investigation.  He  who  receives  the  statements  of  the  ordi- 
nary school  textbook  and  relies  implicitly  upon  them  without  fhrther 
study  and  a  carefbl  comparison  of  authors  and  authorities  will  scarcely 
be  expected  to  awaken  much  enthusiasm  in  the  minds  of  his  pupils  in 
the  study,  or  to  stimulate  in  their  minds  an}'  great  degree  of  interest  in 
the  investigation  of  the  annals  of  the  past  for  the  purpose  of  determin- 
ing what  is  truth.  The  great  good  that  will  come  f^om  the  discussion 
of  Mr.  Travis's  teaching  concerning  Tetzel's  indulgences  will  be  a  truer 
and  more  just  appreciation  of  the  real  facts  of  the  history  of  the  reforma- 
tion by  the  whole  community. 

But  it  is  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to  study  with  care  and  to  weigh  with 
accurate  appreciation  the  various  data  upon  which  the  verdict  of  history 
is  made  up.  Especially  is  this  true  of  the  history  of  our  country.  No 
nation  of  the  wide  world  has  more  romance  connected  with  its  past  record 
than  the  United  States  of  America.  No  section  of  the  whole  earth  has 
more  marvelous  adventures  bound  up  in  its  history  than  North  America. 
In  the  records  of  no  other  nation  in  modern  times,  or  ancient,  can  be 


I 


1888.]  THE  TEACHERS  STUDY  OF  HISTORY.  135 

found  more  true  heroism,  more  skillful  diplomacy,  a  wiser  statesmanship, 
or  more  rapid  and  astonishing  progress. 

Until  recently  it  has  been  more  difficult  than  is  desirable  to  get  at  the 
sources  of  information  sufficiently  to  enable  the  ordinary  teacher  to  make 
up  his  mind  intelligently  in  reference  to  some  of  the  great  questions  that 
have  agitated  our  country  in  the  past.     It  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that     * 
the  best  history  of  our  American  Revolution  was  written  by  an  Italian.'^ 

Another  of  the  most  accurate  and  reliable  histories  of  this  eventful 
period  was  written  from  Roxbury,  Mass.,  in  a  series  of  letters  to  friends 
in  Great  Britain,  by  an  English  clergyman,  during  the  progress  of  the 
war.^ 

The  origin  and  development  of  our  Federal  Constitution  is  a  study  of 
the  most  vivid  interest  and  of  the  first  importance,  but  how  few  have 
access  to  the  necessary  books,  or  even  know  what  they  are.  I  have  no 
hesitation  in  saying  that  every  teacher  of  our  government  ought  to  have 
at  his  side  a  copy  of  "  Towle's  Analysis  of  the  Constitution,"  of  '*  P^Ui- 
ott's  Debates  "  on  the  Federal  Constitution,  in  five  volumes,  and  a  copy 
of  the  Revised  Statutes  of  the  United  States. 

It  is,  however,  only  of  late  that  the  most  valuable  work  for  all  teach- 
ers and  students  of  the  history  of  our  country  has  been  placed  before  the 
public.     Indeed,  it  is  not  yet  completed.     Six  volumes  are  now  out,  the 
first  and  the  eighth  yet  remaining  to  be  published.     I  refer  to  Justin  t^ 
Winsor's  '*  Narrative  and  Critical  History  of  America. "^ 

The  seventh  volume  of  this  most  valuable  work  is  just  published,  and 
forms  part  second  of  the  history  of  the  United  States.  It  treats  of  (1) 
The  Political  Struggle  and  Relations  with  Europe,  by  Edward  J.  Lowell, 
(2)  The  Peace  Negotiations  (1782-3)  by  Hon.  John  Jay,  (3)  The  Con- 
federation, by  the  Editor,  (4)  The  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  by 
George  Ticknor  Curtis,  (5)  The  History  of  Political  Parties,  by  Pro- 
fessor Alexaader  Johnston,  (6)  The  Wars  of  the  United  States,  by 
James  Russell  Foley,  and  (7)  The  Diplomacy  of  the  United  States,  by 
Pres.  James  B.  Angell.  Each  one  of  these  divisions  of  the  work  is  sup- 
plemented by  editorial  notes  or  a  critical  essay  upon  sources  of  informa- 
tion, by  the  editor,  and  in  an  appendix  the  editor  and  Professor  Chan- 
ning  discuss  The  Territorial  Acquisitions  and  Divisions. 

1  History  of  the  War  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States  of  America.  By  Charles 
Botta.  Translated  from  the  Italian  by  George  Alexander  Otis.  PhUadelphia :  Printed 
for  the  Translator.    1820.    SvoIh.    Octavo.    Scarce. 

*  The  History  of  the  Bise,  Progress,  and  Establishment  of  the  Independence  of  the 
United  States  of  America;  Including  an  account  of  the  late  war  and  of  the  Thirteen 
Colonies,  ftom  their  origin  to  that  period.  By  William  Gordon,  D.  D.  New  York: 
Printed  by  Hodge,  Allen  &  Campbell,  and  sold  at  their  respective  bookstores.  1789. 
3  volumes.    Scarce. 

>  Narrative  and  Critical  History  of  America,  edited  by  Justin  Winsor,  Librarian  of 
Harvard  University.  Eight  volumes.  Boston:  Houghton,  MifHin  &  Co.  Vol.YII.  The 
United  Stetes  of  North  America.    Part  IE.    Pp.  610.    Price,  $5JM)  a  volume.  • 


136  EDUCATION.  [October, 

Altogether  this  volume  probably  sheds  more  light  upon  the  important 
portions  of  our  history  than  any  other  within  my  knowledge.  It  is  im- 
mensely enriched  by  the  editor's  almost  exhaustless  references  to  authori- 
ties. As  an  illustration,  on  opening  to  a  single  page  relating  to  the 
wars  of  the  United  States,  more  than  eighty  references  to  historical  au- 
thorities are  found,  many  of  them  referring  not  merely  to  the  book  but 
the  page.  Probably  these  references  to  authorities  arc  more  exhaustive 
than  can  be  found  elsewhere.  Still  another  feature  of  great  value  is  the 
almost  endless  illustrations  by  copies  of  maps  and  engravings,  and  these 
from  almost  all  sorts  of  sources ;  e.  g.,  from  old  books,  newspapers, 
manuscripts,  foreign  sources,  and  in  all  respects  exhibiting  a  familiarity 
with  original  sources  of  information  startlingly  surprising. 

Perhaps  the  most  exhaustive  and  valuable  of  the  many  excellent  papers 
of  this  volume  is  that  by  Hon.  John  Jay  upon  '*  The  Peace  Negotiations 
of  1782-3." 

It  may  be  doubted  whether  any  treat}"  of  peace  was  ever  signed  by 
the  representatives  of  two  nations  involving  greater  interests,  or  sur- 
rounded with  greater  difficulties  and  exhibiting  greater  diplomatic 
skill.  The  distinguished  men  who  represented  our  government  in  this 
transaction  were  John  Adams,  John  Jay,  and  Benjamin  Franklin.  The 
question  whether  the  proper  balance  of  credit  to  the  three  has  been  pre- 
served, we  may  not  yet  be  able  to  determine.  Some  will  be  disposed  to 
believe  that  Franklin's  giant  intellect,  entire  familiarity  with  the  subject 
in  hand,  and  his  long  acquaintance  with  the  peculiarities  of  the  French 
and  the  Spanish  would  incline  him  to  seize  upon  their  covert  plans  against 
our  interests  more  readily  and  with  more  tenacity  than  Mr.  Jay  exhibits 
to  us  in  this  article.  Indeed,  many  previous  accounts  have  given  more 
credit  to  Doctor  Franklin  than  is  here  done.  It  would  seem,  perhaps, 
as  is  indicated  by  Theodore  Lyman  in  his  first  volume  on  ^^The  Diplo- 
macy of  the  United  States,"  pp.  118-123,  that  Doctor  Franklin  earlier 
came  to  see  the  true  position  of  France  and  Spain  in  regard  to  our  west- 
ern boundaries  than  Mr.  Jay  indicates.  Mr.  Lyman  gives,  page  121, 
the  incident  of  Jay's  breaking  his  pipe  as  having  reference  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  understanding  between  Franklin  and  Jay  that  they  should 
treat  with  Mr.  Oswold  concerning  the  boundaries  without  the  knowledge 
of  the  French  government,  and  that  this  proposition  came  from  Doctor 
Franklin. 

At  all  events,  this  discussion  of  the  treaty  of  peace  is  a  masterly  pre- 
sentation of  the  facts  of  that  important  matter,  and  displays  in  a  singu- 
larly clear  manner  the  distinguished  ability  of  our  diplomatists.  I  cannot 
do  less  than  to  commend  most  heartily  this  book  to  the  careful  study  of 
all  teachers  and  students  of  the  history  of  our  country. 

W.   A.    MOWRT. 


1888.] 


BIBLIOORAPHT. 


137 


BIBLIOGRAPHT  OF   CURRENT  PERIODICAL    LIT- 
ERATURE   UPON  EDUCATION. 


The  following  bibliography  of  current  periodical  literature  includes  articles  upon 
education  and  other  subjects  calculated  to  interest  teachers.  Only  articles  from  peri- 
odicals not  nominally  educational  are  mentioned.  Articles  of  special  importance  to 
teachers  will,  as  a  rule,  be  mentioned  in  notes. 


AeschyluR,  The  Prometheus  of. 
Part  II.  William  Cranston  Lawton. 
Atlantic  Monthly^  September. 

Alcohol  Habit,  Increase  of  the.  Dr. 
E.  C.  Spitzka.     Forum,  September. 

America,  Some  Recent  Crititiism  of. 
Theodore  Roosevelt.  Murray* s  Maga- 
zine, September. 

Animal  and  Plant  Lore.  II.  Mrs. 
Fanny  D.  Bergen.  Popular  Science 
Monthly,  September. 

Arnold,  Matthew,  The  Poetry  of. 
Miss  Vida  D.  Scudder.  Andover  Be- 
view,  September. 

A  valuable  criticism. 

Art.  A  Letter  to  a  Young  Gentle- 
man who  Proposes  to  Embrace  the  Ca- 
reer of  Art.  Robert  Louis  Stevenson. 
A  Letter  to  the  Same  Young  Gentle- 
man. Will.  H.  Low.  Scribner's,  Sep- 
tember. 

Art  Education.  W.  J.  Stillman. 
Century,  September. 

An  ''  Open  Letter." 

Art,  The  American  School  of.  J. 
Duraud.  New  Princeton  Beview,  Sep- 
tember. 

Association,  Proceedings  of  the 
American.     Science,  August  31. 

A  report  in  the  Physics  Section  con- 
tains many  recommendations  in  re- 
gard to  the  teaching  of  Physics. 

Astronomy.  Sidereal,  Old  and  New. 
II.  Edwards.  Holden.  Century,  Sep- 
tember. 

Australian  Lesson,  An.  Edward 
Pulsford.  Nineteenth  Century,  Sep- 
tember. 

Belief  and  Conduct.  Leslie  Stephen. 
Nineteenth  Century,  September. 

Bologna  University,  The  Centenary 
of.  Professor  Holland.  Macmillan's, 
September. 

Boston  Mobs  before  the  Revolution. 
Andrew  Preston  Peabody.  Atlantic, 
September. 

Byron.  Professor  C.  T.  Winches- 
ter.   Methodist  Beview^  September. 


Chamisso  ais  Naturforscher,  Adel- 
bert  von.  E.  du  Bois-Reymond. 
Deutsche  Bundschau,  September. 

Chaucer  and  the  Italian  Renaissance. 
Francis  Turner  Palgrove.  Nineteenth 
Century,  September. 

Children,  The  Rights  of.  Mary  C. 
Tabor.  Contemporary  Beview,  Sep- 
tember. 

A  forcible  argument  for  better  laws 
in  England  for  the  protection  of  chil- 
dren. The  writer  says :  *'  Under  re- 
cent legislation,  a  horse  or  dog  has 
better  legal  safeguards  against  his 
owner's  neglect  or  cruelty,  than  can 
be  claimed  for  the  little  child  who  is 
born  into  the  ^  custody  *  of  drunken, 
dissolute,  or  brutal  parents." 

China:  A  New  Departure.  R.  S. 
Gundry.  Westminster  Beview,  Sep- 
tember. 

An  account  of  the  memorial  of  the 
present  Cabinet  of  China  advising  the 
introduction  of  ^^Mathematics"  into 
the  competitive  examinations,  with  an 
examination  of  the  claim  that  Western 
science  had  its  root  in  Chinese  astron- 
omy. 

Cincinnati,  A  Literary  Symposium 
on.  M.  F.  Force,  W.  H.  Venable,  et 
al.  New  England  Magazine,  Septem- 
ber. 

College  Fraternities.  John  Addison 
Porter.     Century,  September. 

Collegiate  Education,  Modem.  Cen- 
tury, September. 

Common  School  Education*  Prob- 
lems in.    Andover  Beview,  September. 

An  editorial  discussion  of  the  report 
of  the  Royal  Commission  which  has 
recently  examined  the  workings  of 
public  and  private  schools  in  England. 

Compromise.  Is  there  ^^  No  Reason 
for  a  Compromise? "  Rev.  Patrick  F. 
McSweeney.  Catholic  World,  Septem- 
ber. 

Answer  to  an  article  in  the  Christian 


138 


EDUCATIOX. 


[October. 


Union  in  regard  to  religion  in  the  pub- 
lic pchools. 

Conscience,  The  New.  II.  D.  Lloyd. 
North  American  Reviexc^  September. 

An  appeal  for  the  laborer. 

Continental  Cougreps.  First  Year  of 
the.  John  Fiske.  Atlantic  Monthly^ 
September. 

Cooperative  Stores  for  Ireland.  Hor- 
ace Curzon  Plunkett.  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury, September. 

Democracy,  President  Eliot  on 
American.     Our  Day^  August. 

From  Phi  Beta  Kappa  Address,  Har- 
vard University,  June  29,  1888. 

Descartes.  Prof.  J.  P.  Gordy.  Meth- 
odist Review  J  September. 

DiHlcctique  sociale,  I>a  (fin).  G. 
Tarde.    Revue  Philosophiqne^  August. 

Dichtung,  Eine  Geschichte  der 
roiniftchen.  Ivo  Bruns.  Preussische 
JahrbUcher^  August. 

A  review  of  the  first  volume  of  Otto 
Ribbeck*s  Geschichte. 

Drawbaugh,  Daniel.  H.  C.  Merwin. 
Atlantic  Monthly^  September. 

Eighteenth  Century  Abbe,  An.  E. 
Lynn  Linton.  Fortnightly  Review^ 
September. 

Empfindung.  Ueber  Begriff  und 
Elgenschaften  der  Empfindung.  I. 
A.  Weinong.  VierteljahrsschrQt  fur 
Wissenschaftliche  Philosophies  Drittes 
Heft. 

Etat,  'L,  moderne  et  scs  fonctions. 
I.  Paul  Ijcroy-Beaulieu.  Revue  des 
Deux  Mondes^  15  August. 

Explanation:  A  Ix)gica1  Study. 
Borden  P.  Bowne.  Methodist  Review^ 
September. 

Eye-Mindedness  and  Ear-Minded- 
ness.  Prof.  Joseph  Jastrou.  Popular 
Science  Monthly^  September. 

Suggestive  to  teachers. 

Factory  Life,  Studies  of:  Among 
the  Women.  Lillie  B.  Chace  Wyman. 
Atlantic  Monthly y  September. 

Fiction,  The  Fall  of.  Fortnightly 
Review^  September. 

Finalite,  La,  com  me  propricte  des 
^I6ments  psychiques.  Fr.  Paulhan. 
Revue  Philosphique^  August. 

Forestry  School  in  Spain,  The.  Na- 
ture^  September  6. 

Geldstrofe,  Die.  Amtsrichter 
Schmdlder.  Preussische  Johrbucher^ 
August. 

Geography.  Applied  Geography. 
J.  Scott  Keltie.  Contemporary  Review^ 
September. 

Points  out  some  of  the  ways  in 
which  geographical  knowledge  may 
be  applied  with  practical  results. 


Gladstone-Ingersoll  Controversy, 
The:  The  Church  its  Own  Witness. 
Cardinal  Manning.  North  American 
RerietCy  September. 

Greeki»,  'J'he  Modern.  'lliomaB  D. 
Seymour.     tScribner's^  September. 

ilygieue.  La  dys[>ep8ie  des  gens 
d'  esprit.  M.  Jalva.  Revue  Scifntif- 
iquf^  18  August. 

Immigration,  Control  of.  III.  Prof. 
Kichmond  M.  Smith.  Political  Science 
Quarterly,  September. 

Individuality  in  Teaching.  Century^ 
September. 

Industrial  Idea  in  Education,  The. 
Charles  M.  Carter.  Century ^  Septem- 
ber. 

Contains  an  account  of  the  method 
employed  in  manual  exercises  at  Quin- 
cy,  Mass. 

Jesuitirtm  and  our  Public  Schools. 
Prof.  L.  T.  Townsend.  Our  Day ^  Au- 
gust. 

Knights  of  Labor,  The.  Francis  A. 
Walker.  New  Princeton  Review^  Sep- 
tember. 

Korperschonheit,  Bemerkungen 
iil>er.  Fr.  Merkel.  Deutsche  Rund- 
schauy  September. 

Kunsthandwerk,  Das  deutsche,  auf 
der  nationalen  Ausstellung  zu  MUn- 
chen,  1888.  II.  E.  von  Berlepsch. 
Unsere  Zeit^  Neuntes  Heft. 

I^ndwirthschaft,  Zwichenhandel, 
und  Consum.  Heinrich  Adler.  Un- 
sere Zeity  Neuntes  Heft. 

Literary  Anodynes.  Andrew  Long. 
A>ir  Princeton  Review^  September. 

Literary  Immortality.  Prof.  J.  R. 
Seeley.  Contemporary  Review^  Sep- 
tember. 

Marriage.  Mona  Caird.  Westmin- 
ster Review. 

Marriage  Rejection  and  Marriage 
Reform.  Elizabeth  Rachel  Chapman. 
Westminster  Review,  September. 

Master.  An  Old.  Woodrow  Wilson. 
New  Princeton  Review.  September. 

A  study  of  Adam  Smith. 

Medical  School  and  University,  Some 
of  the  Advantages  of  the  Union  of. 
William  H.  Welch,  M.  D.  Yale  Re- 
view, September. 

Memories  of  Some  Contemporaries. 
Hugh  McCullo<;h.  Scribner^s^  Septem- 
ber. 

Mental  Science.  The  Effect  of  Prac- 
tice upon  Reading.  /Science^  Septem- 
ber 7. 

Mental  Traits  in  the  Poultry  Yard. 
Benjamin  Karr.  Popular  Science 
Monthly^  September. 

Metaphysique.    La  haute  m^tftphys- 


1888.] 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


139 


ique  con  temporal  De.  E.  Clay  et  Tol- 
stoi. La  morale  neobouddhique,  la 
carite  absolue.  Renouvier.  Critique 
PhUosophique^  Jul)'. 

Military  Genius.  General  Wolseley. 
Fortnightly  Beview^  September. 

Millet,  Jean-Fran9ois.  Mrs.  Henry 
Ady.     Nineteenth  Century^  September. 

Moglichkeit.  Ueber  den  Begriffder 
objectiven  Mogliohkeit  und  einlge  An- 
wendungen  desselben.  II.  J.  V. 
Kries.  Vierteljahrsschrift  fur  Wissen- 
•schoftliche  Philosophies  Drittes  Heft. 

More,  Henry,  The  Platonlst.  Ar- 
thur Benson.  Contemporary  Beview^ 
September. 

Music,  The  Place  of  Music  in  Cul- 
ture. J.  F.  Rowbotham.  National 
Beview.  September. 

Neuthomismus,  Der,  und  die  neuere 
Wissenschaft.  K.  Eucken.  Philo- 
^ophische  Monatshefte^  Heft^  u.  10. 

Nom.  Remarques  sur  V  Evolution 
logique  des  differentes  categories  du 
nom.  Paul  Regnaud.  Bevue  Philo- 
^ophique,  August. 

Opera.  Can  a  National  School  of 
Opera  Exist?  Florence  Lane-Fox.  Na- 
tional Beview^  September. 

Painters.  Boston  Painters  and 
Paintings.  III.  Wm.  Howe  Downes. 
Atlantic  Monthly^  September, 

Papier,  Le.  Ses  Materiaux  et  ses 
Emplois.  Edouard  Lullin.  Biblio- 
theque  Universelle  et  Bevue  Suifise^  Au- 
gust. 

Pensee,  L'organlsme  et  la  (fin).  J. 
Oardair.  Philosophie  Chreienne^  Au- 
gust. 

Pessimism  and  Recent  Victorian 
Poetry.  Henry  F.  Randolph.  New 
Princeton  Beview^  September. 

Pessimisme  Phllosophicjue,  Le,  et 
V  optimisme  Chretien.  Leo  Quesnel. 
Bihliotheque  Universelle  et  Bevue 
Suisse^  September. 

Pontes  contemporains  de  la  France. 
Iveeonte  de  Lisle.  Edouard  Rod.  Bih- 
liotheque Universelle  et  Bevue  Suisse^ 
September. 

Progress  from  Poverty.  Edward 
Atkinson.    Forum^  September. 

Psychologic.  Somnambulisme  pro- 
voque  a  distance.  M.  Dufay.  Bevue 
JScientidque^  25  August. 

Psychologic  der  Komlk.  II.  Th. 
Lipps.  Philosophische  Monatshefte^ 
Heft  9  u.  10. 

Psychology,  The  New.  J.  H.  Hys- 
lop.  New  Princeton  Beview^  September. 

Public  Schools.  What  Shall  The 
Public  Schools  Teach?  Prof .  H.  H. 
Boyesen.    Forum^  September. 


It  is  the  writer's  "  conviction  that 
our  public-school  system  will  sooner 
or  later  have  to  be  radically  remod- 
eled.^' It  is  academic.  It  should  be 
industrial.  ^^It  kindles  an  ambition 
in  them  which,  in  nine  cases  out  of 
ten.  is  destined  to  be  disappointed,  and 
engenders,  as  a  consequence,  discon- 
tent and  disaffection  toward  the  state 
which  fails  to  satisfy  the  expectations 
it  has  aided  in  arousing.'* 

Punjab  University,  The.  Moulvi 
Abd-ur-rashtd.  Asiatic  Quarterly  Be- 
vieWj  July. 

Puritanism.  The  Historic  Forces 
which  gave  rise  to  Puritanism.  Will- 
iam L.  Kingsley. 

Rabelais,  sa  vie  et  son  OBuvre.  Paul 
Stapfer.  II.  Bihliotheque  Universelle 
et  Bevue  Suisse^  August. 
•  Raumfrage,  Zur.  I.  G.  Heymans. 
Vierteljahrsschri/t  fur  Wissensch<{fU 
liche  Philosophies  Drittes  Heft. 

Redstart,  Home  Life  of  the.  Olive 
Thorne  Miller.  Atlantic  Monthly^ 
September. 

Many  teachers  may  find  this  delight- 
ful sketch  of  bird  life  valuable  In  their 
reading  classes. 

Religion's  Gain  from  Science.  Dr. 
T.  T.  Munger.    Forum^  September. 

A  valuable  article.  The  writer 
maintains:  that  ^^ science  has  deep- 
ened reverence  " ;  that  it  "  has  taught 
religion  to  think  according  to  cause 
and  effect " ;  that  it  *•  has  delivered  re- 
ligion from  its  heaviest  incubus,  su- 
perstition " ;  that  it  ^^  has  put  religion 
upon  the  track  of  the  important  truth 
that  moral  laws  are  natural  laws"; 
that  it  ^Ms  delivering  religion  from 
the  miserable  habit  of  defending  doc- 
trines and  supposed  truths  because  of 
their  apparent  usefulness." 

Rhetorical  Pessimism.  Prof.  C.  C. 
Everett.     Forum^  September. 

Roman  Catholic  Parochial  Schools. 
Joseph  Cook.     Our  Day^  August. 

Prelude  to  a  Boston  Monday  Lec- 
ture. 

School  Attendance  in  the  United 
States.     Science^  August  24. 

From  the  report  (now  In  press)  of 
the  Commissioner  of  Education. 

Sensation,  The  Objective  Cause  of. 
III.  The  Sense  of  Smell.  Prof.  John 
Berry  Haycroft.    Brain^  July. 

Shakespeare's  Wisdom  of  Life. 
Prof.  E.  Dowden.  Fortnightly  Beview, 
September. 

Sill,  Edward  Rowland.  Elizabeth 
Stuart  Phelps.      Century^  September. 

Simplicity  as  a  Test  of  Truth.    Her- 


140 


EDUCATION. 


[October, 


bert  Patnam.     Unitarian  Beviete^  Sep- 
tember. 

Social  and  Political  Mirages.  James 
PartOD.     Forum^  September. 

Social  Discontent,  Causes  of.  F.  D. 
HuDtinffton.    Forum^  September. 

Socialism  through  American  Spec- 
tacles. Gen.  Lloyd  S.  Bryce.  iV7ne- 
teenth  Century^  September. 

Socialisme  d*  Auguste  BlanquI,  Le. 
(suite  et  fln;.  F.  Pillon.  Critique 
Fhilo8ophiqtte^  August. 

Spanish  Novel,  The  Modern.  Paul 
Sylvester.  National  Beview^  Septem- 
ber. 

States,  Inequality  of  the.  William 
A.  Dunning.  Political  Science  Quar- 
terly^ September. 

State  Socialism.  John  Rae.  Con- 
temporary Beview^  September. 

Stigmatization.  lie  v.  Richard  Wheats 
ley.      Popular  Science  Monthly^  Sep- 
tember. 

Story-Telling  in  the  East.  Profess- 
or I^yce.  National  Beview^  Septem- 
ber. 

Technical  College.  The  Glasgow 
and  West  of  Scotland  Technical  Col- 
lege. Henry  Dyer.  Nature,  August 
30. 

Technical  Education,  Lord  Arm- 
strong and.  Sir  Lyon  PI  ay  fair.  JVtn«- 
teenth  Century^  September. 

Tolstoi.  Count  Tolstoi's  Life  and 
Works.  Westminster  Beview,  Septem- 
ber. 

Trusts,  Economic  Aspects  of. 
Greorge  Gunton.  Political  Science 
Quarterly,  September. 

University  and  the  Bible,  The.  T. 
T.  Munger.     Century,  Septembf^r. 

An  argument  for  biblical  instruction 
in  the  colleges. 

Uppingham.  An  Ancient  School 
worked  on  Modern  Ideas.  George  R. 
Parkin.     Century,  September. 


*^  Justice,  then,  which  means  ade- 
quate individual  training  for  each  boy, 
is  the  central  idea  of  Uppingham,  and 
all  the  arrangements  and  inachinerv 
of  the  school  are  directed  to  this  eiid.^* 

Volante.  Quelques  remarques  sur 
la  theorie  de  la  volante,  de  M.  W. 
James.  Renouvier.  Critique  Philo- 
sophique,  August. 

Wales,  A  Week  in.  Julia  C.  R. 
Dorr.    Atlantic  Monthly,  September. 

West,  Studies  of  the  Great  West. 
III.  Memphis  and  Little  Rock. 
Charles  Dudley  Warner.  Harper^s, 
September. 

Mr.  Warner  gives  account  of  edu- 
cational institutions  in  places  that  he 
visits,  and  sometimes  makes  valuable 
suggestions.  In  regard  to  education 
of  the  colored  people,  he  says: 
"  Whatever  may  be  the  opinion  about 
the  propriety  of  attaching  industrial 
training  to  public  schools  generally, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  this  sort  of 
training  is  indispensable  to  the  colored 
people  of  the  South,  whose  children 
do  not  at  present  receive  the  needed 
domestic  training  at  home,  and  whose 
education  must  contribute  to  their 
ability  to  earn  a  living." 

Wieland's  "Goldener  Spiegel." 
Gustav  Breucker.  Preussische  Jahr- 
hiicher,  August. 

Women,  The  Social  Status  of,  in  In- 
dia. L.  R.  de  Fonblanque.  Fort- 
nightly Beview,  September. 

Women  who  go  to  College.  Arthur 
Gilman.     Century^  September. 

Work-Girl's  Diary,  Pages  from  a. 
Miss  Beatrice  Potter.  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury^ September. 

Writing  Machines  for  the  Blind. 
Arthur  Good.  Popular  Science  Month- 
ly, September. 


1888.]  AMONG  THE  BPOKS.  141 


AMONG    THE  BOOKS. 

Live  Topics  in  Education.  No.  1.  Ought  Textbooks  to  be  supplied  flnra- 
tuitously  to  all  Children  in  the  Public  Schools.  By  Uomer  B.  Sprague.  Chi- 
cago :    8.  R.  VVinchell  &  Co.    Price,  10  cents. 

Colonel  Sprague  gave  an  address  ten  years  ago  upon  this  topic  before  the 
Massachusetts  Teachers'  Association,  and  another  last  July  before  the  National 
Educational  Association.  They  arc  both  in  this  little  pamphlet.  The  address 
at  San  Francisco  has  the  ring  of  a  polished  orator  and  a  sound  educator. 

A  History  of  the  United  States  and  its  People.  For  the  Use  of 
Schools.  By  Edward  Eggleston.  New  York:  D.  Appleton  &  Co.  1888. 
Pp.  398. 

The  schools  owe  much  to  the  publishers  for  the  attractiveness  of  textbooks. 
It  is  a  question  whether  we  are  not  putting  upon  them  too  lavish  a  finish, 
and  spending  too  much  money  in  their  make-up.  But  it  is  certain  that  some 
of  them  are  simply  sumptuous.  Among  such  must  surely  be  reckoned 
this  new  applicant  for  the  favor  of  the  public.  Text  and  type,  illustrations 
and  colored  plates,  maps  and  portraits,  paper  and  printing  —  all  are  superb. 

But  it  is  in  the  author^s  work  after  all,  that  the  book  excels.  In  clearness  of 
style  and  vivacious  interest  it  is  superior,  yet  the  chief  charm  of  the  book  is 
in  its  contents.  The  great  facts  upon  which  our  success  as  a  nation  has  de- 
pended form  the  skeleton,  but  the  flesh  and  blood  are  the  graphic  portrayal  of 
the  manners  and  habits  and  customs  of  the  people,  so  skilfully  and  enticingly 
displayed.  The  arrangement  of  topics  so  as  to  keep  the  student^s  attention 
and  exhibit  cause  and  effect  and  the  progress  of  civilization  is  admirable.  The 
history  and  development  of  civilization  are  kept  constantly  before  the  pupil. 
The  invention  of  the  steamboat,  railroads,  the  telegraph,  the  telephone,  the 
growth  and  expansion  of  our  country,  the  increase  in  the  comfort  of  our  peo- 
ple, the  uses  of  labor-saving  machinery,  all  are  topics  so  admirably  brought 
out  as  to  interest  and  instruct  the  pupil  to  a  far  greater  extent  than  would  be 
possible  with  the  most  graphic  accounts  of  the  battles  of  Palo  Alto  and  Cerro 
Gordo.  It  is  eminently  a  teaching  book  and  its  maps  are  numerous,  well  exe- 
cuted and  admirably  calculated  to  give  ^^  a  geographical  body  to  an  historical 
Boul.^'  The  illustrations  are  part  and  parcel  of  the  teaching  apparatus.  Illus- 
trations of  cojstumes,  manners.  Implements,  arms,  jewels,  vehicles,  and  inven- 
tions are  valuable  in  proportion  to  their  truthfulness.  Doubtless  these  have 
cost  the  author  quite  as  much  labor  and  study  and  research  as  the  text  itself. 
The  study  of  our  institutions,  our  government,  the  Constitution,  Is  made  promi- 
nent. The  biographical  sketches  placed  In  separate  type  in  the  body  of  the 
page  are  vastly  more  important  and  useful  than  if  put  in  a  subordinate  posi- 
tion at  the  bottom  of  the  page.  This  book  is  strongly  to  be  commended  to  all 
teachers  of  American  history. 

The  Congregational  Year  Book.  1888.  Congregational  Publishing  So- 
ciety. 

This  large  octavo,  containing  403  pages,  is  full  of  what  Robert  B.  Thomas's 


142  EDUCATION.  [October, 

Almanac  used  to  call  (as  read  by  an  old  farmer  )  '*  New,  Useful,  and  Everlast- 
ing (entertaining)  Matter/'  It  gives  an  account  of  over  four  thousand  churches, 
and  ministers,  with  nearly  half  a  million  members,  representing  more  than  two 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  families.  It  is  a  handy  bdols  to  have  around  the 
house. 

Potter's  New  Elementary  Geography.  Designed  for  Primary  and  In- 
termediate Classes.  By  Eliza  II.  Morton.  Teachers' edition.  126  pp..  Quarto. 
Philadelphia :    John  £.  Potter  &  Co.    1888. 

Of  making  new  geographies  there  ^^seemeth  to  be  no  end.*'  This  one 
is  another  ^^new  departure."  It  has  a  teacher's  edition  and  a  pupil's  edition. 
The  teacher's  edition  tells  ^^Just  what  objects  to  employ  in  connection  with 
each  lesson,"  by  which  to  illustrate  that  specific  lesson.  The  teacher  is 
evidently  to  do  much  of  the  preliminary  work  in  getting  the  pupil  interested 
in  the  subject.  The  physical  side  is  made  prominent.  ^^  The  pupil  is  taught 
to  outline  each  lesson  by  topics  and  to  recite  from  the  same.  This  gives  em- 
ployment and  increases  the  power  of  thought." 

Cassell  &  Co.  have  lately  published  in  their  National  Library  Series  the  fol- 
lowing books:  No.  122.  Coriolanus.  By  William  Shakespeare.  No.  123. 
Areopagitica.  Letter  on  Education,  Sonnets  and  Psalms,  by  John  Milton. 
No.  124.  Essays  on  Goethe.  By  Thomas  Carlyle.  No.  125.  King  Richard  II. 
By  William  Shakespeare.  No.  126.  Plato's  Crito  and  Phaedo.  Dialogues  of 
Socrates  before  his  deatli.  No.  127.  The  Victories  of  Love,  and  other  Poems. 
By  Coventry  Patmore.  No.  128.  First  Part  of  King  Henry  IV.  By  William 
Shakespeare.  No.  129.  The  Old  English  Baron.  By  Clara  Reeve.  No.  130. 
The  Diary  of  Samuel  Pepys,  from  November,  1668,  to  end  of  Diary.  No.  131. 
Plutarch's  Lives  of  Pyrrhus,  Camillus,  Pelopidas,  and  Marcellus.  No.  132. 
Essays  and  Tales.  By  Joseph  Addison.  No.  133.  Lives  of  the  English 
Poets,  Addison,  Savage,  Swift.  By  Samuel  Johnson,  LL.  D.  No.  134.  Sec- 
ond Part  of  King  Henry  IV.  By  William  Shakespeare.  No.  135.  Essays  and 
Tales.  By  Richard  Steele.  No.  136.  Marmion;  A  Tale  of  Flodden  Field.  By 
Sir  Walter  Scott.  No.  138.  The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor.  By  William 
Shakespeare.  These  volumes  are  10  cents  a  number,  and  the  subscription 
price  per  year  is  $5.00. 

My  Aunt's  Matchmaking,  and  other  stories  by  popular  authors.  CasselTs 
"  Rainbow  Series,"  New  York ;  Cassell  &  Co.  For  sale  by  De Wolfe,  Fiske 
&  Co.    Price,  25  cents. 

This  book  under  the  title  of  ^*  My  Aunt's  Matchmaking,''  contains  sixteen 
interesting,  bright  and  crisp  stories.  ITie  book  is  one  which  will  be  valued  as 
a  recreation  for  many  weary  moments,  and  can  be  picked  up  and  a  story  read 
at  any  time.  The  stories  are  wholesome  as  well  as  attractive.  They  are  writ- 
ten by  popular  authors  and  well  deserve  a  place  in  such  a  book  and  such  a 
series  of  '*  original  novels  "  as  are  found  in  the  "  Rainbow  Series." 

Semi-Centennial  Celebration  op  Mt.  IIolyoke  Seminary,  South  Had- 
ley,  Mass.  1837-1887.  Edited  by  Mrs.  Sarah  Locke  Stow,  of  '59.  Published 
by  the  Seminary.    1888.    Pp.  155. 

Mount  Holyoke  Seminary,  or  college,  which  is  to  be,  is  a  noble  institution, 
and  has  been  in  many  ways  specially  fortunate.  If  one  wishes  to  know  what 
the  higher  education  has  accomplished  for  American  women,  let  him  read  this 


1888.]  AMONG  THE  BOOKS.  143 

interesting  account  of  what  Mt.  Holyoke  has  done  in  fifty  years.  The  hi(>tory 
of  education  in  America  would  be  far  from  complete  without  important  refer- 
ences to  what  this  volume  treats  of.  Above  all,  the  reader  will  be  surprised, 
whoever  he  is,  at  the  long  list  of  distinguished  women  who  have  graduated 
at  this  institution.  The  young  women  of  today  are  to  be  congratulated  upon 
their  educational  advantages,  so  far  superior  to  what  wasofiered  their  grand- 
mothers fifty  years  ago.  But  one  is  tempted  to  ask  the  question,  Is  woman 
yet  equal  before  the  law,  in  social  life  and  educational  opportunities^  to  man? 

Physical  Development  ;  or  the  Laws  Governing  the  Human  System. 
By  Nathan  Allen,  M.  D.,  LL.  D.    Pp.  348.     Boston :    Lee  &  Shepard.    1888. 

Doctor  Allen  has  won  a  high  reputation  as  a  writer  upon  the  proper  devel- 
opment of  the  human  body  and  the  laws  that  govern  the  human  system. 
Among  the  man}'  good  things  in  this  book  the  attention  of  teachers  should  be 
called  to  the  following  chapters :  ^^  Early  Education,^'  ^'  Education  of  Girls,** 
*'True  Basis  of  Education,"  "College  Sports,"  and  '*The  New  England  Fam- 
ily." Doctor  Allen  wisely  says,  '*One  of  the  chief  causes  of  failure  in  educa- 
tion is  the  want  of  fixed  principles  as  guides,*'  and  discusses  elaborately  the 
injuries  that  result  from  "treating  all  children  as  though  their  organizations 
were  precisely  alike."  , 

Talks  on  Psychology  Applied  to  Teaching.  For  Teachers  and  Normal 
Institutes.  By  A.  L.  Welch,  LL.  D.,  Ex-President  of  Iowa  Agricultural  Col- 
lege.   New  York  and  Chicago :    E.  L.  Kellogg  &  Co.    Price,  60  cents. 

This  little  book  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-six  pages  solely  aims  to  help  the 
teacher  in  the  active  work  of  the  schoolroom.  Most  works  on  mental  science 
simply  propose  to  aid  in  getting  some  knowledge  of  the  subject  as  a  science, 
and  do  not  aim  at  practical  teaching.  We  feel  certain  this  book  has  a  mission 
among  the  elementary  teachers.  The  questions  that  follow  each  chapter  will 
prove  of  real  service.  The  type  is  large,  and  printing  and  binding  (cloth) 
plain  but  elegant. 

Lays  of  Ancient  Rome.  By  T.  B.  Macaulay.  Edited  with  notes  by  Wil- 
liam J.  Kolfe,  litt.  d.,  and  John  C.  Rolfe,  Ph.  D.  New  York:  Harper  ifc 
Brothers.     1888.     Pp.  199. 

Few  poems  are  so  well  adapted  for  school  study,  especially  for  the  study  of 
boys,  as  the  **  Lays  of  Rome."  The  full  notes  of  the  editors  will  be  found  of 
great  value  to  the  schools.  They  are  eminently  accurate,  critical,  scholarly 
and  of  the  highest  practical  type. 

Aristotle  and  the  Christian  Church.  An  Essay.  By  Brother  Azarlas. 
London :    Kegan  Paul,  Trench  &  Co.    1888.     Pp.  141. 

This  essay  was  read  at  the  Concord  School  of  Philosophy  in  1887.  It  discu<»se8 
the  relation  of  this  great  philosopher  to  the  Christian  church.  It  shows  very 
clearly  how,  and  in  what,  Christianity  rises  higher  than  philosophy.  "Specu- 
lation may  console  a  few  philosophers,  but  the  soothing  hand  of  Christian 
charity,  nerved  by  the  love  of  God  and  of  man  ♦  ♦  ♦  ♦  can  revive  expiring 
hopes,  calm  the  troubled  mind,  and  raise  a  soul  out  of  despondency"  into 
individual  perfection  and  sanctification. 

Civics  for  Young  Americans,  or  First  Lessons  in  Government.  By 
William  N.  Gritfln,  A.  M.     New  York :     A.  Lovell  &  Co.     1888.     Pp.  119. 

It  is  an  interesting  and  gratifying  fact  that  so  many  books  are  now  being 


144  EDUCATION.  [October, 

placed  before  the  American  public  designed  to  maice  us  more  familiar  with  the 
principles  of  our  government,  and  especially  for  use  in  the  suhools.  Mr.  Grif- 
fin is  a  successful  teacher  of  experience,  and  in  this  little  book  he  gives.  In 
plain  and  simple  language,  easy  to  be  understood  by  school  children,  an  inter- 
esting account  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  our  national  government. 

GiNX  &  Co.,  Boston,  are  beating  their  own  record  in  the  number  and  quality 

of  new  liDoks  issued  for  both  teachers  and  the  schools.    We  have  lately  received 

from  this  enterprising  hou^e  the  following:  — 

Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Middle  Ages.  From  the  Battle  of 
Adrianople  to  the  death  of  Charlemagne  (a.  d.,  378-814).  By  Ephraim  Emer- 
ton,  Professor  of  History  in  Harvard  University. 

'iliis  work  gives  in  simple  narrative  form,  an  account  of  the  settlement  of 
the  Germanic  peoples  on  Roman  soil,  the  gradual  rise  of  the  Prankish  suprem- 
acy, the  growth  of  the  Christian  Church  and  its  expression  in  the  monastic 
life  and  in  the  Koman  Papacy,  and  finally  the  culmination  of  all  in  the  Empire 
of  Charlemagne.  The  text  is  supplemented  by  maps,  lists  of  works  for  refer- 
ence, accounts  of  the  contemporaneous  material  on  which  the  narrative  is 
based,  and  suggestions  to  teachers  upon  topics  and  methods  of  special  study. 
It  will  be  of  great  service  to  teachers  of  history. 

CiGSAR*s  Army.  A  study  of  the  military  art  of  the  Romans  in  the  last  days 
of  the  Republic.  By  Harry  Pratt  Judson,  Professor  of  History,  University  of 
Minnesota.    Price,  91-10. 

This  work  will  prove  useful  to  students  of  Caesar,  and  to  those  interested  in 
military  science.  Each  point  is  presented  in  the  light  of  the  established  facts 
and  of  the  inferences  of  leading  specialists,  and  is  illustrated  by  comparison 
with  parallel  military  method:)  in  modern  armies.  There  is  also  a  large  num- 
ber of  cuts  and  diagrams.  In  this  way  a  clear  picture  of  a  Roman  army  is 
presented  so  that  the  evolutions  of  Ca)«^r*s  wars  may  have  a  definite  and  intel- 
ligible meaning.  Professor  Judson  has  evidently  devoted  a  greac  deal  of  time 
to  the  study  of  this  subject. 

Ancient  History  for  Colleges  and  High  Schools.  By  William  F.  Al- 
len and  P.  V.  N.  Myers.     1888.     Pp.  601).    31.25. 

This  is  a  beautiful  book,  finely  illustrated  by  maps  and  numerous  cuts,  throw- 
ing light  upon  the  various  parts  of  the  history  treated.  The  treatment  is  suf- 
ficiently full  and  appears  to  be  accurate. 

Entrance  Examination  Paters.    Compiled  by  Dr.  John  S.  White,  Head 

Master  of  tiie  Berkeley  School  of  New  York  City.  Price  to  teachers,  post 
paid,  91.25. 

These  papers  contain  analyzed  sets  of   recent  examinations  presented  by 

Harvard,  Yale,  Columbia,  and  Princeton  Colleges;  together  with  suggestions 

regarding  preparation  for  their  respective  examinations.    The  book  is  evidently 

intended,  not  merely  for  the  use  of  the  teacher,  but  also  quite  as  much  for  the 

pupil.     It  will  thus  be  found  suitable  as  a  textbook  in  the  upper  classes  of  all 

schools  that  prepare  for  college. 

I.ESSONS  IN  English,  adapted  to  the  study  of  American  Classics.  A  text- 
bonk  for  High  Schools  and  Academies,  liy  Sara  E.  H.  l^ockwoud.  1888. 
Pp.403.     Price,  ai. 25. 

Here  is  presented  to  the  American  teacher  one  of  the  best  books  for  practi- 
cal use  in  schools  as  an  introduction  to  the  study  and  use  of  good  literature. 
It  is  a  complete  textbook  on  rhetoric,  composition  writing,  and  the  history  of 
English  literature,     it  has  grown  out  of  the  best  work  in  the  schoolroom  and 


1888.]  AMONG  THE  BOOKS.  146 

Is  written  by  one  who  knows  both  how  to  teach  and  how  to  write.    Let  every 

teacher  of  this  subject  get  a  copy  of  this  boolc. 

Bench  Work  ik  Wood.  A  Course  of  Study  and  Practice,  designed  for  the 
use  of  schools  and  colleges.    By  W.  F.  M.  Goss.    Pp.  161.    Price,  75  cents. 

The  constantly  increasing  interest  in  manual  training  has  made  necessary 

new  textbootcs  upon  the  use  of  tools.    This  little  book  by  Professsor  Goss,  of 

Perdue  University,  has  grown  out  of  his  own  experience  and  needs  in  the 

class  room  and  at  the  bench.    The  book  is  well  written,  admirably  illustrated, 

and  will  prove  of  great  utility. 

Political  Science  Quarterly.  Edited  by  the  Faculty  of  Political  Sci- 
ence of  Columbia  College.  Vol.  3,  No.  3.  September,  1888.  Pp.  164.  Single 
copies,  75  cents ;  price  per  year,  $3.00. 

This  number  contains  five  valuable  articles,  including  an  interesting  histori- 
cal article  by  S.  6.  Fisher,  on  ^^  The  Suspension  of  Habeas  Corpus  during  the 
War  of  the  Rebellion.  This  article  discusses  the  right  of  the  President  to 
suspend  the  Habeas  Corpus  privilege,  and  will  be  found  a  valuable  discussion 
to  all  teachers  of  the  United  States  Constitution. 

Glnn  &  Co.  have  added  three  valuable  volumes  to  their  series  of  **  Classics 
for  Children."  They  are  "Arabian  Nights,"  edited  by  Edward  Everett  Hale, 
pp.  366,  price,  50  cents;  "Benjamin  Franklin*s  Autobiography,"  edited  for 
school  use  with  notes  and  a  continuation  of  his  life  by  D.  H.  Montgomery, 
pp.  311,  price,  50  cents;  and  ^^  Selections  from  Kuskln,  on  Reading  and  other 
subjects,^'  by  Edwin  Ginn,  with  notes  and  a  sketch  of  Ruskin's  life,  by  D.  H. 
M..  pp.  148.  These  books  are  remarkably  cheap,  well  printed,  well  edited,  and 
should  have  an  extended  use. 

Among  the  most  enterprising  and  successful  publishers  of  school  books  for 
teachers  are  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston.  Like  Ginn  &  Co.,  with  whom  Mr. 
Heath  was  formerly  associated,  this  young  firm  are  outdoing  themselves  the 
present  season  in  the  number  and  quality  of  books  issued.  From  among  those 
recently  published  we  find  the  following  upon  our  table:  — 

Seaside  and  Wayside.  No.  2.  By  Julia  McNair  Wright.  Illustrated. 
Pp.  175. 

This  second  number  in  the  series  of  ^^  Nature  Readers  ^'  takes  the  little  ones 

along  the  seaside  and  by  the  wayside,  soniAimes  upon  the  hills,  sometimes 

upon  the  marshes,  sometimes  upon  the  white,  hard  beach.    It  tells  the  children 

of  the  ant,  the  worm,  the  fly,  the  beetle,  the  barnacle,  the  starfish,  and  the 

dragon-fly.    ITiese  stories  are  well  written,  interesting,  and  of  great  value  to 

the  children.    The  b4||k  is  beautiful,  well  printed,  and  well  illustrated. 

Exercises  in  Enoush  Accidence,  Syntax,  and  Style.  By  H.  I.  Strang, 
Ontario. 

This  book  consists  of  a  great  variety  of  exercises  in  English  for  criticism 
and  correction.  Its  design  is  to  drill  the  pupils  orall}-  as  well  as  in  writing  in 
correct  forms  of  speech,  culling  their  attention  tu  common  errors  and  enlist- 
ing both  ear  and  eye  in  the  cause  of  good  English.  The  book  contains  nearly 
fifC}'  exercises  and  several  thousand  quotations. 

Another  of  Mr.  Heath's  republications  is  entitled  Composition  and  Rhet- 
oric by  Practice,  with  exercises  adapted  for  use  in  High  Schools  and  Col- 
leges.   By  William  Williams  B.  A.     Pp.  238. 

This  is,  on  the  face  of  it,  a  practical  book ;  not  that  it  excludes  theory,  but 
that  it  gives  prominence  to  practice.     It  combines  with  the  theory  much  prac- 


146  EDUCATION.  [October, 

tical  work  by  the  pupil,  well  arranged  and  systematized  with  safficient  explana- 
tion for  the  clear  understanding  of  what  is  needful  and  what  is  aimed  at. 

Ten  Years  of  Massachusetts.    By  Raymond  L.  Bridgham.    Pp.  1:27. 

This  singular  little  book  discusses  in  a  trenchant  manner  such  subjects  as 
•»  Public  Administration,"  **  Public  Morals,"  ''  Religious  Advance,"  **  Educa- 
tion," ^^  Society."  The  treatment  of  these  various  subjects  is  brief  and  pointed. 
The  author  sums  up  the  progress  made  in  the  Commonwealth  during  the  last 
ten  years  and  points  out  its  dangers.  His  conclusion  is,  that  *^  with  these  dan- 
gers to  its  children  and  to  its  adults,  it  promises  to  be  in  the  future  the  chief 
concern  and  pressing  problem  of  the  State  how  to  raise  men." 

Selected  PoKMS  FROM  Premieres  et  Nouvelles  Meditations.  Edited 
by  George  O.  Curme,  A.  M.,  Iowa.    Pp.  179.    Price,  75  cents. 

A  capital  selection  of  French  poems  for  school  reading,  with  full  notes  and  a 

very  interesting  biographical  sketch  of  M.  Lamartine. 

CoLLOQi'iA  Latina.  Adapted  to  the  beglnner*s  books  of  Jones,  Leighton, 
Collar  and  Daniell.  By  Benjamin  L.  D*Ooge,  M.  A.,  Michigan  Normal  School. 
Pp.  81.    Price,  30  cents. 

The  aim  of  this  book  is  twofold,  first  to  inspire  enthusiasm  at  a  time  when  it 
is  most  needed,  and  second,  to  insure  increased  thoroughness.  The  plan  of 
the  book  is  to  present  to  the  pupil  Latin  sentences  under  the  guise  of  question 
and  answer  in  such  a  way  as  constantly  to  increase  the  pupil*s  vocabulary  and 
his  knowledge  of  Latin  construction.  All  needed  help  is  given  by  means  of 
notes  and  questions,  llie  book  is  original  in  design  and  will  surely  prove  suc- 
cessful in  practice. 

The  Civil  Service  Question  Book.  Syracuse :  C.  W.  Bardeen.  1888. 
Pp.  282.    Price,  $1.60. 

The  extension  of  the  Civil  Service  System  till  it  has  become  the  only  avenue 
of  entrance  to  more  than  forty  thousand  positions,  has  made  necessary  a  col- 
lection of  questions  that  shall  enable  the  candidate  to  judge  beforehand  of  his 
fitness  to  enter  its  examinations.  None  of  the  many  *^  Question  Books  "  hith- 
erto published  serves  this  purpose.  This  book  will  be  found  throughout  some- 
thing more  than  a  4;ollection  of  questions.  The  four  hundred  classified  exer- 
cises in  English  Syntax  will  pr<^e  a  profitable  drill  for  any  one,  and  the  tables 
in  American  History  and  in  Civil  Government  are  of  value  in  every  school. 
This  book  Is  an  adequate  preparation  for  Civil  Service  examinations  held  any- 
where in  this  country. 

Ix)ngmans'  School  Geography.  By  George  C.  ClAholm.  M.  A.,  Fellow 
of  the  Koyal  Geographical  and  Statistical  Societies.  London :  Longmans, 
Green  &  Co. 

This  book  undoubtedly  embodies  a  greater  variety  and  larger  amount  of  relia- 
ble information  relating  to  the  geography  of  the  whole  world  than  can  else- 
where be  found  in  the  same  space.  It  is  a  most  valuable  reference  book  for 
every  teacher  of  geography,  and  contains  just  the  Information  which  every 
wide-awake  teacher  needs  to  supplement  the  material  usually  found  in  the  text- 
books. Especially  does  it  give  valuable  information  concerning  the  relations 
of  our  country  to  Europe.  For  example:  *'From  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  the 
wheat,  fiour,  maize,  raw  cotton,  and  live  cattle,  and  nearly  four-fifths  of  the 
meat  imported  into  the  United  Kingdom  came  from  the  United  States.^'  We 
commend  tliis  book  to  the  careful  attention  of  our  American  teachers. 


1888.]  AMONG  THE  BOOKS.  147 

Longmans'  School  Grammar.  By  David  Salmon.  London  and  New  York : 
Longmans,  Green  &  Co.    1888.    Pp.  264. 

Several  prominent  writers  have  lately  made  comparisons  between  the  meth- 
ods of  education  in  this  country  and  in  Europe,  not  always  altogether  in  our 
favor.  If  they  are  correct,  it  were  well  for  our  teachers  to  examine  carefully 
foreign  textbooks,  and  if  our  ambitious  authors  before  taking  up  their  pens 
would  give  critical  study  to  the  textbooks  of  Great  Britain,  it  wQuld  doubtless 
be  for  our  beneflt.  Longmans^  School  Grammar  is  not  an  old-fashioned  gram- 
mar, but  it  is  a  grammar^  and  it  embodies  the  latest  principles  of  teaching  and 
the  truest  methods  of  presentation.  The  parts  of  speech  are  first  considered 
with  an  immense  amount  of  practice.  Classiflcatlon  and  Inflection  constitute 
Part  2.  Part  3  treats  of  the  Analysis  of  Sentences,  and  Part  4  of  History  and 
Derivation.     Longmans'  New  York  ofllce  is  at  15  E.  16th  Street. 

Numbers  Symbolized;  an  Elementary  Algebra.  By  David  M.  Sensenig, 
M.  S.,  Professor  of  Mathematics,  State  Normal  School,  West  Chester,  Pa. 
New  York,  Boston  and  Chicago :    D.  Appleton  &  Co.    1888.    Pp.  315. 

Some  of  the  special  features  of  this  new  applicant  for  the  teacher's  favor 
may  be  mentioned :  ^^  Easy  transition  from  the  elementary  forms  of  reason- 
ing to  pure  mathematical  demonstration.'*  A  large  number  of  carefully  se- 
lected and  appropriate  examples,  both  for  oral  and  written  work.  A  fairly 
extensive  treatment  of  factoring;  an  early  introduction  of  the  equation,  and  a 
frequent  return  to  it.  The  explanations  of  algebraic  subtraction,  or  the  subject 
of  minus  quantities,  is  a  noticeable  feature.  It  would  be  a  very  dull  pupil  who 
would  not  be  able  to  understand,  ^^Tell  which  of  the  following  quantities  are 
positive  and  which  negative :  John  earns  910,  spends  $8,  Ands  ^9,  loses  $12, 
gives  a  poor  man  $5,  receives  a  reward  of  $6."  The  above  features  are  of  such 
importance  that  the  book  will  be  found  well  worthy  of  a  careful  examination 
by  any  wide-awake  teacher  of  Algebra. 

Academic  Algebra,  with  numerous  examples;  College  Algebra,  with 
numerous  examples.  By  Edward  A.  Bowser,  LL.  D.,  Professor  of  Mathemat- 
ics and  Engineering  In  Rutger's  College.  New  York :  D.  Van  Nostrand,  Pub- 
lisher, 23  Murray,  and  27  Warren  Streets.     1888. 

Doctor  Bowser,  in  these  two  volumes,  makes  a  valuable  addition  to  his  list 
of  Mathematical  Textbooks.  His  treatises  in  the  higher  mathematics  are 
somewhat  well  known,  and  the  appearance  of  these  new  books  indicates  that 
teachers  will  very  soon  have  a  better  acquaintance  with  his  methods. 
Among  the  features  flrst  noticed  might  be  mentioned  (1)  A  chapter  of  equa- 
tions and  problems  introduced  before  the  subject  of  factoring,  in  order  that 
the  student  may  ^^  see  and  feel  that  he  can  use  his  knowledge  to  some  practical 
end."  (2)  The  attention  given  to  factoring,  with  the  special  idea  that  *'  the 
student^s  flrst  thought  on  looking  at  an  equation  shall  be :  can  it  be  resolved 
into  factors."  (3)  The  large  number  of  examples,  carefully  graded,  and  de- 
signed to  give  the  teacher  a  chance  to  prevent  the  use  of  a  student's  note-book 
'*  key."  (4)  The  two  books  could  be  used  in  the  same  class,  if  it  were  of  any 
advantage  to  do  so,  when,  perhaps,  some  wished  to  pursue  the  course  farther, 
while  others  must  stop  with  the  elementary  part,  the  wordjng  being  exactly 
the  same  in  the  two,  the  dilference  being  simply  in  the  amount  of  ground  cov- 
ered. The  question  does  arise,  however,  whether  the  same  explanations  are 
required  for  academic  as  for  college  pupils.  The  publishers  are  making  no 
mistake  in  presenting  this  series  to  the  educational  world. 


148  EDUCATION.  [October, 

Descriptive  Geombtrt.  By  Lewis  Faunce,  AAsIstant  Professor  of  Descrip- 
tive Geometry  and  Drawing  in  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 
Boston :    Gin'n  &  Co.    1888.    Price,  31.35.    Pp.  54,  with  16  plates. 

This  will  be  found  to  be  a  practical  book.  This  is  the  especial  feature;  many 
practical  problems  are  given,  and  the  principles  of  Descriptive  Geometry  are 
applied.  The  design  is  to  furnish  a  work  for  draughtsmen  as  well  as  for  stu- 
dents. 

« 

Chemical  Problems.  By  J.  P.  Grabfleld,  Ph.  D.,  and  P.  S.  Burns,  B.  S., 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  Boston,  Mass.  Boston:  D.  C.  Heath 
&Co.    1888. 

The  title  of  the  work  indicates  the  contents.    Problems  in  Volumetric  and 

Gravimetric  computations  and  percentage  composition,  atomic  weights  (three 

methods),  reaction,  thermo-chemlstry,  etc.,  take  up  the  largest  part  of  the 

book,  while  the  rest  of  the  space  presents  what  teachers  need,  a  quite  complete 

list  of  ^^  Tech."  examinations  in  chemistry.    It  ought  to  be  in  the  hands  of 

every  teacher  of  chemistr}'. 

Popular  Physics.  By  J.  Dorman  Steele,  Ph.  D.,  F.  G.  S.,  author  of  "  Four- 
teen Weeks'  Series  "  in  Natural  Science.  Pp.  380.  New  York  and  Chicago : 
A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co. 

Teachers  need  no  introduction  to  the  ^^  Fourteen  Weeks'  Series,'"  and  all  that 
can  be  said  here  must  be  to  speak  of  the  revision  of  the  ^^  Fourteen  Weeks  in 
Natural  Philosophy."'  For  this  purpose,  a  few  lines  are  taken  from  the  Pub- 
lisher's Preface:  ^* Shortly  before  his  death,  finding  his  health  too  feeble  to 
permit  of  extra  labor,  the  author  requested  Dr.  W.  Le  C.  Stevens,  Professor 
of  Physics  in  the  Packer  Collegiate  Institute,  Brooklyn,  to  revise  the  textbook 
in  Physics,  as  important  advances  in  this  department  of  science  had  been  made 
since  the  issue  of  the  edition  of  1878.  In  performing  thia  work,  Professor 
Stevens  has  endeavored  to  impose  the  least  possible  modification  upon  the 
peculiar  style  of  the  author.  Nevertheless,  every  chapter  has  received  some 
alterations  and  slight  enlargement."  This  book  will  receive,  as  it  deserves,  a 
very  extended  sale.  Its  statements  are  remarkably  clear,  and  the  book  in  the 
hands  of  the  average  High  school  teacher,  for  use  with  the  average  class  of 
boys  and  girls,  will  give  great  satisfaction. 

GiNN  &  Company  have  issued  a  very  neat  and  attractive  catalogue  and  an- 
nouncement of  their  various  and  important  publications.  This  enterprising 
house  are  publishing  for  teachers  and  the  schools,  almost  daily,  new  books  of 
rare  value,  and  their  prices  are  remarkably  low.  Their  '*  Classics  for  Children  " 
hold  a  high  place  as  supplementary  readers.  Good  literature  is  the  great  ne- 
cessity for  the  public  schools. 

The  Massachusetts  Society  for  Promoting  Good  Citizenship  has  ju<t  issued  a 
report  of  great  value,  upon  *•  Works  on  Civil  Government.*'  It  gives  a  descrip- 
tive li:st  of  such  works  as  are  fitted  for  school  use.  It  m  ly  be  had  by  address- 
ing Kdwiu  D.  Mead,  71  Pinckney  Street,  Boston. 

The  Eighth  Annual  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Boston, 
has  some  interesting  chapters,  which  are  well  worth  a  careful  peiusal,  especially 
Mr.  Seaver's  remarks  upon  Courses  of  Study  and  Promotions. 


AMONG  THE  BOOKS. 


AMONG  THE  BOOKS. 


Tbe  folloniDj;  five  volumes  are  pub-  ' 
llohed  Id  Caaeell's  "  Sunshine  Series," 
Issued  weekly  by  CaSHell  &  Co.,  104 
and  108  Fourth  Avenue,  New  York, 
and  for  siile  In  Busion  by  Clarbe  &  . 
Carruth.  Price  RO  cents  each. 
The  Brown  Stone  Bov.    By  William  ' 

Henry  Bishop. 

This  book  contains  eight  stories  de- 
Ruriplive  of  queer  people,  or  taughnble 
Incidents  or  situations.  The  stories 
are  out  of  the  ordinnry  run  and  are 
written  Id  an  Interesting;  and  attrac- 
tive Myle. 
Bewitched:  A  Tale.    By  Louis  Pen- 

This  tale  of  the  South  haK  an  appro- 
priate title,  and  has  for  eharacters  the 
native  Southerner,  the  Spaniard,  and 
the  Nf);ro,  plHylng  on  their  supersti- 
tion" and  well  portraying  their  peculi- 
arities. Though  right  triumphs  In  the 
end.  It  is  only  by  force  of  might  and 
happy  uoincidences.  Two  shorter  arti- 
cles, '*  Arladoe  in  the  Wire  Grass,"  and 
"'ilie  Story  of  Black  Dan,"  are  ap- 
pended. 
No.   19  State  Street.     By   David 

Orahnm  Adee. 

Afew  words  taken  from  the  Prologue 
may  set  befure  the  reader  the  nature, 
at  least,  of  the  story.  '*  The  indorse- 
meot  ran  as  follows :  '  Full  Statement 
of  the  Mysterious  Discoveries  and  Ex- 
periences At  No.  is  State  Street,  in  the 
city  iif  New  York.'  Under  this  strange 
inscription  was  the  date  '  February  28, 
1IM5.'  At  the  foot  of  the  document, 
which  seemed  to  my  hasty  scrutiny  to 
cODtain  a  bulky  consecutive  recital, 
was  inscribed  the  signature,  'John 
Andrew  Cross,'  in  full.  It  is  this 
quaintly-told  tale,  so  startliug  and 
pecniiar,  which,  without  apology,  is 


herein  laid  before  the  reader,   with 
the  single  suggestion, —  was  John  A. 
Cross  ever  crnzyF" 
Madame  Silva.    Bv  M.  G.  McClel- 
land, author  of  '•  Oblivion,"  "  Prin- 
cess," and  "Jean  Montelth."    Pp. 
320. 

This  story,  like  so  many  modern  sto- 
ries, is  t.  peering  into  the  mysteries  of 
what  may  be  called,  for  lack  of  a  better 
word,  meeroerism.  It  is  an  account 
of  an  attempt  to  overcome  tbe  tnes- 
meric  Influence  that  enchained  a  wife, 
and  to  make  her  what  a  wife  ought  to 
be,  "  a  creature  to  love,  and  be  loved 
by ;  to  be  companion,  friend,  lover, 
comrade,  conscience,  aspiration,  lit- 
erally part  and  parcel  of  her  husband's 
being."  Bound  with  this  story,  Is  t, 
shorter  one,  entitled  "The  Ghost  of 
Dred  Power." 


This  novel  is  not  trashy,  vulgar,  or 
injurious.  It  is  written  ih  an  Interesting 
Btyleand  gives  some  very  good  descrip- 
tions o(  human  character. 

AQNE3  SuRRiAOE.  By  Edwln  Laa- 
aettlr  Bvnner.  Tlcknor  >>  Paper  Se- 
ries." Boston  :Tlcknor  A  Co.  Price, 
GO  cents. 

This  work  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the 
best  portrayals  of  New  England  coloni- 
al life  to  be  found  In  the  form  at  a  nov- 
el. I^tudents  of  early  Americanhlstory 
are  familiar  with  the  romantic  story 
upon  which  the  book  is  founded,  and 
will  recognize  many  of  the  events  as 
well-known  historical  facta.  The  au- 
thor has  given  a  very  striking  and 
clear  picture  of  New  Enghind  life, 
I  of  the  quaint  buildings,  narrow 
I  streets  and  lanes,  of  the  spirit  and 
of  the  people  of  a  hundred 


150 


EDUCATION. 


[October, 


and  fifty  yearn  ago.  Very  fascinating 
are  the  descriptions  of  the  Puritan 
towns. 

Saint  Peter  and  Tom:  or,  Two 
Unlikely  Heroes.  By  Belle  S. 
Cra^in.  Pp.196.  Price,  «1.00.  Bos- 
ton and  Ciiica^o:  Congregational 
Sunday-School  and  Publishing  Soci- 
ety. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  read  these  two 
boys^  stories  to  Itnow  something  about 
them.  The  titles  and  the  name  of  the 
publishers  would  inform  any  discern- 
ing reader  that  the  book  was  designed 
for  Sunday-School  Libraries.  l*erhaps 
this  is  not  a  recommendation  to  most 
readers,  still  it  ought  to  be.  This 
boolc  seems  to  belie  the  accusations  so 
commonly  made  against  stories  of  this 
class,  and  is  very  readable.  The 
two  boys  are  not  saints, —  Peter,  too 
flery-tempered ;  Tom,  too  dull, —  but 
they  won  places  for  themselves, 
both  in  the  good  opinions  and  in  the 
hearts  of  all  their  friends.  It  is  a 
very  boys'  book,  both  to  be  appreciated 
by  them  and  to  do  them  good. 

Incidents  in  a  Busy  Life.  An  Au- 
tobiography by  Asa  BuUard.  Bos- 
ton and  Chiciigo:  Congregational 
Sunday-School  and  Publishing  So- 
ciety.   1888.    Pp.  235. 

Xo  Sunday-school  worker  can  be 
found  who  does  not  know  of  the  ven- 
erable Asa  Bullard,  and  few  who  are 
not  aware  of  the  great  good  that  he 
has  done  for  the  young.  There  could 
be  no  more  fitting  time  for  the  publi- 
cation of  his  memoirs  than  the  pres- 
ent, Just  after  his  death,  and  while  so 
many  Sunday-schools  are  contributing 
to  the  ^*  Asa  Bullard  Memorial  Fund '' ; 
no  more  fitting  publishers  than  the 


Congregational  Sanday-School  and 
Publishing  Society,  and  all  would 
prefer  that  the  life  should  be  written 
by  Mr.  Bullard  himself.  All  will  be 
pleased  to  find  the  autobiography  pre- 
cedcHi  by  an  introduction  by  Dr.  Mc- 
Konzle  of  Cambridge,  and  followed 
by  the  memorial  address  of  M.  C. 
Hazard  of  Dorchester. 

Cookery  for  Beginners.  By  Mari- 
on Harland.  Boston:  D.  Lothrop 
Co.    Price,  75  cents. 

Any  boi>k  from  the  pen  of  Marion 
Harland,  and  particularly  one  on  the 
subject  of  cookery,  is  aiways  welcome 
to  the  American  housewife.  This 
book  is  perfectly  adapted  to  the  needs 
of  those  Just  begluning  to  learn  this 
valuable  art,  and  will  be  found  full  of 
useful  suggestions  to  those  who  are 
experts  in  this  line.  It  contains  just 
such  instruction  as  every  young  house- 
wife requires  when  she  finds  herself 
obliged  to  depend  upon  her  own  re- 
sources. 

Looking  Backward.  By  Edward 
Bellamy.  Ticknor  '*  Paper  Series." 
Boston :  Ticknor  &  Co.  Price,  50 
cents. 

This  startling  book  has  aroused  in- 
tense interest  among  the  people  at 
large,  and  is  read  far  and  near.  It  is 
a  book  which  thoughtful  and  serious- 
minded  people  are  now  reading  and 
discussing.  It  is,  in  reality,  a  long 
look  ahead,  given  under  the  fascinating 
aspect  of  a  backward  look  from  the 
year  2000,  A.  D.  ITie  social  system 
of  the  present  century  is  compared 
with  that  of  the  year  2000.  People 
interested  in  the  labor  question  will 
particularly  enjoy  this  book. 


GbUeTATIOR 

DEVOTED  TO  THE    SCIENCE,  ART,  PHILOSOPHY,  AND 

LITERATURE  OF  EDUCATION. 


Vol.   IX.  NOVEMBER,    1888.  No.   3. 

HOW  THE  FATHERS  BUILDED  IN  OHIO. 

BY  JAMES  H.  FAIRCHILD,  D.  D.,  PRESIDENT  OBEKLIN  COLLEGE. 

THE  first  movement  toward  the  establishment  of  a  college  within 
the  limits  of  our  State  was  made  by  the  Ohio  Land  Company^ 
organized  in  Boston  for  the  purpose  of  purchasing  lands  in  the 
Western  Territory  belonging  to  the  United  States,  and  of  pro- 
moting a  settlement  in  that  country.  In  their  contract  with  the 
general  government  in  1787,  it  was  provided  that  two  townshipa 
of  land  should  be  donated  by  the  government  for  the  establishment 
of  a  higher  institution  of  learning,  and  its  permanent  endowment. 
This  land  was  selected  and  definitely  set  apart  to  its  uses  in  1795^ 
eight  years  after  the  grant  was  made.  Seven  years  later,  in  1802^ 
an  act  was  passed  by  the  territorial  legislature  establishing  the 
"American  Western  University,"  in  the  town  of  Athens.  The 
following  year  the  State  government  was  organized,  and,  in  1804, 
the  legislature  of  Ohio  passed  an  act  changing  the  name  of  the 
institution  to  ''Ohio  University,"  and  defining  its  object  to  be 
"  the  instruction  of  youth  in  all  the  various  branches  of  the  liberal 
arts  and  sciences,  the  promotion  of  good  education,  virtue,  religion, 
and  morality,  and  conferring  all  the  degrees  and  literary  honors 
granted  in  similar  institutions."  In  1809,  twenty-one  years  after 
the  grant  was  made  by  the  general  government,  the  first  college 
instruction  was  given  in  the  University  of  Ohio,  and  six  years 
later,  in  1815,  the  first  degrees  were  conferred.  Thus,  almost  a 
generation  had  passed  before  the  hopes  of  the  far-seeing  men  of 
the  Ohio  Company  were  realized.     The  task  of  settling  the  new 


152  ED  VGA  TION.  [N  ovember , 

country  in  those  early  years  involved  many  more  pressing  labors 
than  that  of  organizing  and  carrying  forward  a  university.  The 
forest,  the  wild  beasts,  and  the  savages  must  first  be  looked  after. 
The  land  and  the  charters  must  bide  their  time. 

In  the  same  year,  1787,  in  which  the  Ohio  Company  made  their 
purchase  and  secured  their  grant  from  the  general  government,  in 
the  south-eastern  portion  of  the  State,  John  Cleves  Symmes,  chief- 
justice  of  New  Jersey,  descended  the  Ohio  River  as  far  as  the 
great  falls  at  Louisville,  and  was  attracted  by  the  fine  country  in 
the  neighborhood  of  what  was  afterward  Cincinnati.  He  con- 
tracted for  the  purchase  of  a  million  of  acres  from  the  general 
government,  and  in  connection  with  the  purchase  provided  for  the 
grant  of  a  township  of  land  for  the  support  of  an  academy  or  col- 
lege. This  township  was  not  finally  selected  and  located  until 
1803.  A  grammar  school  was  opened  upon  the  site  of  the  con- 
templated college  in  1818,  but  the  Miami  University  was  not 
organized  until  six  years  later,  in  1824.  Thus,  the  Miami  Uni- 
versity at  Oxford,  like  the  Ohio  University  at  Athens,  was  founded 
upon  a  grant  of  land  given  by  the  general  government,  and  in- 
tended as  a  permanent  endowment.  In  this  way  the  southern 
part  of  the  State  was  provided,  in  the  earliest  times,  with  its  higher 
educational  institutions. 

In  1824  the  Theological  Seminary  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  at  Gambier,  in  the  central  part  of  the  State,  was  chartered 
by  the  legislature,  and  in  1826,  two  years  later,  by  a  second  act, 
the  professors  of  the  Seminary  were  empowered  to  act  as  the  fac- 
ulty of  a  college,  under  the  name  and  style  of  the  '"  president  and 
professors  of  Kenyon  College."  Two  weeks  after  the  date  of  the 
act  incorporating  Kenyon  College,  a  charter  was  granted  by  the 
legislature  to  "Western  Reserve  College,"  at  Hudson,  in  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  State.  No  other  college  charters  were  granted 
until  1832,  when  such  a  charter  was  granted  to  the  "Granville 
Literary  and  Theological  Institution,"  afterwards  called  Granville 
College,  and  later,  Denison  University.  Oberlin  College  received 
its  charter  in  1834 ;  Marietta  College  in  1835.  Thus,  within  thirty- 
three  years  from  the  organization  of  the  State,  we  find  seven  col- 
leges in  existence,  well  distributed  over  the  State.  This  would 
seem  a  reasonable,  or  at  least  a  sufficient  number,  even  for  a  State 
as  large  as  Ohio ;  and  some  of  these  seemed  to  crowd  upon  each 
other.     Oberlin  and  Hudson  were  scarcely  sixty  miles  apart;  Ma- 


1888. J  HOW  THE  FATHERS  BUILDED.  153 

rietta  and  Athens  about  the  same  distance,  and  Granville  and 
Gambier  only  forty  miles.  But  the  good  people  of  the  State  were 
not  able  to  content  themselves  with  seven  colleges.  These  col- 
leges were  organized  and  managed  by  religious  men,  with  special 
reference  to  a  supply  of  preachers  and  pastors  for  the  people,  but 
not  with  any  exclusive  purpose  of  this  kind.  Their  doors  were 
freely  open  to  all  students  without  any  discrimination,  and  no 
religious  tests  were  provided,  in  their  charters  or  articles  of  asso- 
ciation, for  trustees  or  faculty.  Kenyon  College  was  an  exception 
to  this  statement,  being  the  outgrowth  of  the  Theological  Sem- 
inary of  the  "Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  Diocese  of 
Ohio."  Granville  College,  although  ''the  child  of  the  Ohio  Bap- 
tist Education  Society,"  was  at  the  first  without  any  denomina- 
tional limitation  as  to  its  management,  but  such  limitations  have 
been  supplied  in  later  years.  But  the  remaining  five,  although 
free  from  any  denominational,  or  even  religious  character,  so  far 
as  charters  and  constitutions  were  concerned,  were  as  a  matter  of 
fact  under  the  controlling  influence  of  certain  denominations 
of  Christians. 

The  Ohio  and  Miami  Universities  were  organized  under  Presby- 
terian auspices,  and  were  thus  controlled  for  many  years.  Western 
Reserve,  and  Oberlin,  and  Marietta,  in  a  similar  way  sprung  from 
the  Presbyterian  and  Congregational  churches,  in  the  days  of  what 
was  known  as  the  "Plan  of  Union."  Yet,  I  suppose  that  not  one 
of  these  five  institutions  has  ever  had,  in  constitution  or  by-law, 
any  religious  test  for  trustees,  or  faculty,  or  students.  But  their 
origin  and  history  brought  them  denominational  support,  and  the 
denominations  which  sustained  them  received  in  return  the  benefit. 
This  was  an  inevitable  result.  As  other  denominations  attained 
a  larger  growth  in  the  State,  it  was  natural  that  they  should  feel 
the  need  of  such  advantages,  and  should  found  for  themselves  in- 
stitutions of  higher  education,  where  their  children  should  be 
trained  for  the  ministry  of  their  churches,  and  for  the  learned  pro- 
fessions generally. 

Thus,  I  believe,  all  our  colleges  founded  since  1835,  have  come 
into  existence  under  the  impulse  of  denominational  interest  and 
need,  except  as  local  enterprise  or  individual  ambition  has  operated 
here  and  there.  The  Ohio  State  University,  founded  on  the  Con- 
gressional land  grant  of  1862,  and  organized  and  controlled  by  the 
General  Assembly  of  the  State,  is,  of  course,  excepted  in  this  state- 


154  EDUCATION.  [November, 

ment.  But  these  institutions,  while  under  denominational  influ- 
ence and  control,  cannot  be  regarded  as  sectarian,  in  any  narrow 
sense.  Their  doors  are  freely  open  to  students  of  all  religious 
connections  and  of  none,  and  the  religious  instruction  and  influ- 
ence brought  to  bear  are  rarely,  if  ever,  characterized  by  sectarian 
narrowness.  It  would  seem  wiser,  from  a  theoretical  point  of  view, 
that  the  general  interest  should  have  been  concentrated  upon  a 
smaller  number  of  colleges,  instead  of  being  divided  among  twenty 
or  more.  It  is  easy  to  imagine  that  by  such  concentration  a  great 
institution  might  have  arisen,  of  wide  and  commanding  influence, 
but,  practically,  such  concentration  was  impossible.  The  time  for 
State  universities  had  not  arrived,  and  thus  Oliio  has  today  its 
twenty  or  more  colleges,  all  doing,  more  or  less  successfully,  the 
work  of  higher  education.  There  is  no  occasion  to  look  back  with 
regret  upon  this  apparent  division  of  strength;  what  was  possible, 
and  in  that  sense  what  was  best,  was  done.  It  is  not  clear  that 
the  people  of  Ohio  have  suffered  in  comparison  with  more  recent 
States  in  the  absence  of  a  State  university.  There  is  ho  evidence 
that  a  more  imposing  central  school  would  have  accomplished 
more  for  good  education,  morality,  and  religion  among  the  people ; 
and  this  is  the  real  test  of  what  is  best,  in  all  arrangements  for 
education.  The  American  idea  is  diffusion  rather  than  concen- 
tration. A  great  cathedral,  centrally  placed,  would  be  imposing; 
but  a  thousand  churches  gathering  their  worshippers  in  every 
neighborhood  would  be  more  useful.  At  all  events  the  educational 
machinery  of  the  State  cannot  be  reconstructed ;  we  must  do  the 
best  we  can  with  what  we  have,  and  that  will  not  be  doing  badly. 
It  is  not  improbable  that  the  number  of  our  colleges  may  be  re- 
duced upon  the  principle  of  "the  struggle  for  existence  and  the 
survival  of  the  fittest,"  but  there  is  no  occasion  to  hasten  such  a 
result. 

The  work  of  establishing  and  sustaining  these  colleges,  in  the 
comparative  poverty  of  the  people  before  the  development  of  the 
resources  of  the  State,  has  not  been  small.  Each  college  has  gath- 
ered about  itself  its  benefactors  and  patrons,  and  the  work  involved 
years,  and  in  some  cases  generations,  of  self-denying  labor,  on  the 
part  of  trustees,  and  faculty,  and  friends.  Back  of  every  one  of 
these  institutions  lies  a  history  of  patient  toil  and  self-sacrifice 
which  constitutes  a  precious  endowment.  It  does  not  appear  in 
the  statistical  tables  of  the  State  Commissioner,  but  it  counts  in 


1888.]  HOW  OUB  FATHERS  BUILDED.  155 

the  forces  which  form  the  character  of  the  people,  and  build  up 
the  State.  The  means  for  building  and  endowing  these  schools 
have  come,  in  general,  from  the  friends  interested  in  each  special 
enterprise.  In  a  few  instances  help  has  been  obtained  from  the 
older  East,  and  in  two  instances,  at  least,  —  Kenyon  and  Oberlin, — 
from  over  the  water.  With  the  exception  of  the  three  schools 
which  are  called  State  institutions,  all  that  the  State  government 
has  done  for  these  colleges  is  to  give  them  their  charters,  and,  with 
some  limitation,  to  abstain  from  taxing  their  grounds,  their  build- 
ings, and  their  endowments.  In  the  case  of  the  three  State  schools, 
the  State  government  became  the  trustee  of  the  land  grants  from 
the  general  government  upon  which  the  institutions  were  founded. 
In  the  two  earliest  cases  the  administration  of  this  trust  has  been 
matter  of  considerable  criticism.  In  later  y^ars  some  appropria- 
tions have  been  made  by  the  State  as  a  measure  of  compensation 
for  unsuccessful  administration  of  the  trust.  Moderate  appropria- 
tions have  also  been  made  in  recent  years  for  the  support  of  the 
Ohio  State  University  founded  on  the  Congressional  land  grant 
of  1852.  With  these  exceptions  the  colleges  of  Ohio  have  re- 
ceived no  help  from  the  State.  I  mention  this  as  an  historical  fact, 
and  not  as  a  matter  of  complaint.  It  is  probable  that  nothing  bet- 
ter, in  this  direction,  could  have  been  done.  The  relations  of  the 
State  to  the  higher  institutions  of  learning  in  this  country  are 
still  in  process  of  development. 

The  higher  education  of  the  young  women  of  Ohio,  was  at  first 
provided  for  in  the  establishment  of  "  female  seminaries,"  after  the 
model  of  similar  institutions  in  the  older  states.  The  schools  at 
Granville,  at  Steubenville,  at  Cincinnati,  at  Oxford,  and  at  Paines- 
ville  were  among  the  earliest  of  these,  which  still  hold  on  their 
way,  doing  their  good  work.  At  the  establishment  of  Oberlin 
College  the  i^lan  of  co-education  was  introduced,  and  young  women 
entered  upon  the  collegiate  course  in  1837,  and  received  the  de- 
gree of  A.  B.  in  1841,  —  the  first  instance,  in  this  country,  of  de- 
grees being  conferred  upon  young  women.  Since  that  time  the 
method  of  co-education  has  been  introduced  into  most  of  the  col- 
leges and  universities  of  the  State,  and  into  a  large  majority  of 
those  of  the  newer  states  of  the  West.  The  system  has  gone 
eastward  as  far  as  Boston,  and  is  even  making  headway  among 
the  institutions  of  the  Old  World.  If  there  is  merit  in  the  sys- 
tem, Ohio  may  properly  claim  the  honor  of  its  introduction.     The 


156  EDUCATION.  '  [November, 

large  majority  of  the  young  women  of  Ohio,  now  in  a  course  of 
higher  education,  are  pursuing  it  under  co-educational  arrange- 
ments. 

The  general  course  of  study  in  the  earlier  colleges  of  Ohio  was 
the  same  essentially  as  that  found  in  the  colleges  of  the  older 
States.  Yale,  Harvard,  Dartmouth,  and  Princeton  were  the  mod- 
els after  which  our  college  took  form.  It  was  thought  necessary 
that  a  student  should  be  able  to  pass  from  his  college  in  Ohio  to 
one  of  the  eastern  colleges,  entering  ad  euruJem^  and  this  was  often 
accomplished.  The  material  of  the  regular  curriculum  was  the 
Latin  and  Greek  classics,  Mathematics,  involving  Physics  and 
Astronomy,  Chemistry  and  a  touch  of  Natural  Science,  Psychology, 
Ethics,  and  English  Literature,  with  a  limited  packing  of  History 
and  other  specialties.  It  was  a  good  solid  course,  and  it  may  very 
reasonably  be  questioned  whether  anything  better  has  been  discov- 
ered in  our  day.  These  studies  are  still  the  backbone  in  every 
well-ordered  college,  but  the  modern  languages  and  the  newer 
sciences  have  come  in  to  claim  their  share  of  attention,  and  the 
old  college  course  has  become  greatly  diversified  with  optionals 
and  electives.  The  colleges  of  Ohio  have,  according  to  their 
means,  given  the  new  ideas  a  hospitable  reception,  and  the  Ohio 
youth  will  not  be  obliged  to  go  to  Harvard  to  find  a  course  suited 
to  his  natural  gifts  and  aspirations.  Meanwhile  let  us  not  forget 
that  to  multiply  courses  and  electives  is  not  the  same  thing  as  to 
elevate  and  improve  the  education  of  the  individual  student.  The 
final  test  of  all  this  multiplication  of  studies  is  found  in  the  effect 
upon  personal  character  and  equipment.  The  college  may  be 
greatly  enlarged  and  enriched  in  its  furnishment  for  every  branch 
of  educational  work,  while  the  pupil  in  his  personal  work  experi- 
ences no  corresponding  advantage. 

The  colleges  of  Ohio  have  not  beeh  behind  in  introducing  the 
new  methods  of  instruction,  involving  laboratory  work  for  the 
student  in  the  sciences,  and  such  use  of  the  library  as  is  a  training 
for  original  investigation.  Every  improvement  of  this  kind  in- 
volves more  extensive  apparatus  and  increased  endowments,  and 
brings  a  new  test  to  the  feebler  colleges,  that  are  already  struggling 
to  maintain  their  position  in  the  sisterhood.  There  is  always 
ground  to  apprehend  that  an  improvement  of  this  kind  will,  in  the 
fresh  interest  excited,  be  carried  beyond  reason ;  and  that  it  will 
prove  simply  a  premature  attempt  to  transform  the  college  into  a 


1888.]  HOW  OUB  FATHEBS  BUILDED.  157 

university,  employing  post-graduate  methods  where  they  do  not 
belong.  The  watchful  interest  of  the  guardians  of  education  will 
check  the  tendency  in  due  time. 

A  movement  in  the  direction  of  industrial  education  or  manual 
training  is  indicated  in  the  attitude  of  the  public  mind ;  and  we 
shall  doubtless  soon  be  called  to  consider  to  what  extent  such 
training  can  be  introduced  into  our  system  of  college  work.  The 
experiment  of  what  was  known  in  its  day  as  the  manual  labor 
system  was  tried  in  several  of  the  earlier  Ohio  colleges,  and  was 
universally  found  impracticable.  The  idea  in  this  experiment  was 
to  furnish  the  pupil  with  profitable  employment,  to  which  he  should 
devote  from  two  to  four  hours  daily,  thus  securing  wholesome  exer- 
cise, as  well  as  useful  training  in  some  manual  employment,  and 
by  the  profits  of  his  labor  defraying  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
expense  of  his  education.  The  idea  was  very  inviting,  but  it 
proved  utterly  impracticable.  No  method  could  be  devised  by 
which  the  labor  of  an  average  company  of  students,  working  two 
or  three  hours  a  day,  could  be  made  profitable.  A  student,  for  his 
two  hours'  work,  requires  even  more  supervision  than  an  ordinary 
laborer  for  his  ten  hours.  His  heart,  too,  is  where  his  treasure  is, 
with  his  studies,  and  there  can  be  no  successful  labor  which  does 
not  command  the  mind  as  well  as  the  body.  Still  again,  the  plant 
required  to  supply  labor  to  a  given  number  of  students  cannot  be 
essentially  less  than  for  the  same  number  of  regular  laborers.  The 
idea  of  securing  any  product  by  such  fitful  labor  which  shall  com- 
pete in  the  market  with  the  product  of  labor  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions, is  manifestly  preposterous.  Such  was  the  result  of  every 
experiment  of  manual  labor  in  connection  with  the  college.  It 
proved  the  most  expensive  department  of  the  college,  and  the  help 
afforded  to  the  student  was  a  very  costly  gift  of  the  college.  It 
would  be  a  moderate  statement  to  say  that  if  the  student  were 
employed  in  farm  work,  which  is  the  most  obvious  method  of  em- 
ploying student  labor,  every  bushel  of  grain  produced  would  cost 
twice  the  market  price.  The  product  of  the  shop,  or  the  manu- 
factory, would  be  even  more  costly.  From  a  somewhat  extended 
experience  and  observation  in  efforts  of  this  kind,  I  have  been  led 
to  believe  that  whatever  is  paid  to  students  for  their  labor  in  our 
modern  agricultural  colleges  is  essentially  the  gift  of  the  college, 
and  the  true  conception  would  be  to  regard  the  labor  as  a  part  of 
the  student's  insti-uction,  for  which  he  should  no  more  receive 


158  EDUCATION,  [November, 

compensation  than  for  his  work  in  the  laboratory,  or  the  observa- 
tory. This,  I  think,  is  the  view  and  the  practice  in  some  of  our 
agricultural  colleges,  but  not  in  all.  The  modern  idea  of  manual 
training  for  the  student  involves  no  thought  of  profit  from  the 
labor  or  of  compensation  for  it.  It  is  to  be  a  part  of  the  student's 
education  for  which  the  college  is  to  provide,  as  for  his  other  in- 
struction. It  is  thought  that  such  training,  regularly  pursued, 
will  afford  the  student  needed  and  pleasant  exercise,  more  inviting 
even  than  the  ball-ground  or  the  gymnasium,  giving  him  at  the 
same  time  a  familiarity  with  tools,  and  \vith  various  manual  opera- 
tions, and  an  experience  of  work  in  some  of  its  forms,  which  no 
educated  man  can  afford  to  be  without.  The  view  seems  to  have 
reason  in  it,  and  experiments  in  this  direction  liave  already  been 
made  which  are  thought  to  prove  the  practicability  of  the  scheme. 
It  would  not  be  strange  if  twenty  years  from  now  our  colleges 
should  generally  be  furnished  with  appliances  for  extending  in 
this  direction  the  culture  afforded  to  their  students.  Such  culture 
is  desirable ;  it  ought  not  to  be  unattainable. 

The  problem  of  the  connection  hettreen  the  public  high  school  and 
the  college  has  .thus  far  been  but  imperfectly  solved.  When  the 
fii'st  colleges  of  Ohio  were  established,  there  was  no  body  of  stu- 
dents prepared  to  enter  upon  proper  college  work.  Each  college 
found  itself  compelled  to  prepare  its  own  students.  Hence  the 
preparatory  departments  of  most  of  our  colleges  are  older  than 
the  colleges  themselves ;  or  rather  the  colleges  began  with  the  pre- 
paratory work,  and  have  never  reached  the  point  where  they  could 
lay  this  work  aside.  It  is  an  interesting  inquiry  whether  we  are 
approaching  such  a  result.  Are  there  indications  that  our  colleges 
will  soon  be  able  to  excuse  themselves  from  this  preparatory  work, 
and  give  their  entire  energies  to  their  own  proper  duties?  It  is 
generally  conceded  that  such  a  result  is  desirable ;  yet  if  a  definite 
line  of  division  be  drawn  between  the  two  departments,  each  being 
provided  with  its  own  board  of  instructors,  the  coexistence  of  the 
two  departments  could  scarcely  be  harmful.  In  some  of  our  col- 
leges this  division  has  been  scrupulously  maintained;  but  with  our 
narrow  endowments  there  is  a  constant  temptation  to  load  the 
college  professor  with  preparatory  work.  This  danger  being 
guarded  against,  there  are  some  manifest  advantages  in  the  ar- 
rangement which  so  generally  exists.  Perhai)s  the  most  promi- 
nent of  these  is  the  force  exerted  by  the  college   to  draw  the 


1888.]  HOW  OUB  FATHEBS  BUILDED.  159 

preparatory  student  on  to  the  higher  course.  He  is  in  danger  of 
resting  content  with  the  preliminary  course,  or  of  finding  in  the 
academy  or  high  school  a  course  which  shall  satisfy  liis  aspirations. 
If  the  statistics  were  gathered  in  our  most  prosperous  colleges 
having  a  preparatory  school  comiected,  it  would  be  found  that  a 
considerable  portion  of  those  who  at  length  complete  a  successful 
course,  entered  the  preparatory  school  with  no  thought  beyond  a 
year  or  two  of  elementary  study.  The  presence  of  the  college 
elevated  their  ideal  of  an  education,  and  led  them  on  to  its  attain- 
ment. But  this  advantage  and  various  others  which  might  be 
named  would  not  be  sufficient  to  justify  these  preparatory  depart- 
ments in  the  colleges,  if  the  same  work  could  be  as  well  done  in 
the  high  school,  which  for  the  most  part  has  taken  the  place  of  the 
academy  of  the  last  generation.  It  does  not  seem  desirable  to 
take  the  youth  away  from  their  homes  at  so  early  an  age  as  the 
beginning  of  their  special  preparation  for  college.  It  would  be 
better  that  the  three  years  of  their  preparatory  study  should  be 
spent  at  home,  if  their  preparation  could  be  thus  secured.  A  few 
of  our  high  schools  meet  this  demand,  and  have  done  so  for  years, 
but  there  does  not  seem  to  be  progress  in  that  direction.  There 
is,  I  think,  more  prospect  that  the  colleges,  in  giving  a  greater 
variety  of  courses,  will  more  nearly  adjust  themselves  to  the  work 
of  the  liigh  schools.  The  pupil  will  find  his  Latin  and  German 
preparation  in  the  high  school,  with  a  good  provision  of  elemen- 
tary mathematics,  and  the  college  will  give  him  his  Greek  and 
French,  by  retaining  so  much  of  their  preparatory  work  as  shall 
serve  this  piu-pose.  By  some  such  adjustment  the  old-time  chasm 
may  be  closed,  and  the  preparatory  work  in  connection  with  the 
college  mostly  dispensed  with. 

The  question,  how  the  American  college,  as  it  has  been  and  is, 
shall  adjust  itself  to  the  American  University  which  is  coming  to 
be,  is  soon  to  press  upon  us.  As  some  of  our  academies  grew  into 
colleges  by  a  natural  evolution,  so  some  of  our  colleges  are  grow- 
ing into  universities,  or  rather  are  taking  on  university  work  in 
addition  to  their  original  college  work.  There  is  no  supreme  au- 
thority to  determine  where  this  university  work  shall  be  under- 
taken. The  determination  must  depend  upon  inward  impulses, 
and  outward  favoring  conditions.  The  danger  that  there  will  be 
a  waste  of  effort  in  this  attempt  at  expansion  is  doubtless  some- 
what pressing.     It  is  more  difficult  to  justify  a  large  number  of 


leO  EDUCATIOy.  [No¥ember, 

universities  than  of  colleges,  and  a  good  college  will  prove  more 
useful  than  a  poor  university.  Let  us  hasten  slowly.  The  prob- 
lem before  us  of  harmonizing  the  university  and  the  college  is  a 
new  one.  The  American  college  does  not  correspond  with  any 
institution  of  the  Old  World.  It  is  Avider  in  its  aims  and  in  its 
work  than  the  great  public  schools  of  England  or  of  Germany. 
It  furnishes  somewhat  of  the  culture  which  in  those  countries  is 
provided  at  the  university.  We  can  scarcely  afford  to  cut  down 
our  colleges  to  make  room  for  the  Old  World  university,  nor 
would  it  be  wise  to  multiply  universities  in  this  country  to  dupli- 
cate the  work  already  done  by  the  colleges.  The  work  of  the 
American  university  will  doubtless  be  to  take  the  college  gradu- 
ate, with  such  equipment  as  he  has,  and  provide  him  with  such 
special  study  and  education  as  shall  fit  him  for  the  higher  pursuits 
of  science  and  of  literature,  in  all  their  branches,  and  for  the  dif- 
ferent learned  professions.  Where  the  college  shall  end  and  the 
university  begin,  those  will  better  understand  who  shall  gather  at 
the  next  centennial. 


PRIMARY  AND   SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  OF 

HOLLAND, 

BY   L.   A.   STAGER.   POLYTECHNIC    INSTITUTE,  BROOKLYN,  N.  Y. 

MTH.  ZOBRIST,  Professeur  ^  T  dcole  cantonale,  ^  Porren- 
•  truy,  Switzerland,  who  spent  about  ten  years  as  teacher 
in  Holland  l)efore  accepting  a  call  to  his  present  position  in  his 
native  country,  recently  addressed  a  teachers'  meeting  on  the 
Primary  and  Secondary  Schools  of  Holland.  His  '*  Rapport "  is 
full  of  interesting  points  to  any  teacher.  Permit  me,  therefore, 
to  give  you  a  short  abstract  of  what  struck  me  as  being  of  especial 
value  to  American  educatoi-s. 

Professor  Zobrist  chose  the  schools  of  Holland  for  his  subject, 
because  he  thinks  the  contrast  between  the  schools  of  this  little 
Dutch-speaking  country  and  those  of  his  own  so  great,  and  be- 
cause comparison  is  more  interesting  when  the  things  compared 
present  less  resemblance. 

The  fii-st  school  in  Holland  was  founded  in  1290,  in  Dordrecht^ 
by  one  Count  Floris.     Lay-instructors  were  appointed  by  the  civil 


1888.]     PRIMARY  AND  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  OF  HOLLAND,  161 

authorities  and  received,  besides  free  lodgings,  a  fixed  salary. 
They  were  paid  also  for  moving  from  one  school  to  another,  and  re- 
ceived small  fees  from  their  students,  and  earned  sometimes  a 
spare  penny  by  doing  other  little  jobs  in  their  leisure  time.  The 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  were  rather  backward.  The  stu- 
dents whose  ages  were  from  six  to  eighteen,  enjoyed  mostly  annoy- 
ing the  quiet  citizens  of  those  good  old  times.  Punishments 
were  cruel  and  corporal.  Children  found  doing  wrong  in  the 
streets  were  brought  to  school  to  receive  chastisement,  though 
the  parents  often  were  dissatisfied,  and  took  revenge  upon  the 
poor  teacher.  In  those  olden  times,  when  the  remainder  of 
Europe  knew  but  a  few  Convent  schools,  Holland  boasted  of  insti- 
tutions of  greatest  fame.  1384  Cele  founded  one  at  ZwoUe,. 
which  had  sometimes  over  one  thousand  pupils ;  1498  about  twen- 
ty-one hundred  students  went  to  school  at  Deventer  under  Hegius. 
In  the  sixteenth  century  the  public  schools  were  not  numerous 
enough,  and  private  schools  were  opened.  Besides  the  mother- 
tongue,  writing,  reading,  arithmetic,  and  French  were  taught  at 
those  schools.  The  girls  were  taught  to  write,  to  read,  and  some- 
times to  sing.  The  teachers  were,  however,  too  often  ignorant^ 
and  the  sons  of  the  school  janitors. 

A  certain  Valcoogh,  among  others,  wrote  a  remarkable  book  in 
which  he  ridicules  those  schoolmasters,  and  speaks  against  cor- 
poral punishment,  and  states  that  the  teachers  ought  to  get  better 
pay.  From  1600  to  1800  the  school  is,  as  of  the  past,  but  the  hum- 
ble servant  of  the  church.  1619  the  national  synod  decides  on 
the  branches  to  be  taught.  They  are :  Religion,  printed  and  writ- 
ten texts,  the  psalms  of  David,  and  a  little  arithmetic.  School- 
time  from  8  to  11  A.  m.,  and  1  to  4  p.  M.  Wednesday  and  Satur- 
day P.  M.,  the  students  are  free.  In  the  great  primary  schools 
the  following  was  taught  during  the  week :  Sunday, — sermon,  the 
creed,  the  ten  Commandments,  the  Lord's  prayer,  singing  of 
psalms,  and  the  catechism.  The  teacher  had  to  accompany  the 
students  to  church,  and  had  to  watch  them  there.  He  had  free 
lodging,  and,  according  to  the  law,  was  to  be  well  paid,  also,  for 
the  lessons  he  gave  to  the  poor.  The  church  had  the  superin- 
tendence of  all  schools.  In  spite  of  this  fine  programme  the 
pupils  of  the  sixteenth  century  were  not  better  educated  than 
those  of  the  fifteenth.  After  leaving  school,  the  gii-ls  would 
learn  household  duties,  but   the   boys  would   linger   about  and 


162  EDUCATION.  [November, 

finish  their  education  very  often  in  the  streets,  where  they  fought 
with  each  other,  because  playing  was  little  known  at  this  epoch. 
The  teachers  were  badly  paid,  and  the  law  a  dead  letter.  Old 
teachers,  however,  received  a  small  pension.  The  schoolrooms 
were  low  and  small,  cellar  like,  or  garrets,  fitted  up  with  old 
broken  chairs  and  tables.  The  teacher  sat  upon  a  high  cliair, 
vested  in  a  long  black  garment,  held  together  by  a  cord  around 
the  hips.  He  wore  a  turban.  The  classes  were  noisy,  and  the 
sole  interruption  was  produced  by  the  heavy  slapping  of  the  chair 
with  the  rod  the  teacher  always  held  in  his  hand.  The  latter 
never  explained  anything,  and  all  the  pupils  had  to  do  was  to 
read  and  to  recite.  The  pupils  were  expected  to  follow  all  orders 
blindly.  In  1630  the  government  wished  to  oblige  all  parents  to 
send  their  cliildren  to  school,  and  thirty  cents  had  to  be  paid  as  an 
annual  school  fee,  for  each  child,  whether  he  went  to  school  or 
not.  In  the  cities  the  Latin  schools  were  in  no  way  different  from 
the  primary  schools,  since  they  accepted  their  pupils  at  the  age  of 
eight  years.  The  books  in  those  schools  were  printed  two  col- 
umns, in  Latin  on  one  side,  in  Dutch  on  the  other.  Besides  these 
two  kinds  of  schools  there  were  also  French  schools,  where 
French  was  taught  in  addition  to  the  other  branches.  In  the 
seventeenth  century  these  latter  schools  were  so  hea\dly  fre- 
quented, that  the  Latin  schools,  too,  had  to  introduce  French. 
The  ladies  also  studied  the  languages  at  those  times,  and  many 
knew  Latin,  Greek,  German,  English,  or  Hebrew,  besides  Dutch. 
All  public  functionaries  had  to  know  French,  and  toward  the  end 
of  1700  it  was  good  style  to  have  a  French  tutor  for  the  children. 
During  the  seventeenth  century  German  schools  were  very  few  in 
number,  but  English  book-keeping,  geography,  nautical  instruc- 
tion, geometry,  and  surveying,  were  taught  in  the  larger  city 
schools.  Another  institution  which  reflects  very  favorably  upon 
the  Dutch  of  these  times,  was  the  Free  City  Schools  for  the  poor. 
The  first  one  of  the  kind  was  established  in  Flessing,  1586. 

The  eighteenth  century  brought  little  change  to  the  established 
order.  The  country  schools  were  open  only  in  winter.  The  pu- 
pils had  to  bring  their  own  wood;  the  country  school  teachers 
received  in  this  century  about  sixty  doUai's  a  year  and  free  lodg- 
ings, and  could,  besides,  earn  some  little  money  by  doing  other 
work  in  the  leisure  hours.  An  old  teacher  received  a  pension  and 
his  widow  was  often  allowed  to  di^aw  her  dead  husband's  salary 


1888.]     PBIMABT  AND  SECOND ABY  SCHOOLS  OF  HOLLAND.         163 

and  have  the  work  done  by  an  under-paid  assistant.  1750  the 
first  "  helping  banks  for  widows  "  were  established  by  the  govern- 
ment. When  a  position  was  to  be  filled,  it  was  natiiral  that  many 
competitors  would  offer  themselves,  and  they  all  took  part  in  an 
examination.  This  latter  was  held  in  church,  after  the  service, 
and  in  presence  of  all  church-members.  It  was  very  often  long 
and  difiicult,  and  mostly  about  religion,  singing,  and  arithmetic, 
in  which  latter  exercises  the  crowd  was  deeply  interested. 

In  this  same  time  falls  the  founding  of  the  first  schools  for 
little  children.  In  the  cities  these  schools  for  the  little  ones  were 
kept  by  French  or  Dutch  lady-teachers,  who  taught  the  alaphabet, 
the  Sunday  sermon,  or  the  ten  Commandments  to  children  of  the 
age  of  three  or  four.  In  the  villages  the  wives  of  the  school- 
masters would  take  charge  of  the  little  ones.  Thus  the  Kinder- 
garten, as  you  see,  is  nothing  so  very  new. 

In  the  eighteenth  century  the  Society  of  Public  Usefulness  which 
was  founded  at  Edam,  and  which  in  the  shortest  time  spread  its 
useful  branches  over  the  whole  country,  gave  a  new  impulse  to  the 
teaching  of  primary  schools.  It  created  so-called  Model  or  Nor- 
mal Schools,  and  had  excellent  schoolbooks,  and  readers  written 
and  compiled  by  the  most  learned  men.  But,  as  in  politics,  a  new 
era  was  prep.aring  itself  ako  for  the  schools  about  this  time,  and 
the  wisest  men  wished  for  a  radical  change  in  the  plan  of  instruc- 
tion, without  being  exactly  aware  of  what  they  really  wanted. 
They  had  a  presentiment  of  a  revolution,  and  every  one  desired 
it.  '89  finally  brought  this  unknown,  and  for  a  long  time  wished- 
for  remedy.  The  old  state  of  things  was  upset.  The  new  minis- 
ter of  public  instruction,  assisted  by  the  Society  of  PubUc  Useful- 
ness, worked  out  a  law  by  which  every  community  was  obliged  to 
provide  for  sufficient  schoolrooms  for  all  its  children.  The  poorer 
communities  would  receive  assistance  from  the  government,  in 
order  to  be  able  to  pay  the  teacher's  salary  and  lodging.  With  a 
great  deal  of  common  sense,  the  legislator  ordered,  that  the  chil- 
dren of  all  believers.  Catholic,  Protestant,  Hebrew,  should  go  to  the 
same  classes,  and  that  their  beliefs  should  be  respected.  Thus 
religious  teaching  was  excluded  from  the  school,  and  was  in 
charge  of  the  divines  of  the  different  religious  bodies.  Thirty- 
five  inspectors  had  to  watch  the  execution  of  this  ordinance. 

In  1805,  this  law  was  replaced  by  the  one  which  remained  up  to 
1858.    In  every  large  city  the  inspector  received  a  board  of  assist- 


164  EDUCATION.  [November, 

«nts.  Henceforth  nobody  was  allowed  to  teach  or  to  open  a 
school,  who  had  not  received  the  special  permission  to  do  so,  or 
who  was  not  in  the  possession  of  a  diploma. 

These  diplomas  were  of  four  kinds.  In  order  to  obtain  the 
fourth  the  three  R's  were  required  and  a  certain  aptitude  for 
teaching;  for  the  third,  grammar  and  pedagogj'  in  addition  were 
required;  for  the  second,  geography  and  history;  for  the  first 
natural  science  and  mathematics.  Only  the  first  and  second 
diplomas  were  admitted  all  over  the  kingdom. 

The  schools  which  received  aid  from  the  government  were 
named  the  public  schools.  In  classes  of  more  than  sixty,  the 
teacher  was  seconded  by  an  assistant  teacher  of  the  third  or  fourth 
^ade  (diploma).     For  the  ladies  there  was  but  one  diploma. 

Corporal  punishment  was  not  prohibited,  but  the  teachers  were 
advised  to  use  it  soberly  and  with  precaution,  and  were  obliged 
to  inform  the  board  every  time  they  had  to  resort  to  beating  a 
•child. 

The  teacher  had  the  sole  right  to  sell  school  material;  book- 
sellers and  stationers  gave  him  ten  per  cent.,  and  thus  he  was  en- 
abled to  enlarge  his  sometimes  very  small  salary,  for  the  law  pro- 
vided only  for  a  maximum  of  salary,  but  never  spoke  of  any 
minimum,  while  the  authorities  more  generally  held  fast  to  the 
latter. 

On  the  whole,  the  French  domination  was  a  misfortune  for  Hol- 
land. It  filled  the  heads  of  the  people  with  wrong  ideas  of 
liberty,  equality,  and  fraternity,  emptied  the  public  treasury  and 
the  purses  of  the  people  and  left  no  other  equality  but  that  of 
misery  and  of  the  hatred  of  all  that  was  French.  No  wonder  that 
the  Dutch  were  among  the  foremost  in  1815,  in  Waterloo,  to  con- 
tribute to  Napoleon's  downfall. 

Free  again,  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  took  up  its  old 
school  law  anew.  But,  wanting  to  introduce  it  in  Belgium,  it  met 
with  such  ignorance,  opposition,  and  prejudice,  that  it  would  lead 
us  too  far  to  enumerate  all  these  difficulties  which  the  govern- 
ment of  William  I.  encountered,  though  it  would  prove  again  the 
excellence  of  the  old  law.  But  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the 
patricians,  the  Dutch  government  had  built,  from  1817  to  1828, 
1146  schools  and  founded  several  normal  schools,  so  that  Belgium? 
which  under  the  French  rule  had  but  a  few  schools  for  the  patric- 
ians, in  1829  had  4046.     But  this  result  made  the  partisans  of 


1888.]    PBIMABT  AND  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  OF  HOLLAND.         165 

ignorance,  who  were  encouraged  by  the  French,  very  uneasy,  and 
they  planned  a  great  revolution.  Belgium  regained  her  independ- 
ence with  her  sweet  ignorance,  and  today  she  has  not  entirely 
recovered  from  her  fall.  Holland,  on  the  contrary,  marched 
always  ahead,  changed  her  laws  as  the  necessity  of  the  day  would 
require  it,  and  today  she  is  one  of  the  most  advanced  countries 
in  this  respect.  In  1820  the  teachers  constituted  a  society,  meet- 
ing once  a  year,  and  publishing  a  well-written  journal.  They 
established  a  savings  bank  and  a  fund  for  the  widows. 

The  law  of  1857  fixed  the  salary  of  teachers  at  800  francs,  with 
house  and  all  accessories ;  the  assistant  received  400  francs. 

In  the  lower  primarj^  schools,  grammar,  writing,  arithmetic,  a 
little  practical  geometry,  geography,  history,  natural  sciences,  and 
singing  is  taught.  In  the  higher  primary  schools,  German,  French, 
English,  mathematics,  agriculture,  drawing,  gymnastics,  and,  for 
the  girls,  needlework,  were  added.  This  programme,  which  was 
slightly  changed  in  1878,  is  still  followed.  Manual  training  for 
the  boys  is  not  compulsory,  and  religious  instruction  is  entirely 
abandoned  to  the  clergy  of  the  different  religious  bodies. 

In  1863,  a  part  of  the  higher  primary  schools  were  changed 
into  secondary  schools. 

At  the  present  time,  primary  instruction  is  given  by  the  teach- 
ers and  their  assistants.  There  are  now  but  two  kinds  of  diplo- 
mas. In  order  to  obtain  the  one  for  assistant  teacher,  the  candi- 
date must  have  successfully  passed  the  normal  school  course,  and 
be  eighteen  years  of  age.  For  the  diploma  as  teacher,  he  must 
be  twenty-three  years  old,  and  must  have  taught  under  a  teacher 
for  at  least  three  years.  The  examinations  for  the  assistants  cor- 
respond to  the  examination  required  of  the  Swiss  teachers  on 
leaving  the  normal  school.  The  examination  for  the  teacher's 
diploma  is,  of  course,  much  more  difficult,  and  the  knowledge  of 
a  second  modern  language  is  generally  required.  The  examina- 
tions for  the  lady  teachers  differ  very  little  from  those  of  the 
gentlemen. 

This  last  law  of  1878  changed  the  body  of  teachers  consider- 
ably; but,  while  it  makes  larger  demands,  it  gives  also  larger 
salaries  than  our  Swiss  teachers  get. 

In  the  larger  cities  like  Amsterdam,  Rotterdam,  the  Hague, 
they  vary  from  3600  francs  to  4000  francs,  besides  a  dwelling 
apartment.     In  Leyden,  Utrecht,  Deventer,  2600  to  3600  francs, 


160  EDUCATIOX,  [November, 

with  apartment.  In  the  smaller  cities  and  towns,  the  teacher  gets 
from  2000  francs  to  2600  francs,  with  house  and  garden.  The 
assistant  from  1000  to  1500  francs,  of  course  without  dwelling 
place. 

For  many  years  already  there  is  such  an  abundance  of  teachers 
that  the  owner  of  a  simple  diploma,  who  knows  but  one  modern 
language  has  no  chance  to  be  placed  at  the  head  of  any  school, 
and  must  remain  simple  assistant  for  a  life  time. 

Materially,  the  position  of  a  school-teacher  in  Holland  is  a  very 
enviable  one,  only  he  does  not  enjoy  so  much  consideration  as 
is  the  case  in  Switzerland.  His  wife  has  no  right  to  the  title  of 
"Mevrouw"  (madam),  she  is  simply  called  "JufFrouw"  (Miss), 
like  the  wife  of  a  peasant.  As  a  rule,  when  the  people  speak  of 
the  schoolmaster,  they  call  him  by  the  name  of  "  de  school-vos  '* 
(the  school-fox),  and  according  to  a  Dutch  saying,  ninety-nine  out 
of  one  hundred  teachers  are  fook. 

It  is  probable  that  these  flatteries  are  remnants  of  former  centu- 
ries, when  the  schoolmaster  was  a  little  '*  funny,"  and  the  terror 
of  the  youths.  He  was  saturated  with  pride,  thought  he  knew 
everytliing,  and  even  amidst  a  large  crowd  was  easily  recog- 
nizable by  his  gestures,  bearing,  walk,  and  talk. 

As  to  the  school-houses,  what  difference  we  perceive !  No  more 
cellars  and  garrets,  but  palaces  I  In  the  villages,  the  schoolhouse 
is  a  building  with  large,  green  entrance  doors,  and  windows  of  no 
common  height,  protected  by  blinds.  All  classrooms  are  on  the 
first  story ;  therefore  no  stairs  to  climb.  The  noise  made  by  the 
scholars  mounting  and  coming  down  is  thus  abolished,  and  in  case 
of  fire,  the  work  of  saving  offers  no  diflBculties.  The  school  fur- 
niture is  the  best  of  its  kind,  the  walls  ornamented  with  maps  and 
drawings ;  but  rarely  will  you  find  a  desk  or  table  for  the  master, 
who  is  required  to  be  on  his  feet  constantly.  With  much  com- 
mon sense  the  Dutch  pretend  that  a  desk  is  only  a  couch  for  the 
instructors. 

While  teaching,  the  master  has  no  book  in  his  hand,  he  must 
know  everything  by  heart,  like  his  pupils.  The  way  of  teaching 
is  more  animated,  and  the  lesson  never  sinks  down  to  mere  read- 
ing. On  this  point  the  examiners  exercise  a  very  severe  observ- 
ance. 

The  programme  of  studies  is  about  the  same  as  with  us,  only 
more  attention  is  paid  to  arithmetic  and  mental  calculus.     This 


1888.]     PRIMAET  AND  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  OF  HOLLAND.  167 

latter  branch  especially  is  the  object  of  particular  attention. 
Nowhere  have  I  found  examples  in  arithmetic  better  calculated  to 
develop  reasoning  than  in  Holland. 

In  villages  situated  near  the  sea,  the  teacher  must  also  give  in- 
struction in  nautical  science  and  maritime  geography. 

Drawing,  too,  receives  particular  attention,  but  they  draw  more 
from  nature  than  with  us,  and  the  collections  of  casts  and  models 
of  papier-mach<3  and  wire  are  very  extensive.  The  Dutch,  as  a 
rule,  do  not  like  to  draw  from  copies,  and  call  it  childish  work. 

Calisthenics,  on  the  contrary,  are  not  liked  by  the  country 
school  teachei^s,  because  they  represent  an  increase  of  work.  The 
teachers  are  opposed  to  it,  as  were  our  teachers  twenty  years 
ago,  and  as  they  still  are  to  manual  training. 

In  the  Netherlands  manual  training  is  facultative,  the  lessons 
are  given  Wednesday  and  Saturday  afternoons  (half  holidays), 
by  teachers  who  received  special  training  at  the  Central  School  of 
Amsterdam,  or  by  artisans  appointed  by  the  board. 

The  results  are,  however,  not  brilliant.  The  director  of  a  large 
primary  school,  formerly  an  ardent  advocate  of  manual  training, 
expresses  himself  as  follows :  — 

'*  Manual  training  is  no  longer  in  favor  with  us,  except  in  smaller 
places,  where  a  great  champion  of  this  new  branch  yet  succeeds 
in  keeping  up  an  artificial  enthusiasm  for  it,  but  it  will  never  be- 
come stable  in  the  kingdom.  After  a  trial  of  three  years  we  had 
to  give  it  up.  The  only  ones  profiting  by  it  were  the  teachers,  to 
whom  the  government  increased  the  salary  largely." 

A  few  steps  from  the  schoolhouse,  and  in  the  same  enclosure, 
is  a  pretty  little  one-story  villa,  with  six  or  eight  rooms,  large 
windows,  and  green  blinds.  Tliis  is  the  dwelling  given  to  every 
teacher  by  the  government.  There  he  lives  like  a  landlord.  The 
main  work  is  done  by  the  assistant;  the  teacher  giving  only  those 
lessons  he  likes  best  and  watehing  the  work  of  his  subordinates. 

In  the  cities  the  primary  schools  are  great  structures,  admirably 
managed;  the  teachers,  who  cannot  be  accommodated  within, 
receive  large  indemnities. 

All  cliildren  must  go  to  school  from  twelve  to  fourteen  years, 
and  pay  a  yearly  sum  of  from  six  to  twelve  francs.  The  poor  pay 
nothing.  In  the  cities  there  are  special  schools  for  those,  called 
"  Schools  for  the  Poor  I " 

As  was  already  mentioned,  the  law  of  1805  excluded  all  religion 


168  EDUCATION.  [November, 

from  the  schools,  and  everybody  was  glad  of  it  and  satisfied. 
About  ten  years  ago  some  High  Church  Protestants,  however,  tried 
to  have  this  law  changed,  and  demanded  in  loud  voices  the  rein- 
troduction  of  the  Bible  into  the  classrooms.  They  found,  of 
course,  adlierents  enough,  but  the  government  could  not  consider 
their  wishes.  The  school  must  remaui  neutral  in  a  country  where 
so  many  forms  of  worship  prevail.  What  did  the  people  now? 
They  went  begging  from  house  to  house  for  funds  to  erect  schools 
according  to  their  wishes.  At  the  beginning  they  succeeded  but 
too  well,  but  today  the  funds  are  lacking  and  the  parents  who  saw 
that  their  children  did  not  become  any  better  in  this  famous  school 
with  the  Bible,  stopj>ed  paying  their  contributions,  and  sent  their 
childi'en  again  into  the  public  schools. 

Afraid  of  a  financial  collapse,  these  worthies  petitioned  the 
Chambei-s  last  spring  to  reintroduce  religious  instruction  into 
tho  primary  schools.  They  have  made  some  headway  since,  but, 
at  this  moment,  no  one  can  as  yet  foi-see  the  issue  of  this  cam- 
paign in  which  orthodox  ProtesUints  and  Catholics  join  hands. 

So  much  for  the  primary  schools  in  Holland.  The  secondary 
schools  are  not  inferior,  and  are  of  two  kinds:  the  properly  so- 
called  secondary  schools  and  the  gymnasium.  I  pass  over  the  com- 
mercial or  business  colleges,  as  well  as  over  the  agricultural  and 
marine  schools,  etc.,  which  are  special  schools  not  found  in  Switz- 
erland. I  shall  not  speak  either  of  the  private  institute,  for- 
merly very  well  patronized  by  the  patricians  because  of  the  instruc- 
tion given  there  in  the  modern  languages,  the  calculus,  and 
religion,  and  which  became  a  source  of  great  income  to  their 
owners.  Year  by  year,  however,  their  number  decreases,  and 
very  soon  all  that  remains  of  them  will  be  —  un  souvenir. 

The  secondary  schools  or  "hoogere  burgensehoolen "  are  nu- 
merous, there  are  some  in  every  town.  Some  have  five,  others  only 
three  classes.  All  of  them  are  phaced  in  real  palaces,  and  their 
students  are  admitted  at  the  age  of  twelve. 

What  strikes  one  most  on  looking  over  the  programme  of  a  sec- 
ondjiry  school,  is  the  absence  of  instruction  in  religion  and  sing- 
ing, while  daily  lessons  are  given  in  both  in  our  schools  of  the 
same  grade.  The  modern  languages,  too,  play  a  more  important 
part  than  in  our  schools,  for  boys  and  girls  must  study  Dutch, 
French,  German,  and  English,  while  with  us  only  French  and 
German  are  required,  and  sometimes  English.      We  Swiss  also 


1888.]     PBIMART  AND  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  OF  HOLLAND. 


169 


think  that  we  give  our  young  people  the  best  instruction  to  be- 
come '*free  citizens,"  and  still,  in  the  Canton  of  Berne,  for  ex- 
ample, political  economy  and  civil  laws  are  not  taught,  which  lack 
is  incomprehensible.  In  these  points  we  can  learn  another  lesson 
from  Holland,  which  gives  two  hours  of  instruction  to  each 
branch  mentioned. 

Strange  to  say,  with  us  these  things  are  taught  in  the  primary 
schools  but  neglected  in  the  secondary  schools.  We  may  say 
here,  however,  that  this  will  be  changed  with  the  plan  of  instruc- 
tion now  under  consideration  before  the  Executive  Council  of  the 
Canton  of  Berne. 

PLAN  OF  STUDIES  FOR  THE  SFX^ONDARY  SCHOOLS  WITH  FIVE  CLASSED. 


STUDIES.                                               CLASSES :          I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

Mathematics, 

6 

6 

7 

5 

2 

Mechanics, 

— 

— 

— 

2 

3 

Natural  history, 

— 

— 

2 

2 

4 

Botany  and  Zoology, 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

Geology  and  Mineralogy, 

— 

— 

— 

— 

1 

Chemistry, 

— 

— 

2 

2 

2 

Practical  Chemistry, 

— 

— 

— 

— 

2 

Technology, 

— 

— 

— 

1 

Cosmography, 

— 

— 

— 

1 

1 

Civil  laws, 

— 

— 

— 

1 

1 

Political  Economy, 

— 

— 

— 

1 

1 

Geography, 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

History, 

3 

3 

3 

2 

2 

Dutch  language  and  literature, 

4 

3 

3 

2 

2 

French        '•          "            " 

4 

5 

3 

2 

2 

English       ''          "            '* 

— 

4 

3 

2 

2 

German       "          »'            " 

4 

4 

3 

2 

2 

Bookkeeping. 

— 

— 

— 

1 

1 

Drawing  (Free-hand), 

3 

3 

2 

2 

1 

"        (Mechanical), 

— 

— 

— 

2 

2 

Caligraphy, 

2 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Calisthenics, 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

32 


34 


34 


34 


36 


Total  of  weekly  hours : 

These  studies  are  all  compulsory  for  all  students.  The  lessons 
are  given  Mondays,  Tuesdays,  Thursdays,  and  Fridays,  from  9 
to  noon,  and  1  to  4  P.  M. ;  on  Wednesdays  and  Saturdays  from 
9  A.  M.  to  1  p.  M.  During  these  two  afternoons,  the  students  of 
the  four  lower  classes  are  free,  but  those  of  the  fifth  or  highest 
class  have  to  follow  a  course  in  practical  chemistry  from  2  to  4 
p.  M.     Calisthenics  are  given  out  of  the  regular  school  hours. 


170  EDUCATION.  [November, 

A  part  of  the  last  half  of  the  third  year  is  given  up  to  a  general 
review  of  what  has  been  taught  during  the  first  three  years. 
The  Dutch  gj^mnasium  has  a  pro-gjinnasium  of  four  classes,  and 
a  higher  gymnasium  of  six  classes.  Students  are  admitted  at  the 
age  of  twelve.     The  compulsory  studies  are  the  following: 


STUDIES   TAUGHT. 

CLAS^SKS  : 

I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

Latin, 

8 

6 

^ 
< 

7 

7 

8 

Greek, 

— 

1 

6 

8 

7 

8 

Hebrew  (for  the  ITieology), 

— 

— 

2 

2 

Dutch  language  and  literature. 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

1 

French,       "          " 

(( 

4 

4 

2 

2 

I 

I 

English,      "          " 

(k 

3 

3 

2 

1 

German.      *'          " 

(k 

3 

2 

2 

2 

1 

History  and  civics. 

4 

3 

3 

2 

2 

3 

Mathematics, 

4 

3 

3 

3 

5 

5 

Physics, 

— 

— 

— 

2 

2 

Chemistry, 

— 

— 

1 

1 

Geography, 

3 

2 

2 

I 

1 

1 

Natural  History, 

2 

— 

— 

2 

2 

Calisthenics, 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

As  this  plan  shows,  the  languages  have  the  most  prominent 
place,  the  mathematics  ccnning  second.  It  is  forbidden  to  let  more 
than  twenty-four  pupils  enter  the  same  class,  for  fifty  students 
three  parallel  classes  have  to  be  formed. 

This  plan  having  been  carried  out  for  a  number  of  years  pro- 
voked a  great  deal  of  discontent  among  the  parents,  who  thought 
their  sons  overworked.  The  matter  was  investigated,  and  from 
January  1st,  next,  the  maximum  numlx^r  of  weekly  lessons  will  be 
reduced  to  thirty,  the  minimum  for  the  future  jurists  and  physi- 
cians is  fixed  at  twenty-six  hours  per  week  in  the  fifth  and  sixth 
classes. 

The  time  allotted  to  Greek  and  Latin  is  very  properly  reduced. 
For  the  diploma  of  maturity  (A.  B.)  dramatic  Greek  prose,  and 
the  more  difficult  Latin  prose  and  poetry  is  no  longer  required. 
The  director  luvs,  however,  the  right  to  demand  of  candidates 
coming  from  other  places  to  pjvss  in  these  requirement,  and  also 
in  cjise  he  doubts  the  ability  of  a  student.  The  study  of  math- 
ematics has  also  been  simplified,  but  the  natural  sciences  and 
chemistrv  have  received  more  attention. 

In  the  future  those  students  who  enter  ui)Ou  the  study  of  law, 
theology,  or  letters,  may  be  excused  from  the  study  of  mathemat- 
ics, natural  history,  and  chemistry  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  classes ; 


1888.]     PBIMABT  AND  SECOND ABY  SCHOOLS  OF  HOLLAND.         171 

those  preparing  for  medicine  or  sciences,  may  leave  off  Latin, 
Greek,  and  history. 

This  is  certainly  a  radical  reform;  and  still  Holland  is,  with 
Germany,  the  land  where  Greek  and  Latin  are  the  most  honored. 

Thus  is  the  Dutch  system  of  instruction,  showing  that  it  is  as 
excellent  as  ours  and  that  it  pays  even  more  attention  to  the 
study  of  languages  than  we  do. 

The  system  of  assistant  teachers  presents  great  advantages  too. 
When  a  young  teacher  leaves  the  normal  school,  he  enters  prac- 
tice under  the  management  of  an  experienced  teacher.  To  con- 
fide to  such  a  man,  only  eighteen  or  twenty  years  old,  the  entire 
school  of  a  town  or  village,  seems  to  me  as  daring  as  if  we  were 
to  promote  a  law  student  to  the  attorneyship,  without  his  having 
passed  any  time  in  an  office. 

Besides,  the  second  examination  which  an  assistant  has  to  pass 
in  order  to  become  independent  is  a  great  stimulant;  he  has  to 
study  a  good  deal  to  get  the  diploma,  and  the  lazy  one  remains 
assistant  for  ten  years  and  more.  After  this  time,  no  school  would 
any  more  employ  them,  and  their  chances  would  be  to  go  back  to 
the  plough  or  to  their  trade,  which  they  never  ought  to  have  left. 
Thanks  to  this  rigorous  organization,  the  Dutch  corps  of  instruc- 
tors forms  a  small  army  of  model  Elites. 

So  far  Professor  Zobrist.  I  might  add,  that  the  Swiss  schools  are, 
as  a  whole,  considered  of  the  very  best,  and  that  only  the  best  in 
New  England  and  other  states  can  compare  with  them.  The 
Swiss,  however,  are  not  conservative  in  those  matters,  and  the 
Republican  Government,  i.  e.,  the  people,  as  well  as  their  servants, 
the  teachers  and  other  school  officers,  do  their  best  in  constantly 
studying,  introducing,  and  advocating  the  latest  improvements. 
Might  we  not  follow  them? 


On  the  outside  of  a  humble  cottage,  appeared  the  following 
inscription :  "  A  seminary  for  young  ladies."  This  was,  perhaps, 
too  abstruse  for  the  villager,  as  underneath  was  added,  in  rude 
characters:  "Notey  beney — allso,  a  galls  skool."  More  com- 
prehensive was  the  curious  inscription  at  one  time  to  be  seen  over 
a  door  in  a  village  in  Somersetshire  :  "  Petticoats  mended ;  chil- 
dren taught  reading,  writing,  and  dancing;  grown-up  people 
taught  to  spin ;  roses  distilled  and  made  into  a  proper  resistance 
with  water ;  also  old  shoes  bought  and  sold." 

Chamber's  Journal. 


172  EDUCATION,  [Norember, 


THE    TEACHING    OF   MATHEMATICS,^ 

III. 

TEACHING   ALGEBRA   TO   BEGIXNEKS.  —  I. 
BY  JOHN  F.  CASEY,   ENGLISH  HIGH  SCHOOL,  BOSTON. 

IT  is  said  that  instructors  in  colleges  and  scientific  schools  find 
pupils,  as  they  come  to  them,  better  prepared  in  geometry 
than  in  algebra  or  arithmetic.  Probably  their  complaints  as  to 
deficiencies  in  preparation  in  mathematical  branches  increase  in 
inverse  ratio  to  the  order  in  which  these  branches  are  studied, 
being  least  severe  upon  the  acquirements  in  geometr}^  and  most 
upon  those  in  arithmetic. 

There  is  little  doubt  that,  with  the  same  pupils  and  the  same 
instruction,  better  results  can  be  obtained  in  geometry  than  in 
algebra,  and  perhaps  the  same  would  hold  true  in  regard  to  geom- 
etry and  arithmetic.  It  is,  however,  not  so  easy  to  compare  the 
two  latter,  as  they  are  not  usually  studied  at  the  same  time.  This 
may  be  because  geometrj^  is  in  itself  less  difficult  than  the  other 
two  studies,  or  because,  having  had  the  advantage  of  the  training 
and  drill  on  arithmetic  and  algebra,  pupils  come  to  the  study  of 
geometry  with  their  minds  better  prepared  to  accept  its  facts.  It 
is  very  probable  that  both  these  reasons  are  true.  Geometry  is 
more  objective,  the  figures  being  present  before  the  mind ;  the  eye, 
without  any  effort  on  the  part  of  the  pupil,  comes  to  the  assistance 
of  the  reasoning  power  and  shows  the  course  to  be  pursued. 

As  to  the  intrinsic  difficulty  of  the  tlii'ce  elementary  mathemati- 
cal branches,  geometry  is  the  least  difficult  and  algebra  the  most. 

That  so  important  a  study  as  algebiJi,  uninteresting  and  difficult 
to  many  minds,  is  often  made  more  difficult  by  poor  textbooks  and 
poor  instruction,  will  be  readily  admitted  by  all  who  have  any 
experience  in  teaching  this  subject.  Just  as  an  excellent  scholar 
may  not  be  a  good  teacher,  so  a  complete  and  systematic  treatise 
may  not  be  so  arranged  as  to  make  the  student's  progress  regular, 
gradual,  and  easy,  and  his  acquirements  complete. 

^Copyright,  1888,  by  Eastern  Educational  Bureau. 


1888. J  THE  TEACHING  OF  MATHEMATICS,  173 

In  order  to  obtain  good  results  from  the  whole  class  in  any 
mathematical  study,  it  is  first  of  all  essential  that  some  attempt 
should  be  made  to  grade  according  to  mathematical  ability  and 
attainments.  The  effort  to  keep  with  the  class  a  few  backward 
pupils,  who  for  any  cause,  find  the  pace  too  fast  for  them,  often 
entails  upon  the  teacher  an  amount  of  work  which,  in  a  large 
school,  he  cannot  find  time  to  do.  Idleness,  inattention,  and  other 
causes  will  produce  in  a  short  time  such  a  variation  in  the  attain- 
ments of  a  well  graded  class  as  to  take  all  a  teacher's  spare  time 
to  keep  the  class  in  condition  to  receive  the  same  class  instruction. 
Dull  pupils  require  not  only  more  instruction,  but  also  instruction 
of  a  different  kind  from  that  given  to  the  brighter  scholars,  and 
the  brighter  pupils  lose  interest  in  the  repetition  and  constant  drill 
on  details  which  the  less  gifted  or  lazier  pupil  requires. 

If  for  the  benefit  of  the  able  pupils,  you  omit  this  drill  and 
detailed  explanation,  then  you  do  the  dull  pupil  an  injustice. 
Another  wrong,  perhaps  greater  than  that  of  forcing  them  beyond 
their  ability,  is  done  to  the  dull  pupils  by  considering  them  dunces 
and  treating  them  according  to  their  supposed  merits  and  neglect- 
ing them.  Either  course  generally  results  in  a  misunderstanding  on 
both  sides  and  consequent  poor  results.  An  attempt  to  regulate 
the  work  according  to  the  average  ability  of  the  class  is  at  best  a 
compromise  generally  unsatisfactory. 

Again,  as  part  of  mathematical  teaching  has  for  its  end  the 
training  of  the  mind  and  the  sharpening  of  the  wits  and  is  a  kind 
of  mental  gymnastics,  with  an  able  class  it  is  sometimes  desirable 
to  place  obstacles  in  the  way,  whereas  such  a  coui-se  would  only 
be  folly  with  a  class  who  find  the  smoothest  path  only  too  rugged. 

The  statement  that  the  dull  pupils  are  helped  and  encouraged 
by  the  bright  ones  is  often  incorrect.  Very  dull  pupils  are  dis- 
couraged by  seeing  able  scholars  do  well  with  little  effort  that 
which  they  are  unable  to  do  at  all,  or  only  poorly  with  great  effort. 
They  are  inclined  to  draw  the  conclusion  that  their  minds  are  dif- 
ferently constituted  and  accept  the  situation. 

This  grading  of  a  class  on  a  mathematical  basis  may  cause  some 
disturbance  in  the  teaching  of  other  branches,  as  the  best  mathema- 
ticians are  sometimes,  though  not  as  a  rule,  quite  poor  in  other 
departments. 

But  this  disturbance  is  not  sufficiently  great  to  offset  the  gain 
in  mathematics,  for  the  other  branches  of  study  are  not  so  pro- 


174  EDUCATION.  [November, 

gressive,  so  that  a  complete  understanding  of  any  particular  point 
does  not  depend  so  closely  upon  the  preceding. 

Another  more  serious  objection  to  grading  is  that  there  must 
necessarily  be  a  bottom  grade  and  that  pupils  as  well  as  parents 
may  object  to  a  class  made  up  of  the  poorest  material.  I  am  aware 
that  there  are  some  whose  views  I  cannot  but  respect  who  hold 
quite  different  opinions,  but,  speaking  from  the  standpoint  of  my 
experience  as  a  teacher  of  mathematics,  I  hold  that  the  grading 
should  be  made,  and  the  teaching  should  be  adapted  to  the  grade, 
and  that  such  pupils  as  object  should  be  convinced  by  satisfactory 
arguments  as  to  what  is  best  for  them,  or,  remaining  uncon- 
vinced, their  importunities  should  be  witlistood  even  at  the  risk  of 
losing  them  as  pupils. 

I  have  seen  the  following  methods  adopted  in  grading  a  class  of 
three  hundred  or  more  boys.  First,  the  class  divided  into  divis- 
ions of  about  forty  each,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  bottom  boy  in 
the  first  division  was  just  a  little  ahead  of  the  first  boy  of  division 
two,  and  so  on  through  the  class. 

Again,  forty  boys  in  one  division  taken  from  the  top  and  forty 
boys  in  another  taken  from  the  bottom,  while  the  rest  of  the  class 
was  divided  alphabetically,  without  regard  to  rank ;  and  thirdly, 
a  bottom  division  made  according  to  rank,  and  the  rest  of  the  class 
divided  alphabetically. 

While  the  first  arrangement  possesses  some  advantages,  such  as 
that  of  competition,  when  pupils  are  moved  from  one  division  to 
another  as  they  rise  or  fall  in  rank,  it  has  disadvantages  and  does 
not  seem  to  me  a  good  one.  The  second,  while  better  than  the 
first,  and  having  in  common  with  it  this  peculiarity,  that  there  is 
always  one  room  into  which  it  is  safe  to  introduce  visitors  and 
where  it  is  possible  to  make  a  favorable  im[)ression  as  to  the  qual- 
ity of  work  done  in  the  school,  yet  it,  in  practice,  does  not  seem  to 
me  so  good  as  the  third.  For  while  very  able  lx)ys  discourage 
rather  than  encourage  very  dull  ones,  yet  they  do  exert  a  stimu- 
lating influence  upon  a  fairly  good  division,  and  by  their  example 
and  assistance  raise  the  standard  of  the  quality  of  work  done  by 
the  whole  division.  So  all  the  divisions,  except  the  bottom,  stim- 
ulated by  the  presence  of  the  smart  Iniys  and  by  the  absence  of 
the  dull  ones,  are  fairly  good.  Neither,  under  the  third  arrange- 
ment, should  the  teacher  despair  of  his  bottom  division.  Excel- 
lent results  may  be  obtained,  only  the  nite  of  progress  must  be 


1888.]  THE  TEACHING  OF  MATHEMATICS,  175 

slow,  the  total  amount  accomplished  much  less  than  in  the  other 
divisions,  and  the  kind  of  work  done  and  the  kind  of  teaching 
must  be  specially  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  this  division.  A 
very  dull  pupil  will  do  a  great  amount  of  work  if  it  is  not  beyond 
his  comprehension,  and  a  very  lazy  one  often  finds  it  harder  to  do 
nothing  than  to  do  easy  work. 

It  is  impossible  to  get  mathematical  work  from  pupils  who  do 
not  understand  the  objects  to  be  obtained  or  the  means  for  obtain- 
ing them,  and  this  is  exactly  the  condition  in  which  a  pupil  finds 
himself  when  he  once  falls  behind  his  class. 

The  question  now  arises.  Is  there  such  a  difference  in  the  abili- 
ties and  acquirements  of  pupils  when  they  begin  the  study  of 
algebra  as  to  call  for  such  special  treatment?  My  experience  as 
teacher  of  mathematics  for  twenty  years,  most  of  that  time  in  a 
very  large  school,  leads  me  to  believe  that  there  is ;  that  with  all 
the  care  a  teacher  can  take,  at  the  end  of  three  months  from  the 
time  of  beginning  the  study  of  algebra,  about  one  pupil  in  five  is 
so  far  beyond  his  depth  that  a  great  part  of  the  class  instruction 
is  of  little  value  to  him,  and  that  the  farther  he  goes  the  farther 
he  drops  behind.  The  question  now  to  be  solved  by  the  teacher  is 
what  is  the  best  thing  to  be  done  with  such  pupils  ?  the  best  thing 
for  them,  for  the  teacher,  and  for  the  rest  of  the  class? 

The  best  thing  for  the  pupil  who  has  dropped  behind  his  class  is 
private  instruction,  which  will  adapt  itself  to  his  special  needs  and 
will  generally  soon  place  liim  in  condition  to  receive  class  instruc- 
tion with  the  rest  of  his  class.  But  in  a  large  school  where  there 
are  many  in  this  condition,  the  teacher  cannot  find  time  to  attend 
to  them  all  unless  they  are  classed  together  and  such  special  in- 
struction be  made  a  part  of  his  regular  work.  It  is  of  little  use 
to  detain  such  delinquent  pupils  and  require  them  to  study  after 
school.  They  do  not  know  how  to  study,  and  require  in  most  cases, 
not  driving,  but  encouragement  and  assistance  and  lessons  adapted 
to  their  ability.  The  questions  asked  by  such  pupils  not  only  show 
what  are  theii*  views  of  the  subject  under  consideration,  but  often 
when  carefully  considered  reveal  omissions  in  the  teaching.  How- 
ever foolish  they  may  appear,  they  should  never  be  treated  lightly. 

The  next  thing  to  be  considered  is,  what  is  the  best  order  of 
topics  and  the  best  method  of  presenting  them  to  a  class  of  begin- 
ners? 

That  order  is  the  best  which  the  mind  of  itself  follows  in  obtain- 


176  ED  UCA  TlOy,  [  Xo  veraber, 

ing  information ;  that  is  to  proceed  from  special  cases  to  generaliza- 
tions, from  the  simple  to  the  complex,  from  the  concrete  to  the 
abstract.  The  same  principles  should  be  applied  to  the  details  of 
any  particular  branch  that  we  are  forced  to  recognize  in  general 
between  the  different  branches.  And  when  any  method  is  followed 
which  does  not  make  the  complete  assimilation  of  any  one  step 
comparatively  easy,  while  it  thoroughly  prepares  the  way  for  more 
complex  consequences,  and  so  on  till  the  whole  subject  is  mastered, 
the  result  will  be  failure  and  perhaps  even  worse ;  for  the  pupil 
may  become  so  disgusted  as  to  be  unfit  for  teaching  of  a  better 
kind. 

Whenever  a  class  or  a  large  part  of  it,  does  not  clearly  under- 
stand at  any  particular  point  the  condition  of  affairs  and  the  way 
to  the  next  step,  or  when  most  of  the  pupils  in  it  cannot  be  induced, 
by  a  few  leading  questions  or  a  few  directions,  to  take  the  next 
step  and  reason  out  the  cause  for  it  and  the  effect  of  it,  then  that 
class  is  not  mature  enough  for  the  subject  being  studied  or  the 
subject  has  been  badly  placed  before  them  or  in  a  wrong  order. 
And  that  part  of  the  study  will  be  of  no  practical  use  to  any  ex- 
cept such  pupils  as  are  sufficiently  intelligent  or,  being  impelled 
by  special  motives,  are  sufficiently  diligent  to  search  out  the  bot- 
tom facts  by  their  own  ingenuity  and  efforts. 

For  the  first  few  months  the  textbook,  if  used  at  all,  should  l)e 
used  as  a  storehouse  of  problems,  simply  to  save  the  pupils  from 
copying  from  dictation ;  and  the  instruction  should  be  free  from 
all  definitions,  technical  terms,  and  rules.  I  would  not  even  un- 
dertake to  define  what  algebra  is  or  what  it  is  like.  Pupils  ought 
soon  to  find  out  what  it  is  like  and  to  be  able  to  make  their  own 
definition  as  soon  as  they  need  one.  Conventionalities,  of  course, 
must  be  explained  as  it  becomes  necessary  to  use  them. 

When  pupils  begin  the  study  of  algebra,  they  are  old  enough  to 
begin  to  lose  their  implicit  confidence  in  the  wisdom  of  their  eldei's 
and  to  goveiTi  their  actions  by  their  own  opinions ;  owing  to  want 
of  mature  judgment,  sufficient  knowledge,  and  often  to  bad  advice 
from  friends,^  these  opinions  are  frequently  far  from  correct. 
Especially  is  tliis  apt  to  be  the  case,  when  the  subject  of  those 
opinions  is  the  relative  values  of  different  branches  of  study. 

*NoTE.  —  I  once  received  a  letter  from  an  Intellij^ent  gentleman,  written  In  answer  to 
one  from  me,  notifying  him  that  his  son  was  doing  poorly  in  my  department,  in  which 
be  said  that  fifteen  per  cent,  was  all  he  expected  or  desired  his  son  tf)  get  In  algebra. 


1888.]  THE  TEACHING  OF  MATHEMATICS.  177 

It  is  difficult  for  a  teacher  to  arouse  enthusiasm  in  a  pupil  who 
has  made  up  his  mind  that  the  branch  which  is  being  studied  is  of 
no  benefit  to  him.  This  condition  of  mind  the  instructor  should 
strive  indirectly  to  change.  I  say  indirectly,  because  if  the  teacher 
can  so  illustrate  the  subject  that  the  pupil,  from  the  new  light  he 
has  on  it,  will  draw  the  conclusion  that  there  is  some  advantage 
even  to  him  in  learning  the  study,  he  will  accept  and  be  guided 
more  by  his  own  conclusions  than  by  direct  arguments  bearing  on 
the  subject. 

Algebra  furnishes  a  means  for  illustrating  and  generalizing  the 
processes  of  arithmetic  and  for  solving  more  readily  and  systemati- 
cally arithmetical  problems.  And  by  reference  to  arithmetic  a 
skilful  teacher  can  find  material  to  convince  the  doubter  that  alge- 
bra, aside  from  being  one  of  the  indispensable  steps  of  a  mathe- 
matical series,  has  practical  uses  in  itself. 

The  symbolism  of  algebra  has,  in  fact,  two  advantages :  first,  it 
abbreviates,  and  so  saves  time;  secondly,  it  systematizes  the  argu- 
ment, dividing  it  into  steps  which  are  exhibited  in  a  tabulated 
form  and  in  their  necessary  sequence.  The  advantages  of  such 
abbreviation  and  ariangement  will  appeal  to  the  pupil's  sense  of 
the  practical. 

Begin  algebra  with  the  solution  of  the  easiest  problems,  so  sim- 
ple that  any  student  can  readily  solve  them  by  the  aid  of  his 
knowledge  of  arithmetic  and  occasionally  a  little  guidance  from 
the  teacher. 

The  boy  who  can  see  that  if  two  pounds  of  sugar  cost  sixteen 
cents,  one  pound  must  cost  eight  cents,  is  prepared  to  make  and 
solve  an  algebraic  equation,  and  this  is  the  kind  of  algebraic  work 
with  which  he  should  begin.  But  we  must  not  be  surprised  if 
some  fail  to  make  and  solve  equations,  even  after  being  shown  how 
to  do  them. 

Even  the  simple  abbreviations  of  algebra  are  strange  to  the 
beginner,  and  it  is  not  impossible  that,  on  being  put  to  work  at 
solving  equations,  he  may  become  immediately  confused  amid  the 
difficulties  of  a  language  unknown  to  him.  The  easiest  problems 
when  looked  at  from  a  new  point  of  view  will  present  some  diffi- 
culty to  some  pupils,  and  in  all  mathematical  teaching  there  is  no 
more  common  error  than  a  failure  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  to 
lower  himself  to  the  pupil's  standpoint. 

Things  which  to  the  teacher  seem  to  be  intuitive,  may  have  been 


1 78  ED  UCA  TJOy.  [November, 

in 'his  own  case  acquired  only  by  study  and  as  the  result  of  good 
teaching,  and  he  must  remember  that  the  pupil  cannot  have  that 
light  on  any  new  subject,  simple  or  complex,  which  he  has.  It 
will  not  pay  to  neglect  the  most  elementary  steps  because  they 
seem  to  the  teacher  self-evident,  nor  to  neglect  the  dull  pupil  who 
fails  to  understand  explanations  after  hearing  them  once. 

Your  backward  pupil  is  probably  not  a  fool,  he  may  be  uninter- 
ested and  uninteresting,  dull,  idle,  and  inattentive,  but  with  proper 
handling  he  may  yet  enter  Harvard  College  with  credit.  So  much 
the  more  credit  then  for  awakening  his  dormant  energies.  Almost 
any  one  who  understands  his  subject  can  teach  bright  pupils,  but  it 
requires  experience,  method,  and  perhaps  talent  to  succeed  with 
dull  ones. 


T//£    TEACHING    OF  THE    ENGLISH  LANGUAGE 

AND  LITERATURE,'' 

II. 

METHODS   OF    8TUI)Y    IN    ENCiLLSH    LITERATURE.  —  II. 

BY  H.   £.   SHEPHERD,   LL.  D. 
PreHdent  of  CharleBton  College,  Charleiton,  S.  C. 

THE  same  faculty  of  discrimination  is  requisite  to  fix  the  rela- 
tive merits,  the  relative  greatness  of  authors.  The  classical 
and  the  commonplace  are  ofttimes  not  accurately  distinguished. 
Our  manuals  blend  all  in  an  indiscriminate  mass  of  names,  dates, 
and  details.  It  is  for  the  most  part  the  typical  authors  of  the 
leading  periods  in  our  literary  evolution  who  should  be  the  sub- 
jects of  special  treatment  in  our  ordinary  schemes  of  instruction, 
—  the  men  who  embody  the  purest  aspiration,  the  intensest  life 
of  an  age.  Cromwell,  for  example,  is  to  the  political  history  of 
the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  correlate  of  Milton, 
viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  literary  development.  The  minor 
authors,  however  attractive  they  may  prove  from  the  attitude  of 
strictly  philological  study,  should  as  a  general  rule  be  reserved  for 
the  maturer  period  of  special  investigation. 

To  apply  our  theory  in  the  concrete  :     During  the  fourteenth  cen- 

*  Cop3'rigbt.  1888,  by  Eastern  Educational  Burean. 


1888.]  THE  TEACHIXO  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE,  179 

tury  Langley,  Wickliffe,  and  Chaucer  require  minute  study  as  illus- 
trating in  their  respective  spheres  the  deepest  and  purest  moral,  so- 
cial, and  intellectual  life  of  their  time,  and  the  two  last,  as  being  in 
large  measure  the  framers  and  fashioners  of  our  biblical  and  literary 
dialect.  The  fifteenth  century  may  be  passed  over  with  but  scant  re- 
gard by  the  student  of  literature,  though  from  the  philologist's  view- 
point it  has  much  to  commend  it.  The  Renaissance  in  Italy,  and 
its  gradual  diffusion  over  Europe,  its  naturalization  in  England, 
the  introduction  of  purely  Italian  influences,  as  seen  in  the  adop- 
tion of  blank  verse  and  the  sonnet  by  Surrey  and  Wyatt,  the 
various  translations  of  the  classics  that  tended  to  the  Latinizing 
of  the  vocabulary,  its  expansion  under  influences  already  pointed 
out.  The  development  of  the  drama,  the  classic  and  domestic  ele- 
ments which  contributed  to  its  growth,  the  MiiTor  for  Magistrates, 
a  work  of  extraordinary  vigor  and  beauty,  preluding  the  splendor 
of  the  incoming  era,  the  multiform  agencies  by  which  the  discord- 
ant and  unregulated  English  that  prevailed  at  the  beginning  of 
Elizabeth's  reign  was  transformed  into  the  rich  and  luxuriant 
speech  wliich  became  so  powerful  an  instrument  in  the  hands  of 
Marlowe  and  Shakespeare,  the  heroic  spirit  of  the  age  following  the 
English  Salamis,  its  decline  during  the  ignoble  reigns  of  the  two 
first  Stuarts.  The  expansion  of  the  critical  temper,  and  the  action 
of  that  temper  as  reflected  in  the  transition  to  our  Augustan 
epoch.  The  forces  that  moulded  it,  its  perfected  development 
under  the  guidance  of  Pope  and  Addison,  the  rise  of  periodical 
literature,  and  its  development  into  the  modern  novel  of  life  and 
character,  in  which  is  conserved  the  intellectual  force  formerly 
applied  in  the  production  of  the  drama,  the  rise  of  romanticism 
in  Europe  coincident  with  the  advent  of  the  first  French  revolu- 
tion, and  the  incoming  of  another  great  day  of  creative  power. 
The  era  of  Scott,  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  Byron,  Shelley,  Keats, 
the  reversion  to  prose  under  the  leadership  of  Macaulay,  De  Quin- 
cey,  Carlyle,  and  Newman.  The  marked  expansion  of  physical 
science  and  scientific  literature,  and  the  tapplication  of  the  scientific 
spirit  in  all  forms  of  modern  activity,  the  ornate  school  of  art 
transmitted  from  Shelley  and  Keats,  and  elaborated  in  the  poetry 
of  Tennyson,  the  natural  type  of  Wordsworth,  as  preserved  in  a 
number  of  secondary  poets.  The  decline  of  artistic  prose  since 
the  death  of  Macaulay  and  De  Quincey.  The  resistless  advance 
of  the  Baconian  spirit  and  the  leveling  processes  of  modern  so- 


180  EDUCATIOX.  [November, 

ciety  as  traced  in  current  literature  —  such  are  some  of  the  spe- 
cific topics  in  a  thoroughly  defined  course  of  study,  assuming  it  to 
begin  with  the  age  of  Chaucer,  the  founder  of  our  literary  speech, 
•*'  the  finder  of  our  fair  language." 

The  outline  here  given  is  capable  of  indefinite  extension ;  it  is 
proposed  merely  to  suggest  and  invite  amplification  or  elaboration. 
Again,  it  should  be  the  constant  endeavor  of  the  t^aclier  to  infuse 
into  the  pupil  the  moral  and  aesthetic  culture,  which  it  is  the  high 
function  of  literary  training  to  impart.  Lexical  or  philological 
criticism,  verbal  details,  historical  and  comparative  grammar,  have 
their  recognized  position  as  well  as  tlieir  educative  power.  Still, 
the  literary  phase  of  study  should  not  be  confounded  with  them, 
or  subordinated  to  them.  Let  each  be  supreme  in  its  own  sphere, 
and  let  their  spheres  be  accurately  differentiated.  Tlie  relation  of 
times,  the  coincidence  of  events,  the  harmony  of  development,  as 
illustrated  in  the  evolution  of  literature,  will,  if  thoughtfully  in- 
terpreted and  expounded,  convey  many  lessons  of  moral,  as  well 
as  intellectual  wisdom,  by  sliowing  in  all  its  phases  the  reign  of 
law,  the  evidence  of  design,  the  unity  of  movement,  the  hand  of 
God. 

Illustration  after  illustration  may  be  cited  in  proof  of  this  gen- 
eral proposition.  Note  for  example,  the  concurrence  of  events  in 
various  critical  epoclis  of  history,  and  mark  with  what  exquisite 
harmony  the  great  moulding  influences  and  the  great  moulding 
agents,  all  come  in  their  fulness  of  time,  in  their  appointed  season, 
circumstances  and  causes  the  most  remote  and  unrelated,  when 
viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  tlie  casual  reader,  jiU  tending  to 
the  same  result.     To  select  at  random :  — 

Sir  Isaac  Newton  is  lx)rn  in  the  same  year  in  which  Galileo  dies, 
1642.  Richelieu,  the  great  apostle  of  absolutism  in  France,  dies  in 
1642,  and  the  civil  war  in  England,  which  was  a  struggle  against 
advancing  absolutism,  begins  in  1642.  Shakespeare  and  Galileo, 
representing  two  great  phases  of  intellectual  life,  the  dramatic  and 
the  philosophic,  are  born  in  1564.  Michael  Angelo  and  Calvin 
died  in  1564.  Raphael  and  T^uther  are  born  in  1488 ;  Pope,  the 
typical  poet  of  the  critical  age  in  England,  is  born  in  1688,  the 
year  of  the  Revolution,  which  was  itself  a  critical  or  regulative 
movement,  in  the  sphere  of  constitutional  growth.  Currier,  Goethe, 
and  Sir  Walter  Scott  all  die  in  the  same  year,  1832,  the  year  that 
saw  the  passage  of  the  great  lieform  liill.     Hallam,  De  Quincey, 


1888.]  THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  181 

Irving,  Prescott,  and  Macaulay,  die  in  1859.  Milton  was  born  in 
1608,  the  year  in  which  appeared  John  Smith's  History  of  Vir- 
ginia, the  first  American  book.  Longfellow,  Whittier,  and  Agas- 
fiiz  were  born  in  the  same  year,  1807,  Tennyson  in  1810,  and  Poe 
in  1809.  Jeremy  Taylor  died  in  1667.  Tlie  first  edition  of  Para- 
dise Lost  appeared  in  1667.  Swift  was  born  in  the  same  year,  and 
Dryden's  Annus  Mirabilis  waii  published.  Addison  died  in  1719. 
De  Foe's  Robinson  Crusoe  appears  in  1719.  Longfellow,  Emei-son, 
and  Darwin  all  died  in  1882,  and  at  short  intervals.  Spenser,  and 
his  patron.  Sir  Walter  Kaleigh,  were  born  in  1552.  Cromwell  and 
Blake  were  born  in  1599,  the  death  year  of  Spenser.  Milton 
began  the  composition  of  Paradise  Lost  in  1658.  Cromwell,  liis 
"  chief  of  men,"  dies  in  this  year.  Ben  Jonson  dies  in  1637.  Mil- 
ton's Lycidas,  the  first  of  our  three  great  ''  In  Memoriam  "  poems, 
is  issued  in  1637.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  was  executed  in  1618. 
The  Thirty  Ye\rs'  War  begin.s  in  1618  and  endi  in  1618,  the  year 
of  the  death  of  Charles  I .,  reckoning  by  the  ancient  calendar.  Dante 
was  born  in  1265.  Simon  de  Montfort  completed  the  formation  of 
the  English  Parliament  in  1265.  Burns  was  born  in  1759,  the 
year  of  the  capture  of  Quebec  by  Wolfe,  which  established  the 
supremacy  of  the  English  race  and  the  English  tongue  upon  this 
continent. 

The  list  is  capable  of  indefinite  extension,  but  these  exam- 
ples will  suffice  to  make  plam  the  general  proposition.  The 
typical  authors  of  each  period  should  be  illustrated  by  means  of 
judicious  and  discriminating  selections,  such  admirable  aids  as 
Ward's  English  Poets,  Morris's  Chaucer,  Palgrave's  Golden  Treas- 
ury, Minto's  or  Saintsbury's  Prose,  Mark  Pattison's  editions  of  the 
Satires  and  Epistles  of  Pope,  being  always  accessible  for  this  pur- 
pose. Adams's  Dictionary  of  English  Literature,  Morley's  First 
Sketch  of  English  Literature,  Masson's  Life  and  Times  of  John 
Milton,  Halliwell-Phillipps's  Outlines  of  a  Life  of  Shakespeare  will 
furnish  accurate  and  detailed  information  in  regard  to  every  point. 

Shairp's  Studies  in  Poetry,  Aspects  of  Poetry,  and  Poetic  Inter- 
pretation of  Nature,  are  entertaining  and  suggestive  in  the  high- 
est degree.  To  these  may  be  added  Morley's  English  Men  of 
Letters,  and  Brewer's  English  Studies.  As  a  means  of  illustrating 
the  relation  between  history  and  literature.  Bishop  Stubbs's  Lec- 
tures upon  Modern  and  Media3val  History,  especially  the  Lectures 
upon  Learnmg  and  Literature  at  the  Court  of  Henry  IL,  should 


182  EDUCATIOX.  [November, 

be  diligently  studied.  Valuable  suggestions  may  be  gathered  from 
Ten  Brink's  Early  English  Literature,  and  from  Freeman's  Nor- 
man Conquest  of  England,  Vol.  V.,  Chap.  XXV. 

Boswell,  Lockhart,  and  Trevelyan,  the  supreme  masters  of  En- 
glish biographical  style,  are  indispensable  in  any  consistent  scheme 
of  literary  instruction.  Let  the  •teacher  strive  in  every  possible 
way  to  render  the  study  of  English  literature  a  vital  quickening 
power;  not  a  merely  abstract  or  dissertative  procedure,  but  an 
effective  instrument  in  developing  aesthetic  taste  and  sensibility,  in 
expanding  and  ennobling  the  spiritual  as  well  as  the  mental  life. 

It  has  been  our  aim  in  these  papers,  briefly  to  indicate  some  of  the 
means  by  whose  discriminating  employment  this  high  and  holy  end 
may  be  accomplished.  After  all,  as  intimated  in  the  beginning, 
the  result  must  be  determined  by  the  inspiration  and  culture  of 
the  teacher,  rather  than  by  the  excellence  or  efficiency  of  the 
method.  The  fundamental  principles  of  the  Novum  Organum 
when  applied  in  the  region  of  the  mental  or  the  spiritual,  have 
resulted  in  blighting  empiricism  and  premature  decay.  The  po- 
tentialities of  English  lit<3rature  as  a  culture  study  and  a  disci- 
plinary power  are  practically  unlimited.  Let  us  consecrate  to  its 
teaching  the  most  expansive  and  aspiring  type  of  scholarship  that 
the  profession  in  this  country  has  thus  far  been  able  to  develop. 


THE    TEACHING    OF    THE   CLASSICAL 

LANGUAGES.^ 

in. 

THE   FIRST   YEAR   LS    LATIN. — II. 
BY  ADELINE  A.   KNIGHT. 

IT  will  be  very  well  for  teachers  of  Latin  to  write  above  the 
notes  and  helps  which  they  may  be  arranging  this  summer 
toward  next  winter's  laboi*s,  — 

Object  of  this  Brill, —  To  increase  their  resources  and  better 
their  enjoyment  of  life  by  the  command  of  the  Latin  language, 
the  vehicle  used  by  the  Romans  for  conveying  ideas.  The  end  in 
view  is,  of  course,  cont^ict  with  the  Roman  mind. 

Menttil  drill  Ls  not  an  es{)ecial  object ;  for  other  and  more  prac- 
tical matters  are  very  fit  for  discipline  —  scientific  cookery,  appren- 

1  Copyright,  1888,  Eastern  Educational  Bureau. 


1888.]  TEACHING  OF  THE  CLASSICAL  LANGUAGES,  183 

ticeship  to  first-class  dressmaking,  any  business  of  life  where  Heir 
Klesmer's  terrible  "musts"  apply.  To  study  Roman  ambitions 
and  aims,  and  the  Roman  modus  of  governing  the  world,  as  well 
as  by  discovering  what  Romans  of  different  generations  thought 
about  tliis  wonderful  life  of  ours,  and  how  this  earth  wliich  they, 
like  us,  were  permitted  to  love  and  to  leave  affected  them,  is  to 
grow  cultured  and  fitted  to  influence  our  small  worlds  to  think 
and  feel  with  us.  How  can  anybody  fail  to  dislike  Cicero  and 
Horace  for  brutal  illustrations  made  with  such  appalling  ease  until 
he  studies  the  combination  of  prejudices,  coarse  ways  of  regard- 
ing tilings,  and  vulgar  narrowness  brought  on  by  exclusively  mili- 
tary feeling  which  was  the  deep  stain  upon  the  masterful  Latin 
character  and  in  time  fatally  limited  the  point  of  view  of  even 
gentle  and  refined  men  like  Virgil.  But  either  of  the  old  civiliza- 
tions, which  we  study  in  this  far  off  day  of  ours  as  impersonally 
as  we  do  the  world  of  stars  overhead,  informs  us  much  by  compari- 
son and  discloses  in  an  humiliating  way  that  our  modern  civiliza- 
tion is  not  symmetrical,  in  spite  of  its  magnificent  expansion 
along  certain  lines  of  development.  A  bad  boy  who  tortures  kit- 
tens cannot  help  being  a  better  humanitarian  than  Marcus  Aure- 
lius,  and  usages  obtained  among  the  noblest  ancients  which  would 
be  tolerated  by  no  class  in  a  civilized  land  now.  But  it  is  exceed- 
ingly doubtful  if  we  have  their  respect  for  good  material  and  hon- 
est work.  I  fancy,  too,  that  in  spite  of  our  quick  consciences  we 
are  morally  disinclined  to  do  our  duty  about  various  great  reforms 
which  we  know  are  desirable  and  feel  are  inevitable.  We  secretly 
echo  the  cry  of  the  Lotus-eaters, — 

*^  Let  us  alone.    Time  driveth  onward  fast, 
And  in  a  little  while  oar  lips  are  dumb.*' 

We  have  ambition  without  power,  I  suppose ;  and  how  much  of 
this  semi-paralysis  is  due  to  the  halting  education  which  was  cer- 
tainly ours  will  never  appear. 

Long  continued  diill  and  a  great  endowment  of  knowledge  are 
going  to  strengthen  these  girls  of  ours  to  be 

'^  More  earnest  than  others  are,  speed 
Where  they  falter,  persist  where  they  cease." 

Their  careers  will  be  like  the  cathedrals  of  Europe  whose  wide 
doors  stand  forever  open  deep  down  among  the  homes  of  the  cit- 


184  EDUCATION.  [November, 

ies  clustering  at  their  feet,  and  whose  spires  soaring  into  the  air 
command  a  view  undreamed  of  in  the  streets  below. 

The  semi-yearly  tests  are  in  truth  the  power  that  holds  our 
work  together  through  the  first  year  in  Latin,  and  enables  us  to 
live  with  our  pupils  in  tolerable  friendship  and  not  in  intolera- 
ble discord.  They  gauge  the  class  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of 
the  language  which  we  will  begin  in  the  second  year  to  pad  with 
literature.  A  test  used  last  year  is  appended  with  three  of  the 
papers  offered,  marked  afterwards  for  the  purpose  they  are  now 
serving  as  Bad,  Medium,  and  Good.  The  class,  by  the  way,  which 
had  this  test,  numbered  twenty-one.  Of  this  number,  two  offered 
very  poor  papers,  eleven  some  of  medium  quality,  and  eight  those 
that  were  really  of  value.  The  three  selected  to  illustrate  the 
varying  success  with  the  test  are  printed  precisely  as  they  came  to 
the  teacher. 

An  hour  and  a  half  was  allowed,  with  a  margin  of  fifteen  min- 
utes. 

TEST.     ( Written.^ 

1.  Write  in  Latin, — 

If  we  were  willing  to  forget  the  old  misfortune,  could  we  also 
get  rid  of  the  remembrance  of  recent  insults  ? 

2.  Write  in  Latin, — 

The  lieutenant  did  not  lead  liLs  army  into  winter  quarters, 
although  the  suminer  was  almost  gone. 

3.  Write  in  Latin, — 

(a)  When  ambassadors  were  sent,  Ariovistus  demanded. 
(6)  Before  he  attempted  anything  he  summoned  Divitiacus. 

4.  Write  in  English, — 

Eo  postquam  Caesar  pervenit  obsides,  arma,  servos  poposcit. 

5.  Write  in  Latin, — 

(a)  He  shows  what  his  plan  is. 
(V)  He  asked  what  the  cause  was. 

6.  Translate, — 

Oppidum  parvo  pretio  vendidit. 

7.  In  above,  parse  underlined  words. 

8.  Translate, — 

Quum  ex  captivis  quaereret  Caesar  quam-ob-rem  Ariovistus 
proelio  non  decertaret,  hanc  reperiebat  causam. 

9.  Decline  plits  in  both  numbers. 


1888.]  TEACHING  OF  THE  CLASSICAL  LANGUAGES.  186 

BAD. 

1.  Si  incommodi  vertus  oblovisci  vultis  tarn  memoriam  recen- 
tum  injuriarum. 

2.  Legatus  exercitum  suum  non  duxit  in  herbena  quum  aestas. 

3.  Quum  legatus  mitteret  Ariovistus  postulavit. 
Priusquam  quid  conabitur  Divitiacum  poposcit. 

4.  After  this  Caesar  came  he  demanded  hostoges  armes  slaves. 

5.  Consuli  sui. 
Rogabat  causa  erat. 

6. 

7.  Oppidum  is  a  neuter  noun  of  the  second  declention  from 
oppidum  oppidi  oppido  oppidum  oppidum  oppido ;  it  is  found  in 
the  nominative  case  subject  of  vindidit  according  to  Section  173.^ 


9. 

Phis 

Plures  Plura. 

Phiris 

Plurium  Plurium. 

Phis 

Pluribus. 
Plures  Plura. 
Pluribus. 

MEDIUM. 

1.  Si  veteris  contumeUarum  oblivisci  vellemus,  num  etiam  nos 
recentium  injuriarum  deponere  reminiscantur  ? 

2.  Legatus  exercitum  suum  in  hiberna  non  duxit,  quum  aestas 
semper  iret. 

3.  (a)  Quum  legati  mitterentur,  Ariovistus  postulavit. 
(6)  Priusquam  quid  quam  conabatur  Divitiacum  vocat. 

4.  After  Caesar  arrived  there  he  demanded  hostages,  arms  and 
slaves. 

5.  (a)  Quid  sui  consuli  est,  ostendit. 
(6)  Quae  causae  fuit,  rogavit. 

6.  He  sold  the  town  for  a  small  price. 

7.  Oppidum  is  a  neuter  noun  of  the  second  declension  from 
oppidum,  oppidi,  oppido,  oppidum,  oppidum,  oppido.  It  is  found 
in  the  accusative  plural  singular,  and  is  the  direct  object  of  ven- 
didit,  according  to  Section  237. 

Pretio  is  a  neuter  noun  of  the  second  declension  from  pretium, 
pretii,  pretio,  pretium,  pretium,  pretio.  It  is  found  in  the  ablative 
of  Price,  according  to  Section  250. 

*■  Allen  ft  Greenongh. 


186  EDUCATION.  [November, 

8.     When  CsBsar  asked  from  the  captives,  for  what  reason  Ario- 
vistns  did  not  contend  in  battle,  he  found  out  this  reason. 

9. 


PhlR 

Plures  Plura. 

Pluris 

Plurium  Plurium. 

Pluribus  Pluribus. 

Plus 

Plures  Plura. 

Pluribus  Pluribus. 

MUCH   BETTER. 

1.  Si  incommodi  veteris  oblivisci  vellemus,  num  etiam  contu- 
meliarum  recentium  memoriam  deponere  possemus? 

2.  Legatus  exercitum  suum  in  hiberna  non  adduxit,  etsi  aestus 
prope  exacta  erat. 

3.  (a)  Quum  legati  mitterentur,  Ariovistus  postulavit. 
(6)  Priusquam  quidquam  conaretur,  Divitiacum  vocat. 

4.  As  soon  as  Caesar  arrived  there,  he  demanded  hostages, 
weapons,  slaves. 

5.  (a)  Quid  sui  consuli  sit,  ostendit. 
(6)  Causa  quae  esset  quaesiit. 

6.  He  sold  the  town  for  a  small  price. 

7.  Oppidum  is  a  neuter  noun  of  the  second  declension,  de- 
clined —  oppidum,  oppidi,  oppido,  oppidum,  oppidum,  oppido.  It 
is  found  in  the  accusative,  object  of  vendidit  according  to  Section 
237. 

Pretium  is  a  neuter  noun  of  the  second  declension,  declined 
pretium,  pretii,  pretio,  pretium,  pretium,  pretio.  It  is  found  in 
the  ablative  of  Price,  according  to  Section  252. 

8.  When  Csesar  inquired  of  the  captives  why  Ariovistus  would 
not  fight,  he  found  out  this  reason. 


9.     Plus 

Plures,  plura. 

Pluris 

Plurium,  plurium. 

Pluribus,  pluribus. 

Plus 

Plures,  plura. 

Pluribus,  pluribus. 

The  thing  we  are  apt  to  fail  of  to-day  is  not  breadth  and 
thoroughness  of  knowledge  of  what  is  about  us,  but  of  what  is 
above  and  within  us.  T.  T.  Hunger. 


1888.]  Oim'ARD,  CHRISTIAN  SOLDIERS.  187 


ONWARD,     CHRISTIAN    SOLDIERS.^ 

[FROM  TIIE  ENGLISH  OF  REV.  8.  BARINO-OOITLD.] 
BT  O.  F.  EMERSON,  IOWA  COLLEGE,  GRINNELL,  IOWA. 

Milites  Christiani 

Bello  pergite ; 
Caram  Jesu  crucem 

Vo8  provehite. 
Christus  rex,  magister, 

Ducit  agmina, 
Ecce  jam  vexillum 

It  in  proelia. 

Magnum  agmen  movet 

Dei  ecclesia. 
Gradimur  nunc,  fratres, 

Sanctii  Semite. 
Non  divisi  sumus, 

Unus  omnes  nos ; 
Unus  spe,  doctrina, 

Caritate  nos. 

Throni  atque  regna 

Instabilia, 
Sed  per  Jesum  constans 

Stat  ecclesia. 
Portae  non  geheimae 

Possunt  vincere, 
Non  promissus  Jesu 

Potest  fallere. 

Popule,  beatis 

Vos  conjungite ! 
Carmina  triumphi 

Vos  concinite; 
Christo  regi  honor, 

Laudes,  gloria, 
Angeli  hoc  canent 

Saecla  omnia. 

^Considerable  interest  is  grivon  to  a  class  of  beginners  in  Latin  by  allowing  the  pupils 
to  sing  simple  Latin  bymns.  Besides  tbe  above  a  translation  of  "  Stand  np  for  Jesus  " 
by  the  Rev.  Samuel  Duffleld,  of  New  Jersey,  has  been  used  with  profit.  O.  F.  E. 


188  EDUCATION.  [Noyember, 


CHILD  SPEECH,  AND  THE  LA  W  OF  MISPRONUN- 

CIA  TION, 

BY  EDMUND  NOBLE,  BOSTON. 
III. 

BUT  the  law  has  a  wider  application  stiU.  To  me  it  seems  to 
throw  not  a  little  light  on  the  tendency  of  consonants  to 
vary  according  to  a  fixed  rule  when  they  pass  from  one  language 
into  another.  The  general  phenomena  of  the  LautverBchiehung 
will  be  known  to  aU  my  readers.  I  need,  therefore,  only  remind 
them  of  a  few  of  the  changes  that  actually  occur  in  accordance 
^  Gri^m-.  fonnul.  L  u,  W.e  o„/or  .wo  dmpl.  Aryan 
words  and  follow  them  in  their  passage  through  the  principal 
Indo-European  languages.  The  word  ther  in  Greek  reaches  Latin 
as  fera^  enters  English  as  deer,  and  is  seen  in  High  German  as 
thier.  The  Greek  phegos  again  is  seen  as  fagtis  in  Latin,  as  beech 
in  English,  and  as  buche  in  German.  We  thus  gain  the  following 
sequences  of  recurrence :  — 


Ther, 

Phegos, 

Fera, 

Fagus, 

Deer, 

Beech, 

Thier, 

Buche. 

The  reader  wiU  note  in  passing,  that  while  each  word  changes 
in  entering  a  new  language,  the  change  is  strictly  in  accordance 
with  a  method  common  to  aU  the  changes.  That  is  to  say,  an 
obvious  sound  never  becomes  a  difl&cult  sound,  but  continues  to  be 
modified  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  mouth.  The  sounds  in  the 
first  column  stand  —  Dental  aspirate,  labial  aspirate,  dental  soft, 
dental  hard.  In  the  second  column  the  changes  run  —  Labial  as- 
pirate, labial  aspirate,  labial,  labial. 

We  shall  find  the  same  order  of  sequence  in  other  words.  Thus 
ffenos  in  Greek  becomes  genus  in  Latin,  kin  in  English,  and  kind 


1888.]  CHILD  SPEECH.  189 

in  German.  Greek  duo  is  duo  in  Latin,  two  in  English,  and  zwei 
in  German.  The  Greek  kardia  turns  to  cor(d)  in  Latin,  in  En- 
glish to  hearty  and  in  German  to  herzen.  Pons  in  Greek  is  Latin 
pes^  English  foot^  and  German  fuss.  These  examples  may  be  ar- 
ranged thus :  — 


Genes, 

Du6, 

Kardia, 

Pons, 

Genus, 

Duo, 

Cor(d), 

Pes, 

Kin, 

Two, 

Heart, 

Foot, 

Kind, 

Zwei, 

Herzen, 

Fuss. 

The  changes  here  represented  may  be  described :  1.  Soft  guttu- 
ral, soft  guttural,  hard  guttural,  hard  guttural.  2.  Soft  dental, 
soft  dental,  hard  dental,  hissing  dental.  3.  Hard  guttural,  hard 
guttural,  aspirate  guttural,  aspirate  guttural.  4.  Hard  labial, 
hard  labial,  aspirate  labial,  aspirate  labial.  That  the  changes  al- 
ways take  place  within  the  limits  of  their  class  is  thus  obvious. 
The  reader  wiU,  moreover,  note  that  the  range  of  difference  in  the 
change  from  Greek  to  Latin  is  not  so  great  in  any  of  the  cases  as 
the  range  of  difference  in  the  change  from  Latin  to  the  Germanic 
tongues,  while  these  again  seem  to  be  more  nearly  allied  with  each 
other  than  they  are  with  the  Greek-Latin  languages. 

Now,  how  did  these  changes  come  about,  and  by  what  limiting 
conditions  were  the  variations  confined  within  their  own  class? 
Philology  is  content  to  note  the  existence  of  the  law  of  Lautver- 
schiebung ;  further  than  a  mere  record  of  the  facts  it  has  never 
gone.  But  for  us  it  has  a  new  interest.  For  if  the  vagaries  of 
child  speech  are  to  be  removed  forever  from  the  list  of  accidental 
phenomena,  how  much  more  are  we  not  bound  to  recognize  the 
operation  of  law  in  the  structural  changes  which  words  undergo 
in  passing  from  race  to  race  and  from  people  to  people  I 

First  of  all,  let  us  be  fully  aware  of  the  impossibility  of  any 
structural  changes  occurring  in  words  by  any  such  sudden  process 
as  that  indicated  in  popular  illustrations  of  the  Lautver schiebung. 
In  the  vicissitudes  of  language  there  are  no  leaps.  Any  one  who 
can  believe  that  Greek  kardia  was  suddenly  transformed  for  En- 
glish ears  and  vocal  organs  into  "heart,"  or  that  Latin  pes  be- 
came "  foot "  in  the  twinkling  of  a  philologist's  eye,  or  that  phegos 
was  redacted  in  a  night  as  buche  for  the  German  school  books  — 
any  one  who  can  believe  these  things  is  beyond  the  reach  of  evi- 


190  EDUCATION.  [November, 

dence.  The  changes  described  as  Lautver%chiehungen  were  really 
connected  with  each  other  by  a  vast  number  of  slight  variations, 
each  of  which  carried  the  sound  a  little  away  from  its  early  char- 
acter, a  little  nearer  to  the  new  phonic  goal  towards  which  it  was 
tending.  By  almost  insensible  degrees  of  change  the  Greek  trU 
became  the  German  drei^  and  the  English  "  three  " ;  pes  was  con- 
verted into  "  foot "  on  the  one  hand,  into  fuss  on  the  other ;  duo 
appeared  in  English  as  "  two  " ;  by  such  slow  vicissitudes,  in  fact, 
all  the  metamorphoses  of  the  Lautverschiehwig  were  accomplished. 

What,  now,  were  the  causes  which  led  to  the  changes,  and  how 
were  those  changes  confined  within  the  class  limits  to  which  we 
have  seen  them  to  belong  ?  The  simplest  reply  to  this  question  is 
to  attribute  all  the  variations  of  the  Lautverschiebung  to  the  men- 
tal degeneration  of  the  word  in  the  course  of  the  transition  from 
its  state  as  an  original  sound  to  its  condition  as  a  reproduced  sound. 
A  lack  of  vividness  in  the  percept,  an  incomplete  re-percept,  and 
a  defective  translation  of  the  re-percept  into  uttered  sound  —  these 
are  potent  sources  of  mispronunciation  in  children.  But  how  much 
greater  are  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  a  correct  rendering  of 
speech  when  the  original  sound  is  uttered  and  reproduction  at- 
tempted by  different  races?  Yet  the  German's  confusion  of  "b" 
and  "  p, "  of  "  t "  and  "  d  "  ;  the  French  use  of  "  z  "  for  "  th  "  ;  all 
the  blunders,  in  fact,  made  by  foreigners  in  pronouncing  English, 
follow  the  same  law  which  we  have  seen  to  be  operative  in  the  er- 
ror's of  child  speech.  And  it  seems  probable,  at  any  rate,  that  the 
process  of  interracial  degeneration  of  words  was  much  the  same 
during  the  formation  of  the  later  Indo-European  languages  as  that 
which  is  being  illustrated  today  in  all  countries  of  mixed  population. 
Parents  migrating  to  a  new  country  or  forced  at  home  not  only  to 
mingle  with  a  crowd  of  military  invaders,  but  to  adopt  the  speech 
and  habits  of  the  incomers,  would  first  acquire  the  strange  lan- 
guage imperfectly,  and  then  transmit  it,  full  of  illegitimate  sounds, 
to  their  offspring.  Each  country  would  thus  redact  the  new 
tongue  in  its  own  way,  and  though  in  each  the  process  would  be 
governed  by  the  same  general  law,  there  would  arise,  upon  a 
foundation  of  racial  peculiarities,  lingual  and  physiological,  sejv 
arate  structures  of  language  as  individual  in  their  physiognomy 
as  are  the  Romance  and  the  Germanic  tongues  of  today. 

Concerning  the  changes  themselves,  it  would  be  difficult  to  as- 
sert that  they  take  place  less  in  the  case  of  the  obvious  sounds 


1888.] 


CHILD  SPEECH, 


191 


than  in  the  case  of  the  sounds  that  are  difficult.  To  decide  whetlier 
a  selection  of  the  kind  has  actually  been  exercised  would  involve 
an  exhaustive  examination  of  related  words  in  Indo-European  dic- 
tionaries. The  reader  need  only  note  here  that  in  some  of  the 
more  common  nouns  the  obvious  labials  are  changed  but  slightly  or 
not  at  all.     Thus :  — 


Latin. 

Italian. 

Spanish. 

Portugaete. 

French. 

Filius, 

Figlio, 

Hijo, 

Filho, 

Fils, 

Palpebra, 

Palpebra, 

Palpebra, 

Paupifere, 

Bonus, 

Buono, 

Bueno, 

Bom, 

Neuf, 

Panis, 

Pane, 

Pan, 

Pao, 

Pain, 

Pater, 

Padre, 

Padre, 

Pai, 

P^re, 

Portio, 

Porzione, 

Porcion, 

Por9ao, 

Portion, 

Sacerdotium, 

Sacerdozio, 

Saeerdocio, 

Saeerdocio, 

Sacerdoce, 

Vento, 

Vento, 

Viento, 

Vent, 

Mulier, 

Mogliere, 

Mugere, 

Molher, 

Flamma, 

Fiamma, 

Llamado, 

Flamme, 

Phalanx, 

Falange, 

Falange, 

Phalange. 

The  following  are  examples  from  the  same  languages  of  changes 
in  difficult  letters :  — 


Clavis, 

Chiave, 

Llave, 

Chave, 

Clef, 

Oculus, 

Occhio, 

Ojo, 

Olho, 

Oeil, 

Stomachus, 

Stomaco, 

Estomago, 

Estomago, 

Stomac, 

Noctes, 

Notte, 

Noches, 

Noites, 

Nuits, 

Octo, 

Otto, 

Ochio, 

Oito, 

Huit, 

Aqua, 

Acqua, 

Agua, 

Agoa, 

Eau, 

Herba, 

Erba, 

Yerba, 

Herbe, 

Auricula, 

Orecchio, 

Oreja, 

Oreille. 

EDUCATION. 


The  Teutonic  languages  seem  to  discriminate  in  the  same  way 
between  difficult  and  easy  sounds.  In  the  following  list  the  read- 
er will  tind  a  number  of  words,  each  beginning  with  a  labial  or 
other  easy  consonant :  — 


BnglUh. 

£sr. 

n-Mm. 

PUwUtk. 

DMck. 

S^. 

iX™«. 

ApmNO. 

iJis.. 

w«y. 

Weg. 

Wol. 

Weg, 

Weg. 

Weg. 

IV. 

viSS 

vegm. 

H*ld, 

HMden, 

U>«etb, 

MM»d. 

Maid. 

Hwd, 

Moe. 

mS. 

Hmt, 

Braut. 

Breott. 

Borete, 

Borat, 

BUnte, 

Borate. 

BAato, 

Brioat, 

Flood, 

Plod, 

Plod. 

riotd. 

Plood. 

Flutb. 

Plod, 

nod. 

Flod, 

Blood. 

Blod. 

Bloed. 

Blood. 

Blood, 

Blat, 

Blod, 

Blod. 

Blood, 

MldK. 

MlKse, 

Ma«. 

Mofge. 

Mooke. 

Myg, 

Mye«. 

My, 

DMp, 

Deop, 

Dyip. 

Dlep, 

Deep. 

tw. 

Dyb, 

ss 

DJap. 

SWMt, 

8w«t. 

Swiet. 

«Ml. 

Sot, 

Sum, 

sod. 

S»tr, 

FUh, 

FlM, 

Flik. 

««*, 

FlMb. 

Pt«b, 

Flak, 

Flak, 

Flakr, 

Ulik. 

Meolo, 

Meloo, 

Melk, 

Melk, 

Milcb, 

MItolk, 

Mjolk, 

Hlolk, 

Book, 

Boo, 

Book, 

Book, 

Book, 

BDOh, 

Bog, 

Bok, 

Bok. 

Pole, 

Pol, 

PH. 

PUl.' 

P«l. 

pfua, 

P«ll, 

p4,i.. 

PaU, 

Mmbs, 

Nuna, 

Kkmk. 

Num. 

Mame, 

K«m.. 

\aTD, 

NIfalD. 

Matn. 

Drink, 

DrinoD 

Drinken, 

Drinkea. 

TH,^, 

DriWHl 

Driaka. 

Dreoka, 

Mother. 

Mother, 

Moder, 

Moder, 

Matter. 

Moder, 

Moder. 

Mooder. 

Morrow, 

Morson. 

Morfen. 

MorseD, 

Mor^-. 

Moixen, 

Morsao. 

Morgan, 

Mn. 

8ann«. 

SUD. 

Ae, 

Sanoe, 

9on«e, 

Sol. 

Sol, 

Sonoa, 

DV. 

DXB, 

Del, 

D«B, 

D«t. 

7*W, 

Da«, 

Dag. 

Dagr. 

To«i, 

T». 

T.O.. 

Tm, 

Aft«,         ,Ta«, 

HtI 

Ta, 

Tear, 

Tmt. 

Tbcr. 

Tnum, 

Tr^ne. 

T.,™eB.. 

Tux™. 

T«or. 

*■     J 

The  coses  when?  there  is  a  breiik  in  the  oorreiipoDdenoa  | 
marked  with  italic:^.     It  will  thus  be  seen  that  of  one  hondl 
seventy-seven  initiiU  sounds  all  save  eight  an?  in  lonvi^j-ntui ■■?«». 
though  drawn  from  nine  different  languages.     M»iwvi.'r.  t ^  i-ii  the 
exceptions  are  merely  case^  of  the  substitution  o(  Q 
,  of  a  class  for  another  soiuid  of  the  same  c 
to  "v,"  of  "s"  to  "z."  of  "d"  U>  "t,"  ol_3 
(v)  to  *•  V."     The  reader  will  furthttJ| 
of  all  —  vii.,"b,'"  "II."  "m" — doj 
Let  us  now  turn  to  a  few  of  I 
gui^s.    They  may  K^  n^pn-st 


194  EDUCATION,  [November, 

ment  of  strange  habits  of  speech.  It  is  a  true  case  of  concrete 
selection.  Both  child  and  man  take  ^^the  path  of  least  resist- 
ance." Yet,  whereas  the  child  only  obeys  the  law  of  its  blunders 
in  pronunciation  until  the  moment  at  which  its  senses  have  attained 
their  full  accuteness,  the  individual  clings  helplessly  to  his  errors, 
while  the  race  draws  alike  from  proficiency  in  familiar  and  inca- 
pacity in  strange  habits  of  speech  the  materials  of  a  new  lingual 
structure. 


DOES  IT  PAY? 

BY  ELIZABETH  PORTER  GOULD. 

DOES  it  pay  —  all  this  burden  and  worry, 
All  the  learning  acquired  with  pain, 
All  the  planning  and  nervous  wild  action. 
All  the  restlessness  following  gain  — 
Does  it  pay  ? 

Alas !  'tis  disease  that  enslaves  us, 
Not  Nature's  pure  sanative  health, 

Or  the  mind  of  the  sweet  blessed  spirit 
Giving  restful  and  generous  wealth. 
Is  it  not? 

To  be  free  from  this  burden  and  worry, 

To  have  knowledge  without  fear  and  pain. 
To  be  peaceful,  far-seeing,  sweet-tempered. 

And  calm  in  the  presence  of  gain, 
We  must  know  the  pure  secret  of  Nature, 

Like  her,  be  obedient  tp  law. 
And  work  in  the  light  of  the  promise 
Of  blessed  results  Christ  foresaw. 
Then  each  day 
And  alway 
Life  will  pay. 


1888.]  EDITORIAL.  1»5 


EDITORIAL. 

IT  must  have  been  an  impressive  spectacle,  on  the  evening  of 
Oct.  10th,  when  the  venerable  senator,  Justin  S.  Morrill,  ad- 
dressed the  legislature  of  Vermont  on  the  importance  of  cherishing 
and  strengthening  the  Agricultural  College  of  the  state.  It  should 
encourage  Senator  Blair,  in  his  efforts  at  national  aid  for  education, 
to  learn  that  the  proposition  to  grant  public  lands  for  agricultural 
and  mechanical  colleges  was  four  years  in  limbo  and  survived  one 
presidential  veto,  to  be  adopted  in  war  time,  in  1862.  Although 
the  distracted  state  of  the  country  was  unfavorable,  for  several 
years,  yet  forty-seven  institutions,  with  five  thousand  students 
and  five  hundred  professors  in  every  state,  are  the  fruits  of  the 
first  twenty-five  years  of  this  beneficent  movement.  One  of  the 
most  notable  results  is  the  stimulant  thus  given  to  the  higher 
industrial  education,  everj^where.  In  several  of  the  southern 
states  this  fund  was  the  first  lever  that  raised  the  broken-down 
state  university  from  the  wreck  of  1865.  Once  in  operation,  these 
colleges  attracted  attention  and  gradually  accumulated  funds  from 
public  and  private  sources.  In  several  cases  the  state  has  been 
able  to  separate  the  agricultural  and  mechanical  college  from  the 
university  and  establish  it  on  an  independent  foundation.  In 
New  England  alone,  more  than  a  million  dollars  has  thus  been 
drawn  from  public  and  private  sources  to  supplement  the  land 
grant,  and  Cornell  in  New  York,  Purdue  in  Indiana,  and  others, 
have  illustrated  the  same  tendency.  There  was  never  a  more 
shallow  criticism  than  the  assertion  that  this  national  aid  for 
industrial  education  has  been  a  failure.  So  far  from  this,  these 
forty-seven  colleges  are  the  solid  foundation  of  the  whole  struc- 
ture of  industrial  education  in  the  country.  National  aid  to 
education  in  this,  as  in  every  case,  does  not  demoralize  the  people, 
but  stimulates  public  spirit  and  private  benevolence  to  supplement 
the  nation's  gift. 

THE  expert  in  the  high  and  normal  school  is  in  constant  need 
of  wise  supervision  and,  often,  restraint,  from  a  superin- 
tending mind  competent  to  hold  the  entire  scheme  of  education  in 


196  EDUCATION.  [November, 

that  grade  in  due  relations.  We  lately  heard  a  bright  teacher  in 
English  Literature  assign  work  for  the  coming  day,  in  the  way  of 
investigation,  which  would  consume  every  hour  of  the  most  indus- 
trious pupil.  Probably  the  half  dozen  other  experts  assigned 
similar  tasks  in  their  own  departments.  This  habit  is  becoming  a 
great  burden  and  confusion  in  many  of  our  best  appointed  schools. 
Unfortunately,  superintendents  are  chary  of  suggestion  to  this 
class  of  superior  teachers ;  who  are  sometimes  inclined  to  ignore 
or  even  resist  all  supervision.  But  the  success  of  the  secondary 
school  depends  largely  on  the  working  together  of  its  teachers, 
that  each  may  observe  due  limits  and  the  pupil  be  saved  from  the 
fate  of  the  immortal  six  hundred. 

THE  recent  conference  of  the  friends  of  the  Indian,  at  Lake 
Mohonk,  was  somewhat  divided,  though  finally  harmonized 
on  the  proposition  to  establish  a  thorough  system  of  education, 
supported  and  supervised  by  the  government,  for  the  benefit  of  all 
their  children  and  youth.  What  between  the  army,  the  contrac- 
tors, and  the  different  agencies  for  educating  the  mind  and  saving 
the  soul  of  "  the  noble  savage,"  he  is  in  danger  of  becoming  as 
rare  a  spectacle  as  the  buffalo.  Why  not  assume  that  he  is  a  man, 
like  the  rest  of  us  Americans,  and,  for  a  time,  try  the  system  of 
education  and  discipline  which  has  made  the  name  American 
renowned  through  all  the  earth  ? 

THE  sudden  death  of  Mr.  E.  C.  Carrigan  of  this  city  a  few 
days  ago  upon  a  western  railroad  train,  furnishes  an  inter- 
esting commentary  upon  the  possibilities  which  are  open  to  an 
American  youth.  Bom  abroad,  coming  to  this  country  in  early 
boyhood,  learning  to  read  at  an  age  when  some  boys  are  almost 
fitted  for  college,  pushing  his  way  against  tremendous  obstacles' 
through  a  New  England  college,  studying  law  and  graduating  at 
the  law  school  of  the  Boston  University,  he  has  come  to  be  one  of 
the  foremost  educational  men  of  the  old  Bay  State.  A  member  of 
the  Boston  School  Committee,  and  of  the  Massachusetts  State 
Board  of  Education,  his  untimely  death  has  stopped  short  what 
many  have  predicted  would  prove  a  very  brilliant  and  useful 
career.     He  was  a  warm  friend  of  the  public  school  cause. 


1888.]  THE  PBOMOTION  OF  PATRIOTISM.  197 


THE  PROMOTION  OF  PATRIOTISM. 

THE  American  system  of  public  schools  has  for  its  comer-stone  the 
preservation  of  our  republican  institutions.  This  cannot  be  kept 
too  closely  before  the  mind  of  every  one  connected  with  school  work. 
Whatever  tends  to  foster  a  love  of  country,  an  appreciation  of  good  gov- 
ernment, a  correct  understanding  of  our  institutions,  should  lie  near  the 
heart  of  every  earnest  teacher.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  larger  atten- 
tion has  not  been  given  to  instilling  sentiments  of  patriotism  into  the 
minds  of  the  children  in  the  schools  by  means  of  patriotic  readers,  and 
selections  from  the  writings  of  the  great  men  connected  with  our  politi- 
cal history.  The  pupils  in  every  school  in  the  land  should  be  familiar 
with  Lincoln's  address  at  Gettysburg.  How  strange  it  is  that  our  patri- 
otic airs,  and  our  national  hymns  cannot  all  be  found  in  any  one  book. 
The  schools  are  to  be  congratulated  that  a  book  containing  the  best 
patriotic  selections  f^om  the  world,  with  a  chapter  devoted  to  our  ^^  Patri- 
otic and  National  Songs,  Hymns  and  Odes,"  together  with  a  large  and 
rich  gathering  of  original  contributions,  is  soon  to  appear,  compiled  by 
Gen.  H.  B.  Carrington.^ 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  this  reader  will  receive  a  wide  circulation  and 
find  full  use  in  all  parts  of  our  common  country.  No  previous  decade 
has  been  so  prolific  as  the  present  in  the  production  of  important  aids 
to  the  study  of  our  national  history.  Among  the  important  books  which 
have  lately  appeared  is  one  by  that  eminent  educator.  Dr.  B.  A.  Hins- 
dale, now  professor  of  the  science  and  art  of  teaching  in  the  University 
of  Michigan,  filling  the  chair  lately  vacated  by  that  other  eminent  teacher, 
Dr.  William  H.  Payne.     This  book  is  called  "  The  Old  Northwest."  ^ 

This  valuable  work  exhibits  ripe  scholarship,  a  royal  historical  genius, 
and  a  profound  spirit  of  patriotism.  From  ^'  North  America  in  Outline," 
down  through  the  French  discoveries  and  settlements,  showing  how 
"  England  wrested  the  Northwest  from  France,"  along  the  line  of  the 
"  Thirteen  Colonies  as  Constituted  by  the  Royal  Charters,"  the  author 
«hows  '*The  Western  Land  Policy  of  the  British  Government,"  "The 
Northwest  in  the  Revolution,"  how  "  The  United  States  wrested  the 

1 A  Patriotic  Reader;  containing  selections  in  verse  and  prose  firom  all  ages,  lands,  and 
races.  With  historical  Notes.  By  Henry  B.  Carrington,  U.  S.  A.,  LL. D.  Philadelphia: 
J.  B.  Llppincott  Co.    1888. 

*"  The  Old  Northwest,*'  with  a  view  of  the  thirteen  colonies  as  constituted  hy  the  royal 
•charters.    By  B.:A.  Hinsdale,  Ph.  D.    New  York:    Townsend  Mao  Conn.    1888.    Pp.  440 


Id8  ED  UCA  TlOy.  [N  o  vember. 

Northwest  from  England,"  ''  The  Northwestern  Land  Claims,"  and  '*  The 
Northwestern  Cessions,"  **The  Ordinance  of  1787,"  ''The  Territory 
Northwest  of  the  River  Ohio,"  "The  Admission  of  the  Northwestern 
States,"  "Slavery  in  the  Northwest,"  '* The  Connecticut  Western  Re- 
serve," and  finally,  "  A  Century  of  Progress." 

The  book  is  in  reality  a  new  history  of  the  United  States,  from  the 
Ohio  standpoint,  and  is  a  monument  of  patient  industry,  and  patriotic 
appreciation  of  the  importance  to  our  republic  of  these  wonderful  chap- 
ters in  the  history  which  gave  us  this  "  Northwest,"  instead  of  assigning 
it  to  either  Great  Britain  or  Spain,  in  which  case  it  would  have  been  a 
constant  menace  and  probably  a  fatal  barrier  against  our  progress  west- 
ward. It  is  difficult  to  overestimate  the  importance  to  our  republic  of 
this  "Old  Northwest"  territory.  It  embraces  a  country  covering  more 
than  250,000  square  miles,  a  territory  larger  by  far  than  France  or 
Spain,  Germany  or  Italy.  Its  population  has  increased  with  surprising 
rapidity  from  less  than  50,000  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  to 
13,000,000  the  present  year,  1888.  This  section  now  produces  on  an 
average  about  one-third  of  the  entire  crop  of  our  count r}'  in  wheat,  oats, 
potatoes,  Indian  corn,  and  ha3\  It  has  nearly  one-thiixl  of  all  tbe  rail- 
roads, reckoned  by  miles,  in  the  United  States,  and  has  for  many  years 
held  a  controlling  influence,  in  many  respects,  over  the  federal  govern- 
ment. The  people  of  the  United  States  have  only  once  in  thirty  3'ear8 
elected  a  chief  magistrate  from  outside  of  the  "Old  Northwest,"  and 
he,  our  present  President,  was  but  just  over  the  border  in  the  State  of 
New  York.  One  of  the  candidates  now  before  the  people  for  that  high 
office  is  also  from  this  section.  Virginia  was  formerly  called  the  "  mother 
of  presidents."  This  "  Old  Northwest "  seems  to  be  in  a  fair  way  to 
dispute  that  title,  erelong,  with  the  "  Old  Dominion." 

By  a  singular  coincidence  another  important  work  upon  this  same 
patriotic  section,  and  giving  a  graphic  account  of  the  earliest  organized 
settlement  within  this  region,  a  book  long  looked  for  by  historical  stu- 
dents, and  of  untold  value,  has  just  appeared,  in  the  life  of  that  famous 
Ohio  pioneer.  Rev.  Manasseh  Cutler,  LL.  D.^ 

This  Life  of  Doctor  Cutler  is  in  reality  a  history  of  the  Marietta  set- 
tlement, which  has  just  celebrated  its  centennial. 

"  Rev.  Doctor  Cutler  was  prominent  in  Massachusetts  as  a  clergyman, 
scientist,  and  politician  for  fifly  years  prior  to  1820.  His  memoir  has 
been  carefully  prepared  by  his  grandchildren  from  hitherto  unpublished 
family  papers  in  their  hands. 

"The  earlier  chapters  covering  the  period  to  1783  contain  a  vivid 

1  Life,  Journal  and  Correspondence  of  Rev.  Manasseh  Cutler,  LL.  D.  By  his  grrand- 
children,  William  Parker  Cutler  and  Julia  Perkins  Cutler.  Two  volumes.  Pp.  624,  495. 
Cincinnati :  Robert  Clarke  A  Co.  1888.  Price  $5.00  net.  Sent  by  mail  on  receipt  of  the 
price. 


1888.]  THE  PBOMOTION  OF  PATRIOTISM.  109 

picture  of  life  in  New  England,  in  colonial  times,  and  during  the  Revo-- 
lutionary  War,  in  which  Doctor  Cutler  served  two  campaigns  as  chap- 
lain. 

''The  account  of  a  visit  to  the  White  Mountains  with  Rev.  Jeremy 
Belknap  and  others  in  1784,  and  of  a  second  visit  in  1804;  the  corre- 
spondence with  Mr.  Belknap,  largely  concerning  the  early  days  of  the 
American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences ;  the  botanical  correspondence 
with  Professor  Peck,  Doctor  Mulilenburgh,  Samuel  Vaughn,  and  others 
in  America,  Doctor  Jonathan  Stokes  of  England,  and  Doctors  Schwartz 
and  Paykull  of  Sweden,  will  be  of  special  interest  to  all  scientists. 

'*  The  journal  of  his  visits  to  New  York  and  Philadelphia  as  agent  of 
the  Ohio  Company  to  purchase  lands  in  the  Northwest  Territory,  which 
has  been  often  quoted  from,  is  given  in  full.  It  contains  the  only  history 
of  the  negotiations  with  Congress  which  resulted  in  the  passage  of  the 
Ordinance  of  1787  and  in  the  first  settlement  of  Ohio  at  Marietta  by  a 
colon}'  of  old  officers  and  soldiers  of  the  Revolutionary  Army ;  and  an 
entertaining  picture  of  social  life  in  New  York  and  Philadelphia  one 
hundred  years  ago.  , 

"  His  journal  of  a  visit  to  Ohio  in  1788,  when  it  required  twenty-nine 
da3's  of  continuous  travel  to  cover  the  distance  from  Hamilton,  Mass., 
to  Marietta,  Ohio,  is  also  given  in  full,  with  a  description  of  the  first 
accurate  survej-  and  examination  made  of  the  Ancient  Worlds  at  Marietta. 
Many  letters  to  and  from  General  Rufus  Putnam,  Major  Winthrop  Sar^ 
gent.  General  S.  H.  Parsons,  Hon.  Ebenezer  Hazard,  and  others,  with 
much  of  the  unwritten  history  of  the  Ohio  Company  and  its  unfortunate 
neighbor,  the  Scioto  Company,  are  contained  in  the  work. 

"  Dr.  Cutler  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  the  Essex  North  Dis- 
trict, Massachusetts,  1801  to  1805,  during  President  Jefferson's  first 
term.  His  letters  to  his  family  and  friends  from  Washington  are  very 
full,  and  cover  a  great  variety  of  topics.  Accounts  of  speeches  of  the 
elder  Bayard,  John  Randolph,  and  others ;  of  dinners  at  the  President's 
and  British  Minister's ;  of  a  visit  by  a  party  of  Federal  Congressmen  to 
Mrs.  Washington,  at  Mt.  Vernon ;  of  a  horse  race  which  Congress  ad- 
journed to  attend ;  a  description  of  Washington  when  it  was  little  more 
than  a  village,  and  of  Alexandria  when  it  was  an  important  commercial 
city :  these,  with  his  diary,  form  a  valuable  and  interesting  contribution 
to  the  social  and  political  history  of  the  period." 

The  journals  and  descriptions  are  delightfully  readable,  and  as  a  source 
of  simple  entertainment  this  work  will  prove  as  attractive  as  a  romance. 
Senator  Hoar  in  his  oration  at  the  late  Marietta  Centennial  said  of  Doc- 
tor Cutler :  — 

'^  He  was  probably  the  fittest  man  on  the  continent,  except  Franklin, 


190  EDUCATION.  [November, 

dence.  The  changes  described  as  Lautverschiebungen  were  really 
connected  with  each  other  by  a  vast  number  of  slight  variations, 
each  of  which  carried  the  sound  a  little  away  from  its  early  char- 
acter, a  little  nearer  to  the  new  phonic  goal  towards  which  it  was 
tending.  By  almost  insensible  degrees  of  change  the  Greek  trU 
became  the  German  drei^  and  the  English  "  three  " ;  pes  was  con- 
verted into  "  foot "  on  the  one  hand,  into  fuss  on  the  other ;  duo 
appeared  in  English  as  "  two  " ;  by  such  slow  vicissitudes,  in  fact, 
all  the  metamorphoses  of  the  Lautverschiehmig  were  accomplished. 

What,  now,  were  the  causes  which  led  to  the  changes,  and  how 
were  those  changes  confined  within  the  class  limits  to  which  we 
have  seen  them  to  belong  ?  The  simplest  reply  to  this  question  is 
to  attribute  all  the  variations  of  the  Lautverschiebung  to  the  men- 
tal degeneration  of  the  word  in  the  course  of  the  transition  from 
its  state  as  an  original  sound  to  its  condition  as  a  reproduced  sound. 
A  lack  of  vividness  in  the  percept,  an  incomplete  re-percept,  and 
a  defective  translation  of  the  re-percept  into  uttered  sound  —  these 
are  potent  sources  of  mispronunciation  in  children.  But  how  much 
greater  are  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  a  correct  rendering  of 
speech  when  the  original  sound  is  uttered  and  reproduction  at- 
tempted by  different  races?  Yet  the  German's  confusion  of  "b" 
and  " p, "  of  "  t "  and  "  d  "  ;  the  French  use  of  "z  "  for  "  th  " ;  all 
the  blunders,  in  fact,  made  by  foreigners  in  pronouncing  English, 
follow  the  same  law  which  we  have  seen  to  be  operative  in  the  er- 
rora  of  child  speech.  And  it  seems  probable,  at  any  rate,  that  the 
process  of  interracial  degeneration  of  words  was  much  the  same 
during  the  formation  of  the  later  Indo-European  languages  as  that 
which  is  being  illustrated  today  in  all  countries  of  mixed  population. 
Parents  migrating  to  a  new  country  or  forced  at  home  not  only  to 
mingle  Avith  a  crowd  of  military  invaders,  but  to  adopt  the  speech 
and  habits  of  the  incomers,  would  first  acquire  the  strange  lan- 
guage imperfectly,  and  then  transmit  it,  full  of  illegitimate  sounds, 
to  their  offspring.  Each  country  would  thus  redact  the  new 
tongue  in  its  own  way,  and  though  in  each  the  process  would  be 
governed  by  the  same  general  law,  there  would  arise,  upon  a 
foundation  of  racial  peculiarities,  lingual  and  physiological,  sej>- 
arate  structures  of  language  as  individual  in  their  physiognomy 
as  are  the  Romance  and  the  Germanic  tongues  of  today. 

Concerning  the  changes  themselves,  it  would  be  difficult  to  as- 
sert that  they  take  place  less  in  the  case  of  the  obvious  sounds 


1888.] 


CHILD  SPEECH. 


191 


than  in  the  case  of  the  sounds  that  are  difficult.  To  decide  whether 
a  selection  of  the  kind  has  actually  been  exercised  would  involve 
an  exhaustive  examination  of  related  words  in  Indo-European  dic- 
tionaries. The  reader  need  only  note  here  that  in  some  of  the 
more  common  nouns  the  obvious  labials  are  changed  but  slightly  or 
not  at  all.     Thus :  — 


Latin. 

Italian. 

Spanish. 

Portuguese. 

French. 

FUius, 

Figlio, 

Hijo, 

Filho, 

Fils, 

Palpebra, 

Palpebra, 

Palpebra, 

Paupi^re, 

Bonus, 

BUODO, 

Bueno, 

Bom, 

Neuf, 

Panis, 

Pane, 

Pan, 

Pao, 

Pain, 

Pater, 

Padre, 

Padre, 

Pai, 

Pere, 

Portio, 

Porzione, 

Porcion, 

Por9ao, 

Portion, 

Sacerdotium, 

Sacerdozio, 

Saceixlocio, 

Sacerdocio, 

Sacerdoce, 

Vento, 

Vento, 

Viento, 

Vent, 

Mulier, 

Mogliere, 

Mugere, 

Molher, 

Flamma, 

Fiamma, 

Llamado, 

Flamme, 

Phalanx, 

Falange, 

Falange, 

Phalange. 

The  following  are  examples  from  the  same  languages  of  changes 
in  difficult  letters :  — 


Clavis, 

Chiave, 

Llave, 

Chave, 

Clef, 

Oculus, 

Occhio, 

Ojo, 

Olho, 

Oeil, 

Stomachus, 

Stomaco, 

Estomago, 

Estomago, 

Stomac, 

Noctes, 

Notte, 

Noches, 

Noites, 

Nuits, 

Octo, 

Otto, 

Ochio, 

Oito, 

Huit, 

Aqua, 

Acqua, 

Agua, 

Agoa, 

Eau, 

Herba, 

Erba, 

Yerba, 

Herbe, 

Auricula, 

Orecchio, 

Oreja, 

Oreille. 

192 


EDUCATION. 


[November, 


The  Teutonic  languages  seem  to  discriminate  in  the  same  way 
between  difficult  and  easy  sounds.  In  the  following  list  the  read- 
er will  find  a  number  of  words,  each  beginning  with  a  labial  or 
other  easy  consonant :  — 


EnglUK 

Anglo 
Saxon. 

FrUian, 

FltmUh. 

Low 
Dutch. 

High 
DiOck. 

Danitk. 

Swediik. 

lee. 
landie. 

Way, 

Weg, 

Wei, 

Weg, 

Weg, 

Weg. 

r^. 

v^ 

Vegur, 

Maid, 

Maeden, 

Mageth, 

Maagd. 

Maid, 

Magd, 

Moe, 

•• 

Mo, 

Maer, 

Breast, 

Breost, 

Borate, 

Borst, 

Bttrste, 

Borste, 

B9rste, 

Briost, 

Flood, 

Flod. 

Flod, 

Vloed, 

Flood. 

Fluth, 

Flod, 

Flod, 

Flod, 

Blood, 

Blod, 

Bloed, 

Bloed, 

Blood, 

Blut, 

Blod, 

Blod, 

Blood, 

Midge. 

Migge. 

Mug, 

Mugge, 

Mucke, 

Myg, 

Mygg, 

My, 

Deep, 

Deop, 

Dylp. 

Diep, 

Deep, 

TV. 

Dyb, 

DJup, 

pjup. 

Sweet, 

Swet, 

Swiet, 

Zo€i, 

Sot, 

Suss, 

S(id. 

SKtr, 

Fish, 

Fisc, 

Fisk, 

Vi$ck, 

Fissh, 

Fisch, 

Fisk. 

Fisk, 

Fiskr, 

Milk, 

Meolo, 

Meloc, 

Melk, 

Melk, 

Milch, 

MPelk, 

MJolk, 

Miolk, 

Book, 

Boo, 

Boek, 

Boek, 

Book, 

Bach, 

Bog. 

Bok, 

Bok, 

Pole, 

Pol, 

Pal. 

Paal,< 

Paal, 

PflOil, 

Pael, 

P^e. 

PaU, 

Name, 

Nama, 

Kama, 

Naam. 

Name. 

Name, 

Nam, 

Nfinn, 

Nafh. 

Drink, 

Drlnoan, 

Drinken, 

Drinken, 

TrtfilrMt, 

DriitMl 

Dricka, 

Dreoka, 

Mother, 

Mother, 

Moder, 

Moeder. 

Moder, 

Mutter, 

Moder, 

Moder, 

Mooder, 

Morrow, 

Morgon, 

Morgen, 

Morgen, 

Morgen, 

Morgen, 

Morgen, 

Morgon, 

Morgun, 

San, 

Sunna, 

Sun, 

Zon, 

Sunne, 

Sonne, 

Sol, 

Sol, 

Sunna, 

Day, 

Daeg, 

Dei, 

Dag, 

Dag, 

Tag, 

Dag, 

Dag, 

Dagr. 

Toe, 

Ta, 

Tane, 

Tee, 

Taan, 

Zehe, 

Taa, 

Hri 

Ta. 

Tear, 

Tear, 

Ther, 

Traan, 

Trane, 

Thraene, 

Taare, 

Taor, 

Tar. 

The  cases  where  there  is  a  break  in  the  correspondence  are 
marked  with  italics.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  of  one  hundred  and 
seventy-seven  initial  sounds  all  save  eight  are  in  correspondence, 
though  drawn  from  nine  different  languages.  Moreover,  even  the 
exceptions  are  merely  cases  of  the  substitution  of  one  of  the  sounds 
of  a  class  for  another  sound  of  the  same  class  — the  change  of  "  f  " 
to  "  V,"  of  "  s  "  to  "z,"  of  "  d  "  to  "  t,"  of  ''  t "  to  "  z,"  and  of  "  w  " 
(v)  to  "  V."  The  reader  will  further  note  that  the  easiest  sounds 
of  all  —  viz.,  "b,"  "p,"  "m"  —  do  not  yield  a  single  exception. 
Let  us  now  turn  to  a  few  of  the  difficult  sounds  of  the  same  lan- 
guages.    They  may  be  represented  as  follows :  — 


1888.] 


CHILD  SPEECH. 


193 


u 

J?^    a 

a 


i 


*  4 


a 


BO      *d 


g 


a 
a 


Is" 


a 

a 


^     "O 


8  -o  I   3 

H    H     ^    fr 


I 


4 


>4 

M 


•*  i  1 

«^  I  5 


5  ? 

it    H 


tq 


.a 


a    -o    ^'   JS    »:   a'    S    ^ 

3    3    Q    Q    •? 


S    N    n 


I' 
3  I 


a 


s 
0    S 


^1 


Q    3 


H      W 


Q      *     tad 


u 

®    a 

I   3 


1   3 


-     "O 


Q    M    tid 


M 


a 

9 


a 
o 


a 

M 


f 


a 


a 

a 


s 


a 


2    o     « 
•a     o 


<g 


2     2?^ 

5    9    S    ^ 

I  .^  g  m 


■si 


i 

a 

t 

1 

a' 
a 

5 

* 

2 

s 


O       O       V 

O    Q    H 


-  s 


5'  I   --   I  2    i    .  1  ^- 

03 


5 


o 

nJ 


o 


^    ^    g 


o 


C3 


2 


H 

O 


I 


fi4 

60 


«-   -o    J^    2 

S      J*      J3       9      JS 

Q     Q     Q     &si     H 


-    5    "O    jJ  ^    A    A 


S 


S 


o 


„   B  §  8  a  a  ^- 

32     o'S     ?^t^5S 


o  s  >•  >» 


M 
O 


C3 


The  above  table  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  words,  all  of  them 
exemplifjdng  the  difficult  class  of  consonants,  yields  no  fewer  than 
seventy-nine  variations  of  related  sounds.  It  would  thus  seem^ 
from  the  examples  cited  — all  of  them  either  written  down  at  ran- 
dom or  selected  with  a  simple  preference  in  favor  of  words  of 
common  occurrence  —  that  in  interracial  changes  of  speech-sounds 
there  is  far  less  tendency  to  variation  in  those  sounds  which  are 
easily  imitated  than  is  noticeable  in  the  sounds  that  are  not  so 
easily  followed  with  ear  and  eye. 

The  preference  exercised  by  the  child  for  the  sounds  which  can 
be  easiest  reproduced  is  thus  exercised  alike  by  the  individual 
learning  a  new  language,  and  by  the  race  forced  into  the  acquire- 


194  ED  UCA  TIOX.  [November, 

ment  of  strauge  habits  of  speech.  It  is  a  true  case  of  concrete 
selection.  Both  child  and  man  take  ^Hhe  path  of  least  resist- 
ance." Yet,  whereas  the  child  only  obeys  the  law  of  its  blunders 
in  pronunciation  until  the  moment  at  which  its  senses  have  attained 
their  full  accuteness,  the  individual  clings  helplessly  to  his  errors, 
while  the  race  draws  alike  from  proficiency  in  familiar  and  inca- 
pacity in  strange  habits  of  speech  the  materials  of  a  new  lingual 
structure. 


DOBS  IT  PAYf 

BY  ELIZABETH  PORTER  GOULD. 

DOES  it  pay  —  all  this  burden  and  worry, 
All  the  learning  acquired  with  pain. 
All  the  planning  and  nervous  wild  action. 
All  the  restlessness  following  gain  — 
Does  it  pay  ? 

Alas !  'tis  disease  that  enslaves  us, 
Not  Nature's  pure  sanative  health, 

Or  the  mind  of  the  sweet  blessed  spirit 
Giving  restful  and  generous  wealth. 
Is  it  not? 

To  be  free  from  this  burden  and  worry. 

To  have  knowledge  without  fear  and  pain. 
To  be  peaceful,  far-seeing,  sweet-tempered. 

And  calm  in  the  presence  of  gain. 
We  must  know  the  pure  secret  of  Nature, 

Like  her,  be  obedient  tp  law, 
And  work  in  the  light  of  the  promise 
Of  blessed  results  Christ  foresaw. 
Then  each  day 
And  alway 
Life  will  pay. 


1888.]  EDITORIAL,  195 


EDITORIAL. 

IT  must  have  been  an  impressive  spectacle,  on  the  evening  of 
Oct.  10th,  when  the  venerable  senator,  Justin  S.  Morrill,  ad- 
dressed the  legislature  of  Vermont  on  the  importance  of  cherishing 
and  strengthening  the  Agricultural  College  of  the  state.  It  should 
encourage  Senator  Blair,  in  his  efforts  at  national  aid  for  education, 
to  learn  that  the  proposition  to  grant  public  lands  for  agricultural 
and  mechanical  colleges  was  four  years  in  limbo  and  survived  one 
presidential  veto,  to  be  adopted  in  war  time,  in  1862.  Although 
the  distracted  state  of  the  country  was  unfavorable,  for  several 
years,  yet  forty-seven  institutions,  with  five  thousand  students 
and  five  hundred  professors  in  every  state,  are  the  fruits  of  the 
first  twenty-five  years  of  this  beneficent  movement.  One  of  the 
most  notable  results  is  the  stimulant  thus  given  to  the  higher 
industrial  education,  everywhere.  In  several  of  the  southern 
states  this  fund  was  the  first  lever  that  raised  the  broken-down 
state  university  from  the  wreck  of  1865.  Once  in  operation,  these 
colleges  attracted  attention  and  gradually  accumulated  funds  from 
public  and  private  sources.  In  several  cases  the  state  has  been 
able  to  separate  the  cigricultural  and  mechanical  college  from  the 
university  and  establish  it  on  an  independent  foundation.  In 
New  England  alone,  more  than  a  million  dollars  has  thus  been 
drawn  from  public  and  private  sources  to  supplement  the  land 
grant,  and  Cornell  in  New  York,  Purdue  in  Indiana,  and  others, 
have  illustrated  the  same  tendency.  There  was  never  a  more 
shallow  criticism  than  the  assertion  that  this  national  aid  for 
industrial  education  has  been  a  failure.  So  far  from  this,  these 
forty-seven  colleges  are  the  solid  foundation  of  the  whole  struc- 
ture of  industrial  education  in  the  country.  National  aid  to 
education  in  this,  as  in  every  case,  does  not  demoralize  the  people, 
but  stimulates  public  spirit  and  private  benevolence  to  supplement 
the  nation's  gift. 

THE  expert  in  the  high  and  normal  school  is  in  constant  need 
of  wise  supervision  and,  often,  restraint,  from  a  superin- 
tending mind  competent  to  hold  the  entire  scheme  of  education  in 


196  EDUCATIOy.  [November, 

that  grade  in  due  relations.  We  lately  heard  a  bright  teacher  in 
English  Literature  assign  work  for  the  coming  day,  in  the  way  of 
investigation,  which  would  consume  every  hour  of  the  most  indus- 
trious pupil.  Probably  the  half  dozen  other  experts  assigned 
similar  tasks  in  their  own  departments.  This  habit  is  becoming  a 
great  burden  and  confusion  in  many  of  our  best  appointed  schools. 
Unfortunately,  superintendents  are  chary  of  suggestion  to  this 
class  of  superior  teachers ;  who  are  sometimes  inclined  to  ignore 
or  even  resist  all  supervision.  But  the  success  of  the  secondary 
school  depends  largely  on  the  working  together  of  its  teachers, 
that  each  may  observe  due  limits  and  the  pupil  be  saved  from  the 
fate  of  the  immortal  six  hundred. 

THE  recent  conference  of  the  friends  of  the  Indian,  at  Lake 
Mohonk,  was  somewhat  divided,  though  finally  harmonized 
on  the  proposition  to  establish  a  thorough  system  of  education, 
supported  and  supervised  by  the  government,  for  the  benefit  of  all 
their  children  and  youth.  What  between  the  army,  the  contrac- 
tors, and  the  different  agencies  for  educating  the  mind  and  saving 
the  soul  of  "  the  noble  savage,"  he  is  in  danger  of  becoming  as 
rare  a  spectacle  as  the  buffalo.  Why  not  assume  that  he  is  a  man, 
like  the  rest  of  us  Americans,  and,  for  a  time,  trj'  the  system  of 
education  and  discipline  which  has  made  the  name  American 
renowned  through  all  the  earth? 

THE  sudden  death  of  Mr.  E.  C.  Carrigan  of  this  city  a  few 
days  ago  upon  a  western  railroad  train,  furnishes  an  inter- 
esting commentary  upon  the  possibilities  which  are  open  to  an 
American  youth.  Born  abroad,  coming  to  this  country  in  early 
boyhood,  learning  to  read  at  an  age  when  some  boys  are  almost 
fitted  for  college,  pushing  his  way  against  tremendous  obstacles' 
through  a  New  England  college,  studying  law  and  graduating  at 
the  law  school  of  the  Boston  University,  he  has  come  to  be  one  of 
the  foremost  educational  men  of  the  old  Bay  State.  A  member  of 
the  Boston  School  Committee,  and  of  the  Massachusetts  State 
Board  of  Education,  his  untimely  death  has  stopped  short  what 
many  have  predicted  would  prove  a  very  brilliant  and  useful 
career.     He  was  a  warm  friend  of  the  public  school  cause. 


1888.]  THE  PBOMOTION  OF  PATBI0TI8M.  197 


THE  PROMOTION  OF  PATRIOTISM. 

THE  American  system  of  public  schools  has  for  its  corner-stODe  the 
preser\'ation  of  our  republican  Institutions.  This  cannot  be  kept 
too  closely  before  the  mind  of  every  one  connected  with  school  work. 
Whatever  tends  to  foster  a  love  of  country,  an  appreciation  of  good  gov- 
ernment, a  correct  understanding  of  our  institutions,  should  lie  near  the 
heart  of  every  earnest  teacher.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  larger  atten- 
tion has  not  been  given  to  instilling  sentiments  of  patriotism  into  the 
minds  of  the  children  in  the  schools  by  means  of  patriotic  readers,  and 
selections  tcom  the  writings  of  the  great  men  connected  with  our  politi- 
cal history.  The  pupils  in  every  school  in  the  land  should  be  familiar 
with  Lincoln's  address  at  Gettysburg.  How  strange  it  is  that  our  patri- 
otic airs,  and  our  national  hymns  cannot  all  be  found  in  any  one  book. 
The  schools  are  to  be  congratulated  that  a  book  containing  the  best 
patriotic  selections  from  the  world,  with  a  chapter  devoted  to  our  "  Patri- 
otic and  National  Songs,  Hymns  and  Odes,"  together  with  a  large  and 
rich  gathering  of  original  contributions,  is  soon  to  appear,  compiled  by 
Gen.  H.  B.  Carrington.^ 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  this  reader  will  receive  a  wide  circulation  and 
find  full  use  in  all  parts  of  our  common  countr}'.  No  previous  decade 
has  been  so  prolific  as  the  present  in  the  production  of  important  aids 
to  the  study  of  our  national  history.  Among  the  important  books  which 
have  lately  appeared  is  one  by  that  eminent  educator,  Dr.  B.  A.  Hins- 
dale, now  professor  of  the  science  and  art  of  teaching  in  the  University 
of  Michigan,  filling  the  chair  lately  vacated  by  that  other  eminent  teacher, 
Dr.  William  H.  Payne.     This  book  is  called  "  The  Old  Northwest."  « 

This  valuable  work  exhibits  ripe  scholarship,  a  royal  historical  genius, 
and  a  profound  spirit  of  patriotism.  From  ''  North  America  in  Outline," 
down  through  the  French  discoveries  and  settlements,  showing  how 
"  England  wrested  the  Northwest  fVom  France,"  along  the  line  of  the 
"  Thirteen  Colonies  as  Constituted  by  the  Royal  Charters,"  the  author 
«hows  ''The  Western  Land  Policy  of  the  British  Government,"  "The 
Northwest  in  the  Revolution,"  how  "  The  United  States  wrested  the 

1 A  Patriotic  Reader;  containing  selections  in  verse  and  prose  ttoxa  all  ages,  lands,  and 
races.  With  historical  Notes.  By  Heniy  B.  Carrington,  U.  S.  A.,  LL.D.  Philadelphia: 
J.  B.  Lippincott  Co.    1888. 

***  The  Old  Northwest,"  with  a  view  of  the  thirteen  colonies  as  constituted  by  the  royal 
charters.    By  B.^A.  Hinsdale,  Ph.  D.    New  York:    Townsend  Mac  Coun.    1888.    Pp.  iiO 


198  ED  UCA  TIOX.  [N  o  vember, 

Northwest  from  England,"  ''  The  Northwestern  Land  Claims/'  and  '*  The 
Northwestern  Cessions,"  "The  Ordinance  of  1787,"  *'The  Territory 
Northwest  of  the  River  Ohio,"  '*The  Admission  of  the  Northwestern 
States,"  "Slavery  in  the  Northwest,"  " The  Connecticut  Western  Re- 
serve," and  finally,  "  A  Century  of  Progress." 

The  book  is  in  reality  a  new  history  of  the  United  States,  from  the 
Ohio  standpoint,  and  is  a  monument  of  patient  industry,  and  patriotic 
appreciation  of  the  importance  to  our  republic  of  these  wonderful  chap- 
ters in  the  history  which  gave  us  this  "  Northwest,"  instead  of  assigning 
it  to  either  Great  Britain  or  Spain,  in  which  case  it  would  have  been  a 
constant  menace  and  probably  a  fatal  barrier  against  our  progress  west- 
ward. It  is  difficult  to  overestimate  the  importance  to  our  republic  of 
this  "  Old  Northwest"  territory.  It  embraces  a  country  covering  more 
than  250,000  square  miles,  a  territory  larger  by  far  than  France  or 
Spain,  Germany  or  Italy.  Its  population  has  increased  with  surprising 
rapidity  from  less  than  50,000  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  to 
13,000,000  the  present  year,  1888.  This  section  now  produces  on  an 
average  about  one-third  of  the  entire  crop  of  our  country  in  wheat,  oats, 
potatoes,  Indian  com,  and  hay.  It  has  nearly  one-thiix!  of  all  the  rail- 
roads, reckoned  by  miles,  in  the  United  States,  and  has  for  many  years 
held  a  controlling  influence,  in  many  respects,  over  the  federal  govern- 
ment. The  people  of  the  United  States  have  only  once  in  thirty  3'ears 
elected  a  chief  magistrate  from  outside  of  the  "Old  Northwest,"  and 
he,  our  present  President,  was  but  just  over  the  border  in  the  State  of 
New  York.  One  of  the  candidates  now  before  the  people  for  that  high 
office  is  also  from  this  section.  Virginia  was  formerly  called  the  "  mother 
of  presidents."  This  "Old  Northwest"  seems  to  be  in  a  fair  way  to 
dispute  that  title,  erelong,  with  the  "Old  Dominion." 

By  a  singular  coincidence  another  important  work  upon  this  same 
patriotic  section,  and  giving  a  graphic  account  of  the  earliest  organized 
settlement  within  this  region,  a  book  long  looked  for  by  historical  stu- 
dents, and  of  untold  value,  has  just  appeared,  in  the  life  of  that  famous 
Ohio  pioneer.  Rev.  Manasseh  Cutler,  LL.  D.^ 

This  Life  of  Doctor  Cutler  is  in  reality  a  history  of  the  Marietta  set- 
tlement, which  has  Just  celebrated  its  centennial. 

"  Rev.  Doctor  Cutler  was  prominent  in  Massachusetts  as  a  clergyman, 
scientist,  and  politician  for  flfty  years  prior  to  1820.  His  memoir  has 
been  carefully  prepared  by  his  grandchildren  fh)m  hitherto  unpublished 
family  papers  in  their  hands. 

"The  earlier  chapters  covering  the  period  to  1783  contain  a  vivid 

1  Life,  Journal  and  Correspondence  of  Bev.  Manaaseh  Cutler,  LL.  D.  By  his  grand- 
children, William  Parker  Cutler  and  Julia  Perkins  Cutler.  Two  Tolumes.  Pp.  fi24,  496. 
Cincinnati :  Robert  Clarke  A  Co.  1888.  Price  $5.00  net.  Sent  by  mail  on  receipt  of  the 
price. 


1888.]  THE  PROMOTION  OF  PATRIOTISM.  199 

picture  of  life  in  New  England,  in  colonial  times,  and  during  the  Revo^ 
lutionary  War,  in  which  Doctor  Cutler  served  two  campaigns  as  chap- 
lain. 

'*The  account  of  a  visit  to  the  White  Mountains  with  Rev.  Jeremy 
Belknap  and  others  in  1784,  and  of  a  second  visit  in  1804;  the  corre- 
spondence with  Mr.  Belknap,  largely  concerning  the  early  days  of  the 
American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences ;  the  botanical  correspondence 
with  Professor  Peck,  Doctor  Mulilenburgh,  Samuel  Vaughn,  and  others 
in  America,  Doctor  Jonathan  Stokes  of  England,  and  Doctors  Schwartz 
and  PaykuU  of  Sweden,  will  be  of  special  interest  to  all  scientists. 

**  The  journal  of  his  visits  to  New  York  and  Philadelphia  as  agent  of 
the  Ohio  Company  to  purchase  lands  in  the  Northwest  Territory,  which 
has  been  often  quoted  from,  is  given  in  full.  It  contains  the  only  history 
of  the  negotiations  with  Congress  which  resulted  in  the  passage  of  the 
Ordinance  of  1787  and  in  the  first  settlement  of  Ohio  at  Marietta  by  a 
colony  of  old  officers  and  soldiers  of  the  Revolutionary  Army ;  and  an 
entertaining  picture  of  social  life  in  New  York  and  Philadelphia  one 
hundred  years  ago.  / 

"  His  journal  of  a  visit  to  Ohio  in  1788,  when  it  required  twenty-nine 
days  of  continuous  travel  to  cover  the  distance  from  Hamilton,  Mass., 
to  Marietta,  Ohio,  is  also  given  in  full,  with  a  description  of  the  first 
accurate  survey  and  examination  made  of  the  Ancient  Works  at  Marietta. 
Many  letters  to  and  from  General  Rufus  Putnam,  Major  Winthrop  Sar^ 
gent.  General  S.  H.  Parsons,  Hon.  Ebenezer  Hazard,  and  others,  with 
much  of  the  unwritten  history  of  the  Ohio  Company  and  its  unfortunate 
neighbor,  the  Scioto  Company,  are  contained  in  the  work. 

"  Dr.  Cutler  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  the  Essex  North  Dis- 
trict, Massachusetts,  1801  to  1805,  during  President  Jefferson's  first 
term.  His  letters  to  his  family  and  friends  from  Washington  are  very 
full,  and  cover  a  great  variety  of  topics.  Accounts  of  speeches  of  the 
elder  Bayard,  John  Randolph,  and  others  ;  of  dinners  at  the  President's 
and  British  Minister's  ;  of  a  visit  by  a  party  of  Federal  Congressmen  to 
Mrs.  Washington,  at  Mt.  Vernon ;  of  a  horse  race  which  Congress  ad- 
journed to  attend ;  a  description  of  Washington  when  it  was  little  more 
than  a  village,  and  of  Alexandria  when  it  was  an  important  commercial 
city :  these,  with  his  diary,  form  a  valuable  and  interesting  contribution 
to  the  social  and  political  history  of  the  period." 

The  journals  and  descriptions  are  delightfully  readable,  and  as  a  source 
of  simple  entertainment  this  work  will  prove  as  attractive  as  a  romance. 
Senator  Hoar  in  his  oration  at  the  late  Marietta  Centennial  said  of  Doc- 
tor Cutler :  — 

^^  He  was  probably  the  fittest  man  on  the  continent,  except  Franklin, 


200  EDUCATION.  [November, 

for  a  mission  of  delicate  diplomacy.     It  was  said  that  Putnam  was  a  man 
after  Washington's  pattern  and  after  Washington's  own  heart.     Cutler 
was  a  man  after  Franklin's  pattern  and  after  Franklin*s  own  heart.     He 
was  the  most  learaed  naturalist  in  America,  as  Franklin  was  the  great- 
est master  in  ph3'sical  science.     He  was  a  man  of  consummate  prudence 
in  speech  and  conduct ;  of  courtly  manners ;  a  favorite  in  the  drawing- 
room  and  in  the  camp,  with  a  wide  circle  of  friends  and  correspondents 
among  the  most  famous  men  of  his  time.     During  his  brief  service  in 
Congress  he  made  a  speech  on  the  judicial  system,  in  1803,  which  shows 
his  profound  mastery  of  constitutional  principles.     It  now  fell  to  his  lot 
to  conduct  a  negotiation  second  only  in  importance  in  the  history  of  his 
country  to  that  which  Franklin  conducted  with  France  in  1778.     Never 
was  ambassador  crowned  with  success  more  rapid  or  more  complete.     The 
measure  providing  for  the  terms  of  the  sale  to  the  Ohio  Company  was 
passed  on  the  27th  of  July,  1787.     Cutler  was  master  of  the  situation 
during  the  whole  negotiation.      When  some  of  his  conditions  were  re- 
jected he  *  paid  his  respects  to  all  the  members  of  Congress  in  the  city, 
and  informed  them  of  his  intention  to  depart  that  day,  and,  if  his  terms 
were  not  acceded  to,  to  turn  his  attention  to  some  other  part  of  the  coun- 
try.'    They  urged  him  *  to  tarry  till  the  next  day,  and  they  would  put  by 
all  other  business  to  complete  the  contract.'     He  records  in  this  diary 
that  Congress  ^  came  to  the  terms  stated  in  our  letter  without  the  least 
Tariation.'     From  this  narrative  I  think  it  must  be  clear  that  the  plan 
nrhich  Ruftis  Putnam  and  Manasseh  Cutler  settled  in  Boston  was  the  sub- 
stance of  the  ordinance  in  1787.     I  do  not  mean  to  imply  that  the  detail 
or  the  language  of  the  great  statute  was  theirs.     But  I  cannot  doubt 
that  thej^  demanded  a  constitution,  with  its  unassailable  guaranties  for 
civil  liberty,  such  as  Massachusetts  has  enjo\'ed  since  1780  and  such  as 
Virginia  has  enjoyed  since  1776,  instead  of  the  meager  provision  for  a 
government  to  be  changed  at  the  will  of  Congress  or  of  temporary  popu- 
lar majorities,  which  was  all  Congress  had  hitherto  proposed,  and  this 
constitution  secured  by  an  irrevocable  compact,  and  that  this  demand 
was  an  inflexible  condition  of  their  dealing  with  Congress  at  all." 

These  two  volumes  will  be  found  replete  with  valuable  information  for 
the  student  of  American  history.  It  is  not  often  that  the  reviewer  has 
the  privilege  of  noticing  two  such  important  works  as  the  last  two  named, 
bearing  upon  the  history  of  a  distinct  portion  of  our  country,  and  the 
readers  of  American  history  are  to  be  congratulated  upon  the  important 
addition  to  our  knowledge  of  the  "  Old  Northwest"  which  these  volumes 
bring.  William  A.  Mowry. 


1888.]  FOREIGN  NOTES.  201 


FOREIGN  NOTES. 

England.  University  Extension. — The  local  examinations  and  the 
local  lectures  by  which  the  influence  of  the  great  universities  is  extended 
throughout  England  have  been  repeatedly  noticed  in  Education.  To 
these  measures  Oxford  has  added  a  scheme  for  giving  the  benefits  of 
temporary  residence  to  certain  classes  of  outside  students.  One  feature 
of  this  scheme  is  the  **  Summer  Festival  of  Education"  which  brings 
together  for  ten  days'  study  and  intercourse,  students  whose  zeal  has 
been  kindled  bj"  the  University  lectures.  A  second,  and  for  many  rea- 
sons a  more  important  feature  is  the  summer  session  of  the  Teachers' 
University  Association.  The  main  aim  of  this  Association  is  *'  to  pro- 
mote the  training  of  teachers  at  the  University'  and  University  colleges," 
and  in  accordance  with  this  purpose  arrangements  are  made  for  a  month's 
residence  at  Oxford,  a  full  programme  of  lectures,  geological  excursions, 
etc..  being  provided.  The  session  for  the  present  year,  which  was 
held  in  August,  is  said  to  have  been  unusuallj*  successful.  The  follow- 
ing are  mentioned  as  among  the  most  notable  features :  Lectures  on 
"  Moral  Philosoph}',"  by  Mr.  J.  M.  McDonald  ;  on  the  *'  Recent  Progress 
of  Astronomical  Science,"  b}'  Charbs  Pritchard,  D.  D.,  Savilian  Pro- 
fessor of  Astronomy;  on  "Logic,"  by  the  Rev.  W.  Hawker  Hughes, 
M.  A.,  Dean  of  Jesus  College. 

In  the  "  Clarendon  Laboratory,"  students  of  physics  had  every  facility 
extended  to  them.  In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  notice  that  the 
Royal  Commission  on  Education  in  its  final  report  advises  that  "an 
experiment  should  be  made  of  training  non-residential  students  in  con- 
nection with  local  university  colleges." 

Report  on  Public  Instruction  in  Hungary.  — The  death  of  Dr.  Au- 
gust Tr^fort,  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  in  Hungary,  deprives  this 
department  of  public  affairs  of  the  services  of  an  able  and  judicious 
statesman.  Under  his  guidance  some  of  the  most  important  reforms 
advocated  in  recent  years  have  been  incorporated  into  the  educational 
system  of  Hungary  without  material  friction  or  disturbance.  The  fol- 
lowing particulars  are  from  his  last  report  covering  the  year  1885-86  :  — 

As  regards  primary  instruction,  increase  as  compared  with  the  pre- 
ceding year  appears  in  almost  every  item.  The  number  of  primary 
schools  reported  is  16,417  ;  attendance  upon  the  same,  1,836,459  pupils, 
and  the  cost  of  maintenance,  85,110,523.  The  attendance  was  equiva- 
lent to  79  per  cent,  of  the  children  subject  to  the  compulsory  law. 


202  EDUCATIOX.  [November, 

The  year  was  characterized  by  several  important  measures  for  the  gen- 
eral improvement  of  the  primary  schools.  We  note  particularly  those 
having  reference  to  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  buildings.  Instruction 
in  hygiene  and  gymnastics  has  been  made  an  obligatory  part  of  the 
primary  course.  This  creates  a  demand  for  teachers  qualified  in  the 
.branches  specified,  to  meet  which  the  minister  instituted  a  special  course 
in  the  normal  department  of  the  University  at  Budapest,  and  ordered 
that  henceforth  no  one  should  be  employed  as  master  or  professor  of 
g}'mnastics  who  had  not  attended  the  course  and  received  the  diploma. 
In  view  of  the  great  importance  attached  to  industrial  training  the  min- 
ister established  carpenter  and  mechanical  workshops  in  the  normal 
school  for  masters.  It  is  remarked  that  whereas  formerlv  the  schools 
depended  upon  foreigners  for  their  supplies  of  plastic  models  and  appa- 
ratus for  teaching  physics,  these  are  now  obtained  from  the  new  work- 
shops. 

As  regards  secondary  instruction  the  most  important  action  of  the 
year  consisted  in  the  practical  elaboration  of  the  plan  of  studies  laid 
down  in  the  law  of  1883.  The  programme  for  the  gymnasia  of  Hungary 
is  substantially  the  same  as  for  the  corresponding  schools  in  other  coun- 
tries of  Europe,  but  such  relations  ar6  maintained  with  the  real  schools 
as  makes  it  easy  for  scholars  to  pass  from  the  one  to  the  other.  This 
arrangement  was  made  by  Doctor  Tr^fort  in  order  that  parents  might 
not  be  obliged  to  decide  upon  a  final  career  for  their  children  at  too  early 
an  age.  As  one  step  toward  the  end  indicated  the  minister  had  taken 
care  to  introduce  the  Latin  language  as  an  optional  study  in  the  real 
schools.  Scholars  from  these  schools  who  pass  the  required  examination 
in  Latin  can  be  admitted  to  the  faculties  of  law  and  of  medicine,  a  pro- 
vision without  example  in  any  other  European  country. 

The  number  of  gymnasia  reported  was  150,  and  of  real  schools,  28, 
having  respectively  an  attendance  of  35,749  and  6,371  students.  The 
total  expense  for  secondary  instruction  was  81,588,128.  Of  this  sum 
16  per  cent,  was  furnished  by  the  public  treasury,  and  11  per  cent,  by 
religious  orders. 

In  accordance  with  his  power  under  the  law,  the  minister  announced 
his  intention  of  creating  in  the  secondary  schools  chairs  of  hygiene  and 
of  political  economy. 

In  the  chapter  upon  superior  instruction  the  minister  devotes  consid- 
erable space  to  a  discussion  of  the  careers  chosen  by  graduates  of  the 
secondary  schools.  According  to  the  statistics  given,  23  per  cent,  make 
choice  of  the  ecclesiastical  and  32  per  cent,  of  the  legal  profession.  The 
candidates  for  medicine  fall  to  22  per  cent.,  which  is  less  than  is  demanded 
by  the  needs  of  the  country.     As  a  means  of  remedying  this  evil,  the 


1888.1  FOREIGN  NOTES.  203 

minister  proposed  to  create  a  third  university,  or  at  least  a  third  faculty 
of  medicine.  Hungary  possesses  a  single  polytechnic  university.  In 
order  to  bring  this  into  closer  relation  with  the  practical  demands  of  life, 
the  minister  issued  a  decree  making  several  of  the  professors  perpetual 
members  of  the  superior  technical  council  of  the  government  and  accord- 
ing to  students  of  the  polytechnic  who  should  pass  their  first  examina- 
tion the  privilege  of  employment  for  two  months  of  their  vacation  in  one 
or  another  section  of  the  public  works. 

France.  —  The  new  superior  council  of  public  instruction  in  France 
held  its  first  session  in  Jul}'.  The  deliberations  of  the  council  related 
chiefly  to  secondary  instruction  and  the  interests  of  superior  primary 
schools.  With  respect  to  the  former,  definite  action  must  be  delayed 
until  the  special  commission,  instituted  in  July  to  consider  the  changes 
and  ameliorations  that  it  is  desirable  to  introduce  into  the  conduct  of 
secondary  schools,  shall  have  finished  its  operations  and  submitted  a 
report. 

With  respect  to  the  superior  primary  schools,  the  council  has  issued 
an  important  decree  which  completes  the  laws  and  regulations  for  the 
organization  of  these  intermediate  schools.  The  decree  permits  the  pro- 
gramme of  studies  and  the  industrial  training  to  be  determined  by  local 
conditions,  but  fixes  the  maximum  hours  of  work,  the  conditions  of 
admission  and  the  qualification  of  teachers.  The  council  has  also  sim- 
plified the  programme  of  primary  studies  leading  to  the  elementary  cer- 
tificate. This  action  meets  tlie  approval  of  those  members  of  Parlia- 
ment and  of  the  Academy  of  Medicine  who  have  raised  the  question  of 
over-pressure. 

The  Minister  of  public  instruction  announces  tlie  acceptance  on  the 
part  of  the  Faculty*  of  Paris,  of  the  annual  appropriation  by  the  city  for 
the  support  of  a  chair  of  biolog}'.  The  amount  offered  is  in  round  num- 
bers. $2,300.  The  proposition  of  the  Faculty  that  the  designation  of 
the  new  chair  should  be  *'  Evolution  of  Organic  Beings"  was  accepted. 
The  designation  originally  proposed  was  '*  Chair  of  Biological  Philoso- 
phy." To  this  the  Faculty'  objected,  because  they  do  not  teach  philoso- 
phy. They  pointed  out  further,  that  precedent  for  that  title  could  be 
found  only  in  England  where  the  word  philosophy  has  not  the  same  sig- 
nification as  in  France.  In  the  former  country  the  word  designates 
science  itself,  whereas  in  France,  philosophy  begins  where  science  ends. 

The  work  of  the  reconstruction  of  the  Sarbonne  has  been  accomplished 
thus  far  at  an  expense  of  $3,589,800.  There  remains  a  balance  of  $700,- 
000  from  the  original  appropriation  which  will  be  devoted  to  the  recon- 
struction of  the  Faculty  of  Sciences  and  the  rooms  required  for  their 
use.  A.  T.  8. 


aoi 


EDUCATION. 


[November, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF   CURRENT  PERIODICAL   LIT- 

ERATURE    UPON  EDUCATION. 


The  following  bibliography  of  oarrent  periodical  literatare  includes  articles  upon 
ednoation  and  other  subjects  calculated  to  interest  teachers.  Only  articles  from  peri- 
odicals not  nominally  educational  are  mentioned.  Articles  of  special  importance  to 
teachers  will,  as  a  rule,  be  mentioned  in  notes. 


Ainu  Family.  Life  and  Religion.  J. 
K.  Goodrich.  Popular  Science  Mont?i- 
Ij/f  October. 

Altruism  Economically  Considered. 
Charles  W.  Smiley.  Popular  Science 
Monthly^  October. 

American  Language,  The  Great. 
Comhill  Magazine^  October. 

A  spicy  account  of  American  pro- 
vincialiems. 

Ants.  Mound-Makinff  Ants  of  the 
Alleghanies.  L  Dr.  H.  C.  Mc  Cook. 
Chautauquan^  October. 

Artium  Magister.  Clarence  King. 
North  American  Review^  October. 

Atkinson,  Edward,  Sketch  of.  Popu- 
lar Science  Monthly^  Octol)er. 

At  Last:  Six  Days  in  the  Life  of  an 
Ex-Teacher.  John  Ilabberton.  Lip- 
pincotVsy  October. 

Austrian  Economists  and  their  View 
of  Value,  The.  James  Bonar.  Quar- 
terly Journal  of  Economics^  October. 

Belief.  Sins  of  Belief  and  Sins  of 
Unbelief.  St.  George  Mivart.  Nine- 
teenth Century^  October. 

Body,  On  the  Care  of  the.  W.  M. 
P.  Round.    Homiletic  Reviexo.  October. 

Books.  Early  Books,  Magazines, 
and  Book-making.  Charles  IL  Shinn. 
(herland^  October. 

An  account  of  early  book-making  in 
California. 

Brown,  John.  Macm%llan''B^  Octo- 
ber. 

Buffon.  F.  Bruneti^re.  Revue  des 
Deux  Mondes^  15  September. 

Chatimentsdans  V  Education,  A  pro- 
posdes.  Felix  Hement.  Academie  des 
Sciences  Morales  et  Politiques^  Septem- 
ber, October. 

Chautauqua  Reading  Circle,  The.  J. 
G.  Fitch.  Nineteenth  Century^  Octo- 
ber. 

An  interesting  account  of  the  Chau- 
tauquan  movement  as  seen  by  an  Eng- 
lish educator. 

Culture,  The  Possibilities  of.    Bish- 


op H.  W.  Warren.  Chautauquan^  Oc- 
tober. 

Education  Commission,  Report  of. 
Church  Quarterly  Review^  October. 

Education,  Royal  Commission  on. 
Doctor  Crosskey's  Evidence.  Congre- 
gational  Review^  September. 

Economy,  Esoteric.  Agnes  Rep- 
plier.    Atlantic^  Octol)er. 

Elementary  Education  in  England 
and  Wales.    Andover  Review^  October. 

An  editorial. 

Elementary  Education :  Payment  by 
Results.    Westminster  Reviete^  October. 

Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo.  Church 
Quarterly  Review^  October. 

English  and  American  Traits.  Rich- 
ard A.  Proctor.    Knowledge^  October. 

Ethics,  A  Basis  For.  Prof.  S.  W. 
Dyde.    Mind^  Octol)er. 

"  Exorcizo  Te."  M.  H.  Dziewicki. 
Nineteenth  Century^  Octol)er. 

A  discussion  of  possession  and  ex- 
orcism. 

Flying  Machine,  The  Problem  of  a. 
Prof.  Joseph  I^  Conte.  Popular  Sci" 
ence  Monthly^  October. 

Four-Hunded  Sinners.  Felix  L.  Os- 
wald, M.  D.  Popular  Science  Monthly y 
Ootobf^r 

Garibaldi's  Early  Years.  Wm.  R. 
Thayer.    Atlantic  ^'OQloher. 

Genius,    The    Irresponsibilities   of. 

E.  Lynn  Linton.  Fortnightly  Review^ 
October. 

Goethe's  Faust.  Prof.  W.  C.  Wil- 
kinson.   Homiletic  Review.  October. 

Greece  and  Modern  Civilization. 
Herbert  B.  Adams  and  William  P. 
Trent.     Chautanquan^  October. 

Greece,  Gossip  about.  I.  J.  P.  Ma- 
haffy.     Chautauquan,  October. 

Greek,  Mytholojry.  I.  James  Bald- 
win.    Chautauqnan^  October. 

Ilamilton.  Some  Precedents  fol- 
lowed by  Alexander  Hamilton.  Charles 

F.  Dunbar.  Quarterly  Journal  of  Eco- 
nomics,  October. 


1888.] 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


206 


Historical  Writing  in  the  United 
^  States,  1783-1861.  J.  F.  Jameson. 
Englische  Studien^  XII.  band  1  heft. 

This  able  article  was  given  as  a  pub- 
lic lecture  at  the  Johns  Hopkins  Uni- 
versity in  1887. 

HumanismuB,  £in  Hauptfuhrer  des 
deutschen.  George  Winter.  Nord  und 
Stid^  October. 

An  historical  sketch  of  Mutianus 
Rufus. 

Indian  Women,  Everyday  Life  of. 
Capt.  R.  C.  Temple.  Popular  Science 
Monthly^  October. 

Industrial  Village  of  the  Future, 
The.  Prince  Krapotkin.  Nineteenth 
Century,  October. 

A  strong  argument  for  the  combina- 
tion of  Agriculture  and  Industry. 

Jonson.  Ben  Jonson's  *'Dis«'over- 
ies.'*  Algernon  Charles  Swinburne. 
Fortnightly  Bevieto,  October. 

Kindergarten.  What  is  the  Good  of 
the  Kindergarten  ?  J. 'Lliomas.  Catho- 
lic Worlds  October. 

An  argument  for  consideration  of 
the  claims  of  the  Kindergarten  in 
Catholic  education. 

Lazarus,  Emma.     Century ^  October. 

Life.  Prolongation  of  Human  Life. 
Clement  M.  Hauimond.  Popular  Sci- 
ence Monthly^  October. 

Limoges  and  its  Industries.  Theo- 
dore Child.     Harper^s,  October. 

Literary  Idolatries,  Some.  William 
Watson.  '  National  Beview,  October. 

Luxe.  Questions  sociales.  II.  I^ 
Luxe.  Ch.  Secretan.  Bevue  Philo- 
sophique^  September. 

Malerei,  Von  moderner.  Betrach- 
tungen  iiber  die  Munchener  Kunstaus- 
stelTung  von  1888.  Carl  Neumann. 
Preussische  Jahrhiicher,  September. 

Manual  Training  in  the  Public 
Schools  in  its  Economic  Aspect.  Prof. 
Edmund  J.  James.  Andooer  Beview, 
October. 

"The  future  of  our  public  educa- 
tional S3'ittem  is  firmly  bound  up  in, 
and  dependent  upon,  the  future  of 
manual  training.  As  the  latter  suc- 
ceeds, the  former  will  flourish.'* 

Marriage  and  Divorce,  The  Scrip- 
tural Doctrine  concerning.  Westmin- 
ster Bevifw^  October. 

Martineau's  Study  of  Religion. 
Church  Quarterly  Bevifxo^  October. 

Mental  Science.  Recognition  of 
Sense-Impressions.  Association  by 
Contrast.  Science^  September  28,  anil 
October  12. 

Meredith,  George.  Meredith's  Nov- 
els. J.  M.  Barrie.  Contemporary  Be- 
viewy  October. 


Military  Education  and  the  Volun- 
teer Militia.  Col.  James  M.  Rice. 
Century,  October. 

Mineral  Waters,  Home  Uses  of.  Ti- 
tus Munson  Coan.    Harper^ s,  October. 

Morality  and  its  Sanction.  Church 
Quarterly  Bevievo,  October. 

Morals,  The  Border-Land  of.  Dr. 
C.  A.  Bartol.    Forum,  October. 

Music  and  Christian  Education.  Ed- 
ward S.  Steele.  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  Oc- 
tober. 

Musique,  L*  Amour  dans  la.  Ca- 
mille  Bellaigue.  Bevue  des  Deux 
Mondes,  15  September. 

My  Predecessors.  Prof.  Max  Miil- 
ler.     Contemporary  Beview,  October. 

Myth  and  Totemism,  Gerald  Mas- 
sey.    National  Beview,  October. 

Naturforschung  und  Schule«  A. 
Matthias.  Preussische  Jahrb^kcher,  Sep- 
tember. 

An  able  defence  of  the  gymnasium 
in  answer  to  Preyer's  brochure  upon 
the  same  subject. 

Oeffentliche  Unterricht  in  Preussen, 
Was  kostet  der ?  Annalen  des  Deutschen 
Beichs,  Nr.  10. 

Oldest  Book  in  the  World,  The. 
Translated  by  Howard  Osgood.  Bib- 
liotheca Sacra,  October. 

Old  Shady,  with  a  Moral.  Gen.  W. 
T.  Sherman.  North  American  Beview, 
October. 

Opera.  English  Opera  in  Nubibus. 
Frederick  J.  Crowest.  National  Be- 
view^ October. 

Oxford,  **  The  Classes  and  the  Mass- 
es" at.     National  Beview^  October. 

An  account  of  the  recent  vacation 
meeting  of  University  Extension  stu- 
dents at  Oxford. 

Pain,  The  Economy  of.  III.  Rev. 
Henry  Hay  man.  Bibliotheca  Sacra, 
October. 

Painters.  Boston  Painters  and  Paint- 
ings. IV.  Wm.HoweDownes.  Atlan- 
tic,  October. 

Paleolithic  Man  in  America.  W.  J. 
Mc  Gee.  Popular  Science  Monthly^  Oc- 
tober. 

Peasant  Women  of  Galicia,  The. 
Paul  Sylvester.  National  Bevieuo,  Oc- 
tober. 

Philanthropy.  Prof.  Richard  T. 
Ely.     Chautauquan,  October. 

Philosophic,  L'  Ilistoire  de  la.  F. 
Picavet.  Academie  des  Sciences  Mor- 
ales et  PolUiques,  September,  October. 

Poet.  IlrtS  America  Produced  a 
Poet?  Edmund  Gosse.  Forum,  Oc- 
tober. 

Political    Econo:iiy,     International 


200 


EDUCATION, 


[November, 


Migration    and.    Westminster  Heview^ 
Oct<)l)er. 

Polities,  Problems  in  American. 
Hugh  MeCulloch.  Scribner's^  Octo- 
ber. 

Poverty.  Westminster  Eeview^  Oc- 
tober. 

Progress  of  the  Nation,  The.  Ed- 
ward Atkinson.     Forixm,  October. 

Protection,  The  Effects  of.  Charles 
S.  Ashley.  Popular  Science  Monthly^ 
October. 

Psychologic.  L*  Association  par 
Contraste;  Le  Contraste  simultane; 
I>eContraste  successif.  M.  Paulhan. 
Bevne  Sdentifique^  September  1  and  15. 

An  interesting  attempt  to  show  the 
importance  of  contrast  as  a  law  of 
mental  association. 

Psychology,  The  llerbartian.  II. 
G.  F.  Stout.    Mind^  October. 

An  account  of  the  analytical  portion 
of  Herbart's  psychology. 

Psychologie  des  Grecs,  Ilistolre  de 
la.  La  Psychologie  des  Stoiciens.  A. 
Ed.  Chaignet.  Acad^mie  des  Sciences 
Morales  et  Politiques^  Septeml)er,  Oc- 
tober. 

Public  Schools.  What  Shall  the 
Public  Schools  Teach?  Rev.  A.  S. 
Isaacs.     Forttm^  October. 

"  Whatever  tends  to  produce  the 
perfect  American  citizen,  helpful, 
sound,  sober,  honest,  earnest,  patriot- 
ic, intelligpnt,  must  And  place  in  its 
curriculum.'^  The  author  advocates 
the  teaching  of  morality,  and  suggests 
the  use  as  a  manual  of  an  anthology 
from  American  literature. 

Public  School  System,  The,  and  the 
Ministry.  Prof.  John  Bascom.  Uomi- 
letir  Review^  October. 

Questions,  Our  One  Hundred.  II [. 
LippincotVs^  October. 

Race  Antagonism  in  the  South. 
James  B.  Eustis.     Forum,  October. 

Railroad,  The,  in  Its  Busin^^ss  Rela- 
tione. Arthur  T.  Hadley.  Scribnefs^ 
October. 

Railway  Debt,  The  Great.  Adelbert 
Hamilton.      Ftirum,  October. 

Religion  en  Russie,  La.  V.  I^s  Re- 
fornjateurs.  Le  Comte  I/»on  Tolstoi, 
ses  Precurspurs  et  ses  Emules.  Ana- 
toli* Ixjroy  Beaulieu.  Revue  des  Deux 
Mondes,  1.5  September. 

Relisi:ioii!4  Education.  Cyrus  A.  Bar- 
tol.     Unitarian  7^Ti>»r,  Ortober. 

Resiionsabilitc  Morale,  La.  A.  Bi- 
net.    Revue  Philosophique^  September. 

Roe.  ''  A  Native  Author  Called 
Roe.  (An  AutoMojrniphy.)  E.  Pi 
Roe.    Lippincott^s,  October. 


Saloon  in  Politics,  Sovereignty  of 
the.  Judge  Pitman.  Our  Day^  Octo- 
ber. 

Sciences,  The  Circle  of  the.  I.  Prof. 
A.  P.  Coleman.  Chautauquan^  Octo- 
ber. 

Sense,  Problematic  Organs  of.  Sir 
John  Lubbock.  Popular  Science  Month' 
ly^  October. 

Socialistic  Philosophy.  London 
Quarterly  Review^  October. 

Solon,  the  Athenian.  Thomas  D. 
Seymour.     Chautauquan^  October. 

SomnambuliKme.  Contribution  & 
V  etude  du  somnambulisme  provoque 
A  distance  et  a  1*  insu  du  sujet.  Doc- 
tor Dufay.  Revue  PhilosophiquCy  Sep- 
tember. 

Spinoza.  1/  Amour  Intel lectuel  de 
Dieu  d*  apres  Spinoza.  Malapert.  Re- 
vue Philosophique^  September. 

Subject-Sciences.  Definition  and  De- 
marcation of  the.  Prof.  A.  Bain.  Mind^ 
October. 

Sun-Power  and  Growth.  Julius 
Stinde.  Popular  Science  Monthly^  Oc- 
tober. ^ 

Sweating  System,  The  Lord's  Com- 
mittee on  the.  Arthur  A.  Baumann. 
National  Review^  October. 

Sweating  System,  The.  LendaHand^ 
October. 

Tariff  Experiment,  The  Australian. 
Fred  Perry  Powers.  Quarterly  Jour- 
nal of  Economics^  October. 

Tariff.  How  the  Tariff  Affect«  Wa- 
ges. Prof.  F.  W.  Taussig.  Forum^ 
October. 

A  clear  and  candid  discussion. 

Tell-Sage,  Dar  Ursprung  der.  J. 
M&hly.  Preussische  Jahrhuche.r^  Sep- 
tember. 

Tolstoi  and  Mathew  Arnold.  Prof. 
Fnincis  II.  Stoddard.  Andover  Review^ 
October. 

Tolstoi,  Count  Leo.  Archdeacon  F. 
W.  Farrar.     Forum^  October. 

Tortoise,  Habits  of  the  Great  South- 
ern. Prof.  N.  S.  Shaler.  Popular  Sci- 
ence Monthly^  October. 

Truthfulness  in  S«*ience  and  Reli- 
gion. Church  Quarterly  Review^  Oc- 
tober. 

Tutor  of  a  Great  Prince,  The.  II. 
W.  P.  and  L.  I).     Atlantic^  Oirtober. 

Unlversite  D*  Orleans,  La  Nation  Al- 
lemande,  a  \\  au  XIV.  e  Siecle.  Xou- 
velie  Revue  Ilistoriqne^  July,  August. 

Urheberrecht.  Die  Berner  Ueber- 
einkunft  zum  Seliutzc  des  Urheber- 
rechts.  Adolf  Fleischmann.  Unsere 
Zeit^  October. 


1888.]  AMOXO  THE  BOOKS.  207 


AMONG  THE  BOOKS, 

IklETHODS  AND  AlDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY  FOR  THE  USE  OF  TEACHERS  AND  NORMAL 

Schools.  By  Charles  F.  Kin^,  President  of  the  National  Summer  School, 
and  Master  of  Dearborn  School,  Boston.  Boston :  Lee  &  Shepard.  Cloth. 
Illustrated.    Pp.518.     Price  $1.60  net. 

This  is  a  practical  book  for  the  use  of  practical  teachers.  It  is  evidently  a 
V3orking  book  in  Geography.  It  has  been  prepared  to  help  teachers  ^^  to  help 
pupils  help  themselves/'  according  to  the  true  spirit  of  the  new  education.  Mr. 
King  believes  in  making  geography  interesting  to  the  child,  and  he  tells  here 
just  how  to  do  it;  what  illustrations  to  use,  what  selections  to  read  from  other 
books,  what  topics  to  treat  in  detail,  and  what  to  pass  over  hastily.  The  meth- 
ods recommended  are  those  adapted  to  the  child's  nature.  A  well  arranged 
course  of  study  is  given  with  all  necessary  adjuncts  for  carrying  it  out. 

The  chapters  on  Commercial  Geography  contain  much  matter  not  before 
accessible  toTtie  teachers  of  the  country.  How  to  Conduct  a  Recitation,  is  illus- 
trated from  actuHl  work  in  the  school,  reported  by  one  of  the  pupils.  A  strik- 
ing feature  of  the  work  is  the  exhaustive  list  of  geographical  books  in  the  last 
chapter,  classified  and  arranged  so  that  the  teacher  may  easily  find  the  best 
work  on  each  country,  the  best  books  for  a  teacher's  geographical  library,  the 
best  scientific  books  for  children  as  supplementary  reading  in  connection  with 
geography,  interesting  books  of  travel  for  children,  etc.  A  list  of  books  of 
travel,  published  in  paper  covers,  contains  some  forty  titles.  We  have  thus 
indicated  to  some  extent  the  encyclopaedic  character  of  the  closing  chapters. 
The  illustrations  are  a  valuable  feature.  A  second  edition  is  already  out.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  helpful  and  valuable  aids  to  the  teaching  of  geography  which 
has  yet  appeared.  It  will  prove  Itself  indispensable  to  every  well  equipped 
library. 

INTRODUCTORT  LESSONS  IN  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR,  for  u«e  in  lower  grammar 
classes.  By  William  II.  Maxwell,  M.  A.,  Ph.  D.,  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.    New  York :    A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co. 

It  is  refreshing  to  observe  a  new  book  entitled  "  Grammar."  We  have  had 
lor  ten  or  fifteen  years  a  surfeit  of  textbooks  on  '^  Language,"  and  ^*  Language 
Lessons,"  but  no  new  grammars.  The  course  marked  out  by  Doctor  Maxwell 
comprises  three  books,  viz. :  1.  Primary  Lessons  in  Language  and  Composi- 
tion. 2.  Introductory  Lessons  in  English  Grammar.  3.  Advanced  Lessons 
in  English  Grammar.  The  plan  of  this  book  is  a  good  one,  and  it  is  well  car- 
ried out.  The  author  begins  with  a  sentence,  and  the  kinds  of  sentences,  and 
then  considers  the  several  parts  of  speech.  The  discussion  of  the  modes, 
tenses,  and  conjugations  of  the  verb  is  postponed,  apparently  with  wisdom,  to 
a  later  period  than  usual.  The  construction  process  is  largely  employed,  and 
in  all  respects  the  author  has  shown  himself  master  of  the  subject  and  its  treat- 
ment. The  book  is  commended  to  the  careful  attention  of  all  teachers  of  ele- 
mentary grammar. 


906  EDUCATION.  [November, 

Harper*s  First  Reader  in  two  parts.    Price  24  cents. 
Harper's  Second  Reader  In  two  parts.    Price  36  cents. 
Harper's  Third  Reader  In  two  parts.    Price  48  cents. 

This  new  series  of  Readers  should  receive  the  careful  attention  of  all  teach- 
ers and  school  boards.  The  paper,  type^  and  illustrations  are  of  the  very  best, 
and  the  binding  Is  unusually  strong.  They  are  bound  in  linen  covers  with  tape 
and  steel  wires.  They  are  fuller  than  most  other  readers,  the  price  is  low,  and 
the  illustrations,  which  are  in  the  best  style  of  the  art,  are  evidently  for  pur- 
poses of  teaching  and  not  for  ornamentation.  The  editor  has  so  arranged  the 
lessons,  especially  in  the  First  Reader,  that  while  no  more  words  than  usual 
are  introduced,  all  of  these  words  are  continually  repeated  until  they  are  per- 
fectly familiar,  ao  that  the  child  recognizes  them  at  sight,  llie  easy,  steady 
progress  of  the  lessons  Is  noticeable.  Script  type  Is  in  frequent  use,  and  one  of 
the  lessons  in  the  First  Reader  upon  the  clock  Is  designed  to  teach  in  a  very 
interesting  way,  how  to  tell  the  time  of  day.  The  lessons  appear  to  be  un- 
usually well  adapted  to  the  minds  of  children,  and  at  the  same  time  are  calcu- 
lated to  cultivate  a  taste  for  the  best  style  of  literature  as  regards  both  thought 
and  expression.  It  Is  no  secret  that  these  readers  were  edited  and  prepared  for 
the  press  by  Dr.  James  Baldwin,  and  Supt.  O.  T.  Bright,  of  Englewood,  111. 

Second  Lessons  in  Arithmetic.  An  Intellectual  Written  Arithmetic  upon 
the  inductive  method  of  instruction,  as  Illustrated  In  Warren  Colburn's  First 
Lessons.  By  U.  N.  Wheeler.  Boston:  Houghton,  Mifflin  &Xo.  Pp.  282. 
Price  60  cents. 

Professor  Wheeler  has  in  this  book  prepared  a  textbook  on  the  principle  that 
the  essentials  of  Arithmetic  should  be  better  taught  than  heretofore,  and  that 
the  non-essentials  should  be  omitted.  Ills  first  aim  Is  to  develop  the  mind  of 
the  learner,  and  he  places  emphasis  constantly  on  fundamental  principles  and 
omits  useless  subjects  and  those  arithmetical  terms  which  are  known  only  in 
the  schoolroom.  He  follows  the  Inductive  method  so  admirably  illustrated  In 
^^  Colburn*s  First  lessons  '^  which  has  probably  done  more  for  the  cause  of 
education  than  any  other  textbook  ever  published  in  America.  The  book  is 
designed  as  a  continuation  of  ^^Colburn's  First  lessons.*'  Professor  Wheeler 
is  a  thorough  mathematician,  and  not  simply  an  Arithmetic  maker.  He  grasps 
the  whole  range  of  mathematics,  and  has  given  us  here  a  book  on  an  entirely 
new  plan  which  is  at  once  original,  practical,  thorough,  and  philosophical. 
While  smaller  than  some  textbooks  upon  the  subject,  it  probably  has  more 
examples,  and,  therefore,  gives  more  practice  in  the  use  of  numbers  than  any 
other  textbook  in  common  use.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  any  class  of  pupils  which 
shall  have  mastered  '*  Colburn's  First  I^essons ''  and  "  Wheeler's  Second  Les- 
sons/^ will  need  no  further  Instruction  in  Arithmetic  for  the  ordinary  affairs 
of  life.  We  commend  this  book  heartily  to  the  careful  examination  of  all  teach- 
ers and  school  boards. 

My  Wonder  Story.  By  Anna  Kendrick  Benedict.  Illustrated.  Boston  :  D. 
Lothrop  Company.    Price  $L50. 

The  Idea  of  imparting  a  knowledge  of  anatomy  and  physiology  to  young 

readers  in  the  form  of  a  story  is  unique,  but  it  is  successfully  accomplished  In 

the  handsomely  Illustrated  volume  before  us.    The  author  imagines  a  mother 

with  two  bright  children,  who  are  full  of  questions,  and  especially  anxious  to 

learn  something  about  the  structure  of  the  human  frame.    The  mother  Is  only 

too  ready  to  gratify  them,  and  they  begin  their  Informal  studies.    First,  the 


1888.]  AMOXQ  THE  BOOKS.  209 

bones  are  coDsidered ;  then  they  take  up  the  muscles,  fat  and  skin ;  the  organs 
that  take  care  of  the  blood  and  the  blood  itself;  the  process  of  digestion;  the 
lymphatic  system;  the  nervous  system,  and,  finally,  specid  studies  are  made 
of  the  eye  and  the  ear.  At  each  lesson  the  microscope  is  brought  into  use,  and 
the  author  has  avoided  as  much  as  possible  all  technical  terms,  and  wherever 
they  occur  they  are  accompanied  by  the  corresponding  popular  terms.  The 
text  is  very  fully  illustrated,  and  the  work  is  admirably  fitted  for  use  in  schools 
as  a  reader  or  supplementary  textbook. 

Illustrated  Catalogue  of  the  Art  Galleries,  in  the  Ohio  Centennial 
Exposition,  September  4  to  October  19,  1888.  Arranged  by  Walter  S.  Good- 
nough.  Commissioner  of  Art  Department. 

Here  is  a  catalogue  containing  625  numbers,  with  many  engravings,  showing 

the  finest  of  the  pictures  on  exhibition  at  this  famous  gallery.    Mr.  Goodnough 

has  devoted  almost  infinite  pains  and  labor  in  getting  up  this  department  of 

the  wonderful  Ohio  celebration.     It  reflects  great  credit  upon  him,  and  must 

prove  of  special  interest  and  satisfaction  to  the  people  of  Columbus  and  Ohio. 

Questions  Prepared  to  Accompany  Fiske-Irving's  Washington  and  his 
Country.    By  D.  H.  M.    Boston ;    Glnn  A  Company.    1888.    Paper.    Pp.  88. 

Primary  Methods  in  Zoology  Teaching.  For  Teachers  in  Common  Schools. 
By  W.  P.  Manton,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  M.  S.,  F.  Z.  S.,  etc.  Illustrated.  Boston: 
Lee  &  Shepard.    50  cents.    Cloth. 

This  is  a  capital  littln  treatise.  It  is  a  republication  of  the  articles  which  ap- 
peared under  the  same  title  last  year  in  Common  School  Education.  It  deserves 
and  will  receive  a  wide  reading. 

Aims  and  Methods  in  Classical  Study.  By  William  Gardner  Hale,  Cornell 
University.     Boston :    Ginn  &  Company.    Paper.    Pp.  47.    Price  20  cents. 

Topics  in  Ancient  History.  By  Miss  C.  W.  Wood,  Teacher  of  Ancient  His- 
tory in  Mt.  Holyoke  Seminary  and  College.  Boston:  Ginn  A  Company. 
Paper. 

The  object  of  this  little  pamphlet  is  to  suggest  rather  than  limit  topical  study. 

The  references  indicate  additional  lines  of  thought,  and  admit  of  much  variety 

of  use  in  teaching  and  study,  giving  material  help  in  brief  lectures.    The  idea 

that  the  best  literature  is  full  of  condensed  philosophy  of  history  is  indicated 

in  a  series  of  illustrative  quotations. 

The  Fatherhood  of  God.  By  Rev.  John  Coleman  Adams.  Boston :  Unl- 
versalist  Publishing  House. 

This  is  No.  1  of  a  series  of  little  booklets  called  ^*-  Manuals  of  Faith  and 
Duty."  Rev.  Mr.  Adams  has  here  presented  "  The  Fatherhood  of  God  "  in  a 
very  attractive  way,  the  teaching  of  the  Old  Testament,  of  our  Lord,  of  the 
Apostles,  and  of  the  fathers,  and  he  discusses  in  a  skilful  and  convincing  man- 
ner *'  The  Divine  Fatherhood  and  Human  Sorrow,"  and  other  kindred  topics. 
It  deserves  a  wide  reading. 

Riverside  Literature  Series.  No.  12.  Studies  in  Longfellow,  by  W.  C. 
Gannett.  No.  37.  A.  —  Hunting  of  the  Deer,  and  other  essays,  by  Charles  Dud- 
ley Warner.    Boston :    Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.     Price  16  cents. 

Delightful  paper  covers,  just  what  is  wanted  in  the  Language  and  Literature 

classes  in  our  High  schools. 

Algebra  Lessons.  No.  1.  To  Fractional  Equations,  47  lessons.  No.  2. 
Through  Quadratic  Equations,  47  lessons.  No.  3.  Higher  Algebra,  47  les- 
sons. $1.44  per  dozen  for  each  number.  Boston:  Leach,  Shewell  &  San- 
born. 

These  are  three  blank  books  of  large  size  in  paper  covers,  for  work  in  Alge- 


210  ED  UCA  TIOX.  [November, 

bra.  They  have  the  examples  at  the  top  of  the  long  page  to  be  worked  oat 
with  pen  or  peDcil  upon  the  page.  The  examples  appear  to  be  well  arranged, 
and  the  blanks  v^l  undoubtedly^  prove  popular  and  have  a  large  sale,  as  they 
deserve. 

Some  Famous  Art  Galleries  axd  Works  of  Art  ik  England  and  on  the 
Continent.  Compiled  by  E.  W.  Boyd.  Boston :  Leach,  Shewell  &  San- 
born.   Pp.  54. 

To  the  student  of  Art,  this  brief  account  of  some  famous  art  galleries  with 

their  contents,  will  be  a  source  of  great  pleasure  and  profit.    The  work  was 

prepared  by  the  author,  who  is  the  "  Head  of  St.  Agnes  School,  Albany,"  from 

the  outline  used  in  his  classes.    It  will  prove  valuable  to  travelers. 

English  Composition  and  Rhetoric.  Enlarged  Edition.  Part  II.  Emo- 
tional Qualities  of  Style.  By  Alexander  Bain,  LL.  D.  New  York :  D.  Ap- 
pleton  &  Co. 

This  is  the  authorized  edition  of  this  newest  standard  work  by  this  distin- 
guished author.  It  is  designed  to  follow  Part  I.,  which  treats  of  Intellectual 
Elements  of  Style.  This  Part  II.  is  devoted  to  Emotional  Qualities  of  Style. 
It  classifies  ^^  Art  Emotions,'*  discusses  ^^  Aids  to  Emotional  Qualities," 
'*  Ideality,''  *' Refinement,"  *' Strength,"  "Feeling,"  *•  Wit,"  "Ridicule." 
etc.,  etc.  It  is  a  strong  book,  and  treats  the  subject  in  a  thorough  and  masterly 
manner.  It  will  be  welcomed  by  many  colleges  and  universities,  who  desire  a 
complete  and  reliable  book. 

The  Tenth  and  Twelfth  Books  of  the  Institutes  of  Quintilian.  With 
explanatory  notes.  By  Prof.  Henry  S.  Frieze,  Ann  Arbor.  New  edition. 
Revised  and  enlarged.    New  York :  *  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

Professor  Frieze's  classical  books  are  too  well  known  to  require  anything 
more  than  a  mere  mention.  This  revised  edition  of  Quintilian  is  every  way 
worthy  the  name  of  the  distinguished  editor.  The  notes  are  enlarged,  and  con- 
tain the  results  of  all  recent  criticism  and  scholarship. 

The  GUNMAKER  OF  Moscow.  Bv  Sylvanus  Cobb,  Jr.  New  York:  Cassell 
&  Co.    Price  50  cents.     For  sale  by  W.  B.  Clarke  &  Co. 

^^  The  Gunmaker  of  Moscow  "  is  Sylvanus  Cobb,  Jr.*s  most  famous  book, 

and  has  become  a  classic  among  stories.    It  was  a  great  success  from  the  first. 

It  is  now  for  the  first  time  published  in  a  bound  volume.    It  forms  one  of  the 

*'  Sunshine  Library  "  series. 

The  Rainbow  Calendar  for  1889:  a  companion  to  *'  A  Year  of  Sunshine." 
Compiled  by  Kate  Sanborn.    Boston :    Tioknor  &  Co.    Price  50  cents. 

A  capital  book,  beautifully  printed,  with  choices  elections  for  every  day  in 

the  year.    It  will  make  a  beautiful  Christmas  gift. 

The  Silver  Ix)CK,  and  other  Stories.  By  Popular  Authors.  Cassell  &  Co. 
Pp.  212.    Price  25  cents.    Sold  by  W.  B.  Clarke  &  Co. 

Another  of  the  Rainbow  Series.  Containing  seventeen  short  stories,  some 
of  which  are  remarkably  well  told.  ''Shooting  the  Rapids,"  '*The  School- 
mistress at  "  Skenie  Dun,"  and  '*  A  Song  Without  Words  "  are  among  the  best 
of  them. 

Fa<;ots  for  the  Fireside.  A  c<>lleetl(»n  of  more  than  one  hundred  entertain- 
ing games  for  evenings  at  home  and  social  parties.  By  Lucretia  Peabody 
Uale.     Illustrated.     Boston:    Ticknor  &  Co.     Pp.274. 

Chock  full  of  fun,  games,  and  puzzles.  It  has  riddles  and  conundrums,  sto- 
ries, ballads,  proverbs,  and  everything  else,  from  chicken-pie  to  cupping  verses. 


1888.]  AMONG  THE  BOOKS.  211 

There  are  sixteen  bundles  of  these  fagots.  The  book  is  one  of  the  most  com- 
plete collections  of  entertaining  games  and  plays  which  has  ever  appeared  in 
this  country.  Any  child  who  gets  a  copy  of  it  for  a  Christmas  present  should 
be  truly  grateful  to  Santa  Claus  as  long  as  he  lives. 

Classiques  Populaires,  Edites  par  II.  Leeene  and  H.  Oudin.  Florian,  par 
Leo  Claretie.    Paris.    Paper  covers.    Price  1  franc  and  a  half. 

This  volume  of  238  pages  gives  an  account  of  the  life  and  w^orks  of  Jean 

Pierre  Claris  de  Florian,  who  was  born  in  1754,  and  died  in  1703.    The  work  is 

divided  into  five  chapters,  which  treat  respectively  of  his  early  years;  of  his 

literary  career;  as  a  dramatic  author,  novelist,  and  writer  of  fables;  of  his 

last  years;  concluding  with  the  distinguished  tributes  paid  to  his  memory  after 

his  death.    The  book  is,  from  its  pure  French  and  the  diversity  of  matter,  — 

both  prose  and  poetry,  —  well  adapted  for  French  classes  in  our  schools  and 

seminaries. 

First  French  Course;  or  Rules  and  Exercises  for  Beginners,  By  C. 
A.  Chardenal.    A  new  and  enlarged  edition.    Boston:    Allyn  &  Bacon. 

This  capital  book  for  iMginners  in  French  was  republished  from  foreign 
plates  some  years  ago,  an^has  had  a  large  sale  in  this  country.  It  is  now  re- 
vised and  reprinted  from  new  plates  of  the  very  best  type.  Paradigms  and 
vocabularies  are  in  bold  faced  type  with  proper  French  accents.  The  exercises, 
both  French  into  English,  and  English  into  French,  are  numerous  and  well 
adapted.  Near  the  end  of  the  book  are  twenty-five  pages  of  choice  extracts 
from  French  authors.  The  vocabularies,  both  French-English  and  English- 
French,  are  very  full. 

Teacher's  Manual.  No.  7,  Unconscious  Tuition.  By  F.  T.  Huntington, 
D.  D.  No.  8.  How  to  Keep  Order.  By  James  L.  Hughes.  No.  9.  How  to 
Train  the  Memory.  By  Rev.  II.  K.  Quick.  No.  10.  FroebePs  Kindergarten 
Gifts.  By  Heinrich  Hofi'man.  New  Vork:  E.  L.  Kellogg  «fe  Co.  Price  by 
mail,  13  cents  each. 

Capital  little  books  with  paper  covers,  for  the  wide-awake  teacher. 

A  Quiz  Manual  of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching.  By  Albert  P. 
Southwick,  A.  M.  New  York:  E.  L.  Kellogg  &  Co.  Pp.  132.  Price  75 
cents. 

Mr.  Southwick  is  well  known  as  a  writer  of  ^^  Quiz ''  books.  In  this,  his 
latest,  he  discusses  "  What  is  Education  V  "  *'  Reading,''  "  Arithmetic,'*  *'  Com- 
position," ''Natural  History,"  "  Grammar,"  "Rhetoric,"  ''Literature,"  and 
twenty  or  thirty  more  subjects.  In  the  first  part  of  the  book  the  author  asks 
more  than  five  hundred  questions,  and  in  the  remainder  of  the  book  answers 
them.  The  type  is  too  small,  and  the  ideas,  in  too  many  instances,  very  com- 
monplace. We  confess  to  no  great  love  for  this  omnium^atherum  style  of 
teacher's  books. 

Missouri  :  The  Bone  of  Contention.  By  Lucien  Carr.  Boston :  Hough- 
ton, Mifflin  &  Co.     Pp.  377.     Price  $126. 

The  latest  addition  to  the  American  Commonwealth  Series  gives  the  hiitory 

of  this  central  state  in  our  Union,  from  the  early  discovery  and  exploration  of 

the  Mississippi  River,  down  to  the  close  of  the  civil  war.    It  is  essentially  a 

political  history,  and  has  to  do  largely  with  the  slavery  controversy.    About 

one-fourth  of  the  book  is  devoted  to  matters  relating  to  the  civil  war.    The 

history  of  this  state  is  interesting,  especially  from  a  political  standpoint,  as 

Missouri  was  for  nearly  half  a  century  the  great  battle-ground  of  the  slave 


212  EDUCATION.  [November, 

power.  From  the  specially  political  character  of  the  work  it  will  be  less  popu- 
lar and  more  limited  in  the  scope  of  its  readers  than  some  other  volumes  of  this 
excellent  series. 

A  Guide  to  the  Study  op  the  History  and  Constitution  of  the  United 
States.  By  William  W.  Rupert,  C.  E.  Boston:  Ginn  &  Co.  Pp.  130. 
Price  75  cents. 

This  book  is  designed  to  aid  the  teacher  in  imparting  a  knowledge  of  the  his- 
tory and  the  Constitution  of  the  United  State:?,  and  to  guide  the  student  in 
acquiring  such  knowledge.  It  is  piiucipally  concerned  with  a  brief  explana- 
tion of  the  Constitution.  Its  bibliography  will  be  found  to  be  of  much  value 
to  the  teacher  of  the  history  of  this  country. 

Introduction  to  the  Books  of  the  Old  Testament.  With  Analyses  and 
numerous  references  to  Illustrative  Literature.  By  O.  S.  Stearns,  D.  D., 
Professor  of  Biblical  Interpretation  in  Newton  Theological  Institution. 
12mo.    Cloth.    Price  $1.00.    Boston :    Silver,  Burdett  A  Co. 

Every  careful  reader  of  the  Bible  finds  himself  punctuating  its  pages  with 
the  queries,  \ioho^  tohen^  why^  what.  The  Old  Testamant  is  a  library  containing 
thirty- nine  books.  They  cover  a  period  of  many  oraturies.  They  sprang  out 
of  the  pressure  of  the  times.  Each  book  calls  for  m  answer  to  each  of  these 
questions  before  it  can  be  intelligently  understood.  Who  wrote  it?  In  what 
age  of  the  world  was  it  written?  Why  was  it  written  just  at  that  time?  What 
is  the  central  thought  in  the  book,  and  how  is  it  unfolded?  This  volume  at- 
tempts to  answer  these  questions  candidly  and  briefly.  Professor  Stearns  calls 
it  a  '*  syllabus,**  a  ^* digest.**  He  has  given  in  compact  form  the  results  of 
many  years*  experience  as  a  teacher  of  the  Old  Testament.  The  general  reader 
and  the  special  student  of  the  Bible  will  welcome  it  as  an  important  and  valua- 
ble help.  Every  reader,  teacher,  and  student  of  the  Bible  should  possess  a 
copy.  It  will  be  of  great  value  to  all  Sunday  School  teachers,  in  unfolding 
intelligently  the  international  lessons. 

Temple  House.  By  Elizabeth  Stoddard.  New  York :  Cassell  &  Co.  For 
sale  by  W.  B.  Clarke  &  Co.    Price  50  cents. 

Of  writing  story  books  there  is  no  end,  and  there  are  all  kinds  of  stories. 
Indeed,  there  must  be,  to  suit  all  kinds  of  people.  This  is  not  like  one  of  Uow- 
ells*,  but  the  story  h  well  told.  It  delineates  the  life  of  a  certain  class  of  peo- 
ple—  if  such  as  are  here  described  exist  anywhere — but  its  scenes  and  charac- 
ters fortunately  arc  not  common.  It  will  engage  the  attention  of  the  reader 
till  it  is  finished.  When  finished,  he  will  say,  ''  Right  is  right,  and  right  is 
best.*' 

Marching  through  Georgia;  written  in  honor  of  Sherman*s  Famous  March 
from  "  Atlanta  to  the  Sea.'*  Written  and  composed  by  Henry  C.  Work.  Il- 
lustrated. Boston :  Ticknor  &  Co.  Full  gilt.  Bronzed  Arabesque.  Price 
$1.50. 

'* Marching  through  Georgia**  is  the  great  processional  song  of  this  decade 
in  America,  and  thrills  with  patriotic  fervor  and  martial  spirit.  No  other  mel- 
ody Is  so  often  sung  and  played  in  assemblies  of  national  interest,  or  where 
the  memories  of  the  old  heroic  days  come  to  the  fore.  It  is  a  ringing,  heroic 
song,  full  of  swing  and  spirit,  and  every  old  soldier  loves  it.  The  American 
Bookmaker  says  of  it :  ^^  Intent  upon  giving  the  admirers  of  this  soul-stirring 
song  a  series  of  every-way  truthful  illustrations,  the  publishers  commissioned 
that  very  capable  artist,  Charles  Copeland,  to  go  South,  traverse  the  route  pur- 
sued by  Sherman,  and  catch  to  the  life  the  necessary  local  coloring.    The  spir- 


1888.]  AMONG  THE  BOOKS.  213 

ited  work  which  illumines  the  pages  of  this  book  gives  evideDce  of  study/' 
This  will  make  a  very  popular  gift  book  for  the  approaching  holiday  season. 

The  Young  Idea  ;  or  Common  School  Culture.    By  Caroline  B.  I^  Row. 
New  York :    Cassell  &  Co.     For  sale  by  W.  B.  Clarke  &  Co.    Price  50  cents. 

The  effect  upon  a  philosophic  mind  of  reading  this  book,  it  would  be  difficult 
for  us  to  tell.  But  let  an  ordinary  mortal  somewhat  at  home  upon  educational 
subjects  read  it,  and  we  know  from  experience  that  it  leaves  him  in  serious 
doubt  and  perplexity.  At  one  time  he  is  almost  ready  to  abolish  the  entire 
school  system  and  bid  the  race  return  to  its  natural  state  of  barbarism  and  be 
happy.  Again,  he  wishes  Miss  Le  Bow,  and  General  Walker,  and  Colonel 
Parker  would  stop  holding  up  our  excellent  school  system  to  ridicule,  and  turn 
around  and  give  their  blessing  to  the  poor  school  teachers,  who  amid  much  dis- 
couragement are  trying  to  elevate  the  coming  race  of  American  citizens,  so  that 
they  will  know  whether  to  vote  for  a  high  protective  tariff,  '*  revenue  reform  " 
or  free  trade.  On  the  whole,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  this  brilliant  author  will 
not  write  any  more  books  criticising  the  schools,  the  teachers,  and  the  pupils, 
and  ^^  making  fun  "  of  them  all  unless  she  will  show  good  judgment  in  doing 
it.  What  stuff  she  quotes  from  the  Xeic  York  School  Journal  and  The  Journal 
of  Education^  and  General  Walker,  and  others  id  omne  genus!  And  yet  she 
culls  many  excellent  extracts  from  Education  and  copies  some  sensible  words 
from  *•  A  Boston  Teacher**  and  a  Rhode  Island  Normal  School  Teacher,  which 
go  far  towards  setting  the  whole  matter  right.  The  author  quotes  a  report  of 
^*a  child  In  a  western  prairie  country  who  asked  her  teacher  if  the  Alps  and 
the  Andes  were  as  high  as  the  steeple  of  the  Congregational  church.^-  Well, 
what  of  it?  The  question  was  perfectly  natural,  and  is  not  to  be  considered  to 
the  discredit  of  the  pupil.  Apropos  to  that,  one  might  quote  a  report  to  the 
effect  that  an  intelligent  English  lady  asked  an  American  if  there  were  any 
large  trees  in  his  country,  but  immediately  checked  herself,  and  added,  ^^  Of 
course  not,  because  your  country  is  too  young  yet  to  have  any."  It  may  be 
wise  for  us  all  to  exercise  a  little  care  over  the  inferences  we  draw  from  such 
*' reports."  Again,  '*  A  Boston  Teacher"  is  quoted  as  saying:  "  There  Is  too 
much  of  this  condemnation  without  knowledge  and  without  investigation. 
.  .  .  .  Many  of  the  things  that  are  said  against  the  schools,  fifteen  min- 
utes^ inquiry  at  the  nearest  school-house  would  show  to  be  not  only  baseless, 
but  purely  nonsensical."  It  will  appear  to  some  minds  a  prurient  sort  of 
curiosity  or  what-not,  to  roam  over  the  whole  country  as  a  scavenger,  smelling 
out  all  the  foolish  and  unripe  things  which  little  children,  Just  beginning  to 
learn,  say,  and  to  hold  these  sayings  up  to  ridicule,  and  withal  blaming  the 
schools  therefor. 

•Chubby  Ruff,  and  other  Stories.  By  Rev.  George  Huntington.  Boston : 
Congregational  Sunday-School  and  Publishing  Society.  Pp.  200.  Price 
91.00. 

A  charming  little  book  for  the  children,  fresh,  and  bright,  and  wise.  It  car- 
ries its  readers  into  the  borders  of  wonderland,  but  always  has  a  hidden  bit  of 
wisdom  to  hint,  but  not  quite  to  disclose.  They  are  like  the  author^s  descrip- 
tion of  Captain  Beu*s  stories  in  ^^  the  Bobo*s  Country,"  of  which  he  says : 
-■^The  most  improbable  of  them  were  generally  the  most  Instructive,  and  often 
bit  off  some  fault  or  nonsense  of  our  own  pretty  sharply.**  The  visits  to  San- 
ta Claus  in  his  home,  and  to  the  Bobos,  a  people  who  had  no  feelings,  are 
•equally  amusing  and  instructive.  It  is  a  good  book  for  Christmas  or  any  other 
time  of  year. 


214  EDUCATIOX.  [November. 


MAGAZINES  RECEIVED. 

The  attention  of  the  readers  of  this  magazine  is  respectfully  called  to  the  following 
articles  in  the  current  numbers  of  onr  leading  magazines  as  likely  to  be  of  special  inter- 
est to  them:— 

Tery  little  is  known  by  the  general  public,  or  by  teachers  even,  about  some  parts  of 
North  America.  The  history  of  several  of  our  own  states  is  still  largely  unknown.  T\t 
American  Magazine  of  History  for  October  gives  "  A  Romtintio  Chapter  in  Texas  Uistor>'»** 

under  the  title  of  **Tbe  City  of  a  Prince." The  third  of  a  series  of  articles  on  **  A 

Mexican  Campaign/'  is  given  in  the  October  Century The  Xorth  American  Review  for 

October  contains  some  very  vigorous  articles  on  political  subjects.  '*  The  President's 
Letter"  is  discussed  by  Thomas  B.  Reed,  while  "General  Harrison's  Letter"  is  the  sub. 
Ject  of  an  article  by  Senator  Morgan.  In  this  same  number  is  an  article  on  the  "  Presi- 
dent's English,"  by  Daniel  Sparkman.  General  Butler's  article  on  "  Defenseless  Cana- 
da*' will  be  read  with  interest. The  October  Jfide  Awake  contains  an  article  on  '*  Dan- 
iel Webster  in  his  New  Hampshire  Home,"  which  will  be  of  value  to  the  older  readers 

as  well  as  to  the  children. Prof.  Edmund  J.  James  has  an  article  on  '*  Manual  Train* 

Ing  in  the  Public  Schools  in  its  Economic  Aspect,"  in  the  October  number  of  The  Ando- 

ver  Review. The  September  number  of  The  Xew  England  Magazine  gives  an  interesting 

and  well  illustrated  article  entitled,  "A  Literary  Symposium  on  Cincinnati." Our 

Little  Men  and  Women  is  one  of  the  prettiest,  brightest,  most  healthful  of  the  many  excel- 
lent children's  magazines  published. The  Writer  is  a  monthly  magazine  to  interest 

and  help  all  literary  workers.    The  September  number  of  this  novel  magazine  contains 

an  Interesting  article  entitled.  "  The  Story  of  a  Rejected  Manuscript." The  opening 

article  in  the  yeto  Englander  and  Yale  Reviewia  by  William  L.  Klngsley.  entitled,  *'  The  New 

Danger  which  Threatens  Russia." An  interesting  article  on  *■  Paleolithic  Man  in 

America,"  is  given  in  the  November  Popular  Science  Monthly. An  article  on  *'  The 

Australian  Tariff  Experiment "  in  the  October  Quarterly  Journal  of  Economic*  is  particu- 
larly timely. The  Home-Maker,  a  monthly  magazine  edited  by  the  well-known  Marion 

Harland.  An  interesting  and  attractive  homo  magazine  with  a  list  of  our  best  contribu- 
tors.   Literature  for  October  20  gives  an  account  of  Gen.  Onnsby  MacKnight  Mitchell. 

The  Xoveliett  A  weekly  Magazine  of  American  Fiction,  contains  a  story  by  Robert 

Timsol,  entitled  "  A  Pessimist." The  complete  novel  in  the  November  Lippincott  is 

"  Earthlings,*'  by  Grace  King. The  "  Physiology  of  the  Sea,"  in  the  November  Catho- 
lic Worldt  is  an  article  of  much  value. The  Englieh  Illuetrated  Magazine  for  October, 

contains  an  article  on  "  A  Dead  City,"  an  account  of  St.  David's. In  the  November 

Quiver  is  another  account  of  St.  David's,  a  city  sixteen  miles  from  a  railway,  and  in 

Great  Britain. A  story  entitled  "  Genevieve;  or,  The  Children  of  Port  Royal,"  which 

has  been  running  for  some  time  in  Frank  Leslie**  Sunday  IUu*traied  Magazine,  gives  a 

very  graphic  account  of  Old  France. One  of  the  prominent  features  of  the  October 

Lend  a  Hand,  is  an  article  on  "  Modern  Social  Conditions." The  November  number  of 

the  Cottage  Hearth  shows  that  this  excellent  home  magazine  keeps  up  the  high  standard 

of  its  matter  as  formerly. The  November  Chautauquan  gives  special  attention  to  the 

history  of  Greece,  and  to  the  sciences. Ca*sdVs  Family  Magazine  for  November  has 

an  article  on  "  The  Art  of  Type  Writing,"  which  should  be  of  special  interest  to  teach- 
ers.  Miss  Edith  Simcox,  In  The   Woman"*  World  for  November  gives  an  article  on 

"  Elementary  School  Teaching  as  a  Profession,"  which  is  at  least  novel  in  its  tone. 

ShoppdVs  Modem  Houses,  an  Illustrated  Architectural  Quarterly  for  October,  November 
and  December,  contains  twenty-four  beautiftil  designs  of  "modern  houses,"  and  estimates 

of  the  cost  of  the  same. An  article  in  October  Treasure-Trove  on  "  Russian-America." 

has  a  bit  of  history  concerning  our  country  that  has  but  Just  come  to  light,  as  it  was  a 
state  secret,  and  it  is  only  within  a  short  time  that  it  has  leaked  out.  Teachers  and  all 
interested  in  history  will  And  this  article  of  special  interest.    If  the  story  be  true,  it  ia 

an  important  one. Scribner  for  November,  contains  a  vivid  description  of  Gen.  P.  H. 

Sheridan's  experiences  in  the  Franco-German  War.  The  article  Is  written  by  General 
Sheridan  himself,  and  is  entitled  "  From  Gravelotte  to  Sedan." 


Q)UCrATIOR 

DEVOTED  TO  THE   SCIENCE,  ART,  PHILOSOPHY,  AND 

LITERATURE  OF  EDUCATION. 


Vol.   IX.  DECEMBER,    1888.  No.   4. 

EXCESSIVE  HELPS  IN  EDUCATION. 

BY  W.  T.  HARRIS,  CONCORD,  MASS. 

INASMUCH  as  the  child  is  self-active  and  grows  only  through 
the  exercise  of  his  self-activity,  education  consists  entirely  in 
leading  the  child  to  do  what  develops  this  power  of  doing.  Any 
help  that  does  not  help  the  pupil  to  help  himself  is  excessive.  The 
same  principle  is  a  safe  guide  in  our  public  and  private  charities* 
Help  the  poor  and  unfortunate  to  help  themselves,  and  you  ele- 
vate them  towards  human  perfection  and  the  divine  ideal.  It  is- 
this  principle,  too,  that  makes  clear  to  us  what  road  leads  to  the 
surest  amelioration  of  the  evils  of  poverty  and  mendicancy.  Edu- 
cation is  the  one  sure  road  to  help  the  unfortunate.  Adopt  all 
the  cunning  devices  that  social  science  has  invented,  and  you  can- 
not be  sure  that  direct  or  indirect  help  of  the  poor  does  not  under- 
mine their  self-respect  and  weaken  their  independence.  But  you 
may  give  them  all  the  education  possible.  You  may  begin  with 
the  kindergarten  and  end  with  the  highest  university  —  all  brought 
to  the  very  door  of  the  proletariat,  and  you  are  certain  that  the 
more  education  you  can  persuade  him  to  take,  the  more  indepen- 
dent and  self-helping  he  will  become,  and  the  more  he  will  benefit 
the  race  of  mankind. 

In  making  this  assertion,  I  have,  of  course,  presupposed  that  the 
education  is  good  education,  and  that  the  intellect  is  trained  on 
science  and  fed  on  history  and  literature,  while  the  will  is  trained 
into  good  habits  by  a  firm  and  mild  discipline.     Education  such  as 


216  ED  UCA  TlOy.  [December, 

this  will  elevate  the  most  downtrodden  and  servile  class  of  people 
into  self-governing  freemen  in  a  few  generations.  Gratuitous 
education  does  not  tend  towards  communistic  views  and  opinions, 
but  towards  private  ownership  of  property  and  true  public  spirit. 
The  educated  man  wishes  a  larger  and  larger  margin  of  individual 
action,  and  hence  he  throws  off  in  succession  the  patriarchal  despo- 
tism of  family  government,  the  semi-patriarchal  form  of  the  village 
community,  the  serfdom  of  the  feudal  manor,  the  caste  system  of  the 
monarchy,  and  finds  all  the  scope  he  needs  in  the  free  choice  of 
vocation,  the  free  choice  of  his  habitat,  free  combination  with  his 
fellow-men,  and  in  free  ownership  of  property  without  entail. 
Within  the  sphere  of  his  private  property  he  exercises  his  absolute 
or  individual  will,  but  in  his  free  combination  with  his  fellow-men 
as  political  member  of  a  -constitutional  government,  he  attains  that 
higher  and  more  rational  freedom  which  comes  of  the  adoption  of 
the  will  of  the  community  through  free  insight. 

In  the  State  of  Massachusetts  perhaps  one  may  find  all  grades 
of  education  brought  nearest  to  all  classes  of  people.  In  Massa- 
chusetts will  be  found  the  widest  distribution  of  private  property 
and  the  largest  average  amount  of  it  that  can  be  found  in  com- 
monwealths of  equal  or  greater  size,  search  where  you  will. 

I  mention  these  things  by  way  of  showing  the  ground  on  which 
my  views  in  regard  to  Excessive  Ileli^s  in  Education  rest.  For 
they  go  to  show  that  the  school  is  the  ideal  place  where  self-help 
is  to  be  cultivated.  By  the  study  of  science  the  pupil  learns  to 
help  himself,  by  adding  to  his  own  experience  of  the  world  the 
aggregate  results  of  the  entire  experience  of  the  race.  By  the 
study  of  literature  he  learns  to  know  the  sentiments  and  feelings 
that  have  inspired  the  different  peoples  of  the  world,  and  especially 
his  own  racial  stock.  He  thus  learns  human  nature  as  manifested 
in  the  race,  and  in  liis  nation,  and  he  learns  by  this  his  own  indi- 
vidual possibilities.  He  learns  the  ways  of  thinking  of  his  fellow- 
men  and  their  habits  of  action.  He  thus  acquires  through  litera- 
ture the  most  practical  of  all  practical  learning,  the  knowledge  of 
human  nature.  Without  this  knowledge  he  will  not  know  how  to 
deal  with  his  fellow-men.  By  the  school  discipline  the  pupil  learns 
to  work  with  his  fellow-men,  and  combine  peaceably  to  produce  a 
joint  result.  He  learns  to  submit  to  the  necessary  mediation  which 
alone  can  bring  about  great  results  —  that  is  to  say,  he  learns  to 
subordinate  himself  for  Uie  sake  of  the  whole. 


1888.]  EXCESSIVE  HELPS  IN  EDUCATION.  217 

Now  it  is  evident  that  the  intellectual  training  of  the  school 
which  does  not  help  the  pupil  to  help  himself  is  pernicious  and 
destructive  of  the  very  ends  for  which  the  school  exists.  This 
pernicious  effect  is  a  constant  tendency  in  education  flowing  from 
the  mistaken  idea  that  it  is  quantity  and  not  quality  of  learning 
which  is  to  be  arrived  at  by  instruction.  To  get  over  the  course  of 
study  rapidly  seems  to  be  a  veiy  desirable  thing  to  some  teachers 
and  to  many  parents  and  children.  The  majority  of  teachers  have 
learned  that  such  progress  is  all  a  delusion  ;  that  the  true  progress 
is  the  mastery  by  the  pupil  of  his  branch  of  study  by  a  clear  com- 
prehension of  all  the  steps.  From  this  comes  power  of  analysis 
—  the  ability  to  divide  a  difficult  subject  and  attack  it  in  each  of 
its  details  in  proper  order.  Victory  is  sure  to  come  if  we  can  de- 
tach the  forces  of  the  enemy  from  the  main  body,  and  defeat  them 
one  by  one.  The  good  teacher  looks  solely  to  the  quality  of  the 
knowledge,  and  by  this  increases  the  pupil's  self-help.  The  poor 
teacher  helps  the  pupil  by  doing  his  work  for  him  instead  of  stimu- 
lating him  to  do  it  for  himself.  He  gives  the  pupil  ready-made 
information  and  saves  him  the  trouble  of  finding  it  out  from  books 
and  experiments.  He  pours  in  his  oral  instruction  to  save  the 
pupil  from  the  necessity  of  hard  study. 

In  arithmetic,  for  example,  the  good  teacher  does  not  assign  les- 
sons to  be  learned  out  of  school,  for  he  knows  that  there  is  great 
danger  that  the  elder  brothers  and  sisters,  the  parents  and  even 
the  grand-j)arents  will  be  brought  into  requisition  to  assist  at  the 
solution  of  the  hardest  problems.  In  the  recitation  the  teacher 
will  then  be  without  any  reliable  knowledge  of  the  pupil's  powers. 
He  will  probe  a  given  amount  of  pupil's  work,  plus  an  unknown 
quantity  (r)  of  outside  help.  The  good  teacher  sees  to  it  that 
the  arithmetic  lesson  is  prepared  under  his  own  eyes,  and  that  the 
pupil  does  not  "  cipher  "  —  does  not  work  out  all  of  the  numerous 
"examples  for  practice  "  given  in  the  textbook,  but  only  the  few 
typical  examples.  These  he  requires  him  to  do  again  and  again, 
explaining  minutely  all  the  steps  of  the  process,  and  then  invent- 
ing new  problems  by  the  change  of  the  numbers  given  in  the 
book. 

In  grammar  the  good  teacher  knows  that  the  pupil  is  to  learn 
how  to  analyze  and  discriminate  ideas  and  mental  distinctions, 
thus  acquiring  logical  power  and  the  ability  to  think  out  a  difficult 
question  by  taking  it  to  pieces  and  putting  it  together. 


218  ED  UCA  TIOX.  [Decern  iM-r, 

Grammar  as  the  science  of  human  speech  —  since  language  is 
the  instrument  of  reason  —  is  the  most  concrete  study  that  is  to  be 
found  of  logic  and  ^jsychology.  The  good  teacher  does  not  make 
the  mistake  of  throwing  out  grammar  from  the  course  of  study 
because  it  is  difficult  to  learn,  and  substituting  "  language  lessons  " 
for  it  because  the  latter  work  is  easy.  He  knows  that  language 
lessons  may  be  taught  in  connection  with  the  reading  lesson,  which 
is  properly  a  language  lesson,  and  by  written  examinations  on  the 
substance  of  what  has  been  learned  in  all  other  branches  of  study. 
Language  lessons  and  compositions,  as  often  taught,  are  a  mere 
training  in  gibble-gabble ;  for  they  use  the  colloquial  vocabulary. 
Grammar  is  to  be  taught  by  itself  as  an  indispensable  branch  of 
study. 

In  the  reading  lesson  excessive  help  has  done  its  utmost  to  make 
the  first  steps  easy,  and  to  remove  all  climbing  thereafter.  It  ex- 
pends an  infinite  amount  of  ingenuity  to  smooth  away  all  eleva- 
tions. For  this  purpose  it  uses  only  readers  that  have  the  simplest 
forms  of  colloquial  language,  carefully  avoiding  readers  that  take 
up  higher  vocabularies  which  develop  the  resources  of  our  language. 
The  pupil  learns  to  read  at  sight  all  lessons  written  in  the  collo- 
quial vocabulary  —  and  this  is  called  teaching  how  to  read. 
Whereas,  it  is  but  one-half  of  the  process.  The  other  half,  and  the 
more  important  half,  is  to  teach  the  pupil  to  grapple  with  the  great 
works  of  literature,  and  all  higher  readers  of  any  series  are  full  of 
excellent  specimens  of  real  literature.  In  mastering  these  the 
pupil  must  not  hurry  and  endeavor  to  read  a  large  quantity  of 
reading  matter.  If  he  memorizes  the  gems  of  poetry  and  the  se- 
lections of  impassioned  prose  he  will  fill  his  memory  with  the  hap- 
piest forms  of  expression  of  deepest  thoughts  and  subtlest  feelings. 
In  learning  these,  the  pupil  learns  new  words  unfamiliar  before 
and  new  thoughts  with  them,  and  his  mind  grows  larger.  Our 
school  instruction  leans  in  the  direction  of  excessive  oral  exposi- 
tion, —  and  too  much  manipulating  of  apparatus.  The  result  is  that 
the  pupil  is  less  able  to  find  for  himself  the  aid  that  he  needs  from 
books,  and  in  the  case  of  apparatus,  he  has  less  grasp  of  the  uni- 
versal idea,  though  he  possesses  a  more  intense  notion  of  the 
special  machine  in  its  special  applications.  This  makes  him  a 
good  routine  worker,  but  lame  and  impotent  in  his  inventive 
powers. 


1888.]  EXCESSIVE  HELPS  IN  EDUCATION.  219 

I  must  hasten  to  allude  to  excessive  helps  in  geography  as  found 
in  too  much  map-drawing  —  too  much  physical  illustration,  and 
too  little  study  of  the  relations  of  man  to  the  planet.  In  history, 
in  like  manner,  the  pupil  is  helped  by  avoiding  the  study  of  thoughts 
and  relations,  and  setting  his  task  chiefly  on  the  biographical  parts 
and  personal  anecdotes.  These  should  be  only  the  vestibule  to 
histor}\  But  excessive  help  in  education  wishes  to  prolong  the 
vestibule  and  never  reach  the  temple  itself. 

In  conclusion,  I  would  briefly  name  the  two  excessive  helps  in 
discipline.  There  is  the  old  regime  which  administered  the  rod 
industriously,  and  sought  by  an  oppressive  system  of  espionage  to 
prevent  the  growth  of  evil  habits.  It  was  excessive  help.  The 
doing  of  good  was  to  be  made  easy  by  the  aid  of  bodily  terror  and 
by  the  consciousness  of  vigilant  supervision.  Another  person's 
will  was  to  penetrate  the  sacred  limits  of  the  pupil's  individuality 
and  take  away  his  autonomy.  The  building  up  of  walls  round 
the  pupil  to  shield  liim  from  bad  external  influences  had  the  efiPect 
of  weakening  his  will  power  and  first  making  him  an  un-moral 
being  —  afterwards  to  grow  into  an  immoral  and  corrupt  one.  Af- 
ter the  pupil  left  school  and  came  upon  the  world  he  felt  the  need 
of  the  master's  rod  and  threatening  look,  and  not  finding  this  or  a 
substitute  for  it,  he  found  in  himself  no  strength  to  meet  tempta- 
tion. Excessive  helps  in  the  way  of  harsh  punishments  and  rigid 
supervision  hinder  the  development  of  the  will  and  tend  to  form 
moral  dwarfs,  or  moral  monsters. 

On  the  other  hand  an  excessive  help  to  self-activity  and  freedom 
by  giving  too  much  rein  to  the  inclinations  of  the  youth  is  apt  to 
ruin  him.  The  too  lax  discipline  allows  the  weeds  of  caprice 
and  arbitrariness  to  grow  up  and  each  pupil  strives  against 
the  order  of  the  school,  gets  in  the  way  of  all  others,  and  the 
total  result  is  zero.  The  one  in  authority  does  not  act  to  help 
the  pupil  obey  his  higher  self  and  subdue  his  lower  self.  Such 
sentimentality  ignores  in  fact  the  existence  of  two  selves  in  the 
child  —  it  does  not  see  that  he  begins  as  an  animal  self  full  of 
appetites  and  desires  and  must  become  a  rational  self,  a  spiritual 
self,  governed  by  moral  and  universal  ideas.  He  must  put  down 
his  animal  and  vegetable  nature  and  put  on  the  ideal  type  of 
human  nature  in  order  to  be  civilized.  The  too  lax  discipline,  or 
the  discipline  that  aims  to  isolate  the  pupil  from  temptation  —  the 
flower-pot  system  of  education  —  this  discipline  helps  excessively 


290  EDUCATION.  [December, 

the  development  of  the  spontaneous  will  of  the  pupil  and  helps 
unwisely.  The  pupil  becomes  wayward  and  selfish,  or  weak  and 
pusillanimous,  and  falls  an  easy  victim  to  the  temptations  of  the 
real  world  after  he  leaves  school. 

Excessive  helps  in  the  intellectual  branches  do  not  produce 
such  lasting  and  far-reaching  destruction  as  excessive  helps  in  dis- 
cipline. They  may  be  more  easily  remedied.  But  excessive  helps 
in  discipline  destroy  the  character  and  tend  to  make  the  whole 
personality  a  zero. 

Since  the  properly  taught  and  disciplined  school  can,  and  does 
give  the  only  kind  of  help  to  the  pupils  that  will  help  them  to 
help  themselves,  it  is  obvious  how  imix)rtant  is  this  question  of 
excessive  helps  in  education. 


THE  RECITATION. 

BY  W.  B.  FERGUSON,  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  SCHOOLS,  MIDDLETOWN,  CONN. 

IT  is  largely  in  the  recitation  that  the  vital,  lasting  work  of  the 
teacher  is  done.  It  is  here  that  the  mind  of  the  teacher  and 
the  mind  of  the  pupil  come  into  living,  life-imparting  contact,  the 
former  to  be  tested  in  its  powers  and  attainments,  the  latter  to  be 
directed,  quickened,  and  developed.  It  is  for  this  important  work 
that  the  ambitious  and  devoted  teacher  studies  and  plans.  Here, 
waiting  before  him,  are  pupils ;  some  active,  alert,  inquiring,  need- 
ing guidance  chiefly,  others  cold,  sluggish,  indifferent,  needing 
inspiration  and  push.  What  vast  responsibilities,  then,  centre  in 
the  recitation !  How  can  those  responsibilities  be  successfully  met  ? 
To  answer  this  question  is  the  object  of  this  paper. 

It  is  not  my  purpose  to  pass  through  all  the  branches  of  study 
taught  in  our  public  schools,  and  to  explain  just  how  recitations 
in  every  study  should  be  conducted.  To  do  this  would  require 
more  sj)ace  than  is  at  my  disposal.  Indeed,  all  successful  recita- 
tions conducted  by  different  teachers,  or  even  by  the  same  teacher, 
cannot  be  placed  in  the  same  mould.  There  is  and  can  be  no  best 
way  in  detail  of  conducting  recitations  in  general.  There  are 
pedagogical  principles  which  must  not  be  violated  in  any  recitation, 
but  principles  may  be  the  basis  of  many  equally  good  methods. 


1888.]  THE  RECITATION.  221 

And  yet  there  are  certain  features  which  must  appear  in  nearly  all 
successful  teaching. 

Let  us  inquire,  then,  first,  what  are  the  leading  objects  of  the 
recitation,  that  is,  what  results  should  be  gained  therefrom?  and 
secondly,  what  are  the  chief  conditions  to  the  obtaining  of  those 
results? 

The  first  object  of  the  recitation,  in  all  grades  except  the  prima- 
ry, is  to  discover  the  attainments  of  the  pupils  in  the  subject  of 
the  lesson.  This  is  usually  made  the  sole  aim  by  ignorant  and  lazy 
teachers.  It  is  so  easy  to  sit  calmly  with  book  in  hand,  and  to 
read  off  the  questions  with  one  eye  on  the  text  to  see  whether  the 
pupil  answers  correctly.  Pupils  must  learn  lessons,  and  it  is  the 
teacher's  duty  to  see  that  they  learn  them  properly,  not  so  much, 
however,  for  the  facts  to  be  gained  (though  these  are  seldom  harm- 
ful) as  for  a  more  important  object,  as  we  shall  soon  see. 

The  second  object  of  the  recitation,  one  closely  connected  with 
the  first,  is  to  firmly  fix  in  the  pupil's  mind  the  leading  points  of 
the  lesson.  This  is  often  neglected.  Most  textbooks  fail  to  suf- 
ficiently emphasize  the  more  important  parts  of  the  lesson,  and  to 
make  subordinate  the  less  important.  Sometimes  one  point  is  the 
key  to  the  whole  lesson,  the  other  facts  depending  upon  and  re- 
sulting from  this  one.  Pupils  usually  fail  to  observe  this;  to  them 
all  facts  are  equally  important ;  hence,  often,  none  are  completely 
grasped  and  securely  lodged  in  the  memory.  The  critical  teacher 
will  sharply  discriminate  between  the  vital  and  controlling  part  of 
the  lesson  and  the  subordinate  or  merely  incidental  parts.  He 
will  concentrate  attention  upon  the  former ;  he  will  focalize  upon 
it  all  the  light  the  pupils  can  give ;  he  will  illumine  it,  if  neces- 
sarj'^,  with  his  own  clear  thought  and  vivid  illustration ;  he  will 
magnify  it,  cause  it  to  stand  out  from  the  connected  facts,  and,  in 
this  way,  he  will  firmly  fix  it  in  the  pupil's  memory.  The  other 
parts  of  the  lesson  being  then  placed  in  proper  dependent  relations 
to  this  one  are  held  in  the  mind  in  an  orderly  and  philosophical 
arrangement,  contributing  to  the  pupil's  intellectual  growth. 

The  third  and  most  important  object  of  the  recitation  is  to  train 
to  quick  perception,  close  and  accurate  observation,  clear  and  logi- 
cal thinking,  in  short, — mental  development.  This  object  out- 
weighs all  others.  It  is  vastly  more  important  than  the  mere  gath- 
ering of  information.  "  Were  I  deprived  of  my  knowledge,"  said  a 
well-known  college  president/*  I  would  not  be  greatly  impoverished ; 


222  EDUCATION.  [I>ecember, 

but  were  I  to  lose  the  mental  power  derived  from  the  efiPorts  put 
forth  to  gain  that  knowledge,  I  would  be  poor  indeed."  Says  Lea- 
sing, "  Did  the  Almighty,  holding  in  his  right  hand  Truth  and  in 
his  left  hand  Search  after  Truths  deign  to  offer  me  the  one  I  might 
prefer,  in  all  humility,  but  without  hesitation,  I  should  choose 
Search  after  Truthy  Evidently  the  great  German  valued  the  de- 
velopment and  discipline  to  be  gained  from  searching  after  truth 
more  highly  than  truth  itself. 

And,  happily,  teachers  are  coming  to  discover  —  the  better  class 
have  already  discovered  —  that  children  are  not  rtiQVQ  phonographs^ 
doing  their  highest  intellectual  work  in  storing  up  and  reproducing 
words  ;  nor  merely  collectors  of  information,  but  that  they  are  liv- 
ing spirits^  capable  of  growth^  jwssessing  the  powers  of  sight,  touch, 
and  hearing,  whose  sole  function  is  not  the  detecting  and  doing 
of  mischief,  hence  senses  not  to  be  closed  and  lulled  to  sleep  by 
the  teacher  but  senses  to  be  trained  to  rapid  and  certain  action, 
since  upon  the  trustworthiness  of  their  testimony  all  the  higher 
activities  of  the  soul  are  largely  conditioned ;  yes,  living  spirits 
capable  of  thought,  if  kindled  and  aroused  into  action  by  contact 
with  the  moving,  inspiring  thought  of  a  genuine  teacher. 

Other  objects  of  the  recitation  are,  to  cultivate  the  power  of 
accurate,  concise,  and  ready  expression  (which  usually  accom- 
panies clear  thinking),  to  discover  the  pupil's  habits  of  study  and 
to  correct  whatever  is  faulty  in  those  habits,  to  cultivate  self-reli- 
ance and  self-possession,  to  create  interest  and  arouxe  pupils  to 
heartier  and  more  persistent  work,  and,  in  a  degree,  to  develop  the 
moral  nature. 

Bearing  in  mind  these  objects  of  the  recitation,  let  us  now  con- 
sider the  chief  conditions  to  the  obtaining  of  those  objects. 

The  first  condition  is  that  the  teacher  possess  some  general 
knowlege  of  the  faculties  of  the  human  mind,  their  action, 
their  order  of  development,  and  their  proper  stimuli.  All 
pedagogical  principles  of  instruction  and  discipline  have  their 
foundation  in  the  nature  of  the  mind ;  hence,  the  most  important 
object  of  the  recitation,  that  of  rightly  stimulating  mental  growth^ 
is  conditioned  upon  an  acquaintance  with  the  mental  powers. 
How  can  the  perceptive  powers  be  quickened  and  properly  guided; 
the  memory  made  tenacious  and  ready ;  the  imagination  excited, 
elevated,  and  broadened ;  the  reason  trained  to  unerring  logic ;  the 
feelings  deepened,  refined,  and  brought  under  control;  the  will 


1888.]  THE  RECITATION.  223 

strengthened  and  made  to  respond  to  high  motives  and  to  resist 
the  lower ;  in  short,  how  can  the  e'tUire  nature  of  the  pupil  be  — 
not  to  say  symmetrically  developed,  an  interesting  thing  to  think 
and  write  about,  but  a  result  quite  impossible  to  accomplish  —  but 
developed  in  their  natural  order  with  anything  like  the  least  loss 
of  mental  energy,  except  the  teacher  have  some  general  knowledge 
of  the  mental  faculties,  their  modes  of  activity,  their  inter-de- 
pendence, their  order  of  development,  and  their  proper  nourish- 
ment. From  a  lack  of  such  knowledge,  the  observing  powers  are 
often  stunted ;  artificial  memory  is  trained  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
philosophical ;  the  imagination,  so  active  in  cliildren,  is  repressed 
and  thus  made  incapable  of  forming  lofty  ideals;  the  reflective 
powers  are  insufficiently  developed;  the  egoistic  feelings  are  often 
encoiu-agedto  the  utter  exclusion  of  the  altruistic  and  theetliical; 
while  the  Avill,  instead  of  being  strengthened  and  rightly  guided, 
is  either  broken,  thus  making  the  coward,  or  it  is  uncontrolled, 
becoming  master  of  the  future  criminal. 

Only,  then,  through  the  possession  and  exercise  of  such  knowl- 
edge, gained  in  some  way,  can  the  teacher  meet  the  fii^st  condition 
of  the  most  successful  recitation. 

The  second  condition  is  thorough,  daily  preparation  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher.  This  statement  i)erhaps  seems  trite  to  some,  but 
its  practice  is  not  trit^  to  all  teachers.  I  have  visited  not  a  few 
schools  in  our  own  state  and  elsewhere,  and,  while  I  have  been 
gratified  to  see  evidences  of  some  preparation  by  most  teachers,  I 
have  seldom  failed  to  detect  an  entire  lack  of  preparation  for  some 
recitations.  In  reading,  for  instance,  lessons  upon  which  fifteen 
or  twenty  minutes  of  careful  study  could  have  been  profitably  put 
had  not  been  looked  at  until  the  classes  stood  in  the  floor  to  read ; 
hence,  an  unattractive  and  ineffective  way  of  teaching  new  words, 
mistakes  in  emphasis  and  inflection,  silly  and  irrelevant  questions, 
a  shallow  pretence  of  interest,  and,  of  course,  little  or  no  interest  on 
the  part  of  pupils,  in  short,  all  the  essential  elements  of  good 
reading  omitted.  This,  too,  in  some  of  our  so-called  best  city* 
schools,  not  in  backwoods  districts,  where  the  teacher  has  thirty 
or  forty  recitations  a  day  and  two  dollars  a  week.  When  a  teacher 
stands  before  his  class,  he  should  know  pretty  definitely  what  he 
is  to  teach  and  how  he  is  to  teach  it,  otherwise  his  instruction  is 
diffuse,  indefinite,  hap-hazard,  not  like  the  arrow  that  flies  straight 
to  the  mark  and  finds  lodgment,  but,  like  the  snowball,  it  cov- 


^U  EDUCATION.  [December, 

ers  much  surface,  but  leaves  no  lasting  impression.  It  is  a  com- 
mon saying  that  one  cannot  teach  what  he  does  not  know,  but  still 
further,  he  cannot  teach  broadly  and  critically  what  he  does  not 
know  thoroughly,  and  this  tlioroughness  nothing  but  daily  prepara- 
tion in  and  outside  of  textbooks  can  give.  One  who  does  not  thus 
prepare  himself  for  his  daily  work  lacks  that  genuine,  burning, 
and  contagious  enthusiasm  so  necessary  to  arouse  pupils  to  ener- 
getic, interested  mental  activity  in  the  recitation,  without  which 
little  benefit  results.  He  not  only  has  no  enthusiasm  for  his  work, 
but  he  positively  dislikes  it.  He  goes  to  his  daily  task  like  a 
"  galley  slave  scourged  to  his  dungeon."  **  Not  so,"  says  Superin- 
tendent Dutton,  ^^with  him  who  makes  a  judicious  plan  for  each 
day.  He  goes  to  his  work  with  conscious  strength.  His  pupils 
are  expectant,  and  feel  that  they  are  sitting  at  the  feet  of  a  genu- 
ine teacher." 

It  is  unnecessary  to  discuss  the  needed  preparation  on  the  part 
of  pupils.  Most  teachers  appreciate  the  importance  of  pupils  pre- 
paring their  lessons  whether  they  prepare  themselves  or  not.  Poor 
teachers,  however,  are  apt  to  accept  a  mere  verbal  or  a  narrow  prep- 
aration, such  as  can  be  made  by  slavislily  following  the  textbook. 
Ideas^  not  words  merely,  characterize  every  successful  recitation, 
and  the  larger  use  of  supplementarj'^  books,  the  better. 

The  teaclier  stands  before  his  class  prepared  for  the  recitation ; 
the  pupils  have  prepared  their  lesson.  What  is  now  needed  ?  This 
brings  us  to  the  third  condition,  viz.,  the  concentrated  mental  ac- 
tivity^  or  the  undivided  attention  of  the  whole  class,  the  hardest 
condition  to  be  fully  met.  Such  attention,  however,  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  the  most  efiPective  teaching.  This  word  attention  sig- 
nifies from  its  derivation  a  stretching  of  the  mind  toward  some 
object  of  observation  or  thought ;  hence,  an  active  condition  of  the 
mind.  It  is  a  mistake,  then,  to  suppose  that  attention  consists  in 
a  particular  position  of  the  hands  and  feet,  posture  of  the  head, 
or  direction  of  the  eyes,  though  these  may  favor  attention.  It 
consists,  rather,  in  mental  activity  in  observing,  comparing,  gen- 
eralizing, recalling,  imagining,  or  reasoning  in  respect  to  some  par- 
ticular object  of  thought  before  the  class ;  and  it  is  a  psychological 
fact  that  accuracy  of  observation,  clearness  of  thought,  readiness 
and  tenacity  of  memory,  and  intellectual  growth  are  in  proportion 
to  the  degree  of  mental  concentration.  I  stop  to  emphasize  this 
point,  because  its  importance  is  not  fully  appreciated.     It  is  not 


1888.]  THE  BECITATION.  225 

an  unfrequent  sight  to  see  a  whole  class,  except  the  one  pupil  re- 
citing, half  asleep.  All  may  be  sitting  erect,  hands  and  feet  in 
position,  eyes  properly  directed,  while  the  thoughts  are  milea 
away,  or,  at  best,  resting  lightly  on  the  lesson.  Some  teachers 
are  deceived  by  this  seeming  attention,  and  not  a  few  are  appar- 
ently satisfied  with  it.  The  recitation  should  be  the  time  for 
the  keenest,  severest  work.  The  teacher  should  furnish  the  corv- 
ditions  of  knowledge  and  give  proper  guidance,  while  the  pupils 
should  do  the  observing,  comparing,  recalling,  inferring,  and  rea- 
soning ;  thus  will  their  interest  be  kindled  and  sustained,  and  the 
zeal  and  confidence  resulting  from  successful  personal  effort  will 
be  theirs ;  thus  will  they  be  stimulated  to  stronger,  heartier,  and 
more  persistent  endeavor,  and  the  result  will  be  rapid  intellectual 
growth.  Failure  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  to  secure  this  self- 
activity  of  the  pupil  means  almost  total  failure  in  the  recitation. 
Effective  teaching,  as  I  have  said,  is  impossible  until  this  is  se- 
cured. "  Indeed,"  says  one,  "  teaching  is  nothing  else  than  pro- 
moting human  growth  through  attention."  The  attention  of  the 
youngest  pupils  is  largely  involuntary,  flitting  from  object  to  ob- 
ject. The  power  of  self -direction  of  intellectual  energy  is  weak ; 
but,  if  the  teacher  so  plans  her  exercises  as  to  attract  and  hold 
her  pupils'  attention,  at  first  for  a  few  minutes  only,  afterward 
for  a  little  longer  time,  and  so  on,  the  power  of  voluntary,  con- 
centrated attention  will,  at  length  become  more  or  less  easy  and 
constant.  And,  if  the  schools  do  not  develop  this  power,  they  fail 
in  a  most  important  part  of  their  work,  and  pupils  enter  upon  the 
active  pursuits  of  life  ill  prepared  to  solve  the  difficult  problems 
that  are  sure  to  present  themselves  to  those  who  aspire  to  large 
success.  Says  Schiller,  "  The  thunder,  spread  out  into  its  separate 
folds,  becomes  a  lullaby  for  children ;  send  it  forth  in  one  quick 
peal,  and  the  royal  sound  shakes  the  whole  heavens."  So  the  pu- 
pil who  would  make  the  most  of  his  tiipe  in  school,  and  who  would 
attain  a  high  degree  of  success  in  the  world  must  be  taught  to 
throw  his  intellectual  energies,  like  the  focussed  rays  of  the  sun, 
upon  a  single  point,  and  to  hold  them  there,  until  the  desired  ob~ 
ject  is  accomplished. 

The  attention  of  the  class  being  secured,  what  next?  The 
teacher  must  not  lecture.  Such  instruction  appeals  only  to  the 
so-called  passive  attention,  not  to  the  active,  the  investigative  at- 
tention at  all.     It  may  increase  the  pupil's  stock  of  information ;. 


2-26  EDUCATION.  [December, 

it  may  broaden  his  intellectual  horizon  temporarily,  or  even  per- 
manently, but  it  cannot  greatly  increase  his  intellectual  poiver^ 
which  is  of  chief  value.  Young  teachers,  particularly  college  gradu- 
ates who  think  ideal  teaching  consists  in  imitating  some  learned  col- 
lege professor,  oft«n  make  this  mistake.  Such  a  teacher  once  in- 
formed me  that  she  often  had  a  sore  throat  at  night,  caused  by  her 
being  obliged  to  talk  nearly  all  the  time  to  her  classes  in  order  to 
teach  them  anything.  Not  realizing  that  the  teacher  should  place 
before  her  pupils  the  conditian%  of  knowledge  cliiefly,  sparingly 
knowledge  itself,  not  realizing  that  the  mind  is  a  living  organism, 
growing  and  gaining  strength  through  exercise  like  the  body,  and 
not  a  receptacle  to  be  filled,  she  proceeded  on  that  ever  to  be 
condemned  plan  of  lecturing,  stuffing  the  pupils  with  sense  and 
nonsense.  Such  a  teacher,  of  course,  thinks  it  necessary  to  keep 
a  large  portion  of  her  pupils  after  school  every  night,  tlian  which 
no  habit  can  be  much  worse.  Something  is  radically  wrong  with 
the  teaclier  wlio  finds  it  necess«arv  to  habitually  resort  to  such 

ft  V 

means  in  order  to  induce  pupils  to  learn  their  lessons.  Theii*  in- 
terest in  study  must  be  sadly  lacking,  and  for  this  the  teacher  is 
largely  responsible. 

But  to  return  to  the  matter  of  lecturing.  Says  Spencer,  '"  This 
need  of  perpetual  telling  is  the  result  of  the  teacher's  stupidity, 
not  the  pupil's.  Having  by  our  method  induced  helplessness,  we 
straightway  make  helplessness  a  rt^ason  for  our  method."  While 
there  are  reasons  why  lecturing  in  college,  and,  occasionally  in  the 
high  or  the  grammar  school  may  be  proper  from  a  pedagogical 
standpoint,  it  can  be  safely  said  that  all  lecturing  that  relieves  the 
scholar  of  work,  and  that  deprives  him  of  that  intense  interest  and 
large  mental  growth  that  results  from  successful  personal  investi- 
gation and  discovery  is  harmful.  A  splendid  talker  is  quite  often 
a  very  poor  teacher.  The  ideal  teacher  is  one  who  can  talk  enter- 
tainingly, for  he  is  full  of  his  subject,  but  he  seldom  does  talk  at 
any  considerable  lengtli,  for  he  remembers  the  teacher's  golden 
maxim,  that  "  He  helps  a  pupil  most,  not  by  doing  for  him,  but  by 
inspiring  him  to  do  for  himself."  "Self-activity,  self-evolution, 
and  this  alone,"  says  Spencer,  "  insures  vividness  and  permanency 
to  impressions.  Knowledge  thus  acquired  becomes  at  once  or- 
ganized into  faculty,  ready  to  aid  in  still  keener  observation,  closer 
comparisons,  broader  and  truer  generalizations,  and  more  logical 
reasoning,  and  does  not  lie,  like  a  dead  weight,  upon  the  memory." 


1888.]  THE  BECITATION.  227 

There  are,  in  general,  three  methods  of  conducting  recitations : 
the  questioning  method,  the  topical  method,  and  the  discussion. 
The  first,  skilfully  employed  in  connection  with  the  other  two,  is 
valuable,  but  exclusively  used,  it  is  harmful.  Poor  teachers,  as  a 
rule,  employ  this  method  too  exclusively.  It  requires  little 
information  on  the  part  of  either  teacher  or  pupil,  for  the  teach- 
er usually  has  one  eye  on  the  book  and  asks  leading  questions 
in  such  a  way  as  to  suggest  the  answer.  But  with  the  skilful 
teacher,  questioning  is  an  art,  and  one  not  easily  acquired.  Just 
how  to  question  so  as  to  reveal  the  pupil's  previous  knowledge,  at 
the  same  time  kindling  curiosity  and  arousing  the  intellect  into  a 
wakeful  condition  creating  a  desire  to  know  more ;  just  how  to 
lead  the  pupil  from  point  to  point  in  a  line  of  thinking,  giving  him 
all  needed  assistance  without  relieving  him  of  the  necessity  of  put- 
ting forth  earnest  effort ;  just  how  to  question  so  as  to  most  secure- 
ly link  the  leading  facts  of  today's  lesson  with  those  of  yesterday ; 
just  how  to  lead  the  pupil  to  say  as  much  as  possible  to  the  point, 
while  the  teacher  says  as  little  as  possible,  is  a  question  which  re- 
quires for  its  answer  much  careful  study  of  both  pupil  and  lesson. 

The  following  recitations  reported  by  Agent  Martin,  of  Massa- 
chusetts, as  having  been  heard  by  him  in  a  city  high  school  of  that 
state,  illustrate  the  misuse  of  the  questioning  method.  A  lesson 
about  a  Greek  philosopher,  teacher  with  book  in  hand  questions 
as  follows :  — 

"  Who  was  an  eminent  philosopher,  and  taught  mathematics  and 
astronomy  ?  " 

One  Pupil,  —  "  Diogenes." 

Teacher.  —  "  No,  Anaragoras !  Who  was  Diogenes  ?  Can  any 
one  tell  ?  " 

Several  Pupils,  —  "  He  lived  in  a  tub." 

Teacher,  —  *'  Yes  ;  he  was  a  famous  cynic.  Who  was  called  the 
laughing  philosopher  ?     Can  any  one  tell  ?  " 

No  answer. 

Teacher,  —  "Democritus;  because  he  treated  the  follies  and 
vices  of  mankind  with  ridicule.  He  taught  that  the  physical  uni- 
verse consists  of  atoms,  and  that  nature,  space,  and  motion  are 
eternal." 

In  another  high  school,  the  following  recitation  on  the  reign  of 
Charles  I. :  — 

Teacher,  —  "  This  is  known  in  history  as  the " 


228  EDUCATION.  [December, 

Answer.  —  "  Long  Parliament." 

Teacher.  —  "  The  king  ungratefully  gave  his  consent  to  his " 

Answer,  —  "  Execution." 

Teacher.  — ''  The  king  retired  amid  cries  of " 

Answer.  —  "  Privilege." 

I  believe  these  recitations  fairly  illustrate  a  large  part  of  the 
work  done  by  those  who  have  not  made  a  %tudy  of  teaching. 

The  topical  method  is  especially  well  adapted  to  develop  readi- 
ness in  thinking,  self-reliance,  and  self-possession.  The  pupil  is 
placed  face  to  face  with  his  subject,  and  he  succeeds  according  to 
Lis  knowledge  of  the  subject,  his  self-command,  and  his  readiness 
in  speech.  He  is  trained  in  correctness  and  facility  of  speech, 
and,  in  a  degree,  he  is  practiced  in  extemporaneous  speaking. 
He  is  also  obliged  to  take  a  somewhat  larger  view  of  the  subject. 

The  discussion  is  profitably  used,  in  the  higher  grades,  in  con- 
nection with  the  two  other  methods.  It  tends  to  give  increased 
life  and  interest  to  recitations  upon  certain  subjects,  and,  if  prop- 
erly conducted,  it  teaches  pupils  to  yield  to  the  force  of  rea- 
son. Which  of  these  methods  should  be  made  most  prominent 
in  a  particular  recitation,  largely  depends  upon  the  character 
of  the  lesson,  and  the  maturity  of  the  pupils.  While  the 
topical  method  supplemented  by  the  other  two  is  best  suited  to  a 
recitation  in  history,  the  questioning  method  is  chiefly  employed, 
though  wrongly,  I  think,  in  teaching  the  ancient  classics.  While 
neither  the  topical  method  nor  the  discussion  can  be  used  to  any 
considerable  extent  in  the  primary  grade,  the  tluee  should  be  com- 
bined in  the  higher  grades. 

The  number  of  devices  and  expedients  that  may  be  employed 
in  the  application  of  these  three  general  methods  is  almost  inflnite, 
and  many  are  equally  good.  In  so  far  as  they  conform  to  peda- 
gogical principles,  they  are  proper,  and  in  so  far  as  they  are  effec- 
tive, they  are  valuable.  To  pronounce  this  particular  method  or 
device  in  teaching  the  best  is  the  merest  folly.  What  to  one  seems 
absurd,  to  another  appears  reasonable  and  valuable.  Is  the  method 
based  upon  right  principles  ?  Is  it,  in  a  degree,  original  ?  Is  it 
the  way  in  which  the  teacher's  best  thoughts,  deepest  interest, 
and  most  glowing  enthusiasm  go  ?  With  it,  does  he  accomplish 
his  best  results?  If  so,  then  it  is  his  best  method,  however  it  may 
appear  to  others. 

But  any  method  is  empty  and  futile,  dead^  unless  filled  and  vital- 


1888.]  THE  TEACHINQ  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANG  UAGE.  229 

ized^  and  made  effective  by  an  unquenchable  interest  and  enthusi- 
asm on  the  part  of  the  teacher ;  an  enthusiasm  that  shows  itself, 
not  in  noisy,  highly  demonstrative,  and  egotistic  bluster,  attracting 
attention  from  the  lesson  to  the  teacher,  or  causing  unhealthful 
excitement,  but  a  deep  and  intense  interest  that  forgets  self,  cen- 
tres in  the  subject  and  the  pupils  and  rivets  attention  on  the  lesson, 
an  interest,  not  of  the  head  to  the  head  alone,  but  also  of  the  heart 
to  the  heart,  and  through  it  reaching  and  moving  the  will.  With- 
out this  genuine,  consecrated  interest,  the  teacher  is  only  sounding 
brass  or  a  tinkling  cymbal ;  with  it  and  through  it,  he  becomes  a 
fashioner  of  intellectual  and  moral  character. 


THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE 

AND  LITER  A  TURE.^ 

III. 

THE     STUDY     OF     ENGLISH     LITERATURE. 
BY  MRS.   LAURA  SAUNDERSON  HINES,   A.  M. 

NEW  generations  need  new  methods.  Especially  is  this  true 
in  the  study  of  English  Literature.  My  early  impressions 
of  the  study  will  never  fade.  A  small  biographical  history  of  lit- 
erature served  for  a  textbook  and  an  interrogation  mark  for  a 
teacher.  The  lesson  was  so  many  hard  dry  facts, — dates,  names, 
and  titles,  —  all  to  be  piled  up  in  the  memory  like  bricks.  Even 
the  day  of  the  month  of  the  author's  birth  and  death,  no  matter 
how  unimportant  his  work  might  be,  must  be  carefully  memorized. 
The  titles  of  all  the  works  each  writer  had  composed,  with  the  dates 
of  publication,  must  be  religiously  committed  to  memory.  Great 
emphasis  was  laid  upon  such  good  mouth-filling  names  as  Areop- 
agitica.  Novum  Organum,  or  The  Leviathan.  That  these  words 
might  mean  anything  or  contain  ideas  which  we  could  understand 
never  once  dawned  upon  us.  Why  one  man  was  called  a  better 
writer  than  another  we  made  no  attempt  to  find  out.  We  memo- 
rized the  opinion  of  our  textbook  with  painstaking  accuracy,  and 
that  always  satisfied  the  question  mark. 

1  Copyright,  1888,  by  Eastern  Educational  Bureau. 


230  EDUCATION.  [December, 

The  best  rank  was  awarded  to  the  most  complete  rehearsal  of 
the  facts  of  an  author's  life,  the  perfect  enumeration  of  his  writ- 
ings, and  the  repetition,  word  for  word,  of  the  summary  at  the  end. 

No  suggestion  was  made  that  these  were  readable  books  and  of 
possible  interest  to  us.  Neither  was  it  made  clear  to  us  that  the 
papers  and  magazines  we  enjoyed  so  much  at  home  weY*e  a  part  of 
the  very  literature  we  were  studying  at  school.  It  has  taken 
time  to  remove  from  my  mind  the  impression  received  in  those 
early  days  that  a  man  must  be  dead  in  order  to  make  his  writings 
a  part  of  literature. 

Knowledge  comes,  and  the  methods  of  study  in  this  department 
have  been  greatly  improved.  The  true  teacher  of  literature 
should  work  for  thoughts  and  not  for  facts.  In  our  best  schools 
this  work  is  done,  and  well  done,  but  there  are  still  many  where 
too  much  of  the  old  method  lingers.  The  true  teacher  should 
study  the  minds  of  his  pupils,  the  peculiar  tastes  and  tendencies 
of  each.  He  must  try  to  awaken  one  out  of  dullness,  and  to 
steady  the  erratic  brilliance  of  another.  In  no  department  can 
this  mental  development  be  carried  on  with  greater  success  than 
in  that  of  literature. 

The  student  should  study  the  works  of  the  authors  themselves. 
Every  high  school  girl  and  boy  can  not  only  read  Chaucer  but 
enjoy  his  writings.  Most  of  them  will  find  him  a  delightful  writer 
and  well  worth  the  slight  trouble  of  mastering  his  charming  method 
of  spelling  and  his  rhythm.  The  sturdy  boy  will  at  once  claim 
fellowship  with  the  pilgrims  as  they  journey  toward  Canterbury. 
He  will  tell  you  that  Chaucer  is  a  jolly  fellow  with  a  level  head, 
and  that  he  likes  him  first-rate.  If  you  question  him,  he  will  give 
you  his  reasons  for  this  opinion  in  honest  English.  The  power  of 
thought  gained  from  reading  the  old  masters  can  scarcely  be  esti- 
mated. No  amount  of  memorizing  textbook  opinions  will  give 
the  training  obtained  from  reading  and  forming  an  opinion  for 
one's  self.  A  pupil  that  is  required  to  tell  what  he  thinks  and 
why  he  thinks  so,  learns  to  rely  upon  his  own  brain  rather  than 
the  textbook  for  his  ideas.  Then  as  the  types  of  character,  the 
styles  of  expression  and  the  subjects  presented  are  ever  varying 
the  teacher  may  rapidly  master  the  tendency  of  mind  in  each 
pupil.  The  dreamy  girl  "dotes"  on  Edmund  Spenser.  The 
practical  boy  "has  no  use"  for  Spenser  but  likes  the  way  Bacon 
puts  things  because  he  stops  when  he  gets  through.      In  such 


1888.]  THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LAXGUAOE.  231 

expressed  preferences,  the  bias  of  the  pupil's  mind  can  be  easily- 
read.  And  the  teacher  can  make  suggestions  for  outside  reading 
accordingly,  so  that  other  powers  of  the  mind  will  be  developed ; 
a  taste  for  the  romantic  cultivated  in  the  boy  and  an  appreciation 
of  the  practical  e very-day  side  of  life  awakened  in  the  di*eam- 
loving  girl. 

In  studying  an  author  througli  his  works,  emphasis  must  be 
laid  upon  two  points.  The  work  chosen  —  if  the  class  have  time 
for  but  one  —  should  be  one  that  well  represents  the  peculiar  char- 
acteristics of  the  writer  and  one  that  is  complete  in  itself.  It  is 
always  desirable  to  study  more  than  one  selection  from  each 
author.  In  many  instances  it  is  necessary  to  study  some  of  the 
shorter  productions  of  tlie  author  and  then  parts  of  longer  ones. 
This  is  true  of  writei's  like  Edmund  Spenser,  John  Milton,  and 
•  Robert  Browning,  with  whom  the  style  of  the  shorter  poems  differs 
so  greatly  from  that  of  their  so-called  masterpieces.  The  purpose 
of  the  autlior  cannot  be  well  understood  unless  the  student  has 
the  whole  composition  in  mind.  And  unless  the  writer's  aim  ia 
understood  the  student  is  liable  to  misjudge  the  work  produced. 

When  one  complete  selection  from  an  author  has  been  studied 
for  its  purpose,  the  relation  of  each  part  to  the  end  in  view,  the 
author's  methods  of  accomplishing  his  purpose  and  his  style  of 
expression,  then  the  student  is  not  likely  to  be  unjust  to  that 
author  in  selections  from  writings  too  long  for  class  study  aa 
a  whole. 

The  most  important  factor  in  producing  the  desired  mental 
development  is  the  teacher's  power  to  ask  questions. 

It  is  assumed  that  no  person  will  be  entrusted  with  the  teach- 
ing of  literature  who  is  not  at  home  in  the  subject,  who  does  not 
possess  a  mind  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  the  masters  whom  he  has 
to  teach.  In  no  way  can  he  awaken  the  enthusiasm  of  his  class  if 
he  attempts  to  teach  what  he  does  not  know  himself.  The  art  of 
questioning  is  of  great  moment  and  cannot  be  gained  in  a  day. 
To  draw  out  each  pupil's  thought  of  the  poem  or  essay  under 
examination  and  of  the  man  who  wrote  it,  will  require  in  the 
teacher  an  extensive  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  the  human  mind  as 
well  as  of  the  author.  It  will  also  demand  a  thorough  compre- 
hension of  the  meaning  of  the  questions  asked.  The  teacher  can- 
not study  too  carefully  the  exact  content  of  "why,"  "when," 
"where,"  and  "how."  The  dull  pupil  must  be  encouraged  to 
express  what  thought  he  has  and  incited  to  further  thinking  by 


230  ED  UCA  TION.  [December, 

The  best  rank  was  awarded  to  the  most  complete  rehearsal  of 
the  facts  of  an  author's  life,  the  perfect  enumeration  of  his  writ- 
ings, and  the  repetition,  word  for  word,  of  the  summary  at  the  end. 

No  suggestion  was  made  that  these  were  readable  books  and  of 
possible  interest  to  us.  Neither  was  it  made  clear  to  us  that  the 
papers  and  magazines  we  enjoyed  so  much  at  home  we^e  a  part  of 
the  very  literature  we  were  studying  at  school.  It  has  taken 
time  to  remove  from  my  mind  the  impression  received  in  those 
early  days  tliat  a  man  must  be  dead  in  order  to  make  his  writings 
a  part  of  literature. 

Knowledge  comes,  and  the  methods  of  study  in  this  department 
have  been  greatly  improved.  The  true  teacher  of  literature 
should  work  for  thoughts  and  not  for  facts.  In  our  best  schools 
this  work  is  done,  and  well  done,  but  there  are  still  many  where 
too  much  of  the  old  method  lingers.  The  true  teacher  should 
study  the  minds  of  his  pupils,  the  peculiar  tastes  and  tendencies 
of  each.  He  must  try  to  awaken  one  out  of  dullness,  and  to 
steady  the  erratic  brilliance  of  another.  In  no  department  can 
this  mental  development  be  carried  on  with  greater  success  than 
in  that  of  literature. 

The  student  should  study  the  works  of  the  authors  themselves. 
Every  high  school  girl  and  boy  can  not  only  read  Chaucer  but 
enjoy  his  writings.  Most  of  them  will  find  him  a  delightful  writer 
and  well  worth  the  slight  trouble  of  mastering  his  charming  method 
of  spelling  and  his  rhythm.  The  sturdy  boy  will  at  once  claim 
fellowship  with  the  pilgrims  as  they  journey  toward  Canterbury. 
He  will  tell  you  that  Chaucer  is  a  jolly  fellow  with  a  level  head, 
and  that  he  likes  him  first-rate.  If  you  question  him,  he  will  give 
you  his  reasons  for  this  opinion  in  honest  English.  The  power  of 
thought  gained  from  reading  the  old  masters  can  scarcely  be  esti- 
mated. No  amount  of  memorizing  textbook  opinions  will  give 
the  training  obtained  from  reading  and  forming  an  opinion  for 
one's  self.  A  pupil  that  is  required  to  tell  what  he  thinks  and 
why  he  thinks  so,  learns  to  rely  upon  his  own  brain  rather  than 
the  textbook  for  his  ideas.  Then  as  the  types  of  character,  the 
styles  of  expression  and  the  subjects  presented  are  ever  varying 
the  teacher  may  rapidly  master  the  tendency  of  mind  in  each 
pupil.  The  dreamy  girl  "dotes"  on  Edmund  Spenser.  The 
practical  boy  "  has  no  use  "  for  Spenser  but  likes  the  way  Bacon 
puts  things  because  he  stops  when  he  gets  through.      In  such 


1888.]  THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANCWAOE,  231 

expressed  preferences,  the  bias  of  the  pupil's  mind  can  be  easily- 
read.  And  the  teacher  can  make  suggestions  for  outside  reading 
accordingly,  so  that  other  powers  of  tlie  mind  will  be  developed ; 
a  taste  for  the  romantic  cultivated  in  the  boy  and  an  appreciation 
of  the  practical  every-day  side  of  life  awakened  in  the  dream- 
loving  girl. 

In  studying  an  autlior  through  his  works,  emphasis  must  be 
laid  upon  two  points.  The  work  chosen  —  if  the  class  have  time 
for  but  one  —  should  be  one  that  well  represent*  the  peculiar  char- 
acteristics of  the  writer  and  one  that  is  complete  in  itself.  It  is 
always  desirable  to  study  more  than  one  selection  from  each 
author.  In  many  instances  it  is  necessary  to  study  some  of  the 
shorter  productions  of  the  author  and  then  parts  of  longer  ones. 
This  is  true  of  writers  like  Edmund  Spenser,  Jolm  Milton,  and 
•  Robert  Browning,  with  whom  the  style  of  the  sliorter  poems  differs 
so  greatly  from  that  of  their  so-called  masterpieces.  The  purpose 
of  the  author  cannot  be  well  understood  unless  the  student  has 
the  whole  composition  in  mind.  And  unless  the  writer's  aim  ia 
understood  the  student  is  liable  to  misjudge  the  work  produced. 

When  one  complete  selection  from  an  author  has  been  studied 
for  its  purpose,  the  relation  of  each  part  to  the  end  in  view,  the 
author's  methods  of  accomplishing  liis  purpose  and  his  style  of 
expression,  then  the  student  is  not  likely  to  be  unjust  to  that 
author  in  selections  from  writings  too  long  for  class  study  as 
a  whole. 

The  most  important  factor  in  producing  the  desired  mental 
development  is  the  teacher's  power  to  ask  questions. 

It  is  assumed  that  no  person  will  be  entrusted  with  the  teach- 
ing of  liteiTiture  who  is  not  at  home  in  the  subject,  who  does  not 
possess  a  mind  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  the  masters  whom  he  has 
to  teach.  In  no  way  can  he  awaken  the  enthusiasm  of  his  class  if 
he  attempts  to  teach  what  he  does  not  know  himself.  The  art  of 
questioning  is  of  great  moment  and  cannot  be  gained  in  a  day. 
To  draw  out  each  pupil's  thought  of  the  poem  or  essay  under 
examination  and  of  the  man  who  wrote  it,  will  requii*e  in  the 
teacher  an  extensive  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  the  human  mind  as 
well  as  of  the  author.  It  will  also  demand  a  thorough  compre- 
hension of  the  meaning  of  the  questions  asked.  The  teacher  can- 
not study  too  carefully  the  exact  content  of  "why,"  "when," 
"where,"  and  "how."  The  dull  pupil  must  be  encouraged  to 
express  what  thought  he  has  and  incited  to  further  thinking  by 


232  EDUCATIOX,  [December, 

judicious  questions.  Tlie  thought  must  be  found  in  fragmentary 
answers  and  unformulated  expressions  and  completed  by  means 
of  questions.  The  student  must  be  trained  to  finish  the  express- 
ion of  his  thought  in  words  before  he  attempts  to  utt^r  it.  All 
this  can  be  done  by  questions.  It  is  of  great  service  to  the  pupil 
if  the  teacher's  questions  on  the  lesson  have  been  arranged  in 
logical  order  before  going  into  class.  This  exact  series  of  ques- 
tions may  never  be  put  to  the  pupils,  but  the  teacher  so  prepared 
does  not  allow  the  discussion  to  be  drawn  off  on  a  tangent  to  the 
central  purpose  of  the  lesson.  Also,  the  teacher  so  prepared  does 
not  confuse  the  minds  of  the  pupils  by  permitting  the  discussion 
of  more  than  one  point  at  a  time. 

A  cliild's  mind  reasons  with  syllogistic  accuracy  if  it  has  never 
been  tampered  with  and  given  false  conclusions  from  known 
premises.  A  little  consideration  of  the  political  condition  of 
England  during  those  periods  so  barren  in  literary  production, 
■  readily  furnishes  the  pupil  with  data  for  the  conclusion  that  no 
writings  of  value  would  be  produced  at  that  time.  What  writ- 
ings there  were,  he  decides,  would  relate  to  the  political  or  social 
interests  of  that  time  and  so  would  i>erish  with  it.  In  this  way, 
these  periods  become  reasonable,  not  mere  freaks  of  history.  He 
no  longer  wonders  that  there  was  little  but  political  literature  in 
the  early  years  of  American  authorship,  when  he  considers  that 
-during  that  time  the  government  was  forming  and  the  minds  of 
All  our  thinking  men  were  centered  upon  the  interests  of  the 
nation.  The  revival  of  learning  ceases  to  be  like  Jonah's  gourd, 
the  wonder-work  of  a  night,  when  the  silent  influences  producing 
it  are  considered.  The  condition  of  the  people,  their  state  of  civil- 
ization and  advancement  in  thought  easily  show  why  one  form  of 
literature  is  so  popular  in  one  era  while  a  different  form  is  preem- 
inent in  a  second.  If  the  student  has  not  the  time  to  look  up  the 
facts  for  himself,  the  teacher  may  so  present  them  that  the  pupil 
can  draw  his  own  conclusions. 

A  dozen  dates,  well  fixed,  serve  to  hang  all  the  historical  and 
biographical  knowledge  upon  which  one  needs  to  know  with 
exactness  from  Chaucer  to  Matthew  Arnold.  All  other  facts  can 
be  grouped  about  these  as  centres  and  remembered  easily  in  their 
relation  to  them. 

In  ten  weeks,  even,  of  this  kind  of  study  a  class  will  show 
maiked  improvement  in  the  power  of  grasping  thought,  of  reach- 
ing right  conclusions  and  clearly  expressing  original  thought. 


1888.]  THE  TEACHma  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  233 

There  are  many  aids  that  may  be  employed  in  making  this  work 
of  interest  to  a  large  class.  The  aim  of  the  study  of  literature  is 
the  cultivation  of  a  desire  for  reading  the  best  writers,  and  of  the 
power  to  do  so  with  an  understanding  mind.  A  valuable  help  to 
this  end  is  the  devotion  of  five  minutes  of  each  recitation  to  the 
literary  news  of  the  day,  every  member  of  the  class  holding  him- 
self ready  to  report,  if  questioned.  Magazine  articles  of  any 
relation  to  the  topic  of  study,  with  the  date  and  number  of  the 
volume  and  the  author's  name  may  be  reported.  The  death  of 
any  man  of  literary  distinction  must  be  noted ;  points  of  interest 
about  new  books,  or  any  item  seeming  important  to  the  student, 
should  be  gathered  for  that  report.  The  shortness  of  the  time 
allotted  this  exercise  requires  brevity  and  force  in  the  expression 
of  the  facts,  while  the  habit  of  noting  accurately  the  points  is  of 
great  value  as  a  memory  discipline,  if  for  nothing  else.  But  more 
important,  to  my  thinking,  is  the  grasp  the  student  gains  upon 
the  thought  of  the  world  at  large,  and  the  habit  of  reading  with  a 
purpose. 

Besides  this,  printed  outlines^  placed  in  each  pupil's  hand, 
showing  the  place  each  man  occupies  in  his  time,  facilitate  a  com- 
prehensive grasp  of  the  subject.  Each  man  becomes  one  in  the 
great  body  of  thinkers  and  is  no  longer  a  separate  unit. 

Papers  showing  the  growth,  development,  and  decline  of  any 
form  of  writing  assist  the  student  in  keeping  such  writings  in  the 
right  perspective.  This  development  usually  extends  over  several 
centuries,  as  in  the  case  of  the  English  Drama.  An  outline  pre- 
sents at  once  to  the  eye  the  relation  of  the  early  forms  to  the  later 
ones.  Dates  placed  against  each  division  prevent  a  confusion  of 
periods  and  show  the  condition  of  that  kind  of  literatui'e  during 
each  period  included  in  its  development. 

More  valuable  still  we  have  found  the  reference  lists.  These 
lists  give  for  each  author,  under  such  headings  as  "  Life,"  "Times," 
"Criticisms"  and  "Editions,"  the  best  books  written  about  the 
author.  Pains  should  be  taken,  under  "Life"  for  instance,  to 
refer  to  one  brief  and  succinct  account  of  the  author  as  well  as 
to  mention  those  full  of  detail,  incident,  and  anecdote.  On  the 
left  hand  margin  of  this  list  against  each  book  referred  to,  should 

iFor  my  own  claesee  I  have  used  the  hektograpb,  printing  the  outlines  upon  sheets  of 
the  same  size  and  punched  so  that  they  could  be  bound  together  or  piled  in  book  racks 
for  easy  reference  in  review.  My  pupils  report  constant  use  of  these  oatllneft  and  refer- 
ence  lists  in  class  work  and  later  in  their  own  teaching. 


234  EDUCATIOX,  [December, 

be  pLaced  the  library  number  of  the  volume.  This  saves  the  pupil 
time  and  often  he  obtains  a  book  and  reads  it  when  he  woukl  not 
take  the  trouble  to  find  the  number.  This  is  specially  true  where 
the  library  is  a  large  one.  In  placing  this  list  in  the  hands  of  the 
student*?,  a  brief  mention  of  the  points  for  which  the  volume  is 
most  valuable,  helps  tlie  student  in  his  choice  of  a  book  to  read. 
All  criticisms  should  be  left  until  the  author  himself  has  been  read 
and  the  pupil  has  fonned  his  ow^n  opinion.  Then  lie  can  read  the 
critic  intelligently  witliout  fear  of  being  unduly  biased  either  by 
severity  or  excessive  praise. 

The  list  given  below  is  comparatively  brief,  as  the  Editions  are 
so  numerous  that  reference  is  only  made  to  the  general  bibli- 
ography. The  list  does  not  pretend  to  be  exhaustive.  It  gives 
the  student  a  view  of  the  subject  through  the  eye,  giving  him 
under  A  the  relation  of  the  man's  different  kinds  of  writing  to 
each  other,  and  in  B  the  men  who  have  written  about  the  author. 
The  numbers  are  Boston  Public  Library  humbei^s,  as  the  papers 
were  made  out  for  Boston  classes. 

WILLIAM  MAKEPEACE  THACKERAY. 

1811—1863. 

A. 

I.    Periodical  Writings.    1829-1848. 
The  Snob.    1829.     (Punch.) 
The  National  Standard.    1833. 
The  FraRer*8  Magazine.    1837-1839-1847. 
The  New  Monthly  Magrazine.    1838-1840. 
Titmarsh  Papers.    1843-1847. 
Punch.    1844-1854. 

II.    Novels.    1848-1860. 
Vanity  Fair.    1848. 
Illstory  of  Pendennis.    1849, 1850. 
History  of  Henry  Esmond,  Esq.    1852. 
The  Newcomes.    1854,  1855. 
The  Virginians.    1858,  1859. 

III.  Editorial.    1860-1863. 

Cornhill  Magazine.    1860-1862. 
Loveli,  the  Widower.    1860. 
Adventures  of  Philip.     1861,1862. 
The  Roundabout  Papers.     1860. 
The  Four  Georges.     Published  1860. 

IV.  Posthumous. 

Denis  Duval.    (Cornhill  Magazine.) 

Early  and  Late  Papers.    Edited  by  J.  T.  Fields. 

Thackeray's  Letters.    Scribner,  1887. 


1888.]  THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  235 

WILLIAM  MAKEPEACE  THACKERAY. 

B. 
Life. 

Anthony  Trollope's  English  Men  of  T^etters. 
1529.13.     B.  II.  Stoddard's  Anecdote  Biographies  of  Thackeray  and  Dickens. 
4540a. 6.     J.  Hannay.    Memoir  of  Thackeray. 

Editions. 

2575.78.      See  Bibliography  of  Thackeray.  Compiled  by  R.  H.  Shepherd.  1880. 

Times. 

2496.77.  W.  H.  Rldeing.    Thackeray's  London. 

J.  McCarthy.     History  of  Our  Own  Times. 

Criticisms. 

2478.57.    Novels  and  Novelists.    J.  C.  Jeaffreson. 
S.  E.15.14.    British  Novelists.    David  Masson. 

4554.78.  The  English  Novel.     Sidney  Lanier. 
2578.63.    The  Best  of  All  Good  Company.    B.  Jerrold. 

Magazine  Articles. 

7313.1.9.    Cornhill.    Vol.  9.    February,  1864.     (Memorials  by  Dickens,  Antho- 
ny TroUope,  and  Lord  Houghton.) 
London  Literary  Budget,  July  26,  1862.    Page  265.     (Mr.  Thack- 
eray as  an  Editor.) 

3162.50.87.    Edinburgh  Review.     Vol.87.     Page  46. 

5314.1.13.    Atlantic.    Vol.  13.     Page  371.     (B.  Taylor.) 

5314.1.34.    Atlantic.    Vol.  34.     (G.  P.  Lathrop.    The  Novel.) 

5299.1.40.     North  British  Review.    Vol.40.     Page  210. 

If  time  permits  the  student  should  write  essays  upon  topics  con- 
nected with  the  lessons.  In  no  instance  should  the  class  neg- 
lect to  define  each  style  of  writing.  The  discussion  of  what 
a  sonnet,  a  novel,  an  epic  poem  ought  to  be  and  the  expression  of 
the  definition  evolved  is  a  valuable  drill.  It  gives  the  student 
the  opportunity  to  compare  the  author's  work  with  his  ideal  of 
that  class  of  work.  It  heli)S  him  make  keen  discriminations  and 
teaches  him  concise  expression  and  precision  in  the  use  of  words. 

This  work  requires  thought  and  care  on  the  part  of  the  teacher, 
but  the  results  are  so  manifestly  valuable  to  the  student  that  he  is 
repaid  a  hundred  fold  for  his  labor. 


236  BDUCATIOX.  [December, 


PREPARATION  FOR  CITIZENSHIP. 

II. 

AT     AMHERST     COLLEGE. 

BY  ANSON  D.  MORSE,  A.  M. 
WMUey  Profu9or  of  Hittory  and  Politieal  Economy. 

GOOD  citizenship  is  a  product  of  character  even  more  than  of 
knowledge.  One  may  know  the  facts  and  science  of  politics 
as  thoroughly  as  Aaron  Burr  knew  them  and  still  be  a  bad  citizen. 
If  at  graduation  a  man  lack  the  spirit  of  the  good  citizen,  he  will, 
in  all  probability,  never  possess  it;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  he  has 
this  spirit,  but  lacks  political  knowledge,  his  deficiency  admits  of 
partial  remedy ;  he  can  acquire  afterwards  a  working  knowledge  of 
politics. 

The  spirit  of  a  college  is  an  important  factor  in  the  education  of 
its  students ;  it  shapes  their  ideals,  and  thus  counts  for  much  in 
deciding  the  type  and  quality  of  their  citizenship.  The  political 
traits  of  the  Amherst  spirit  are  like  those  of  the  decade,  1815 
to  1825,  in  which  the  college  was  founded.^  National  as  op- 
posed to  sectional  feeling,  sympathy  with  the  people,  rather 
than  a  particular  class,  devotion  to  those  interests  which  are  uni- 
versal, have  always  been  marked  characteristics  of  Amherst. 
The  relation  of  the  College  to  slavery,  the  civil  war  and  recon- 
struction, as  shown  in  its  teaching  and  the  conduct  of  influential 
representatives,  proves  the  strength  and  breadth  of  its  nationalism. 
The  democratic  ideal  of  relationship  between  man  and  man  is 
perhaps  nowhere  more  perfectly  realized  than  among  the  under- 
graduates at  Amherst.  Personal  merit  is  the  basis  of  distinction. 
Only  talent,  and  fine  or  strong  traits  of  character  confer  influence. 
There  is  no  mammon  worship.  The  student  who  works  his  way 
enjoys  the  esteem  of  the  college  community  as  fully  as  the  student 
who  spends  lavishly.  Straitened  means  lead  neither  to  a  surrender 
of  self  respect,  nor  to  a  struggle  with  society,  the  result  of  which,  too 

^Amherst  reckons  1821  as  her  birth  year,  but  Amherst  Academy,  "the  mother  of 
Amherst  College."  was  dedicated  in  1815  and  the  College  charter  after  a  protracted  and 
really  desperate  struggle  was  obtained  in  1825.  Vid.  Tyler's  History  of  Amherst  College, 
Chapters  III.-X. 


1888.]  PREPABATION  FOB  CITIZENSHIP.  237 

often,  is  embittered  isolation.  The  influence  upon  the  rich  is  not 
less  wholesome.  They  learn  to  judge  themselves  and  others,  not  by 
what  a  man  has,  but  by  what  he  is  and  does.  They  learn  also  to 
regard  themselves  as  belonging  to  the  people  rather  than  to  a 
privileged  class.  Another  side  of  this  trait  is  the  marked  pref- 
erence for  substance  over  form  which  characterizes  both  student 
and  graduate.  That  the  Amherst  spirit  is  sensitive  and  respon- 
sive to  universal  interests  is  proved  by  the  history  of  the  college 
in  respect  to  science,  philosophy  and  foreign  missions. 

The  first  fonnal  step  in  "  preparation  for  citizenship"  at  Amherat 
is  taken  at  an  interview  w4th  the  President  at  the  beginning  of 
Freshman  year.  In  this  an  exposition  is  given  of  the  paragraph  in 
the  college  catalogue  which  treats  of  "Administration."  The 
most  important  clause  reads:  "A  student  whose  recommendations 
have  been  approved,  and  whose  examinations  have  shown  liim 
capable  of  admission  to  Amherst  College,  is  received  as  a  gentle- 
man, and,  as  such,  is  trusted  to  conduct  himself  in  truthfulness  and 
uprightness,  in  kindness  and  respect,  in  diligence  and  sobriety,  in 
obedience  to  law  and  maintenance  of  order,  and  regard  for  Chris- 
tian institutions  as  becomes  a  member  of  a  Christian  College." 
The  words  are  explicit;  still  it  is  found  useful  to  impress  them 
upon  the  memory  and  to  make  clear  fis  possible  their  application 
to  tlie  actual  conditions  of  college  life.  Emphasis  is  laid  upon  the 
facts;  first,  that  the  relation  with  the  college  into  wliich  the  stu- 
dent enters  is  on  his  part  voluntary ;  second,  that  this  relation  is 
of  the  nature  of  a  contract  wliich  binds  the  college  to  admit  the 
student  to  its  privileges  and  the  student  to  observe  the  conditions 
on  which  these  privileges  are  granted;  and  consequently,  that  non- 
fulfillment of  obligations  by  cither  party  sTiould  terminate  the 
relation ;  third,  that  this  relation  is  direct ;  the  student  deals  with 
the  college  and  the  college  with  the  student,  not  as  a  member  of  a 
class,  but  as  an  individual.  The  next  step  is  participation  in  the 
government  of  the  college.  The  nature  and  extent  of  this  parti- 
cipation are  stated  in  the  catalogue  as  follows:  "The  Faculty  have 
judged  it  wise  to  associate  with  them,  in  the  immediate  govern- 
ment of  the  College,  a  body  chosen  by  the  students  themselves,  to 
which  questions  of  College  order  and  decorum  are  referred,  and 
whose  decisions,  if  approved  by  the  President,  are  binding  in  the 
CoUege.  This  Ijody  is  called  the  College  Senate,  and  consists  of  four 
Seniors,  three  Juniors,  two  Soj)homores,  and  one  Freshman,  chosen 


238  EDUCATION,  [December, 

by  their  respective  classes.  At  the  meetings  of  the  Senate,  which 
are  hehl  regularly  once  a  month,  the  President  of  the  College 
presides."  ^ 

The  attitude  of  the  Senate  towards  the  College  Ls  indicated  by 
the  following  extract  from  its  Constitution :  — 

'"Before  taking  his  seat,  each  member  shall  sign  the  Constitu- 
tion, U)  which  shall  Ihj  prefaced  the  following  pledge :  *  I  hereby 
sign  this  Constitution,  promising  to  act  as  a  judge  ui)on  all 
matters  brought  before  me,  and  to  endeavor  in  all  my  decisions  to 
seek  always  the  good  order  and  decorum  of  the  College.'" ^ 

The  powers  of  the  Senate  are  as  follows:  — 

"Whenever  a  member  of  the  college  shall  appear  to  have  broken 
the  contract  upon  which  he  was  leceived  as  a  member  of  Amherst 
College,  except  in  cases  pertaining  to  attendance  upon  college  exer- 
cises, determined  by  the  regular  rules  of  the  Faculty,  the  case  shall 
be  brought  before  the  Senate,  who  shall  determine  both  as  to  whether 
the  contract  has  been  broken,  and  whether,  if  broken,  it  shall 
again  be  renewed. 

"The  jurisdiction  of  the  Senate  shall  also  extend  over  such  pro- 
cedures of  any  Ixxly  of  students,  relating  to  order  and  decorum, 
as  affect  the  whole  college,  and  over  whatever  other  business  the 
President  or  Faculty  may  submit  to  it ;  it  being  understood  that  in 
such  cases  the  action  of  the  Senate  shall  have  the  full  authority  of 
the  college. 

"Any  member  shall  have  the  right  to  introduce  business,  also  to 
call  for  any  vote  by  ballot  whenever   he  shall  desire  it."^ 

The  Facult3%  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Trustees,  remains 
the  general  law-making  branch  of  the  college  government.  In  the 
main  the  functions  of  the  Senate  are  judicial.  A  large  proportion 
of  cases  which  come  before  it  permit  the  application  of  principles 
and  rules  already  in  force.  A  question  frequently  adjudicated  is 
wdiether  a  particular  act  in  violation  of  order,  decorum  or  good 
morals,  should  terminate  the  relation  of  the  i)erj)etrator  to  the  col- 
lege. But  the  Senate  does  more  than  merely  interpret  law:  it 
deals  with  many  questions  which  relate  to  the  welfare  of  the 
college  in  a  general  way,  and  to  the  settlement  of  which,  existing 
rules  are  inapplicable.     Questions  which  concern  student  publica- 

»C<>lh'go  Catalogue,  Par.  on  Organization. 
<  Constitution  of  tho  Senate,  Art.  II.,  Sec.  4. 
3n)id.    Art.  IV. 


1888.]  PREPARATION  FOR  CITIZEXSHIP.  239 

tions,  intercollegiate  contests,  the  privileges  of  and  restrictions 
upon  organizations  which  engage  in  these,  the  Senate  decides 
according  to  its  own  best  judgment;  and  in  so  doing,  is  gradually 
building  up  a  system  of  college  local  common  law.  A  third  very 
important  function  of  the  Senate  is  to  serve  as  a  kind  of  perma- 
nent conference  committee  in  which  the  President  represents  the 
Faculty  and  the  Senators,  the  students.  By  means  of  these  confer- 
ences each  of  the  represented  bodies  becomes  acquainted  with  the 
views  and  feelings  of  the  other,  and  under  circumstances  which 
dispose  each  to  considerateness.  The  result  is  the  prevention  of 
those  frequent  and,  at  times,  grave  collisions  which  arise  from 
misundei-standings  between  faculty  and  students.  The  President 
can  veto  the  decisions  of  the  Senate  as  he  can  those  of  the  Fac- 
ulty ;  but  he  has  very  rarely  found  it  necessary  to  do  so.  After 
full  discussion,  the  President,  who  from  the  nature  of  his  office 
embodies  the  conservatism  of  the  college,  and  the  Senators,  who  in 
their  official  capacity  represent  its  radicalism,  have  come  to  an 
agreement  respecting  almost  every  question.  The  idea  of  a  con- 
tract as  the  basis  of  the  relation  between  student  and  college,  and 
participation  of  the  student  in  college  government,  are  leading 
features  of  what  some  have  called  the  "Amlierst  System."  The 
influence  of  this  system  begins  with  the  first  day  of  college  life 
and  increases  to  the  end  of  the  course.  Ite  first  aim  is  to  develop 
in  the  student  the  capacity  for  wise  self  direction ;  its  second,  is  to 
awaken  in  him  an  interest  in  the  college  and  a  sense  of  responsi- 
bility for  its  welfare.  The  system  combats  at  the  threshold  the 
tendency  once  prevalent  and  still  powerful,  to  put  class  feeling 
and  college  custom  in  the  place  of  the  judgment  and  conscience  of 
the  individual  student.  It  tries  to  make  him  feel,  with  respect  to 
the  administration  of  college  government,  that  he  is  not  so  much 
the  subject  of  the  faculty  as  their  colleague. 

Is  the  system  successful?  Yes,  but  like  other  systems  it  must 
be  used  a  while  before  it  can  work  with  perfect  smoothness. 
Under  this  system  college  public  opinion  has  greater  weight  than 
it  used  to  have.  It  is  probable  that  neither  faculty  nor  students 
realize  as  yet  the  full  consequences  of  this  fact.  In  order  that 
public  opinion  may  become  a  safe  guide  in  determining  college 
policy,  two  conditions  are  requisite;  first,  it  must  be  based  on 
regard  for  not  one,  nor  a  few,  but  all  important  interests  con- 
cerned; second,  the  estimate  of  the  relative  importance  of  these 


340  EDUCATIOX.  [December, 

interests  must  be  just.  From  a  standpoint  which  takes  into  view 
only  a  certain  set  of  interests,  required  attendance  at  church  and 
chapel  seems  indefensible ;  from  a  standpoint  with  a  broader  out- 
look,  the  question  assumes  an  aspect  which  would  lead  advocates 
of  the  voluntary  system  who  have  the  highest  good  of  the  college 
at  heart,  to  wish  for  more  light  before  assuming  the  responsibility 
of  a  revolutionarj'  change.  The  habit  of  looking  at  both  sides,  or 
rather  all  sides  of  a  question,  cannot  be  formed  in  a  day.  The 
encouraging  featui*e  of  the  situation  at  Amherst  is  the  evidence  of 
progress  in  this  direction.  In  general  the  difference  between  fac- 
ulty-views and  student-views  is  less  radical  than  it  used  to  be ;  the 
relation  between  faculty  and  studentw  is  more  frequently  that  of 
friendly  and  hearty  cooperation.  Under  the  influence  of  this 
change  certain  hateful  incidents  of  the  old  method  of  governing — 
its  conflicts,  diplomacy,  and  espionage,  are  being  forgotten.  The 
student  is  becoming  a  good  citizen  of  the  college  community,  and 
in  this  way,  is  preparing  to  become  a  good  citizen  of  the  state. 

At  Amherst  the  fraternities,  nine  in  number,  are  a  marked  fea- 
ture of  the  college.  The  proportion  of  '* Society  men"  is  consider- 
ably larger  than  twenty  years  ago  and  is  steadily  increasing.  In 
certain  respects  the  fraternities  are  colleges  within  the  college; 
they  are  bodies  of  colleagues  whose  corpoi-ate  aims  are  in  sympathy 
with  those  of  the  college  and  supplementary  to  them.  Their 
vitality  and  prosperity  indicate  that  they  satisfy  a  real  want.  In 
fact  what  they  offer  the  student  is  something  he  needs  and  cannot 
with  equal  ease  and  fulness  obtain  by  other  means.  To  prepara- 
tion for  citizenship  the  fraternities  contribute  in  several  ways. 
They  establish  a  close  and  permanent  relationship  between  alumni 
and  undergraduates,  through  which  the  juster  views  of  life  and  of 
college  opportunities  and  duties,  which  prevail  among  the  alumni, 
reach  and  influence  the  undergraduates.  By  means  of  their 
intercollegiate  relations  the  fraternities  develop  a  friendly  and 
magnanimous  spirit  towards  other  colleges.  Through  admitting 
delegates  from  each  of  the  four  classes  they  do  much  to  keep  class 
spirit  from  becoming  arrogant  and  belligerent.  As  literary  socie- 
ties they  encourage  the  serious  study  and  discussion  of  political 
topics.  But  of  all  their  services  to  preparation  for  citizensliip 
one  of  the  greatest  is  the  aid  they  give  in  maintaining  relations 
with  general  society.  The  tendency  of  college  life  towards  seclu- 
sion is  a  survival  in  the  field  of  education  of  the  once  dominant 


1888.]  PREPARATION  FOR  CITIZENSHIP,  241 

influence  of  monasticism.  This  tendency  explains  in  part  why 
the  educated  modern  is  less  frequently  a  man  of  affairs  than  was^ 
in  classic  times,  the  educated  Greek  or  Roman.  To  many  a  studi- 
ous man,  going  to  college  has  been  to  such  an  extent  a  going  out 
of  the  world,  that  only  with  difficulty  could  he  find  his  place  again. 
To  many  who  were  not  studioas,  partial  isolation  from  ordinary 
social  influences  during  the  four  years  of  College  life  has  proved 
seriously  demoralizing.  The  happiest  result  is  when  social  and  in- 
tellectual development  keep  even  step.  The  comradeship  which  the 
fraternities  have  always  fostered  is  now  widening  into  practical  citi- 
zenship. Through  his  chapter  house  the  relation  of  the  student 
to  the  town  of  Amherst  is  undergoing  a  radical  change ;  he  has  be- 
come a  householder,  a  neighbor,  and  a  host ;  as  a  taxpayer  he  has 
an  interest  in  the  management  of  town  affairs ;  his  stake  in  the 
community  is  much  more  like  that  of  other  citizens  than  it  used  to 
be ;  in  brief,  through  helping  the  student  to  maintain  responsible 
relations  with  general  society,  the  fraternities  make  it  difficult  for 
him  to  be  a  recluse,  a  Bohemian,  or  an  Ishmaelite. 

On  the  other  hand  it  must  be  conceded  that  "  Society  men  "  are 
sometimes  clannish ;  and  clannishness  is  narrow  and  narrowing — 
the  counterpart  in  college  of  sectionalism  in  the  state.  It  is,  how- 
ever, a  fair  question  whether  the  fault  does  not^  lie  in  the  men 
rather  than  the  fraternities  —  whether  in  fact  the  fraternities  do 
not  in  many  cases  really  broaden  the  associations  and  sympathies 
of  men  who  are  by  nature  clannish.  Observers  agree  that  the 
evil  was  greater  when  the  fraternities  were  fewer. 

Turning  now  to  the  curriculum  we  find  that  the  studies,  and 
exercises  which  deal  most  directly  with  political  subjects,  are 
oratory,  debates,  history,  political  economy,  international  law, 
moral  science,  and  discussions  with  the  President.  To  oratory 
are  assigned  four  exercises  each  week  during  the  second  and  third 
terms  of  sophomore  year,  and  one  each  week  during  the  first  term 
of  junior  year ;  to  debates,  one  exercise  each  week  during  the  last 
term  of  junior  year  and  all  of  senior  year.  Of  the  relation  of  these 
studies  to  preparation  for  citizenship  the  professor  in  charge  says: 
"As  the  oratorical  aim  is  not  to  impress  upon  the  student  any 
arbitrary  system  of  delivery,  but  to  develop  and  train  his  individ- 
ual powers,  a  necessary  condition  is  a  theme  of  interest  and  recog- 
nized importance  to  the  speaker  and  his  hearers.  Experience  has 
shown  that  this  condition  is  most  happily  found  in   questions 


242  ED  UCA  TIOX.  [December, 

relating  to  our  political  social,  and  economic  life.  The  more 
thoroughly  the  (juestions  are  studied  and  the  more  deeply  inter- 
ested the  student  becomes  in  their  preparation,  the  more  easily 
does  he,  as  a  speaker,  relieve  himself  from  restraints  and  reveal  the 
powei's  and  defects  that  demand  the  guidance  and  criticism  of  the 
instructor.  This  is  tlierefore  suHicient  ground,  aside  from  other 
important  reasons,  for  making  the  coui*se  a  stimulus  and  guide  to 
reading  and  thought  upon  subjects  readily  seen  to  affect  tlie  wel- 
fare of  our  country.  The  subjects  assigned  are  carefully  arranged 
80  as  to  make  the  course  progi-essive  and  systematic.  The  work 
early  interests  the  student  in  subjects  bearing  upon  the  duties  of 
citizensliip  and  in  many  instances  it  undoubtedly  directs  his 
private  reading  in  the  same  channels.  It  is  also  probable  that 
much  of  the  forensic  work  in  the  literary  meetings  of  tlie  societies 
is  largely  influenced  in  its  character  by  these  exercises  of  the  class- 
room. 

Tlie  questions  assigned  for  debate  and  discussion  relate  mainly 
to  political  liistory,  our  social  prol)lems  and  present  administra- 
tion. Typical  (juestions  as  debated  or  discussed  by  the  class  of 
'88  are :  — 

1.  Has  the  influence  of  Compromise  in  our  history  been  more 
harmful  tlian  beneficial? 

2.  Is  the  cure  of  our  social  evils  to  be  more  largely  moral  and 
religious  than  physical  and  economic? 

3.  Should  the  friends  of  temperance  favor  high  license? 

4.  Was  Thomas  Jefferson  a  better  president  than  Andrew 
Jackson  ? 

5.  Is  the  "Fisheries  Bill"  the  l>est  means  of  meeting  our  diffi- 
culties with  Canada? 

6.  What  is  the  true  regulative  principle  in  the  industrial 
world? 

7.  How  are  the  interests  of  the  laboring  classes  in  this  country 
to  be  best  advanced  ? 

8.  What  should  be  done  in  regard  to  the  accumulating  surplus 
in  the  United  States  Treasurv  ? 

9.  Which  of  the  great  political  parties  in  the  history  of  the 
United  States  has  had  tlie  most  influence  upon  its  institutions? 

10.  What  should  be  the  course  of  the  United  States  in  regard 
to  immigration  ?  ^ 

1  Quoted  from  statomcnt  of  Professor  Frink,  made  at  reqaost  of  the  writer. 


1888.]  PREP^lBAriOX  FOR  CITIZENSHIP.  243 

111  history  there  are  two  courses ;  one,  a  general  course,  wliich 
has  four  exercises  each  week  of  junior  year;  the  other,  a  course 
in  the  political  and  constitutional  history  of  the  United  States 
which  has  two  hours  each  week  of  the  first  senior  term  and  four 
hours  each  week  of  the  second.  In  the  study  of  general  history 
the  following  divisions  are  made:  (1)  A  review  of  Orienta.1,  Greek, 
and  Roman  history.  (2)  A  course  of  twelve  weeks  on  the  period 
from  the  Migrations  to  the  Kenaissance,  in  which  the  history  of 
England  and  the  movements  and  institutions  which  affected  west- 
ern Europe  as  a  whole  receive  most  attention.  (3)  A  course  of 
twelve  weeks  on  the  period  from  the  Reformation  to  the  French 
Revolution,  in  which  the  Reformation,  the  Catholic  Counter-Refor- 
mation, and  the  Revolutions  in  England  and  France  are  the  features 
most  studied.  (4)  A  course  of  eleven  weeks  on  American  col- 
onial history,  the  political  history  of  the  United  States,  and,  in 
outline,  the  history  of  Europe  since  the  French  Revolution. 

Throughout  these  courses  the  standpoint  is  that  of  world  his- 
tory. Only  those  fact*^  are  studied  which  have  a  traceable  relation 
to  general  progress.  The  history  of  a  nation  is  treated  as  a  chap- 
ter in  universal  liistory ;  the  importance  of  individuals,  peoples, 
movements,  and  institutions  is  measured  by  their  contributions  to 
civilization.  The  question  which  the  course  propounds  is :  through 
what  experiences  and  by  what  agencies  has  the  world  as  it  was  at 
the  dawn  of  history  become  the  very  different  world  of  to-day? 

This  course  is  a  preparation  for  citizenship,  because  every  man  is 
a  citizen  of  the  world  as  well  as  of  a  particular  country ;  and  the 
best  work  of  a  citizen  is  that  through  which  he  aids  his  country  to 
recognize  and  discharge  its  obligation  towards  the  world.  More- 
over, there  is  nothing  which  so  clears  the  judgment  respecting 
national  affairs  as  acquaintance  with  and  interest  in  the  affairs  of 
mankind. 

The  course  in  political  and  constitutional  history  begins  with 
the  inauguration  of  the  new  government  in  1789  and  comes  down 
to  the  close  of  Reconstruction.  In  the  spring  of  1888,  a  special 
course  of  twenty  lectures  on  ''The  Civil  War  and  Reconstruc- 
tion," was  given.  In  explaining  methods,  an  account  of  the  work 
of  the  first  term  will  serve.  The  period  covered  is  1789-1833. 
The  following  general  subjects  are  selected  for  investigation  by 
the  students :  foreign  relations ;  Indian  policy ;  banks  :  internal  im- 
provements ;    tariffs ;    national   sovereignty ;    state    sovereignty. 


■oiioiiik:  lift'.  Tin-  inme 
il  tlif  inont  (k-L-ply  iiiler- 
thfir  iirejiaratiiiii,  tlif  mtirt'  ciwily 
iiist'lf  friim  rustmints  ami  reveiil  the 


Stll.Ut-.l    i 


niliitiuj,'  tn  11111-  iK.litiral  su.-iul.  aii(\  c 
tlioiiiu^^lily  till'  (lUL'stioiis  il 
esled  tile  student  Ijciouk-s  in 
tliK's  lie,  lis  11  simaker,  relieve  lii 
Itowors  ami  ilefeits  tlmt  (lemaml  the  fjiiiilaiue  ami  iritieisni  nf  tliu 
iiiistnitrtor.  This  is  thfivfurc  suthcieiit  irrouiul.  aside  from  other 
iiiipnrtanl  ivasniis,  fur  makiii;;  the  i-fnirse  a  stiiiiiihis  ami  friiitle  to 
reading  mid  lhoiii;Iil  iipiin  siilijwls  n-adily  seen  to  affcel  i!ie  wel- 
fare (»f  our  eoiuitry.  The  snhji'i-t.s  assijjned arc  laivfuUy  ananK^d 
BO  iiti  to  make  the  voiii'se  jirnfjii'ssive  hihI  systematic.  Tlie  work 
early  intelvsts  tlie  student  in  sulijects  In'arinjj  n]ion  tlic  duties  of 
citi/eiisliip  and  in  many  instanees  it  nmlonhtedly  diivcts  his 
jMivalf  leadiuf,'  in  the  same  elianmds.  It  is  also  iirolxilde  that 
mui'li  of  the  forensii-  work  in  the  literary  ineelinps  of  tlio  sooiwtiea 
is  laimdy  intiuoiiced  in  its  oliaraLter  hv  these  exei-cises  of  thf  cLiss- 


Th(i  questions  assigned  for  deltale  and  discussion  ivlate  mainly 
to  iiuliiicnl  history,  our  soeinl  pi-olileiiis  and  present  ailininistra- 
tion.  Tyiiii'al  tjneslinns  us  deliated  or  discussed  by  the  class  of 
'8«are:  — 

1.  Has  the  influence  of  Comiiromise  in  our  history  been  more 
harmful  tlian  Iwnetiiuar' 

'2.  Is  the  cuie  of  our  social  evils  to  be  more  largely  moral  and 
religiiniM  than  pliysical  and  economic? 

3.  Should  the  friends  of  temperance  favor  high  lioeiue? 

4.  Was  Thomas  JeiTi'i'son   a   WMtcr   [iresidtint   titan   An 
Jackson  ? 

5.  Is  the  "Fisheries  Bill"  the  l)ent  meaiut  of  iui»otiii^  our  diffi- 
culties with  Canada? 

().  What  is  the  true  it-guhitivu  |iriiie4ple  lu  tb?  industrial 
world? 

7.  How  arcs  the  intere-<tt3  nf  th«  Ijtbiirtag  cluWfiS  m  Uiii'  cnnnti-y 
to  be  hutti  advanced  ? 

S.     What  shnold  he  done  in  rugard  Hft^iita  aoooj 
in  the  Uuiusd  StattR  TrcMiiry'/ 

9.     Wiiich  of  the  s 
United  Statert  ha»  had  t 

in.    Mniats 
In  imtnigratiiili  ?  * 


8.] 


PBEPAJfATIO.y  FOtl  CITIZEN  SHIP. 


In  history  tliere  are  two  coui-aes;  one.  a  general  course,  wliith 
has  four  exercises  each  week  of  junior  year;  the  other,  a  course 
in  the  [loUtical  and  constitutional  history  of  the  United  States 
which  has  two  houi-s  each  week  of  the  first  senior  terra  and  four 
hours  eacli  week  of  tlie  second.  In  the  study  of  general  history 
the  following  divisions  are  made :  (1)  A  review  of  Oriental,  Greek, 
and  Roman  history.  (2)  A  course  of  twelve  weeks  on  the  period 
fi-om  the  Migrations  to  the  Renaissance,  in  which  the  history  of 
England  and  the  movements  and  histitutions  whieh  affected  west^ 
em  Europe  as  a  whole  receive  most  attention.  (3)  A  course  of 
twelve  weeks  on  the  period  fr(mi  the  Reformation  to  the  French 
Revolution,  in  which  the  Ref(»rmation,  the  Catholic  Counter-Refor- 
mation, and  the  Revolutions  in  England  and  France  are  the  features 
most  studied.  (4)  A  coui-se  of  eleven  weeks  on  American  col- 
onial history,  the  political  history  of  the  United  States,  and,  in 
outline,  the  historj-  of  Europe  since  the  French  Revolution. 

Throughout  these  com-ses  the  standpoint  is  that  of  world  liis- 
tory.  Only  those  facts  are  studied  which  have  a  traceable  relation 
to  general  progress.  The  liistory  of  a  nation  is  treated  as  a  cha[>- 
ter  in  universal  history;  the  importance  of  individuals,  peoples, 
movements,  and  institutions  is  measured  by  their  contributions  to 
oivilization.  The  question  which  the  course  propounds  is:  through 
what  experiences  and  by  what  agencies  has  the  world  as  it  was  at 
the  dawn  of  history  liecomc  the  very  different  world  of  to-day? 

This  course  is  a  preparation  for  citizenship,  because  every  man  is 
B  citizen  of  the  world  as  well  as  of  a  particular  country ;  and  the 
best  work  of  a  citizen  is  that  tlirimgh  which  he  aids  his  country  to 
recognize  uud  diacharge  its  ohligatiou  towards  the  world.  More- 
over, tluT«  is  nutliiug  which  so  clears  the  judgment  respecting 
natiouul  affairs  as  acquaintance  with  and  interest  in  the  affairs  of 
mankind. 

Tlio  course  in  political  and  coustitutional  history  begins  with 
1  of  the  new  government  in  1789  and  comes  down 
[cconstruction.  In  the  spring  of  1888,  a  special 
\,  tcutniaa  on  "  T!ie  Civil  War  and  Reconstruc- 
iuing  methods,  an  account  of  the  work 
Tlif  period  covered  is  1789-1833. 
n  ;ird  selected  for  investigation  by 
;  Indian  policy ;  banks  :  internal  im- 
btul   suvereignty ;    state    sovereignty. 


244  EDUCATION,  [December, 

These  subjects  are  sub-divided ;  that  on  foreign  relations,  for 
example,  furnishes  topics  for  ten  students  ;  that  on  tariffs,  for 
three.  Examj)les  of  special  topics  are:  (1)  foreign  relations 
during  the  administration  of  Wasliington;  (2)  compare  the  foreign 
policy  of  Washington  with  that  of  Jefferson ;  (3)  foreign  policy  of 
the  Federalists  during  the  administrations  of  Jefferson  and  Madison ; 
(4)  history  of  the  first  bank  of  the  United  States;  (5)  history  of 
tariffs  down  to  1816,  including  an  analysis  of  Hamilton's  report  on 
manufactures  in  1791 ;  (G)  history  of  New  England  Sectionalism; 

(7)  the  political  work  and  influence  of  Hamilton ;  (8)  the  political 
work  and  influence  of  Gallatin.  Each  student,  as  far  as  possible, 
makes  use  of  original  sources;  in  studying  Hamilton,  for  example, 
he  reads  Hamilton's  own  words.  The  essays,  so  far  as  the  nature 
of  the  topic  permits,  conform  to  the  following  scheme :  (1)  narra- 
tive of  facts,  (2)  discussion  of  the  constitutional  questions  involved, 

(8)  influence  upon  political  development.  Each  essay  is  read 
before  a  section  of  the  class  and  in  the  discussion  which  follows 
every  member  takes  part.  About  one-fourth  of  the  lectui-es  of  the 
course  are  introductory  to  the  period ;  the  others  treat  of  party 
history. 

Political  economy  has  four  hours  each  week  of  senior  year,  and 
international  law  four  hours  during  the  last  term  of  that  year. 
"  The  first  term  is  devoted  to  the  study  of  economic  theory ;  the 
second,  to  the  social  problem  and  the  problem  of  transportation. 
In  the  study  of  the  social  problem  the  individualistic,  socialistic, 
and  social  reformatory  propositions  are  analyzed  and  criticised 
and  the  lines  indicated  along  wliich  the  solution  must  take  place. 
In  this  course  one  important  aim  is  to  determine  the  principles  and 
limits  of  state  action.  The  third  term  is  devoted  to  fiscal  science 
and  the  tariff.  In  the  former  the  main  topics  of  investigation  are : 
the  theory  of  public  fiscal  administration ;  the  principles  which 
should  guide  in  making  appropriations  for  public  expenditure ;  the 
subject  of  revenue  in  its  general  aspects ;  the  methods  of  raising 
revenue;  the  principles  and  the  different  forms  and  systems  of 
taxation ;  the  general  subject  of  public  credit ;  the  extent  to  which 
the  state  may  safely  employ  credit;  and  lastly  the  principles  which 
should  guide  in  the  administration,  contraction,  liquidation,  and 
conversion  of  the  public  debt.  In  the  course  on  the  tariff,  the 
theories  of  free  trade  and  protection  and  the  liistory  of  the  tariffs 
of  the  United  States,  are  studied.     The  aim  is  not  to  make  stu- 


1«88.]  PBEPARATIOX  FOR  CITIZENSHIP.  245 

dents  free  traders  or  protectionists,  but  to  secure  acquaintance 
with  the  subject  and  establish  the  habit  of  candid  thinking. 

The  method  of  instruction  is  as  follows:  the  subject  is  first 
outlined  by  means  of  lectures  and  then  discussed  in  the  class. 
By  means  of  references,  acquaintance  with  authorities  is  ob- 
tained. For  those  who  can  devote  more  time  to  the  subject 
a  seminary  is  held  for  the  free  discussion  of  practical  economic 
questions.  In  international  law  the  methods  are  the  same  as  those 
employed  in  political  economy.  ^ 

Moral  science  has  five  hours  each  week  during  the  second  term 
of  senior  year.  *'In  the  study  of  Ethics,  which  covers  the  whole 
sphere  of  moral  obligation,  special  attention  is  given  to  the  study 
of  citizenship.  It  is  felt  that  however  perfect  may  be  the  form  of 
government,  its  administration  and  its  laws,  these  alone  can  no 
more  make  a  good  citizen  than  sunshine  and  rain  and  a  rich  soil 
can  transform  a  pebble  into  an  oak ;  there  must  be  a  spirit  of  life 
from  within  before  environment  can  call  out  growth;  the  spirit  of 
life,  the  vital  force  of  citizenship,  is  virtue. 

The  method  of  conducting  the  study  is,  fii-st,  to  ground  the 
student  in  the  convictions  of  an  immutable  moralit)'  as  opposed  to 
prudence  and  expediency.  Then  having  found  the  source  of 
moral  obligation,  an  exhaustive  investigation  of  the  nature  of  the 
State  and  claims  of  positive  authority  is  attempted  in  order  that 
the  conscience  of  the  student  may  be  aroused  and  government  may 
be  seen  to  be  one  of  right  as  well  as  might.  Having  thiLs  laid  the 
foundations  of  civil  authority,  the  questions  respecting  the  forms 
which  are  legitimate  and  the  limitations  of  its  action,  are  discussed 
so  far  as  these  can  be  brought  witliin  a  philosophical  investiga- 
tion. 2 

Once  each  week  during  two  terms  the  Seniors  meet  the  Presi- 
dent for  the  discussion  of  questions  which  they  themselves  propose. 
A  large  percentage  of  these  questions  relate  to  social  and  political 
problems.  The  discussions  are  more  like  conferences  than  formal 
classroom  exercises.  Their  value  as  a  preparation  for  citizenship 
will  be  understood  by  all  who  know  the  college. 

Summarizing,  we  find  that  the  political  studies  at  Amherst  equal 
thirteen  and  a  half  full  terms  of  four  exercises  each  week.  Of 
these  three  and  a  quarter  are  in  the  department  of  public  speak- 

1  Quoted  fiom  Htatement  of  Dr.  Tuttle. 
>  Statement  of  Pi*ofes»or  Garman. 


246  EDUCATION,  [December, 

ing,  eight  and  a  half  in  the  department  of  history  and  political 
economy,  one  and  three  quartei-s  in  the  department  of  pliilosophy. 
Most  of  these  studies  belong  to  junior  and  senior  years;  were 
they  equally  distributed,  there  would  be  one  and  a  fraction  for 
each  term  of  the  course. 

To  what  extent  do  the  students  come  under  the  influence  of 
these  studies?  Debates,  moral  science  and  discussions  with  the 
President  are  required;  the  others  are  elective.  Tlie  present 
divisions  in  oratory  include  all  the  class  except  eight  members. 
All  of  '88,  except  three,  and  of  '89,  except  two,  elected  at  least  one 
section  of  the  general  course  in  history ;  and  of  these,  nearly  all 
elected  the  three  terms.  On  the  other  hand,  the  division  in 
political  and  constitutional  history  is  smaller  tlian  in  any  other  of 
the  studies  named;  in  the  class  of  '89  which  has  ninety-eight 
members,  it  numbei-s  forty-one.  About  half  the  last  class  elected 
political  economy  and  international  law ;  in  tlie  present  class,  the 
proportion  is  somewhat  greater. 

But  long  before  the  extended  introduction  of  political  studies^ 
a  college  course  was  justly  considered  a  valuable  preparation  for 
citizenship.  To  explain  this,  account  must  be  taken  of  factors, 
such  as  the  influence  of  teachers,  of  classical  study,  and  of  re- 
ligious instruction,  whose  bearing  on  politicjil  education  is  too 
often  overlooked.  Their  importance  in  this  respect  is  very  great. 
A  strong  teacher  who  is  himself  a  good  citizen,  invariably  devel- 
ops good  citizenship  in  his  pupils.  Many  of  the  selections  from 
Plato, —  the  Apology  and  (7n7<?,  for  example, — Thucydides,  Demos- 
thenes, Cicero,  and  Tacitus,  concern  the  citizen  even  more  than 
the  scholar.  Moreover,  the  study  of  the  classics,  through  acquaint- 
ing the  student  intimately  with  the  thoughts  and  acts  of  great 
men  and  great  peoples,  tends  to  free  him  from  the  tyranny  of 
petty  interests,  and  creates  in  him  a  liking  and  aptitude  for  public 
affairs.  The  political  service  of  religious  instruction  consists 
in  part  in  the  theory  of  the  state  which  it  teaches.  The  difference 
between  the  good  and  bad  citizen  begins  with  different  conceptions 
of  the  state ;  to  the  latter  it  is  an  association  for  the  f uitherance 
of  private  ends ;  to  the  former,  an  organism  in  which  the  function 
of  the  individual  is  to  work  for  the  welfare  of  the  whole.  Not 
until  a  man  has  learned  to  feel  as  well  as  ''tliink  organically'* 
can  he  be  a  good  citizen:  but  religion  and  rational  religious 
instruction  promote,  perhaps  more  than  all  other  influences  united, 
this  kind  of  feeling  and  thinking. 


1888.]  THE  TEACHINO  OF  MATHEMATICS.  247 


THE  TEACHING  OE  MATHEMATICS.^ 

IV. 

TEACHING  ALGEBRA  TO  BEGINNERS. — U. 
BY  JOHN  F.   CASET,  ENGLISH  HIGH  SCHOOL,  BOSTON. 

DR.  PEABODY  in  his  "  Reminiscences  of  Harvard,"  says  of  the 
late  Professor  Peirce,  "In  one  respect  I  was  Mr.  Peirce's 
superior,  solely  because  I  was  so  very  far  his  inferior.  I  am  certain 
that  I  was  the  better  instructor  of  the  two.  No  one  was  more  cor- 
dially ready  than  he  to  give  such  help  as  he  could,  but  his  intuition 
of  the  whole  ground  was  so  keen  and  comprehensive  that  he  could 
not  take  cognizance  of  the  slow  and  tentative  processes  of  mind  by 
which  an  ordinary  learner  was  compelled  to  make  his  step-by-step 
progress. 

"In  his  explanations  he  would  take  giant  strides,  and  his  fre- 
quent 'you  see '  indicated  what  he  saw  clearly,  but  that  of  which 
his  pupil  could  get  hardly  a  glimpse. 

"  I,  on  the  other  hand,  was  so  far  from  being  a  proficient  in  the 
more  advanced  parts  of  the  course,  that  I  studied  every  lesson  as 
patiently  and  thoroughly  as  any  of  my  pupils  could  have  done.  I, 
therefore,  knew  every  short  step  of  the  way  that  they  would  be 
obliged  to  take,  and  could  lead  them  in  the  very  footsteps  which  I 
had  just  trodden  myself." 

A  great  amount  of  energy  and  ammunition  is  wasted  in  firing 
over  the  heads  of  pupils, — a  course  which  mystifies  rather  than 
enlightens,  and  discourages  by  disclosing  apparently  unfathomable 
depths. 

In  solving  simple  equations  with  one  unknown  quantity,  at  least 
twenty-five  lessons  of  one  hour  each  can  be  profitably  employed. 
And  all  this  time,  not  one  word  should  be  said  about  addition, 
subtraction,  multiplication,  or  division  as  such,  or  any  instruction 
given  as  to  the  processes  by  which  these  four  fundamental  opera- 
tions are  performed.     If  the  pupil  has  an  equation  in  which  occurs 

^  Copjrright,  1888,  by  Eastern  Educational  Bureau. 


248  EDUCATION.  [December, 

the  expression  2a:  +  82:  =  20,  his  common  sense,  with  his  knowledge 
of  arithmetic,  will  enable  him  to  form  from  it  the  equation  bx  = 
20  and  from  that  x=  i  without  any  knowledge  of  the  principles 
of  algebraic  addition  or  division.  So,  also,  if  the  sign  minus 
occurs,  he  has  already  used  it  in  arithmetic,  and,  for  all  problems 
or  equations  that  he  will  meet  for  the  first  few  months,  it  has  the 
same  meaning  in  algebra  and  will  be  handled  as  readily,  except 
when  it  comes  before  a  fraction  having  a  numerator  of  more  than 
one  term.  In  this  case,  the  teacher  must  show  him  how  to  find 
out  what  to  do,  not  in  order  to  satisfy  any  technical  algebmic 
demands,  but  must  appeal  to  his  common  sense  and  his  knowledge 
of  arithmetic  to  lead  him  by  well-known  processes  to  form  an 
equation  less  complex.  He  can  also  be  readily  taught  to  clear 
from  fractions  any  simple  equation  that  he  ought  to  meet  in  the 
first  few  months,  without  knowing  that  there  is  such  a  process  as 
algebraic  multiplication. 

When  he  can  solve  these  equations  readily,  it  is  time  to  say 
something  about  addition,  subtraction,  etc.,  as  such.  He  has  al- 
ready been  adding  and  subtracting  when  he  united  terms  in  such 
expressions  as  Si-  +  2x  —  3x  =  60,  it  is  but  a  step  which  he  will 
readily  take,  to  unite  these  same  terms  when  placed  in  column,  and 
but  one  more  to  adding  any  polynomials. 

The  old  method  now  in  common  use,  of  teaching  first  the  gen- 
eral operations  of  algebra  at  considerable  length,  and  then  supply- 
ing as  an  application  of  them  concrete  problems,  is  open  to  many 
objections. 

In  the  first  place,  a  polynomial  looks  to  a  beginner  very  much 
like  Chinese  writing  and  pupils  might  be  taught  to  successfully 
perform  operations  on  either  with  equal  profit  as  to  mental  gym- 
nastics and  with  about  equal  profit  as  to  acquisition  of  useful 
information. 

The  pupil  may  learn  to  add  polynomials  correctly  in  a  few  days, 
but,  as  he  cannot  realize  what  a  polynomial  is  and  why  there 
should  be  such  an  expression  till  he  has  actually  formed  them  in 
making  equations,  his  addition  must  be  mechanical  and  more  or 
less  distasteful. 

On  this  point,  a  few  words  from  Herbert  Spencer:  "This  need 
for  perpetual  telling  is  the  result  of  our  stupidity  and  not  the 
child's.  We  drag  it  away  from  facts  in  which  it  is  interested  and 
which  it  is  actively  assimilating  of  itself ;  we  put  before  it  facts 


1888.]  THE  TEACHING  OF  MATHEMATICS.  249 

too  difficult  for  it  to  understand,  and  therefore  distasteful  to  it; 
finding  that  it  will  not  voluntarily  acquire  these  facts,  we  thrust 
them  into  its  mind  by  force  of  threats  and  punishment.  By  thus 
denying  it  the  knowledge  it  craves  and  cramming  it  with  knowl- 
edge it  cannot  digest,  we  produce  a  morbid  state  of  its  faculties 
and  a  consequent  distaste  for  knowledge  in  general." 

After  the  four  fundamental  operations  should  come  equations  of 
two  or  more  unknown  quantities,  avoiding,  for  the  present,  any 
complex  literal  equations  for  the  proper  solution  of  which  a  knowl- 
edge of  factoring  and  fractions  would  be  desirable. 

Not  till  he  has  been  studying  algebra  for  five  or  six  months 
should  factoring,  greatest  common  divisor,  least  common  multiple 
and  fractions  be  taken  up.  By  this  time  he  will  have  become 
familiar  with  algebraic  expressions,  will  know  how  and  why  they 
are  used  and  can  appreciate  the  advantages  of  factoring,  etc. 

Having  finished  fractions,  he  will  have  obtained  enough  knowl- 
edge of  the  fundamental  operations  of  algebra,  to  proceed  readily 
and  rapidly  to  the  consideration  of  radical  quantities,  affected 
quadratics,  etc.,  in  the  treatment  of  which  not  so  much  care  will 
be  necessary,  for  the  pupil  has  now  sufficient  algebraic  knowledge 
to  be  able  to  investigate  for  himself  and  follow  the  reasoning  of 
new  theories. 

One  other  point  deserves  special  mention:  that  new  subjects 
should  be  introduced  by  concrete  work  and  inductive  method  as 
far  as  possible.  In  affected  quadratics,  for  example,  begin  with  an 
easy  problem  which  will  introduce  an  affected  quadratic;  with 
books  closed,  build  on  our  algebraic  knowledge  already  obtained, 
draw  from  it  materials  for  solving  the  new  problem.  After  solv- 
ing several  similar  ones,  generalize  the  facte  obtained,  make  our 
own  theory  and  deduce  a  rule  for  the  solution  of  all  similar  exam- 
ples. Do  not  leave  the  subject  till  the  class  understands  it 
throughout,  theoretically  and  practically,  and  can  apply  the  prin- 
ciples to  the  solution  of  examples  in  the  form  of  affected  quadrat- 
ics, to  equations  with  exponente  or  coefficiente,  either  monomial  or 
polynomial,  numerical  or  literal,  positive  or  negative,  integral  or 
fractional. 

It  is  in  the  first  few  months  that  pupils  are  either  well  fitted  and 
well  disposed  to  proceed  with  algebraic  study,  or  are  spoiled  by 
too  great  speed,  or  by  demands  made  beyond  their  ability  or  com- 
prehension, or  are  confused  by  bad  methods  and  inexperienced 


240  EDUCATION.  [December, 

interests  must  be  just.  From  a  standpoint  wliich  takes  into  view- 
only  a  certain  set  of  interests,  required  attendance  at  church  and 
chapel  seems  indefensible ;  from  a  standpoint  with  a  broader  out- 
look, the  question  assumes  an  aspect  which  would  lead  advocates 
of  the  voluntary  system  who  have  the  highest  good  of  the  college 
at  heart,  to  wish  for  more  light  before  assuming  the  responsibility 
of  a  revolutionaiy  change.  The  habit  of  looking  at  both  sides,  or 
rather  all  sides  of  a  question,  cannot  be  formed  in  a  day.  The 
encouraging  feature  of  the  situation  at  Amherst  is  the  evidence  of 
progress  in  this  direction.  In  general  the  difference  between  fac- 
ulty-views and  student-views  is  less  radical  than  it  used  to  be ;  the 
relation  between  faculty  and  studentw  is  more  frequently  tliat  of 
friendly  and  hearty  cooperation.  Under  the  influence  of  this 
change  certain  hateful  incidents  of  the  old  method  of  governing — 
its  conflicts,  diplomacy,  and  espionage,  are  being  forgotten.  The 
student  is  becoming  a  good  citizen  of  the  college  community,  and 
in  this  way,  is  preparing  to  become  a  good  citizen  of  the  state. 

At  Amherst  the  fraternities,  nine  in  number,  are  a  marked  fea- 
ture of  the  college.  The  proportion  of  '' Society  men  "  is  consider- 
ably larger  than  twenty  years  ago  and  is  steadily  increasing.  In 
certain  respects  the  fraternities  are  colleges  within  the  college; 
they  are  bodies  of  colleagues  whose  corporate  aims  are  in  sympathy 
with  those  of  the  college  and  supplementary  to  them.  Their 
vitality  and  prosperity  indicate  that  they  satisfy  a  real  want.  In 
fact  what  they  offer  the  student  is  something  he  needs  and  cannot 
with  equal  ease  and  fulness  obtain  by  other  means.  To  prepara- 
tion for  citizenship  the  fraternities  contribute  in  several  ways. 
They  establish  a  close  and  permanent  relationship  between  alumni 
and  undergraduates,  through  which  the  juster  views  of  life  and  of 
college  opportunities  and  duties,  which  prevail  among  the  alumni, 
reach  and  influence  the  undergraduates.  By  means  of  their 
intercollegiate  relations  the  fraternities  develoj)  a  friendly  and 
magnanimous  spirit  towards  other  colleges.  Through  admitting 
delegates  from  each  of  the  four  classes  they  do  much  to  keep  class 
spirit  from  becoming  arrogant  and  belligerent.  As  literary  socie- 
ties they  encourage  the  serious  study  and  discussion  of  political 
topics.  But  of  all  their  services  to  preparation  for  citizenship 
one  of  the  greatest  is  the  aid  they  give  in  maintaining  relations 
with  general  society.  The  tendency  of  college  life  towards  seclu- 
sion is  a  survival  in  the  field  of  education  of  the  once  dominant 


1888.]  PREPARATION  FOR  CITIZENSHIP.  241 

influence  of  monasticism.  This  tendency  explains  in  part  why 
the  educated  modern  is  less  frequently  a  man  of  affairs  than  was» 
in  classic  times,  the  educated  Greek  or  Roman.  To  many  a  studi- 
ous man,  going  to  college  has  been  to  such  an  extent  a  going  out 
of  the  world,  that  only  with  difficulty  could  he  find  his  place  again. 
To  many  who  were  not  studious,  partial  isolation  from  ordinary 
social  influences  during  the  four  years  of  College  life  has  proved 
seriously  demoralizing.  The  happiest  result  is  when  social  and  in- 
tellectual development  keep  even  step.  The  comradeship  which  the 
fraternities  have  always  fostered  is  now  widening  into  practical  citi- 
zenship. Through  his  chapter  house  the  relation  of  the  student 
to  the  town  of  Amherst  is  undergoing  a  radical  change ;  he  has  be- 
come a  householder,  a  neighbor,  and  a  host ;  as  a  taxpayer  he  has 
an  interest  in  the  management  of  town  affairs ;  his  stake  in  the 
community  is  much  more  like  that  of  other  citizens  than  it  used  to 
be ;  in  brief,  thi-ough  helping  the  student  to  maintain  responsible 
relations  with  general  society,  the  fraternities  make  it  difficult  for 
him  to  be  a  recluse,  a  Bohemian,  or  an  Ishmaelite. 

On  the  other  hand  it  must  be  conceded  that  "  Society  men  "  are 
sometimes  clannish ;  and  clannishness  is  narrow  and  narrowing — 
the  counterpart  in  college  of  sectionalism  in  the  state.  It  is,  how- 
ever, a  fair  question  whether  the  fault  does  not^  lie  in  the  men 
rather  than  the  fraternities  —  whether  in  fact  the  fraternities  do 
not  in  many  cases  really  broaden  the  associations  and  sympathies 
of  men  who  are  by  nature  clannish.  Observers  agree  that  the 
evil  was  greater  when  the  fraternities  were  fewer. 

Turning  now  to  the  curriculum  we  find  that  the  studies,  and 
exercises  which  deal  most  directly  with  political  subjects,  are 
oratory,  debates,  history,  political  economy,  international  law, 
moral  science,  and  discussions  with  the  President.  To  oratory 
are  assigned  four  exercises  each  week  during  the  second  and  third 
terms  of  sophomore  year,  and  one  each  week  during  the  first  term 
of  junior  year ;  to  debates,  one  exercise  each  week  during  the  last 
term  of  junior  year  and  all  of  senior  year.  Of  the  relation  of  these 
studies  to  preparation  for  citizenship  the  professor  in  charge  says : 
"As  the  oratorical  aim  is  not  to  impress  upon  the  student  any 
arbitrary  system  of  delivery,  but  to  develop  and  train  his  individ- 
ual powers,  a  necessary  condition  is  a  theme  of  interest  and  recog- 
nized importance  to  the  speaker  and  his  hearers.  Experience  has 
shown  that  this  condition  is  most  happily  found  in   questions 


242  ED  VGA  TIOS,  [December, 

relating  to  our  political  social,  and  economic  life.  The  more 
thoroughly  the  (jiiestions  are  studied  and  the  more  deeply  inter- 
ested the  student  becomes  in  their  preparation,  the  more  eiisily 
does  he,  as  a  speaker,  relieve  himself  from  restraints  and  reveal  the 
powers  and  defects  that  demand  the  guidance  and  criticism  of  the 
instructor.  This  is  therefore  sufficient  ground,  aside  from  other 
important  reasons,  for  making  the  course  a  stimulus  and  guide  to 
reading  and  thought  upon  subjects  readily  seen  to  affect  the  wel- 
fare of  oiu'  country.  The  subjects  assigned  are  carefully  arranged 
so  as  to  make  the  course  progressive  and  systematic.  The  work 
early  interests  the  student  in  subjects  bearing  upon  the  duties  of 
citizenship  and  in  many  instances  it  undoubtedly  directs  liis 
private  reading  in  the  same  chamiels.  It  Ls  also  probable  that 
much  of  the  forensic  work  in  the  literary  meetings  of  the  societies 
is  largely  influenced  in  its  character  by  these  exercises  of  the  class- 
room. 

The  questions  assigned  for  debate  and  discussion  relate  mainly 
to  political  history,  our  social  problems  and  present  administra- 
tion. Typical  (juestions  as  debated  or  discussed  by  the  class  of 
'88  are :  — 

1.  Hiis  the  influence  of  Compromise  in  our  history  been  more 
harmful  than  l)eneficial? 

2.  Is  the  cure  of  our  social  evils  to  be  more  largely  moral  and 
religious  than  physical  and  economic? 

3.  Should  the  friends  of  temperance  favor  high  license? 

4.  Was  Thomas  Jefferson  a  better  president  than  Andrew 
Jackson  ? 

5.  Is  the  "Fisheries  Bill"  the  best  means  of  meeting  our  diffi- 
culties with  Canada? 

6.  What  is  the  true  regulative  principle  in  the  industrial 
world? 

7.  How  are  the  interests  of  the  laboring  classes  in  this  country 
to  be  best  advanced  ? 

8.  What  should  be  done  in  regard  to  the  accumulating  surplus 
in  the  United  States  Treasurv  ? 

9.  Which  of  the  great  i)olitical  parties  in  the  history  of  the 
United  States  has  had  the  most  influence  upon  it«  institutions? 

10.  What  should  be  the  course  of  the  United  States  in  regard 
to  immigration  ?  ^ 

1  Quoted  from  statomont  of  ProfeHsor  Frink,  made  at  request  of  the  writer. 


1888.]  PREPABATIOX  FOR  CITIZENSHIP.  243 

In  history  there  are  two  courses ;  one,  a  general  course,  which 
has  four  exercises  each  week  of  junior  year;  the  other,  a  course 
in  the  political  and  constitutional  history  of  the  United  States^ 
which  has  two  hours  each  w^eek  of  the  first  senior  term  and  four 
hours  each  week  of  the  second.  In  the  study  of  general  history 
the  following  divisions  are  made :  (1)  A  review  of  Oriental,  Greek, 
and  Roman  history.  (2)  A  course  of  twelve  weeks  on  tlie  period 
from  the  Migrations  to  the  Renaissance,  in  which  the  history  of 
England  and  the  movements  and  institutions  which  affected  west- 
ern Europe  as  a  whole  receive  most  attention.  (3)  A  course  of 
twelve  weeks  on  the  period  from  the  Reformation  to  the  French 
Revolution,  in  which  the  Reformation,  the  Catholic  Counter-Refor- 
mation, and  the  Revolutions  in  England  and  France  are  the  features 
most  studied.  (4)  A  course  of  eleven  weeks  on  American  col- 
onial history,  the  political  history  of  the  United  States,  and,  in 
outline,  the  history  of  Europe  since  the  French  Revolution. 

Throughout  these  courses  the  standpoint  is  that  of  world  his- 
tory. Only  those  facts  are  studied  which  have  a  traceable  relation 
to  general  progress.  The  liistory  of  a  nation  is  treated  as  a  chap- 
ter in  universal  liistory ;  the  importance  of  individuals,  peoples^ 
movements,  and  institutions  is  measured  by  their  contributions  to 
civilization.  The  question  which  the  course  propounds  is :  through 
what  experiences  and  by  what  agencies  has  the  world  as  it  was  at 
the  dawn  of  history  become  the  very  different  world  of  to-day? 

This  course  is  a  preparation  for  citizenship,  because  every  man  is 
a  citizen  of  the  world  as  well  as  of  a  particular  country ;  and  the 
best  work  of  a  citizen  is  that  through  which  he  aids  his  country  to 
recognize  and  discharge  its  obligation  towards  the  world.  More- 
over, there  is  nothing  which  so  clears  the  judgment  respecting 
national  affairs  as  acquaintance  with  and  interest  in  the  affairs  of 
mankind. 

The  coui-se  in  political  and  constitutional  liistory  begins  with 
the  inauguration  of  the  new  government  in  1789  and  comes  down 
to  the  close  of  Reconstruction.  In  the  spring  of  1888,  a  special 
course  of  twenty  lectures  on  ''The  Civil  War  and  Reconstruc- 
tion," was  given.  In  explaining  methods,  an  account  of  the  work 
of  the  fii*st  term  will  serve.  Tlie  period  covered  is  1789-1833. 
The  following  general  subjects  are  selected  for  investigation  by 
the  student.s :  foreign  relations ;  Indian  policy ;  banks  :  internal  im- 
provements ;    tariffs ;    national   sovereignty ;    state    sovereignty. 


844  EDUCATION.  [December, 

These  subjects  are  sabHlivided ;  that  on  foreign  relations,  for 
example,  furnishes  topics  for  ten  students ;  that  on  tariffs,  for 
three.  Examples  of  special  topics  are:  (1)  foreign  relations 
during  the  administration  of  Washington ;  (2)  compare  the  foreign 
policy  of  Washington  with  that  of  Jefferson ;  (3)  foreign  policy  of 
the  Federalists  during  the  administrations  of  Jefferson  and  Madison ; 
(4)  history  of  the  first  bank  of  the  United  States ;  (5)  history  of 
tariffs  down  to  1816,  including  an  analysis  of  Hamilton's  report  on 
manufactures  in  1791 ;  (6)  history  of  New  England  Sectionalism; 
(7)  the  political  work  and  influence  of  Hamilton ;  (8)  the  political 
work  and  influence  of  Gallatin.  Each  student,  as  far  as  possible, 
makes  use  of  original  sources;  in  stud}4ng  Hamilton,  for  example, 
he  reads  Hamilton's  own  words.  The  essays,  so  far  as  the  nature 
of  the  topic  permits,  conform  to  the  following  scheme :  (1)  narra- 
tive of  facts,  (2)  discussion  of  the  constitutional  questions  involved, 
(3)  influence  upon  iK)litical  development.  Each  essay  is  read 
before  a  section  of  the  class  and  in  the  discussion  whicli  follows 
every  member  takes  part.  About  one-fourth  of  the  lectures  of  the 
course  are  introductory  to  the  period ;  the  others  treat  of  party 
history. 

Political  economy  has  four  hours  each  week  of  senior  year,  and 
international  law  four  hours  during  the  last  term  of  tliat  year. 
"  The  first  term  is  devoted  to  the  study  of  economic  theory ;  the 
second,  to  the  social  problem  and  the  problem  of  transportation. 
In  the  study  of  the  social  problem  the  individualistic,  socialistic, 
and  social  reformatory  propositions  are  analyzed  and  criticised 
and  the  lines  indicated  along  which  the  solution  must  take  place. 
In  this  course  one  important  aim  is  to  determine  the  principles  and 
limits  of  state  action.  The  third  term  is  devoted  to  fiscal  science 
and  the  tariff.  In  the  former  the  main  topics  of  investigation  are : 
the  theory  of  public  fiscal  administration ;  the  principles  which 
should  guide  in  making  appropriations  for  public  expenditure ;  the 
subject  of  revenue  in  its  general  aspects ;  the  methods  of  raising 
revenue;  the  principles  and  the  different  forms  and  systems  of 
taxation ;  the  general  subject  of  public  credit ;  the  extent  to  which 
the  state  maj*^  safely  employ  credit;  and  lastly  the  principles  which 
should  guide  in  the  administration,  contraction,  liquidation,  and 
conversion  of  the  public  debt.  In  the  course  on  the  tariff,  the 
theories  of  free  trade  and  protection  and  the  history  of  the  tariffs 
of  the  United  States,  are  studied.     The  aim  is  not  to  make  stu- 


less.]  PBEPARATJOy  FOE  CITIZENSHIP.  245 

dents  free  traders  or  protectionists,  but  to  secure  acquaintance 
with  the  subject  and  establish  the  habit  of  candid  thinking. 

The  method  of  instruction  is  as  follows:  the  subject  is  first 
outlined  by  means  of  lectures  and  then  discussed  in  the  class. 
By  means  of  references,  acquaintance  with  authorities  is  ob- 
tained. For  those  who  can  devote  more  time  to  the  subject 
a  seminary  is  held  for  the  free  discussion  of  practical  economic 
questions.  In  internati(mal  law  the  methods  are  the  same  as  those 
employed  in  political  economy.  ^ 

Moral  science  has  five  hours  each  week  during  the  second  term 
of  senior  year.  *'In  the  study  of  Ethics,  which  covers  the  whole 
sphere  of  moral  obligation,  special  attention  is  given  to  the  study 
of  citizenship.  It  is  felt  that  however  perfect  may  be  the  form  of 
government,  its  administration  and  its  laws,  these  alone  can  no 
more  make  a  good  citizen  than  sunshine  and  rain  and  a  rich  soil 
can  transform  a  pebble  into  an  oak;  there  must  be  a  spirit  of  life 
from  within  before  environment  can  call  outgrowth;  the  spirit  of 
life,  the  vital  force  of  citizenship,  is  virtue. 

The  method  of  conducting  the  study  is,  first,  to  ground  the 
student  in  the  convictions  of  an  immutable  moralit)'^  as  opposed  to 
prudence  and  expediency.  Then  having  found  the  source  of 
moral  obligation,  an  exhaustive  investigation  of  the  nature  of  the 
State  and  claims  of  positive  authority  Ls  attempted  in  order  that 
the  conscience  of  the  student  may  be  aroused  and  government  may 
be  seen  to  be  one  of  right  as  well  as  might.  Having  thus  laid  the 
foundations  of  civil  authority,  the  questions  respecting  the  forms 
which  are  legitimate  and  the  limitations  of  its  action,  are  discussed 
so  far  as  these  can  be  brought  within  a  philosophical  investiga- 
tion. ^ 

Once  each  week  during  two  terms  the  Seniors  meet  the  Presi- 
dent for  the  discussion  of  questions  which  they  themselves  propose. 
A  large  percentage  of  these  questions  relate  to  social  and  political 
problems.  The  discussions  are  more  like  conferences  than  formal 
classroom  exercises.  Their  value  as  a  preparation  for  citizenship 
will  be  understood  by  all  who  know  the  college. 

Summarizing,  we  find  that  the  political  studies  at  Amherst  equal 
thirteen  and  a  half  full  terms  of  four  exercises  each  week.  Of 
these  three  and  a  quarter  are  in  the  department  of  public  speak- 

1  Quoted  fiom  statement  of  Dr.  Tuttle. 
*  Statement  of  Pix>fed9or  Garman. 


246  EDUCATION.  [December, 

ing,  eight  and  a  half  in  the  department  of  history  and  political 
economy,  one  and  three  (quarters  in  the  department  of  pliilosophy. 
Most  of  these  studies  belong  to  junior  and  senior  years;  were 
they  equally  distributed,  there  would  be  one  and  a  fraction  for 
each  terra  of  the  course. 

To  what  extent  do  the  students  come  under  the  influence  of 
these  studies?  Debates,  moral  science  and  discussions  with  the 
President  are  required;  the  others  are  elective.  The  present 
divisions  in  oratory  include  all  the  class  except  eight  members. 
All  of  '88,  excei)t  three,  and  of  '89,  except  two,  elected  at  leiist  one 
section  of  the  general  course  in  history ;  and  of  these,  nearly  all 
elected  the  three  torms.  On  the  other  hand,  the  division  in 
political  and  constitutional  history  is  smaller  than  in  any  other  of 
the  studies  named;  in  the  class  of  '89  which  has  ninety-eight 
members,  it  numbers  forty-one.  About  half  the  last  class  elected 
political  economy  and  international  law ;  in  the  present  class,  the 
proportion  is  somewhat  greater. 

But  long  before  the  extended  introduction  of  political  studies^ 
a  college  course  was  justly  considered  a  valuable  preparation  for 
citizenship.  To  explain  this,  account  must  be  taken  of  factors, 
such  as  the  influence  of  teachers,  of  classical  studv,  and  of  re- 
ligious  instruction,  whose  bearing  on  [political  education  is  too 
often  overlooked.  Their  importance  in  this  respect  is  very  great. 
A  strong  teacher  who  is  himself  a  good  citizen,  invariably  devel- 
ops good  citizenship  in  his  pupils.  Many  of  the  selections  from 
Plato, —  the  Apology  and  Crito^  for  example, —  Thucydides,  Demos- 
thenes, Cicero,  and  Tacitus,  concern  the  citizen  even  more  than 
the  scholar.  Moreover,  the  study  of  the  classics,  through  acquaint- 
ing the  student  intimately  with  the  thoughts  and  acts  of  great 
men  and  great  peoples,  tends  to  free  him  from  the  tyranny  of 
petty  interests,  and  creates  in  him  a  liking  and  aptitude  for  public 
affaii's.  The  political  service  of  religious  instruction  consists 
in  part  in  the  theory  of  the  stute  which  it  teaches.  The  difference 
between  the  good  and  bad  citizen  begins  with  different  conceptions 
of  the  state ;  to  the  latter  it  is  an  association  for  the  furtherance 
of  private  ends;  to  the  former,  an  organism  in  wliich  the  function 
of  the  individual  is  to  work  for  the  welfare  of  the  whole.  Not 
until  a  man  has  learned  to  feel  as  well  as  "think  organically'* 
can  he  be  a  good  citizen;  but  religion  and  rational  religious 
instruction  promote,  perhaps  more  than  all  other  influences  united^ 
this  kind  of  feeling  and  thinking. 


1888.]  THE  TEACHINO  OF  MATHEMATICS.  247 


THE  TEACHING  01^  MATHEMATICS.^ 

IV. 

TEACHING  ALGEBRA  TO  BEGINNERS. — U. 
Br  JOHN  F.   CASEir,  ENGLISH  HIGH  SCHOOL,  BOSTON. 

DR.  PEABODY  in  his  "  Reminiscences  of  Harvard,"  says  of  the 
late  Professor  Peirce,  "  In  one  respect  I  was  Mr.  Peirce's 
superior,  solely  because  I  was  so  very  far  his  inferior.  I  am  certaia 
that  I  was  the  better  instructor  of  the  two.  No  one  was  more  cor- 
dially ready  than  he  to  give  such  help  as  he  could,  but  his  intuition 
of  the  whole  ground  was  so  keen  and  comprehensive  that  he  couli 
not  take  cognizance  of  the  slow  and  tentative  processes  of  mind  by 
which  an  ordinary  learner  was  compelled  to  make  his  step-bynstep 
progress. 

"In  his  explanations  he  would  take  giant  strides,  and  his  fre- 
quent  'you  see '  indicated  what  he  saw  clearly,  but  that  of  whict 
his  pupil  could  get  hardly  a  glimpse. 

"  I,  on  the  other  hand,  was  so  far  from  being  a  proficient  in  the 
more  advanced  parts  of  the  course,  that  I  studied  every  lesson  as 
patiently  and  thoroughly  as  any  of  my  pupils  could  have  done.  I^ 
therefore,  knew  every  short  step  of  the  way  that  they  would  be 
obliged  to  take,  and  could  lead  them  in  the  very  footsteps  which  I 
had  just  trodden  myself." 

A  great  amount  of  energy  and  ammunition  is  wasted  in  firing 
over  the  heads  of  pupils, — a  course  which  mystifies  rather  than 
enlightens,  and  discourages  by  disclosing  apparently  unfathomable 
depths. 

In  solving  simple  equations  with  one  unknown  quantity^  at  least 
twenty-five  lessons  of  one  hour  each  can  be  profitably  employed. 
And  all  this  time,  not  one  word  should  be  said  about  addition, 
subtraction,  multiplication,  or  division  as  such,  or  any  instruction 
given  as  to  the  processes  by  which  these  four  fundamental  opera- 
tions are  performed.     If  the  pupil  has  an  equation  in  which  occurs 

^  Copyright,  1888,  by  Eastern  Eduoational  Bureau. 


348  EDUCATION.  [December, 

the  expression  2x-\-Zx-=  20,  his  common  sense,  with  his  knowledge 
of  arithmetic,  will  enable  him  to  form  from  it  the  equation  t>x  = 
20  and  from  that  a:  =  4  without  any  knowledge  of  the  principles 
of  algebraic  addition  or  division.  So,  also,  if  the  sign  minus 
occurs,  he  has  already  used  it  in  arithmetic,  and,  for  all  problems 
or  equations  that  he  will  meet  for  the  first  few  months,  it  has  the 
same  meaning  in  algebra  and  will  be  handled  as  readily,  except 
when  it  comes  before  a  fraction  having  a  numerator  of  more  than 
one  term.  In  this  case,  the  teacher  must  show  him  how  to  find 
out  what  to  do,  not  in  order  to  satisfy  any  technical  algebraic 
demands,  but  must  appeal  to  his  common  sense  and  his  knowledge 
of  arithmetic  to  lead  him  by  well-known  processes  to  form  an 
equation  less  complex.  He  can  also  be  readily  tauglit  to  clear 
from  fractions  any  simple  equation  that  he  ought  to  meet  in  the 
first  few  months,  without  knowing  that  there  is  such  a  process  as 
algebraic  multiplication. 

When  he  can  solve  these  equations  readily,  it  is  time  to  say 
something  about  addition,  subtraction,  etc.,  as  such.  He  has  al- 
ready been  adding  and  subtracting  when  he  united  terms  in  such 
expressions  as  bx-\-2x  —  82;  =  60,  it  is  but  a  step  which  he  will 
readily  take,  to  unite  these  same  terms  when  placed  in  column,  and 
but  one  more  to  adding  any  polynomials. 

The  old  method  now  in  common  use,  of  teaching  first  the  gen- 
eral operations  of  algebra  at  considerable  length,  and  then  supply- 
ing as  an  application  of  them  concrete  problems,  is  open  to  many 
objections. 

In  the  first  place,  a  polynomial  looks  to  a  beginner  very  much 
like  Chinese  writing  and  pupils  might  be  taught  to  successfully 
perform  operations  on  either  with  equal  profit  as  to  mental  gym- 
nastics and  with  about  equal  profit  as  to  acquisition  of  useful 
information. 

The  pupil  may  learn  to  add  polynomials  correctly  in  a  few  days, 
but,  as  he  cannot  realize  what  a  polynomial  is  and  why  there 
should  be  such  an  expression  till  he  has  actually  formed  them  in 
making  equations,  his  addition  must  be  mechanical  and  more  or 
less  distasteful. 

On  this  point,  a  few  words  from  Herbert  Spencer:  "This  need 
for  perpetual  telling  is  the  result  of  our  stupidity  and  not  the 
child's.  We  drag  it  away  from  facts  in  which  it  is  interested  and 
which  it  is  actively  assimilating  of  itself;  we  put  before  it  facts 


1888.J  THE  TEACHING  OF  MATHEMATICS.  249 

too  difficult  for  it  to  understand,  and  therefore  distasteful  to  it; 
finding  that  it  will  not  voluntarily  acquire  these  facts,  we  thrust 
them  into  its  mind  by  force  of  threats  and  punishment.  By  thus 
denying  it  the  knowledge  it  craves  and  cramming  it  with  knowl- 
edge it  cannot  digest,  we  produce  a  morbid  state  of  its  faculties 
and  a  consequent  distaste  for  knowledge  in  general." 

After  the  four  fundamental  operations  should  come  equations  of 
two  or  more  unknown  quantities,  avoiding,  for  the  present,  any 
complex  literal  equations  for  the  proper  solution  of  which  a  knowl- 
edge of  factoring  and  fractions  would  be  desirable. 

Not  till  he  has  teen  studying  algebra  for  five  or  six  months 
should  factoring,  greatest  common  divisor,  least  common  multiple 
and  fractions  be  taken  up.  By  this  time  he  will  have  become 
familiar  with  algebraic  expressions,  will  know  how  and  why  they 
are  used  and  can  appreciate  the  advantages  of  factoring,  etc. 

Having  finished  fractions,  he  will  have  obtained  enough  knowl- 
edge of  the  fundamental  operations  of  algebra,  to  proceed  readily 
and  rapidly  to  the  consideration  of  radical  quantities,  affected 
quadratics,  etc.,  in  the  treatment  of  which  not  so  much  care  will 
be  necessary,  for  the  pupil  has  now  sufficient  algebraic  knowledge 
to  be  able  to  investigate  for  himself  and  follow  the  reasoning  of 
new  theories. 

One  other  point  deserves  special  mention:  that  new  subjects 
should  be  introduced  by  concrete  work  and  inductive  method  as 
far  as  possible.  In  affected  quadratics,  for  example,  begin  with  an 
easy  problem  which  will  introduce  an  affected  quadratic;  with 
books  closed,  build  on  our  algebraic  knowledge  already  obtained, 
draw  from  it  materials  for  solving  the  new  problem.  After  solv- 
ing several  similar  ones,  generalize  the  facts  obtained,  make  our 
own  theory  and  deduce  a  rule  for  the  solution  of  all  similar  exam- 
ples. Do  not  leave  the  subject  till  the  class  understands  it 
throughout,  theoretically  and  practically,  and  can  apply  the  prin- 
ciples to  the  solution  of  examples  in  the  form  of  affected  quadrat- 
ics, to  equations  with  exponents  or  coefficients,  either  monomial  or 
polynomial,  numerical  or  literal,  positive  or  negative,  integral  or 
fractional. 

It  is  in  the  first  few  months  that  pupils  are  either  well  fitted  and 
well  disposed  to  proceed  with  algebraic  study,  or  are  spoiled  by 
too  great  speed,  or  by  demands  made  beyond  their  ability  or  com- 
prehension, or  are  confused  by  bad  methods  and  inexperienced 


250  EDUCATIOX.  [December, 

teaching,  when  to  the  ordinary  difficulties  of  the  subject  are 
brought  minds  unwilling,  because  uninterested  and  convinced  of 
their  own  inability. 

While  more  than  one  author  has  made  some  attempt  to  break  up 
the  old  practice  of  beginning  algebra  with  the  definitions  and  the 
four  fundamental  principles  of  addition,  etc.,  no  work,  with  which 
I  am  familiar  has  been  so  successful  throughout  in  ananging  the 
topics  and  in  introducing  them  in  the  manner  most  easily  under- 
stood by  the  pupil  as  the  Franklin  Algebra. 

Whatever  textbook  may  be  used,  the  teacher,  besides  such  ex- 
amples as  he  may  invent  to  meet  the  subject  under  consideration, 
will  find  it  most  convenient  to  have  a  collection  of  problems  from 
other  authors  at  hand.  An  abundance  of  such  may  be  found  in 
Todhunter,  Hall  and  Knight,  Ficklin's  Problems,  Loomis'  Alge- 
braic Problems,  Capel's  Tips  in  Algebra,  and  an  excellent  collec- 
tion in  Wentworth  and  Hill's  Manual.  The  teacher  will  also  find 
of  great  service  for  beginnei's,  and  for  introducing  new  topics,  a 
little  work  published  for  the  use  of  the  Blind  Asylum  in  South 
Boston,  containing  easy  problems  intended  to  be  solved  mentally, 
entitled  Intellectual  Algebra,  written  by  David  B.  Tower  and 
published  by  Lee  and  Shepard. 

What  is  the  best  method  of  conducting  the  recitation  so  as  to 
ascertain  the  exact  knowledge  of  and  amount  of  work  done  by 
each  pupil  ?  Every  teacher  knows  that  the  number  of  solutions 
correctly  worked  out  on  a  pupil's  paper  offers  but  little  guide  to 
ascertaining  how  much  he  has  done  and  can  do  without  any 
assistance.  Work  done  in  the  presence  of  and  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  teacher  offers  an  accurate  test  of  a  pupil's  acquire- 
ments and  ability. 

Some  blackboard  work  is  desirable  at  every  recitation  to 
present  a  few  examples  to  be  explained  to  the  class  by  the  class 
and  to  be  criticised  by  pupils  and  instructor.  Every  member  of  a 
class  can  be  tested  at  every  recitation  in  a  very  few  minutes  by  the 
following  method.  The  instructor  distributes  to  the  class  a  pack 
of  cards  numbered  and  containing  work  similar  to  that  prepared 
for  the  lesson.  Each  pupil  thus  solves  a  different  example  and 
after  a  few  minutes  reports  the  number  of  his  card  and  the  answer 
obtained,  which  should  agree  with  the  answer  to  the  coiTcspond- 
ing  number  on  the  instructor's  list.  The  same  pack  will  serve  for 
many  days  by  giving  out  the  cards  in  a  different  order.     This  test 


1888.]  THE  TEACHING  OF  MATHEMATICS.  251 

takes  but  a  few  minutes,  is  comprehensive  and  convincing.  If  the 
pupil  understood  his  lesson,  he  can  readily  do  other  problems  sim- 
ilar to  those  learned. 

All  explanations  made  by  the  instructor  should  be  repeated  by 
the  pupils  one  after  another  many  times  and  penalties  should  be 
imposed  upon  those  pupils  who  do  not  ask  for  further  explanation 
and  yet  when  called  upon  are  themselves  unable  to  explain. 
Every  class  contains  pupils  who  will  at  times  apparently  give  the 
instructor  the  closest  attention,  and  yet  not  hear  a  word  he  says,  so 
intent  are  their  minds  on  some  more  interesting  topic.  Also  the 
explanations  may  be  mechanically  repeated  by  the  pupil,  if  they 
have  first  been  made  by  the  instructor.  It  is,  therefore,  desirable 
to  draw  from  the  class  by  leading  questions  and  suggestions  as 
much  as  possible  all  explanations  of  new  principles. 

Marking  pupils  for  their  daily  recitations  is  an  inconvenience  to 
the  teacher  and  as  it  requires  the  exercise  of  his  judgment  on 
every  recitation  and  some  clerical  work  to  keep  a  record  and 
summarize  it,  he  would  be  glad  to  dispense  with  it  on  his  own 
account,  regardless  of  the  effect  of  the  system  upon  his  pupils. 
And,  yet,  in  ordinary  schools,  so  far  as  I  can  ascertain,  better 
results  are  obtained  with  it  than  without  it. 

Pupils  wlio  are  fitting  themselves  for  examination  for  admission 
to  college,  and  some,  from  their  interest  in  the  study  or  from  a 
conscientious  desire  to  do  their  whole  duty,  do  not  require  any 
stimulus,  and  no  tutor  feels  the  need  of  either  marking  or  exam- 
ining his  private  pupils.  For  they  are  generally  students  working 
for  an  object  and,  being  few  in  number,  he  can  keep  track  of  them 
and  knows  pretty  accurately  their  standing.  But  the  ordinary 
high  school  pupil  studies  algebra  simply  because  it  is  a  part  of  the 
prescribed  course  of  study. 

The  ordinary  system  of  marking  furnishes  a  ready  and  accurate 
means  by  which  pupils  can  compare  themselves  with  each  other, 
and  affords  the  teacher  information  as  to  the  standing  of  the  differ- 
ent members  of  his  classes,  and  also  furnishes  an  easy  means  of 
informing  parents  about  the  progress  their  children  are  making. 
I  have  never  seen  in  operation  any  system  to  take  its  place  that 
seemed  to  me  free  from  serious  objections  both  as  to  results  ob- 
tained and  as  to  the  effect  on  the  pupils. 

If,  as  in  some  schools,  you  dispense  with  the  daily  marks  and 
rank  or  judge  of  the  pupil's  progress  only  by  monthly  or  occasional 


252  EDUCATIOX,  [December, 

examinations,  you  have  a  system  easier  for  the  teacher  but  unsatis- 
factory to  the  pupil.  For  the  pupils,  feeling  that  their  standing 
depends  upon  the  result  of  these  tests,  when  beginning  them  are 
brought  into  a  nervous  condition  very  unfavorable  to  mathemati- 
cal work  or,  indeed,  good  work  of  any  kind  and  especially  if  the 
time  be  limited  do  they,  as  a  rule,  feel  that  they  have  not  done 
themselves  justice. 

If  these  tests  are  frequently  made,  then  time  is  taken  in  exam- 
ining which  ought  to  be  given  to  teaching.  Again  many  pupils  do 
not  possess  the  faculty  of  rapidly  and  correctly  expressing  them- 
selves in  writing  and,  while  they  can  orally  make  a  perfect 
recitation,  are  unable  to  do  themselves  justice  in  written  work. 
It  seems  to  me,  therefore,  fairer  to  mark  the  daily  recitations  and 
to  incorporate  the  marks  thus  given  with  marks  given  for  examin- 
ations and  other  written  work. 

To  pass  creditably  examinations  for  admission  to  Harvard 
College  or  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  a  period 
of  study  covering  at  least  two  years  is  necessary,  with  three  or 
four  recitations  a  week  during  the  first  year  and  two  or  three  rec- 
itations a  week  during  the  second  year. 

The  class  should  be  examined  two  or  three  times  a  year;  not 
oftener,  because  examinations  take  up  good  teaching  time.  The 
examination  should  be  made  out  by  some  competent  person  other 
than  the  instructor ;  it  should  be  written  and  sliould  take  place  in 
the  morning  and  should  have  ample  time  allowed  it,  not  less  than 
two  hours.  The  examinations  should  contain  from  six  to  ten 
questions  and,  in  justice  to  the  dull  pupils,  an  option  should  be 
given  on  some  questions,  either  to  do  them  or  others  less  difficult, 
for  doing  which  only  a  partial  credit  would  be  given. 

The  paper  should  not  be  made  by  the  instructor,  because  every 
one  teaches  somewhat  in  grooves,  bearing  down  especially  on 
points  interesting  to  himself,  and  liis  examination  would  natural- 
ly follow  his  teaching,  whereas  the  examination  ought  to  be 
broader,  and  the  topics  of  algebra  are  so  distinctly  marked  that  no 
injustice  can  be  done  the  teacher  or  the  class  by  a  fair  and  compe- 
tent examiner.  The  examination  also,  coming  from  outside,  tends 
not  only  to  disclose  failures  of  tlie  pupils  but  also  omissions  in  the 
teaching  and  tends  to  keep  the  teacher  intent  to  see  that  every 
point  is  finally  covered,  whatever  may  be  his  method  of  teaching  or 
order  of  subjects  taken  up. 


1888.]  THE  TEACHERS  PBEPAJRATIOy.  263 

The  study  of  algebra  develops  certain  powers  of  the  mind  better 
than  any  other  study.  The  pupil  who  has  mastered  this  subject 
must  have  obtained  patient  concentration  of  the  attention,  courage 
in  attacking  difficulties,  a  power  of  analysis  and  attention  to  de- 
tails, qualities  which  are  useful  elsewhere  as  well  as  at  school. 
And  it  is  a  subject  that  can  be  mastered  by  nearly  every  one  when 
it  is  properly  taught. 


r//B    TEACHERS  PREPARATION. 

BY  JOHN  E.  BRADLEY,  PH.D., 
SuperifdendtnJt  of  Schooltt  Minnecq>oHi,  Minn. 

ORGANIZATION  and  new  methods  have  brought  great  im- 
provement in  the  work  of  our  public  schools,  but  their 
efficiency  depends  upon  what  the  teacher  puts  into  them.  It  is  as 
true  today  as  it  was  thirty  years  ago,  "  As  is  the  teacher,  so  is  the 
school  I "  Indeed,  this  maxim  is  more  emphatically  true  today 
than  it  ever  was  before.  The  more  complex  the  system,  the  more 
important  the  office  of  the  teacher.  A  mere  routine  of  book  les- 
sons, hearing  recitations,  may  be  conducted  with  little  thought 
and  no  feeling.  But  if  the  teacher  is  to  do  more  than  turn  a  crank, 
if  he  is  to  infuse  heart,  vitality,  inspiration  into  a  system,  he  must 
possess  within  himself  the  necessary  resources.  The  office  of  the 
teacher  is  not  to  pour  into  an  empty  receptacle,  but  to  waken  dor- 
mant energies.  Reading,  language,  and  number  —  Latin,  litera- 
ture, and  physics  —  are  not  so  much  the  subjects  which  he  teaches, 
as  the  tools  with  which  he  works.  Only  mind  can  quicken  mind. 
Careful  grading  and  elaborate  systems  of  instruction,  instead  of 
taking  the  place  of  fresh  and  vigorous  teaching  render  it  the  more 
indispensable. 

One  of  the  first  conditions  of  success  in  teaching  is  a  genuine 
interest  in  one's  work.  This  is  the  foundation  upon  which  we 
build,  the  motive  which  animates  our  efforts.  Some  teachers  are 
at  a  disadvantage  in  tliis  particular.  The)''  hate  teaching.  They 
count  it  diudgery  and  dread  its  details.  With  such  patience  as 
they  can  command,  they  await  the  day  when  they  shall  be  rescued 
from  its  dire  necessity  by  their  father,  or  brother,  or  some  other 
man.     Their  work  usually  lapses  into  a  routine,  whose  dreary 


S54  EDUCATION.  [December, 

round  they  daily  run  with  meekness  and  resignation.  Poor  teach- 
ers are  not  all  alike  ;  but  there  is  a  surprising  similarity  in  their 
schools.  Nothing  is  so  monotonous  as  indifference.  Such  a  teach- 
er is  only  something  to  hang  a  method  on  I  She  has  no  prefer- 
ences. Like  the  wire  frames  of  the  milliner  and  dressmaker,  she 
wears  whatever  is  in  style.  She  will  teach  that  the  world  is 
round  or  flat,  according  as  the  School  Board  directs.  Before  she 
can  tell  whether  she  prefers  the  Word  or  the  Sentence  method, 
she  must  see  what  the  coui-se  of  study  prescribes.  Consciously  or 
unconsciously,  she  has  trained  herself  to  a  state  of  apathy.  She 
ought  to  know  the  joy  that  always  accompanies  the  best  work,  but 
she  does  not.  She  ought  to  know  that  the  mind  tends  to  become 
interested  and  act  with  spontaneous  force  upon  those  subjects  to 
which  it  willingly  devotes  its  energies.  Duties,  which  were  at 
first  distasteful,  may,  at  length,  by  their  faithful  perfonnance  be- 
come attractive.  Much  of  the  world's  best  work  is  done  by  men 
and  women  wliose  interest  is  only  acquired.  It  in  hard,  at  firsts  to 
be  compelled  to  earn  a  livelihood  in  an  occupation  for  which  one 
has  no  apparent  ajjtitude,  but  kind  Nature  soon  comes  to  the  res- 
cue and  supplies  an  interest,  and  often  an  enthusiasm  for  work 
which  is  done  with  fidelity  and  zeal.  But  the  element  of  feeling 
may,  at  first,  l)e  easily  turned  Jigainst  tlie  unwelcome  work.  It  is 
like  those  springs  upon  the  summits  of  the  water-sheds,  of  which 
teachers  tell  their  geography  classes,  tliat  a  few  strokes  of  the 
spade  might  turn  their  stream  in  the  opposite  direction,  and  cause 
them  to  flow  with  an  ever-gathering  force  down  some  other  and 
far  distant  valley.  If  one's  work  is  not  reinforced  by  a  willing 
spirit,  the  interest  which  Nature  contributes  is  soon  found  running 
down  the  dismal  slope  of  discontent,  disappointment,  and  fruitless 
repining. 

What  are  the  elements  which  constitute  tliis  attitude  of  mind? 
What  are  some  of  those  things  which  will  contribute  to  a  helpful 
interest  in  our  work  ? 

First  in  order  of  time,  if  not  of  imi)ortance,  is  a  due  apprecia- 
tion of  the  value  and  dignity  of  our  calling.  No  one  likes  to  ex- 
pend his  energies  upon  unworthy  objects.  It  is  an  inferior  mind 
which  lacks  amlntion. 

I  do  not  wish  to  indulge  in  empty  rhetoric  on  this  subject. 
Audiences  of  teachers  are  often  addressed  as  if  their  calling  sur- 
passed in  importance  that  of  the  statesman,  the  soldier,  and  the 


1888.]  THE  TEACHER'S  PREPABATION.  266 

preacher  all  combined.  We  are  told  that  our  future  prosperity  is 
secure  because  "  the  schoolmaster  is  abroad  in  the  land,"  and  so 
glaring  has  been  the  exaggeration  that  modest  men  and  women 
have  been  in  danger  of  going  to  the  opposite  extreme  and  taking 
an  unworthy  view  of  their  oifice.  They  are  conscious  that  the 
effusive  orator,  who  welcomes  the  Teachers'  Association  by  setting 
forth,  in  alternate  periods,  the  attractions  of  the  town,  and  the 
distinguished  character  of  his  audience,  may  not  be  wholly  sin- 
cere. They  are  therefore  in  danger  of  accepting  the  ignoble  view 
of  the  teacher's  oifice  wliich  has  been  embodied  into  classic  litera- 
ture by  Shakespeare,  Dickens,  and  Irving. 

But  we  cannot  afford  to  forget  that  it  is  our  work  to  train  the 
faculties  and  mould  the  character  of  the  young.  The  schools  of 
today  shape  the  civilization  of  tomorrow.  Blending  with  other 
influences,  the  work  of  the  teacher  forms  the  future  citizen.  It  is 
his  office  to  bring  the  intelligence,  the  taste,  the  imagination,  the 
capacity  for  obedience,,  the  love  of  truth  into  fullest  vitality.  He 
seeks  so  to  train  the  pupil  that  none  of  his  intellectual  or  moral 
resources  shall  be  wasted.  It  has  —  and  what  calling  has  not?  — 
its  hard  work,  its  exactions,  its  trials  and  discouragements.  What 
will  better  enable  the  teacher  to  bear  them  than  an  elevated  ideal 
of  his  profession  and  a  strong  faith  in  the  possibilities  which  lie 
concealed  in  the  nature  of  the  child  ? 

Again,  the  teacher  must  be  in  sympathy  with  children.  No 
spirit  of  fidelity,  no  painstaking  devotion,  can  make  up  for  the 
lack  of  this  quality.  A  subtle  magnetism  enables  the  teacher  who 
is  in  hearty  sympathy  with  her  pupils,  not  only  to  draw  them  to 
herself  in  loyal  affection,  but  also  to  attract  them  to  those  things 
in  which  she  is  interested.  They  delight  to  render  a  service  to 
such  a  teacher  and  find  it  easy  to  do  the  work  which  she  prescribes. 
Incited  by  this  motive  they  make  progress  and  improvement  which 
would  be  impossible  to  them  without  it.  Moreover,  the  teacher  is 
herself  stimulated  and  encouraged.  Work  cannot  long  remain 
distasteful  when  one  is  in  hearty  sympathy  with  its  object.  Du- 
ties otherwise  heavy  become  light.  There  is  no  cure,  no  preven- 
tive of  worn  and  irritated  nerves,  like  a  spirit  in  ready  sympathy 
with  childhood.  Such  a  teacher  sees  something  besides  the  hum- 
drum in  her  work.  Her  voice,  her  language,  her  wit,  are  to  her 
scholars  like  the  play  of  fountains  in  a  sultry  day.  She  knows 
how  to  give  them  a  laugh  when  they  need  it,  how  to  be  cheery, 


256  EDUCATIOX.  [December, 

how  to  make  the  atmosphere  harmonize  with  their  youthful  spir- 
its. If  an  artificial  gravity  of  demeanor  is  appropriate  to  any 
calling,  it  is  not  in  ours.  The  teacher  needs  buoyant  spirits  and 
buoyant  health. 

Another  condition  is  self-control.  A  person  must  have  his 
powers  under  command  if  others  are  to  have  the  full  benefit  of 
them.  This  is  true  in  all  the  relations  of  life  —  preeminently  true 
if  one  wishes  to  teach  as  well  as  govern  large  numbers!  But» 
unfortunately,  the  difficulty  of  self-mastery  usually  increases  with 
its  necessity.  It  is  not  easy  to  preside  ^vith  composure  amidst 
conflicting  interests  and  be  calm  when  one's  patience  has  been 
long  and  severely  tried.  But  it  is  in  just  these  circumstances  that 
this  virtue  is  most  essential.  Deficiency  in  self-command  will 
speedily  unsettle  the  very  foundations  of  school  discipline.  A 
single  lapse  in  temper  will  often  so  weaken  a  teacher's  self-respect 
as  to  make  a  manly  self-assertion  impossible  for  a  long  time  there- 
after; will  so  forfeit  the  confidence  of  pupils  as  to  exclude 
obedience  from  any  higher  motive  than  fear.  No  one  can  safely 
assume  the  office  of  teacher,  who  is  not  so  fortified  in  self-control 
as  to  be  able  to  meet  sudden  and  repeated  annoyances  with  clear- 
headed composure. 

The  second  prerequisite  to  success  in  teaching  is  an  adequate 
knowledge  of  child-nature  ;  its  powers,  its  needs,  and  its  conditions 
of  growth.  Teachers  cannot  all  become  deeply  versed  in  the 
metaphysics  of  pedagogic  science.  But  no  one  can  minister  to 
the  child's  needs  who  does  not  comprehend  them.  And  any  ade- 
quate comprehension  of  the  activities  of  a  child's  mind  must  be 
the  result  of  study  and  observation.  Considerable  instruction  in 
the  fundamentals  of  the  science  is  indispensable  to  a  favorable 
entrance  upon  the  work  of  teaching.  Some  persons  possess  great 
aptitude  to  perceive  and  interpret  the  wants  of  the  learner. 
Hence  has  arisen  the  saying  that  the  teacher,  like  the  poet,  is  born, 
not  made ;  but  fortunately  no  such  difficulty  is  involved  in  ac- 
quiring normal  principles  and  laws  as  to  render  success  in  teach- 
ing unattainable  by  most  of  those  who  will  make  the  necessary 
effort.  A  mere  knowledge  of  the  subjects  to  be  ttiught,  however, 
will  not  suffice.  Pride  of  int<illectual  attainments  is  only  a  hin- 
drance.  Such  teachers  are  like  musicians  who  are  familiar  with 
the  music  to  be  played,  but  ignorant  of  the  instrument  upon  which 
it  is  to  be  rendered.     I  once  knew  a  primary  teacher,  graduated 


1888.]  THE  TEACHES  JS  PBEPARATION.  257 

with  honor  from  one  of  our  best  colleges,  queenly  alike  in  pres- 
ence and  in  accomplishments,  who  was  utterly  unable  to  adapt 
her  work  to  the  children  under  her  care.  In  spite  of  any  aid  or 
guidance  which  she  could  receive,  inattention  and  disorder  reigned 
in  her  school ;  both  teacher  and  scholars  were  fretful  and  bewil- 
dered, and  she  resigned  in  defeat.  She  was  succeeded  by  a  lady 
of  far  less  mental  force  and  culture,  a  young  girl  of  fair  education 
and  ability,  but  whose  normal  training  and  study  of  children  had 
given  a  ready  insight  into  their  needs.  Her  advent  immediately 
changed  the  whole  aspect  of  affairs.  Interesting  occupation  was 
found  for  every  child.  Irritability  and  mischief  gave  place  to 
quiet  and  enjoyment.  Rapid  progress  in  school  work  followed, 
and  when,  at  the  end  of  the  year,  she  took  leave  of  her  pupils, 
they  were  filled  with  grief  and  overwhelmed  her  with  expressions 
of  their  attachment. 

Such  incidents  do  not  lessen  our  appreciation  of  a  broad  and 
liberal  culture  in  the  teacher.  But  they  do  illustrate  the  neces- 
sity of  understanding  not  only  the  knowledge  which  is  to  be  im- 
parted, but  also  the  minds  which  are  to  receive  it. 

But  it  is  time  to  turn  from  these  more  general  features  of  the 
teacher's  equipment  to  speak  of  his  daily  preparation.  Our  mental 
no  less  than  our  bodily  strength  needs  to  be  constantly  renewed. 
No  teacher's  instruction  can  be  fresh  and  vigorous  whose  prepara- 
tion is  not  recent  and  thorough.  The  moment  a  person  ceases  to 
be  a  systematic  student,  he  ceases  to  be  an  effective  teacher.  He 
cuts  the  bond  of  sympathy  which  binds  him  to  the  learner.  There 
are  those  who  listen  to  such  statements  with  incredulity.  They 
have  taught  five,  ten,  it  may  be  twenty  years,  and  they  know  their 
work  by  heart.  What  nonsense  to  suppose  that  they  need  to  study 
their  lessons.  They  are  not  going  to  spend  their  time  in  any  such 
way.     They  have  enough  of  school  in  school  hours. 

Most  of  us  have  seen  such  teachers ;  have  watched  how,  year  by 
year,  their  work  grew  thin,  like  the  successive  layers  of  a  certain 
vegetable,  until  it  became  so  weak  and  attenuated  that  it  would 
scarcely  hold  together.  We  have  seen  how  they  themselves  dwin- 
dled in  brain  power  and  worthy  purpose  till  they  became  the  jest 
of  their  former  and  the  antipathy  of  their  present  pupils. 

Few  teachers  are  more  familiar  with  the  work  of  their  grade 
than  Agassiz  was  with  his  fossils  and  fishes,  or  Doctor  Arnold  with 
his  history  and  beloved  classics.     What  was  their  view  of  this  mat- 


258  EDUCATION.  [December, 

ter  ?  See  Agassiz  dredging  Vineyard  Sound  each  day  for  some- 
thing new  to  show  his  classes.  Listen  to  Arnold  as  he  replies  to 
the  friend  who  asks  him  why  he  spends  so  much  time  in  studying 
familiar  subjects.  "  Because,"  he  says,  **  I  prefer  to  hare  my  pu- 
pils drink  from  a  running  stream,  rather  than  a  stagnant  pool.'* 
Charles  Lamb  mirthfully  relates  the  experiences  of  a  teacher  who 
by  dint  of  hard  study  always  kept  one  day  in  advance  of  his  class. 
But  even  this  {(/noramus  had  one  advantage,  in  the  freshness  of  his 
knowledge.  It  is  by  the  act  of  acquiring  knowledge  ourselves  that 
we  become  able  to  help  others  acquire  it.  Great  as  is  my  respect 
for  learning  and  thoroughness,  I  would  cheerfully  abate  something 
from  these  in  an  instructor,  could  I  be  assured  of  a  fresh  and  glow- 
ing interest  in  the  work  to  be  done.  The  moment  a  teacher's 
methods  become  fixed  and  inflexible,  they  lose  a  measure  of  their 
vitality.  When  they  cease  to  require  fresh  thought^  they  are  a 
machine  which  the  teacher  works.  No  longer  vivifying  forces, 
they  have  become  dead  formulas.  Our  experience,  valuable  in 
itself,  constantly  t<3nds  to  settle  into  rules  by  which  we  guide  our 
work.  The  new  method,  the  bright,  fresh  thought  embodies  itself 
into  a  law  of  action.  Like  a  plant  it  ripens,  goes  to  seed  and  dies- 
New  thought,  originality,  requires  effort,  routine  does  not.  And 
so  schools,  and  colleges,  and  pulpits  may  be  found,  all  over  the 
land,  in  which  teachers  have  outlived  their  usefulness.  They  are 
suffering  the  inevitable  penalty  of  letting  their  work  lapse  into  a 
routine.  There  is  no  sadder  picture  in  the  history  of  education 
than  that  of  Pestalozzi  in  his  old  age.  In  hLs  early  life  he  had 
given  a  fresh  impetus  to  thought  and  kindled  a  new  enthusiasm  in 
the  training  of  children.  But  later  in  years,  his  work  settled  into 
-empty  forms.  What  had  been  inspiring  and  full  of  life  in  his  dayB 
of  invention  became  at  length  a  mere  petrifaction.  Michel  Br^al 
who  visited  him  in  his  old  age  relates  of  liim  that  he  would  stand 
at  the  blackboard,  pointing  to  his  diagrams,  his  figures,  and  his 
names  of  the  qualities  of  objects,  while  the  children  mechanically 
repeated  his  favorite  watchwords  which  they  had  learned  by  heart. 
But  the  exercise  had  lost  its  value  because  it  had  ceased  to  require 
mental  activity.  His  thought  ran  round  and  round  in  its  well- 
worn  groove.  The  cliildren's  eyes  no  longer  sparkled  with  inter- 
-est.  What  had  once  been  full  of  meaning  had  become  dead  for- 
mulas. His  pet  system  of  instruction  was  already  only  the  length- 
•ening  shadow  of  a  greatness  tliat  was  past.     Thus  will  it  be  with 


1888.]  THE  TEACHERS  PREPABATION.  259» 

any  teacher  who  thinks  that  his  methods  are  so  good  as  to  require 
no  further  improvement. 

Teachers  should  each  day  prepare  themselves  upon  the  subject- 
matter  which  they  are  to  teach.  They  should  make  sure  of  a  fresh 
and  thorough  knowledge  of  all  its  details.  It  is  not  enough  to 
know  its  leading  facts,  or  to  have  a  general  outline  vaguely  in 
mind,  expecting  that  it  will  all  come  back  to  them  as  they  need  it. 
They  must  acquire  the  habit  of  finding  new  lessons,  new  meaning 
in  familiar  objects.  Each  year's  added  power  ought  to  enable 
them  to  see  more  in  a  subject  than  ever  before.  If  they  do  not- 
thus  gain  additional  insight,  discover  new  facts  and  principles- 
year  by  year,  the  alternative  will  inevitably  be  true ;  they  will  see 
less  and  less  in  each  subject,  will  become  superficial  and  lose 
power  to  stimulate  their  pupils. 

When  Garfield  was  president  of  Hiram  College,  a  young  teacher 
once  asked  him  how  to  hold  the  attention  of  his  classes.  His  reply 
was :  "  See  to  it  that  you  do  not  feed  your  pupils  on  cold  victuals. 
Take  the  lesson  into  your  mind  anew,  rethink  it  and  then  serve  it 
hot  and  steaming,  and  your  pupils  will  have  an  appetite  for  your 
instruction."  The  late  Doctor  Taylor  of  Andover,  was  not  in  all 
respects  a  model  teacher,  but  he  possessed  a  marvellous  ability  to 
keep  his  classes  interested  and  make  them  thorough.  He  mod- 
estly attributed  any  power  which  he  might  possess  to  his  love  of 
the  subjeots  that  he  taught,  which,  he  said  kept  him  "  always  dig- 
ging away  at  them."  What  shall  we  say  of  a  teacher  who  con- 
ducts the  recitation  with  textbook  in  hand  to  verify  the  pupil's 
ans Wei's,  and  to  see  what  comes  next  ?  Who  refers  from  time  to 
time  to  his  old  normal  school  notebook  to  recall  what  was  said 
there  on  that  subject  ?  Imagine  Doctor  Taylor  or  Emma  Willard 
thus  feeding  their  scholars,  not  merely  on  cold  victuals,  but  on  the 
veriest  dry  husks  of  knowledge. 

The  teacher's  daily  preparation  should  include,  in  the  second 
place,  the  selection  of  illustrations,  anecdotes,  pictures,  and  objects 
by  which  the  lesson  may  be  enforced.  Textbooks  seldom  give 
enough  illustrative  examples.  Much  of  our  school  work  employs 
no  textbook.  Whether  a  book  is  used  or  not,  a  teacher  should 
always  follow  Nature's  order  of  instruction.  Facts  must  precede 
explanations.  Individual  objects,  phenomena,  and  experiments 
come  first,  afterwards  with  many  a  correction  and  amendment,  we 
reach  the  broad,  comprehensive,  and  beautiful  law  which  governs 


260  EDUCATIOy.  [December, 

them.  "  The  mind,"  says  Herbert  Spencer,  "  like  all  things  that 
grow,  progresses  from  the  homogeneous  to  the  heterogeneous; 
and  a  training  system,  being  an  objective  counterpart  of  this  sub- 
jective process,  must  exhibit  a  like  progression.  We  must  proceed 
from  the  single  to  the  combined  in  mastering  each  branch  of 
knowledge ;  the  mind  must  be  introduced  to  principles  through 
the  medium  of  examples."  Here,  then,  is  a  most  important  part 
of  teachers'  preparation.  Casual  occurrences  witnessed  by  them- 
selves, or  by  the  children,  familiar  phenomena  of  nature  and  facts 
gained  from  reading,  should  all  be  brought  under  tribute  to  enable 
them  to  vivify  their  teaching.  They  who  thus  come  to  look  at 
things  through  their  pupils'  eyes  will  never  lack  attention. 

Thirdly,  the  teacher  should  prei)are  a  plan  of  each  lesson,  should 
determine  beforehand  how  to  proceed  from  step  to  step.  Unless 
there  be  a  distinct  conception  of  both  the  end  to  be  attained  and 
the  method  by  which  it  is  to  be  reached,  systematic  progress  is 
impossible.  A  good  plan  for  teaching  a  lesson  will  regard  it  as 
one  of  a  series,  designed  to  develop  certain  faculties  in  the  child, 
and  also  as  an  individual  lesson  designed  to  teach  a  specific  thing. 
The  method  needs  to  be  carefully  adapted  to  the  age  and  capacity 
of  the  class.  The  development,  the  illustration,  the  drill,  the 
mode  of  emphasizing  important  points,  all  need  to  be  determined. 
This  surely  requires  study,  and  i&tudy  too,  in  the  light  of  peda- 
gogic principles  and  laws.  The  lesson  must  be  connected  with 
previous  lessons;  it  must  start  from  sometliing  already  knotvrn, 
and  it  must  engage  attention  by  exciting  interest  at  the  outset. 
Professional  training  and  practice  will  give  a  teacher  facility  in 
the  preparation  of  lesson  plans,  but  will  never  render  such  plans 
unnecessary.  Fruitful  experience  will  rather  teach  one  the  dan- 
ger of  allowing  them  to  become  stereotyped  and  monotonoiis. 
Variety  of  method  is  as  essential  as  unity  of  purpose. 

Fourth,  the  teacher  needs  preparation  in  order  to  properly  as- 
sign work  from  day  to  day.  This  is  a  very  important,  but  oft- 
neglected  item  in  a  teacher's  duties.  Every  exercise  from  the 
busy-work  of  the  lowest  grades  to  the  original  investigations  of 
students  in  high  schools  and  colleges  needs  to  be  judiciously  di- 
rected. Aimless  work  discourages  pupils.  How  often  do  scholars 
complain  that  they  do  not  know  what  they  are  to  study,  or  how 
they  are  to  study  it.  Now  and  then  some  brave  little  fellow  tells 
how  he  has  studied  for  hours  on  something  wliich  it  turns  out  that 


1888.]  THE  TEACHERS  PREPABATION,  261 

he  was  not  expected  to  learn.  What  wonder  that  pupils  whose 
work  is  thus  vaguely  or  thoughtlessly  assigned  leave  school !  The 
question  is  often  asked  whether  it  is  possible  to  make  every  grade 
of  school  work  attractive.  When  the  kindergarten  and  object 
lessons  are  outgrown,  must  the  pleasure  and  interest  in  school 
work  cease?  Many  claim  that  it  must.  Bam  says:  "There 
comes  then  the  stern  conclusion,  that  the  uninteresting  must  be 
faced  at  last.  The  age  of  drudgery  must  commence  ;  we  begin 
the  discipline  of  life  by  inuring  the  child,  gradually,  to  severe  and 
repugnant  occupations."  Too  often,  alas  I  have  teachers  resigned 
themselves  to  the  same  conclusion.  We  protest  against  it.  Such 
an  admission  robs  both  teacher  and  pupil  of  all  enthusiasm,  all 
gladness  in  their  work.  In  opposition  to  this  depressing  philoso- 
phy, we  claim  that  the  normal  action  of  each  faculty  and  power, 
whether  of  mind  or  body,  was  designed  to  be,  and  i«,  a  source  of 
enjoyment.  Absolute  idleness  is  always  irksome.  The  sense  of 
triumph  in  a  boy  or  girl  who  has  accomplished  an  allotted  task, 
often  affords  the  keenest  happiness.  Let  the  schoolroom  be  made 
attractive  ;  let  it  be  pervaded  by  a  bright  and  sunny  spirit ;  let  the 
instruction  and  the  tasks  be  properly  adapted  to  the  capacity  of 
the  pupils  and  they  will  not  deem  the  work  "  drudgery,"  nor  the 
occupation  "  repugnant." 

In  the  assignment  of  lessons,  good  judgment  will  not  only  adapt 
the  amount  and  difficulty  of  the  work  to  the  ability  of  the  class, 
but  will  give  just  enough  explanation  of  difficult  points  to  enable 
pupils  to  master  them.  It  is  also  well  to  stimulate  their  habits  of 
observation  and  love  of  independent  work,  by  giving  different  ones 
something  to  look  up  and  report  to  the  class  —  never  forgetting 
to  drop  a  hint  as  to  where  the  desired  information  can  be  obtained. 

The  men  and  women  who  have  done  most  to  make  the  name  of 
teacher  honorable,  have  reflected  much  upon  the  laws  and  condi- 
tions of  mental  growth.  They  who  would  attain  the  highest 
excellence  in  this  profession  must  thoroughly  understand  the  pro- 
cesses through  which  they  would  conduct  their  pupils.  And  they 
must  know  the  pupils  individually  as  well  as  collectively ;  must 
know  their  wants  and  adapt  their  instruction  to  each.  And  that 
they  may  do  this  they  will  closely  observe  each  pupil's  traits  of 
character  and  habits  of  thought  and  expression.  They  will  seek 
to  know  something  of  their  home  surroundings  and  other  mould- 
ing influences.     They  will  become  acquainted  \vith  their  parents 


262  EDUCATIOX.  [December, 

when  practicable,  and  will  secure  their  cooperation  in  their  work. 
With  some  children  this  is  not  necessary  ;  but  if  pupils  are  dull,  or 
willful,  or  peculiar,  a  friendly  understanding  with  the  parents  is 
often  of  the  greatest  value.  Teachers  who  thus  make  friends  of 
the  people  of  their  district  will  not  only  enlarge  their  usefulness 
and  gain  a  firmer  hold  upon  their  pupils,  but  will  also  find  their 
own  life  enriched  and  stimulated. 

In  general  we  need  to  remember  that  the  qualities  of  mind  and 
character  which  are  desired  in  the  pupil  must  be  in  the  teacher. 
"  Men  do  not  gather  grapes  of  thorns,  nor  figs  of  thistles."  If  a 
teacher  lacks  integrity,  refinement,  earnestness,  or  courtesy,  he 
cannot  inspire  his  pupils  with  these  virtues.  An  unconscious  in- 
fluence emanates  from  him  which  tends  to  fix  the  standards  of 
excellence  in  their  minds.  Every  teacher  should  distinctly  under- 
stand that  the  prime  condition  of  successfully  inculcating  any  ex- 
cellence, whether  of  morals  or  manners,  of  habits  of  thought,  or 
habits  of  speech,  is  to  possess  it  one's  self  and  uniformly  practice 
it  in  the  schoolroom.  Especially  contagious  are  such  qualities  as 
cheerfulness,  earnestness,  and  courtesy,  virtues  of  fundamental 
importance  in  themselves  as  well  as  intimately  related  to  intellec- 
tual growth.  Neither  teacher  nor  pupil  can  work  at  the  best  ad- 
vantage in  a  school  where  any  fundamental  duty  is  disregarded. 


YESTERDAY  now  is  a  part  of  forever ; 
Bound  up  in  a  sheaf,  which  God  holds  tight. 
With  glad  days,  and  sad  days,  and  bad  days  which  never 
Shall  visit  us  more  with  their  bloom  and  their  blight. 
Their  fulness  of  sunshine  or  sorrowful  night. 

Let  them  go,  since  we  cannot  relieve  them. 

Cannot  undo  and  cannot  atone  ; 
God  in  his  mercy  receive,  forgive  them ! 

Only  the  new  days  are  our  own. 

Today  is  ours,  and  today  alone. 

—  Susan  Coolidge, 


1888.]        THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  CLASSICAL  LANOUAOES.  263 


TUB    TEACHING    OF    THE   CLASSICAL 

LANGUAGES,^ 

IV. 

"  ANCIPITI." 

Cesar's  De  Bello  Gallico, 

book    i.,    chapter  xxvi.,    line   i. 

BY  PROF.  W.  S.   SCARBOROUGH,  LL.  D.  "^ 

ITA  ANCIPITI   PRCELIO   DIU   ATQUE  ACRITER    PUGNATUM  EST. 

DOES  andpiti  in  this  passage  means  doubtful  or  douhle  f  On 
what  ground  is  one  signification  preferable  to  the  other? 
These  are  the  questions  that  suggest  themselves  to  one's  mind  as 
he  reads  this  twenty-sixth  chapter,  and  especially  the  part  quoted 
with  the  comments  on  it.  I  have  examined  several  editions  of 
Caesar  by  various  editors,  and  find  that  all  more  or  less  agree  that 
andpiti  should  be  rendered  double^  on  the  ground  that  the  battle 
was  fought  in  two  places,  at  the  top  and  at  the  foot  of  the  hill. 

To  be  more  specific,  I  quote  the  language  of  a  few  of  the  edit- 
ors mentioned:  — 

^^  Andpiti^  two-headed,  thus  facing  two  ways  at  once." — Allen 
and  Greenough. 

''^  Andpitiy  two-fold,  because  the  Romans  were  fighting  in  two 
fronts."  —  Kelsey. 

"  Andpiti  pradio^  the  battle  is  called  anceps^  double^  because  the 
Romans  were  contending  with  enemies,  both  in  front  and  in  the 
rear."  —  Ancb-ews. 

"  Andpiti  proelio^  in  a  double  battle  —  so-called,  because  fought 
on  different  fronts. " —  Harkness. 

"  Andpiti  prcelio  is  equivalent  to  dubio  marie  (according  to  Da- 
vies),  because  they  were  ignorant  to  which  side  the  victory  in- 
clined. Others  say  the  engagement  was  fought  in  two  places  — 
at  the  top  and  at  the  foot  of  the  hill." — Spencer. 

1  Copyright,  1888,  by  Eastern  Educational  Bureau. 


364  EDUCATIOy.  [December, 

"  Ancipiti  proelio^  in  doubtful  battle ;  i.  e.,  victory  inclining  to 
neither  side."  —  Bullions. 

*'  Ancipiti  proelio^  in  a  double  conflict."  —  Cliiise  and  Stuart. 

''  Ancipiti  proelio^  in  a  double  conflict."  —  Leighton,  in  his  ex- 
tract of  the  Helvetian  war  (Latin  Lessons). 

It  will  be  observed  that  Spencer  is  in  doubt ;  forms  no  opinion 
of  his  own,  but  simply  dismisses  the  subject  with  (in  substance) 
a  remark  — some  say  one  thing  and  some  another.  Bullions  states 
positively,  "  in  a  doubtful  Ixittle." 

Though  the  trend  of  the  argument  of  a  majority  of  these  and 
other  commentators  favors  the  rendering  of  ancipiti  as  double^  I 
am  of  the  opinion,  after  a  careful  reading  of  the  lines  and  the  con- 
text, that  ancipiti  should  be  translated  ilouhtful^  with  the  sense  of 
uncertain  or  critical.  To  adopt  any  other  meaning  seems  to  be 
straining  a  point  to  make  out  a  case.  The  position  of  the  troops, 
though  of  importance,  is  not  first  as  it  seems  to  me ;  it  is  the  out- 
come, the  result,  that  is  of  the  greatest  moment,  and  in  a  hard 
fought  battle  like  this  there  was  doubtless  great  anxiety  on  the 
part  of  the  Roman  commander-in-chief  as  to  which  way  victory 
was  inclining.  And,  too,  tliis  thought  seeuLs  to  l)e  brought  out  by 
the  context:  "Diutius  quum  nostrorum  impetus  sustinere,"  etc. 
When  they  could  not  withstand  the  attack  of  our  men  longer,  one 
party  retreated  to  the  mountains  and  the  other  to  their  l>aggage 
and  wagons,  for  during  this  entire  battle,  though  fought  from  the 
seventh  hour  till  evening,  no  one  was  able  to  see  the  retreating 
enemy.  They  fought  till  late  at  night,  even  to  the  baggage,  be- 
cause they  had  employed  these  (their  wagons)  for  ramparts  and 
from  vantage-ground  were  hurling  down  javelins  upon  our  men 
(the  Romans)  while  advancing,  and  some  were  discharging  jave- 
lins and  darts  from  below,  between  the  wagons  and  wheels,  and 
were  wounding  our  men.  After  a  long  fight,  our  men  captured 
the  baggage  and  camp.  A  daughter  and  son  of  Orgetorix  were 
captured.  From  this  battle  about  130,000  men  survived  whom  our 
men,  says  Caesar,  were  not  able  to  follow  because  of  the  wounded 
soldiers  and  the  necessity  of  burying  those  already  dead.  The 
fact  that  the  Romans  did  not  follow  up  this  victory  shows  that  it 
must  have  cost  them  dearly. 

The  sense  of  the  passage,  then,  I  should  think,  requires  that  we 
translate  anceps  in  such  way  as  to  express  the  uncertainty  of  the 
contest.     This  is  not  done  when  we  say  it  was  a  double  contest. 


1888.]        THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  CLASSICAL  LANGUAGES.  205 

We  learn  from  the  latter  part  of  the  preceding  chapter  that  the 
Roman  army  was  drawn  up  in  three  lines  (triplex  acies)  ;  the  first 
and  second  lines  formed  one  division  which  advanced  against  those 
who  had  been  defeated  and  were  compelled  to  retreat,  i.  e.  the 
Helvetians :  the  third  line  sustained  the  attack  of  those  advancing 
(venientes)  upon  them :  — 

"Romani  con  versa  signa  bipartito  intulerunt;  prima  ac  secunda 
acies  ut  victis  ac  submotis  resisteret ;  tertia,  ut  venientes  excip- 
eret." 

May  we  not  surmise  that  the  battle  between  the  contending  par- 
ties had  been  raging  for  some  time,  the  details  of  which  having 
been  admitted,  Caesar,  with  his  usual  vivacity  in  describing  an 
event,  dashes  into  the  subject  as  here  recorded :  Ita  andplti  proelio 
.  .  .  .  pugnatum  est^  thus  they  fought  long  and  valiently  — 
with  victory  inclining  neither  way.  Ita^  in  this  case,  would  refer 
not  to  the  position  of  any  of  the  contending  lines  (acies),  but 
rather  to  the  degree  or  intensity  with  which  the  battle  was  fought. 
In  the  seventy-sixth  chapter  of  Book  VII.,  a  similar  construction 
occurs :  — 

"Praesertim  ancipiti  proelio,  quum  ex  oppido  eruptione  pug- 
naretur,  foris  tantae  copiae  equitatus  peditatusque  cernerentur." 

According  to  some  authorities,  ancipiti  in  this  passage  is  ex- 
plained by  the  two  clauses  following :  ''  quum  ^.r,"  etc.,  ^*' foris  tan- 
tae^'^  and  consequently  with  the  meaning  of  double ;  a  double 
battle, 

Andrews,  in  his  Latin  lexicon,  says  that  anceps  in  general  has 
reference  to  an  object  whose  qualities  have  significance  in  two 
respects  —  double^  that  extends  on  two  opposite  sides ;  while  duplex 
refei*s  to  an  object  that  exists  in  separate  form,  twice.  *^Thu8," 
oontinues  he,  '^  aneeps  sententia  is  an  opinion  which  wavers^  fluctvr 
<ites  between  two  decisions^  while  duplex  sententia  is  a  twofold  opinion." 
After  giving  some  examples  illustrating  this  use,  he  adds,  that 
since  everything  which  oscillates  in  two  different  directions  has  no 
stability,  anceps  signifies  ivavering^  doubtful^  uncertmn^  unfixed^  un- 
decided^ and  further,  since  hesitation  in  the  issue  of  an  undertak- 
ing frequently  causes  danger,  anceps  also  signifies  dangerous,  per- 
ilous, critical.  There  are  examples  in  Livy,  Cicero,  Tacitus, 
Horace,  Nepos,  Ovid,  Sallust,  etc.,  illustrating  these  different 
meanings,  though,  as  it  seems  to  me,  etymologically  speaking, 
anceps  ought  to  convey  the  one  idea  of  doubtful  or  uncertain^  i.  e., 
as  in  No.  3  of  Andrews'  division. 


966  EDUCATIOy.  [December, 

Anceps  is  derived  from  an-eaput^  the  an  being  equivalent  to  the 
Greek  afKJyC,  and  with  caput  literally  meaning  "  having  a  head  on 
each  side,"  or  "  heads  all  around."  There  are  other  words  of  simi- 
lar derivation,  prceceps^  headlong ;  biceps^  two-headed,  triceps^  three- 
headed,  all  with  caput  as  the  radical,  and  prce^  6e«,  and  tris  as  pre- 
fixes. In  anceps  appears  the  root  cap  which  is  the  same  as  the 
Indo-European  root  kap^  signifying  grasp,  and  which  is  also  seen 
in  caputs  capitalist  capitolium^  capitulum^  capillus^  eapillaris^  and  in 
«c€^Xf7,  K€if>d\at,(yi^  aK^<f>a\o^  of  the  Greek.  The  root  "  cap  "  (kap) 
as  suggested  by  Professor  Halsey,^  "  is  probably  connected  with 
cap  "  in  capio.  As  we  find  it  in  caput  and  words  derived  from  it, 
the  meaning  seems  to  be  secondary  and  not  primary,  for  in  the 
primary  sense  of  to  hold,  to  grasp,  from  the  ablant  cap  (kap), 
come  anceps^  particeps^  princeps^  and  similar  words  with  genitive 
in  is  signifying  birdcatcher,  sharer,  chief,  etc.,  etc. 

Now,  if  having  "  heads  all  around "  means  anything  at  all,  it 
must  mean  instability^  uncertainty,  "  A  double-minded  man,"  says 
one  of  the  sacred  writers,^  "  is  unstable  in  all  his  ways."  In  other 
words,  the  man  who  halts  between  faith  and  unbelief  is  not  a  safe 
man,  he  is  not  to  be  relied  on ;  for  he  is  indecisive.  The  idea  I 
wish  to  emphasize  is  the  doubleness^  the  twofold ness^  and  hence,  the 
doubtfulness^  as  here  implied.  In  the  Vulgate  for  the  expression, 
a  double-minded  man^  we  have,  vir  animo  duplici ;  in  the  'H  Kat,vr) 
AiaOi^Kt]  (Greek  New  Testament),  avrjp  Sn/rtf;^o«?.  Doubtless  the 
vir  animo  duplici^  the  avr^p  hiy^vxp^  and  anceps  are  similar  in  thought 
and  may  mean  the  same  thing,  so  far  as  the  result  is  concerned. 

The  following  are  a  few  passages  in  which  anceps  seems  to  have 
the  meaning  of  double  according  to  the  authorities  consulted  and 
the  text  itself :  — 

"Milites  Romani  perculsi  tumultu  insolito  capere  alii,  alii  se 
abdere  pars  territos  confirmare  trepidare  omnibus  locis ;  vis  magna 
hostium,  ctclium  nocte  atque  nubibus  obscuratum  periculum  an- 
cepsr  —  Sail.  J.  38-5. 

Some,  however,  render  anceps  indiscernible,  thus,  danger  was 
indiscernible,  meaning,  I  suppose,  that  the  struggle  was  of  such  a 
nature  as  to  make  it  uncertain  where  the  greatest  danger  lay. 

"Talia   magniloquo   tumidus    memoraverat    ore,    ancipitemque 

1  Etymology  of  Latin  and  Greek. 
*  St.  Paul,  Epistle  to  James  (i :  8). 


1888.]        THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  CLASSICAL  LANGUAGES.  267 

manu  toUeiis  utraque  securiin  institerat  digitis,  primos  suspensiis 
in  artus."  —  O.  M.,  8-397. 

"  Hie  etsi  pari  proelio  discesserant,  tamen  eodem  loco  non  sunt 
ausi  manere :  quod  erat  periculum,  ne,  si  pars  navium  adversari- 
orum  Euboeam  superasset,  anciplti  premerentur  periculo."  —  Ne- 
pos.  Them.  33. 

"Bestiarum  autem  terrenae  sunt  aliae  partim  aquatiles  aliae 
quasi  aneipites  in  utraque  sede  viventes;  sunt  quaedam  etiam, 
quae  igne  nasci  putentur,  appareantque  in  ardentibus  fornaeibus 
saepe  volitantes."  —  Cic.  De  Natura  Deorura,  Bk.  I.,  37. 

"  At  vero  curia,  maesta  ac  trepida  ancipiti  metu  et  ab  cive  et  ab 
hoste,  Servilium  consulem,  cui  ingeniura  magis  populare  erat, 
orare,  ut  tantis  circumventam  terroribus  expediret  rem  publicam." 

—  Livy,  2,  24. 

"Sed  quod  erant  quidam  eique  multi,  qui  aut  in  re  publica 
propter  ancipitem,  quae  non  potest  esse  seiuncta,  faciendi  dicen- 
dique  sapientiam  florerent,  ut  Themistocles,  ut  Pericles,  ut,"  etc. 

—  Cic.  De  Oratore,  Bk.  III.,  16. 

"  In  qua  velim  sit  illud,  quod  saepe  posuisti,  ut  non  necesse  sit 
consumere  aetatem  atque  ut  possit  is  ilia  omnia  cernere,  qui  tan- 
tummodo  aspexerit ;  sed  etiamsi  est  aliquando  spissius  aut  si  ego 
sum  tardior,  profecto  numquam  conquiescam  neque  defatigabor 
ante,  quam  illorum  ancipitis  vias  rationesque  et  pro  omnibus  et 
contra  omnia  disputandi  percepero." — Cic.  De  Oratore,  Bk. 
III.,  36. 

Watson,  in  his  translation  of  the  orators,  renders  ancipiti  doubt- 
ful^ and  not  twofold^  as  in  the  sixteenth  chapter.     I  give  his  ran 
dering :  — 

"In  regard  to  which  (in  qua)  I  could  wish  that  that  were  true 
which  you  have  often  asserted,  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  consume 
our  lives  in  it,  but  that  he  may  see  everything  in  it  who  only  turns 
his  eyes  toward  it ;  but  even  if  the  view  be  somewhat  obscure, 
or  I  should  be  extraordinarily  dull,  I  shall  assuredly  never  rest,  or 
yield  to  fatigue,  until  I  understand  their  doubtful  (ancipitis)  ways 
and  arts  of  disputing  for  and  against  every  question." 

Again :  "  Tertium  dubitandi  genus  est,  cum  pugnare  videtur 
cum  honesto  id,  quod  videtur  esse  utile ;  cum  enini  utilitas  ad  se 
rapere,  honestas  contra  revocare  ad  se  videtur,  fit  ut  distrahatur 
in  deliberando  animus  adferatque  ancipitem  curam  cogitandi."  — 
Cic.  De  Officiis,  Bk.  I.,  3. 


968  EDUCATION.  [December, 

To  illustrate  further  another  thought,  that  anceps  may  hare  a 
derived  or  figurative  signification  which  seems  to  be  in  harmony 
with  its  etymology,  I  quote  from  Virgil  a  passage  in  the  ^Eneid 
where  this  word  occurs  with  the  peculiar  meaning  of  treacherous 
or  intricate.  It  is  found  in  Bk.  V.,  589.  Reference  is  made  to 
the  Labyrinth  with  its  numerous  cells,  winding  avenues,  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  lead  back  and  forth  in  a  maze,  thus  bewildering  those 
who  enter  it  and  preventing  their  finding  their  way  out  of  it : 

Ut  quondam  Creta  fertur  Labyrinthus  in  alta 
Parietibus  textum  caecis  iter,  ancipitemque 
Mille  viis  habuisse  dolum,  qua  signa  sequendi 
Falleret  indeprensus  et  irremeabilis  error. 

Another  illustration  is  found  in  the  same  book  where  the  poet 
represents  the  Trojan  matrons  excited  by  Iris  (tlirough  Juno)  as 
applying  the  torch  to  the  fleet  of  uEneas  as  it  lay  moored  along' 
the  Sicilian  coast  in  the  port  of  Drepanum :  — 

Ab  matres  primo  ancipites,  oculisque  malignis 
Ambiguae  spectare   rates  miserum  inter  amorem 
Praesentis  terrae  fatisque  vocantia  regna : 
Quum  dea  se  paribus  per  coelum  sustulit  alis, 
Ingentemque  f uga  secuit  sub  nubibus  arcum. 

—  ^Eneid  V.,  654,  etc. 

Doubtless  the  meaning  of  anceps  in  this  passage  is  the  same  as 
that  of  infestae^  hostile.  There  are  many  other  similar  examples 
to  be  found,  both  in  prose  and  poetry.  It  may  be  reasonably  con- 
cluded (from  what  has  been  said  that  anceps  has  no  fixed  meaning, 
but  so  far  as  one  signification  is  more  permanent  than  another) 
from  an  etymological  standpoint,  that  ancepn  m^ans  doubtful  in  the 
sense  of  critical  or  uncertain,  rather  than  double,  and  that  meaning 
is  by  far  more  in  keeping  with  the  context  of  the  lines  quoted 
from  the  twenty-sixth  chapter  of  Caesar's  Commentaries. 


Life's  more  than  breath  and  the  quick  round  of  blood : 
It  is  a  great  spirit  and  a  busy  heart. 
One  generous  feeling  —  one  great  thought  —  one  deed 
Of  good,  ere  night,  would  make  life  longer  seem 
Than  if  each  year  might  number  a  thousand  days. 

—  Bailey. 


1888.]  EDITORIAL.  289 


EDITORIAL. 

THE  late  meeting  of  the  New  England  Superintendents  of 
schools  in  Boston,  Nov.  9th,  was  devoted  to  the  general 
topic  of  the  examination  of  pupils  and  teachers.  The  latter  phase 
of  the  subject  was  thoroughly  treated  by  State  Superintendent 
Draper  of  New  York.  No  state  east  of  the  AUeghanies  has  made 
so  important  an  advance  in  this  direction  as  New  York  under  the 
lead  of  Judge  Draper, — by  all  odds  the  most  effective  of  the 
superintendents  of  education  in  the  Empire  State.  In  a  subse- 
quent number  of  Education  we  hope  to  give  a  complete  account 
of  this  important  movement,  as  described  by  Superintendent 
Draper.  At  present,  it  is  largely  a  voluntary  consent,  by  all  the 
county  commissioners  of  education,  including  the  whole  of  rural 
New  York,  and  a  few  of  the  cities,  to  establish  a  uniform  system 
of  examination  for  three  grades  of  public  school  teachers.  The 
examination  papers  and  rules  of  proceduie  are  prepared  at  the 
department  and  uniformity  is  secured  through  that  portion  of  the 
state  most  in  need  of  the  reform.  The  most  important  feature  is 
the  examination  for  the  lowest  class  of  teachers,  who  are  given  a 
certificate  for  a  short  time,  with  the  expectation  that  a  subsequent 
trial  will  improve  their  standing,  as  this  certificate  can  only  be 
once  renewed.  In  this  way  thousands  of  incompetent  persons, 
who  are  now  clogging  the  wheels  of  progress,  will  be  thrown  out 
and  the  ground  floor  of  the  profession  steadily  lifted  up.  It  is  to 
be  hoped  that,  in  due  time,  this  voluntary  arrangement  may  be 
made  the  fixed  policy  of  the  state  by  legislation.  There  is  already 
a  system  of  granting  state  certificates  in  New  York,  and  Superin- 
tendent Draper  is  hard  at  work  to  bring  all  the  states  to  an  agree- 
ment for  mutual  recognition  of  each  other's  endorsement  of  the 
superior  class  of  instructors. 

"TTTHETHER  our  New  England  States  are  prepared  for  the 
V  V  concentration  of  power  in  the  state  department  of  Edu- 
cation, which  a  system  like  that  already  adopted  in  some  of  the 
western  states,  and  in  process  of  establishment  in  New  York,  im- 
plies, may  be  questioned.  The  township  system  of  local  govern- 
ment, peculiar  to  our  six  northeastern  states,  is  at  the  bottom  of  so 


a70  EDUCATIOy.  [December, 

much  of  the  success  and  fame  of  New  England  in  the  past  and,  in 
itself,  such  an  admirable  training-school  of  citizensliip,  tliat  we 
cannot  blame  our  i>eople  for  their  jealousy  of  concentrated  power 
or  the  tenacity  with  which  they  hold  fast  to  the  idea  of  local  man- 
agement of  the  common  school.  One  imj)ortant  step  has  been 
taken  in  two  of  these  states  out  of  the  old  district  system,  which, 
once  a  necessity,  is  now  a  mischievous  olistruction  to  educational 
progress.  The  movement  for  town  and  district  super^'ision,  if 
successful,  will  tell  powerfully  on  the  examination  of  teachers. 
In  some  way,  the  outrage  of  wasting  the  people's  money  for  the 
support  of  incompetent  teachers,  elected  for  any  and  every  motive 
excepting  comj:)etency  to  teJich,  must  be  abated. 

No  question  in  public  education  is  now  half  so  imi)ortant  as  the 
elevation  of  the  teaching  force  in  every  grade  of  school.  Without 
this,  all  our  improvements  in  method,  organization,  and  extension, 
will  only  be  a  new  burden  to  the  cliildren  and  a  disapi)ointment 
to  the  zealous  disciples  of  educational  reform.  Not  what  new 
things  can  l)e  added  to  the  curriculum,  but  how  can  the  teachers 
be  fitted  to  handle  the  present  course  of  study,  is  the  fundamental 
question  of  the  hour. 

NOW  that  we  are  l)eyond  the  exigencies  of  i>olitical  jmrtisan- 
ship,  we  may  perhajw  indulge  the  hope  that  our  "scholars 
in  i)olitics"  will  give  some  attention  to  the  fact^  of  public  school 
life  <lown  South,  and  not  Ijefog  the  people  with  such  preposterous 
"buncomb"  as  during  the  past  few  montlis.  When  a  leading 
economist  of  New  Englan<l  seriously  contrasts  the  public  school 
affairs  in  Maine,  the  state  which  leads  the  Union  in  the  i>er  cent, 
of  average  attendance  of  children  between  six  and  fourteen,  with 
South  Carolina  and  Louisiana,  —  the  latter  at  the  nether  extrem- 
ity in  this  res{>ect;  or  when  another  accomplished  scholar 
flourishes  Georgia, — the  state  which,  in.  proportion  to  its  val- 
uation, does  least  of  all  for  public  education, — above  New 
England,  we  may  well  inquire  if  the  schoolmaster  is  "•abroad." 
And  when  grave  college  i)rof essoins  insist  that  a  reorganization  of 
the  whole  system  of  the  common  school,  to  in(»ludc  comi)ulsory 
manual  training,  can  alone  save  it  from  i)oi)ular  disfavor;  wliile 
another  would  reconstruct  American  pojmlar  education  on  the 
European  basis  of  class  instruction ;  to  say  nothing  of  the 
monthly  crop  of   alxsurd  suggesticms  ventilated    in    the    popular 


1888.]  EDITORIAL.  271 

magazines ;  we  may  well  ask,  whither  ha^  common  sense  and  com- 
mon fairness  of  judgment  departed?  In  this  strait  we  realize  the 
real  importance  of  the  average  School  Board,  composed  of  a  fair 
representation  of  the  mass  of  people  whose  children  are  the  sub- 
jects of  instruction.  They  and  the  majority  of  intelligent  teachers 
can  still  be  trusted  to  save  the  schools  from  their  fussy,  impracti- 
cal, and  half-hearted  friends. 

ONE  of  the  most  interesting  educational  relics  of  the  far-oflP 
days  of  the  Southern  Confederacy  is  a  pamphlet  containing 
an  address  to  the  trustees  of  Hollins  Institute  for  young  women 
in  Virginia,  by  Prof.  Ed.  S.  Jayues,  dated  August,  1864;  on  the 
establishment  of  a  normal  school  for  southern  women  in   this 
Institution.     The  confidence  with  which  the  speedy  success  of  the 
new  "Nation"  is  assumed  illustrates  the  absolute  faith  of  even  the 
educated  class  of  the  southern  people  in  the  ultimate  triumph  of 
their  enterprise.     But  this  admirable  letter,  apart  from  the  pecul- 
iar circumstances  of  its  authorship,  reads  now  like  a  chapter  of 
prophecy  in  the  great  educational  awakening  that  has  come  to  the 
reunited  south;  in  which  no  leadership  is  more  conspicuous  than 
that  of  Professor  Jaynes.     With  great  force  the  Professor,  in  his 
adtb-ess,  urges  the  absolute  necessity  of  Univei'sal  Education ;  the 
enlarged  sphere  of  woman  as  teacher  and  the  peremptory  need  of 
professional   training;    with   anticipation   of  the  evils  that  any 
period  of  civil  war  brings  upon  childhood  and  youth;  the  result 
of  the  suspended  education  of  one  generation  and  the  necessity  of 
some  opening  for  the  large  number  of  superior  women  imi)over- 
ised  by  the  wreck  of  civil  strife.     All  this  has  the  same  significance 
to-day  in  Virginia,  and  every  other  southern  state,  as  in  the  month 
of   its  writing,  twenty-four  yeai*s  ago.      The  professor  has  the 
pleasure  of  seeing  his  own  initiative,  one  of  the  first  in  the  south, 
so  far  along  towards  realization.     He  is,  himself,  one  of  the  lead- 
ing spirits  in  the  establishment  of  what  promises  to  become  the 
State  Normal  school  of  South  Carolina  at  Columbia.     We  believe 
every  southern  state,  now,  except  Delaware  and  Georgia,  has 
made  some  provision  for  the  state  support  of  normal  instruction. 
Maryland,  Missouri,  Texas,  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  Alabama,  Ten- 
nessee,  Florida,    West  Virginia  and   Virginia  have  established 
special  normal  schools  for  teachers  of  both  races ;  while  the  other 
states,  with  the  two  exceptions  named,  if  these  be  exceptions, 


272  EDUCATION.  [December, 

attempt  to  provide  for  this  want  by  a  Professorship  of  Pedagogy 
in  the  State  University.  Every  southern  state  has  naturalized  the 
Summer  Institute.  The  latest  important  movements  are  the 
endorsement  of  the  Winthrop  Training  School  at  Columbia, 
South  Carolina,  by  a  state  subsidy  of  thirty-four  free  scholar- 
ships;—  the  establishment  of  a  state  normal  school  for  boys  at  the 
old  William  and  Mary  College  in  Williamsburg,  Va. ;  and  the 
planting  of  a  new  Chautauqua  Assembly  with  large  promise  of 
success  in  the  suburbs  of  Atlanta,  Ga. 

THE  chronic  ecclesiastical  misapprehension  of  character-train- 
ing in  schools  is  not  an  exclusively  sectarian  infirmity,  but 
breaks  out  continually  among  the  clergy  of  every  religious  sect 
and  the  leaders  of  every  anti-religious  organization.  It  is  the 
notion  that  character-training  in  schools  depends  chiefly  on 
preaching,  religious  services,  catechising,  and  the  whole  machinery 
of  ecclesiastical  propagandism.  So  far  as  indoctrination  in  reli- 
gious or  atheistic  sectarianism  is  concerned,  this  notion  is  probably 
true.  But,  in  the  character-training  that  gives  to  American 
civilization  a  generation  of  righteous  young  men  and  women  with 
the  moral  equipment  of  good  citizenship,  this  ecclesiastical  fancy 
is  notably  untrue.  Children  in  school,  as  everywhere,  including 
college  students,  are  cliiefly  trained  to  right  feeling,  willing,  think- 
ing and  acting  by  the  organization,  discipline,  environments  and 
moral  atmosphere  of  the  school  itself,  in  connection  with  the 
character,  the  '*walk  and  conversation,"  of  the  teacher. 

ONE  feature  in  the  school  work  of  the  late  Mr.  E.  C.  Camgan 
has  not  received  at  home  the  consideration  it  deserves. 
While  more  active,  in  some  directions,  than  any  young  man  in 
Boston  and  Massachusetts,  he  was  foremost  in  a  broad  sympathy 
with  and  a  constant  effort  for  the  enlargement  of  educational  life 
through  the  southern  states.  His  zeal  for  National  aid  was  a  con- 
stant rebuke  to  the  local  provincialism  that  would  withhold  from 
the  six  millions  of  southern  children  and  youth  that  assistance  by 
which  the  Northwest  has  l>eeome  what  it  is,  and  insist  on  applying 
abstract  right  theories  in  the  wrong  place.  In  the  death  of  Mr. 
Carrigan  our  southern  school-men  will  deplore  the  loss  of  one  of 
their  most  enlightened,  energetic,  and  unwearied  supporters  and 
friends. 


1888.]  MISCELLANY  275 


OLD  SOUTH  LECTURES  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE. 

THE  course  of  Old  South  Lectures  for  the  summer  of  1888  had  the 
general  title  of  ''  THE  STORY  OF  THE  CENTURIES."  These 
Lectures  are  devoted  primarily  to  American  history.  But  this  object  ia 
liberally  construed,  and  a  constant  aim  is  to  impress  upon  the  young 
people  the  relations  of  our  own  history  to  English  and  general  European 
history,  and  our  indebtedness  to  the  long  past.  Next  year  will  be  the 
centennial  both  of  the  founding  of  our  own  national  government  and  of 
the  beginning  of  the  French  Revolution. 

In  connection  with  the  lectures,  the  young  people  were  requested  to 
^yi  in  mind  certain  dates,  observing  that  in  most  instances  the  date  comes> 
about  a  decade  before  the  close  of  the  century.  An  effort  has  been 
made  in  the  Leaflets  for  the  year  to  make  dates,  which  are  so  often  dull 
and  useless  to  young  people,  interesting,  significant,  and  useful. 

The  Old  South  Lectures  in  American  History  for  November  and  Decem- 
ber, by  Mr.  John  Fiske,  on  Scenes  and  Characters  in  American  History. 
Thomas  Hutchinson,  last  Royal  Governor  of  Massachusetts ;  Charles> 
Lee,  the  Soldier  of  Fortune ;  Andrew  Jackson,  Frontiersman  and  Sol- 
dier; Andrew  Jackson  and  American  Democracy  Sixty  Years  Ago; 
**  Tippecanoe  and  Tyler  Too'';  Daniel  Webster  and  the  Sentiment  of 
Union. 

The  Old  South  Leaflets  for  the  year,  corresponding  with  the  several 
lectures,  are  as  follows:  1.  ''The  Early  History  of  Oxford,"  from 
Green's  History  of  the  English  People,  2.  ''  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion 
and  the  Third  Crusade,"  from  the  Chronicle  of  Geoffrey  de  Vinsauf. 

3.  "The  Universal  Empire,"  passages  from  Dante's  De  Monarchia. 

4.  "The  Sermon  on  the  Mount,"  WyclifTs  translation.  5.  "Coper- 
nicus and  the  Ancient  Astronomers,"  from  Humboldt's  Cosmos.  6.  "  The 
Defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada,"  from  Camden's  Annals.  7.  "  The  Bill 
of  Rights,"  1689.  8.  "  The  Eve  of  the  French  Revolution,"  from  Car- 
lyle.  These  selections  are  accompanied  by  very  full  historical  and  biblio- 
graphical notes  by  Mr.  Edwin  D.  Mead,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  seriea 
will  prove  of  much  service  to  students  and  teachers  engaged  in  the  gen- 
eral survey  of  modern  history.  The  leaflets  are  sold  for  five  cents  a 
copy,  or  three  dollars  per  hundred  ;  the  series  of  eight,  neatly  bound  in 
flexible  cloth  cover,  fortv  cents.  Address  Directors  of  Old  South  Studies, 
Old  South  Meeting  House,  Boston.  Schools  and  the  trade  supplied  by 
D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston,  New  York,  and  Chicago. 


574  EDUCATION.  [December, 

The  subjects  proposed  for  the  Old  South  essays,  the  present  year,  are 
the  following:  I.  ^*  England^s  Part  in  the  Crusades,  and  the  influence 
of  the  Crusades  upon  the  development  of  English  Liberty."  II.  '*  The 
Political  Thought  of  Sir  Henry  Vane.  Consider  Vane's  relations  to 
Cromwell  and  his  influence  upon  America."  The  competition  for  the 
prizes  is  open  to  all  who  have  graduated  from  the  Boston  High  Schools 
in  1887  and  1888.  A  prize  of  forty  dollars  is  awarded  for  the  best  essay 
on  each  of  the  subjects  proposed,  and  twenty-five  dollars  for  the  second 
l)est,  four  prizes  in  all. 


*'  LIBRARIES  AS  BELATED  TO  THE  EDUCATIONAL 

WORK  OF  THE  STATE r 

THIS  is  the  title  of  an  article  in  **  Library  Notes,"  for  June,  1888, 
being  **  Notes  of  an  Address  by  Melvil  Dewey,  before  the  Convo- 
cation of  the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York,  July  1 1 ,  1888."  The 
•whole  article  is  a  very  suggestive  one,  which  will  amply  repay  a  reading 
b}'  any  thoughtful  teacher.  He  gives  a  ver\'  shaip  description  of  the 
'*  old  "  and  the  '•  new  "  library,  as  follows :  — 

"  The  old  library  was  passive,  asleep,  a  reservoir  or  cistern,  getting  in  but 
not  giving  out,  an  arsenal  in  time  of  peace;  the  librarian  a  sentinel  before  the 
doors,  a  jailor  to  guard  against  the  escape  of  the  unfortunates  under  his  care. 
The  new  library  is  active,  an  aggressive,  educating  force  in  the  community,  a 
living  fountain  of  good  influences,  an  army  In  the  field  with  all  guns  limbered; 
and  the  librarian  occupies  a  field  of  active  usefulness  second  to  none.^' 

Read  what  Doctor  Dewey  says  of :  — 

"  OUR  TWO-SIDED  TRIANGLE. 

*^  Beading  is  a  mighty  engine,  beside  which  steam  and  electricity  sink  into  in- 

«ignlficance.    Four  words  of  five  are  written :  '  it  will  do  Infinite ' :     It 

remains  for  us  to  add  *  good '  or  *  ill.'  What  can  we  do?  Good  advice  and  ex- 
ample, encouragement  of  the  best,  addresses,  all  these  help,  but  no  one  ques- 
tions that  the  main  work  is  possible  only  through  the  organization  and  econo- 
my of  free  public  libraries.  Many  have  practically  accepted  this  fact  without 
clearly  seeing  the  steps  that  have  led  to  it.  It  is  our  high  privilege  to  live 
when  the  public  is  beginning  to  see  more  than  the  desirability,  the  absolute 
necessity,  of  this  modern,  missionary,  library  work.  With  the  founding  of 
New  England  it  was  recognized,  though  opposed  to  the  traditions  of  great 
powers  In  church  and  state,  that  the  church  alone,  however  great  its  pre- 
•eminence,  could  not  do  all  that  was  necessary  for  the  safety  and  uplifting  of 
the  people.  So  side  by  side  they  built  meeting-house  and  school-house.  The 
plan  has  had  a  long  and  thorough  trial.  None  of  us  are  likely  to  question  the 
wisdom  of  bringing  the  school  into  this  prominence,  but  thoughtful  men  are 
today,  more  than  ever  before,  pointing  out  that  a  great  something  is  wanting 
and  that  church  and  school  together  have  not  succeeded  in  doing  all  that  was 


1888.]  MISCELLANY.  275 

hoped  or  all  that  is  necessary  for  the  common  safety  and  the  common  good* 
The  school  starts  the  education  in  childhood ;  we  have  come  to  a  point  where 
in  some  way  we  must  carry  it  on.  The  simplest  figure  cannot  be  bounded  by 
less  than  three  lines;  the  lightest  table  cannot  be  firmly  supported  by  less  than 
a  tripod.  No  more  can  the  triangle  of  groat  educational  work  now  well  begun 
be  complete  without  the  church  as  a  basis,  the  school  as  one  side,  the  library 
the  other.  The  pulpit,  the  press,  and  wide-awake  educators  everywhere  are 
accepting  this  doctrine.  There  is  a  general  awakening  all  along  the  line.  The 
nation  is  just  providing  in  the  congressional  library  a  magnificent  home  for  our 
greatest  collection  of  books;  the  states  are  passing  new  and  more  liberal  laws 
to  encourage  the  founding  and  proper  support  of  free  libraries ;  individuals  are- 
giving  means  for  establishing  these  great  educational  forces,  as  never  before." 

Every  one  will  read  the  following  with  interest :  — 

^^  As  with  the  free  school,  so  again,  New  England  leads  in  free  libraries,  but 
her  example  is  being  followed  with  constantly  increasing  rapidity. 

THE  LIMITATIONS  OF  THE  SCHOOLS. 

^*  Our  fathers  had  to  revise  their  ideas  and  introduce  the  free  schools  as  ai> 
essential  factor.  The  time  has  come  when  we  must  revise  our  conceptions  of 
education  or  refuse  to  recognize  very  significant  facts. 

^^  Education  is  a  mutter  of  a  life  time.  We  provide  in  the  schools  for  the  first, 
ten  or  fifteen  years  and  are  only  come  to  the  threshold  of  seeing  our  duty  to 
the  rest  of  life.  We  begin  to  see  that  the  utmost  that  we  can  hope  for  the 
masses  is  schooling  till  they  can  take  the  author's  meaning  from  the  printed 
page.  I  do  not  mean  merely  to  pronounce  the  words  or  pass  the  tests  for  illit- 
eracy, but  to  understand.  Observation  has  convinced  me  that  the  reason  why 
so  many  people  are  not  habitual  readers  is,  in  most  cases,  that  they  have  never 
really  learned  to  read;  and,  startling  as  this  may  seem,  tests  will  show  that 
many  a  man  who  would  resent  the  charge  of  illiteracy  is  wholly  unable  to  re- 
produce the  author*s  thoughts  by  looking  at  the  printed  page.  And  even  with 
this  tremendous  modifier  of  the  real  number  of  readers  we  lose  ground.  I  am 
no  pessimist.  I  have  no  sympathy  with  croakers.  I  am  proud  to  the  last  de- 
gree of  the  great  work  that  is  being  done.  But  we  cannot  shut  our  eyes  to  the 
census.  In  1870  fifteen  per  cent,  of  illiterates  seemed  an  ugly  item,  but  it  had 
grown  to  seventeen  per  cent,  in  1880,  in  spite  of  all  our  millions  and  all  our 
boasts.  Of  the  children  of  school  age  in  this  great  state,  how  pitifully  few  get- 
beyond  the  grammar  school?  And  of  those  who  become  academic  pupils  how 
many  enter  college?  And  to  the  saving  remnant  that  graduates  from  college, 
how  much  of  the  knowledge  of  after  life  came  from  schools,  and  how  much 
from  reading?  We  must  face  the  facts.  We  must  struggle  to  teach  our  masses 
to  read  in  our  schools.  Then  they  must  become  bread  winners;  and  if  we  carry 
on  their  education  we  must  do  it  by  providing  free  libraries  which  shall  serve 
as  high  schools  and  colleges  for  the  people.  Our  schools,  at  best,  will  only 
furnish  the  tools  (how  rudimentary  those  tools  for  most  people  now) ;  but  in 
the  ideal  libraries,  towards  which  we  are  looking  today,  will  be  found  the  ma- 
terials which,  with  these  tools,  may  be  worked  up  into  good  citizenship  and 
higher  living.  The  schools  give  the  cliisel ;  the  libraries  the  marble ;  there  can 
be  no  statues  without  both.  As  this  fact  becomes  more  generally  recognized 
the  time  draws  nearer  when  the  traveler  will  no  longer  ask,  have  you  a  library^ 
but  where  is  the  library,  assuming  its  existence  as  much  as  he  now  assumes  that 
there  must  be  a  church,  and  school,  and  post-office.^ 


»> 


276  EDUCATION,  [December, 


FOREIGN  NOTES, 

People's  Palace,  East  London.  —  The  first  annual  report  of  the 
operations  of  tlic  '*  People's  Palace  "  at  the  East -end  of  London,  reads 
like  an  eastern  tale  Something  over  a  million  and  a  half  of  people  have 
visited  the  institution  during  this  time,  and  the  numbers  who  have  been 
turned  away  for  want  of  room  would  swell  tlie  total  considerably.  The 
institution  provides  both  instruction  and  recreation.  The  facilities  for 
the  former  consist  of  technical,  art,  and  science  schools,  general  classes, 
and  free  library.  The  latter  is  providc»d  by  shows,  concerts,  and  fBtes 
of  various  kinds.  The  swimming  bath  and  the  gymnasium  partake  of 
both  characters.  The  large  new  technical  schools,  opened  October  5th, 
are  the  gitl  of  the  Drapers*  Company.  These  schools  have  accommo- 
dations and  equipments  for  five  thousand  evening  students,  and  the  indi- 
cations ore  that  every  place  will  be  filled.  Although  the  enterprise  has 
been  wonderfully'  successful,  much  yet  remains  to  be  done  to  place  it 
upon  a  sound  basis.  The  site  is  only  partially  paid  for,  while  at  least 
£25,000  will  be  required  to  replace  certain  temporary  buildings  with  per- 
manent structures. 

Hospftal  for  Owens  College. — The  governing  bo<ly  of  Owens  Col- 
lege, Manchester,  has  received  from  the  residuary  legatees  of  Sir  Jose[^h 
Whitworth,  the  offer  of  a  site  for  a  general  hospital,  thirty-five  thousand 
pounds  towards  the  erection  and  equipment  of  the  same,  and  an  annual 
income  of  one  thousand  pounds.  The  hospital  is  needed  for  practical 
instruction  in  medicine  and  surgery 

English  vs.  German  Pharmacists.  —  In  his  address  at  the  opening  of 
the  forty-seventh  session  of  the  School  of  Pharmacy',  London,  Sir  Henry 
Roscoe  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  German  pharmacists  greatly 
excelled  the  English  in  the  discovery  and  preparation  of  simples.  He 
attributes  this  to  the  more  ample  opportunity  afiforded  the  German  stu- 
dent for  the  pursuit  of  chemistrj''  in  its  higher  stages,  and  in  its  applica- 
tion to  pharmacy. 

Free  Schools  in  Prussia.  —  One  of  the  last  acts  signed  by  the  late 
emperor  of  Germany  was  that  making  the  schools  of  Prussia  free  in 
fact  as  they  had  long  been  in  law.  The  act  went  into  operation,  Octo- 
ber 1st. 

Centennial  Celebration  of  the  University  of  Bologna.  —  Inter- 
est in  the  remarkable  history  of  the  University  of  Bologna  has  been 
revived  by  the  recent  centennial  celebration.     The  *'  Revue  InternatioQ- 


1888.]  THE  NATIONAL  MUSEUM  AT  WASHINGTON.  277 

ale  De  L'Enseigneraent"  publishes  an  exhaustive  article  upon  the  sub- 
ject, from  which  the  following  particulars  are  drawn  :  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  University  of  Paris,  that  of  Bologna  is  the  oldest  in  Europe ; 
its  origin  is  lost  in  tradition ;  the  statutes  of  the  corporation  were  men- 
tioned for  the  first  time  in  1224  in  a  letter  of  Pope  Honorius  III. ;  but  it 
was  not  until  1253  that  the}*  received  the  approval  of  the  Pope,  bj  which 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  corporation  has  not  yet  completed  its  seventh 
century. 

The  school  of  liberal  arts  and  the  law  school,  however,  date  from  much 
earlier  periods,  and  it  is  with  reference  to  the  latter  that  the  recent  cele- 
bration was  characterized  as  the  eighth  centennial.  The  day  chosen  for 
the  festival,  viz.,  June  12th,  commemorated  the  evacuation  of  Bologna 
by  the  Austrians.  In  memory  of  this  event,  the  city  had  decided  to  in- 
augurate a  statue  of  Victor  Emanuel,  and  it  was  determined  to  join  with 
this  the  celebration  of  the  Universit}'.  Two  days  were  occupied  with 
the  ceremonies,  the  most  interesting  part  of  which  took  place  on  the  12th, 
when  the  foreign  delegates  presented  their  addresses  to  the  rector  in  the 
presence  of  the  royal  family.  The  delegates  wore  their  official  robes  and 
carried  various  insignia,  presenting  altogether  a  brilliant  and  impressive 
spectacle. 

Tradition  recalls  a  time  when  Bologna  numbered  ten  thousand  students. 
At  present  it  ranks  third  among  Italian  universities  in  this  respect,  hav- 
ing 1,338  students  as  against  2,102  at  Turin,  and  4,083  at  Naples.  The 
teaching  force  numbers  128  professors.  Tiie  annual  expenses  have 
reached  the  sum  of  $137,416,  of  which  the  state  contributes  a  small  por- 
tion, and  the  city  and  province  of  Bologna  the  larger  portion. 

A.    T.    8. 


THE  NATIONAL  MUSEUM  AT  WASHINGTON. 

BY  A.  TOLMAN  SMITH. 

IN  his  opening  address  before  the  Anthropological  section  of  the  Brit- 
ish Association,  Lieutenant-General  Pitt- Rivers  said :  ^^  A  national 
museum,  created  and  maintained  at  the  public  expense,  should  be  availa- 
ble for  public  instruction,  and  not  solely  a  place  of  reference  for  savants ; " 
and  again,  '^  The  one  great  feature  which  it  is  desirable  to  emphasize  in 
connection  with  the  exhibition  of  archaeological  and  ethnological  speci- 
mens is  evolution." 

These  two  ideas  are  so  fully  embodied  in  the  National  Museum  at 
Washington  that  it  is  difficult  to  resist  the  impression  that  the  words 
quoted  were  uttered  with  this  in  mind.  The  supposition  appears  the 
more  probable  from  the  fact  that  referring  to  the  series  of  annual  exhibi- 


278  ED  UCA  TlOy.  [December, 

tions  for  which  London  has  become  famous,  the  speaker  said  farther : 
'*  Throughout  the  whole  series  of  these  annual  temi)orary  collections,  only 
one,  viz.,  the  American  department  of  the  Fisheries  Exhibition,  was  ar- 
ranged upon  scientific  principles,  and  that  was  arranged  upon  the  plan 
adopted  by  the  National  Museum  at  Washington."  By  adherence  to  the 
same  principles,  the  Museum,  as  it  stands  today,  illustrates  more  effect- 
ively than  any  other  collection  in  the  world,  *'  the  continuity  and  his- 
torical sequence  of  the  arts  of  life." 

We  ma}'  consider,  for  example,  the  case  of  musical  instruments  in 
which  are  brought  together  some  of  the  crudest  and  some  of  the  most 
complicated  pieces  of  mechanism  ever  devised  b}'  man.  Under  ordinary 
arrangements  their  number  and  variety  would  be  confusing,  and  the  im- 
pression made  by  any  particular  piece  would  be  quickly  effaced  by  its 
neighbor ;  here,  however,  each  ap{)ears  as  a  link  in  an  historical  chain, 
and  the  mind,  animated  by  the  association,  seizes  and  retains  the  image 
of  the  object  in  inseparable  union  with  its  ethnological  relations. 

The  rude  instrument  upon  which  an  African  minstrel  has  celebrated, 
perchance,  the  triumphs  of  a  savage  conqueror,  has  little  charm  for  a 
cultivated  ear,  but  as  evidences  of  the  universality  of  the  musical  instinct, 
and  the  part  which  man's  environment  plays  in  its  expression,  the  wood- 
en keys,  the  row  of  gourds  beneath,  and  the  hammer  that  sets  them  into 
vibration,  assume  a  fascinating  interest. 

A  higher  type  of  the  same  instrument  is  seen  in  a  specimen  obtained 
fi-om  an  Indian  tribe.  This  has  keys  of  resonant  wood  and  a  graduated 
series  of  long  gourds.  Near  the  base  of  each  gourd  is  a  small  hole  sup- 
plied with  a  stopper.  The  purpose  is  evident,  the  gourds  being  filled 
with  water  it  can  be  run  off  at  the  holes  until  the  desired  tones  are  se- 
cured. On  one  occasion  since  its  arrival  in  the  Museum,  this  hydraulic 
organ  has  actually  been  put  into  working  order  and  a  few  airs  evoked. 
The  Indian  instrument,  its  rude  prototype,  and  primitive  forms  of  the 
wind  organ  are  steps  in  a  continuous  progression,  as 

"  Ever  by  symbols  and  slow  degrees 
Art  childlike  creeps  to  the  dear  Lord's  knees.-' 

The  relations  of  the  several  objects  in  a  collection  could  not,  of  course, 
be  readily  discerned  by  the  ordinary  visitor  without  explanations.  These 
are  measurably  supplied  b}'  the  descriptive  labels  attached  to  each  speci- 
men. As  fast  as  the  resources  of  the  Museum  permit,  additional  helps 
will  be  provided  in  the  form  of  printed  statements  setting  forth  the  sali- 
ent characteristics  of  each  collection.  None  of  these  helps,  it  is  true, 
can  take  the  place  of  the  living  teacher,  and  he  who  is  fortunate  enough 
to  view  a  single  section  under  the  guidance  of  the  curator  of  the  Museum, 


1888.]  THE  NATIONAL  MUSEUM  AT  WASHINGTON.  279 

Prof.  G.  Brown  Goode,  will  experience  an  intellectual  treat  never  to  be 
forgotten. 

To  the  scholarly  mind  nothing  in  the  Museum  surpasses  in  interest  the 
study  collection  of  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  antiquities  whichis  the  joint 
work  of  the  Museum  and  Johns  Hopkins  University. 

The  great  difficulty  in  the  way  of  beginning  the  collection  was  the 
dearth  of  material.  A  happy  thought  has  overcome  this  difficulty.  Al- 
most every  oriental  traveller  brings  home  a  seal  or  two  with  now  and 
then  a  rarer  fragment.  Measures  were  taken  to  secure  copies  of  these 
objects  or  the  loan  of  them  for  copying  from  every  part  of  the  country. 
The  idea  took  well  and  the  work  of  collection  is  rapidly  progressing.  The 
study  of  the  inscriptions  and  figures  has  been  facilitated  by^  a  device 
which  I  believe  is  original  with  the  Museum.  A  professor  from  Johns 
Hopkins,  nosing  about  the  collections  one  day,  observed  the  methods  em- 
ployed by  Prof.  Otis  Mason  for  the  display  of  Indian  writings  and  carv- 
ings, and  was  immediately  struck  with  its  adaptation  to  the  oriental  rel- 
ics. There  are  undoubtedly  secrets  in  the  process  by  which  the  final 
result  is  affected,  but  it  appears  simple  enough  to  the  casual  observer.. 
A  plastic  plate  is  prepared  upon  which  the  cylinder  is  rolled,  leaving  an 
intaglio  impression  of  its  surfaces.  From  this  a  relief  is  obtained,  and 
the  three  pieces  together,  viz.,  the  duplicate  of  the  seal,  the  intaglio,  and 
the  cameo  plates  mi\ke  up  a  complete  and  unique  reproduction  of  the 
original.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  authorities  of  the  Berlin  Museum 
have  asked  for  precise  information  as  to  the  mode  of  treatment  here 
described. 

The  importance  of  this  collection  can  only  be  fully  appreciated  by 
those  who  know  what  is  being  done  in  the  line  of  Assyrian  research  in 
our  universities  and  theological  schools.  A  brief  statement  of  the  facts 
will  be  found  in  the  address  of  Dr.  Paul  Haupt,  of  Johns  Hopkins,  de- 
livered on  twelfth  Commemoration  Day,  and  published  in  Vol.  VII.,  No. 
64,  of  the  University  circulars. 

Doctor  Haupt,  who  perhaps  leads  the  work  in  this  country,  has  super- 
vision of  the  arrangement  and  cataloguing  of  the  Assyrian  collection  of 
the  National  Museum. 


i 


9B0 


EDUCATlOy. 


[December, 


BIBLIOGRAPHT  OF   CURRENT  PERIODICAL   LIT- 
ER A  TURE    UPON  ED  UCA  TION. 


The  following  bibliogniphy  of  current  perio<Hcal  literature  includes  articles  upon 
•dneation  and  other  subjects  calculated  to  interest  teachers.  Only  articles  from  peri- 
odicals not  nominally  oducutional  are  mentioned.  Articles  of  special  importance  to 
teachers  will,  as  a  rule,  be  mentioned  in  notes. 


After  Us  — What?  J.  R.  Kondrick. 
Fbrum^  November. 

Apologia  pro  Fide  Noj^ira.  Freder- 
ic Harrison.  Fortiwjhtly  Jievirw^  No- 
vember. 

A  defence  of  the  religion  of  Posi- 
tivii^m. 

Arnold,  Matthew.  Augustine  Bir- 
rell.    Srribni'r*8y  November. 

Arnold,  Matthew,  As  an  English 
Writer.  T.  W.  Hunt.  Xew  Princeton 
HevieWy  November. 

Arnold,  Matthew.  Quarterly  Re- 
^eic,  October. 

Arnold,  Matthew,  llie  Poetry  of. 
Edinburfjh  Review ^  October. 

At  Last:  Six  Days  in  the  Life  of 
an  Ex-Teacher.  Second  Day. —The 
Teacher  is  Taught.  John  llabberton. 
Lippinc.otVSy  November. 

Barbarism,  The  Renaissance  of. 
George  R.  Stetson.  Xnc  Princeton 
Beviewy  November. 

Browningism,  Esoteric.  Andrew 
Lang.    Forum^  November. 

Calirulating  Boys,  Some  Strange 
Fears  of.  R.  A.  Proctor.  Knowledge^ 
November. 

Calvary.  Where  was  "the  Place 
called  Calvary"?  Charles  S.  Robin- 
son.    Century^  November. 

Canada  and  the  United  States, 
Qoldwin  Smith.    Forum^  November. 

Catholic  University,  A  Chat  about 
the.  John  J.  Keane.  Catholic  Worlds 
November. 

Catholicism  and  Public  Schools. 
Gail  Hamilton.  North  American  Re- 
view^ November. 

Catholics  in  Seientiiic  Matters,  The 
Liberty  of.  John  Gmeiner.  Catholic 
Worldy  November. 

Charity,  The  Organization  of.  Mrs. 
J.  Shaw  Lowell.  Chautauqitan^  No- 
vember. 

Children  as  Suicides.  Agnes  Rep- 
pller.     Catholic  Worlds  November. 

Readable  and  suggestive. 


Churchill,  A  Foreign  Estimate  of 
Jjord  Randolph,  \ational  Review^  No- 
vember. 

Clergy.  **The  Quarterly  Review" 
and  the  Culture  of  our  Clergy.  G.  B. 
Lancaster  Woodburne.  Dublin  Re- 
nVir,  Oc'tober. 

A  defence  of  the  education  of  the 
Catholic  clergy. 

(.'ole  and  his  Work.  W.  J.  StillmaD. 
Century^  November. 

College  Work,  Economy  in.  John 
Trowbridge.    Atlantic^  November. 

Common  School  Conflict,  The.  M. 
J.  Savage.  Unity  l^tJpit  Sermons^ 
November  Ifi. 

Country  Help  for  City  Charities. 
Miss  /ilpha  I).  Smith.  Lend  a  Hand. 
November. 

Credir  Exchanges  We  Use,  The. 
Henry  C  Adams.  Chautauquan^  No- 
vember. 

Criminal^.  Creating  Criminals. 
Charles  Dudley  Warner.  Forum^  No- 
vember. 

A  forcible  argument  for  an  indeter- 
minate sentence.  **The  time  will 
come,  I  have  no  doubt,'*  says  the  au- 
thor, '*  when  the  world  will  look  back 
with  astonishment  to  the  period  when 
it  was  thought  either  just  or  economi- 
cal to  let  criminals  prey  upon  society, 
and  when  it  was  not  thought  the  high- 
est act  of  mercy  to  make,  if  necessary, 
a  life-long  eflfort  for  their  reforma- 
tion.'' 

Culture,  Creed,  and  Christianity. 
Ernest  H.  Crosby.  Andover  Review^ 
November. 

Culture,  Possibilities  of.  James 
Donaldson.     Foruniy  November. 

Darwin.  W.  Preyer.  Deutsche  Rund- 
schaUy  November. 

Drummond,  Professor,  and  Athletic 
Christianity  in  our  American  Colleges. 
T.  Gold  Frost.  Andover  Review^  No- 
vember. 


1888.] 


BIBLIOGRAPHY, 


281 


An  interesting  account  of  Professor 
Druminond's  valuable  work  in  Ameri- 
ca last  year. 

Education  Commission,  Report  of 
the.  Canon  Gregory.  Contemporary 
Beview,  November. 

Education,  New  Principles  in.  Chas. 
G.  Leland.  New  Princeton  Beview^ 
November. 

Valuable.  The  writer  urges  **  the 
practit^ability  of  teaching  or  forming 
memory  and  quickness  of  perception.*' 

Education  of  th»*  Masses,  The. 
James  P.  Munroe.  New  Princeton  Be- 
view^  November. 

Economic  Uses  of  the  Telegraph  and 
the  Telephone.  Edward  Everett  Hale. 
Chautauquan^  November. 

Egypt,  Our  Task  in.  Fortnightly 
Bevipw^  November. 

Contains  a  brief  account  of  educa- 
tion in  Egypt. 

Elementary  School  Teaching  as  a 
Profession.  Edith  Simcox.  Woman^s 
Worlds  November. 

Engineer,  The  Education  of  an. 
Robert  Louis  Stevenson.  Scribner^s^ 
November. 

England.  Is  the  Power  of  England 
Declining?  A.  Vambery.  Forum, 
November. 

Ethics,  The  Reaction  of,  upon  Eco- 
nomics. James  Morris  VVhiton.  Yale 
Beview^  November. 

Ethik,  Zur  Reform  der.  Th.  Achel- 
is.     Unsere  Zeit^  November. 

Examination,  The  Sacrifice  of  Edu- 
cation to  Examination.  1.  A  Signed 
Protest.  2.  By  Prof.  Max  Muller. 
3.  By  Professor  Freeman.  4.  By 
Prof.  Frederic  Harrison.  Nineteenth 
Century^  November. 

This  protest  against  the  present  sys- 
tem of  Competitive  Examinations  in 
England  is  signed  by  a  large  number 
of  prominent  educators.  The  writers 
mentioned  above  are  emphatic  in  con- 
demning the  evils  of  the  examinations. 
Professor  Harrison  says:  ** Exami- 
nation has  grown  and  hardened  into 
the  master  of  Education.'' 

Examinations,  Effect  of  Competi- 
tive. A.  C.  Ranyard.  Knowledge^ 
November. 

Factory  Life,  Studies  of:  Black- 
Listing  at  Fall  River.  Lillie  B.  Chace 
Wyman.    Atlantic^  November. 

Fortunes.  Les  grandes,  en  Angle- 
terre.  —  IIL  M.  C.  de  Varigny.  Be- 
vue  des  Deux  Mondes,  November. 

French  Traits.— Manners.  W.  C. 
Brownell.    Scribner's^  November. 

Gebrauche  und  Aberglauben  beim 


Essen,  Ueber.    Carl  Haberland.    ZeU- 
schrift  fur  Vdlkerpsychologie^  Heft  4. 

Gravelotte  to  Sedan,  From.  GreD. 
Philip  H.  Sheridan.  Scribner's,  No- 
vember. 

Gravelotte  Witnessed  and  Revisited. 
Murat  Halstead.     Century^  November. 

Guilds  of  the  City  of  London,  The. 
Norman  Moore.     Century^  November. 

Handicraft,  The  Revival  of.  Will- 
iam Morris.  Fortnightly  Beview^  No- 
vember. 

Harvard  University,  The  Fast  Set 
at.  Aleck  Quest.  North  American  Be- 
view^  November. 

Ueroclitus,  A  Further  Study  of.  G. 
T.  W.  Patrick.  American  Journal  of 
Psychology,  August. 

An  interesting  and  valuable  contri- 
bution to  the  literature  of  Greek  phil- 
osopliy. 

Hexengeschichten,  Zwei.  W. 
Schwartz.  Zeitschrift  fur  Volkerpsy- 
chologie^  Heft  4. 

Hexenglaube,  Der,  und  seine  Nach- 
folger.  Leon  Wespy.  Unsere  Zeit^ 
November. 

Home,  Evolution  of  the.  J.  Max 
Hank.    Andover  Beview^  November. 

Idealism  and  Christianity.  Henry 
Graham.  Methodist  Beview^  Novem- 
ber. 

Independence,  The  Eve  of.  John 
Fiske.    Atlantic^  November. 

Intellectual  Life  of  America,  The. 
Charles  Eliot  Norton.  New  Princeton 
BevieWy  November. 

Invalidism  as  a  Fine  Art.  A.  B. 
Ward.    Harper's^  November. 

Ishmael,  The  Tribe  of.  Oscar  C. 
McCulloch.    Lend  a  Handy  November. 

*'  A  study  in  social  degradation." 

Italy.  The  makers  of  New  Italy. 
Wil  liam  Roscoe  Thayer.  Atlantic^  No- 
vember. 

Job,  The  Interpretation  of  the  Book 
of.  John  F.  Genung.  Andover  B^ 
vieWy  November. 

Kant  a  Is  Mystiker.  Carl  du  Prel. 
SphynZy  September  and  October. 

Kunstgewerbes,  Das  Arbeitsgeblet 
des.  Julius  Les  sing.  Deutsche  Bund^ 
schaUy  November. 

Landless,  The  Last  Resort  of  the. 
H.  J.  Desmond.     Forum^  November. 

Langage,  L'  Evolution  phonetique 
du.  B.  Bourdon.  Bevue  Philosoph' 
ique^  October. 

Language-Culture :  A  Symposium. 
Daniel  Steele,  et  al.  M^hodist  Be- 
viewy  November. 

Lincoln.  J.  G.  Nicolay,  John  Hay. 
Century^  November. 


382 


EDUCATION. 


[Decern  ber. 


Marriage,  Ideal.  Mona  Calrd.  West- 
minster  Jievietp,  November. 

Medk'iner,  Der  Biidiingsifi^ang  der. 
J.  H.  Baai«.      Unspre  Znt^  Novemher. 

Memory,  Talk*  on.  I.  Wilbert  W. 
White.     Chautauquan^  NovemJK*r. 

Mental  Science.  Notes  on  lIy|)not- 
Iwn.  Abnormal  Hense-Peroeptions. 
Science^  November  9. 

Morale,  La  crUe  de  la,  et  la  crUe  du 
droit  penal.  G.  Tarde.  Revue  Fhilu- 
sophique^  October. 

A  review  of  recent  literature  relating 
to  crime. 

Music  in  Early  Scotland.  J.  Cutb- 
bert  Hadden.  Scott  ink  liecietc,  Octo- 
ber. 

Mu9ik.  Berlin  und  die  deut^che 
MuAik.  R.  V.  Lilicncron.  Deutsche 
Bundschau^  November. 

MythBof  the  **Dark"  Age.<»,  Tho. 
Charles  G.  Herbermann.  Catholic 
Quarterly  Review^  Oi'tober. 

Naturalization  ]^aws  and  their  En- 
forcement. C.  C.  Bonney.  Yale  Re- 
vievj^  November. 

Nonsense  an  a  Fine  Art.  Quarterly 
Review^  October. 

Novel.  The  Religious  Novel.  Ran- 
dall T.  Davltison.  Contemporary  Re- 
view^ November. 

Novel.  The  Romantic  and  the  Realis- 
tic Novel.  Hjiilmar  lljorth  Boyeseu. 
Chautauquan^  November. 

Our  Little  Enemies.  John  A. 
Mooney.     Catholic  World,  November. 

A  popular  account  of  recent  inves- 
tigations in  bacteriology. 

Oratorv  of  the  House  of  (^ommons. 
The.  C.W.  Rad(?lim-Cooke.  Nation- 
al Review^  November. 

Our  Better  Halves.  Lester  F.  Ward. 
Forum^  November. 

An  attem|)t  to  show  from  a  bio- 
logical standpoint  that,  in  the  econo- 
my of  organic  nature  the  female  sex 
is  the  primary  element.  '*Tru<» 
science  teaches  that  the  elevation  of 
woman  is  the  only  sure  road  to  the 
evolution  of  man."' 

Painters.  Boston  Painters  and 
Paintings.  William  Howe  Downes. 
Atlantic^  November. 

Philosophic.  Introduction  a  la  sci- 
ence philosophique.  III.  La  science 
et  la  croyance  en  pbilosophie.  Paul 
Janet.     Revue  Philosophique.  October. 

Plague  and  Pestilence.  R.  A.  Proc- 
tor.    Knnipledge^  Novenib«»r. 

This  article,  reprinted  from  the  New 
York  Tribune^  was  the  last  written  by 
Professor  Proctor. 

Pontes  Contemporains  de  la  France. 


Sully-Prudhomrae.    Bibliotheque  Uni- 
verselle^  October. 

Political  Exiles  and  Common  Con- 
victs at  T<Mnsk.  George  Kennan. 
Century^  November. 

Poor.  The  I^ondon  Poor.  Arthur 
F.  Marshall.  Catholic  Quarterly  Re- 
view,  OctolH»r. 

Prior,  Matthew.  Austin  Dobson. 
New  Princeton  Review,  November. 

Psychische  Infection,  Ueber.  Rob- 
ert Wallenlwrg.  Archis  fur  Psychia- 
trie,  Bd.  XX.,  IL  L 

To  thi*«  article  is  appended  a  valua- 
ble bibliography  of  literature  upon 
psvchic  contagion. 

Psychologie.  I^*i  pretendue  evolu- 
tion du  sens  des  couleurs.  G.  Pou- 
chet.     Rerue  Scientijique^  Hi  October. 

Psychologie  Politique,  Essais  de: 
Gambetta.  Marquis  De  Castellane. 
NouFelle  Rerue,  Noveml)er. 

Puritan  Ideal,  The  G«*nesis  of  the. 
A.  M.  Fairbairii.  Contemporary  i?c- 
view,  November. 

Railroad  Men,  The  Everyday  Life 
of.  B.  B.  Adams,  Jr.  Scribner^s^'So- 
vember. 

Ramabai  Movement,  l^e.  John  C. 
Sundberg.     Ocerland,  November. 

Red  Man,  I'he  Rights  of  the.  Our 
Day,  Novenibi'r. 

Gives  the  platform  adopted  by  the 
M(»honk  Conference. 

Religion  in  Fiction, 'l^e  Sarcasm  of. 
T.  T.   Monger.     Century,  November. 

An  '*Open  Letter.'' 

Religions  Instruction  in  Schools, 
I>aws  concerning.  George  Shipmau 
Pay  son.     Our  Dati^  Noveml>er. 

Religion-*  Tliouifht  in  England  —  A 
Stu(iy  of  Three  Men.  Charles  C.  Star- 
buck.     .•l/j(/or*»r  Review^  November. 

The  three  men  studied  are  Richard 
Holt  Huttou,  Frederic  W.  H.  Myers, 
and  Matthew  Arnold. 

Reformation,  The  New.  Lyman 
Abbott.     Century^  November. 

A  valuable  account  of  the  present 
tendency  of  religious  thought. 

Rire,  F^e.  Causerie  Psychologique. 
Adrlen  Nauille.  Bibliotheque  Univer^ 
scUe,  Octoher. 

Robert  Elsmere  and  Christianity. 
Qnarttrly  Review,  Octolier. 

*•  Robert  Elsmere"  and  its  Critics. 
James  T.  Bixby.  Unitarian  RevieWy 
November. 

Rome,  Reason.  IL  R.  G.  Inger- 
soU.  North  American  Revieic,  Novem- 
ber. 

'*  A  reply  to  Cardinal  Manning." 

Schopenhauer  and  Omar  Khayyam. 


1888.] 


BIBLIOQRAPHT. 


283 


William  Lyon  Phelps.  Tale  Review^ 
November. 

Science-Teaching  in  the  Schools. 
Wllliara  North  Kice.  American  Nat- 
uralist^  September. 

Soeialism  in  the  Church  of  England. 
W.  D.  P.  Bliss.  Andover  Beciew^  No- 
veml)er. 

Societe,  Nature  et  fin  de  la.  Th. 
Ferneull.  Bevue  Philoaophique^  Octo- 
ber. 

Stanley.  Where  U  Stanley?  H.  H. 
Johnston.  Fortnightly  Bevievo^  No- 
vember. 

The  writer  believes  that  Stanley  is 
safe,  and  gives  an  interesting  account 
of  Stanley's  method  of  dealing  with 
the  savage  child-man. 

Storms,  The  Law  of.  Edinburgh 
Betiew^  October. 

Struggle  for  Subsistence,  The.  Ed- 
ward   Atlcinson.    Forum^   November. 

Suffrage.  Etude  Plillosophique  et 
Historique  sur  le  suffrage  universel  en 
France.  Renouvier.  Critique  Philo- 
Bophique^  October. 

Sweating  System,  Possible  Reme- 
dies for  the.  Arthur  A.  Baumann. 
National  Bevieio^  November. 

Tariff.  How  the  Tariff  Affects  In- 
dustry.   W.  C.  P.  Breckinridge.     Fo- 


rum, November. 


TaritI,  The  American.  Albert  Shaw. 
Contemporary  Beviexc,  November. 

Technical  Education  and  Foreign 
Competition.  Quarterly  Beview,  Octo- 
ber. 

Themistocles.  Thomas  D.  Seymour. 
Chautanquan,  November. 

Theology  in  Fiction.  Atlantic^  No- 
vember. 

Thrift  Movement  on  the  Continent, 
The.     Westminster  Beview,  November. 

Tokio  —  Jgukz.  Skizzen  und  Erin- 
Derungen  aus  der  zeit  des  geistigen 
UmschwuDgfl    in    Japan,    1871-1876. 


T^opold  MUller.    Deutsche  Bundschau^ 
November. 

Tyrrell's  Correspondence  of  Cicero. 
Edinburgh  Bevieio,  October. 

Unemployed,  A  Scheme  for  the. 
Samuel  A.  Barnett.  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury, November. 

The  writer  suggests  *^an  agricul- 
tural training  farm — a  technical  school 
in  land  work  —  a  work-fleld  as  a  sup- 
plement to  the  workhouse." 

Universities  Bill,  The.  W.  Peter- 
son.   Scottish  Beciew,  October. 

University,  The  Income  of  a.  G.  F. 
Browne.    National  Beview^  November. 

Statistics  in  regard  to  the  University 
of  Cami)ridge. 

Useless  Knowledge,  The  Cry  for. 
Lord  Armstrong.  Nineteenth  Century^ 
November. 

An  answer  to  the  advocates  of  tech- 
nical education. 

Wagner  Bubble,  ITie:  A  Reply.  C. 
Villiers  Stanford.  Nineteenth  CentU" 
ry,  November. 

Wall  Street  as  an  Economic  Factor. 
Brayton  Ives.  North  American  Be^ 
view,  November. 

Wanted  —  A  New  Textbook.  John 
Gilmary  Shea.  Catholic  Quarterly 
Beview,  October. 

The  writer  urges  the  need  of  politi- 
cal instruction  in  the  parochial 
schools. 

Winter,  Where  Shall  we  Spend  Our? 
A.  W.  Greeley.    Scribner's,  November. 

Woman's  Day,  The  Dawn  of. 
Frances  E.  Willard.  Our  Day^  No- 
vember. 

Women  on  School  Boards.  M.  W. 
Shinn.     Overland,  November. 

Articles  from  the  Popular  Science 
Monthly  mentioned  in  our  Bibliogra- 
phy last  month  were  from  the  Novem- 
ber number.  By  an  error  they  were 
dated  October. 


384  EDUCATION,  [December, 


AMONG  THE  BOOKS. 

From  HoaghtOD.  Mifflin  &  Co.,  we  have  received  the  following  choice  works : 

(10  The  Critical  Period  of  American  History.  1783-1789.  By  John 
Fiflke.    Pp.  3GS.    Price,  92.00. 

Those  who  are  familiar  with  John  Fi.ske*8  historical  works  need  not  be  told 
how  thoroughly  accurate  or  how  intensely  interesting  he  is  as  an  author.  The 
title  of  this  book  itself  tells  an  important  fact,  that  the  critical  period  of  our 
history  lay  between  the  treaty  of  peace  and  the  inauguration  of  a  new  govern- 
ment under  the  constitution.  His  description  of  "  the  results  of  Yorktown,'* 
"Drifting  toward  Anarchy,"  "  Germs  of  Political  Sovereignty,"  "the  Federal 
convention,"  and  "Crowning  the  Work"  are  as  interesting  as  any  romance. 
Of  the  men  who  formed  the  federal  constitution  he  says :  "  There  were  fifty- 
five  men,  all  of  them  respectable  for  family,  and  for  personal  qualities,  —  men 
who  had  been  well  educated  and  had  done  something  whereby  to  earn  recogni- 
tion in  these  troubled  times."  Twenty-nine  were  university  men ;  twenty-six 
were  not  university  men.  llie  oldest  was  Benjamin  Franklin,  now  eighty-one 
years  of  age,  and  the  youngest  was  Jonathan  Dayton,  of  New  Jersey,  aged 
twenty-six.  Hamilton  was  thirty,  and  Madison  thirty-six.  Of  the  latter  two^ 
Mr.  Flske  says:  "  Among  political  writers  these  two  men  must  be  ranked  in 
the  same  order  with  Aristotle,  Montesquieu,  and  Locke,  and  '  Tlie  Federalist,' 
their  joint  production,  as  the  greatest  treatise  on  government  that  has  ever 
been  written."  This  book  Is  highly  commended  to  all  students  of  American 
history. 

(2.)  Two  superb  volumes  of  581  pages,  elegantly  printe<l,  entitled  The  Life 
OP  Young  Sir  Henry  Vane,  Governor  of  Massachusetts  Bay.  and  I^eader 
of  the  Long  Parliament;  with  a  consideration  of  the  English  commonwealth 
as  a  forecast  of  America.  By  James  K.  Ilosmer,  Professor  in  Washington 
University,  St.  I^uis.     Price,  $4.00. 

This  new  life  of  Vane  will,  from  its  Intrinsic  merits,  challenge  the  attention 
of  the  great  body  of  literary  students  and  historical  scholars,  both  in  our  land 
and  in  the  mother  country.  Seldom  will  any  reader  come  across  a  description 
more  graphic,  more  vivid,  than  the  account  here  given  of  the  battle  of  Xaseby. 
The  book  is  not  merely  the  life  of  Sir  Henry  Vane,  it  is  rather  a  history,  and 
that  one  of  the  best,  of  England  and  of  New  England,  during  that  wonderful 
half  century  from  1612  to  16G2.  It  is  a  history  of  Cromwell  and  of  Milton,  of 
Winthrop  and  of  Koger  Williams,  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  John  Cotton,  of 
Anne  Hutchinson  and  Miles  Standish,  of  the  Star  Chamber  and  High  Commis- 
sion Courts,  of  Cavaliers  and  Roundheads,  of  Baptists  and  Quakers,  of  Alger- 
non Sidney  and  Adam  Smith,  of  James  Otis  and  Benjamin  Franklin,  of  the 
Bump  Parliament  and  of  written  constitutions.  Both  in  matter  and  in  man- 
ner this  is  a  rare  book,  and  one  of  the  greatest  value  to  students  of  history. 

(30  The  Divine  Comedy  of  Dante,  translated  into  English  verse  with  notes. 
By  John  Augustine  Wilstach.  In  two  volumes.  Pp.  502  and  509.  ^.00 
per  set. 

The  translator  of  this  immortal  poem  is  evidently  well  qualified  for  his  task^ 

difficult  though  it  be.    Very  many  will  rejoice  to  find  this  poetical  translation 


1888.]  AMONG  THE  BOOKS.  285 

BO  fairly  done  and  with  sach  fidelity  to  the  Italian  poet.  The  notes  at  the  end 
of  each  Canto  are  of  great  value;  and  not  the  least  among  the  good  qualities 
of  the  book  will  be  found  the  very  valuable  and  extensive  ^^ general  index"  of 
more  than  twenty-five  pages,  fine  type,  in  double  columns. 

Mr.  John  C.  Sickley,  Librarian  of  the  City  Library^  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y., 
has  issued  nine  ^'  Lists  of  Books,  recommended  for  Pupils^  Reading."  These 
are  severally  for  the  first  primary  grade,  and  the  various  grades  of  the  gram- 
mar and  high  school?.  They  are  evidently  selected  with  care,  and  the  move- 
ment is  one  of  great  practical  value.  ^^  The  books  recommended  have  no  con- 
nection with  the  studies  of  the  pupiU,  and  are  only  to  serve  as  a  guide  for  those 
who  use  the  library  in  choosing  the  books  adapted  to  their  age  and  understand- 
ing."   We  hope  the  good  example  here  set  may  have  a  wide  following. 

Peloubet's  Sunday  School  Series:  — 

Peloubet's  Select  Notes  on  the  International  Lessons.  1889.  Pp.  347. 
Price,  $1.25. 

International  Question  Book.  Part  I.,  for  the  older  scholars.  Part  II., 
for  the  children  and  youth.  Part  IIL,  for  little  learners.  Price  of  each,  15 
cents. 

Children's  Sunday  School  Quarterly.  Four  cents  each,  or  16  cents  a 
year. 

The  Sunday  School  Quarterly  and  the  Intermediate  Quarterly. 
Teacher's  edition,  10  cents  a  copy,  or  40  cents  a  year.  Scholar^s  editi(»n,  5 
cents  a  copy,  or  20  cents  a  year. 

Golden  Text  and  Bible  Facts.    $2.00  per  hundred. 

Our  Sunday  Afternoon  ;  a  children's  Sunday  School  paper  issued  fortnightly. 
Forty  cents  a  year;  twenty-five  copies  to  one  address,  30  cents;  also  issued 
weekly,  75  cents  a  year.    Twenty-five  copies  to  one  address,  60  cents  a  year. 

Peloubet's  Class  Book  and  Collection  Envelope.  Cloth  lined,  60  cents 
per  dozen.     Published  by  W.  A.  Wilde  &  Co.,  25  Bromfleld  Street,  Boston. 

A  company  of  young  people  were  rhyming,  when  one  says,  **  1  can  give  you 

a  word  that  vou  cannot  find  a  rhyme  for.*'    '*  What  Is  it?"    "Peloubet."    A 

bright  young  man  instantly  replied :  — 

**  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Peloubet 
Can  make  a  good  question  book, — you  bet; 
With  pertinent  facts  they  chink  up  the  cracks. 
But  they  can 't  tell  the  length  of  a  cubit." 

After  examining  with  some  care  this  entire  set  of  "  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Peloubet's  " 
Sunday  School  Books,  we're  inclined  to  think  that  young  man  was  right. 
They  certainly  have  the  tact  necessary  for  preparing  excellent,  popular  Sun- 
day School  question  books.  This  is  not  an  experimental  series.  They  have 
been  widely  used  for  years  in  every  state  in  the  Union,  and  are  universally  ap- 
proved by  those  who  have  used  them. 

From  Ticknor  &  Co..  Boston,  we  have  received  the  following:  — 

The  Youngest  Miss  Lorton,  and  other  stories,  by  Nora  Perry.  Illustrated. 
Pp.  290.     Price,  3150. 

These  stories,  —  and  there  are  ten  of  them  in  the  volume,  —  are  fresh,  bright, 
natural,  and  healrhy,  »s  everything  is  that  Nora  Perry  writes.  They  are  par- 
ticularly adapted  for  Christmas  presents  to  girls. 

Xenophon's  Hellenica.     Books  I.— IV.    By  Irving  J.  Manatt.    Boston: 
Ginu  &  Co.     1888,     Pp.  280.  Price,  $1.75. 
The  editor  of  these  new  classical  books  thinks  that  the  Hellenica  '^  is  worthy 


i 


286  EDUCATION,  [December, 

a  pince  by  the  side  of  the  Anabasis  in  the  fitting  Rchools.**  The  type  is  excel- 
lent, notes  full  and  critical,  with  an  appendix  on  manuscripts,  index  of  proper 
names,  and  a  Greek-English  index  in  parallel  columns. 

Thanatopsis  and  other  Favorite  Poems.  By  William  Cullen  Bryant. 
Compiled  by  Sara  £.  llusted  Lockwood.  Boston :  Glnu  &  Co.  1888.  Price, 
13  cocts. 

A  choice  collection  of  the  best  of  Bryant's  poems. 

Botany  for  Academies  and  Colleges.  By  Annie  Chambers-Ketchum,  A.  M. 
Philadelphia:    J.  B.  LIppincott  Co.     1889.    Pp.  11)2.    Price,  «1.00. 

This  book  is  for  advanced  study,  and  consists  of  plant  development  and 

structure  from  seaweed  to  clematis.     It  has  two  hundred  and  fifty  illustrations, 

and  a  valuable  manual  of  plants,  including  all  the  known  orders  with  their 

respective  genera.    Mrs.  Ketchum  is  a  member  of  tlie  New  York  Academy  of 

Sciences,  an  enthusiast  in  the  scieuce  of  Botany,  and  has  modelled  her  book 

upon  the  inductive  method  of  A.  L.  de  Jussieu.    Students  of  this  science  will 

find  this  work  of  great  value. 

From  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston,  we  have  the  following :  — 

(1.)    Preparatory  French  Reader.    By  O.  B.  Super,  Ph.  D. 

The  author  believes  that  the  best  method  of  learning  to  read  French  is  to 
read  French;  hence,  this  book  is,  In  no  sense,  a  •* classical  '*  French  reader,  and 
Is  not  intended  to  serve  fur  a  stu<iy  of  French  literature.  The  first  six  selec- 
tions are  not  from  French  sources  at  all,  but  are  translati<ms;  five  of  them  be- 
ing from  Andersen's  tales.  The  selections  are  designed  to  create  an  interest 
on  tlie  part  of  the  pupil.  The  notes  appear  to  be  judicious  and  the  vocabulary 
is  full. 

(2.)    Goethe's  Torquato  Tasso.    Edited  by  Calvin  Thomas.    Pp.  181. 

Besides  the  German,  this  book  has  an  extended  introduction  upon  the  gener- 
al character  of  the  work  and  contains  a  very  good  biography  of  Goethe  and 
the  characters  of  Tasso.  The  notes  will  be  found  discriminating  and  useful. 
The  appendix  contains  a  valuable  bibliography  of  literature  bearing  upon 
Goethe's  Tasso. 

(3.)  Selected  Poems  from  Lamartine's  Meditations.  Edited  by  Prof. 
George  O.  Curme,  A.  M.,  Iowa.     Pp.  178. 

This  edition  of  J^amartlne's  MediUitions  is  evidently  prepareti  with  great  care. 

The  editor  certainly  regards  TiHrnartine  as  the  dea?*est  of  all  French  poets.     He 

calls  him  the  **  Christian  Virgil,  only  greater,  and  just  as  pure  and  refined." 

There  is  an  extended  biographical  sketch  by  the  author,  and  copious  notes. 

(4.)  An  Introduction  to  German  at  Sight.  By  Eugene  H.  Babbitt,  Har- 
vard University.    Pp.  29.     Paper  covers. 

This  is  a  short  syllabus  of  elementary  German  grammar,  to  be  used  in  con- 
nection with  the  ordinary  textbooks. 

Pen's  Venture.  By  Elvisten  Wright.  Boston  and  Chicago :  Congregational 
Sunday  School  and  Publishing  Society.     12mo.     Pp.  278.     Price,  $1.25. 

Penelope  Randolph  was  always  having  adventure.  One  day  something  un- 
usual did  happen  to  her.  Something  she  saw  'v\  the  condition  of  the  cash  girls 
in  a  certain  store  gave  her  a  thought;  the  thouijjht  became  a  plan ;  the  plan  be- 
came a  venture —  Pen's  Venture.  It  was  nothing  more  or  less  than  to  equip  a 
reading-room  for  cash  girls.  The  venture  was  successful  and  led  to  other  good 
things.    It  is  amusing,  touching,  and  instructive. 


1888.]  AMOXG  THE  BOOKS.  287 

The  Jolly  Ten,  and  Their  Year  of  Stories.  By  Agnes  Carr  Sage.  .  Bos- 
ton and  Chitrago :  Congregational  Sunday  School  and  Publishing  Society. 
Pp.  299.     Price,  $1.23. 

The  Jolly  Ten  is  the  title  assumed  by  a  band  of  cousins  who  were  accustomed 
to  meet  monthly  at  the  '*  Pinery,"  with  **  Aunt  Roxy."  At  her  fireside  the 
Jolly  Ten  play  merry  games,  have  suppers  flavored  with  innocent  fun,  and  lis- 
ten to  stories —  twelve  stories  during  the  year — each  with  its  lesson.  This 
volume  will  make  a  capital  Christmas  or  New  Yearns  present  to  the  young. 

Ruth,  the  Christian  Scientist;  or  The  New  Hygeia.  By  John  Chester, 
M.  D.,  D.  D.     Boston :    H.  H.  Carter  and  Karrick.     Pp.  343. 

This  is  a  treatise  on  "  Christian  Science/'  which  the  author  says  has  usually 

been  treated  with  ill-advised  panegyric  or  bitter  ridicule.    The  **  treatise  "  is 

under  the  guise  of  a  love  story.    Tiie  author  endeavors  to  represent  the  views 

of  ^^  Christian  Scientists  "  and  of  ^*  faith-healing."    It  is  still  a  question  whether 

a  philosophical  discourse  upon  an  intricate  theory  can  be  effectively  carried  on 

under  the  guise  of  a  love  story. 

D.  Appleton  &  Co.  send  us  a  new  volume  (No.  8)  in  their  International 
Edmation  Series,  edited  by  William  T.  Harris,  LL.  D.  It  is  entitled  MEMORY; 
What  it  is,  and  How  to  Improve  It.  By  David  Kay,  F.  R.  G.  S.  Pp.  334. 
Price,  ^1.50. 

This  book  is  an  elaborate  treatise  upon  the  subject  of  Memory  by  the  dis- 
tinguished author  of  the  article  on  ** Mnemonics"  in  the  encyclopaedia  Brl- 
tannica.  The  discussion  of  the  memory  has  been  common  to  all  philosophers, 
from  Aristotle  to  Herbert  Spencer.  We  have  for  a  long  time  needed  ju<»t  such 
a  treatise  as  this,  one  which  shall  treat  the  metaphysical  subject  physiologi- 
cally, and  the  physiological  subject  metaphysically.  This  book  discusses 
matter  and  mind,  the  body,  the  sense,  mental  images,  attention,  association  of 
ideas,  and  memory  —  how  to  improve  it.  It  has  very  numerous  quotations 
from  the  best  authors  of  all  countries  and  all  ages,  and  will  doubtless  prove  to 
be  a  most  valuable  addition  to  our  literature  upon  this  important  subject. 

Clement's  Civil  Government.  Studies  of  the  Federal  Constitution,  ar- 
ranged for  use  in  Public  Schools  by  R.  E.  Clement.  New  York:  A.  Lovell 
&  Co.     Pp.  232. 

Tills  new  treatise  on  the  United  States  Constitution  begins  with  a  brief  his- 
tory of  the  colonial  government.  Then  comes  an  account  of  the  revolutionary 
government,  which  is  followed  by  a  discussion  of  the  confederate  government, 
all  of  which  is  included  in  Part  I.  Part  II.,  which  is  the  principal  part  of  the 
book,  treats,  somewhat  in  detail,  of  the  national  constitution.  Its  plan  Is  to 
group  under  one  section  the  various  clauses  relating  to  a  single  topic,  giving 
each  clause,  the  discussion  thereof,  and  ending  with  questions  for  review.  lo 
the  main,  so  far  as  we  have  examined,  the  author  is  generally  correct  in  his 
statements.  Occasionally,  as  in  every  book,  especially  the  first  edition,  may 
be  found  some  slip.  For  instance,  on  page  155  it  is  stated  that  '*  the  electors 
of  each  state  are  now  required  by  law  to  meet  at  their  respective  capitals  and 
there  cast  their  vote  for  President  and  Vice-President.''  This  is  not  true.  For 
example:  Electors  in  Khode  Island  meet  by  law  in  the  town  of  Bristol,  and 
not  at  the  capital.  On  page  212  it  is  stated,  '^The  eleventh  amendment  makes 
it  impossible  for  a  state  to  be  sued  by  an  individual.'"  Is  that  correct?  The 
increased  attention  which  is  now  being  given  to  the  study  of  Civil  Government 
in  our  schools  is  one  of  the  most  encouraging  signs  of  the  times. 


288  EDUCATION.  [December^ 

P.  Terenti  Afri  Andria  et  Heavton  Timorvmenos.  Edited  by  Prof.  An- 
drew F.  West.    New  York :     Harper  Brothers.    Pp.  265. 

This  new  addition  to  Harper's  Classical  Series  will  be  welcomed  by  all  lov- 
ers of  Terence.  The  long  introduction  by  the  author  throws  great  light  upon 
the  work,  and  the  textual  notes  at  the  end  of  the  book  will  prove  of  the  high- 
est value  to  the  student. 

The  First  Four  Books  of  Cjesar's  Commentaries  on  the  Gallic  War, 
consisting  of  the  original  and  translation  arranged  on  opposite  pages.  New 
York :    A.  Lovell  &  Co.    Pp.  143. 

This  is  the  first  volume  of  the  ''  Parallel  Edition  of  the  Classics.*'  That 
large  class  of  teachers  who  approve  of  this  method  of  teaching  will  find  this 
edition  of  Ctesar's  very  convenient.  The  translation  is  good.  The  book  is 
well  printed,  on  good  paper,  and  well  bound.  It  will  doubtless  have  an  ex- 
tended sale. 

Memory  Systems,  New  and  Old.  By  A.  E.  Middleton,  author  of  ^*  Memory 
Aids  and  How  to  Use  Them.''  New  York:  G.  S.  Fellows  &  Co.,  25  Bond 
Street.    Price,  50  cents. 

First  American  edition  from  the  second  English  edition,  revised.    Enlarged^ 

with  Bibliography  of  Mnemonics,  1325-1888,  by  G.  S.  Fellows,  M.  A.,  of  the 

Washington  High  School.    This  little  work  under  the  title  of  «'A11  About 

Mnemonics  "  has  already  pa«>sed  through  two  editions  in  England,  and,  with 

important  additions,  it  is  now  presented  to  the  attention  of  American  readers. 

All  Memory  Systems  are  here  treated  quite  impartially.    Both  Loisette  and 

"I^isette  Exposed''  receive  their  share  of  attention. 

Impressions  Dk  Theatre.  By  Jules  I^maitre.  Paris :  H.  Lec^ne  and  H. 
Oudln.    Pp.  354.    Paper. 

In  each  of  the  informal  essays  which  M.  I^maitre  has  included  in  this  vol- 
ume, he  has  based  his  criticisms  on  some  particular  representation  of  a  great 
dramatist  like  Cornel  He  or  Racine.  While  in  general  his  observations  may  not 
be  open  to  serious  objt?ction,  his  estimate  of  M.  Kenan's  *'  Abesse  de  Joiiarre  '* 
as  a  delightful  book  would  certainly  be  astounding,  did  it  not  come  from  a 
Frenchman. 

Der  Zwerg  Nase.    By  Wilhelm  Hauff.     Pp.  38. 
Ali  Baba  and  the  Forty  Thieves.    By  Dr.  Gustav  Weil.    Pp.  53. 
Boston  :    Charles  H.  Kilborn. 

The  ability  to  read  rapidly  **at  sight"  should  be  the  first  aim  of  ever}'  one 
who  desires  to  learn  a  language.  That  it  may  be  attained,  the  selections  chosen 
for  study  should  be  interesting.  And  surely  HauflTs  stories  meet  this  require- 
ment, wliile  the  tale  of  Ali  Baba  more  than  satisfies  it,  for  will  not  a  German 
translation  of  the  Arabian  Nights  seem  a  little  piquant  to  the  beginner? 

From  Cassell  &  Co.,  we  have  two  more  of  their  original  novels.  The  As- 
tonishing History  of  Troy  Town,  by  Q. ;  Nu.  29  of  the  "  Rainbow  Series," 
and  The  Admirable  Lady  Biddy  Fane.  By  Frank  Barrett;  No.  18  of  the 
"Sunshine  Series  of  Choice  Fiction."  Price,  25  cents.  For  sale  by  W.  B* 
Clarke  &  Co. 

Riverside  Literature  Series.  No.  38.  The  Building  of  the  Ship,  ANn> 
OTHER  I'OEMS.  liy  Heiiry  W.  Longfellow.  With  Introduction  and  Notes. 
Extra  number.  Literature  in  School.  An  Address  and  two  Esaays,  by 
Horat^e  E.  Si^udder.  Sioi^le  numbers,  15  cents.  Yearly  subscription  (six 
numbers),  90  cents.    Bo:*ton  and  New  York:    iIou)|^hton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 


1888.]  AMONG  THE  BOOKS.  289 

The  CoQgreKatioDal  Publishing  Society  have  issued  Pocket  Lessons  for 
Sunday  Schools,  1889,  containing  only  the  scripture  of  the  International 
I^iessons,  with  Golden  Texts  and  Memory  Verses. 

The  Child  Immanuel  ;  A  Christmas  Carol  Service,  and  The  Pilgrim  Al- 
manac FOR  Bible  Searchers,  for  1889. 

Pansies  for  Thoughts.  From  the  Writings  of  "  Pansy  "  (Mrs.  G.  R.  Al- 
den).  Compiled  and  arranged  with  an  appropriate  text  for  each  day,  by 
Grace  Livingston,  author  of  *'A  Chautauqua  Idyl.^'  Boston:  D.  Lothrop 
Co.    Price,  76  cents. 

Mrs.  Alden's  earnestness  and  fervor  are  magnetic,  and  all  people  are  charmed 
with  her  bright,  strong,  helpful  stories.  This  volume,  compiled  under  ^*  Pan- 
sy's *'  own  eye,  will  prove  a  treasure  to  all  who  appreciate  her  writings.  The 
exquisite  cover  with  its  golden  pannies  is  fitly  symbolical  of  the  contents,  and 
the  book  will  make  a  charming  gift  book  for  all  times. 

Beginner's  Hand-Book  of  Chemistry.  By  John  Howard  Appleton,  A.  M., 
Professor  of  Cheniistry  in  Brown  University.  New  York:  Chautauqua 
Press,  C.  L.  S.  C.  Department,  805  Broadway.    1888. 

Professor  Appleton  is  well  known  to  students  of  chemistry  from  his  very 
accurate  and  scienrific  textbooks,  on  Qualitative  and  Quantitative  Analysis,  not 
to  speak  of  ^^The  Young  Chemist,'"  a  book  especially  adapted  to  the  experi- 
mental work  of  younger  pupils.  But  this  volume  ought  to  give  him  a  very 
much  wider  reputation.  The  lamented  Richard  A.  Procter  did  incalculable 
good  in  his  popularization  of  science,  and  Professor  Appleton  is  following  in 
his  footsteps,  though  taking  a  different  branch  of  science.  This  volume  is 
prepared  for  the  C.  L.  S.  C,  and  though  none  of  the  inaccuracies  of  most  so- 
called  "  popular  works  '*  are  noticeable,  still  the  style  is  exceedingly  well 
adapted  to  the  readings  of  the  "Circle.''  The  first  feature  apparent  is  that  of 
the  fourteen  colored  plates,  illustrating  such  subjects  as  '^The  photographer 
at  work,"  **  Arctic  explorers  employing  dynamite  to  open  a  channel,''  and 
"The  process  of  refining  sulphur."  Besides  these  plates  and  the  usual  neces- 
sary illustrations,  there  are  several  full-page  portraits  of  Lavoisier,  Beryelnis, 
Dalton,  Black,  Davy,  and  others.  Professor  Appleton  has  limited  himself  to 
the  non-metals,  and  promises  a  similar  work  on  the  metals.  The  order  of  sub- 
jects is  scientific,  the  historical  and  biographical  sketches  are  full,  and  the  ap- 
plications to  the  affairs  of  every-day  life  are  found  throughout  the  volume. 
The  book  is  a  very  great  addition  to  the  unusually  large  list  of  valuable  popu- 
lar works  that  have  been  issued  under  the  auspices  of  the  "  Chautauqua." 

A  College  Algebra.  By  G.  A.  Wentworth,  Professor  of  Mathematics  in 
Phillips  Exeter  Academy.     Boston :    Ginn  <fc  Co.    1888. 

Neither  author  nor  publisher  need  any  introduction  to  mathematical  teachers 
the  world  over.  No  better  series  of  mathematics  could  be  found  or  even  de- 
sired than  Wentworth*s,  comprising  several  volumes  each  in  Arithmetic,  Al- 
gebra, Geometry  (Plane  and  Solid),  Trigonometry,  Surveying,  Analytic 
Geometry,  and  Logarithms.  When  "A  College  Algebra"  was  placed  upon 
our  desk,  no  recommendation  seemed  to  us  necessary  except  to  mention  the 
fact  of  its  publication.  A  short  space  is  given  to  a  review  of  the  principles  of 
algebra  preceding  Quadratic  Equations,  thus  allowing  plenty  of  space  in  a 
year's  course  for  a  very  careful  and  full  treatment  of  Higher  Algebra,  includ- 
ing Surds,  Imaginaries,  Inequalities,  Ratio,  Progressions,  Indeterminates, 
Binomials,  Logarithms,  Interest,  Choice,  Chance,  Continued  Fractions,  Scales, 


390  EDUCATIOX.  [December, 

Theory  of  Numbers,  Variables.  Series,  Determliiniits,  General  Properties,  etc. 
One  of  the  best  features  in  the  volume  is  the  reference  at  the  close  of  each 
chiiptcr  to  ways  In  which  the  student  may  pursue  the  subject  further.  The 
book  should  be  In  the  liands  of  all  teachers  of  al|^ebra,  whether  In  Collef^e  or 
High  School. 

St.  Nicholas.  An  Illustrated  Ma^^azine  for  Vounjf  Folks.  Conducted  by 
Mary  Mapes  Dodge.  Volunje  XV.  November  1887,  to  October,  1888.  In 
two  parts.     New  York:    The  Century  Company.     Pp.  900.    Price  $4.00. 

These  two  volumes  for  Christmas  presents  to  the  ytmng  folks  are  really  some- 
thing superlative.  It  would  be  impossible  to  tell  all  the  excellences  of  ^^  ThU 
primer  of  juveniles."  The  sixteenth  volume,  which  begins  In  November,  will 
be  what  the  editor  calls  •*  An  All-aroiind-the- world  Year." 

Of  course  the  bulk  of  the  contents,  as  heretofore,  will  relate  to  American 
subjects;  but  young  America  is  always  glad  to  learn  what  goes  on  in  the  world 
outside,  and  the  stories  and  skeU'hes  of  foreign  life  which  St,  Xicholcu  is  to 
present  will  be  a  remarkably  attractive  feature.  We  have  space  here  for  only 
the  more  prominent  announcements.  There  will  be  ever  so  many  articles  on 
** America";  lots  of  stories  from  £urope;  Papers  on  Siberia,  China,  Japan, 
etc. ;  .Vfrica,  Australia,  the  Arctic  Regions^  and  the  Islands  of  the  Sea.  Inhere 
can  h.'irdly  be  a  more  attractive  or  pouplar  juvenile  than  the  great  favorite 
•with  all  the  young  folks,  "St.  Nicholas." 

Thk  Centuky  iLLi'STRATEi)  MONTHLY  Ma<;azixk.  Mav,  1888,  to  October, 
18S8.     Vol.  XXXVI.    New  York:    The  Century  Compahv.    Pp.960.     Price, 

8:{.oo. 

This  is  a  superb  volume  of  nearly  a  thoui^and  pages  of  large  size  and  fllled 
with  the  most  valuable  and  entertaining  matter.  The  paper  and  print  are  of 
the  best  and  the  illustrations  simply  superb.  Besides  stories,  essays,  and  mis- 
cellaneous illustrated  articles,  etc.,  during  the  year,  beginning  with  the  No- 
vember number,  will  be  "'Gallery  of  Italian  Masters,**  the  papers  by  W.  J. 
Stillman  with  Illustrations  by  Timothy  Cole;  **  The  Sil>enan  Exile  System," 
by  Mr.  George  Kennan:  *' Stories  of  I>ouisiana,''  by  George  W.  Cable;  *' The 
Romance  of  Dollard,"*  by  Mrs.  Mary  Hartwell  Catherwood;  '*  Lincoln  in  the 
War,"  by  Nicolay  and  Hay;  ** Supplementary  War  Articles";  articles  on 
*'  Japan,"  **  Ireland,"  and  much  other  valuable  nmtter.  Surely  never  before 
was  there  such  an  array  of  talent  concentrated  in  one  magazine. 

The  Essentials  of  GEOGRAriiv  fou  School  Yeak  1888-9.  By  G.  C. 
Fisher.  Fourth  Annual  Publication.  Boston:  N.  E.  Publishing  Company. 
1888.    Pp.  88.     With  perforated  maps,  50  cents.     Without  maps,  40  cents. 

This  book  is  an  annual  publication,  revised  every  August,  to  make  it  author- 
itative, noting  the  geographical  changes  that  are  continually  occurring.  It 
contains  all  the  political  and  descriptive  geography  that  a  pupil  should  be 
required  to  memorize.  As  a  concise  textbook  to  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 
pupil,  the  book  is  Invaluable,  and  no  teacher  of  geography  should  undertake 
Co  do  without  it. 

Among  the  special  features  of  the  book  are  the  following:  I.  Productions 
■are  taught  by  belts  as  determined  by  latitude  and  elevation,  instead  of  the  old 
way  by  states  and  countries.  Knowing  what  belt  a  country  is  in,  a  child 
ehould  know  what  its  productions  are.  II.  The  Topical  System  is  carried 
Into  the  study  of  the  maps  in  a  manner  to  avoid  that  loss  of  time  which  has 
been  occasioned  in  the  past  by  requiring  the  pupil  to  search  laboriously  for 


1888.]  AMOXG  THE  BOOKS.  291 

this  or  that  bay,  cape,  strait,  etc.  III.  Perforated  Maps  for  map  sketching;' 
are  sold  either  with  the  book  or  separately.  They  reduce  the  amouat  of  time 
to  be  devoted  to  Geography,  by  substituting  visible  for  verbal  descriptions. 
IV.  The  Statistical  Tables  contained  in  the  appendix  give  mileage  of  rail- 
roads, population,  reigning  sovereigns,  and  other  information  revised  and 
renewed  every  year. 

Excellent  Quotations  for  IIome  and  School.  Selected  for  the  use  of 
teachers  and  pupils,  by  Julia  B.  Hoitt,  California.  Boston :  Lee  &  Shepard. 
Pp.  329. 

A  capital  collection  of  gems,  as  **  Guides  to  Conduct,"  **  Glimpses  of  Na- 
ture," ''  Patriotic  Selections,"  '•  Biographical  Eulogies,"  ''  Recitations  for 
Younger  Pupils,"  and  "  Proverbs."  These  selections  are  well  chosen  and 
make  a  book  of  great  value,  not  only  to  the  schools  but  the  general  reader  and 
families. 

Elements  of  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  with  copious  exercises  in  both 
criticism  and  construction.  By  Virginia  Waddey,  teacher  of  Rhetoric  In  the 
Richmond  High  School.  Rlchmoncl,  Va.  Richmond:  Everett  Waddey, 
Publisher.     1888.    Pp.  399. 

This  new  Rhetoric  begins,  as  it  should,  with  the  simple  sentence  and  pro- 
ceeds through  complex  and  compound  sentences  to  the  transformation  of 
elements,  sentences  into  paragraphs,  Concord,  Expression,  Style,  Figures  of 
Speech.  Prose,  Poetry,  etc.  It  appears  to  be  methodical,  carefully  written, 
and  to  be  the  result  of  long,  practical  work  in  the  schoolroom.  Its  quotations,, 
selections  and  examples  are  numerous  and  of  value.  It  is  cordially  commended 
to  the  careful  examination  of  teachers. 

Boston  and  Its  Suburbs.  A  Guide  Book.  Boston:  Stanley  &  Usher.  1888. 
Pp.  204.  With  a  map. 

This  is  a  capital  little  guide  book  for  Boston  and  vicinity.  It  gives  numer- 
ous ^^  walks  about  Boston,"  thus  reaching  by  the  shortest  way  the  most 
conspicuous  places.  The  descriptions  are  brief,  clear,  and  just  what  one  wants. 
It  should  have  a  large  sale  and  will  be  found  of  value  to  teachers. 

Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  and  the  SuPERiNTENDENr 
OF  Public  Instruction  of  New  Jersey  for  1887.  Newton :  The  John  L. 
Murphy  Publishing  Co.,  Printers.    1888. 

A  very  sensible  report  containing  much  valuable  information  concerning 
education  in  this  state  and  some  excellent  suggestions  on  important  subjects.. 
Special  attention  is  called  to  the  following  topics:  School  Libraries,  At- 
tendance, Terms  of  Service,  Modern  Certificates,  and  Increase  of  Salaries. 

Forty-Ninth  Annual  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion OF  the  State  of  Michigan  for  1887.    Lansing.    1888. 

Superintendent  Estabrook  makes  in  this  report  many  important  suggestions, 
especially  upon  The  Function  of  the  Public  School,  County  Supervision,  Tem- 
perance Teaching,  The  Township  System,  and  Teachers'  Institutes.  The 
schools  of  Michigan  are  evidently  in  good  condition. 

Civil  Government  for  Common  Schools.  Prepared  as  a  Manual  for  Public 
Instruction  in  the  State  of  New  York.  By  Henry  C.  Northam.  Syracuse: 
C.  W.  Bardeen. 

This  little  textbook  has  passed  through  three  editions.  It  begins  with  the 
smallest  municipal  divisions,  districts,  and  townships,  and  passes  on  through 
counties  and  states  to  our  national  government.    It  contains  a  large  amount  ot 


292  ED  UCA  TION.  [December, 

useful  matter,  historical  and  political.    Too  much  attention  cannot  be  paid  to 
this  sort  of  teaching  in  the  public  schools. 

The  Dime  Question  Book  in  Bookkeeping.    By  C.  W.  Bardeen.    Syracuse, 

N.  Y.    1888. 

In  this  little  book  for  ten  cents,  sixty^hree  important  topics  are  brieflj 
treated.    If  you  are  teaching  this  subject,  send  for  a  copy. 

*'  The  Table  is  Set.'*  A  Comedy  in  one  Act.  Adapted  from  the  German,  bv 
Welland  Hendrick,  A.  M.  Syracuse,  N.  Y. :  C.  W.  Bardeen.  1888.  T«i 
cents. 

A  capital  little  play,  with  its  moral  so  easy  that  anybody  can  see  it. 

Town  and  Country  School  Buildings.  A  collection  of  Plans  and  Designs 
for  Schools  of  various  sizes,  graded  and  ungraded,  with  descriptions  of  con- 
struction of  sanitary  arrangements,  light,  lieat,  and  ventilation.  By  £.  C. 
Gardner,  architect.    New  York:    E.  L.  Kellogg  &  Co.    1888. 

This  entirely  new  work  will  be  welcomed  by  multitudes.  It  will  prove  a 
^^  God  send*'  to  all  those  towns  and  districts  throughout  the  country,  which 
have  schoolhouses  to  build.  The  plans  begin  with  a  cheap  building  of  logs 
for  pioneer  wants.  It  then  describes  how  temporary  expedients  may  be  re- 
sorted to  by  a  cheap  building  of  one  room  built  of  rough  lumber.  Then  a  sin- 
gle room  with  abundant  conveniences;  then  the  same  plan  with  a  different 
exterior;  then  a  country  schoolhouse  adapted  to  a  multitude  of  cases,  with 
different  elevations,  perspective,  floor  plans,  and  details.  After  this  the  archi- 
tect gives  us  a  great  variety  of  houses  for  village  and  town  schools,  some 
cheaper,  some  more  ex|>ensive,  some  of  wood,  some  of  brick,  and  some  of 
stone.  These  plans  are  for  neat,  comfortable,  artistic  buildings.  The  value 
of  different  materials  for  building  is  discussed,  and  such  important  matters  as 
lighting,  heating,  and  ventilation  arc  thoroughly  considered.  The  influence  of 
these  plans  should  unquestionably  be  great  in  improving  the  style  and  the 
comfort  of  the  school  buildings  of  the  land.  The  book  is  excellently  printed 
on  the  best  paper,  with  elegant  engravings,  and  the  publishers  are  deserving 
of  high  praise  for  the  volume. 

We  are  in  receipt  of  the  last  six  numbers  of  O  Ensino,  —  **  Instruction,"  pub- 
lished by  Theophilo  Ferreira,  in  Lisbon,  Portugal.  It  is  a  bright  little  octavo 
sheet  of  sixteen  pages,  devoted  to  the  discussion  of  educational  topics.  It  is 
issued  every  fortnight,  and  is  now  in  its  fourth  year.  While  far  more  limited 
in  scope  than  the  educational  journals  of  America,  it  contains  serviceable  dis- 
cussions of  such  questions  as  the  following:  ^^ Inspection  of  Primary  and 
Secondary  Instruction";  ^* Examinations  for  Admission  to  the  Lyceums"; 
*'  Characteristic  Differences  between  the  Pedagogical  Schools  of  France,  Grcr- 
roany,  and  England  '* ;  ^*  Polymathy,  a  Study  of  the  Psychical  Development  of 
the  Cliild  " ;  "  The  Teaching  of  Sewing  and  other  Branches  of  Women's  Work 
in  the  Higher  Schools  " ;  besides  book  reviews,  prnetical  problems  in  mathe- 
matics, grammar,  etc.,  and  a  resumh  of  offlcial  acts  and  documents  bearing 
upon  the  subject  of  education.  We  send  greeting  to  our  younger  sister  across 
the  sea,  and  wish  her  a  constantly  widening  sphere  of  usefulness,  and  all  pos- 
sible success  in  bearing  onward  the  sacred  torch  of  learning  in  the  land  of 
da  Gama  and  Camoens. 

The  latest  numbers  of  Cassell's  National  Library  are  No.  139.  Thr 
Schoolmaster,  by  Roger  Ascham.    No.  140.  Plutarch's  Lives  of  Dion, 


1888.]  AMONG  THE  BOOKS.  203 

Brutus,  Artaxerxes,  Galba,  and  Otho.  No.  141.  Tour  through  the 
Eastern  Counties  OF  England,  1722.  By  Daniel  Defoe.  No.  142.  Kmo 
Henry  V.  By  William  Shakespeare.  No.  143.  Complaints.  By  Edmund 
Spenser.  No.  144.  The  Curse  of  Kehama.  By  Robert  Sou  they.  No.  145. 
Essays  on  Mankind  and  Political  Arithmetic.  By  Sir  William  Petty. 
No.  146.  The  Taming  of  the  Shrew.  By  William  Shakespeare.  No.  147. 
Essays  on  Burns  and  Scott.  By  Thomas  Carlyle.  No.  148.  Plutarch's 
Lives  of  Nicias,  Crassus,  Aratus,  and  Theseus. 

Metric  Tables  and  Problems.  By  Oscar  Granger.  Syracuse,  N.  Y. :  C. 
W.  Bardeen.    Paper.    Pp.  23. 

Self-Teaching  Needlework  Manuals.  Adapted  to  the  latest  require- 
ments of  the  New  Code.  By  Emily  G.  Jones.  London  and  New  York :  Long- 
mans, Green  &  Co. 

Manuals  on  the  teaching  of  needlework  are  seldom  seen  in  this  country. 
This  reliable  and  enterprising  firm  have  given  to  the  public  a  series  of  pam- 
phlets on  this  subject  that  are  of  great  value.  In  Germany  and  England, 
works  on  the  art  of  needlework  and  dress-cutting  and  fitting  are  much  more 
numerous ;  but  here  these  clear  and  concise  manuals  will  be  of  great  assistance 
to  the  teacher  of  sewing,  and  also  to  all  interested  in  the  best  method  of  mend- 
ing and  dress-cutting.  The  series  consists  of  five  books,  each  one  being  pro- 
fusely illustrated  with  diagrams.  The  exercises  are  given  In  language  that  the 
youngest  children  can  hardly  fail  to  comprehend,  and  made  still  more  simple 
by  means  of  the  various  cuts  of  the  work  at  all  stages  of  progression.  The 
books  teach  how  to  hem,  seam,  tuck,  and  gather;  how  to  knit,  darn,  button- 
hole, and  mend,  and  also  show  the  first  rudiments  of  cutting  out. 

Dress  Cutting  Out;  with  Diagrams  on  Sectional  Paper.  A  simple  system 
for  Class  and  Self-Teaching.  By  Mrs.  Henry  Grenfell  and  Miss  Baker.  Lon- 
don :    Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  and  New  York:  15  East  16th  Street. 

This  system  of  dress  cutting  out  would  be  found  useful  in  schools  and  fami- 
lies throughout  the  land.  Many  a  woman  would  not  only  find  it  possible,  but 
easy  to  make  her  own  dresses  with  this  aid.  The  diagrams  are  full-size  and 
very  clear,  and  each  step  in  the  work  is  clearly  stated  and  will  be  found  very 
simple.  The  diagrams  tell  where  to  take  each  measurement  and  how  to  use  it 
after  it  has  been  taken.  We  feel  sure  that  any  one  who  tries  this  system  will 
be  delighted  with  it. 

A  Common  Sense  Elementary  Conversation  Grammar  of  the  German 
Language;  with  Exercises,  Readings,  and  Conversations.  By  Dr.  Oscar 
Weineck.  New  York:  F.  W.  Christern.  Boston:  Carl  Schonhof.  Pp. 
225.    Price  31.00. 

Well  printed,  well  planned,  well  executed.  It  will  evidently  keep  the  inter- 
est of  the  pupils  and  improve  their  powers  of  conversation.  The  teacher  of 
German  should  examine  this  new  work.  It  is  the  outgrowth  of  the  public 
school  work  of  New  York  City. 

GiNN  &  Co.  are  to  be  the  American  publishers  of  the  Classical  Review 
which  is  published  in  London,  and  numbers  among  its  contributors  the  moat 
•  eminent  classical  scholars  of  Great  Britain.    American  scholars  will  be  asso- 
. elated  in  the  editorship. 


294  EDVCATIOy.  [December, 

MAGAZINES  RECEIVED. 

The  followingr  artlcleH  iu  the  current  nuinbera  of  our  leading  magazines  are  tbooght 
to  be  of  special  Interent  to  the  reader.**  of  thit*  niagiizine  :  — 

The  opening  article  in  the  November  number  of  the  ('entuty  i8  one  of  particular  valae 
and  intereMt.    It  in  entitled  "Th<.'  GuiUN  of  the  City  of  London,"  written  by  Norin&n 

Moore,  with  numerouH  illustrationa  by  Joseph  I'ennell. The  December  number  of  7%« 

Atlantic  Monthly  containa  a  timely  article  on  "The  Future  of  the  County  College. 

Among  the*  g»>od  thingH,*' in  the'Deeember  IIarp*'r' s,  H.re  a  story  by  Walter  Besant, — 
"  The  Last  Mass,*'  — a  farce  by  Howellf*,**  A  ChrlHtnuis  Mystery  in  the  Fifteenth  Century," 
and  a  cliarmingtv  written  and  beiiuiifullv  illustrated  article  on  the  appearance  of  the 
woods  and  meuifows  at  midnight,  t>y  WilliHin  Hamilton  (tibson. The  opening  arti- 
cle alone,  in  the  December  number  of  .SVr»^/i«r,  '  Winter  in  the  Adriondacks,**  is  well 
worth  the  price  of  the  magazine,  it  is  beantil'ully  written  with  excellent  illustrations^ 
and  maikes  one  long  to  take  Just  such  a  trip  as  di«*l  the  author,  Hamilton  Wright  Mabie. 

••The  City  of  a  Prince."  a  romantic  chapter  in  Texas  history,  is  ctmcluded  in  the 

November  number  of  The  Magazine,  of  American  HUtory.  One  of  the  interesting  aiticles 
in  this  valuable  magazine  is  **  lionton*  in  1741,  and  Governor  Shirley,"  by  Justin  Winsor. 
Some  valuable  infornuition  will  be  found  in  an  article,  entitled  "The  Largest  Es- 
tate in  the  World,"  in  the  November  Overland  Monthly. Gail  Hamilton  has  contrib- 
uted an  article  on  "Catholicism  and  I'ublic  Schools,"  In  the  November  number  of  the 

North  Ame.rican  lieview. A  particularly  attractive  article  on  "The  Househohl  of  John 

Quincy  Adams,"  is  to  be  found  in  the  Ifide  Atcake  for  November. BiXik  Chat  for  Octo- 
ber contains  a  well-selected  and  valuiible  list  of  .>*tandard  books  in  all  departments  of 

literature,  with  their  prices,  suitable  Cor  holiday  gifts  and  the  library. An  article  on 

*•  Harvard  College,"  by  Charles  Ibicon,  will  be  lound  in  thti  December  number  of  Frank 

Ltmlie'ii  Illuntnite.l  Mmjazine. /tliii'kwjiHpH  Edinburg  Maifozine  for  October,  contains  an 

article  on  the  "  Kngllsh  Peasantry." In  the  American  ..lffij7aciii<' for  November  is  an 

article  on  the  "  Fir.nt  American   Kml)'isj*y  to  I'ekln." J.  li.  Lippincott  Company  are 

publishing  in  Lippincott's  Monthly  Magazine,  (voni  month  to  monlh,  *' Our  One  Hundred 
Questions."  Kach  month  contains  four  or  five  questions,  such  as  "  Who  was  the  origi- 
nal of  Sam  Weller?  "    "What  bridge  does  HootI  celebratti  as  the   Hri<lge  of  Sighs?" 

and  answers  t^)  the  same. In  the  December  number  of  the  Forum  is  a  bright  ai'ticle 

on  "  A  Uuigu  of  Law  in  Spelling." 

PAMPHLETS  RECEIVED. 

The  Bryant  Literary  Union,  Krening  Pont  Building,  New  York,  have  issued  a  choice 
pamphlet  describing  their  lecturers  antl  lectures.    Those  who  are  arranging  "  courses  " 

wouUI  do  well  to  send  for  a  copy. lt<*i)ort  ot  the  Women's  Educational  and  Industrial 

Union,  1H88,  Boston. state  Normal  School  at  Bridgewater,  Mass.  Catalogue  and  Cir- 
cular, July   1,  IHSs,    Forty-eighth  year.     Number  of  students  for  the  year,  young  men» 

G<>;  young  women.  1D4;  total,  '2.VI;   numb(;r  of  instructors.  14. The  Koman  Cathidio 

Church  and  the  School  Question.  By  Eilwin  1>.  Mead,  Boston.  George  H.  Ellis.  1888. 
15  cents  This  is  an  address  delivered  by  Mr.  Mead,  t»ctober  1,  before  the  Woman  Suf- 
frage League,  in  Boston  reviseil  and  expanded.  Ills  a  viz^orous  anil  masterly  discus- 
sion of  the  subject  of  which  It  treats  Let  every  teacher  interested  in  the  present  con- 
troversy sen»l  tor  a  copy  a-id  read  It. Papers  t>f  the  American  Historical  Association. 

Vol.  111.  No.  1.  Iteports  of  the  proceedings  of  the  American  Historical  Association  in 
Boston  and  Cambridge  May.  1K*<7.  By  Prof.  Herbert  B.  Adams.  Secretary  of  the  Asso- 
ciation.   A  capital  report  of  a  brilliant  and  valuable  convention. Monographs  of  the 

Iniluslrial  K<lucation  Association.    Ai*pect$  of  Education.     By  Oscar  Browning.  England. 

iO  cents. Annual   i{«?porl  of  the  Sehool  Commitlee  of  I'rovidence,  June,  1888.    With 

reports  from  the  superintendent  and  the  several  branches  of  the  High  School  course  of 

study  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Adams,  .Mass.,  1888. A  Memorial  0<le.    Written  for  the 

25ih  anniversary  of  the  First  Congregational  Church,  Hyde  Park,  Mass. Annual  Re- 
port of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools  of  the  cityof  Boston,  1888. The  Obliga- 
tions of  Ih"  (.Mtizen.     By  Hon.  Edward  L.  Pierce,  Boston.     A  capital  address,  on  a  timely 

subject  atid  treated  in' a  masterly  manner. itinu.'tallism  in  Europe.    Reports  from 

the  Consuls  of  the  United  States.*  No.  87.  December.  l^»<r.  Washington:  Govennnent 
Printing  0!!lce. Marietta  Centennial  Number  of  the  Ohio  Arclueological  and  Histori- 
cal Quarterly.    June,  I8S8     $1  (Hi.     A  graphic  anti  exceetllngly  interesting  hlstorj'  of  this 

great  celebration.       Many  teachers    wouhl  be  greatly  intereste*!  in  it. The  Swain 

Free  School.    Seventh  year.     New    B<Mlfor<l.  .Mass.,  1888. Pratt  Institute,   Brooklyn, 

N.Y.  1888.  A  full  descriptive  circular,  giving  a  clear  insight  into  the  work  and  the  work- 
ing of  this  excellent  institution.    —  Some  Theohigical  Kurdens  lteinove<l.    By  William 

Birrows,  D.  D.     Itepublished  Irom  The  .Andover  Review^  September,  1>88  Monosyllabic 

Word?*,  resulting  from  the  EKcrcises  on   Drill  Charts.     Bv  Miss  Sarah  Fuller.     Hortice 

Mann  School   for  the   Deaf,  Boston.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Publishers,  Bos'on. Manual 

Training  and  the  Blair  Bill.  By  A.  P.  .Marble,  Ph.  D.,  Snpt.  of  Schools,  Worcester,  Mass. 
Read  at  the  National  Etlucational  Association  Departm«'nt  of  Superintendence,  Wash- 
ington, I).  C.  Fel)riiary,  lf<88.  Boston.  George  B.  .Melenev.  9  Franklin  street,  Bos'on. 
Pnce.  15  cents.  A  vij^orous  diseussion  r>f  a  vital  subject.  Wln*ther  one  agrees  with  the 
autlior  or  not,  he  will  reatl  this  pamphlet  with  Interest.  Beatty's  Short  Method  of  Com- 
puting Int«*rest.     By  Henry  I'eatty,  Massilhm,  Ohio. Public  Schools  of  the  District 

of  Columbia.  Cooking.  Three  years  course.  Teachers*  .Manual  The  N.  E.  Associa- 
tion of  Colleges  anil  Preparat<)ry  Schools.  Addresses  and  Proceedings  at  the  Third 
Animal  Meeting,  Boston,  8-8. — ^  University  of  Michigan.  Philosophical  Papers  Sec- 
ond seri«?s.  No.  4.  The  Ethics  of  Bishop  Butler  and  Iminanuel  Kant.  By  Webster  Cook. 
1888.  Fourt«?enth  Annual  Keport  of  the  Denin  B«>ard  of  Education,  SepU'inber,  1888.  This 
valuable  report,  in  a<lilition  to  other  important  matters,  tells  us  that  the  city  of  Denin 
has  made  provision  for  a  large  public  library,  which  shall  occupy  one  wing  of  the  Pub- 
lic High  School  Building,  oiie  of  the  flnestpublic  school  houses  in  the  whole  country. 
Superintendent  Gove  expresses  his  loyalty  to  the  American  Public  School  system,  and 
of  manual  training  he  says:  "  For  a  munber  of  boys,  a  manual  training  school  is  an- 
questionably  the  best,  but  for  the  great  mass  of  boys  and  girls,  a  well-conducted  ele- 
mentaiy  school  is  most  needed." 


€i)iicrATion, 

DEVOTED  TO  THE   SCIENCE,  ART,  PHILOSOPHY,  AND 

LITERATURE  OF  EDUCATION. 


Vol.   IX.  JANUARY,    1889.  No.  .5. 

TRAINING  THE  SENSIBILITIES. 

BT  GEN.  THOMAS  J.   MORGAN. 

'^  The  heart  has  as  good  a  right  as  the  mind  to  a  special  training."  —  COM- 

PATRE. 

IN  company  with  a  group  of  travellers,  I  once  visited  the  famous 
old  church  at  Freiburg,  to  listen  to  the  great  organ  which 
gives  it  its  fame.  The  organist  took  his  seat  before  the  dumb 
instrument,  and  passed  his  hands  lightly  over  the  else  silent  keys. 
At  his  touch  they  responded,  now  sweet  as  the  notes  of  a  bird, 
now  soft  as  human  voices,  and  now  loud  and  jarring  as  the  noise 
of  a  thunder  storm.  It  was  an  hour  never  to  be  forgotten,  as  it 
revealed  to  me  possibilities  slumbering  in  the  organ  of  which  till 
then  I  had  no  conception.  The  work  of  the  teacher  is  not  unlike 
that  of  the  skilled  organist.  He  is  to  awaken  in  the  heart  of  the 
child  emotions  and  feelings  ranging  from  the  tenderest  pity  for 
helplessness,  to  the  most  august  reverence  for  the  Creator  of  the 
universe. 

Not  infrequently  the  teacher's  work  is  conceived  of  as  that  of 
merely  imparting  instruction,  or  at  most  of  training  the  intellect. 
But  this  is  a  one-sided  and  narrow  view  of  his  office.  He  has  to 
do  with  the  sensibility  no  less  than  with  the  intellect.  He  is  to 
awaken  feeling  as  well  as  to  impart  instruction. 

The  soul  is  a  unit.  It  cannot  be  separated  into  parts,  as  can  the 
body.  Its  three  great  functions,  knowing,  feeling,  and  willing, 
are  inter-related  and  mutually  dependent.  Knowledge  awakens 
desire,  and  desire  influences  the  will.  There  can  be  no  act  of 
knowing,  or  of  feeling,  which  is  not  also  an  act  of  willing.     Train- 


396  EDUCATION.  [January, 

ing  to  think  must  affect  to  some  degree  the  capacity  for  feeling, 
as  well  as  influence  the  will.  It  is  impossible  to  reach  the  sensi- 
bility except  through  the  intellect.  We  do  not  desire  that  which 
we  know  nothing  about. 

Nevertheless,  there  is  a  broad  line  of  distinction  between  the 
sensibility  and  the  intellect  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  will  on  the 
other.  The  consciousness  of  knowing  is  one  thing,  that  of  feeling 
pleasure  or  pain  is  quite  another.  The  two  states  are  wholly 
unlike.  Not  less  dissimilar  are  an  act  of  willing,  and  an  act  of 
feeling  or  of  knowing. 

These  three  great  elements  of  being  may  exist  in  different  indi- 
viduals in  very  unequal  proportions.  In  some,  they  are  very 
evenly  balanced,  in  others,  the  propensity  for  knowledge  predomi- 
nates over  both  sentiment  and  action ;  in  some,  the  feelings  are 
uppermost,  while  in  others  the  will  is  the  dominant  factor. 

The  ideal  of  human  culture  is  that  condition  in  which  the  intel- 
lect, sensibility,  and  will  are  each  well  developed,  and  all  stand  in 
harmonious  relationship.  To  know  broadly  and  accurately,  to  feel 
quickly  and  keenly,  and  to  act  with  promptness  and  effectively  is 
the  prerogative  of  the  well-cultured  man. 

While  increasing  attention  is  paid  by  intelligent  teachers  to  the 
systematic  training  of  the  intellectual  powers,  the  senses,  memory, 
imagination,  thinking,  reasoning,  very  little  attention  is  given  to 
the  proper  cultivation  of  the  sensibility,  the  appetites,  desires,  sen- 
timents, emotions.  This  is  largely  not  only  a  neglected  field,  but 
even  an  unknown  territory.  The  attention  of  the  student  of 
Psychology  in  the  Normal  school  is  directed  rather  to  the  faculties 
of  knowledge  than  to  the  capacities  for  feeling.  The  laws  of 
memory  are  much  more  clearly  known  than  are  the  laws  of  the 
desires.  In  elaborate  treatises  on  psychology  it  is  far  more  diffi- 
cult to  find  a  satisfactory  discussion  of  the  feelings  than  of  the 
intellect.  I  know  of  no  books  of  methods  for  training  the  feel- 
ings at  all  comparable  with  those  for  training  the  senses.  The 
"  model  lessons  "  given  in  training  schools  are  models  of  instruc- 
tion, and  seek  to  illustrate  the  best  way  of  stimulating  the  intel- 
lect, and  seldom  refer  to  the  culture  of  the  feelings.  Even  books 
of  model  lessons  on  Morals,  are  apt  to  be  devoted  to  an  exposition 
of  teaching  moral  truth,  rather  than  to  the  mode  of  awakening 
right  sentiments.  Candidates  for  the  position  of  teacher  are  ques- 
tioned as  to  their  knowledge,  methods  of  instruction,  and  modes 


1889.]  TRAINING  THE  SENSIBILITIES.  297 

of  discipline,  but  not  on  their  manner  of  calling  into  proper  exer- 
cise the  child's  wonderful  endowments  for  feeling  pain  at  sight  of 
falsehood,  deformity,  and  evil,  and  pleasure  at  exhibitions  of  the 
true,  the  beautiful,  and  the  good. 

That  the  training  of  the  sensibilities  should  claim  the  serious 
attention  of  the  educator  will  be  made  evident  by  the  following 
considerations :  — 

1.  The  capacity  for  feeling  is  one  of  the  greatest  factors  in  the 
constitution  of  the  human  soul.  It  is  not  practicable  in  a  brief 
sketch  like  this  to  do  more  than  outline  the  feelings,  without 
attempting  a  detailed  description.  For  convenience  the  various 
feelings  will  be  grouped,  and  the  most  important  ones  named. 

a.  The  Appetites.  The  lowest  group  comprises  those  cravings 
that  are  most  closely  connected  with  the  welfare  of  the  body,  such 
as  hunger,  thirst,  suffocation,  ennui,  weariness,  etc.  These  are 
animal,  and  man  shares  them  with  the  brutes. 

h.  The  Desires.  This  group  embraces  the  desires  of  life,  prop- 
erty, society,  approbation,  liberty,  power,  truth,  and  others.  This 
class  loses  its  physical  character  and  becomes  more  distinctively 
psychical. 

c.  The  Affections.  In  this  are  found  love  for  self,  for  parents, 
for  children,  conjugal  and  fraternal  affection,  friendship,  patriot- 
ism, philanthropy,  gratitude,  benevolence,  pity,  and  piety,  or  love 
of  God.  This  group  is  marked  by  a  moral  element  which  is  ab- 
sent from  the  others  named. 

d.  The  esthetic  emotions  of  beauty,  grandeur,  sublimity,  con- 
stitute another  group. 

e.  A  fifth  is  made  up  of  the  moral  feelings  of  obligation,  a 
sense  of  duty,  remorse,  shame,  and  self-approbation. 

/.  Into  a  sixth  may  be  gathered  the  religious  emotions,  patience, 
faith,  hope,  repentance,  reverence,  and  adoration. 

g.  We  may  bring  together  into  a  separate  class  what  may  be 
called  the  passions,  avarice,  ambition,  envy,  jealousy,  hatred,  anger, 
revenge,  pride,  vanity,  and  others. 

This  list,  though  by  no  means  exhaustive,  is  suggestive  of  the 
large  place  in  the  human  soul  which  is  occupied  by  the  feelings. 
They  form  an  integral  part  of  our  constitution,  and  claim  no  less 
consideration  than  does  the  intellect.  To  ignore  the  feelings  is  to 
ignore  the  soul  itself  in  the  realm  of  its  greatest  activities. 

2.  If  a  contemplation  of  the  soul's  varied  capacity  for  feeling, 


EDUCATION.  [January, 

embracing  so  wide  a  range  of  possibility  of  pain  and  pleasure, 
does  not  establish  its  claim  to  be  considered  by  the  educator  in 
any  comprehensive  scheme  of  symmetrical  culture,  consider  the 
part  it  plays  in  the  life  of  the  soul.  Without  endorsing  the  epi- 
curean notion  that  pleasure  is  life's  end  and  aim,  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  the  practical  test  that  most  men  apply  in  estimating 
the  value  of  any  experience  is  the  aggregate  of  happiness  or 
pleasurable  feeling  enjoyed. 

8.  The  brain  is  the  servant  of  the  heart.  Men  think  in  order 
that  they  may  feel.  They  accumulate  knowledge  chiefly  for  the 
sake  of  the  emotions  it  awakens. 

4.  The  feelings  are  a  truer  index  of  the  soul  than  is  the  intel- 
lect. ^^  As  a  man  thinketh  in  his  heart,  so  is  he.''  What  a  man 
feels,  rather  than  what  he  knows,  is  a  criterion  of  his  worth.  In 
the  realm  of  feeling  lies  his  true  greatness.  The  marvelous  na- 
ture of  his  soul  is  shown  by  its  capacity  for  countless  varieties  of 
feeling,  and  infinite  combinations  of  emotion.  He  is  capable  of 
an  ambition  that  covets  the  world,  and  of  a  self-abnegation  that 
courts  a  martyr's  death.  He  listens  with  delight  to  the  sweet 
notes  of  a  bird,  and  rejoices  in  the  midst  of  a  mighty  storm  at  sea. 
He  spares  a  spider  for  pity,  and  depopulates  a  city  for  revenge. 
The  most  conflicting  emotions  often  contend  for  the  mastery  within 
his  breast.  The  supreme  command  laid  by  the  Saviour  upon  men 
is  to  love  God  supremely,  and  their  neighbors  as  themselves. 

5.  The  importance  of  the  feelings  is  still  further  shown  by  the 
fact  that  action  springs  out  of  feeling.  The  will  is  largely  de- 
pendent upon  motive.  We  usually  act  as  we  feel.  The  will  is 
little  more  than  the  heart's  executor.  If  one  would  know  how  a 
man  will  act,  let  him  learn  how  he  feels.  The  great  aqhievements 
of  men  are  traceable  to  their  desires.  Ambition  prompted  Alex- 
ander to  conquer  the  world;  love  of  adventure  sent  Magellan 
round  the  globe,  love  of  gold  peopled  California.  Patriotism  gave 
the  world  a  Washington,  and  philanthropy  a  Lincoln. 

6.  Feeling  issues  in  action,  actions  become  habit,  and  habits 
crystallize  into  character.  The  formation  of  a  good  character, 
therefore,  is  largely  dependent  upon  the  right  unfolding  of 
feeling. 

7.  It  is  especially  noteworthy  that  in  human  conduct  the  evil 
passions,  hatred,  revenge,  ambition,  avarice,  jealousy,  and  the  like> 
play  a  great  part.     Vice  and  crime  stain  human  annals,  and  sicken 


1889.]  TBAINING  THE  SENSIBILITIES.  299 

the  student  of  history.  The  unwelcome  suggestion  is  often  forced 
upon  us  that  vice  is  triumphant  and  that  evil  predominates. 

Along  with  this  is  the  other  sad  fact  that  with  multitudes  of 
human  beings  life  is  rather  a  series  of  sorrowful  experiences,  than 
a  succession  of  pleasures.  So  awful  is  the  amount  of  human  suf- 
fering that  some  serious-minded  men  have  earnestly  contended 
that  '*  life  is  not  worth  the  living." 

The  human  heart  may  be  compared  to  a  fertile  field,  capable  of 
producing  fruits  in  great  profusion,  and  flowers  in  endless  variety. 
Under  proper  care  it  yields  all  that  can  be  desired  for  comfort  and 
pleasure.  But  if  neglected  the  weeds  root  out  the  flowers,  the 
tares  supplant  the  wheat,  the  garden  becomes  a  desert,  and  the 
field  a  wilderness.  The  heart  of  man,  which  is  capable  of  exer- 
cising the  noblest  desires,  the  tenderest  affections,  the  finest  sen- 
timents, and  the  sublimest  emotions,  is  likewise  capable  of  being 
ruled  by  the  most  depraved  appetites,  brutish  passions,  and  fiend- 
ish emotions. 

Enough  has  been  said  to  suggest  the  unspeakable  importance  of 
right  feelings  to  the  individual  and  to  society.  Language  is  in- 
adequate to  portray  its  full  significance.  Nothing  more  than  our 
susceptibility  of  suffering,  and  our  capacity  for  enjoyment,  shows 
how  "fearfully  and  wonderfully  we  are  made."  Only  the  con- 
scious revelations  of  eternity  can  fully  unfold  to  us  the  awful 
depths  of  suffering  into  which  a  soul  may  descend,  or  the  unimag- 
ined  heights  of  joy  to  which  it  may  soar.  The  murderer  on  the 
scaffold,  awaiting  the  fatal  word,  and  the  seraphic  evangelist  de- 
picting the  glories  of  *'  Jerusalem "  the  golden,  are  types  of  the 
extremes  of  which  man  is  capable. 

The  question  may  here  arise  —  What  has  the  teacher  to  do  with 
all  this  ?  The  answer  is  at  hand.  In  each  child  lie  all  the  possibili- 
ties of  pain  and  pleasure.  The  sensibility  is  an  integral  part  of 
the  human  soul.  The  chords  of  the  heart  are  all  there,  waiting 
to  be  swept  by  the  master  hand.  They  can  give  out  the  harshest 
discords,  and  they  can  pour  forth  the  harmonious  strains  of  the 
sublimest  oratorios.  The  original  endowments  of  capacity  for 
feeling  are  all  present  in  childhood,  simply  waiting  to  be  called 
into  exercise.  As  the  child  grows  it  gains  no  new  capacities  for 
feeling,  it  simply  experiences  the  use  of  its  original  endowments. 

Very  young  children  manifest  a  great  variety  of  feelings :  curi- 
osity, love  of  society,  desire  of  liberty,  desire  of  property,  love  of 


300  EDUCATION.  [Janiuiy, 

approbation,  affection,  hope,  fear,  together  with  envy,  jealousy, 
hatred,  and  many  others:  In  the  schoolroom,  where  a  large  num- 
ber of  children  mingle  freely  together,  the  feelings  are  likely  to 
have  a  rapid  development. 

It  is  in  childhood  that  the  greatest  spontaneity  and  artlessness 
are  exhibited  in  the  manifestation  of  emotion.  Men  learn  to  con- 
ceal or  counterfeit  their  feelings,  children  seldom  do  either.  They 
carry  their  hearts  upon  their  sleeves.  By  word  and  gesture, 
tones  of  voice,  and  facial  expression,  they  reveal  the  real  nature 
of  their  inward  promptings.  As  light  and  shade  chase  each  other 
in  unrestricted  freedom  over  the  landscape,  so  the  swift  waves  of 
varying  emotions  follow  each  other  in  quick  succession  over  the 
child^s  face. 

The  intimate  association  of  children  of  widely  diversified  dis- 
positions, in  all  the  varied  employments  of  the  school,  affords  an 
exceptionably  favorable  opportunity  for  calling  into  healthful 
activity  almost  all  the  emotions  suitable  to  childHiood. 

Under  skilful  training  right  feelings  can  be  evoked,  and  evil 
feelings  checked.  Wise  discipline  awakens  love  of  order,  desire 
of  knowledge,  self-reliance,  trust,  love  of  the  beautiful,  love  of 
truth,  and  a  sense  of  obligation  to  duty,  together  with  scorn  of 
meanness,  hatred  of  deceit,  shame  and  remorse.  On  the  other 
hand,  flattery  may  awaken  conceit,  too  much  attention  develops 
vanity,  too  rigid  discipline  arouses  resentment  and  deceit,  lax 
discipline  brings  out  recklessness  and  disregard  for  authority. 

The  teacher  unconsciously  arouses,  directs,  or  depresses  feel- 
ings. The  manifestation  of  feeling  is  a  potent  agent  for  arousing 
the  same,  since  feeling  is  contagious.  The  teacher's  tone  of  voice, 
manner  of  speech,  methods  of  instruction,  and  mode  of  discipline, 
are  all  forceful  in  awakening  or  lulling  emotion. 

The  feelings  of  children  when  once  fully  awakened  tend  to 
persist  and  to  grow.  That  which  today  seems  only  a  harmless 
ripple  on  the  surface  of  the  young  child's  soul,  by-and-by  appears 
as  a  deep  and  dangerous  current  drawing  into  its  impetuous  rush 
all  his  energies  and  carries  him  on  to  destruction.  An  approving 
and  sympathetic  smile  from  the  teacher  may  awaken  in  the  mind  of 
the  young  child  aspirations  and  hopes  which  are  only  the  precur- 
sors of  great  attainments.  Many  an  eminent  career  in  science, 
literature,  art,  or  business,  is  traceable  to  some  childish  emotion 
fostered  by  a  sympathetic  parent  or  teacher.     And  it  is  doubtless 


1889.]  TBAININO  THE  SENSIBILITIES.  301 

also  true  that  many  an  otherwise  brilliant  career  has  been  pre- 
vented by  a  lack  of  kindly  sympathy,  when  sympathy  and  encour- 
agement were  most  needed.  The  child  heart  is  very  susceptible 
to  outward  influences,  and  feelings  are  easily  aroused  and  directed 
which  may  become  dominant  forces  in  unfolding  character,  and 
fixing  destiny. 

It  is  a  consideration  of  great  weight  that  there  are  opportune  \ 
moments  for  awakening,  deepening,  modifying  or  directing  feel-  j 
ing,  when  much  can  be  done.  At  such  times  the  soul  is  plastic  in  / 
the  hands  of  its  guide,  and  readily  yields  to  wise  direction.  / 
These  golden  moments  come  intermingled  with  the  child's  work 
and  play,  often  without  any  effort  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  to 
prepare  them,  while  at  other  times  they  come  as  the  direct  result 
of  the  teacher's  plans  and  efforts.  Happy  is  he  who  can  seize 
such  occasions  and  use  them  wisely  for  training  to  healthful  ac-  1 
tivity  the  feelings  that  tend  toward  duty,  virtue,  and  happiness. 
These  opportunities  unimproved  may  never  return.  The  iron 
must  be  welded  while  it  is  hot,  the  clay  be  moulded  while  yet 
plastic  on  the  potter's  wheel,  else  the  clay  grows  brittle,  the  iron 
hardens,  and  the  coveted  results  can  never  be  attained.  If  a  de- 
sire for  knowledge  is  not  awakened  in  childhood  it  is  not  likely  to 
be  in  manhood.  If  a  child  acquires  a  dislike  for  study  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  overcome  that  dislike  in  later  life.  Love  of  the  beautiful 
in  all  its  varied  forms  is  denied  to  those  in  whose  hearts  it  has  not 
been  awakened  in  youth.  Unless  the  feeling  is  aroused  in  con- 
nection with  simple  object  lessons,  and  lessons  in  color,  form, 
music,  manners,  and  morals  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  child's 
capacities  and  experiences,  and  thus  grows  with  his  growth  and 
intertwines  itself  with  all  that  he  sees,  hears,  reads,  thinks,  and 
does,  running  like  a  golden  thread  through  all  life's  woof  and 
warp,  it  can  never  come.  Thought  and  feeling  should  grow  I 
together.  Each  new  acquisition  in  knowledge  should  awaken  its 
appropriate  emotion,  and  each  new  desire  give  rise  to  new  attain- 
ments in  knowledge.  The  growth  of  feeling  is  not  something 
that  can  be  neglected  with  impunity,  or  postponed  at  pleasure. 
It  should  proceed  pari  passu  with  the  unfolding  of  the  intellect. 
Thoughts  and  emotions  should  be  blended  in  all  the  stages  of  their 
development,  so  that  thought  may  have  its  flowering  in  sentiment, 
and  sentiment  have  its  firm  basis  in  knowledge. 

The  tendency  of  school  life  is  toward  a  dry,  hard  intellectual- 
ism.     The  goal  of  endeavor  is  knowledge.     The  reasons  for  this 


302  EDUCATION.  [JanuAry, 

are  evident.  Limiting  the  teacher's  work  chiefly  to  instruction 
renders  it  comparatively  simple ;  it  brings  results  within  the  range 
of  tests,  and  where  these  results  are  looked  for  principally  in  feats 
of  memory  they  can  be  reduced  to  percentages  and  tabulated. 
But  where  it  is  required  that  the  teacher's  work  shall  include  the 
culture  of  the  feelings,  it  becomes  more  complex  and  difficult,  less 
subject  to  rules  and  routine,  and  impossible  of  mathematical  meas- 
urement. There  is  as  much  difference  between  the  crude  process 
of  education  tliat  results  in  cramming  the  memory  with  facts  and 
dates  which  can  be  called  up  at  pleasure,  and  those  subtler  pro- 
cesses that  awaken  the  finer  feelings  of  the  human  soul  that  enno- 
ble and  beautify  the  whole  nature,  as  there  is  between  the  coal 
that  is  weighed  out  by  the  ton  and  consumed  in  the  furnace,  and 
the  diamond  that  flashes  back  the  sunlight  from  the  brow  of  roy- 
alty. We  do  not  despise  the  coal,  but  we  look  also  for  diamonds. 
Education  must  supply  the  cliild  with  facts,  and  train  his  intellect, 
but  it  should  not  stop  here.  It  is  capable  of  far  higher  results, 
and  should  aim  at  nothing  less  than  the  highest.  Education  that 
stops  with  mere  intellectuality,  comes  far  short  of  its  true  aim. 

It  may  be  asked  whether  a  child  may  not  be  too  much  under 
the  domination  of  sentiment ;  whether  it  is  not  possible  to  excite 
feeling  too  early,  or  too  violently ;  whether  special  effort  is  not 
required  to  stimulate  the  intellectual  powers ;  and  whether  feeling 
should  not  ordinarily  lead  to  action  ?  To  these  questions  a  general 
answer  may  be  returned.  Yes.  What  is  here  insisted  upon  is 
that  the  teacher  should  study  each  child,  and  seek  so  far  as  possi- 
ble to  train  its  powers  symmetrically,  giving  to  intellect,  sensibili- 
ty, and  will,  each  its  due  proportion  of  care,  and  seeking  to 
educate  the  whole  nature,  training  the  child  to  tliink,  to  feel,  and 
to  act.  To  train  the  intellect  should  not  be  the  sole  aim  of  the 
teacher,  as  seems  so  often  to  be  the  case.  Where  a  child  has  an 
';  excess  of  feeling,  it  is  the  business  of  the  teacher  to  repress  it,  or 
i  to  counterbalance  it  by  awakening  some  opposite  feeling.  Fear  is 
\  to  be  replaced  by  love,  timidity  by  self-confidence,  love  of  play  by 
love  of  study,  superstition  by  reverence. 

There  is  a  very  general  notion  that  the  intellect  is  subject  to 
well  ascertained  laws,  but  that  the  feelings  are  capricious,  and 
subject  to  no  law.  This  is  a  hurtful  mistake.  Feelings  are  sub- 
ject to  law  no  less  than  memoiy  and  imagination.  There  are  laws 
of  feeling,  as  well  as  laws  of  thought.  We  may  teach  children 
how  to  feel,  as  well  as  how  to  think.      One  great  psychic  law 


1889.]  TRAINING  THE  SENSIBILITIES.  303 

dominates  our  whole  spiritual  nature.  Each  power  grows  by  ap- 
propriate exercise.  Capacity  for  feeling,  as  well  as  power  to  think 
and  ability  to  act,  is  augmented  by  its  own  activity.  Another 
well  established  law  peculiar  to  sensibility  is  that  feeling  is  con- 
tagious: Love  begets  love.  A  teacher's  enthusiasm  for  study 
enkindles  a  whole  school ;  disrespect  for  authority,  embodied  in 
some  strong,  rude  boy,  has  a  demoralizing  effect  upon  the  entire 
body  of  his  associates,  unless  perchance  his  conduct  is  so  out- 
rageous as  to  produce  a  reaction  in  favor  of  good  order.  There 
are  other  laws  easily  ascertainable  and  readily  available  for  the 
proper  cultivation  of  the  sensibilities. 

How  shall  this  great  work  be  accomplished  ?  It  is  only  possible 
here  to  suggest  in  bare  outline  a  method. 

First  of  all,  the  teacher  must  be  one  whose  feelings  are  sensi- 
tive, strong,  and  in  healthful  equipoise.  A  man  without  a  heart 
has  no  business  to  be  a  schoolmaster. 

In  the  next  place,  those  who  are  in  course  of  preparation  for 
teaching  should  make  a  careful  study  of  the  emotional  nature, 
with  a  view  of  becoming  masters  of  the  secrets  of  the  human  heart. 
Of  what  feelings  is  the  human  soul  capable?  How  are  they 
aroused  ?  What  feelings  are  peculiar  to  childhood  ?  What  is  the 
function  of  each  feeling  ?  When  do  feelings  cease  to  be  virtuous, 
and  become  vicious?  How  can  they  be  cultivated?  How  do 
feelings  manifest  themselves  ?  These,  and  similar  inquiries  should 
be  pursued  by  the  study  of  books,  by  introspection,  and  the  pa- 
tient and  careful  study  of  children,  until  the  student  has  attained 
a  familiarity  with  this  most  important  element  of  man's  nature, 
and  has  acquired  a  deep  and  lasting  interest  in  the  study. 

Third.  The  training  of  the  sensibilities  should  be  recognized  as 
a  distinct  and  important  pai-t  of  the  teacher's  work.  Special  fit- 
ness and  preparation  for  doing  it  should  be  required  in  those  who 
aspire  to  teach,  and  success  in  this  work  should  be  one  of  the 
criteria  by  which  a  teacher's  work  Ls  to  be  judged. 

Fourth.  In  the  arrangement  of  programmes  for  institutes  and 
other  educational  meetings,  more  prominence  should  be  given  to 
the  discussion  of  specific  questions  pertaining  to  the  culture  of 
the  feelings. 

Fifth.  This  subject  demands  a  more  thorough  discussion  than 
has  yet  been  given  to  it  in  works  on  Pedagogy. 

Sixth.  In  the  location  of  school  buildings,  in  the  adornment  of 
the  grounds,  and  in  the  furnishing  of  the  rooms  with  pictures, 


/ 


/ 


3M  EDUCATION.  [January, 

cabinets,  plants,  and  other  articles  of  interest  to  children,  increased 
attention  should  be  paid  to  the  development  of  the  esthetic  na- 
ture. Imposing  architecture,  delicious  music,  landscape  garden- 
ing, fine  examples  of  painting,  engraving,  sculpture,  and  statuary, 
are  all  suitable  accessories  of  a  school  of  learning. 

Seventh.  In  aiTanging  courses  of  study,  color,  form,  music, 
drawing,  and  other  subjects  that  appeal  strongly  to  the  sensibility, 
should  find  a  larger  place.  One  of  the  delightful  and  humane 
features  of  the  kindergarten  is  the  liberal  provision  it  makes  for 
training  the  sensibility  by  systematic  lessons  adapted  to  the  child 
nature. 

Eighth.  The  whole  course  of  discipline,  the  daily  programme, 
the  administration  of  justice,  should  be  such  as  to  awaken  a  love 
of  order,  neatness,  promptness,  politeness,  honesty,  and  fidelity. 

Ninth.  The  method  of  instruction  should  be  such  as  to  special- 
ly call  into  exercise  the  power  of  feeling.  Mere  memorizing  of 
set  tasks  has  little  efficacy  in  this  regard.  Constant  effort  should 
be  made  to  lead  the  child  to  use  its  ovm  |)owers  of  observation, 
and  to  state  in  its  own  language  what  it  thinks  and  feels  in  refer- 
ence to  what  it  observes.  The  use  of  objects,  microscopes,  pict- 
ures, vivid  narratives,  and  good  literature,  each  have  a  place  in 
any  scheme  of  instruction  designed  to  reach  the  heart.  Short 
talks  in  regard  to  current  events,  comments  on  the  passing  phe- 
nomena of  the  seasons,  improvement  of  the  incidents  of  school 
life,  may  be  wisely  employed.  Occasions  presented  by  lessons  in 
reading,  geography,  history,  physiology,  astronomy,  and  other 
studies,  should  be  utilized  in  arousing  and  directing  feeling. 

Tenth.  The  school  should  be  pervaded  by  a  high  moral,  and  if 
possible,  religious  tone.  There  should  be  awakened  a  keen  ^ense 
of  honor,  an  exalted  notion  of  duty,  an  unswerving  adherence  to 
principle,  an  unconquerable  aversion  to  falsehood,  a  reverence  for 
authority,  penitence  for  wrong,  and  an  honest,  simple  fear  of  God 
as  maker,  observer,  and  judge. 

This  conception  of  the  teacher's  work  while  adding  to  its  diflfi- 
culty,  adds  also  greatly  to  its  dignity.  To  train  the  sensibility  so 
that  it  shall  respond  to  all  tlie  varied  influences  that  affect  it  in 
such  manner  as  to  multiply  its  sources  of  happiness,  and  prompt 
it  to  right  courses  of  action,  is  an  exalted  privilege  that  may  well 
satisfy  the  loftiest  ambition  of  one  who  seeks  to  promote  the  wel- 
fare of  his  fellow  beings,  purify  the  family,  ennoble  the  race,  and 
glorify  the  Maker  of  us  all. 


1889.]  NOBMAL  INSTITUTES.  305 


NORMAL   INSTITUTES. 

BY  J.  M.  GREENWOOD,  KANSAS  CITY,  MISSOURI. 

^^1\T0RMAL  INSTITUTES"  wiU  be  discussed  under  the  fol- 
-L^      lowing  subdivisions:  — 

1,  What  are  the  limits  f 

2.  What  instrumentalities  are  necessary  to  accomplish  the  work 
proposed  ? 

To  ascertain  the  limits  of  the  Normal  Institute,  its  boundaries 
must  be  accurately  drawn  and  correctly  described.  Upon  what 
conditions  it  came  into  being  as  an  educational  force,  its  actual 
and  potential  powers,  the  points  where  its  limits  cease  in  a  system 
of  instruction,  are  questions  worthy  of  consideration.  The  Nor- 
mal Institute  is  a  vague  Idea  in  the  minds  of  many.  It  is  made 
to  vary  so  as  to  represent,  as  an  educational  conception,  anything 
and  everything  from  zero  to  plus  infinity.  In  one  sense  it  is  a 
new  factor  in  the  American  system  of  public  instruction:  in 
another  it  is  the  realization  of  a  scheme  that  has  been  advocated 
and  practised  by  a  few  of  our  best  educators  for  twenty  or  more 
years. 

An  object  is  defined  by  giving  such  a  description  of  it  as  will 
distinguish  it  from  all  other  objects,  or  by  thinking  it  in  or  under 
some  more  comprehensive  genus.  Frequently,  negative  defini- 
tions, that  is,  by  telling  what  an  object  is  not,  are  employed. 
Both  methods  will  be  used  in  this  discussion. 

The  Normal  Institute  is  not  a  Normal  School;  it  is  not  an  ordi- 
nary county  or  township  institute ;  it  is  not  a  graded  school ;  it  is 
not  a  college,  or  a  university.  There  are  resemblances  to  all  of 
these ;  but  there  are  also  differences  which  entirely  preclude  the 
idea  of  sameness  or  identity. 

It  may  he  defined  as  a  special  kind  of  Training  School^  organized 
for  the  benefit  of  a  large  dass  of  teachers  who  have  not  been  regularly 
instructed  how  to  teach  and  how  to  manage  a  school.  This  is  the 
position  it  occupies ;  it  is  designed  to  supply  a  great  educational 
want  in  our  school  system. 


306  EDUCATION.  [January, 

Statistics  show  that  the  average  time  that  teachers  follow  their 
vocation  is  not  far  from  three  years.  In  some  states  forty  per 
cent,  quit,  or  are  dropped  out,  every  year.  Of  necessity  many- 
unskilled  teachers  are  employed,  and  Boards  of  Education  are  not 
always  careful  in  selecting  good  teachers,  and  occasionally  are 
very  indifferent  on  this  point.  Hence  poor  teachers  are  palmed 
off  on  thousands  of  school  districts  everv  year. 

This  question  forced  itself  into  public  notice  in  this  form  — 
What  can  be  done  to  improve  this  larye  clans  of  unskilled  teachers^  and 
how  can  it  he  done  the  quickest? 

Normal  schools  are  doing  a  grand  work,  but  they  cannot  supply 
the  denaand,  and  besides  too  many  of  them  are  carrying  putrid 
carcasses  as  instructors,  and  playing  ^^ second  fiddle"  to  academies 
and  high  schools. 

A  stringent  law  requiring  all  the  teachers  of  any  one  state  to  be 
thoroughly  qualified  to  teach,  would  reduce  the  teaching  force  of 
that  state  at  least  sixty  per  cent.  It  is  surprising  how  few  first- 
class  teachers  there  are  in  the  schools.  Even  in  the  most  favored 
states,  the  number  is  not  bewildering,  notwithstanding  the  pro- 
digious efforts  many  states  are  putting  forth  in  preparing  a 
good  corps  of  teachers  to  take  the  place  of  the  unskilled  ones. 

Normal  schools,  normal  departments  tacked  to  colleges  and 
universities,  and  the  average  county  institutes,  with  all  the  blow- 
ing and  striking  that  can  be  done,  were  and  are  inadequate  to 
meet  the  demand  for  trained  teachers.  No  state  is  supplied;  no 
city.  The  demand  is  wide  spread;  it  is  universal.  "Give  us 
good  teachers"  is  the  cry. 

The  only  speedy  and  practical  way  of  remedying  this  defect 
was  in  the  adoption  of  a  State  System  of  County  Normal  In- 
stitutes. 

Already  several  states  have  taken  this  forward  movement,  and 
the  general  results  appear  to  be  favorable  to  the  experiments  thus 
far  tried.  For  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that,  at  most,  it  is  a 
tentative  process  for  supplying  teachers  that  should  graduate 
from  normal  schools. 

INSTRUMENTALITIES  AND  OBJECTS. 

1.  A  Live  Active  Superintendent. 

2.  A  Couree  of  Study  Authorized  by  the  State. 

3.  Qualified  Instructors. 

4.  The  Work  to  be  Accomplished. 


1889.]  NOBMAL  INSTITUTES.  307 

It  makes  no  difference  how  good  a  law  is  on  the  statute  book, 
it  is  a  nullity  unless  enforced  by  a  live  active  county  superintend- 
ent. The  county  superintendent  is  the  custodian  of  every 
schoolhouse  in  his  county.  He  it  is  who  watches  every  door 
and  virtually  decides  who  shall  enter  as  teachers.  He  must  be 
the  moving  and  moulding  spirit  in  his  county.  He  inspires,  di- 
rects, plans  to  secure  the  highest  results.  More  than  a  mere 
teacher,  he  must  be  a  man  of  wisdom,  scholarship,  business  tact, 
high  organizing  power,  and  of  executive  ability.  The  idea  that 
briefless  lawyers,  big  or  little-pill  doctors,  decayed  preachers,  or 
ward  politicians  can  perform  the  duties  of  such  an  office  in  an 
efficient  manner,  is  a  serious  mistake.  But  enough  to  say  that 
the  best  school  man  in  the  county  is  the  one  to  be  placed  at 
the  head  of  its  educational  interests. 

A  course  of  study  is  necessary  for  two  reasons,  viz.,  To  assist 
the  persons  whose  experience  is  limited  in  such  work,  and  have 
been  chosen  to  conduct  the  teaching;  and  also  as  a  means  of 
securing  homogeneous  work  throughout  the  state. 

It  is  as  necessary  to  secure  uniformity  in  this  work,  as  it  is  to 
have  a  course  of  study  for  graded  schools;  and  a  copy  of  the 
course  ought  to  be  in  the  hands  of  every  teacher  who  attends. 

The  working  Institute  Program  should  be  well  balanced  in 
regard  to  subjects  and  time.  The  session  should  not  open  too 
early  in  the  morning.  Plenty  of  time  should  be  given  for  those 
who  live  out  in  the  country  to  be  present  before  roll-call. 

There  are  certain  psychological  and  physiological  truths  or  prin- 
ciples lying  at  the  foundation  of  all  correct  methods  of  education, 
and  it  is  by  an  application  of  these  principles  that  methods  are 
tested. 

On  general  principles  it  may  be  stated  that  any  system  that 
exhausts  and  wearies  the  pupil  is  wrong.  If  six  recitations  in  five 
hours,  with  only  twenty  minutes  intermission  in  hot  weather  doe* 
not  kill,  it  will  cripple.  No  average  school  teacher  can  concentrate 
his  whole  mind  on  any  one  subject  for  five  minutes  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  every  other  thing,  and  yet  many  Institute  Programs  will 
force  teachers  to  work  with  tremendous  energy  till  they  are  tired,, 
sleepy,  and  utterly  exhausted  before  the  continuous  session  closes. 

The  arrangement  of  topics  is  an  important  matter.  The  two 
most  difficult  branches  on  the  entire  list  of  subjects  are  English 
Grammar  and  Arithmetic.     I  am  not  speaking  of  them  as  they  are 


306  EDUCATION.  [January, 

usually  taught,  but  as  a  mental  discipline.  Grammar  and  Arith- 
metic should  not  come  together.  They  ought  to  be  separated. 
Drawing  and  Writing  should  come  in  the  forenoon,  and  Didactics, 
the  last  exercise  in  the  afternoon. 

Eight-fifty  A.  M.  is  a  convenient  hour  to  begin.  The  recitations 
ought  not  to  be  longer  than  forty  minutes.  For  fifteen  years  I 
have  commenced  institute  work  at  8 :  50  A.  M.  and  closed  at  4 :  80 
p.  M.  My  plan  is  to  have  a  recitation  of  forty  minutes,  followed 
by  an  intermisssion  of  ten  minutes,  except  at  noon  when  we  stop 
for  two  hours.  This  gives  four  recitations  in  the  morning,  end- 
ing at  12  M.,  and  three  recitations  in  the  afternoon.  It  works 
well  and  always  gives  satisfaction. 

Little  can  be  done  well  without  suitable  rooms.  Much  of  the 
class-work  to  be  made  effective  as  well  as  practical  must  be  done 
at  the  board  by  the  class,  hence  the  first  inquiry  in  selecting  a 
place  to  hold  an  Institute  is,  how  much  blackboard  surface  is  there? 
This  query  has  a  double  significance  when  it  is  remembered  that 
^^ brains  and  chalk"  constitute  the  teacher.  Maps,  globes,  charts, 
are  all  needed  as  helps.  If  no  other  way,  the  conductors,  the 
same  as  mechanics,  should  furnish  these  portable  appliances.  The 
teacher  must  have  tools  to  work  with,  and  so  ought  professional 
*' Insti tutors."  Every  teacher  knows  the  advantages  of  a  well- 
•  arranged,  well-furnished,  commodious,  convenient  schoolroom. 

QUALIFICATIONS  OF  INSTRUCTORS. 

This  is  the  most  difficult  element  to  be  reduced  in  the  entire 
discussion.  Peter  Cooper,  it  is  said,  first  tried  carpentering  and 
failed ;  next  he  tried  to  be  a  cabinet  maker,  and  he  failed  at  that ; 
next  he  went  into  the  grocery  business  and  failed  again.  He  was 
now  forty,  and  he  commenced  manufacturing  glue^  and  here  he 
**  stuck,"  and  laid  the  foundation  for  the  ten  millions  that  he  pos- 
sessed at  the  time  of  his  death.  The  whole  secret  of  his  success 
lies  in  this,  that  making  glue  was  the  business  that  he  was  adapted 
to.  I  make  no  application.  Draw  what  inference  you  choose. 
The  Normal  Institute  is  a  violent  protest  against  existing  methods 
of  conducting  ordinary  county  institutes.  New  blood  must  be 
transfused  into  the  veins  and  arteries  of  the  old  system.  That 
system  is  already  dead.  Killed  because  of  hard  riding  by  "  one- 
idead  men,"  is  an  appropriate  inscription  for  its  tombstone. 
When  a  teacher  or  a  fool  mounts  a  hobby,  dig  a  -grave ! 


1889.]  NOBMAL  INSTITUTES,  309 

An  Englishman  humorously  remarked  that  if  three  Americans 
chanced  to  meet,  one,  at  least,  was  sure  to  make  a  speech  before 
they  separated.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  this  true 
Briton  had  been  attending  a  county  institute,  and  took  notes  for 
reference. 

Well,  this  statement  is  not  incredible.  And  as  an  exhibition  of 
the  long-windedness  that  sometimes  puffs  up  educational  lecturers, 
I  will  add  by  way  of  parenthesis  that  a  leading  educator  at  a  county 
institute  delivered  forty  set  speeches  in  two  days,  and  in  conclusion 
said  he  was  sorry  that  the  session  closed  so  soon,  as  he  had  been 
obliged  to  omit  much  valuable  matter  which  it  was  very  important 
the  teachers  should  know.  Think  of  it!  Four  thousand  instruc- 
tors, assistants,  and  lecturers  turned  loose  in  the  United  States  — 
and  nearly  all  of  them  the  most  inveterate  talkers  the  world  ever 
produced — to  make  speeches  to  the  innocent,  unoffending,  unpro- 
tected, helpless  teachers.  May  he  temper  the  fury  of  the  blast  to  the 
weak  and  the  manacled  ! 

"Carry  me,"  methinks  the  teacher  says,  "to  the  top  of  the 
mountain  peak  to  be  devoured  by  vultures,  or  sink  me  to  the 
bottom  of  the  sea  to  be  nibbled  by  minnows;  but  save  me!  save 
me !  from  being  spoken  to  death  by  a  one-idead  Instructor ! " 

This  malady,  more  deadly  than  the  blast  of  the  sirocco,  more 
poisonous  than  the  breath  of  the  fabled  Upas,  is  the  ghostly 
spectre  that  is  most  to  be  dreaded  in  the  Normal  Institute  work. 
It  strangled  and  choked  to  death  the  county  institutes,  and  the 
same  parties  now  will  mount  the  "Normal  hobby"  and  kill  it  too. 
Beware,  then,  of  the  talking  men  in  the  Institute ! 

Men  of  action,  not  of  words,  are  needed.  Men  who  are  success- 
ful teachers ;  who  know  how  to  organize,  how  to  teach ;  not  only 
how  to  teach  but  the  best  methods  of  teaching  and  managing,  are 
needed  to  do  this  work.  This  system  is  designed  more  particu- 
larly to  help  the  country  and  village  schools,  and  therefore  the 
instructor  can  not  handle  the  country  school  problem  unless  he 
has  had  several  years'  experience  in  that  work  and  that  with  a 
view  to  perfecting  the  system.  The  country  school  is  the  great 
problem  to  be  solved  in  this  country  by  the  educator  and  states- 
man. Some  of  our  college  men  have  viewed  the  country  schools 
with  large  sized  field-glasses  in  order  to  solve  the  difficulties,  but 
with  about  as  much  success  as  a  craw-fish  would  dig  a  hole  in 
a  stone  jug. 


310  EDUCATIOy.  [January, 

System  is  the  key  to  success  in  all  kinds  of  business,  school 
business  included.  The  instructor  must  be  a  systematic,  prompt, 
decisive,  and  a  rapid  organizer.  Let  the  institute  be  organized 
the  first  forenoon  and  in  the  afternoon  regular  work  commenced. 
Classes  are  formed  and  lessons  assigned  as  in  an  ordinary  school. 
Signals  for  the  movement  of  classes  are  to  be  given  and  explained 
and  practised  till  all  classes  move  as  a  single  individual. 

In  an  Institute  held  hot  180  degrees  from  the  North  Pole  four 
days  were  spent  in  organizing,  and  the  only  topic  for  investigation 
for  that  birth-period  was  '*  paper,"  which  necessitated  no  little 
searching  of  encyclopedias.  It  was  a  useful  exercise  to  the  teach- 
ers to  read  up  the  history  of  paper,  but  what  that  had  to  do  with 
Institute  work  does  not  very  clearly  appear. 

To  other  necessary  qualifications  scholarship  of  a  higher  order 
is  demanded.  The  Instructor,  if  of  one  subject  only,  ought  to  be 
master  of  it. 

Persons  of  superior  ability,  activity,  good  judgment,  accurate 
scholarship,  broad  culture,  deep  sympathies,  and  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  the  science  and  art  of  education,  will  succeed  well  in 
Institute  work. 

A  critical  survey  will  satisfy  any  one  familiar  with  school  work 
that  our  graded  town  and  city  schools  are  in  fair  condition.  But 
the  country  schools  are  far  from  being  satisfactory.  There  is  little 
or  no  system  among  them.  They  are  not  half  supervised.  One 
district  has  but  little  in  common  with  adjoining  districts,  and  the 
old  adage, "  every  fellow  for  himself,"  is  literally  true  here.  In  the 
country  schools  everything  appears  to  work  wrong-end  fore-most. 

By  means  of  the  Normal  Institutes  the  instruction  in  each 
county  may  be  systematized  so  far  as  the  common  branches  are 
taught.  The  teachers  can  be  put  to  work  to  a  very  considerable 
degi-ee  on  the  same  daily  program.  Instead  of  having  a  hundred 
and  fifty  different  schools,  conducted  on  one  hundred  and  fifty 
distinct  plans  in  classification,  methods,  and  objects,  there  ought 
to  be  a  kinship  in  the  school  work  of  the  county;  the  schools 
should  be  related  and  somewhat  alike.  This  is  a  very  important 
matter.  Courses  of  study  for  the  Institutes  and  for  the  ungrad- 
ed schools  should  be  arranged  at  the  State  Superintendent's 
Office,  and  followed  as  closely  as  possible.  Such  a  scheme  saves 
trouble  and  is  also  a  guide  to  teachers  and  County  Superintend- 
ents. 


1889.]  NOBMAL  INSTITUTES.  311 

Last  year  I  picked  up  a  county  paper,  and  in  it  was  published 
a  "  daily  program  for  country  schools."  This  program  was  the 
result  of  some  logic  chopping  propositions,  one  of  which  was  to 
the  effect  that  an  equable  division  of  time  should  be  given  to 
each  class.  This  looked  all  right  as  a  proposition;  but  when  it 
was  applied,  the  principle  had  a  back-action  kick  dangerous  to 
toy  with. 

For  instance,  the  most  advanced  classes  in  Geography,  Arith- 
metic, and  Grammar,  were  aUowed  ten  minutes  for  each  recitation, 
while  the  same  time  precisely  was  given  to  the  first  reader,  second 
reader,  third  reader,  etc.,  etc.  Only  one  recitation  occupied  over 
ten  minutes  and  that  was  history  of  the  United  States,  which,  by 
grace,  was  fifteen  minutes.  The  whole  number  of  recitations  was 
about  thirty-eight  daily  according  to  this  schedule.  The  teachers 
of  the  county  adopted  this  program,  so  stated  the  accompanying 
resolutions,  and  they  still  live. 

Normal  Institutes  will  create  a  laudable  ambition  among  the 
teachers,  a  desire  to  excel,  to  do  better  work  and  to  stimulate 
further  the  educational  interests  of  the  country.  New  fields  of 
thought  will  be  opened  to  them ;  they  will  make  excursions  into 
unknown  and  to  them  unexplored  regions.  Beauty  will  be  seen  in 
the  dew-drop,  the  violet,  the  solid  rock,  the  floating  cloud,  and  the- 
dancing  sunbeam.  Mind,  the  true  study  of  the  teacher,  will  be^ 
investigated  as  the  ultimate  substratum  upon  which  all  educational 
systems  rest.  Literature  will  sparkle  with  a  new  radiance,  and. 
the  formulas  of  mathematics  will  become  vocal  with  truths,  the 
symbols  of  eternity.  Normal  Institutes  will  give  the  country 
better  teachers,  better  citizens,  better  scholars,  better  men  and 
women  —  the  object  of  all  education. 


Who 's  seen  my  day  ? 

*T  is  gone  away, 

Nor  left  a  trace 

In  any  place. 

If  I  could  only  find 

Its  footfall  in  some  mind,  — 

Some  spirit- waters  stirred 

By  wand  of  deed  or  word,  — 

I  should  not  stand  at  shadowy  eve, 

And  for  my  day  so  grieve  and  grieve. 

—^  JEmtncL  Surt, 


313  EDUCATION.  [JuiaAry, 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  OUTLOOK  IN  FLORIDA.^ 

BT  GEORGE  GARY  BUSH,   PH.  D.,  BELLEVIEW,  FLA. 

FLORIDA  has  reached  an  interesting  period  in  her  history. 
During  recent  years  the  growth  of  a  sentiment  in  favor  of 
education  has  been  as  rapid  as  it  lias  been  admirable.  Previous  to 
the  year  1868  there  was  lack  of  organization  and  the  educational 
facilities  afforded  were  inadequate  to  meet  the  demands  of  a  rap- 
idly increasing  population.  But  during  the  past  twenty  years  the 
material  progress  of  the  state,  though  very  great,  has  not  kept  pace 
with  the  advance  in  all  matters  pertaining  to  education.  This  state- 
ment finds  its  confirmation  principally  in  the  history  of  the  past 
five  yeare,  within  which  time  not  only  the  public  school  system  has 
been  perfected  but  educational  advantages  of  the  highest  order 
have  been  placed  witliin  the  reach  of  all.  Florida  lias  now  learned 
that  the  only  way  to  have  efficient  schools  is  to  provide  efficient 
teachers.  Hence  Normal  Schools  for  both  the  white  and  colored 
population  Ijave  been  established  and  supported  by  the  state,  and 
Teachers'  Institutes,  under  the  supervision  of  the  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction,  are  regularly  held.  Until  within  a  very 
brief  period  there  were  no  studies  pursued  in  the  schools  which 
would  be  classed  under  the  higher  education.  By  the  strictest 
definition  there  is  still  very  little  collegiate  instruction,  and  yet 
each  year  witnesses  a  steady  advance,  and,  should  this  continue, 
Florida  will  soon  take  rank  educationally  with  the  older  states. 

THE  SCHOOL  LAW  OF  18G9. 

In  accordance  with  authority  granted  by  the  state  constitution 
of  1868,  the  Legislature,  which  convened  in  the  January  following, 
framed  a  school  law  with  such  wise  and  generous  provisions,  that  it 
is  still,  with  only  slight  modifications,  in  force,  and  acknowledged 
to  be  one  of  the  best  school  laws  of  tliis  country.  It  provided  for 
a  uniform  system  of  common  schools  and  for  establishing  a  univer- 
sity in  which  instruction  should  be  free.     It  established  a  common 

>  See  the  writer's  "  History  of  E(lucatioii  in  Florida,"  soon  to  be  publislied  by  the  Ba> 
reau  of  Education. 


1889.]  THE  EDUCATIONAL  OUTLOOK  IN  FLOBIDA.  313 

school  fund  out  of  the  following  sources :  "  The  proceeds  of  all 
lands  that  have  been  or  may  hereafter  be  granted  the  state  by  the 
United  States  for  educational  purposes ;  donations  by  individuals 
for  educational  purposes;  appropriations  by  the  state;  the  pro- 
ceeds of  lands  or  other  property  which  may  accrue  to  the  state  by 
escheat  or  forfeiture ;  the  proceeds  of  all  property  granted  to  the 
state  when  the  purpose  of  such  grant  shall  not  be  specified;  all 
moneys  which  may  be  paid  as  an  exemption  from  military  duties; 
all  fines  collected  under  the  penal  laws  of  the  state ;  such  portion 
of  the  per  capita  tax  as  may  be  prescribed  by  law  for  educational 
purposes;  [and]  twenty-five  per  centum  of  the  sales  of  public 
lands  which  are  now  or  may  hereafter  be  owned  by  the  state." 
Only  the  income  derived  from  the  fund  could  be  used,  and  this 
must  be  applied  to  aid  in  the  maintenance  of  common  schools,  and 
to  the  purchase  of  books  and  apparatus.  The  law  further  provided 
that  there  should  be  an  annual  school  tax  of  not  less  than  one 
mill  on  a  dollar  of  all  taxable  property  in  the  state :  moreover  that 
each  county  should  be  required  to  add  to  this  for  the  support  of 
schools  a  sum  not  less  than  one  half  the  amount  apportioned  to 
each  county  for  that  year  from  the  income  of  the  common  school 
fund.  In  place  of  this  last  provision  each  county  is  now  required 
to  assess  and  collect  annually  "  a  tax  of  not  less  than  three  miUs 
nor  more  than  five  mills  on  the  dollar  of  all  taxable  proi)erty." 
The  income  from  the  fund  was  ordered  to  be  distributed  among  the 
sevei-al  counties  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  children  therein  of 
school  age ;  but  the  neglect  of  any  school  district  (i.  e.  of  any  county) 
to  maintain  a  school  or  schools  for  at  least  tliree  months  in  the  year 
was  to  work  a  forfeiture  of  its  poition  of  the  common  school  fund 
during  such  neglect.  The  law  of  1869  provided  for  a  Superintend- 
ent of  Public  Instruction,  to  hold  oflice  for  a  term  of  four  years; 
a  Board  of  Education  with  full  power  to  perform  all  corporate 
acts  for  educational  purposes,  to  be  composed  of  the  State  Superin- 
tendent, Secretary  of  State,  and  Attorney  General;  a  County 
Board  of  Public  Instruction,  to  consist  of  five  members  and  to  be 
also  a  body  corporate  and  intrusted  with  all  the  school  property  in 
the  county ;  a  County  Superintendent,  who  was  to  be  secretary  of 
the  county  board  and  agent  between  the  state  superintendent  and 
the  county  schools ;  and  lastly.  District  Trustees,  who  were  to  be 
appointed  by  the  county  boards,  and  have  like  charge  and  respon- 
sibility within  their  narrower  spheres. 


314  EVUCATIOy.  [Januiuy, 

This  law  was  favorably  received  by  most  of  the  people  of  the 
state,  and  no  time  was  lost  in  putting  it  in  operation.  The  agent 
of  the  Peabody  fund,  whose  aid  to  the  schools  of  Florida  was  gen- 
erous and  timely,  referring  in  1872  to  the  operation  of  the  new 
school  law,  says  that  ^^  during  the  three  years  of  its  existence  it  has 
had  unusual  difficulties  to  contend  with,  but  a  great  advance  has 
been  made,  and  it  is  gaining  rapidly  in  popular  esteem."  In 
1869  there  was  in  many  counties  an  almost  total  lack  of  school- 
houses;  added  to  this  was  the  incompetency  of  teachers  and  the 
insufficiency  of  the  school  funds.  Previous  to  that  time,  as  re- 
ported at  least  from  one  county,  "  the  schools  were  kept  in  small 
cabins,  out-houses,  and  sometimes  in  dwellings,  by  intinerant 
teachers,  who  scarcely  ever  professed  to  teach  anything  higher 
than  Webster's  spelling-book  and  arithmetic  as  far  as  compound 
numbers."  By  helps  from  the  general  government,  from  the  Pea- 
body  fund,  and  from  other  sources,  schools  rapidly  multiplied  in 
all  parts  of  the  state,  so  that  in  the  year  1874  the  secretary  of 
state,  who  was  then  acting  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
could  say  in  his  admirable  report:  "A  few  years  ago  there  were 
no  schools  outside  a  few  of  the  larger  towns  or  cities.  We  have 
now  nearly  six  hundred  scattered  throughout  the  state.  They  are 
springing  up  by  the  highways  and  byways  as  pledges  of  future 

improvement  and  progress This  is  a  revolution  that 

cannot  go  backward.  It  creates  its  own  momentum.  It  moves 
by  a  power  within  itself,  and  strikes  out  the  light  and  heat  of  its 
own  vitality." 

Already  the  elementary  schools  had  been  graded  and  divided 
into  primary,  intermediate,  and  grammar,  but  up  to  the  year  1877 
the  law  had  been  only  partially  enforced,  except  in  the  case  of 
schools  which  received  aid  from  the  Peabody  fund.  In  these 
schools  benefit  from  the  fund  was  made  conditional  upon  a  sys- 
tematic grading  of  the  school,  and  a  lengthening  of  the  term 
(which  had  generally  been  only  of  a  duration  of  three  months)  to 
a  period  of  ten  months.  In  the  years  following  1877  the  system 
of  grading  was  rapidly  adopted,  and  it  is  now  found,  wherever 
practicable,  throughout  the  state.  The  school  year  consists  prop- 
erly of  three  terms  of  three  months  each,  counting  twenty-two 
teaching  days  for  each  month.  As  the  State  still  grants  aid  to 
schools  with  an  annual  session  of  only  three  months,  it  unfor- 
tunately happens  that  the  school  privileges  enjoyed  each  year  by 


1889.]  THE  EDUCATIONAL  OUTLOOK  IN  FLORIDA.  315 

many  of  the  children  and  youth  of  Florida  are  limited  to  this  brief 
period. 

The  reports  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  the 
Hon.  A.  J.  Russell,  for  the  past  five  years,  show  aggregate  results 
that  will  bear  favorable  comparison  with  the  educational  statistics 
of  any  other  state.  Among  these  may  be  specially  noticed  the 
growth  of  the  schools  in  public  favor;  the  increased  number  of 
schools  and  school  children;  improved  buildings  and  enlarged 
funds ;  a  more  intelligent  and  better  instructed  body  of  teachers ; 
a  lengthened  school  year;  and  a  ratio  of  daily  attendance,  which  if 
correctly  reported,  probably  cannot  be  surpassed  in  any  section  of 
our  Union.  In  the  report  for  the  year  1887  I  find  the  follow- 
ing statement:  "It  can  be  safely  said  there  are  but  few  children 
who  live  in  isolated  places  now  in  the  state  to  whom  the  door  of 
the  school  is  not  opened  without  fee  or  hinderance,  of  any  race  or 
condition  of  the  population,  and  there  is  every  reason  for  believ- 
ing there  are  comparatively  very  few  of  the  youth  of  school  age 
who  are  not  able  to  read." 

From  statistics  gathered,  it  is  possible  to  present  in  brief  some 
exhibit  of  the  growth  of  the  school  system.  In  1872,  three  years 
after  the  passage  of  the  new  school  law,  Florida  had  a  population 
of  about  195,000,  and  expended  for  public  schools  $80,000.  The 
number  of  these  schools  was  four  hundred ;  the  value  of  the  school- 
houses,  grounds,  and  equipments  $200,000,  as  reported  (though 
this  was  evidently  incorrect);  and  the  permanent  school  fund 
$300,000.  In  1880  the  population  had  increased  to  269,493,  and 
the  number  of  public  schools  to  one  thousand  one  hundred  and 
thirty-one. 

In  1883-4. 

The  youth  of  school  age^  numbered 66,798 

The  youth  enrolled  in  public  schools 58,311 

Average  daily  attendance 35,881 

Number  of  public  schools 1,504 

The  number  of  schoolhouses 1,160 

Expended  during  the  year  for  public  schools      ....  $172,178*00 

Value  of  school  buildings,  etc.,  in  the  state         ....  $210,115-00 

Permanent  school  fund $429,984.00 

In  1887. 
The  youth  of  school  age  enrolled  numbered         ....  82,453 

Average  daily  attendance 51,059 

^Tbe  enumeration  of  children  between  the  ages  of  six  and  twenty-one  years  must  be 
taken  every  four  years  by  the  county  tux  assessor. 


816  EDUCATION.  [Jaouary, 

In  1887. 

Namber  of  public  »chool8 2,104 

Namb«r  of  t«M:her.  {  ^'};«J^1J39  J a.S18 

Expended  daring  the  year  for  school  purposes  ....  $449,899.16 
Value  of  school  buildings  and  grounds  owned  by  the  state  and 

counties $691,000.00 

Value  of  school  furniture 929,399.00 

Permanent  school  fund ^$500,000.00 

THE  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS. 

The  training  of  teachers  is  now  recognized  as  one  of  the  mo6t 
important  educational  agencies  in  Florida.  Since  the  organiza- 
tion, in  1879,  of  the  first  Teachers'  Institute,  this  work  has  grown 
rapidly  in  favor,  and  its  beneficent  effects  are  seen  in  a  greatly 
improved  corps  of  teachers,  whose  laudable  ambition  is  "  to  excel 
in  everything  that  tends  to  make  a  real  teacher."  Generous  ap- 
propriations have  been  made  by  the  legislatures  to  defray  the 
expenses  incident  to  holding  the  Institutes,  and  the  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction  has,  since  1880,  visited  annually 
many  of  the  counties  and  personally  organized  and  conducted 
them.  In  February,  1886,  a  State  Teachers'  Institute  was  held 
and  a  State  Association  organized.  At  the  Florida  Chautauqua, 
held  each  year  since  1885  at  De  Funiak  Springs,  much  profitable 
instruction  has  been  given  to  a  large  body  of  the  teachers  of  the 
state.  The  subjects  have  related  to  the  most  important  methods 
of  teaching,  and  the  lecturers  have  been  some  of  the  most  eminent 
men  who  to-day  adorn  the  teacher's  profession.  In  June,  1887, 
the  Superintendent  organized  a  corps  of  five  instructors  who,  for  a 
period  of  sixteen  weeks,  successfully  conducted  teachers'  institutes 
in  thirteen  counties.  The  officer  in  whose  charge  this  work  was 
placed  made  a  most  favorable  report,  showing  that  the  citizens 
generally  were  disposed  to  foster  and  lend  it  aid,  and  stated  his 
belief  that  it  had  already  "resulted  in  giving  a  new  impetus  to 
educational  thought  in  our  state." 

Allied  to  the  subject  of  teachers'  institutes  is  that  of  normal 
school  training,  and  this  during  the  past  decade  has  received  much 
attention,  the  work  being  largely  aided  by  donations  from  the  Pea- 
body  fund.  At  present,  besides  normal  departments  in  a  few  of 
the  colleges  and  secondary  schools,  there  is  a  Normal  College  for 
white  students  at  De  Funiak,  and  another,  equal  in  all  its  appoint- 

^In  addition  to  this  there  remain  400,000  acres  of  the  lands  donated  to  the  ttate  for 
oommon  schools,  having  an  estimated  value  of  $1.26  per  acre. 


1889.]  THE  EDUCATIONAL  OUTLOOK  IN  FLOBWA.  317 

ments,  for  colored  students  at  Tallahassee.  These  are  both  state 
institutions,  and  under  excellent  management.  The  course  con- 
sists of  two  years  in  the  art  of  teaching  and  imparting  instruction ; 
at  graduation  diplomas  are  given  which  have  the  authority  of  life 
certificates  of  the  first  class  in  the  state.  Both  schools  are  supplied 
with  modem  furniture  of  the  most  approved  pattern,  with  globes, 
atlases,  blackboards,  and  all  other  requirements  necessary  to 
secure  the  best  results. 

THE  FREEDMEN. 

In  the  history  of  Florida  few  events  have  been  of  greater  inter- 
est than  those  relating  to  the  education  of  the  freedmen.  The 
first  to  take  action  in  this  matter  were  two  societies  at  the  North 
which  were  under  the  control  of  colored  people.  They  were 
known  as  the  African  Civilization  Society,  and  the  Home  Mission- 
ary Society  of  the  African  M.  E.  Church,  and  established  schools 
at  different  points  in  the  Southern  states,  a  few  of  which  were 
opened  in  Florida.  By  means  of  the  help  received  from  these  and 
other  Northern  societies,  and  through  the  efforts  of  such  freedmen 
as  had  acquired  a  little  learning  in  their  bondage,  some  thirty  col- 
ored schools  were  in  successful  operation  at  the  close  of  the  year 
1865.  In  January,  1866,  a  bill  was  introduced  into  the  Legisla- 
ture of  Florida,  providing  for  the  education  of  the  children  of  the 
freedmen,  and  levying  a  tax  of  one  dollar  each  upon  "  all  male 
persons  of  color  between  the  age  of  twenty-one  and  forty-five" 
years,  and  a  tuition  fee  of  fifty  cents  a  month  upon  each  pupil. 
As  soon  as  this  became  a  law  a  commissioner  was  appointed  by 
the  Governor,  with  authority  to  organize  colored  schools  and  en- 
list in  his  work  the  cooperation  of  all  good  citizens.  This  officer 
was  everywhere  welcomed  by  the  planters  of  the  state,  and,  during 
the  first  year,  organized  twenty  day  schools  and  thirty  night 
schools.  The  latter  were  intended  especially  for  adults  who  often 
formed  weird  groups,  as  they  studied  their  books  around  the 
changing  and  uncertain  light  of  the  pine  fire.  There  were  en- 
rolled in  these  schools  2,726  pupils,  and  in  addition,  as  many  as 
2000  were  thought  to  be  receiving  private  instruction.  In  this 
movement  for  the  education  of  freedmen  Florida  is  believed  to 
have  taken  precedence  of  all  other  Southern  states.  During  the 
years  1866  and  1867  the  number  of  colored  schools  rapidly  in- 
creased.     The  freedmen  in  many  instances  erected  schoolhouses 


318  EDUCATIOX.  [Janiuury, 

at  their  own  expense,  and  otherwise  heartily  seconded  the  action 
of  the  Legislature.  And  just  at  this  \yo\nt  the  Freedmen's  Bureau 
proved  itself  the  efficient  friend  and  ally  of  the  colored  people. 
This  it  did,  principally,  by  aiding  in  the  promotion  of  "school 
societies,"  whose  object  was  to  acquire  by  gift  or  purchase  the 
perfect  title  to  eligible  lots  of  land  for  school  purposes.  Each  of 
these  lots — not  less  tlian  one  acre  in  extent — was  to  be  vested  in  a 
board  of  trustees.  This  work  of  the  Bureau  was  ably  seconded  by 
many  landed  proprietors  who  furnished  school  lots  and  who  other- 
wise rendered  moral  and  material  support.  Previous  to  1869  the 
largest  number  of  schools  for  colored  pupils  in  any  year  was 
seventy-one  and  of  teachers  sixty-four.  Of  the  latter  one-half 
were  wliite.  The  studies  were  "the  alphabet,  easy  reading, 
advanced  reading,  writing,  geography,  arithmetic,  and  higher 
branches."  In  the  common  school  law  of  1869  no  reference  is 
made  to  the  comj)lexion  of  the  children  for  whom  it  was  framed, 
and  henceforth  it  l)ecame  the  business  of  the  state  to  see  that 
equal  school  privileges  were  accorded  to  the  two  races.  It  is 
evident  from  the  annual  rej>ort*<  that  for  many  years  the  progress 
of  the  colored  j)eople  in  ac(iuiring  learning  was  slow  and  unsatis- 
factor}' ;  but,  as  the  years  j)assed,  l)etter  teachers  of  their  own  race 
were  employed,  and  their  educational  condition  vastly  improved. 
To-day  the  children  of  the  black  man  are  taught  in  separate 
schools,  but  they  liave  the  same  help  from  the  school  funds,  the 
same  supervision,  and  are  subject  to  tlie  same  regulations  as  the 
children  of  the  other  race.  The  number  of  colored  teachers  em- 
ployed in  the  state,  in  1887,  as  already  stated,  was  five  hundred 
and  seventy-nine.  It  is  yet  too  soon  to  expect  that,  in  general, 
their  qualifications  are  ecjual  to  their  white  co-laborers,  but  from 
the  superior  advantages  now  offered  in  the  Normal  College  and  in 
teachers'  institutes,  it  is  fair  to  conjecture  that  the  inequality  will 
ere  long  be  remedied. 

In  a  few  places  secondaiy  schools  have  been  established  for  the 
colored  {)eople,  which,  like  the  Cookman  Institute  in  Jacksonville, 
have  met  with  a  good  measure  of  success.  In  the  same  city  there 
is  probably  the  l)e8t  equipped  colored  school  in  Florida.  During 
1887,  through  the  earnest  efforts  of  the  State  Superintendent,  sec- 
onded by  the  county  board  of  Duval  County,  and  the  colored  people 
of  the  city  of  Jacksonville,  the  necessary  steps  were  taken  to 
secure  from  the  agent  of  the  Slater  fund  an  annual  appropriation 


1889.]  THE  EDUCATIONAL  OUTLOOK  IN  FLOBIDA.  319 

of  one  thousand  dollars  to  be  used  for  the  teaching  of  the  industrial 
arts.  A  suitable  building  was  speedily  erected,  and  fully  furnished 
with  wood-working  tools  and  all  other  necessary  appliances.  This 
school  is  for  the  industrial  training  of  both  boys  and  girls,  and  is 
operated  in  connection  with  the  colored  graded  school, — by  far 
the  best  of  its  kind  in  the  state. 

HIGHER  EDUCATION. 

In  behalf  of  the  higher  education  little,  comparatively,  had  been 
accomplished  in  Florida  previous  to  the  beginning  of  the  present 
decade.  As  early  as  January,  1851,  an  act  was  passed  by  the 
Legislature  providing  for  the  establishment  of  two  seminaries  of 
learning,  "one  upon  the  east  the  other  upon  the  west  side  of  the 
Suwannee  River,  the  first  purpose  of  which  shall  be  the  instruction 
of  persons,  both  male  and  female,  in  the  art  of  teaching  all  the 
various  branches  that  pertain  to  a  good  common  school  education ; 
and  next  to  give  instruction  in  the  Mechanic  Arts,  in  Husbandry 
and  Agricultural  Chemistry,  in  the  Fundamental  Laws,  and  in 
what  regards  the  rights  and  duties  of  citizenship."  The  semi- 
naries provided  for  in  this  act  were  established  a  few  years  later, 
and,  after  varying  fortunes,  are  now  well  equipped  and  doing 
most  excellent  work.  The  one  east  of  the  Suwannee  River  is  lo- 
cated at  Gainesville,  and,  since  the  year  1883,  has  been  strictly 
military  in  its  organization.  Though  it  does  not  affect  a  college 
course,  it  has  a  curriculum  sufficiently  broad  to  meet  the  wants  of 
its  patrons,  and  under  the  able  management  of  its  superintendent. 
Col.  Edwin  P.  Cater,  is  growing  constantly  in  public  esteem. 
The  students  enrolled  during  the  past  academic  year  numbered 
ninety-three,  and  were  of  an  average  age  of  about  seventeen  years. 
There  are  within  the  legal  territory  of  the  Seminary  twenty-eight 
counties,  and  each  of  these  is  entitled  to  send  "as  many  free  stu- 
dents as  it  has  members  in  the  lower  House  of  the  Legislature." 

The  Seminary  west  of  the  Suwannee  River  was  opened  in  1857 
at  Tallahassee.  A  year  ago  it  was  reorganized  and  placed  in 
charge  of  President  George  M.  Edgar,  LL.  D.,  who  for  many  years 
had  been  at  the  head  of  collegiate  institutions  in  the  South.  So 
satisfactory  has  been  his  management  of  the  seminary  that  a  short 
time  ago  public  attention  was  called  to  it  by  the  Governor  of  the 
state  and  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  During  the 
past  year  there  were  formed  in  the  school  two  college  classes  and 


\ 


820  EDUCATION.  [Jaooarj, 

two  high  school  classes  with  seventy-four  students  in  attendance. 
It  has  power  to  confer  degrees  and  ^4ts  charter  is  ample  in  its 
provisions  for  the  maintenance  of  a  university."  Unlike  the  east 
Florida  Seminary,  it  offers  free  tuition  to  all  Florida  youth. 
Both  institutions  are  supported  by  the  income  derived  from  the 
sale  of  ^^ Seminary  lands"  which  were  donated  to  the  state  by 
Congress  in  1828  and  1845,  and  by  private  and  public  bequests. 

THE  STATE  COLLEGE. 

Congress,  by  act  passed  July  2, 1862,  appropriated  to  the  sev- 
eral states  ^4and  scrip"  to  the  amount  of  thirty  thousand  acres  of 
the  public  lands  for  each  senator  and  representative  in  Congress 
on  the  condition  that  each  state,  claiming  the  benefit  of  the  act, 
establish  a  college  ^^to  teach  such  branches  of  learning  as  are 
related  to  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts,  without  excluding 
other  scientific  and  classical  studies  and  including  military  tactics 
.  .  .  .  in  order  to  promote  the  liberal  and  practical  education 
of  the  industrial  classes  in  the  several  pursuits  and  professions  in 
life."  In  accordance  with  this  act  the  Legislature  of  Florida 
voted,  in  1870,  to  establish  a  State  College.  But  the  project  suf- 
fered various  delays,  principally  through  lack  of  demand  for  such 
an  institution,  and  it  was  not  until  1884  that  an  attractive  build- 
ing was  completed,  a  faculty  chosen,  the  curriculum  of  study 
provided,  and  the  college  put  in  full  operation.  During  the  years 
that  have  since  elapsed,  though  the  attendance  has  been  small, 
(only  forty-two  students  were  reported  in  1887)  yet  the  material 
growth  of  the  college  has  been  rapid,  and  its  educational  advan- 
tages have  each  year  improved.  It  now  offers  to  each  student, 
besides  its  classical,  literary,  philosophical,  and  scientific  courses, 
the  opportunity  of  witnessing  the  operations  in  farm,  garden,  and 
orchard;  and  also  of  learning  by  practice  the  use  of  imple- 
ments, and  the  value  of  well  directed  labor.  During  the  past 
year  the  college  grounds  have  been  greatly  beautified,  a  model 
barn  has  been  erected,  also  a  building  for  the  Manual  Training 
School,  and  at  the  present  time  a  building  for  the  Chemical  Lab- 
oratory is  in  process  of  construction.  The  college  is  located  about 
sixty  miles  west  of  Jacksonville,  at  Lake  City,  a  place  noted  for 
the  beauty  of  its  environs  and  the  equability  of  its  climate.  Pres- 
ident F.  L.  Kern,  A.  M.,  and  his  associates  form  an  energetic  and 


1889.]  THE  EDUCATIONAL  OUTLOOK  IN  FLOBIDA.  321 

able  faculty,  and  the  institution  is  gaining  in  public  esteem  in 
proportion  as  the  advantages  it  offers  are  better  understood. 

DENOMINATIONAL  COLLEGES. 

Since  the  year  1888  a  number  of  colleges  (at  least  so  named) 
have  been  established  by  various  religious  denominations  in  Florida 
and  two  of  these  have  already  taken  high  rank  among  the  educa- 
tional institutions  of  the  state.  The  one  bears  the  name  of  its 
most  generous  benefactor,  Mr.  A.  W.  Rollins  of  Chicago,  the  other 
of  its  founder,  the  Hon.  H.  A.  De  Land,  of  Fairport,  N.  Y.  Rol- 
lins College  is  located  at  Winter  Park,  and  was  incorporated  in 
April,  1885,  having  been  founded  by  the  General  Congregational 
Association  of  Florida.  The  government  of  the  college  is  vested 
in  a  president,  vice-president,  secretary,  treasurer,  and  auditor^ 
and  a  board  of  twenty-one  trustees.  The  Rev.  E.  P.  Hooker,  D.  D.^ 
a  New  England  man,  is  at  the  head  of  the  faculty  of  instruction, 
and  the  curriculum  of  study  and  methods  of  teaching  employed 
are  similar  to  those  in  use  in  Northern  colleges.  As  an  indication 
of  its  prosperity,  four  attractive  college  buildings  have  already  been 
erected  upon  its  fine  campus ;  its  board  of  instruction  has  increased 
from  seven  members  to  twelve;  the  number  of  preparatory  and 
college  students  has  more  than  doubled,  and  the  whole  esprit  de 
corps  of  the  school  has  undergone  a  pleasing  change.  This  insti- 
tution is  certainly  not  one  of  the  least  of  the  blessings  which  have 
followed  the  train  of  Northern  immigration  southward. 

In  the  year  1883  Mr.  De  Land  established  an  academy  in  his. 
town  of  De  Land,  and  in  1887,  under  a  special  charter  granted  by 
the  Legislature,  it  was  organized  into  a  university.  Previous  to- 
this  the  institution  had  been  presented  to  the  Baptist  State  Con- 
vention of  Florida,  by  whom  it  is  now  controlled.  Its  president  is. 
Dr.  J.  F.  Forbes  of  Brockport,  N.  Y.  Under  the  three  years  of  hia 
administration  new  departments  of  study  have  been  added,  the 
former  curriculum  broadened,  college  classes  formed,  and,  besidea 
generous  additions  to  its  endowment  fund,  one  of  the  finest  aca- 
demic buildings  in  the  state  has  been  erected  upon  the  university 
grounds.  For  the  year  1887-88  there  were  nine  professors  and 
instructors,  and  the  students  registered  numbered  one  hundred 
and  three.  The  object  of  this  institution,  as  also  of  Rollins  Col- 
lege, is  to  furnish  a  Christian  education  of  the  highest  order  to  the 
young  men  and  young  women  of  Florida. 


322  EDUCATIOy.  [JADoarj, 

There  are  a  number  of  excellent  private  and  public  schools  and 
academies  in  the  state  of  wliich  we  have  not  spoken.  Of  the  high 
schools  nothing  has  been  said  for  the  reason  that,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  one  at  Jacksonville,  and  possibly  one  or  two  others, 
they  are  mostly  undeveloped. 

In  comparing  Florida  educationally  with  other  states  of  the 
Union,  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  former  has  a  large  terri- 
tory, with  no  centres  of  wealth ;  with  no  aggregation  of  the  people 
in  large  cities;  with  immense  tracts  of  unoccupied  lands;  with  a 
scattered  iwpulation  and  comparatively  poor  facilities  for  inter- 
communication;  and  with  more  than  a  third  of  the  inhabitants 
numbered  among  the  colored  race,  and  bearing  still  intellectually 
the  marks  of  tlieir  bondage.  These  are  hindrances  of  greater  or 
less  moment  in  any  effort  to  build  up  and  perfect  a  system  of  edu- 
cation, and  in  estimating  the  condition  of  Florida  they  should  be 
entitled  to  adequate  consideration. 


T//B  HORACE  MANN  SCHOOL  FOR  THE  DEAF. 

BY    ELSA   L.   IIOBART. 

IN  the  Horace  Mann  School  there  are  about  eighty  pupils,  some 
of  whom  w^ere  Iwrn  deaf,  while  others  have  been  deprived  of 
their  hearing  by  disease. 

It  is  often  supposed  that  a  deaf  child  has  some  defect  in  his 
organs  of  speecli,  but  this  is  very  rarely  the  case.  Most  deaf  chil- 
dren are  speechless  only  for  the  reason  that,  hearing  neither  their 
own  voices  nor  those  of  others,  it  is  impossible  for  them  to  acquire 
speech  in  the  usual  way. 

Many  children  enter  the  Horace  Mann  School  as  '*  deaf  mutes," 
but  after  a  short  attendance  this  name  no  longer  applies  to  them ; 
for  in  this  school  they  are  taught  to  communicate  with  others,  not 
through  the  signs  which  make  them  noticeable,  but  through  speech. 
They  cannot  hear  the  voice  of  tlieir  teacher,  and  so  the  sense  of 
touch  takes  the  place  of  hearing  and  they  are  allowed  to  feel  the 
vibration  of  the  vocal  cords  in  her  throat.  The  way  in  which  a 
little  child  is  taught  to  imitate  these  vibrations  and,  watching 
eagerly,  to  place  his  own  lips,  teeth,  and  tongue  as  his  teacher 
places  hers,  is  wonderful  indeed.     He  learns  to  follow  every  slight 


1889.]  THE  HOBACE  MANN  SCHOOL  FOB  THE  DEAF,  32^ 

variation  of  her  organs  of  speech,  and  as  a  result,  he  pronounces 
with  her,  first  sounds  and  then  the  names  of  familiar  objects  and 
actions.  At  the  same  time  he  learns  to  read  these  words  from  the 
lips  of  teacher  and  classmates.  The  voices  of  many  of  the  pupils 
are  clear  and  sweet,  and  when,  as  sometimes  happens,  a  voice 
sounds  strained,  or  is  pitched  too  high,  the  child  may  even  be 
taught  to  modulate  it,  although  this  is  somewhat  difficult  for  him. 
From  words,  he  passes  on  to  simple  sentences.  In  this  part  of  his 
work,  his  progress  is  necessarily  slow,  as  our  language  contains  & 
remarkable  variety  in  forms  of  expression,  and  he  must  fix  each 
one  in  his  mind  by  means  of  many  repetitions. 

As  soon  as  the  child  begins  to  speak,  he  is  taught  to  read  and  U> 
write  as  children  are  taught  in  other  public  schools.  Indeed,  the 
course  of  study  in  the  Horace  Mann  is  the  same  as  the  ordinary 
primary  and  grammar  school  course,  although  the  pupil's  progress 
is  retarded  because^  he  must  acquire  the  language  as  well.  The 
misfortune  of  these  children  seems,  in  most  cases,  to  render  their 
other  senses  more  acute  and  to  increase  their  capacity  for  com- 
prehending quickly  and  remembering  accurately.  For  this  reason, 
together  with  their  delight  in  the  knowledge  that  they  gain,  it  is 
a  pleasure  to  teach  them,  and  they  repay  an  hundred  fold  the  pains 
that  is  taken  with  them.  The  younger  classes  are  at  present  en- 
joying an  illustrated  primer  which  has  been  published  this  autumn. 
It  has  been  carefully  prepared  to  meet  their  needs  by  the  principal 
of  the  school,  and  will  fit  them  to  read  the  primers  which  hearings 
children  use.  Indeed,  it  will  be  found  useful  in  other  primary 
schools  during  those  first  months  when  the  five-year-olds  have  been 
confined  to  reading  from  the  blackboard. 

The  benefits  of  this  school  are  not  confined  to  those  who  enter 
it  without  speech.  Children  often  lose  their  hearing  through 
severe  illness,  and  thus  have  no  longer  the  power  of  understand- 
ing what  is  said  to  them.  They  still  have  their  speech,  but,  unless 
special  attention  is  given  them,  it  becomes  more  and  more  indis- 
tinct as  the  years  go  by,  until  they  cease  to  make  use  of  it  and 
become  so-called  "deaf  mutes."  At  the  school,  these  children 
rapidly  acquire  lip-reading  and  are  encouraged  to  use  their  speech 
constantly.  Thus  they  are  often  enabled,  after  a  time,  to  enter 
other  schools  and  compete  successfully  with  hearing  pupils. 

The  aim  of  the  Horace  Mann  School  is  to  make  it  possible  for 
its  pupils  to  mingle  with  friends  and  strangers  ;  to  converse  easily 


324  EDUCATION.  [January, 

and  intelligently  with  them  and  to  lessen,  in  every  way,  the  disad- 
vantages that  arise  from  their  deafness.  To  this  end,  and  to  fit 
them  for  their  work  in  life,  opportunities  have  been  sought  and 
found  for  them  to  take  lessons  in  various  branches  of  manual 
training.  The  pupils  have  had  these  lessons  outside  of  their  school 
hours  in  classes  with  hearing  children  and  under  teachers  who  had 
had  no  previous  experience  with  the  deaf.  In  typesetting,  print- 
ing, carpentry,  shoemaking,  clay  modelling,  and  cooking,  the  pu- 
pils from  tliis  school  have  succeeded  as  well  as  those  from  other 
schools,  notwithstanding  the  obstacles  in  their  way.  As  in  all  the 
public  schools  of  Boston,  sewing  is  part  of  the  regular  course; 
and  the  sewing  teacher  now  reports  that  the  older  girls  have  prof- 
ited so  well  by  her  instructions  tliat  there  is  nothing  more,  in  the 
ordinary  school  course  of  sewing,  to  teach  them. 

The  results  of  the  instruction  given  at  this  school  for  the  deaf, 
are  shown  in  those  who  have  entered  as  children  and  have  remained 
during  the  required  number  of  years.  On  leaving  the  school  they 
have  followed  various  occupations.  Some  liave  entered  other 
schools  with  their  hearing  friends  and  are  now  pursuing  higher 
courses  of  study  with  pleasure  and  success.  One  of  these  is  re- 
markable for  the  facility  wth  which  she  makes  use  of  colloquial 
expressions.  She  has  never  heard  a  sound,  and  owes  the  ease 
with  which  she  converses,  to  the  instruction  that  she  received  at 
the  Horace  Mann  School.  A  boy  wlio  lost  his  hearing  at  fifteen, 
learned  to  read  the  lips  after  a  short  attendance  here,  and  is  also 
doing  well  in  another  school.  A  congenitally  deaf  boy  has  entered 
a  printing  office  on  leaving  school,  and  his  employer  reports  that 
he  is  much  pleased  with  liim  and  with  his  work.  One  of  the  girls 
earns  remarkably  good  wages  in  the  tailoring  business  and  is  so 
quick  to  read  the  lips  that  her  employer  can  scarcely  believe  that 
she  hears  notliing. 

The  occupations  in  which  the  former  pupils  of  the  school  are 
proving  their  ability  to  take  their  part  in  the  world,  are  many.  In 
every  case,  it  is  noticeable  that  their  associates  are  hearing  men 
and  women,  and  their  deafness  is  but  a  slight  disadvantage  com- 
pared with  the  isolation  that  might  have  been  their  lot.  One  of 
them  writes :  "My  deafness  is  tlie  very  smallest  trial  that  I  have." 
I  think  no  one  can  doubt  that  this  misfortune  can  in  no  other  way 
be  so  much  lightened. 

The  Horace  Mann  School  is  a  public  day  school.     Deaf  children, 


1889.]  THE  HOBACE  MANN  SCHOOL  FOB  THE  DEAF.  325 

residing  either  in  Boston  or  in  Massachusetts  may  attend  it  with- 
out expense.  Indeed,  within  a  few  months  an  act  has  been  passed 
by  which  free  transportation  will  be  provided  for  any  child  whose 
parents  desire  it ;  this  renders  the  school  absolutely  free.  The 
school  was  organized  nineteen  years  ago  through  the  efforts  of 
Rev.  Dexter  S.  King,  at  that  time  a  member  of  the  School  Com- 
mittee. This  gentleman  had  become  interested  in  the  teaching  of 
articulation  to  the  deaf  at  the  Institution  at  Northampton,  then 
but  a  short  time  established.  Realizing  that  there  were  many 
deaf  children  in  Boston  whose  parents  did  not  wish  to  send  them 
from  home,  he  urged  that  a  public  day  school  be  established  in 
Boston. 

The  school  was  opened  on  Nov.  10,  1869,  with  twenty-five  pu- 
pils. In  1875,  the  school  first  occupied  its  present  building  at  63 
Warrenton  Street.  On  account  of  the  rapid  increase  of  numbers, 
the  accommodations  were  soon  found  to  be  insufficient  and  a  pro- 
posal was  made  for  a  new  building  as  early  as  1879.  Nothing  was 
done,  however,  and  owing  to  changes  in  the  School  Committee 
through  the  death  of  some  who  were  interested  in  the  work  of  the 
school  and  the  removal  of  others,  the  matter  was  delayed  for 
years.  In  the  mean  time,  classes  were  obliged  to  occupy  rooms 
never  intended  for  use  as  schoolrooms  and  wholly  unfitted  for  the 
purpose.  Finally,  a  lot  of  land  on  Newbury  Street  was  granted 
by  the  state  in  1885,  on  condition  that  the  city  should  erect  a 
suitable  building  within  three  years.  A  sufficient  appropriation 
was  made  and  the  building  will  be  completed  within  a  few  months. 
Those  who  are  interested  forget  the  long  nine  years  that  they 
have  waited,  in  their  pleasure  in  the  handsome  building  which  is 
to  be  the  Horace  Mann  School  of  the  future. 

The  new  building  is  situated  on  Newbury,  near  Exeter  Street. 
Preparatory  training  for  industrial  pursuits  will  be  given  in  rooms 
in  the  lower  story.  Some  friends  of  the  school  have  kindly  offered 
to  assist  in  fitting  up  these  rooms  for  such  classes.  The  first  floor 
will  be  occupied  by  the  primary  department.  On  the  second  floor 
are  the  rooms  for  the  grammar  classes  and  the  principal's  room. 
The  upper  story  contains  a  large  room  where  sewing  and  drawing 
will  be  taught.  It  will  be  pleasant  to  know  that  these  children 
are  enjoying,  after  so  many  years,  the  air  and  light  which  they 
need  even  more  than  other  school  children.  We  trust  that  no 
chance  may  longer  delay  the  completion  of  the  building. 


326  EDUCATION,  [Jannarj, 


THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE 

AND  LITERATURE.^ 

IV. 

A   YEAR   WITH  LONGFELLOW,   AND   WHAT  HE  TAUGHT   US. 

BY  MAT  MACKINTOSH. 

THIS  paper  is  the  record  of  a  year's  work  in  the  study  of  Long- 
fellow, with  children  whose  ages  varied  from  six  to  nine 
years.  I  was  first  led  to  take  up  the  continuous  study  of  one  au- 
thor, from  reading  an  article  (translated  from  the  French  of  M. 
Felix  Pecaut,  by  Marion  Talbot),  which  appeared  in  the  Educa- 
tion of  March,  1887.  Having  decided  to  take  up  the  study  of 
Longfellow,  I  remembered  fine  work  in  that  line  which  I  had  seen 
at  the  Froebel  Academy,  Brooklyn,  under  the  leadership  of  Misa 
Mary  Laing.  From  her  work  I  took  the  idea  of  using  selectiona 
from  "  Hiawatha." 

The  results  in  general  training  were  so  satisfactory  that  I  am 
emboldened  to  describe  what  we  were  able  to  accomplish,  a  little 
every  day,  during  a  whole  year. 

I  have,  besides  my  blackboards  all  round  the  walls,  eight  black- 
boards on  the  sliding-doors  which  separate  the  schoolroom  from 
the  kindergarten ;  and  these  doors,  while  inconvenient  for  general 
school-work,  were  just  the  thing  for  my  poetry,  as  anything  writ- 
ten there  could  remain  on  the  boards  for  months. 

Each  morning,  at  nine  o'clock,  we  all  rose  and  faced  the  sliding- 
doors,  the  older  ones  reading  the  lines  written  there,  the  younger 
repeating,  and  the  teacher  giving  any  unfamiliar  words.  At  first> 
all  read  together  until  confidence  was  gained,  then  the  elder  ones 
singly,  and  much  to  my  surprise,  I  found  that  many  single  words 
were  learnt  incidentally  by  the  little  ones,  who  heard  the  explana- 
tions given  to  the  older  children.  This  was  a  result  of  some  time 
later,  of  course.  I  preferred  that  as  many  as  could  do  so  should 
read,  as  in  this  way  two  avenues  to  the  mind — Hearing  and  Sight 
—  were  opened. 

^  Copyright,  1888,  by  Eaatem  Edaoational  Bureau. 


1889.]  THE  TE ACHING  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE,  327 

Then,  when  seated,  the  older  pupils  took  the  poetry  for  their 
writing-lesson,  usually  on  Monday,  or  if  absent  then,  later  in  the 
week.  I  saw  that  they  were  provided  with  books,  into  which, 
either  with  pen  or  pencil,  they  copied  the  words  just  studied. 

The  mottoes  for  our  work  we  took  from  Longfellow  and  Shake- 
speare, and  the  first  board  read  thus :  — 

^^  Lives  of  ^reat  men  all  remind  as 

We  can  make  oar  lives  sublime 
'    And  departing,  leave  behind  as 

Footprints  on  the  sands  of  Time/' 

—  Longfellow^ 

**  Heaven  doth  with  us  as  we  with  torches  do,  — 
Not  light  them  for  themselves/'  — Shakespeare. 

I  underlined  such  words  as  "  sublime  "  and  "  departing,"  going- 
over  them  in  many  ways,  until  something  like  the  requisite  con- 
ception had  been  gained,  for  I  do  not  believe  that  we  shotdd  only 
give  children  what  they  can  easily  and  perfectly  comprehend.  If  they 
see  dimly  at  first,  the  grander  meanings  of  life  will  still  grow 
upon  them,  and  the  mental  habit  of  looking  onward  and  upward 
will  be  formed. 

I  relied  greatly  on  these  Poetry  lessons  for  the  Character-build- 
ing part  of  the  education  I  would  fain  give  all  my  little  ones,  and 
so,  for  the  next  two  weeks'  work,  I  made  selections  from  "  The 
Builders :  — 

Second  Board.  Third  Board. 

HENRT  WADSWORTH    LONGFELLOW,  Nothing  useless  Is,  or  low, 

BORN  FEB.  STtu,  1807.  Each  thing  In  Its  place  Is  best; 

DIED  MARCH  24TH,  1882.  And  what  seems  but  Idle  show, 

Strengthens  and  supports  the  rest. 
For  the  struciure  that  we  raise 

Time  Is  with  materials  filled ;  In  the  dder  days  of  Art 

Our  to-days  and  yesterdays  Builders  wrought,  with  greatest  care. 

Are  the  blocks  with  which  we  build.  Each  minute  and  unseen  part 

For  the  Grods  see  everywhere. 

Here  our  work  had  special  and  graphic  illustration,  for  this  was 
the  first  session  in  a  newly-built  schoolhouse,  and  last  year  we  had 
watched  the  various  steps  in  erecting  a  house  next  door  to  our  old 
school.  "  Structure  "  and  "  materials  "  gave  us  no  trouble  when 
read  by  the  light  of  concrete  example.  And  those  of  the  children 
who  had  graduated  from  the  kindergarten  had  loving  memories 
of  what  associated  effort  could  do  with  "blocks." 

"  In  the  elder  days  of  Art "  led  to  a  talk  about  the  wonderful 
pictures,   statues,  and   buildings  of    old;   and  a  picture   of    the 


828  EDUCATIOX,  [Janaary, 

Parthenon  at  Athens  showed  columns,  which  did  beautifully 
"strengthen  and  support  the  rest"  of  the  building.  And  this 
was  a  foundation  for  future  references  to  the  world  of  "  Art." 

Now  I  thought  we  were  ready  to  commence  the  study  of  **  Hia- 
watha," and  so  I  wrote  on  the  next  board :  — 

'*  Ye  who  love  the  haunts  of  Sature, 

Love  the  sunshine  of  the  meadow, 

Love  the  shadow  of  the  forest, 

Love  the  wind  among  the  branches, 

And  the  rainshower  and  the  snowstorm,  # 

And  the  rushing  of  great  rivers 
^lirougli  their  palisades  of  pine-trees, 
^nd  the  thunder  in  the  mountains 

Whose  innumerable  echoes 

Flap  like  eagles  in  their  eyries ;  — 

Listen  to  these  wild  traditions, 

To  this  Song  of  Hiawatha !  *' 

The  first  idea  to  be  gained  here  was  the  meaning  of  "  Nature.'''* 
("  Haunts  "  came  incidentally.)  Here  I  fell  back  on  their  already 
partially-formed  conception  of  "Art,"  and  told  them,  '*ART 
means  the  beautiful  things  that  men  make,  and  NATURE  all  the 
beautiful  and  wonderful  things  made  by  God."  This  was  the  first 
^erm  of  the  idea;  it  has  taken  the  whole  year,  and  may  take 
another  to  even  relatively  complete  it.  I  may  mention,  as  a  point 
of  interest  for  those  who  are  investigating  children's  likes  and 
dislikes,  that  this  selection  was  the  favorite  among  the  children, 
and  every  one  wanted  to  say  that  alone  on  our  Longfellow's  Birth- 
day celebration,  when  each  child  took  a  single  passage.  I  found 
that  "  Hiawatha  "  was  particularly  easy  for  them  to  learn,  doubt- 
less owing  to  the  rhythm  and  repetition. 

I  next  told  the  story  of  the  "Red  Pipestone  Quarry,"  and  illus- 
trated by  all  the  Indian  pictures  I  could  get.  Then  from  "  The 
Four  Winds"  I  took  short  selections  telling  of  Mudjekeewis 
"  Father  of  the  Winds  of  Heaven,"  and  of  his  three  sons,  Wa- 
bun,  Kabibonokka,  and  Shawondasee.  This  incidentally  gave  rise 
to  study  of  the  seasons,  and  of  the  points  of  the  compass,  where 
these  four  winds  lived.  We  pointed  in  each  direction,  as  we  said 
the  lines  relating  to  each  wind. 

Then  came  the  connection  of  Mudjekeewis  with  Hiawatha. 
*'  Mudjekeewis  was  Hiawatha's  father,  and  his  mother  was  Weno- 
nah,  a  beautiful  Indian  girl.  But  very  soon  Hiawatha's  mother 
died,  and  then  Nokomis,  his  old  grandmother,  took  care  of  himi. 


1889.]  THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  329 

You  know  winds  do  u't  stay  long  in    one  place,  so  Mudjekeewis 
did  n't  see  much  of  his  little  son." 

^^By  the  shores  of  Gitche  Gumee  [I^ake  Superior], 
By  the  shining  Big-8ea-Water, 
iStood  the  wigwam  of  Nokomis, 
Daughter  of  the  Moon,  Nokomis, 
Dark  behind  it  rose  the  forest^ 
Bose  the  black  and  gloomy  pine-4re€a^ 
Bose  the  Jirs  with  cones  upon  them. 
Bright  before  it  beat  the  water, 
Beat  the  clear  and  gunny  water. 
Beat  the  shining  Blg-Sea-Water/* 

"  Gitche-Gumee,"  the  "  Big-Sea- Water  "  introduced  a  talk  about 
our  great  inland  lakes,  whose  names  were  found  on  the  globe,  and 
readily  learned,  though  I  made  no  special  point  of  it,  since  I  was 
only  anxious  to  give  associations  for  the  time  when  they  should 
hear  these  names  again.  "Wigwam"  was  explained  and  pictures 
shown.  "  Daughter  of  the  Moon  "  was  explained  by  telling  in  a 
slightly  abbreviated  form,  suited  to  the  age  of  the  children,  the 
legend  given  by  Longfellow.  Then  I  made  a  special  point  of  hav- 
ing the  children  show  by  their  voices  the  difference  between  the 
three  lines  telling  of  the  dark  forest  and  the  '*  black  and  gloomy 
pine-trees " ;  and  those  other  three,  telling  of  the  bright,  clear, 
shining,  sunny  water.  This  they  took  at  once,  with  a  quickness 
of  perception  that  was  most  delightful  and  encouraging  to  their 
teacher. 

The  next  four  boards  told  of  the  childhood  of  Hiawatha,  and 
were  supplemented  by  stories,  and  reading  of  parts  of  the  poems 
which  I  did  not  ask  them  to  learn. 

First  Board.  Third  Board. 

'<  At  the  door,  on  Suminer  evenings,  *'  Then  the  little  Hiawatha 

Sat  the  little  Hiawatha,  Learned  of  every  bird  their  language, 

Heard  the  whispering  of  the  pine-trees.  Learned  their  names  and  all  their  secrets 

Heard  the  lapping  of  the  water,  How  they  built  their  nests  In  Summer, 

'  Mlnne-wawa,*  said  the  pine-trees.  Where  they  hid  themselves  in  Winter, 

'  Mudway-aushka,*  said  the  water.'*  Talked  with  them  whene'er  he  met  them. 

Called  them  '  Hiawatha's  Chickens.' " 
Second  Board. 

'»  [He]  saw  the  rainbow  In  the  heaven.  Fourth  Board. 

In  the  eastern  sky  the  rainbow,  "  Of  all  beasts  he  learned  the  language. 

Whispered, '  What  is  that,  Nokomis?  '  Learned  their  names  and  all  their  secrets. 

And  the  good  Nokomis  answered.  How  the  beavers  built  their  lodges, 

* '  T  is  the  heaven  of  flowers  you  see  there,  Where  the  squirrels  hid  their  acorns, 

All  the  wild  flowers  of  the  forest.  How  the  reindeer  ran  so  swiftly. 

All  the  lilies  of  the  prairie,  Why  the  rabbit  was  so  timid. 

When  on  earth  they  fade  and  perish.  Talked  with  them  iR^hene'er  he  met  theni» 

Blossom  in  that  heaven  above  us.'  "  Called  them '  Hiawatha's  Brothers.'  " 


330 


EDUCATION. 


[Janumry, 


After  speaking  of  the  way  Hiawatha  proved  his  manhood  by 
shooting  and  carrying  home  his  first  red  deer,  and  of  his  skill  with 
the  Indian  bow  and  arrows,  we  passed  on  to  "  Hiawatha's  Fast- 


ing 


>> 


The  first  two  boards  were  as  follows :  — 


First  Board. 
"  Yon  shall  hear  how  Hiawatha 
Prayed  and  fasted  In  the  forest, 
Not  for  greater  skill  in  hantlng, 
Not  for  greater  craft  in  fishing, 
Not  for  triumphs  in  the  battle. 
And  renown  among  the  warriors. 
But  for  profit  of  the  people, 
For  advantage  of  the  nations.** 


Second  Board. 
**  First  he  built  a  lodge  for  fasting, 
Built  a  wigwam  in  the  forest. 
By  the  shining  BigSea. Water, 
In  the  blithe  and  pleasant  Spring-time, 
In  the  Moon  of  Leaves  [MayJ  he  boilt  it; 
And  with  dreams  and  visions  many. 
Seven  whole  days  and  nights  he  fasted.*' 


I  found  the  first  of  these  two  selections  the  hardest  of  all  that  I 
taught  through  the  year ;  the  thought  seems  too  monotonous  and 
sustained,  and  there  are  many  difficult  words.  In  the  next  we 
compared  ** lodge"  and  ^^ wigwam,"  "dreams"  and  "visions,'* 
discovered  the  fitness  of  the  name  '*  Moon  of  Leaves "  for  May, 
and  spoke  of  how  it  felt  to  be  very,  verj-  hungry  for  even  one  day. 

Then  I  told  them  that  on  the  first  three  days,  Hiawatha  tried  to 
find  some  suitable  food  for  his  people  that  could  be  kept  through 
the  long  winter ;  either  among  the  animals  and  wild  fruits  and 
grain  of  the  forest,  or  among  the  fish  in  the  lake ;  and  then  let 
them  repeat  Hiawatha's  cry  after  each  day's  failure :  — 

"  *  Master  of  Life,*  he  cried,  despoDdin^, 
*  Must  our  lives  depend  on  these  thing^s?* " 

Incidentally,  I  brought  in  the  hardships  endured  by  the  Pilgrims 
in  their  first  winter,  before  they  were  able  to  sow,  and  reap  the 
harvest.     The  next  selections  were  as  follows :  — 


'*  On  the  fourth  day  of  his  fasting 
In  his  lodge  he  lay  exhausted ; 
From  his  couch  of  leaves  and  branches 
Gazing,  with  half-open  eyelids. 
Full  of  shadowy  dreams  and  visions, 
On  the  dizzy,  swimming  landscape. 
On  the  gleaming  of  the  water, 
On  the  splendor  of  the  sunset. 

*'  And  he  saw  a  youth  approaching. 
Dressed  in  garments  green  and  yellow, 
Coming  thro'  the  purple  twilight. 
Through  the  splendor  of  the  sunset; 
Plumes  of  green  bent  o'er  hiu  forehead. 
And  his  hair  was  soft  and  golden. 


••  Said  he,  •  O  my  Hiawatha! 
All  your  prayers  are  heard  In  heaven ; 
For  you  pray  not  like  the  others. 
Not  for  greater  skill  in  hunting. 
Not  for  greater  craft  in  fishing, 
Not  for  triumph  in  the  battle 
Nor  renown  among  the  warriors, 
But  for  profit  of  the  people. 
For  advantage  of  the  nations. 

**  I  From  the  Master  of  Life  descending, 
I,  the  friend  of  man,  Mondamin, 
Come  to  warn  you  and  instruct  you. 
How  by  struggle  and  by  labor. 
You  ahall  gain  what  you  have  prayed  for. 
Rise  up  from  your  bed  of  branches, 
Rise,  O  youth,  and  wrestle  with  me! '  " 


Then  I  told  how  Mondamin  came  the  next  day  to  wrestle  with 


1889.] 


THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE . 


331 


Hiawatha  again,  and  the  next  day  also ;  and  that  Mondamin  told 
Hiawatha  that  on  the  fourth  wrestling  he  would  be  victorious. 

*'[Mondamin]  smiled  and  said, '  To-morrow    "  Not  forgotten  nor  neglected 


Is  the  last  day  of  your  conflict, 
Is  tbe  last  day  of  your  fasting. 
You  will  conquer  and  o'ercome  me; 
Make  a  bed  for  me  to  lie  in. 
Where  the  rain  may  fall  upon  me, 
Where  the  sun  may  come  and  warm  me ; 
strip  these  garments,  green  and  yellow, 
Strip  this  nodding  plumage  f^om  me, 
Lay  me  in  the  earth  and  make  it 
Soft,  and  loose,  and  light  above  me. 

'* '  Let  no  band  disturb  my  slumber. 
Let  no  weed  nor  worm  molest  me, 
Let  no  Kahgahgee,  the  raven. 
Come  to  haunt  me  and  molest  me ; 
Only  come  yourself  to  watch  me. 
Till  I  wake,  and  start,  and  quicken. 
Till  I  leap  into  the  sunshine.' 


Was  the  grave  where  lay  Mondamin 
Sleeping  in  the  rain  and  sunshine, 

•  •  •  •  •  • 

Day  by  day  d^d  Hiawatha 

Go  to  wait  and  watch  beside  it ; 

Kept  tbe  dark  mould  soft  above  it 

•  •  •  •  •  • 

Till  at  lengfth  a  small  green  feather 
From  the  mould  shot  slowly  upward ; 
Then  another,  and  another; 
And,  before  the  Summer  ended. 
Stood  the  maize  in  all  its  beauty, 
With  its  shining  robes  about  it. 
And  its  long,  soft,  yellow  tresses; 
And,  in  rapture,  Hiawatha 
Cried  aloud  '  It  is  Mondamin, 
Yes,  the  friend  of  man,  Mondamin! '  ** 


After  finishing  the  Legend  of  the  Indian  Corn,  I  thought  we 
might  profitably  turn  to  something  else ;  and  then  return  to  Hia- 
watha with  renewed  zest.  So,  as  I  wanted  to  bring  in  something 
of  the  life  of  Agassiz,  I  chose  several  stanzas  of  the  poem  "  On 
the  Fiftieth  Birthday  of  Agassiz,"  which  they  copied  in  their 
books  as  follows :  — 

Louis  JOHX  RUDOLl»H   AGASSIZ, 

Born  May  28,  1807. 

Died  Doc.  14,  1873. 

Longfellow  to  Agassiz. 

(May  28,  1857.) 

**  It  was  fifty  years  ago 

In  the  pleasant  month  of  May, 
III  the  beautiful  Pays  de  Vaud 
A  child  in  his  cradle  lay.'* 

I  only  omitted  the  last  but  one  of  the  stanzas,  on  account  of 
"  Ranz  des  Yaches  "  and  "  glaciers,"  but  I  should  not  do  so  if  I 
gave  it  again.  In  illustration  of  Agassiz's  work^  I  told  stories 
from  his  life,  especially  the  Swiss  part  of  it,  and  showed  pictures 
of  the  glaciers  in  different  physical  geographies,  etc.  Then  I  was 
reading  the  "  Seven  Little  Sisters  "  to  them  occasionally,  on  last 
half-hours  in  the  afternoons,  and  just  about  this  time,  we  came  to 
the  story  of  Jeanette,  the  little  Swiss  maiden.  A  little  model  of 
a  Swiss  chalet  also  added  interest  to  the  work.  Referring  to 
Agassiz's  work  in  Natural  History,  1  made  specially  prominent  his 
painstaking,  patient  observation,  in  order  to  find  out  the  truth,  and 


EDUCATION. 


[JaDoarjTt 


his  habit  of  watching  live  animals  instead  of  killing  them  for 

specimens.     Then,  as  a  concluding  motto  from  another  poet,  I 

added  this:  — 

^^  He  prayeth  best,  who  loveth  best 
All  things,  both  great  and  small ; 
For  the  dear  God  who  loveth  us 
He  made  and  loveth  all/' 

—  Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge, 

To  celebrate  Agassiz's  Birthday,  we  went  to  the  Museum  of 
Natural  History  at  Central  Park,  on  the  nearest  convenient  Satur- 
day ;  and  even  though  some  of  the  younger  children  did  get  the 
idea  that  Agassiz  built  tliat  very  museum,  the  visit  was  a  perfect 
success. 

Now  we  returned  to  Hiawatha,  and  as  I  had  lost  some  of  my 
oldest  scholars  in  spring,  I  took  shorter  selections,  this  time  taking 
the  Building  of  Hiawatha's  Canoe.  I  had  a)|small  birch-bark 
canoe  of  Indian  manufacture,  which  gave  an  added  interest  to  the 
descriptions. 


«« « Give  me  of  your  bark,  O  Birch-Tree ! 
Of  your  yellow  bark,  O  Birch-Tree! 
Growing  by  the  rushing  river, 
Tall  and  stately  in  the  v&lley. 
I  a  light  canoe  will  build  me. 
Build  a  swia  Cbeemaun  for  sailing, 
That  shall  float  upon  the  river 
Like  a  yellow  leaf  in  Autumn 
Like  a  yellow  water-lily ! ' 

**  *  Lay  aside  your  cloak,  O  Birch-Tree ! 
Lay  aside  your  white-skin  wrapper. 
For  the  Summer-time  is  coming. 
And  the  sun  ip  warm  in  heaven. 
And  you  need  no  white-skin  wrapper! ' 

And  the  tree,  with  all  its  branches, 
Rustled  in  the  breeze  of  morning. 
Saying,  with  a  sigh  of  patience, 
*  Take  my  cloak,  O  Hiawatha! ' 

•*  •  Give  me  of  your  boughs,  O  Cedar ! 
Of  your  strong  and  pliant  branches, 
My  canoe  to  make  more  steady, 
Make  more  strong  and  firm  beneath  me  1 ' 
Through  the  summit  of  the  Cellar 
Went  a  sound,  a  cry  of  horror. 
Went  a  murmur  of  resistance; 
But  it  whispered,  bending  downward, 
•     <  Take  my  boughs,  O  Hiawatha! ' 

•*  •  Give  me  of  your  roots,  O  Tamarack! 
Of  your  fibrous  roots,  O  LarcliTree! 


My  canoe  to  bind  together, 
So  to  bind  the  ends  together, 
That  the  water  may  not  enter, 
That  the  river  may  not  wet  me!  * 
And  the  Larch,  with  all  its  llbrea. 
Shivered  in  the  air  of  morning. 
Touched  his  forehead  with  its  tassela. 
Said,  with  one  long  sigh  of  sorrow, 

*  Take  them  all,  O  Hiawatha! ' 

«  •  Give  me  of  your  balm,  O  Fir-Tree! 
Of  your  balsam  and  your  resin. 
So  to  close  the  seams  together 
That  the  water  may  not  enter. 
That  the  river  may  not  wet  me !  * 
And  the  Fir-Tree,  tall  and  sombre. 
Sobbed  through  all  its  robes  of  darkness. 
Rattled  like  a  shore  with  pebbles. 
Answered  wailing,  answered  weeping, 

*  Take  my  balm,  O  Hiawatha! ' 

•<  Thus  the  Birch  Canoe  was  builded 
In  the  valley,  by  the  river. 
In  the  bosom  of  the  forest; 
And  the  forest's  life  was  in  it. 
All  its  mystery  and  its  magic. 
All  the  lightness  of  the  biroh-tree, 
All  the  toughness  of  the  cedar, 
All  the  ltirch'8  supple  sinews. 
And  it  floated  on  the  river 
Like  a  yellow  leaf  in  Autumn, 
Like  a  yellow  water-lily!  " 


1889.]  THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  333 

This  last  selection  was  the  favorite  one  in  this  second  Hiawatha 
series,  together  with  the  "  Farewell "  yet  to  be  quoted.  I  spoke 
of  the  many  voyages  of  the  birch-bark  canoe,  and  then  said  we 
would  learn  of  Hiawatha's  last  voyage,  thus  leading  up  to  my  last 
series  of  selections. 

**  On  the  shore  stood  Hiawatha,  *'  And  the  people,  flrom  the  margin. 

Tamed,  and  waved  his  hand  at  parting;  Watched  him  floating,  —  rising,— sinking, 

On  the  clear  and  luminous  water  Till  the  Birch  Canoe  seemed  lifted 

Launched  his  birch  canoe  for  sailing;  High  into  that  sea  of  splendor, 

From  the  pebbles  of  the  margin  Till  it  sank  into  the  vapors 

Shoved  it  forth  into  the  water;  Like  the  new  moon,  $lowly,  $lowly 

Whispered  to  it  *  Westward !  westward ! '  Sinking  in  the  purple  dittanee. 
And  with  speed  it  darted  forward. 

"  And  they  said,  *  Farewell  forever  1 ' 

*'  And  the  evening  sun,  descending,  Sai4  *  Farewell,  O  Hiawatha! ' 
Set  the  clouds  on  flre  with  redness.  And  the  forests,  dark  and  lonely, 
Burned  the  broad  sky,  like  a  prairie,  Moved  through  all  their  depths  of  dark- 
Left  upon  the  level  water  ness. 

One  long  track  and  trail  of  splendor.  Sighed,  *  Farewell,  O  Hiawatha! ' 

Down  whose  stream,  as  down  a  river.  And  the  waves  upon  the  margin, 

Westward,  westward,  Hiawatha  Rising,  rippling  on  the  pebbles. 

Sailed  into  thejtery  iuneet,  Sobbed,  •  Farewell,  O  Hiawatha !  *  ** 
Sailed  into  the  purple  vapore. 
Sailed  into  the  du$k  of  wtning. 

In  these  last  selections  the  little  word  "  prairie  "  took  us  "  out 
West,"  and  vivid  word-pictures,  and  other  pictures  were  given  to 
strengthen  the  impression  made.  I  spoke  of  other  Indians  who 
lived  on  the  prairies  until  they  were  driven  away ;  and  told  of  the 
terrible  prairie-fires  which  are  sometimes  started  by  a  stray  spark. 
In  tlie  three  lines, — 

^*  Sailed  into  the  fiery  sunset, 
Sailed  into  the  purple  vapors, 
Sailed  into  the  dusk  of  evening,"' 

I  told  them  that  they  must  make  me  «ee,  by  their  voices,  how 
gradually  the  "  fiery  sunset "  "  died  into  the  dark  " ;  and  without 
any  further  hint,  the  voices,  which  were  strong  and  full  for  "  the 
fiery  sunset,"  died  gradually  away  until  the  "dusk  of  evening" 
came  in  hardly  more  than  just  audible  tones.  So  also  with  the 
moon  "slowly,  slowly  sinking  in  the  purple  distance."  I  told 
them  to  think  they  saw  the  moon,  and  then  try  to  make  me  see  it 
too.  I  was  astonished  to  see  the  appreciation  showed  by  even  the 
little  ones,  and  for  my  older  children  I  can  truly  say,  that  the 
most  lasting  part  of  their  year's  work  has  centred  round  our  poetry 
lesson. 


834  EDUCATION.  [Jaoiury, 


THE    TEACHING    OF   MATHEMATICS.^ 

V. 

THE    HISTORICAL     BASIS     FOU    CERTAIN    METHODS    IN    ALGEBRA 

TEACHING. 

BY  GEORGE  WILLIAM   EVANS,   ENGLISH  HIGH  SCHOOL,  BOSTON. 

THE  subject  of  algebra  embraces  two  rather  widely  differing 
lines  of  tlioiight.  First,  we  have  the  notation  and  rules  of 
operation,  —  the  formal  part  of  the  system ;  and  secondlj^  we  have 
the  application  of  algebra  to  the  analysis  of  certain  problems ;  these 
two  divisions  may  l^e  called  resi>ectively  abstract  or  foiiual  alge- 
bra, and  applied  algebra.  A  strictly  logical  interpretation  of  the 
preceding  division  would  seem  to  require  the  study  of  formal 
algebra  as  prei)amtory  to  drill  in  its  application,  as  a  workman 
learns  the  handling  of  his  tools  l)efore  putting  them  to  use,  and  as 
the  student  of  language  learns  vocabulary  and  grammatical  sche- 
matics before  translation  and  compasition.  Such  was  the  view 
formerly  held  to  in  the  construction  of  textbooks  and  in  the  prac- 
tice of  teachera  —  with  a  few  notable  exceptions. 

With  the  extension  of  the  methods  of  modern  physical  science 
^to  the  older  and  more  elementary  subjects  of  scliool  work  came  the 
realizing  sense  that  what  is  fundamental  is  not  necessarily  obvious, 
and  that  fresh  knowledge  is  Ix^ttcr  introduced  by  its  simpler  appli- 
cations than  by  the  unifying  alwtractions  on  which  it  pliilosophi- 
cally  rests.  The  doctrine  of  Comte^  —  that  the  order  of  learning 
in  the  individual  should  corres[)ond  to  the  order  of  learning  in  the 
history  of  mankind  —  is  the  c()mi)rehensive  statement  of  a  scien- 
tific method  in  teaching  which  has  (mly  very  recently  found  re- 
cognition in  the  older  ])ranchcs  of  study ;  its  influence  is  only 
beginning  to  l)e  felt  in  mathematics. 

Taking  this  prin(;ii)le  as  Spencer  left  it,  without  exfimining  the 
assumptions  on  w^hich  it  is  based,  we  must  i)reinise  that  the  stu- 
dent is  exi)ected  neither  to  follow  the  historical  errors  of  science 

'  Copyright,  18«8,  by  EnMtcrn  Kducationul  Bureau. 
>  Spencer's  Education,  pugo  122. 


1889.]  THE  TEACHING  OF  MATHEMATICS,  336 

nor  to  limp  with  its  halting  steps  where  modern  devices  furnish 
wings.  The  theory  of  logarithms,  dependent  as  it  is  upon  a  con- 
venient notation  for  powers,  was  delayed  beyond  its  place  in  the 
progress  of  algebra;  and  even  then  its  discovery,  under  the  exist- 
ing disadvantages,  was  an  achievement  at  wliich  we  wonder.^  The 
spirit  of  transcendentalism,  which  overruled  even  the  most  material 
science  in  a  large  part  of  its  history,  is  of  course  not  to  be  dupli- 
cated in  teaching  anything.  But  we  must  by  all  means,  every- 
where and  always,  follow  any  tradition  of  fruitful  stimulus  that 
reaches  our  ears ;  and  such  we  shall  find  valuable  to  the  theory  of 
teaching  algebra. 

In  the  first  place  it  may  be  said  that  algebra  is  not  to  the  begin- 
ner a  generalization  of  arithmetic ;  for  he  has  not  in  his  mental 
Btore  a  class  of  facts  and  principles  coordinate  with  arithmetic, 
and  a  generalization  from  the  knowledge  of  a  single  category  is 
as  airy  a  structure  as  a  bridge  upon  a  single  buttress.  Further, 
the  principle  of  substitution,  which  centralizes  and  logically  sup- 
ports the  whole  structure  of  algebra,  is  the  keystone  of  the  arch, 
the  end  and  climax  of  our  labors :  it  must  not  be  presented  first. 
That  the  history  of  algebra  is  an  indication  of  its  natural  order  of 
development  is  a  theory  which  bears  out  these  two  postulates,  and 
which,  moreover,  offers  a  scientific  basis  for  the  expedient  now 
advocated  by  good  teachers,  of  introducing  the  study  by  a  number 
of  concrete  problems.^ 

As  in  the  primitive  forms  of  life  the  boundary  between  the 
animal  and  vegetable  kingdonLs  is  often  vague  and  unsettled,  so 
in  the  ea^rlier  pages  of  mathematics,  some  difficulty  miglit  be  found 
in  separating  arithmetic  and  algebra.  Our  guiding  principle  shall 
be  to  call  ah/ebra  whatever  in  mathematical  reasoning  devotes 
attention  to  the  form  of  that  reasoning  and  has  or  seeks  to  have 
a  set  method  of  manipulating  the  successive  steps.  Thus  the 
claim  of  Ahmes,^  the  most  ancient  of  algebraists,  rests  on  the  facts 
that  he  had  a  uniform  symbol,  translated  *'  heap,"  for  the  unknown 
quantity,  that  he  expressed  his  given  relations  in  the  form  of  an 
equation,  and  that  he  had  certain  favorite  methods  of  reducing 
his  equations.'*  The  aim  of  the  early  algebraist  seems  always  to 
have  been  to  furnish  rational  explanations,  tracing  step  by  step 

^  Chr>'stal,  Aljfebra,  Pt.  I.,  page  514,  Historical  Note. 

«See  J.  F.  Casey,  in  EnrcATroN  for  November  and  December,  1888. 

*  Ei9enlohr,  Ein  mathematisches  handbuch  der  alten  Egj'pter. 

*  Id.,  pp.  22-20,  4S)-60,  and  150. 


336  EDUCATIOy.  [JaniuiiT, 

the  coarse  of  thought  in  the  solution  of  a  numerical  problem  sug- 
gested by  experience.  Nesselmann^  divides  the  progress  of  the 
method  into  three  stages.  The  first  stage,  called  the  rhetorical^  is 
the  verbal  explanation  in  the  complete  form  of  continuous  prose ; 
the  second,  called  the  syncopated^  adopts  abbreviations  for  fre- 
quently recurring  operations  and  quantities ;  the  third  stage,  called 
symbolic  algebra,  uses  a  complete  system  of  notation  by  signs 
having  no  apparent  connection  with  the  things  they  represent. 

Of  the  first  stage  are  the  Arabian,  the  Persian,  and  the  early 
Italian  algebraists;  of  the  second  is  Diophantus,  the  father  of 
European  algebra,  whose  achievements  are  now  open  to  the  appre- 
ciation of  non-antiquarian  students.^  To  this  stage  also  belong 
nearly  all  European  writings  on  algebra  up  to  the  date  1660.  As 
an  example  of  this  we  shall  quote  the  following  problem  from 
Diophantus :  ^  ^^  To  find  a  number,  such  that  if  it  is  added  to  20 
and  subtracted  from  100,  the  first  result  shall  be  to  the  second,  as 
4  is  to  1." 

F6r  the  unknown  quantity  he  uses  a  sign,  resembling  sigma, 
which  may  be  a  contraction  of  a/o,  the  first  two  letters  of  the 
Greek  word  for  number.*  In  our  translation  we  shall  represent 
this  by  N.  Known  numbers  are  called  units  (/ioi/aSe?,  abbreviated 
/i°).  Addition  is  indicated  by  juxtaposition ;  subtractives  are 
collected  at  the  end  of  an  exjjression  and  preceded  by  the 
sign  ^,  a  contraction  of  the  root  of  XetS/ri?,  deficiency;*  the 
sign  for  equality  is  the  initial  of  fo-o9.  The  solution  is  as  fol- 
lows :  — 

"  Take  what  is  to  be  added  and  subtracted  from  each  number  as 
one  N.  If  it  is  added  to  20  we  get  1  N  20  units.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  is  taken  from  100,  we  get  100  units  with  the  lack  of 
(Xetyjtei^  one  number ;  and  it  is  necessary  that  the  greater  be  four 
times  the  smaller.  Now  four  times  the  smaller  gives  400  units 
with  the  lack  of  four  numbers ;  this  is  equal  to  one  number  20  units. 
Let  the  deficiency  be  added  to  botli  quantities  (^KOivi)  7rpoa/c€ia0oi> 
ff  Xci-^/rt?)  and  let  equals  be  taken  from  equals,  and  the  remaining 
five  numbers  will  be  equal  to  380  units ;  and  we  get  the  number  of 
76  units." 

1 Q.  H.  F.  Nesselmann :  Versuch  einer  kritischen  Gescbichte  der  Algebra.  ler  Thell : 
Die  Algebra  der  Griechen. 

XT.  L.  Heath:  Diophantus  of  Alexandria;  a  study  in  the  history  of  Greek  algebra. 
Cambridge  [Eng.l.  18M. 

'  Arithmetics,  Book  1.,  Prob.  10.    The  translation  is  free. 

*  Heath's  Diopuantos,  pp.  02  tt. 

•Id.,  p.  72. 


1889. J  THE  TEACHING  OF  MATHEMATICS.  337 

Appended  to  this  solution  is  a  sort  of  table  or  schedule  of  the 
steps  of  the  process,  which  corresponds  very  closely  to  the  system 
of  equations  by  which  we  would  solve  the  problem  today.  The 
schedule,  with  the  equivalent  system  of  equations,  is  as  follows :  ^ 


S  a 

X 

C   a     ft*  M 

u^Q  m  i'^  a 

x  +  20      100— a? 

fa     fP  »     I 

fA\  m  g^^  3 

aj  +  20  =  400— 4» 

f  «       fl^  K       I 

f/*V 

6a;  +  20  =  400 

S-B                      I 

fi°T7t 

5ic  — 380 

sTcr                   I 

fi%g 

X—  76 

Rodet  quotes  two  other  such  schedules,  I.,  32,*  and  II.,  8  of 
Diophantus's  Arithmetics,  each  of  which  is  accompanied  by  run- 
ning comments  that  indicate  the  nature  of  the  transformation 
from  one  equation  to  the  next. 

So  single  was  the  purpose  of  algebra  in  its  earlier  development 
in  Europe  that  it  immediately  obtained  and  long  bore  the  name  of 
the  '^  Cossick "  art,  from  the  Italian  word  for  thing,  which  was 
used  to  represent  the  unknown  quantity.  It  was  considered  as  an 
adjunct  of  arithmetic :  in  fact,  one  of  the  landmarks  in  English 
algebra  is  Robert  Recorde's  Arithmetick  ;  or  the  Qrounde  of  Artes. 
The  very  name  of  the  science  is  derived  from  the  stereotyped 
manner  of  handling  equations  containing  negative  terms:  the 
rule  of  Diophantus^  is  to  add  enough  to  each  side  of  the  equation 
to  cancel  the  negative  terms  (irpoaOelvai  tA  T^Cirovra  etBrj  iv 
afi(f>oT€poi^  Tok  fidpeaLv)^  and  then  take  equals  from  equals  until 
one  term  is  left  on  each  side.  To  these  two  processes  the  Arabi- 
ans gave  the  names  aljabr  and  almukabala^  the  first  of  which  stares 
the  beginner  in  the  face  from  the  title-page  of  his  textbook. 

The  foregoing  considerations  lead  us  to  postpone  the  study  of 
algebraic  form  till  the  genesis  of  that  form  has  been  plainly  and 
fully  shown ;  to  define  algebra  in  accordance  with  its  origin  and 
early  history,  to  propose  to  the  student  a  reasonable  need  and  use 
for  it,  to  develop  it  fully  and  consistently  from  that  point  of  view 
from  which  we  first  approach  it.  We  shall  accordingly  exhibit  it 
as  a  supplement  of  arithmetic ;  not  a  shorter  nor  an  easier  method 
of  "  doing  examples,"  but  a  convenient  method  of  arranging  and 
abbreviating  the  reasoning  that  must  accompany  the  arithmetical 

1  Leon  Rodet:  L'  Alg^bre  d'  Al'  Kharizmi,  et  les  methodes  indlenne  et  grecqne.    Jaum* 
AHatique,  Janvier,  1878. 
*  Quoted  also  in  Heath's  Diophantos,  p.  76. 
>  Arithmetics,  Bk.  I.,  Def.  Jl. 


a38  EDUCATION.  [January, 

work.  The  arithmetic  is  still  there,  and  must  still  be  done  in  each 
example ;  algebra  does  not  replace  it  nor  even  shorten  it ;  it  deals 
with  its  logical  basis,  and  with  that  only.  The  schedules  men- 
tioned above  from  the  manuscript  of  Diophantus  are  significant  in 
this  connection :  they  evidently  served  him  as  a  memorandum  of 
the  steps  in  his  process  of  solution ;  and  tlieir  obvious  advantages 
in  brevity  and  clearness  can  be  made  to  appear  to  our  beginners 
as  well  as  to  him.  With  this  end  in  view  I  have  arranged  the 
first  lesson  as  follows.  The  pupil  is  to  write  out  the  explanation 
of  twenty  or  thirty  rather  simple  problems,  following  a  model 
given  by  the  teacher  substantially  as  follows :  — 

Problem  A.  —  A  father  is  six  times  as  old  as  his  daughter,  and 
their  united  ages  are  forty-two  years.     Find  the  age  of  each. 

Explanation,  —  The  father's  age  +  tlie  daughter's  age  =  42  years. 

The  father's  age  =  6  X  daughter's  age. 

6  X  daughter's  age  -|-  daughter's  age  =  42  years. 

7  X  daughter's  age  =  42  years. 
Daughter's  age  :=  6  years. 
Father's  age  =  3G  years. 

In  these  problems^  the  pupil  will  see  diat  if  an  abbreviation 
were  adopted  for  the  number  that  has  to  be  mentioned  so  often 
the  work  of  writing  would  be  materially  diminished.  Accordingly 
at  the  second  lesson  the  teacher  will  suggest  abbreviations,  as  fol- 
lows :  — 

Let  d  stand  for  daughter's  age,  then  6  X  d  will  stand  for  father's 

agfe. 

6xd  +  d  =  42 

7xd  =  42 

d  =  6 

6xd  =  36 

Anstver.  —  Six  yeai*s,  daughter ;  36  years,  father. 

In  the  third  lesson,  for  whicli  the  pupil  should  prepare  by  re- 
writing in  the  abbreviated  form  the  explanations  of  the  first  set  of 
exami)les,  and  by  attacking  a  somewhat  more  difficult  set,  the  use 
of  the  multiplication  sign  may  be  discarded  and  the  custom  of 
using  X  as  the  symbol  for  the  unknown  may  be  introduced. 
Problems  may  then  be  given  which  gradually  increase  in  com 

» For  a  very  good  selection  of  aiich  problems,  see  D.  B.  Tower's  Intellectual  Algebra 
pp.  21  IT. 


1889.]  THE  TEACHING  OF  MATHEMATICS.  339 

plexity,  and  which  present  the  successive  points  in  the  formal 
handling  of  equations.^  The  formulization  of  rules  and  the  gen- 
eralization of  problems  are  kindred  subjects,  where  algebraic 
methods  serve  similar  ends. 

The  idea  of  absolute  negative  quantity  need  not  be  introduced 
at  an  early  stage  of  the  course.  It  will  be  convenient  to  speak  of 
negative  terms,  but  these  need  be  only  subtractives.  The  idea  of 
a  letter  that  might  represent  either  a  positive  or  a  negative  quan- 
tity did  not  appear  in  European  algebra  till  the  time  of  Descartes. 
Although  Diophantus  announces  the  rule,  "  Minus  multiplied  by 
minus  gives  plus"  (\ely^L<;  iirl  Xely^tv  iroWaTrXaaiaaOelaa  iroiel 
'virap^ip)^  it  refers  only  to  the  formal  rule  for  multiplying  chains 
of  additions  and  subtractions.*  Too  much  cannot  be  said  against 
the  practice  of  urging  upon  beginners  this  difficult  and  late-born 
conception.  The  mystery  of  signs  first  appeared,  not  as  an  ab- 
stract necessity  in  answer  to  the  demands  of  a  generalized  theory^ 
not,  that  is  to  say,  as  the  special  case  of  a  formula,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  in  its  concrete  application  to  certain  opposed  actual  rela- 
tions of  real  existences  obtruding  themselves  in  the  course  of 
investigating  a  specific  problem :  whether  of  space,  as  with  Des- 
cartes, or  of  debit  and  credit,  as  with  the  Indian  algebraists. 
Similarly  in  our  teaching,  the  first  glimpse  of  an  algebraic  nega- 
tive should  be  in  the  solution  of  a  problem^  leading  to  a  negative 
solution :  it  should  be  plainly  indicated  that  a  problem  so  result- 
ing is  impossible,  that  an  answer  so  appearing  is  as  much  "  imagin- 
ary" as  the  square  root  of  a  negative  quantity  will  afterwards 
turn  out  to  be,  and  that  the  only  meaning  attaching  to  it  is  such 
as  we  agree  to  bestow  upon  it.  The  student  should  certainly  be 
impressed  with  the  importance  of  this  logical  boundary  between 
the  subtrahend  of  arithmetic  and  the  algebraic  negative.* 

As  skill  in  the  manipulation  of  this  abbreviation-system  in- 
creases, the  impil  will  be  able  to  handle  more  and  more  complicated 
logic,  and  to  surmount  intricacies  which  would  have  sadly  puzzled 
him  at  the  beginning  of  the  study.  The  writer  hopes  at  another 
time  to  show  that  this  method  can  be  continued  throughout  a 
systematic  introductory  course,  which  shall  be  without  any  hiatua 
or  inconsistency. 

>  Seaver  and  Walton  :    The  Franklin  Elementarj'  Algebra,  pp.  6-41. 
•George  Peacock :    Treatise  on  Algebra,  Vol.  1.  (Arithmetical  Algebra),  p.  29. 
»See  the  Franklin  Algebra,  pp.  48,  49. 
♦Peacock's  Algebra,  Vol.  I.,  p.  4. 


340  EDUCATION.  [January, 


EDITORIAL, 

EMPEROR  DOM  PEDRO,  of  Brazil,  lately  expressed  himself  to 
M.  Saint-Genest  on  the  subject  of  Education  in  these  words : 
*'  While  1  regard  it  as  criminal  to  strike  religion  out  of  the  plan  of  Edu- 
cation, I  hold  it  to  be  imprudent  to  allow  the  priest  to  acquire  an  influ- 
ence in  the  schools.  Within  the  church  the  priest's  calling  is  beautiful 
and  legitimate  ;  but  elsewhere  it  may  well  become  a  danger.  The  cler- 
gy are  j>ossessed  of  undeniable  power ;  but  nothing  is  more  beautiful 
than  to  possess  power  and  not  to  avail  one's  self  of  it.  William  I. 
said,  on  one  occasion :  '  What  gives  me  trust  for  my  last  hour  is  the 
consciousness  that  I  held  in  my  hands  the  power  to  do  evil,  and  that  I 
did  not  do  it.  I  could  have  let  war  loose  upon  the  earth,  and  I  kept  the 
peace.' "  Dom  Pedro  thought  the  teacher's  place  so  high  and  so  full 
of  noble  responsibilities  that,  were  he  not  Emperor,  he  would  wish  to 
be  a  teacher. 

Here  are  thoughts  well  worthy  the  careful  attention  of  American 
educators.  Here  is  the  text  for  a  sermon  that  many  a  teacher  can 
preach  for  himself. 

AMERICANS  are  too  apt  to  suppose  that  there  are  no  public 
schools  in  Eurojje,  or  if  any,  very  poor  ones,  and  that  they  are 
patronized  by  but  a  small  portion  of  the  people,  while  the  children  of 
the  masses  are  growing  up  in  ignorance. 

Many  New  Englanders  arc  inclined  to  imagine  that  they  control  and 
monopolize  all  the  best  methods  of  instruction  ;  that  in  the  great  West 
there  may  be  here  and  there  a  log  schoolhouse  where  some  young  wo- 
man from  New  England  is  doing  ser\'ice  as  a  home  missionary,  trying  to 
keep  the  youth  of  that  benighted  region  just  outside  of  the  pale  of  abso- 
lute illiteracy  and  barbarism. 

On  the  other  hand  in  the  Ohio  Valley  and  the  basin  of  the  Upper 
Mississippi,  many  teachers  are  inclined  to  suppose  that  in  New  Eng- 
land we  have  no  state  school  system,  but  only  a  local  or  township  sort 
of  hap-hazard  plan  of  maintaining  schools,  necessarily  of  a  low  order, 
because  wanting  a  full  state  school  tax  and  consequent  state  supervision. 

But  there  may  be  mistaken  notions  on  all  sides.  Westerners,  visiting 
Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  or  Connecticut,  find  schools  of  as  high 
order,  and  doing  as  fine  work  as  can  be  found  elsewhere.  New  Eng- 
landers, looking  in  upon  the  schools  and  examining  the  school  systems 


1889.]  EDITOBIAL.  341 

of  Illinois,  Michigan,  or  Wisconsin  ;  Denver,  Minneapolis,  or  Portland, 
Oregon,  will  find  as  good  teaching,  as  bright  pupils,  and  sometimes  a 
vastly  superior  system  and  more  philosophical  management  than  can  be 
shown  in  the  East. 

Some  months  ago  a  description  of  the  schools  of  Portland,  Oregon, 
with  a  cut  of  their  beautiful,  new,  high  school  building  appeared  in 
Education,  which  must  have  struck  some  Eastern  schoolmasters  with 
surprise.  The  present  superintendent  of  schools  in  that  city  is  a  wo- 
man. Miss  Ella  C.  Saben,  who  has  a  salary  of  $3,000  a  year.  A  few 
years  ago,  while  her  father  and  his  family  were  staying  temporarily  in 
Portland,  Miss  Saben,  who  had  lately  graduated  at  the  Normal  School 
in  Wisconsin,  accepted  a  place  as  substitute,  and  began  to  teach  in  the 
public  schools.  She  rose,  step  by  step,  and  in  a  few  years  was  ap- 
pointed principal  of  one  of  the  large  schools  of  the  city,  —  the  first 
lady  principal  and  with  the  same  salary  as  the  gentlemen  had  in  like 
positions,  $1,800  a  year,  —  and  at  the  present  time  she  is  superintendent 
of  the  schools  with  a  salary  of  $3,000. 

And  now  comes  the  news  from  —  not  England,  or  Germany,  or 
France,  but  —  Ireland,  that  the  attendance  upon  the  national  schools  is 
*'  proportionately  the  largest  in  the  world  ! "  An  article  in  a  late  num- 
ber of  the  Catholic  Review  speaks  of  Ireland  as  having  been,  in  the 
past,  "  for  centuries  the  seat  of  knowledge  in  Europe.  In  her  schools 
were  found  the  ablest  minds  of  all  lands,  and  she  was  the  acknowledged 
home  of  learning."  The  figures  in  proof  of  Ireland's  foremost  place, 
are  given  by  Father  Conaty  as  follows :  — 

"  In  1880  the  national  schools  had  1,083,030  children  on  their  rolls, 
and  of  these  855,039,  or  79  per  cent,  were  Catholics.  Here  are  20  per 
cent,  of  the  population  in  school,  where  there  are  no  compulsory  edu- 
cation laws.  This,  I  believe,  is  the  highest  percentage  reached  by 
school-going  nations,  as  even  our  own  country  with  its  compulsory  laws 
has  less  than  20  per  cent.,  and  stands  second  on  the  list." 

These  figures  would  seem  to  be  subject  to  some  error  somewhere. 
May  it  not  be  that  Father  Conaty  has  taken  the  entire  school  population, 
instead  of  that  portion  which  is  enrolled  in  the  schools  ? 

But  if  the  above  enumeration  be  anywhere  near  reliable,  it  will  give 
A  new  view  of  education  in  Ireland  to  many  Americans.  It  will  be  well 
for  us  all  to  be  a  trifle  modest  and  not  thank  God  daily  that  we  are  a 
little  better  and  a  great  deal  more  fortunate  than  our  neighbors. 

UNITED  STATES  Commissioner  of  Education,  Hon.  N.  H.  R. 
Dawson,  has  signalized  his  administration  by  inaugurating  a 
series  of  monographs  on  Southern  Education,  which  will  supply  a  great 
^ant  in  American  pedagogic  history.     The  two  first  of  these  docu- 


342  EDUCATION.  [Jantiaiy^ 

ments,  "  The  College  of  William  and  Man-,"  and  "  Thomas  Jefferson 
and  the  University  of  Virginia,"  by  Prof.  Herbert  B.  Adams,  Ph.  D.^ 
of  Johns  Hopkins  University,  have  already  appeared,  and,  together^ 
present  a  verj*  fair  and  complete  account  of  the  development  of  the 
higher  education  in  that  state.  A  thorough  history  of  Education  in 
Virginia  —  freed  from  the  unconscious  exag^ration  that  so  easily 
Rushes  every  representation  of  the  old-time  Southern  life  g^ven  by  its 
admirers,  would  be  one  of  the  most  valuable  additions  to  American 
educational  literature.  Spite  of  the  notable  failure  of  the  Old  Domin- 
ion, for  two  hundred  and  fiftv  vears,  to  school  the  humbler  class  of  its 
white  people,  there  was  still  an  educational  spirit  among  the  original 
group  of  great  men  of  Revolutionary  fame  prophetic  of  all  that  is  now 
being  achieved.  The  broad  scheme  of  Jeflerson  and  his  compatriots 
for  the  education  of  the  whole  people,  including  the  emancipation  and 
training  of  the  slaves,  if  adopted,  would  have  raised  Virginia  to  a  lead- 
ership that  never  could  have  been  disputed  and  changed  the  currents  of 
American  history.  Professor  Adams  tells  the  story  of  the  partial  suc- 
cess of  Jefferson's  plan,  after  thirty  years'  conflict  with  the  ignorance 
and  prejudice  of  the  people,  in  the  establishment  of  the  University  of 
Virginia,  in  1825.  Although  virtually  a  castle  in  the  air,  w^ith  no  solid 
basis  in  the  common  schooling  of  the  masses,  and,  practically,  no  sys- 
tem of  preparatory  schools  to  furnish  material  for  ordinary  college 
work,  the  University  was,  in  important  respects,  a  new  departure  and 
in  its  way,  for  the  past  sixty  years,  has  been  one  of  the  most  influential 
schools  in  the  Union.  It  first  organized  the  elective,  the  unsectarian 
idea  of  college  life,  with  a  more  sensible  notion  of  student  discipline 
and,  in  these  respects,  was  the  pattern  after  which  all  the  state  universi- 
ties and,  gradually,  all  the  leading  colleges  of  the  country  have  shaped 
themselves.  It  conferred  an  inestimable  boon  on  the  South,  by 
pitching  the  qualification  for  complete  graduation  on  a  high  key  and 
sustaining  a  competent  body  of  professors  in  its  principal  chairs.  Its 
assumption  of  the  University  name  and  organization  into  a  group  of 
schools  were  more  questionable,  since  the  majority  of  its  students 
entered  with  a  lack  of  preparation  which  was  always  the  w^eak  side  of 
the  institution.  Half  its  students  have  always,  practically,  been 
academical  scholars,  remaining  but  one  year,  and  the  number  of  its  full 
graduates  has  been  exceeding  small.  And  while  it  has  wrought  faith- 
fully and  with  partial  success  to  build  up  suitable  fitting  schools  and 
largely  supplied  the  Southwest  and,  to  some  extent,  the  North,  with 
brilliant  teachers,  yet  the  radical  weakness  of  attempting  to  make  a 
University  out  of  several  hundred  schoolboys,  however  faithfully 
lectured,  examined,  and  trained,  remains  confessed  by  all  impartial 
southern  educators.     It  is  not  disputed  that  as  a  practical  arrangement 


1889.]  EDITORIAL.  343 

for  working  up  the  higher  education,  the  University  was  a  marked  suc- 
cess ;  and  its  plan  has  some  excellent  points  in  the  organization  of  a 
true  university  today.  But  the  imitation  of  its  scheme  by  scores  of 
'*  colleges"  and  ''universities"  in  the  South,  without  the  obstinate 
resolution  to  hold  the  top  story  at  the  proper  elevation,  has  wrought 
great  mischief,  now  plainly  recognized  in  all  these  states.  Professor 
Adams  does  not  hesitate  to  expose  this  weak  side,  though  generous  to 
a  degree  in  laudation  of  the  achievements  of  all  the  colleges  of  the  Old 
Dominion.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  forthcoming  monographs  on 
education  in  other  states  of  the  South  will  be  marked  by  the  spirit  of 
historical  fidelity  and  candor  so  apparent  in  those  here  noticed. 

\\T  HETHER  the  enthusiastic  expectations  of  some  of  our  younger 
VV  university  men  for  making  the  American  college  a  school  of 
civics  and  a  proper  training  seminary  for  public  life  is  to  be  realized^ 
seems,  at  present,  an  open  question.  We  believe  the  more  thorough 
study  of  American  history,  with  instruction  in  the  organization  of  the 
government  and  the  proper  duties  of  the  citizen,  should  be  a  vital  part 
of  all  education  in  the  country.  But  even  this  is  beset  by  perils,  from 
religious,  political,  and  sectional  partisanship,  which,  too  often,  greatly 
impairs  the  value  of  such  instruction.  And,  so  far,  this  department  ift 
some  American  colleges  has  been  little  more  than  an  opportunity  to 
indoctrinate  educated  young  men  into  a  violent  advocacy  of  some 
prominent  political  or  economic  theory.  One  of  the  most  notable 
causes  of  the  late  Civil  War  was  the  persistent  instruction  in  Southern 
colleges,  for  a  whole  generation,  in  the  extreme  doctrine  of  state  rights. 
A  similar  push,  in  the  direction  of  Free  Trade,  has  been  a  marked 
feature,  not  only  in  Southern  but  largely  in  Northern  universities. 
Indeed,  the  theory  that  the  average  college  professor  is  especially  com- 
petent as  an  instructor  in  American  civics,  is  subject  to  severe  limita- 
tions. When  we  consider  even  the  literary  and  scientific  standing  of 
the  great  majority  of  schools  with  the  ambitious  name  "  college"  and 
"university,"  the  way  the  professors  are  usually  elected  and  the  lack 
of  multitudes  of  them  in  broad  views  and  scholarship  on  any  subject, 
with  the  pressure  constantly  upon  a  faculty  from  sectarian  or  public 
quarters,  we  can  hardly  look  in  this  direction  for  more  than  partial 
results.  A  good  college  education  is,  of  course,  a  great  help  in  the 
general  outfit  for  American  life.  But  nothing  short  of  a  thorough 
training  in  American  life  itself  can  be  relied  upon  for  the  production  of 
that  statesmanship  which  is  more  than  the  attempt  to  ride  a  political, 
social,  or  economic  theory  of  human  affairs,  on  a  high-pacing  hobby, 
up  and  down  the  field  of  the  most  original  and  peculiar  civilization  in 
history,  —  the  new  American  Republic.     Still,  the  ambition  is  a  lauda- 


344  EDUCATJOy.  [Jaooary, 

ble  one  that,  in  time,  a  class  of  scholars  mav  be  evolved  from  our 
expanding  university  life  competent  to  teach  civics  in  the  scientific,  im- 
partial, and  instructive  way  that  will  refresh  even  the  high  places  of 
American  public  life. 

Meantime,  it  should  be  especially  borne  in  mind  that  all  schools  of 
secondary  instruction  should  teach  the  foundation  principles  of  our  gov- 
ernment, local,  state,  and  national. 

THE  beautiful  frontispiece  in  the  December  number  of  Education 
should  have  had  the  title  underneath  it,  **  The  Congress  of  Ber- 
lin," and  should  have  been  credited  to  a  new  work  in  two  volumes, 
soon  to  appear  from  the  well-known  house  of  A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co., 
New  York,  *'The  Three  Germanies,"  by  Hon.  Theo.  S.  Fay.  This 
history  will,  doubtless,  receive  a  warm  welcome  from  the  American 
public.  Mr.  Fay  is  remarkably  well  qualified  to  write  such  a  work. 
An  incident  in  his  official  career  when  he  was  the  United  States  Minis- 
ter Resident  to  Berne,  Switzerland,  a  post  which  he  occupied  from 
1853  to  1861,  will  illustrate  his  force  of  character,  his  decision,  and 
his  singular  power  among  the  rulers  of  Europe.  In  1856  there  was  a 
revolution  of  royalists  in  the  Canton  of  Neufchatel.  This  Canton  had 
in  1707  reverted  by  inheritance  to  the  first  king  of  Prussia.  In  1814 
the  Congress  of  Vienna  had  annexed  it  to  Switzerland  without  exclud- 
ing the  right  of  the  King  of  Prussia.  But  in  1848  it  had  by  revolution 
"become  entirely  independent.  The  royalist  revolution  of  1856  was 
•undertaken  for  the  purpose  of  definitely  separating  that  Canton  from 
the  Swiss  confederation  and  bringing  it  under  the  sole  dominion  of  the 
King  of  Prussia.  The  movement  was  crushed  by  the  Swiss  govern- 
ment and  people,  and  five  hundred  insurgents,  many  of  them  Prussian 
gentlemen  of  high  rank,  were  confined  in  a  church  for  trial  for  high 
treason.  The  King  of  Prussia,  Frederick  William  IV.,  demanded  their 
immediate  release  upon  the  alternative  of  war.  The  Swiss  government 
refused.  Each  one  of  the  great  powers  of  Europe  by  its  minister  in 
Berne  requested  the  release  of  the  prisoners  without  condition,  in  which 
case  it  would  use  its  influence  with  the  King  of  Prussia  to  procure  from 
him  an  acknowledgement  of  the  independence  of  the  Canton  of  Neuf- 
chatel. 

This  was  again  flatly  refused.  The  King  of  Prussia  mobilized  his 
army  and  was  about  to  march  thirty  thousand  troops  against  Switzer- 
land. Switzerland  rose  as  one  mass.  The  cogs  of  the  wheels,  so  to 
speak,  were  locked.  War  seemed  inevitable.  The  National  Assem- 
bly of  Switzerland  unanimously  voted  an  unlimited  military  credit, 
demanded  by  the  federal  council.  Mr.  Fay,  at  this  moment,  offered 
his  personal  mediation.     All  his  colleagues  had  advised  the  government 


1889.]  EDITORIAL,  346 

to  comply  with  the  demand  of  the  King  of  Prussia.  Mr.  Fay  refused 
to  take  this  step  because  he  could  not  know  what  the  king's  intention 
might  be.  He  made,  however,  two  offers.  First,  he  would  himself 
repair  to  Berlin  and  ask  the  King  of  Prussia  to  authorize  him  to  give 
that  advice.  Second,  in  order  to  free  the  locked  wheels  for  further 
advance  in  the  affair  he  made  an  ofller  that  if  the  great  powers  would 
write  a  collective  note  to  the  Swiss  government  he  would  ask  instruc- 
tion as  to  whether  his  own  government  would  join  in  such  a  note. 
Couriers  were  sent  to  every  power  in  Europe.  The  demand  was  at 
first  refused.  In  the  meantime  Mr.  Fay  repaired  to  Berlin^  had  an 
interview  of  two  hours  with  the  king,  who  received  his  mediation  with 
the  most  grateful  thanks,  told  him  that  the  time  had  arrived  for  conces- 
sions on  both  sides,  and  authorized  him  to  advise  the  immediate  release 
of  the  five  hundred  prisoners.  On  parting  the  king  repeatedly  said, 
"  May  God  bless  you,  may  God  bless  you,  for  what  you  are  doing." 
On  the  first  of  January  the  late  Wilhelm,  then  Prince  of  Prussia,  sent 
for  Mr.  Fay  into  his  private  cabinet,  and  asked  him  what  news  he  had 
brought  from  Switzerland.  Mr.  Fay  answered  "Peace.  There  does 
not  appear  to  be  any  just  reason  for  war.  They  are  far  from  desiring 
a  war  in  Switzerland,  and  are  ready  to  do  anything  right  to  avoid  it." 
Mr.  Fay  returned  to  Berne  on  the  second  of  January.  The  Federal 
Council  received  his  report  and  released  the  prisoners.  On  the  13th  it 
sent  its  message  to  the  National  Assembly  explaining  why  it  had  done 
so.  Among  the  reasons  was  the  following :  "  In  a  weighty  conversa- 
tion with  the  minister  of  a  friendly  power  the  King  of  Prussia  expressed 
the  wish  that  the  conflict  with  Switzerland  might  be  amicably  closed, 
and  encouraged  and  empowered  the  minister  who  had  the  honor  of 
this  interview  to  continue  his  steps  taken  in  the  same  direction."  The 
war  measures  wholly  ceased.  The  king  demobilized  his  army  and  in 
due  time  the  Canton  of  Neufchatel  was  effectually  released  from  all 
relations  with  the  Prussian  throne,  the  king  only  stipulating  to  retain 
the  title  of  Prince  of  Neufchatel. 

The  above  incident  is  not  devoid  of  interest  to  every  American,  and 
well  illustrates  in  some  directions  the  eminent  fitness  of  Mr  Fay  to 
write  a  history  of  Germany,  upon  which  it  is  understood  he  has  spent 
a  great  amount  of  study  during  many  years  of  his  life. 

IN  the  last  issue  of  this  magazine  an  error  occurred  in  an  editorial  ar- 
ticle, by  which  Prof.  Edward  S.  Joynes  was  given  as  Jaynes. 
Doctor  Joynes  is  the  Professor  of  Modern  Language  in  the  University 
of  South  Carolina.  His  brilliant  career  in  Virginia,  and  his  present 
work  in  South  Carolina  have  placed  him  in  the  front  rank  of  educa- 
tional  men  in  the  South. 


346  EDUCATION.  [Jaouary^ 


THE  STUDr  OF  HISTORY  THROUGH  BIOGRAPHT. 

THE  study  of  history  has,  doubtless,  been  reckoned  among  the  most 
important  studies  of  mankind  in  all  ages.  It  is,  of  late  years, 
evidently  coming  to  be  seen  that  one  of  the  best  methods  of  studying 
history  is  through  the  medium  of  biography.  President  Sparks  was  one 
of  the  first  in  America  to  place  the  study  of  biography  in  its  proper  posi- 
tion as  related  to  history.  Since  the  publication  of  his  library*  of'*  Amer- 
ican Biography/*  rapid  strides  of  advancement  have  been  made  in  our 
country  in  this  direction.  Through  the  life  and  writings  of  Washing- 
ton, or  Franklin,  or  John  Adams  we  may  obtain  as  complete  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  American  revolution  as  in  any  other  way.  The  various 
cyclopaedias,  as  Appleton*s,  Johnson's,  Chambers*,  and  the  Brittanica, 
give  us  a  wide  range  of  reliable  biographical  sketches  of  the  noted 
characters  of  all  ages.  Lippincott*s  Biographical  Dictionary  is  inval- 
uable and  may  be  found  close  at  hand  upon  the  study  table  of  every 
intelligent  student. 

But  in  the  realm  of  American  Biography  there  has  long  been  a 
marked  deficiency.  The  only  important  work  of  this  kind  of  recent 
date  was  Drake's  Dictionary  in  one  volume,  and  that  has  for  several 
years  been  out  of  print.  It  is,  therefore,  with  more  than  usual  satisfac- 
tion that  we  note  the  publication  of  a  new  work  of  rare  excellence  in 
this  department  of  American  literature.  This  is  Appleton's  Cyclopaedia 
of  American  Biography,  edited  by  James  Grant  Wilson,  and  John 
Fiske.*  The  editors  and  publishers  have  evidently  spared  no  pains  or 
expense  to  make  this  great  work  as  valuable  and  as  nearly  perfect  as 
possible.  Each  volume  has  many  full-page  steel  portraits  of  Ameri- 
cans, and  hundreds  of  smaller  vignette  portraits  on  wood. 

The  editors  have  been  selected  with  reference  to  their  special  fitness 
for  a  work  of  this  character.  General  James  Grant  W^ilson  is  well 
known  as  the  President  of  the  New  York  Genealogical  and  Biographi- 
cal Society,  and  the  author  of  numerous  valuable  memoirs.  For  many 
years  he  has  been  interested  in  the  subject  of  American  biography,  and 
has  made  a  large  collection  of  books  and  materials.  His  portraits, 
views  of  historic  houses,  statues,  and  several  thousand  autographs,  be- 
ing particularly  valuable.      Professor  John  Fiske,  formerly  of  Har\*ard 

1  Appleton's  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Biography,  edited  by  James  Grant  Wilson  and  John  Fiske. 
In  six  volumes.  In  cloth  at  $5.00  per  volume,  leather  $6.00,  half  morocco  $7.00,  full  morocco  or 
Russia  $10.  Five  volumes  now  published.  Vol.  V.  Pickering-Sumter.  New  York :  D.  Appleton 
A  Co.    188a. 


1889.]        THE  STUDY  OF  HISTORY  THROUGH  BIOGRAPHY.  347 

University,  is  equally  well  known  as  one  of  the  most  accomplished  of 
American  authors  and  lecturers,  and  has  made  a  special  study  of  the 
early  and  revolutionary  periods  of  our  history.  With  these  gentlemen 
are  associated  as  consulting  editors  many  of  the  most  eminent  of  their 
contemporaries  in  Church  and  State,  in  law  and  literature,  in  the  army 
and  navy,  in  art,  music,  and  the  field  of  invention  and  science. 

Among  the  more  celebrated  names  found  in  the  fifth  volume  just  pub- 
lished, are  those  of  W.  T.  Sherman,  David  Dixon  Porter,  Winfield 
Scott,  William  Henry  Seward,  Philip  Henry  Sheridan,  William  Gil- 
more  Simms,  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe,  and  Charles  Sumner.  A  num- 
ber of  noted  writers  have  contributed  articles ;  prominent  among  them 
are  President  Adams  of  Cornell,  Prof.  John  Fiske,  George  Bancroft, 
Edmund  Clarence  Stedman,  Col.  Thomas  W.  Higginson,  George 
Ticknor  Curtis,  Donald  G.  Mitchell,  Junius  Henri  Browne,  and  oth- 
ers ;  while  men  celebrated  in  other  lines  than  in  writing,  such  as  Phillips 
Brooks,  Henry  Carey  Baird,  Elbridge  T.  Gerry,  Thomas  F.  Bayard, 
Justice  Bradley,  Jefferson  Davis,  and  many  more,  have  also  been  laid 
under  contribution. 

The  work  as  a  whole  embraces  biographical  sketches  of  all  persons 
prominently  connected  with  the  histories  of  the  countries  of  North  and 
South  America  ;  all  rulers,  statesmen,  and  soldiers ;  all  persons  emi- 
nent or  noteworthy  in  the  Church,  on  the  bench,  at  the  bar,  in  literature 
or  the  arts,  in  science  and  invention,  in  exploration  or  discovery,  in 
commerce  or  mechanics.  It  is,  in  brief,  designed  to  include  the  name 
of  every  person  in  any  branch  of  human  activity  whose  career  is  identi- 
fied in  a  manner  worthy  of  note  with  the  progress  of  American  civiliza- 
tion, beginning  with  the  earliest  records  and  coming  down  to  the 
present  day.  The  biographies  will  be  found  of  sufilicient  fulness  to 
include  all  facts  deserving  mention,  and  taken  together  they  will  afford 
a  complete  history  of  the  New  World  —  political,  social,  commercial, 
and  industrial. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  comprehensiveness  of  the  plan,  it  may  be 
mentioned  that  the  national  subjects  will  include  biographies  of  all  the 
Presidents  and  Vice-Presidents  of  the  United  States,  as  well  as  the  many 
candidates  for  those  ofllices ;  of  every  member  of  all  the  Cabinets,  every 
United  States  Senator,  every  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives* 
and  every  member  of  the  Supreme  Court  since  the  formation  of  the 
Government ;  all  the  Signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence ;  the 
most  prominent  Governors  of  States  and  Territories ;  all  the  more 
eminent  clergy,  judges,  and  lawyers  of  the  land  ;  all  the  admirals  and 
other  distinguished  officers  of  the  American  Navy,  and  all  the  generals 
of  the  Army.  It  has  evidently  been  the  aim  of  the  editors  to  render 
the  Cyclopaedia  educational  as  well  as  entertaining  and  instructive,  by 


348  EDUCATIOS.  [Janiiarj, 

making  those  articles  referring^  to  important  men  and  measures  consti- 
tutii^  noteworthy  epochs  of  national  history  full  and  exhaustive ;  thus^ 
in  the  articles  on  the  Presidents,  some  two  hundred  pages  will  be 
de\'oted  to  a  very  complete  and  authentic  account  of  all  their  public 
acts,  placing  the  reader  in  possession  of  an  accurate  political  history  of 
the  twenty-two  administrations,  covering  a  period  of  a  century  of  our  na- 
tional annals.  The  same  statement  may  be  made  in  respect  to  the  chief 
colonial  and  State  Governors ;  our  celebrated  judges  and  statesmen ; 
members  of  the  Cabinets,  of  the  Senate,  and  House  ;  men  distinguished 
in  art,  commerce,  and  literature ;  leaders  in  the  Church  ;  and  those 
** great  heirs  of  fame"  who  won  renown  in  the  late  civil  war  and  in 
previous  wars — thus  forming  a  very  full  and  comprehensive  history  of 
the  United  States.  What  is  said  here  of  the  United  States  is  equally 
true  of  other  countries  of  the  new  world.  The  longest  articles  in  the 
book  are  those  on  Grant  (thirty-two  columns)  and  Lincoln  (t^'enty-five 
columns).  But  Franklin  has  fourteen  columns,  Emerson  eleven,  and 
Hawthorne  ten ;  Garfield  has  three  columns  less  than  Greeley,  and 
Hamilton  but  one  more  than  Irving.  Politics,  therefore,  has  no  exclu- 
sive recognition,  and  does  not  crowd  out  what  will  be  more  ser\'iceable 
to  many  who  consult  the  work.  To  write  of  men  still  living  is  a  deli- 
cate task,  that  is  eschewed  as  a  rule  by  makers  of  cyclopaedias,  and 
therefore  the  very  information  that  one  wishes  most  is  exactly  that 
which  one  generally  seeks  in  vain  in  such  books.  The  plan  of  this 
book  includes  the  men  of  whom  one  reads  daily  in  the  newspapers  but 
about  whom  most  books  of  reference  are  silent. 

The  editors  have  also  placed  us  all  under  great  obligation  for  the  skill 
and  good  judgment  which  they  have  manifested  in  the  selection  of  the 
writers  of  the  various  important  articles  in  this  work.  It  would  be  in- 
vidious to  particularize,  but  the  list  of  principal  contributors  which 
occupies  several  pages,  closely  printed,  embraces  the  most  distinguished 
names  of  American  affairs  of  the  present  day,  including  presidents  and 
professors  in  colleges,  clergymen,  authors,  statesmen,  generals  in  the 
army,  members  of  the  national  cabinet,  ministers  to  foreign  countries, 
members  of  congress,  teachers,  editors,  etc.  It  will  be  safe  to  say  that 
no  cyclopjedia  of  biography  has  ever  been  prepared  with  more  skill  and 
care  or  under  more  favorable  circumstances.  It  will  prove  the  most 
valuable  and  the  most  reliable  dictionary  of  American  biography  yet 
published.  It  is  admirable  in  all  respects.  It  should  find  a  place  in 
every  higher  educational  institution,  in  every  high  and  grammar  school- 
house  in  the  land,  and  in  the  library  of  every  teacher. 

William  Wallace. 


1889.]  MISCELLANY.  349 


MISCELLANT. 


NATIONAL   EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  i88g, 

NASHVILLE,  TENN. 

THE  people  of  the  South  are  as  much  in  earnest  about  the  next 
meeting,  July  16-19,  ^^  ^^*^  great  association,  as  were  the 
people  of  San  Francisco  and  the  Pacific  coast  in  1888.  The  local  com- 
mittees have  been  organized,  and  they  are  fairly  at  work.  They  are 
providing  accommodations  for  io,cxx)  guests.  One  unique  feature  of 
the  entertainment  is  to  be  a  barbecue  in  a  grove,  a  distinctively  Southern 
affair.  Excellent  halls  have  been  secured  for  the  meetings  of  the  gen- 
eral association  and  for  each  of  the  departments.  So  far  as  their 
capacity  will  allow,  the  hotels  will  be  open  ;  and  these  will  be  supple- 
mented by  boarding-houses,  private  residences,  and  the  dormitories  of 
various  institutions.  The  railroads  will  grant  one  fare  and  return 
tickets  good  for  ninety  days.  Excursions  to  points  of  interest  will  be 
provided  at  a  low  rate  —  to  Mammoth  Cave,  Missionary  Ridge,  and 
Lookout  Mountain,  the  scene  of  the  battle  above  the  clouds.  On  these 
heights  there  are  hotels  6000  feet  above  the  sea,  where  the  breezes  are 
cool  and  the  climate  as  delightful  as  in  the  White  Mountains ;  and  to 
these  excursionists  can  go  after  the  meetings  close. 

The  people  of  Nashville  and  of  all  the  neighboring  cities  and  states, 
will  receive  the  teachers  of  the  country  with  open  arms  and  warm 
hearts ;  and  the  teachers  of  that  section  will  exhibit  a  charming  cordial- 
ity. To  go  there  and  see  the  people  will  be  to  carry  home  a  lasting 
friendship  for  them,  and  a  better  understanding  of  their  work  and 
worth. 

The  program  for  the  meetings  is  well  advanced  though  by  no  means 
complete.  Among  the  speakers  expected  are  Hon.  A.  S.  Draper  of 
Albany,  New  York ;  Rev.  J.  M.  Curry,  agent  of  the  Peabody  Fund, 
Richmond ;  Dr.  A.  G.  Hayford  of  the  John  F.  Salter  Fund,  Decatur, 
Georgia  ;  Edwin  D.  Mead  of  Boston  (it  is  hoped)  ;  and  Bishop  Spaulding 
of  Illinois ;  Miss  Burt  of  Chicago  ;  Col.  A.  S.  Colyer  of  Nashville  ;  Wil- 
liam T.  Harris,  Concord;  Dr.  S.  H.  Peabody  of  Illinois;  Prof.  Ed- 
ward S.  Joynes  of  Columbia,  S.  C. ;  Professor  Underwood  of  St. 
Louis.    These  are  only  a  few  of  those  already  partially  engaged. 

Among  the  topics  to  be  considered  are  the  following: —  Honorary 
Degp'ees  in  American  colleges  ;  History  of  education  (i)  for  its  general 


350  ED  UCA  TION,  [  Janiurj, 

culture;  (2)  for  its  practical  value  on  legislation  and  administration; 
(3)  its  practical  value  to  teachers. 

The  Department  of  Superintendence  will  meet  in  Washington, 
March  6^ ;  this  will  enable  those  who  attend  to  be  present  at  the  inau- 
guration of  the  President  with  but  little  extra  expense.  The  program 
is  already  published. 

A.  P.  Marble. 

President  N.  E.  A. 


AT  the  recent  meeting  of  the  Presbyterian  Synod  of  New  York,  a 
committee  made  a  report  of  great  length  upon  Religion  and 
Public  Education.  The  following  is  the  substance  of  a  review  of  this 
report  as  given  by  G.  S.  Payson  in  the  Christian  Union.  Mr.  Pay- 
son  says  that  the  report  embodies  the  results  of  extensive  correspondence 
with  State  Superintendents  of  Instruction  throughout  the  Union,  as 
well  as  an  examination  of  State  laws.  Out  of  twenty-eight  states  and 
territories  twelve  have  no  law  upon  the  subject ;  five  prohibit  sectarian 
teaching ;  two  provide  for  morals  and  good  behavior  ;  and  New  Hamp- 
shire alone  demands  religious  teachers.  Iowa  enacts:  **The  Bible 
shall  not  be  excluded  ;  no  pupil  shall  be  required  to  read  it  contrary  to 
the  wishes  of  his  parent."  New  York  law  does  not  recognize  the  right 
of  using  any  portion  of  regular  school  hours  for  religious  exercises,  but 
forbids  the  exclusion  of  the  Scriptures  from  public  schools. 

Arizona  demands  moral  teaching,  but  declares  in  its  statute  law  that 
any  teacher  who  conducts  any  religious  exercise  in  school  shall  forfeit 
his  diploma  because  of  ''  unprofessional  conduct."  West  Virginia  law 
makes  the  extraordinary  condition  that  *'  teachers  shall  be  of  good 
moral  character,  and  not  addicted  to  drunkenness "  ;  while  Nevada, 
without  making  any  other  allusion  to  morals,  requires  an  oath  of  its 
public  instructors  that  they  never  have  been  and  never  will  be  '*  con- 
nected, directly  or  indirectly,  in  or  about  any  duel.'* 

The  Committee  finds  a  vast  amount  of  shallow  thinking  and  loose 
legislation  about  the  matter,  and  urges  that  the  subject  be  agitated  until 
its  perplexing  problems  are  satisfactorily  settled.  In  view  of  the  fact 
elicited  by  its  investigations  that  parochial  schools  are  increasing  in 
several  portions  of  the  Union,  the  Committee  raises  the  inquiry  whether 
the  state  should  not  at  once  insist  upon  a  supervision  of  all  schools 
within  its  bounds.  It  discovers  widespread  dissatisfaction  with  public 
schools,  which,  however,  is  mostly  found  among  Romanists  and 
Lutherans,  who  demand  denominational  instruction,  and,  in  Illinois 


9 

1889.]  MISCELLANY .  351 

chiefly,  among  infidels  and  agnostics,  who  would  have  every  trace  of 
religious  influence  removed. 

The  Synod  directed  its  Committee  to  report  to  it  next  year  the  exact 
legal  status  in  the  State  of  New  York  and  the  practice  in  its  chief  cities 
and  towns,  and  ordered  the  following  recommendations  republished  in 
its  Minutes  this  fall :  — 

"  First  —  That  the  Synod  aflirms  its  conviction  that  our  national  vigor 
and  permanence  are  guaranteed  only  by  a  religiously  grounded  mo- 
rality. 

"  Second — That,  without  claiming  it  to  be  the  province  of  the  state 
to  teach  religion  for  religion's  sake,  the  Synod  should  yet  confess  its 
belief  that,  in  order  to  the  state's  own  interest,  there  should  be,  in  every 
school  maintained  by  the  state,  the  inculcation  of  such  principles  of 
dependence  upon  God  and  obligation  to  him  as  are  essential  to  sound 
learning,  safe  character,  and  wholesome  citizenship. 

*'  Third — That  the  Synod  should  encourage  the  appointment  of 
such  teachers  as  shall  be  in  accord  with  the  spirit  of  the  second  recom- 
mendation, and  bring  the  entire  weight  of  its  influence  to  bear  against 
whatever,  by  statement  or  suggestion,  shall  antagonize  the  claims  of 
the  God  upon  whom  we  depend  and  to  whom  we  owe  obligation. 

''^Fourth  —  That  >our  committee  should  be  continued  to  communi- 
cate to  the  Synod  whatever  information  it  may  be  able  to  secure  as  to 
the  policy  pursued  in  this  particular  in  other  Christian  countries  and 
the  results  respectively  reached  ;  and  to  scrutinize  and  report  upon 
whatever  attempts  may  be  made  to  introduce  atheistic  teaching  in  our 
public  schools. 

^'' Fifth — That  the  Synod  should  instruct  its  ministers  publicly  to 
recognize  diflliculties  in  which  the  case  is  involved,  and  to  bring  those 
diflficulties  to  bear  as  an  argument  for  more  thorough,  intelligent,  and 
faithful  religious  instruction  on  the  part  of  the  family,  the  Sunday- 
school,  and  the  church.*' 

It  is  indicative  of  the  progress  made  in  this  matter  that  through  the 
exertions  of  this  committee  the  substance  of  the  above  resolutions  was 
embodied  in  an  overture  from  the  Presbytery  of  New  York  to  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  which  this  latter  body 
adopted  last  May  ;  and  thereby  the  principle,  which,  when  first  pro- 
pounded by  this  Committee,  met  with  decided  opposition,  has  been 
recognized  and  afl[irmed  by  the  highest  ecclesiastical  court  of  that  de- 
nomination. That  principle  is  briefly  this,  that  a  recognition  of  the 
Divine  Being  and  of  human  accountability  in  all  our  public  instruction 
is  essential  to  the  welfare  and  perpetuity  of  the  state. 


36S  EDUCATION.  [Januarj, 


FOREIGN  NOTES. 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 


Elementary  Education. — Sir  W.  Hart  Dyke,  Vice-President  of 
the  Committee  of  Council  on  Education  for  England  and  Wales,  has 
submitted  his  estimates  for  i888-'S9.  The  amount  asked  from  Parlia- 
ment is  4^1,286,077,  about  $6,300,000. 

In  his  speech  on  the  presentation  of  the  budget,  the  vice-president 
expressed  his  belief  that  there  was  no  ground  for  the  assumption  that 
as  a  consequence  of  the  final  report  of  the  Commission  on  elementary 
education,  the  government  would  make  an  "  onslaught"  on  the  system. 
For  himself  he  expressed  the  conviction  that  "to  cast  this  question 
again  into  the  seething  vortex  of  sectarian  politics  would  retard  the 
course  of  education  to  an  extent  that  could  scarcely  be  exaggerated/* 

The  estimates  show  an  increase  over  the  amount  for  i887-*88,  of 
JEii7,27o.  This  is  almost  wholly  accounted  for  by  the  increased  at- 
tendance upon  day  and  evening  schools.  A  small  proportion  of  the 
increase  is  due  to  the  larger  estimates  for  pensions.  Referring  in  this 
connection  to  the  low  salaries  of  teachers,  the  vice-president  said  :  "  I 
am  sure  it  is  impossible  for  any  practical  man  to  deny  the  fact  that  the 
present  state  of  things  with  regard  to  the  remuneration  of  teachers 
needs  very  serious  overhauling." 

As  evidences  of  progress  in  the  spread  of  education,  the  vice-president 
noted  the  increase  in  school  accommodation  and  in  school  attendance. 
The  latter  is  relatively  much  larger  than  the  increase  in  population. 
The  improved  quality  of  the  education  imparted  is  indicated  by  the 
gradually  lengthening  school  period  and  the  increased  proportion  of 
pupils  in  the  higher  standards.  The  percentage  of  pupils  in  standard 
IV.  and  upwards,  which  in  1883  was  29.03,  has  risen  each  year  since, 
and  in  1887  stood  at  36.3  per  cent.  There  is  also  a  marked  increase  in 
the  number  of  schools  classified  as  good  and  excellent  in  the  Inspector's 
reports.  The  most  striking  evidence  of  progress  noted  by  the  vice- 
president  is  gathered  from  the  statistics  of  juvenile  crime.  In  1869, 
the  year  before  the  passing  of  the  Elementary  Education  Act,  with  aa 
estimated  population  of  21,869,907,  the  number  of  juvenile  commit^ 
ments  was  10,314,  or  one  to  every  2,120  of  the  population.  In  1886, 
with  an  estimated  population  of  27,870,586,  juvenile  commitments  had 
fallen  to  4,924,  or  one  to  every  5,660  of  the  population,  or  less  than 
half  the  number  twenty  years  ago.     In  this  connection,  the  vice-presi- 


1889.1  FOREIGN  NOTES.  8S3 

dent  observed :  "  We  still  find  today  a  fixed  relation  between  crime 
and  igpiorance.  During  each  year  there  is  an  almost  uniform  propor- 
tion of  commitments  of  persons  of  all  ages  who  can  neither  read  nor 
write,  or  imperfectly.  This  proportion,  according  to  the  latest  informa- 
tion, is  from  96  to  97  per  cent. 

FRANCE. 

Superior  Instruction.  Faculties  of  Paris.  —  The  ceremonies 
attending  the  opening  of  the  session  of  the  Faculty  of  Letters  of  Paris, 
were  held  in  the  new  Sorbonne  the  fifth  of  November. 

Several  addresses  were  delivered ;  that  by  Monsieur  Lavisse  dwelt 
particularly  upon  the  chair  of  pedagogy  created  recently.  He  observed 
that  pedagogy  had  too  long  been  confounded  with  pedantfy,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  point  out  the  distinction  between  the  two. 

*'  Pedagogy,"  he  said,  "  has  been  cultivated  at  all  times  by  good  and 
g^eat  spirits.  As  it  has  for  its  object  the  education  of  the  soul,  it  is 
modified  from  time  to  time  by  the  ideas  that  men  form  of  the  soul  and 
of  its  destiny. 

*'  .  .  A  history  of  the  doctrines  of  education  contains  the  success- 
ive opinions  of  man  respecting  himself.  .  .  It  attests  in  humanity 
the  continuity  of  hope." 

Monsieur  Lavisse  made  comparison  between  the  old  and  the  new 
Sorbonne,  closing  with  these  words:  "We  know  that  our  history 
will  continue  its  course,  that  it  will  have  yet  many  legislatures  as  it  has 
had  already  many  kings,  that  the  future  reserves  for  us  contests  and 
misfortunes,  but  also  joys  and  triumphs.  We  enter  with  this  strong 
confidence  into  the  new  Sorbonne  which  the  architect  has  made  beau- 
tiful, proud  and  lofty,  elegant  and  gay,  well  open  to  the  light,  with  an 
air  of  hope  and  of  regeneration.** 

The  number  of  students  entered  for  the  session  in  the  Faculties  of 
Paris,  with  their  distribution  is  as  follows  :  Theology,  32  ;  law,  2,438  ; 
medicine,  3,352;  science,  137;  letters,  270;  pharmacy,  1,064. 

GERMANY. 

The  attendance  upon  the  German  universities  in  1888  reached  a  total 
of  28,000.  Of  these,  4,673  were  enrolled  in  the  faculty  of  Evangeli- 
cal theology ;  1,174  in  that  of  Catholic  theology;  5,520  in  law;  8,284 
in  medicine,  and  8,349  ^"  philosophy. 

The  German  States,  and  particularly  Prussia,  are  agitated  over  the 
crowded  state  of  the  professions  to  which  the  University  is  the  avenue. 

An  official  circular  instructs  the  directors  of  the  Prussian  gymnasia 
to  endeavor  to  turn  the  attention  of  their  students  away  from  the  study 
of  medicine.     The  other  faculties  are  not  less  crowded.     In  the  faculty 


3M  ED  UCA  TJOy.  [  Jaoiury, 

of  Protestant  theology  the  number  of  students  has  increased  annually 
from  1876  to  1S8S,  standing  at  4,837  in  the  latter  year  against  I095  in 
the  former. 

The  facult)'  of  law  shows  similar  increase.  For  the  years  1 861-1866 
the  average  enrolment  here  was  1.200;  from  1866  to  1871  it  rose  to 
1 ,300 ;  for  the  next  five  years  the  avers^e  was  i  ,900,  and  for  the  next, 
2,500. 

It  is  calculated  that  fifteen  years  must  elapse  on  an  average  bet^'een 
the  time  when  the  student  enters  upon  his  law  studies  and  the  moment 
when  he  can  secure  a  position. 

The  contest  between  the  advocates  of  the  classical  and  those  of  the 
modern  course  for  secondary  schools  continues.  Professor  Preyer  of 
the  Univeriity  of  Jena,  is  the  recognized  leader  of  the  party  opposing 
the  classics.  The  movement  has  resulted  in  petitions  to  the  Minister 
of  Public  Instruction  in  favor  of  the  realschule.  A  counter  movement 
has  started  from  the  Universit}*  of  Heidelberg.  A  protest  against  the 
petitions  mentioned  has  been  signed  by  a  large  number  of  the  profes- 
sors of  theology,  of  law,  of  medicine,  and  of  science. 

While  allowing  that  the  organization  and  conduct  of  the  g}'mnasia 
are  not  perfect,  they  assert  that  the  representation  of  physical  and  in- 
tellectual injury  resulting  from  the  course  pursued  in  the  g^-mnasia  has 
no  foundation  in  fact,  and  is  not  borne  out  by  the  subsequent  careers  of 
the  students.  Experience,  they  say,  justifies  the  determination  to  hold 
fast  to  the  essential  traits  of  the  gymnasia  programmes,  and  especially 
to  the  chief  characteristic,  viz.,  the  study  of  the  Greek  language  and 
literature. 

**  We  can  only  consider,"  says  the  protest,  "those  changes  to  be 
desirable  which  develop  what  exists  already,  not  those  which  demand 
a  rupture :  for  they  relate  to  an  institution  upon  which  reposes  in  great 
part  the  prosperity  of  science  in  Germany  and  the  standards  of  all  the 
most  important  professions." 

The  declaration  is  signed  by  fourteen  professors  of  Heidelberg.  It 
has  also  been  adopted  by  forty-five  professors  of  Halle. 

BELGIUM. 

At  the  opening  of  the  session  of  the  University  of  Liege,  the  rector, 
Monsieur  Wasseige,  delivered  an  address  in  which  he  expressed  deep 
regret  at  the  decline  of  the  true  scientific  spirit  that  pursues  knowledge 
for  the  love  of  it  rather  than  with  reference  to  its  utility.  *'  It  is,"  he 
said,  ''to  be  regretted  that  students  have  so  little  taste  for  scientific 
speculations,  and  see  little  more  in  their  work  than  the  means  of  pre- 
paring rapidly  for  passing  their  examinations.'*  This  he  attributed 
very  largely  to  defects  in  their  preparatory  training.     Among  these  de- 


1889.]  FOREIGN  NOTES.  355 

fects  he  counted  the  early  specialization  of  courses  which  forced  stu- 
dents to  decide  upon  their  careers  at  thirteen  or  fourteen  years  of  age. 

The  number  and  distribution  of  students  for  the  session  are  as  fol- 
lows :  Law,  356 ;  sciences,  337 ;  medicine,  255  ;  philosophy,  259 ; 
special  schools,  263. 

The  number  of  professors  and  instructors  for  the  several  faculties  are  r 
Law,  7;  medicine,  16;  science,  21;  philosophy,  15;  special  schools,. 
12. 

The  construction  of  the  new  building  of  the  university  is  in  progress. 

National  League  for  Physical  Education. — An  association 
styled  "  The  National  League  for  Physical  Education,"  has  recently 
been  founded  in  France.  Monsieur  Berthelot,  senator,  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  and  of  the  Academy  of  Medicine,  accepted  the 
presidency  of  the  committee  appointed  to  draft  the  plan  of  organization. 
In  response  to  a  circular  letter  setting  forth  the  proposed  purposes  of 
the  association,  a  large  number  of  representative  men  signified  their 
readiness  to  become  members.  A  meeting  was  called  in  Paris,  Octo- 
ber 31st,  for  the  consideration  of  the  report  of  the  committee.  After 
careful  deliberation  a  constitution  was  adopted.  By  this  the  object  of 
the  League  is  declared  to  be  the  development  in  schools  of  all  classes 
of  the  force  and  address  of  those  who  will  one  day  constitute  the  mili- 
tary service  of  the  country,  and  whose  vigorous  health  will  depend  upon 
their  moral  and  intellectual  equilibrium. 

Among  the  means  of  physical  culture  which  the  League  will  seek  to 
have  adopted  are  the  following .  — 

Along  with  formal  gymnastics  in  primary,  secondary,  and  superior 
schools,  the  introduction  of  outdoor  sports  and  the  active  exercises  which 
are  their  necessary  accompaniments.  The  provision  by  every  com- 
mune of  the  ground  and  material  required  for  these  active  sports. 

Annual  competitive  exercises  and  periodical  examinations  into  the 
physical  condition  of  students. 

The  League  will  publish  periodically  a  bulletin  of  its  operations  and 
of  the  progp-ess  of  physical  education  in  France.  a.  t.  s. 


856 


EDUCATIOy. 


[Jaouuy, 


BIBLIOGRAPHT  OF   CURRENT  PERIODICAL   LIT^ 

ERATURE    UPON  EDUCATION. 


The  following  blbliograpby  of  oamnt  pertodloal  Uteimtare  inolodes  articles  upon 
edacatlon  and  other  ■abject«  calculated  to  Interest  teachers.  Only  articles  f^rom  peri- 
odicals not  nominally  educational  are  mentioned.  Articles  of  special  importance  to 
teachers  will,  as  a  rule,  be  mentioned  in  notes. 


AlcotC,  Louisa  May.  Harriet  Pre»- 
cott  Spoflbrd*  Chautauquan^  Decem- 
ber. 

AUemativt^  Defense  de  W  Edmund 
Clay.  Critique  Philosophique^  Novem- 
ber. 

Animal  Arithmetic.  Madame  Clem- 
ence  Royer.  Popular  Science  Monthly, 
December. 

Translated  from  the  Revue  Scientif- 
ique. 

Atomic  Worlds,  and  their  Motions. 
Dr.  Ileinrich  Hensoldt.  Popular  Sci- 
ence Monthly^  December. 

Beliefs  about  the  Soul.  R.  A. 
Oakes.  Popular  Science  Monthly^  De- 
cember. 

Bimetallic  Conference,  Some  I^es- 
sons  from  the.  C.  B.  Roylance  Kent. 
Macmillan*B  Magazine^  Deoeml>er. 

"  Black  Art,"  The :  or  English  Man- 
ner of  Enf^ravinji:.  Canon  Blackley. 
National  lievietc,  December. 

Browning,  Mrs.  Barrett.  Macmil- 
lan*8^  December. 

Calculating  Boys,  Some  Strange 
Feats  of.  II.  Richard  A.  Proctor. 
Knowledges  December. 

Charities  of  Buffalo,  The.  J.  W. 
Bashford.      Chautauquan^  December. 

Chemistry,  llie  Role  of,  in  Civiliza- 
tion. Prof.  \V.  Cioukes.  The  Forum, 
December. 

Children,  Character  in.  Charlotte 
M.  Mason.  Murray^s  Magazine,  De- 
cember. 

Christianity  and  Tragedy.  Profes- 
sor Bliss  Perry.  Andover  lieview^  De- 
cember. 

Christmas  Sermon,  A.  Robert  Lou- 
is Stevenson.      Scribner's,   December. 

College.  The  Future  of  the  Country 
Colli'ge.  William  De  Witt  Hyde.  At- 
lantic Monthly^  December. 

President  Hyde  thinks  that  the  col- 
lege *'  represents  a  distinct  and  essen- 
tial stage  of  intellectual  development,'' 


and  has  its  place  between  the  academy 
and  the  university. 

Convent  School  of  the  Last  Century, 
A.  Susan  Coolidge.  Atiantic  Montk- 
ly,  December. 

Contains  interesting  extracts  from 
the  diary  of  a  pupil  at  the  Abbaye  aox 
Bois. 

Dedoublement  des  Operations  Cere- 
brates, Etude  sur  le,  et  sur  le  rdle 
isole  de  chaque  hemisphere  dans  les 
phenomenes  de  la  pathologie  mentale. 
J.  Luys.  Encephale^  September,  Oc- 
tober. 

Economique.  Questions  6cono- 
miques.  Louis  Wuarin.  Bibliotheque 
Universelles  November. 

Education,  Elementary;  Its  Work- 
ing and  its  Results.  WestminMer  Be^ 
riVtr,  December. 

Apropos  of  the  Report  of  the  Royal 
Commission. 

Education,  Two  Conflicting  Reports 
on.  Lord  Norton.  Xineteenth  Centu- 
ry,  December. 

Considers  the  subject  covered  by  the 
recent  inHJority  and  minority  reports 
of  the  Royal  Commission. 

English  Language,  Claims  of  the, 
to  Universality.  Dr.  A.  Melville  Bell. 
Science  December  14. 

Enseiguement  des  Sciences.  —  L^- 
ecole  du  service  de  sant^  militaire  et 
la  faeulte  de  medecine  de  Strasbourg, 
de  1851  ^  1870.  M.  Beaunis.  Bevue 
Scientijiqup^  17  November. 

Enseignment  des  Sciences.  Les 
M usees  Medicant.  Doctor  Billings. 
Bevue  «SViVnf(/fgMe,  10  November. 

A  translation  of  Doctor  Billings* 
address  at  the  meeting  of  American 
physicians  and  surgeons  at  Washing- 
ton. 

Ethics,  Classic  and  Semitic.  An- 
drew P.  Peabody.  Andover  Bevieto^ 
December. 

Examination,  llie  Protest  against 
Over-Examination.    A  Reply.      Pro- 


1888.] 


BIBLIOQBAPHT. 


357 


feasor  Kniffht.  Harold  Arthar  Perry, 
and  H.  Temple  Humphrey.  Nine- 
teenth Century^  December. 

The  writers  defend  the  competitive 
system  as  necessary. 

Faith-Healing  as  a  Medical  Treat- 
ment. Dr.  C.  Lloyd  Tuckey.  Nine- 
ieerUh  Century^  December. 

A  valaable  account  of  hypnotic 
healing  as  practised  by  the  Nancy 
ik^hool. 

Fiction,  Contemporary  Jewish.  Mr. 
Bernhard  Berenson.  Andover  Review^ 
December. 

Fiction,  The  South  as  a  Field  for. 
JFudge  A.  W.  Tourgee.  The  Forum^ 
December. 

"Finance  and  Politics,''  Mr.  Syd- 
ney Buxton's.  Justin  McCarthy. 
Contemporary  Revierc^  December. 

Food,  The  Future  of.  J.  W.Cross. 
Contemporary  Review^  December. 

Forest-Groupings,  The  Origin  of. 
>larquis  de  Saporta.  Popular  JScience 
Monthly^  December. 

Friedrich  der  Grosse  und  die  Ital- 
iener.  P.  D.  Fischer.  Deutsche  Rund- 
.s^au^  December. 

Galilei's  Theorie  der  Materie.  I.  K. 
Lasswitz.  Vierteljahrsschrift  fur  Wis- 
senscha/tliehe  Philosophies  U.  4. 

Gambetta:  Essals  de  Psychologic 
politique.  M.  de  Castellane.  Nou- 
velle  Revue^  15  November. 

Garibaldi's  Career,  The  CIopc  of. 
Wm.  R.  Thayer.    Atlantic^  December. 

Geistesstorung  und  Verbrechen. 
•Otto  Binswanger.  Deutsche  Rundschau^ 
December. 

Genossenschaftsgesetzes,  Die  Revis- 
ion des.  III.  Antialen  des  Deutschen 
Reichs^  December. 

Goethe's  Verhoitnis  zur  Ethik,  Ein- 
ige  Bemerkungen  iiber.  George  Sim- 
mel.  Zeitschrift  fur  Philosophic ^  B. 
.29,  H.  1. 

Gresham  College.  E.  Ray  Lankes- 
ter.    Nature^  Nov.  1. 

"Uamiltonian  System"  of  Educa- 
tion, the.  H.  S.  Salt.  Oentleman's 
Magazine^  December. 

An  interesting  account  of  James 
Hamilton's  attempt  in  America  and 
England  more  than  half  a  century  ago 
to  reform  the  old  grammatical  method 
of  teaching  languages. 

Hand  Educational  Fund  for  Colored 
People,  The.  American  Missionary, 
December. 

Harvard,  The  *'  Fast  Set"  at.  One 
•of  Them.  North  American  Review,  De- 
•cember. 

Heredite.      I>es    theories  modernes 


de  la  g^eration  et  de  L'  H6r^dit^.  E. 
G.  Balbiani.  Revue  Philosophique^ 
Dec. 

History  of  a  Doctrine,  The.  I. 
Prof.  S.  r.  Langley.  Popular  Science 
Monthly,  December. 

Refers  to  the  doctrine  of  heat. 

Holt  Method  of  Teaching  Music, 
The.  Mary  L.  Lewis.  Century,  De- 
cember. 

Hygiene.  —  L'  Education  physique 
de  r  enfant.  F.  Lagrange.  Revue 
Scienti/ique,  17  November. 

A  sensible  argument  against  over- 
pressure in  physical  education  and 
for  play  as  the  proper  gymnastic  ex- 
ercise for  children  since  it  is  at  once 
hygienic  and  recreative. 

Immortality,  Intimations  of,  from 
Recollections  of  Herbert  Spencer. 
William  M.  Bryant.  Unitarian  Re- 
view^ December. 

Indians  of  the  United  States,  The. 
J.  B.  Harrison.  Chautauquan,  De- 
cember. 

Infant  Mortality  and  the  Environ- 
ment. J.  M.  French.  Popular  Sci- 
ence Monthly^  December. 

*'  King  Lear,"  Notes  on.  Prof.  Lewis 
Campbell.  National  Review,  Decem- 
ber. 

Labor,  The  Ethics  of.  Geo.  H.  Hub- 
bard.    Yale  Review,  December. 

Legislation  comparee,  Les  etudes  de, 
en  France.  L^on  Aucoc.  Revue  Bleue, 
3  November. 

Lick  Observatory,  The.  Knowledge, 
December. 

Life,  The  Price  of.  Edward  Atkin- 
son.    The  Forum^  December. 

An  important  economic  argument 
from  statistics. 

Lincoln,  First  Plans  for  Emancipa- 
tion. J.  G.  Nicolay,  John  Ua3^  Cen- 
tury, December. 

Lost  Explorers  and  Expeditions. 
Lieut.  Frederick  Schwatka.  Chau- 
tauquan^ December. 

Lunar  Mystery,  New  Light  on  a. 
Garrett  P.  Serviss.  Popular  Science 
Monthly,  December. 

Lyon,  L'  Universite  de.  Ernest 
Lavisse.    Revue  Bleue,  10  November. 

Marriage  and  Divorce  in  the  United 
States.  Walter  S.  Collins.  Andover 
Review,  December. 

Marriage.  To  Marr}'  or  Not  to  Mar- 
ry? Junius  Henri  Browne.  Forum, 
December. 

Mechanical  Arts,  Tea(^hing  the. 
Thomas  Davidson.  Forum,  Decem- 
ber. 

Discusses  the  aversion   to  manual 


tiAciiiunc   a*  ^f^^  rev  uic  'i'«x 

9U»-  t'kT'-lc  rcao**^.  4»4»w«if  5ir  "aan 

Im  t^ui  jrr*.  uic  >itttiiu.*m.  4»:ikff  44.-*  ^r 


J 
Vr 

A 


•♦- 


<«nLVr  14. 

%'jrs^j.  J*jttL.  x»  rr.lae  of  V.;.:-*:?^. 
Fn-f.    W.  *  .   WilkiatMtt.      A.^mC^^ri^- 

Vrr^t^.      TViftt&f     D. 

p»-«N*iri«l*aMr.  roooiorf  Mir  le.  M. 
X«»<ifTi»*««ft.      L*   AcKl^tnie  de»    Svi. 

M. 'yfiT4fi.     'Pirn.,     A.  F«^il^.     J2<p» 

R4rf'#rfii«t:onftzHt.    A.  Li»«4>o.    Fr^.^M- 

Pi«tooi«ifi  in  England.  R^e^nt.  Paai 
Sbor*-*.     ^i9i^(n>4Ji  Jomrmai  of  PkUot" 

Pr*-lil»U#ric  R»c*^.  Hnu*^^  and 
IfoijM-.lifr  amofj|(  the.  Stephen  D. 
P**t.  Anuriran  Antiquaruim,  Nu vern- 
ier, 

Pr«»«>i'l^ntial  Elf^rtion  In  the  United 
hr;ite*.  'n»e.  Sir  Lyon  PUjfair. 
yin^t^^nth  C^ntmry,  Det-eniber. 

Pri»<»n  f^tK»r  roni|»«>firii»n.  Z.  R. 
Hrft'kwuy.     Th^  Forum.  Dei-ember. 

Pr"hilfition  Party:  It§  Origin,  Pur- 
p^nw*.  and  < Growth.  I.  Gw>.  I^.  C««e. 
Mnfjazini:  Iff  IV^MUrn  History,  Decero- 
Iht. 

Protajforaft  und  kein  Ende.  BeriH 
h;ird>furiz.  ZeitschH/tfur  PhUosophi^, 
H.  tit,  II.  1. 

P»yi'holo|fle.  —  1/  origine  des  fllu- 
iiloD«t  |jnxiuite»  par  le  des^in  et  la  pein-  , 


«p-     l'<t*T 


G 


CmiTcnitii  Leip> 


SOCT    -^   Zh^    Ufei««r^HtT  of 


M.   Ad.   Ridia.       .V> 
XoT^sber. 

SaUrie»of  LadT 
fmi  W.  F,.liaid." 


fnMidiehift- 
l>i|««im 


de. 


Teacfacrs^Tlie.    Al- 


Ge«.  McOowaa. 


Fnnce. 


Abel 


HaoTetSe-Benaolt  et 
Paal 
&>«^.  10  XoTember. 

S^-facN>l  v«Br«tioo«  The:  Protestant 
Viev^  and  Cocnoients^  Domakoe'Sj  De- 
cemb^-r. 

S-boid§  in  SafDoier.  Mr*.  Bernard 
Whitman.     I^ad  a  Bamd^  December. 

Schalrefomi.  Aphori^men  mr.  W. 
Pn-yer.      DemUcMe  Brm^^  Xorember. 

Araluable  c*>llection  of  »bort,  pitlij 
extracts  fn»in  varioa«  writer*  relating 
to  thtr  adranta^es  of  education  in  natu- 
ral science. 

S-iem-e.  The  Study  of.  by  Ministers. 
Pn.f.  J.  O.  Murray.  Homiiectic  Se- 
ries, December. 

Siience*.  The  Circle  of  the.  III- 
Pn>f.  \.  P.  Coleman.  Ckautamguany 
Dett-mber. 

shaftefsbury.  Lord.  Gu9taT  Cohn. 
DfHUchf  BMiidfchau,  December. 

Sit»eriaii  Road,  Life  on  the  Great. 
George  Kennan.     Cea^ary,  December. 

SiK-ial  Problem,  The.  I.  EaH  Loo- 
don  and  Crime.  Mrs.  S.  A.  Barrett. 
2.  The  SUte  LeTer.    Bishop  Bromby. 


1889.] 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


359 


3.  The  Eberfeld  Poor  Law  System. 
H.  P.  Tregarthen.     NcUional  BevieWy 

Socialiam  Id  English  Politics.  Will- 
iam  Clarke.  P^itical  Science  Quar- 
terlpy  December. 

Southern  Question,  A  Simpler. 
George  W.  Cable.  The  Forum^  De- 
cember. 

Spelling,  A  Keign  of  Law  in.  Prof. 
Francis  A.  March.  The  Forum^  De- 
cember. 

Stanley.  Is  Stanley  Dead?  Gen- 
eral Wolseley,  et  al.  North  American 
Beview^  December. 

Style.  Walter  Pater.  Fortnightly 
Bevieto^  December. 

Suffrage  universel,  Etude  philosoph- 
ique  et  historique  sur  le,  en  France 
(fin.)  Renouvier.  Critique  Philosoph- 
igue^  November. 

Tanzwut  im  Mittelalter,  Die.  Adolf 
von  Gabriely.  Deutsche  Bevue^  De- 
cember. 

Taxation,  Indirect,  in  America. 
Westminster  Beview^  December. 

Temperance,  Scientific.  A  Sympo- 
sium of  Letters.  William  A.  Ham- 
mond, et  al.  ChatUauquan^  Decem- 
ber. 

Thackeray,  M.  L.  Preussische  Jahr- 
bUcher^  November. 

Thought  and  language,  The  Iden- 
tity of.  Duke  of  Argyll.  Contempo- 
rary Beview^  December. 

Tokio-Igaku.    Skizzen  und  Erinner- 


ungen  aus  der  zeit  des  geisttgen.  Um- 
schwungs  in  Japan,  1871-1876. 
(Schluss.)  I^opold  Miiller.  Deutsche 
Bundschau^  December. 

Tolstoi.  Count  Tolstoi's  Religious 
Views.  Archdeacon  F.  W.  Farrar. 
The  Jbrum,  December. 

Tolstoi.  Count  Tolstoi's  Theories. 
Leroy-Beaulieu.  Chautauquan^  De- 
cember. 

*'  Trusts,*'  The  Legality  of.  Prof. 
Theo.  W.  Dwight.  Political  Science 
Quarterly^  December. 

Tulloch,  Principal.  A.  K.  II.  B. 
Contemporary  Bevieto^  December. 

Verbe,  le,  Ses  antecedents  et  ses 
correspondants  logiques.  P.  Regnaud. 
Bevue  Philosophique^  December. 

Waking  Dreams  of  Two  Lord  Chan- 
cellors, The.  Westminster  Beview^  De- 
cember. 

Relates  to  Moore's  Utopia  and  Ba- 
con's New  Atlantis. 

Whewell,  William,  D.  D.  Temple 
Bar^  December. 

An  interesting  sketch  of  the  famous 
Master  of  Trinity. 

Willensfrelheit,  Eine  Verteidlgung 
der.  Dr.  Richard  Wohle.  Zeiuchrift 
fur  Philosophies  B.  29,  II.  1. 

Women,  French.  A  Patriarch's 
Thoughts  about.  Jules  Simon.  Fort" 
niphtly  BevieWy  December. 

Women  in  India,  Medical.  J.  D. 
Rees.  Asiatic  Quarterly  Beview^  Oc- 
tober. 


PAMPHLETS  RECEIVED. 


Capital  and  its  Kamings,  by  John  B.  Clark,  A.  M.    An  Economic  Association.    75  cents. 

The  Relations  of  the  High  Schools  and  the  Colleges.    Issued  by  Oberlin  College, 

Ohio. Catalogue  of  Yale  University,  1888-9.    It  shows  a  total  of  1365  students. 

Pocket  Manual  on  Home  Exercise.  By  Wright  ft  Ditson,  Boston.  10  cents. Biblio- 
graphical Contributions.     Edited  by  Justin  Winsor,  Harvard  University. Mhthe- 

matical  Tliesen  of  Junior  and  Senior  Classes,  1782-1839.    By  Henry  C  Badger. State 

Normal  School,  Whitcnot,  Wisconsin,  1887-8. Report  of  the  Principal  of  the  Detroit 

High  School,  concerning  our  work  in  tlie  High  School,  Detroit,  Mich. Thirteenth 

Annual  Report  of  the  President  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  University,  Baltimore,  1888. 

The  President's  Report  to  the  Board  of  .Regents,  University  of  Michigan,  1888.  — ^  Easy 
Readings  for  Little  Ones.  By  A.  B.  Guilford,  New  York.  Teachers  Publishing  Co.  A 
series  often  lessons  in  elementary  supplementary  reading. The  Easy  Reading  Leaf- 
lets for  Supplementary  Reading.  Second  set.  By  A.  B.  Guilford,  Teachers  Publishing 
Co.,  New  York.    Twenty  lessons  on  cards. 


SeO  ED  UCA  TION.  [January, 


AMONG  THE  BOOKS. 

Franklin  in  France.  From  Original  Documents,  most  of  which  are  dow 
published  for  the  tirst  time.  By  Edward  E.  Hale,  and  Edward  £.  Hale,  Jr. 
Part  II.  The  Treaty  of  Peace  and  Franklin's  Life  till  his  return.  Boston: 
Roberts  Bros.    1888.    Pp.  470.    Price,  9;^00. 

This  book  is  a  beautiful  specimen  of  American  book-makinfc.  It  is  finely 
printed  on  the  best  paper,  l)eautifully  illustrated  with  numerous  cuts,  with  a 
fine  large  open  page,  very  attractive  to  the  eye.  But  these  are  the  least  of  its 
good  qualities.  No  period  of  American  history  is  of  more  interest  and  of 
greater  importance  than  the  close  of  the  Revolutiim  and  the  time  of  the  treaty 
of  piface  with  Great  Britain.  Perhaps  it  is  safe  to  say  that  no  treaty  in  the 
world's  history  of  equal  importance  was  ever  made  under  greater  disad- 
vantages, or  where  the  commissioners  were  l)eset  with  more  obstacles  and  dis- 
couragements on  every  side.  That  our  commissioners  should  succeed  in 
thwarting  the  machinations  of  the  Spanish,  in  circumventing  the  designs  of 
the  French,  and  in  overcoming  the  prejudices  of  the  English  so  completely  as 
to  give  us  all  the  territory  between  the  Alleghanies  and  the  Mississippi  as  far 
north  as  the  great  lakes,  rather  than  that  the  new  republic  should  be  cabined 
and  confined  entirely  within  the  narrow  strip  between  the  coast  and  the  Appa- 
lachian range  is  simply  marvelous  and  reflects  great  credit  upon  the  three  dis- 
tinguished diplomatists.  Franklin,  Jay,  and  Adams.  This  volume  of  letters 
written  by  Franklin,  and  many  written  to  him  by  distinguished  persons,  both 
American  and  European,  man}-  of  which  have  never  before  been  published,  but 
which  had  been  saved  from  utter  loss  and  destruction  and  secured  to  us  by  our 
countryman,  Mr.  Stevens,  throws  great  light  upon  this  wonderful  treaty  and 
goes  far  toward  settling  some  disputed  points  concerning  it.  All  students  of 
the  history  of  America  will  thank  the  editors  and  the  publishers  for  the  ad- 
mirable manner  in  which  they  have  placed  this  valuable  information  before  our 
country.  It  is  the  most  important  contribution  to  our  knowledge  of  the  essen- 
tial facts  of  that  interesting  period  of  our  history  which  has  been  made  for 
many  years. 

Lectures  on  Pedagogy,  Theoretical  and  Practical.  By  Gabriel  Compayr^. 
Translated  by  W.  H.  Payne,  LL.  D.,  President  of  the  Peabody  Normal  Col- 
lege.    Boston :     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.     Pp.  491. 

All  who  read  Doctor  Payne's  translation  of  Compayre's  History  of  Peda- 
gogy will  be  sure  to  read  these  lectures  by  the  same  author.  They  treat  of 
the  entire  round  of  educational  subjects,  such  as  physical  and  Intellectual  edu- 
cation ;  the  education  of  the  senses ;  the  culture  of  the  attention,  memory,  im- 
agination, reasoning,  the  feelings;  of  moral  education,  will,  liberty,  habit;  the 
higher  sentiments ;  aesthetic  and  religious  education,  etc.  The  book  also  dis- 
cusses methods,  —  methods  in  general,  methods  in  reading,  in  writing,  in  his- 
tory and  geography,  the  senses,  civic  instruction,  and  other  kindred  topics. 
This  is  a  valuable  work  and  we  bespeak  for  it  tlie  attention  of  every  wide- 
awake, progressive  teacher. 


1889.]  AMONG  THE  BOOKS.  361 

Ohio;  First  Fruits  of  the  Ordinance  of  1787.  By  Rufus  King.  The 
American  Ck>nimon wealths  Series.  Boston :  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.  1888. 
Pp.427.    Price,  f  1.25. 

This  is  the  twelfth  volume  in  the  series  of  American  Commonwealths,  and 
treats  of  one  of  the  most  prominent  states  in  the  Union,  which  has  a  history  of 
immense  value  and  thrilling  interest.  The  history  of  the  Old  French  War  and 
the  treaty  of  Paris,  may  be  considered  as  the  pivotal  point  in  American  history. 
That  treaty  surely  laid  the  corner-stone  of  American  independence.  Although 
the  territory  north  of  the  Ohio  was  annexed  to  Quebec,  yet  that  was  only  pre- 
liminary to  its  being  annexed  to  the  United  States.  The  adniisAlon  of  Ohio 
into  the  Union  in  1803  was  memorable  as  the  first-fruits  of  the  ordinance  of 
1787.  The  rapid  progress  of  that  state  from  its  first  settlement,  a  hundred 
years  ago,  is  a  natural  result  of  the  high  character  of  the  early  settlers.  The 
names  of  Governor  St.  Clair,  Rev.  Mannasseh  Cutler,  D.  D.,  G^n.  Jonathan 
Dayton,  Elias  Boudinot,  Doctor  Witherspoon,  James  M.  Varnum,  Oen.  Rufus 
Putnam,  Judge  Parsons,  Moses  Cleaveland,  and  many  others  among  the  early 
settlers,  hold  very  high  rank  among  the  founders  of  new  states.  The  student 
of  American  history  will  find  this  volume  of  exceeding  interest  and  great  value 
in  the  study  o{  our  country,  whether  during  its  earlier  years,  in  the  war  for  the 
Union,  or  its  later  development. 

Thomas  Jefferson  and  the  University  of  Virginia.  By  Herbert  B.  Ad- 
ams, Ph.  D.,  with  sketches  of  other  Colleges.    Pp.  308. 

This  is  Circular  of  Information,  No.  1,  1888,  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion. It  is  a  most  valuable  contribution  to  the  history  of  Education  in  this 
country.  Whatever  diff*erenee  of  judgment  may  exist  in  regard  to  Jefferson^s 
opinions  upon  political  questions,  all  must  respect  and  admire  his  broad  views 
upon  educational  themes.  He  was  original,  progressive,  and  decidedly  in  ad- 
vance of  his  age.  The  work  is  finely  illustrated  with  cuts  of  Jefferson's  draw- 
ings and  various  views  of  the  Virginia  colleges. 

First  Lessons  in  English.  For  Use  in  Intermediate  Grades.  By  Alfred  H. 
Welsh,  M.  A.,  Ohio  State  University.    Chicago:    John  C.  Buckbee  &  Co. 

1888. 

This  book  for  beginners  is  one  of  the  best  in  its  line.  It  is  simple,  plain,  and 
progresses  regularly.  It  avoids  the  weak,  silly,  verbose,  unscientific  lessons 
common  to  many  elementary  books.  It  contains  a  number  of  new  and  most 
excellent  features,  and  the  insertion  of  copious  examples  of  speech-forms, 
gives  the  book  an  extra  value.  The  work  should  be  examined  by  every  teacher 
of  this  subject,  and  if  it  cannot  be  adopted  as  the  regular  textbook,  should  be 
upon  the  teacher's  desk  for  use  and  reference. 

Charles  H.  Kilborn,  5  Somerset  Street,  Boston,  has  recently  published  a 
number  of  new  works  on  Modern  Languages.  Among  them  are  the  follow- 
ing:— 

Heine's  Die  Harzreise.  Edited,  with  notes,  etc.,  by  Dr.  A.  N.  Van  Daell, 
Director  of  Modern  Languages  in  the  Boston  High  and  Latin  Schools.  Pp. 
82.     Paper,  25  cents. 

Peter  Schlemihl's  Wonders  am  e  Gesciiichte.  With  an  Introduction  and 
Notes  by  Sylvester  Primer,  Ph.  D.,  Professor  of  Modern  Languages,  College 
of  Charleston,  S.  C. 

Choix  De  Contes  De  Daudet.  Selected  and  edited  by  William  Price,  B.  A., 
Professor  of  French  in  Trinity  College,  N.  C.    Pp.  32.    Paper,  15  cents. 


362  EDUCATlOlf.  [Janoarj, 

Marie*s  Stort  ;  A  Tale  of  the  Days  op  Louid  XIV.  By  Mary  E.  Bamford. 
Boston :  Congregational  Sunday-School  and  Publishing  Society.  Pp.  145. 
Price  fl.OO. 

A  touching  story  of  the  suflfering  bron£[ht  on  a  group  of  young  children  by 

the  persecution  of  the  Iluguenots,  which  followed  the  revocation  of  the  Edict 

of  Nantes.    In  these  days,  when  the  cross  which  we  are  called  to  bear  is  so 

light,  it  is  well  for  old  and  young  to  be  reminded  of  the  time  when  sorrow,  and 

loss,  and  death  were  the  portion  of  all  who  loved  the  Ix>rd  Jesus,  and  the  book 

which  gives  us  the  record  of  His  life.    We  commend  Miss  Bamford's  story  for 

this  purpose. 

Adeltha  ;  A  True  Story  of  a  Woman's  Life  and  Work.  By  Elizabeth  M. 
Rowland.  Boston :  Congregational  Sunday-School  and  Publishing  Society. 
Price  15  cents. 

A  very  interesting  record  of  a  truly  devoted  Christian  life. 

Odds  and  Ends;  ok,  Gleanings  from  Missionary  Life.  By  Rev.  C.  H. 
Wheeler,  D.  D.  Boston:  Congregational  Sunday-School  and  Publishing 
Society.     Pp.  202.     Price  $1.25. 

In  the  historical  sketches  given  of  the  various  missions  many  things  are  left 

out  concerning  which  people  here  have  a  strong  desire  to  know*    That  fact  is 

evidenced  by  the  questions  that  are  put  to  returned  missionaries  concerning 

habits,  customs,  modes  of  dealing  with  various  problems  arising  in  missionary 

work,  etc.    This  book,  us  its  title  indicates,  is  a  gathering  up  of  the  odds  and 

ends  of  missionary  life.    Those  who  have  read  Doctor  Wheeler's  other  books 

need  not  be  told  that  tliis  is  breezy,  full  of  humor  and  of  seriousness,  brilliant 

at  times,  and  never  dull.    It  is  just  the  book  to  increase  the  interest  of  the 

young  in  missions. 

Autrefois.  Tales  of  Old  New  Orleans  and  elsewhere.  By  James  A.  Harri- 
son. New  York:  Cassell  &  Co.  Pp.  295.  Paper  covers.  Price  50  cents. 
For  sale  by  W.  B.  Clarke  &  Co. 

Eleven  stories  of  varying  interest,  but  all  exhibiting  a  healthy  atmosphere, 

and  dealing  with  the  people.    The  book  will  prove  a  welcome  companion  for  a 

rainy  day,  or  a  leisure  hour. 

The  Slojd  in  the  Service  of  the  School.  By  Otto  Salomon,  Ph.  D.,  Swe- 
den. Translated  by  William  H.  Carpenter,  Ph.  D.,  of  Columbia  College. 
Vol.  I.,  No.  6,  of  the  Monographs  of  the  Industrial  Education  Association. 
New  York.     Price,  20  cents. 

This  is  a  strong  argument,  from  the  standpoint  of  Sweden,  for  *^  Physical 

labor  '^  in  the  service  of  the  school. 

Proceedings  of  the  Trustees  of  the  Peabody  Education  Fund,  at  their 
Twenty-seventh  meeting.  New  Y'ork,  Oct.  3,  1888. 

A  valuable  report  of  a  very  interesting  meeting.    All  educators  will  rejoice 

to  hear  that  Hon.  J.  L.  M.  Curry  is  once  more  the  active  agent  of  this  great 

fund. 

Andrews  &  Stoddard's  Latin  Grammar.  A  new  edition.  Thoroughly  re- 
vised by  Henry  Preble,  Assistant  Professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  in  Harvard 
University.  12mo.  Pp.  453.  Boston:  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.  Price, 
$1.12  net. 

This  new  edition  of  the  popular  *^  Andrews  &  Stoddard,^'  so  long  a  favorite, 
is  a  complete  revision,  and  will  be  received  with  great  favor.  It  is  character- 
ized throughout  by  a  combination  of  scientific  accuracy,  clearness,  and  sim- 
plicity.   The  following  are  some  of  the  subjects  in  the  treatment  of  which  the 


1889.]  AMONG  THE  BOOKS,  363 

greateft  improvemeDt  has  been  made:  —  1.  Order  of  Words  in  the  Latin  Sen- 
tence. 2.  Word  Formation.  (Formative  SafHxes,  Processes  of  Growth,  etij.) 
3.  Clauses  with  cum,  4.  Relative  Clauses.  5.  Conditional  Clauses.  6.  The 
Regular  Verb.  (The  four  conjugations  treated  so  far  as  possible  as  varieties 
of  one  conjugation.)  7.  The  Third  Declension.  8.  Metres.  (A  full  but 
brief  treatment  with  English  parallels.)  0.  A  complete  and  very  valuable 
index. 

Until  the  first  of  next  March,  a  copy  will  be  sent  to  any  teacher  for  exam- 
ination on  receipt  of  60  cents. 

The  Classical  Review.  David  Nutt.  London:  270  Strand.  Boston: 
Ginn  &  Co.,  American  Publishers.    ^.00  a  year.    Single  numbers,  35  cents. 

The  attention  paid  by  the  Keview  to  educational  problems  and  to  educational 

literature,  as  well  as  to  classical  philology  in  its  literary  and  scientific  aspects, 

gives  it  a  distinct  value  to  classical  teachers  in  preparatory  schools,  colleges, 

and  universities. 

The  Education  op  Girls.  By  G.  W.  Haenshel.  Harrisonburg,  Va.  Pa- 
per covers,  15  cents. 

A  capital  address,  with  no  silliness  about  it. 

Industrial  Education  in  the  South.  By  Rev.  A.  D.  Mayo.  Bureau  of 
Education,  Washington,  D.  C.    No.  5.     1888. 

A  thorough  discussion  of  this  important  subject,  which  will  prove  of  great 

value  to  all  who  are  interested  in  this  important  problem. 

The  Stability  of  Prices.  By  Simon  N.  Patten,  Ph.  D.  Pp.  64.  Paper 
covers.    Price,  75  cents. 

This  is  Vol.  in..  No.  6,  of  the  Publications  of  the  American  Economic  Associa- 
tion, It  is  a  masterly  argument  upon  the  stability  and  instability  of  prices, 
and  the  conditions  thereto. 

Sermons  on  the  International  Lessons  for  1889.  By  the  Monday  Club. 
Fourteenth  Series.  Pp.402.  Price.  $1.25.  Boston  and  Chicago:  Congre- 
gational Sunday-School  and  Publishing  Society. 

ITie  SeiTOons  by  the  "  Monday  Club ''  are  widely  known.  It  is  the  only  series 
of  the  Iclnd  that  has  proved  successful.  The  ability  as  sermonizers  of  such  men 
as  Drs.  Dunning,  Gregg,  Boyuton,  Griffls,  Clark,  Leavitt,  etc.,  is  well  known. 
After  a  teacher  has  studied  his  lessons  thoroughl)^  making  use  of  his  cus- 
tomary lesson  helps,  it  will  aid  him  to  a  broader  outlook  if  he  have  by  him  the 
Monday  Club  Sermons  for  final  hints. 

Traumerein.    Edited  by  Alphonse  N.  Van  Daell,  director  of  modern  lan- 

?:uage8  In  the  Boston  High  and  Latin  Schools.    Boston :    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
888.     Paper.     Pp.  103. 

A  good  German  textbook  for  beginners  or  intermediate  classes,  written  in 

good  easy  German. 

Through  Death  to  Life.  Discourses  on  St.  Paul's  Great  Besurrection 
Chapter.  By  Kenen  Thomas,  D.  D.  Boston:  Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.  Pp. 
163.    Gilt  top.     Cloth,  $1.25. 

In  this  beautiful  book,  finely  printed  on  the  best  paper  and  altogether  in 
most  excellent  taste,  are  ten  discourses  of  great  power  and  value.  They  dis- 
cuss the  theme  which  lies  at  the  foundation  of  the  Christian  religion,  and 
indeed,  of  all  religions.  The  author  is  widely  known  as  a  vigorous  thinker, 
clear   writer,   a  sweet-tempered,  high-minded,  broad-cultured,  strong  man. 


^iU  JSDUCATIOI*^.  t*^anuary, 

Although  bom  and  edacated  in  England,  he  is  as  vigorous  a  Yankee,  as  thor- 
ough an  American,  as  any  to  the  manor  bom,  and  his  discussion  of  this  great 
subject  of  Immortality  is  well  worthy  the  greatness  of  the  theme. 

Testa  :  A  Book  for  Boys.  By  Paolo  Mantegazza.  Boston :  D.  C.  Heath  & 
Co.    1889. 

This  novel  book  is  translated  from  the  Italian  of  the  tenth  edition  by  the 

Italian  class  in  Bangor,  Maine,  under  the  supervision  of  Luigi  D.  Ventura. 

llie  work  will  probably  appear  strange  to  the  American  reader,  and  may  be  to 

him  a  revelation  of  Italian  ideas  and  of  the  thinkers  and  writers  of  Italy. 

The  book  is  one  that  American  boys  might  read  with  profit,  and  that  American 

thinkers  will  be  Interested  in,  as  giving  them  an  insight  into  Italian  literature. 

German  Novelettes  for  School  and  Home,  selected  from  the  best  modern 
writers,  and  with  Etymological,  Grammatical,  and  Explanatory  Notes.  By 
Dr.  Wllhelm  Bernhardt.  Vol.  11.  Boston:  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.  Price,  76 
cents. 

The  six  short  stories  of  this  volume  come  from  the  pens  of  well-known  con- 
temporary novelists,  and  were  selected  with  reference  to  simplicity  of  style 
and  wealth  of  phraseology.  One  characteristic  difference  between  the  first 
and  the  second  volume,  is  that  while  the  stories  of  the  first  are  somewhat  som- 
bre In  character,  those  of  tlie  second  volume  are  in  a  light  and  more  cheerful 
vein. 

Notes  on  the  Training  of  Children.  By  Mrs.  Frank  Malleson.  Third 
Edition.    Boston:    1>.  C.  Heath  &  Co.     1887. 

This  most  valuable  book  treats  in  an  Intelligent  and  simple  way  of  the  sul>- 
Jects  of  '*  infant  life,''  *•  nursery  management,"  '*  the  employment  and  occupa- 
tion of  children, ^^  ^^  some  cardinal  virtues:  reverence,  truth,  love,  obedience  to 
conscience,  duty,''  and  ^*  rewards  and  punishments.'*  The  subject  matter  is  of 
the  utmost  importance,  and  the  treatment  is  clear,  concise,  to  the  point,  and  of 
the  greatest  value.  The  book  Is  one  that  should  be  in  the  hands,  not  only 
of  every  mother,  but  also  of  every  teacher  of  young  children,  and  every  per- 
son connected  with  children. 

Jules  Lemaitre  Impressions  De  Theatre.  Trolsieme  Serle.  Paris:  Li- 
bralrle  H.  I^cene  et  H.  Oudln.     Kue  Bonaparte.    1880. 

This  third  volume  of  the  series  deserves  the  same  success  that  has  greeted 
the  first  two  volumes.  It  contains  articles  upon  Sophocles,  Shakespeare,  Vil- 
lon, Cornellle,  Mollere,  Beaumarchais,  and  many  others. 

A  Raw  Recruit's  War  Experiences.  By  Ansel  D.  Nickerpon,  lAte  Private. 
Co.  B,  Eleventh  Rhode  Island  Volunteers.  Providence :  Printed  by  the  Press 
Company. 

This  war  paper  was  first  read  before  the^hode  Island  Soldiers  and  Sailors 

Historical  Society,  in  Providence,  October  19,  1886,  and  has  since  been  read 

several  times  before  various  associations  and  societies.    It  is  not  a  connected 

history  of  the  regiment,  but  just  what  its  title  Indicates.     It  will  be  found  of 

more  than  ordinary  Interest  to  the  general  reader  for  the  easy,  natural  manner 

in  which  army  life  Is  depicted,  but,  of  course,  Its  greatest  value  will  be  to  the 

comrades  of  the  author  who  served  through  that  memorable  campaign. 

Riverside  Literature  Series.  Extra  Number  E.  Dialogues  and  Scenes 
from  the  writings  of  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe.    By  Emily  Weaver.    Boston : 


1889.]  AMONG  THE  BOOKS.  365 

Hoaghton,  MifQin  &  Co.    Single  namber,  15  cents.    Price  per  year  (6  num- 
bers), 80  cents. 

Cassell^s  National  Library  have  issued  the  following  numbers :  No.  140. 
From  London  to  Land's  End.  By  Daniel  Defoe.  No.  150.  Bomeo  and 
Juliet.  By  William  Shakespeare.  No.  153.  The  Amber  Witch.  Trans- 
lated from  the  German  by  Lady  Duff  Gordon.  Price  per  single  copy,  10 
cents.    Subscription  price  per  year,  $5.00. 

The  Collegian.  A  monthly  magazine,  devoted  to  the  interests  of  undergradu- 
ates. Published  under  the  auspices  of  the  New  England  Intercollegiate 
Press  Association.  Edited  by  Samuel  Abbott.  Vol.  I.,  No.  1.  Janunry, 
1889.  Pp.  100.  Boston:  34  Temple  Place.  Price,  $3.00  a  year.  Single 
copies,  30  cents. 

This  new  magazine  will  appeal  to  a  large  constituency,  and  is  worthy  of  a 
liberal  support.  Mr.  Abbott  is  well  qualified  by  experience,  taste  and  ability 
to  make  a  success  of  the  venture  that  he  here  undertakes,  and  it  is  hoped  the 
undergraduates  of  all  the  colleges,  as  well  as  many  graduates,  will  extend  solid 
aid  to  the  enterprise.  The  first  number  is  an  excellent  oue.  The  leading  arti- 
cle is  by  Dr.  Edward  Everett  Hale. 

Historical  Tables;  A  complete  Hand-book  of  Dates,  Chronologically  ar- 
ranged. Compiled  by  Prof.  Robert  Haentze,  Director  of  the  German-Ameri- 
can Academy  of  Chicago.    Chicago :    Western  School  Supply  Co. 

A  capital  little  hand-book  covering  the  history  of  the  world.  It  has  chapters 
on  the  Chronology  of  all  the  Countries;  The  Presidents  of  the  United  States; 
Celebrated  Characters ;  Important  Dates ;  Universities  when  founded ;  and  Im- 
portant Inventions. 

Mr.  Alfred  A.  Horn,  our  Pennsylvania  agent,  at  York,  Pa.,  will  send  a  copy 
by  mail/ree  to  any  teacher  who  will  send  him  two  subscriptions  to  Common 
School  Education  with  82.00. 

The  thoughts  of  all  teachers  are  now  turned  to  Nashville,  Tenn.,  for  it  is 
there  that  the  next  meeting  of  the  National  Educational  Association  will  be 
held  in  July,  1889.  They  will  be  interested  also  in  all  that  conies  from  Nash- 
ville, and  we  call  their  attention  to  the  Soutiiwesteun  Journal  of  Educa- 
tion published  in  that  '*  University  City  "  of  the  South.  The  December  num- 
ber is  on  our  table  full  of  valuable  reading  matter  for  teachers.  The  leading 
article  is  the  lecture  of  Pres.  W.  H.  Payne,  on  ''  How  shall  the  Natural  Sci- 
ences be  Taught."  Selections  and  Suggestions  for  "  Friday  Afternoon  "  work 
are  a  feature  of  the  Journal.  It  is  also  publishing  a  vnluable  series  of  articles 
on  "Teaching  English  Literature,  by  Miss  Ellen  Dean,  of  the  Peabody  Normal 
College."  These  articles  are  actual  reproductions  of  work  done  in  the  class- 
room and  are  thoroughly  practical.  Southern  educational  news,  "  Bookstand 
"Magazines"  complete  a  capital  number  of  this  excellent  southern  educational 
Journal. 

The  universal  favor  with  which  the  Musicians*  Calendar  for  1888  was  re- 
ceived has  induced  the  author  to  prepare  a  Musicians*  Calendar  for  1889,  which 
is  much  improved  in  artistic  quality  and  general  convenience,  and  will  find 
even  greater  favor  than  its  predecessor.  The  designing  and  engraving  are  by 
H.  P.  Giles  and  Arthur  Stockin.  Price  by  mail,  50  cents.  Silver,  Burdett  & 
Co.,  publishers,  50  Bromfield  Street,  Boston. 


356 


EDUCATION. 


[Janaary, 


BIBLIOGRAPHr  OF   CURRENT  PERIODICAL   LIT- 
ERATURE   UPON  EDUCATION. 


The  following  bibliography  of  oarrent  periodioal  literatare  Includes  artlelefl  upon 
education  and  other  subjects  calculated  to  Interest  teachers.  Only  articles  from  peri- 
odicals not  nominally  educational  are  mentioned.  Articles  of  special  Importance  to 
teachers  will,  as  a  rule,  be  mentioned  in  notes. 


Alcott,  Louisa  May.  Harriet  Pres- 
cott  Spoffordi  Chautauquan^  Decem- 
ber. 

Alitrnativt^  Defense  de  1\  Edmund 
Clay.  Critique  Philosophique^  Novem- 
ber. 

Animal  Arithmetic.  Madame  Cl^m- 
ence  Royer.  Popular  Science  Monthly. 
December. 

Translated  from  the  Jievue  Scientif- 
ique. 

Atomic  Worlds,  and  their  Motions. 
Dr.  Heinrich  Hensoldt.  Popular  Sci- 
ence. Monthly y  December. 

Beliefs  about  the  Soul.  B.  A. 
Oalces.  Popular  Science  Monthly^  De- 
cember. 

Bimetallic  Conference,  Some  Les- 
sons from  the.  C.  B.  Roylance  Kent. 
Macmillan^s  Magazine^  December. 

''Blaclc  Art,"The:  or  English  Man- 
ner of  Engraving.  Canon  Blackley. 
National  Beview,  December. 

Browning,  Mrs.  Barrett.  Macmil- 
lan*8^  December. 

Calculating  Boys,  Some  Strange 
Feats  of.  Ii.  Kichard  A.  Proctor. 
Knowledge^  December. 

Charities  of  Buffalo,  The.  J.  W. 
Bashford.      Chautauquan^  December. 

Chemistry,  The  Role  of,  in  Civiliza- 
tion. Prof.  W.  Crookes.  The  Forum, 
December. 

Children,  Character  in.  Charlotte 
M.  Mason.  Murray* s  Magazine,  De- 
cember. 

Christianity  and  Tragedy.  Profes- 
sor Bliss  Perry.  Andover  Review^  De- 
cember. 

Christmas  Sermon,  A.  Robert  Lou- 
is Stevenson.      Scrihner's^   December. 

College.  The  Future  of  the  (Country 
College.  William  De  Witt  Hyde.  At- 
lantic Monthly^  December. 

President  Hyde  thinks  that  the  col- 
lege *'  represents  a  distinct  and  essen- 
tial stage  of  intellectual  development,'' 


and  has  its  place  between  the  academy 
and  the  university. 

Convent  School  of  the  Last  Century, 
A.  Susan  Coolidge.  Atlantic  Montk* 
ly,  December. 

Contains  interesting  extracts  from 
the  diary  of  a  pupil  at  the  Abbaye  aux 
Bois. 

Dedoublement  des  Operations  Cere- 
brates, Etude  sur  le,  et  sur  le  rdie 
isol^  de  chaque  hemisphere  dans  les 
phenomenes  de  la  pathologic  mentale. 
J.  Luys.  Enc4fphale^  September,  Oc- 
tober. 

Economique.  Questions  ^ono- 
niiques.  I^)uis  Wuarin.  Bibliotheque 
UniverseUe^  November. 

Education,  Elementary;  Its  Work- 
ing and  its  Results.  Westminster  Re- 
vievc^  December. 

Apropos  of  the  Report  of  the  Royal 
Commission. 

Education,  Two  Conflicting  Reports 
on.  Lord  Norton.  Nineteenth  Centu- 
ry^  December. 

Considers  the  subject  covered  by  the 
recent  majority  and  minority  reports 
of  the  Royal  Commission. 

English  Language,  Claims  of  the, 
to  Universality.  Dr.  A.  Melville  Bell. 
Science  December  14. 

Enseignement  des  Sciences.  —  L'- 
^cole  du  service  de  sant^  militaire  et 
la  faculte  de  medecine  de  Strasbourg, 
de  1851  a  1870.  M.  Beaunis.  Bevue 
Scientijique^  17  November. 

Enseignment  des  Sciences.  Les 
Musoes  Medicant.  Doctor  Billings. 
Bevue  Srientijique^  10  November. 

A  translation  of  Doctor  Billings* 
address  at  the  meeting  of  American 
physicians  and  surgeons  at  Washing- 
ton. 

Ethics,  Classic  and  Semitic.  An- 
drew P.  Peabody.  Andover  Beview^ 
December. 

Examination.  The  Protest  against 
Over-Examination.    A  Reply.     Pro- 


1888.] 


BIBLIOGBAPHY. 


357 


f essor  Knight.  Harold  Arthur  Perry, 
and  H.  Temple  Humphrey.  Nine- 
teenth Century^  December. 

llie  writers  defend  the  competitive 
system  as  necessary. 

Faith-Healing  as  a  Medical  Treat- 
ment. Dr.  C.  Lloyd  Tuckey.  Nine- 
Xeenth  Century ^  December. 

A  valuable  account  of  hypnotic 
healing  as  practised  by  the  Nancy 
ikhool. 

Fiction,  Contemporary  Jewish.  Mr. 
Bernhard  Berenson.  Andover  Beview^ 
December. 

Fiction,  The  South  as  a  Field  for. 
nJudge  A.  W.  Tourgee.  The  Forum^ 
December. 

"Finance  and  Polities,*'  Mr.  Syd- 
ney Buxton's.  Justin  McCarthy. 
Contemporary  Bevietc^  December. 

Food,  The  Future  of.  J.  W.  Cross. 
Contemporary  Beview^  December. 

Forest-Groupings,  The  Origin  of. 
Marquis  de  Saporta.  Popular  iScience 
Monthly^  December. 

Friedrich  der  Grosse  und  die  Ital- 
iener.  P.  D.  Fischer.  Deutsche  Bund- 
jichau^  December. 

Galilei's  Theorie  der  Materie.  I.  K. 
Lasawitz.  Vierteljahrsschrift  fur  Wis- 
senschaftliche  Philosophies  H.  4. 

Gambetta:  Essais  de  Psychologic 
politique.  M.  de  Castellane.  Nou- 
velle  Bevue^  15  November. 

Gariba1di*s  Career.  The  Close  of. 
Wm.  R.  Thayer.    Atlantic^  December. 

Geistesstorung  und  Verbrechen. 
'Otto  Binswanger.  Deutsche Bundschau^ 
December. 

Genossenschaftsgesetzes,  Die  Revis- 
ion des.  III.  Annalen  des  Deutschen 
Beichs^  December. 

Goethe's  Verholtnis  zur  Ethik,  Ein- 
ige  Bemerkungen  iiber.  George  Sim- 
mel.  Zeitschrift  fur  Philosophies  B. 
.29,  H.  1. 

Gresham  College.  E.  Ray  Lankes- 
ter.    Nature^  Nov.  1. 

"Hamiltonian  System"  of  Educa- 
tion, the.  U.  S.  Salt.  Oentleman^s 
Magazine^  December. 

An  interesting  account  of  James 
Hamilton's  attempt  in  America  and 
England  more  than  half  a  century  ago 
to  reform  the  old  grammatical  method 
of  teaching  InngungeR. 

Hand  Educational  Fund  for  Colored 
People,  The.  American  Missionary^ 
December. 

Harvard,  Tlie  ''  Fast  Set"  at.  One 
•of  Them.  North  American  BevieWs  De- 
•cember. 

Her^dite.      I/CS    theories  modernes 


de  la  generation  et  de  L'  H6r^it6.  £. 
G.  Balbiani.  Bevue  Philosophique^ 
Dec. 

History  of  a  Doctrine,  The.  I. 
Prof.  S.  P.  Langley.  Popular  Science 
Monthly^  December. 

Refers  to  the  doctrine  of  heat. 

Holt  Method  of  Teaching  Music, 
The.  Mary  L.  Lewis.  Century^  De- 
cember. 

Hygiene. — L'  education  physique 
de  r  enfant.  F.  Lagrange.  Bevue 
Scient(/lques  17  November. 

A  sensible  argument  against  over- 
pressure in  physical  education  and 
for  play  as  the  proper  gymnastic  ex- 
ercise for  children  since  it  is  at  once 
hygienic  and  recreative. 

Immortality,  Intimations  of,  from 
Recollections  of  Herbert  Spencer. 
William  M.  Bryant.  Unitarian  Be- 
vievo^  December. 

Indians  of  the  United  States,  The. 
J.  B.  Harrison.  Chautauquan^  De- 
cember. 

Infant  Mortality  and  the  Environ- 
ment. J.  M.  French.  Popular  Sci- 
ence Monthly^  December. 

"  King  Lear,"  Notes  on.  Prof.  Lewis 
Campbell.  National  Beview^  Decem- 
ber. 

Labor,  The  Ethics  of.  Geo.  H.  Hub- 
bard.    Yale  BevieWs  December. 

Legislation  comparee,  Les  etudes  de, 
en  France.  L^on  Aucoc.  Bevue  Bleue^ 
3  November. 

Lick  Observatory,  The.  Knowledge^ 
December. 

Life,  The  Price  of.  Edward  Atkin- 
son.    The  Forum^  December. 

An  important  economic  argument 
from  statistics. 

Lincoln,  First  Plans  for  Emancipa- 
tion. J.  G.  Nlcolay,  John  Hay.  Cen- 
tury^  December. 

Lost  Explorers  and  Expeditions. 
Lieut.  Frederick  Schwatka.  Chau- 
tauqnan^  December. 

Lunar  Mystery,  New  Light  on  a. 
Garrett  P.  Serviss.  Popular  Science 
Monthly^  December. 

Lyon,  L'  Universite  de.  Ernest 
Lavisse.    Bevue  Bleue^  10  November. 

Marriage  and  Divorce  in  the  United 
States.  Walter  S.  Collins.  Andover 
BevieWy  December. 

Marriage.  To  Marry  or  Not  to  Mar- 
ry? Junius  Henri  Browne.  Forum^ 
December. 

Mechanical  Arts,  Teac^hlng  the. 
Thomas  Davidson.  Forum^  Decem- 
ber. 

Discusses  the  aversion  to  manual 


858 


EDUCATION. 


[Janaary^ 


labor  among  Americanii,  and  urges 
that  ^^  we  must  elevate  mechanical  art 
to  the  level  of  the  liberal  arts,  by  es- 
tablishing in  every  city  and  town  In 
the  Uiiit<Hi  States,  schools  for  the  im- 
parting of  manual  training  to  every 
boy  and  girl,  and  technical  schooU  for 
thorough  instruction  in  all  the  indus- 
trial arts/' 

Medicine,  A  Possible  Revolution  In. 
Dr.  Austin  Flint.  The  Forum,  De- 
cember. 

A  popular  account  of  bacteriologi- 
cal studies. 

M^-mory,  Talks  on.  II.  Wilbert 
W.  White.     Chautauquan,  December. 

Contains  some  good  suggei^tions. 

Mental  8i*ience.  'llie  Illusions  of 
Drawing  and  Painting.  Science,  De- 
ceml)er  14. 

Mondes  seroblabes,  I^  probl^me 
des.  G.  lA'halas.  Critique  Philo- 
$ophique,  November. 

Morale  d'  apr^s  Herbart,  Du  fonda- 
ment  de  la.  U.  Dereux.  Critique 
Philosophique,  November. 

Morify,  John,  as  Critic  of  Voltaire. 
Prof.  W.  C.  Wilkinson.  Uomilectic 
Beriew,  Decemi)er. 

Mud  Hud  Continents.  Grant  Allen. 
Knowledge^  December. 

Perit'les.  Thomas  D.  Seymour. 
Chautauquan,  December. 

PesfiiniiHme.  Concours  sur  1e.  M. 
Nourrii^Hon.  L'  Academie  des  Sci. 
Moral  et  Polit.,  November. 

PliiloHophes  fran9ai8  eontemporalns. 
M.Guyjui.  (/Yn.)  A.  Fouillee.  Be- 
vue  Philosophique,  Dec. 

Philoftophii«fhe  Weltanschaung  der 
Reforniutionszeit.  A.  Lasson.  Preus- 
sische  Jahrhucher,  Novemlier. 

Piatonism  in  England,  Recent.  Paul 
Shorey.  American  Journal  of  Philol- 
ogy^ October. 

Prehistoric  Racep,  Houses  and 
HiKise-life  among  the.  Stephen  D. 
Peet.  American  Antiquarian,  Novem- 
ber. 

Presidential  Election  in  the  United 
States,  The.  Sir  Lyon  Playfair. 
Nineteenth  Crntury^  December. 

Prij*on  Labor  Competition.  Z.  R. 
Brock  way.     Tlip  Forum,  Dcn-eniber. 

Prohibition  Party:  Its  Origin,  Pur- 
po8»*,  and  (irowih.  I.  Geo.  L.  Case. 
Magazine  of  Western  History,  Decem- 
ber. 

Protagoras  und  kein  Ende.  Bern- 
hard  Miinz.  Zeitschri/t  fur  Philosophies 
B.  20,  H.  1. 

Ppvfhologie. — 1/  origine  des  Illu- 
sions produites  par  le  dessin  et  la  pein- 


ture.    J.  L.  Soret.    Bevue  Seienii/lque^ 
3  November. 

A  summary  of  this  article  in  Science 
is  mentioned  above. 

Psychologi8c*he  Streltfragen.  U. 
Johannes  Volkelt.  ZeUtckrift  /Br 
Philosophie,  B.  29,  H.  1. 

Psychology  of  Deception,  The. 
Prof.  J.  Jastrow*.  P&pular  Science 
Monthly,  December. 

An  article  of  unusual  interest  re- 
lating to  the  psychological  reasons^ 
why  deception  by  conjurors  and  oth- 
ers is  poi^sible. 

Public  Business  Management.  Prof. 
Arthur  T.  Hadley.  PolUic4U  Science 
Quarterly,  December. 

Public  Schools,  The,  and  Roman 
Catholics.  Andover  Beview,  Decem- 
ber. 

A  calm  and  judicious  editorial. 

Ramismus  an  der  Univeraltftt  Leip- 
sig,  Ueber  den.  G.  Voigt.  Leipeiar 
Berichte  Geselltch,  d.  Wissenech^  I.,  II. 

An  interesting  chapter  from  the  his- 
tory of  the  University  of  Leipzig  in 
the  sixteenth  century. 

Rousseau,  J.  J.,  I^s  Manuscrits  de. 
M.  Ad.  Badin.  Nonvelle  Bcvue^  1& 
November. 

Salaries  of  Lady  Teachers,  The.  Al- 
fred W.  Pollard.  Murray's  Magazine^ 
December. 

Salt,  Common.  Geo.  McGowan. 
Knowledge,  December. 

Sanscrit.  Les  etudes  sanscrltes  en 
France.  Hauvette-Besnault  et  Abel 
Bergaigne.  Paul  Regnaud.  Bevue 
Blene^  10  November. 

School  Question,  The;  Protestant 
Views  and  Comments.  />onaAoe*f,  De- 
cember. 

St'hools  in  Summer.  Mrs.  Bernard 
W^hitman.     Lend  a  Hand,  December* 

Schulreform.  Aphorismen  zur.  W. 
Preyer.      Deutsche  Bevue,  November. 

A  valuable  collection  of  short,  pithy 
extracts  from  various  writers  relating 
to  the  advantages  of  education  in  natu- 
ral science. 

Srien*'e,  The  Study  of,  by  Ministers. 
Prof.  J.  O.  Murray.  HomUectic  Be^ 
vietc,  December. 

Science?,  The  Circle  of  the.  Ill, 
Prof.  A.  P.  Coleman.  Chautauquany 
Dec««mber. 

Shaftesbury,  Ix>rd.  Gustav  Cohn. 
Deutsche  Bundschau,  December. 

Siberian  Road,  Life  on  the  Great. 
George  Kennan.     Century,  December.^ 

Social  Problem,  The.  1.  East  Lon- 
don and  Crime.  Mrs.  S.  A.  Barrett. 
2.  The  State  Lever.    Bishop  Bromby.. 


1889.] 


BIBLIOORAPHY. 


359 


3.  The  Eberfeld  Poor  Law  System. 
H.  P.  TregartheQ.  National  Beview^ 
Dec6iiil)Qr. 

Socialism  in  English  Politics.  Will- 
iam Clarke.  Political  Science  Quar- 
terly^ December. 

Southern  Question.  A  Simpler. 
George  W.  Cable.  The  Forum^  De- 
cember. 

Spelling,  A  Keign  of  Law  in.  Prof. 
Francis  A.  March.  The  Forum,  De- 
cember. 

Stanley.  Is  Stanley  Dead?  Gen- 
eral Wolseley,  et  al.  North  American 
BevievOy  December. 

Style.  Walter  Pater.  Fortnightly 
Beview,  December. 

Suffrage  universel,  Etude  philosoph- 
ique  et  nistorique  sur  le,  en  France 
(fin.)  Renouvler.  Critique  Philosoph- 
ique,  November. 

Tanzwut  im  Mittelalter,  Die.  Adolf 
von  Gabriely.  Deutsche  Bevue,  De- 
cember. 

Taxation,  Indirect,  in  America. 
Westminster  Beview^  December. 

Temperance,  Scientific.  A  Sympo- 
sium of  Letters.  William  A.  Ham- 
mond, et  al.  Chautauquan,  Decem- 
ber. 

Thackeray,  M.L.  Preussische  Jahr- 
hucher,  November. 

Thought  and  language.  The  Iden- 
tity of.  Duke  of  Argyll.  Contempo- 
rary Beview,  December. 

Tokio-Igaku.    Skizzen  und  Erinner- 


ungen  aus  der  zeit  des  geistigen .  Um- 
schwungs  in  Japan,  1871  - 1876. 
(Schluss.)  I^opold  Muller.  Deutsche 
Bundschau,  December. 

Tolstoi.  Count  Tolstoi's  Religious 
Views.  Archdeacon  F.  W.  Farrar. 
The  Forum,  December. 

Tolstoi.  Count  Tolstoi's  Theories. 
Leroy-Beaulieu.  Chautauquan,  De- 
cember. 

'* Trusts,'  The  Legality  of.  Prof. 
Theo.  W.  Dwight.  Political  Science 
Quarterly,  December. 

TuUoch,  Principal.  A.  K.  II.  B. 
Contemporary  Beview,  December. 

Verbe,  le,  Ses  antecedents  et  ses 
correspondants  logiques.  P.  Reguaud. 
Bevue  Philosophique,  December. 

Waking  Dreams  of  Two  Lord  Chan- 
cellors, The.  Westminster  Beview,  De- 
cember. 

Relates  to  Moore's  Utopia  and  Ba- 
con's New  Atlantis. 

Whewell,  William,  D.  D.  Temple 
Bar,  December. 

An  interesting  sketch  of  the  famous 
Master  of  Trinity. 

Willensfreiheit,  Eine  Verteidigung 
der.  Dr.  Richard  Wohle.  Zeitschrift 
fur  Philosophie,  B.  29,  H.  1. 

Women,  French.  A  Patriarch's 
Thoughts  about.  Jules  Simon.  Fort- 
nightly Beview,  December. 

Women  in  India,  Medical.  J.  D. 
Rees.  Asi<itic  Quarterly  Beview,  Oc- 
tober. 


PAMPHLETS  RECEIVED, 


Capital  and  its  Earnings,  by  John  B.  Clark,  A.  M.    An  Economio  Association.    75  cents. 

Tbe  Relations  of  the  High  Schools  and  the  Colleges.    Issued  by  Oberlin  College, 

Ohio. Catalogue  of  Yale  University,  1888-9.    It  shows  a  total  of  1365  students. 

Pocket  Manual  on  Home  Exercise.  By  Wright  A  Ditoon,  Boston.  10  cents. Biblio- 
graphical Contributions.     Edited  by  Justin  Winsor,  Harvard  University. MUtbe- 

matical  Theses  of  Junior  and  Senior  Classes,  1782-1839.    By  Henry  C.  Badger. State 

Normal  School,  Whitenot,  Wisconsin,  1887-8. Report  of  the  Principal  of  the  Detroit 

High  School,  concerning  our  work  in  the  High  School,  Detroit,  Mich. Thirteenth 

Annual  Report  of  the  President  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  University,  Baltimore,  1888. 

The  President's  Report  to  the  Board  of  ,Regent8,  University  of  Michigan,  1888.  — —  Easy 
Readings  for  Little  Ones.  By  A.  B.  Guilford,  New  York.  Teachers  Publishing  Co.  A 
series  often  lessons  in  elementary  supplementary  reading. The  Easy  Reading  Leaf- 
lets for  Supplementary  Reading.  Second  set.  By  A.  B.  Guilford,  Teachers  Publishing 
Co.,  New  York.    Twenty  lessons  on  cards. 


i 


860  EDUCATION.  [January, 


AMONG  THE  BOOKS, 

Franklin  in  France.  From  Original  Documents,  most  of  which  are  now 
published  for  the  first  time.  By  Edward  £.  Hale,  and  Edward  E.  Hale,  Jr. 
Part  II.  The  Treaty  of  Peace  and  Franklin's  Life  till  his  return.  Boston: 
Roberts  Bros.    1888.    Pp.  470.    Price,  $3.00. 

This  book  is  a  beautiful  specimen  of  American  book-making.  It  is  finely 
printed  on  the  best  paper,  beautifully  illustrated  with  numerous  cuts,  with  a 
fine  large  open  page,  very  attractive  to  the  eye.  But  these  are  the  least  of  its 
good  qualities.  No  period  of  American  history  is  of  more  interest  and  of 
greater  importance  than  the  close  of  the  Revolution  and  the  time  of  the  treaty 
of  p43ace  with  Great  Britain.  Perhaps  it  is  safe  to  say  that  no  treaty  in  the 
world*s  history  of  equal  importance  was  ever  made  under  greater  disad- 
vantages, or  where  the  commissioners  were  beset  with  more  obstacles  and  dis- 
couragements on  every  side.  Tliat  our  commissioners  should  succeed  in 
thwarting  the  machinations  of  the  Spanish,  in  circumventing  the  designs  of 
the  French,  and  in  overcoming  the  prejudices  of  the  English  so  completely  as 
to  give  us  all  the  territory  between  the  Alleghanies  and  the  Mississippi  as  far 
north  as  the  great  lakes,  rather  than  that  the  new  republic  should  be  cabined 
and  confined  entirely  within  the  narrow  strip  between  the  coast  and  the  Appa- 
lachian range  is  simply  marvelous  and  reflects  great  credit  upon  the  three  dis- 
tinguished diplomatists,  Franklin,  Jay,  and  Adams.  This  volume  of  letters 
written  by  Franklin,  and  many  written  to  him  by  distinguished  persons,  both 
American  and  European,  many  of  which  have  never  before  been  published,  but 
which  had  been  saved  from  utter  loss  and  destruction  and  secured  to  us  by  our 
countryman,  Mr.  Stevens,  throws  great  light  upon  this  wonderful  treaty  and 
goes  far  toward  settling  some  disputed  points  concerning  it.  All  students  of 
the  history  of  America  will  thank  the  editors  and  the  publishers  for  the  ad- 
mirable manner  in  which  they  have  placed  this  valuable  information  before  our 
country.  It  is  the  most  important  contribution  to  our  knowledge  of  the  essen- 
tial facts  of  that  interesting  period  of  our  history  which  has  been  made  for 
many  years. 

Lectures  on  Pedagogy,  Theoretical  and  Practical.  By  Gabriel  Compayr^. 
Translated  by  \V.  H.  Payne,  LL.  D.,  President  of  the  Peabody  Normal  Col- 
lege.    Boston:    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.     Pp.  491. 

All  who  read  Doctor  Payne's  translation  of  Compayre's  History  of  Peda- 
gogy will  be  sure  to  read  these  lectures  by  the  same  author.  They  treat  of 
the  entire  round  of  educational  subjects,  such  as  physical  and  intellectual  edu- 
cation; the  education  of  the  senses;  the  culture  of  the  attention,  memory,  im- 
agination, reasoning,  the  feelings;  of  moral  education,  will,  liberty,  habit;  the 
higher  sentiments ;  aesthetic  and  religious  education,  etc.  The  book  also  dis- 
cusses methods,  —  methods  in  general,  methods  in  reading,  in  writing,  in  his- 
tory and  geography,  the  senses,  civic  instruction,  and  other  kindred  topics. 
This  is  a  valuable  work  and  we  bespeak  for  it  the  attention  of  every  wide- 
awake, progressive  teacher. 


1889.]  AMONG  THE  BOOKS.  361 

Ohio;  First  Fruits  op  the  Ordinance  of  1787.  By  Rufus  King.  The 
American  Commonwealths  Series.  Boston :  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.  1888. 
Pp.427.    Price,  $1.25. 

This  is  the  twelfth  volume  in  the  series  of  American  Commonwealths,  and 
treats  of  one  of  the  most  prominent  states  in  the  Union,  which  has  a  history  of 
immense  value  and  thrilling  interest.  The  history  of  the  Old  French  War  and 
the  treaty  of  Paris,  may  he  considered  as  the  pivotal  point  in  American  history. 
That  treaty  surely  laid  the  corner-stone  of  American  independence.  Although 
the  territory  north  of  the  Ohio  was  annexed  to  Quebec,  yet  that  was  only  pre- 
liminary to  its  being  annexed  to  the  United  States.  The  admission  of  Ohio 
into  the  Union  in  1803  was  memorable  as  the  first-fruits  of  the  ordinance  of 
1787.  The  rapid  progress  of  that  state  from  its  first  settlement,  a  hundred 
years  ago,  is  a  natural  result  of  the  high  character  of  the  early  settlers.  The 
names  of  Governor  St.  Clair,  Rev.  Mannasseh  Cutler,  D.  D.,  Gkn.  Jonathan 
Dayton,  Elias  Boudinot,  Doctor  Witherspoon,  James  M.  Varnum,  Oen.  Rufus 
Putnam,  Judge  Parsons,  Moses  Cleaveland,  and  many  others  among  the  early 
settlers,  hold  very  high  rank  among  the  founders  of  new  states.  The  student 
of  American  history  will  find  this  volume  of  exceeding  interest  and  great  value 
in  the  study  o(  our  country,  whether  during  its  earlier  years,  in  the  war  for  the 
Union,  or  its  later  development. 

Thomas  Jefferson  and  the  University  op  Virginia.  By  Ilerbert  B.  Ad- 
ams, Ph.  D.,  with  Bketches  of  other  Colleges.    Pp.  308. 

This  is  Circular  of  Information,  No.  1,  1888,  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Educa^ 
tion.  It  is  a  most  valuable  contribution  to  the  history  of  Education  in  this 
country.  Whatever  difference  of  Judgment  may  exist  In  regard  to  Jefferson's 
opinions  upon  political  que^tious,  all  must  rcHpect  and  admire  his  broad  views 
upon  educational  themes.  He  was  original,  progressive,  and  decidedly  in  ad- 
vance of  his  age.  The  work  is  finely  illustrated  with  cuts  of  Jefferson's  draw- 
ings and  various  views  of  the  Virginia  colleges. 

First  Lessons  in  English.  For  Use  in  Intermediate  Grades.  By  Alfred  H. 
Welsh,  M.  A.,  Ohio  State  University.    Chicago:    John  C.  Buckbee  &  Co. 

1888. 

This  book  for  beginners  is  one  of  the  best  in  its  line.  It  is  simple,  plain,  and 
progresses  regularly.  It  avoids  the  weak,  silly,  verbose,  unscientific  lessons 
common  to  many  elementary  books.  It  contains  a  number  of  new  and  most 
excellent  features,  and  the  insertion  of  copious  examples  of  speech-forms, 
given  the  book  an  extra  value.  The  work  should  be  examined  by  every  teacher 
of  this  subject,  and  if  it  cannot  be  adopted  as  the  regular  textbook,  should  be 
upon  the  teacher's  desk  for  use  and  reference. 

Charles  H.  Kilborn,  5  Somerset  Street,  Boston,  has  recently  published  a 
number  of  new  works  on  Modern  Languages.  Among  them  are  the  follow- 
ing:— 

Heine's  Die  Harzreise.  Edited,  with  notes,  etc.,  by  Dr.  A.  N.  Van  Daell, 
Director  of  Modern  Languages  in  the  Boston  High  and  Latin  Schools.  Pp. 
82.    Paper,  25  cents. 

Peter  Schlemihl*s  Wundersame  GESCincHTE.  With  an  Introduction  and 
Notes  by  Sylvester  Primer,  Ph.  D.,  Professor  of  Modern  Languages,  College 
of  Charleston,  S.  C. 

Choix  De  Contes  De  Daudet.  Selected  and  edited  by  William  Price,  B.  A., 
Professor  of  French  in  Trinity  College,  N.  C.    Pp.  32.    Paper,  15  cents. 


362  EDUCATION.  [Janoarj, 

Marie's  Stort  ;  A  Tale  of  the  Days  op  Louis  XIV.  By  Mary  E.  Bamford. 
Boston :  Congregational  Sunday-School  and  Publishing  Society.  Pp.  145. 
Price  fl.OO. 

A  touching  story  of  the  suflfering  broii£[ht  on  a  group  of  young  children  by 

the  persecution  of  the  Huguenots,  which  followed  the  revocation  of  the  Edict 

of  Nantes.    In  these  days,  when  the  cross  which  we  are  called  to  bear  is  so 

light,  it  is  well  for  old  and  young  to  be  reminded  of  the  time  when  sorrow,  and 

loss,  and  death  were  the  portion  of  all  who  loved  the  Lord  Jesus,  and  the  book 

which  gives  us  the  record  of  His  life.    We  commend  Miss  Baroford's  story  for 

this  purpose. 

Adeltiia  ;  A  True  Story  of  a  Woman's  Life  and  Work.  By  Elizabeth  M. 
Rowland.  Boston :  Congregational  Sunday-School  and  Publishing  Society. 
Price  15  cents. 

A  very  interesting  record  of  a  truly  devoted  Christian  life. 

Odds  and  Ends  ;  or,  Gleanings  from  Missionary  Life.  By  Rev.  C.  H. 
Wheeler,  D.  D.  Boston:  Congregational  Sunday-School  and  Publishing 
Society.     Pp.  202.    Price  $1.25. 

In  the  historical  sketches  given  of  the  various  missions  many  things  are  left 

out  concerning  which  people  here  have  a  strong  desire  to  know*    That  fact  is 

evidenced  by  the  questions  that  are  put  to  returned  missionaries  concerning 

habits,  customs,  modes  of  dealing  with  various  problems  arising  in  missionary 

work,  etc.    This  book,  as  its  title  indicates,  is  a  gathering  up  of  the  odds  and 

ends  of  missionary  life.    Those  who  have  read  Doctor  Wheeler's  other  books 

need  not  be  told  that  this  is  breezy,  full  of  humor  and  of  seriousness,  brilliant 

at  times,  and  never  dull.    It  is  just  the  book  to  increase  the  interest  of  the 

young  in  missions. 

Autrefois.  Tales  of  Old  New  Orleans  and  elsewhere.  By  James  A.  Harri- 
son. New  York :  Cassell  &  Co.  Pp.  295.  Paper  covers.  Price  50  cents. 
For  sale  by  W.  B.  Clarke  &  Co. 

Eleven  stories  of  varying  interest,  but  all  exhibiting  a  healthy  atmosphere, 

and  dealing  with  the  people.    The  book  will  prove  a  welcome  companion  for  a 

rainy  day,  or  a  leisure  hour. 

The  Slojd  in  the  Service  of  the  School.  By  Otto  Salomon,  Ph.  D.,  Swe- 
den. Translated  by  William  H.  Carpenter,  Ph.  D.,  of  Columbia  College. 
Vol.  I.,  No.  6,  of  the  Monographs  of  the  Industrial  Education  Association. 
New  York.     Price,  20  cents. 

This  is  a  strong  argument,  from  the  standpoint  of  Sweden,  for  *^  Physical 

labor ''  in  the  service  of  the  school. 

Proceedings  of  the  Trustees  of  the  Pea  body  Education  Fund,  at  their 
Twenty-seventh  meeting.  New  Y'ork,  Oct.  3,  1888. 

A  valuable  report  of  a  very  interesting  meeting.    All  educators  will  rejoice 

to  hear  that  Hon.  J.  L.  M.  Curry  is  once  more  the  active  agent  of  this  great 

fund. 

Andrews  &  Stoddard's  Latin  Grammar.  A  new  edition.  Thoroughly  re- 
vised by  Henry  Preble,  Assistant  Professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  in  Harvard 
University.  12mo.  Pp.  453.  Boston:  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.  Price, 
$1.12  net. 

This  new  edition  of  the  popular  *^  Andrews  &  Stoddard,*^  so  long  a  favorite, 
is  a  complete  revision,  and  will  be  received  with  great  favor.  It  is  character- 
ized throughout  by  a  combination  of  scientific  accuracy,  clearness,  and  sim- 
plicity.   The  following  are  some  of  the  subjects  in  the  treatment  of  which  the 


1889.]  AMONG  THE  BOOKS,  363 

greatest  improvement  has  been  made:  —  1.  Order  of  Words  in  the  Latin  Sen- 
tence. 2.  Word  Formation.  (Formative  Suffixes,  Processes  of  Growth,  eti;.) 
3.  Clauses  with  cum.  4.  Relative  Clauses.  5.  Conditional  Clauses.  6.  The 
Regular  Verb,  (llie  four  conjugations  treated  so  far  as  possible  as  varieties 
of  one  conjugation.)  7.  The  Third  Declension.  8.  Metres.  (A  full  but 
brief  treatment  with  English  parallels.)  0.  A  complete  and  very  valuable 
index. 

Until  the  first  of  next  March,  a  copy  will  be  sent  to  any  teacher  for  exam- 
ination on  receipt  of  60  cents. 

The  Classical  Review.  David  Nutt.  London:  270  Strand.  Boston: 
Ginn  &  Co.,  American  Publishers.    ^.00  a  year.    Single  numbers,  35  cents. 

I'he  attention  paid  by  the  lieview  to  educational  problems  and  to  educational 

literature,  as  well  as  to  classical  philology  in  its  literary  and  scientific  aspects, 

gives  it  a  distinct  value  to  classical  r«achers  in  preparatory  schools,  colleges, 

and  universities. 

The  Education  op  Girls.  By  G.  W.  Haenshel.  Harrisonburg,  Va.  Pa- 
per covers,  15  cents. 

A  capital  address,  with  no  silliness  about  it. 

Industrial  Education  in  the  South.  By  Rev.  A.  D.  Mayo.  Bureau  of 
Education,  Washington,  D.  C.    No.  5.    1888. 

A  thorough  discussion  of  this  important  subject,  which  will  prove  of  great 

value  to  all  who  are  interested  in  this  important  problem. 

The  Stability  of  Prices.  By  Simon  N.  Patten,  Ph.  D.  Pp.  64.  Paper 
covers.    Price,  75  cents. 

This  is  Vol.  in.,  No.  6,  of  the  Publications  of  the  American  Economic  Associa- 
tion, It  is  a  masterly  argument  upon  the  stability  and  instability  of  prices, 
and  the  conditions  thereto. 

Sermons  on  the  International  Lessons  for  1889.  By  the  Monday  Club. 
Fourteenth  Series.  Pp.402.  Price,  #1.25.  Boston  and  Chicago:  Congre- 
gational Sunday-School  and  Publishing  Society. 

ITie  Semions  by  the  "  Monday  Club  "  are  widely  known.  It  is  the  only  series 
of  the  kind  that  has  proved  successful.  The  ability  as  sermonizers  of  such  men 
as  Drs.  Dunning,  Gregg,  Boynton,  Griffls,  Clark,  Leavitt,  etc.,  is  well  known. 
After  a  teacher  has  studied  his  lessons  thoroughly,  making  use  of  his  cus- 
tomary lesson  helps,  it  will  aid  him  to  a  broader  outlook  if  he  have  by  him  the 
Monday  Club  Sermons  for  final  hints. 

Traumerein.    Edited  by  Alphonse  N.  Van  Daell,  director  of  modern  lan- 

f:uage8  in  the  Boston  High  and  I^atin  Schools.    Boston :    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
888.     Paper.     Pp.  103. 

A  good  German  textbook  for  beginners  or  intermediate  classes,  written  in 

good  easy  German. 

Through  Death  to  Life.  Discourses  on  St.  Paul's  Great  Resurrection 
Chapter.  By  Keuen  Thomas,  D.  D.  Boston:  Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.  Pp. 
163.    Gilt  top.    Cloth,  $1.25. 

In  this  beautiful  book,  finely  printed  on  the  best  paper  and  altogether  in 
most  excellent  taste,  are  ten  discourses  of  great  power  and  value.  They  dis- 
cuss the  theme  which  lies  at  the  foundation  of  the  Christian  religion,  and 
indeed,  of  all  religions.  The  author  is  widely  known  as  a  vigorous  thinker, 
clear   writer,  a  sweet-tempered,  high-minded,  broad-cultured,  strong  man. 


364  M:t)  UCA  r/OaV.  t*^anu*ry, 

Although  born  and  educated  in  England,  he  is  as  vigorous  a  Yankee,  as  thor- 
ough an  American,  as  any  to  the  manor  bom,  and  his  discussion  of  this  great 
subject  of  immortality  is  well  worthy  the  greatness  of  the  theme. 

Testa  :    A  Book  for  Boys.    By  Paolo  Mantegazza.    Boston :    D.  C.  Heath  A 

Co.    1889. 

This  novel  book  is  translated  from  the  Italian  of  the  tenth  edition  by  the 
Italian  class  in  Bangor,  Maine,  under  the  supervision  of  Luigi  D.  Ventura. 
The  work  will  probably  appear  strange  to  the  American  reader,  and  may  be  to 
him  a  revelation  of  Italian  ideas  and  of  the  thinkers  and  writers  of  Italy. 
The  book  is  one  that  American  boys  might  read  with  profit,  and  that  American 
thinkers  will  be  interested  in,  as  giving  them  an  insight  into  Italian  literature. 

German  Novelettes  for  School  and  Home,  selected  from  the  best  modem 
writers,  and  witli  Etymological,  Grammatical,  and  Explanatory  Notes.  By 
Dr.  VVilhclm  Bernhardt.  Vol.  11.  Boston:  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.  Price,  75 
cents. 

The  six  short  stories  of  this  volume  come  from  the  pens  of  well-known  con- 
temporary novelists,  and  were  selected  with  reference  to  simplicity  of  style 
and  wealth  of  phraseology.  One  characteristic  difference  between  the  first 
and  the  second  volume,  is  that  while  the  stories  of  the  first  are  somewhat  som- 
bre in  character,  those  of  tlie  second  volume  are  in  a  light  and  more  cheerful 
vein. 

Notes  on  the  Training  of  Children.  Bv  Mrs.  Frank  Malleson.  Third 
Edition.    Boston:    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.     188*7. 

This  most  valuable  book  treats  in  an  intelligent  and  simple  way  of  the  sub- 
jects of  •'  infant  life,"  *•  nursery  management,*'  '*  the  employment  and  occupa- 
tion of  children, ''  ^^  some  cardinal  virtues:  reverence,  truth,  love,  obedience  to 
conscience,  duty,*'  and  ^*  rewards  and  punishments.**  The  subject  matter  is  of 
the  utmost  importance,  and  the  treatment  is  clear,  concise,  to  the  point,  and  of 
the  greatest  value.  The  book  is  one  that  should  be  in  the  hands,  not  only 
of  ever}'  mother,  but  also  of  every  teacher  of  young  children,  and  every  per- 
son connected  with  children. 

Jules  Lemaitre  Impressions  De  Theatre.  Trolsleme  Serie.  Paris:  Li- 
brairie  H.  I^cene  et  H.  Oudiu.    Rue  Bonaparte.    1889. 

This  third  volume  of  the  series  deserves  the  same  success  that  has  greeted 
the  first  two  volumes.  It  contains  articles  upon  Sophocles,  Shakespeare,  Vil- 
lon, Corneille,  Moliere,  Beaumarchais,  and  many  others. 

A  Raw  Recruit's  War  Experiences.  By  Ansel  D.  Nlckerson,  I^te  Private. 
Co.  B,  Eleventh  Rhode  Island  Volunteers.  Providence :  Printed  by  the  Press 
Company. 

This  war  paper  was  first  read  before  theiihode  Island  Soldiers  and  Sailors 

Historical  Society,  in  Providence,  October  19,  1880,  and  has  since  been  read 

several  times  before  various  associations  and  societies.    It  is  not  a  connected 

history  of  the  regiment,  but  just  what  its  title  indicates.     It  will  be  found  of 

more  than  ordinary  interest  to  the  general  reader  for  the  easy,  natural  manner 

in  which  army  life  is  depicted,  but,  of  course,  its  greatest  value  will  be  to  the 

comrades  of  the  author  who  served  through  that  memorable  campaign. 

Riverside  Literature  Series.  Extra  Number  E.  Dialogues  and  Scenes 
from  the  writings  of  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe.    By  Emily  Weaver.    Boston : 


1889.]  AMONG  THE  BOOKS.  365 

Houghton,  MifQIn  A  Co.    Single  namber,  15  cents.    Price  per  year  (6  num- 
bers), 80  cents. 

Cassell^s  National  Library  have  issued  the  following  numbers :  No.  140. 
From  London  to  Land*s  End.  By  Daniel  Defoe.  No.  150.  Romeo  and 
Juliet.  By  William  Shakespeare.  No.  153.  The  Amber  Witch.  Trans- 
lated from  the  German  by  Lady  Duff  Gordon.  Price  per  single  copy,  10 
cents.    Subscription  price  per  year,  $5.00. 

The  Collegian.  A  monthly  magazine,  devoted  to  the  interests  of  undergradu- 
ates. Published  under  the  auspices  of  the  New  England  Intercollegiate 
Press  Association.  Edited  by  Samuel  Abbott.  Vol.  I.,  No.  1.  Janunry, 
1880.  Pp.  100.  Boston:  34  Temple  Place.  Price,  $3.00  a  year.  Single 
copies,  30  cents. 

This  new  magazine  will  appeal  to  a  large  constituency,  and  is  worthy  of  a 
liberal  support.  Mr.  Abbott  is  well  qualified  by  experience,  taste  and  ability 
to  make  a  success  of  the  venture  that  he  here  undertakes,  and  it  is  hoped  the 
undergraduates  of  all  the  colleges,  as  well  as  many  graduates,  will  extend  solid 
aid  to  the  enterprise.  The  first  number  is  an  excellent  one.  The  leading  arti- 
cle is  by  Dr.  Edward  Everett  Hale. 

Historical  Tables;  A  complete  Hand-book  of  Dates,  Chronologically  ar- 
ranged. Compiled  by  Prof.  Robert  Haentze,  Director  of  the  German-Ameri- 
can Academy  of  Chicago.    Chicago:     Western  School  Supply  Co. 

A  capital  little  hand-book  covering  the  history  of  the  world.  It  has  chapters 
on  the  Chronology  of  all  the  Countries;  The  Presidents  of  the  United  States; 
Celebrated  Characters;  Important  Dates;  Universities  when  founded;  and  Im- 
portant Inventions. 

Mr.  Alfred  A.  Horn,  our  Pennsylvania  agent,  at  York,  Pa.,  will  send  a  copy 
by  mail /r6«  to  any  teacher  who  will  send  him  two  subscriptions  to  Common 
School  Education  with  82.00. 

The  thoughts  of  all  teachers  are  now  turned  to  Nashville,  Tenn.,  for  It  is 
there  that  the  next  meeting  of  the  National  Educational  Association  will  be 
held  in  July,  1889.  They  will  be  interested  also  in  all  that  conies  from  Nash- 
ville, and  we  call  their  attention  to  the  Southwestern  Journal  of  Educa- 
tion published  in  that  **  University  City  "  of  the  South.  The  December  num- 
ber is  on  our  table  full  of  valuable  reading  matter  for  teachers.  The  leading 
article  is  the  lecture  of  Pres.  W.  H.  Payne,  on  "  How  shall  the  Natural  Sci- 
ences be  Taught."  Selections  and  Suggestions  for  "  Friday  Afternoon  "  work 
are  a  feature  of  the  Journal.  It  is  also  publishing  a  valuable  series  of  articles 
on  '*  Teaching  English  Liti-rature,  by  Miss  Ellen  Dean,  of  the  Peabody  Normal 
College/'  These  articles  are  actual  reproductions  of  work  done  in  the  class- 
room and  are  thoroughly  practical.  Southern  educational  news,  *'  Books'^ and 
*^ Magazines"  complete  a  capital  number  of  this  excellent  southern  educational 
journal. 

The  universal  favor  with  which  the  Musicians'  Calendar  for  1888  was  re- 
ceived has  induced  the  author  to  prepare  a  Musicians'  Calendar  for  1889,  which 
is  much  improved  in  artistic  quality  and  general  convenience,  and  will  find 
even  greater  favor  than  its  predecessor.  The  designing  and  engraving  are  by 
H.  P.  Giles  and  Arthur  Stockin.  Price  by  mail,  50  cents.  Silver,  Burdett  & 
Co.,  publishers,  50  Bromfleld  Street,  Boston. 


866  EDUCATION.  [January, 

A  most  convenient  desk  calendar  for  1889,  is  the  Colombia  Bicycle  Calendar 
issued  by  the  Pope  Manufacturing  Co.  of  Boston,  Mass.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a 
pad  of  365  leaves,  with  blanks  for  memoranda.  Upon  each  slip  are  quotations 
pertaining  to  cycling,  typewriting,  and  stenography. 

Mr.  John  C.  Sicklet,  Librarian  of  the  City  Library^  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y., 
has  issued  nine  ^^  Lists  of  Books,  recommended  for  Pupils'  Reading.*'  These 
are  severally  for  the  first  primary  grade,  and  the  various  grades  of  the  gram- 
mar and  high  schools.  They  are  evidently  selected  with  care,  and  the  move- 
ment is  one  of  great  practical  value.  *^  The  books  recommended  have  no  con- 
nection with  the  studies  of  the  pupils,  and  are  only  to  serve  as  a  guide  for  those 
who  use  the  library  in  choosing  the  books  adapted  to  their  age  and  understand- 
ing.*'   We  hope  the  good  example  here  set  may  have  a  wide  following. 


MAGAZINES   RECEIVED. 

The  attention  of  our  readers  is  respectfully  called  to  the  following  articles  in  the  cur- 
rent numbers  of  our  leading  magazines  as  likely  to  be  of  special  interest  to  them. 

General  Viscount  Wolseley,  Charles  P.  Daly,  James  M.  Hubbard,  and  Dr.  Franz  Boas 
have  each  contributed  to  the  North  American  Review  for  December  an  article  on  the 

question,  '*  Is  Stanley  Dead?  ** An  article  in  the  January  number  of  like  Magazine  of 

American  Hittory^  by  Mrs.  Martha  J.  Lamb,  entitled  "  Historic  Homes  and  Landmarks,** 

will  be  found  of  special  value  and  interest. A  unique  article,  entitled  "  Inventional 

Geometry,"  by  Edward  R.  Shaw,  is  given  in  the  Popular  Seieitce  Monthly  for  January. 

'*  Pagan  Ireland,"  by  Charles  de  Kay,  in  the  January  Century  is  an  article  giving  a  most 
graphic  and  thrilling  account  of  the  past  of  a  nation  that  is  a  problem  to  the  thinking 

world. The  Atlantic  Monthly  for  January  contains  a  capital  historical  article  by  John 

Flske,  "  Washington's  Great  Campaign  of  1776.*' The  January  Wide  Aunke  contains  a 

new  department,  "  Men  and  Things,'*  comprising  short  articles  on  such  subjects  as 
Daniel  Webster's  Blue  Suit,  An  Edenhall  Musgrave  in  search  of  Stanley.  The  Value 

of  a  Vote,  Phonograph  Dolls,  etc.,  etc. ScHbner  for  January  opens  with  an  article  on 

"Castle  Life  in  the  Middle  Ages.** The  complete  novel  in  the  January  X^inooM  is 

*'  Hale- Weston,**  by  M.  Elliot  Seawell. The  American  Magazitte  for  December  furnishes 

a  well-written  and  finely  illustrated  articlb  on  *'  The  Cathedral  of  New  York.*' "  Man- 
ufacturing Industry  in  Ireland,*'  by  Commissioner  MacCarthy,  Dublin,  in  the  Harper*» 

for  January. *'  A  Lava-Flow  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands,*'  is  to  be  found  in  7%e  Swiss 

Cross  for  November. The  Quiver  for  January  contains  an  article  on  "  The  Music  of 

the  Protestant  Reformation.*' Rev.  Edward  E.  Brady  has  an  article  on  **  The  Home 

Aspect  of  Irish  Affairs,**  in  the  Catholic  vttrld  for  December. Treasure  Trove  for  No- 
vember contains  an  article  on  Mary  Stuart. The  January  Chauiauquan  contains  much 

valuable  information  about  Greece,  and  Greek  Mythology. The  American  Booktmaker 

for  November  treats  extensively  of  bookbinding  as  an  Art  and  an  Industry. The 

Literary  World  is  a  magazine  of  great  importance  to  all  literary  men  and  women. 

"Presidents  and  President-Making,"  Im  in  the  January  Cassell. Under  Editorial  in 

The  Andover  Review  for  December  are  articles  entitled  "  The  Public  Schools  and  Roman 

Catholics,"  "  Educational  Notes,"  etc. The  opening  article  in  the  January  Academy  is 

"Science  in  Secondary  Schools." Ex-Pres.  Noah  Porter  has  an  article  on  **The 

American  Board  and  the  late  Boston  Council,"  in  the  New  Englander  and  Yale  Review. 

"  Schools  in  Summer,"  is  in  the  December  Lend  A  Hand. Bayard  Taylor  is  the  sub- 
ject of  Literature  for  December  8th,  1888. The  Forum  for  January  contains  a  vigorous 

article  by  Andrew  D.  White,  on  "  The  Need  of  Another  University." The  Journal  of 

Pedagogy  for  December  contains  a  number  of  practical  educational  articles. The 

American  Antiquarian  and  Oriental  Journal^  Political  Science  Quarterly ^  Papers  of  the  Ameri- 
can Historical  Association,  Frank  Leslie's  Illustrated  Sunday  Magazine,  Building,  The  Iowa 

Histi^rical  Record,  all  have  articles  of  much  interest  to  teachers. An  arrangement 

has  been  made  by  which  the  Political  Science  Quarterly  and  The  New  Princeton  Review  are 
consolldateil.  Tlie  publishers  of  the  Political  Science  Quarterly  (Ginn  A  Co.)  have  pur- 
chased The  New  Princeton  Review,  and  the  latter  Journal  will  be  merged  into  the  former. 
Political  and  economic  questions  will  form,  as  heretofore,  the  Special  field  of  the  Political 
Science  Quarterly.  Certain  features  of  The  New  Princeton  Review  will  be  incorporated  in 
the  Political  Science  Quarterly;  and  Prof.  Sloan,  the  editor  of  The  New  Princeton  Review 
will  be  associated  in  future  with  the  work  of  the  Political  Science  Quarterly. 


©ucrATion, 

DEVOTED  TO  THE   SCIENCE,  ART,  PHILOSOPHY,  AND 

LITERATURE  OF  EDUCATION. 


Vol.   IX.  FEBRUARY,    1889.  No.   6. 

EVOLUTION  AND  EDUCATION. 

BY  PROF.  WEBSTER  COOK,  UNIVERSITY  OF  MICHIGAN. 

I. 

EVERY  intelligent  observer  must  be  impressed  with  the  ac- 
tivity of  the  educational  thought  of  the  day,  and  at  the 
same  time  he  must  feel  the  need  of  some  universally  acknowledged 
principle  to  give  something  like  order  and  definiteness  to  the  con- 
fused conceptions  now  prevailing,  of  some  accepted  standard  by 
which  to  estimate  the  value  of  the  questions  we  are  forced  to  con- 
sider. There  are  at  present  almost  no  principles  not  called  in 
question  by  some  one  school  of  educators  or  another,  and,  what  is 
more  serious,  for  without  them  we  can  hope  for  no  true  educa- 
tional science,  there  seems  to  be  no  conception  that  there  is  a  way 
in  which  definite,  decisive  conclusions  can  be  reached.  Yet  there  is 
a  way,  and  just  one  way.  History  and  the  laws  of  human  develop- 
ment which  it  reveals  can  alone  help  us  here,  and  it  is  because 
educational  history  is  so  constantly  neglected  that  no  unanimity  is 
attained.  As  long  as  we  fix  our  attention  entirely  upon  the 
present,  which  as  thus  regarded  is  but  one  phase  of  human  develop- 
ment, or  even  as  is  usually  the  case,  upon  one  aspect  of  our  many- 
sided  present,  confusion  must  continue  to  obtain,  and  no  funda 
mental  principles  can  be  anived  at.  What  is  needed,  then,  above 
all  things  else  in  the  consideration  of  educational  questions,  is  the 
careful  study  of  the  philosophy  of  human  history  and  the  vigorous 
adherence  to  the   laws  of  human  evolution,  to  ascertain  more 


368  EDUCATION.  [February, 

precisely  than  has  yet  been  done  in  what  human  progress  really 
consists  and  by  what  means  it  has  been  accomplished,  and  to  keep 
our  educational  institutions  in  full  accord  with  the  real  spirit  of 
humanity,  and  in  direct  line  with  the  laws  of  its  development. 

The  question  thus  open  to  us  is  much  too  broad  for  a  single 
paper.  But  some  of  the  teachings  of  history  are  so  important  and 
yet  so  obvious  that  they  will  well  repay  a  little  careful  considera- 
tion. The  purpose  of  the  present  paper  is,  then,  to  indicate  the 
general  nature  of  such  historical  study  by  inquiring  into  the  nature 
of  human  progress  and  the  laws  of  human  evolution,  and  the 
general  bearing  of  these  laws  upon  the  development  of  the  in- 
dividual. 

In  the  opening  sentences  of  that  essay  entitled  "  Progress,  Its 
Law  and  Cause,"  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  tells  us  that  *'The  current 
conception"  [viz. :  of  Progress]  is  somewhat  shifting  and  indefinite, 
and  after  telling  us  in  some  fine  sentences  what  that  conception  is, 
he  adds  that  it  is  both  vague  and  positively  erroneous.  "It  takes 
in  not  so  much  the  reality  of  progress  as  its  accompaniments,  not  so 
much  the  substance  as  the  shadow."  So  he  proceeds  to  give  and 
illustrate  the  true  definition.  "  It  is  settled  beyond  dispute  that 
organic  progress  consists  in  a  change  from  the  homogeneous  to 
the  heterogeneous."  "  Social  Progress  is  supposed  to  consist  in 
the  produce  of  a  greater  quantity  and  variety  of  the  articles 
required  to  satisfy  men's  wants;  in  the  increasing  security  of 
person  and  property ;  in  widening  freedom  of  action ;  whereas, 
rightly  understood,  social  progress  consists  in  those  changes  of 
structure  in  the  social  organism  which  have  entailed  these  con- 
sequences." But  somehow  this  definition  seems  hardly  more 
satisfactory  or  profound  than  the  one  criticised.  The  two  classes 
of  changes  which  Mr.  Spencer  notes  do  not  seem  to  flow  the  one 
from  the  other ;  but  they  really  seem  coordinate  and  both  seem  to 
come  from  some  deeper  source  than  he  has  designated.  So  in 
truth  they  do.  True  progress  does  not  consist  in  these  taken 
alone,  but  does  consist  in  changes  in  the  character  of  the  social 
being,  in  the  constantly  progressing  development  of  human  nature ; 
and  of  this  development  they  are  at  once  the  manifestation  and 
realization.  Both  classes  of  the  changes  Mr.  Spencer  indicates  are 
but  the  realization  in  outward  form  of  human  capacities,  and  they 
serve  to  show  how  man  is  constantly  becoming  more  fully  conscious 
of  his  true  nature  as  a  rational  being. 


1889.]  E  VOL  UTION  AND  ED  UCA  TION.  369 

The  difference  of  view  thus  developed  is  really  more  profound 
than  is  at  first  apparent,  and  consists  not  so  much  in  the  view  of 
human  progress  as  in  the  conception  of  human  nature.  As  to 
understand  this  difference  will  help  us  in  our  present  inquiry  let 
us  pursue  it  a  little  farther. 

According  to  the  school  of  thought  which  Mr.  Spencer  especially 
illustrates,  man  has  been  brought  to  his  present  stage  of  develop- 
ment by  the  operation  of  two  so-called  forces,  chance-variation  and 
natural  selection.  We  do  not  now  need  to  discuss  the  operation 
of  these  "forces";  all  we  need  to  note  is  that  they  are  purely  imper- 
sonal, act  in  a  purely  mechanical  way,  and  are  entirely  external  to 
the  developing  being.  That  is,  man,  like  every  other  living 
creature,  is  purely  the  product  of  the  external  mechanical  forces 
playing  upon  him.  Here  then  is  the  reason  why  Mr.  Spencer  can- 
not accept  the  view  of  progress  expressed  above.  Man  has  no 
intrinsic  nature  of  his  own.  What  he  is  he  has  been  made  by 
external  agencies.  The  social  organism  with  its  ever  increasing 
heterogeneity  is  not  the  outward  expression  of  human  nature,  for 
that  nature  is  the  product  of  this  organism.  Man  is  made  what 
he  is  by  his  natural  and  social  environment. 

This  conclusion  really  expresses  the  ordinary  scientific  view  of 
the  nature  of  all  things.  Science  looks  upon  everything  as  the 
product  of  something  else,  and  this  in  turn  of  something,  and  so  on 
forever,  and  thus  regards  the  world's  history  as  the  product  of  the 
interaction  of  mechanical  forces.  But  it  is  important  to  note  that 
this  view  not  only  takes  the  heart  out  of  everything,  but  especially 
fails  to  posit  any  evolution.  For  it  can  assign  no  origin  to  its 
forces  ;  there  is  nothing  from  which  they  can  be  derived  and  more- 
over nothing  to  be  evolved.  No  matter  how  long  we  conceive  the 
present  forces  to  have  been  in  operation,  until  some  other  concep- 
tion has  been  introduced  their  presence  cannot  be  accounted  for 
and  the  word  is  unexplained  and  unexplainable.  But  more  inade- 
quate and  even  pernicious  is  such  a  view  of  evolution  when  ap- 
plied to  human  development.  For  at  most  it  can  grasp  but  half 
the  truth,  and  so  everything  must  appear  distorted  and  unreal. 
For  whatever  else  man  may  be  he  is  certainly  rational  and  self- 
conscious,  and  even  if  his  physical  development  could  be  thus 
accounted  for,  the  spiritual  conceptions  which  he  puts  into  nature 
and  which  the  evolutionist  purposely  sets  aside  are  themselves 
as  much  in  need  of  explanation  as  the  processes  the  ordinary  view 
comprehends  and  professes  to  explain. 


370  EDUCATION.  [Febnuiry, 

Now  the  conception  of  human  nature  is  fundamental,  not  only 
for  evolution,  but  also  for  education,  for  in  either  case  the  view 
we  entertain  must  flow  directly  from  it.  As  to  education  we 
shall  see  later;  but  for  our  view  of  evolution,  though  we  cannot 
now  stop  further  to  examine  the  grounds,  we  must  hold  fast  to  the 
conception  that  man  is  not  the  mere  creature  of  circumstances^ 
but  has  an  intrinsic  nature  of  hLs  own,  the  unfolding  of  which  con- 
stitutes the  process  of  his  evolution.  Human  development  then 
has  been  brought  about  by  forces  working  from  within ;  it  is  a  part 
of  the  essential  nature  of  humanity  to  be  constantly  progressing ; 
progress  is  an  essential  element  of  its  idea.  While  it  may  not  be 
and  indeed  is  not  entirely  independent  of  external  influences, 
it  nevertheless  is  not  made  what  it  is  by  these,  cannot  be  regarded 
as  the  mere  forming  and  shaping  which  their  action  through  long 
ages  has  produced,  as  the  effect  of  which  they  are  the  cause ;  but 
on  the  contrary  it  always  reacts  upon  them  in  its  own  character- 
istic way,  and  in  that  reaction  both  manifests  itself  and  accom- 
plishes its  own  fuller  development.  It  is  through  its  own  action 
not  through  the  action  of  something  else,  that  human  nature  has 
developed.  Thus  the  conception  of  humanity  is  the  conception  of 
something  above  the  mere  laws  of  cause  and  effect^  of  something 
self-causing,  self-producing,  of  something  the  activity  of  which  is 
its  own  self  realization.  From  such  a  conception  human  evolution 
has  been  the  reaction  through  all  the  ages  of  man's  existence  of 
the  inherent  forces  of  his  own  nature,  and  through  that  reaction 
the  slow  unfolding  of  that  nature.  Humanity,  that  is,  has  always 
been  potentially  the  same,  but  in  the  past  much  less  fully  realized 
than  at  present,  and  the  process  which  history  records  is  the  pro- 
cess by  which  human  potentiality  has  slowly  been  made  real,  and 
made  real  through  the  inherent  laws  of  humanity  itself.  Having 
thus  our  preliminary  conception  of  human  nature,  which  will 
acquire  somewhat  greater  fulness  as  we  proceed,  and  of  the 
corresponding  nature  of  human  evolution,  let  us  now  inquire  into 
the  laws  in  accordance  with  which  this  evolution  has  proceeded, 
and  first  of  evolution  in  general. 

"Every  one  is  familiar,"  says  Professor  Joseph  Leconte,  "with 
the  main  facts  connected  with  the  development  of  an  Qgg.  We 
all  know  that  it  begins  as  a  microscopic  germ  cell,  then  grows  into 
an  egg,  then  organizes  into  a  chick,  and  finally  grows  into  a  cock ; 
and  the  whole  process  follows  some  general  well  recognized  law. 


1889. J  E  VOL  UTION  AND  ED  UCA  TION.  371 

Now  this  process  is  evolution.  It  is  the  type  of  all  evolution." 
Thus  evolution  is  (I)  continuous  progressive  change,  (II)  according 
to  a  certain  law.^  The  law  of  this  change,  which  Professor  Leconte 
illustrates  by  the  three  series  of  "  stages "  or  forms  found  in  the 
development  of  the  animal  kingdom,  was  really  formulated  by 
Meckel  early  in  the  present  century.  The  original  form  of  all 
organisms  is  one  and  the  same,  and  out  of  this  one  form  all,  the 
lowest  as  well  as  the  highest,  are  developed  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  latter  pass  through  the  permanent  forms  of  the  former  as 
transitory  stages."  But  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  transi- 
tory stages  passed  through  are  really  confined  to  the  class  and  that 
the  resemblances  are  always  general.  This  Haeckel  calls  the 
fundamental  law  of  evolution,  and  briefly  it  is  "  The  history  of  the 
germ  is  an  epitome  of  the  History  of  Descent."^  Or  in  general, 
"  Each  stage  in  evolution  is  an  epitome  of  all  that  have  preceded," 
and  the  law  is  indeed  but  a  necessary  consequence  of  the  law  of 
continuity. 

Thus  the  completed  law  of  physical  evolution  has  two  aspects, 
or  phases,  or  parts,  each  of  which  really  implies  the  other.  Evo- 
lution means  (I)  Continuous  progressive  change,  and  (II)  Its 
method  is  purely  Historicah  Each  stage  is  an  epitome  of  all  the 
past.  The  individual  passes  in  a  general  way  through  the  various 
stages  by  which  the  race  has  reached  its  present  condition,  realizes 
in  himself  the  universal  features  in  the  development  of  the  race. 

Such  is  the  law  of  physical  evolution.  But  the  question  we  are 
more  interested  in  answering  is  whether  man's  intellectual  or 
spiritual  growth  has  followed  the  same  law.  That  thought  itself 
has  had  a  history  no  one  will  deny.  But  would  that  history,  if 
written  out  in  full,  reveal  its  slow  development,  step  by  step,  from 
its  earliest  feeble  beginnings  to  the  great  achievements  of  the 
present  ?  And  were  this  so,  could  we  say  that  its  progress  is  by  the 
historical  method,  that  any  given  stage  in  its  development  is  an 
epitome  of  those  that  have  gone  before,  sums  up  in  itself  the 
history  of  all  preceding  stages?  The  history  of  thought  as  we  are 
accustomed  to  read  it  would  seem  to  lead  to  exactly  opposite  con- 
clusions. For  we  are  accustomed  to  associate  the  advancement  of 
thought  with  the  personal  achievements  of  the  world's  great 
thinkers,  and  so  its  development,  instead  of  being  by  steady  accre- 

«See  Pop.  Sci.  Month.    Oct.  1887. 
*  Evol.  of  man.  I.,  p.  6. 


372  EDUCATION.  [February, 

tions  from  generation  to  generation,  as  the  laws  of  evolution  would 
require,  would  depend  upon  the  chance  appearance  of  men 
of  genius,  and  be  irregular  and  often  capricious.  Moreover,  if  we 
are  to  believe  in  the  ordinary  histories,  or  trust  to  the  brilliant 
generalizations  of  certain  modem  thinkers,  each  stage  of  thought 
alwa3rs  stands  in  direct  opposition  to  the  previous  one,  and  nothing 
presents  so  melancholy  a  spectacle  as  the  history  of  human  thinkers. 
Notwithstanding  that  the  great  thinkers  of  all  ages  have  been  the 
world's  choicest  spirits,  they  have  invariably  wasted  their  lives,  we 
are  told,  in  the  vain  search  for  what  can  never  be  found.  This 
each  one  has  seen  as  regards  the  work  of  his  predecessors.  It  has 
seemed  as  if  each  felt  that  his  own  greatness  could  be  shown  only 
by  destroying  all  that  had  already  been  done,  that  it  could  rise 
only  from  the  ruins  which  it  must  first  bring  about.  Thus  it 
results  that  each  new  epoch  of  thought  does  not  rise  legitimately 
and  naturally  out  of  the  preceding,  but  its  beginning  marks  the 
destruction  of  all  that  has  gone  before,  for  all  the  systems  of 
thought  that  were  ever  built  up  have  been  in  turn  refuted.  But 
this  is  only  to  say  that  the  history  of  philosophy  shows  us  that 
there  never  has  been  any  philosophy ;  the  history  of  thought, 
that  thought  itself  has  been  an  abject  failure.  The  conceit  of 
modem  science  gives  especial  emphasis  to  this  view  of  philo- 
sophic history,  and  in  the  light  of  its  achievements,  we  are  told,  all 
previous  thinking  is  now  obsolete,  and  so  must  be  neglected.  We 
must  henceforth  build  upon  the  foundations  we  are  at  present 
laying. 

But  such  a  view  of  the  growth  of  thought  contradicts  the  very 
conception  of  evolution,  and  so  must  be  rejected.  If  thought  has 
had  a  growth  at  all,  it  has  been  by  the  very  same  processes  that 
have  marked  all  evolution.  It  has  advanced  by  slow,  continuous 
progress,  and  each  new  development  has  risen  naturally  and 
necessarily  out  of  the  preceding  one.  In  this  natural  development 
the  past  has  never  been  destroyed,  but  has  found  a  higher  being 
in  each  new  present.  It  Ls  only  from  the  past  that  the  future 
can  arise.  No  advance  can  be  made  until  the  ground  already  won 
has  been  fully  traversed;  and  so  new  knowledge  must  always 
start  from  the  old,  which  it  must  take  up  into  itself  and  reform 
into  its  higher  conceptions.  The  various  systems  of  philosophy 
that  have  arisen  have  had  a  perfectly  natural  growth,  and  possess 
their  importance,  not  as  the  achievements  of  surpassing  genius. 


1889.  J  E  VOL  UTION  A  ND  ED  UCA  TION.  373 

but  as  the  legitimate  manifestation  of  the  thought  and  spirit  of 
the  age  in  which  they  were  produced.  They  have  been  the  pro- 
ducts, not  of  men  working  singly,  but  of  peoples  in  their  organic 
development.  The  greatest  achievement  of  any  thinker  is  to  give 
adequate  expression  to  the  thought  that  has  grown  up  about  him, 

• 

the  as  yet  unuttered  and  unconscious  thought,  it  may  be,  of  his 
age  or  his  people.  He  at  most  is  but  the  organ  through  which  the 
"spirit  of  his  time"  seeks  its  expression.  Moreover  each  system 
is  organically  connected  with  other  systems,  grows  naturally  from 
those  that  precede  it.  It  has  been  truly  said  that  no  great  system 
of  philosophy  was  ever  refuted ;  its  truth  has  only  been  absorbed 
in  some  higher  and  completer  system,  and  so  given  a  new  form 
and  fuller  meaning.  Thus  each  stage  in  the  history  of  human 
thought  is  really  an  epitome  of  all  the  past,  and  can  be  underatood 
only  by  comprehending  that  past.  It  is  what  it  is  only  through 
the  past ;  it  has  taken  up  into  itself  all  that  has  gone  before  and 
by  virtue  of  that  alone  is  its  true  character  determined. 

For  reasons  that  will  be  more  apparent  later,  it  is  of  the  first 
importance  from  the  point,  of  view  of  education  that  the  truly 
organic  nature  of  thought  development  be  fully  comprehended, 
and  Greek  development  furnishes  us  a  good  illustration  of  its  con- 
tinuous growth.  Greek  thought  reached  its  culmination  with  the 
work  of  Aristotle,  and  it  is  evident  enough  that  in  his  philosophy 
we  have  the  completed  result  of  the  labors  of  the  Socratic  School. 
The  articulate  system  of  thought  as  it  there  appears  is  not  the 
work  of  Aristotle  alone  but  the  joint  product  of  Aristotle,  Plato, 
and  Socrates.  But  what  is  the  relation  of  this  system  to  earlier 
Greek  thought?  Is  it  that  of  opposition?  Was  its  result  to 
refute  all  that  previous  philosophers  thought  they  had  established? 
On  the  contrary,  in  many  of  the  Platonic  Dialogues  the  very 
effort  is  to  give  to  each  of  the  conclusions  of  several  of  his  pred- 
ecessors its  proper  place  in  the  system  of  thought  as  a  whole,  to 
show  how,  though  seemingly  isolated  or  contradictory,  these  con- 
clusions really  supplemented  each  other,  and  thus  to  give  to  them 
a  fuller  meaning  than  ever  they  had  before.  Aristotle  but  com- 
pleted the  work  which  Plato  began ;  and  if  we  will  study  carefully 
the  whole  history  of  Greek  Philosophy  and  note  the  results 
obtained  by  each  successive  school  of  thought,  and  then  turn  to 
the  Philosophy  of  Aristotle  and  Plato,  we  shall  find  that  every 
conception  formerly  attained  has  been  taken  carefully  into  ac- 


374  EDUCATION.  [February, 

count,  had  been  wrought  into  higher  form  at  their  hands.  We 
shall  find  that  Parmenides  and  Zeno,  and  even  the  first-born  of 
Greek  philosophers,  Thales,  still  live  in  their  writings,  and  speak 
to  us  from  their  pages  with  a  deeper  significance  than  ever  appears 
from  their  own. 

At  first  such  a  conclusion  may  seem  absurd.  Take  for  a  single 
illustration  the  teaching  of  Thales  that  the  principle  of  all  things 
is  water.  The  absurdity  of  this  we,  with  all  the  later  Greeks, 
readily  recognize,  and  for  those  who  see  as  the  outcome  of  Thales' 
efforts  only  this  conclusion,  certainly  Thales  was  soon  refuted  and 
his  labors  have  no  further  value.  But  in  fact,  however  he  em- 
bodied it,  or  however  imperfectly  he  comprehended  its  real  import, 
Thales  grasped  a  great  principle,  the  great  and  underlying  princi- 
ples of  Aristotle,  as  of  all  philosophy,  a  principle  the  effort  to  give 
expression  to  which  constitutes  the  very  essence  of  philosophy, 
and  which  must  therefore  live  as  long  as  man  thinks,  viz. :  that 
there  is  an  underlying  Unity  from  which  all  things  have  proceeded 
and  to  which  they  must  be  traced.  And  if  we  penetrate  beneath 
the  surface  and  seek  the  hidden  meaning  in  the  work  of  all  Thales' 
successors,  we  shall  find  that  meaning  as  vital  to  philosophy  today 
as  when  it  was  first  discovered.  The  absurdity  lies,  then,  not  in 
the  conclusions  of  early  thinkei-s,  for  they  builded  t)etter  than  they 
knew,  but  in  the  statement  which  our  own  time  alone  could  give 
birth  to,  "  that  no  Metaphysical  (meaning  by  that  Philosophical) 
system  has  had  in  it  a  principle  of  vitality;  none  has  succeeded  in 
establishing  itself  because  none  has  deserved  to  succeed."  ^ 

From  this  conception  of  the  growth  of  human  thought,  it  com- 
prehends, or  rather  constitutes,  the  spiritual  development  of  the 
race,  and  it  has  had  a  growth  as  really  organic  as  that  of  any  in- 
dividual organism  in  the  animal  kingdom,  one  that  is  thus  fully  in 
accord  with  what  we  have  seen  to  be  the  laws  of  evolution.  Or  in 
other  words  we  may  conclude  that  the  spiritual  development  of 
the  race  as  a  whole  fully  conforms  to  our  fundamental  laws.  Let 
us  now  turn  to  inquire  as  to  the  development  of  the  individual. 

»  G.  H.  Laury'8  Blog.  Hist,  of  PliU.  p.  5. 


Keep  your  pen  from  lenders'  books,  and  defy  the  foul  fiend. 

—  Shakespeare. 


1889.]  HINTS  UPON  TEACHING.  375 


SOME  HINTS  UPON  THE  SCIENCE  AND  ART  OB 

TEA  CHING. 

BY  REY.  JOHN  H.  RICHARDSON,  TEXAS. 
ANECDOTE,   ART,   SCIENCE,    ILLUSTRATION,   CAUTIONS. 

AMONG  the  slaves  of  my  father  in  "  the  good  old  days  "  of 
indigo  culture  in  South  Carolina,  was,  according  to  family 
traditions,  a  native  African  who  claimed  to  have  been  a  ^^  chief  " 
or  "  prince  "  in  his  wild  home-land.  He  was  a  man  of  good  car- 
riage and  appearance,  of  excellent  disposition,  close  observation, 
fine  perceptive  powers,  and  quick  intelligence.  Roadily  respond- 
ing to  kind  treatment,  he  soon  picked  up  a  little  barbarous  Eng- 
lish, made  himself  useful,  showed  eagerness  to  learn,  became  de- 
voted to  his  then  young  master,  and,  after  due  probation,  he  was 
appointed  foreman  of  the  indigo-vats.  Almost  immediately  there- 
after his  master's  indigo  began  to  command  a  considerable  premium 
in  the  market,  —  bringing  a  much  higher  price  than  that  of  his 
neighbors,  who  therefore  supposed  that  my  father  had  discovered 
some  new  and  better  process  for  preparing  the  drug  for  sale. 

Finally,  after  the  "  prince  "  had  been  foreman  for  two  or  three 
or  more  years,  several  of  my  father's  fellow-planters  called  to  see 
him  one  season  just  before  their  indigo  crop  was  ripe,  to  ask  the 
secret  of  his  manufacture. 

''  I  have  none,"  was  the  reply.  "  If  there  is  any,  it  is  my  fore- 
man's. He  has  exclusive  charge,  and  is  now  actively  at  work 
preparing  my  crop  for  market." 

"At  work!"  they  exclaimed.  "Why,  our' crops  are  not  yet 
ripe !  Suppose  we  visit  your  fields  and  vats,  and  inspect  his 
process." 

"  Agreed,"  responded  my  father. 

Mounting  their  horses,  visitors  and  host  rode  through  the 
plantation  to  the  indigo  works. 

"Your  crop  doesn't  seem  to  be  any  riper  than  mine,"  said  one. 
*'  I  have  n't  cut  a  single  plant." 

Arriving  at  the  vats,  all  hands  were  found  busily  engaged,  the 
foreman  everywhere  inspecting,  directing,  showing  what  and  how 


»> 

y* 


376  EDUCATION.  [February, 

to  do.  Answering  his  master's  call,  the  "  prince  "  promptly  came 
forward,  saluting  politely  by  removing  his  conical  and  close-fitting 
"  huckled  "  woolen  cap,  bowing  and  scraping  the  ground  with  the 
right  foot. 

"  We  want  you  to  show  us  how  you  make  such  good  indigo, 
said  my  father.     "  Please  tell  me  and  these  gentlemen  all  about  it. 

A  gratified  smile  played  over  the  face  of  the  African  as  he  re- 
plied in  his  usual  loud  though  respectful  tone,  —  "Beshow\ 
meshow'  I " 

This  was  given  in  a  sing-song  manner,  and  meant,  —  '*  To  be 
sure  I  will  show  you." 

Calling  two  of  the  hands,  he  and  they  took  their  reap-hooks  and 
strode  off  into  the  field,  followed  by  their  white  pupils,  who  had 
dismounted  and  given  their  horses  to  attendant  grooms. 

Carefully  studying  the  ripening  crop,  the  foreman  soon  stopped, 
pointed  out  a  small  "  patch,"  cut  an  armful  and,  holding  it  up, 
cried  out,  — 

"Wenshum  lux6,  cut,"  —  "When  you  see  it  look  like  this, 
cut  it." 

The  white  gentlemen,  cultured  planters  of  the  day,  looked  with 
all  their  eyes,  but  they  saw  no  difference  between  the  portion  indi- 
cated and  the  rest  of  the  crop ;  to  them  it  all  "  looked  so." 

The  foreman  and  his  assistants  soon  reaped  the  part  selected, 
carried  the  plants  to  the  works,  deposited  the  same  in  wooden 
mortars  and  began  to  bruise  them  with  |)estle8,  also  of  wood,  into 
a  uniform  pulpy  mass.  As  the  contents  of  his  mortar  approached 
the  pulpy  state,  the  foreman  would  occasionally  pick  up  a  handful 
and  carefully  examine  it.  At  last  he  stoi)ped,  laid  aside  his  pestle 
and  holding  up  some  of  the  pulp,  intoned  as  before,  — 

"  Wenshum  lux6,  stop,''  —  "  When  you  see  it  look  like  this,  stop 
bruising  it " ;  but  to  the  eyes  of  his  class  it  all  "  looked  so." 

Satisfying  himself  as  to  the  state  of  the  contents  of  the  other 
mortars,  the  foreman  ordered  all  the  pulp  just  beaten  to  be  thrown 
into  a  designated  vat ;  and  going  to  others  in  which  the  bruised 
plant  was  already  steeping,  he  would  dip  his  hand  into  the  colored 
water,  throw  up  a  portion  of  the  liquid  between  hLs  eye  and  the 
sun  and  carefully  study  its  shades  and  play  of  colors.  Stopping 
at  one,  he  repeated  that  action  several  times  as  if  to  call  special 
attention  to  its  color,  and  again  came  his  sing-song  formula,  — 

"Wenshdm  lux6,  draw,"  —  "When  you  see  it  look  like  this. 


1889.]  HINTS  UPON  TEACHING.  377 

draw  it  off  for  evaporation."  To  the  observers  it  all  "  looked  so," 
and  they  went  away  no  wiser  than  they  came.  The  ignorant 
savage  —  ignorant  as  to  books,  to  scientific  details  and  explana- 
tions, but  gifted  and  cultured  as  to  natural  senses  and  observation, 
perception  and  experience  —  knew  exactly,  by  developed  intui- 
tion, at  what  stage  of  maturity  to  cut  the  plant,  to  what  degree  to 
bruise  it,  and  when  it  was  sufficiently  steeped,  in  order  to  secure 
the  best  results.  He  had  acquired  a  body  of  truth,  by  the  aid  of 
whose  principles  and  methods,  he  produced  his  remarkable  results ; 
but,  unfortunately,  the  record  could  be  read  by  no  other  eye  than 
his,  for  neither  master  nor  any  assistant  or  observer  ever  acquired 
his  knowledge  and  skill,  his  success  in  the  art.  He  could  not 
make  known  his  discoveries  to  others ;  they  perished  with  him. 

There  may,  then,  be  very  great  success  in  the  practice  of  an  art» 
and  yet  a  marked  absence  of  what  we  call  scientific  knowledge  on 
the  part  of  the  artist.  There  is  nothing  surprising  in  this ;  for 
even  among  the  highly  educated  there  are  very  varying  degrees  of 
skill  and  success  in  the  different  callings  and  professions  of  en- 
lightened society.  Every  painter  has  *'  to  mix  his  paints  with  his 
own  brains  " ;  the  most  learned  physician  finds  it  impossible  to 
impart  all  the  secrets  of  perfect  diagnosis ;  few  lawyers  can  read 
all  the  signs  of  conviction,  conversion,  and  agreement,  or  their 
opposites,  in  the  features  and  persons  of  a  jury ;  not  every  teacher 
is  able  to  detect  the  wave  of  intelligence  as  it  passes  over  the  face 
of  the  pupil;  rare  are  the  preachers  who  know  exactly  when  and 
how  far  to  press  a  given  point. 

Tanning  is  an  art,  a  systematic  application  of  certain  processes, 
mechanical  and  chemical,  to  the  evolution  from  given  materials  of 
a  well-known  product ;  it  is  an  application  of  what  is  now  called 
chemical  science.  In  like  manner  farming  is  an  old  art,  yet 
founded,  as  we  say,  upon  the  modern  science  of  agricultui'e ;  and 
teaching  is  an  art  based  upon  education  as  a  science.  Now,  whilst 
the  arts  mentioned  were  successfully  practised  long  before  their 
respective  sciences  received  careful  elaboration  and  explicit  state- 
ment or  explanation,  yet  must  their  practice  have  been  based  upon 
correct,  although,  perhaps,  not  clearly  perceived  or  understood, 
laws ;  and  there  are  today,  no  doubt,  many  practical  tanners,  farm- 
ers, and  teachers,  successful  in  the  highest  possible  degree,  who 
find  themselves  unable  to  give  any  clear,  satisfactory,  or  strictly 


878  EDUCATION.  [February, 

scientific  account  and  exposition  of  the  means  and  principles  by 
whose  aid  and  application  their  great  achievements  have  been 
wrought.  Natural  gifts,  improved  by  zeal  and  experience,  often 
work  results  which  no  amount  of  scientific  attainment  can,  with- 
out them,  accomplish. 

Many  "  professionals  "  have  a  wonderful  gift  of  the  "  gab,"  but 
very  little  else.  They  can  talk  ad  libitum  et  ad  infinitum  on  any 
subject  whatever ;  and  yet,  when  they  are  through,  their  ideas  are 
as  the  Shakespearean  "  Three  grains  of  wheat  to  a  bushel  of  chaff." 
"  Language,"  said  a  distinguished  French  politician,  "  has  been 
given  to  us  to  conceal  our  thoughts  " ;  but  much  of  the  so-called 
scientific  language  of  the  day  seems  to  be  used  for  no  other  pur- 
pose than  to  conceal  the  absence  of  thought  —  to  hide  ignorance 
under  an  imposing  mask  of  wise-sounding  words  in  order  to  im- 
pose upon  the  multitude.  Especially  is  this  true  in  the  present 
rather  chaotic  state  of  the  science  of  education,  in  which  much 
that  is  claimed  to  be  new  is  not  true,  and  the  most  that  is  true  is 
not  new.  The  man  who  "  knows  it  all "  on  any  subject,  is  not 
always  the  man  who  knows  the  most  about  it.  There  is  charla- 
tanism in  teaching  as  well  as  in  medicine.  Sir  William  Hamil- 
ton used  to  tell  his  classes  tliat  the  first  requisite  for  a  student^s 
success  in  any  department  of  research  is  to  be  convinced  in  his 
own  mind  that  he  is  a  mere  fool,  in  this,  that  however  great  his 
knowledge  of  a  given  subject,  the  whole  mass  known  is  as  nothing 
compared  to  what  remains  unknown. 

Art  —  and  often  in  its  very  highest  perfection  —  very  generally 
precedes  science ;  for,  and  very  foilunately  for  us,  truth,  as  such, 
does  not  depend  upon  our  recognition  of  its  existence,  upon  our 
means  of  discovery,  upon  our  understanding  it;  though  science, 
which  is  "  knowledge  reduced  to  a  system,"  is  dependent  upon 
(1)  discovery,  (2)  orderly  exposition  and  utilization.  America, 
to  illustrate,  existed  as  really  l)efore  as  after  its  discovery  by  Col- 
umbus, though  its  existence  was  not  realized  and  utilized  by  Eu- 
ropean nations  until  the  Great  Discoverer  had  shown  them  how  to 
reach  its  coasts ;  and  though  the  Greeks  had  discovered  all  the 
fundamental  properties  of  the  Conic  sections,  the  utility  of  the 
science  was  not  fully  realized,  except  as  a  means  of  mental  train- 
ing, before  it  was  found  out  that  the  planets  move  in  ellipses. 
This  last  example  may,  indeed,  be  regarded  as  a  case,  and  the 
only  one,  perhaps,  in  wliich  science  preceded  its  art ;  for  modern 


1889.]  HINTS  UPON  TEACHING.  379 

astronomy,  as  an  art,  could  not  well  exist,  or  have  originated, 
without  a  knowledge  of  the  abstract  theory  or  science  of  the  Conic 
sections.  He,  however,  who  would  practise  any  art,  should  —  to 
be  successful  in  it,  to  advance  it,  to  excel  in  it  —  make  himself  as 
familiar  as  possible  with  all  the  known  principles  of  the  science  or 
sciences  upon  which  said  art  depends.  Education,  then,  as  a  sci- 
ence, is  of  an  importance  which  cannot  be  overestimated;  for 
when  fully  developed  the  art  of  teaching  may  become  more  intel- 
ligently directed  by  the  body  of  teachers,  especially  in  the  econ- 
omy of  time  and  resources  and  the  adaptation  of  means  and  methods 
to  the  ends  and  products  in  view.  The  history  of  our  race  may 
offer  no  grounds  to  hope  that  the  best  minds  of  the  future  will 
ever  excel  those  of  the  past;  but  surely  the  general  level  and 
attainments  of  the  average  mind  can  be  greatly  elevated  —  and 
will  be  just  as  soon  as  ^^  the  line  of  least  resistance  "  has  been 
ascertained  and  the  best  means  of  elevation  have  become  familiar 
to  the  "  master  mechanics  "  or  "  artist  workers." 

The  science  of  medicine  and  surgery  is  concerned  about  the 
growth,  development,  structure,  decay,  injury  and  repair,  disease 
and  cure,  and  healthy  longevity  of  the  human  body,  in  order  that 
the  same  may  be  preserved  in  active  usefulness  up  to  the  last  mo- 
ment that  it  is  occupied  by  the  in-dwelling  spirit.  It  seeks  to  find 
the  best  way  to  clothe  the  body,  the  most  wholesome  foods ;  it 
studies  diseases,  their  causes,  courses,  and  cures; — all  to  keep  the 
body,  as  a  living  machine,  in  its  most  efficient  state. 

The  science  of  education  is  concerned  about  the  nature  of  the 
material  to  be  operated  upon,  the  manner  of  operation  and  the 
matter  to  be  used ;  it  investigates  the  structure  of  the  mind,  ita 
laws  of  development,  the  best  available  food  for  normal  growth,, 
the  matter,  principles,  and  methods  of  imparting  instruction  at  the 
different  stages  of  mind  development  and  growth,  and  digests  the 
whole  into  systematic  and  orderly  statement  for  the  use  and 
guidance  of  the  artist,  who  may  not  be  a  scientist. 

The  art  of  teaching  is  the  process  of  skilfully  applying  those 
principles  and  methods  in  the  use  of  the  best  means  so  as  to  evolve 
the  product  aimed  at,  the  development  or  elevation  of  each  pupil 
to  his  highest  possible  state  of  active  usefulness  and  happiness. 

How  is  the  art  of  teaching  to  be  learned  ?  Just  like  any  other  r 
(1)  observing  the  principles  upon  which  it  is  founded ;  (2)  fol- 


880  EDUCATION.  [February, 

lowing  the  methods  by  which  others  have  succeeded ;  (3)  improv- 
ing, if  possible,  upon  those  methods  by  originating  other  and 
better  ones. 

Why  do  the  painter  and  sculptor  go  to  Italy  ?  To  pore  over  the 
methods  and  best  products  of  the  great  masters,  just  as  Pythagoras 
went  to  Egypt  to  study  the  art  of  teaching,  and  Cicero  to  Athens 
to  master  rhetoric  and  oratory. 

Why  do  surgeons  and  physicians  frequent  hospitals?  To  ob- 
serve the  best  methods  of  surgical  operations,  and  of  curing  dis- 
ease. 

How  does  the  apprentice  in  any  art  learn  ?  By  observing  and 
imitating  his  master,  and  striving  to  do  better  than  his  instructor. 
The  teacher  in  any  art  who  does  not  turn  out  workmen  better 
grounded  than  he  was,  is  not  doing  his  full  duty ;  for  how  can  the 
world  advance  unless  each  generation  improves  upon  the  former, 
the  son  upon  his  father,  the  apprentice  upon  his  master? 

Every  art  is  a  process,  a  mode  of  orderly  procedure,  a  progres- 
sion, guided  by  principles  and  aimed  at  some  well-defined  product. 
The  general  method  is  the  same  in  all ;  for  method  is  nothing  but 
a  series  of  thoughts  in  action,  well  ordered  to  discover  an  unknown 
truth ;  and,  when  found,  to  make  it  known  to  others,  or  to  use  it 
for  the  benefit  of  mankind. 

Allow  this  illustration :  — 

What  is  tanning?  A  process  whereby  raw-hide  is  converted 
into  leather.  The  steps  are  orderly,  progressive,  founded  on  prin- 
ciples or  truths  of  experience,  and  aimed  at  the  creation  of  a  well- 
known  product.  The  artist  or  tanner  —  every  workman,  whether 
in  mind  or  matter,  who  loves  his  art,  strives  to  improve  it  and 
seeks  to  excel  in  it,  is  an  artist  —  the  tanner  should  (1)  have  a 
good  practical  knowledge  of  both  the  raw  material  and  the  finished 
product,  (2)  know  how  to  carry  the  given  material  through  the 
successive  steps  of  transformation,  (3)  be  in  possession  of  all  the 
necessary  means  and  appliances,  and  (4)  know  how  to  use  them 
to  the  best  advantage.     These  are  the  steps  :  — 

a.  The  hide  is  soaked  in  water  to  loosen  any  adhering  flesh  or 
fat  left  by  the  butcher. 

6.  It  is  then  "  beamed^"  that  is,  placed  upon  a  semi-cylindrical 
table  and  scraped  with  a  properly  shaped  knife  so  as  to  remove 
the  flesh  or  fat  without  injuring  the  skin. 


1889.]  HINTS  UPON  TEACHING.  881 

c.  Next,  it  is  steeped  in  lime-water  to  loosen  hair  and  cuticle. 

d.  Once  more  is  it  "  beamed  "  to  remove  cuticle  and  hair. 

e.  Again  is  it  soaked  in  water  to  remove  any  lime  whose  pres- 
ence in  the  pores  would  render  the  leather  harsh  and  brittle. 

/.  Now  it  is  placed  in  a  weak  solution  of  tannin  whose  strength 
is  gradually  increased  until,  by  the  union  of  the  tannin  and  the 
gelatine,  the  skin  is  entirely  changed,  through  and  through,  into 
leather. 

g.  If  the  leather  is  to  be  rendered  water-proof,  it  is,  after  being 
smoothed  and  dried,  then  curried  or  its  pores  filled  with  oil ;  and 
it  may  at  the  same  time  be  colored. 

Experience,  knowledge  of  principles  and  methods,  possession  of 
and  skill  in  the  use  of  means  and  appliances,  and  close  observa- 
tion, are  essential  to  the  success  of  the  tanner  —  and  equally 
necessary  are  they  to  the  teacher. 

The  hide  should  never  be  made  tired  or  sick,  or  worthless,  or 
become  worn  out,  by  the  treatment  at  any  stage  of  the  process, 
but  each  step  should  best  prepare  it  for  the  next — so,  too,  in  the 
schoolroom  as  well  as  in  the  tannery. 

All  art  is  more  or  less  imitative.  There  should  be,  however,  no 
mere  blind,  servile  imitation,  but  an  intelligent  study  and  practice 
of  the  best  methods  as  guides  or  means,  with  the  determination 
to  make  the  best  use  of  them,  to  originate,  if  possible,  better  ones. 
There  are  but  six  elementary  mechanical  powers  —  reducible,  per- 
haps, to  three  —  and  Noah  understood,  no  doubt,  their  simple  ap- 
plication as  well  as  any  mechanic  who  has  lived  since  his  time, 
and  yet  almost  innumerable  are  the  useful  modern  machines  re- 
sulting from  the  intelligent  combination,  machines  of  which  Noah 
(or  Watt  even)  never  dreamed. 

Art  is,  also,  progressive,  continually  tending  toward  perfection, 
which,  however,  as  an  asymptote,  it  can  never  reach.  Science, 
when  thoroughly  elaborated,  is  that  asymptote ;  so  that  methods 
however  good,  or  art  however  skilful,  cannot  dispense  with  the 
thoroughly  scientific  elaboration  of  professional  principles,  though 
it  must  always  be  remembered  that  as  there  is  more  in  the  farmer 
than  in  farming,  so  there  is  more  in  the  teacher  than  in  teaching 
as  a  mere  code  of  rules  and  methods.  Ever  since  "  Adam  delved 
and  Eve  span,"  it  is  the  zealous,  observant,  and  intelligent  artist- 
workman  who  has  added  to  the  world's  wealth  of  knowledge  and 
resources. 


382  EDUCATION.  [February, 

To  the  foregoing  illustration  must  be  added  the  following  cau- 
tions :  — 

1.  Hide^  or  leather,  is  dull,  brute,  unintelligent  matter,  inca- 
pable of  either  cooperating  with  the  tanner  or  resisting  his  manipu- 
lations ;  yet  must  not  the  artist  violate  any  of  the  laws  of  its  being 
so  as  to  neutralize,  change,  or  destroy  the  chemical  or  other  affini- 
ties existing  between  its  particles  of  matter  or  ultimate  atoms,  but 
all  his  processes  must  be  in  general  harmony  with  those  laws  so  a& 
to  utilize  them  for  the  accomplishment  of  his  purpose  —  the  crea- 
tion of  a  newer,  more  useful,  higher  order  of  material. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  material  upon  which  the  teacher  operates 
—  human  nature,  affection,  intelligence,  capacity,  will  —  is  able 
either  to  cooperate  with  the  master-workman,  so  as  to  become  a 
ready,  delighted,  intelligent,  and  improving  coworker  with  him,  or 
to  resist  his  efforts  and  thwart  them  all.  The  teacher  should  la* 
bor  to  secure  that  cooperation,  to  win  over  that  resistance,  to  avoid 
all  repulsion. 

2.  The  pupil  is  not  merely  some  thing  to  be  transformed ;  he 
is  to  be  instructed,  developed,  tested,  trained,  glided,  encouraged, 
inspired,  and  strengthened  to  go  by  himself ;  he  is  a  living,  grow- 
ing, responsible  creature,  capable  of  great  and  good  things  or  their 
opposite,  in  which,  however,  his  teacher  may  plant,  so  to  speak, 
germs  of  thought  and  feeling,  aspiration  and  inspiration,  which 
may  leaven  and  regenerate  the  whole  being  by  its  own  spontane- 
ous activity.  He  should  be  caused  to  feel  (1)  that  he  is  not  to  be 
dragged  along,  willy-nilly,  by  his  foretop,  back-lock,  or  any  other 
hand-hold,  in  spite  of  himself,  or  scourged  up  the  hill  of  learning 
and  usefulness  ;  (2)  that  he  is  not  so  much  undergoing  instruction 
as  taking  the  most  active  and  important  part  in  it ;  (3)  that  he  is. 
his  teacher's  most  reliable  and  efficacious  helper  in  all  that  teach- 
er's efforts  for  the  pupil's  own  advancement. 

So  taught,  the  pupil  will  indeed  be  a  ready,  happy,  and  ever- 
improving  helper  to  his  teacher ;  and  so  teaching,  the  teacher  will 
surely  find  his  "  yoke  become  easy,  his  burden  grow  light." 

Such  a  teacher  may  never  have  heard  of  Froebel  and  Pesta- 
lozzi,  or  of  the  greater  teachers  that  preceded  or  have  followed 
them ;  he  may  never  have  read  Rousseau's  Emile  or  the  Confes- 
sions of  the  vile  author ;  he  may  not  be  able  to  write  an  essay  on 
Comenius,  his  life  and  works,  or  to  give,  in  regular  order  or  oth- 
erwise, "Gregory's  Seven  Laws  of  Teaching";  his  tongue  may 


1889.]  HINTS  UPON  TEACHING.  383 

be  innocent  of  the  trick-stock  cant  and  professional  phraseology 
with  which  too  many  normal  schools  stuflE  the  mouths  of  their  pu- 
pils whilst  leaving  their  heads  and  hearts  entirely  empty ;  never- 
theless, if  he  so  works  in  the  fear  and  love  of  God  and  for  the 
good  of  his  race,  he  will  be  a  great  teacher,  a  blessing  to  his  charge 
and  community. 

3.  Let  no  self-taught  teacher  —  all  who  succeed  are  self-made 
so  far  as  man  is  concerned  —  let  no  self-taught  teacher  suppose  for 
one  moment  that  the  writer  intends  to  disparage  professional 
schools,  training,  books,  science.  But  there  may  be  charlatan 
teachers  whose  only  science  is  humbug,  and  there  may  be  humbug- 
teaching  schools.  Not  every  teacher  has  had  or  will  have  the  priv- 
ilege of  attending  a  professional  school,  but  no  one  should  lose  an 
opportunity  to  get  professional  training,  to  grow  in  professional 
knowledge  and  attainments ;  and  to  know  the  great  teachers,  per- 
sonally or  through  their  works,  is  to  gain  aspiration  and  inspira- 
tion. Ponder  the  teachings  of  the  wise,  but  do  not  follow  them 
blindly.  "  Prove  all  things  and  hold  fast  that  which  is  good  " ; 
studying  most  closely  —  in  the  light  of  God's  three  great  Bibles, 
Nature,  Revelation,  and  Providence  in  History  —  the  character 
and  life-laws  of  the  being  to  be  developed  and  inspired  rather 
than  merely  moulded  by  the  art  of  the  teacher.  Above  all,  let  us 
teachers  be  ourselves  true  men  and  women,  worthy  guides  of  the 
young,  striving  to  make  our  charges,  as  so  many  talents  committed 
to  our  care,  the  double  and  more  in  all  skill,  excellence,  and  use- 
fulness of  ourselves.     "  Who  would  make  men,  must  be  himself  & 


man." 


Whatever  lacks  purpose  is  evil ;  a  pool  without  pebbles  breeds  slime ; 
Not  any  one  step  hath  chance  fashioned,  on  the  infinite  stairway  of  time ; 
Nor  ever  came  good  without  labor,  in  toil  or  in  science  or  art ; 
It  must  be  wrought  out  through  the  muscles,  bom  of  the  soul  and  the 

heart. 
Whatever  is  strong  with  a  purpose,  in  humbleness  woven,  soul-pure, 
Is  known  to  the  Master  of  singers ;  He  touches  it,  saying,  '^  Endure  I " 

—  0«  J.  O'MjLLLET. 


.884  ED  UCA  TION.  [February, 


THE    TEACHING    OF   MATHEMATICS.^ 

VI. 

A  CONSISTENT  PLAN  FOR  THE  TEACHING  OF  ALGEBRA  INDUCTIVELY. 
BY  GEORGE  WILLIAM  EVANS,  ENGLISH  HIGH  SCHOOL,  BOSTON. 

IN  a  previous  article  the  writer  tried  to  show  historical  warrant 
for  the  practice  of  introducing  algebra  by  means  of  problems, 
and  as  essentially  a  system  of  abbreviations.  It  is  evident  that 
the  method  there  indicated  cannot  be  carried  very  far  without  a 
study  of  elementary  algebraic  forms.  Accordingly  we  find,  as  in 
Sherwin's  Algebra,  so  familiar  to  New  England  students  of  ten  or 
twenty  years  ago,  or  in  the  more  recent  textbook  called  the 
Franklin  Algebra,  that  our  method  is  pursued  only  far  enough  to 
furnish  an  introduction  more  or  less  extended,  after  which  the 
old-fashioned  order  of  development  is  pretty  closely  followed.  It 
is  obvious  that  such  a  plan  lacks  consistency,  and  certain  practi- 
cal difficulties  will  suggest  themselves.  In  taking  up  ah  initio  the 
study  of  formal  algebra  after  some  little  time  spent  upon  prob- 
lems, the  pupil  is  apt  to  feel  either  that  he  has  been  wasting  his 
time  and  is  now  just  beginning  the  work  of  the  year,  or  that  he 
has  a  pretty  clear  idea  of  what  algebra  is  for,  and  that  this  study 
of  forms  will  be  of  little  application  therein.  Further,  we  have 
here  still  a  little  of  the  leaven  of  unrighteousness,  inasmuch  as  an 
extensive  and  logically  complete  theory  of  forms  is  made  to  intro- 
duce certain  very  simple  and  limited  applications  of  it.  There  is 
no  reason  why  the  method  followed  in  the  case  of  simple  equa- 
tions should  not  be  continued  to  quadratic  and  simultaneous  equa- 
tions. No  textbook,  so  far  as  I  know,  has  yet  been  constructed  on 
this  plan,  and  the  natural  conservatism  of  school  methods  will 
long  withhold  it  from  us.  But  it  seems  difficult  to  believe  that  a 
method  which  promises  a  tolerably  rounded  and  complete  intro- 
duction, which  prepares  the  way  for  intelligent  continuation  of 
the  study,  and  which  takes  advantage  of  the  instinct  of  curiosity 

^  Copyright,  1888,  by  Eaatem  Edaoatlonal  Bareaa. 


1889.]  THE  TEACHING  OF  MATHEMATICS.  386 

in  presenting  new  conceptions,  can  long  have  its  introduction 
delayed. 

At  the  point  we  have  now  reached  with  our  class  of  fourteen- 
year-olds,  it  is  necessary,  as  we  have  said,  to  make  a  study  of 
elementary  algebraic  forms;  but  only  incidentally,  and  with  a 
view  to  its  direct  bearing  on  the  solution  of  equations.  We  treat 
only  the  simpler  cases  of  the  four  operations  +,  — ,  X  and  -7-, 
somewhat  as  indicated  in  the  Franklin  algebra,  pp.  15  and  31,  but 
with  an  extension  to  binomials.  Certain  important  types  of  pro- 
ducts (see  Todhunter's  Algebra,  §  53)  must  be  memorized.  With 
the  knowledge  thus  gained  we  may  successfully  handle  equations 
involving  multiplication,^  and  afterwards  the  successive  difficulties 
of  fractional  equations.^  Merely  fanciful  complications  such  as 
could  not  occur  in  the  solution  of  problems  ordinarily  given  are  to 
be  excluded.  The  knowledge  of  product-types  will  be  especially 
useful  in  the  equations  containing  fractions.  They  will,  indeed, 
be  useful  wherever  there  is  any  factoring  to  be  done ;  and  one  of 
the  most  important  applications  of  factoring  is  to  be  found  in  the 
solution  of  quadratic  equations.  This  method  of  solution  requires 
the  statement  of  the  following  axiom :  — 

The  product  of  any  number  of  factors  cannot  be  zero^  unless  one 
of  those  factors  be  zero. 

The  introduction  of  factoring  as  a  fundamental  method  for  the 
solution  of  quadratic  and  higher  equations  is  believed  to  be  new 
to  the  elementary  teaching  of  this  subject,  although  of  course  it 
has  been  incidentally  brought  out  in  many  of  the  best  textbooks.' 
It  is  usually  regarded,  however,  as  a  device  belonging  to  the 
theory  of  equations,  and  not  admissible  in  an  elementary  textbook. 
Por  example,  this  seems  to  be  Todhunter's  view.  Yet  the  matter 
is  so  simple  as  to  be  readily  understood  and  entered  into  with  zest 
by  the  average  pupil.  It  furnishes  a  continuation  of  the  subject 
of  equations  with  one  unknown  quantity,  and  a  thorough  inter- 
pretation of  multiple,  coincident,  and  null  solutions;  matters 
which  are  much  neglected  under  the  present  method  of  teaching. 
That  is,  for  equations  like  a^-\-i  =  ix^  or  ct^  —  4a:=0,  the  pupil 
ordinarily  finds  but  a  single  solution,  and  does  not  see  the  con- 
tinuity of  these  cases  with  the  ordinary  equation  having  two  so- 

1  Wentworth's  Elements  of  Algebra  (1881),  p.  61.. 

*  Id.  pp.  133  and  133. 

*  Franklin  Algebra,  pp.  808, 204;  Wentworth,  Elements  (1881),  p.  906;  Wells's  Academio 
Algebra,  p.  248. 


886  EDUCATION.  LFebmarj, 

lutions.  Further,  the  student  rarely  learns  any  reason  but  the 
teacher's  dictum  why  equations  of  degree  n  should  have  n  solu- 
tions. As  to  the  method  of  solving  quadratics  by  "  completing 
the  square,"  that  is  primarily  a  device  for  factoring,  and  should 
be  exhibited  as  an  auxiliary  method  for  cases  where  simple  inspec- 
tion does  not  show  the  factors.  As  to  the  success  of  the  method 
of  factoring  I  may  say  that  it  has  been  tried  for  two  years  with 
pupils  of  the  English  High  School  of  the  average  age  of  fourteen 
years  who  had  been  new  to  the  study  three  months  before ;  and 
they  were  found  to  be  interested  and  capable  of  solving  almost 
any  equation^  with  commensurable  roots,  provided  the  coefficients 
were  not  too  large  (say  all  in  the  hundreds). 

Generalization  of  problems  may  now  be  introduced,*  together 
with  the  evaluation  of  formulae :  incidentally  the  formula  for 
quadratic  roots  should  be  taught.  We  must  limit  ourselves,  of 
course,  to  generalizations  producing  simple  formulae;  otherwise 
we  should  be  compelled  to  anticipate  here  an  exhaustive  study  of 
formal  algebra. 

We  pass  next  to  the  subject  of  elimination,  with  the  remark 
that  as  the  subject  is  usually  presented  the  pupil  sees  so  little  of 
the  real  nature  of  the  process  through  which  he  puts  his  equations, 
that  it  is  only  with  the  greatest  effort  that  he  can  be  induced  to 
accept  or  to  attempt  to  understand  the  meaning  of  the  adjective 
simultaneous.  The  usual  introduction  presents  the  method  of 
addition  of  equations,^  which  the  student  accepts  only  too  readily, 
and  acquires  considerable  skill  in  its  manipulation.  It  is,  how- 
ever, rather  difficult  to  get  him  to  realize  that  this  is  the  simplifi- 
cation of  two  independent  restrictions  on  the  numbers  of  the 
problem.  I  do  not  speak  of  the  definitions  and  "  explanations  " 
usually  given :  they  are  not  all  that  could  be  desired,  even  if 
always  they  gave  rise  to  ideas  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil. 

Elimination  should  be  introduced  by  a  brief  treatment  of  inde- 
terminate equations.  The  effect  of  implicit  conditions  that  are 
not  algebraic  should  be  brought  into  view,  and  the  pupil  should 
be  acquainted  with  problems,  algebraically  indeterminate,  yet  on 
account  of  such  implicit  conditions  capable  of  definite  solution. 
Problems  could  be  obtained*  admitting  a  finite  list  of  answers,  and 

1 E.  g.,  all  the  examples  on  p.  210  of  Wells's  Academic  Algebra  are  within  their  reach. 

*  Franklin  Algebra,  p.  137. 

*  Franklin  Algebra,  p.  142. 
«  Todhunter's,  pp.  8M-386. 


1889.]  THE  TEACHING  OF  MATHEMATICS.  887 

for  problems  not  so  limited  a  substitute  for  an  infinite  list  of  an- 
swers is  at  hand  in  the  algorithm  of  analytic  geometry.     Thus 

a  complete  list  of  answers  to  the 
equation  2a;+5y=205  is  the 
line  figured  in  the  diagram, 
each  point  representing  by  its 
X  distance  from  OY  a  value  of  x^ 
and  by  its  distance  from  O  X 

the  corresponding  value  of  y. 

Some  hesitancy  will  be  felt  about  adopting  this  illustration  in  a 
course  of  elementary  algebra ;  but  the  most  conservative  teacher 
must  admit  that  a  man  of  affairs  will  have  to  study  a  graphic  dia- 
gram twenty  times  where  he  has  to  solve  an  algebraic  equation 
once ;  and  such  a  diagram  is  no  more  exclusively  the  property  of 
analytic  geometry  than  is  the  use  of  the  last  letters  of  the  alpha- 
bet for  unknown  quantities.  Both  sprang  full-armed  from  the 
head  of  Descartes. 

Of  course  when  the  idea  of  these  lists  of  answers  is  established 
the  pupil  will  be  easily  made  to  see  that  the  answer  to  a  pair  of 
equations  must  appear  in  the  lists  of  each  equation ;  and  the  point 
common  to  the  two  lines  in  the  graphic  diagram  is  a  tangible  pre- 
sentation of  such  an  answer. 

The  graphical  method  furnishes  a  ready  means  of  illustrating 
the  correlation  of  multiple  sets  of  answers,  say  in  a  pair  of  simul- 
taneous quadratics.  This  matter  has  been  very  much  neglected ; 
in  fact,  college  freshmen  who  attempt  to  obtain  a  complete  set  of 
answers  to  such  a  problem  are  rarer  than  pea-green  swans. 

The  natural  method  of  elimination  is  the  method  of  substitu- 
tion. The  veriest  beginner  applies  it  in  his  earliest  problems, 
when  he  constructs  an  expression  for  one  unknown  quantity  in 
terms  of  the  other.  It  comes  very  near  to  being  a  continuation  of 
this  method  by  one  unknown  quantity,  and  a  man  clings  to  the 
unique  to  save  confusing  himself.  It  is  interesting  to  see  the 
ingenuity  with  which,  in  one  or  two  cases,  Diophantus  chases  his 
problem,  taking  a  fresh  unknown  quantity  like  a  relay  of  horses, 
at  each  successive  stage.  Then  the  method  of  "  comparison  "  as 
it  is  called,  is  little  more  than  a  technical  variation  of  the  method 
of  substitution,  and  should  not  be  dwelt  upon  with  any  stress. 
The  method  of  addition  possesses  real  merit,  especially  in  equa- 


EDUCATION. 


[FebmuT, 


tions  of  the  first  degree,  where  a  sensible  pupil  will  soon  reject  all 
other  metlioils.  and  whei-e  on  tliat  account  conscientious  teachers 
are  wont  to  dictate  methods  of  elimination  in  order  that  the  stu- 
dent may  learn  the  full  tale. 

One  reason  for  delaying  the  study  of  elimination  is  that  the 
student  may  obtain  a  little  more  mental  growth  before  he  meets  so 
difficult  a  suhject.  The  danger  is  not  that  the  difficulty  will  stop 
his  progress,  but  ttiat  he  will  jmss  it  unnoticed,  and  later,  will  be 
compelled  to  come  back  and  root  it  out.  For  examplct  if  we  have 
a  pair  of  simultaneous  <{uudratic3,  each  of  which  is  factorable,  they 
furnish  a  set  of  four  equations  of  the  first  degree :  four  equations 
make  six  pains;  would  each  of  these  six  [lairs  Ite  simultaneous?' 
Obviously,  those  which  comprised  the  factors  of  the  respective 
quadratics  would  not !«  :  yet  they  would  satisfy  definitions  gen- 
erally given.^  vVnother  reason  is  that  under  tlie  plan  here  sug- 
gested, tlie  subject  of  otimination  would  be  presented  as  a  whole, 
and  the  different  methods  applied  each  to  its  proper  use  at  once. 
The  three  Ciises  of  elimination  would  then  l>e :  — 

I.  Each  eijuation  of  first  degree :  metliod  of  addition. 

II.  One  equation  of  fii-st  degree,  the  other  quadratic:  substi- 
tute in  the  ciuudratic  tlie  expresiiion  for  x  or  y  implied  in  the  other 
equation. 

III.  Both  equations  quadratic :  by  (1)  factoring  one  equation 
or  bj'  (2)  combining  both  eiiuations  in  some  suitable  way,  we  may 
be  able  to  obtain  equations  of  first  degree ;  then  proceed  as  in  case 
II.     But  this  case  is  in  general  impossible. 

As  an  illustration  of  case  TIT.,  we  may  take  the  pairs  of  equa- 
tions:  2^"  — 4a:y  +  8a*=17;  j^"— a*=16.  Dividing  the  first 
equation  by  the  second  and  multiplying  out,  we  obtain  tlie  homo- 
-  -  04  J//  +  16  y^  t^  0.  fi-om  \>'hich  ox  —  3  y 
S u Its titu ting,  say  from  the  tirstof  these,  in 
■  '-.hiniTJ  r-i-2  \--  n  ihimogeneouB  equ»- 
II  I    i  .Licnt  to  the  more 

1  .        .1,1  ■'..-    lii' ;ises  where  the  un- 

■ini  j>  faomogeneous  expres- 
is.  that  may 


1889.]  THE  TEACHINQ  OF  MATHEMATICS.  389' 

be  factored  at  once ;  if  both  are  homogeneous  they  must  evidently 
be  either  inconsistent  or  identical,  for  they  are  then  equivalent  to 
a  set  of  four  equations  of  the  form  a;  -^  y  =  a  constant.  It  is  no 
inconsiderable  advantage  for  the  student  to  be  familiarized  with 
the  theory  and  use  of  homogeneous  equations. 

The  course  herein  recommended  may  be  easily  completed  in 
one  year.  A  second  year  should  then  be  devoted  to  the  study  of 
formal  algebra,  including  logarithms,  but  not  proportion  as  distinct 
from  the  theory  of  fractions ;  the  algebraic  fraction  is  generally  a 
ratio,  and  the  fractional  notation  has  the  advantage  of  being  a 
familiar  instrument  in  the  hands  of  the  pupil.  Inasmuch  as  there 
rests  upon  any  innovator  the  burden  of  proving  his  project  useful, 
I  submit  the  following  schedule  of  the  subjects  of  study  during 
the  first  year  of  algebra,  with  the  object  of  showing  that  the  devel- 
opment is  systematic,  symmetrical,  and  upon  a  consistent  plan : — 

First  Year  Course.  —  A.  Tabulation  of  steps  in  demonstrative 
reasoning;  algebra  as  an  abbreviation  system;  simple  problems 
and  equations ;  absolute  negative  quantity.  B.  Equations  and 
identities  ;  the  four  operations  ;  certain  product-types ;  fractional 
and  other  equations  of  degree  1.  C.  Factorable  equations ;  fac- 
toring quadratics  by  "  completing  the  square  " ;  quadratics  with 
irrational  and  imaginary  roots.  D.  Generalization  of  problems 
and  evaluation  of  formulae ;  formula  for  quadratic  roots.  E.  In- 
determinate equations ;  effect  of  non-algebraic  conditions ;  finite 
and  infinite  lists  of  answers ;  elimination :  Case  I. ;  Case  II. ; 
Case  III. 

Second  Year  Course.  —  G.  C.  D.  and  L.  C.  M.  of  polynomials; 
Fractions ;  Proportion  ;  Powers  and  Roots ;  Imaginaries ;  Loga- 
rithms; Binomial  theorem. 


"Knavery  and  flattery  are  blood  relations." 

"Force  is  all-conquering,  but  its  victories  are  shortlived." 

"Let  us  have  faith  that  right  makes  might ;  and,  in  that  faith, 

let  us  to  the  end  dai-e  to  do  our  duty." 

"With  malice  towards  none,  with  charity  for  all,  with  firmness 

in  the  right  as  God  gives  us  to  see  the  right." 

—  Abraham  Lincoln  (1809-1865.) 


890  ED  VGA  TION.  [F^bmarj, 


THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE 

AND  LITERATURE.^ 

V. 

AUTHOR   AND  LIBRARY   WORK   IN  SCHOOLS. 
BT  8UPT.   L.   R.  HALSEY,  BATTLE  CREEK,  MICH. 

THE  importance  of  giving  literary  training  in  the  public  schools 
is  coming  more  and  more  to  be  recognized.  This  healthful 
symptom  is  manifesting  itself  in  different  sections  of  the  country, 
and  it  is  indicative  of  a  disposition  to  introduce  piuctically  ia 
primary,  grammar,  and  high  schools  what  should  be  considered  the 
most  important  work  of  the  school.  Very  gratifying  results  are 
reported  from  different  quarters  as  to  the  outcome  of  such  appli- 
cation. One  important  element  in  this  work  is  the  use  of  entire 
masterpieces,  so  far  as  is  possible,  in  the  different  grades ;  another 
is  the  introduction  of  special  author  exercises ;  a  third,  the  use  of 
library  books  in  geography,  history,  and  science  work ;  a  fourth, 
the  direction  of  the  general  reading  of  the  pupils.  The  writer 
has  had  some  experience  in  work  in  these  four  lines  in  the  schools 
of  a  city,  and  gives  the  results  of  his  experience  and  observation 
that,  if  there  be  any  merit  in  them,  some  suggestions  may  be  made 
to  those  who  are  beginning  this  helpful  work.  The  list  of  master- 
pieces used  in  the  schools  indicated  above  (the  Battle  Creek 
schools),  was  recently  given  in  Education  and  in  Common  School 
Education,  and  need  not  be  repeated  here. 

The  aim  is  to  introduce  the  work  in  entire  masterpieces  as  early 
as  possible  and  to  carry  it  out,  so  fully  as  may  be  practicable,  to 
the  end  of  the  high  school  course.  Obviously,  the  vocabulary- 
forming  period,  the  primary  and  first  reader  age  of  the  pupil,  does 
not  allow  the  introduction  of  reading  material  other  than  that 
which  is  designed  to  develop  a  starting  vocabulary.  A  beginning 
may  be  made  possibly  in  the  second  grade,  certainly  in  the  third, 
in  simple  entire  classics,  such  as  ^Esop's  Fables  or  Andersen's 

^  Copyright,  1888,  by  Eastern  Edaoational  Bureau. 


1889.]  THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  391 

Fairy  Tales,  or  Scudder's  Book  of  Folk-Stories.  After  such  intro- 
duction the  series  may  run  through  the  primary,  grammar,  and  high 
schools.  As  some  variety  each  year  may  be  desirable,  and  as  the 
numbered  readers  give  explanations  and  language  helps,  which 
the  average  teacher  needs  and  the  average  school  edition  of  an 
entire  masterpiece  does  not  afford,  it  is  well  to  use  the  graded 
reader  for  several  months  each  year,  the  supplementary  classics 
taking  their  place  for  the  remainder  of  the  year.  As  a  rule  an 
entire  classic  should  be  read  through  without  interruption.  In 
classes  in  which  there  are  two  recitations  in  reading  each  day,  a 
good  plan  is  to  use  the  numbered  reader  for  one  exercise,  the  en- 
tire masterpiece  for  the  other.  One  of  these  exercises  would  bet- 
ter be  in  sight  reading.  Sight  reading  should  be  introduced  all 
along  the  line.  It  is  too  much  neglected.  It  should  not,  how- 
ever, supplant  the  reading  exercise  for  which  preparation  is  made. 
It  has  worked  well  to  have  separate  sets  of  masterpieces  for  sight 
reading.  When  the  numbered  readers  are  used,  it  is  better  in  the 
grammar  school  to  read  consecutively  the  pieces  of  an  author, 
making  as  full  study  of  him  and  his  writings  as  circumstances  will 
allow,  taking  up  in  this  way  two  or  three  authors  during  two  or 
three  months.  This  will  carry  the  study  along  the  line  of  the 
author  work  of  which  mention  will  shortly  be  made. 

In  the  class  hour,  whatever  may  be  the  piece  in  hand,  the  object 
should  be  to  work  out  practically  the  three  purposes  of  the  read- 
ing exercise.  The  first  of  them  is  to  give  the  ability  to  grasp 
mentally,  rapidly  and  accurately,  the  thought  of  the  printed  page. 
This  is  the  most  obvious  purpose  and  gives  the  chief  warrant  for 
teaching  reading  in  the  schools.  The  second  is  to  enable  the  pu- 
pil to  reproduce  the  thought  in  oral  rendering,  to  read  aloud. 
This  is  practically  the  least  important.  Attention  to  it  is  neces- 
sary as,  aside  from  other  manifest  advantages,  it  gives  the  best 
means  of  determining  the  ability  of  the  pupil  to  read  mentally. 
We  shall  have  little  to  say  of  this  in  the  present  paper,  yet  we 
would  not  be  understood  as  undervaluing  it.  In  the  earlier  stages 
of  school  life  it  is  practically  more  important  than  it  is  later. 
The  third  and  highest  purpose  of  the  reading  exercise,  as  we  take 
it,  is  that  which  has  to  do  with  general  literary  culture,  the  devel- 
opment of  the  literary  taste,  and  the  acquisition  of  the  power  to 
read  good  books  intelligently  and  appreciatively  after  schooldays 
are  done.     If  this  faculty  shall  have  been  acquired  in  school,  we 


393  EDUCATION.  [Febroaiy, 

care  not  so  much  as  to  the  amount  of  work  that  has  been  done  in 
the  line  studies.  We  would  not  yield  to  any  one  in  our  desire  for 
a  thorough  and  adequate  study  of  the  commonly  accepted  edu- 
cational essentials.  Yet  the  formation  of  a  wise  reading  habit,  is, 
next  to  the  development  of  a  worthy  character,  the  highest  thing 
a  school  may  give  its  pupils.  While  not  overlooking  tiie  first  and 
second  purposes  of  the  reading  exercises,  —  nay,  while  affirming 
their  necessity  to  a  proper  attention  to  the  third,  —  we  shall 
throughout  this  paper  have  in  mind  especially  the  third  purpose. 
That  should  dominate  in  the  selection  of  books  to  be  read,  in  the 
use  to  which  they  shall  be  put,  in  the  methods  of  work  in  class- 
room and  elsewhere. 

The  plan  is  to  secure  a  full  understanding  of  the  thought  of  the 
author  through  exercises,  for  which  (except  in  sight  reading), 
there  has  been  careful  preparation  in  definition,  synonyms,  para- 
phrasing, reproducing,  character  and  plot  discussion;  through 
memory  exercises  and  lessons  on  the  life  and  homes  and  surround- 
ings and  works  (introduced  gradually)  of  the  author.  These 
exercises  should  be  oral  and  written.  The  written  work  may  be 
done  upon  the  blackboard,  on  loose  sheets  of  paper  or  in  language 
books.  Much  of  it  may  be  worked  into  the  language  hour.  The 
character  and  extent  of  this  work  will  depend  upon  the  age  and 
previous  literary  study  of  the  pupils.  Merits  of  style  should  not 
pass  unnoticed  in  the  higher  grades  of  the  lower  schools.  They 
should  receive  large  attention  in  the  high  school.  It  is  taken  as 
granted  that  this  literary  work  should  enter  into  the  programme 
for  every  year  in  every  course  in  the  high  school.  Too  often  the 
reading  and  literary  exercises  are  cut  out  of  the  high  school  curric- 
ulum. The  purpose  is  to  give  during  the  months  in  which  an 
author  is  studied  as  good  a  knowledge  as  is  possible  of  him,  his 
character  and  work,  his  writings,  their  style  and  incidents.  This 
may  all  be  introduced  so  slowly  and  gradually  that  it  will  not  be  a 
burden.  Even  if  a  great  deal  of  ground  be  not  covered,  the  seeds 
will  be  planted  for  future  literary  growth.  Pictures  of  authors 
and  scenes,  and,  so  far  as  is  possible,  all  the  works  of  the  author 
which  will  interest  the  children,  and  lx)oks,  and  articles,  and  clip- 
pings about  him  and  his  writings  will  aid  in  encouraging  pupils  to 
read  other  books  than  the  one  in  hand  for  class  study.  All 
through  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  allusions  and  references 
should  be  explained.     The  atlas,  the  dictionary,  the  cyclopajdia, 


1889.]  THE  TSACSrya  OF  THE  EyQLlSH  LANGUAGE.  398 

should  be  used  at  every  turn.      The  habit  of  investigating,  of 
research,  should  be  acquired. 

Connected  with  the  classroom  literary  work  there  may  well  be 
a  series  of  special  exercises,  each  devoted  to  the  life  and  writings 
of  some  one  author.  These  exercises  may  occur  during  school 
hours,  occupying  the  whole  or  part  of  one  session,  or  they  may  be 
extra  evening  exercises.  Every  effort  should  be  put  forward  to 
decorate  the  room  appropriately  and  to  provide  a  varied  and 
entertaining  programme.  Pictures  upon  the  wall,  books  upon  the 
desk,  citations  and  stanzas  upon  the  board,  manila  paper  charts 
with  sketches  of  the  author's  life  and  lists  of  his  works  will  help 
along  wonderfully.  There  should  be  singing,  preferably  —  when 
it  is  possible — the  words  of  the  author  whose  life  is  under  con- 
sideration, set  to  music.  The  programme  may  be  made  up  of 
essays,  blackboard  sketches,  reports,  talks,  recitations,  readings, 
brief  citations,  tributes,  anecdotes.  The  friends  should  be  invited 
to  be  present.  Such  exercises  may  be  carried  out  successfully,  to 
the  writer's  knowledge,  in  grades  from  the  third  to  the  twelfth 
inclusive.  The  character  of  the  parts  and  the  amount  of  essay 
work  will,  of  course,  vary  with  different  grades. 

Much  may  be  done  in  developing  the  reading  habit  through  the 
constant  use  of  library  books  and  the  better  periodicals  in  connec- 
tion with  geography,  history,  science,  and  other  school  work. 
The  books  used  for  this  purpose  should  be  kept  in  the  schoolroom 
long  enough  for  the  pupils  to  become  acquainted  with  them. 
There  is  a  double  advantage  in  this.  Not  only  are  the  pupils  get- 
ting additional  information  about  the  subjects  handled  in  the 
class  work,  thus  doing  more  interesting  and  intelligent  work ;  not 
only  do  they  cultivate  the  habit  of  research,  a  very  valuable  thing 
in  itself ;  they  also  get  into  the  habit  of  handling,  of  using  books. 
Something  in  pictures  or  in  print  will  attract  their  attention  so 
that  they  will  wish  to  know  more  of  the  books  they  use,  and  of 
other  books  in  the  same  or  other  fields.  A  great  deal  of  this  very 
effective  work  is  now  done  in  our  schools.  The  amount  is  increas- 
ing. A  large  library,  while  it  is  a  great  help,  is  not  an  absolute 
necessity.  A  small  number  of  well-selected  books,  properly 
handled,  will  give  large  returns.  More  depends  upon  the  spirit 
of  the  teacher  than  upon  the  size  of  the  library. 

Such  work  as  is  indicated  above  should  not  be  limited  to  the 
class  lines.     Advantage  should  be  taken  of  every  possible  oppor- 


.884  ED  VGA  TION.  [February, 


THE    TEACHING    OF   MATHEMATICS.^ 

VI. 

A  CONSISTENT  PLAN  FOR  THE  TEACHING  OF  ALGEBRA  INDUCTIVELY. 
BY  GEORGE  WILLIAM  EVANS,  ENGLISH  HIGH  SCHOOL,  BOSTON. 

IN  a  previous  article  the  writer  tried  to  show  historical  warrant 
for  the  practice  of  introducing  algebra  by  means  of  problems, 
and  as  essentially  a  system  of  abbreviations.  It  is  evident  that 
the  method  there  indicated  cannot  be  carried  very  far  without  a 
study  of  elementary  algebraic  forms.  Accordingly  we  find,  as  in 
Sherwin's  Algebra,  so  familiar  to  New  England  students  of  ten  or 
twenty  years  ago,  or  in  the  more  recent  textbook  called  the 
Franklin  Algebra,  that  our  method  is  pursued  only  far  enough  to 
furnish  an  introduction  more  or  less  extended,  after  which  the 
old-fashioned  order  of  development  is  pretty  closely  followed.  It 
is  obvious  that  such  a  plan  lacks  consistency,  and  certain  practi- 
cal difficulties  will  suggest  themselves.  In  taking  up  ah  initio  the 
study  of  formal  algebra  after  some  little  time  spent  upon  prob- 
lems, the  pupil  is  apt  to  feel  either  that  he  has  been  wasting  his 
time  and  is  now  just  beginning  the  work  of  the  year,  or  that  he 
has  a  pretty  clear  idea  of  what  algebra  is  for,  and  that  this  study 
of  forms  will  be  of  little  application  therein.  Further,  we  have 
here  still  a  little  of  the  leaven  of  unrighteousness,  inasmuch  as  an 
extensive  and  logically  complete  theory  of  forms  is  made  to  intro- 
duce certain  very  simple  and  limited  applications  of  it.  There  is 
no  reason  why  the  method  followed  in  the  case  of  simple  equa- 
tions should  not  be  continued  to  quadratic  and  simultaneous  equa- 
tions. No  textbook,  so  far  as  I  know,  has  yet  been  constructed  on 
this  plan,  and  the  natural  conservatism  of  school  methods  will 
long  withhold  it  from  us.  But  it  seems  difficult  to  believe  that  a 
method  which  promises  a  tolerably  rounded  and  complete  intro- 
duction, which  prepares  the  way  for  intelligent  continuation  of 
the  study,  and  which  takes  advantage  of  the  instinct  of  curiosity 

^  Copyright,  1888,  by  Eastern  Edaoatlonal  Bareaa. 


1889.]  THE  TSACmNG  OF  MATHEMATICS.  386 

in  presenting  new  conceptions,  can  long  have  its  introduction 
delayed. 

At  the  point  we  have  now  reached  with  our  class  of  fourteen- 
year-olds,  it  is  necessary,  as  we  have  said,  to  make  a  study  of 
elementary  algebraic  forms;  but  only  incidentally,  and  with  a 
view  to  its  direct  bearing  on  the  solution  of  equations.  We  treat 
only  the  simpler  cases  of  the  four  operations  +,  — ,  X  and  -r-, 
somewhat  as  indicated  in  the  Franklin  algebra,  pp.  15  and  31,  but 
with  an  extension  to  binomials.  Certain  important  types  of  pro- 
ducts (see  Todhunter's  Algebra,  §  53)  must  be  memorized.  With 
the  knowledge  thus  gained  we  may  successfully  handle  equations 
involving  multiplication,^  and  afterwards  the  successive  difficulties 
of  fractional  equations.^  Merely  fanciful  complications  such  as 
could  not  occur  in  the  solution  of  problems  ordinarily  given  are  to 
be  excluded.  The  knowledge  of  product-types  will  be  especially 
useful  in  the  equations  containing  fractions.  They  will,  indeed, 
be  useful  wherever  there  is  any  factoring  to  be  done ;  and  one  of 
the  most  important  applications  of  factoring  is  to  be  found  in  the 
solution  of  quadratic  equations.  This  method  of  solution  requires 
the  statement  of  the  following  axiom :  — 

The  product  of  any  number  of  factors  cannot  be  zero^  unless  one 
of  those  factors  be  zero. 

The  introduction  of  factoring  as  a  fundamental  method  for  the 
solution  of  quadratic  and  higher  equations  is  believed  to  be  new 
to  the  elementary  teaching  of  this  subject,  although  of  course  it 
has  been  incidentally  brought  out  in  many  of  the  best  textbooks.' 
It  is  usually  regarded,  however,  as  a  device  belonging  to  the 
theory  of  equations,  and  not  admissible  in  an  elementary  textbook. 
Por  example,  this  seems  to  be  Todhunter's  view.  Yet  the  matter 
is  so  simple  as  to  be  readily  understood  and  entered  into  with  zest 
by  the  average  pupil.  It  furnishes  a  continuation  of  the  subject 
of  equations  with  one  unknown  quantity,  and  a  thorough  inter- 
pretation of  multiple,  coincident,  and  null  solutions;  matters 
which  are  much  neglected  under  the  present  method  of  teaching. 
That  is,  for  equations  like  a^-^i^z^x^  or  a^  —  4a;=0,  the  pupil 
ordinarily  finds  but  a  single  solution,  and  does  not  see  the  con- 
tinuity of  these  cases  with  the  ordinary  equation  having  two  so- 

1  Wentworth's  Elements  of  Algebra  (1881),  p.  61. 
>  Id.  pp.  133  and  135. 

*  Franklin  Algebra,  pp.  808, 204;  Wentworth,  Elements  (1881),  p.  906;  Wells's  Aoademio 
Algebra,  p.  248. 


886  EDUCATION.  LF^bmarj, 

lutions.  Further,  the  student  rarely  learns  any  reason  but  the 
teacher's  dictum  why  equations  of  degree  n  should  have  n  solu- 
tions. As  to  the  method  of  solving  quadratics  by  ^^  completing 
the  square,"  that  is  primarily  a  device  for  factoring,  and  should 
be  exhibited  as  an  auxiliary  method  for  cases  where  simple  inspec- 
tion does  not  show  the  factors.  As  to  the  success  of  the  method 
of  factoring  I  may  say  that  it  has  been  tried  for  two  years  with 
pupils  of  the  English  High  School  of  the  average  age  of  fourteen 
years  who  had  been  new  to  the  study  three  months  before ;  and 
they  were  found  to  be  interested  and  capable  of  solving  almost 
any  equation^  with  commensurable  roots,  provided  the  coefficients 
were  not  too  large  (say  all  in  the  hundreds). 

Generalization  of  problems  may  now  be  introduced,*  together 
with  the  evaluation  of  formulae:  incidentally  the  formula  for 
quadratic  roots  should  be  taught  We  must  limit  ourselves,  of 
course,  to  generalizations  producing  simple  formulae;  otherwise 
we  should  be  compelled  to  anticipate  here  an  exhaustive  study  of 
formal  algebra. 

We  pass  next  to  the  subject  of  elimination,  with  the  remark 
that  as  the  subject  is  usually  presented  the  pupil  sees  so  little  of 
the  real  nature  of  the  process  through  which  he  puts  his  equations, 
that  it  is  only  with  the  greatest  effort  that  he  can  be  induced  to 
accept  or  to  attempt  to  understand  the  meaning  of  the  adjective 
simultaneous.  The  usual  introduction  presents  the  method  of 
addition  of  equations,^  which  th6  student  accepts  only  too  readily, 
and  acquires  considerable  skill  in  its  manipulation.  It  is,  how- 
ever, rather  difficult  to  get  him  to  realize  that  this  is  the  simplifi- 
cation of  two  independent  restrictions  on  the  numbers  of  the 
problem.  I  do  not  speak  of  the  definitions  and  '^  explanations  " 
usually  given :  they  are  not  all  that  could  be  desired,  even  if 
always  they  gave  rise  to  ideas  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil. 

Elimination  should  be  introduced  by  a  brief  treatment  of  inde- 
terminate equations.  The  effect  of  implicit  conditions  that  are 
not  algebraic  should  be  brought  into  view,  and  the  pupil  should 
be  acquainted  with  problems,  algebraically  indeterminate,  yet  on 
account  of  such  implicit  conditions  capable  of  definite  solution. 
Problems  could  be  obtained^  admitting  a  finite  list  of  answers,  and 

1 E.  g.,  all  the  examples  on  p.  210  of  Wells's  Aoademic  Algebra  are  within  their  reach, 
s  Franklin  Algebra,  p.  137. 
•Franklin  Algebra,  p.  142. 
4  Todhonter's,  pp.  8M-896. 


1889.]  THE  TEACmNG  OF  MATHEMATICS.  887 

for  problems  not  so  limited  a  substitute  for  an  infinite  list  of  an- 
swers is  at  hand  in  the  algorithm  of  analytic  geometry.     Thus 

a  complete  list  of  answers  to  the 
equation  2a;+5y^205  is  the 
line  figured  in  the  diagram, 
each  point  representing  by  its 
X  distance  from  OY  a  value  of  x^ 
and  by  its  distance  from  O  X 

the  corresponding  value  of  y. 

Some  hesitancy  will  be  felt  about  adopting  this  illustration  in  a 
course  of  elementary  algebra ;  but  the  most  conservative  teacher 
must  admit  that  a  man  of  affairs  will  have  to  study  a  graphic  dia- 
gram twenty  times  where  he  has  to  solve  an  algebraic  equation 
once ;  and  such  a  diagram  is  no  more  exclusively  the  property  of 
analytic  geometry  than  is  the  use  of  the  last  letters  of  the  alpha- 
bet for  unknown  quantities.  Both  sprang  full-armed  from  the 
head  of  Descartes. 

Of  course  when  the  idea  of  these  lists  of  answers  is  established 
the  pupil  will  be  easily  made  to  see  that  the  answer  to  a  pair  of 
equations  must  appear  in  the  lists  of  each  equation ;  and  the  point 
common  to  the  two  lines  in  the  graphic  diagram  is  a  tangible  pre- 
sentation of  such  an  answer. 

The  graphical  method  furnishes  a  ready  means  of  illustrating 
the  correlation  of  multiple  sets  of  answers,  say  in  a  pair  of  simul- 
taneous quadratics.  This  matter  has  been  very  much  neglected ; 
in  fact,  college  freshmen  who  attempt  to  obtain  a  complete  set  of 
answers  to  such  a  problem  are  rarer  than  pea-green  swans. 

The  natural  method  of  elimination  is  the  method  of  substitu- 
tion. The  veriest  beginner  applies  it  in  his  earliest  problems, 
when  he  constructs  an  expression  for  one  unknown  quantity  in 
terms  of  the  other.  It  comes  very  near  to  being  a  continuation  of 
this  method  by  one  unknown  quantity,  and  a  man  clings  to  the 
unique  to  save  confusing  himself.  It  is  interesting  to  see  the 
ingenuity  with  which,  in  one  or  two  cases,  Diophantus  chases  his 
problem,  taking  a  fresh  unknown  quantity  like  a  relay  of  horses, 
at  each  successive  stage.  Then  the  method  of  "  comparison  "  as 
it  is  called,  is  little  more  than  a  technical  variation  of  the  method 
of  substitution,  and  should  not  be  dwelt  upon  with  any  stress. 
The  method  of  addition  possesses  real  merit,  especially  in  equa- 


888  EDUCATION.  [Febnury, 

tions  of  the  first  degree,  where  a  sensible  pupil  will  soon  reject  all 
other  methods,  and  where  on  that  account  conscientious  teachers 
are  wont  to  dictate  methods  of  elimination  in  order  that  the  stu- 
dent may  learn  the  full  tale. 

One  reason  for  delaying  the  study  of  elimination  is  that  the 
student  may  obtain  a  little  more  mental  growth  before  he  meets  so 
difficult  a  subject.  The  danger  is  not  that  the  difficulty  will  stop 
his  progress,  but  that  he  will  pass  it  unnoticed,  and  later,  will  be 
compelled  to  come  back  and  root  it  out.  For  example,  if  we  have 
a  pair  of  simultaneous  quadratics,  each  of  which  is  factorable,  they 
furnish  a  set  of  four  equations  of  the  first  degree :  four  equations 
make  six  pairs ;  would  each  of  these  six  pairs  be  simultaneous  ?^ 
Obviously,  those  which  comprised  the  factors  of  the  respective 
quadratics  would  not  be  :  yet  they  would  satisfy  definitions  gen- 
erally given.^  Another  reason  is  that  under  the  plan  here  sug- 
gested, the  subject  of  elimination  would  be  presented  as  a  whole, 
and  the  different  methods  applied  each  to  its  proper  use  at  once. 
The  three  cases  of  elimination  would  then  be :  — 

I.  Each  equation  of  first  degree :  method  of  addition. 

II.  One  equation  of  first  degree,  the  other  quadratic :  substi- 
tute in  the  quadratic  the  expression  for  x  ot  y  implied  in  the  other 
equation. 

III.  Both  equations  quadratic :  by  (1)  factoring  one  equation 
or  by  (2)  combining  both  equations  in  some  suitable  way,  we  may 
be  able  to  obtain  equations  of  first  degree ;  then  proceed  as  in  case 
II.     But  this  case  is  in  general  impossible. 

As  an  illustration  of  case  III.,  we  may  take  the  pairs  of  equa- 
tions: 2y2  —  ^xy-^Zofl^ll \  y^  —  2:^=16.  Dividing  the  first 
equation  by  the  second  and  multiplying  out,  we  obtain  the  homo- 
geneous equation  65  a:^ — Q\xy'\- 15  y^  ^  0,  from  which  bx  —  3  y 
=  0  and  13  a:  —  5  y  =  0.  Substituting,  say  from  the  first  of  these,  in 
the  second  equation,  we  obtain  a-  =  2.  As  a  homogeneous  equa- 
tion can  always  be  factored,  this  method  (equivalent  to  the  more 
artificial  y  ^  vx  method)  is  applicable  to  all  cases  where  the  unr 
known  tenriH  of  each  equation  given  form  a  homogeneous  expres- 
sion.^    If  either  of  the  given  equations  are  homogeneous,  that  may 

lApairof  equations  of  the  kind  described  Is:  ap»-f-2j:y=2x-f-4y;  2y>=8xy-f-5y.  These 
fiactor  into  a;  =  2 ;  a;-f2y=0;  y=0;  2y  — 8x=5;  and  the  admissible  answers  are2and0, 
S  and  5 1-2,  0  and  0,-5-4  and  5-d. 

>  Franklin  Algebra,  p.  142. 

*  For  a  common  misstatement  on  this  point,  see  Bradbury's  Elementary  Algebra, 
f  184,  p.  196.    Of.    Todhunter,  p.  198. 


1889.]  THE  TEACHING  OF  MATHEMATICS.  389^ 

be  factored  at  once ;  if  both  are  homogeneous  they  must  evidently 
be  either  inconsistent  or  identical,  for  they  are  then  equivalent  to 
a  set  of  four  equations  of  the  form  x  -=-  y  ^  a  constant.  It  is  no 
inconsiderable  advantage  for  the  student  to  be  familiarized  with 
the  theory  and  use  of  homogeneous  equations. 

The  course  herein  recommended  may  be  easily  completed  in 
one  year.  A  second  year  should  then  be  devoted  to  the  study  of 
formal  algebra,  including  logarithms,  but  not  proportion  as  distinct 
from  the  theory  of  fractions ;  the  algebraic  fraction  is  generally  a 
ratio,  and  the  fractional  notation  has  the  advantage  of  being  a 
familiar  instrument  in  the  hands  of  the  pupil.  Inasmuch  as  there 
rests  upon  any  innovator  the  burden  of  proving  his  project  useful, 
I  submit  the  following  schedule  of  the  subjects  of  study  during 
the  first  year  of  algebra,  with  the  object  of  showing  that  the  devel- 
opment is  systematic,  symmetrical,  and  upon  a  consistent  plan : — 

First  Year  Course.  —  A.  Tabulation  of  steps  in  demonstrative 
reasoning;  algebra  as  an  abbreviation  system;  simple  problems 
and  equations ;  absolute  negative  quantity.  B.  Equations  and 
identities  ;  the  four  operations  ;  certain  product-tjrpes ;  fractional 
and  other  equations  of  degree  1.  C.  Factorable  equations ;  fac- 
toring quadratics  by  "  completing  the  square  " ;  quadratics  with 
irrational  and  imaginary  roots.  D.  Generalization  of  problems 
and  evaluation  of  formulae ;  formula  for  quadratic  roots.  E.  In- 
determinate equations ;  effect  of  non-algebraic  conditions ;  finite 
and  infinite  lists  of  answers;  elimination:  Case  I.;  Case  II.; 
Case  III. 

Second  Year  Course,  —  G.  C.  D.  and  L.  C.  M.  of  polynomials ; 
Fractions ;  Proportion  ;  Powers  and  Roots ;  Imaginaries ;  Loga- 
rithms; Binomial  theorem. 


"  Knavery  and  flattery  are  blood  relations." 

"  Force  is  all-conquering,  but  its  victories  are  shortlived." 

"  Let  us  have  faith  that  right  makes  might ;  and,  in  that  faith, 

let  us  to  the  end  daie  to  do  our  duty." 

"  With  malice  towards  none,  with  charity  for  all,  with  firmness 

in  the  right  as  God  gives  us  to  see  the  right." 

—  Abraham  Lincoln  (1809-1865.) 


890  EDUCATION.  [Febnuuy, 


THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE 

AND  LITERATURE.^ 

V. 

AUTHOR   AND  LIBRARY   WORK   IN  SCHOOLS. 
BY  8UPT.   L.  R.  HALSEY,  BATTLE  CREEK,  MICH. 

THE  importance  of  giving  literary  training  in  the  public  schools 
is  coming  more  and  more  to  be  recognized.  This  healthful 
symptom  is  manifesting  itself  in  different  sections  of  the  country, 
and  it  is  indicative  of  a  disposition  to  introduce  practically  in 
primary,  grammar,  and  high  schools  what  should  be  considered  the 
most  im}X)rtant  work  of  the  school.  Very  gratifying  results  are 
reported  from  different  quarters  as  to  the  outcome  of  such  appli- 
cation. One  important  element  in  this  work  is  the  use  of  entire 
masterpieces,  so  far  as  is  possible,  in  the  different  grades ;  another 
is  the  introduction  of  special  author  exercises ;  a  third,  the  use  of 
library  books  in  geography,  history,  and  science  work ;  a  fourth, 
the  direction  of  the  general  reading  of  the  pupils.  The  writer 
has  had  some  experience  in  work  in  these  four  lines  in  the  schools 
of  a  city,  and  gives  the  results  of  his  experience  and  observation 
that,  if  there  Ikj  any  merit  in  them,  some  suggestions  may  be  made 
to  those  who  are  beginning  this  helpful  work.  The  list  of  master- 
pieces used  in  the  schools  indicated  above  (the  Battle  Creek 
schools),  was  recently  given  in  Education  and  in  Common  School 
Education,  and  need  not  be  repeated  here. 

The  aim  is  to  introduce  the  work  in  entire  masterpieces  as  early 
as  possible  and  to  carry  it  out,  so  fully  as  may  be  practicable,  to 
the  end  of  the  high  school  course.  Obviously,  the  vocabulary- 
forming  period,  the  primary  and  fii-st  reader  age  of  the  pupil,  does 
not  allow  the  introduction  of  reading  material  other  than  that 
which  is  designed  to  develop  a  starting  vocabulary.  A  beginning 
may  be  made  possibly  in  the  second  grade,  certainly  in  the  third, 
in  simple  entire  classics,  such  as  ^Esop's  Fables  or  Andersen's 

^  Copyright,  1888,  by  Eastern  Educational  Bureau. 


1889.]  THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  891 

Fairy  Tales,  or  Scudder's  Book  of  Folk-Stories.  After  such  intro- 
duction the  series  may  run  through  the  primary,  grammar,  and  high 
schools.  As  some  variety  each  year  may  be  desirable,  and  as  the 
numbered  readers  give  explanations  and  language  helps,  which 
the  average  teacher  needs  and  the  average  school  edition  of  an 
entire  masterpiece  does  not  afford,  it  is  well  to  use  the  graded 
reader  for  several  months  each  year,  the  supplementary  classics 
taking  their  place  for  the  remainder  of  the  year.  As  a  rule  an 
entire  classic  should  be  read  through  without  interruption.  In 
classes  in  which  there  are  two  recitations  in  reading  each  day,  a 
good  plan  is  to  use  the  numbered  reader  for  one  exercise,  the  en- 
tire masterpiece  for  the  other.  One  of  these  exercises  would  bet- 
ter be  in  sight  reading.  Sight  reading  should  be  introduced  all 
along  the  line.  It  is  too  much  neglected.  It  should  not,  how- 
ever, supplant  the  reading  exercise  for  which  preparation  is  made. 
It  has  worked  well  to  have  separate  sets  of  masterpieces  for  sight 
reading.  When  the  numbered  readers  are  used,  it  is  better  in  the 
grammar  school  to  read  consecutively  the  pieces  of  an  author, 
making  as  full  study  of  him  and  his  writings  as  circumstances  will 
allow,  taking  up  in  this  way  two  or  three  authors  during  two  or 
three  months.  This  will  carry  the  study  along  the  line  of  the 
author  work  of  which  mention  will  shortly  be  made. 

In  the  class  hour,  whatever  may  be  the  piece  in  hand,  the  object 
should  be  to  work  out  practically  the  three  purposes  of  the  read- 
ing exercise.  The  first  of  them  is  to  give  the  ability  to  grasp 
mentally,  rapidly  and  accurately,  the  thought  of  the  printed  page. 
This  is  the  most  obvious  purpose  and  gives  the  chief  warrant  for 
teaching  reading  in  the  schools.  The  second  is  to  enable  the  pu- 
pil to  reproduce  the  thought  in  oral  rendering,  to  read  aloud. 
This  is  practically  the  least  important.  Attention  to  it  is  neces- 
sary as,  aside  from  other  manifest  advantages,  it  gives  the  best 
means  of  determining  the  ability  of  the  pupil  to  read  mentally. 
We  shall  have  little  to  say  of  this  in  the  present  paper,  yet  we 
would  not  be  understood  as  undervaluing  it.  In  the  earlier  stages 
of  school  life  it  is  practically  more  important  than  it  is  later. 
The  third  and  highest  purpose  of  the  reading  exercise,  as  we  take 
it,  is  that  which  has  to  do  with  general  literary  culture,  the  devel- 
opment of  the  literary  taste,  and  the  acquisition  of  the  power  to 
read  good  books  intelligently  and  appreciatively  after  schooldays 
are  done.     If  this  faculty  shall  have  been  acquired  in  school,  we 


302  EDUCATION.  [Febmmrj, 

care  not  so  much  as  to  the  amount  of  work  that  has  been  done  in 
the  line  studies.  We  would  not  yield  to  any  one  in  our  desire  for 
a  thorough  and  adequate  study  of  the  commonly  accepted  edu- 
cational essentials.  Yet  the  formation  of  a  wise  reading  habit,  is, 
next  to  the  development  of  a  worthy  character,  the  highest  thing 
a  school  may  give  its  pupils.  While  not  overlooking  the  first  and 
second  purposes  of  the  reading  exercises,  —  nay,  while  affirming 
their  necessity  to  a  proper  attention  to  the  third,  —  we  shall 
throughout  this  paper  have  in  mind  especially  the  third  purpose. 
That  should  dominate  in  the  selection  of  books  to  be  read,  in  the 
use  to  which  they  shall  be  put,  in  the  methods  of  work  in  class- 
room and  elsewhere. 

The  plan  is  to  secure  a  full  understanding  of  the  thought  of  the 
author  through  exercises,  for  which  (except  in  sight  reading), 
there  has  been  careful  preparation  in  definition,  synonyms,  para- 
phrasing, reproducing,  character  and  plot  discussion;  through 
memory  exercises  and  lessons  on  the  life  and  homes  and  surround- 
ings and  works  (introduced  gradually)  of  the  author.  These 
exercises  should  be  oral  and  written.  The  written  work  may  be 
done  upon  the  blackboard,  on  loose  sheets  of  paper  or  in  language 
books.  Much  of  it  may  be  worked  into  the  language  hour.  The 
character  and  extent  of  this  work  will  depend  upon  the  age  and 
previous  literary  study  of  the  pupils.  Merits  of  style  should  not 
pass  unnoticed  in  the  higher  grades  of  the  lower  schools.  They 
should  receive  large  attention  in  the  high  school.  It  is  taken  as. 
granted  that  this  literary  work  should  enter  into  the  programme 
for  every  year  in  every  course  in  the  high  school.  Too  often  the 
reading  and  literary  exercises  are  cut  out  of  the  high  school  curric- 
ulum. The  purpose  is  to  give  during  the  months  in  which  an 
author  is  studied  as  good  a  knowledge  as  is  possible  of  him,  his 
character  and  work,  his  writings,  their  style  and  incidents.  This 
may  all  be  introduced  so  slowly  and  gradually  that  it  will  not  be  a 
burden.  Even  if  a  great  deal  of  ground  be  not  covered,  the  seeds 
will  be  planted  for  future  literary  growth.  Pictures  of  authors 
and  scenes,  and,  so  far  as  is  possible,  all  the  works  of  the  author 
which  will  interest  the  children,  and  books,  and  articles,  and  clip- 
pings about  him  and  his  writings  will  aid  in  encouraging  pupils  to 
read  other  books  than  the  one  in  hand  for  class  study.  All 
through  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  allusions  and  references 
should  be  explained.     The  atlas,  the  dictionary,  the  cyclopaedia. 


1889.]  THE  TSACmyQ  OF  THE  E^aUSH  LAKGUAGE.  393 

should  be  used  at  every  turn.      The  habit  of  investigating,  of 
research,  should  be  acquired. 

Connected  with  the  classroom  literary  work  there  may  well  be 
a  series  of  special  exercises,  each  devoted  to  the  life  and  writings 
of  some  one  author.  These  exercises  may  occur  during  school 
hours,  occupying  the  whole  or  part  of  one  session,  or  they  may  be 
extra  evening  exercises.  Every  effort  should  be  put  forward  to 
decorate  the  room  appropriately  and  to  provide  a  varied  and 
entertaining  programme.  Pictures  upon  the  wall,  books  upon  the 
desk,  citations  and  stanzas  upon  the  board,  manila  paper  charts 
with  sketches  of  the  author's  life  and  lists  of  his  works  will  help 
along  wonderfully.  There  should  be  singing,  preferably  —  when 
it  is  possible — the  words  of  the  author  whose  life  is  under  con- 
sideration, set  to  music.  The  programme  may  be  made  up  of 
essays,  blackboard  sketches,  reports,  talks,  recitations,  readings, 
brief  citations,  tributes,  anecdotes.  The  friends  should  be  invited 
to  be  present.  Such  exercises  may  be  carried  out  successfully,  to 
the  writer's  knowledge,  in  grades  from  the  third  to  the  twelfth 
inclusive.  The  character  of  the  parts  and  the  amount  of  essay 
work  will,  of  course,  vary  with  different  grades. 

Much  may  be  done  in  developing  the  reading  habit  through  the 
constant  use  of  library  books  and  the  better  periodicals  in  connec- 
tion with  geography,  history,  science,  and  other  school  work. 
The  books  used  for  this  purpose  should  be  kept  in  the  schoolroom 
long  enough  for  the  pupils  to  become  acquainted  with  them. 
There  is  a  double  advantage  in  this.  Not  only  are  the  pupils  get- 
ting additional  information  about  the  subjects  handled  in  the 
class  work,  thus  doing  more  interesting  and  intelligent  work ;  not 
only  do  they  cultivate  the  habit  of  research,  a  very  valuable  thing 
in  itself ;  they  also  get  into  the  habit  of  handling,  of  using  books. 
Something  in  pictures  or  in  print  will  attract  their  attention  so 
that  they  will  wish  to  know  more  of  the  books  they  use,  and  of 
other  books  in  the  same  or  other  fields.  A  great  deal  of  this  very 
effective  work  is  now  done  in  our  schools.  The  amount  is  increas- 
ing. A  large  library,  while  it  is  a  great  help,  is  not  an  absolute 
necessity.  A  small  number  of  well-selected  books,  properly 
handled,  will  give  large  returns.  More  depends  upon  the  spirit 
of  the  teacher  than  upon  the  size  of  the  library. 

Such  work  as  is  indicated  above  should  not  be  limited  to  the 
class  lines.     Advantage  should  be  taken  of  every  possible  oppor- 


9H  EDUCATION.  [February, 

tunity  to  call  the  attention  of  pupils  to  good  books  in  different 
departments  of  literature,  preferably  —  when  it  is  possible  —  with 
the  book  before  the  pupils.  Current  history  is  frequently  bring- 
ing up  reminders  of  great  events  or  men,  for  knowledge  of  which 
reference  may  be  made  to  books  that  will  interest  young  folks. 
These  reminders  should  not  be  allowed  to  pass  unimproved.  An 
excellent  part  in  the  opening  exercise  would  be  a  brief  report  on 
Bome  work  suitable  for  the  child's  reading,  made  by  the  teacher, 
or  —  better  —  by  some  pupil. 

Arrangement  should  be  made  by  which  pupils  of  the  grammar 
and  high  school  grades  may  go  to  the  school  or  city  library  periodi- 
cally, one  room  at  a  time,  under  the  leadership  of  some  one  who 
is  familiar  with  juvenile  and  adult  literature  and  acquainted  with 
the  contents  of  the  library.  An  informal  talk  about  books  and 
their  use,  with  mention  of  the  better  ones  in  different  departments 
and  the  opportunity  of  handling  and  examining  them,  will  do 
much  good.  There  is  something  in  getting  the  knowledge  of 
books  which  "  comes  in  at  the  finger-ends.''  Such  an  exercise  as 
the  above  may  well  take  the  place  of  some  half-hour  class  in  the 
regular  programme.  The  class  may  be  taken  to  the  library  and 
forty  or  fifty  books  may  be  carried  into  the  schoolroom.  A  gen- 
eral view  of  literature  suitable  for  the  grade  may  be  had,  with 
mention  of  a  few  titles  in  each  group,  or  some  one  department,  as 
history  or  geography,  may  be  considered,  with  mention  of  a  num- 
ber of  books  under  the  one  head.  All  this  work  must  be  under 
intelligent  direction.  Not  a  great  deal  can  be  accomplished  unless 
the  teacher  has  a  knowledge  of  books  for  children  as  well  as  for 
adults,  an  appreciation  of  the  good  in  literature,  sympathy  with 
children,  tact  and  common  sense.  Unfortunately  all  teachers  have 
not  these  characteristics  of  a  successful  director  of  juvenile  read- 
ing. 

A  great  help  to  children  who  desire  to  read  good  books  may  be 
afforded  by  lists  prepared  carefully  for  the  different  grades  by 
fiome  one  familiar  with  children's  books.  These  should  embrace 
titles  in  all  departments  at  all  suitable  for  the  grade.  They  should 
be  duplicated  by  hektograph  or  cyclostyle,  or  some  other  copying 
process,  and  distributed  among  the  pupils.  Possibly  some  mis- 
sionary work  among  parents  too  neglectful  of  their  children's 
reading,  as  most  j>arents  are,  may  be  done.  In  all  these  methods 
the  teacher  should  let  the  pupils  understand  that  they  are  urged 


1889.]  THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  895 

at  all  times  to  come  to  the  teacher  and  talk  about  books  they  read, 
to  report  upon  them  orally  and  (at  times)  in  writing,  to  get  sug- 
gestions for  future  reading  and  encouragement  in  good  work. 
Pupils  should  be  urged  to  talk  about  their  reading  to  each  other, 
to  their  parents  and  other  friends,  so  far  as  is  practicable. 

Another  method  of  using  library  books  in  the  schoolroom  may 
be  indicated.  Forty  or  fifty  worthy  books  for  young  folks  are 
brought  from  the  library  and  placed  in  the  schoolroom.  Here 
they  are  allowed  to  remain  for  some  time.  The  volumes  would 
better  be  from  various  departments  of  literature.  The  pupils  un- 
derstand that  they  may  read  the  books  in  school  —  under  certain 
restrictions.  Of  course  there  must  be  no  neglect  of  the  legitimate 
work  of  the  school.  The  half-hour  before  each  session  may  be 
utilized  for  this  purpose.  Pupils  may  be  allowed  to  read  during 
the  session  after  they  have  prepared  their  lessons.  Aside  from 
any  literary  advantage  this  practice  will  lead  some  pupils  to  study 
more  earnestly  that  they  may  have  more  time  for  reading.  It  will 
provide  helpful  employment  for  the  bright  pupils  who,  after  get- 
ting their  lessons,  are  inclined  to  be  idle  and  mischievous.  Here 
the  teacher  must  be  watchful.  The  allowance  must  not  be  abused. 
If  a  pupil  reads  when  he  should  be  preparing  some  lesson,  he 
must  be  deprived  of  the  privilege  for  a  time.  The  method  here 
proposed  has  been  found  by  the  writer  to  be  a  good  one. 

Two  cautions  are  necessary.  None  but  thoroughly  good  books 
should  be  recommended  and  the  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to 
read  slowly  and  carefully.  A  good  book  must  be  reliable,  true  to 
life,  of  good  literary  style  and  high  moral  tone.  For  young  peo- 
ple interesting  as  well  as  profitable  books  must  be  chosen.  It  is 
better  to  read  one  book  slowly,  mastering  it,  than  twenty  imper- 
fectly. In  fact,  unless  the  reading  is  carefully  done  its  benefit  is 
questionable.  Teachers  should  endeavor  to  learn  what  books  pu- 
pils read  outside  of  school  channels  and  to  correct  vicious  tastes* 
This  can  be  accomplished  best  through  the  agency  of  wholesome 
books.  • 

If  the  library  work  is  to  be  effective,  there  must  be  decided  con- 
viction on  the  part  of  the  teacher  that  it  is  of  the  highest  impor- 
tance that  this  work  should  be  attended  to  in  the  school,  that  there 
the  deficiencies  in  home  training  should  be  made  up  so  far  as  is 
possible,  that  one  of  the  highest  duties  of  the  teacher  lies  in  this 
channel.  Teachers,  fortunately,  are  coming  more  and  more  to 
this  belief. 


896  EDUCATION.  [February, 


THE    TEACHING    OF    THE   CLASSICAL 

LANGUAGES.^ 

V. 

ON  THE  ACCENT  AND  MEANING  OF  ARBUTUS. 
BT  PROF.  W.  8.  SCARBOROUGH,  LL.  D.,  WILBERFORCE  UNIVERSITT. 

SHALL  we  say  arbiUtts  or  arbutus ?  Both  Webster  and  Wor- 
cester, in  the  older  editions,  adopt  the  latter  pronunciation. 
Professor  Fisk  P.  Brewer,  of  Grinnell,  Iowa,  at  the  recent  meet- 
ing of  the  American  Philological  Association,  suggested  that  the 
accent  should  fall  upon  the  first  syllable,  and  he  has  abundant 
support  for  his  theory.  I  remember  no  instance  whatever  among 
the  classic  writers  in  which  the  accent  is  placed  upon  the  second 
syllable,  but  it  is  invariably  upon  the  first. 
Horace,  Bk.  I.,  Ode  I, :  — 

"  Est  qui  nee  veteris  pocula  Massici, 
Nee  partem  solido  demere  de  die, 
Spernit,  nunc  viridi  membra  sub  arbuto, 
Stratus,  nunc  ad  aquae  lene  caput  sacrae." 

"  One  puts  not  mellow  Massic^s  cups  away^ 
Nor  scorns  to  filch  a  part  from  solid  day^ 
His  limbs  now  ^neath  tlie  green  arbutus  spread^ 
Now  by  some  sacred  wate/s  gentle  head^ 

The  meter  demands  that  the  first  syllable  should  be  accented. 

The  verses  quoted  also  make  it  quite  evident  that  the  meaning 
of  the  word  is  that  of  a  tree,  and  not  the  common  Mayflower^  as 
popularly  used ;  but  a  tree  under  whose  lofty  shade  goats  love  to 
graze  and  idle  men,  like  the  happy-go-lucky  fellows  whom  Horace 
describes  delight  to  lie,  that  they  may  be  protected  from  the 
J3Corching  Italian  suns. 

^Copyright,  1888,  by  Eastern  Edaoational  Bareaa. 


1889.]        THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  CLASSICAL  LANGUAGES.  897 

Virgil,  G.,  II.,  69 :  — 

^'^  Inseritur  vera  exfetu  nucis  arbutus  horrida.^^ 

"  TJie  ruffffed  Arbutus  i«,  forsooth^  grafted  with  a  scion  of  the  nut^ 
tree:' 

Then  again,  Virgil,  G.,  III.,  300 :  — 

"  Post,  hinc  digressus,  jubeo  frondentia  capris,  Arbuta  sufficere 
et  fluvios  praebere  recentes." 

"  Afterwards^  departing  from  my  subject^  I  ordered  (the  farmer^ 
to  give  the  goats  the  Arbutus  branches^  and  supply  them  with  fresh 
watery 

Many  similar  examples  occur  in  both  the  Oeorgics  and  the 
Eclogues^  as  well  as  in  Horace  and  Pliny,  from  which  the  meaning 
and  size  of  the  arbutus  tree  may  be  quite  accurately  determined. 
In  every  instance  the  demands  of  the  meter  place  the  accent  on 
the  first  syllable,  and  where  the  authority  comes  from  for  accent- 
ing the  second  at  any  time  I  am  unable  to  say. 

Ovid,  Metam,  X.,  101  sq. :  — 

*'  Ornique  et  piceae,  pomoque  onerata  rubenti 
Arbutus,  et  lentae  (victoris  praemia)  palmae, 
Et  succinta  comas  hirsutaque  vertice  pinus. 
Grata  deum  metri." 

**  The  mountain^ishj  the  pitch  pine^  the  arbutus  laden  with  red  ripe 
fruity  and  the  pliant  palms  —  the  reward  of  the  victor^  etc,^  are  all 
agreeable  to  the  mother  of  the  gods:' 

Professors  F.  D.  Allen,  of  Harvard  University,  and  T.  D.  Sey- 
mour, of  Yale,  with  other  high  philological  authorities,  adopt  the 
same  accentuation  as  Professor  Brewer.  Arbutus  is  kindred  in 
meaning  with  arbor^  a  kind  of  tree  that  is  very  abundant  in  Italy. 
Professor  Brewer  defines  it  as  a  small  tree  or  shrub,  growing  to 
the  height  of  about  twelve  feet.  In  this  instance  I  think  the  term 
shrub  is  inapplicable.  Arbor  alone  may  refer  to  an  alder  tree 
(alnus)^  fig  tree  (ficus^^  fir  tree  (abies^^  palm  tree  (^palma^y  or  the 
cypress  tree  (cupressu^^^  but  never  so  far  as  I  know  to  the  ar- 
butus. 

This  species  was  also  well  known  among  the  ancient  Greeks  as 
far  back  as  the  times  of  Aristophanes.  For  in  his  Birds  he  repre- 
sents Pisthetaerus  as  saying,  — 

"  An  olive  tree,  again,  will  be  the  temple  of  the  august  birds ; 
and  we  shall  not  go  to  Delphi  or  to  Ammon,  and  sacrifice  these, 
but  we  will  stand  amid  the  arbutus  and  the  wild  olives  with  bar^ 


396  EDUCATION.  [FebniArj, 

ley  and  wheat  and  pray  to  them,  holding  up  our  two  hands,  to 
grant  us  some  share  of  blessings.  And  these  shall  immediately 
be  ours,  when  we  have  thrown  to  them  a  little  wheat." 

We  infer  that  the  arbutus  here  spoken  of  is  a  tree  and  not  a 
shrub  as  the  prefix  arbor  implies,  arb-utus.  The  ending  —  atvs 
occurs  with  many  words  in  the  Latin  language,  and  denotes  what 
the  thing  has,  its  qualities  or  its  characteristics.  In  like  manner, 
the  ending — utu%  is  also  used,  e.g.,  comuttis^  homed;  nanttuSy 
large  nosed^  arbutus^  having  the  properties  of  the  arbor  or  tree. 

To  say,  then,  that  it  means,  or  has  at  any  time  meant  the  com- 
mon Mayflower  as  popularly  known  among  us,  is  to  have  a  wrong 
conception  of  its  etymological  relations  and  to  give  it  a  meaning 
that  the  ancients  never  thought  of,  and  philologists  will  not  ac- 
cept. Lexicographers  so  far  as  they  have  not  done  so  will  doubt- 
less correct  the  mistakes  of  the  old  dictionaries  and  griye  arhutv^ 
its  proper  accent  and  meaning.  The  Erice»,  which  contain  a 
number  of  species,  —  trees  and  shrubs  of  various  sizes,  —  consti- 
tute the  order  of  which  arbutus  is  a  genus.  The  fruit  is  some- 
what fleshy,  with  five  cells,  and  is  many  seeded.  The  Arbutu9 
TTnedo  is  found  in  Southern  Europe,  also  in  Asia  and  America. 
It  grows  to  the  height  of  twenty  or  thirty  feet.  The  bark  is  rug- 
ged (horrida').     The  flowers  are  large;  in  color,  a  greenish  white. 

Another  species  is  seen  in  the  Arbutus  Andrachne^  found  in 
Great  Britain  as  an  ornamental  plant ;  though  hardy,  it  is  often 
killed  by  frosts.  Among  others  may  be  mentioned  the  Arbut%L9 
Integrifolia ;  Arbutus  Furena;  Arbutus  Aculeata;  Arbutus  Uva 
Ur9iy  sometimes  called  Arctostaphylos  Uva  Ursi^  and  the  Arcto9^ 
taphylo9  Alpina  —  all  of  which  are  more  or  less  evergreen,  and 
grow  to  heights  varying  from  three  to  twenty  feet.  The  fruit  is 
sometimes  eaten,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Arbutus  Integrifolia^  in 
Greece  and  the  Oriental  countries.  Very  few  species  are  found 
in  this  country ;  they  are  common  to  Europe  and  South  America. 
The  Arbutus  Aculeate^  which  resembles  our  myrtle,  is  found  on 
Staten  Island,  I  believe,  where  it  grows  in  unusual  abundance. 
The  species  we  find  in  America  does  not  approach  the  great  size 
or  even  the  beauty  of  its  European  cousins,  but  it  is  more  on  the 
order  of  the  bush — less  stately  and  less  attractive  —  sometimes  a 
"large  bush,"  so  called. 


1889.]  SCHOOL  BECORDS  OF  PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS.  399 


SCHOOL  RECORDS  OF  PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS. 

BY  C.   F.  CREHORE,  M.  D. 

[A  plan  for  keeping  a  School  Record  of  the  mental  and  physical  condition  of  each 
scholar  at  the  date  of  hU  admission,  and  as  developed  during  school  life.] 

IF  teaching  is  to  become  a  science,  it  is  obviously  important  to 
study  what  may  be  termed  the  Natural  History  of  the  pupil, 
in  order  to  properly  adapt  methods  to  his  requirements  and  observe 
their  results  in  practice.  And  once  for  all  let  it  be  here  said  that 
it  is  assumed  that  school  education  should  not  only  develop  the 
mental,  but  the  physical  qualities  of  the  scholar. 

To  study  the  natural  history  of  the  pupil,  a  close  observation  of 
his  various  qualities  and  idiosyncrasies  is  of  course  essential,  and 
a  record  of  these  observations  becomes  indispensable  for  the  pur-^ 
pose  of  future  reference  and  comparison.  The  following  plan  for 
keeping  such  a  record  is  submitted,  and  some  farther  remarks 
upon  its  application  will  follow  the  description :  — 

It  is  proposed  that  in  each  school  a  record  book  should  be  kept,, 
one  page  of  which  should  be  devoted  to  the  description  of  each, 
pupil. 

At  the  top  of  the  page  his  name  should  be  written  in  full. 

Two  spaces  should  follow,  separated  by  horizontal  lines,  num" 
bered  1  and  2. 

1.  Containing  a  brief  genealogy  of  the  pupil,  setting  forth 
name ;  date  of  birth  and  nationality  of  parents ;  their  condition ; 
vocation  and  approximately  their  education  and  culture.  This, 
if  not  to  be  directly  ascertained,  can  be  inferred  from  the  con- 
versation and  character  of  the  pupil.  College  degrees  or  other 
evidence  of  the  education  of  the  parents  should  be  noted.  It 
would  be  well  to  insert  the  nationality  and  race  character  of  the 
grand-parents  when  readily  accessible. 

2.  The  place  and  date  of  birth  of  the  pupil.  A  general  de- 
scription should  follow,  stating  idiosyncrasies  and  details  not  pro- 
vided for  under  succeeding  headings.  As  this  will  be  made  once 
for  all,  it  should  be  minute  and  full. 

The  resemblance  of  the  pupil  to  father  or  mother  should  be 
noted,  especially  if  these  are  of  different  races  or  divergent  types. 


400  EDUCATION.  [February, 

In  any  case  of  atavism,  it  would  be  well  to  endeavor  to  get  and 
insert  a  description  of  the  ancestor  whom  the  pupil  resembles. 

Below  the  above,  four  or  five  vertical  columns  should  be  ruled 
opposite  the  following  titles  —  one  for  each  year  of  the  school 
course,  divided  by  horizontal  lines  into  the  following :  — 

3.  Height. 

4.  Weight. 

5.  Size  and  shape  of  head ;  an  instrument  like  that  used  by 
hatters  might  be  devised,  and  the  diagrams  obtained  be  transferred 
to  the  record. 

6.  Greatest  circumference  of  chest. 

7.  Eyes.  This  should  be  filled  from  the  examination  made  by 
an  oculist,  if  possible,  and  include  all  i)eculiarities  or  defects  of 
sight. 

8.  Hearing ;  acuteness,  etc. ;  not  essential,  but  worth  noting. 

9.  Lengths  of  upper  and  lower  limbs. 

10.  Some  simple  test  of  muscular  strength. 

11.  Rank  in  games  on  playground,  etc. 

It  is  needless  to  observe  that  the  test  should  be  uniform  for  all 
pupils  in  all  schools.  Traits  not  liable  to  change  —  as  color  of 
hair,  eyes,  etc.,  might  better  be  noted  once  for  all  in  the  general 
description  (2). 

12.  Intellectual  capacity. 

13.  Quickness  of  perception. 

14.  Retentiveness  of  memory. 

Twelve,  thirteen  and  fourteen  are  rather  difficult  matters  to  test 
as  between  schools,  if  made  by  the  teachers.  They  will  be  more 
valuable  as  tests  of  progress  or  improvement  from  year  to  year  un- 
der the  same  teacher  (and  examiner)  than  as  a  basis  of  comparison 
between  different  schools. 

15.  Moral  capacity. 

16.  Behavior. 

Fifteen  and  sixteen,  like  the  tliree  preceding,  are  not  easy  to 
refer  to  a  fixed  common  standard.  The  "  personal  equation "  of 
the  teacher  or  examiner  will  affect  them. 

The  most  valuable  records  —  from  an  ethnological  standpoint  — 
will  l)e  those  of  the  primary  and  grammar  schools.  The  high 
schools,  presumably,  will  be  filled  with  children  of  more  than 
average  mental  capacity  and  their  record  will  be  rather  that  of  a 
class,  than  of  the  average   of  children  in  a   community.     The 


1889.]  SCHOOL  BECOBDS  OF  PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS.  401 

record  should  be  made  at  the  commencement  of  each  school  year, 
and  in  case  of  the  transfer  of  a  pupil  to  another  school,  a  copy- 
should  be  sent  with  him.  It  would  be  very  desirable  to  supple- 
ment the  record  with  brief  accounts  of  the  future  career  of  each 
pupil,  giving  his  vocation,  etc.,  date  of  marriage,  and  any  data  in 
regard  to  his  physical  condition  that  would  compare  with  the 
school  observations. 

These  later  records,  furnished  by  the  pupil,  could  be  sent  to  the 
Board  of  Education,  to  which  body  it  is  contemplated  that  the 
school  records  should  ultimately  be  sent.  Some  competent  person 
should  be  employed  to  analyze  them  and  collate  the  results.  This 
seems  a  large  work  to  undertake,  but  it  is  not  more  difficult,  and 
is  fully  as  important  as  that  of  classifying  and  collating  the 
returns  of  industries,  etc.,  collected  by  the  census  of  the  state  and 
general  government. 

While  the  additional  labor  imposed  upon  the  teacher  would  be 
considerable,  it  is  believed  that  in  time  the  benefits  derived  from 
it  would  more  than  repay  them.  With  proper  books  and  appli- 
ances for  doing  it  systematically,  it  would  be  much  simplified. 

It  might  be  found  desirable  to  have  the  physical  records  made 
by  medical  experts,  who,  provided  with  suitable  apparatus,  could 
go  from  school  to  school,  and  by  constant  practice  would  attain 
great  facility  in  the  work.  Photographs  of  the  pupils  would  add 
much  to  the  value  of  the  record,  and  if  taken  under  fixed  con- 
ditions would  furnish  reliable  data  for  comparison. 

It  seems  needless  to  enumerate  the  obvious  uses  of  this  inquiry. 
The  laws  which  govern  physical  and  mental  growth  can  only  be 
deduced  from  some  such  observation.  The  influence  of  educa- 
tional methods  upon  development  can  only  be  estimated  in  the 
broad  way  by  some  such  form  of  inquiry.  The  influence  of  race 
type,  of  heredity  upon  our  future  citizens  will  be  determined 
largely  from  these  results. 

But  the  main  advantages  of  such  systematic  observation  have 
been  admirably  presented  to  the  readers  of  Education  in  an  arti- 
cle printed  in  the  number  for  September,  1886,  entitled  "  An  An- 
thropological Cabinet,"  from  the  pen  of  Prof.  Guiseppe  Sergi,  of 
the  University  of  Rome.  The  writer  of  the  present  article  has 
added  and  can  add  nothing  to  what  is  therein  said  of  the  impor- 
tance of  the  results  to  be  attained,  especially  from  an  educational 
point  of  view. 


BDVCATIOH. 
TIMOTHV  JONES,— Pi»ge  «. 


1. 

Father.— Born  In  Irrl»n»I  1833.     PnlernsI  snceBtorn,  Scou-h  ind  Irich; 
uinlertiul,  SpaDlKh  nod  IrUti;    ^rdener  by  trade;    shore, 
stout,  reddUh  hair ;  had  coudiod  Khoot  «dm;atioa. 

Mother.— Born  in  Enj^Und.     Probably  of  t^nKlish  ancestry  on  both 
(■idee.     Taught  primary  school  betoi*  marriage,     ta  a  slen- 
der, lively  woman,  Ireah  vompleiclun,  chestnut  liair. 

3. 

f  Timothy  Jones,  bora  la  Boston, 
Oct.  7,  1877. 
Entered  Buhool  Sept.  IS87. 

ot  the  Spanish  type  of  one  of 
his  paternal   great^^crandfatb- 
er». 

Is    a  slender,  bright^eyed  youth; 
black  hair  aod  even;  complexion 
quite  dark;    talks    clearly    and 
rapidly,  slight  Irish  brogue  when 
excited;     well    uourished,    and 
prompt  In  his  movements. 

<W!lVITIOHS. 

litnAK. 

M  lua. 

Sd  TKJ».j«h  TUB 

UKUU. 

8. 

fletght 

49  in. 

51=  In. 

1 

08  lbs. 

s. 

Dimensions  of 
head 

Ion.  tr. 
vert.  31 

.,n,.. 

; 

(irH>»lble,bo(bhori- 
lonbir^il  vertical  uul- 
Jliies  (lionld  be  here  In- 
Mined  ) 

6. 

Chest,  ulrcnm 

Capacity  sptrome- 

32  In, 
M  c.  in. 

7. 

Oi'ultst'g      report 
upon    visual  or- 
gans  

8. 

AeuteneM  of  heiir- 

9. 

Length  of  linns.- 
Length  ot  legs... 

10. 
11. 

MuBcuUr  Strength 
(dynanometer).. 
Rank  In  the  play- 

12. 

I&tellectual  oapao- 

Uarked  on  scale  I-IO. 

13. 

(julokneas  of  per- 

IB. 

Horal  capacity... 

10. 

behaviour 

' 

i 

18890  PBEPABATION  FOB  CITIZENSHIP,  403 


PREPARATION  FOR  CITIZENSHIP. 

III. 

AT     SMITH     COLLEGE. 
BY  PROP.  J.   B.  CLARK. 

IN  a  sense  all  studies  are  a  preparation  for  citizenship.  A  man 
is  worth  more  to  the  state  for  a  knowledge  of  Latin,  Greek, 
and  Mathematics.  He  is  better  political  material  by  reason  of 
every  disciplinary  study  that  he  pursues.  A  certain  kind  of  train- 
ing, however,  develops  primarily  the  political  aptitudes  of  the 
student ;  it  fits  him,  not  merely  for  efficient  peraonal  work,  but  for 
the  relations  that  one  member  of  a  body  politic  sustains  to  others. 
What  does  Smith  College  do  in  this  specific  direction  ? 

The  question  suggests  another,  namely,  for  what  kind  of  citizen- 
ship is  this  college  preparing  its  pupils?  A  common  though 
erroneous  view  identifies  citizenship  with  suffrage.  Are  we  aim- 
ing to  fit  pupils  to  vote  intelligently  ?  Is  our  training  shaped  by 
a  contingency  that  may  or  may  not  happen?  If  the  probabilities 
are  against  the  extension  of  the  suffrage  to  women  in  the  near 
future,  are  we  left  without  a  reason  for  introducing  into  our  curric- 
ulum a  considerable  number  of  political  studies?  If  so,  any 
account  of  these  courses  must  take  an  apologetic  tone.  We  must 
aim,  not  to  show  what  amount  of  scientific  politics  we  teach,  but  to 
prove  that  we  are  justified  in  teaching  politics  at  all.  It  is  certain 
that  we  are  often  forced  to  take  this  attitude ;  many  persons  are 
still  mentally  asking  the  question  that  was  once  put  to  me  by  a 
European  scholar,  with  all  the  vehemence  that  broken  English 
could  give, —  "What  in  the — say  world  —  do  you  teach  girls 
political  ^economy  for  ?  " 

There  is,  of  course,  a  possibility  that  complete  suffrage  rights 
and  duties  may  be  extended  to  women.  There  is  a  probability 
that  a  partial  suffrage  will  be  extended  to  them.  There  is  a  moral 
certjiinty  that  crusades  for  public  reforms  will  be  conducted  by 
them.  Already  they  are  the  almoners  of  the  country,  and  take 
the  leading  part  in  great  charitable  works.     Aside,  however,  from 


404  EDUCATION.  [February^ 

such  specific  modes  of  influence  there  is  the  overshadowing  fact 
that  women  are  a  permanent  and  measureless  force  in  the  state. 
Vote  or  no  vote,  reform  or  no  reform,  they  make  their  influence 
felt  in  every  direction.  In  the  great  play  of  forces  that  goes  on 
in  the  social  organism,  women  give  and  receive.  If  they  were 
merely  passive,  if  their  lives  were  helplessly  dominated  by  the 
state,  they  would  need  to  look  upon  it  with  some  comprehension 
of  its  nature  and  working.  As  active  agents  they  are  in  absolute 
need  of  such  an  intelligent  outlook. 

In  one  respect  Political  Science  is  an  exceptional  study ;  it 
cannot  be  dropped  at  the  time  of  graduation.  Whether  she  will 
or  not,  a  woman  of  any  intelligence  is  compelled  to  study  politica 
more  or  less  as  long  as  she  lives.  In  some  cases  it  is  less  rather 
than  more.  Some  lives  are  too  much  shut  in  to  admit  of  much 
contact  with  the  general  life  of  the  state  ;  but  in  the  case  of  no 
life  that  can  be  termed  intellectual  is  such  contact  wanting.  In 
the  sense  of  a  study  of  the  nature  and  action  of  the  social  organism 
and  its  governing  agency,  Political  Science  is  the  life-long  study 
.of  every  one  who  thinks.  In  this  comprehensive  sense  it  exceeds 
most  studies  in  importance  by  so  wide  an  interval  that  it  will  hurt 
no  one's  feelings  to  make  the  comparison.  What  can  a  college  do 
in  starting  such  a  course  of  study?  What  is  Smith  College  in 
fact  doing  ? 

The  course  in  History  and  Political  Science  in  this  college 
extends  through  ten  terms  of  the  course  and  occupies,  on  an 
average,  two  hours  a  week.  Nearly  a  half  of  the  work  is  required 
of  all  students,  while  the  remainder  is  elective.  To  the  whole  of 
this  course  there  is  given  a  political  cast ;  History  is  studied  for 
the  sake  of  the  lessons  that  it  teaches  in  the  domain  of  politics. 
The  number  of  hours  that  are  devoted  to  the  study  of  particular 
periods  increases  as  the  present  era  is  approached,  for  the  reason 
that  recent  periods  afford  more  valuable  political  lessons.  The 
highest  value  is  placed  on  the  History  of  the  United  States  since 
the  Revolution,  and  on  that  of  European  States  since  the  beghi- 
ning  of  the  French  Revolution.  Lectures  are  given  throughout 
the  course ;  textbooks  are  used  in  connection  with  them  in  the 
earlier  terms,  while  in  the  later  ones  greater  reliance  is  placed  on 
topical  readings. 

Instruction  by  reading  courses  exposes  pupils  and  teachers  to 
two  opposite  dangers.     The  topics  may  be  very  numerous  and 


1889.]  FBEPABATION  FOB  CITIZENSHIP.  406 

detailed,  and  the  readings  accurately  prescribed,  by  chapter  and 
paragraph.  This  represses  any  tendency  to  independence  on  the 
part  of  the  pupil.  On  the  other  hand  the  topics  may  be  made 
very  general,  and  the  pupil  may  be  turned  loose  in  the  library  to 
browse  at  will.  This  is  apt  to  lead  to  desultory  reading.  Both 
dangers  may  be  avoided  by  selecting  a  few  special  topics  of  great 
interest,  and  giving  to  the  reading  such  general  direction  as  shall 
keep  it  within  the  limits  of  the  subjects  indicated.  In  Political 
Economy,  for  example,  it  is  desirable  that,  after  an  elementary 
course  in  Distribution,  pupils  should  make  special  studies  of 
Wages,  Interest,  and  Profits.  If  these  topics  be  assigned  early  in 
the  course,  and  if  the  pupil  be  informed  in  a  general  way  where 
information  concerning  them  is  to  be  found,  if  these  studies  be 
made  an  integral  part  of  the  course,  and  if  the  results  of  them  be 
tested  by  the  final  examination,  then  very  fruitful  and  fairly  inde- 
pendent work  may  be  expected.  Some  of  the  best  results  thus  far 
realized  in  this  department  at  Smith  College  have  come  through 
this  method. 

Of  the  ten  terms  of  study  already  referred  to,  as  constituting 
the  general  course,  one  is  in  the  first  year,  two  in  the  second,  three 
in  the  Junior,  and  the  remaining  four  in  the  Senior.  By  the 
arrangement  recently  adopted,  two  terms  are  to  be  devoted  to 
Political  Economy,  one  to  Political  Science,  one  to  the  History  of 
American  Politics,  and  the  remainder  to  European  History,  An- 
cient and  Modem.  Grecian  History  is  studied  in  the  first  year, 
and  Roman  in  the  second,  because  of  the  aid  which  is  thus  afforded 
to  the  study  of  classical  languages  and  literatures.  The  remain- 
ing portions  of  the  historical  course  are  so  shaped  as  to  lead 
directly  toward  the  study  of  modern  political  movements. 

The  three  terms  directly  devoted  to  Economic  and  Political 
Science  are  in  the  Senior  year,  and  these  are,  by  the  present 
arrangement,  to  be  supplemented  by  a  certain  elective  work  not 
included  in  the  terms  of  classroom  instruction  above  indicated. 
This  is  the  personal  examination,  by  the  pupil,  of  industrial, 
reformatory  and  political  institutions.  It  is  the  so-called  "  labora- 
tory method  "  of  study,  which  is  frequently  employed  in  graduate 
coui-ses.  The  introduction  of  some  of  this  work  into  the  under- 
graduate course  is  made  with  a  full  knowledge  of  the  fact  that  its 
true  place  is  after  and  not  before  a  theoretical  study  of  principles. 
If  the  method  be  adopted  at  too  early  a  point  in  the  course,  the 


406  EDUCATION.  [Febmary 

• 

separately,  because  as  a  rule  artists  come  under  but  one  division^ 
and  continuity  of  subject  is  thus  secured.  Chronology  is  but  a 
loose  link ;  unity  of  subject  is  generally  a  far  better  pedagogic 
principle.  Painting  is  best  treated  first,  because  young  minds  are 
most  easily  interested  in  this,  and  illustration  is  comparatively 
easy  in  all  large  cities.  Architecture  is  second  in  interest  and 
popular  appreciation,  and  is,  of  course,  familiar,  therefore  it  should 
precede  the  study  of  sculpture  which  is  the  most  difficult  of  the 
arts  for  the  ordinary  mind.  As  Mr.  Hamerton  remarks, ''  Even  of 
the  cultivated  classes  not  one  person  in  fifty  knows  anything 
whatever  about  sculpture,  or  can  tell  first-rate  from  fifth-rate  work 
when  he  sees  it." 

Mr.  W.  H.  Goodyear's  History  of  Art,  which  has  just  appeared, 
is  subject  to  the  same  criticisms  as  De  Forest's  textbook.  It  is 
crowded  with  inferior  process  engravings,  some  of  them  very  in- 
ferior ;  and  the  text,  put  in  the  dry  dictionary  form,  touches  upon 
a  bewildering  multitude  of  artists.  One  might  perhaps,  use  Miss 
Crane's  pleasant  little  lectures  on  Art  and  the  Formation  of  Taste 
as  a  textbook,  at  any  rate  it  would  serve  very  well  for  general 
reading.  So  many  books  on  art  are  lacking  in  the  true  artistic 
spirit  that  it  is  refreshing  to  find  one  wliich  possesses  it  in  fair 
measure. 

Woodcuts  are  very  unsatisfactory  as  illustrations  of  art  sub- 
jects. A  textbook  with  a  dozen  good  autotypes  is  preferable  to  a 
book  with  scores  of  ordinary  woodcute.  In  illustrating  to  a  class 
the  material  should  be  of  such  size  that  it  will  be  plainly  visible 
to  the  whole  class  while  the  teacher  j)oints  out  the  characteristics 
of  each  artist.  It  diverts  attention  to  pass  around  illustrations, 
but  the  scholars  should  examine  them  after  the  class.  The  auto- 
types of  the  London  Autotype  Company,  which  are  much  better 
than  ordinary  photographs  and  cost  but  little  more,  can  be  im- 
ported free  of  duty  for  the  use  of  schools.  Good  photograplis  can 
be  obtained  from  any  reputable  dealer  in  Rome  or  Naples  more 
cheaply  than  elsewhere.  Anton  Springer's  Bilderbogen,  published 
in  Leipzig,  is  a  very  full  collection  of  illustrations  of  the  history 
of  art.  The  cost  is  about  eight  dollars  for  the  two  most  important 
series.  It  would  be  a  commendable  and  profitable  enterprise  for 
some  publisher  to  issue  an  American  edition  of  this  work  with  a 
translation  of  the  accompanying  text.  A  magic  lantern  can  often 
be  used  to  advantage.     Drawings  illustrative  of  the  development 


1889.]  THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  HIS  TOBY  OF  ART.  409 

of  some  one  element  of  art  throughout  its  whole  history,  as,  for 
example,  in  architecture  the  development  of  the  column,  are  very 
valuable.  In  or  near  a  large  city,  there  will  be  many  opportuni- 
ties for  the  study  of  works  of  art  in  galleries  and  public  build- 
ings. Students  should  be  encouraged  to  form  collections  of  pho- 
tographs and  other  reproductions,  and  to  buy  books  on  art.  It  is 
a  good  custom  for  graduating  classes  to  leave  behind  them  some 
art  memorial. 

While  the  object  of  a  brief  course  in  the  history  of  art  is  prima- 
rily to  interest  the  student  in  art  as  a  whole  and  to  give  a  good 
general  knowledge  of  its  development,  still  every  student  should 
be  led  to  make  some  special  study,  if  possible  at  first  hand,  of 
some  one  artist  or  work  to  which  he  feels  peculiarly  drawn,  and 
the  result  should  be  given  in  a  brief  essay.  It  is  a  stimulus  to  the 
writer  and  profitable  to  the  class  to  have  some  or  all  of  the  essays 
read  in  the  class. 

Every  school  library  should  possess  a  Liibke's  History  of  Art 
and  the  series  of  Art  Handbooks  in  eight  volumes  published  in 
this  country  by  Scribner  &  Welford.  If  possible,  some  or  all  of 
the  Artist  Biography  Series  should  be  purchased.  The  books  on 
art  by  Mrs.  Jameson  and  Phillip  Gilbert  Hamerton  are  popular, 
readable,  and  stimulating.  The  best  book  in  English  on  the  prin- 
ciples of  art  is  Charles  Blanc's  Grammar  of  Painting  and  Engrav- 
ing as  translated  by  Miss  Doggett.  Some  good  art  periodical 
should  be  taken,  as  the  Magazine  of  Art,  and  the  art  articles  in 
our  current  magazines  should  be  frequently  referred  to.  Reading 
about  art  should,  however,  always  be  made  subsidiary  to  the  direct 
study  of  works  of  art  or  of  reproductions.  These  should  first  be 
presented  to  the  student,  and  a  direct  interest  should  be  excited 
by  personal  observation  and  criticism  before  any  reading  is  done. 
The  primary  object  of  all  teaching  of  the  history  of  art  is  not  to 
give  the  student  a  knowledge  of  the  life  of  the  artist,  nor  of  the 
various  opinions  of  critics  upon  his  works ;  but  the  main  end  is  to 
stimulate  a  genuine  and  intelligent  interest  in  works  of  art  for 
their  own  sake,  an  interest  which  will  grow  and  remain  with  the 
student  throughout  life. 


'* Truth  gets  well  if  she  is  run  over  by  a  locomotive;  Error 
dies  with  lockjaw  if  she  scratches  her  little  finger." 


410  EDUCATION.  [February « 

DISCIPLINE. 

BT    JULIA    H.     MAT. 

A  wayward  scholar,  to  the  school  of  palD, 

Long  years  ago, 
My  Father  sent  nie,  saying,  ^*  Child !  remain 

Until  you  know 
The  lessons  that,  in  future,  you  will  need, 
For  you  are  very  ignorant,  indeed/^ 

At  first,  with  many  bitter  tears  and  sighs, 

I  conned  my  task ; 
^^  What  good  from  all  these  problems  can  arise?  " 
Presumed  to  ask, 
«      And  blindly  learned  the  lesson  of  the  years 

Through  eyes  that  were  so  dim  with  homesick  tears. 

Sometimes,  unto  my  Father,  I  would  write, 

And  sadly  say, 
I  cannot  keep  the  rtUes^  Oh,  if  I  might 

Go  home  today ! 
Or,  to  a  better  school,  please  let  me  go, 
Where  lessons  will  be  easier  to  know. 

My  Father  pitied  me,  and  often  sent 

Sweet  words  of  cheer. 
Or  told  me  what  the  tangled  questions  meant. 

In  terni8  so  clear, 
That,  for  awhile,  I  loved  the  school  of  pain. 
And  all  its  discipline  seemed  wise  and  plain. 

But  then,  sometimes,  tlie  teachers  were  so  stern, 

Sometimes  so  queer, 
I  did  not  understand,  I  cuuld  not  learn, 

I  would  not  hear 
The  tender  words  my  Father  said  to  me 
When  He  came  down  His  wayward  child  to  see. 

Sometimes,  I  tried  the  hardest  things  to  do 

An  easier  way 
Than  that  appointed,  for,  I  thought  I  knew 

Better  than  they. 
The  teachers  in  this  blessed  school  of  pain ; 
I  always  had  to  do  the  task  again. 

At  length,  I  set  me  down  unto  my  work 

With  earnest  will, 
ril  do  it  as  they  wish,  I  will  not  shirk, 

I  will  be  still, 
I  said,  and,  though  I  cannot  understand 
I  will  obey  the  very  least  command. 

And,  soon,  the  discipline  no  more  seemed  stern ; 

The  lines  grew  plain ; 
I  longed,  each  day,  more  precious  truths  to  learn, 

I  felt  no  pain, 
For  pain  was  pleasure,  work  was  sweetest  rest, 
Because  my  Father  thought  that  It  was  best. 

At  last  I  learned  to  love  the  school  of  pain, 

That  very  day 
My  Father  came  to  see  His  child  again, 

We  went  away, 
The  dear  untroubled  home-life  to  begin. 
So  much  the  better  for  the  discipline. 
■January  Ist^  1889. 


1889.]    •  EDITOBIAL.  411 


EDITORIAL. 

IN  a  little  volume  just  issued  by  Triibner,  of  London,  entitled  "  The 
Evolution  of  the  Chinese  Language,"  by  Joseph  Edkins,  there  is 
striking  confirmation  of  a  view  regarding  the  development  of  speech 
recently  urged  in  Education  by  Mr.  Edmund  Noble  in  a  series  of" 
articles  on '*  Child  Speech,  or  the  Law  of  Mispronunciation."  First 
pointing  out  that  labials,  or  sounds  formed  in  the  anterior  part  of  the 
mouth,  are  the  easiest  and  therefore  the  earliest  to  be  pronounced  and 
imitated,  Mr.  Noble  went  on  to  show  that,  as  a  general  rule,  the  names 
for  "  mother"  and  ''  father"  are  in  most  languages  made  up  of  these 
easier  sounds  or  labials.  But  the  argument  went  further  than  this. 
It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  not  only  names  for  "  mother  "  and  "  father,"' 
but  names  for  ''I"  and  "me,"  are  constituted  in  most  languages  (and 
no  doubt  originally  in  all)  of  the  same  easy  sounds.  The  conclusion 
reached  by  Mr.  Noble  (and  it  is  supported  by  evidences  in  psychology) 
is  that  the  first  word-sounds  used  by  man  were  the  easy  word-sounds 
represented  by  names  for  "mother,"  "father,"  "I,"  and  "me,"  and 
that  out  of  these,  as  a  starting-point,  by  additions  and  mutations,  all 
the  other  sounds  of  language  have  arisen. 

All  this  means  that  speech  was  first  devised  by  the  application  of 
nam#-sounds  to  the  things  in  most  constant  relation  with  man,  the 
things  of  less  constant  relation  being  named  later.  Broadly  speaking, 
these  most  constant  relations  are  the  relations  of  the  members  of  the 
family  to  each  other.  Less  broadly,  the  relations  of  father,  mother, 
and  child  are  in  the  modern  period  the  most  constant  of  the  family  re- 
lations. Yet  in  the  earliest  period  of  human  development  it  will  be 
admitted  by  all  students  of  ethnology  that  none  of  the  family  relations 
equalled  for  constancy  the  relation  in  which  the  mother  stood  to  the 
child.  It  was  thus,  according  to  Mr.  Noble,  in  the  family  group  that, 
broadly  speaking,  language  was  born  ;  while,  speaking  more  narrowly, 
it  was  in  that  most  constant  relation  of  all,  the  relation  between  mother 
and  child,  that  the  earliest  sounds  and  name-words  had  their  origin. 

With  this  view  some  of  the  conclusions  reached  by  Mr.  Edkins  are 
in  complete  harmony.  The  writer  of  the  new  volume  says,  on  page 
lo,  "  The  first  word  makers  began  with  labial  letters,  because  these 
are  more  open  to  observation  by  the  eye  than  the  others.  When  ^,  3, 
m^  are  pronounced  the  action  of  the  lips  is  seen.     Throat  letters     .     . 

.     would  naturally  come  into  current  use  after  labials  because  the 


412  EDUCATIOX,  [Febnuwy* 

action  ....  is  not  visible."  These  positions  are  identical  with 
those  taken  by  Mr.  Noble.  On  the  same  page,  Mr.  Edkins  says, 
*'  The  interest  felt  by  parents  in  teaching  their  children  would  power- 
fully aid  in  developing  primitive  language."  Other  extracts  from  the 
volume  might  be  given,  but  enough  has  been  said  to  show  a  drift  of 
opinion  towards  the  recognition  of  family  relations  as  the  true  centre 
of  the  earliest  speech  formations.  Should  the  views  referred  to  prove 
to  be  well  founded,  little  argument  will  be  needed  to  show  the  impor- 
tance of  their  bearing  upon  theories  of  education. 

OUR  very  positive  little  contemporary  "  Science  "  publishes  the 
important  fact  that  "  Education  is  an  ardent  defender  of  things 
worn  out."  Our  offense  seems  to  be  a  protest  against  testing  the 
results  of  our  common  school  system  by  absurdities  and  crudities 
stored  up  in  such  depositories  as  the  little  books  of  Caroline  B.  Le 
Row.  Whether  Mrs.  Le  Row  really  puts  forth  these  collections  of  the 
blunders  of  school  children  as  a  fair  test  of  the  results  of  common 
school  instruction  in  the  countrv,  we  have  not  learned  from  herself. 
But,  certainly,  nothing  in  her  pages  betrays  such  grotesque  absence  of 
common  sense  as  the  serious  acceptance  of  "  English  As  She  is  Spoke," 
and  *'  The  Young  Idea,"  as  a  test  of  what  is  going  on  in  this  region  of 
school  life,  by  journals  like  '*  Science,"  and  metropolitan  sheets,  like 
the  New  York  Tribune.  These  over-wise  men  seem  to  forget  that  any 
institution  or  agency  that  deals  with  "  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  peo- 
ple "  must,  by  its  very  function,  be  content  with  gradual  and  moderate 
results  and  submit  to  a  vast  residuum  of  human  *'  slug."  Tried  by 
this  highly  scientific  test,  what  would  become  of  the  family,  govern- 
ment, the  church  ;  even  that  exalted  realm,  science ;  and  the  true  home 
of  infallibility,  metropolitan  journalism?  Viewed  from  the  rear,  as 
the  passenger  in  the  train  is  whirled  past  the  back  yards,  out-buildings, 
and  pig-stys  of  a  village  street,  what  a  melancholy  account  of  itself 
could  the  best  institution  or  arrangement  of  human  affairs  put  forth. 
But  we  hold  on  to  all  these  things,  even  to  the  great  newspaper,  which 
Dr.  Lyman  Abbott  insists  ''cannot  tell  the  truth,"  by  virtue  of  the 
upper-story  success  and  the  gradual  conquest  of  the  lower  realm  of 
confusion  and  heartrending  failure.  But  there  seems  to  be  more  than 
unwisdom  in  this  popular  habit  of  *'  nagging"  the  common  school  as 
accountable  for  every  failure  in  child  life.  As  the  New  York  Tribune 
solemnly  remarks:  ''The  boys  and  girls  who  are  getting  the  kind  of 
education  here  illustrated  are  charged  with  the  great  responsibility  of 
maintaining  the  Republican  form  of  government."  Very  true ;  but 
a  dozen  institutions  and  agencies,  to  say  nothing  of  the  entire  environ- 


1889.]  EDITOBIAL.  413 

ment  of  this  boy,  are  charged  with  the  duty  of  turning  him  out  an 
average  citizen,  at  twenty-one.  Every  failure  of  these  tells  on  his  life 
in  school.  The  only  wonder  is  that  our  best  common  schools,  with 
the  wisest  teachers,  are  able  to  offer  the  present  mental  and  moral 
resistance  to  the  whelming  flood  of  laziness,  stupidity,  superstition, 
vulgarity,  and  wickedness,  amid  which  the  little  ones  are  swimming 
towards  the  promised  land.  As  a  warning  for  careless  teachers,  such 
books  as  these  may  be  healthful,  although  every  educated  mother  or 
*'  school-ma'am  "  could  easily  gather  a  small  library  of  the  same  sort 
from  her  own  experience.  But  no  absurdity  therein  is  so  amazing  as 
the  serious  impeachment  of  the  common  school,  on  such  evidence,  by 
the  editors,  scientists,  and  eminent  defamers  of  popular  education. 
Truly,  of  these,  however  distinguished,  it  may  be  said  :  — 

**  Knowledge  comes,  but  wisdom  lingers." 

THE  report  comes  from  the  other  side  that  an  English  cardinal  is 
preparing  an  article  on  the  American  common  school  system, 
founded  on  the  book  and  general  investigations  of  the  Hon.  Zachary 
Montgomery ;  the  article  to  be  published  simultaneously  in  England 
and  the  United  States.  Now  both  Cardinals  Newman  and  Manning 
are  learned,  venerable,  and  otherwise  estimable  men,  who  ought  to  be 
saved  by  their  friends  from  the  grotesque  blunder  of  writing  on  Ameri- 
can Education  on  the  authority  of  the  champion  anti-common  school 
crank  of  the  republic.  The  Hon.  Zachary  Montgomery,  several  years 
since,  put  forth  an  indictment  of  the  American  common  school  as'*  the 
poisoned  cup  of  the  Republic,"  in  the  shape  of  a  volume  of  statistics,  so 
clumsily  arranged  that  they  could  not  even  "lie"  as  they  were  in- 
structed to  do  under  the  manipulations  of  their  author.  The  ridiculous 
volume  has  been  exposed  so  often  that  its  appearance  in  Cardinal  Man- 
ning's library  reminds  one  of  Victoria  Woodhull  and  Tennessee  Claf- 
lin,  of  bygone  day,  as  present  ornaments  of  polite  London  society. 
Montgomery  edited  a  journal  consecrated  to  the  office  of  upsetting  "  the 
poisoned  cup,"  till  it  went  under,  from  the  chronic  reformer's  disability 
—  lack  of  funds.  His  reappearance,  as  an  appointer  of  the  present 
National  administration  to  a  responsible  office  in  one  of  the  depart- 
ments, was  the  signal  for  a  burst  of  indignant  protest ;  which  he  en- 
deavored to  allay  by  an  explanatory  pamphlet.  Nobody  knows  the 
weak  side  of  the  common  school  so  well  as  its  best  teachers  and  wisest 
friends.  If  these  who  are  now  engaged  in  these  crusades  against  the 
schools  would  honestly  visit  and  examine  them  and  listen  to  the  opin- 
ions of  the  instructors  and  the  parents  of  the  children,  their  wisdom 
might  suggest  some  help  out  of  the  difficulties  that  beset  school  life  in 


414  EDUCATIOX.  [February, 

any  form.  But,  pray,  let  some  good  friend  of  the  Cardinal  save  him 
from  making  a  spectacle  of  himself  by  founding  a  thesis  on  the  vatic- 
inations of  the  Hon.  Zachary  Montgomery  concerning  the  American 
common  school. 

FORTY  years  ago,  a  green,  ambitious  country  boy,  in  the  usual 
state  of  unfitness  in  which  the  average  graduate  of  the  old-time 
village  academy  found  himself  on  facing  the  higher  education,  entered 
as  freshman,  at  Amherst  College.  Before  two  years  had  passed,  hair 
the  class  had  "  fallen  by  the  way  '* ;  overthrown  by  the  severity  of  the 
work  for  students  so  unprepared  and  the  absurd  want  of  sanitary  sense 
in  the  college-life  arrangements  of  that  day.  There  is  no  better  exhibit 
of  the  wonderful  progress  of  college  life  in  New  England  during  the 
past  generation  than  the  impression  upon  one's  mind  which  is  made  by 
the  last  catalogue  of  Amherst  College.  Contrasted  with  the  past,  this 
beautifully  printed  volume  is  a  gospel  out  of  a  new  world ;  the  only- 
resemblance  between  the  new  and  the  old  being  the  ability  and  fidelity 
of  the  teaching  force,  for  which  this  college  has  always  been  distin- 
guished. Handsomely  endowed ;  crowded  to  its  full  capacity  by  stu- 
dents, half  the  number  attracted  from  states  outside  Massachusetts ; 
with  a  scheme  of  study  well  struck  between  the  ancient  iron-clad 
course  and  the  go-as-you-please  elective  curriculum  ;  especially  with 
the  admirable  sanitary  organization  which  seems  to  justify  the  authori- 
ties in  claiming  the  highest  rank  in  physical  results ;  the  Amherst 
College  of  today  is  one  of  the  most  inviting  of  our  American  seats  of 
learning.  What  is  here  observed  is  true  of  almost  every  New  England 
college,  whose  history  dates  from  the  period  referred  to.  Outside  of 
Harvard  and  Yale,  they  have  all  been  endowed,  reorganized,  and 
brought  into  line  with  the  best  educational  wisdom  of  the  day.  This 
year,  they  are  all  prospered  in  their  attendance  and  are  attracting  large 
numbers  of  desirable  students  from  every  portion  of  the  country ; 
especially  from  the  class  who  believe  in  honest  and  intelligent  work  as. 
a  prime  qualification  of  college  life. 


1889.]  THE  PBOMOTIOy  OF  PUPILS.  415 


THE  PROMOTION  OF  PUPILS. 

[From  the  Forth-coming  Report  of  Dr.  E.  E.  White,  Superintendent  of  the 
Cincinnati  Schools.] 

FOR  reasons  fully  stated  in  our  last  report,  the  pupils  in  the  Cincin- 
nati Schools  are  now  promoted,  not  on  the  results  of  stated 
examinations,  but  on  their  fidelity  and  success  in  school  work  as  esti- 
mated and  recorded  by  their  teachers  at  the  close  of  each  school  month. 
These  estimates  are  based  primarily  on  the  fidelity  and  success  of  pupils 
in  their  daily  work,  as  remembered  by  their  teachers,  but  their  success 
in  meeting  the  various  oral  and  written  tests  which  may  have  been  used 
in  the  month  ^or  teaching  purposes y  are  also  considered.  The  rules 
require  these  monthly  estimates  to  be  made  without  the  daily  marking 
of  pupils  and  without  the  use  of  monthly  or  other  stated  examina- 
tions  for  this  purpose.  They  are  simply  the  judgments  of  teachers 
based  on  their  knowledge  of  the  work  of  pupils  during  the  month. 

These  monthlv  estimates  are  made  on  the  scale  of  i  to  lo,  the  num- 
ber  4  and  below  denoting  very  poor  work,  5  poor,  6  tolerable,  7  good, 
8  very  good,  9  excellent,  and  10  perfect.  In  reporting  estimates  the 
initial  letters  are  used  —  Pr.  denoting  perfect  work  (little  used),  E 
excellent,  G  very  good,  G  good,  Z* tolerable,  P  poor,  Pwery  poor,  E 

failure.  The  standing  of  pupils  is  first  estimated  by  teachers  as  excels 
lent^  or  good  or  poor^  and  these  three  estimates  are  sufiBcient  for  all 
practical  purposes.     The  higher  and  lower  estimates  (as   G  and  T) 

are  used  when  greater  accuracy  is  desired. 

The  monthly  estimates  of  teachers  are  recorded  in  a  record  book 
conveniently  arranged  for  the  purpose,  and  they  are  averaged  twice  a 
year — in  February  and  in  June;  and,  when  thus  averaged,  they  are 
approved  by  the  Principal,  who  makes  himself  familiar  with  the  pro- 
gress and  proficiency  of  the  pupils  under  his  immediate  supervision. 
To  this  end,  he  subjects  the  pupils  in  the  several  grades,  as  they 
advance  in  the  course,  to  such  oral  and  written  tests  as  will  indicate 
their  proficiency  and  be  suggestive  and  otherwise  helpful  to  teachers. 
Once  a  month,  or  once  in  two  months,  as  may  be  preferred,  these 
recorded  estimates  are  reported  to  parents  for  their  information.  No 
estimates  are  recorded  in  first-year  and  second-year  grades,  and  no 
formal  reports  of  the  pupils'  standing  in  these  grades  are  made  to 
parents. 


416  EDUCATION.  [Febniary, 

At  the  close  of  the  year,  the  pupils  are  promoted  on  these  recorded 
estimates,  a  standing  oi good  or  higher  in  each  branch  entitling  a  pupil 
to  promotion.  In  case  a  pupil  stands  below  good  (or  7)  in  one  to  three 
branches  he  may  be  promoted,  provided  that  these  lower  estimates  are 
not  an  in  the  daily  and  more  essential  branches,  and  provided  further 
that  the  pupil's  habitual  diligence  in  study  and  good  conduct,  con- 
sidered in  connection  with  other  circumstances,  give  satisfactory 
evidence  that,  if  promoted,  he  will  be  able  to  do  successfully  the 
work  in  the  next  higher  grade.  The  '*  other  circumstances"  considered 
include  the  age  and  health  of  the  pupil,  length  of  time  in  grade,  prior 
school  advantages,  future  opportunities,  etc.,  —  in  a  word,  the  pupiPs 
true  interests.  The  record  books  used  for  the  recording  of  estimates 
are  so  arranged  that  the  pupiFs  standing  for  each  month,  for  each  half- 
year,  and  for  the  year,  can  be  seen  at  a  glance,  and  the  pupil's  fitness 
for  promotion,  as  shown  by  the  teacher's  estimates,  be  quickly  de- 
termined. It  does  not  require  the  making  of  a  general  average  for  all 
the  branches,  and  no  such  general  average  is  used  in  promoting  pupils. 

In  case  a  parent  or  guardian  is  dissatisfied  with  a  pupil's  non-pro- 
motion, such  pupil's  proficiency  is,  on  the  application  of  the  parent  or 
guardian,  determined  by  a  written  examination,  the  results  of  the  same 
being  considered  as  additional  evidence  of  the  pupil's  fitness  for  pro- 
motion. 

I  have  thus  stated,  as  concisely  and  clearly  as  possible,  the  plan  of 
promoting  pupils  which  has  been  substituted  for  the  examination 
system,  so  long  used  in  this  city.  The  new  plan  was  adopted  by  the 
Board  of  Education  in  March  1887,  and  two  annual  promotions  have 
been  made  under  it. 

What  is  the  result? 

The  results  of  the  promotions  made  in  June.  1887,  were  fully  stated 
in  the  report  for  that  year.  A  comparison  of  the  teachers'  estimates 
the  last  half  of  the  year  with  the  results  of  the  two  written  examina- 
tions in  the  first  half  showed  that  the  estimates  more  fairly  represented 
the  proficiency  of  pupils  than  the  examination  results,  and  the  results 
of  the  written  examinations,  taken  by  non-promoted  pupils  at  the  close 
of  the  year,  strikingly  confirmed  the  reliability  of  the  teachers'  es- 
timates. 

The  promotions  in  June  last  bear  similar  testimony.  In  a  single 
week,  twenty-two  thousand  pupils,  including  those  in  the  H  and  G 
grades,  were  quietly  promoted.  There  was  no  examination  worry  or 
excitement,  and  no  over-taxing  of  nervous  energy  in  cramming  to  make 
up  for  lack  of  application  or  loss  of  time,  or  to  satisfy  the  anxiety  of 
parent  or  pupil.     These  were  obvious  results. 


1889.]  THE  PBOMOTION  OF  PUPILS.  417 

Fewer  non-promoted  pupils  applied  for  examination  than  in  the 
previous  year,  and  these  with  few  exceptions,  failed  to  reach  the 
required  standing,  thus  confirming  the  accuracy  of  the  teachers*  esti- 
mates.v  In  the  A  and  D  grades,  whose  pupils  are  promoted  directly  by 
the  Superintendent,  io6  non-promoted  pupils,  (ninety-six  in  D  grade  and 
ten  in  A  grade)  were  examined,  and  of  these  only  five  (four  in  D  grade 
and  one  in  the  A)  reached  a  standing  of  G  or  7,  and  these  had  a  fair 
estimate  standing.  All  the  results  known  warrant  the  belief,  expressed 
last  year,  that  the  pupils  in  the  schools  have  never  been  better  classified 
than  they  are  the  present  year. 

In  support  of  this  belief  we  submit  the  following  comparisons:  — 

1.  Of  the  pupils  remaining  in  the  three  Intermediate  grades  (A,  B, 
and  C)  in  June,  1886,  over  87  percent,  were  promoted  on  examination, 
and  of  those  remaining  in  June,  188S,  only  86  per  cent,  were  promoted 
on  the  monthly  estimates. 

2.  Of  the  pupils  remaining  in  the  three  upper  District  grades  (D, 
E,  and  F)  in  June,  1886,  over  91  per  cent,  were  promoted  on  examina- 
tion, and  of  those  remaining  in  June,  1888,  only  85  per  cent,  were 
promoted  on  the  monthly  estimates. 

3.  Of  the  pupils  remaining  in  the  A  grade  (8th  year)  in  June, 
1886,  81  per  cent,  were  promoted  on  examination,  and  of  those  remain- 
ing in  June,  1888,  85  percent,  were  promoted  on  the  monthly  estimates. 

4.  Of  the  pupils  remaining  in  D  grade  (5th  year)  in  June,  1886, 
93i  percent,  were  promoted  on  examination,  and  of  those  remaining  in 
June,  188S,  only  86^-  per  cent,  were  promoted  on  the  monthly  estimates. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  with  one  exception  (the  A  grade)  a  lower  per 
cent,  of  the  pupils  have  been  promoted  under  the  new  plan  than  were 
promoted  under  the  examination  system,  and  the  reasonable  presump- 
tion is  that  fewer  unqualified  pupils  have  been  promoted ;  and  this  is 
sustained  by  the  subsequent  progress  of  the  pupils.  The  per  cent,  of 
A  grade  pupils  promoted  this  year  is  a  little  greater  than  in  1887  on 
the  estimate  plan,  as  well  as  in  1886  on  examination.  This  result  is 
due  in  part,  at  least,  to  the  fact  that  fewer  weak  pupils  were  in  the  A 
grade  last  year,  the  classification  being  better. 

It  is  believed  that  in  a  well-graded  system  of  schools  from  80  to  90 
per  cent,  of  the  pupils  remaining  at  the  close  of  each  year  should  be 
prepared  for  promotion,  and  the  higher  the  grade  the  greater  should 
be  the  per  cent,  of  pupils  promoted.  It  is  certainly  a  mistake  to  hold 
any  teacher  responsible  for  the  promotion  of  all  the  pupils  who  remain 
in  school  during  the  year.  There  must  be  from  year  to  year  a  separa- 
tion of  the  weakest  pupils  from  those  who  are  able  to  advance  more 
rapidly.  It  is  only  by  such  re-classification  that  the  interests  of  all  the 
pupils  can  be  best  subserved.     It  is  a  great  wrong  to  strong  children  to 


418  EDUCATION.  [February, 

chain  them  to  weak  ones,  and  oblige  them  to  keep  step  together  through 
a  series  of  years.  It  is  also  wrong  to  the  weak  who  need  to  advance 
less  rapidly  and  to  have  more  help  by  the  way.  There  is  at  best  a  con- 
siderable sacrifice  of  talent  and  opportunity  in  a  graded  school  system, 
and  great  pains  should  be  taken  to  make  this  as  small  as  possible.  The 
mind  of  moderate  power  should  not  be  sacrificed  by  requiring  it  to 
reach  unattainable  results. 

But  the  chief  reason  for  the  change  in  the  plan  of  promoting  pupils 
was  to  free  the  instruction  of  the  schools  from  the  narrowing  and 
grooving  influence  of  the  examination  system,  and  secure  needed  im- 
provement in  methods  of  teaching,  and  in  the  course  of  study.  In 
these  important  directions  the  change  has  been  attended  with  most 
gratifying  results. 

It  has  not  only  secured  more  attention  to  those  studies  and  exercises 
which  were  neglected  under  the  examination  system,  the  results  not 
being  easily  measured  by  written  tests,  but  it  has  permitted  and  en- 
couraged wider  and  more  rational  teaching.  These  desirable  changes 
have  been  specially  noticeable  in  moral  training,  reading,  language, 
and  geography,  and  in  all  branches  there  has  been  an  increasing  use  of 
methods  that  look  to  right  training  rather  than  to  the  preparation  of 
pupils  to  meet  mechanical  and  memoriter  tests.  If  there  be  any  teach- 
ers in  the  schools,  who  are  not  teaching  better,  the  fact  must  be  due 
cither  to  lack  of  interest  in  improved  methods  or  inability  to  use  them, 
and  there  may  be  a  few  teachers  in  this  condition. 

It  is  true  that  the  success  of  the  new  system  depends  much  on  the 
Principals  who  have  the  immediate  s^per^'ision  of  the  work  of  the 
teachers.  In  the  study  and  adoption  of  improved  methods,  the  Princi- 
pal of  the  school  must  be  the  leader.  If  he  be  not  intelligently  and 
heartily  enlisted  in  the  reforms  instituted,  the  progress  of  the  teachers 
under  his  direction  will  be  unsatisfactory.  The  continued  use  of  tests 
that  call  for  old  results,  will  keep  most  teachers  in  the  ruts,  and  a 
Principal  may  thus  perpetuate  in  his  school  some  of  the  hindrances  of 
the  examination  system. 

The  use  of  tests  that  stimulate  and  encourage  progress  is  one  of  the 
most  obvious  advantages  of  the  present  plan.  Written  tests  are  now 
used  for  teaching  purposes^  and  not  to  aflbrd  a  standard  for  the  pro- 
motion of  pupils.  This  fact  makes  it  possible  to  use  tests  that  disclose 
defects  in  instruction  and  suggest  improvements,  without  sacrificing  the 
interests  of  pupils.  The  use  of  such  tests  is  always  diflicult  when  the 
promotion  of  the  pupils  in  a  class  depends  on  the  results.  It  certainly 
is  not  right  to  keep  pupils  in  a  grade  an  extra  year  because  the  teacher 
has  failed  to  teach  certain  facts  which  the  superintendent  would  like  to 
see  taught  in  the  future;  and  yet  the  use  of  examination  questions 


1889.]  BE  WARDS  FOR  MERITORIOUS  DISCOVERIES.  419 

touching  such  facts  is  a  most  effective  means  of  securing  future  attention 
to  them.  The  attempt  to  prepare  questions  that  will  be  suggestive  to 
teachers  and  pupils  and,  at  the  same  time,  be  fair  and  proper  tests  of 
the  pupil's  fitness  for  promotion,  is  always  difficult,  if  not  impossible. 
Promotion  questions,  as  a  rule,  are  narrow  and  technical,  and,  as 
evidence  of  the  actual  attainments  of  pupils,  misleading.  The  fact  that 
they  are  usually  within  the  minimum  requirements  of  the  course  and 
are  gauged  to  the  attainments  of  the  weaker  pupils,  results  in  the  mark- 
ing of  pupils  much  too  high.  The  pupils  in  our  schools  have  reached 
no  such  standard  of  attainment  as  their  examination  percentages  have 
indicated.  The  number  of  pupils  "perfect,"  or  very  close  to  perfec- 
tion, has  been  marvellous.  The  pride  of  parents  and  pupils  and  even 
of  teachers  may  be  flattered  by  such  results,  but  all  have  been  greatly 
deceived.  One  of  the  most  gratifying  changes  under  the  estimate  plan 
has  been  a  truer  representation  of  the  actual  attainments  of  pupils. 

It  is  doubtless  too  early  to  claim  for  the  estimate  plan  complete 
success,  and  it  is  certainlv  too  earlv  to  determine  its  final  influence  on 
school  work.  The  system  needs  careful  and  intelligent  oversight  and 
direction,  and  this  is  true  of  all  school  devices  —  the  better  the  device, 
the  greater  intelligence  required  for  its  use.  A  machine  can  be  '*  run"  ; 
a  true  method  must  be  administered.  It  is  proper  to  add  that  the 
success  of  the  estimate  plan  in  Cincinnati  is  not  conclusive  evidence 
that  it  will  be  equally  successful  elsewhere.  The  organization  and 
supervision  of  the  Cincinnati  schools  are  well  adapted  to  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  system. 


RE  WARDS  FOR  MERITORIOUS  DISCO  VERIES  AND 

INVENTIONS. 

[The  following^  circular,  just  received,  is  given  entire  and  requires  no  explanation.] 

To  the  Editor  of '"  Education,"  Boston  :  — 

THE  Committee  on  Science  and  the  Arts  of  the  Franklin  Institute 
of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  respectfully  requests  that  you  will 
cause  to  be  made  known  to  the  readers  of  your  influential  journal,  the 
fact  that  the  Committee  is  empowered  to  award,  or  to  recommend  the 
award  of,  certain  medals  for  meritorious  discoveries  and  inventions, 
which  tend  to  the  progress  of  the  arts  and  manufactures. 

These  medals  are  :  — 

I.  The  Elliott  Cresson  Medal  (gold).  This  medal  was  founded 
by  the  legacy  of  Elliott  Cresson,  of  Philadelphia,  anvl  conveyed  to 
Trustees  of  the  Franklin  Institute.  By  the  Act  of  the  Institution,  May 
17,  1849,  ^^^  Committee  on  Science  and  the  Arts  was  designated  and 


490  EDUCATION.  [Febniary^ 

empowered  to  award  this  medal,  and  the  Committee  decided  to  grant 
it,  after  proper  investigation  and  report  by  sub-committee,  either  for 
some  discovery  in  the  arts  and  sciences,  or  for  the  invention  or  improve- 
ment of  some  useful  machine,  or  for  some  new  process,  or  combination 
of  materials  in  manufactures,  or  for  ingenuit}',  skill,  or  perfection  in 
workmanship. 

2.  The  John  Scott  Legacy  Premium  and  Medal,  (twenty  dollars 
and  a  medal  of  copper).  The  John  Scott  Legacy  Premium  and  Medal 
was  founded  in  1816,  by  John  Scott,  a  merchant  of  Edinburgh,  Scot- 
land, who  bequeathed  to  the  city  of  Philadelphia  a  considerable  sum  of 
money,  the  interest  of  which  should  be  devoted  to  rewarding  ingenious 
men  and  women  who  make  useful  inventions.  The  premium  is  not  to 
exceed  twenty  dollars  and  the  medal  is  to  be  of  copper,  and  inscribed 
"71>  the  most  deserving",** 

The  control  of  the  Scott  Legacy  Premium  and  Medal  (by  Act  of 
1869)  was  transferred  to  the  Board  of  Directors  of  City  Trusts,  and 
referred  by  the  Board  to  its  Committee  on  Minor  Trusts,  and  that  com- 
mittee resolved,  that  it  would  receive  favorably  the  name  of  any  person 
whom  the  Franklin  Institute  may  from  time  to  time  report  to  the  Com- 
mittee on  Minor  Trusts,  as  worthy  to  receive  the  Scott  Legacy  Premium 
and  Medal. 

The  Franklin  Institute,  by  resolution  in  1882,  accepted  the  above- 
named  action  of  the  Committee  on  Minor  Trusts,  and  referred  the  duty 
of  making  such  recommendations  to  the  Committee  on  Science  and  the 
Arts.  The  Committee  determined  that  the  recommendation  for  such 
reward  shall  be  made  on  the  favorable  report  of  a  sub-committee  which 
shall  be  appointed  to  examine  the  invention  or  discovery. 

The  Committee  requests  your  cooperation  in  facilitating  the  making 
of  the  aforesaid  awards  for  meritorious  discoveries  and  inventions,  by 
bringing  the  facts  herein  set  forth  to  the  knowledge  of  your  readers. 

Upon  request  therefor,  from  interested  parties,  made  to  the  Secretary 
of  the  Franklin  Institute,  full  information  will  be  sent  respecting  the 
manner  of  making  application  for  the  investigation  of  inventions  and 
discoveries ;  furthermore,  the  Committee  on  Science  and  the  Arts  will 
receive  and  give  respectful  consideration  to  reports  upon  discoveries  and 
inventions,  which  may  be  sent  to  it  with  the  view  of  receiving  one  or 
the  other  of  the  awards  herein-named,  and  full  directions  as  to  the  man- 
ner and  form  in  which  such  communications  should  projjerly  be  made^ 
will  be  sent  on  application. 

By  the  Committee's  order, 

Wm.  H.  Wahl,  Secretary. 

The  Franklin  Institute  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  for  the  Promo- 
tion of  the  Mechanic  Arts. 

Philadelphia,  Oct.  i,  1888. 


1889.]  FIFTY  DOLLAR  PRIZE  .  421 


FIFTY  DOLLAR  PRIZE  FOR  THE  BEST  ESSAY  ON 
ENGLISH  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

THE  increased  prominence  of  English  in  school  programs,  and  the 
lack  of  any  generally-accepted  plan  or  system  of  work,  have 
prompted  the  editor  of  The  Academy  to  offer  a  special  inducement  to 
those  who  have  devoted  thought  to  the  teaching  of  English,  and  who 
have  definite  ideas  of  the  method  of  such  teaching.  The  essays  may 
be  upon  the  teaching  of  English  literature,  methods  of  grammatical 
study,  composition  work  or  rhetoric,  etc.,  but  no  weight  will  be 
attached  to  arguments  in  favor  of  teaching  English.  Contestants  must 
confine  themselves  simply  to  practical  exposition  of  results  sought  and 
of  the  means  of  attaining  these  results  in  the  schoolroom.  While 
literary  merit  will  not  be  disregarded,  the  decision  of  the  judges  will 
rest  mainly  on  the  practical  help  afforded  to  teachers  by  the  article. 
The  competition  is  open  to  all  persons,  without  regard  to  age,  sex, 
color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude.  The  following  are  the  con- 
ditions :  — 

No  paper  is  to  exceed  in  length  5,000  words. 

The  paper  awarded  first  prize  by  the  committee  shall  become  the 
property  of  TTie  Academy. 

Any  papers  of  special  merit,  which  may  receive  honorable  mention, 
shall  also  become  the  property  of  The  Academy, 

Papers  must  be  legibly  written  so  as  to  be  published  without  copy- 
ing, must  be  signed  with  a  fictitious  name  (the  real  one  being  enclosed 
in  a  sealed  envelope),  and  must  be  received  at  the  office  of  The 
Academy  on  or  before  April  15,  1889. 

Manuscripts  not  receiving  prize  or  honorable  mention,  will  be 
returned  if  stamps  are  enclosed. 

The  names  of  the  committee  of  award  will  be  published. 

If  further  information  is  desired,  address 

The  Academy^  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


422  EDUCATIOX.  [February, 


FOREIGN  NOTES, 

The  Bodleian  Library.  —  In  accordance  with  the  permission 
granted  by  the  Curators  of  the  Bodleian  Library  in  1SS5,  Mr.  Edward 
B.  Nicholson,  the  librarian,  has  just  issued  the  first  of  a  yearly  series 
of  reports  for  the  information  of  members  of  Oxford  University  and 
other  persons  who  may  be  interested  in  the  Bodleian. 

Strictly  speaking  the  history  of  the  library  begins  with  its  opening 
by  the  founder.  Sir  Thomas  Bodlev,  in  1602.  It  is,  however,  the 
successor  of  an  ancient  library  of  the  University,  *' which  existed  at 
least  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century." 

In  the  time  of  Edward  VI.  this  ancient  librarv  fell  under  the  ban  of 

a* 

the  iconoclasts ;  its  illuminated  or  rubricated  manuscripts  were  de- 
stroyed ;  the  rest  of  the  collection  was  scattered  beyond  recovery,  and 
the  very  seats  at  w^hich  readers  had  sat  were  sold.  Four  vears  after  the 
final  act  of  destruction,  Thomas  Bodlev  entered  Magdalen  College  as 
an  undergraduate,  became  subsequently  a  Fellow  of  Merton  College, 
served  his  country  with  distinction  as  a  diplomatist,  and  returning  from 
his  foreign  post,  gave  himself  to  the  work  which  keeps  his  "  memory 
green  **  to  the  present  day. 

Among  the  earliest  donors  to  the  library  appear  the  names  of  William 
Herbert,  Earl  of  Pembroke,  and  Archbishop  Laud  ;  Oliver  Cromwell, 
Selden  and  Junius  came  in  their  turn  ;  the  eighteenth  century  affords  a 
long  line  of  illustrious  contributors,  and  the  present  century  has  wit- 
nessed splendid  bequests,  including  the  famous  Douce  collection  of 
manuscripts  and  printed  books,  and  the  oriental  manuscripts  presented 
by  Sir  W.  Walker  and  Mr.  J.  B.  Elliott.  These  and  many  more  par- 
ticulars are  to  be  learned  from  the  historical  portion  of  Mr.  Nicholson's 
report. 

As  regards  housing,  the  library  occupies  the  whole  of  *'the  old 
school's  quadrangle,"  excepting  the  two  top  rooms  in  the  tower,  which 
contain  the  University  Archives ;  all  of  the  Radcliffe  building,  save  a 
portion  of  the  gallery  devoted  to  the  Hope  collection  of  engraved 
portraits,  and  the  basement  of  the  Sheldoman  Library. 

By  desire  of  the  Curators  the  library  was  counted  at  the  end  of  Janu- 
ary, 1885.  No  pains  w^ere  spared  to  secure  exactness  in  this  very  diffi- 
cult task,  and  between  countings  and  estimates  the  total  arrived  at  was 
470,000  volumes,  of  which  more  than  one-half  are  in   rooms  closed  to 


1889.]  FOREIQX  NOTES.  423 

visitors.  The  term  volume,  however,  is  exceedingly  indefinite,  being 
here  taken  to  mean  so  many  pamphlets  or  works  as  may  be  bound 
between  the  same  covers.  *'  The  only  real  basis  of  comparison  between 
libraries,"  obsen'es  Mr.  Nicholson,  '*  are  their  shelf-measurements  or 
the  number  of  their  distinct  title  pages,  and  until  one  or  the  other  of 
these  estimates  has  been  made  the  relative  size  of  the  Bodleian  cannot 
be  precisely  determined."  Mr.  Nicholson  is  of  the  opinion  that  it  is 
exceeded  by  f\\Q  only,  viz.:. the  Bibliothfeque  Nationale  at  Paris,  the 
British  Museum,  the  Imperial  Library  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  the  Royal 
Libraries  at  Munich  and  Berlin. 

Prior  to  1883  only  partial  statistics  of  the  annual  increase  of  the 
library  were  attainable.  In  that  year  a  system  of  accurate  counting  was 
begun  and  in  the  following  year  was  brought  to  completeness.  The 
additions  are  received  by  gift  or  exchange,  under  the  copyright  act,  by 
new  purchases,  and  by  second-hand  purchases.  In  1887  they  num- 
bered 54,700,  of  which  fifty-eight  per  cent,  were  received  under  the 
copyright  act. 

The  printed  books  purchased  at  second-hand  are  roughly  divided  by 
Mr.  Nicholson  into  two  classes,  viz.  :  (i)  books  asked  for  by  readers: 
(2)  other  books.  In  order  to  satisfy  all  requests  of  readers  as  rapidly 
as  possible,  inquiries  for  books  published  on  the  continent  have  been 
made  for  some  time  past  through  Messrs.  Koehler  of  Leipzig,  all  other 
inquiries  of  the  kind  being  made  through  Mr.  Quaritch. 

The  remaining  second-hand  purchases  consist  of  books  bought  on 
account  of  their  subject,  and  books  bought  on  account  of  the  place  or 
date  of  their  production.  Among  the  latter,  books  printed  in  Ox- 
ford or  in  the  counties  immediately  around  it  are  especially  prized. 

To  the  librarian  the  most  interesting  part  of  Mr.  Nicholson's  report 
is  that  relating  to  the  scheme  and  the  work  of  cataloguing.  It  would 
be  impossible  in  the  limits  of  this  article  to  do  justice  to  the  subject; 
suffice  it  to  say  that  the  code  of  cataloguing  rules  employed  is  based 
upon  the  code  of  the  Library  Association  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
which  in  turn  was  based  on  the  code  of  the  American  Library  Associa- 
tion. 

A  special  catalogue  of  fifteenth  century  books  in  which  the  Bodleian 
is  particularly  rich  is  being  prepared  by  Mr.  E.  Gordon  Duft',  whose 
knowledge  of  fifteenth  century  printing  is  almost  unequalled.  In  June, 
1888,  this  work  had  reached  the  letter  "J"  the  number  of  books 
entered  being  3,104.  In  the  process,  all  volumes  that  do  not  certainly 
belong  to  the  century  specified  have  been  carefully  excluded. 

The  Bodleian  Library  is  especially  rich  in  manuscripts,  and  in  Ori- 
ental manuscripts  probably  surpasses  every  other  European  collection. 


4:14  EDUCATIOX.  [Febroarj, 

The  cataloguing  of  this  precious  division  is  a  work  of  g^eat  labor  em- 
ploying distinguished  specialists. 

In  the  matter  of  musical  collections  the  Oxford  Library  is  second 
only  to  the  British  Museum.  Owing  to  the  inadequateness  of  the  staflT 
the  mass  of  musical  compositions  received  each  year  under  the  copy- 
right act  remained  uncatalogued  till  the  end  of  1S82.  Since  then,  all 
new  accessions  of  the  kind  have  been  regularly  catalogued  and  g^eat 
progress  has  been  made  in  bringing  up  the  arrears. 

Among  especially  curious  and  rare  possessions  of  the  library  should 
be  mentioned  the  prints  sometimes  found  inserted  in  devotional  books 
printed  on  manuscripts  of  the  fifteenth  and  early  sixteenth  century,  and 
a  very  curious  and  valuable  collection  of  playing-cards  included  among 
the  treasures  left  by  Douce  to  the  library.  The  number  of  prints,  col- 
ored and  uncolored,  so  far  discovered,  is  not  above  nineteen.  The 
librarian  has  compiled  a  detailed  description  of  these  on  cards  specially 
prepared.  A  first  part  of  the  collection  of  playing-cards  has  also  been 
very  thoroughly  catalogued. 

Among  the  remaining  topics  of  interest  treated  in  Mr.  Nicholson's 
report  should  be  mentioned  the  coin  collection,  which  is  the  second 
largest  in  the  empire,  and  the  architectural  history  of  the  library.  By 
the  original  Bodleian  statutes  which  were  in  force  from  1610  to  1856, 
all  lending  of  manuscripts  and  printed  books  was  absolutely  forbidden. 
In  1856  the  prohibition  against  lending  was  omitted  from  the  new 
Bodleian  statute,  and  loans  are  now  made  with  the  assent  of  the 
University  Convocation. 

EDUCATIONAL   NOTES. 

The  National  League  formed  in  France  for  the  promotion  of  physical 
training  has  a  prototype  in  a  Prussian  society  whose  purpose  it  is  to 
foster  a  taste  for  physical  exercise  among  the  young.  Herr  von  Gossler, 
the  minister  of  public  instruction,  has  recently  expressed  his  approval 
of  the  objects  of  the  society  in  an  official  letter. 

The  permanent  committee  on  German  School  Reform  recently  pre- 
sented a  petition  to  the  minister  having  22,409  signatures.  In  his  reply 
the  minister  enumerated  as  the  chief  difficulties  to  be  overcome,  the 
abnormal  influx  of  pupils  to  the  gymnasium,  the  distribution  of  schol- 
arships on  the  basis  simply  of  poverty,  and  the  insufficient  attention 
paid  to  physical  training,  especially  at  the  universities. 

The  Belgian  government  continues  its  vehement  crusade  against  non- 
clerical  schools. 

The  anti-examination  movement  appears  to  be  gaining  strength  in 
England.  A.  x.  s. 


1889.] 


BIBLIOOBAFHT. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF   CURRENT  PERIODICAL   LIT- 
ERATURE   UPON  EDUCATION. 


The  following  bibliography  of  ourrent  periodioal  literatare  Includes  artioles  upon 
edaoatlon  and  other  subjects  calculated  to  Interest  teachers.  Only  articles  ftom  peri- 
odicals not  nominally  educational  are  mentioned.  Articles  of  special  importance  to 
teachers  will,  as  a  rule,  be  mentioned  in  notes. 


Abstraction,  L\  et  les  id^es  ab- 
straites  (Ist  article).  F.  Paalhan. 
Bevue  Philosophique^  Janaary. 

Agnosticism,  The  Future  of.  Fred- 
eric Harrison.  Fortnightly  Bevieio^ 
January. 

^^  American  Commonwealth/'  Mr. 
Bryce's.  Frederic  Harrison.  Nine- 
teenth Century^  January. 

American  Society,  Jottings  on.  Max 
O'Rell.     The  Forum,,  January. 

Ariosto,  the  Satires  of.  £.  M. 
Gierke.    National  Beview,  January. 

Art  in  England.  Frederick  Leigh- 
ton.     Contemporary  Beview^  January. 

Apprentice  Svstem,  An  American. 
Bichard  F.  Auchrauty.  Century y  Jan- 
uary. 

Aveugle.  Un  noveau  cas  de  gu^ri- 
son  d  'aveugle  ne.  Dunan.  Bevue 
Philosophique^  January. 

Brahmin  School-Girl,  A.  Mrs.  Kings- 
cote.    Nineteenth  Century^  January. 

Contains  an  account  of  the  Moha- 
rani's  Girls'  School  at  Mysore. 

Buddhas  Leben  und  Lehre.  Ra- 
phael Koeber.     Sphinx^  December. 

Calculating  Boys,  Some  Strange 
Feats  of.  R.  A.  Procter.  Knowledge^ 
January. 

Cambridge  Apostles  of  1830,  The. 
Julia  Wedge  wood.  Contemporary  Be- 
weir,  January. 

Canada.  Is  Union  with  Canada  De- 
sirable? J.  S.  Morrill.  The  Forum^ 
January. 

Cannibalism,  the  Ethics  of.  H.  H. 
Johnston.  Fortnightly  Beview^  Janu- 
ary. 

Capital,  the  Fundamental  Idea  of. 
Simon  N.  Patten.  Quarterly  Journal 
of  Economics^  January. 

Chinese  Exclusion  Bill,  The.  Hen- 
ry L.  Dawes.     The  Forum^  January. 

Chinese.  The  Chinese  in  the  United 
States.  Wong  Chin  Foo.  Chautaur- 
quan^  January. 

Confederacy,  The  West   Point  of 


the.  John  S.  Wise.  Century ^  Janu- 
ary. 

Controversy,  the  Ethics  of.  George 
P.  Fisher.    Scribner^a^  January. 

A  valuable  article  with  interesting 
illustrations  from  literature. 

Darwin'9  Arguments  Against  Chris- 
tianity and  against  Religion.  Prof. 
B.  B.  Warfleld.  ffomiletic  BevieWj 
January. 

Degeneracy,  Town-Life  as  a  Cause 
of.  G.  B.  Barron.  Popular  Science 
Monthly y  January. 

Reprinted  from  the  Lancet. 

Denkfehier,  Ueberallgemeire.  Sig- 
mund  Exner.  Deutsche  BundschaUy 
January. 

Devotional  Reading.  Frederic  Palm- 
er.   Andover  BevietOy  January.     ^ 

Doctrine,  the  History  of  a.  Frof. 
S.  P.  Langley.  (Concluded.)  Popii- 
lar  Science  Monthlyy  January. 

Ecole  des  hautes  etudes,  L\  Michel 
Breal.    Bevue  BleuCy  22  December. 

Educate  the  Hand.  T.  L.  Flood. 
Chautauquany  January. 

Education,  the  Athletic  Problem  in. 
N.  S.  Shaler.  Atlantic  Monthlyy  Janu- 
ary. 

Professor  Shaler  considers  the  evils 
and  the  advantages  of  athletic  sports ; 
and,  from  his  experience  at  Harvard, 
he  reports  a  great  gain  physically  and 
morally  since  the  advent  of  athletic 
discipline. 

Elementary  School  Life,  Studies  of. 
I.  H.  J.  Barker.  Ziongman'Sy  Janu- 
arv. 

English,  Colloquial.  Prof.  A.  S. 
Hill.    Harper' Sy  January. 

A  valuable  article. 

Enseignement  du  droit  international 
priv6,  L\  A.  B.  Bevue  Bleucy  5  Jan- 
uary. 

Erhaltung  der  Energle,  Das  Prin- 
cip  der.  M.  Planck.  Philo8ophiache 
Monatsh^e.    Heft  3  u.  4. 

Explosives.     The  Effect  of  £x\ilo- 


426 


ED  UC ATI  OX. 


[February, 


sives  on  Civilizatioo.  Charles  E.  Miin- 
roH.     Chautauquan^  January. 

Factory  Life,  Studies  in  :  I'he  Ameri- 
can and  the  Mill.  Lillie  B.  Chaee  \Vy. 
man.    Atlantic.  Monthly^  January. 

French  Academy,  A  Keceptiou  at 
the.    National  Revievc^  January. 

Geometry,  Inventlonal.  Edward  B. 
Shaw.  Popular  Science  Monthly^  Jan- 
uary. 

Gold,  Appreciation  of.  F.  Y.  Edi^e- 
worth.  Quarterly  Journal  of  Econom- 
ics, January. 

Greater  llalf  of  the  Continent,  The. 
Erastus  VVinan.  Xorth  American  Be- 
view^  January. 

Green  of  Oxford,  Professor.  The 
**  Doctor  Grey''  of  **  Robert  EU- 
mere.*'  Noah  Porter.  Yale  Review, 
January. 

Guiding-Needle,  The,  on  an  Iron 
Ship.  G.  A.  Lyons.  Popular  Science 
Monthly^  January. 

ilainilton,  Alexander.  Coleman  E. 
BUhop.     Chautauijuan,  January. 

Health  Matters:  i'he  Germ  Theory 
in  Consumption,  etc.     Science,  Jan.  4. 

Contains  valuahit*  hygienic  sug- 
gestions. 

Herbert  compared  with  the  English 
Psychologists,  and  with  Beneke.    G. 

F.  Stout.     Mind^  January. 
Homerische  Frage,  Zur.     I^uis  Er- 

hardt.  Zeitschrift  fur  VlUkerpsycholo- 
gie.  Heft  1. 

Hospitals.  I.  Susan  Hayes  Ward. 
Chantauquan,  January. 

House  of  C<»mmons,  Chaos  in  the. 

G.  Osborne  Morgan.  Contemporary 
BevieWy  January. 

House-Drainage  from  Various  Points 
of  View.  John  S.  Billings,  M.  D.,  U. 
S.  A.  Popular  Science  Monthly,  Janu- 
ary. 

Howells'  Novels,  The  Moral  Pur- 
pose in.  Anna  I^aurens  Dawes.  An- 
dover  Review,  January. 

Hugo,  Victor.  Toute  la  Lyre.  I. 
A.  C.  Swinburne.  Fortnightly  Review, 
January. 

Hypocrisie,  Etudes  morales  sur  P. 
Fraucisque  Bouillier.  Revue  Bleue,  22 
December. 

H ypnotisme.  T^s  Suggestions  hyp- 
notiques  au  point  de  vue  medico- legal, 
par  M.  Li<f^geois.  Dr.  E.  Brissaud. 
Xouvelle  Revue,  January. 

Hypnotii(inus,  Fortsrhritte  des.  4. 
Albert  von  Notzing.  Sphinx,  Decem- 
ber. 

Indians  of  the  United  States,  The, 
II.  J.  B.  Harrison.  Chautauquan, 
January. 


Invalid's  World,  The.  The  Doctor, 
the  Nurse,  the  Visitor.  A.  B-  Ward. 
Scrihner's^  January. 

Isolaticm,  or  Survival  of  the  Unfit- 
test.  Duke  of  Argyll.  XineteetUh 
Century,  January'. 

Italian  Masters,  Old.  W.  J.  Still- 
man.     Century,  January. 

Language,  The  Place  of  the  Study 
of,  in  a  Curriculum  of  Education.  M. 
Putnam  Jarobi.  American  Journal  of 
Psychology^  November. 

The  writer  considers  the  Bobject 
from  the  standpoint  of  cerebral  physi- 
ology. 

Libi-e  arbitre,  Le.  L^vy-Bruhl. 
Revue  Bleue,  29  December. 

Lincoln,  Abraham.  The  AonoaDee- 
ment  of  Emancipation.  J.  G.  Nicolay, 
John  Hay.     Century^  January. 

Lying,  the  Decay  of.  A  Dialogue. 
Oscar  Wilde.  Nineteenth  Century^ 
January. 

Maine  de  Biron,  der  franzSsische 
Kant.  E.  Kdnig.  Philosophische  Mo- 
natshefte.  Heft  3  u.  4. 

MhiiuuI  Training,  An  Authoritative 
Derinitton  of.     A*<rienre^  Jan.  4. 

An  abstract  of  the  report  of  the 
speirial  committeo  on  manual  training 
at  the  semi-annual  meeting  of  the  New 
Jersey  Council  of  Education,  Dee.  26, 
1888.  Finding  a  broader  deflnitioD 
necessary  than  that  embracing  merely 
exercises  in  the  use  of  tools  and  in- 
struction in  drawing,  the  Council  de- 
flne  manual  training  as  ^*  instruction 
in  thought-expression  by  other  means 
than  verbal  language  and  gesture.^* 

Melkenden  Gotter  bei  den  Indoger- 
manen.  Die.  W.  Schwartz.  Zeit- 
schrifl  far  Mjlkerpsychologie,  Heft  1. 

Memory,  Historically  and  Experi- 
mentally Considered.  I.  W.  H.  Burn- 
ham.  American  Journal  of  Psychology^ 
November. 

An  historical  survey  of  the  concep- 
tions of  memory  from  the  early 
Greeks  to  Kant.  So  far  as  we  know 
it  is  the  only  historical  sketch  In 
English  covering  this  ground. 

Mental  Science:  Negative  Sugges- 
tions, etc.     Science,  Jan.  18. 

Microsmus.  The.  William  Tucker. 
Universalist  Quarterly^  January. 

Morality.  How  shall  w^e  Teach 
Morality?  Thomas  McMillan.  CatKo^ 
lie  World,  February. 

Morality.  The  Evolution  of.  Prof. 
J.  Seth.     Mind,  January. 

Music  and  Christian  Education.  Ed- 
ward S.  Steele.  Bihliotheca  Sacra^ 
January. 


1889.] 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


427 


Necessary  Truth,  On  Some  Kinds  of. 
(I.)  L.  Stephen.     Mind^  January. 

O'Connell,  Daniel.  \V.  E.  Glad- 
stone.    Nineteenth  Century^  January. 

Odd  Sticks  and  certain  Reflections 
concerning  them.  Thomas  Bailey  Al- 
drich.     Scribner^s^  January. 

Optimiiam,  The  Scientilic  Bases  of. 
W.  11.  Mai  lock.  Fortnightly  RevievCy 
January. 

Fen,  Pencil,  and  Poison :  A  Stud}'. 
Oscar  Wilde.  Fortnightly  Review  ^ 
January. 

Personal  Equation.  E.  C.  Sanford. 
American  Journal  of  Psychology^  No- 
vember. 

Philosophie  und  Wissenschaft  der 
Vorsokratiker,  Zur.  P.  Natorp. 
Philosophische  Monatshefte^  Heft  3  u.  4. 

'*  Philosophical  Criticism,'' Kiehl  on. 
Prof.  R.  Adamson.     ilfincZ,  January. 

Philosophie.  Introduction  a  la  Sci- 
ence Philosophique.  IV.  Rapports 
de  la  Philosophie  et  de  la  Theologie. 
Paul  Janet.  Revue  Philosophique^  Jiin- 
uary. 

Philanthropist,  A  Practical  and  his 
Work.  Doctor  Knight.  Macmillan's 
Magazine,  January. 

An  account  of  Jean  Baptist  Andre 
Godin. 

Physiologic.  L'  evolution  du  sys- 
teme  nerveux.  II.  Beaunis.  Revue 
Scientijique,  Dec.  15  and  Jan.  5. 

Poetry.  The  Religious  Element  in 
Modern  English  Poetry.  Before  Ten- 
nyson. John  A.  Bellows.  Unitarian 
Review,  Januarv. 

Politics,  A  Difficult  Problem  in. 
Frank  Gaylord  Cook.  Atlantic  Month- 
ly, January. 

The  problem  referred  to  is  that  of 
obtaining  uniformity  of  legislation 
among  the  different  states. 

Print,  Getting  into.  James  Payn. 
The  Forum,  January. 

Presidential  Candidates,  Defeated. 
James  Parton.      The  Forum,  January. 

Psychologic.  Cerveau  etSociabilite. 
Th.  Meynert.  Revue  Scientifique,  24 
November. 

Psychologic  der  Komik.  IV.  Th. 
Lipps.  Philosophische  Monatshefte, 
Heft  3  u.  4. 

Psychologic.  Le  genie  et  la  folic. 
Charles  Ricbet.  Revue  Scientifique,  22 
December. 

This  article  is  the  preface  of  the 
French  translation  of  Lombroso's  re- 
cent book  V Homme  de  genie. 

Public  Schools.  Are  Our  Public 
Schools  Godless  ?  Rev.  H.  D.  Jenkins. 
Presbyterian  Review,  January. 


Rabelais,  les  idees  de,  sur  V  Educa- 
tion. Paul  Stapfer.  Bibliotheque  Uni- 
verselle,  January. 

Railroad  Business  under  the  Inter- 
state Commerce  Act.  Arthur  T.  Had- 
ley.  Quarterly  Journal  of  Economics^ 
January. 

Railwav  Management.  E.  P.  Alex- 
ander,    ^cribner^s,  January. 

Ramabai  Association.  J.  W.  An- 
drews. Lend  a  Hand  Monthly,  Janu- 
ary. 

Rede,  Die.  Karl  Schultz.  Zeit- 
schrift   fur  Volkerpsychologie,    Heft  1. 

Reform,  ITie  Next  National.  Allen 
Thorndike  Rice.  North  American  Re- 
view, January. 

Religion,  Public  Instruction  in. 
Prof.  Arthur  Richmond  Marsh.  An- 
dover  Review,  January. 

Restriction  or  Prohibition?  Henry 
Stockbridge.  North  American  Review^ 
January. 

Robert  dem  Teufel,  zur  Legende 
von.  Karl  Borinski.  Zeitschrift  fur 
Volkerpsychologie,  Heft  1. 

Robert  Elsmere,  False  Philosophy 
in.  James  McCosh.  Our  Day,  Janu- 
ary. 

Robert  Elsmere's  Mental  Struggles. 
Rev.  Edward  Everett  Hale,  Marion 
Harland,  Rev.  Joseph  Cook,  Julia 
Ward  Howe,  W.  E.  Gladstone.  North 
American  Review,  January. 

Robert  Elsmere's  Self-Contradic- 
tions.  Joseph  Cook.  Our  Day,  Janu- 
ary. 

Schoolroom  as  a  Factor  in  Disease^ 
The.     Science,  Jan.  11. 

An  abstract  of  a  paper  by  Dr.  J.  A. 
Larrabee. 

Science  and  its  Accusers.  W.  D» 
Le  Sueur.  Popular  Science  Monthly, 
January. 

Scientiflc  Charity,  the  Origin  of,  in 
Hamburg.  Rev.  J.  H.  Crooker.  Lend 
a  Hand,  January. 

Sciences.  Enseignement  des.  Le» 
deux  Univiersites  de  Prague.  P.  Loye. 
Revue  Scientifique,  Nov.  24. 

Sciences,  Enseignement  des.  Le» 
nouvelles  galeries  du  Museum.  Felix 
HEment.  Revt^  Scientifique,  6  Janu- 
ary. 

Shakespeare*s  Religion  and  Politics. 
Goldwin  Smith.  Macmillan*a,  Janu- 
ary. 

Southern  Life  and  Affairs,  Northern 
Estimates  of.  Armory  D.  Mayo,  l/hi- 
tarian  Review,  January. 

Stage  and  Society,  The.  Mary  An- 
derson. North  American  Review,  Jau- 
uary. 


4i8 


EDUCATIOy. 


[Febrnarj, 


Statistics,  an  Easy  Lesson  in.  Ed- 
ward Atkinson.    rA#»  Forum,  January. 

Speculation,  The  Ethics  of.  George 
H.  Hubbard.      Tale  Review^  Januarv. 

Spirit  Perception.  An  Essay  in 
Christian  Psychology.  Henry  E. 
Bobbins.  Baptist  Quarterly  Review^ 
January. 

Telegraph,  Gau^s  and  the  EI<H;tric. 
Popular  Science  Monthly^  January. 

Temperance  T^ws  in  the  States  and 
Territories.  H.  W.  Blair,  Chaatau- 
quan^  January. 

"Thousand  more  Mouths  every 
Day,"  A.  Earl  of  Meath.  yineUenth 
Century^  January. 

Tolstoi  and  Matthew  Arnold.  Fran- 
ces Hovey  Stoddard.  Congregational 
Review^  Januar}'. 

Tolstoi.  I.  William  C.  Wilkinson. 
Homiletic  Review ^  January. 

Treasury,  A  Knid  upon  the.  I^on- 
ard  Woolsey  Bacon.  The  Forum^ 
January. 

Trusts,  According  to  Official  Inves- 
tigations. E.  Benj.  Andrews.  Quar- 
terly Journal  of  Economics^  January. 

Univer«ltj',  The  Need  of  Another. 
Andrew  D.  Vvhite.  The  Forum^  Jan- 
uary. 

Vaccination,  Compulsory.  J.  Allan- 
son  PIcton.  Contemporary  Review^ 
January. 

Volunt6.  Reponse  de  M.  W.  James 
aux  remarques  de  M.  Renouvier  sur 
«a  theorie  de  la  volonte.  Critique 
Philoaophique,  December. 

To  this  letter  from  Professor  James 


are  appended  remarks  by  RenooTier 
and  a  French  translation  of  paaaaff^es 
from  I^)tze*s  Medicinische  Psjfchoiof^, 

War.  General  Wolseley.  Fbrtnightl^ 
Review^  January. 

War,  Unfinished  Work  of  the. 
George  B.  Cow  lain.  77^  Forum^  Jan- 
uary. 

VVashlngton^s  Great  Campaign  of 
1776.  John  Fiske.  AtlarUic  MotUhlff. 
January. 

West.  Is  the  West  Secularized r 
Joi^eph  T.  Duryea.  Andover  Review^ 
January. 

Women,  French  Traits.  W.  0. 
Brownell.     Scribner*s,  January. 

Women,  The  Higher  Education  of. 
I^dy  Magnus.  National  Review^  Jan- 
uary. 

^^  The  mistake  of  this  ^  higher  eda- 
cation  *  seems  to  u^  to  lie  in  the  elab- 
orate provision  whicli  it  makes  for 
*  training  *  its  votaries  to  all  sorts  of 
new  and  overstocked  modes  of  ^  earn- 
ing their  living,"  to  the  utter  neglect 
of  a  cert4iin  old  one  where  the  demand 
must  be  unfailing,  even  if,  owing  to 
circumstances,  it  be  occasionally  in- 
termittent.  Instruction  for  our  girls, 
instruction  per  se,  and  instruction  per 
salary,  is  in  the  air,  but  education  and 
education  for  marriage  seems  to  have 
gone  completely  out  of  fashion.*^ 

Working  Girls,  Clubs  for.  Maude 
Stanley.  Nineteenth  Century^  Janu- 
ary. 

Zola.  Mrs.  Emily  Crawford.  Con- 
temporary  Review^  January. 


AMONG  THE  BOOKS, 


Marvels  of  the  New  West.  Six  Books  in  one  Volume.  By  William  M- 
Thayer.  350  engravings  and  maps.  Norwich,  Conn. :  The  Henry  Bill  Pub- 
lishing Co.  Sold  only  by  subscription.  Pp.  715.  Boston  publishing  office 
79  Milk  street.     1888. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  delightful  books  for  winter  evenings  imaginable.  It 
is  graphic,  life  like,  interesting.  By  reading  it  and  studying  its  beautiful  illus- 
trations one  can  get  a  clearer,  more  graphic,  and  more  accurate  idea  of  the 
great  marvels  of  our  country  than  fifty  years  ago  would  have  been  possible 
concerning  any  country  without  years  of  travel.  The  book  is  comprised  of: 
1.  Marvels  of  Nature.  2.  Marvels  of  Rac«*.  3.  Marvels  of  Enterprise.  4. 
Marvels  of  Mining.  5.  Marvels  of  Stock  Raising.  6.  Marvels  of  Agricul- 
ture. It  groups  together  more  information  of  importance  concerning  the 
western  half  of  our  country  than  can  elsewhere  be  found  in  one  volume.  The 
Rocky  Mountain  stories  told  in  this  volume  surpass  anything  ever  related  by 
Munchausen  or  in  the  Arabian  Nights,  yet  the  stories  are  all  true,  and  the  half 
has  not  been  told.  The  writer  has  evidently  been  there  and  knows  of  what  he 
affirms. 


1889.]  AMOXO  THE  BOOKS.  429 

Primary  Writing  By  Mara  L.  Pratt.  Boston :  Eastern  Educational  Bureau. 
Price  15  cents. 

This  is  an  ingenious  method  of  teaching  the  elements  of  penmanship  to 
young  children.  It  consists  of  nine  sections  or  lessons.  The  first  one  is  intro- 
ductory and  unfolds  the  fundamental  principle  upon  which  the  lessons  are 
planned.  The  method  is  based  upon  a  careful  description  of  what  is  to  be 
done,  which  is  given  in  such  a  way  as  to  create  an  interest  —  indeed,  an  enthu- 
siasm on  the  parr  of  the  children  in  the  work  before  them.  The  first  devic(3 
employed  is  a  set  of  cards  put  into  the  hands  of  the  children  with  parallel  lines 
slanted  at  the  correct  writing  angle.  Over  them  thin  paper  is  to  be  placed 
upon  which  the  children  will  practise  till  they  have  acquired  the  habit  of  mak- 
ing lines  upon  that  particular  angle. 

The  next  device  is  to  give  the  children  three  straight  splints,  or  tooth  picks, 
with  which  they  can  make  ten  or  twelve  '*  print  letters."  Then  with  an 
"under  curve,''  an  ''over  curve,*' and  a  "slant,''  the  basis  of  all  the  letters 
can  be  made. 

After  this  the  lessons  unfold  by  a  very  simple  process  rules  for  the  mak- 
ing of  the  entire  alphabet. 

The  plan  is  original,  unique,  natural,  and  philosophical.  Many  primary 
teachers  will  find  this  little  device  extremely  useful  saving  them  much  time 
and  trouble.  Sent  to  any  address  by  mail,  prepaid,  on  receipt  of  the  price,  16 
cents. 

A  Textbook  of  General  Astronomy  for  Colleges  and  Scientific  Schools. 
By  Charles  A.  Young,  Ph.  D..  LL.  D.,  Professor  in  Princeton  College.  Bos- 
ton :  Ginn  &  Co.    Pp.  551.     Mailing  price  $2.50.    1888. 

The  publication  of  this  book  will,  in  many  directions,  mark  a  new  era  in  the 
study  of  Astronomy.  The  book  is  thoroughly  sensible,  philosophical,  scholar- 
ly. Its  chapter  on  astronomical  instruments  is  the  best  yet  found  in  any  book. 
Its  theory  of  the  sun  gives  us  all  that  science  has  yet  unfolded.  The  moon's 
path  in  space  is  very  clearly  explained  and  illustrated.  It  is  questionable 
whether  the  author,  or  any  one  else,  has  yet  got  down  to  bed  rock  upon  the 
Subject  of  tides.  The  treatment  of  the  planets  and  of  comets  is  admirable. 
The  discussion  of  meteors  and  shooting  stars  is  both  thorough  and  scientific. 
But  it  is  left  for  the  chapters  on  stars  to  furnish  the  greatest  expression  of 
thought  and  the  broadest  generalizations  of  science.  The  result  arrived  at  is 
that  the  present  system  of  stars  and  worlds  is  not  the  eternal  one.  The 
author's  conclusion  is  as  follows :  "  If  we  carry  our  imagination  backwards  we 
reach  at  last  a  '  beginning  of  things'  which  has  no  intelligible  antecedent:  if 
forwards  the  end  of  things  is  stagnation.  That  by  some  process  or  other  this 
end  of  things  will  result  in  a  '  new  heavens  and  a  new  earth,'  we  can  hardly 
doubt  but  science  has  us  yet  no  word  of  explanation." 

We  have  received  from  E.  L.  Kellogg  &  Co.,  of  New  York  and  Chicago. 
(1)  The  Teachers*  Psychology.    By  A.  S.  Welch,  Professor  of  Psychol- 
ogy, Iowa  Agricultural  College.    Cloth.    Pp.300.    91.25. 

This  work  is  a  treatise  on  the  Intellectual  Faculties,  the  order  of  Growth  and 

the  Corresponding  Series  of  Studies  by  which  they  are  Educated.    Professor 

Welch  has  undertaken  to  write  upon  a  great  subject,  and  he  has  here  given  us 

a  book  that  deals  with  mind  unfolding,  as  exhibited  in  the  schoolroom.     He 

has  come  to  his  work  well  prepared  by  long  study  of  the  subject  and  the  result 

is  a  clear  and  concise  treatise.    A  valuable  part  of  the  book  is  its  application  to 

|)ractical  education. 


430  EDUCATIOX,  [Febnuirj, 

(2)  School  Devices.  By  Edward  R.  Shaw  and  Webb  DoDnell.  Pp.  278. 
Price  $1.25. 

This  is  a  new  edition  of  the  popular  and  useful  book  written  by  Principal 
Shaw,  of  the  Yonkers  High  School,  and  Principal  Donnell,  of  Maine. 

It  is  a  collection  of  plans  and  methods  to  brinji^  new  life  and  freshness  into 
the  schoolroom.  This  new  edition  is  increased  in  size  by  the  addition  of  7S 
pages  of  entirely  new  material. 

(3)  Ax  Introduction  to  the  History  of  Educational  Theories.  By 
Oscar  Browning,  M.  A. 

This  little  volume  is  No.  8  of  the  Reading  Circle  Library.  This  is  an  en- 
larged edition,  the  new  features  of  which  are :  1.  An  Analysis  of  Each  Chapter. 
2.  A  Full  Index  of  Subjects.  3.  A  Valuation  of  Froebel.  4.  The  American 
Common  School. 

The  Tree  of  MYTiioLOtiV,  Its  Growth  and  Fruitage.  By  Charles  DeB.  Mills. 
Syr:icui»e,  N.  Y.:  C.  W.  Bardeen,  Publisher.  1889.  Pp.  288.  Large  octavo. 
Price  93.00  net.    Edition  limited  to  500  copies. 

Here  is  a  new  and  fresh  treatment  of  an  old  theme.  The  book  aims  to  ascer- 
tain the  origin  and  the  nature  of  the  growth  of  myth.  It  concerns  itself  with 
the  two  questions:  what  myth  was  formerly  and  what  it  has  become.  It 
reveals  the  fact  that  the  author  has  exploreti  vast  fields  and  gleaned  thought 
from  every  i*egion.  He  discusses  the  genesis  of  nursery  tales,  saws  of  folk- 
lore, proverbs,  shadow  and  signification,  the  didactic  and  the  ethical,  and  sym- 
bolism. The  *'*'  moon  made  of  green  cheese,*'  tlie  author  assigns  to  a  Scotch 
origin;  to  ^*sow  wild  oats^'  comes  from  Jutland.  Both  subject  matter  and 
style  are  of  great  interest.  It  is  only  when  the  author  touches  the  idea  of  God 
that  he  wanders  to  the  extreme  edge  of  the  mythical  or  mystic  field. 

Allen  and  GREENOUGirs  Latin  Grammar.  Revised  and  enlarged  by  James 
B.  Greenough,  assisted  by  George  I^.  Kittredge.  Boston :  Ginn  &  Co.  Pp. 
488.    Introduction  price  91.20.     1889. 

The  object  of  this  new  edition  is  to  give  the  latest  results  of  special  study  la 

this  department,  and  to  make  whatever  improvements  have  been  suggested  by 

ten  years*  use.     The  aim  has  been  to  make  the  grammar  as  perfect  as  such  a 

book  possibly  can  be.    The  method  of  the  revision  has  kept  the  needs  of  the 

classroom  always  in  view.    The  language  of  the  book  has  been  subjected  to 

the  closest  scrutiny  throughout,  and  an  effort  has  been  made  to  make  the  rules 

intelligible  and  quotable,  without  conceding  anything  to  mechanical  ways  of 

presenting  grammar. 

A  Collection  of  Important  English  Statutes,  Showing  the  Principal 
Changes  in  the  Law  of  Property ;  together  with  some  other  Enactments  of 
Common  Reference.     Third  Edition.     Cambridge:  Waterman  and  Amee. 

1888. 

This  book  contains,  in  comnact  form,  the  most  important  of  those  English 
statutes  which,  passed  before  the  establishment  of  the  colonies,  form  todays 
part  of  our  law.  To  these  are  added  such  subsequent  acts  of  parliament  as 
have  had,  through  their  direct  or  indirect  adoption,  the  greatest  influence  on 
the  case  law  of  this  country.  The  greater  part  of  these  statutes,  or  portions  of 
statutes,  bear  on  the  subject  of  the  holding  and  transfer  of  property;  tho 
remainder  will  be  found  to  be  some  of  the  more  important  of  those  which 
relate  to  the  subjects  of  crimes,  evidence,  and  procedure. 


1889.]  AMONG  THE  BOOKS.  481 

Moral  Training  in  Public  Schools.  Fourth  Annual  Report  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Edutrational  Progress.  Presented  to  the  Massachusetts  Teachers* 
Association  at  Boston,  December  1,  1888. 

This  report  was  made  by  Ray  Qreene  Huling,  O.  B.  Bruce,  and  A.  P.  Stone. 
It  is  a  very  careful,  intelligent,  and  valuable  report.  It  describes  ^^the  possi- 
bilities of  school  life,**  'Hhe  principles  of  moral  training,**  ^^the  actual  situa- 
ation**  as  it  relates  to  the  different  grades  of  schools.  This  situation  was 
determined  by  the  committee  largely  by  correspondence  with  teachers,  school 
superintendents,  and  others,  and  the  conclusion  arrived  at  is,  in  brief,  that  the 
schools  are  doing  good  service  to  the  community  in  respect  to  mural  training. 
This  report  is  cordially  commended  to  the  careful  attention  of  all  interested  in 
this  important  subject. 

« 

Selections  Illustrating  Economic  History  Since  the  Seven  Years  War. 
Compiled  by  Benjamin  Rand,  Ph.  D.    Boston :  A.  A.  Waterman  &  Co.    1889. 

These  selections  have  been  made  for  use  as  a  textbook  of  required  reading  to 

accompany  a  course  of  lectures  on  economic  history  given  at  Harvard  College. 

This  book  has  already  been  adopted  for  a  similar  purpose  as  at  Harvard  by 

other  leading  American  Universities.    Although  the  compilation  was  prepared 

with  special  reference  to  the  needs  of  students  in  courses  of  economic  study^ 

yet  the  nature  and  scope  of  the  selections  render  them  of  value  to  any  person 

who  may  desire  to  obtain  a  knowledge  of  some  of  the  most  important  events- 

and  influences  in  modern  economic  history. 

Systems  of  Education.  A  History  and  Criticism  of  the  Principles,  Methods,. 
Organization,  and  Moral  Discipline  Advocated  by  Eminent  Educationists. 
By  John  Gill,  Professor  of  Education,  Normal  College,  Cheltenham,  Eng> 
land.    Boston :  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

The  notes  to  this,  the  fourteenth  edition,  have  been  revised  throughout,  and 

a  few  passages  in  the  former  editions  have  been  explained.     The  author  haa 

had  rare  opportunity  for  studying  this  important  subject  and  has  made  the 

most  of  his  opportunities.    This  work  is  the  result  of  that  study.    The  book 

has  been  published  at  the  request  of  the  author*s  former  pupils.    The  author 

is  broad  and  liberal  in  his  treatment  of  the  various  subjects  discussed,  and  the 

wide-awake  teacher  will  find  in  the  work  food  for  much  thought. 

Foot-Prints  of  Travel  ;  or,  Journeyings  in  Many  Lands.  By  Maturin  M. 
Ballou.    Boston :    Ginn  &  Co.    $1.10.    1889. 

In  this  very  readable  book  of  travel  we  have  the  narrative  of  a  practised  and 
successful  writer  who  has  been  in  almost  every  part  of  the  globe,  and  describes 
only  what  he  has  visited.  His  reputation  as  the  author  of  ^^Due  West,**  *^  Due 
South,'*  ^^  Under  the  Southern  Cross,**  etc.  is  sufficient  to  make  this  new  work 
at  once  popular.  ^^  Foot-Prints  of  Travel  **  is  not  only  an  interesting  book  for 
general  reading,  but  is  a  valuable  book  for  school  purposes.  It  furnishes  ex- 
cellent reading  matter,  depicts  foreign  countries  and  famous  cities,  describing 
land  and  ocean  travel  in  such  a  way  as  to  fix  geographical  and  other  facts 
upon  the  mind  of  the  reader.    We  heartily  commend  it  to  old  and  young. 

The  Dime  Question  Book  in  Bookkeeping.    By  C.  W.  Bardeen.    Syracuse, 

N.  Y.     1888. 

In  this  little  book  for  ten  cents,  sixty-three  important  topics  are  briefly 
treated.    If  you  are  teaching  this  subject,  send  for  a  copy. 


482  MAOAZIXES.  [February, 


MAGAZINES   RECEIVED. 

A  few  articles  on  edaoatlonal  subjects,  or  subjects  especially  Interesting  or  important 
to  edaoators,  have  been  selected  from  our  leading  magazines  as  likely  to  be  of  special 
interest  to  our  readers :  — 

Tht  An^dattr  Review  for  January,  18D9,  contains  the  first  of  a  number  of  articles  by 
prominent  educators  on  the  subject  of*'  Public  Instruction  in  Religion."    The  article  in 

this  number  is  by  Prof.  Arthur  Richmond  Marsh. The  chapters  in  the  History  of 

Lincoln  in  the  February  Century  will  be  found  to  be  of  peculiar  interest.  They  will  in- 
clude a  graphic  description  of  the  events  leading  up  to  the  removal  of  McClellan; 
financial  matters;  Seward  and  Cha^e. An  InHtructive  and  interesting  account  of**  Fire- 
building,**  as  taught  in  the  Boston  Public  Schools,  is  given  by  Mrs.  Sallie  Joy  White,  in 

the  January  WiAe  Awakt. T^  Sorth  American  Review  for  January  gives  "  Robert  Els- 

mere*s  Mental  Struggles/*  by  the  following  noted  writers:  Rev.  Edward  Everett  Hale, 
Marion  Harland.  Rev.  Joseph  Cook,  Julia  Ward  Howe,  the  Right  Honorablo*W.  E.  Glad- 
stone. —  The  February  Catholic  World  has  an  article  on  methods  of  instruction  for  the 

blind,  by  Mr.  John  A.  Mooney. The  opening  article  in  the  January  Academy  is  '*  Moral 

Training  in  the  Public  Schools.    This  is  a  valuable  report  made  to  the  Massachusetts 

Teachers*  Association. The  former  editors  of  the  Lend  a  Hand  will  be  assisted,  in  the 

ftitnre,  by  the  directors  of  the  Massachusetts  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Good  Citizen- 
ship.   A  well-written  and  finely  illustrated  article  on  "  What  is  known  about  Shake- 
speare,** is  to  be  found  in  the  February  Frank  Leslie'M  Sunday  Moffazine. The  opening 

article  in  the  January  .VbrMtr^W  is  entitled  *' A  Journey  in  Eastern  Montana." The 

Coilegian^  a  monthly  magazine  devoted  to  the  Interests  of  Tndergrad nates,  is  a  new 
periodical  published  under  the  auspices  of  the  Now  England  Intercollegiate  Press  Asso- 
ciation and  edited  by  Samuel  Abbott.  The  opening  article  of  the  first  number  is  en- 
titled **  Harvard  Reminiscences  of  Fifty  Years  Ago,"  by  E.  E.  Hale. Thomas  Carlyle 

is  the  subject  of  LiUrature  for  January  12. Noah  Porter  has  contributed  to  the  Janu- 
ary New  Englander  and  Yale  Review  an  article  entitled  "  The  Late  Professor  Green,  of 

Oxford,  the  **  Doctor  Grey,*' of  "Robert  Elsmere." "The  Lion's  Share  "is  the  title 

of  the  complete  8tor>'  in  Betford'M  Magazine  for  January. ShoppetPa  Mfnlem  Houeee  for 

the  beginning  of  1889,  is  a  particularly  interesting  number. BlackuHXHTg  Edinburgh 

Magazine  is  published  by  The  Leonard  Scott  Publishing  Co.,  Philadelphia. The  Over- 
land Monthly  for  February,  published  in  San  Francisco,  is  a  very  interesting  number. 

Donahoe*s  Magazine  is  a  Journal  devoted  to  the  Irish  race  at  home  and  abroad.    It  is 

vigorous  and  entertaining. The  Quiver  is  an  illustrated  magazine  for  Sunday  and 

general  reading.    It  is  full  of  good  stories. The  Quarterly  Journal  of  Economic*  has 

four  valuable  articles.     Published  by  George  H.  Ellis,  Boston. Vick's  Floral  Guide,  for 

1889  is  more  attractive  than  ever  before.    The  work  is  profusely  illustrated,  and  the 

descriptions  of  the  various  plants  are  full  and  clear. Revue  Pedagogique:    Paris, 

Librairie  Ch.  Delagrave.    The  best  of  the  French  educational  Journals. 


PAMPHLE  TS  RE  CEI VED, 

Advanced  sheets  of  Biennial  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

Statistics  for  1887  and  1888.    State  of  Iowa.    Henry  Sabin,  Superintendent. Annual 

ReiK>rt  of  the  School  Committee  of  the  City  of  Newton.    1887.    Vol.  XLVIII. Annual 

Report  of  the  School  Committee  and  Superintendent  of  Schools,  with  Subordinate  Re- 
ports.   Courses  of  Study,  etc.    Portland,  Me.    1887-1888. Annual    Report  of  Public 

Schools  of  Biddeford,  Me.    1887-1888. Annual  Report  of  the  School  Committee  of  the 

City  of  Somerville,  Mass.    1887. Annual  Report  of  the  School  Committee  of  Dover, 

N.  H.    1887. Annual  Report  of  the  School  Committee,  together  with  the  Report  of  the 

Head  Master  of  the  Rogers  High  School,  and  the  Twenty-third  Annual  Report  of  the 

Superintendent  of  Public  Schools.    1887-1888. School  Report  of  the  town  of  Pittsfleld 

for  the  school  year  1887-1888. Annual  Report  of  Superintendent  of  the  City  Schools  of 

Oskaloosa,  Iowa.    1888. Sixth  Biennial  Report  of  the  Board  of  Regents  and  Faculty 

of  the  State  Normal  School.  Emporia,  Kansas.    1887-1888. 


434  EDUCATION.  [MAreh, 

We  see  how  mysteriously  the  Commissioners  of  the  United  States 
became  possessed  of  information  which  so  convinced  them  of  the 
purj>06e  of  France  and  Spain  to  deprive  the  American  government 
of  this  vast  region,  that  they  disobeyed  the  resolution  of  Congress 
to  consult  from  first  to  last  with  the  French  authorities,  and 
secretly  made  a  provisional  treaty  with  England,  rendering  sure 
their  title  before  communicating  their  action  to  the  French  authori- 
ties or  making  public  the  announcement  of  the  result.  Then,  we 
see  how  the  Continental  Congress  in  its  feebleness  struggled  over 
^1  questions  touching  this  domain.  It  could  not  agree  to  exclude 
slavery,  or  provide  for  states,  or  a  definite  form  of  government. 
It  was  hardly  more  than  able  to  harmonize  upon  a  provision  pre- 
paratory to  a  sale  of  lands  by  providing  for  surveys  in  the  ordi- 
nance of  1785.  With  what  interest  may  we  study  the  play  of  the 
motives,  when  a  body  of  officers  of  the  war  of  independence  united 
and  offered  to  take  certain  amounts  of  these  lands  for  the  unpaid 
scrip  they  held  against  the  government  for  their  patriotic  services. 
How  prominent  the  desire  to  relieve  the  national  treasury  and  to 
guard  against  Indian  invasions  the  whole  frontier  by  a  new  line  of 
settlements  I  How  remarkable  that  in  the  midst  of  these  subordi- 
nate and  yet  important  considerations,  the  committee  charged  with 
formulating  action  should  ask  for  a  memorandum  of  points  from 
the  agent  of  this  so-called  Ohio  Company,  made  up  chiefly  of  revo- 
lutionary officers  and  soldiers !  How  significant  that  these  patriotic 
purchasers  had  made  as  a  condition  pre-requisite  to  the  purchase, 
that  there  should  be  a  form  of  government  guaranteed  before  they 
closed  the  compact  or  set  foot  on  the  soil,  agreeable  to  their  ideas 
of  civil  and  religious  liberty !  And,  gathering  into  view  all  the 
noble  men  of  the  period,  who  could  have  been  found  in  New  En^ 
land  better  fitted  to  embody  in  that  memorandum  all  the  best 
conceptions  necessary  for  the  foundation  of  great  states,  than 
Rev.  Dr.  Manasseh  Cutler,  graduate  of  Yale,  once  a  merchant, 
qualified  as  a  lawyer,  educated  as  a  clergyman,  chaplain  in  the  war 
of  the  revolution,  prominent  as  a  scientist,  a  very  Ben  Franklin  in 
science,  statesmanship,  and  diplomacy.  With  what  satisfaction  do 
we  read  that  on  his  return  from  Philadelphia  he  found  the  ordi- 
nance had  passed  with  his  memorandum  substantially  embodied 
therein.  Here  was  the  doctrine  of  education  and  morality  essen- 
tial to  the  state,  here  was  the  grant  of  land  for  common  schools 
and  for  the  university  a  national  act,  as  Webster  has  said,  in  the 


1889.]  COLLEGE  QBOWTH  IN  OHIO.  436 

form  of  a  constitutional  compact  making  provision  for  a  grade  of 
instruction  from  the  first  steps  in  learning  to  the  highest. 

Sixteen  years  after  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims  from  the  May- 
flower, and  six  years  after  the  settlement  of  Boston,  the  General 
Court  of  the  Colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay  met  in  Boston  the 
eighth  of  September,  and  passed  an  act  appropriating  four  hun- 
dred pounds  towards  the  establishment  of  a  college.  Ohio,  the  first 
state  carved  out  of  this  vast  northwestern  domain,  in  1804,  or 
twenty-six  years  after  the  first  authorized  settlement,  passed  an 
act  providing  for  superior  instruction,  whose  expenses  were  to  be 
met  by  the  income  from  the  lands  granted  for  the  establishment  of 
a  university. 

One  of  the  facts  in  the  growth  of  colleges  in  Ohio  which  at  first 
strikes  the  stranger,  and  has  been  much  criticised,  is  the  increase 
in  the  number  of  institutions.  It  goes  without  saying,  and  yet 
has  been  often  said,  and  should  be  often  repeated,  that  the  multi- 
plication of  colleges  is  not  in  itself  an  evil.  Indeed,  does  not  the 
examination  of  the  history  of  superior  instruction  force  the  con- 
clusion that  there  are  more  dangers  connected  with  large  than  with 
small  attendance  ?  We  should  relieve  our  minds  of  the  idea  that 
the  size  of  the  roll  of  students  determines  the  quality  of  their 
work.  A  professor  doing  the  same  work  in  a  small  and  a  large 
college  is  likely  to  gain  more  reputation  from  his  work  in  the  lat- 
ter, and  so  the  latter  may  be  understood  to  have  the  more  distin- 
guished professor,  though  he  may  be  the  same  man  doing  the  same 
work.  Moreover,  no  doubt,  numbers  may  pass  beyond  the  healthy 
limit  of  conscious  instruction  from  the  faculty  or  unconscious  tui- 
tion from  the  associations  of  student  life. 

All  will  admit  that  the  larger  the  means  the  more  readily  may 
be  commanded  eminent  men,  ample  grounds,  buildings,  apparatus, 
and  all  the  other  appliances  of  education,  but  even  these,  again, 
may  go  beyond  the  line  of  possible  personal  use.  No  one  will 
doubt  that  a  small,  well-selected  collection  of  books  is  better  for 
an  undergraduate  than  the  library  of  the  British  Museum.  We 
are  safe  in  the  conclusion  that  small  colleges  are  not  to  be  con- 
demned because  small,  nor  large  colleges  commended  because 
large.  We  must  judge  them  by  the  old  standard.  What  has  been 
the  fruit  of  college  growth  in  Ohio  ?  True,  some  have  perished 
by  the  way.  The  first  money  was  put  into  brick  and  mortar,  and 
brains   w^re   sacrificed.      A   wrong  location   was   made,   or  the 


486  EDUCATION.  [March, 

demand  supposed  to  be  sufficient  to  secure  permanency  was  mis- 
judged, miscalculated.  Yet  even  these  institutions  that  have  dis- 
appeared have  left  their  lessons.  Of  those  which  survived,  a  fair 
proportion  of  them  have  kept  well  to  the  front  in  internal  admin- 
istration. Christian  foundations  have  not  been  assailed,  the 
American  spirit  has  not  been  perverted.  The  classics,  mathemat- 
ics, metaphysics,  morals,  have  not  been  disparaged.  The  election 
of  studies  has  neither  been  excluded  or  allowed  to  run  wild.  On 
the  lines  where  considerable  complaint  has  been  made  against  col- 
lege work,  here  and  there  with  some  measure  of  justification,  there 
have  been  from  the  first  Ohio  colleges  that  have  given  these  sub- 
jects appropriate  recognition,  the  natural  sciences,  history,  the 
principles  of  civil  government,  the  modern  languages,  and  our  own 
vernacular. 

It  may;be  further  remarked  that  the  multiplication  of  our  col- 
leges need  not  hinder  any  man,  or  body  of  men,  from  establishing 
any  one  institution  as  rich,  or  as  abundantly  furnished  with  appli- 
ances as  any  one  might  desire.  This,  in  my  judgment,  would  not 
do  the  others  harm,  but  most  likely  quicken  their  activities  and 
lead  to  the  increase  of  their  own  facilities.  One  fact  should  not 
be  overlooked,  that  by  the  planting  of  numerous  colleges  a  greater 
number  of  local  communities  have  become  specially  interested  and 
better  informed  in  regard  to  both  the  needs  and  advantages  of 
college  education.  As  I  have  often  said  elsewhere,  I  desire  here 
to  say,  that  in  my  most  wide  and  intimate  acquaintance  with 
American  colleges,  I  was  continually  meeting  in  the  faculties  of 
smaller  colleges  men  of  great  ability,  attainments,  skill,  and  devo- 
tion, and  doing  the  very  best  work  it  is  given  man  to  do  in  their 
several  departments. 

But  taking  our  growth  as  it  now  is,  are  our  colleges  doing  the 
work  which  they  propose  to  do,  and  which  may  be  fairly  expected 
of  them  ?  In  and  of  themselves,  are  they  wliat  they  should  be  ; 
do  they  put  the  four  years'  work,  its  beginning,  its  several  stepe^ 
and  its  end  where  they  belong  as  a  great  uplifting  force  in  the 
civilization  of  Ohio?  All  human  institutions  have  a  reason  for 
their  existence.  We  may  all  cordially  unite  in  asking  the  ques- 
tion, do  the  colleges  of  Ohio  adequately  answer  to  the  end  for 
which  they  are  established  ?     It  is  difficult  to  put  down  figures. 

Indeed,  the  colleges  of  Ohio  have  not  been  foremost  in  making* 
known  their  history.     In  connection  with  the  historical  movement 


1889.]  COLLEGE  GBOWTH  IN  OHIO,  437 

of  the  Centennial  of  1876,  the  Bureau  of  Education  expended 
some  six  thousand  dollars  in  trying  to  arouse  the  historical  spirit 
in  colleges  and  the  perfection  and  publication  of  their  own  records. 
It  was  amazing  how  few  colleges  had  complete  sets  of  their  own 
catalogues  or  could  tell  the  story  of  their  foundation  and  struggles. 
A  due  proportion  of  this  expenditure  was  made  in  behalf  of  Ohio, 
but  how  meagre  the  result  so  far  as  any  publication  here  was  con- 
cerned, and  the  general  plan  was  arrested  by  the  failure  of  further 
appropriations  from  Congress. 

Since  the  report  of  the  State  Commissioner  of  Common  Schools, 
beginning  with  that  of  Dr.  E.  E.  White  in  1864,  has  annually 
furnished  certain  figures  in  regard  to  the  colleges  of  the  state, 
their  study  has  been  more  fruitful.  The  paper  of  Professor  Tut- 
tle,  prepared  in  connection  with  the  New  Orleans  Exposition, 
should  have  awakened  special  interest.  Just  now  a  study  has 
been  made  in  the  Bureau  of  Education  with  a  view  to  ascertaining 
the  number  of  students  resident  in  any  state,  members  of  any  one 
of  the  classes  in  the  usual  four  years'  college  course.  The  figures 
thus  obtained  show  that  1,702  Ohio  youth  are  receiving  instruction 
in  one  of  the  classes  of  the  four  years'  course  in  twenty-four  col- 
leger in  the  state ;  and  that  679  Ohio  youth  are  receiving  instruc- 
tion in  these  classes  elsewhere ;  and  that  478  students  from 
elsewhere  are  receiving  instruction  in  these  classes  in  the  Ohio 
colleges  included,  making  an  enrolment  in  them  of  2,180.  There 
are,  therefore,  201  more  Ohio  youth  receiving  instruction  outside 
the  state  than  there  are  students  from  elsewhere  receiving  the 
same  grade  of  instruction  in  Ohio  colleges. 

In  view  of  this  fact,  may  we  not  ask,  is  college  growth  in  Ohio 
receiving  that  consideration  which  it  deserves?  Are  the  colleges 
receiving  from  the  people  of  the  state  the  support  they  want?  Are 
the  people  of  the  state  getting  what  they  want  from  the  colleges  ? 
Are  the  interests  of  the  colleges  and  of  the  public  antagonistic  ? 
If  thoroughly  understood,  are  they  not  one  ? 

Reason  about  college  foundation  or  growth  how  you  will,  does 
not  the  State  justify  the  superior  instruction  under  its  direction  on 
the  ground  of  necessity  ?  The  very  existence  of  the  State  requires 
a  guarantee  of  the  possibility  of  that  measure  of  intelligence  in  its 
midst.  Does  not  the  Church,  the  medium  of  divine  instruction  to 
man,  justify  the  establishment  of  institutions  of  superior  instruc- 
tion on  the  ground  of  necessity  also?     The  highest  culture  must 


438  EDUCATJOy.  [March, 

be  assured  to  the  study  of  the  divine  oracles :  all  truth,  all  science, 
all  knowledge,  all  education  must  be  harmonized  with  revelation, 
and  be  made  to  contribute  to  its  appeals  to  the  human  reason  and 
conscience,  and  to  its  power  over  the  personal  life  of  the  individ- 
ual, the  wise  direction  of  his  life  and  conduct  of  himself  towards 
his  fellows.  With  this  reason  for  action  in  view,  is  either  the  State 
or  are  the  several  churches  doing  for  superior  instruction  what 
they  ought?  This  instruction  in  every  case  becomes  a  center  of 
intelligence ;  around  it  gather  and  with  it  act  intelligent  minds. 
We  have  heard  much  of  the  duty  of  educated  men.  Is  there  any 
duty  with  wliich  the  body  politic  may  more  appropriately  charge 
them  than  the  wise  direction  and  care  of  education  ?  If  not  to 
them,  to  whom  shall  we  look  for  a  just  appreciation  of  college 
growth  ?  Intelligent  minds  must  not  only  shape  and  direct  aright 
the  college ;  they  must  vindicate  its  existence  before  the  general 
public.  Nay,  more  ;  they  must  put  it  in  proper  relations  with  the 
lower  grades  of  education.  No  one  can  be  expected  to  act  wisely 
beyond  his  knowledge.  It  is  not  in  the  nature  of  ignorance  to 
seek  wisdom,  or  of  vice  to  seek  virtue.  College  men,  or  those 
who  have  come  up  to  that  measure  of  intelligence,  must  determine 
the  place  and  character  of  its  work,  must  bring  each  lower  grade 
into  appropriate  relation  to  college  standards,  and  show  the  rela- 
tion of  the  college  to  all  conditions  of  intelligence.  How  does 
every  higher  grade  of  instruction  give  aspiration  to  every  lower 
step  in  learning  I  Suppose  that  every  elementary  teacher  sought 
to  cut  oflf  this  aspiration,  and  to  inculcate  the  belief  that  his  work 
was  the  end  of  learning;  how  soon  would  attendance  on  the 
academy  and  high  school  diminish ! 

Or  again,  does  the  teacher  in  the  academy  or  high  school  ignore 
the  work  beyond,  never  point  it  out,  never  use  its  influence  upon 
his  students,  carry  with  him  the  idea  that  there  is  nothing  beyond 
to  be  learned ;  how  does  he  diminish  his  power  for  good  and  use  his 
influence  against  the  college  and  all  other  agencies  that  point 
youth  higher  up  I 

It  would  be  interesting  to  inquire  why  so  many  Ohio  youth  go 
elsewhere  for  college  education.  Is  it  to  get  a  better  quality  of 
work,  or  to  gratify  a  desire  to  spend  more  money,  or  to  obtain  a 
diploma  from  some  institution  at  the  moment  more  distinguished? 
What  would  be  the  effect  upon  Ohio  colleges  if  these  six  hundred 
and  seventy-nine  students  should  be  distributed  among  their  rolls  ? 


1889. J  COLLEGE  GROWTH  IN  OHIO,  489 

Do  the  men  who  thus  send  their  youth  away,  consider  what  would 
have  been  the  effect  upon  their  estates,  upon  the  intelligence,  and 
order,  and  desirableness  of  the  communities  in  which  they  live,  if 
nobody  had  opened  the  door  of  the  college  in  Ohio?  Do  they 
ever  stop  to  study  the  lists  of  men  that  have  rendered  service  to 
their  own  communities  and  their  own  state,  and  compare  carefully 
those  who  have  been  educated  in  their  own  colleges  with  those 
who  have  been  educated  in  colleges  elsewhere?  It  cannot  be 
doubted  that  college  men  and  their  friends  have  much  to  do  to 
disseminate  a  correct  knowledge  of  what  the  college  is,  and  of  its 
relation  to  all  that  man  holds  dear  in  the  state,  the  justness  of  its 
legislation,  the  honesty  of  administration,  and  its  intelligent 
guardianship  of  the  interests  entrusted  to  it ;  the  relation  of  the 
college  to  the  Church  and  its  saving  power  over  the  hearts  and 
lives  of  men ;  and  so  of  the  relation  of  the  college  to  the  family ; 
the  peace  and  order  of  society ;  to  industry ;  to  the  man  that  labors 
with  his  hand  or  with  his  mind,  to  the  accumulation  of  wealth ;  to 
all  that  is  embraced  in  our  civilization,  that  comprehensive  meas- 
ure of  human  progress.  What  agency  but  superior  and  special 
instruction  assures  that  progress  in  science  necessary  to  the  build- 
ing and  conducting  of  our  railroads,  the  discovery  and  manufact- 
ure of  our  minerals,  the  preservation  of  our  soil,  the  improvement 
of  our  stock,  the  protection  of  our  forests,  the  enforcement  of 
conditions  of  sanitation  necessary  for  the  protection  of  public 
health,  or  the  planting  and  growing  of  our  crops  ?  What  we  want 
everywhere  is  human  elevation,  to  lift  the  idle  into  industry,  to 
guide  the  pauper  to  self-support,  the  vicious  and  criminal  to  wise 
and  virtuous  lives.  The  college  must  stand  as  the  keystone  of  the 
arch  of  that  measure  of  general  intelligence  by  which  these  pro- 
cesses of  elevation  are  carried  on.  Weaken  it,  knock  it  out,  and 
your  beautiful  structure  crumbles  into  ruins;  wealth  loses  its 
value,  virtue  is  defenceless,  and  crime,  vice,  and  idleness  are  tri- 
umphant. Whatever  our  differences  and  competitions  as  institu- 
tions, here  we  stand  side  by  side,  face  to  the  foe. 

Adopting  the  illustration  so  often  used  in  England,  shall  not 
the  Ohio  system  of  education  be  presented  as  a  ladder,  with  steps 
leading  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest  grade  of  instruction,  and 
inviting  every  one  to  come  up  as  far  as  he  may  in  the  acquirement 
of  knowledge  and  the  unfolding  of  his  powers  ? 

We  might  close  by  taking  a  brief  survey  of  facts  outside  of  our 


440  EDUCATION.  [March, 

immediate  responsibilities,  calculated  to  enforce  the  importance  of 
the  work  with  which  we  are  charged.  If  we  turn  to  the  pursuits 
of  life,  we  cannot  fail  to  see  that  everywhere  there  is  an  increas- 
ing demand  for  better  grades  of  work,  for  higher  skill,  for  larger 
attainments.  Machinery  has  come  in  with  a  strange  competition 
into  the  field  of  manual  labor,  with  its  endurance  and  its  precis- 
ion, and  there  is  more  requirement  for  intelligent  direction. 
Advancing  in  our  examination  of  the  various  occupations  towards 
which  the  youth  are  looking,  we  discover  in  each  that  its  members 
are  setting  up  higher  standards,  requiring  more  and  better  qualifi- 
cations for  admission.  Every  denomination  of  Christians  is  hold- 
ing with  care  admission  into  the  ministry ;  doctors  are,  in  their 
various  state  and  national  associations,  demanding  better  training 
in  the  schools  of  medicine  and  more  careful  examination  before 
receiving  the  diploma  to  practise  upon  the  health  and  lives  of  the 
people ;  the  pharmacists,  the  dentists,  are  seeking  the  protection 
of  law ;  the  engineer  must  secure  his  license ;  and  the  man  who 
thinks  that  he  can  change  himself  from  a  condition  of  ignorance 
by  any  sham  or  legerdemain  into  the  character  of  a  learned  man, 
will  find  himself  more  and  more  mistaken. 

Nor  is  it  enough  that  he  gets  his  diploma  or  his  license  on  jmper ; 
he  must  have  the  substance  that  this  would  guarantee.  The  extent 
to  which  this  false  reliance  has  possessed  the  minds  of  men  is 
alarming.  When  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Illinois  were 
required  by  law  to  certify  to  the  qualifications  of  the  medical 
practitioners  in  the  state,  they  found  over  four  hundred  claiming 
the  privilege  of  doctors  under  false  colors.  When  we  exploded 
the  practice  of  a  single  leader  in  the  sale  of  diplomas,  a  list  of 
some  seven  thousand  names  was  found  connected  with  his  opera- 
tions. 

Look,  then,  where  we  will  with  reference  to  om-  Ohio  colleges, 
whether  to  their  internal  growth,  adjustment,  and  administration, 
to  their  external  influences,  or  the  men  and  means  by  which  they 
must  be  sustained,  or  their  relation  to  other  conditions  of  educa- 
tion, or  to  the  obstructions  in  the  way  of  their  progress,  whether 
arising  from  ignorance,  or  misconception,  or  the  spirit  of  fraud,  we 
have  need  to  be  on  the  alert.  No  effort  should  be  wasted,  no 
internal  antagonisms  vshould  lead  to  self-destruction,  no  element 
of  weakness  should  be  permitted  to  remain  within  us.  Eternal 
vigilance  is  the  price  at  which  our  high  ends  must  be  secured. 


1889.]     THE  STUDY  OF  ENGLISH  IN  THE  COLLEGE  CO  UBS  E,        441 


TI/B  TEA  CHING  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANG  UA  GE 

AND  LITER  A  TURE.^ 

VI. 

THE   STUDY   OF   ENGLISH   IN   THE   COLLEGE   COURSE. 

BY  HORACE  HOWARD  FURNESS,   PH.  D.,   LL.  D.,   L.  H.  D. 

[The  following  paper  contains  the  substance  of  a  report  made  to  the  trustees  of  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  by  Doctor  Furness,  as  chairman  of  a  committee  of  that 
body,  and  at  the  urgent  solicitation  of  some  of  his  colleagues  he  has  kindly  consented 
to  its  publication  in  Education.] 

WE  all  know  that  the  actual  amount  of  solid  learning 
acquired,  by  even  the  best  scholai-s,  in  a  four  yeai-s'  col" 
lege  course  is  really  not  great,  an4  that  to  attain  to  eminence,  a 
vast  amount  of  hard  work  must  be  subsequently  added.  Since, 
then,  all  that  can  be  done  in  college  is  to  lay  foundations,  it  will 
be  generally  agreed,'!  suppose,  that  it  will  be  the  highest  aim  of  a 
teacher  in  any  department  to  inspire  a  love  of  learning.  A  certain 
amount  of  this  love  may  be  safely  assumed  to  exist  in  all  students 
in  colleges.  Their  entrance  on  college  life  is  not  compulsory,  and 
this  love  is  the  cause  of  their  presence  and  continuance  there. 
The  germ  of  this  love,  then,  being  granted,  our  next  care  is  to 
foster  it,  to  avoid  all  methods  whereby  its  growth  may  be  dwarfed 
or  stunted.  Upon  the  treatment  of  this  love  of  learning  in  col- 
lege will  depend  the  love  of  culture  in  after  years,  the  ardor 
wherewith  college  studies  will  be  kept  up,  either  seriously  or  as 
a  source  of  refined  recreation,  and,  what  is  of  great  importance  to 
all  college  trustees,  the  sympathy  with  which  graduates  in  after 
life  will  keep  touch  with  the  needs  of  the  University  and  respond 
to  them. 

It  is  not  to  be  imagined  that  this  love  of  learning  is  to  be  fos- 
tered at  the  expense  of  hard  work.  Hard  work,  very  hard  work, 
is  the  price  of  everything  worth  having.  But  merely  that  in 
choosing  between  courses  all  leading  to  the  same  goal,  that  course 
should  Ije  chosen  which  makes  for  pleasure  and  interest,  and  which 
will  be  sure  to  carry  with  it  that  love  of  the  subject  so  desirable 
to  attain. 

If,  in  order  to  apply  this  principle,  we  look  at  the  study  of 
English  literature   (and  it  is  equally  true  of   all  literatures, — 

*  Copyright,  1888,  by  Eastern  Educational  Bureau. 


442  EDUCATION.  [March, 

Greek,  Latin,  German  and  French),  we  see  that  it  can  be  ap- 
proached from  its  philological  and  rhetorical  side,  or  from  its 
purely  literary  side :  that  is  to  say,  we  may  study  the  mere  expres- 
sion of  the  thought  or  we  may  study  the  thought  itself ;  we  may 
fix  our  gaze  on  the  carriage  with  its  wheels  and  springs,  its  gay 
gilding  and  varnish,  or  we  may  i>eer  within  the  coach  to  make 
acquaintance  with  its  occupant,  whether  king  or  clown,  or  perhapa 
to  discover  that  the  gaudy  vehicle  is  empty  and  carries  nothing 
at  all. 

Now  while  there  are  some  minds,  and  very  fine  minds,  which 
will  take  a  greater  interest  in  the  coach,  the  majority  of  minds,  I 
think,  will  find  the  greater  interest  in  the  occupant. 

Philology  and  Rhetoric  correspond  to  the  coach,  the  thought 
and  purpose  of  a  literary  work  correspond  to  the  occupant.  If, 
then,  the  comprehension  of  the  thought  is  our  aim,  we  must  bear 
in  mind  that  Philology  and  Rhetoric  are  subordinate  to  it.  They 
are  merely  took,  indispensable  tools,  it  is  true,  but  none  the  lesa 
useless  unless  we  have  some  material  whereon  to  use  them  in 
expressing  an  idea.  Since,  then,  they  are  wholly  secondary  they 
should  be  taught  last. 

Thus,  then,  English  Literature  should  be  studied :  Firsts  on  ita 
literary  side.  We  should  try  to  discover  in  it  the  thought  and 
culture  and  refinement  of  its  day ;  we  should  strive  to  know  the 
men  whose  lives  are  expressed  in  it.  As  a  next  step,  we  may 
study  Rhetoric  and  the  methods  of  expression  wherein,  too,  the 
trending  of  the  times  may  be  discovered  and  why  certain  forms  of 
poetry  or  prose  were  dearer  or  clearer  to  men's  minds  than  others. 
Next,  we  should  study  Philology.  It  is  only  by  the  exact  knowl- 
edge of  the  history  of  words  that  we  can  apprehend  their  certain 
use  as  an  expression  of  thought.  And  last  of  all  we  should  study 
Grammar.  In  thus  studying  grammar  last,  let  me  remark  paren- 
thetically, we  are  merely  pursuing  the  same  course  which  the 
writers  of  all  grammars  themselves  pursue.  No  man  can  write  a 
grammar  without  first  mastering  the  thought  and  then  analyzing* 
the  expression  of  the  thought. 

This,  then,  is  the  order  in  which  I  should  counsel  English  to  be 
studied,  l>eginning  with  the  most  important  first:  Literature, 
Rhetoric,  Philology,  Grammar. 

Thus  much,  by  way  of  preface.     Now,  as  to  practical  details. 

I  assume  that  a  course  is  to  be  laid  out  which  must  be  restricted 


1889.]     THE  STUDY  OF  ENGLISH  IN  THE  COLLEGE  COUBSE,        443= 

to  four  years,  and  I  assume  that,  taking  into  account  that  English 
is  only  one  of  many  collegiate  courses,  the  result  cannot  possibly 
be  thorough,  but  at  best  very  superficial.  And  here  let  me  depre- 
cate in  advance  any  denunciation  of  what  is  superficial.  All 
knowledge  except  what  is  attained  by  a  very  few  is  superficial ; 
and  superficial  knowledge  is  better  than  none  at  all.  I  had  rather 
have  a  smattering  of  electricity  than  gaze  in  stupid  wonder  at  a 
telegraph  pole.  Because  I  cannot  tell  all  the  varieties  of  Solida- 
go,  am  I  to  be  denied  the  pleasure  of  feasting  my  eyes  on  what  is 
all  "  Golden  Rod  "  to  me  in  the  happy  autumn  fields  ?  However 
ignorant  I  might  be  of  Waller's  relation  to  a  new  school  of  poetry, 
my  ear  can  still  be  charmed  by  his  "  Go,  lovely  rose."  But  what 
is  injurious  in  superficiality  is  its  assumption  of  thoroughness, 
which  after  all  extends  to  a  very  small  circle,  and  does  not  last 
long. 

This  assumption,  it  is  comforting  to  know,  cannot  possibly  be 
made  for  a  course  of  English  Literature  which  extends  through 
only  four  yeai*s.  Therefore  let  us  confess  "in  russet  yeas  and 
honest  Kersey  noes,"  that  it  will  be  superficial  and  cannot  be  any- 
thing else. 

English  Literature,  then,  is  to.  be  divided  into  four  chronologi- 
cal divisions :  — 

The  first  from  Beowulf  to  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
say  to  the  Bishops'  Bible,  or  to  Gorboduc,  or  Ralph  Royster 
Doister. 

Second.  —  From  about  1550  to  Milton. 

Third. — From  Milton  to  Cowper. 

Fourth.  —  From  Cowper  to  the  present  day. 

To  each  of  these  divisions  is  to  be  devoted  a  collegiate  year. 

Still  harping  on  the  idea  with  which  I  set  out,  that  the  love  of 
study  should  be  to  the  utmost  fostered,  I  should  begin  in  th& 
Freshman  year  with  the  last  of  these  divisions  and  work  backward.. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  near  interests  us  more  deeply 
than  the  remote.  Young  men  are  more  interested  in  Matthew 
Arnold  than  in  the  "  Vision  of  William  concerning  Piers  th& 
Plowman,"  and  they  had  rather  read  "  London  Assurance  "  than 
the  Tragedy  of  Gorboduc.  Therefore,  I  would  begin  with  the 
Freshman  the  Literature  of  the  day.  The  Sophomores  should 
study  the  Literature  of  Queen  Anne  ;  the  Juniors,  the  Elizabethan ; 
and  the  Seniors,  Chaucer;  in  the  chronological  divisions  I  have 
just  laid  down. 


444  EDUCATION,  [Mareli, 

In  dealing  with  Literature  the  two  grand  divisions  of  prose  and 
poetry  should  be  subdivided.  In  prose,  illustrations  should  be 
given  by  the  professor  from  The  Orators,  The  Historians,  The 
Novelists,  and  The  Essayists. 

Some  knowledge  of  oratory  is  highly  desirable  for  students, 
destined  as  so  many  of  them  are  for  the  bar  and  for  political  life. 
The  range  is  not  large,  but  may  be  made  highly  interesting  in 
tracing  the  gradual  change  from  the  plain  business  talks  which  at 
present  carry  weight  in  our  Legislative  halls  and  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  through  Webster,  with  his  outbursts  of  impassioned 
eloquence,  to  Burke,  whose  sentences  of  rhythmic  prose  lack  but 
little  modification  to  become  verse. 

Among  historians  there  is  a  wider  range,  from  Kinglake^s  Cri- 
mea and  Freeman's  Battle  of  Senlac,  through  Macaulay's  "  Flow 
on,  thou  shining  river,"  as  Carlyle  called  his  history,  to  Carlyle*8 
own  "  French  Revolution,"  that  grand,  untrustworthy,  fascinating 
epic,  to  Hume,  and  Robertson,  and  Gibbon. 

A  course  of  novelists  can  be  made  only  too  alluring,  and  it  is 
needless  to  expatiate  on  it  here. 

And  so  also  in  the  essayists,  a  course  of  reading  may  be  made 
out  which  should  be  assimilated  at  the  very  start.  By  the  help  of 
a  judicious  selection  from  the  essays  of  Matthew  Arnold,  back 
through  Talford  to  Gifford,  Jeffreys  and  Coleridge,  with  a  dash  of 
Sydney  Smith,  rules,  laws,  and  methods  of  criticism  may  be 
learned  which  will  be  of  prime  importance  in  estimating  every 
piece  of  literary  work  which  a  man  may  read  during  the  rest  of 
his  life.  In  addition  to  the  critics,  this  department  includes  such 
essayists  as  Emerson,  Carlyle  with  his  inexpressibly  helpful  chap- 
ters on  "  the  everlasting  Yea  and  the  everlasting  Nay,"  iHuxley, 
Mill,  Ruskin,  Walter  Savage  Landor,  the  consummate  master  of 
musical  prose,  Charles  Lamb,  etc.,  etc. 

I  cannot  forbear  expressing  the  conviction  that  a  course  of 
English  Literature  thus  begun  in  the  very  first  year  in  college, 
under  a  competent  and  enthusiastic  professor,  would  rivet  the 
attention  of  the  students  and  stimulate  them  to  the  harder  work 
of  the  succeeding  years. 

Poetry  shojald  be  similarly  subdivided,  and  illustrations  drawn 
of  the  lyric  from  Tennyson,  and  didactic  from  Wordsworth, 
Emerson,  etc.,  the  narrative  from  Crabbe,  and  the  sonnet,  etc.,  etc. 

It  is  impossible  to  enter  into  fuller  or  more  exact  details  in  this 


1889.]     THE  STUDY  OF  ENGLISH  IN  THE  COLLEGE  COUBSE,        445 

excessively  hurried  sketch.  All  plans  will  receive  their  chiefest 
coloring  from  the  temperament  and  bias  of  the  professor.  My 
main  idea  is  that  if  we  are  the  heirs  of  all  the  ages,  we  must  not 
delay  in  seizing  our  inheritance,  but  begin  at  once  to  go  over  our 
riches  and  apply  them  to  our  present  needs.  There  will  be  time 
enough  hereafter  to  examine  into  the  history  of  our  heirlooms; 
the  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  appreciate  their  worth.  Wherever 
one  writer  has  been  influenced  by  another,  we  must  put  ourselves, 
in  that  writer's  place,  and  subject  ourselves  alongside  of  him  to 
the  same  influence.  Thus  we  twist  together  into  a  line  the  many 
strands  which  compose  our  complex  literature. 

Rhetoric  I  would  not  touch  in  the  Freshman  year.  Rhetoric 
cannot  precede  but  must  follow  extensive  reading ;  and  I  am  half 
inclined  to  say  that  extensive  reading  will  render  it  needless  alto- 
gether. However,  in  deference  to  the  popular  idea,  I  suppose  it 
will  be  as  well  to  study  it  during  the  Sophomore  year,  and  perhaps 
during  one  term  of  the  Junior,  while  reading  the  prose  writers  of 
the  Elizabethan  age.  It  will  be  perfectly  useless  in  the  Senior 
when  Philology  and  Anglo-Saxon  grammar  will  come  to  the  fore 
with  Beowulf,  Caedmon,  and  Chaucer. 

The  coui-se  can  be  amplified  so  as  to  demand  every  spare  min- 
ute of  the  student's  time  in  reading  the  multitudinous  authors,  but 
the  students  should  not  be  required,  in  fact  they  should  not  be 
allowed,  to  read  anything  about  an  author.  Every  idea  about  a  lit- 
erary work  should  come  solely  from  the  mind  of  the  student  or 
from  the  professor.  Every  attempt  should  be  essayed  to  stimulate 
a  student's  mind ;  his  best  thinking  will  be  that  which  he  evolves 
for  and  by  himself ;  no  matter  how  crude  his  idea  may  be,  it  will 
be  the  best  possible  for  him ;  it  may  be  "  a  poor  thing,  sir,  but  it 
will  be  his  own." 

I  have  not  touched  upon  what  I  think  very,  very  important  in  an 
attempt  to  make  a  collegiate  education  totua^  teres  at  que  rotundtis^ 
viz.:  that  each  course  should  have  exact  regard  to  all  other  courses, 
especially  should  the  Latin  and  Greek  correspond  as  far  as  possible 
with  the  English.  Nor  have  I  touched  on  the  very  important  ele- 
ment comprised  under  the  head  of  Themes.  All  that  I  have  at 
present  attempted  is  to  urge  that  with  a  view  to  excite  the  deepest, 
quickest  love  for  the  subject,  we  should  begin  in  the  Freshman 
year,  with  subjects  of  present  interest,  reserving  Rhetoric  for  the 
next  step  and  Philology  and  Grammar  for  maturer  minds  and  for 
the  more  confirmed  and  steadfast  interest  in  the  general  &\i\y^^^^ 


446  ED  UCA  TION.  [March, 


THE  RELATIVE  MENTAL    CAPACITY  OF  THE 

SEXES. 

BT  R.  CTRKNE  MACl>ONALI>,   BOSTON. 

a^IME  was,  when  the  discussion  of  this  subject  would  have  been 
impossible ;  for  ou  so  low  a  ])lane  did  lordly  man  place  his 
^helpmate,  woman,  that  he  would  allow  of  no  relativity  whatever. 
After  many  centuries,  woman  began,  faintly  it  is  true,  to  murmur 
at  being  classed  almost  on  a  level  with  the  brute ;  and  man,  hear- 
ing this  plaint,  then  formulated  the  opinion,  —  which,  up  to  that 
time  being  universally  accepted,  had  needed  no  formulary,  —  that 
woman  was  not  equal  to  man  either  physically  or  mentally.  Even 
this  statement  was  an  advance,  for,  that  a  thing  may  be  denied  it 
must  first  have  been  asserted,  and  persistent  and  bitter  opposition, 
jBuch  as  has  been  the  fate  of  the  self-assertive  woman,  was  better 
than  that  contemptuous  indifference  which  did  not  even  acknowl- 
edge an  antagonism.  More  deep  and  more  broad  has  the  antago- 
nism become,  and,  at  the  present  time,  woman  is  pushing  herself 
forward  and  upward  so  fast  and  so  powerfully  that  he  would  be, 
indeed,  a  fossil  who  would  attempt  to  place  woman  on  the  plane 
jshe  once  held.  Yet  there  are  many  such  fossils,  who  assert  that 
woman  was  created  lower  than  man  and  must  always  be  inferior. 

That  woman  is  physically  inferior  to  man  is  a  commonly  ac- 
cepted fact ;  the  question  at  once  arises,  can  a  body  inferior  con- 
tain a  mind  equal  or  superior?  That  it  is  possible  experience 
teaches  us.  It  is  not  even  usual  that  the  man  of  brain  is  the  man 
of  brawn ;  and  if  a  puny  one  hundred  and  twenty-pound  student 
has  more  intellect  than  a  huge  two  hundred-pound  coal  heaver, 
why  should  not  the  physically  inferior  female  be  equal  mentally  to 
the  physically  superior  male  ?  "  Oh ! "  but  the  fossils  say,  "  the 
male  brain  is  so  much  larger  than  the  female  that  it  must  be  bet- 
ter." The  average  weight  of  the  male  brain  is  1,485  grammes  ;  of 
the  female  brain,  1,320  grammes.  This  difference  begins  at  birth, 
when  the  male  brain  averages  from  435  to  472  grammes,  the 
female  from  300  to  405  grammes. 

These  figures  are  tlie  stock  in  trade  of  the  fossils ;  as  if  intel- 
lectuality could  be  measured  by  size  or  weight  I     But  even  this 


1889.]     THE  RELATIVE  MENTAL  CAPACITY  OF  THE  SEXES,         447 

stronghold  of  figures,  when  subjected  to  the  cannonade  of  criti- 
cism, becomes  untenable.  Since  the  female  frame  is  smaller  than 
the  male,  we  must  expect  to  find  a  proportionally  smaller  brain,  — 
as  we  do ;  but  we  also  find  that  the  female  brain,  relatively  to  the 
body  weight,  is  actually  larger  than  the  male.  The  average  female 
brain  being  one-fortieth  of  her  body  weight,  and  the  average  male 
brain  being  but  one-forty-first  of  his  body  weight.  If  weight  of 
brain  is  to  be  introduced  as  a  factor  of  intellectuality,  it  must  be 
in  this  relative  way ;  otherwise  the  fossils  will,  by  the  inexorable 
logic  of  their  own  figures,  be  compelled  to  believe  that  their  moth- 
ers, sisters,  and  wives  are  mentally  inferior  to  the  debased  savages 
of  Africa ;  for  the  absolute  brain  weight  of  the  former  is  less  than 
that  of  the  latter. 

The  question  of  intellectuality  can  never  be  settled  by  any 
series  of  weights  and  measures.  What  is  necessary  are  results. 
If  we  place  a  sufficiently  large  number  of  males  and  females  under 
the  same  instructions  and  conditions,  and  statistics  show  that  one 
sex  outstrips  the  other,  we  are  then  justified  in  concluding  that 
that  sex  is  superior  to  the  other,  regardless  of  the  size  of  the  head 
or  the  weight  of  the  brain.  Such  statistics  I  have  taken  from  the 
records  of  the  Brookline,  Mass.,  schools,  grammar  and  high. 
These  schools  are  particularly  adapted  for  such  a  comparison,  as 
the  pupils  have  in  every  way  the  same  advantages ;  moreover,  the 
marking  is  of  such  a  rigid  nature  as  to  make  most  reliable  statis- 
tics. Each  daily  recitation  is  marked  on  a  scale  of  one  hundred. 
At  the  end  of  the  first  month  the  average  of  the  recitation  marks 
are  taken  to  indicate  the  rank ;  at  the  end  of  the  second  month  an 
examination  is  given  on  all  subjects  passed  over ;  the  examination 
marks  are  averaged  with  the  daily  recitation  marks  and  the  rank 
deduced  therefrom.  In  the  mid-year  is  given  an  examination  on 
the  work  of  the  preceding  five  months ;  these  marks  are  averaged 
with  the  marks  for  each  preceding  month,  and  the  result  makes 
the  general  average  for  the  half  year.  This  continues  throughout 
the  year  till  the  final  mark  is  reached,  which  represents  the  result 
of  examinations  on  the  work  of  the  whole  year  as  well  as  the  work 
actually  done  during  the  year.  It  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  sys- 
tem which  would  more  thoroughly  sift  out  and  analyze  a  pupil's 
work.  As  for  the  standing  of  the  schools,  they  have  the  reputa- 
tion of  being  equal  to  the  best  in  or  about  the  city  of  Boston. 
The  high  school  prepares,  and  that  very  successfully,  pupils  for 


448 


EDUCATION. 


[Mkrch, 


Harvard  University.  So  much  for  the  foundation  of  my  statistics, 
for  I  do  not  wish  to  be  accused  of  hasty  generalizations.  The 
statistics  I  propose  to  present  extend  over  a  period  of  eight  years, 
and  include  an  analysis  of  the  individual  and  class  work  of  872 
boys  and  781  girls  in  the  grammar  school,  and  of  312  boys  and  298 
girls  in  the  high  school,  a  total  of  2,263  pupils,  between  the  agea 
of  six  and  twenty,  the  average  ages  being  from  nine  to  eighteen 
years.  This  number  should,  certainly,  be  large  enough  to  enable 
one  to  make  a  fair  and  impartial  comparison. 

I  propose  to  show  that,  not  only  is  the  female  —  at  least  as  shown 
in  her  school  life  —  equal  mentally  to  the  male,  but  that  she  is  so 
much  superior  that  the  figures  I  present  may  astonish  those  who 
read.  It  is  indeed  a  change  when  the  female,  who,  not  so  many 
years  ago,  was  ranked  but  little  higher  than  the  brute,  now  proud- 
ly raises  her  head  and  claims  to  be,  not  only  the  equal,  but  the 
superior  of  that  lordly  male,  who  once  smiled  on  her  in  con- 
temptuous pity.  A  bold  claim,  one  may  say.  Here  is  for  the 
proof :  — 

TABLE   I. 

GRAMMAR   SCHOOL. 


BOY'S. 

GIRLS. 

NO. 

AV. 
PKRCT. 

AV.  AGE. 

NO. 

AV. 
PBRCT. 

AV.  AOB. 

6th  Class 

116 

79.9 

9  y.  3  in.    ■ 

112 

80. 

9  y.  9  m. 

5th  Class 

150 

83.1 

10  y.  3  m. 

121 

83.7 

10  y.  9  m. 

4th  Class 

167 

76.5 

11  y.  3  m. 

131 

79.3 

11  y.  9  m. 

3d   Class 

158 

79.1 

12  y.  3  m. 

149 

ftO. 

12  y.  9  m. 

! 

2d   Class 

151 

78.6 

13  y.  3  m. 

1 

125 

79.9 

13  y.  9  m. 

1st  Class 

130 

79.9 

11  V     51  ni 

143 

80.2 

14  y.  9  m. 

Total 

872 

79.6 

t 

781 

80.5 

By  referring  to  Table  I.,  we  find  that  the  average  percentage  of 
872  boys  is  79.5  per  cent. ;  of  781  girls,  80.5  per  cent. ;  a  differ- 
ence of  one   per  cent.     Not  a  very  great  superiority !    one  may 


1889.]     THE  RELATIVE  MENTAL  CAPACITY  OF  THE  SEXES.         449 

say ;  but  when  it  is  noticed  that  in  no  class  was  the  average  of  the 
boys  above  that  of  the  girls,  it  becomes  evident,  that,  at  the  earli- 
est age,  the  female  mind  shows  its  superiority  in  the  acquirement 
of  knowledge.  The  following  table,  Number  II.,  will  show  that 
this  superiority  increases  in  a  marked  degree  with  age :  — 


TABLE  II. 
HIGH  SCHOOL. 


BOYS. 

GIRLS. 

NO. 

AV. 
PER  CT. 

AY.  AGE. 

NO. 

AV. 

PER  CT. 

AV.  AGE. 

■Tuniors 

126 

75.2 

16  y.  6  m. 

122 

79.3 

16  y. 

Middle  M  1 

im 

76.5 

16  y.  6  m. 

102 

80.2 

17  y. 

Seniors 

80 

80. 

17  y.  6  m. 

74 

1 

83.3 

18  y. 

Total 

312 

77.  . 

;     298 

80.9 

Here  we  see  that  the  average  of  312  boys  is  77  per  cent. ;  of  298 
girls,  80.9  per  cent.,  a  difference  of  almost  four  per  cent. 

In  the  grammar  school  the  boys  excel  in  arithmetic,  history,  and 
geography ;  tlie  girls  in  all  other  studies ;  but  in  the  high  school 
the  girls  excel  in  all  branches. 

In  the  grammar  school  37.6  per  cent,  of  the  boys  were  honor  pu- 
pils, i.  e.,  obtained  an  average  for  the  whole  course  of  85  per 
cent,  or  over,  while  43.8  per  cent,  of  the  girls  exceeded  that  per- 
centage. In  the  high  school  26.8  per  cent,  of  the  boys  and  87.2 
per  cent,  of  the  girls  were  honor  pupils.  Turn  which  way  we  will, 
the  inexorable  statistics  stare  us  in  the  face,  proving  the  surprising 
superiority  of  the  female  in  her  studies.  From  whatever  stand- 
point we  examine,  the  result  is  the  same.  In  the  grammar  school 
were  six  classes ;  so  in  eight  years  there  would  be,  in  all,  forty- 
eight  first  places.  Of  these,  twenty-five  were  held  by  girls,  nine- 
teen by  boys,  and  four  by  boy  and  girl  together.  We  see  that 
the  girls,  although  in  smaller  numbers  than  the  boys,  obtained  the 
larger  number  of  first  places.  Moreover,  a  glance  at  Table  III. 
will  show  that  the  individual  marks  of  the  smartest  girls  are  higher 
than  those  of  the  smartest  boys :  — 


450 


EDUCATION. 
TABLE  III. 


[March, 


GIRLS. 

BOYS. 

Above  90  per  cent. 

25 

19 

■ 

♦*      92       " 

10 

1 

»'      93       ** 

8 

3 

1 

ii      94       " 

6 

1 

1 

"      95       *' 

4 

0 

'*      96       " 

1 

0 

ii      97       4* 

0 

0 

In  the  high  school,  of  twenty-four  highest  marks,  eleven  were 
held  by  girls,  nine  by  boys,  and  four  by  boy  and  girl  together.  Ta- 
ble IV.  will  show  to  how  much  higher  a  level  the  female  reaches  : 

TABLE  IV. 


GIRLS. 

BOYS. 

Above  93  per  cent. 

11 

9 

u      94       4. 

9 

9 

"      95       *' 

6 

5 

"      96       ** 

3 

1 

ii      97       »* 

2 

0 

**      98       " 

0 

0 

In  the  grammar  school  the  lowest  marks  were  equally  divided ; 
but  in  the  high  school,  of  the  twenty-four  lowest  marks,  five  were 
held  by  girls,  fifteen  by  boys,  and  four  by  boy  and  girl  together. 

Of  the  whole  number  of  classes,  seventy-two,  I  found  but  one  in 
which  the  boys  excelled  the  girls,  and  truth  compels  me  to  relate, 
that  this  very  class  was  the  smartest  class  of  the  seventy-two.  In 
this  class  the  boys  excelled  the  girls  by  one  per  cent.,  a  state  of 
affairs  so  different  from  what  I  had  been  finding,  that  I  sought,  in 


1889.]     THE  BEL  ATI  VE  MENTAL  CAPACITY  OF  THE  SEXES.         451 

a  closer  analysis,  the  reason  for  this  variation.  I  found  that  the 
high  average  of  the  boys,  and  to  a  great  extent  of  the  class,  was 
due  to  the  exceptional  brightness  of  four  boys  who  divided  amongst 
themselves  the  four  highest  ranks.  The  girls,  of  whom  three  ran 
the  boys  hard  for  first  honors,  filled  in  the  middle  of  the  class,  the 
duller  boys  being  massed  at  the  foot. 

To  sum  up :  We  find  that  the  female  pupils,  under  identical 
school  conditions,  begin  at  the  earliest  age  to  excel ;  we  find  that 
this  superiority,  not  so  strongly  marked  in  the  lower  classes, 
becomes  so  noticeable  in  the  higher,  as  to  be  absolutely  surprising ; 
we  find  that,  not  only  are  the  girls  superior  on  the  average,  but 
that  the  smartest  girls  are,  in  a  marked  degree,  superior  to  the 
smartest  boys,  and  that  the  dullest  girls  are  less  dull  than  the 
dullest  boys. 

Now,  in  consideration  of  these  figures,  and  that  they  are  accu- 
rate there  can  be  no  doubt,  and  of  sufficient  number  to  obviate  the 
possibility  of  drawing  wrong  inferences,  what  are  we  to  conclude 
as  to  the  relative  mental  capacity  of  the  sexes  ?  Certainly  no  one 
who  has  even  the  rudiments  of  arithmetical  reason  can  say  other- 
wise than  that,  at  least  in  school  life,  the  female  is  very  much 
superior  to  the  male.  If  she  be  so  much  superior  in  school  life, 
why  should  she  not  be,  at  least,  equal  in  the  more  mature  and 
active  competition  of  the  world  ? 

When  we  consider  that,  since  the  earliest  time,  woman  has  been 
held  in  a  state  of  intellectual  bondage,  and  that  it  is  only  within 
the  present  generation  that  the  gates  of  higher  learning  have  been 
opened  for  her,  —  albeit,  with  but  a  niggardly  hand,  —  when  we 
consider  the  immense  advantages  given  to  the  male,  the  opportu- 
nities for  advancement  which  have  been  showered  upon  him,  and 
upon  him  alone,  for  centuries,  —  when  we  consider  all  this,  con- 
trasting the  histories  of  the  sexes,  we  can  but  be  astonished  at  the 
facility  with  which  the  female  surpasses  her  brother  in  the  acquire- 
ment of  knowledge. 

My  article  does  not  go  beyond  the  school  life,  for  there  are  no 
methods  of  making  comparisons,  which  will  not  be  subjected  to 
so  many  differences  as  to  invalidate  their  strength ;  but,  so  sure 
am  I  of  the  greater  ability  of  the  female  mind,  for  the  acquirement 
of  knowledge,  that  I  have  no  doubt  but  that  if  such  comparisons 
were  instituted  the  female  would  be  found  as  superior,  in  the 
higher  courses  of  study,  as  she  has  been  proved  to  be  in  the  lower. 


452  EDUCATION.  [March, 


WRITTEN  EXAMINATIONS—  THEIR  ABUSE,  ANI> 

THEIR  USE. 

BY   AONES  M.   LATHE,    WASHINGTON,   D.  C. 

A  LEADING  English  periodical  has  published  recently  a 
strong  article  against  the  use  of  written  examinations  in 
colleges  and  in  universities.  The  force  of  this  paper  consists,  not 
only  in  the  arguments  given,  but  also  in  the  names  signed  to  them. 
The  protestors  are  prominent  writers  and  educators.  They  speak 
with  authority,  and  they  unite  in  a  unanimous  verdict  against 
examinations.  If  these  are  so  injurious  in  the  higher  institutions, 
would  it  not  be  well  for  us  to  consider  carefully  their  results  upon 
the  lower  grades  ?  Most  teachers  of  experience  will  admit  that 
the  evil  attendant  upon  written  tests  is  large,  and  the'good  accom- 
panying them  is  small.  It  is  our  pur^>ose  to  emphasize  some  of 
the  harmful  effects  of  the  examination  system  in  our  high  schools, 
and  to  suggest  a  practical  modification  of  it. 

Most  public  schools,  from  the  lower  grades  through  the  high 
schools,  conduct  written  examinations  at  the  end  of  each  term,  or 
three  times  a  year.  A  few  divide  the  year  into  quarters  and  hold 
examinations  four  times ;  while  a  still  smaller  few  go  further  and 
require  them  once  a  month.  The  number  of  subjects,  also,  in 
which  the  pupils  are  tested  varies  in  different  schools.  Some 
tliink  it  wise  to  examine  in  all  the  leading  studies ;  while  others 
select  two  out  of  the  possible  three  or  four.  But  in  spite  of  this 
variety  in  the  number  and  the  subjects  the  mischievous  effects  are 
essentially  the  same. 

By  no  means  the  smallest  of  these  is  the  loss  of  time.  For  at 
least  a  week  before  the  examination,  the  greater  part  of  the  recita^ 
tion  hour  and  of  the  pupils'  work  at  home  is  given  to  review. 
This  is  in  most  cases  unnecessary.  If  the  scholars'  comprehension 
of  the  subject  is  sufficient  to  enable  them  to  advance  intelligently, 
that  is  enough  to  ask.  All  else  is  mere  verbal  accuracy ;  training* 
possibly  for  the  memory,  but  hardly  for  the  higher  faculties.  In 
this  way  during  the  year  we  waste  three  or  four  weeks.  When 
ure  consider  how  many  years  it  takes  a  chUd  to  go  from  the  lowest 


1889.]  WRITTEN  EXAMINATIONS— ABUSE  AND  USE.  453 

grade  through  our  high  schools,  and  that  to  many  pupils  time  is 
money,  a  month  each  year  is  no  slight  loss.  It  means  that  the 
poor  boy,  instead  of  graduating  at  seventeen,  is  kept  eighteen 
jnonths  longer,  or  else  drops  out  of  school  without  the  specially 
humanizing  studies  of  the  last  two  years. 

Another  evil  of  the  present  system,  and  the  one  most  often 
dwelt  upon,  is  the  cramming  of  scholars  and  by  scholars.  The 
teacher  who  is  to  be  judged  by  the  result  of  written  examinations 
would  be  more  than  human  did  he  not,  consciously  or  uncon- 
sciously, adapt  his  teaching  to  its  standard.  He  will  drill  facts 
rather  than  foster  ideas.  He  will  work  for  the  low  and  near  rather 
than  for  the  high  and  future  welfare  of  the  pupils.  The  quality 
of  the  work  during  the  entire  term  is  vitiated  by  the  low  test 
inevitable  at  its  close. 

In  addition  to  this  as  the  time  draws  near,  the  process  of  cram- 
ming his  pupils  must  be  begun.  If  fitted,  they  must  be  stimu- 
lated that  they  may  appear  brilliant.  If  unfitted,  they  must  be 
coached  on  probable  points  so  that  they  may  pass  and  not  endan- 
ger their  teacher's  bread  and  butter.  As  for  the  scholars  them- 
selves, the  leaders  with  a  highly  discreditable  spirit  of  rivalry  will 
overwork.  The  laggards  and  do-nothings  will  endeavor  —  and 
very  likely  will  succeed  in  their  endeavor  —  to  take  mentally  in 
seven  days  what  should  have  been  assimilated  in  forty.  It  is 
needless  to  state  that  such  work  is  worthless.  The  memory  can- 
not retain  the  facts,  and  the  reasoning  powers  are  as  weak  as 
before. 

The  worst  consequence  of  the  examination  system  is,  that  in 
this  way  we  teach  scholars  to  estimate  their  work  falsely.  Now- 
a-days  we  are  continually  exhorted  to  develop  character  in  our 
pupils.  We  must  instruct  the  boy,  not  only  in  Latin  and  Geom- 
etry, but  we  must  also  instill  into  him  neatness,  sincerity,  relia- 
bility, and  honesty.  Now  the  test  of  a  good  scholar  is  fair,  honest, 
regular  labor  every  day.  No  professional  man,  no  business  man 
allows  his  clerk  to  rest  in  idleness  nine-tenths  of  the  time  and 
compensate  for  his  laziness,  by  a  feverish  haste  and  energy  during 
the  last  tenth.  Yet  to  all  the  pupils  under  our  instruction  we 
tacitly  admit  that  the  daily  work  during  the  term  is  of  minor 
importance;  that  somehow  or  other  —  by  fair  work  if  they  please, 
by  cramming  if  they  choose  —  that  they  answer  successfully  a  few 
questions  on  a  certain  appointed  day,  that  is  of    supreme  im- 


454  EDUCATIOX.  [Marcls 

portance.  We  give  the  examination  a  high  value  and  pay  too 
little  attention  to  the  work  or  play  which  has  preceded  it.  The 
bright  pupil  is  not  content  to  rest  upon  faithful  labor  done,  but 
must  go  on  to  unnecessary  effort,  and  in  the  case  of  girls,  of ten^ 
highly  nervous  effort  —  all  for  the  sake  of  a  high  mark.  The 
rivalry  engendered  is  belittling ;  the  ambition  is  low  ;  the  motive 
is  contemptible,  and  teachers  should  be  ashamed  to  set  it  before 
their  pupils  or  to  preserve  a  discreet  silence  upon  it.  For  the 
laggards  and  the  lazy,  the  examination  furnishes  an  opportunity  to 
retrieve  the  past.  By  judicious  cramming  they  pass,  and  some* 
time  high  in  rank.  But  what  does  such  a  mark  indicate?  Noth* 
ing  but  a  retentive  memory  and  skill  in  selecting  probable  points 
of  examination.  It  is  no  sign  of  the  slowly  acquired  knowledge 
which  has  been  converted  into  mental  strength.  The  scholar 
knows  that  this  mark  is  worthless ;  the  teacher  knows  that  it  is 
worse  than  worthless,  that  it  is  positively  deceptive. 

Most  teachers  perceive  and  deplore  these  evils.  Yet  the  ma- 
jority move  on  in  the  old  way,  because  there  must  be  some  definite 
mark  to  indicate  a  pupil's  ability  and  to  determine  his  promotion. 
Recognizing  this  necessity  and  yet  determining  to  be  rid  of  the 
old  system  with  all  its  faults,  one  of  the  high  schools  has  adopted 
within  the  last  two  years  a  new  plan.  The  school  is  large,  con- 
taining now  over  twelve  hundi'ed  pupils  and  increasing  at  the  rate 
of  two  hundred  a  year.  According  to  the  old  scheme  it  was  cus- 
tomary to  hold  quarterly  examinations  in  two  subjects.  The  result 
was  to  go  upon  the  report  beside  the  mark  for  daily  recitation  — 
not  averaged  with  it,  however — but  constituting  in  itself  the 
ground  for  promotion.  With  this  plan  all  the  evils  before  men- 
tioned were  glaringly  apparent.  Out  of  every  nine  weeks  one  was 
lost  by  reviews,  and  often  a  second  by  the  extra  work  imposed 
upon  teachers.  Of  course  the  scholars  crammed.  The  anxious 
ones  were  made  nervous,  the  lazy  ones  emboldened  to  run  their 
chances.  The  mark  as  an  estimate  of  real  work  and  power  was 
often  a  lie  and  yet  was  always  received  by  pupil,  parent,  and 
teacher  as  truth.  As  the  school  grew,  so  did  the  evils.  Some  new 
method  had  to  be  devised.  The  plan  adopted  was  this :  At  the 
end  of  the  quarter  every  student  should  receive  a  mark  represent- 
ing the  teacher's  judgment  of  his  daily  work.  IIow  that  mark  was 
obtained  was  left  to  individual  preference.  Some  instructors  mark 
every  recitation  —  others,  only  one  out  of  a  certain  number  —  all 


1889.]  WBITTEN  EXAMINATIONS^ABUSE  AND  USE.  456 

unite  in  using  often  written  recitations,  since  there  is  no  doubt 
that  a  pupil  gains  power  and  clearness  by  writing  on  a  subject. 
If  the  mark  is  seventy-five  or  above,  it  is  considered  satisfactory, 
and  those  scholars  are  given  a  holiday.  But  if  the  mark  is  below 
seventy-five  the  pupil  is  required  to  come  up  for  an  examination, 
which  determines  whether  or  not  he  shall  continue  the  subject. 

This  simple  method  here  produced  surprisingly  good  results. 
The  time  saved  is  a  great  gain.  Now  there  is  no  prolonged  review 
inevitable  at  the  end  of  each  quarter.  K  it  is  for  the  good  of  the 
majority  of  the  class  to  go  back,  they  go ;  and  if  not,  they  go  on 
as  usual.  What  before  was  compulsory  is  now  discretionary. 
Again,  time  is  gained  by  examining  only  those  scholars  who  need 
it.  Can  any  teacher  see  the  use  of  examining  those  of  whose  pro- 
ficiency she  is  sure?  Why  should  fifty  good  pupils  be  tested 
because  five  are  deficient  ?  At  the  last  examination  from  a  school 
of  twelve  hundred,  four  hundred  came  up  for  examination. 
When  one  thinks  that  with  the  old  plan  there  would  have  been 
twenty-four  hundred  papers  to  be  read,  marked,  enrolled  at  the 
office  and  entered  on  reports,  he  can  form  some  adequate  estimate 
of  the  time  saved  to  teachers  and  scholars. 

As  a  natural  result  of  this  scheme,  there  is  but  little  cramming, 
since  the  mark  is  made  up  of  daily  estimates.  The  faithful  schol- 
ar has  no  need  to  work  harder  one  week  than  another,  and  has  no 
fear  of  an  examination  before  him ;  while  his  lazy  brother  has  no 
time  at  wliich  he  can  make  good  his  quarter's  work,  but  does  have 
the  examination  as  the  punisher  and  judge  of  his  shortcomings. 
We  cannot  speak  too  highly  of  the  moral  influence  of  this  upon 
some  pupils.  All  schools  have  those  who  need  a  stimulus.  To 
such  this  daily  estimate  serves  as  a  goad,  and  supplies  it  when  it 
is  needed  —  not  once  in  ten  or  twelve  weeks,  but  every  day. 
Habits  are  soon  formed.  With  this  system  a  lazy  student  will 
often  cast  aside  his  slothfulness  and  develop  into  a  regular  worker. 
If  the  appeal  to  the  moral  sense  does  not  bring  this  about,  the 
slight  disgrace  of  being  examined  once,  may  produce  a  reforma- 
tion. To  any  boy  or  girl  of  the  high  school  age,  the  obligation  of 
attending  school  while  most  of  his  classmates  are  at  liberty  is  a 
grievous  burden.  One  such  experience  is  usually  enough  for  those 
who  can  learn  but  will  not  learn.  There  are  others  who  are 
obliged  to  be  present  at  every  examination.  They  are  those  who 
are  not  as  mature  —  not  as  quick  —  in  fact,  the  lower  fifth  or  sixth 


466  EDUCATION.  (lUreh, 

of  the  school.  It  may  not  be  their  fault,  but  it  certainly  is  their 
misfortune  that  they  are  backward.  In  the  case  of  such  pupils, 
who  are  liable  to  see  no  hindrance  to  their  own  advancement,  the 
teacher  needs  not  only  the  daily  estimate  which  is  purely  personal, 
but  also  the  more  impersonal  written  test  to  use  in  forming  a 
strictly  impartial  judgment.  These  cases  are  the  most  trying  ones 
in  all  schools,  for  while  such  students  need  above  all  others  train- 
ing and  instruction,  they  are  the  least  inclined  and  fitted  to  take  it. 


E  \  OL  UTION  AND  EDUCA  TION. 

BY  PROF.  WEBSTKR  COOK,  I'NIVERSITY  OF  MICHIGAN. 

II. 

THE  growth  of  knowledge  in  the  individual  is  a  favorite  theme 
with  modern  authors  and  we  only  need  to  recall  at  present 
that  it  is  by  gradual  progressive  change.  So  too,  ethical  develop- 
ment is  by  the  slow  expansion  of  the  moral  nature.  Moreover, 
what  we  have  called  hintoriral  development  is,  in  some  form  or 
other,  the  only  development  possible.  Growth  in  knowledge  for 
the  individual  at  first  consists,  from  necessity,  in  the  mastery  of 
already  developed  thought.  If  there  were  no  developed  system 
of  thought  into  which  the  child  is  bom  and  which  he  can  make 
his  own,  his  intellectual  development  would  be  practically  noth- 
ing. Just  so  it  is  only  by  realizing  in  himself  what  has  already 
been  realized  in  the  race  about  him  that  his  ethical  development  is 
possible. 

The  progress  of  the  child,  however,  illustrates  in  a  more  definite 
way  our  fundamental  laws  of  evolution.  That  this  progress  con- 
forms in  a  general  way  to  the  progress  of  the  mce,  and  illustrates 
in  brief  its  history,  has  long  been  recognized  by  various  schools  of 
writers.  As  early  as  the  middle  of  the  last  century  Condillac 
proposed  that  the  child  in  learning  should  follow  *'  the  very  way 
in  which  men  were  led  to  create  the  aits  and  the  sciences,"  that 
he  should  do  over  again  on  his  own  account  'Hhat  which  the  race 
had  done,"  should  follow  step  by  step  tlie  course  of  its  progress. 
So  Herbert  Spencer,  elaborating  this  conception,  which  he  attrib- 
utes to  M.  Comte,  states  that  the  "  Genesis  of  knowledge  in  the 


1889.1  E  yOL  UTION  AND  ED  UCA  TION.  457 

individual  must  follow  the  same  course  as  the  genesis  of  knowl- 
edge in  the  race,"  and  so  would  have  education  conform  "both  in 
mode  and  arrangement  with  the  education  of  mankind  considered 
historically."^  Although  the  general  truth  is  here  apprehended,  it 
is  yet  imperfectly  understood  and  in  both  cases  wrongly  applied. 
Even  by  Mr.  Spencer  the  law  itself  is  inadequately  stated,  and  to 
argue  from  it  to  special  methods  of  instruction  is  to  commit  the 
same  error  as  to  argue  that  because  the  human  embryo  is  at  one 
time  fish-like  in  all  its  structure,  it  therefore  possesses  the  organs 
in  their  peculiar  form  of  development  belonging  to  the  living 
species  of  fishes.  It  is  only  the  general  features  of  race  develop- 
ment that  the  individual  illustrates  and  to  learn  what  these  feat- 
ures are  we  must  go  more  deeply  into  the  philosophy  of  human 
history  than  Mr.  Spencer  has  ever  yet  gone.  Meantime  as  a 
preliminary  statement  of  our  law  we  may  adopt  language  similar 
to,  and  as  cautious  as,  that  of  Professor  Huxley  with  regard  to 
physical  development.  **If  the  evolution  of  the  individual  is 
arrested  at  a  certain  stage  of  his  development,  he  will  belong  to 
an  order  of  civilization  below  the  best  that  is  realized  about  him," 
and  the  grade  of  civilization  illustrated  by  his  life  will  depend 
upon  the  stage  at  which  his  development  is  arrested.  To  give  so 
general  a  law  definit^ness  then,  we  must  examine  the  various 
phases  through  which  civilization  in  the  course  of  its 'development 
passes,  and  this  we  can  do  here  only  in  the  most  general  way. 

It  is  evident  that  the  grade  of  civilization  of  any  people  at  any 
stage  of  its  development  must  depend  upon  the  spiritual  develop- 
ment that  people  has  so  far  achieved,  and  this,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  is  best  studied  in  the  history  of  its  thought,  as  by  its  thought 
indeed  its  development  is  determined.  Can  we  say  then,  that  in 
the  various  instances  of  history,  and  among  different  peoples, 
there  are  certain  stages  through  which  thought  in  its  development 
invariably  passes  ?  In  general  we  may  say  that  the  development 
of  thought,  so  far  as  it  has  progressed,  has  always  been  the  same, 
and  its  first  stage  is  illustrated  in  the  crude,  undeveloped  thought 
of  all  primitive  peoples,  as  in  that  of  the  multitude  everywhere, 
when  contemj)latiou  is  not  yet  really  begun.  The  individual 
regards  all  things  as  purely  external  to  him,  as  having  no  neces- 
sary connection  with  himself,  as  objects  set  over  against  him,  by 
which  he  is  surrounded  and  conditioned.     The  first  step  in  con- 

»Ed.  p.  122. 


458  ED  UCA  TIOX.  [Ma  rch, 

templative  thought  is  to  recognize  to  some  degree  the  necessity  of 
unity  for  knowledge,  and  this  is  at  first  taken  without  changing 
the  point  of  view.  Hence  the  "  Principle  of  all  things  "  is  sought 
in  these  external  objects.  Thus  for  the  early  Greek  Physicists  it 
was  'water,'  'air,'  'fire,'  and  for  Spinoza  a  purely  universal  and 
undifferentiated  substance.  Everything  is  looked  upon  as  objec- 
tive  ;  the  subject  is  not  yet  thought  of  and  the  problem  of  knowl- 
edge has  not  yet  arisen.  This  stage  is  illustrated  by  the  chemist, 
who  seeks  to  trace  all  substances  to  a  single  element,  by  the 
physicist  who  regards  all  forces  simply  as  modes  of  motion,  and  is 
necessarily  the  attitude  of  all  scientific  investigations.  Thus 
scientists  are  not  apt  to  rise  above  its  level.  Even  Mr.  Spencer's 
speculations  are  occasionally  from  the  same  {)oint  of  view,  as  when, 
for  example,  he  seeks  the  unity  of  Ethics  in  the  one  inexpugna- 
ble element  in  all  Ethical  actions. 

But  with  progress  in  thought  man  begins  to  realize  that  there 
is  another  side  to  knowledge.  If  things  are  objects  which  he  can 
know,  he  must  be  the  subject  which  knows  them.  Then  he  recog- 
nizes that  there  is  some  difficulty  in  connecting  the  two,  and  as 
he  reflects  ui)on  the  connection,  he  is  led  to  a  view  exactly  the  oppo- 
site of  the  preceding.  If  objects  are  without  him,  and  notliing 
seems  more  certain,  he  can  only  know  them  as  they  affect  him ; 
and  so  he  knows,  not  the  objects,  but  the  affection.  What  things 
are  he  does  not  know,  he  knows  only  the  impression  they  make 
upon  him,  their  qualities  or  properties,  and  knowledge  becomes 
entirely  subjective.  The  unity  which  is  now  more  fully  recog- 
nized as  necessary  for  knowledge,  he  must  find  in  himself  alone, 
and  Protagoras  only  expresses  the  ultimate  outcome  of  this  posi- 
tion when  he  says  '*Man  is  the  measure  of  all  things."  As  the 
first  stage  is  the  objective^  where  self  is  not  yet  thought  of,  so  this 
may  be  called  the  subjective^  the  stage  of  self  contemplation,  and  it 
is  the  grade  of  the  popular  theorizing  and  philosophy  of  the  day. 

Now  in  this  stage  the  problem  of  knowledge  has  arisen  but  is  as 
yet  imi>erfectly  comprehended.  In  the  first  stage  object  alone  was 
thought  of  and  was  identified  with  "external  thing."  In  this 
stage  subject  is  especially  thouglit  of  and  is  identified  with  self,  and 
this  practically  with  consciousness.  But  as  the  meaning  of  "object" 
is  not  further  considered  and  so  is  not  changed,  it  becomes  "  thing 
external  to  consciousness,"  and  so  we  have  the  familiar  conclusion, 
"  what  thinijS'in-themselveH  are  we  do  not  and  cannot  know."      The 


1889.]  EVOL  UTION  AND  ED UCA TION.  469» 

subjectivist  thus  makes  the  object  unknowable ;  it  does  not  exist 
at  least  for  knowledge,  and  so  long  as  knowledge  is  knowledge  the 
object  can  never  be  known.  But  a  little  further  contemplation 
shows  that  the  terms  subject  and  object  are  really  correlative; 
each  implies  the  other  and  derives  its  meaning  only  from  its  rela- 
tion to  the  other.  Remove  either  term  and  the  other  is  meaning- 
less. Thus  both  the  terms  and  their  opposition  are  necessary  for 
knowledge,  and  both  must  exist  in  this  consciousness.  Knowledge 
thus  results  not  from  doing  away  with  the  opposition  of  subject 
and  object  by  leaving  out  of  view  one  or  the  other  of  these  terms, 
but  from  the  recognition  and  then  the  overcoming  of  their  opposi- 
tion. Thus  the  fiction  of  "things-in-themselves"  disappears,  and 
the  simple,  unquestionable  truth  is  recognized  that  we  cannot  get 
outside  consciousness,  that  whatever  exists  for  us  must  exist 
within  it,  and  further  than  that  we  can  say  nothing.  The  devel- 
opment of  thought  from  this  point  of  view  constitutes  a  third 
stage  which  really  includes  within  itself  the  other  two.  This  in 
distinction  we  may  call  the  concrete,  as  each  of  the  others  ab- 
stracted from  one  or  the  other  of  the  necessary  terms  of  knowledge. 
Now  it  is  important  to  note  that  in  every  case  of  completed 
national  development  these  three  stages  of  thought  have  followed 
each  other  and  in  the  order  given,  and  in  incomplete  development 
the  grade  is  invariably  marked  by  one  or  the  other  of  these  stagea 
of  thought.  Three  or  four  times  in  human  history  has  the  com- 
pleted course  been  passed  through.  First,  Greek  thought ;  then, 
though  perhaps  not  quite  so  fully,  mediaeval  philosophy,  and  then 
modern  thought  in  general  illustrate  all  the  stages,  and  even  in 
the  always  insular  English  thought  the  three  phases  can  now  be 
found.  The  importance  of  recognizing  them  cannot  be  too  greatly 
emphasized.  They  invariably  and  necessarily  mark  the  grade  of 
civilization  through  which  a  people  is  passing.  Every  conception 
must  take  its  meaning  according  as  it  is  from  one  or  the  other  of 
these  points  of  view.  Consciously  or  unconsciously,  they  color 
the  literature,  determine  the  thought  and  life  of  a  people  and  give 
shape  to  resulting  institutions.  It  is  not  necessary,  indeed,  that 
these  stages  be  consciously  recognized  as  such,  but  they  must  be 
passed  through  and  the  highest  attained  if  the  highest  develop- 
ment is  to  be  reached,  and  it  is  from  the  last  alone  that  all  great 
achievements  in  almost  every  line  have  been  made.  Moreover, 
they  are  equally  important  as  stages  of  individual  development. 


460  EDUCATION.  [March, 

It  is  equally  important  that  the  first  two  be  passed  through  and 
to  slop  at  either  is  a  mark  of  incompleteness.  The  last  alone 
is  the  stage  of  completed  spiritual  development,  and  the  one  from 
which  alone  human  achievements  and  human  history  can  be 
pro{>erly  understood.  Hence  it  is  of  highest  importance  that 
these  stages  be  recognized  in  education. 

So  far  the  law  of  evolution  has  become  for  us  articulate.  But 
within  the  stages  thus  briefly  and  im{>erfectly  designated  many 
minor  ones  can  be  discerned,  though  we  cannot  stop  for  the 
present  to  consider  them.  History,  indeed,  might  throw  much 
light  upon  these  various  minor  stages,  but  at  most  they  can  be 
but  imperfectly  designated  and  with  regard  to  them  there  is  al- 
ways the  question,  which  cannot  arise  for  the  general  stages,  as  to 
how  far  they  are  the  necessary  stages  of  individual  growth. 
Leaving  the  law  of  evolution  here,  then,  let  us  inquire  into  the 
intrinsic  nature  of  growth  in  accordance  with  this  law. 

Conceiving  of  human  nature  as  something  essentially  intrinsic, 
not  as  something  produced,  but  as  that  which  is  developed,  we 
need  first  to  note  the  essential  unity  of  this  nature.  We  often 
speak  of  intellectual  and  moral  development  as  if  they  were  two 
independent  forms  of  progress,  and  so  perhaps  think  of  them ;  but 
in  reality  they  are  but  the  two  sides  of  one  and  the  same  line  of 
growth.  As  we  have  several  times  noted,  human  development  is 
the  realization  of  human  capabilities.  This  realization  is  always 
through  some  form  of  self  activity,  and  every  form  of  such  activ- 
ity is  always  some  form  of  self  realization.  But  in  the  case  of 
eveiy  individual  there  is  but  one  self,  and  in  one  set  of  activities 
he  cannot  be  realizing  an  intellectual  and  in  another  a  moral 
being.  The  intellectual  and  moral  life  are  really  the  same,  the 
two  necessary  phases  of  the  same  activities.  Every  moral  act 
involves  the  intellect ;  every  intellectual  act  has  its  moral  bearing 
because  looked  at  from  the  side  of  the  individual,  it  is  the  realiza- 
tion of  some  form  of  self. 

Then  we  have  noted  also  that  the  development  of  this  self 
depends  upon  its  relation  to  the  social  organism  in  which  it  ia 
placed,  and  so  the  question  naturally  arises  as  to  what  constitutes 
its  growth.  When  the  new  born  child  is  ushered  into  the  world, 
he  seems  to  begin  a  process  of  mere  absorption,  to  gather  up  and 
take  to  himself  such  forms  of  intelligence  as  come  within  his  com- 
prehension ;  to  drink  in,  as  it  were,  so  much  of  the  human  spirit 


1889.]  EVOLUTION  AND  EDUCATION.  461 

comes  within  the  range  of  his  ability ;  to  take  and  to  assimilate 
very  much  as  the  body  receives  food,  and  thereby  to  grow.  Out- 
wardly, indeed,  this  well  enough  describes  the  process  of  develop- 
ment, but  on  its  inner  side  it  is  really  very  different.  It  is  by  no 
means  a  process  of  passive  absorption,  but  one  of  intensest  activ- 
ity. Nor  does  the  activity  of  the  child  consist  in  merely  bringing 
within  his  reach  the  objects  of  knowledge  coveted,  or  rather,  as 
sensational  psychology  would  have  us  believe,  in  bringing  himself 
within  the  range  of  the  action  of  the  objects.  Knowledge  is 
neither  poured  into  him  nor  is  it  the  action  of  external  objects 
upon  him.  It  is  reproduced  within  him ;  it  is  the  product  of  his 
own  activity  and  his  progress  in  knowledge  is  in  reality  the 
development  of  his  own  latent  capacities.  Thus  every  step  for- 
ward is  a  step  in  the  process  of  his  own  self-realization,  and  his 
spiritual  development,  instead  of  being  the  mere  absorption  of  the 
spirit  of  humanity  about  him,  is  the  reproduction  of  that  spirit 
within  him. 

We  are  now  prepared  to  comprehend  the  nature  of  the  child's 
progress.  Every  human  being  is  a  child  of  humanity;  in  him 
lives  humanity  as  a  whole,  and  just  as  humanity  has  conquered 
step  by  step  the  actual  ground  at  present  occupied,  so  he  must 
conquer  by  his  own  activity  the  field  of  living,  realized  thought 
within  which  he  finds  himself.  "  In  his  own  development  he  must 
pass  through  all  the  phases  of  human  development,  and  this  not 
in  the  way  of  dead  imitation  or  of  mere  copying,  but  in  the  way 
of  living,  spontaneous  self-activity."^ 

Though  human  development  in  this  way  conforms  to  the  gen- 
eral law  of  evolution,  it  has  also  distinctive  characteristics  of  its 
own.  These  arise  from  the  distinctive  character  of  man,  that  is^ 
from  reason.  But  reason  is  self-consciousness.  That  is  to  say^ 
consciousness  has  also  its  course  of  development,  and  in  this 
development  as  it  is  in  man  there  comes  a  time  when  he  distin- 
guishes himself  from  the  objects  and  events  about  him,  and 
becomes  conscious  of  a  permanent  inner  self,  abiding  in,  and 
giving  unity  to,  all  his  activities  and  yet  distinct  from  them.  The 
dawn  of  this  self-consciousness  is  the  beginning  of  knowledge,  for 
it  is  only  as  taken  into  our  self-consciousness  and  presented  to  us 
as  an  object  that  anything  is  known.  The  development  of  such 
consciousness  also  marks  an  epoch  in  the  course  of  evolution. 

^  See  FrcBbel,  Ed.  of  Man  (Hailmann)  pp.  18^,  etc. 


462  EDUCATION.  [March, 

With  all  the  lower  orders  of  created  beings  the  laws  of  nature 
work  Windly,  as  it  were,  to  their  prescribed  ends,  entirely  inde- 
pendently of  the  will  of  these  beings  and  wholly  unknown  to 
them.  Their  progress  de{>ends  upon  no  conscious  efforts,  upon 
no  recognition  of  an  end.  Whatever  progress  is  made  is  not  a 
purpose  directly  sought,  but  is  an  incident  of  activities  directed 
to  other  purposes.  But  when  self-consciousness  supervenes, 
evolution  also,  in  a  measure,  becomes  conscious  of  itself.  If 
further  progress  is  to  be  made,  the  means  must  be  consciously 
applied.  An  end  must  be  conceived,  and  means  sought  by  which 
it  may  be  attained.  This  then  is  the  beginning  of  education.  It 
is  true  that  the  first  conscious  efforts  are  made  in  a  great  measure 
blindly.  Men  feel  about  as  in  darkness  to  find  the  way  to  desired 
results.  The  end  sought  is  itself  but  vaguely  conceived;  the 
means  actually  employed  are  imperfectly  understood ;  the  forces 
«et  in  motion  are  generally  much  more  far-reaching  in  their  results 
than  was  foreseen  when  they  were  invoked,  and  the  results  desired 
-are  thus  almost  never  the  ones  actually  obtained.  Nevertheless 
the  fact  remains  that  the  efforts  are  conscious  and  that  without 
these  no  progress  would  be  made.  The  civilized  man  differs  from 
the  savage  by  the  amount  of  conscious  effort  expended  in  the  way 
of  education.  It  is  only  through  conscious  effort,  in  other  words, 
that  is,  through  education,  that  conscious  development  is  made, 
that  civilization  advances. 

Education  thus  results  from  the  development  of  self-conscious- 
ness and  is  at  the  same  time  necessary  to  that  development. 
From  this  fact  flow  certain  definite  conclusions  as  to  the  nature 
of  education.  As  man  becomes  in  a  certain  degree  conscious  of  a 
self,  of  an  intrinsic  nature  essential  to  him  as  "man,  he  desires 
that  this  nature  shall  be  reproduced  in  his  offspring,  and  seeks 
means  to  bring  about  this  result.  But  the  self  which  thus  comes 
to  consciousness  is  not  a  sporadic  development  in  this  or  that 
individual,  but  is  the  result  of  the  organic  growth  of  a  community 
or  a  people.  The  nature  which  he  conceives  as  his  own  is  not 
conceived  as  one  peculiar  to  himself  alone,  but  as  the  nature  com- 
mon to  himself  and  all  the  others,  and  is  thus  so  far  as  it  goes  a 
true  conception  of  humanity.  Thus,  as  Rosenkranz  says,  educa- 
tion is  always  for  humanity,  for  the  reproduction  in  the  individual 
of  that  nature  already  realized  in  the  race.  Its  purpose  is  to 
enable  the  individual  to  make  his  own  the  living  system  of  the 


^ 


1889.]  E  VOL  UTION  AND  ED  UCA  TIOX,  463 

thought  of  his  people,  to  reproduce  in  himself  its  own  living 
spirit. 

The  fii'st  definite  conclusion  from  this  fundamental  principle  is 
that  the  chamcter  of  education  must  always  depend  upon  the 
conception  of  humanity  from  which  it  proceeds,  and  this  history 
amply  verifies.  The  conception  of  humanity  which  in  the  devel- 
opment of  the  race  would  first  come  to  consciousness  would 
necessarily  be  imperfect.  It  would  give  special  emphasis  to  one 
side  or  characteristic  of  humanity  as  a  whole,  a  characteristic 
varying  with  varying  conditions;  this,  first  expressing  itself  in 
education,  would  receive  additional  emphasis,  and  hence  would 
result  a  tendency  to  development  along  certain  lines,  becoming 
more  fixed  with  progress,  and  again  resulting  in  more  definite 
forms  of  education.  So  we  see  in  the  past  certain  specific  forms 
of  education,  varying  with  different  peoples,  and  always  strictly  in 
accord  with  their  distinguishing  characteristics.  So  education  has 
been  mainly  religious  (Jewish),  or  military  (Spartan),  or  in  a 
peculiar  and  emphatic  sense  national  (Roman),  or,  as  with  the 
Ionic  Greeks,  largely  and  in  a  broad  sense  of  the  term  aesthetic. 

So  Compayr<$  somewhere  says  that  each  new  philosophy  gives 
rise  to  a  new  system  of  education,  but  it  does  so  only  because  it 
regards  humanity  from  a  new  point  of  view,  and  so  forms  of  it  a 
new  conception.  This  is  most  strikingly  illustrated  in  our  new 
philosophy  of  evolution.  If  we  regard  the  present  development  of 
the  human  race  as  purely  the  product  of  forces  working  ab  extra^ 
it  in  no  way  represents  the  struggle  of  the  race  for  fuller  self- 
realization  ;  it  is  not  a  product  in  which  man  himself  has  had  any 
part;  is  not  the  manifestation  of  any  intrinsic  human  nature;  thus 
the  idea  of  humanity  is  eviscerated  of  all  meaning;  education  can 
have  no  purpose  but  to  make  man  best  able  to  resist  the  forces 
with  which  he  has  to  contend,  but  best  to  fit  him  for  survival  in 
life's  meaningless  but  severe  struggle,  and  Spencer  and  the 
ancient  sophists  are  the  only  true  educational  prophets. 

But  it  is  already  evident  that  if  we  would  have  a  true  course  of 
education  we  must  have  a  true  conception  of  humanity,  and  such 
a  conception  can  derive  its  necessary  fullness  only  from  a  thorough 
study  of  human  history,  a  study  which  takes  careful  account  of 
all  the  various  phases  of  human  thought,  and  all  the  forms  of 
human  activity  and  gives  due  weight  to  the  human  characteristics 
thus  discerned.     From  such  a  study  certain  elements  of  human 


464  EDUCATIOy.  [Marcli^ 

nature  now  neglected,  as  for  example,  the  religious,  would  be 
brought  to  fuller  notice;  certain  modern  tendencies,  such,  for 
example,  as  that  scientific  zeal,  which  now  vauntingly  demands 
exclusive  attention,  would  be  estimated  at  their  true  worth  as 
phases,  and  by  no  means  the  most  important,  of  human  develop- 
ment; and  much  light  would  be  thrown  not  only  upon  all  educa- 
tional questions  in  general,  but  especially  upon  the  means  for  the 
attainmemt  of  special  and  thorough  historical  study  is  indeed  the 
great  desideratum  of  education  as  a  science. 

Among  the  many  other  questions  here  pressing  for  consideration 
let  us  in  conclusion  glance  for  a  moment  at  the  bearing  of  the 
principles  already  advanced  upon  the  essential  elements  of  the 
true  educational  course.  From  our  very  conception  of  education 
it  is  regarded  as  the  means  of  distinctively  human  development 
and  we  now  need  to  make  explicit  what  this  fact  implies.  The 
fundamental  requirement  is  that  education  must  always  be  in 
accord  with  the  nature  of  race  development,  and  it  must  therefore 
conform  to  our  two  fundamental  laws  of  evolution.  The  meanings 
of  this  we  shall  understand  more  fully  if  we  remember  what  it 
has  always  been  the  aim  of  education  to  do.  Its  purpose  has  been, 
always,  not  to  lead  the  pupil  beyond  what  has  already  been  accom- 
plished, but  to  lead  him  up  to  the  level  already  attained;  and  if 
he  would  reach  the  highest  level,  it  must  traverse  the  whole 
ground  which  the  race  has  so  far  passed  over.  In  other  words, 
the  pupil  must  master  the  thought  and  spirit  of  the  race,  so  far  as 
it  has  as  yet  been  developed,  and  this  he  can  do  only  through  its 
literature  and  history.  Thus  the  course  most  truly  in  line  with 
human  evolution  must  be  mainly  historical  and  literary,  and  this 
indeed  is  the  direct  implication  of  the  law  of  evolution  itself. 

But  here  arise  two  considerations  which  seem  to  modify  this 
conclusion.  The  first  is  that  by  the  very  nature  of  evolution  the 
present  is  an  epitome  of  the  past,  and  the  individual  has  to  master 
only  the  thought  and  spirit  of  the  present.  This  is  true  if  we  will 
note  all  that  it  implies.  The  present  really  includes  within  itself 
all  the  past,  but  from  that  very  fact  it  can  be  understood  only 
through  the  past.  He  who  himself  has  failed  to  pass  through  all 
the  stages  by  which  the  present  has  been  attained  cannot  really  be 
imbued  with  the  whole  spirit  of  the  present,  and  our  conclusion  is 
not  at  all  changed. 

The  second  consideration  seems  more  serious.     The  range  of 


1889.]  E VOL  UTION  AND  ED  UCA  TION,  465 

thought  is  today  so  great,  the  subjects  covered  are  so  multitudi- 
nous and  developed  to  such  detail,  that  no  one  can  hope  to  master 
even  a  considerable  portion  of  present  thought,  to  say  nothing  of 
times  that  are  gone  by.  But  this  objection  really  forgets  the 
essential  unity  of  the  human  spirit.  Spiritual  development  has 
always  been  the  aim  of  education,  and  there  are  not  as  many 
human  spirits  as  there  are  lines  of  special  activity.  The  thought 
developed  under  the  various  subjects  covered  today  constitutes 
but  the  various  manifestations  of  one  and  the  same  spirit  in  the 
various  lines  of  its  activity.  Or  to  state  the  same  thing  from 
another  point  of  view,  thought  development  does  not  consist  in 
the  knowledge  of  particular  facts.  Science  itself  would  tell  us 
this.  In  any  science  particular  facts  have  value  only  so  far  as 
they  bear  upon  the  principles  which  that  science  promulgates  or 
seeks  to  establish.  The  scientific  thought  of  the  time,  then,  is 
really  the  system  of  principles  and  laws  which  science  is  develop- 
ing, and  the  same  in  a  broader  sense  is  true  of  the  thought  of 
the  day  as  a  whole.  Mastery,  then,  of  this  thought  consists,  not 
in  making  the  acquaintance  of  all  the  particular  facts  that  have 
been  discovered,  but  in  the  knowledge  of  the  living  system  which 
that  thought  is,  and  it  is  because  we  fail  to  make  this  distinction 
that  this  objection  seems  to  have  force.  Very  much,  or  rather  the 
most,  of  the  clamor  and  noise  and  vainglorious  boasting  of  the  so- 
called  science  of  our  day  comes  from  men  who  have  really  failed 
to  appreciate  the  spirit  that  has  given  rise  to  science  itself,  and 
whose  work  is  not  in  accord  with  that  spirit  which  they  boldly 
claim  to  possess  but  really  oppose.  This  noise  we  must  not  mis- 
take for  the  deep,  silent,  and  relentlessly  on-moving  "spirit  of  our 
time."  This  deeper  spirit  can  be  appreciated  in  but  one  way,  and 
that  is  through  a  course  of  development  which  is  a  "  brief,  com- 
pressed reproduction"  of  the  course  of  its  development.  The  man 
who  has  failed  to  live  the  life  of  the  race  cannot  know  in  full  what 
that  life  means,  and  so  we  are  brought  back  to  our  old  conclusion. 
History  furnishes  us  in  the  life  of  Greece  an  almost  perfect 
example  of  the  application  of  the  method  here  advanced,  and  with 
results  at  which  we  are  still  marveling.  The  Greek  boy  began  his 
conscious  development  with  the  first  permanent  expression  of  the 
conscious  life  of  his  race,  with  the  Odyssey  and  the  Iliad,  and 
passed  in  the  course  of  his  instruction  through  about  all  the  best 
that  subsequent  times  had  produced.     Thus  when  he  had  reached 


466  EDUCATION.  [Haiek, 

manhood  he  was  thoroughly  abreast  the  thought  and  spirit  of  his 
race,  and  so  prepared  to  contribute  his  share  to  its  further  adymiice- 
ment.  It  is  worthy  of  note,  too,  that  the  preaching  of  tiie  ^New 
Education  **  in  Greece  and  the  consequent  disfavor  into  which  the 
old  methods  fell,  marked  the  beginning  of  Grecian  disintegration 
and  decline.  By  as  much  as  modern  civilization  is  broader  than 
the  Greek,  by  so  much  is  it  more  important  that  we  apply  in  our 
own  education  the  true  principles  illustrated  in  Grecian  develop- 
ment, that  we  take  our  youth  back  to  the  fountain  heads  of  t^ 
many  streams  of  culture  uniting  in  the  formation  of  our  own  ^^  finer 
spirit,**  and  that  we  lead  them  step  by  step  through  the  three 
great  phases  of  civilized  advancement. 


CHILD'LIFE  ON  A  NEW  ENGLAND  FARM. 

BY  HELEN  M.  WIKSLOW. 

I  HAVE  seen  people  who  labored  under  the  delusion  that  chil- 
dren brought  up  on  a  farm  among  the  remoter  portions  of 
New  England  must  of  necessity  become  ignorant  and  uninformed 
men  and  women. 

Just  before  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  war,  my  father  gave  up 
his  profession  in  a  prosperous  eastern  town,  and  retired  with  his 
family  to  the  hundred  and  fifty  acre  farm  which  had  been  the 
family  homestead  ever  since  the  first  settlement  of  that  part  of 
New  England.  On  that  farm,  some  fifteen  miles  from  any  rail- 
road, we  children,  used  only  to  town  sidewalks  and  front  yards, 
felt  transported  to  a  new  and  beautiful  world.  And  from  that 
day,  although  removed  from  any  but  the  common  district  school, 
our  better  education  was  begun. 

What  boundless  delight  was  ours,  as  we  scurried  over  the  green 
pastures  in  our  bare  feet!  What  comfort  we  took  in  common 
brown  calico  beside  the  still  waters !  No  more  stiflBy  starched 
sunbonnets,  or  white  aprons  for  us ;  and  best  of  all  we  had  always 
room  enough ! 

Everything  on  the  farm  became  immediate  objects  of  deep 
interest  to  us;  and  under  a  mother  who  reverenced  it,  we  began 
the  study  of  nature. 

We  first  fastened  our  affections  to  the  creatures  of  the  great 
barn  yard,  all  of  whom  we   found  with  dismay  had  grown  to 


1889.1  CHILD-LIFE  ON  A  NEW  ENGLAND  FABM.  467 

maturity  with  no  names.  This  was  disgraceful,  and  we  adopted 
the  methods  of  the  aborigines  and  named  every  identical  quad- 
ruped and  fowl  on  the  place  according  to  its  peculiar  qualities  or 
habits.  We  had  a  "Spot,"  a  "Black-leg,"  and  a  "Lop-Horn" 
among  the  cows,  and  adopted  the  plan  of  naming  each  calf  while 
it  was  yet  staggering  with  surprise  at  the  world  of  green  grass 
and  skim-milk  before  it;  and  soon  had  every  creature  so  tame 
that  we  could  go  up  to  the  wildest  steer  in  the  pasture  without 
danger.  Indeed,  so  successful  were  we  in  our  friendship  for  one 
pet  lamb,  that  he  soon  abused  his  privileges  and  used  to  butt  us 
over  and  trample  upon  us  with  great  glee,  after  which  he  had 
some  difiBculty  in  taming  us.  We  were  not  always  happy  in  our 
selection  of  names  for  our  woolly  friends :  for  our  Tommy  yearly 
presented  us  with  twins,  adorned  with  unusually  awkward  and 
obtrusive  legs  ;  and  our  Fannie  grew  up  to  be  the  worst  "butter" 
in  the  flock.  Crooked-Toes  and  Mouldy  Nose,  however,  justified 
our  fondest  expectations  and  proved  valuable  sheep  in  spite  of 
their  suggested  deformities. 

The  horses  were  more  or  less  objects  of  terror  until  we  learned 
to  ride  them  "bare-back,"  and  to  harness  and  unharness  them. 
There  was  no  royal  road  to  the  first-named  performance ;  and  not 
until  I  had  been  thrown  off,  or  come  home,  persistently  hanging 
to  the  horse's  mane,  and  hanging  across  his  back  like  a  bag  of 
provender  more  than  once,  did  I  master  the  equestrian  art. 

The  hens  and  chickens  were  among  our  dearest  pets  and  re- 
joiced in  the  most  extravagant  names.  One  especially  ugly 
chicken,  I  remember  was  called  "Pe-swopnsquedle-bug,"  and  lived 
to  grow  up  under  it.  And  many  were  the  tears  shed  in  our  house 
when  a  poor  little  deformed  chick  which  we  had  nursed  for 
months  was  found  dead  one  morning. 

The  animals  were,  however,  but  a  small  part  of  the  farm  and 
were  but  lesser  factors  in  that  out-of-door  education  which  should 
be  the  natural  inheritance  of  every  child.  There  were  the  grand 
old  rocks  and  the  trees,  the  meadow,  the  brook,  the  birds,  the 
flowers,  and  the  insects ;  there  were  the  everlasting  mountains, 
the  sky,  and  the  shifting  clouds  to  be  studied  and  loved  with  a 
zeal  incredible,  perhaps,  to  those  who  do  not  know  a  child  trained 
in  close  communion  and  the  daily  worship  of  nature.  Our  moth- 
er never  tired  of  answering  our  innumerable  questions  and  her 
teaching  brought  us  into  close  kinship  with  nature. 


EDUCATION.  (liareh^ 

While  we  were  little  things  we  learned  the  names  of  most  of 
the  rocks  on  the  farm.  We  knew  why  the  mineral  spring  in  the 
meadow  was  red ;  we  knew  that  the  asbestos  over  on  the  pasture 
ledge  was  comparatively  rare,  and  for  what  purposes  it  was  used ; 
we  knew  the  flint,  of  which  the  Indian  arrow-heads  in  our  grand- 
mother's possession  (found  on  the  farm)  were  made;  we  knew 
how  the  pot-holes  beside  a  neighboring  brook  were  formed;  we 
knew  a  hundred  useful  and  scientific  facts,  while  we  were  running 
wild  in  our  bare  feet,  that  we  should  not  have  known  for  some 
years  had  we  been  in  a  town  school.  The  pasture  had  a  great 
ridge  of  ledges  running  through  it,  with  occasional  veins  cropping 
out,  of  beautiful  pink  and  chocolate  soap-stone ;  and  we  used  to 
build  the  airiest  of  air-castles  based  on  the  prospective  wealth  that 
lay  hidden  there, — where,  alas !  it  still  remains. 

At  the  southern  extremity  of  these  ledges  was  a  curious  pile  of 
rocks,  the  result  of  some  gigantic  upheaval  during  the  period  of 
the  earth's  cooling,  and  known  to  us  as  the  "old  cave."  Great 
boulders  stand  upright  more  than  twenty  feet  high,  grouped 
together  forming  a  cave  beneath.  We  used  to  climb  to  the  tip- 
top of  these  rocks  and  play  there  without  a  trace  of  fear.  None 
of  us  were  ever  hurt,  i>erhap8  because  we  did  not  know  the  danger. 
To  be  sure,  my  sister  fell  once,  from  a  height,  sheer,  of  twenty- 
feet;  but  the  thick  young  alder  at  the  bottom  stretched  up  friendly 
hands  and  set  her  down  without  a  single  scmtch ;  and  the  game 
was  quietly  finished  on  the  tip-top. 

I  am  often  surprised  when  in  the  country  with  educated  people, 
at  noting  their  ignorance  of  the  names  of  the  commonest  trees  and 
shrubs.  For  we  early  learned  them  all,  and  if  a  new  variety  was 
found  were  expected  to  study  out  not  only  its  name  but  its  family. 
As  a  matter  of  course  we  knew  the  spruce  from  the  hemlock  or 
the  few  balsam  firs  on  the  place.  The  latter  was  quite  clear  td  us 
on  account  of  its  alleged  medicinal  qualities,  and  I  used  to  plan 
the  manufacture  of  an  elixir  from  the  balsam  under  those  queer 
little  blisters  which  should  inevitably  cure  that  dread  disease,  con- 
sumption. There  were  the  white  and  yellow  birches  and  the  red 
and  white  maples.  It  did  not  take  us  long  to  learn  the  difference 
between  the  soft  and  the  hard,  or  rock  maple — from  which  the 
sugar  is  made.  And  when  we  found  small  specimens  of  the  spot- 
ted maple,  we  were  quite  triumphant  and  hunted  an  old  botany 
clear  through  to  find   if  there  were   still   for  us   undiscovered 


1889.]  CHILD-LIFE  ON  A  NEW  ENGLAND  FABM.  469 

varieties.  There  were  the  few  elms,  the  lovely  beeches,  the 
graceful  ash-trees,  the  "moose-missy,"  the  mountain-ash,  and 
quantities  of  alders  and  elders,  both  "pizen"  and  wholesome. 
There  was  the  poetic  young  tamarack  on  the  "play-house  rock" 
and  the  big-leaved  button-wood  over  by  the  "old  cave."  And 
although  we  learned  the  uses  of  every  kind  of  wood  on  the  farm, 
we  were  puzzled  about  the  poplars  in  the  front  yard.  To  be  sure 
they  were  beautiful,  and  their  eternal  silvery  rustle  soothed  us 
into  the  dreamless  slumber  of  cliildhood  every  night,  except  when 
the  legend  first  reached  us  that  the  Cross  of  Calvary  was  made 
from  a  poplar;  and  that,  because  of  it,  its  leaves  must  always 
tremble  in  shame  and  fruitless  repentance.  Their  practical  value, 
however,  remained  a  mystery  to  us,  until  one  spring  our  grand- 
mother recommended  "poplar-tea"  as  a  spring  medicine  for  us 
children.  After  which  we  decided  the  mission  of  the  poplar  to  be 
that  of  purging  all  original  sin  from  children  who  were  dosed  with 
it. 

Sugaring  was  welcome,  not  so  much  on  account  of  our  saccharine 
molars,  as  the  sense  of  open  air  freedom,  of  coming  summer  that 
lay  in  the  returning  warmth  of  the  sun  and  the  fast  disappearing 
snow  banks.  Even  before  these  latter  were  gone  we  discovered, 
always  in  the  shadow  of  an  old  decaying  log,  the  little  red-cup 
fungus  which  we  called  "  red  toad-stools." 

We  studied  no  textbook  regularly,  but  discovered  the  relation- 
ship of  the  squirrel-corn  and  ^  Dutchman's  Breeches  "  to  the  more 
aristocratic  dialetra  of  the  garden.  We  knew  the  wild  leek  was 
first  cousin  to  the  onion  and  passed  it  in  contenapt  to  decide 
whether  the  adder-tongue  was  a  distant  connection  by  marriage; 
and  we  hesitated  long  between  the  red  "nose-bleed"  and  the 
white  trillium.  We  listened  to  sermons  by  innumerable  Jacks-in- 
the-pulpit  and  were  the  better  for  them;  —  a  thing  which  could 
not  always  be  said  regarding  the  grown-up  discourse  that  was 
weekly  preached  over  our  heads  in  the  white  meeting-house  at  the 
village.  The  ladies'  slippers  that  grew  in  a  certain  strip  of  woods 
were  the  only  slippers  we  possessed  in  those  days,  and  the  Indian 
pipe  that  grew  in  the  east  lot  was  the  only  pipe  smoked  on  the 
farm.  Years  afterward  when  we  studied  botany  after  the  approved 
fashion  of  schools,  it  was  like  finding  a  new  friend  whose  face  re- 
minds you  constantly  of  an  old  one. 

We   took  daily  ornithological  pills  without  knowing  it.     We 


470  EDUCATION.  [lUada^ 

knew  intimately  the  ground  swallow  whose  nests  we  were  alwajns 
running  across  down  among  the  peculiar  old  hillocks  where  die 
beavers  centuries  before  had  built  dams ;  and  the  bank  swallows 
who  with  such  eternal  twitterings  dug  out  new  holes  for  homes  in 
warm,  sandy  banks ;  and  their  cousins,  the  bam  swallows,  who 
built  mud  houses  in  the  very  apex  of  the  bam,  where  we  were 
always  unwelcome  visitors.  For  we  were  united  in  a  theory  that 
because  one  happened  to  be  a  girl  one  need  not  necessarily  forego 
the  pleasures  of  hand-springs,  fence-jumping,  or  climbing  to  tJie 
topmost  scaffolding  in  the  barn. 

The  song  sparrow,  the  phoebe,  the  cat-bird,  the  blue  jay  that 
lived  year  after  year  over  by  the  old  cave,  the  fat  cheery  robins  in 
the  plum  trees,  all  were  speaking  acquaintances  of  ours.  The  owl 
and  the  bat  although  greatly  admired  by  us,  steadily  resisted  our 
wiles,  and  one  of  our  greatest  griefs  was  the  persistent  manner  in 
which  the  occasional  whip-poor-will  eluded  us.  Among  both  birds 
and  insects.  Wood's  "Homes  without  Hands"  was  our  highest 
authority,  although  Audubon  received  a  share  of  our  patronizing 
deference. 

We  early  learned  the  use  of  tools  and  can  even  now  drive  a  nail 
into  a  board  without  hammering  our  fingers.  Indeed,  we  once 
deemed  ourselves  so  proficient  in  that  art  that  we  started  to  build 
a  playhouse  on  a  distant  corner  of  the  farm,  with  boards  which 
we  abstracted  from  the  line  fence.  As  we  had  no  hammer,  we 
sent  a  neighbor's  boy  to  the  house  of  an  aged  couple  near  by,  to 
borrow  one.  He  went  and  was  told  they  had  none.  The  boy. 
came  back  and  we  pondered  long  on  the  old  lady's  answer.  She 
T^  invariably  kind  to  children  and  we  knew  positively  that  she 
had  a  hammer.  Finally  the  boy  spoke  up,  "I  guess  I  know 
now ! "  he  said,  "  I  asked  for  a  hammer^  and  she  did  n't  know  what 
I  meant.  She  always  calls  it  a  harm^r^  and  I  'm  going  back  to 
ask  for  a  harmerJ^    And  he  got  it. 

We  became  early  versed  in  the  wisdom  of  weather  prophets. 
We  needed  no  signal  service  bureau  to  tell  us  it  would  rain  when 
there  was  a  "tablecloth"  on  the  south  mountains,  nor  of  clearing 
conditions  when  a  bit  of  blue  sky  appeared  in  the  northwest. 
And  we  loved  the  blue  sky  and  the  masses  of  clouds  with  all  the 
intense  poetry  of  our  young  natures.  In  rainy  or  wintry  weather, 
we  had  plenty  of  books  and  papers.  Children's  magazines  were 
rare  then,  but  there  was  always  the  Youth's  Companion,  and  that 


1889.]  CmLD-UFE  ON  A  NEW  ENGLAND  FABM.  471 

paper  has  had  a  marvelous  influence  for  good  over  hundreds  of 
young  lives.  My  father's  taste  for  books  lay  chiefly  among  the 
older  English  ones;  and  these  we  pored  over  at  our  own  sweet 
will.  Among  our  pleasantest  memories  were  the  evenings,  from 
the  early  fall  through  to  the  late  spring,  when  we  all  gathered 
around  the  great  fire-place  in  the  sitting-room  and  listened  to  the 
reading  of  these  books.  My  father  had  a  rarely  musical  voice, 
which  moved  us  more  easily  to  tears  or  laughter  than  we  liked  to 
admit. 

Belonging  to  the  knitting  sex,  I  had  to  do  my  "stent"  every 
night ;  but  this  was  soon  over,  and  we  used  to  lie  on  the  floor  and 
gaze  into  the  fire,  lost  in  the  world  of  romance.  All  too  soon 
came  nine  o'clock  and  bed  time.  For  the  Waverly  Novels,  Vanity 
Fair,  Scott's  poems.  Goldsmith,  and  Charles  Dickens  were  far  more 
fascinating  for  us  then  than  have  ever  novels  been  since.  Neither 
be  shocked,  good  reader,  that  we  listened  to  Don  Quixote,  when  it 
was  discovered  that  we  were  reading  it  by  ourselves  up  in  the 
little  studyroom  under  the  dormer  window.  Possibly  the  paternal 
readings  were  given  for  purposes,  since  we  would  read  it,  of  ex- 
purgation ;  but  even  Don  Quixote  is  healthful  reading  for  child- 
hood compared  with  "Dick's  Sleuth-hound,  or  the  Witch  of 
Barney  Castle,"  and  others  of  that  ilk.  Certain  pla]^  of  Shakes- 
peare, notably  Romeo  and  Juliet,  Julius  Csesar,  and  Comedy  of 
Errors,  we  never  read  now  without  recurring  memories  of  the  old 
sitting-room,  with  the  light  from  the  fire  of  great  logs  dancing  into 
the  oddly  shaped  corners  of  the  room,  and  chasing  out  the  shadows 
from  under  the  piano  and  the  old-fashioned  green  settee;  and 
again,  we  hear  the  musical  murmur  of  the  voice  which  was 
thoroughly  in  sympathy  with  the  play.  This  was  our  life  on  the 
farm. 

One  winter,  I  remember,  Addison's  Spectator  was  served  up  to 
us  in  the  readings,  but  we  only  took  it  fitfully  between  delightful 
naps  and  backlog  studies.  Perhaps  Sir  Walter  Scott  should  be 
thanked  for  the  fact  that  history  proved  more  interesting  than 
philosophy,  for  after  the  Waverly  Novels,  English  history  seemed 
worth  studying,  and  we  became  elevated  to  the  various  heroes  of 
the  world  in  turn. 

We  girls,  much  to  our  sorrow,  never  learned  to  milk  the  cows ; 
but  as  a  reward  for  daily  and  extremely  distasteful  piano  practice 
we  were  allowed  to  learn  to  spin,  and  even  to  sit  at  the  old  loom 


472  EDUCATION.  [ManAt, 

in  the  back  chamber  and  weave  a  stripe  in  the  rag-carpet.  That 
was  great  fun,  in  our  opinion.  My  pride  in  the  accomplishment 
of  spinning,  however,  suffered  a  shock  when  I  was  obliged  to 
wear  a  pair  of  exceedingly  humpy  stockings,  the  yam  for  which 
I  had  spun  and  ''doubled  and  twisted"  alone.  We  then  turned 
our  housewifely  instincts  into  culinary  cliannels  and  nearly  short- 
ened the  days  of  all  the  family  with  dysi>epsia ;  but  nevertheless, 
we  learned  a  little  of  chemistry  in  the  process.  And  I  hold  that 
the  foundations  of  the  best  education  were  laid  for  us  all  on  that 
old  New  England  farm. 

When  we  grew  older  and  went  away  to  school  there  were  many, 
many  things  in  science  familiar  to  us ;  and  what  was  accredited  to 
us  for  good  scholarship  was  really  the  result  of  our  years  of  close 
observation,  and  our  habits  of  investigation  of  everything  that 
came  under  our  notice,  either  in  books  or  out  of  them.  I  remem- 
ber my  constant  surprise,  when  1  was  once  more  thrown  in  contact 
with  town  children,  at  their  ignorance  of  everything  outside  the 
textbooks  they  had  studied. 

Now  this  manner  of  education  and  learning  to  think  is  not  un- 
common with  countrj'  children.  There  is  not  tliat  constant 
demand  upon  their  time  which  crowds  the  children  of  towns. 
They  have  plenty  of  leisure  to  read  and  to  think  over  what  they 
read  and  see.  Hundreds  of  common  facts  which  the  children  of 
towns  learn  laboriously,  their  country  cousins  learn  naturally  at 
an  earlier  age,  through  personal  contact  and  observation.  Shy 
they  may  be,  but  ignorant  the  children  on  New  England  farms 
are  not ;  for  many  a  country  mother  realizes  that  the  brooks  and 
stones  and  flowers,  rightly  observed,  are  among  the  best  of 
teachers. 

Not  that  I  would  decry  tlie  education  of  town  children  or 
criticise  any  of  the  popular  methods  now  in  vogue.  I  simply 
would  insist  that  commiseration  of  fanner's  children  is  out  of 
place.  Rightly  used  the  farm  is  the  best  Kindergarten  and 
kitchen-garden  in  the  world. 

After  the  manner  of  children,  we  grew  up  and  went  out  into 
the  world,  and  the  old  farm  soon  heard  a  sad  good  by  from  us  all. 
For  when  the  boy,  on  whom  was  centered  our  father's  hopes  and 
our  mother's  fondest  prayers,  was  suddenly  brought  back  from 
school  drowned,  on  the  verge  of  manhood,  the  old  place  became 
unbearable.     Every  rock  and  every  hill  seemed  haunted  by  his 


1889.]  CHILD  LIFE  ON  A  NEW  ENGLAND  FARM.  478 

boyish  presence.  Here  was  the  first  bit  of  fence  he  had  learned  to 
make;  there  was  the  spot  where  he  used  to  tell  his  funniest 
stories ;  those  were  cows  he  used  to  drive,  whistling  clear  as  a 
blackbird  all  the  way ;  and  yonder  was  the  little  grave,  marked 
out  by  round  stones,  where  he  buried  the  dead  cosset  lamb  and 
where  we  had  all  shed  tears  together ;  upstairs  was  the  rude  inva- 
lid chair  which  his  tenderness  had  contrived  for  the  tired  mother ; 
scattered  through  the  house  were  the  books  he  had  read  until  they 
were  dog-eared ;  and  in  the  back  chamber  was  the  wooden  sewing 
machine  he  had  tried  to  make  when  we  were  too  poor  to  buy  one. 
And  so  we  could  not  bear  the  life  on  the  farm  any  longer  and 
went  back  to  town  and  to  school  life.  But  we  owe  our  tenderest 
memories,  our  early  inspiration,  our  deep  love  for  nature  and  the 
best  home  tenderness  to  the  years  spent  there,  and  nowhere  else 
shall  we  ever  feel  such  freedom,  peace  and  delightful  sense  of 
ownership,  as  on  the  old  farm. 


IT  is  often  said,  it  is  no  matter  what  a  man  l)elieves  if  he  is  only 
sincere.  This  is  true  of  all  minor  truths^,  and  false  of  all 
truths  whose  nature  it  is  to  fashion  a  man's  life.  It  will  make 
no  difference  in  a  man's  harvest  whether  he  thinks  turnips  have 
more  saccharine  matter  than  potatoes — whether  com  is  better 
than  wheat.  But  let  the  man  sincerely  believe  that  seed  planted 
without  ploughing  is  as  good  as  with,  that  January  is  as  favorable 
for  seed-sowing  as  April,  and  that  cockle-seed  will  produce  as 
good  a  harvest  as  wheat,  and  will  it  make  no  difference?  A  child 
might  as  well  think  he  could  reverse  that  ponderous  marine  en- 
gine which,  night  and  day,  in  calm  and  storm,  ploughs  its  way 
across  the  deep,  by  sincerely  taking  hold  of  the  paddle-wheel,  as  a 
man  might  think  he  could  reverse  the  action  of  the  elements  of 
God's  moral  government  through  a  misguided  sincerity.  They 
will  roll  over  such  a  one,  and  whelm  him  in  endless  ruin. 

—  H.  W.  Beecher. 


474  SDUCATIOy.  [Ifaich, 


NOT  AL  WA  rS  THUS. 

BT  G.  T.  JOHNSON. 

NOT  always  thus  I    Not  alwaj^  thus. 
Shall  we  in  blindness  grope  our  way ; 
Not  always  gaze  with  longing  eyes, 
To  catch  a  gleam  of  perfect  day; 
Not  always  stand,  with  folded  palms, 
Beside  the  graves  where  buried  lie 
The  hopes  that  budded  in  our  hearts. 
The  hopes  that  blossomed  but  to  die. 

Not  always  thus !     Not  always  thus, 

Shall  we  plod  on  with  weary  feet ; 
Not  always  clasp  the  mocking  cup 

That  mingles  bitter  with  its  sweet ; 
Not  always  strive  to  catch  the  gleams 

Of  golden  light  that  round  us  play. 
Finding  our  efforts  all  in  vain, 

Our  sunlight  turn  to  shadows  gray. 

Not  always  thus  I     Not  always  thus, 

Shall  we  with  longing  watch  the  skies ; 
Not  always  dream  of  glories  liid 

Beyond  the  reach  of  mortal  eyes ; 
Not  always  listen  for  the  sound 

Of  angel  voices  calling  us ; 
Not  always  stand  outside  the  Gate 

And  sigh,  "  Not  thus !  Not  always  thus ! " 

Kansas  City^  Mo.^  Jan.  19,  1889. 


1889.]  EDITORIAL,  476- 


EDITORIAL. 

THE  Christian  Register  has  done  excellent  service  in  the  cause  of 
good  learning  and  sound  morality  by  a  grand  symposium  in  a 
recent  number  of  that  remarkably  well  edited  paper  upon  the  question 
whether  morality  can  be  taught  in  our  public  schools  without  sectarian- 
ism. 

The  editor  sent  out  to  a  broadly  representative  list  of  men  and  wo- 
men two  questions,  which  are  extremely  simple,  and  calculated  to 
suggest  answers  stripped  of  all  technicalities,  verbiage,  and  "  lingo."' 
The  questions  were  these  :  — 

1.  Can  morality  be  taught  in  our  public  schools  without  sectarian- 
ism? 

2.  Have  you  anything  to  suggest  in  regard  to  methods  and  influ- 
ences ? 

Concerning  the  answers,  the  editor  thus  comments :  — 

1.  We  are  strongly  impressed  with  the  large  number  of  affirmative  answers 
to  the  first  question,  thus  declaring  that  morality  can  be  taught  in  the  public 
schools  without  sectarianism.  The  administration  of  the  public  schools  for 
many  years  has  developed  a  consensus  of  practical  Judgment  on  this  question 
which  should  be  influential.  It  has  declared  not  only  that  morality  can  be 
taught,  but  that  it  is  taught  in  a  most  efllective  and  practical  manner  in  our 
public  schools.  This  Judgment  is  affirmed  by  Professor  Collin,  who  has  had 
wide  experience  in  teaching  ethics  in  the  Elmira  Reformatory,  by  Mr.  Collar 
of  the  Roxbury  Latin  School,  by  Rabbi  Schindler,  Mrs.  Flfield  of  the  Boston* 
School  Committee,  Mrs.  Hopkins  of  the  Boston  Supervisors,  Mr.  Home,  Mr. 
Tetlow,  Superintendent  Dawson,  Rev.  Dr.  Peabody,  Rev.  J.  H.  Ward,  Mr. 
Robert  Swan,  Mr.  Samuel  Swan,  President  Adams,  Rev.  Philip  S.  Moxom, 
Miss  Lucia  M.  Peabody,  Colonel  Higginson,  Edwin  D.  Mead,  Superintendents 
Draper  and  Jasper  of  New  York,  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris,  and  General  Francis 
A.  Walker. 

These  ladies  and  gentlemen  are  not  merely  theorists.  They  are  familiar  witb 
the  problem  of  education  on  Its  practical  side.  They  represent  diflierent  shades- 
of  religious  belief  within  the  limits  of  Protestantism  and  also  of  Judaism. 

A  careful  reading  of  these  communications  suggests  the  following 
reflections :  — 

There  is  abroad  in  the  land  a  deep  and  thoughtful  interest  among  our 
citizens  in  the  success  of  the  American  public  school  system. 

There  is  a  growing  appreciation  of  what  these  schools  are  doing, 
especially  in  regard  to  moral  instruction.  Even  Ave  years  ago  the 
unanimity  of  the  answers  from  almost  all  quarters,  that  the  public 
schools  both  can  teach  and  are  teaching  successfully  the  principles  and 


476  EDUCATION.  [Mkrcfa, 

practice  of  good  morals  could  not  have  been  found.  The  evidence  here 
given  that  the  schools  are  teaching  with  entire  success  and  gremt 
efficiency  good  morals  is  gratifying  and  shows  that  the  public  is  now 
coming  to  a  better  and  clearer  realization  than  ever  before  of  the  great 
moral  influence  of  the  schools. 

The  following  quotations  will  serve  to  give  some  idea  of  the  direct- 
ness and  importance  of  this  testimony:  — 

^*  I  take  it  there  is  no  sectarianism  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  nor  Id  wliat 
may  be  called  the  strictly  ethical  and  moral  teachiaj^s  of  the  New  Testament.** 

Charles  Kendall  Adams, 

President  Cornell  UnivenUff. 

*^  [  should  say  that  morality  not  only  can  be  taught  in  our  public  schools, 
but  is  taught,  and  must  be  taught.  Obedience  is  the  first  law  of  every  school,  — 
a  necessary  condition  of  its  existence,  as  it  Is  the  first  and  most  salutary  moral 
lesson  that  can  be  taught  a  child.  Timely  silence,  punctuality,  self-control, 
regularity,  are  constantly  enforced,  till  they  become  fixed  habits  within  the 
school,  and  tend  strongly  to  become  habits  of  life.  To  go  a  little  higher,  la 
what  public  school  are  not  the  obligations  of  truthfulnesit,  unselfishness,  respect, 
and  courtesy  taught,  at  least  implicitly,  perhHp^^  even  so  most  effectively?** 

William  C.  ('ollar, 

Head-Master  Roxbury  Latin  J^hool. 

^^  f  answer :  Yes,  beyond  question,  so  far  as  the  nature  of  the  subject  is  con- 
cerned  The  teaching  of  nioralit}'  should  l>e  incidental,  an  occa- 

sionui  unexpected  change,  relieving  rather  than  burdensome.** 

G.  A.  Collin, 
Professor  Cornell  University  Law  School. 

^^  Morality  ....  can  be  taught  in  our  public  schools  without  incul- 
cating sectarian  tenets  and  without  sectarian  influences Axiom- 
atic morality  is  moral  moonshine." 

X.  H.  R.  Dawson, 

U,  S,  Commissioner  of  Education. 

Judge  A.  S.  DRArER,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  New  York, 
says:  —  ^^I  thinlc  that  morality  can  be  taught  in  the  public  schools  without 
trenching  upon  sectarian  doctrine.** 

Mrs.  Emily  A.  Fifield,  member  of  the  Boston  School  Committee,  says :  — 
^^Of  the  necessity  of  moral  training  in  the  public  schools  there  should  be  no 
question,  since  the  statutes  of  Massachusetts  require**  [it].  This  moral  educa- 
tion is  found  in  every  school  where  habits  of  obedience  and  punctuality,  hon- 
esty, industry,  self-control,  and  truthfulness  are  insisted  upon;  and,  even  if 
enforced  as  God*s  laws,  there  need  be  no  sectarianism  in  such  teaching.^* 

Thomas  Wentworth  IIigginsox,  Ex-Member  State  Board  of  Education, 
says:  —  ^Mn  answer  to  your  intjuiry,  f  should  say:  —  I  thinly  not  only  that 
morality  can  be  taught  in  our  public  schools  without  sectjirianism,  but  that  it 
is  already  taught  there  on  a  large  scale,  and  commonly  in  that  spirit.  The 
first  essentials  of  morality  —  self-control,  truthfulness,  obedience,  unselfish^ 
nesA  —  are  not  merely  constantly  enjoined,  but  have  to  be  practised  for  the  soo- 
-cessful  working  of  any  school.  The  secondary  virtues  of  punctuality,  order, 
gentleness,  are  also  essential,  and  will  be  found  in  every  good  school.    Modesty, 


1889.]  EDITORIAL,  477 

purity,  chastity  of  word  and  act,  are  strictly  required  of  every  pupil,  not 
merely  In  school,  but  about  the  school  buildings.  Many  pupils  obtain  almost 
their  whole  training  in  all  these  virtues  from  the  influence  of  the  schools,  since 
they  are  not  taught  them  at  home  and  may  never  go  to  church.** 

Mrs.  Louisa  Parsons  Hopkins,  Supervisor  in  Boston  Public  Schools, 
says :  —  ^^  There  is  no  doubt  in  my  own  mind  that  morality  can  be  taught  in  the 
schools  without  sectarianism.** 

Edwin  T.  Horne,  Master  of  the  Prescott  School,  Boston,  says :  —  "  Morality 
can  be  taught  in  our  public  schools  without  sectarianism.  The  influence  of 
the  teacher  who  stands  day  by  day  before  the  children,  a  patient  and  cour- 
ageous example,  with  high  moral  purpose,  encouraging  every  honest  effort, 
discountenancing  shams  and  meanness,  will  do  more  than  anything  else  to 
make  good  citizens  of  our  boys  and  girls.  Put  into  every  schoolroom  a 
teacher  who,  with  kindness  and  firmness,  will  lead  in  the  moral  way,  and  the 
children  will  follow.  A  teacher  of  the  right  kind  cannot  avoid  teaching  mo- 
rality.** 

Mr.  Edwin  D.  Mead,  of  Boston,  says  :^^^  I  believe  that  the  public  schools 
are  the  greatest  moral  instrument  in  the  community,  and,  with  all  their  faults 
and  shortcomings,  with  all  that  may  properly  be  urged  in  way  of  criticism  and 
suggestion,  more  moral  and  more  moralizing  than  they  ever  were  before  in  our 
history.  Their  moral  power  lies  in  the  habits  of  punctuality,  of  obedience,  of 
cleanliness,  of  order,  of  decorum,  of  industry,  of  concentration,  of  courtesy,  of 
obligation,  of  justice,  of  equality,  of  respect  for  pure  and  simple  merit  and 
reliance  upon  that,  which  they  encourage  and,  in  some  degree  at  least,  necessi- 
tate by  their  very  constitution.  It  lies,  too,  in  their  own  special  aim  and  func- 
tion, the  discipline  and  development  of  the  mind.** 

Rev.  a.  a.  Miner,  D.  D.,  Pastor  of  the  Columbus  Avenue  Universalist 
Church,  Boston,  and  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education,  says : 
^*  in  answering  your  questions,  1  take  pleasure  in  saying:  — 

^M.  I  not  only  have  no  doubt  that  morality  can  be  taught  in  our  public 
schools  without  sectarianism,  but  I  believe  that  it  is  so  taught  by  many  good 
teachers,  and  may  be  by  all. 

^*  2.  During  the  common  school  age,  It  can  be  better  taught  by  precept  and 
example  than  by  textbooks.** 

Rev.  Philip  S.  MoxoM,  Pastor  of  First  Baptist  Church,  Boston,  says:  — 
*' Certainly,  morality  can  be  taught  in  the  public  schools  without  sectarianism. 
It  Is  so  taught  now,  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  people  have  generally  recog- 
nized. For  example,  in  all  our  public  schools  there  is  a  constant  discipline  of 
scholars  in  moral  habits.  This  sort  of  training  is  fundamental.  Habits  ca»  b& 
formed  before  principles  can  be  grasped.  The  habits  of  order,  cleanlioess- 
(next  to  godliness,  as  Wesley  said),  obedience,  self-control,  regard  for  the- 
rights  of  others,  courtesy,  and  truthfulness,  are  inculcated  to  some  degree  in* 
all  the  schools,  and,  of  course,  without  any  trace  of  sectarianism.** 

Rev.  Andrew  P.  Peabody.  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  Plummer  Professor  of  Christifto 
Morals  Emeritus  In  Harvard  University,  says:  —  *'I  believe  that  instruction  \u 
morals,  independently  of  sectarianism,  can  be  given,  and  ought  to  be  given  In 
our  public  schools.  There  are  two  ways  in  which  such  instruction  can  be 
given. 

The  first  and  best  way  is  informal  and  incidental  instruction  by  teachers  whor 


478  EDUCATION.  [March, 

themselves  regard  moral  teaching  and  influence  as  of  supreme  ImportaQce,  mod 
who  are  expected  and  Instructed  by  school  boards  to  keep  this  part  of  their 
work  constantly  in  view.  I  have  witnessed  a  great  deal  of  such  teaching, 
•especially  in  primary  sctiools,  and  am  sure  that  large  numbers  of  pupils  In  such 
schools  have  received  lessons  that  will  be  to  their  life-long  benefit/' 

Lucia  M.  Peabody,  formerly  Member  of  the  Boston  School  Committee, 
says:  —  **  In  answer  to  your  first  question,  I  should  reply  emphatically,  ^  Yes/ 
The  broad  principles  of  morality  are  universal;  and  no  one,  whatever  his  re- 
ligious views,  would  be  unwilling  to  have  his  children  taught  to  be  just,  truth- 
ful, honest,  obedient  to  rightful  authority,  thoughtful  for  others,  self-controlled. 
Nor  would  the  minor  morals  —  order,  neatness,  punctuality,  cleanliness,  kind- 
ness, and  the  like  —  Involve  any  sectarian  teaching/' 

From  Julius  H.  Seelye,  President  of  Amherst  College :  —  ^^  President  Seelye 
requests  me  to  acknowledge  his  receipt  of  yours  of  the  5th  Inst.,  and  to  say  that 
in  his  ludgment  morality  can  be  taught  in  our  public  schools  without  sectarian- 
ism, though  all  history  shows  that  morality  is  not  likely  to  be  secured  except 
through  religious  inspiration. 

Very  truly  yours, 

Edward  B.  McFadden,  Secretary^* 

Rabbi  S.  Schindler,  Member  of  Boston  School  Committee,  says :  —  ^^  Moral- 
ity can  be  taught  in  our  public  schools  without  sectarianism,  because  it  ia 
taught  so  already.  Morality  cannot  be  taught  by  means  of  a  textbook :  It 
muHt  be  inhaled  by  the  pupil  from  the  atmosphere  which  both  the  teacher  and 
the  school  spread  around  him.  A  moral  teacher  will,  if  not  turn  out  a  moral 
pupil,  at  least  infiuence  him  to  know  what  is  right." 

Robert  Swan,  Master  of  the  Winthrop  School,  Boston,  writes:  —  ^*In 
answer  to  your  inquiries,  I  can  say  (and  I  wish  all  queries  presented  to  me  in 
regard  to  the  teaching  in  the  schools  would  admit  of  so  positive  an  answer) 
that  *  morality  can  be  taught  in  our  public  schools  without  sectarianism  * ;  for 
I  am  a  constant  actor  in  and  witness  of  such  instruction,  and  have  been  for 
many  years.*^ 

John  Tetlow,  Head-master  of  the  Girls'  High  and  Latin  Schools,  Boston, 
writes :  —  ^Mn  answer  to  the  question  proposed  in  your  recent  note  on  the  sub- 
ject of  moral  instruction,  permit  me  to  say  that  in  ray  opinion  morality  can  be 
taught,  and  in  many  cases  actually  is  taught,  in  the  public  schools  without 
sectarianism." 

Rev.  Julius  H.  Ward,  of  the  Boston  Herald^  writes :  —  **  The  Roman  Catho- 
lic is  entitled  to  a  voice  in  the  schools  which  he  helps  to  support ;  but  he  is  as 
anxious  as  the  Protestant  that  the  moral  character  of  the  schools  shall  not  be 
deteriorated.  The  question  with  both  parties  is  how  this  result  may  be  reached ; 
and  it  is  not  difiicult  to  answer,  if  people  are  willing  to  consider  its  terms  in 
their  simplest  meaning. 

^^  What  I  would  suggest  as  the  way  out,  at  least  in  Massachusetts,  is  the 
appointment  of  a  commission,  whose  members  shall  be  named  by  the  governor, 
and  whose  duty  shall  be  to  consider  what  it  is  wise  to  do  for  the  improvement 
of  the  public  schools  as  a  whole,  and  especially  for  their  better  adjustment  to 
life  and  morals.  Such  a  commission  has  recently  reported  on  the  condition  of 
English  schools,  and  has  done  much  for  their  improvement;  and  such  a  com- 
mission, dealing  with  the  whole  subject,  is  greatly  needed  in  our  own  comma- 


1889.]  EDITOBIAL.  479 

nity,  and  is  almost  the  only  means  of  reaching  general  consent  in  a  matter  con- 
cerning which  nearly  every  person  has  an  opinion  of  his  own/' 

Gen.  Francis  J.  Walker,  President  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology, 
writes :  —  **  I  should  say,  however,  that 

*'  1.  I^gal  ethics  may  be  taught  without  offence  being  properly  taken  by  any 
one,  and  this  would  cover  a  large  part  of  the  desirable  field  of  teaching. 
Clearly,  all  the  acts  which  are  prescribed,  or  are  forbidden,  by  the  law  of  the 
land  may  properly  be  embraced  in  the  instruction  of  the  public  schools. 

**  2.  It  appears  to  me  that  utilitarian  ethics  may  be  taught  in  the  public  schools 
without  raising  sectarian  issues,  and  without  arousing  the  sectarian  suscepti- 
bilities of  any  person  who  is  not  at  heart  opposed  to  the  schools  themselves.'' 

John  Jasper,  City  Superintendent  of  Schools,  New  York  City,  says :  —  *^  It 
is  impossible  for  me  to  take  any  time  to  write  the  article  you  ask  for.  My 
views  and  the  views  of  the  gentlemen  connected  with  my  department  are 
clearly  set  forth  in  our  *  Teachers'  Manual,'  pages  11  to  18  inclusive,  a  copy  of 
which  I  send  you." 

[The  object  of  this  manual  is  to  furnish  the  teachers  of  the  city  of  New  York 
with  instructions  and  suggestions.  The  paragraphs  printed  under  *  Moral 
Education '  are  as  follows :  — ] 

Moral  Education.  —  No  teacher  who  neglects  the  moral  training  of  the  pupils 
in  the  essential  elements  of  good  character  does  the  whole  duty  of  the  in- 
structor. The  main  object  in  moral  traioing,  as  in  physical  and  intellectual 
education,  is  to  give  a  right  direction  to  the  action  of  those  powers  that  relate 
to  this  department  of  our  nature.  Such  training,  to  be  effective,  must  provide 
suitable  meaus  for  the  exercise  of  the  moral  powers.  It  consists,  largely,  in 
leading  the  children  to  understand  their  duties  to  themselves  and  their  duties 
towards  others.  Among  their  duties  to  themselves  are :  self-control  in  all  mat- 
ters relating  to  conduct,  —  of  the  temper,  the  appetite,  and  the  desires ;  speak- 
ing the  truth,  and  self-culture  in  all  things  that  aid  in  forming  a  good  charac- 
ter. Among  their  duties  to  others  are :  obedience  to  parents  and  teachers ; 
kindness  to  brothers,  sisters,  and  playmates ;  and  tlie  practical  observance  of 
the  Golden  Rule.  That  teacher  who  kindly  respects  the  rights  of  the  pupils, 
and  daily  illustrates  the  great  virtue  —  kindness —  in  the  management  of  pupils, 
and  in  personal  conduct  elsewhere,  will  accomplish  practical  results  in  moral 
education  which  cannot  be  attained  by  rules  or  lectures.  A  spirit  of  true  kind- 
ness pervading  a  school  will  become  a  fountain  of  virtues. 

Summary  of  Important  Points,  —  The  following  is  a  brief  summary  of  the 
practically  important  points  in  moral  education,  and  in  the  training  in  morals 
and  manners:  — 

That  intellectual  training,  however  excellent,  is  not  enough ; 

That  public  schools  are  instituted  to  make  not  only  intelligent^  but  good 
citizens  ; 

That  morals  and  manners  are  best  taught  incidentally,  not  formally, — by 
personal  example  and  anecdote,  not  by  mere  lecture ; 

That  ^^  unconscious  tuition  "  by  the  force  of  the  teacher's  example  is  a  most 
powerful  influence  for  good  or  for  evil ;  and  that  this  includes  habits  of  per- 
sonal cleanliness,  tidiness,  the  avoidance  of  lounging  in  sitting  or  standing, 
etc.,  punctuality,  promptness,  earnestness  in  the  right,  respect  for  the  rights 
and  feelings  of  pupils  and  others,  the  use  of  kind  tones  and  a  kind  manner^ 


480  EDUCATION.  [MmK^h, 

private  admonition  of  the  erring,  the  avoidance  of  all  coarse  and  low  ex- 
pressions and  of  every  form  of  petty  tyranny. 

Among  the  many  points  upon  which  opportunity  for  incidental  instruotloo 
should  be  sought  are  the  following :  — 

Bespect  for  parents  and  teachers  and  for  the  aged ;  kindness  to  the  infirm  ; 
the  avoidance  of  cruelty ;  abhorrence  of  brutality,  including  pugilism ;  cour- 
tesy and  politeness ;  true  and  false  courage ;  bravery  and  f oolhardiness ;  moral 
courage  and  decision  as  indispensable  to  a  noble  character ;  truthfulness  and 
the  meanness  of  lying;  the  degradation  involved  In  habits  of  profanity,  inde- 
cency, and  intemperance;  the  avoidance  of  bad  books,  bad  papers,  and  bad 
companions ;  the  indispensable  virtue  of  patriotism :  and,  generally,  to  do  and 
to  be  rigfu  because  It  is  right,  and  not  for  fear  of  punishment,  discovery,  or 
disgrace. 

The  foregoing  copious  extracts  have  been  made  in  the  belief  that  they 
will  be  well  received  by  the  educators  of  our  country.  They  are  so 
specially  uniform,  and  the  replies  which  indicated  the  opposite  view 
were  so  few  and  feeble  that  the  testimony  becomes  at  once  emphatic 
and  important.  There  are  many  close  observers  who  believe  that  the 
moral  power  of  our  public  schools  in  this  country  today  is  greater  and 
more  important  for  the  welfare  of  the  country  than  any  other  moral 
force  now  being  exerted  upon  the  people.  The  schools  reach  nearly 
all  the  children  in  the  land,  at  the  most  impressionable  period  of  life. 
Even  the  churches  and  the  Sunday-schools  reach  but  a  small  fraction  of 
the  people.  The  quotations  given  above  have  been  mostly  in  answer  to 
the  tirst  question,  because  there  is  no  such  remarkable  unity  in  the 
suggestions  made  in  reply  to  the  second  query. 


THESE  are  days  when  plans  are  made  for  European  travel.  It  be- 
comes a  question  for  every  one  who  aspires  to  a  career  of  enlarged 
influence  and  usefulness  whether  the  time  has  not  come  to  gain  that 
extended  view  of  human  life  and  human  history  which  can  only  be 
obtained  by  a  personal  survey  of  the  scenes  where  history  was  made. 

Upon  the  general  question  there  can  be  but  one  opinion.  With  the 
present  facilities  for  travel,  ever^'  teacher  who  can  lay  up  five  hundred 
dollars  may  visit  all  the  important  cities  of  Europe  during  a  two  months^ 
vacation.  For  a  teacher  who  has  acquired  a  fair  education  in  his  own 
country  and  has  proved  his  ability  to  teach,  there  is  no  better  invest- 
ment of  time  and  monev.  He  will  come  back  with  more  definite  ideas 
of  things  formerly  half  known  and  with  a  rich  store  of  associations  and 
suggestions  for  future  study.  If  he  has  good  common  sense  he  will  not 
be  puffed  up  with  conceit,  but  will  rather  be  stimulated  to  further  re- 
search by  the  glimpses  of  what  may  be  known. 

The  question  of  ways  and  means  is  one  of  some  interest  and  on  this 
a  few  suggestions  may  be  acceptable.     Many  are  deterred  from  starting 


1889.]  EDITORIAL.  481 

because  they  doubt  their  ability  to  take  care  of  themselves  in  foreign 
lands,  especially  in  countries  where  the  vernacular  is  not  English. 
Others  are  deterred  by  the  dread  of  indefinite  expense,  to  which  they 
may  be  subjected  among  strangers  and  sharpers. 

To  all  such  it  may  be  said  in  general,  there  is  no  difficulty  whatever 
in  the  way  of  an  intelligent  American  who  desires  to  travel  alone  in 
England,  France,  Germany,  or  Italy.  All  the  principal  lines  of  travel 
are  so  frequented  by  Americans  and  English,  who  constitute  the  chief 
travellers  of  the  world,  that  railway  and  hotel  officials  are  compelled  to 
provide  for  them.  English  speaking  servants  are  to  be  found  in  all 
hotels  which  have  not  English  proprietors,  and  all  the  principal  railway 
stations  have  interpreters  for  the  accommodation  of  English  travellers. 

As  regards  the  matter  of  expense  it  is  possible  to  calculate  very 
closely  the  exact  amount  of  expenditure  before  one  starts.  By  consult- 
ing the  agent  of  Thos.  Cook  &  Sons,  or  other  excursion  managers,  who 
have  offices  in  Boston,  New  York,  and  Chicago, — and  from  whom 
tickets  may  be  purchased  if  desired, — the  exact  amount  of  railway  fares 
to  all  points  may  be  ascertained.  It  is  also  possible,  through  private 
sources,  to  obtain  a  list  of  private  boarding  places  in  the  principal 
European  cities,  where  prices  are  fixed  and  rates  are  reasonable. 

If  any  of  our  readers  desire  such  information  and  have  no  personal 
friend  to  furnish  it,  they  may  address  a  line  to  us. 

In  order  to  make  plans  for  a  journey  it  is  necessary,  beforehand,  to 
decide  upon  the  time  to  be  devoted  to  it,  the  chief  points  which  are  to 
be  visited  and  the  limit  of  expenditure  to  be  made.  With  these  data  an 
experienced  traveller  can  furnish  in  one  hour  all  needful  information. 
If  one  wishes  to  be  freed  from  all  matters  of  business  he  can  join  any 
one  of  the  numerous  '*  personally  conducted  parties"  which  will  easily 
and  smoothly  do  the  business  for  him. 

All  this  is  true  not  only  of  men  but  of  women.  It  is  of  course  pleas- 
anter  and  better  for  a  lady  not  to  go  entirely  alone,  but  two  ladies,  one 
of  whom  is  accustomed  to  travel  in  this  country  and  both  of  whom 
possess  the  average  intelligence  of  American  school  teachers,  can  travel 
all  over  Europe,  without  escort,  with  perfect  security  and  comfort. 
The  writer  of  this  has  frequently  met  American  ladies  travelling  in  this 
way  in  Italy  and  Switzerland  and  has  never  heard  one  of  them  complain 
of  the  least  inconvenience  or  danger  growing  out  of  the  fact  that  no 
gentleman  was  with  them  as  protector.  Ladies  can  and  do  travel  alone 
on  the  continent  without  impropriety,  but  it  is  better  for  ladies  to  travel 
in  personally  conducted  parties. 

As  an  outfit  for  such  a  journey  the  general  principle  is,  take  as  little 
baggage  as  possible.  Linen  can  be  laundried  always  at  every  stopping 
place  more  promptly  and  cheaply  than  in  America  and  the  cost  and 


488  EDUCATION.  [March, 

trouble  of  transporting  luggage  is  so  great  that  it  is  cheaper  to  buy 
clothing  when  you  need  it  than  to  take  it  with  you.  The  writer  of  this 
once  started  from  Boston  for  a  trip  through  Egypt  and  Palestine  with 
one  travelling  companion,  and  they  took  but  one  hand  bag  between 
them  for  the  whole  journey,  visiting  all  the  chief  points  of  Europe  on 
the  way.  Ladies  cannot  quite  do  this,  but  the  nearer  they  can  approx- 
imate to  it  the  better.  A  few  places  such  as  London,  Paris,  Geneva, 
and  Rome,  may  require  extra  changes  of  dress,  and  the  cheapest  way  is 
to  express  to  these  places  a  small  box  of  the  extras  and  when  done  with 
them  let  them  be  returned  to  London  by  the  same  method. 

In  any  event  it  is  a  mistake  to  spend  money  and  time  in  preparing  an 
outfit.  Start  for  Europe  as  you  would  start  for  a  three  days'  visit  in 
New  York  or  Philadelphia  and  do  your  buying  and  outfitting  in  Lon- 
don, where  goods  and  labor  are  much  cheaper  than  at  home.  Two 
ladies  from  Maine  once  started  fot  a  year's  residence  abroad,  at  one 
day's  notice  and  they  never  regretted  the  abruptness  of  their  departure. 

The  best  method  of  adjusting  money  affairs  is  to  take  a  letter  of  credit 
from  some  American  banking  house,  which  has  correspondents  in  all 
the  principal  places  in  Europe,  by  which  your  drafts  may  be  cashed  at 
sight.  To  obtain  this  letter  it  is  not  necessary  that  you  should  place 
the  money  in  the  hands  of  your  banker  at  home.  It  is  quite  sufficient 
to  deposit  with  him  a  sufficient  security,  such  as  government  bonds  or 
even  a  guaranty  from  some  responsible  business  man  which  your  banker 
is  willing  to  accept.  You  may  thus  save  the  interest  on  your  money 
until  it  is  actually  used.  Your  banker  will  charge  you  five  per  cent,  on 
the  drafts  after  they  are  drawn ,  but  not  on  the  balance  of  your  credit. 
Moreover,  if  your  banker  fails,  you  will  lose  nothing  since  you  will  be 
in  debt  to  him. 

Above  all  things  be  sure  that  your  travelling  companion  is  congenial 
in  spirit.  More  depends  on  the  immediate  associates  of  your  journey 
than  upon  all  else  in  determining  the  pleasure  and  profit  you  may  de- 
rive from  it. 

Since  the  above  was  written  notices  have  come  to  hand  of  several 
''  conducted  "  parties,  arrangments  for  which  are  now  in  progress  for 
the  coming  summer  vacation,  especially  in  view  of  the  International 
Exposition  which  is  to  be  held  at  Paris  from  May  to  October. 


199^1  WILLIAM  H,  PA  TNL\  LL.  D.  483 


WILLIAM  H.  PAYNE,  LL.  D. 

THE  question  is  sometimes  aaked  :  —  "Why  do  we  not  have  at  the 
present  time  such  great  leaders  in  action  and  thought  as  Caesar, 
William  the  Conqueror,  Napoleon,  Pitt,  Franklin,  Calhoun,  Thomas 
Arnold,  Francis  Wayland,  and  Mark  Hopkins?"  Upon  careful  exam- 
ination it  will  appear  that  there  are  many  men  now  in  active  life  who  if 
living  in  the  days  of  these  great  leaders  would  have  been  their  peers  in 
their  several  chosen  fields  of  labor. 

Among  the  educators  of  today  there  are  leaders  who  will  rank  with 
those  of  the  past;  while  the  rank  and  file  of  the  teachers  of  America 
are  of  a  higher  order  than  ever  before. 

Among  the  leaders  of  educational  thought  should  be  reckoned  Pres- 
ident William  H.  Payne,  LL.  D.  of  Nashville,  Tenn. 

President  Payne  was  born  in  Farmington,  Ontario  Co.,  New  York, 
May  13,  1836.  Like  so  many  of  the  world's  workers,  his  boyhood  was 
spent  on  a  farm,  where  he  laid  the  foundation  for  a  strong  body  and  a 
sound  mind.  His  education  till  he  was  thirteen  years  of  age  was  simply 
that  which  he  could  receive  in  the  district  school  during  the  winter. 

From  this  time  till  he  was  sixteen  he  studied  at  home,  and  then,  with 
the  encouragement  and  assistance  of  his  parents  and  by  their  self-denial, 
he  was  enabled  to  enter  Macedon  Academy,  then  under  the  direction  of 
Rev.  Samuel  Senter,  where  he  enjoyed  two  years  of  uninterrupted  study. 
This,  with  three  months  spent  at  the  New  York  Conference  Seminary, 
finished  his  school  days,  and  at  the  early  age  of  eighteen  he  began  his 
life  work  of  teaching. 

For  two  years  Mr.  Payne  taught  various  country  schools,  where  he 
showed  the  clear  head  and  vigorous  thought  which  have  given  him  dis- 
tinction in  broader  fields,  and  brought  to  him  a  large  and  successful 
career. 

Oct.  2,  1856,  he  married  Miss  Eva  S.  Fort,  and  with  his  wife  as 
assistant,  he  taught  for  a  year  and  a  half  the  village  school  at  Victor, 
New  York,  when  he  moved  to  Michigan,  in  which  state  he  resided  till 
the  spring  of  1888. 

In  the  fall  of  1858  Professor  Payne  accepted  the  Principalship  of  the 
Union  school  at  Three  Rivers,  Mich.,  and  made  himself  such  a  reputa- 
tion as  an  organizer  and  instructor  that  in  1864  he  was  called  to  the 
head  of  the  schools  of  Niles,  and  two  years  later  was  prevailed  upon  to 
succeed  Professor  Joseph  Estabrook  as  Principal  of  the  Ypsilanti  Sem- 
inary, the  largest  union  school  in  the  state. 

Though  Professor  Estabrook  had  been  one  of  the  best  known  and 


484  EDUCATION.  [MMreb, 

most  loved  of  the  public  school  teachers  of  the  state.  Professor  Payne 
proved  himself  a  worthy  successor,  and  soon  secured  the  love  and  es- 
teem of  the  pupils  and  the  respect  and  confidence  of  the  parents  and  the 
community. 

During  his  five  years'  residence  at  Niles  and  Ypsilanti  he  edited  and 
published  The  Michigan  Teacher,  and  added  to  his  growing  reputation 
as  a  writer  and  thinker.  He  was  twice  elected  to  the  Presidency  of  the 
State  Teachers'  Association,  and  at  the  time  of  his  removal  to  Adrian  he 
had  become  one  of  the  acknowledged  leaders  of  educational  thought  and 
work  in  the  State. 

In  1869,  at  the  age  of  thirty-three,  Professor  Payne  was  selected  as 
the  best  man  to  be  found  to  take  the  Super intendency  of  the  schools  of 
Adrian,  where  he  remained  ten  years.  His  success  here  was  in  the 
same  line  as  in  all  other  positions  he  has  held.  He  urged  a  closer  re- 
lation between  the  University  and  the  High  or  fitting  schools,  and  the 
Adrian  school  was  the  first  to  enter  into  this  closer  relation. 

In  1875  his  ^'Chapters  on  School  Supervision"  were  publishedt 
'  which  farther  extended  his  reputation  as  a  successful  organizer.  He 
was  the  author  of  the  plan  for  the  State  educational  exhibit  at  the  Cen- 
tennial Exhibition ;  of  a  valuable  ^^  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Public 
Schools  of  the  City  of  Adrian,"  and  he  also  furnished  important  help  in 
the  ^^  Report  of  the  Centennial  Educational  Board."  In  1879  ^'^ 
"Syllabus  of  Lectures  on  the  Science  and  Art  of  Teaching"  added 
another  valuable  work  to  the  teacher's  library. 

At  the  June  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Regents  of  the  University  of 
Michigan  in  1879,  it  was  voted  to  establish  a  professorship  of  the  Sci- 
ence and  Art  of  Teaching,  and  Professor  Payne  was  elected  to  the 
chair.  He  entered  upon  the  difBcult  and  almost  untried  work  of  organ- 
izing this  important  department  of  instruction. 

There  being  no  precedents  in  this  particular  field  of  education  many 
were  skeptical  as  to  its  success,  but  it  was  soon  apparent  that  Professor 
Payne  had  succeeded  in  adding  an  important  and  popular  department 
to  the  University. 

For  eight  and  a  half  years  he  continued  to  fill  this  important  post  and 
at  the  same  time  he  added  still  farther  to  the  list  of  Standard  American 
works  on  Pedagogy.  ** Outlines  of  Educational  Doctrine,"  '^Contri- 
butions to  the  Science  and  Art  of  Education,"  an  edition  of  Compayrfe's 
'*  Historic  de  la  Pedagogic,"  and  "  Cours  de  Pedagogic"  having  come 
from  his  pen  during  this  time,  his  reputation  was  widely  extended. 

The  last  call  upon  Professor  Payne  was  from  the  Trustees  of  the 
Peabody  Fund,  urging  him  to  become  the  President  of  the  Peabody 
Normal  College,  and  by  the  Trustees  of  the  University  of  Nashville  ta 
become  its  Chancellor. 


1889.]  BEPORT  OF  COMMISSIONER  OF  EDUCATION.  485 

Satisfactory  arrangements  having  been  made,  Professor  Payne  ac- 
cepted these  two  positions  and  was  formally  installed,  Oct.  5th,  18S7, 
though  at  the  request  of  President  Angell  he  remained  at  Ann  Arbor 
till  Feb.  15th,  1 888,  when  he  removed  to  Nashville,  Tenn.,  where  he  is 
doing  most  excellent  work  for  education  and  for  the  country.  He  has 
increased  the  membership  from  180  to  254. 

President  Payne  has  been  twice  honored  by  the  University  of  Mich- 
igan, which  in  1872  gave  him  the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts  and  at  the 
last  Commencement  the  degree  of  LL.  D. 

President  Payne  has  been  always  a  true  and  tried  friend  and  defender 
of  thorough  education,  and  throughout  the  country  he  has  hosts  of 
friends  who  hope  that  he  may  long  continue  to  add  to  the  ability, 
strength,  and  character  of  American  educators  and  educational  progress. 

The  readers  of  this  magazine,  both  those  who  have  the  pleasure  of 
his  personal  acquaintance  and  friendship  and  those  who  are  strangers 
to  him,  will  alike  be  pleased  with  the  beautiful  etching  to  be  found  as 
frontispiece  to  this  number,  which  gives  a  striking  likeness  of  his  strong 
features  and  in  such  a  marked  manner  indicates  his  decision  of 
character.  w.  h.  m. 


NOTES  ON  REPORT  OF  COMMISSIONER  OF  EDU- 

CA  TION  FOR  1886^' 87. 

(To  THE  Editor  : — 

I  have  just  laid  dowrn  the  report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  for  18S6-7,  which  I  have  ex- 
amined with  much  interest.  It  has  so  many  admirable  features  that  I  am  tempted  to  send  you  my  notes, 
hastily  made,  but  which  may  possibly  be  of  greater  value  to  your  readers  than  if  I  had  written  them 
out  more  fully  and  more  artistically,  because  I  hope  the  reading  of  them  will  tend  to  a  fuller  and 
more  critical  examination  of  this  admirable  report  by  the  teachers  of  the  country. 

Very  Respectfully,  Ex-Teacher.] 

THE  Bureau  of  Education  has  a  sufficient  collection  of  educational 
apparatus  and  appliance  to  form  a  very  complete  pedagogical 
museum.  Space  is  unfortunately  wanting  for  the  systematic  arrange- 
ment and  effective  display  of  the  entire  material,  but  a  small  portion 
has  been  placed  in  order  for  exhibition  following  the  general  plan  of 
the  National  Museum.  The  portion  thus  arranged  consists  of  up- 
wards of  two  thousand  objects  and  series  of  objects.  The  interest 
which  this  excites  in  teachers  who  visit  the  Bureau  emphasizes  the  need 
of  adequate  provision  for  the  similar  treatment  of  the  entire  collection. 
[Vid.  Commissioner's  Statement  pages  12  and  13.] 

The  value  of  the  library  has  been  greatly  enhanced  by  recent  additions 
and  its  importance  is  recognized  by  the  many  students  of  education  who 
make  use  of  it  in  the  prosecution  of  their  various  investigations.  The 
card  catalogue  has  advanced  nearly  to  completion  and  greatly  facili- 
tates the  use  of  the  material.  Following  the  precedent  of  the  leading 
libraries  of  the  world,  cards  of  reference  are  supplied  to  investigators 


486  EDUCATION.  [March^ 

who  desire  the  same.  During  1886-87  three  hundred  such  reference 
cards  were  prepared,  and  eight  thousand  catalogue  cards.  [Commis- 
sioner's Statement,  p.  13.] 

ALASKA. 

The  responsibility  which  the  government  assumed  in  the  purchase  of 
Alaska  included  the  education  of  its  people.  For  above  fifteen  years 
after  the  purchase  of  the  territory  this  duty  was  altogether  ignored. 
By  the  provisions  of  the  act  of  May  17,  1884,  providing  a  civil  govern- 
ment for  Alaska,  the  conduct  of  its  educational  affairs  was  entrusted  to 
the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  who  designated  the  Commissioner  of  Kdu- 
cation  to  give  practical  effect  to  this  purpose.  Subsequently  the 
Secretary  directed  the  Commissioner  to  visit  the  Territory  for  the  pur- 
pose of  personally  examining  into  its  educational  condition  and  wants. 

The  anomalous  political  condition  of  the  Territory  has  impressed 
every  traveller  within  its  limits.  No  one  has  portrayed  the  same  more 
graphically  than  the  Commissioner  or  pointed  out  more  clearly  the  evils 
which  are  to  be  apprehended  from  a  continuance  of  the  present  policy. 
He  characterizes  the  organic  Act  which  provided  a  civil  government 
as  '^  an  imperfect  and  crude  piece  of  legislation." 

**  This  act,"  he  says,  **  provides  little  more  than  the  shadow  of  civil 
Government,  without  the  right  to  legislate  or  raise  revenue.  It  ex- 
pressly inhibits  the  operation  of  the  general  land  laws,  while  it  provides 
that  the  laws  relating  to  mines  and  mining  shall  be  in  full  force  and 
operation.  It  provides  no  means  by  which  its  citizens  may  acquire 
homes  or  homesteads,  or  obtain  title  to  an  acre  of  land  in  its  ample 
domain.  It  provides  no  means  by  which  the  inhabitants  can  obtain  the 
benefits  and  protection  of  municipal  law.  It  has  established  a  single 
tribunal,  with  a  more  extensive  jurisdiction  than  any  similar  court  in 
the  United  States,  but  provides  no  means  by  which  its  processes  and 
decrees  may  be  enforced.  This  Act  has  been  well  described  as  a 
*  legislative  fungus,  without  precedent  or  parallel  in  the  history  of 
American  legislation.' 

"  As  a  consequence,  the  material  progress  and  advancement  of  the 
Territory  have  been  retarded,  immigration  has  been  discouraged,  and 
its  rich  and  inviting  fields  of  industry  remain  undeveloped. 

*' Tracts  of  land  adapted  to  agriculture,  producing  vegetables  and  the 
grasses,  and  affording  rich  pasturage,  may  be  found  in  many  portions 
of  the  Territory.  With  the  extension  of  the  land  laws  to  these  parts  of 
the  country,  an  industrious  and  enterprising  population  would  soon  find 
comfortable  homes  and  develop  thriving  industries.  With  the  same 
advantages  of  civil  government  which  are  enjoyed  by  the  citizens  of 
other  Territories,  the  people  of  Alaska  would  soon  enter  upon  an  era  of 
•rosperity  which  would  justify  the  expectations  of  its  most  sanguine 


1889.]  REPORT  OF  COMMISSIONER  OF  EDUCATION.  487 

friends.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  Congress,  at  its  present  session,  will 
provide  such  needful  legislation  as  will  protect  its  citizens  and  develop 
its  rich  resources.  Alaska  is  the  gate  of  the  North  Pacific,  and  in  the 
not  distant  future  must  become  one  of  our  most  valuable  possessions." 

The  condition  here  described  is  a  hindrance  to  the  educational  in- 
terests which  are  farther  retarded  by  the  lack  of  adequate  appropriations. 

The  system  devised  by  the  Commissioner  is  simple  and  practical  and 
is  heartily  endorsed  by  the  Territorial  board.  If  the  funds  are  forthcom- 
ing there  is  promise  of  the  rapid  multiplication  of  schools  supplied  with 
earnest,  conscientious  teachers,  and  admirably  adapted  in  their  scope  and 
methods  to  the  needs  of  the  simple  natives.  The  success  of  the  system 
depends  entirely  upon  the  liberality  of  the  government. 

Says  the  Commissioner,  *'  Unless  larger  means  than  the  appropriations 
which  have  been  heretofore  made  are  obtained,  no  improvement  can  be 
expected.  The  Territorial  Board  of  Education  estimates  the  amount 
needed  for  the  support  and  organization  of  schools  in  the  Territory 
and  the  building  of  the  necessary  schoolhouses,  at  $77,000.  I  do  not 
think  this  sum  is  extravagant  or  too  large,  if  it  be  the  purpose  of  Con- 
gress to  provide  schools  for  the  whole  population  of  the  Territory,  and 
to  extend  the  advantages  of  education  to  all  the  children  within  its 
limits.  In  view  of  the  fact,  however,  that  all  of  these  schools  cannot 
conveniently  be  organized  and  provided  with  suitable  buildings  within 
one  year,  I  think  that  an  appropriation  for  the  next  fiscal  year  for  edu- 
cation in  Alaska  should  not  be  less  than  $50,000.  This  sum  will 
support  the  present  schools  with  some  additions,  and  allow  $20,000  to 
be  used  in  the  erection  of  school-houses  at  places  where  they  are  abso- 
lutely necessary.  If  schools  are  to  be  maintained,  buildings  must  be 
provided.  For  this  reason  I  believe  that  the  sum  of  $50,000  can  be 
judiciously  used  for  the  purposes  mentioned,  and  I  therefore  recommend 
it,"  etc.,  [p.  44]. 

The  statistical  record  of  the  state  school  system  for  the  year  1886-87 
is  embraced  in  sixteen  tables.  The  data  presented  enables  a  more  com- 
prehensive comparison  of  the  statutes  of  the  different  states  than  has 
ever  before  been  possible.  For  example,  taking  Alabama,  New  Jersey, 
and  Wisconsin,  states  in  three  different  geographical  sections,  having 
nearly  equal  populations,  and  making  the  comparisons  on  the  basis  of 
population  six  to  fourteen  years  of  age,  which  may  properly  be  regarded 
as  the  actual  school  population,  it  will  be  found  that  the  adult  population 
of  Alabama  have  a  school  burden  one  and  one-fourth  times  as  large  as 
have  the  adults  of  New  Jersey  and  one  and  one-seventh  times  as  great 
as  the  adults  of  Wisconsin.  Moreover,  the  annual  rate  of  increase  in 
school  population  for  Alabama  is  about  two  and  a  half  times  as  great 
as  for  New  Jersey,  and  three  and  a  half  times  as  great  as  in  Wisconsin. 


488  EDUCATION.  [Mait^ 

These  circumstances,  apart  from  all  considerations  of  density  of  popu- 
lation, wealth,  and  previous  conditions,  would  presumably  make  the 
chances  of  education  in  the  southern  state  less  than  in  the  other  two. 
In  fact,  still  using  the  population  six  to  fourteen  years  as  a  basis,  the 
school  enrollment  in  Alabama  is  to  that  of  New  Jersey  as  i  to  i^  and  to 
that  of  Wisconsin  as  i  to  i^.  With  this  showing,  if  the  duration  of  the 
school  years  were  nearly  equal  it  would  seem  that  the  Gulf  state  is 
rapidly  approaching  the  standard  of  the  North  and  West  in  spite  of 
social  drawbacks. 

But  the  truth  must  not  be  forgotten  that  a  school  year  in  New  Jersey 
is  two  and  a  half  times  as  long,  and  in  Wisconsin  twice  as  long  as  in 
Alabama.  The  showing  for  Alabama  is  farther  depressed  by  the 
financial  outlook.  While  New  Jersey  can  afford  an  annual  expenditure 
of  $12.11  per  capita  of  population,  six  to  fourteen,  and  Wisconsin  an 
expenditure  of  $10.20,  in  Alabama  this  important  item  drops  to  $1.83. 
It  would  hardly  be  fair  to  end  this  survey  without  noting  the  fact  that 
thirty-nine  per  cent,  of  the  school  population  for  which  Alabama  must 
provide  are  colored.  Of  course  substantially  the  whole  burden  is  on 
the  whites.  Similar  comparisons  may  be  instituted  between  any  two 
states  as  the  reader  fancies,  or  he  may  get  the  drif\  of  the  situation  by 
running  through  the  summary,  by  geographical  sections,  which  accom- 
panies each  table  and  more  particularly  by  the  study  of  the  decade  as 
presented  in  Table  17. 

The  chapter  devoted  to  secondary  instruction  contains  in  addition  to 
the  usual  record  of  the  year  the  results  of  a  tentative  inquiry  as  to  the 
scholastic  characteristics  of  the  schools  of  tliat  grade.  The  particulars 
are  discussed  on  pages  495  and  508  and  tabulated  on  pages  512-516. 
The  summary,  p.  517,  epitomizes  the  results  for  the  entire  country. 

In  the  treatment  of  superior  Institutions  there  are  several  new  features 
which  are  believed  to  be  valuable.  Space  forbids  further  quotations, 
but  attention  is  called  to  those  which  have  been  to  the  writer  most  in- 
teresting. 

The  following  references  will  enable  one  to  find  them  readily :  — 

Pages  656,  657,  658,  659,  660,  666,  667,  730,  731,  732,  733,  734. 

In  Chapter  XIV.  on  the  ''Training  of  special  classes,"  the  sum- 
marized record  of  what  the  difierent  states  are  doing  will  be  found  on 
pages  831,  833,  845,  847.  853,  864. 

The  tabulation  of  the  statistics  relating  to  elementary  education  in 
foreign  countries  [vid.  pp.  1000- 1004]  has  greatly  simplified  the 
presentation  and  facilitated  the  use  of  the  matter. 

Finally  ihe  reader's  attention  is  called  to  the  contents  of  Chapter  XX. 
which  are  suflSciently  indicated  by  the  title,  p.  103 1. 


1889.]  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION.  489 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION. 
Meeting  for  j88q^  at  Nashville^  Tennessee^  July  i6th-igth. 

THE  President  presents  the  following  as  the  preliminary  program 
of  the  general  sessions,  as  far  as  at  present  completed  :  — 
Addresses  of  Welcome  and  Responses. 

I.  —  Honorary  Degrees  in  American  Colleges — Prof.  Charles  F. 
Smith,  Vanderbilt  University,  Nashville,  Tenn. 

II.  —  The  History  of  Education  :  (a)  Its  Culture  Value — Prof.  B.  A. 
Hinsdale,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.  ;  (^)  Its  Value  on  Educational  Legislation 
and  Administration  —  *  Chancellor  W.  H.  Payne,  Peabody  Normal 
College,  Nashville,  Tenn. ;  (c)  Its  Practical  Value  to  Teachers  —  *Prof. 
S.  G.  Williams,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

III.  —  Manual  Training  ;  (a)  The  Results  of  Manual  Training  in  the 
St.  Louis  Schools — Prof.  C.  M.  Woodward.  St.  Louis,  Mo.  ;  (b)  Intel- 
lectual Value  of  Tool  Work  —  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris,  Concord,  Mass. ;  (c) 
Practical  Value  in  Subsequent  Active  Pursuits  of  Pupils  —  Dr.  S.  H. 
Peabody,  Champaign,  111.  ;  (r/)  Effects  of  the  Innovation  upon  the  Use- 
fulness of  Schools — Hon.  E.  E.  White,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

IV.  — Literature  for  Children  to  the  Front  in  Public  Schools  —  Mary 
E.  Burt,  Cook  County  Normal  School,  Chicago,  Illinois. 

V.  —  Education  and  the  Republic  —  Col.  A.  S.  Colyar,  Nashville, 
Tenn. 

VI.  —  Pedagogical  Investigation  and  Psychological  Observation. 
[One  Session  by  vote  of  the  Association.]  Lillie  J.  Martin,  Chairman 
of  Committee,  Girls*  High  School,  San  Francisco,  California ;  Dr. 
William  T.  Harris,  Concord,  Mass. ;  Prof.  Geo.  P.  Brown,  Blooming- 
ton,  III. ;  *Dr.  G.  Stanley  Hall,  Clark  University,  Worcester,  Mass. 

VII.  — Parochial  Schools  :  (a)  Should  Americans  Educate  their  Chil- 
dren in  Parochial  Schools?  —  *Rt.  Rev.  John  J.  Keane,  President  of 
the  Catholic  University,  Washington,  D.  C.  ;  (h)  Has  the  Parochial 
School  a  Proper  Place  in  America?  —  Edwin  D.  Mead,  Boston,  Mass. 

VIII.  —  The  Legal  Status  of  the  Public  Schools — Hon.  A.  L. 
Draper,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Albany,  New  York. 

IX.  — The  Problem  of  the  Hour  for  Public  Education  —  Alex.  Hogg, 
Superintendent  of  Schools,  Fort  Worth,  Texas. 

X. — The  Peabody  Fund;  and  Education  at  the  South — *Hon.  J. 
L.  M.  Curry,  Agent  of  the  Fund,  Richmond,  Va. 

XL— The  John  F.  Slater  Fund  and  its  Work  — Dr.  A.  G.  Hay- 

good.  Agent  of  the  Fund,  Decatur,  Ga. 

XII.  — Patriotic  Education  — 'Prof.  R.  W.  Webb,  Belle  Buckle, 
Tenn. 


490  EDUCATION.  [Man^, 

XIII.  — The  Relative  Value  of  Ideas  — ♦Mrs.  Delia  Lathrop  Will- 
iams, Delaware,  O. 

Names  marked  with  an  asterisk  are  ''expected." 

The  President  is  in  correspondence  with  many  eminent  school  men 
and  women  besides  the  above ;  and  other  topics  of  vital  interest  may  be 
expected  upon  the  program.  Announcements  will  be  made  from  time 
to  time  as  engagements  are  completed. 

The  attention  of  presidents  of  departments  is  again  called  to  the 
necessity  of  placing  the  programs  of  their  meetings  in  the  hands  of  the 
Nashville  Local  Executive  Committee  as  early  as  possible,  to  prevent 
delay  in  issuing  the  Bulletin.  The  program  of  the  general  sessions 
cannot  be  definitely  settled  till  those  of  the  departments  are  complete. 

Arrangements  are  being  made  for  very  low  railroad  rates,  details  of 
which  will  be  announced  in  a  short  time.  Board  can  be  obtained  at 
the  hotels  from  one  to  three  dollars  a  day,  and  at  the  private  boarding- 
houses  for  $i.oo,  $1.25,  and  $1.50.  Arrangements  for  accommoda- 
tions cannot  be  made  too  early.  The  committee  on  entertainment  is 
now  ready  to  act.  Address  the  chairman  of  this  committee,  Headquar- 
ters Local  Executive  Committee,  Nashville. 

All  correspondence  with  the  Nashville  Local  Executive  Committee 
should  be  addressed  to  Professor  Frank  Goodman,  Secretary,  Nash- 
ville, Tennessee. 

Albert  T.  Marble,  President. 
James  H.  Canfield,  Secretary. 


MISCELLANT. 

A  WRITER  in  the  Christian  Union  discusses  vigorously  "A  de- 
mand for  more  moral  and  religious  instruction  in  the  schools  of 
Rhode  Island."     His  article  closes  with  the  following :  — 

From  this  survey  of  the  public  documents  sent  us  by  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Rhode  Island,  we  are  of  the  opinion  that  at  heart  the  school 
system  of  that  state  is  sound.  We  firmly  believe  that  the  same  is  true 
of  the  system  in  other  states,  though  there  is  little  evidence  in  the  man- 
uals and  reports  of  any  widespread  agitation  of  the  subject  of  moral 
and  religious  culture. 

However,  of  one  thing  we  are  fully  convinced  :  while  the  amount  of 
moral  and  religious  instruction  imparted  in  our  common  schools  is  not 
great  enough,  and  should  be  speedily  increased,  still  the  schools  are 
not  godless.  Our  common  schools  have  many  secret  and  determined 
enemies  plotting  their  destruction.  We  have  faith  to  believe  that  in 
the  day  of  final  battle  these  enemies  will  be  utterly  vanquished,  and 
that  generation  after  generation  of  the  future  citizens  of  the  Republic 
K    fviiJ  continue  to  enjoy  the  blessings  of  a  free  and  true  education. 


1889.]  FOREIGN  NOTES.  4W 


FOREIGN  NOTES. 

ENGLAND. 

The  Royal  Commission  on  Elementary  Education.  —  The 
Royal  Commission  on  Elementary  Education  appointed  in  1886,  has 
issued  a  series  of  reports  presenting  the  detailed  examination  of  a  large 
number  of  witnesses,  together  with  the  conclusion  and  recommenda- 
tions of  the  Commission. 

The  hope  entertained  in  some  quarters,  that  the  Commission  would 
condemn  the  system  of  payment  upon  results,  has  not  been  fulfilled. 

Public  opinion  in  respect  to  the  matter  is  however  so  pronounced 
as  to  make  it  quite  certain  that  the  code  for  1889  will  abolish  individual 
payment  by  results  and  modify  the  conditions  of  pupil  teaching. 

Technical  Education.  —  The  efforts  to  secure  the  passage  of  a 
bill  for  technical  education  in  England,  have  also  failed  so  far.  The 
agitation  of  the  matter  has,  however,  brought  about  a  consensus  of 
opinion  among  educators  as  to  what  is  needed.  This  is,  training  of 
the  eye  and  hand,  beginning  in  the  Kindergarten  and  continuing 
throughout  the  elementary  grade  of  instruction.  Slojd  has  taken  firm 
root  in  England,  and  this,  in  combination  with  drawing,  will,  it  is 
thought,  give  the  training  desired. 

The  London  School  Board.  —  The  election  of  the  new  School 
Board  for  London,  November  30,  must  be  regarded  as  a  triumph  for 
the  friends  of  progress.  Economy  was  the  watchword  of  the  Board 
whose  term  expired  on  the  day  mentioned.  It  was  that  kind  of  economy 
which  has  an  eye  upon  the  rate  payers  rather  than  upon  the  interests  of 
children.  It  brought  the  rate  down  a  few  farthings  in  the  pound,  and 
this  in  the  main,  by  a  reduction  of  the  teaching  staffs.  The  party  of 
reform,  so  called,  has  come  back  in  the  majority,  but  it  is  a  greatly 
reduced  majority. 

Mr.  Diggle  has  been  reelected  chairman  ;  but  in  the  place  of  the  arch 
economist,  Sir  Richard  Temple,  that  enlightened  and  firm  advocate  of 
all  true  reform  and  progressive  action.  Doctor  Gladstone,  has  been 
elected  vice-president. 

Sir  Edmund  Currie  and  the  Hon.  Lyulph  Stanley,  whose  names  arc 
familiar  to  all  who  followed  the  course  of  the  famous  Board  presided 
over  by  Mr.  Edward  North  Buxton,  are  among  the  members  lately 
elected. 


k 


4M  EDUCATION.  [Marcb, 

School  Savings  Banks  in  Belgium.  —  A  correspondent  of  the 
JLondon  Journal  of  Education  gives  the  following  interesting  account 
of  school  savings  banks.  The  idea,  he  says,  originated  in  Belgium. 
Its  realization  was  due  to  the  efforts  of  a  most  worthy  man,  the  late  M. 
Laurent,  Professor  of  Law  at  the  University  of  Ghent.  In  Ghent  the 
teachers  of  both  sexes  in  the  state  schools  are  required  to  keep  a  kind 
of  banking  account  in  behalf  of  those  among  their  pupils  who  can  be 
induced  to  deposit  with  them  the  slender  sums  of  halfpennies  they  can 
squeeze  out  of  their  weekly  pocket  money.  This  practice  has  existed 
for  fifteen  years,  and  has  been  productive  already  of  quite  astounding 
results.  In  the  town  of  Ghent,  where,  out  of  a  F>opulation  of  100,000 
the  gp'eat  majority  belong  to  the  working  classes,  there  are  no  less  than 
27,000  depositors  in  the  savings  banks.  As  a  rule,  every  &mily  among 
the  working  classes  has  its  pass-book. 

The  success  of  M.  Laurent's  idea  led  to  its  adoption  in  other  towns, 
and,  when  the  question  of  its  introduction  into  the  Professional  School 
for  Girls  in  Brussels  first  came  before  the  Council  of  Administration, 
the  President,  M.  Auguste  Convieux,  had  to  decide  upon  the  following 
point :  — 

^'  Should  the  principle  of  making  deposits  in  the  School  Savings 
Bank  be  rendered  obligatory  in  the  Professional  School?  In  other 
words,  should  the  teacher  have  the  right  to  enforce  a  spirit  of  economy 
by  imposing  upon  each  pupil  the  obligation  of  yielding  up  her  savings, 
no  matter  how  small,  once  in  every  week  ?  Or  must  the  teacher  restrict 
himself  to  pointing  out  the  advantages  of  saving,  and  content  himself 
with  simply  inscribing  the  names  of  such  pupils  as  voluntarily  acted 
upon  his  advice  ?  "  The  question  was  decided  in  favor  of  the  latter 
proposition. 

Unfortunately  the  results  in  this  school  have  not  been  satis^Eictory. 
Seeing  this,  a  prominent  gentleman.  Monsieur  Convieux,  has  organized 
a  mutual  aid  society —  '*  Society  de  Secours  Mutuels,"  having  the  fol« 
lowing  objects:  to  procure  work  for  its  members,  and  to  succor  those 
who,  from  illness  or  other  cause,  are  temporarily  deprived  of  resources. 

The  society  is  bound  to  accept  as  affiliated  members,  all  pupils  of  the 
schools  of  the  association  between  the  ages  of  twelve  and  sixteen,  the 
schools  paying  on  their  account  the  half  of  the  sum  subscribed  by 
active  members.  It  is  hoped  that  in  this  way  a  spirit  of  solidarity  may 
be  developed  among  pupils  in  all  stages,  and  that  the  principles  of 
true  economy  and  genuine  charity  may  be  inculcated. 

GERMANY. 

School  Inspectors  in  Prussia.  —  The  number  of  permanent  dis- 
trict school  inspectors  in  Prussia  is  223 ;   there  are  also  13  assistant 


188«.J  FOREIGN  NOTES.  483 

inspectors.  Of  the  entire  number,  95  are  teachers  in  gymnasia,  42 
teachers  in  seminaries,  37  heads  of  gymnasia  and  modern  schools,  and 
21  headmasters  in  elementary  schools.  The  small  proportion  of  the 
last  named  is  severely  commented  upon  in  the  educational  journals. 
The  duty  of  the  inspectors  consists  simply  in  visiting  periodically  and 
reporting  upon  the  schools  of  their  districts.  The  present  annual  appro- 
priation for  this  service  is  $476,000. 

Manual  Training  in  Pomerania. — At  the  last  general  meeting 
of  elementary  teachers  in  Pomerania,  manual  instruction  was  the  chief 
and  almost  the  sole  subject  of  discussion.  One  member  had  prepared 
an  argument  against  it  on  the  ground  that  the  schools  ought  to  provide 
a  general,  —  not  a  special,  —  training  for  life.  The  meeting  passed  the 
two  following  resolutions  by  an  overwhelming  majority  :  — 

(i).  The  movement  in  favor  of  manual  instruction  is  based  upon 
sound  pedagogic  principles,  and  as  such  deserves  to  be  encouraged  in 
boarding-schools  and  professional  schools. 

(2).  In  public  elementary  schools  this  kind  of  instruction  would 
militate  against  the  general  character  which  all  education  ought  to  have 
there,  and  should  therefore  be  excluded. 

Report  of  Education  in  Austria.  —  The  latest  official  report  of 
education  in  Austria  gives  the  following  details  for  i885-'86.  For 
superior  education  there  were  in  the  kingdom,  exclusive  of  Hungary, 
8  universities,  6  higher  technical  schools,  i  higher  agricultural  institu- 
tion, 2  mining  institutes,  2  academies  of  art,  and  50  theological  semi- 
naries. The  university  teachers  and  professors  numbered  1,000,  and 
the  students  13,833.  There  is  a  great  disproportion  in  the  number  of 
students  at  the  different  universities.  Vienna  numbers  5,921,  and  Czar- 
nowitz,  which  is  the  smallest,  265. 

The  six  higher  institutions  for  technical  instruction  numbered  but  330 
professors,  assistants,  etc.  Owing  to  industrial  depression  their  stu- 
dents have  fallen  from  2,125  to  1,888.  Ten  years  ago  the  students 
numbered  3,257. 

The  superior  agricultural  institute  was  established  sixteen  years  ago. 
It  began  with  70  students,  which  number  rose  to  511,  and  then  de- 
creased to  259.  The  two  mining  academies,  Leoben  and  Przibram,. 
are  attended  by  172  and  9  students  respectively.  The  latter  has  six 
teachers. 

The  gymnasia  number  173.  There  appears  to  be  a  perfect  mania, 
for  these  classical  schools  among  the  non-German  nationalities  and 
a  corresponding  indit!erence  to  the  Real  gymnasia ;  the  latter  num- 
ber 79.     Primary  instruction  was  given  in  16,659  schools  in  i885-'86- 


{ 


4U  EDUCATION.  [Maitsh, 

The  education  of  girls  is  very  unsatisfactory ;  it  is  entirely  in  the  hands 
of  associations  of  women,  cloister  schools  and  private  schools. 

Italy;  Statistics  of  Education. — According  to  the  Official 
Gazette^  the  kingdom  of  Italy  had  in  1886,  public  elementary  day 
schools  to  the  number  of  46,075,  attended  by  2,075,941  pupils.  This 
number  is  7.29  per  cent,  of  the  entire  population,  and  60.35  P^^*  cent, 
of  the  population  six  to  twelve  years  of  age. 

As  regards  secondary  education,  there  were  in  the  kingdom  in  1887, 
secondary  schools  to  the  number  of  1 95539  with  an  enrollment  of  97,059 
students.  The  same  year  the  twenty-one  universities  of  the  kingdom 
were  attended  by  1515179  distributed  among  the  faculties  as  follows: 
jurisprudence,  5*244;  philosophy  and  literature,  633;  mathematical 
and  physical  sciences,  1,786;  medicine  and  surgery,  79854.  It  will  be 
noticed  that  liberal  culture  is  almost  entirely  represented  by  the  practical 
studies  of  law  and  medicine. 

EDUCATIONAL    NOTES. 

The  movement  for  the  higher  education  of  women  is  making  itself 
felt  in  Italy.  Some  of  the  most  enlightened  women  in  the  state  are 
applying  themselves  to  the  task  of  interesting  their  own  sex  in  the  sub- 
ject by  means  of  a  journal  devoted  to  the  subject.  The  chief  promoter 
of  this  work  is  Signora  Zampini  Salazaro,  whose  paper  on  '^  Woman's 
Condition  in  Italy  "  was  one  of  the  most  interesting  called  forth  by  the 
Woman's  International  Convention  at  Washington. 

The  Italian  Chamber  of  Deputies  has  decreed  that  the  law  respecting 
pensions  for  primary  teachers  shall  be  carried  into  effect  from  the 
beginning  of  the  present  year. 

Statistics  for  i887-'88  show  the  proportion  of  illiterate  recruits  in 
Prussia  to  have  been  1.07  per  cent,  for  the  entire  kingdom.  In  three 
provinces  only  were  the  ratios  higher. 

A.  T.  s. 


i 


1889.] 


BIBLIOQBAPHT. 


486 


BIBLIOGRAPHr  OF   CURRENT  PERIODICAL    LIT- 
ERATURE   UPON  EDUCATION. 


The  following  bibliography  of  oorrent  periodical  literature  Inclodes  articles  upon 
«daoation  and  other  subjects  calculated  to  interest  teachers.  Only  articles  from  peri- 
odicals not  nominally  educational  are  mentioned.  Articles  of  special  importance  to 
teachers  will,  as  a  rule,  be  mentioned  in  notes. 


Abstraction,  L%  et  lea  id^s  Ab- 
Btraites  (fin).  F.  Paulhan.  Betut 
I%ilo90pliiquty  February. 

Agnosticiffro.  Professor  Huxley. 
NiutXttiUh  Century^  February. 

Agypter,  Weisheit  der.  Franz  Lam- 
bert.   Sphinx,  February. 

Alcoholic  Heredity,  New  Facts  in. 
T.  D.  Grothers.  Popular  Science  Month- 
ly^ February. 

Reports  some  remarkable  cases. 

American  Commonwealth,  The. 
Goldwin  Smith.    MacmiUan'Sy  Feb. 

Annexation,  Obstacles  to.  Marquis 
of  Lome.    Forum^  February. 

Archfiologie.  Die  Aufgabe  und 
Ziele  des  kaiserlich  deutschen  Archfi- 
ologischen  Instituts.  Adolf  Mi- 
chaells.     Preussisehe  Jahrbiic?ier^  Jan. 

Aubigne.  The  Memoirs  of  Agrippa 
d'  Aubign^.  Arthur  Tilley.  Macmil- 
Zan^8y  February. 

Author,  The  Trade  of.  Fortnightly 
Bevieto^  February. 

Ba*  albek.  £ine  arch&ologische 
Wanderung.  Dr.  Franz  Bock.  Un- 
sere  Zeit^  H.  2. 

Blblioth^que  imperiale  de  8aint-Pe- 
tersbourg,  La.  Hector  De  La  Ferriere. 
Nouvelle  Bevue^  Feb.  1. 

Bimetallism,  Gold,  Silver,  and. 
Westminster  Beview,  February. 

Bismarck  Dynasty,  The.  Contempo- 
rary Beview^  February. 

Books.  Noticeable  Books.  W.  £. 
Oladstone,  Frederic  Harrison,  et  al. 
Nineteenth  Century^  February. 

An  excellent  experiment  in  obtain- 
ing spontaneous  criticism.  Each 
writer  contributes  remarks  upon  a 
book  that  In  his  ordinary  reading  has 
struck  him  as  worth  special  attention. 
Among  the  books  mentioned  are  Mar- 
garet Lee's  **  Divorce,"  Miss  Rives's 
^*  Virginia  of  Virginia,"  Burgon's 
**  Lives  of  Twelve  Good  Men,"  and 
Jusserand's  *^  English  Wayfaring  Life 
in  the  Middle  Ages." 


Boy,  llie  American.  J.  T.  Trow- 
bridge.   North  American  Beview^  Feb. 

Browiiing*s  Dramas,  The  Tragic 
Motif  in.  Charles  Carroll  Everett. 
Andover  Beview^  February. 

Browning,  Facettes  of  Love  from. 
D.  G.  Brenton.     Poet  Lore^  January. 

Butterflies  in  Disguise.  Samuel  H. 
Scudder.    Atlantic  Monthly^  February. 

Canadian  Separate  School  System, 
The.  American  Catholic  Quarterly  Be- 
view^  January. 

Capital  and  Labor,  Evolution  of  the 
Relation  between.  Adam  Short t.  An- 
dover Beview^  February. 

Capenter,  William  Benjamin.  J.  H. 
Morrison.      Unitarian  Beview^  Feb. 

Children's  Voices,  Training  of,  in 
Public  Schools.  Emilie  Christina  Cur- 
tis.   Harper^ 8^  February. 

Chimle.  Professor  Armand  Gau- 
tier's  ''Cours  de  Chimie."  Westmin- 
ster BevieWy  February. 

Church  and  the  Workingman,  The. 
C.  M.  Morse.    JFbrum,  February. 

Cleveland,  President, 'The  Defeat  of. 
Charles  Kendall  Adams.  Contempo- 
rary Beview^  February. 

Climate.  Is  Our  Climate  Changing? 
Cleveland  Abbe.     Forum^   February. 

Club,  The  Neighbors'.  Westminster 
Bevieio^  February. 

Color-Law.  How  Color^Law  Affects 
Our  Homes.  F.  Wayland  Fellows. 
Yale  Beview^  February. 

Competitive  Element  in  Modem  Life, 
The.  Henry  C.  Potter.  Scribner% 
February. 

Conscience  chez  lea  Hyst^riques, 
Rei'herches  sur  les  alterations  de  la. 
A.  BInet.    Bevue  PhUosophique^  Feb. 

Dakota.  P.  F.  McClure.  Harper% 
February. 

Discipline  scolaire.  La.  A.  OolHn- 
eau.  Bevue  de  V  Hypnotisms^  Febru- 
ary. 

Egvpte,  L',  et  V  occupation  anglaise. 
V.   JLa  Justice  et  P  instruction  pub- 


496 


EDUCATION. 


[Mai«h, 


lique.  Edmund  Planchut.  Bevue  des 
Deux  Mondes^  February  1. 

Eioheitxschule,  Die  Gef ahr  der.  Paul 
Cauer.    Preu»9i$che  JahrbUrh^r^  Jan. 

Another  discussion  apropos  of  the 
conflict  between  Beal-Mchule  and  Offm- 
nasium. 

Elementary  School  Life,  Studies  of 
(concluded).  H.  J.  Barker.  Lonff^ 
man^s^  February. 

Emergency  Men,  The.  George  H. 
Jessop.     Scribner's^  February. 

Englishwomen,  the  Characteristics 
of.  I.  E.  Lynn  Linton.  Fortnightly 
Beview^  February. 

Englishwomen,  Three  Notable.  W. 
Eraser  Rae.     Temple  Bar^  February. 

'ITie  women  i-ef erred  to  are  Susan- 
nah Taylor,  Sarah  Austin,  and  Lucie 
Austin. 

Esth^tique  mui>icale  en  France,  L\ 
Psychologic  du  Quatuor.  Ch.  I>^vdqne. 
Bevue  PhiloBophique^  February. 

Ethics,  llie  Foundation  of.  W.  S. 
Lilly.    Forum^  February. 

Etat  moderne,  L\  et  ses  fonctions. 
IV.  L*  Etat,  la  religion,  V  Mucation 
et  r  assistance  publique.  Paul  T^eroy- 
Beaulieu.  Bevue  dee  Deux  MondeSy 
Jan.  15. 

Examination.  Is  Examination  a 
Failure?  W.  Baptiste  Si!Oones.  Nine- 
teenth Century.  February. 

An  able  criticism  of  the  Protest  in 
the  November  number  of  this  periodi- 
cal. 

Examination .  The  Sacrifice  of  Edu- 
cation to  Examination.  Auberon  Her- 
bert, Fredericic  Pollock,  et  al.  Nine- 
teenth Century^  February. 

These  articles  suggest  remedies  for 
the  evil  of  the  present  system  of  ex- 
amination in  England. 

Faust  I^egend,  The  Development  nf 
the.  T.  B.  Saunders.  Scottish  Be- 
viffto,  January. 

French  Traits.  The  Art  Instinct. 
W.  C.  Brownell.    Scribner's^  Feb. 

Geldwerth,  Aelteste.  Heinrich 
BrugKch.    Deutsche  Bundschau.  Feb. 

Girls,  American  and  English.  J. 
Acton  Lomax.    National  Bevievo^  Feb. 

Goethe's  Faust,  Studies  in.  Julius 
Goebel.  Modern  Language  Notes^  Janu- 
ary and  February. 

Goethe  iiber  die  Erziehung  von 
Schiller's  Sohn.  Gotthilf  Weistein. 
Deutsche.  Bundschau^  February. 

Greece,  Gossip  About.  V.  J.  P. 
Mahaffy.     Chautauquan^  February. 

GreeK  Art.  I.  Architecture.  Clar- 
ence Cook.     Chautauquan^  February. 

Gymnasien,    Deutscher    Untericht 


auf.      Hermann     Grimm.      DeuUeike 
Bundschau^  February. 

Interesting. 

Handarbeit  fiir  Knaben.  August 
Lammers.     Deutsche  ^undsckau^  Feb. 

Holidays,  The  Origin  of.  Harlow 
Gale.    Popular  Science  Monthly^  Feb. 

Hospitals.  Part  II.  Susan  Hayes 
Ward.     Chautauquan^  February. 

Hugo,  Victor.  Toutc  la  Lyre.  11. 
A.  C.  Swinburne.  Fortnightly  Beview^ 
February. 

Human  Variety.    NcUure^  Jan.  34. 

Address  delivered  at  the  anniversanr 
meeting  of  the  Anthropological  Insti- 
tute, January  22,  by  Mr.  Francis  Gal- 
ton. 

Humor.  A  Plea  for.  Agnes  Repplier. 
Atlantic  Monthly^  February. 

Hygiene.  1/  Education  Physique. 
P.  de  Coubertin.  Bevue  Scienti^ue^ 
January. 

Hypnotism  and  Suggestion.  B.  H. 
Stephan.  Alienist  and  Neurologist^ 
January. 

Illusions.  Michael  Maher.  The 
Month.  January. 

Immigration,  New  Reasons  for  Re- 
stricting. H.  J.  Boyesen.  Our  Day^ 
February. 

Indian  S4*hool,  The  Carlisle.  Fran- 
ces E.  Willard.     Chautauquan^  Feb. 

Intellectual  Life  of  America,  The. 
A  supplement.  Henry  S.  Pancoast. 
Andover  Beriew^  February. 

Italian  Masters  Old.  W.  J.  Sflll- 
man.     Century^  February. 

Japan,  Education  in.  C.  E.  Eby. 
Our  Day^  February. 

Laniennals.  I^  philosophie  de.  L 
I^amennais  theologlen  et  rh^H^rate. 
Paul  Janet.  Bevue  des  Deux  Mondes^ 
February  1. 

Litrhthouses,  A  story  of  the.  IL 
Professor  Tyndall.  Fortnightly  Be- 
vievD^  February. 

Literature,  *  Hopes    and    Fears  for. 
Professor  Dowden.    Fortnightly   J?«- 
1  W«fc,  February. 

Macbeth.     CornhUl  Magazine^  Feb. 

Maine,  Sir  Henry,  and  his  work. 
Frederick  Pollock.  Contemporary  Be-- 
vieio^  Febrnarv. 

Mental  Science.  A  Statistical  Study 
of  Sleep  and  Dreams.     Science^  Feb.  1. 

A  resume  of  Friedericli  Heerwagen^s 
article  In  Wundt's  Studien,  mentioned 
below. 

MItrratlon  of  Nations,  The  Modern. 
Hjalmar  Hjorth   Boyesen.     Chauta^^ 
'  quan^  February. 

I      Music  Among  Animals.    II.    J.  O. 
i  Wood.     ChautauqtAan^  February. 


1889.] 


BIBLIOGBAPHT. 


407 


Nature.  We  fools  of  Nature.  West- 
mifuter  JSeview,  February. 

Neffro.  Shall  Ne||^i*o  Major  I  ties 
Rule?   John  T.  Mor^^an.    Forum^  Feb. 

OHphant,  Laurence.  La<Jr  Gn^nt 
Duff.    ContempiMnry  Review^  February. 

Oxford,  A  Summer  Meeting  iii. 
Herbert  B.  Adams.  Chautauquan^ 
February. 

Paupers,  Emigration  of.  Lend  a 
Band,  February. 

Pessimismo  filosofico  in  Germania, 
II,  e  il  problema  morale  del  nostri  tem- 
pi. I.  6.  Barzellotti.  Nuova  Anto- 
logia.  Jan.  16. 

Petroleum  in  Russia.  P.  de  Tchi- 
hatchef.     ChatUauquan^  February. 

Petteukofer,  Dr.  Max  von,  und  die 
Hygiene.  Adolf  Fleischmann.  Un^ 
sere  ZeU^  H.  2. 

Physical  Basis  of  Education,  The. 
Morrison  1.  Swift.  Unitarian  Sevievo^ 
February. 

Physii^al  Training  of  Young  Chil- 
dren. M.  F.  Lagrange.  Popular  Sci- 
ence Monthly^  February. 

Translated  from  the  Bevue  Scientif- 
ique. 

Politics.  The  Spirit  of  American 
Politics  at*  shown  in  the  Late  Election. 
Charles  Worcester  Clark.  Atlantic 
Monthly^  February. 

Poor,  The  Housing  of  the.  Viscount 
Lymington.    National  Bevieto^  Feb. 

Poor.  The  Sick  Poor  of  the  Me- 
tropolis. A.  0*Donnel  Bartholeyns. 
National  BevieiOy  February. 

Portraits,  Some  Greek.  Thomas 
Sergeant  Perry.    Scribner^s^  February. 

Power-Loom,  The.  Charles  Carle- 
ton  Coffln.      Chautauquan^  February. 

Pr^sidence  aux  Etats-Unis,  La  lutte 
pour  la.  A.  Moireau.  Bevue  dee  Deux 
Monde8^  Feb.  1. 

Psychologie,  Jjb  genie  et  la  folie. 
Charles  RIchet.  Bevue  Scienti/ique^ 
February. 

Psychologie.  La  Fatigue  Mentale. 
Francis  Galton.  Bevue  Scientiftque^ 
January. 

Contains  valuable  suggestions.  Im- 
portant for  teachers. 

Public  Schools.  Perils  of  the.  Will- 
iam E.  Dodge,  Joslah  Strong.  Our 
Day^  February. 

Railways,  the  Political  Control  of. 
Is  It  Confiscation?  Appleton  Morgan. 
Popular  Science  Monthly^  February. 

Rebelais,  Fran9ois.  Edinburgh  Be- 
vieuj^  January. 

Reforms  that  do  not  Reform.  Ed- 
ward Atkinson.    Forum,  February. 

Religious   Education    Difficulty  in 


England,  'Vhe.    J.  Edward  Graham. 
Scottish  Beview^  January. 

^'Robert  Elsmere,"  An  Omitted 
Chaptfsr  of.  W.  C.  Stiles.  Tale  Be- 
view^  February. 

Robert  Elsniere,  False  History  in. 
Pres.  James  McCosh.    Our  Day.    Feb. 

Robert  Elsmere.  Lyman  Abbott. 
Chautauquan^  February. 

Ruskin,  John,  Work  of.  Charle» 
Waldstein.    Harper'^s^  February. 

Sabbaths,  Ideal.  Francis  Peck. 
Contemporary  Bevievo^  February. 

^*  Sacrifice  of  E<iucation,  llie  '*  Com- 
ments  on.  F.  Max  Miiller,  E.  A.  Free- 
man, and  F.  Harrison.  Popular  Sei^ 
ence  Monthly^  February. 

Reprinted  from  the  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury. 

School,  The  story  of  a.  James  Johon- 
not.    Popular  Science  Monthly,  Feb. 

An  interesting  account  of  the  work 
at  the  Normal  ^*hool  at  Warrensburg, 
Mo.,  while  under  the  charge  of  the 
author. 

Science,  New  Chapters  in  the  War^ 
fare  of.  1.  ^*  Demoniacal  Possession  " 
and  Insanity.  Andrew  D.  White. 
Pf^nUar  Science  Monthly^  February. 

Scientific  Charity  in  Hamburg*  Ori- 

fin  of.  Rev.  J.  H.  Crooker.  Lend  a 
fand,  February. 

Scott,  Walter,  at  Work.  E.  H. 
Woodruff.    Scribner^s^  February. 

Shakespeare^s  Plays,  A  Plea  for  a 
Reference  Canon  of.  Alvey  A.  Adee. 
Shakespeariana^  February. 

Shakespeare,  The  Children  in.  Hel- 
en Mar  Bridges,  Shakespeariana^  Feb. 

Silver.  Restore  Silver  in  the  Coin- 
age. Edward  Pierpoint.  North  Ameri' 
can  Beview^  February. 

Sin  and  Unbelief.  Mrs.  Humphrey 
Ward.    North  American  Beview^  Feb. 

Social  Economics.  The  Outline  of 
an  Elective  Course  of  Smdy.  Profes- 
sor Tucker.     Andover  Beview^  Feb. 

Socrates.  Thomas  D.  Seymour. 
Chautauquan^  February. 

Suffrage,  The  Safeguards  of.  Wash- 
ington Gladden.    Century^  February. 

Sultan,  The  City  of  the.  Eugene  L. 
Didier.     Chautauquan,  February. 

Talking-Machines,  The  New.  Phil- 
ip G.  Hubert,  Jr.  Atlantic  Monthly^ 
February. 

Taxation.  Richard  T.Ely.  OAati- 
tauquan,  February. 

Technical  Education  for  Women. 
Mrs.  Jeune.     National  Beview^  Feb. 

An  account  of  technical  education 
for  women  in  Europe.  The  author 
says :  **  What  has  been  done  In  Eng- 


496 


EDUCATION. 


[March, 


land  to  aid  the  iodustrial  education  of 
women  is  infinitesimal  when  compared 
with  what  is  done  abroad,  and.  when 
also  compared  with  what  advant-nii^es 
they  enjoy  for  technical  instruction  in 
America,  is  not  worth  considering/* 

Transcendentalism :  The  New  En|?- 
land  Renaissance.  Francis  Tiffany. 
Unitarian  Bevievo.  February. 

Trfiume  und  Sihlaf,  Sut'istische Un- 
tersuchunfi^en  ilber.  Fried  rich  Heer- 
wa^en.    Philosophische  Studien^  5  B., 

Trusts,  The  Bugaboo  of.  Andrew 
Carnegie.  North  American  Beview^ 
February. 

University  at  Washington.  A.  An- 
drew D.  White.    Forum^  February. 

Shows  the  advantages  of  Washing- 
ton at  a  seat  of  higher  learning. 


Voluntary  Schools,  The  Valae  of. 
Viscount  Crau borne.  NoHomai  B»- 
viexcy  February. 

Wales,  The  University  of.  Lewis 
Morris.      Contemporary  Beview^  Feb. 

Wille.  Die  I^hre  von  Willen  in  der 
neueren  Psychologic.  I.  Oswald 
Kulpe.  PhUo9ophi9cKe  Stvdien^  6  B.. 
2  11. 

Historical  and  critical. 

Women.  Are  Good  Women  Charac- 
terless? Eliza  Lynn  Linton,  /bmni, 
February. 

Woman.  St.  Paul  and  the  WomaD 
Movement.     Westminster  Beview^  Feb. 

Woman,  The  Physical  Development 
of.    D.  A.  Sargent.     Scrihner's^  Feb. 

or  unusual  value  and  interest. 

Young  Men,  Morals  of.  Our  Day. 
February. 


AMONG    THE  BOOKS. 

Patriotic  Reader;  or,  Human  Liberty  Developed  in  Verse  and  Prosb^ 
from  various  ages,  lands  and  races,  with  historical  notes.  By  Henry  B.  Car- 
rington,  U.  S.  A.,  LL.  D.,  author  of  ^'  Battles  of  the  American  Revolution.'^ 
Philadelphia:    J.  B.  Lipplnrott  Co.     Price,  $1.20. 

This  great  work  is  full  of  the  true  spirit  of  patriotism,  which  should  be  the 
inheritance  of  every  American  citizen.  If  the  youth  in  our  public  schools  could 
be  taught  the  true  grounds  of  patriotic  pride  as  here  developed,  it  would  be  a 
grand  preparation  for  the  future  of  our  country.  The  selections  are  upon  such 
subjects  as  the  following:  The  Patriotism  of  Our  Founders;  American  Inde- 
pendence Developed ;  Memorial  of  Washington ;  Demands  of  the  Present 
Age;  Patriotic  Sympathy  with  Struggling  Peoples;  Patriotic  National  Hymns, 
Songs  and  Odes ;  The  Future  of  America  Foreshadowed,  etc.,  etc.  The  au- 
thors are  from  all  ages  and  countries.  Among  them  are  such  names  as  Homer, 
William  Cullen  Bryant,  Rabbi  Raphael  Lasker,  Brooke  Herford,  Socrates,  Vic- 
tor Hugo,  William  Shakespeare,  Demosthenes,  Edward  Everett,  Oliver  Wen- 
dell Holmes,  William  Pitt,  Bret  Harte.  John  Greenleaf  Whittler,  Samuel  Ad- 
ams, William  Cowper,  George  William  Curtis,  Henry  Wadsworth  Longfellow* 
Geoi*ge  Bancroft,  Daniel  Webster,  John  Milton,  Wendell  Phillips,  Lyman 
Beecher,  Benjamin  Franklin,  Sir  Walter  Scott,  John  Boyle  O'Reilly,  Stephen 
Grover  Cleveland,  Bayard  Taylor,  Rouget  DeLisle,  Robert  Burns,  Felicia 
Dorothea  Hemans,  and  hundred  of  others,  more  or  less,  well  known  writers. 
At  the  end  of  the  book  is  given  a  biographical  index  of  the  authors  whose  works 
have  contributed  to  this  valuable  reader.  The  book  is  admirable  for  both  read- 
ing and  declamation. 


Teacher's  Manuals.    No.  IL  The  Argument  for  Manual  Training.    By 
Nicholas  Murray  Butler.     New  York  and  Chicago:    E.  L.  Kellogg  &  Co. 

This  paper  was  prepared  at  the  request  of  the  officers  of  the  American  In- 
stitute of  Instruction,  and  was  read  at  the  meeting  of  that  body  at  Newport,  R. 
L,  July  12,  1888.    The  course  of  study  in  Manual  Training  employed  in  th 
Jamestown  (N.  Y.)  public  schools  is  given  as  an  appendix. 


1889.]  AMONG  THE  BOOKS.  409 

LC8  JG^RAKDS  Peintrbs  (Ecolgs  d^Italib).  Prf  Henry  Axenfeld,  pentre. 
I..eceDe  et  Oudin,  editeura,  17  rue  Bonaparte,  Paris.    Pp.  320. 

'I*hl8  work  on  the  great  painters  of  the  school  of  Italy,  is  principally  of  the 
great  designers,  Leonard  de  VIncI,  Michel-ange  and  Raphael.  The  work  treats 
of  SQch  subjects  as  the  design,  the  color,  the  composition,  the  profession,  ideal- 
ists and  realists,  the  Italian  schools,  the  great  painters,  etc.,  and  then  follows 
a  biographical  sketch  of  each  of  the  three  above  named  artists,  with  descrip- 
tions of  their  works,  their  schools,  etc.  The  book  contains  thirty-five  or  mora 
illustrations  of  the  masterpieces  of  the  great  painters  and  designers. 

Story  Cards  for  Primary  Glasses.    Twenty  lessons  In  reading  and  twenty 

lessons  in  spelling.    Supplementary  to  any  primer.    By  Laura  F.  Armitage. 

Boston :  Eastern  Educational  Bureau,  60  Bromfleld  Street.    Price,  25  cents, 

by  mall. 

These  elegant  story  cards  are  5  x  8  inches,  printed  on  both  sides,  each  having 
a  pretty  picture  and  a  story  about  It  on  one  side,  and  ten  words  for  spelling,  in 
*^  print "  and  ^^  script  *'  type,  with  the  figures,  on  the  other.  They  are  on  col- 
ored Bristol  board,  the  cards  being  yellow,  blue,  and  pink.  The  color  of  the 
card  is  stated,  as  *^This  color  is  yellow,^'  ^^This  color  Is  blue,"  etc.  Every 
primary  teacher  will  find  these  cards  of  great  service  in  teaching  the  little  ones 
the  art  of  reading.  They  will  largely  increase  the  interest  of  the  pupils  In  their 
lesions. 

Natural  History  Charts.  The  ^*  Popular  Ekiuoator  '^  Company  have  pal>- 
lished  two  carefully  prepared  charts  on  Natural  History  for  the  use  of  schools. 
These  are  28x36,  on  highly  calendered  paper,  with  canvas  back,  rolled  on 
sticks  for  wall  use.  One,  the  Silk-worm ;  Two,  the  Bee.  Price  by  mall,  $2.00 
for  each.  The  first  chart  has  various  diagrams  representing  the  egg,  larva, 
digestive  system,  respiratory  system,  muscular  system,  nervous  system,  the 
full-grown  worm,  the  butterfly,  etc.  Number  two  shows  the  various  systems 
of  the  bee,  the  cell  construction,  eggs,  development  of  the  bee,  with  full-size 
pictures  of  the  male  and  female  workers,  etc.  All  of  the  diagrams  and  pictures 
in  both  charts  are  finely  colored,  and  the  whole  forms  the  basis  of  a  series  of 
important  lessons  for  the  schools. 

The  Mind  of  the  Child.  Part  II.  The  Development  of  the  Intellect.  By 
W.  Preyer;  translated  by  H.  W.  Brown.  New  York:  D.  Apple  ton  A  Co. 
Pp.  317.    Price,  ♦l.SO. 

This  new  volume  of  the  International  Education  Series,  edited  by  Dr.  Will- 
iam T.  Harris,  will  be  read  with  thoughtful  interest  by  those  who  are  con- 
cerned with  the  development  of  the  child's  intellect.  It  is  the  most  complete 
attempt  yet  published  to  show  in  absolute  detail  how  the  chlld-mlnd  grows.  It 
is  not  easy  reading,  but  extremely  interesting. 

Civil  Government  for  Common  Schools.  Prepared  as  a  Manual  for  Publto 
Iii8truction  in  the  State  of  New  York.  By  Henry  C.  Northam.  Syracuse: 
C.  W.  Bardeen. 

Tills  little  textbook  has  passed  through  three  editions.    It  l)egins  with  the 

sni.'illest  municipal  divisions,  districts,  and  townships,  i|nd  passes  on  through 

counties  and  states  to  our  national  government.    It  contains  a  large  amount  of 

useful  matter,  historical  and  political.    Too  much  attention  cannot  be  paid  to 

this  sort  of  teaching  in  the  public  schools. 


BOO  £DUCATIOy.  [Maralh 

A  C0UB8B  or  MiNBBALOOT,  FOR  YouNO  Pbople.  First  Grade,  coaUloInf 
how  to  determina  the  MinenUs  of  Collection  No.  1,  by  Prof.  G.  Gatteaberg, 
Erie,  Pa.    Price,  including  collection,  $1.00. 

This  admirable  little  manual  (one  of  the  Agassiz  Association  Course,)  is  sim- 
ple, practical,  and  clear.  It  Is  arranged  to  describe  and  direct  investigations  in' 
determining  the  more  common  minerals.  The  accompanying  collection  is  Ju- 
diciously selected,  carefully  packed  and  labelled.  The  entire  outfit  is  invalua- 
ble, because  of  its  practical  i^implicity,  and  cannot  fail  to  lead  young  people  to 
an  earnest  love  of  nature.  The  author  adds  greatly  to  the  value  of  this  outfit 
by  his  willingness  to  correspond  with  any  student  of  his  manual,  and  explain 
any  difficulties  which  may  arise. 

Topics  and  References  in  Political  Economy,  VI.  Harvard  College. 
Tariff  Legislation  in  the  United  Sutes.    Cambridge,  Mass.    1888. 

Frsttao's  Die  Journa  listen.  A  Comedy  in  Four  Acts.  A  critical  transla- 
tion.   Cambridge :    Waterman  and  Amee. 

In  this  play  the  translator  has  given  a  literal  translation  wherever  it  was 

consistent  with  good  English.    He  has  made  it  his  chief  aim  never  to  sacrifice 

idiomatic  expression  In  conveying  the  meaning,  to  literal  translation.     The 

comedy  Is  a  German  play  of  considerable  merit. 

^^  The  Table  is  Set."  A  Comedy  In  one  Act.  Adapted  from  the  German,  by 
Wellaud  Ilendrick,  A.  M.  Syracuse,  N.  Y. :  C.  W.  Bardeen.  1888.  Ten 
cents. 

A  capital  little  play,  with  Its  moral  so  easy  that  anybody  can  see  it. 

Brief  Views  of  United  States  History.  By  Anna  M.  Juliand.  Syracuse, 
N.  Y.:    C.W.  Bardeen.    1888.    Pp.68. 

A  brief  view  of  the  leading  facts  of  the  history  of  our  country,  chronologi- 
cally arranged.  The  various  administrations  are  given  with  the  leading  events 
of  each  period.    A  very  useful  aid  to  teaching  this  history. 

Excellent  Quotations  for  Home  and  School.  Selected  for  the  use  of 
teachers  and  pupils,  by  Julia  B.  Holtt,  California.  Boston :  Lee  A  Shepard. 
Pp.  329. 

A  capital  collection  of  gems,  as  ^^  Guides  to  Conduct,**  "  Glimpses  of  Na- 
ture/* ^'Patriotic  Selections,**  ''Biographical  Eulogies,**  ''Recitations  for 
Younger  Pupils,**  and  ''  Proverbs.**  These  selections  are  well  chosen  and 
make  a  book  of  great  value,  not  only  to  the  schools  but  the  general  reader  and 
families. 

Shoup*s  Graded  Speller.  A  Drill  Book  on  Spelling,  Pronouncing,  Defin- 
ing and  the  Analysis  of  Words.  By  William  J.  Shoup,  M.  S.  St.  Paul. 
Minn. :  D.  D.  Merrill,  Publisher.    Sample  copy  mailed  for  20  cents. 

This  excellent  book  is  the  outgrowth  of  a  practical  teacher*s  practical  expe- 
rience. It  retains  what  Is  good  of  other  Spelling-books  and  introduces  many 
features  of  great  worth  that  arc  not  found  in  other  works  of  the  kind.  This 
speller  Is  graded  to  correspond  with  the  various  books  of  the  graded  series  of 
readers  in  use  in  the  common  schools.  The  sounds  of  the  letters  and  their 
diacritical  markings  are  well  presented.  Skillfully  arranged  word-groups, 
drills  on  the  use  of  homonyms,  synonyms,  etc.,  are  introduced  throughout  the 
book.  The  rules  of  spelling  are  clearly  stated  and  exercises  on  derivation  of 
words  run  through  the  higher  grades. 


1889.]  MAGAZINES.  501 

Choice  Selections.  By  Chas.  Northend,  A.  M.,  author  of  "l^eaoher  and 
Parent,"  **  Teacher's  Assiataot,''  etc.    New  York :  D.  Appleton  A  Co.    1888. 

This  volume  was  ori^ifinaUy  published  in  two  separate  parts,  but  the  compiler 
felt  that  a  combination  of  the  two  would  prove  more  acceptable,  therefore  they 
arc  so  presented  In  this  issue.  The  book  contains  about  six  hundred  selec- 
tions, from  more  than  two  hundred  authors,  and  each  selection  contains  a 
thought  worthy  the  attention  of  youth.  They  are  designed  for  lessons  in 
recitation,  reading,  morals  and  literature.  In  the  second  part,  in  addition  to 
the  name  of  the  author,  Ih  given  the  place  and  date  of  his  birth,  and  the  date 
of  his  death,  unless  he  is  still  living. 

Arithmetic,  and  the  Reasoning  Faculty.    By  W.  A.  Mclntyre,  B.  A. 
A  very  bright,  concise,  and  clear  little  treatise. 

Monographs  of  the  Industrial  Education  Association.  Edited  by 
Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  Ph.  D.  Has  for  its  seventh  number  Manual 
Training  in  Elementary  Is^^hools  for  Boys.  By  J.  Sluys.  Part  I. 
Price  for  single  copy  20  cents.    $1.00  a  year. 

Riverside  Literature  Series.  No.  38.  The  Building  of  the  Ship,  and 
OTHER  Poems.  By  Henry  W.  Longfellow.  With  Introduction  and  Notes. 
Extra  number.  Literature  in  School.  An  Address  and  two  Essays,  by 
Horace  E.  Scudder.  No.  39.  December  1888.  Books  and  Libraries  and 
OTHER  Papers.  By  James  Russell  Lowell.  Boston  and  New  York:  Hough- 
ton, Mifflin  &  Co.  Single  numbers  15  cents.  Yearly  Subscription  (6  num- 
bers) 90  cents. 

Cassell  National  Library.  No.  154.  Cymbeline.  By  William  Shakespeare. 
No.  155.  Holy  Living.  By  Jeremy  Jaylor,  D.  D.  Vol.  I.  No.  166.  Plu- 
tarch's Lives  of  Numa,  Sertorius,  and  Eumenes.    10  cents  each. 


MAGAZINES   RECEIVED. 

Scribner*$  Magazine  publlsbed  montbly  by  Cbarles  Soribner*8  Sons,  is  edited  by  Edward 
L.  Burlingame,  assisted  by  Robert  Bridges,  New  York.  Tbe  price  is  86  cents  a  copy.— - 
Harper's  New  Monthly  Magazine  is  published  by  Harper  &  Brothers,  New  York,  $4.00. 
Dr.  Henry  Mills  Alden  bas  conducted  tbe  editorial  department  of  tbis  magazine  for 
twenty  years.  Associated  with  him  on  tbe  editorial  staff  are  Robert  R.  Sinclair,  George 
William  Curtis,  who  conducts  tbe  *'  easy  chair  '*  department;  W.  D.  Howells,  "editor's 
study  "  department,  and  Charles  Dudley  Warner,  and  J.  K.  Bangs,  "the  drawer  "de- 
partment.  The  Atlantic  Monthly  under  tbe  charge  of  Mr.  T.  B.  A Idrich,  Is  published 

by  Houghton,  Mifflin  ft  Co.,  Boston.    $4.00  a  year. Frank  Leslie* $  lUuetraied  8und^ 

Magazine  is  edited  by  T.  DeWitt  Talmage,  D.  D.,  and  published  by  Mrs.  Frank  Leslie. 

New  York.    $2JM)  a  year;  25  cents  a  number. Lend  a  Hand,  a  Record  of  Progress  and 

Journal  of  Good  Citizenship,  Is  edited  by  Edward  Everett  Hale,  D.  D.,  and  published 

by  J.  Stillman  Smith  &  Co.,  Boston.    $8.00  a  year;  single  numbers  80  cents. TlteAn-> 

dover  Review  is  edited  by  Egbert  C.  Smyth,  William  J.  Tucker,  J.  W.  Churchill,  George 
Harris,  Edward  Y.  Hiucks,  and  published  by  Houghton,  Mifflin  ft  Co.,  Boston.    $4.00  a 

year;  85  cents  a  number. Magazine  of  American  Hietory,  edited  by  Mrs.  Martha  J. 

Lamb,  New  York.    Price,  $5.00  a  year;  50  cents  a  number.——  Wide  ^waJbe,  edited  by 
Charles  Stuart  Pratt  and  Ella  Farman  Pratt,  published  by  D.  Lotbrop  Co.,  Boston.    $8.00 

a  year;  20  cents  a  copy. North  American  Review  is  edited  by  Allen  Thomdlke  Rl06» 

New  York.  (5.00  per  annum ;  single  numbers50  cents. Poptclor  Science  MonHUy,  eillted 

by  W.  .1.  Youmans,  and  published  by  D.  Appleton  A  Co.,  New  York.    $5.00  a  year;  single 

numbers  50  cents. The  Chautauquant  edited  by  Theodore  L.  Flood,  D.  D.,  Meadville,. 

Pa.    $1.50. Be/ford's  Magazine,  edited  by  Donn  Piatt,  published  by  Belford  Clarke  ft- 

Co.,  New  York.   25  cents.——  TYeaeure  Trove,  edited  by  Wolstan  Dizey  and  Alice  M.  KeU 
logg,  published  by  the  Treasure  Trove  Co.,  New  York.    $1.00  a  year. — •  Joumai  ef  Peda*^ 


EDUCATION.  [March, 

pog^t  edited  hj  J.  P.  Gordy,  C.  W.  Super,  and  Albert  Leonard,  pnbllebed  at  Atbens,  Ohio. 
$1.00  a  year.  -—  Tke  Saniimrian^  edited  by  A.  K.  Bell,  T.  P.  Corbally,  and  Hany  Kent 

Bell,  New  York.    $4.00  a  year. Tke  American  Anhquarian  and  OHemtal  Jcmrmai,  edited 

by  8.  D.  Peet,  Mendon,  111.    $4XX)  per  annum.  — —  BtaekwootTM  Edimburg  Mmgogimtt  New 

York,  Leonard  Scott  Publishing  Co.    $8.00  a  year. lAppimeaiVt  MomUUg  Magmxine,  pal>. 

Ilshed  by  J.  B.  Llppincott  Co.,  Philadelphia.   IS  cents. New  Engkmder  a»d  Tale  Jte- 

riev,  William  L.  Kingtley,  Proprietor,  New  Haven.  $3.00  a  year. The  CemiufTf  lUiuiratei 

Magotime,  published  by  the  Century  Co.,  Union  Square,  New  York.  $4.00a  year.-— CaMetTe 

Familp  Magazine,    Cassell  &  Co.,  New  York.    Price  15  cents. The  Rodtg  Momntatn  Maga- 

eine,  George  J.  Blakely,  Managing  Editor,  Pueblo,  Col.    $24)0. The  Korikweai  Maga 

tine,  St.  Paul  Mid-Winter  number,  St.  Paul.  Price,  35  cents. The  Batee  Stwdeni,  pub- 
lished by  the  class  of  '80,  Bates  College,  Lewiston,  Me. The  Unkpereai  Tinker  and 

Awtatemr*t  Auietant,  Hodgson  A  Barwood,  publishers,  New  York.  $1.00  per  year.  — -  Tke 
Pkrtnologieal  Journal,  Science  of  Health.  Fowler  &  Wells  Co.,  publishers,  New  York.  $1  JO 

a  year. Iowa  HiUoricai  Record^  published  quarterly  by  the  State  Historical  Society  at 

Iowa  City. LUerature,  published  by  John  B.  Alden,  New  York.    50  cents  a  year. 

Poei'Loret  a  monthly  magazine  devoted  to  Shakespeare,  Browning  and  the  Cosiparative 
Study  of  Literature.  Edited  by  Charlotte  Porter  and  Helen  A.  Clarke,  published  by 
J.  B.  Llppincott  Co.,  Philadelphia,    $2.50.  —  Tke  Writer,  a  monthly  magazine  for  literary 

workers.    $1.00. lAierary  News,  an  eclectic  review  of  current  literature.   New  York. 

$1.00. The  AeeociaOon  Notee,  Providence,  Y.  M.  C.  A.    Winter  number. The  Educa- 

Oonai  Beeord,  Madras:  printed  at  the  M.  E.  Mission  Press. The  Overland  Monthlg,  pub- 
lished in  San  Prancisco,  Cal.    $4.00. The  Critic  for  February  SSd  is  made  particularly 

interesting  to  students  of  American  Literature,  Modem  American  Diplomacy,  and 
recent  political  events  in  this  country  in  that  it  is  a  Lowell  Birthday  Number.  Among 
the  contributors  are  Prof.  C.  A.  Young,  Princeton.  N.  J.,  Prof.  W.  D.  Whitney,  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  John  G.  Whittier,  Chas.  Dudley  Warner,  Frank  R.  Stockton,  Edmund  C 
Stedman,  President  Patten,  Princeton,  N.  J.,  Francis  Parkman,  Lucy  Laroom.  Dr. 
Holmes,  T.  W.  Higginson,  £.  E.  Hale,  Wm.  E.  Gladstone,  John  Fiske,  Edward  Eggleaton, 
George  William  Curtis,  Rose  Torry  Cooke,  and  as  many  others  of  equal  distinction. 
On  February  22d  James  Russell  Lowell  was  70  years  old. 


SCHOOL  REPORTS  RECEIVED. 

Report  of  the  Town  of  Chelmsford,  Mass. Report  of  the  School  Committee,  City  of 

Newbnryport,  Mass. Report  of  the  School  Committee,  town  of  Wobum,  Mass. 

Report  of  the  School  Committee,  town  of  Cohasset,  Mass. Report  of  the  School  Com- 

mittee,  town  of  Wellesley,  Mass. Report  of  the  School  Committee,^own  of  Wakefield, 

Mass. Report  of  the  School  Committee,  city  of  Fltchburg,  Mass. Report  of  the 

Public  Schools  of  Springfield,  111. Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Schools  of  Brock. 

ton,  Mass. Report  of  the  School  Committee  of  Salisbury,  Mass. Report  of  the 

School  Committee  of  North  Andover,  Mass. Report  of  the  Boant  of  Bducatien,  Roch- 
ester, N.  Y. Reports  of  the  town  of  Weston,  Mass. Manual  of  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, Jersey  City,  N.  J. Report  of  the  School  Committee,  Salem,  Mass.    Report  of 

the  town  OfHcers  and  School  Committee  of  North  Reading,  Mass. Report  of  the 

School  Committee  of  the  city  of  Nf)rthampton.  Mass. Report  of  the  School  Com. 

mittee  of  Fozborough,  Mass. Report  of  the  School  Committee  and  Superintend- 
ent of  Schools  of  the  town  of  Lvzington,  Mass. Report  of  the  School  Committee  of 

the  town  of  Belmont,  Mass. Report  of  the  School  Committee  of  the  town  of  Whit- 
man, Mass. Report  of  tiie  School  Committee  of  Springfield,  Mass. Report  of  the 

School  Committee  of  the  town  of  HinghHm,  Mass. Report  of  the  School  Committee 

of  the  town  of  East  Bridgewater,  Mass. Report  of  the  School  Committee  of  the  town 

of  HopeUale,  Mass. Report  of  tho  Selectmen,  School  Committee,  etc.,  of  the  town  of 

Scituate,  Mass. Report  of  the  Town  Ofllcers  of  Ashland,  Mass. Report  of  the  Town 

Officers  of  Med  way,  Masei. Report  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Hounton,  Texas. Pub- 
lic School  Manual,  Salamanca,  N.  Y. Catalogue  of  the  Pennsylvania  State  Normal 

School,  Sixth  District,  Bloomsbarg,  Pa. 


Qductatior 

DEVOTED  TO  THE   SCIENCE,  ART,  PHILOSOPHY,  AND 

LITERATURE  OF  EDUCATION. 


Vol.  IX.  APRIL,    1889.  No.  8^ 

JOHN  ADAMS  AS  A  SCHOOLMASTER, 

%  BY  ELIZABETH  PORTER  GOULD. 

IN  the  summer  of  1755,  John  Adams,  when  not  quite  twentjr 
years  of  age,  became  the  teacher  of  the  grammar  school  in 
Worcester,  Mass.,  then  a  town  of  1,500  inhabitants. 

According  to  an  ordinance  of  the  General  Court,  in  1647,  that 
a  town  of  fifty  householders  should  have  a  school,  Worcester,  four 
years  after  its  incorporation  in  1722,  had  hired  its  first  schoolmas- 
ter. Five  years  later,  "whereas,  many  small  children  cannot 
attend  y®  Schoole  in  y®  Centre  of  y®  Town  by  Reason  of  y®  remote- 
ness of  their  Dwellings,  and  to  y  intent  that  all  children  may 
have  y®  benefite  of  Education,"  the  town  voted  a  suitable  num- 
ber of  "  Schoole  Dames  "  or  "  Gentlewomen,"  to  be  placed  in  y* 
Several  parts  of  y®  Town  as  y*  Selectmen  may  think  most  con- 
venient." Upon  the  town's  increase  to  one  hundred  families  or 
householders,  a  grammar  school,  according  to  law,  became  a  neces- 
sity. Rev.  Thaddeus  Maccarty,  the  clergyman  of  the  town,  being 
empowered  by  the  selectmen  to  provide  a  schoolmaster,  went  to 
Harvard  College  to  obtain  one.  At  the  Commencement  exercises 
of  the  class  of  that  year,  1755,  he  was  especially  impressed  with 
one  of  the  graduates,  John  Adams.  The  good  scholarship,  bold 
thought,  strong  language,  and  evident  sincerity  of  the  young  man 
seemed  to  him  good  recommendation  for  the  teaching  career.  He 
learned  his  standing  in  social  life  by  the  fact  that  he  was  number 
fourteen  in  a  class  of  twenty-four ;  for  pupils  were  then  placed  in 


504  EDUCATION.  [April, 

the  order  of  the  supposed  rank  or  dignity  of  parents.  The  alpha- 
betical order  in  their  names  and  places  was  not  in  use  until  nearly 
twenty  years  later. 

Before  the  return  home  of  the  minister,  John  Adams  was 
engaged  to  teach  the  school.  Three  weeks  later,  a  horse  and  an 
attendant  were  sent  from  Worcester  to  the  Adams  farm  in  Brain- 
tree,  to  accompany  the  schoolmaster  to  his  new  home.  The  jour- 
ney of  about  sixty  miles  was  made  in  one  day. 

Arriving  in  Worcester,  he  went  to  board  at  the  town's  expense, 
at  Major  Nathaniel  Greene's,  one  of  the  three  to  carry  into  efifect 
the  vote  of  the  town  to  maintain  a  grammar  school.  Immediately 
after  the  young  schoolmaster  was  settled  in  his  work,  he  began  to 
write  a  promised  account  of  the  ""^ situation  of  his  mind."  But  the 
"  natural  strength  of  his  faculties  being  insufficient  for  the  task," 
he  felt  obliged  to  invoke  the  "  muse  or  goddess  who  inspired  Mil- 
ton's pen,"  to  help  him  "  sing  things  unattempted^et  in  prose  or 
rhyme." 

The  result  of  this  in  a  letter  dated  Sept.  2,  1755,  is  as  interest- 
ing today  as  when  it  was  written ;  for  it  reveals  a  poetic  tendency 
of  the  man  which  later  circumstances  did  not  tend  to  develop. 

*^  When  the  nimble  hours  have  tackled  Apollo's  coursers,  and 
the  gay  deity  mounts  the  eastern  sky,  the  gloomy  pedagogue 
arises,  frowning  and  lowering  like  a  black  cloud  begrimmed  with 
uncommon  wrath,  to  blast  a  devoted  land.  When  the  destined  time 
arrives  he  enters  upon  action,  and  as  a  haughty  monarch  ascends 
his  throne,  the  pedagogue  mounts  his  awful  great  chair^  and  dis- 
penses right  and  justice  through  his  whole  empire.  His  obsequi- 
ous subjects  execute  the  imperial  mandates  with  cheerfulness,  and 
think  it  their  high  happiness  to  be  employed  in  the  service  of  the 
emperor.  Sometimes  paper,  sometimes  his  penknife,  now  birch, 
now  arithmetic,  now  a  ferule,  then  A,  B,  C,  then  scolding,  then 
flattering,  then  thwacking,  calls  for  the  pedagogue's  attention. 
At  length,  his  spirits  all  exhausted,  down  comes  pedagogue  from 
his  throne,  and  walks  out  in  awful  solemnity,  through  a  cringing 
multitude.  In-  the  afternoon  he  passes  through  the  same  dreadful 
scenes,  smokes  his  pipe,  and  goes  to  bed.     Exit  muse." 

Considerable  uneasiness  was  manifest  in  the  beginning  of  this 
school  experience.  John  Adams  craved  a  larger  sphere.  The 
large  number  of  "little  ruutlings,  just  capable  of  lisping  A,  B,  C, 
and  troubling  the  master,"  made  the  school  to  him  a  "school  of 


1889.]  JOHN  ADAMS  AS  A  8CH00LMASTEB.  503 

affliction."  In  spite  of  Doctor  Savil  telling  him  for  his  comfort, 
that  by  "  cultivating  and  pruning  these  tender  plants  in  the  gar- 
den of  Worcester,"  he  would  make  some  of  them  "plants  of  re- 
nown and  cedars  of  Lebanon,"  he  was  certain  that  keeping  it  any 
length  of  time  would  make  a  "  base  weed  and  ignoble  shrub "  of 
him.  Worcester  at  that  time  was  not  what  it  was  even  before  the 
century  closed.  Twenty-eight  years  were  to  elapse  before  the  run- 
ning of  the  first  regular  stage  from  Boston  to  Worcester,  eleven 
years  before  even  the  stage  should  pass  through  Worcester  from 
Boston  to  New  York.  Sixty  years  were  to  pass  before  the  first 
passenger  train  should  run  over  the  Boston  &  Worcester  railroad. 
There  was  comparatively  little  knowledge  of  the  outside  world, 
since  it  was  twenty  years  before  the  Massachtisetts  Spy  —  the  first 
publication  in  Worcester  —  was  published,  and  seventy,  before  a 
daily  paper  was  issued  there.  In  this  lonely  life  among  strangers, 
the  new  school  teacher  turned  to  the  friends  who  had  cheered  his 
college  days,  particularly  to  Charles  Gushing  and  Richard  Cranch. 
Absence  from  them  pained  his  heart  while  his  philosophical  mind 
cried,  "  But  thus  it  is,  and  I  must  submit."  At  one  time  he  longed 
for  a  letter  from  Richard  Cranch  to  "  balance  the  inquietude  of 
school-keeping."  He  requested  him  to  tell  his  friend  Quincy  that 
a  letter  from  him  written  with  that "  elegance  of  style  and  delicacy 
of  humor  which  characterized  all  his  performances,  would  help 
make  him  a  happy  being  once  more."  All  correspondence  was 
effected  with  difficulties,  since  it  was  twenty  years  before  the 
establishment  of  a  postroffice  in  Worcester. 

But,  after  all,  this  new  life,  instead  of  suppressing,  stimulated 
his  native  energies.  This  is  seen  in  the  prophetic  thought  of  a 
letter,  written  after  he  had  been  in  Worcester  about  six  weeks,  to 
his  friend  and  kinsman,  Nathan  Webb,  beginning  thus:  "All 
that  part  of  creation  which  lies  within  our  observation  is  liable  to 
change.  Even  mighty  states  and  kingdoms  are  not  exempted," 
It  is  evident  he  was  moved  by  the  existing  state  of  affairs.  This 
Wtas  the  year  of  the  expulsion  of  the  French  from  Nova  Scotia, 
Braddock's  defeat,  and  the  abortive  expedition  under  Sir  William 
Johnson  against  Crown  Point.  Regimental  headquarters  were  at 
Worcester,  causing  tents  to  whiten  the  surrounding  country. 
*••  Be  not  surprised,"  he  wrote,  "  that  I  am  turned  politician.  This 
whole  town  is  immersed  in  politics.  The  interests  of  nations,  and 
all  the  dira  of  war,  make  the  subject  of  every  conversation.     I  sit 


606  EDUCATION.  [April, 

and  hear,  and  after  having  been  led  through  a  maze  of  sage  observar 
tions,  I  sometimes  retire,  and  by  laying  things  together,  form  some 
reflections  pleasing  to  myself/'  In  this  letter  he  showed  a  clear 
perception  of  the  nature  of  friendship,  which  he  calls  "  one  of  the 
distinguishing  glories  of  man,"  when  he  declared,  ^^  In  this,  per- 
haps, we  bear  a  nearer  resemblance  to  unembodied  intelligence 
than  in  anything  else."  His  capacity  for  friendship  was  somewhat 
satbfled  in  the  Worcester  people  whom  he  soon  found  to  be 
^*  sociable,  generous,  and  hospitable."  He  often  dined,  drank  tea^ 
or  spent  an  evening  with  Major  Chandler,  Major  Gardiner,  Mr. 
Welman,  and  others.  One  evening  he  was  discussing  with  Major 
Greene  about  the  "Divinity  and  satisfaction  of  Jesus  Christ  "; 
another,  he  was  wondering  with  Major  Gardiner  whether  it  was 
not  the  design  of  Christianity  to  make  "  good  men,  good  magis- 
trates, good  subjects,  good  children,  good  masters,  and  good  ser- 
vants "  rather  than  "  good  riddle-mongers,  or  good  mystery-mon- 
gers." Another  time  he  was  making  observations  with  his  friends 
C9nceming  the  "prodigious  genius  cultivated  with  prodigious 
industry "  of  Mr.  Franklin,  who  was  coming  back  from  Europe 
with  a  reputation  enlarged  on  account  of  electrical  experiments. 
He  often  supped  and  talked  over  matters  with  his  first  Worcester 
friend.  Rev.  Mr.  Maccarty,  whose  church  —  the  only  one  in  town 
—  he  attended.  It  was  not  until  after  the  death  of  Mr.  Maccarty^ 
in  1784,  that  another  church — the  Unitarian  —  was  founded. 
Although  Mr.  Maccarty's  successful  ministry  of  thirty-seven  years, 
in  Worcester  was  effective  and  appreciated  by  the  people,  yet 
human  nature  was  such  that  while  he  was  there,  a  warrant  for  a 
town  meeting  announced,  "  For  y®  Town  to  Come  into  Some 
method  that  People  may  Sit  in  y®  Seats  (in  the  meeting-house) 
assigned  to  prevent  Disorders,  and  that  they  don't  put  themselves 
too  forward."  Some  of  the  schoolmaster's  observations  at  these 
friendly  gatherings  must  have  been  scattered  among  the  people, 
for  in  a  letter  written  to  his  friend  Cushing  in  April,  1756,  he 
said,  "  There  is  a  story  about  town  that  I  am  an  Arminian."  This, 
however,  did  not  trouble  him,  for  he  then,  as  later,  believed  in  & 
free  discussion  of  all  subjects.  Meanwhile  he  succeeded  in  his 
school-work,  and  became  by  spring-time  quite  "  contented  in  the 
place  of  a  schoolmaster."  In  the  diary,  which  he  began  while  in 
Worcester  (Nov.  18,  1755),  he  gives  such  a  pleasant  picture  of  his 
school  at  this  time  that  I  reproduce  it  here.     He  invokes  no  mu8e> 


1889.]  JOHN  ADAMS  AS  A  SCHOOLMASTEB,  507 

however,  but  trusts  to  the  natural  strength  of  his  faculties,  which, 
it  will  be  remembered,  he  dared  not  do  before.  "  I  sometimes  in 
my  sprightly  moments  consider  myself,  in  my  great  chair  at  school, 
as  some  dictator  at  the  head  of  a  commonwealth.  In  this  little 
state  I  can  discover  all  the  great  geniuses,  all  the  surprising  ac- 
tions and  revolutions  of  the  great  world  in  miniature.  I  have  sev- 
eral renowned  generals  but  three  feet  high,  and  several  deep, 
projecting  politicians  in  petticoats.  I  have  others  catching  and 
dissecting  flies,  accumulating  remarkable  pebbles,  cockle  shells, 
etc.,  with  as  ardent  curiosity  as  any  virtuoso^in  the  Royal  Society. 
Some  rattle  and  thunder  out  A,  B,  C,  with  as  much  fire  and  im- 
petuosity as  Alexander  fought,  and  very  often  sit  down  and  cry 
as  heartily  upon  being  outspelt,  as  Caesar  did,  when  at  Alexander's 
sepulchre,  he  recollected  that  the  Macedonian  hero  had  conquered 
the  world  before  his  age.  At  one  table  isits  Mr.  Insipid,  foppling 
and  fluttering,  spinning  his  whirligig  or  playing  with  his  fingers 
as  gaily  and  wittily  as  any  Frenchified  coxcomb  brandishes  his 
cane  or  rattles  his  snuff-box.  At  another  sits  the  polemical 
divine,  plodding  and  wrangling  in  his  mind  about  '  Adam's  fall  in 
which  we  sinned  all,'  as  his  Primer  has  it.  In  short,  my  little 
school,  like  the  great  world,  is  made  up  of  prigs,  politicians, 
divines,  L.  D.'s,  fops,  buffoons,  fiddlers,  sycophants,  fools,  cox- 
combs, chimney-sweepers,  and  every  other  character  drawn  in  his- 
tory or  seen  in  the  world."  He  revealed  the  secret  of  his  success 
as  a  teacher  when  he  asked  if  it  is  not  the  ^^  highest  pleasure  to 
preside  in  this  little  world,  to  bestow  the  proper  applause  upon 
virtuous  and  generous  actions,  to  blame  and  punish  every  vicious 
and  contracted  trick,  to  wear  out  of  the  tender  mind  every  thing 
that  is  mean  or  little,  and  fire  the  new-born  soul  with  a  noble  ardor 
and  emulation.  The  world  affords  no  greater  pleasure."  He 
found  by  repeated  experiment  and  observation  in  his  school,  that 
human  nature  was  more  easily  wrought  upon  and  governed  by 
"  promises,  encouragement  and  praise,  than  by  punishment,  threat- 
ening and  blame."  He  was,  however,  cautious  and  sparing  of 
praise,  "  lest  it  become  too  familiar  and  cheap  and  so  contempti- 
ble." He  observed  that  ^^  corporal  as  well  as  disgraceful  punish- 
ments "  depressed  the  spirits,  while  "  commendation  enlivened  and 
stimulated  them  to  a  noble  ardor  and  emulation." 

Outside  of  school  hours,  when   not  with  his  friends,  he  was 
absorbed  in  reading  and  study.     When  he  first  went  to  Worcester 


ftOe  EDUCATIOy.  [April, 

his  mind  was  inclined  to  the  ministerial  profession.  To  this  end 
he  copied  large  extracts  from  the  works  of  Tillotson  and  others. 
One  morning  he  rose  at  half-past  four  and  wrote  ^'  Bolinbroke's  Let- 
ter "  on  retirement  and  duty ;  another  time  he  wrote  his  ^^  Refleo^ 
tions  oh  Exile.'*  A  volume  still  remains  in  a  very  minute  hmiid 
filled  with  passages  fix)m  the  works  of  various  authors.  He  was 
greatly  impressed  with  Milton,  and  charmed  with  Addison.  His 
mind  dwelt  much  upon  "  religious  themes  and  miracles."  His 
aspiration  of  soul  indicates  an  unusual  moral  attainment  for  so 
.  young  a  man.  ^^  Oh,"  he  cries,  in  a  moment  of  self-examination, 
**  that  I  could  wear  out  of  my  mind  every  mean  and  base  affection ; 
conquer  my  natural  pride  and  self-conceit ;  ex|>ect  no  more  defer- 
ence from  my  fellows  than  I  deserve ;  acquire  that  meekness  and 
humility  which  are  the  sure  mark  and  character  of  a  great  and 
generous  soul ;  subdue  every  unworthy  passion,  and  treat  all  men 
as  I  wish  to  be  treated  by  all.  How  happy  should  I  then  be  in  the 
favor  and  good  will  of  all  honest  men  and  the  sure  prospect  of  a 
happy  immortality  I "  He  possessed  what  he  esteemed  the  essen- 
tial marks  of  a  good  mind,  ^'honesty,  sincerity  and  openness.** 
While  at  Major  Greene's,  he  came  across  '*  Morgan's  Moral  Phi- 
losopher," which  he  found  was  being  circulated  with  some  freedom 
in  the  town. 

After  being  at  Major  Greene's  three  months,  he  went  to  board 
at  Dr.  Nahum  Willard's,  whose  reputation  and  skill  as  a  physician 
impressed  him  much.  In  his  library  he  found  Doctor  Cheyne's 
works,  Sydenham  and  others,  and  Van  Swieten's  Commentaries 
on  Boerhaave.  His  general  reading  while  there,  suggested  the 
thought  of  being  a  physician  and  surgeon.  But  on  attending  the 
courts  of  justice  and  hearing  Worthington,  Hawley,  Trowbridge, 
Putnam,  and  others,  he  was  drawn  more  stronglj'^  to  the  study  of 
law.  This  desire  grew  more  and  more  upon  him,  especially  as  he 
could  not  conquer  his  serious  objections  to  the  profession  of  the 
ministry.  He  finally  went  to  talk  the  matter  over  with  Mr.  Put- 
nam, an  able  lawyer  with  good  practice.  The  result  was  a  con-^ 
tiuct  to  study  law  with  him  for  two  years.  He  agreed  to  the 
proposal  to  board  with  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Putnam  at  the  rate  the  town 
allowed  for  his  lodgings.  He  also  agreed  to  pay  Mr.  Putnam  one 
hundred  dollars  when  he  should  find  it  convenient.  This  plan 
involved  keeping  the  school  two  years  longer  to  pay  expenses ;  for 
he  had  taken  up  t^jaching  in  the  first  place,  not  so  much  from 


1889.]  JOHN  ADAMS  AS  A  SCHOOLMASTEB.  509 

choice,  as  from  a  desire  to  lighten  the  pecuniary  burden  his  edu- 
cation had  laid  upon  his  father.  "  It  will  be  hard  work,"  he  wrote 
his  friend  Cranch,  within  a  week  after  the  contract,  '*  but  the  more 
difficult  and  dangerous  the  enterprise  a  brighter  crown  of  laurel 
is  bestowed  on  the  conqueror."  His  decision  to  take  up  the  legal 
profession  was  not  approved  by  either  of  his  friends  Cranch  or 
Gushing.  The  former  even  advised  him  to  reconsider  his  resolu- 
tion and  take  up  the  ministry.  His  father's  general  expectation 
was  for  him  to  be  a  divine.  His  mother,  although  a  religious 
woman,  had  no  special  desire  for  him  in  that  direction.  His 
uncles  and  relativ.es  were  bitterly  prejudiced  against  the  law,  as 
was  public  sentiment  at  that  time.  But  John  Adams  had  made 
up  his  mind.  He  went  at  once  to  work  in  Mr.  Putnam's  office 
with  the  firm  resolution  "  never  to  commit  any  meanness  or  injus- 
tice in  the  practise  of  law,"  and  to  endeavor  to  "oblige  and  please 
everybody,  but  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Putnam  in  particular."  In  his  diary 
for  Aug.  22,  1756,  he  said  of  this  important  move  in  his  life, 
"  Necessity  drove  me  to  this  determination,  but  my  inclination,  I 
think,  was  to  preach.  However,  that  would  not  do.  The  study 
and  practise  of  law,  I  am  sure,  does  not  dissolve  the  obligations  of 
morality  or  of  religion.  And  although  the  reason  of  my  quitting 
divinity  was  my  opinion  concerning  some  disputed  points,  I  hope 
I  shall  not  give  reason  of  offence  to  any  in  that  profession  by  im- 
prudent warmth."  A  month  before  writing  this  he  had  begun  his 
second  year  in  school.  In  order  that  he  might  not  lose  any  tin^e, 
and  do  more  than  the  year  before,  he  had  resolved  then  to  rise 
with  the  sun  and  to  study  the  Scriptures  on  Thursday,  Friday, 
Saturday  and  Sunday  mornings,  and  to  study  some  Latin  author 
the  other  three  mornings.  Noons  and  nights  he  intended  to  read 
English  authors.  This  resolution  was  crowned  with  a  determina- 
tion to  "stand  collected"  within  himself,  and  to  "think  upon 
what  he  read  and  saw."  The  very  day  after  he  wrote  this  resolu- 
tion in  his  diary  it  so  happened  that  it  was  seven  o'clock  when  he 
arose,  instead  of  sunrise.  This  for  a  July  morning  seemed  to  him 
inexcusable.  But  he  grimly  said,  "  This  is  the  usual  fate  of  my 
resolutions." 

During  the  succeeding  two  years,  in  which  six  hours  a  day  were 
devoted  to  scliool-work,  John  Adams  made  good  use  of  Mr.  Put- 
nam's library,  particularly  the  "  handsome  addition  of  law  books " 
and  the  works  of  Lord  Bacon,  which  Mr.  Putnam  had  sent  to 


610  EDUCATION,  [April, 

England  for  immediately  after  receiving  into  his  oi&ce  the  new 
student.  Upon  his  adding  later  Bolinbroke's  works,  as  a  result  of 
reading  the  "  Study  and  Use  of  History  "  and  his  "  Patriot  King," 
loaned  him  by  the  schoolmaster,  an  opportunity  was  given  to  read 
the  posthumous  works  of  that  writer  in  five  volumes.  Mr.  Burke 
once  asked,  who  ever  read  Bolinbroke  through?  John  Adams 
read  him  through  then,  and  at  least  twice  after  that.  But  he  con- 
fessed he  did  it  .without  much  good  or  harm.  He  considered  his 
ideas  of  the  English  Constitution  correct,  and  his  political  writings 
worth  something,  ^'although  there  was  more  of  faction  than  of 
truth."  He  thought  his  style  original,  "  resembling  more  the  ora- 
tory of  the  ancients  than  any  writings  or  speeches  he  ever  read  in 
English."  But  his  religion  was  a  ^^  pompous  folly,  his  abuse  of 
the  Christian  religion  as  superficial  as  it  was  impious." 

Among  the  multitudes  of  law  books  John  Adams  read,  while 
teaching  school  in  Worcester,  were  Wood,  Coke,  two  volumes 
Lillie's  Abridgement,  two  volumes  Salkeld's  Reports,  Swinburne, 
Hawkins's  Pleas  of  the  Crown,  Fortescue,  Fitzgibbon,  ten  vol- 
umes in  folio,  besides  octavos  and  lesser  volumes,  and  manv  of  all 
sizes  that  he  consulted  occasionally  without  special  study. 

But  law  was  not  always  the  subject  of  conversation.  At  break- 
fast, dinner,  and  tea,  Mr.  Putnam  was  commonly  disputing  with 
him  upon  some  question  of  religion.  Although  he  would  agree  to 
the  extent  of  his  learning  and  ingenuity  to  destroy  or  invalidate 
the  evidences  of  a  future  state  and  the  principles  of  natural  and 
revealed  religion,  yet  he  could  not  convince  himself  that  death  was 
an  endless  sleep.  This  was  the  conclusion  the  keen-eyed  student 
reached  concerning  the  speculations. 

Colonel  Putnam  and  his  pupil  often  conversed  on  other  subjects 
as  they  walked  around  the  farm,  or  went  shooting  together.  In 
all  his  life  in  Worcester  the  young  schoolmaster  found  time  to 
commune  with  Nature.  He  took  great  pleasure  in  "viewing  and 
examining  the  magnificent  prospect^j  of  Nature  "  that  lay  before 
him  in  the  town.  One  lovely  May-day  he  "'rambled  about  all  day 
—  gaping  and  gazing."  He  enjoyed  the  country  drives  to  Brain- 
tree  and  back  whicli  liis  vacation  visits  afforded. 

The  sessions  of  the  Superior  Court  at  Worcester  bix)ught  to 
Colonel  Putnam's  office  interesting  men  whom  John  Adams 
delighted  to  meet.  Here  began  the  friendship  with  Jonathan 
Sewall,  which  was  only  shadowed  by  the  different  sides  they  took 


1889.]  JOHN  ADAMS  AS  A  SCHOOLMASTER,  611 

in  the  Revolution  of  Independence.  Years  after,  in  spite  of  the 
broken  friendship,  Jonathan  Sewall  said  of  his  friend,  "  He  has  a 
heart  formed  for  friendship,  and  susceptible  of  its  finest  feelings. 
He  is  humane,  generous,  and  open." 

When  John  Adams'  studies  with  Mr.  Putnam  were  over,  in 
1758,  he  was  sworn  as  an  attorney  in  the  Superior  Court  in  Bos- 
ton, at  the  recommendation  of  the  eminent  lawyer  and  scholar, 
Jeremy  Gridley,  then  the  attorney-general  of  the  Province.  The 
Worcester  people  having  recognized  the  natural  ability  and  schol- 
arship of  their  successful  school  teacher  for  three  years,  invited 
him  to  settle  in  their  town.  But  desiring  a  change  for  his  health, 
he  accepted  his  father  and  mother's  invitation  to  live  with  them  at 
the  old  home  in  Braintree.  Here  he  was  living  at  the  time  of  his 
marriage  in  1764.  But  he  did  not  forget  his  Worcester  friends. 
In  less  than  a  year  he  was  spending  a  week  in  Worcester,  dining 
and  drinking  tea  as  of  old  with  Colonel  Chandler,  Doctor  Willard, 
Major  Gardiner,  Colonel  Putnam,  and  others.  He  occasionally 
attended  Superior  Court  there,  when  he  would  visit  the  office 
where  he  "  formerly  trimmed  the  midnight  lamp." 

Thirteen  years  after  he  had  lived  there,  while  spending  a  day 
with  Mr.  Putnam,  he  found  the  "  pleasure  of  revisiting  old  haunts 
very  great."  He  saw  little  alteration  in  Doctor  Willard  or  his 
wife.  His  sons  were  grown  up.  He  met  Colonel  Chandler  and 
other  old  friends.  He  went  to  church  and  saw  "many  faces 
altered,  and  many  new  faces."  He  was  especially  pleased  to  meet 
many  young  gentlemen  who  had  been  Latin  pupils  in  his  school. 
"  John  Chandler,  Esq.  of  Petersham,  Ruf us  Chandler  the  lawyer, 
Dr.  William  Paine,  who  studied  physic  with  Doctor  Holyoke  of 
Salem,  Nat.  Chandler,  who  was  studying  law  with  Mr.  Putnam, 
and  Doctor  Thaddeus  Maccarty,  a  physician  at  Dudley."  Would 
that  this  diary  had  also  preserved  some  of  the  interesting  reminis- 
cences of  teacher  and  pupils  which  that  day  must  have  heard  1 
How  could  the  interest  of  the  now  famous  lawyer  but  center  in 
the  one  who  was  studying  law  with  Mr.  Putnam  in  the  office  where 
he  had  spent  so  many  profitable  and  happy  hours. 

In  1795,  forty  years  after  he  had  entered  Worcester  as  its  un- 
known schoolmaster,  he  visited  the  town  as  Vice  President  of  the 
United  States.  Though  now  crowned  with  honor  and  fame,  the 
heart  of  the  teacher  seeking  old  faces  and  old  scenes,  must,  for 
the  moment  at  least,  have  been  master. 


612  EDUCATION.  [April, 

John  Adams'  three  years  of  school-teaching  left  a  lasting  im- 
pression on  his  mind  and  character.  When  he  was  an  old  man 
in  the  retirement  of  his  Quincy  home,  looking  back  over  a  life 
honored  even  with  the  presidency  of  the  nation,  he  said  that  while 
he  kept  school  he  acquired  more  knowledge  of  human  nature,  than 
while  he  was  "  at  the  bar,  in  the  world  of  politics,  or  at  the  courts 
of  Euro|>e."  He  went  so  far  as  to  advise  "  every  young  man  to 
keep  school,'^  for  it  was  the  '^best  method  of  acquiring  patience^ 
self-command,  and  a  knowledge  of  character/' 

But  the  practical  power  of  school  work  on  John  Adams  was  his 
gift  to  his  native  town  of  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres  of  land  for 
the  purpose  of  establishing  there  an  academy.  Many  years,  it  is 
true,  elapsed  before  a  '^  stone  school-house  "  could  be  built  from 
the  profits  of  the  land.  But  it  was  at  last  erected  on  the  site 
designated  by  the  founder,  over  the  cellar  of  the  house  in  which 
Governor  John  Hancock  was  born.  The  following  suggestion  to 
the  future  masters  of  the  academy  was  doubtless  the  result  of  his 
own  experience  as  a  teacher,  when  the  methods  of  education  were 
not  as  practicable  as  now. 

"  But  I  hope  the  future  masters  will  not  think  me  too  presump- 
tuous if  I  advise  them  to  begin  their  lessons  in  Gi*eek  and  Hebrew 
by  compelling  their  pupils  to  take  their  pens  and  write,  over  and 
over  again,  copies  of  the  Greek  and  Hebrew  alphabets,  in  all  their 
variety  of  characters.  This  will  be  as  good  an  exercise  in  chi- 
rography  as  any  they  can  use,  and  will  stamp  those  characters  and 
alphabets  upon  their  tender  minds  and  vigorous  memories  so 
deeply  that  the  impression  will  never  wear  out." 

It  will  always  be  a  pleasant  thought  that  this  school  in  Quincy, 
now  under  the  care  of  Dr.  William  Everett,  is  a  legitimate  out- 
come of  John  Adams'  successful  three  years'  life  as  the  grammar 
school  master  in  Worcester. 

Though  dead,  he  yet  speaketh. 


Fair  seem  these  wintr}'  da3'8,  and  soon 
Shall  blow  the  warm  west  winds  of  spring 

To  set  the  unbound  rills  in  tune, 
And  hither  urge  the  bluebird's  wing. 

The  vales  shall  laugh  in  flowers,  the  woods 

Grow  misty  green  with  leafing  buds, 

And  violets  and  wild  flowers  sway 

Against  the  lbro\i\5\Tv^Vi^«k.Tt  of  May.       — Whittier, 


1889.]  PBEPARATION  FOB  CITIZENSHIP.  61$ 


PREPARATION  FOR    CITIZENSHIP. 

IV. 

AT      WILLIAMS      COLLEGE. 

BT  ARTHUR  LATHAM  PEKBT, 
Orrin  Sage  Prcfeuor  of  HUtory  and  PolMcal  Economy. 

IN  one  point  of  view,  all  the  colleges  of  New  England  are  alike, 
and  always  have  been,  in  their  aim  to  promote  good  citizen- 
ship in  and  through  their  students.  They  have  at  all  times  and 
equally  aimed  to  make  their  students  good  men,  and  they  have 
justly  felt,  that  only  good  men  could  become  good  citizens  them- 
selves in  the  large  sense  of  those  words,  and  help  diffuse  good  citi- 
zenship throughout  the  community.  In  this  point  of  view,  the 
evidences  of  Christianity  and  general  ethics,  and  all  similar  studies 
may  be  said  to  be  a  preparation  for  citizenship ;  and  all  our  col- 
leges, whatever  may  have  been  their  defects  at  other  points,  have 
been  beyond  all  censure  in  the  emphasis  they  have  put  upon  this 
class  of  studies  and  in  the  breadth  of  motive  under  which  they 
have  emphasized  them.  The  admirable  express  motto  of  Harvard 
has  been  in  reality  and  equally  the  motto  of  them  all. 

When  it  comes,  however,  to  the  consideration  of  those  studies, 
which  alone  can  be  called  directly  promotive  of  good  citizenship, 
namely,  History,  Political  Economy,  and  the  Science  of  Govern- 
ment, great  differences  appear  in  the  record  of  the  colleges,  both 
as  to  the  time  at  which  these  studies  were  introduced  into  the  cur- 
riculum and  as  to  the  press  and  fullness  given  to  them  after  they 
were  introduced.  So  far  as  it  now  appears,  Williams  was  the  first 
to  introduce  all  these  studies  into  the  course,  and  has  been  most 
willing  since  to  give  time  and  vigor  to  them,  of  any  of  the  col- 
leges ;  and  without  expressing  or  implying  any  the  least  criticism 
of  her  sister  institutions,  freely  acknowledging  also  the  su]:>eriority 
of  each  of  them  to  her  in  special  and  important  points,  it  is  the 
simple  purpose  of  this  paper,  written  by  request,  to  state  as  pre- 
cisely as  may  be  what  has  actually  been  done  at  Williams  in  these 
three  civic  studies,  and  also  what  is  now  sought  to  be  done. 


«14  EDUCATION.  [April, 

In  1812,  Daniel  Dewey,  who  became  the  next  year  a  member  of 
Congress,  and  the  following  year  a  Judge  of  the  Supreme  Judicial 
Court  of  Massachusetts,  was  appointed  Professor  of  Law  and 
Civil  Polity.  His  death  occurred  in  1815 ;  and  it  is  not  likely, 
considering  the  war  that  then  distracted  the  attention  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  the  variety  of  his  own  public  offices,  that  his  lectures 
made  any  considerable  impression  upon  the  students,  or  that  any 
real  beginning  was  then  made  along  the  line  of  civic  instruction. 
At  any  rate,  no  successor  to  him  was  appointed  for  twenty  years. 

In  1835,  Joseph  Alden,  a  graduate  of  Union,  educated  theologi- 
cally at  Princeton,  and  two  years  a  tutor  in  the  college  there, 
was  elected  Professor  of  Rhetoric,  Political  Economy,  and  His- 
tory. This  professorship  he  kept  for  seventeen  years.  During 
all  this  time  he  put,  perhaps,  more  stress  upon  his  rhetorical  than 
upon  his  political  duties ;  he  taught  History  fairly  well,  though 
only  in  a  general  way ;  he  taught  Political  Economy  quite  well, 
using  Wayland's  Elements  as  a  textbook  ;  and  his  lectures  on  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States  were  bv  much  the  best  work 
that  he  did.  These  lectures  were  not  many  in  number,  nor  were 
they  very  systematic  in  their  treatment  of  the  three  great  Depart- 
ments of  Government ;  but  the  lecturer  was  well  acquainted  with 
American  |K)litical  histor}%  he  had  a  genuine  interest  in  the  sub- 
ject, he  was  a  democrat  in  his  [)olitical  sympathies,  and  he  always 
kindled  when  he  came  to  8]:)eak  at  length  of  Jefferson  and  Hamil- 
ton and  their  opposing  policies.  It  may  be  said  in  passing,  that  a 
•democrat  in  his  fundamental  beliefs  and  active  sympathies,  what- 
ever party  ticket  he  may  be  consti*ained  to  vote,  has  a  vast  moral 
advantage  in  teaching  the  civic  studies  over  another  man,  who, 
either  theoretically  or  instinctively  is  drawn  to  favor  classes  priv- 
ileged by  law. 

There  were  many  students  in  Doctor  Alden's  classes,  so  long  as 
he  remained  in  Williarastown,  who  both  felt  and  manifested  indif- 
ference to  his  instructions ;  and  he  was  naturally  sensitive  to  this 
circumstance ;  but  there  were  always  othei's,  who  caught  more  or 
less  the  sparks  from  his  tinder-box,  and  who  look  back  (as  does  the 
writer  of  tliis)  over  a  long  interval  of  years  to  him  for  impulses 
communicated  and  encouragements  given  and  lights  projected  in 
reference  to  points  and  distinctions  within  this  wide  field  of  politi- 
cal inquiry.  Had  he  felt  less  keenly  the  obvious  discouragements 
in  his  work,  had  he  had  more  push  and  persistency,  the  college 


1889.]  PBEPABATION  FOB  CITIZENSHIP,  515- 

would  gladly  have  given  him  more  time  and  every  other  facility" 
in  its  power  to  develop  a  broad  and  strong  department  of  Civics. 
As  it  was  he  made  a  good  beginning  all  around  the  field.  He  was- 
a  pioneer  feeling  his  way.  His  work  in  this  regard  is  by  no  means- 
to  be  overlooked  or  depreciated.  Afterwards  as  Professor  at' 
Easton,  as  President  of  Jefferson,  as  head  of  the  Normal  School 
at  Albany,  and  as  author  of  a  book  entitled  "  Science  of  Govern- 
ment in  Connection  with  American  Institutions,"  he  exerted  a. 
considerable  and  general  influence  in  behalf  of  studies  too  long 
neglected  in  our  higher  schools  of  learning. 

In  1853,  the  present  writer,  then  a  mere  boy  but  one  year  out. 
of  college,  was  chosen  Professor  of  History  and  Political  Economy. 
The  only  qualifications  he  possessed  for  the  place  were  an  incipi- 
ent interest  in  the  studies  themselves  and  a  capacity  for  slow  and. 
patient  work  in  them.  Gradually  as  he  became  able  to  fill  in  more; 
time  with  at  least  a  partial  success,  the  college  willingly  allotted 
to  him  all  the  time  that  could  reasonably  be  asked  for,  sometimes, 
at  the  formal  request  of  the  students,  and  sometimes  at  his  own 
request.  On  the  whole  average  of  the  thirty  years,  1857 -1887,  he- 
occupied  one-eighth,  or  twelve  and  a  half  per  centum^  of  the  entire- 
year's  college  instruction,  with  the  three  civic  studies  designated 
above,  all  the  studies  being  prescribed  for  whole  classes. 

In  1887,  a  slight  change  was  made  in  this  department,  by  which* 
the  Science  of  Government  became  elective,  and  was  at  the  same-, 
time  extended  throughout  the  Junior  year  three  times  a  week, 
thus  adding  more  than  one-third  to  the  previous  number  of  lectures^ 
which  have  been  attended  since  by  more  than  one-half  of  eack 
class.  Three  yeai*s  before  that  the  general  department  was  greatly 
strengthened  by  the  addition  of  an  Elective  in  History,  taught  by 
Professor  Rice,  covering  ground  scarcely  touched  by  the  prescribed 
course  in  History,  also  extending  throughout  the  Junior  year  three 
times  a  week.  Seniors  are  admitted  to  this  course,  and  thirty  stu- 
dents of  the  two  classes  are  in  attendance  at  the  present  time.  If 
reference  be  had  both  to  the  hours  occupied  and  to  the  numbers 
taught  in  this  department  as  thus  augmented,  the  relative  weight 
of  these  studies  to  the  whole  pursued  in  college  would  not  be  far* 
from  fifteen  per  centum. 

Prescribed  History  is  taught  two  entire  terms  of  the  Sophomore^ 
year  six  hours  a  week.  The  chief  textbook  since  1877  has  been 
Greene's  Short  History  of  the  English  People.     This  is  an  admirae- 


1)16  EDUCATION.  [April, 

ble  textbook  in  all  respects.  It  is  a  fine  piece  of  Literature,  as 
well  as  an  excellent  work  of  History.  The  text  is  learned  so  as  to 
be  recited  in  substance  by  the  student  in  his  own  words ;  and  op- 
portunity is  given  for  any  questions  at  any  time  during  the  hour 
by  any  member  of  the  class  on  any  point  bearing  on  the  text ;  and 
the  instructor  takes  pains  to  illustrate  by  way  of  comparison  or 
contrast  each  more  im{X)rtant  point  from  the  history  of  other  coun- 
tries, and  more  particularly  from  our  own.  The  History  of  Eng- 
land is  the  richest  history  in  the  world  for  all  the  practical  pur- 
poses of  the  modern  student :  and  more  especially  is  it  the  richest 
in  the  way  of  preparation  for  citizenship  under  our  complicated 
form  of  republican  government,  which  has  derived  most  of  its  fun- 
damental institutions,  legislative,  and  executive,  and  judicial,  from 
English  sources.  Special  attention  is  always  called  to,  and  special 
effort  of  instruction  expended  upon,  those  parts  of  the  text  which 
may  be  made  to  illustrate  the  facts  and  the  principles  of  Econom- 
ics to  be  studied  later  in  the  course,  and  also  those  which  illustrate 
the  growth  of  popular  liberty  under  Government,  which  itself  is 
to  be  studied  later,  such  as  the  Great  Charter,  the  origin  and  de- 
Telopment  of  the  Jury,  and  the  great  Writs  like  the  Habeas  Cor- 
pus. 

There  was  established  in  1882,  in  close  connection  with  the 
department  of  History  and  Politics,  the  Williams  Historical 
Society.  It  consists  of  five  men  in  each  of  the  Junior  and  Senior 
-classes,  selected  at  the  close  of  Sophomore  year  from  that  class,  on 
the  ground  of  some  interest  and  aptitude  exhibited  during  the 
prescribed  work  for  original  historical  research.  Each  member  of 
the  society  is  expected  to  prepare  at  least  one  careful  paper  on 
some  historical  subject  open  either  to  local  investigation  or  to 
minute  research  among  papers  and  relics  never  yet  used  for  histori- 
cal purposes.  The  papers  are  read  at  the  regular  meetings  of  the 
society,  and  freely  criticised  as  to  the  proper  use  to  be  made  of 
such  materials,  and  as  to  the  nature  and  degrees  of  historical  proof. 
The  meetings  are  social  as  well  as  literary  in  their  character,  are 
beld  at  the  house  of  the  Professor  four  or  five  times  during  the 
college  year,  who  gives  such  instruction  and  criticism  as  he  can 
by  example  and  otherwise  in  respect  to  the  best  and  safest  ways  of 
handling  such  Ur-quellen  as  the  membera  have  investigated  and 
•employed  in  their  respective  papers.  The  theory  is,  that,  if  four 
or  five  men  in  each  college  class  become  interested,  and  as  it  were 


1889.]  PliEPABATION  FOR  CITIZENSHIP.  517 

habituated  in  the  right  interpretation  of  antiquities,  whether  writ- 
ten or  other,  they  will  be  likely  to  continue  such  work  more  or 
less  all  their  lives,  and  thus  to  become  useful  citizens  in  knitting 
the  ties  always  needful  to  be  maintained  between  the  Past  and  the 
Present.  The  results  of  this  organization  thus  far  have  not  been 
great,  but  they  have  been  pleasant,  and  hopeful,  and  satisfactory. 
Among  the  topics  thus  originally  treated  have  been  "Crown 
Point,"  "Old  No.  4  and  the  Roads  leading  to  it  and  from  it," 
"  Fort  Dearborn  and  its  Massacre,"  "  The  home  of  King  Phillip," 
"  Fort  Massachusetts,"  and  the  "  Battle  of  Plattsburg." 

Political  Economy  has  always  been  and  is  still  a  prescribed 
study  at  Williams.  It  occupies  in  the  first  term  of  Junior  year 
fifteen  weeks,  six  hours  a  week.  Perry's  Political  Economy  has 
been  the  textbook  since  its  first  publication  in  1865.  The  book  is 
read  thoroughly,  recited  and  discussed  in  every  paragraph,  then 
reviewed  from  beginning  to  end,  for  an  ultimate  examination  cov- 
ering the  whole  of  it,  which  occupied  last  autumn  three  half  days 
for  one  class  in  three  divisions.  Political  Economy  is  treated 
throughout  as  the  Science  of  Buying  and  Selling ;  and,  as  only 
three  kinds  of  things  are  ever  bought  and  sold,  namely,  material 
commodities,  personal  services,  and  commercial  credits,  these  are 
discussed  in  their  order  and  in  all  their  inter-relations.  As  the 
only  motive  that  ever  leads  two  persons  to  buy  and  sell  with  each 
other  is  a  clearly  perceived  and  expected  gain  to  each ;  as  the 
result  (fraud  aside)  is  always  a  satisfaction  and  advantage  to 
both ;  as  it  is  impossible  in  the  nature  of  the  case  for  any  man  to 
sell  without  buying  at  the  same  instant,  or  to  buy  without  at  the 
same  instant  selling,  since  the  buyer  must  pay  for  what  he  buys 
and  the  seller  take  pay  for  what  he  sells ;  as  by  much  the  largest 
part  of  the  activities  of  all  men  everywhere  have  always  been  em- 
ployed in  buying  and  selling,  and  this  more  and  more  as  the  world 
gains  in  age  and  unity  ;  and  since  buying  and  selling  is  obviously 
designed  by  God  for  the  welfare  and  progress  of  mankind,  and  has 
practically  been  the  prime  instrument  in  the  civilization  and  chris- 
tianization  of  the  world ;  the  right  of  all  men  to  buy  and  sell 
freely  for  the  betterment  of  their  condition,  subject  only  to  the 
prevenient  rights  of  morals,  and  health,  and  revenue,  has  always 
been  successfully  maintained  in  this  lecture-room,  not  at  all  as  a 
part  of  a  current  and  transient  controversy,  but  as  an  inherent  and 
immanent  part  of  the  nature  of  man  and  the  purposes  of  God. 


518  SDUCATIOy.  [April^ 

The  question  is  sometimes  foolishly  asked  concerning-  the  col- 
leges, whether  they  teach  Protectionism  or  Free  Trade?  Some  of 
the  colleges  have  been  superficial  enough  to  make  answer  for 
themselves,  that  they  teach  neither  the  one  nor  the  other;  thus 
utterly  abandoning  a  science  they  profess  to  teach  as  no  science  at 
all ;  and  surrendering  what  Jefferson  calls  the  ^^  self-evident '' 
rights  of  their  countrymen  as  a  whole  to  ^^  liberty  and  the  pursuit 
of  happiness/'  in  obedience  to  the  clamor  and  greed x>f  a  few  indi- 
viduals, who  have  succeeded  in  stopping  by  law  for  their  own  per^ 
sonal  behoof  a  mutually  profitable  international  trade.  Protec- 
tionism has  never  yet  attained  in  this  country  to  the  dignity  of  an 
Opinion ;  because  the  protectionists  have  never  yet  been  found 
here,  who  were  willing  to  pay  "  protective  "  tariff-taxes  thenudveM^ 
and  who  did  not  avoid  and  evade  all  such  taxes  as  fell  upon  them- 
selves, while  at  the  same  time  praising  the  operation  of  such  taxes 
as  could  be  thrown  in  their  own  behalf  on  the  ignorant  and  help- 
less masses.  One  simple  truth  is,  proven  out  of  their  own  mouths^ 
that  the  real  and  practical  opinion  of  protectionists'  as  to  the  na>- 
ture  and  effects  of  protective  tariff-taxes  is  precisely  the  same  as 
the  opinion  of  the  free-traders.  Another  simple  truth  is,  proven 
by  every  congressional  tariff-debate  from  1789  to  1889,  that  na 
so-called  "  protective  "  tariff-tax  has  ever  been  levied  in  this  coun- 
try except  at  the  instance  and  under  the  pressure  of  the  particular 
man  or  men,  who  intended  to  raise  artificially  thereby  to  their 
countrymen  the  price  of  their  own  wares. 

It  would  seem  as  if  it  were  the  duty  of  every  economist  in  the 
land,  a  duty  that  has  not  been  neglected  at  Williams  certainly,  to 
call  attention  to  the  gradual  but  inexorable  impoverishment  of  the 
entire  agricultural  population  of  the  United  States,  under  the 
operation  of  tariff-taxes  which  are  designed  to  raise  the  price  arti- 
ficially of  everything  the  farmer  has  to  buy,  and  which  depress  the 
price  enormously  by  shutting  off  his  market  of  everything  the 
farmer  has  to  sell.  Farming  has  been  made  unprofitable  by  strin- 
gent and  monstrously  unjust  laws  throughout  the  United  States. 
So  far  as  it  now  appears,  there  is  not  a  single  prosperous  farming 
community  within  the  broad  limits  of  this  land.  There  cannot  be 
under  our  domestic-monopoly  legislation.  The  recent  report  of  a 
State  Commission  of  Illinois  to  the  effect,  that  more  than  three- 
fourths  of  the  valuable  lands  of  that  state  are  under  mortgage,  and 
that  its  agricultural  population  has  already  declined  and  must 


1889.]  PBEPABATION  FOB  CITIZENSHIP,  619 

inevitably  decline  much  more  in  the  immediate  future,  shows  the 
results  of  causes  exactly  fitted  in  their  own  nature  to  produce 
them.  It  is  probable,  if  not  certain,  that  about  as  large  a  propor- 
tion of  the  lands  of  Iowa,  and  Kansas,  and  Nebraska  are  under 
mortgage  as  in  Illinois.  It  is  no  better  at  the  East.  The  auc- 
tioneer's hammer  has  been  remarkably  busy  this  present  winter  in 
knocking  oflf  under  foreclosure  the  best  farms  in  Bucks  County, 
Penn.  In  New  England  it  is  still  worse.  Williamstown  itself 
does  not  support  one-half  as  many  people  from  its  lands  as  it  did 
forty  years  ago.  Whole  tiers  and  stretches  of  farms  in  every  New 
England  state,  which  once  maintained  a  lusty  and  thrifty  popula- 
tion, are  growing  up  to  forest  again.  Farming  is  no  more  profita- 
ble in  the  neighborhood  of  the  vast  factories  on  the  Merrimac 
River,  which  carries  more  spindles  than  any  other  river  in  the 
world,  than  it  is  on  the  hillsides  of  Vermont  and  New  Hamp- 
shire. 

It  only  remains  in  this  paper,  already  too  long,  to  indicate  briefly 
the  Williams  method  of  teaching  Political  Science.  The  textbook 
is  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  Clause  by  clause  of  that 
instrument  is  learned  verbatim  by  the  members  of  the  class,  and 
recited  over  and  over  again  day  by  day,  before  the  lecture  (or 
lectures)  upon  that  clause  begins.  A  careful  schedule  of  the  lecture 
is  then  dictated  by  the  Professor,  and  taken  down  verbatim  by  the 
class.  The  lecture  then  proceeds  upon  the  schedule,  which  has 
rarely  more  than  three  main  points,  and  questions  back  and  forth 
and  discussions  often  intermingle  with  the  unfolding  of  these 
points,  the  lectures  not  being  written  out  beyond  the  schedule^ 
thus  allowing  more  or  less  emphasis  to  special  points  year  by  year 
according  to  current  interest  in  Politics,  and  to  current  drift  in 
Legislation.  Each  student  takes  down  in  connection  with  the 
schedule  what  he  deems  most  important  in  the  statements  of 
instruction  and  in  the  free  and  easy  discussions  of  them,  and  the 
main  examination  is  upon  these  lecture-books  at  the  end  of  the 
year's  course.  There  is  one  reference  only  at  the  close  of  each 
schedule  to  some  accessible  book,  or  judicial  opinion,  or  expert 
discussion  on  some  main  point  of  the  lecture. 

Between  ninety  and  one  hundred  of  such  lectures  are  given  to 
each  class  ;  and  they  cover  every  considerable  point  in  the  Pream- 
ble and  the  body  of  the  Constitution  and  the  Amendments,  both 
historically  in  their  origin  and  subsequent  discussion,  and  judicially 


520  ED  UCA  TION.  [April, 

as  they  have  been  passed  upon  by  the  highest  courts,  and  practi- 
cally as  they  have  l)een  carried  out  by  the  laws  of  Congress  and 
the  action  of  the  Executive.  Considerable  room  is  found  at  vari- 
ous places  for  a  comparison  or  contrast  of  other  governments  with 
our  own ;  the  intricate  interworkings  of  states  with  nation  in  our 
complex  system  are  explained  as  fully  as  may  be,  under  a  convic- 
tion that  the  states  are  just  as  precious  as  the  nation,  and  that  lib- 
erty under  governments  increases  as  their  complexity  increases ; 
the  outlines  of  international  law  are  given  in  connection  with  the 
power  granted  to  Congress  to  punish  "  Offences  against  the  Law 
of  Nations "  ;  and  great  pains  are  taken  at  various  points  to 
explain  the  chief  differences  between  the  common  law  of  England 
and  the  civil  law  of  Rome,  and  the  way  in  which  these  are  being 
slowly  fused  into  one  law  both  in  England  and  the  United  States. 
Perhaps  there  is  no  part  of  the  civic  studies  pursued  here  that 
is  so  thoroughly  enjoyed  by  both  teacher  and  pupils  as  is  this 
familiar  yet  comprehensive  exposition  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States.  The  Cobden  Club  of  London  offers  its  silver  med- 
al annually  to  that  one  in  this  class,  who,  in  the  judgment  of  the 
Professor,  makes  the  most  proficiency  in  these  purely  political 
studies.  Broader  than  this  is  the  basis  of  the  Perry  Prizes,  one  of 
fifty  dollars  annually  and  one  of  twenty-five  dollars,  to  be  awarded 
to  two  men  in  each  class  for  excellence  in  History  and  Political 
Economy,  the  two  prescribed  studies  in  this  department.  Essays 
on  political  subjects  are  entered  in  competition  for  these  prizes  by 
those  only  who  have  maintained  a  high  rank  in  the  studies  them- 
selves. The  subjects  of  these  prize  essays  for  three  years  past  are 
herewith  appended  as  a  rough  illustration  of  the  sort  of  work 
sought  to  be  done  by  and  for  the  Williams  students  in  the  way  of 
preparation  for  citizenship  and  practical  life  in  a  free  country. 

CLASS  OF  1887. 

The  Stuart  Kings  and  Pretenders  in  relation  to  an  enlarged 
British  Liberty. 

The  strictly  personal  factor  in  all  vital  questions  of  Economics. 

Comparative  Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of  written  and 
unwritten  Constitutions  of  Government. 

CLASS  OF  1888. 

Recent  Revivals  of  national  spirit  among  the  subordinate  Races 
of  Europe. 


1889.]  MORALS  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS.  621 

Some  of  the  chief  Relations  of  Economics  to  Politics  proper. 
Reactions  of  the  American  Constitution  upon  European  Consti- 
tutions of  the  present  century. 

CLASS  OF  1889. 

Ancient  Routes  by  sea  and  land  of  Travel  and  Transportation. 
Germanic  Influences  on  Roman  Law  and  Government. 
Logical  Methods  and  Successes  in  Political  Economy. 


MORALS  IN  THB  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 

[The  following  papers  were  read  before  tbe  BffASsaobasetts  Scboolmasters*  Glab,  Feb. 
16, 1889.  Tbey  present  tbe  sabject  in  an  intelligent  way  from  the  standpoint  of  a  pbiloso- 
pber,  a  business  man,  and  a  teacher.  They  will  all  be  read  with  interest  and  profit.  —  Ed.] 

Methods  of  Teaching  MoEAiiS. 

BT  LARKIN  DUNTON,  LL.  D. 

MAN  is  a  very  complex  creature.  He  has  a  body  and  a  soul, 
which  exist  in  very  close  connection.  In  some  ways  the 
body  controls  the  soul ;  in  others  the  soul  controls  the  body.  A 
man's  ordinary  actions  which  he  exhibits  to  others,  are  almost 
exclusively  directed  by  the  soul. 

The  body  is  wonderfully  complex.  It  is  possessed  of  an  almost 
infinite  number  of  organs,  each  one  of  which  has  its  distinct  func- 
tion in  the  bodily  economy.  So  the  soul  has  numerous  faculties, 
each  having  its  peculiar  office,  and  each  standing  in  a  definite  rela- 
tion to  all  the  rest. 

All  human  activity,  whether  physical  or  psychical,  produces  in 
the  individual  a  tendency  to  activity  of  the  same  sort.  This  is 
emphatically  true  of  voluntary  activity.  In  this  truth  lies  the 
secret  of  the  true  method  of  moral  instruction. 

A  man's  character  consists  of  the  sum  of  his  habits ;  and  his 
habits  are  the  results  of  repeated  activities  of  the  same  sort.  This 
is  true  not  only  of  individual  actions,  but  of  series  of  actions. 
Conduct  is,  in  the  main  controlled  by  volition,  volition  by  feeling, 
feeling  by  knowledge,  and  knowledge  by  stimulus  to  intellectual 
activity.  This  stimulus  may  be  either  original  objects  of  knowl- 
edge, or  the  conventional  signs  which  recall  ideas  of  objects  of 
knowledge,  when  once  the  ideas  have  been  awakened  in  the  mind 


522  EDUCATIOX,  [April, 

by  the  objects  themselves.  Hence,  as  the  teacher  has  in  his  power 
the  ordering  of  both  tilings  and  signs,  he  has  in  his  keeping  the 
intellectual,  esthetic,  moral,  voluntary,  and  even  bodily  actions  of 
his  pupils;  and,  consequently,  the  formation  of  habits  of  action  — 
the  formation  of  character. 

It  is  of  great  moment  to  secure  in  children  correct  bodily  and 
intellectual  action.  It  is  of  still  greater  moment  that  such  action 
should  be  prompted  by  right  motives.  A  child  may  be  made 
obedient  by  motives  which  will  unfit  him  for  life  in  the  world. 
He  may  be  made  studious  by  the  use  of  motives  which  will  totally 
unfit  him  for  usefulness  t<)  his  fellows. 

But  the  child  is  not  the  man.  Motives  which  may  be  all-con- 
trolling for  the  man  may  be  inefficient  for  the  child.  They  may 
be  motives  which  have  not  yet  arisen  in  the  child's  mind  at  all. 

Motives,  strictly  speaking,  are  the  feelings  which  stimulate  the 
will, — which  prompt  the  will  to  action.  Objects,  things,  cannot 
properly  Ixj  called  motives,  except  in  so  far  as  they  produce  those 
feelings  which  prompt  to  voluntary  action. 

Motives  may  l>e  roughly  divided  into  three  classes:  1.  The 
egoistic,  including  the  simi)le  emotions,  such  as  beauty,  grandeur^ 
sublimity,  joy,  sorrow,  and  the  like,  and  also  the  simple  desires, 
such  as  the  desires  for  knowledge,  for  power,  for  possession,  for 
human  society,  and  the  like.  2.  The  altruistic,  including  the 
malevolent  affections,  resentment,  revenge,  and  envy,  and  also  the 
benevolent  affections,  love,  patriotism,  humanity,  etc.  3.  The 
moral  sensibilities,  including  both  moral  emotions, — the  satisfac- 
tion which  arises  from  a  knowledge  of  doing  right  and  the  dissat- 
isfaction arising  from  a  knowledge  of  wrongnloing,  —  and  feelings 
of  moral  obligations,  —  the  promptings  of  the  soul  to  do  the  right 
and  abstain  from  doing  the  wrong. 

From  these  classes  of  motives  may  be  eliminated  at  once  the 
malevolent  affections.  These  seem  to  have  been  implanted  in  man 
to  secure  his  preservation  by  his  own  offensive  actions.  They  have 
been  so  much  used  during  the  infancy  of  the  race  that  they  are 
sufficiently  strong  to  need  no  further  training. 

There  remain,  then,  tis  proper  motives,  those  feelings  which  cen- 
ter in  self  and  prompt  to  conduct  for  the  good  of  the  individual, 
those  which  prompt  to  the  doing  of  what  will  promote  the  happi- 
ness of  those  who  are  in  some  way  agreeable,  and  those  which 
prompt  to  the  doing  of  what  is  right  without  reference  to  self. 


1889.]  MORALS  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS.  528 

These  classes  of  motives  are  developed  and  take  rank  in  dignity 
and  value  in  the  order  here  named,  —  the  egoistic,  the  altruistic, 
and  the  purely  moral.  How  shall  they  be  applied  in  the  develop- 
ment of  character  ? 

In  order  to  decide  this  question,  we  must  first  fix  in  mind 
clearly  the  end  to  be  attained  in  moral  training.  If  the  end  is  to 
produce  men  of  learning  and  power  whose  center  is  self,  then  use 
the  first  class  of  motives.  If  the  end  is  the  enlarging  of  this  ideal 
so  as  to  include  the  doing  of  good  to  those  who  do  good  to  us,  then 
use  also  the  altruistic  emotions.  But  if  we  would  go  further  still, 
and  to  the  qualities  of  wisdom,  power,  and  benevolence  add  the 
principle  of  conformity  to  right  under  all  circumstances,  whether 
personal  good  is  involved  or  not,  we  must  bring  the  child  at  last 
under  the  sway  of  the  moral  feelings,  —  we  must  train  him  to 
make  an  enlightened  conscience  the  supreme  arbiter  of  the  soul. 

But  this  cannot  be  done  at  once.  We  must  begin  with  the 
child  as  we  find  him,  —  a  pretty  selfish  little  lump  of  humanity. 
We  must  bear  in  mind,  too,  that  to  be  of  use  to  others  he  must 
become  a  man  of  wisdom  and  power ;  hence,  he  must  at  once  be 
made  active.  Hence,  an  appeal  must  be  made  at  first  to  such 
motives  as  will  move  him  to  the  doing  of  what  he  ought  to  do. 
His  curiosity  is  to  be  aroused,  his  love  of  the  wonderful  and  the 
strange  is  to  be  excited,  his  desire  to  be  and  do  like  others  is  to  be 
stirred;  and,  if  need  be,  his  fears  are  to  be  appealed  to.  In  a 
word,  he  is  to  be  made  to  practise  the  virtues  of  civilized  life  from 
the  start.  Among  the  important  of  these  virtues  which  the  school 
should  strive  to  inculcate  are  regularity,  punctuality,  silence,  indus- 
try, benevolence,  and  obedience.  Let  the  pupiVs  moral  training 
begin  with  the  practice  of  these  and  similar  virtues.  Secure  this 
by  the  use  of  the  highest  available  motives ;  but  secure  the  prac- 
tice of  these  virtues. 

If  they  are  constantly  observed,  the  very  observance  will  create 
a  tendency  of  the  mind  to  continue  the  practice.  If  now  this  ten- 
dency is  reinforced  by  the  presence  of  higher  motives,  the  neces- 
sity of  the  lower  motives  will  be  correspondingly  diminished. 
Hence  the  need  of  awakening  the  higher  motives.  This  can  only 
be  done  by  imparting  such  knowledge  of  the  effects  of  conduct  as 
alone  has  the  power  of  quickening  the  conscience.  And  here  we 
may  learn  much  fi*om  the  young  mother.  Would  she  make  her 
child  feel  the  power  of  moral  obligation  to  refrain  from  a  course  of 


524  EDUCATION.  C  April, 

conduct,  she  shows  him  the  bad  effects  of  the  same.  This  is  the 
universal  law.  A  knowledge  of  right  or  wrong  in  conduct  is 
gained  through  the  |)erception  of  the  effects  of  conduct. 

The  true  method  of  giving  moral  training,  then,  as  I  see  it,  is  to 
secure  the  right  conduct  of  the  child  through  the  use  of  such 
motives  as  he  can  be  made  to  feel ;  then  to  replace  lower  motives 
with  higher,  as  fast  as  the  habit  of  doing  the  right  and  the  devel- 
opment of  higher  motives  will  allow ;  until,  finally,  the  supreme, 
the  all-controlling  motive  of  the  pupil  is  the  power  of  the  sense  of 
duty  arising  from  an  enlightened  intellect. 


The  Teaching  of  Morals  in  the  Public  Schools, — What 

AND  How? 

BY  SAMUEL  B.   CAPEN,   BOSTON. 

THE  highest  bodily  development  is  that  which  cares  for  each 
and  every  part  in  its  proper  proportion.  If  a  single  organ 
is  omitted  the  whole  body  suffers.  Going  one  step  higher,  we  con- 
sider it  supreme  folly  to  care  for  the  body  and  neglect  the  mind ; 
to  train  that  which  is  only  animal  at  the  exj^ense  of  the  intellectual. 
But  the  supremest  folly  must  ever  be  that  which  caring  for  body 
and  mind  both,  neglects  that  which  is  spiritual  and  eternal.  A 
rude  block  of  marble  may  be  chiseled  never  so  skilfully  into  some 
matchless  human  form  and  it  will  be  marble  still,  cold  and  lifeless. 
So  with  each  one  of  us,  mind  and  body  may  be  developed,  but  it 
will  be  the  external  shaping ;  we  need  to  have  that  which  is  im- 
mortal within  us  awakened  and  kindled  into  new  life  and  vigor 
before  any  of  us  can  really  be  said  to  live.  It  is  equally  clear  that 
in  childhood  and  youth  this  moral  training  should  be  commenced. 
This  is  the  formative  period  in  which  foundations  for  the  whole 
future  are  being  laid.  As  you  can  train  the  sapling  into  almost 
any  shape,  making  the  tree  either  graceful  or  unsightly,  so  you 
can  mould  a  child  into  a  saint  or  a  demon.  Lord  Shaftsbury  gives 
as  the  result  of  his  observation  that  all  crime  commences  between 
eight  and  sixteen,  and  if  the  child  lives  a  correct  life  to  the  age 
of  twenty,  the  chances  of  his  continuing  to  do  so  are  as  forty-nine 
to  one.  This,  however,  is  too  elementary  for  such  an  audience. 
But  I  fear  sometimes  that  we  do  not  recognize  how  important  a 


1889.]  MOBALS  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS.  526 

factor  that  part  of  the  young  life  which  is  spent  in  school  is  in  its 
moral  influence  upon  many  of  our  children.  We  all  know  what 
some  of  the  homes  are  from  which  these  children  come.  Unholi- 
ness  and  impurity  are  there,  expressing  itself  in  word  and  act. 
With  whole  families  crowded  together  into  one  or  two  rooms, 
many  of  these  children  know  nothing  of  what  we  call  the  proprie- 
ties of  life.  Must  I  not  say  that  many  of  them  know  only  that 
which  is  indecent? 

I  visited  a  primary  school  recently,  situated  in  a  neighborhood 
with  homes  similar  to  those  which  I  have  just  described,  and  the 
vile  pictures  and  words  upon  the  outbuildings  told  all  too  plainly 
what  the  homes  were  from  which  these  children  came.  Unless 
they  have  some  training  in  school  of  another  kind  they  will  grow 
up  in  ignorance  of  all  that  which  is  purest,  and  sweetest,  and 
noblest.  The  education  which  the  state  gives  in  such  cases  only 
increases  the  power  to  do  evil,  if  we  have  quickened  their  intel-  ' 
lects  without  touching  their  moral  natures.  When  I  was  a  lad  we 
were  accustomed  to  play  a  game  of  "Follow  Your  Leader." 
Whatever  the  first  boy  did,  however  grotesque,  each  boy  who  fol- 
lowed after  must  do  likewise.  I  have  thought  often,  lately,  that  life 
was  a  great  game  of  follow  your  leader.  Silently,  yet  steadily,  we 
follow  another.  The  boy  imitates  the  father ;  he  talks,  he  even  walks 
like  him.  The  girl  imitates  the  mother,  and,  this  is  the  part  of  the 
truth  we  are  emphasizing  today,  the  scholar^  the  teacher.  It  is  just 
because  of  this  truth  that  the  wise  f raniers  of  our  Massachusetts  laws 
have  said :  "  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  teachers  to  use  their  best  en- 
deavors to  impress  upon  the  minds  of  the  youth  committed  to  their 
care  and  instruction  the  principles  of  piety,  justice,  and  a  sacred 
regard  to  truth,  love  to  their  country,  humanity  and  universal 
benevolence,  sobriety,  industry,  frugality,  chastity,  moderation, 
temperance,  and  those  other  virtues  which  are  the  ornament  of 
human  society  and  the  basis  upon  which  a  republican  constitution 
is  founded." 

It  is  this  same  truth  that  has  led  the  schools  in  twenty  states  to 
give  moral  instruction,  and  in  nine  more,  both  moral  and  religious. 
From  these  general  truths,  is  it  not  proper  to  say  specifically,  in 
answer  to  the  "  TFAo^,"  that  every  teacher  ought  therefore  to  try, 

1.  To  inspire  all  their  scholars  toith  some  iiohle  purpose  in  life. 
Many  of  our  young  people  get  nowhere  in  particular,  for  they  are 
aiming  at  nothing  in  particular.     They  do  not  care,  and  it  is  im- 


626  EDUCATION.  [April, 

possible  to  steer  a  ship  in  a  calm.  We  need  to  give  our  youth  a 
worthy  impulse  and  help  them  to  keep  it  steadily  in  view.  We 
need,  in  this  supremely  worldly  age,  to  inspire  them  with  the 
thought  that  the  great  thing  to  strive  for  is  not  money  or  fame,  but 
character.  ^^  It  is  not  what  a  man  has,  but  what  he  is,  that  makes 
the  man."  Try  to  lead  them  not  only  above  their  appetites  and 
passions,  but  above  all  selfishness  and  meanness  as  well.  Who 
wants  to  live  in  the  cellar  in  the  darkness,  when  he  can  dwell  in 
the  sunshine  ?  Teach  them  not  to  be  willing  to  live  in  the  base- 
ment of  their  animal  natures,  but  to  come  up  where  God's  truth 
is  supreme.     Not  to  play  life,  but  to  live  for  something  noble. 

2.  Teach  them  Fidelity^  and  that  whatever  they  do  %hall  be  done 
thoroughly  and  faithfully.  Let  them  have  some  conscience  in  all 
they  do,  and  never  allow  themselves  to  be  shiftless.  Teach  them 
to  work  so  they  can  have  self-respect  and  never  be  eye  servants. 
Teach  them  to  be  true  to  themselves,  for  if  they  are  not  they  will 
find  their  own  consciences  very  troublesome  travelling  compan- 
ions all  through  the  journey.  Endeavor  to  get  out  of  their  heads 
the  foolish  notion  that  manual  labor  is  not  as  honorable  as  some 
other  kinds.  So  many  of  our  young  men  want  work  that  is  clean 
and  nice  and  refined,  and  many  a  good  mechanic  is  spoiled  to  make 
a  poor  clerk.  A  faithful  mechanic  is  in  as  honorable  a  position  as 
any  man,  and  far  more  so  than  a  shiftless,  indiflferent  clerk.  Teach 
that  there  is  not  the  slightest  chance  in  the  world  for  the  boy  or 
girl  who  wants  a  "'  soft  job,"  and  whose  principal  thought  is  to  get 
the  most  pay  for  the  least  work.  Such  scholars  should  be  made  to 
see  that  the  softest  spot,  while  they  hold  these  ideas,  is  under  their 
hats! 

3.  Try  to  guide  them  in  their  Reading.  It  is  a  passion  with  most 
of  our  young  people  to  read,  and  the  passion  can  be  a  great  bless- 
ing if  only  guided  aright.  Their  minds  are  like  the  prepared 
plate  of  the  photographer,  ready  to  seize  and  hold  every  impress- 
ion, and  it  is  possible  to  guide  them.  Not  long  since  a  young  lad 
went  to  our  public  library,  saying  to  the  young  lady  in  charge 
that  he  had  just  read  Robert  Elsmere,  and  thought  it  was  the  dri- 
est thing  he  had  ever  read,  and  that  he  wanted  now  a  real  "  blood 
and  thunder  novel  I "  But  the  lady  dissuaded  him  from  it,  and 
led  him  to  take  a  book  on  history,  which,  he  reported  in  a  few 
days,  he  had  read  with  great  pleasure.  To  show  the  necessity  of 
this  watchfulness  a  friend  showed  me  a  paper  which  was  being  dis- 


1889.]  MORALS  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS.  527 

tributed  at  five  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  on  one  of  the  principal 
thoroughfares  of  Boston.  The  title  had  rather  a  semi-religious 
look,  and  he  put  it  innocently  into  his  pocket  and  laid  it  upon  the 
table  when  he  reached  home.  Providentially,  however,  before  his 
boy  had  seen  more  than  the  title  he  looked  it  over  himself  and 
found  it  a  vile,  indecent  sheet.  A  young  lady  riding  in  the  cars 
was  offered,  by  a  young  man,  a  book  which,  when  she  told  the  title 
to  her  friends,  they  advised  her  that  it  was  one  of  the  vilest  ever 
written.  The  devil  is  busy  circulating  such  literature.  Let  us 
not  permit  him  to  conquer  because  of  our  silence.  Fill  a  measure 
full  of  wheat  and  there  will  be  no  room  for  chaff.  There  is  an  old 
fable,  that  Satan,  seeking  for  victims,  saw  one  summer's  day,  a  beau-^ 
tif  ul  girl  seated  in  the  open  door  of  a  cottage,  and  he  said,  ^^  I  will 
creep  into  her  mind  and  defile  her."  But  as  he  silently  drew  near, 
he  heard  her  singing  a  beautiful  bynm.  With  a  howl  of  rage,  he^ 
hurried  away,  saying, '-  That  place  is  all  occupied."  Encourage  the 
young  to  read,  from  the  first,  only  that  which  is  good,  and  there 
will  be  no  place  in  their  hearts  for  the  evil. 

4.  Put  them  on  their  gimrd  with  regard  to  their  companionBhip». 
Mrs.  Browning  once  said  to  Charles  Kingsley,  "  What  is  the  secret 
of  your  life?  Tell  me,  that  I  may  make  mine  beautiful,  too," 
After  a  moment's  pause,  he  replied,  ^^  I  had  a  friend."  It  is  impos- 
sible to  overestimate  the  importance  of  these  friends.  I  have  seen 
young  men  lifted  and  inspired  to  the  noblest  things  because  they 
have  chosen,  for  their  intimate  associates,  those  who  were  pure  and 
good ;  and  I  have  seen  young  men  ruined  who  began  the  down- 
ward road  by  making  false  choices  of  companionships.  Warn 
those  in  whom  you  are  interested,  to  refuse  to  keep  company  with 
those  who  tell  the  questionable  story  and  who  speak  slightingly  of 
that  which  is  pure  and  innocent.  Teach  them  to  avoid  such  com- 
panions as  they  would  the  pestilence.  As  a  chemist  can  tell  you, 
from  one  drop  of  blood,  that  there  is  poison  in  the  veins ;  as  a  chip 
will  tell  the  cui*rent  of  a  stream,  so  show  them  that  in  such  asso- 
ciates there  are  the  beginnings  of  evil  which  will  destroy  any  life. 

5.  Teach  them  to  be  temperate  and  pure.  In  the  last  few  years 
there  has  been  so  much  interest  taken  in  temperance  that  hardly 
any  young  person  can  have  failed  to  have  had  some  knowledge  of 
the  awful  peril  in  the  use  of  alcohol.  It  is  a  poison  and  ought  to 
be  marked  with  a  skull  and  cross-bones  like  other  poisons.  But 
the  perils  of  impurity  are  not  so  often  emphasized.     I  do  not  think 


6S8  EDUCATION.  [April, 

we  should  hesitate  to  be  plain  and  direct.  When  I  was  in  the 
English  High  School,  under  Thomas  Sherwin,  he  did  not  hesitate 
to  warn  us  against  secret  sin.  Why  should  we  let  the  devil  do  all 
the  plain  teacliing,  —  and  a  little  thought  will  show  us  how  this 
may  be  done.  It  is  said  of  General  Grant,  that  seated  one  day 
among  a  number  of  officer,  a  general  of  high  rank  rushed  in,  say- 
ing, "  Boys,  I  've  got  such  a  good  story  to  tell  you  I  There  are  no 
ladies  present,  I  believe?"  "No,  but  there  are  gentlemen  pres- 
ent," was  the  curt  reply  of  Grant,  and  the  story  was  not  told. 
The  world  is  full  of  such  facts  and  incidents,  which  can  be  used, 
if  the  teacher  desires  to  do  it,  to  press  home  this  truth.  Teach 
them  to  avoid  looking  at  the  indecent  pictures  which  sometimes 
appear  in  our  comic  papers  and  certainly  line  the  theatre  boards 
posted  in  our  streets.  Show  them  that  it  is  the  most  manly  and 
womanly  thing  to  "  turn  away  from  evil "  and  never  try  to  "  face 
it  down."  Let  them  beware  of  harboring  impure  thoughts,  for 
they  are  like  the  sjmrk  in  the  hold  of  a  ship :  it  will  work  its  way 
right  and  left  until  there  is  a  bed  of  fire  under  one's  feet,  and 
destruction  is  at  hand. 

II.  With  regard  to.  the  second  part  of  the  question,  "  JSTotr,"  I 
have  but  little  to  say  in  the  presence  of  expert  teachers.  But  I 
remember  asking  a  boy  once  about  a  certain  study  and  he  replied : 
"  The  time  spent  on  that  does  not  amount  to  much,  for  the  teach- 
ers do  not  care  anything  about  it."  This  leads  me  to  say,  that  in 
the  subject  before  us,  of  all  others,  it  should  be  urged  with  hearty 
earnestness  or  it  will  make  no  impression.  A  teacher  must  make 
his  words  a  part  of  his  own  being  in  order  to  make  them  tell  for 
good.  Why  does  one  man  succeed  and  another  of  equal  talent 
fail  utterly  ?  Because  one  is  thoroughly  in  earnest  and  the  other 
is  not.  The  Indians  nicknamed  General  Sheridan,  a  few  years 
ago,  as  "  The  little  man  that  means  business."  The  late  Doctor 
Bellows,  of  New  York,  had  a  great  power  over  an  audience.  One 
day,  after  an  address  was  ended,  a  gentleman  said  to  him  :  O  Doc- 
tor, I  wish  I  had  your  inspiration ! "  "  Inspiration,"  he  replied, 
"it  isn't  inspiration  at  all,  it  is  perspiration."  It  is  the  teacher 
who  put  his  whole  soul  into  his  teaching  always  that  writes  his 
own  enthusiastic  words  upon  and  into  the  lives  of  those  who 
gather  about  him.  But  this,  I  think,  is  especially  true  in  teaching 
morals  and  where  the  scholar  must  be  made  to  feel  that  the  teach- 
ing is  not  perfunctory,  but  out  of  the  heart.     The  teacher  of  his- 


1889.]  MORALS  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS.  629' 

tory,  for  instance,  can  easily,  if  he  will,  show  how  the  nation  that- 
does  righteousness  is  sure  to  prosper,  and  when  it  becomes  corrupt 
it  is  weakened  and  perishes.  How  can  one  teach  history  and  leave 
God  out?  you  leave  out  the  chief  factor.  Those  who  have  heard 
Henry  A.  Clapp  lecture  on  Shakespeare,  remember  how  clearly  he 
points  out  that  the  great  dramatist,  in  all  his  plays,  encourages  virtue 
and  brings  disgrace  upon  vice,  bringing  out  so  clearly  that  the  sin 
of  all  sins  is  to  do  evil  and  then  make  light  of  it.  All  such,  I  am- 
sure,  will  see  how  easily  one  can  teach  history  and  morality^ 
together  if  they  only  are  in  earnest  about  it. 

Finally,  may  I  say,  with  all  frankness,  that  no  one  can  teachi 
morals  who  is  himself  conscious  of  any  immorality  of  his  own. 
You  can  never  teach  another  what  you  do  not  know  thoroughly 
yourself.  An  old  farmer,  who  had  been  driving  people  about  for 
two  months  during  the  summer  vacation,  had  often  seen  them 
point  to  the  sunset  painted  on  the  western  sky  and  say :  "  Oh,  how 
beautiful ! "  Finally  he  was  heard  to  exclaim,  "  They  have  been 
talking  this  way  all  summer  about  nothing  but  one  of  our  pink- 
and-yaller  sunsets ! "  If  we  see  no  beauty  in  that  which  is  pure 
and  holy  and  sweet  ourselves,  be  very  sure  we  cannot  make  any 
one  else  see  any. 

I  feel  more  at  liberty  to  say  this,  because  of  the  high  character 
of  most  of  the  gentlemen  who  are  masters  and  principals  in  our 
various  schools.  But  it  is  a  good  thought,  of  which  we  may  all  be 
frequently  reminded,  that  if  we  want  to  have  the  fullest  respect  of 
those  committed  to  our  care,  it  must  come,  not  because  of  any 
authority  we  may  have  in  virtue  of  our  office,  but  because  of  what 
we  are.  When  you  teach  morals,  of  all  things  never  forget  that 
your  words  will  go  no  farther  than  your  own  life  carries  them. 
Back  of  the  teacher  is  the  man,  and  what  he  is,  and  not  what  he 
professes  to  be,  will  always  determine  the  force  of  his  words. 

Gentlemen,  the  road  is  hard  enough  at  the  best  for  our  children, 
and  youth  to  tread ;  there  are  pitfalls  enough  already  in  it  without 
any  faithless  life  of  ours  being  a  stumbling-block  in  that  pathway. 

If  a  business  man  may  be  allowed  to  say  a  plain  word  to  the 
professional,  I  believe  I  realize  more  and  more  as  I  touch  young 
men  and  see  how  much  their  early  training  has  to  do  with  success 
or  failure,  the  solemn  responsibility  of  the  teacher.  Your  pro- 
fession may  not  be  so  noisy  and  conspicuous  as  some,  but  it  is  none- 
the  less  sacred  and  all  the  more  mighty.     Is  it  not  like  one  of  the; 


.530  EDUCATION  [April, 

great  forces  of  nature  which  do  their  work  so  silently  ?  Has  any 
one  ever  felt  any  jar  as  the  world  spins  on  ita  axis  ?  Has  any  one 
€ver  heard  any  creaking  of  the  machinery  that  lifts  the  tides? 
GoiVh  i/reatetft  forcen  are  always  silent.  So  when  I  see  how  you  are 
moulding  the  minds  which  are  so  largely  to  shape  the  future  of 
our  land,  and  yet  notice  how  quietly  it  is  done,  I  say  this  work  is 
like  God's.  Your  business  is  certainly  a  very  serious  one,  and  the 
man  that  does  not  consider  it  such  can  never  teach  morals,  and  he 
had  better  leave  it  forever  to  those  who  do  realize  its  dignity  and 
its  supreme  importance. 


Helps  and  Hindrances  in  Teaching  Morals  in  the 

Public  Schools. 

BY  JAMES  S.  BARRELL,  A.  M.,  CAMBRIDGE. 

THERE  can  \ye  no  doubt  of  the  supreme  importance  of  the  teach- 
ing of  morals  in  the  public  schools.  So  far  as  the  wisdom  of 
the  state  is  crystallized  in  the  statute,  we  are  told  explicitly  what 
to  teach.  To  this,  add  the  two  commandments  given  by  the  Great 
Teacher,  and  we  have  the  answer  to  the  question,  — "  What  to 
teach." 

How  best  to  give  this  training  is  not  easily  answered.  In  giving 
it,  every  thoughtful,  conscientious  teacher  of  experience  acts  upon 
definite  principles.  The  gentlemen  who  have  preceded  me  are 
eminent  each  in  his  own  department,  —  theology,  philosophy  and 
business.  Presuming  that  they  would  discuss  the  great  principles 
which  underlie  all  moral  training,  I  shall  allude  to  them  only  inci- 
dentally, if  at  all. 

I  shall  present  what  I  say  under  three  heads.  (1)  Some  hin- 
drances to  moral  training  over  which  the  teacher  has  no  control. 
(2)  Some  means  which  may  be  regarded  as  negative,  or  prepara- 
tory to  this  training,  —  but  which  fail  of  due  consideration  because 
they  are  so  common  and  evident.  (3)  Some  positive  helps  to 
moral  training. 

1.     hindrances. 

Many  children  inherit  a  tendency  to  evil.  Besides,  the  mo6t 
impressive  and  critical  period  in  the  moral  training  of  a  child  id 
past  before  he  enters  school.     The  "bent  of  his  character  for  good 


1889.]  M0BAL8  IX  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS.  631 

or  for  evil  is  already  determined.  During  this  time  the  influence 
of  his  home  is  often  calculated  to  develop  the  worst*  elements  of 
character.  Furthermore,  under  our  present  system  we  are  obliged 
to  keep  a  class  of  incorrigibles  in  school,  who  take  a  large  part  of 
the  teacher's  time  and  strength.  Their  influence  on  others,  aa 
Doctor  Arnold  says,  "is  decidedly  and  extensively  pernicious." 
He  regarded  them  as  an  "  inexcusable  and  intolerable  aggravation 
of  the  necessary  trials  of  a  school,"  and  said,  "  Our  work  here 
would  be  absolutely  unendurable  if  we  did  not  bear  in  mind  that 
we  should  look  forward  as  well  as  backward."  Our  schools  must 
be  places  of  education  for  evil  rather  than  for  good,  in  so  far  as 
such  pupils  influence  the  others. 

These  facts  are  vital,  far-reaching,  and  constantly  acting  in  op- 
position to  the  moral  welfare  of  the  children.  For  them  the  teacher 
is  in  no  way  responsible,  and  over  them  he  has  no  control.  Many 
who  pass  judgment  upon  the  moral  tittining  in  our  public  schools 
look  upon  the  inevitable  results  of  these  hindrances  as  if  the 
teacher  were  responsible  for  them. 

2.      PREPARATORY. 

There  are  certain  essentials  to  the  highest  success  in  this  work 
for  which  the  teacher  is  wholly  responsible.  They  may  be  re- 
garded as  preparatory  to  the  positive  training  of  the  child  rather 
than  the  training  itself. 

The  first  of  these  essentials  is  the  realization  by  the  teacher  that 
the  chief  object  of  his  labor  is  to  develop  character.  However 
essential  other  things  may  be,  they  are  all  subordinate  to  this. 

For  the  sake  of  brevity,  a  part  of  this  division  of  the  subject  will 
be  given  in  detached  statements. 

When  children  first  enter  a  class,  give  them  no  occasion  to  sus- 
pect that  you  think  they  will  do  wrong,  but  act  on  the  presumption  . 
that  they  will  do  right. 

Make  no  prohibition  until  it  is  required,  nor  any  test  which  will 
be  likely  to  fail. 

By  precept  and  example,  show  the  right  for  action,  rather  than 
the  wrong  for  warning. 

Be  sure  that  the  children  see  that  you  discriminate  between 
offences  which  are  morally  wrong,  and  those  which  are  merely 
annoying  and  distuibing. 


^2  EDICATTOS.  [April, 

Make  due  allowance  for  habits  acquired  under  previous  influ- 
■ences.  Serious  harm  may  be  done  by  treating  as  wilful  or  ma- 
licious, acts  which  are  the  result  of  bad  training,  or  of  the  lack  of 
training  by  the  parents,  or  by  a  previous  teacher. 

Always  regard  the  spirit  in  which  an  act  is  done,  rather  than 
the  act  itself. 

Give  full  credit  for  good  recitations,  but  be  sure  that  your  pupils 
realize  that  fidelity,  good  behavior,  and  good  character  are  much 
more  important. 

Remove  temptation  so  far  as  it  is  a  stumbling-block  to  the  chil- 
dren, and  seldom  ask  a  question  whose  answer  would  cause  the 
child  to  criminate  himself.  The  younger  the  child  the  more  cau- 
tious the  teacher  should  be  in  this  respect.  The  courts  do  not 
require  even  an  adult  to  make  such  answers. 

As  a  rule,  do  not  ask,  **  Are  you  doing  this  or  that  ? "  The 
question  confesses  the  uncertainty  of  the  teacher  and  tempts  the 
child  to  avoid  the  consequences  of  wrong-doing  by  telling  a  lie. 
Better  that  an  ordinary  offence  should  be  repeated,  than,  by  the 
form  of  a  question,  to  lead  the  child  to  commit  a  greater. 

The  practice  which  prevails  in  some  schools,  of  requiring  the 
pupils  to  report  their  violations  of  the  rules  of  the  school,  can 
hardly  be  condemned  too  severely. 

I  have  a  vivid  recollection  of  an  hour  spent  in  the  first  class  of 
one  of  the  most  popular  (at  that  time)  grammar  schools  iu  Bos- 
ton. Although  the  master  was  in  charge  of  the  class,  one  need 
not  be  watchful  to  see  whispering.  Just  before  the  close  of  the 
-session  he  asked  those  who  had  not  whispered  to  stand.  I  think 
every  pupil  rose.  Those  whom  I  had  seen  whispering  looked  just 
as  saintly  as  the  others.  Was  this  a  training  in  truthfulness  or  in 
falsehood  ? 

As  to  monitors.  It  may  be  that  one  of  a  class  of  young  children 
should  sometimes  be  placed  to  watch  the  others  while  the  teacher 
must  be  out  of  the  room.     If  so,  it  should  be  done  very  rarely. 

Before  placing  any  responsibility  upon  a  child,  or  any  tempta- 
tion before  him,  we  should  try  to  estimate  the  degree  of  moral 
power  which  he  has  attained.  By  making  him  such  a  monitor, 
there  is  danger  that  we  overestimate  his  moral  strength,  and  place 
him  under  a  temptation  which  he  is  unable  to  bear.  In  such  a 
case,  the  monitor  is  frequently  guilty  of  that  form  of  falsehood 
which  consists  in  withholding  the  truth.     At  the  same  time  he 


1889.1  MORALS  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS.  533 

practises  the  grossest  injustice  by  shielding  his  friends  and  pun- 
ishing his  enemies.  Few  children  have  their  moral  natures  trained 
and  strengthened,  and  their  reasoning  faculties  so  developed  as  to 
make  it  safe  for  them,  or  just  to  others,  to  put  such  a  responsibility 
upon  them. 

Before  a  child  can  be  properly  trained,  we  must  know  the 
motives  which  control  his  action.  Without  this  knowledge,  the 
means  used  may  develop  and  strengthen  the  very  evil  we  are  try- 
ing to  prevent  or  eradicate.  A  few  rare  teachers  learn  these 
motives  intuitively.  With  most  they  are  learned  only  by  a  care- 
ful and  constant  study  of  the  individual.  The  following  method 
is,  a  great  aid  to  this  study.  For  convenience  use  a  "  Workman's 
Time-book,"  having  a  column  for  each  day  of  the  month.  The 
names  of  the  pupils  are  written  in  this  book,  and  at  the  top  of  the 
columns  are  written  the  names  of  such  characteristics  as  demand 
special  study,  —  for  example.  Truthfulness,  Obstinacy.  As  the 
teacher  observes  one  of  these  in  a  pupil,  a  mark  is  made  opposite 
his  name  and  under  the  name  of  the  characteristic.  During  the 
year  the  most  prominent  of  these  are  to  be  seen  at  a  glance.  This 
method  leads  one  to  study  the  peculiarities  of  the  child  more  than 
he  otherwise  would,  and  hence  to  know  what  motives  will  most 
influence  him.  It  sometimes  prevents  serious  trouble  by  enabling 
the  teacher  to  avoid  a  direct  issue  with  a  disobedient  or  an  obsti- 
nate child. 

If  such  a  record  is  kept  of  the  same  individuals  from  year  to 
year,  it  enables  the  teachers  to  bring  to  bear  upon  them,  motives 
suited  to  their  different  ages  and  their  progress  in  mental  and 
moral  development. 

We  should  strive  to  get  children  to  do  what  is  right,  even  though 
it  be  from  a  low  motive.  When  a  viciou6  or  obstinate  boy  acts 
rightly  from  aitch  a  motive,  he  has  taken  one  step,  and  perhaps  the 
first,  toward  acting  from  the  highest  motive. 


t 


3.      POSITIVE  MEANS. 


But  the  negative  side  of  moral  ti*aining  is  only  the  beginning. 
Positive  principles  of  action  must  be  inculcated.  Children  must 
be  taught  to  think  properly,. that  they  may  act  justly  and  gener- 
ously. If  they  can  be  habituated  to  think  and  act  rightly  in  their 
little  world,  they  are  fortified  against  the  temptations  of  the  great 
world  which  they  are  so  soon  to  enter. 


^2  ED  UCA  TTOS,  [April, 

Make  due  allowance  for  habits  acquired  under  previous  influ- 
■ences.  Serious  harm  may  be  done  by  treating  as  wilful  or  ma- 
licious, acts  which  are  the  result  of  bad  training,  or  of  the  lack  of 
training  by  the  parents,  or  by  a  previous  teacher. 

Always  regard  the  spirit  in  which  an  act  is  done,  rather  than 
the  act  itself. 

Give  full  credit  for  good  recitations,  but  be  sure  that  your  pupils 
realize  that  fidelity,  good  behavior,  and  good  character  are  much 
more  important. 

Remove  temptation  so  far  as  it  is  a  stumbling-block  to  the  chil- 
dren, and  seldom  ask  a  question  whose  answer  would  cause  the 
child  to  criminate  himself.  The  younger  the  child  the  more  cau- 
tious the  teacher  should  be  in  this  respect.  The  courts  do  not 
require  even  an  adult  to  make  such  answers. 

As  a  rule,  do  not  ask,  "  Are  you  doing  this  or  that  ? "  The 
question  confesses  the  uncertainty  of  the  teacher  and  temipts  the 
•child  to  avoid  the  consequences  of  wrong-doing  by  telling  a  lie. 
Better  that  an  ordinary  ofifence  should  be  repeated,  than,  by  the 
form  of  a  question,  to  lead  the  child  to  commit  a  greater. 

The  practice  which  prevails  in  some  schools,  of  requiring  the 
pupils  to  report  their  violations  of  the  rules  of  the  school,  can 
hardly  be  condemned  too  severely. 

I  have  a  vivid  recollection  of  an  hour  spent  in  the  first  class  of 
one  of  the  most  popular  (at  that  time)  grammar  schools  iu  Bos- 
ton. Although  the  master  was  in  charge  of  the  class,  one  need 
not  be  watchful  to  see  wliispering.  Just  before  the  close  of  the 
session  he  asked  those  who  had  not  whispered  to  stand.  I  think 
every  pupil  rose.  Those  whom  I  had  seen  whispering  looked  just 
as  saintly  as  the  others.  Was  this  a  training  in  truthfulness  or  in 
falsehood  ? 

As  to  monitors.  It  may  be  that  one  of  a  class  of  young  children 
should  sometimes  be  placed  to  watch  the  others  while  the  teacher 
must  be  out  of  the  room.     If  so,  it  should  be  done  very  rarely. 

Before  placing  any  responsibility  upon  a  child,  or  any  tempta- 
tion before  him,  we  should  try  to  estimate  the  degree  of  moral 
power  which  he  has  attained.  By  making  him  such  a  monitor, 
there  is  danger  that  we  overestimate  his  moral  strength,  and  place 
him  under  a  temptation  which  he  is  unable  to  bear.  In  such  a 
case,  the  monitor  Ls  frequently  guilty  of  that  form  of  falsehood 
which  consists  in  withholding  the  truth.     At  the  same  time  he 


1889.1  MOBALS  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS.  633 

practises  the  grossest  injustice  by  shielding  his  friends  and  pun- 
ishing his  enemies.  Few  children  have  their  moral  natures  trained 
and  strengthened,  and  their  reasoning  faculties  so  developed  as  to 
make  it  safe  for  them,  or  just  to  others,  to  put  such  a  responsibility 
upon  them. 

Before  a  child  can  be  properly  trained,  we  must  know  the 
motives  which  control  his  action.  Without  this  knowledge,  the 
means  used  may  develop  and  strengthen  the  very  evil  we  are  try- 
ing to  prevent  or  emdicate.  A  few  rare  teachers  learn  these 
motives  intuitively.  With  most  they  are  learned  only  by  a  care- 
ful and  constant  study  of  the  individual.  The  following  method 
is. a  great  aid  to  this  study.  For  convenience  use  a  "Workman's 
Time-book,"  having  a  column  for  each  day  of  the  month.  The 
names  of  the  pupils  are  written  in  this  book,  and  at  the  top  of  the 
columns  are  written  the  names  of  such  characteristics  as  demand 
special  study,  —  for  example,  Truthfulness,  Obstinacy.  As  the 
teacher  observes  one  of  these  in  a  pupil,  a  mark  is  made  opposite 
his  name  and  under  the  name  of  the  characteristic.  During  the 
year  the  most  prominent  of  these  are  to  be  seen  at  a  glance.  This 
method  leads  one  to  study  the  peculiarities  of  the  child  more  than 
he  otherwise  would,  and  hence  to  know  what  motives  will  most 
influence  him.  It  sometimes  prevents  serious  trouble  by  enabling 
the  teacher  to  avoid  a  direct  issue  with  a  disobedient  or  an  obsti- 
nate child. 

If  such  a  record  is  kept  of  the  same  individuals  from  year  to 
year,  it  enables  the  teachers  to  bring  to  bear  upon  them,  motives 
suited  to  their  different  ages  and  their  progress  in  mental  and 
moral  development. 

We  should  strive  to  get  children  to  do  what  is  right,  even  though 
it  be  from  a  low  motive.  When  a  viciou6  or  obstinate  boy  acts 
rightly  from  such  a  motive,  he  has  taken  one  step,  and  perhaps  the 
first,  toward  acting  from  the  highest  motive. 


I 


S.      POSITIVE  MEANS. 


But  the  negative  side  of  moral  training  is  only  the  beginning. 
Positive  principles  of  action  must  be  inculcated.  Children  must 
be  taught  to  think  properly,  .that  they  may  act  justly  and  gener- 
ously. If  they  can  be  habituated  to  think  and  act  rightly  in  their 
little  world,  they  are  fortified  against  the  temptations  of  the  great 
world  which  they  are  so  soon  to  enter. 


634  EDUCATION,  [April, 

Whether  we  shall  give  this  training  by  formal  lessons,  or  inci- 
dentally, is  with  many  a  question.     I  would  give  it  in  both  ways. 
It  seems  to  me  that  formal  instruction  tends  more  to  completeness 
I    of  character.     Often,   however,   some   incident  of  school-life  fur- 
I    nishes  a  lesson  whose  influence   in  a  particular  direction  could 
never  be  equalled  by  a  formal  lesson. 

A  teacher  whom  I  once  knew  had  recently  entered  a  large  and 
hard  school  of  boys.  One  afternoon  they  were  all  gathered  in  a  sin- 
gle room.  He  was  sure,  as  he  sup{)osed,  that  a  certain  boy  was  guilty 
of  serious,  open,  and  wilful  wrong-doing.  The  circumstances  were 
such  that  the  teacher,  before  the  whole  school,  charged  the  boy  with 
the  ofifence,  and  assured  him  of  a  settlement.  A  settlement  was  un- 
derstood by  all  to  mean  a  flogging.  To  the  shame  and  dismay  of  the 
teacher,  he  learned  before  night  that  the  boy  was  innocent.  What 
was  to  be  done  ?  Could  justice  he  done  and  the  discipline  of  the 
school  maintained  ?  The  teacher  decided  what  to  do,  but  trembled 
for  the  conse([uences.  After  the  usual  opening  exercises  the  next 
morning  the  teacher  said,  '*  Boys,  I  have  something  to  say  to 
you."  He  then  re[)eated  what  had  been  said  the  day  before,  and 
paused.  Silence  reigned,  and  the  school  supposed  that  justice 
would  l>e  meted  out  then  and  there.  And  it  was.  The  teacher 
broke  the  silence  by  saying,  ''  I  have  found  that  John  is  innocent  of 
this  charge.  I  am  glad  he  is,  and  am  very  sorry  for  what  I  said  to 
him.  John,  I  want  to  say  to  you  before  the  school  that  I  am  sorry^ 
and  I  hope  you  will  forgive  me." 

As  a  lesson  in  justice,  no  amount  of  formal  teaching  could  have 
compared  with  it  in  its  influence  upon  the  school. 

There  are  few  days  which  do  not  afford  the  opportunity  for 
important  and  positive  moral  instruction.     A  remark  upon  a  para- 
graph in  reading,  or  upon  a  fact  in  history,  may  lift  the  whole  class 
to  a  higher  plane  of  thinking  and  acting.     The  surest  way  to  keep 
/childi'en  from  evil  is  to  fill  their  minds  with  that  which  is  good  and 
/  beautiful.     Can  this  be  done  more  eflfectually  thiftby  having  them 
•  memorize  choice  passages  of  prose  and  poetry  ^nich  express  the 
very  principles  we  would  have  appear  in  their  lives? 

In  Mr.  John  Fiske's  lecture  upon  Daniel  Webster,  he  says  that 
probably  a  majority  of  those  who  fought  for  the  Union  in  the  Civil 
War  had,  as  boys,  learned  and  recited  in  school,  portions  of  Web- 
ster's reply  to  Hayne.  For  years  I  have  believed  that  this  speech 
was  one  of  the  most  potent  influences  wliich  caused  the  "  uprising- 


1889.]  MOBALS  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS.  536 

of  a  great  people  "  in  the  hour  of  the  nation's  peril.  Cannot  all 
the  virtues  be  as  effectually  taught  in  this  way  as  that  of  patriot- 
ism? 

I  occasionally  visit  a  class  where,  every  morning,  selections 

embodying  noble  sentiments  are  repeated  by  the  children  as  a  part 

of  the  opening  exercises.     In  my  opinion,  no  equal  amount  of 

\     time  during  the  day  is  more  profitably  spent.     These  gems  will 

/     constitute  ;an  armory,  in  which,  in  after  life,  the  children  will  find 

/     a  ready  weapon  to  meet  the  temptations  of  "the  world,  the  fleshy 

and  the  devil." 

Some  one  has  said  that  the  highest  end  of  moral  training  is  to 
establish  a  sense  of  duty.  Success  in  this  depends  upon  the  de- 
gree of  self-control  to  which  the  child  is  brought. 

I  have  already  said  that  we  should  put  no  responsibility  upon  a 
child  which  he  is  unable  to  bear.  We  can,  however,  best  develop 
his  self-control  by  putting  him  under  responsibility  equal  to  his 
moral  strength.  For  the  older  pupils  in  our  grammar  schools,  I 
Ihave  found  no  other  method  equal  to  what  may  be  called  **  Self 
|Government."  By  this  I  mean  a  plan  which  throws,  so  far  as  is 
possible,  the  responsibility  for  the  order  and  general  well-being  of 
the  class  upon  itself.  If  I  mistake  not,  the  plan  is  similar  to 
that  adopted  at  Amherst  College. 

The  class  elects  its  own  president  and  secretary,  and  the  class 
and  principal,  a  committee  to  attend  to  all  details  of  order  and  dis- 
cipline. My  first  trial  of  this  was  in  a  large  country  school  • 
more  than  thirty  years  ago.  The  trial  proved  a  success.  Since 
that  time  I  have  occasionally  tried  it  in  different  places  and  under 
widely  different  conditions.  The  degree  of  success  has  been  far 
from  uniform,  but  never  so  near  a  failure  as  to  shake  my  faith  in 
it  with  an  ordinary  class  of  suitable  age,  or  so  near  a  failure  as 
self-government  sometimes  seems  to  be  in  certain  large  communi- 
ties. 

It  should  be  added  that,  unless  the  moral  tone  of  the  class  as  a 
whole  is  in  sympathy  with  the  plan,  and  the  teachers  enter  into  it 
most  heartily,  it  may  result  in  evil  rather  than  in  good. 

But  infinitely  above  all  other  influences  combined  for  the  moral 
training  of  children  in  school  is  the  personality  of  the  teacher. 
Consciously  or  unconsciously,  he  must  influence  them  for  good  or 
for  evil.  That  influence  is  probably  always  greater  than  we  sup- 
l)08e.     Who  of  us  cannot  today  recall  some  teacher  of  our  child- 


63G  EDUCATIOy.  [April, 

hood  whose  memory  is  fragrant  with  all  that  is  beautiful,  good,  and 
true?  I  am  glad  of  the  opportunity  to  mention,  with  the  deepest 
gratitude,  the  name  of  my  first  teacher,  Mary  Coolidge  Whitman. 
She  became  the  successor  of  Mary  Lyon,  at  Mt  Holyoke  Seminar}-, 
and  later,  Mrs.  Morton  Eddy,  of  Fall  River.  A  single  sentence 
from  her  great,  loving  heart  has  followed  me  like  a  benediction 
all  these  years. 

Miss  Arnold,  the  daughter  of  Thomas  Arnold,  once  led  me 
through  the  grounds  of  his  summer  home  at  Fox-Howe,  in  the 
Lake  District  of  England.  She  pointed  out  the  beauties  of  the 
landscape,  from  the  very  spot  where  Arnold  and  his  neighbor, 
Wordsworth,  used  to  admire  them  together.  At  Rugby,  I  was 
conducted  through  the  rooms  and  grounds  made  so  familiar  by 
Tom  Brown,  and  stood  by  Arnold's  grave  in  the  chapel.  Upon 
the  walls  I  read  the  names  of  Rugby  boys  whose  history  has 
become  the  pride  and  glory  of  England. 

Dean  Stanley  says,  "Whatever  peculiarity  of  character  was 
impressed  on  the  scholars  whom  it  sent  forth,  was  derived,  not 
from  the  genius  of  the  place,  but  from  the  genius  of  the  man. 
Throughout,  whether  in  the  school  itself,  or  in  its  after  effects,  the 
•one  image  that  we  have  before  us,  is  not  Rugby,  but  Arnold." 

Few  teachers  can  be  Arnolds.  But  all  teachers  can  have  the 
^spirit  which  led  him  to  say,  "  My  object  will  be,  if  possible,  to  form 
•Christian  men.  I  should  like  to  try  whether  our  system  of  public 
jschools  has  not  in  it  some  noble  elements  which,  under  the  bless- 
ing of  the  Spirit  of  all  holiness  and  wisdom,  might  produce  fruit 
unto  life  eternal." 


April  is  here ! 
There  's  a  song  in  the  maple,  thrilling  and  new ; 
There  's  a  flash  of  wings  of  heaven's  own  hue ; 
There  's  a  veil  of  green  on  the  nearer  hills ; 
There  's  a  burst  of  rapture  in  woodland  rills ; 
There  are  stars  in  the  meadow  dropped  here  and  there  ; 
There  's  a  breath  of  arbutus  in  the  air ; 
There  's  a  dash  of  rain,  as  if  flung  in  jest ; 
There  's  an  arch  of  color  spanning  the  west ; 

April  is  here ! 


1889.1  ABOUT  ENGLISH.  637 


THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE 

AND  LITERATURE,^ 

VI. 

ABOUT     ENGLISH. 
BY  MART  A.   RIPLET. 

NO  knowledge  is  more  often  beneficial  to  its  possessor  than  is 
the  knowledge  of  his  own  language.  Indeed,  it  is  a  con- 
stant advantage  to  be  able  to  express  one's  thought  with  clearness, 
with  variety,  with  elegance.  Linguistic  ignorance  cannot  be  con- 
cealed —  unless  one  be  dumb.  You  cannot  utter  three  sentences, 
original  and  spontaneous,  without  betraying  your  power  in  lan- 
guage —  or  lack  of  it.  You  cannot  write  the  simplest  note  on  the 
commonest  topic,  without  revealing  your  familiarity  or  unfamil- 
iarity  with  idiomatic  forms,  forms  of  grace  and  strength.  The 
impression,  favorable  or  otherwise,  which  one  makes  upon  stran- 
gers, depends  largely  upon  his  words,  and  the  way  he  puts  them 
together.     This  sentence-building  'nuxy  become  high  art. 

We  are  taught  authoritatively,  that  all  animals  have  powers  of 
expression  sufficient  to  explain  any  ideas  they  have.  Bees  do  all 
the  talking  they  wish  to  do ;  flies,  undoubtedly,  do  their  little 
gossiping,  in  a  way  to  be  understood  by  their  companions ;  per- 
haps, it  would  not  be  far  out  of  the  way  to  assert  that  a  person's 
power  in  language  indicated  approximately  his  power  to  think. 
It  is  the  wonderful  instrument  by  which  his  mysterious  thought, 
begotten  in  the  secret  chambers  of  the  brain,  becomes  eflfective. 
A  thought  never  brought  forth  into  the  light  of  service  is  practi- 
cally dead.  Picture,  if  you  can,  the  world  as  it  would  be  today, 
had  the  idea  of  the  steam  engine  never  been  incarnated  in  speech 
or  in  matter.  And  yet  you  will  hear  intelligent  men  and  women 
decrying  the  critical  study  of  language,  talking  as  if  the  explana- 
tion of  words  and  phrases  and  their  relations  were  a  lingo  which 
were  better  done  away  with.  Would  you  condemn  the  description 
of  a  granite  chip  ?  of  a  sea  shell  ?     Would  you  forbid  the  analysis 

'  Copyright,  1888,  by  Eastern  Educational  Bureau. 


588  EDUCATIOy.  [April, 

of  water  ?  of  air  ?  of  earth  ?  Is  not  a  perfect  sentence  as  wonder- 
ful, as  beautiful,  as  divine,  as  is  a  star  ?  Is  it  not  the  handiwork 
of  God,  as  much  as  a  sun  is  ?  Who  strikes  out  thought  from  the 
human  mind  ?  Who  framed  the  vocal  organs  in  such  wise  that 
speech  mu%t  result? 

The  careful  study  of  the  niceties  of  language  gfives  power  in 
reading.  How  often  one  finds,  even  in  first-class  authors,  such 
obscurity,  such  ambiguity,  that  he  must  apply  this  science  of  gram- 
mar for  its  illumination.  Take  long  sentences,  much  inyolved; 
they  roll  on  sonorously,  like  an  ocean  wave,  but  you  must  work  to 
get  the  meaning.  And  in  much  of  the  finest  poetry,  with  its 
inversions,  and  its  archaisms,  and  its  abundance  of  tropes  of  all 
kinds,  one  will  be  lost  in  its  mazes,  unless  he  possess  this  clew  to 
lead  him  out. 

Would  not  most  of  the  slang  and  profanity  which  abound  more 
or  less  in  all  circles,  be  dispensed  with  if  people  had  a  fuller 
vocabulary  ?  Are  not  oaths  used  largely,  not  because  men  choose 
to  employ  objectionable  words,  but  because  they  have  certain  feel- 
ings which  demand  expression,  and  they  have  no  other  terms 
handy  ?  Just  as  children  and  untaught  persons  indulge  in  inter- 
jections—  they  must  be  exclamatory.  It  is  a  sort  of  savage 
instinct,  which  has  survived  many  other  primitive  characteristics. 

It  would  not  be  denied,  certainly,  that  pure  and  forcible  English 
is  uncommon.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  a  full  vocabulary  of 
native  words  is  a  rare  i)ossession.  You  and  I  may  have  these 
treasures ;  but  our  neighbor,  yonder,  in  the  little  corner  hoiise,  is 
wofully  deficient.  And,  as  we  think  of  it,  we  recall  that  we  have 
heard  a  deal  of  talk,  in  the  great  stone  palace  near  by,  which  would 
grate  upon  ears  refined.  The  dreadful  grammar  did  seem  inap- 
propriate under  the  lambent  lights,  and  among  costly  and  delicate 
pictures,  and  draperies,  and  furnishings  of  rarest  beauty.  Yes, 
and  I  remember  there  were  elegant  book-shelves,  heavy  with  the 
loveliest  editions  of  most  famous  authors ;  but  these  were  so  neWy 
so  well-kept,  really  did  not  look  as  if  they  had  ever  been  read. 
And  when  I  wished  to  find  a  choice  thing,  upon  a  time,  the  key 
had  to  be  hunted  for,  and  finally  it  was  found — so  carefully  had 
it  been  hidden  that  it  was  almost  lost.  There  were  a  half  dozen 
well-grown  children  in  the  house,  and  it  appeared  that  the  books 
were  not  for  daily  food  but  were  there  like  the  golden  lamps^ 
and  silken  curtains,  and  much  other  stuff  —  mostly  for  show. 


1889.]  ABOUT  ENGLISH.  639 

It  is  said  that  children  talk  as  they  hear  other  people  talk.  So 
they  do,  mostly,  more's  the  pity.  They  catch  language  from 
parents,  and  teachers,  and  preachers.  Yes ;  and  the  language  they 
catch,  speaking  generally,  will  be  sufficient  for  them,  as  to  the 
usual  animal  needs  ;  for  bread,  and  fire,  and  clothes.  But  this  is 
not  knowing  English.  It  reminds  me  of  those  French  conversa- 
tions which  consist  mostly  in  politely  asking  your  friend  at  table 
such  questions  as,  Avez-vous  le  paix  ou  le  vin  ?  Avez-votcs  faim  au 
soif?  Not  that  the  least  knowledge  is  to  be  despised.  But  these 
necessary  commonplaces  are  not  conversation.  There  is  very  lit- 
tle conversation  in  society;  there  are  very  few  people  who  can 
converse.  Conversation  implies  a  vocabulary  respectable  in  quan- 
tity and  quality,  and  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  matter  in  hand.  I 
remember  a  young  woman,  who  had  been  speaking  of  a  lady  who, 
she  thought,  could  converse  very  finely.  At  last,  this  young  per- 
son, who,  I  believe,  really  coveted  this  superb  accomplishment, 
said,  as  if  it  were  a  fresh  idea,  "  I  believe  people  have  to  know 
something  in  order  to  converse."  I  assured  her  that  they  did. 
She  seemed  to  have  had  the  notion  that  fluency,  and  sense,  and 
charm,  had  nothing  under  them ;  that  the  mouth  opened,  and  the 
jewels  escaped.  She  wanted  the  flower  and  the  fruit;  she  was 
not  willing  to  dig  about  the  roots,  or  to  water  and  prune  the 
plants. 

Besides  the  study  of  technical  grammar,  there  are  several  other 
means  by  which  one  may  improve  his  English.  From  childhood, 
one  should  habitually  report  and  record  his  observations.  This  is 
generally  named  composition,  but,  as  composition  is  such  a 
"scare-word,"  the  work  might  be  accomplished  under  the  "No 
Name  Series."  This  method  would  secure  two  results,  at  least ; 
the  gain  in  language,  and  the  getting  of  knowledge  at  first-hand, 
without  the  intervention  of  books.  A  verbal  report  of  any  ob- 
servation would  work  particularly  well  with  very  young  stu- 
dents ;  afterwards,  alternate  with  writing. 

The  careful  study  of  any  foreign  tongue  may  be  made  to  assist 
greatly  in  the  mastery  of  one's  own.  And,  for  this  reason  mainly, 
so  far  as  most  learners  are  concerned,  I  would  not  only  favor,  but 
urge,  the  thorough  study  of  the  elements  of  several  languages. 
Very  few  intend  ever  to  so  master  a  foreign  tongue  as  to  do  much 
witli  its  literature.  Indeed,  I  suppose  most  works  which  general 
readers  would  wish  to  know,  may  be  had  in  excellent  translations. 


540  EDUCATION.  [April, 

I  never  have  thought  much  of  the  idea  that  public  schools  should 
teach  any  language  but  English,  for  business  purposes ;  for  gen- 
eral culture,  yes,  decidedly.  But,  to  study  German,  that  one  may 
sell  a  bushel  of  potatoes  to  a  newly  arrived  immigrant ;  to  study 
French,  that  one  may  barter,  in  poor  imperfect  phrase,  de  chmx^  is, 
it  seems  to  me,  a  waste  of  time.  For  these  new-comers  are  not 
going  to  remain  Germans  or  French,  Polish  or  Italian ;  usually 
they  are  in  haste  to  become  full-fledged  American  citizens.  They 
have  come  here  because  America  is  a  better  place  for  the  family  — 
for  that  part  of  the  family  which  has  a  future  —  than  is  Germany 
or  Poland,  Italy  or  France.  They  do  not  desire  that  America 
should  become  Europe,  they  have  had  enough  of  that  sort;  and 
they  are  going  to  learn,  shortly,  to  buy  their  bread  and  their  meat, 
their  chairs  and  tables,  and,  a  good  many  of  them,  broad  acres  and 
large  houses,  in  very  intelligible  English.  Do  not  hinder  them, 
but  help  them,  by  forcing  them  to  speak  the  language  of  their  new 
country,  whenever  you  can  do  so. 

The  breaking  up  of  bad  liabits  of  speech  may  be  greatly  aided 
by  such  study  as  is  referred  to  in  the  early  paragraphs  of  this 
paper.  And,  if  one  at  maturity  becomes  conscious  of  defective 
speech,  no  reason,  but  his  own  lack  of  earnestness,  need  prevent 
the  acquisition  of  correct  uttemnces,  the  dropping  of  coarse  forms, 
the  gathering  of  a  copious  and  refined  vocabulary ;  he  need  not 
finish  his  life  before  he  has  discovered  the  open  secret  of  how  to 
put  the  right  word  in  the  right  place. 


Mine  be  the  force  of  words  that  tax  the  tongue 
But  once,  to  speak  them  full  and  round  and  clear ; 
They  suit  the  speech,  or  song,  and  suit  the  ear. 
Like  bells  that  give  one  tone  when  rung ;     *     •     • 
Their  short,  quick  chords  the  dull  sense  charm  and  cheer. 
That  tires  and  shrinks  fVom  words  to  great  length  strung ; 
Strong  words,  of  old,  that  shot  right  to  the  brain, 
And  hit  th*^  heart  as  soon,  were  brief  and  terse. 
Who  finds  them  now,  and  fits  them  to  his  sling. 
Smooth  stones  from  brooks  of  English  ore  his  gain. 
Which  shall  make  strong  his  thought,  in  prose  or  verse, 
Wills  he  with  scribes  to  write  or  bards  to  sing. 

Harpers's  Magazins. 


1889.]  EDITOBIAL.  541 


EDITORIAL. 

JUST  what  President  Adams,  of  Cornell,  means  by  his  assertion  that 
American  schools  are  inferior  to  those  of  Europe,  we  are  not 
informed.  In  one  sense,  most  things  in  this  country  are  inferior  to  the 
corresponding  things  abroad.  Inferior  in  length  of  days,  in  the  con- 
solidated power  that  comes  from  continuous  and  consistent  administra- 
tion ;  and  in  the  technique  which  is  the  result  of  generations  of  admin- 
istrative ability.  Is  it  possible  that  some  of  our  university  men,  in  their 
growing  respect  for  specialism  and  the  new  order  of  university  life, 
forget  the  radical  distinction  between  European  and  American  civiliza- 
tion ?  It  is  doubtless  more  agreeable  to  the  faculty  of  a  university  to  be 
absolutely  independent  of  the  people  for  endowment  and  authority  to 
direct  the  complete  method  of  training  its  students.  This  is  the  Eu- 
ropean way  ;  proceeding  from  the  top  downwards  and  forcing  all  rebel- 
lious and  contradictory  elements  to  conform  or  be  thrown  off  the  track. 
The  educational  system  of  Germany  is  a  part  of  the  German  system  of 
government ;  admirable  from  that  point  of  view ;  with  various  merits 
that  may  be  adapted  to  our  own  conditions.  But  so  far  as  the  experi- 
ence of  a  century  goes  the  United  States  has  no  reason  to  hang  its  head 
in  view  of  the  achievements  of  any  European  power  in  the  success  of 
good  government  and  a  Christian  civilization.  In  spite  of  the  ten  thou- 
sand faults  and  failures  of  detail,  it  is  found  that,  in  the  long  run,  the 
whole  people  is  greater,  wiser,  and  better  than  any  class.  The  best  of 
American  education  is  the  fruit  borne  bv  its  faithful  administration. 
Without  invidious  comparison,  we  are  not  unwilling  to  place  five 
thousand  American  graduates  of  American  colleges  alongside  of  five 
thousand  students  of  the  university  of  Berlin,  and  let  the  world  judge 
of  their  comparative  ability,  resources,  tact,  and  progress  along  the 
noblest  line  in  dealing  with  our  modem  life.  This  brings  again  to  the 
front  the  important  question :  Is  this  specializing  of  the  instructor  and 
the  student  now  becoming  the  rage  in  certain  high  university  quarters, 
which  send  forth  a  prodigy  of  training  and,  often,  a  very  narrow  speci- 
men of  a  man,  a  real  gain?  When  one  reads,  with  amazement,  such 
a  paper  as  Professor  Huxley's  late  demonstration  on  science  and  religion 
and  marks  the  magnificent  deficiencies  in  the  mental  and  moral  make- 
up of  so  many  of  our  celebrated  authorities  on  particular  lines  of  culture, 
he  is  tempted  to  inquire  whether,  after  all,  this  is  the  way  of  wisdom. 
It  would  not  be  strange  if  the  young  women  in  our  higher  class  of 


54S  EDUCATION.  [April. 

schools,  with  all  their  lack  of  accurate  knowledge  and  confessed  inferi- 
ority in  special  culture,  should  gain  from  their  college  life  a  nobler 
result  than  their  brothers,  subjected  to  the  high-pressure  European 
knowledge-mill,  which,  in  grinding  out  an  expert,  too  often  annihilates 
the  manhood  of  the  man. 

IN  the  valuable  lectures  recently  given  in  the  Old  South  Meeting 
House,  Boston,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Massachusetts  Society  for 
Promoting  Good  Citizenship,  the  career  of  Josiah  Quincy  as  the  Great 
Mayor  was  brought  up  anew,  for  the  admiration  and  imitation  of  the 
present  generation.  The  courageous  devotion  to  principle  ^hich  made 
his  six  years*  administration  in  Boston  such  a  success,  was  particularly 
noticed.  That  same  devotion  to  principle,  especially  in  little  things, 
was  seen  during  his  sixteen  years*  presidency  of  Harvard  College  (from 
1829  to  1S45).  For  in  all  that  time  he  was  absent  from  morning 
prayers  but  three  times,  and  then  he  was  an  attendant  on  court  at  Con- 
cord as  a  witness  on  business  of  the  college.  Morning  prayers  were 
then  held  at  six  in  summer,  and  in  winter  at  the  earliest  moment  at 
which  it  was  possible  to  read. 

Mr.  Quincy  was  also  faithful  to  the  religious  services  in  the  chapel 
on  Sundays,  losing,  in  all  the  sixteen  years,  but  one  half  day,  when  the 
last  illness  of  a  near  relative  called  him  away.  He  was  always  in  his 
seat,  facing  the  students,  before  they  or  the  officiating  officer  arrived. 
During  this  time  also,  he  never  attended  the  theatre  nor  permitted  card- 
playing  in  the  president's  house.  This  was  done  from  pure  principle, 
for  both  before  and  afler  his  presidency,  he  had  no  objection  to  a  play 
nor  to  a  **  solemn  game  of  whist*' ;  but  he  was  determined  not  to  be 
known  to  indulge  in  amusements  which  were  forbidden  to  them  by  the 
laws  of  the  college. 

These  things,  small  in  themselves,  reveal  the  character  of  the  man. 
In  his  early  manhood,  when  a  member  of  the  House  of  Representatives 
at  Washington,  he  took  a  decided  stand  against  the  then  very  prevalent 
fashion  of  dueling,  and  lived  up  to  it;  for  he  would  neither  be  ^*  pro- 
voked into  sending  a  challenge,  nor  shamed  into  accepting  one."  This 
he  did  from  a  moral  conviction  which  even  Henry  Clay  had  not  the 
courage  to  aver.  He  always  said  he  owed  his  strength  and  indepen- 
dence in  the  House  largely  to  this  well-known  resolution  of  his. 

He  was  also  firm  in  adhering  to  his  determination  to  write  his  letters 
outside  of  Congressional  business  hours ;  for  he  considered  the  time  set 
apart  for  making  the  country's  laws  not  his  for  personal  ends,  even  let- 
ter-writing. Being  alone  in  this  matter  did  not  deter  him  from  carrying 
out  his  conviction. 

A  man  of  such  strength  of  character  certainly  deserves  to  be  brought 


1889.]  EDITOBIAL,  643 

up  anew  for  the  consideration  of  the  present  generation.  His  interest- 
ing life  by  his  son  should  be  more  generally  read,  especially  by  the 
young  men. 

ryiHERE  may  be  some  questions  which  can  be  settled  and  will  stay 
JL  settled.  But  there  are  many  which  must  forever  be  argued  and 
discussed,  with  plenty  of  combatants  to  espouse  either  side.  Each  gen- 
eration inherits  all  the  wealth  of  the  past,  but  each  generation  thinks 
for  itself  and  will  not  take  the  ipse  (//a^/V  of  another,  but  must  examine, 
weigh,  and  balance  for  itself.  Every  child  must  pay  dear  for  some  kind 
of  a  whistle.  In  vain  the  father  says,  "I  have  tried  it  and  seen  the 
folly  of  it,"  —  the  young  son  will  forever  reply,  "  Father,  let  me  try  it, 
I  want  to  see  the  folly  of  it  too."  It  may  sometimes  be  best  to  let  the 
youngster  burn  his  own  fingers.  He  will  surely  after  that  know  what 
fire  will  do.  But  oftentimes  this  is  a  sad  experiment,  and  we  would 
fain  ask  the  young  man  to  profit  by  the  experience  of  the  past  and  give 
a  wide  berth  to  choke-cherries,  March  turnip,  and  dynamite. 

The  above  generalizations  are  suggested  by  the  fresh  effort  of  Cardi- 
nal Manning,  as  evidenced  in  his  article  in  the  March  Forum  on  "  The 
Bible  in  the  Public  Schools,"  to  try  the  experiment  of  "  sowing  thistles 
for  a  harvest  of  figs." 

The  good  Cardinal  is  sore  vexed  that  "  the  legislature  of  Massachu- 
setts two  hundred  years  ago  enacted  that  '  the  whole  people  must  be 
educated  to  a  certain  degree  ;  all  children  shall  be  educated  at  the  public 
expense,  irrespective  of  any  social  distinctions.'  " 

This  horrible  method  of  ignoring  "  social  distinctions"  in  determin- 
ing the  quantus  of  education  appears  to  the  noble  prelate  a  fearful 
thing,  for  he  says :  '*  No  doubt  the  aim  of  this  leveling  theory  is  to 
bring  about  a  universal  equality  by  education,  which  history  shows  to 
be  unattainable;  or  if  transiently  attained  in  youth,  certain  to  be 
destroyed  at  once  as  soon  as  men  and  women  enter  upon  their  careers 
in  life. ''  Observe  what  terrible  results  this  equality  of  education  brings. 
^'  It  is  evident  that  in  this  arbitrary  and  unnatural  attempt  to  reverse 
the  laws  of  Providence  the  great  majority  of  children  are  trained  for  a 
career  which  to  them  is  impossible,  and  are  not  trained  for  the  lot  which 
inevitably  awaits  them  when  they  leave  school  and  fall  back"  [back 
is  a  good  word]  '*  into  their  old  homes, ^^  Forsooth,  when  they  "  leave 
school"  a  good  many  of  them  in  our  country  establish  new  homes  for 
themselves  and  often  of  a  sort  quite  different  from  the  homes  of  the 
fathers,  when  they  became  naturalized,  and  vastly  superior  to  the  earth 
floors  and  stone  or  mud  walls  of  their  grandfathers  in  the  "old  coun- 
try." 

'^  Many  a  father  and  mother  toils  night  and  day  to  clothe  a  son  for  a 


544  EDUCATION.  [April, 

common  school  in  a  fitting  garb,  like  his  richer  comfMinions/'  Ah  ! 
Cardinal,  thank  you  for  that  pretty  picture.  It  is  true.  But  let  us  fol- 
low the  Cardinal  a  little  further.  *'^  When  he  leaves  school,  ^th  hands 
unused  to  manual  labor,  and  with  thoughts  and  cravings  for  which  his 
home  gives  no  satisfaction,  how  can  he  be  content  with  his  humble 
lot?" 

Indeed,  how  can  he?  He  cannot,  and  he  will  not.  *^  Cravings  for 
which  his  home  gives  no  satisfaction !  "  Just  so.  Hence  he  carves  out 
a  new  home  for  himself  and  often  for  that  father  and  mother,  w^here 
his  '^  cravings  *'  can  be  satisfied  and  where  his  dear  parents  spend  their 
last  days  in  peace  and  quiet,  surrounded  by  every  comfort  and  enjoying 
luxuries  which  in  the  old  world  are  limited  to  the  few  who  from  some 
*^  unnatural  attempt  to  reverse  the  laws  of  Providence,"  did  happen  to 
be  born  with  ^^  golden  spoons  in  their  mouths." 

Many  a  city  in  the  ^*  American  Union  "  can  show  many  a  happy 
home,  where  the  son, —  now  a  lawyer,  doctor,  clergyman,  merchant, 
manufacturer,  banker,  or  "  railroad  king, "  —  was  aided  to  obtain  a**  com- 
mon school  education  "  by  the  wash-tub  of  that  devoted,  loving  mother, 
who  now  in  her  declining  days  for  the  first  time  in  her  life,  knows  the 
absence  of  want,  and  the  presence  of  loving  comfort  and  filial  luxury. 

'*  How  can  he  be  content  with  his  humble  lotf^*  He  cannot,  and 
what  is  more,  he  will  not.  He  kicks  the  ^^  lot"  out  from  under  him, 
and  asserts  his  manhood. 

But  again.  "  And  how  can  he  be  free  from  the  temptations  which 
surround  a  discontented  man?''  He  cannot,  but,  thank  God,  he  is 
free  from  the  immeasurably  greater  temptations  and  evils  which  inva- 
riably surround  a  '*  contented  "  man. 

And  now  once  more  :  —  '^  A  generation  of  young  men  is  rising,  for 
whom  there  is  no  provision,  either  in  their  homes  or  in  the  public  life 
of  the  states."  True,  but  they  soon  make  '^  provision"  in  new  homes 
—  private  homes  of  their  own  —  and  have  more  "  provision  "  and  bet- 
ter than  in  the  old  home,  of  their  fathers. 

Does  Cardinal  Manning  really  desire  no  elevation  or  advancement  of 
the  human  race?  Let  us  now  hear  the  Cardinal's  conclusion.  It  is 
not,  —  please  observe,  —  a  conclusion  based  upon  religion,  or  morality, 
upon  brains,  or  character,  but  upon  *' uncontrollable  laws"  which 
"  develop  5t?<:/a/  inequalities."  Do  we  read  aright?  If  so,  these  are 
the  words  of  ''  Henry  Edward  Cardinal  Manning,"  to  wit :  — 

**  So  long  as  the  social  state  by  uncontrollable  laws  develops  social 
inequalities,  it  is  useless  and  perilous  to  educate  all  men  as  if  society 
were  a  dead  level,  irrespective  of  any  social  distinctions." 

It  were  vain  to  pursue  this  branch  of  the  subject  further. 

In  conclusion  we  turn  with  a  great  relief  and  a  sincere  satisfaction  to 


1889.]  EDITORIAL.  545 

a  sentiment  which  must  meet  with  a  responsive  approval  from  every 
right-minded  man,  which  the  good  Cardinal  phrases  this  way:  *^I 
rejoice  that  it  [the  Bible]  is  read  in  the  Board  Schools  of  England,  even 
without  a  right  interpretation." 

'*  So  say  we  all"  —  let  the  Bible  be  read  in  the  schools,  and  let  '*  the 
interpretation  "  take  care  of  itself. 

CARDINAL  MANNING,  in  his  Forum  article,  sets  up  a  man  of 
straw,  only  to  show  how  easy  it  might  be  knocked  down.     He 
says :  "  The  Public  School  makes  no  provision  for  the  liberty  of  con- 
science.    All   children   are  compelled  to  pass  through   the  common 
school,  in  which  neither  religion  nor  morality  can  be  taught." 

It  would  seem  superfluous  to  deny  such  a  statement.  In  every  state 
in  the  Union,  parents  can  send  their  children  to  parochial  or  other 
schools,  or  have  their  education  carried  on  at  home  by  private  tutors, 
or  by  the  parents  themselves,  and  morality  is  taught  most  effectively  in 
the  public  schools. 

Moreover  the  Cardinal  says :  "  The  state  has  a  right  to  protect  itself 
from  the  crimes  committed  by  children  who  are  abandoned  by  viciou8> 
or  careless  parents.  .  .  .  The  state  has  a  duty  to  protect  the  chil- 
dren abandoned  by  careless  or  criminal  parents,  and  notably  to  protect 
the  rights  of  such  children  to  the  inheritance  of  a  human  and  Christian 
education.     For  these  two  ends  compulsion  is  lawful  and  just. 

'^  What  parents  ought  to  do,  and  through  their  own  unnatural  abandon- 
ment of  their  children  do  not  do,  the  state  has  both  right  and  duty  to> 
provide  for." 

Now  these  admissions  carry  with  them  all  the  rights  and  duties  which 
are  necessary  to  establish  the  American  system  of  common  schools.  If 
the  state  has  a  right  to  care  for  the  education  of  children  whose  parents- 
do  not  attend  to  it,  surely  it  has  the  right  to  judge  of  the  educatioa 
to  be  given.  And  if  it  has  the  right  and  duty  *'  to  protect  itself  from 
the  crimes  committed  by  children  who  are  abandoned  by  vicious  or 
careless  parents,"  it  certainly  has  the  right  to  prevent  such  crimes  by 
education  and  proper  training.  Plainly,  the  right  to  protect  from  any 
evil  carries  with  it  the  right  to  prevent  such  evil. 

IT  is  with  reluctance  that  the  following  criticism  is  penned.  But  the 
interests  of  truth  and  correct  principles  of  education,  make  it  neces- 
sary to  subordinate  personal  appreciation  of  men  and  to  speak  words  of 
criticism  for  false  notions  and  dangerous  doctrines  irrespective  of  the 
source  whence  they  come.  Cardinal  Manning  ought  to  have  known 
better  than  to  be  betrayed  into  the  false  and  ridiculous  positions  taken 
by  him  in  his  article  in  a  recent  number  of  The  Forum,  some  of  which 


Z4»  ED  UCA  TIOX.  [April, 

are  commented  upon  in  these  pages.  In  like  manner  it  is  to  be  regret- 
ted that  Colonel  Dawson,  our  esteemed  United  States  Commissioner  of 
Education,  should  have  suOered  himself  to  think  the  thoughts  or  write 
the  words  which  are  quoted  below,  and  which  are  taken  from  his  letter 
transmitting  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  the  monograph  prepared  by 
Dr.  Herbert  B.  Adams  upon  ^'  Thomas  Jefferson  and  the  University  of 
Virginia."  The  expression  of  such  sentiments  from  such  a  source,  if 
allowed  to  pass  unchallenged,  may  be  the  source  of  great  mischief. 
The  editor  believes  it  to  be  the  proper  province  of  this  magazine  to  hold 
up  the  highest  and  truest  ideals  of  education,  to  press  for  general  recog- 
nition correct  principles  and  their  application  to  all  educational  work. 
He  does  not  think  it  his  duty  to  take  up  every  cudgel  which  he  may  find 
lying  in  his  path,  or  to  combat  every  error  which  is  floating  in  the  broad 
sunbeams  of  light  and  truth,  but  there  are  times  and  occasions  when 
silence  is  criminal.  Only  at  such  times  is  it  the  intention  of  Education 
to  enter  into  polemic  criticism. 

In  the  letter  of  transmittal  above  referred  to  is  the  following  para- 
graph :  — 

^^  JeAerson  was  the  first  conspicuous  advocate  in  this  country'  of  cen- 
tralization in  university  education,  and  of  decentralization  in  prepara- 
tory and  common  schools.  He  was  a  thorough  believer  in  the  concen- 
tration of  state  aid  upon  higher  educational  interests,  and  in  the  support 
of  primary  and  secondary  education  by  local  taxation  and  private 
philanthropy.  In  his  judgment,  local  government  and  common  schools 
should  have  been  established  together  and  concurrently  in  the  State  of 
Virginia.  He  would  have  subdivided  the  counties  into  *  hundreds  *  or 
^  wards,'  corresponding  to  the  militia  districts,  and  have  made  the  dis- 
trict school-house  the  place  of  local  assembly  and  primary  education. 
The  training  of  every  community  to  good  citizenship  and  self-help  by 
active  participation  in  local  affairs,  such  as  the  support  of  schools,  roads, 
and  bridges,  was  the  ideal  of  popular  education  in  the  mind  of  Jeffer- 
son. He  proposed  that  the  children  should  be  taught  not  merely  read- 
ing, writing,  arithmetic,  and  geography,  but  also  through  reading- 
books,  the  history'  of  the  world  and  their  own  country.  Such  an  educa- 
tional ideal,  at  once  sound,  sensible,  and  thoroughly  democratic,  is 
worthy  of  consideration  afler  the  lapse  of  more  than  a  century  since  it 
was  first  proclaimed.** 

These  utterances  are  diametrically  opposed  to  the  American  system 
of  education.  They  represent  the  ante-bellum  ideas  of  the  South. 
The  past  civilization  of  the  Southern  states,  based  as  it  was  upon  the 
system  of  African  slavery,  was  slow  to  grasp  or  comprehend  the  broad 
idea  of  universal  education  for  all  the  masses.  In  this  respect  the 
South  antagonized  the  common  school  idea,  and,  following  the  lead  of 


1889.]  SCIENCE  IN  THE  SCHOOLS.  547 

Jefferson,  held  that  it  was  the  province  of  the  state  to  support  institu* 
tions  of  higher  education  in  which  to  educate  the  rising  generation  of 
the  ruling  classes,  and  to  leave  '^  primary  and  secondary  education  to 
local  taxation  and  private  philanthropy.** 

As  everybody  knows,  this  would  be  to  have  education  for  the  masses  un- 
accomplished. In  the  sparsely  settled  sections  of  Virginia  and  the  South, 
but  little  was  done  or  could  be  done  in  this  direction  under  such  a  system. 
Cardinal  Manning  but  echoes  the  same  sentiment  in  his  article  above  re- 
ferred to.  Indeed,  both  sources  indicate  an  anti-democratic  principle  at 
once  in  harmony  and  sympathy  with  a  monarchy  and  a  hierarchy.  It  is- 
deeply  to  be  regretted  that  at  this  day  the  chief  officer  of  the  educational 
bureau  of  our  republic  should  feel  called  upon  to  revive  this  antiquated 
and  exploded  theory  of  a  hundred  years  ago,  and  to  commend  it  as  "  an 
educational  ideal,  at  once  sound,  sensible  and  thoroughly  democratic, 
and  worthy  of  consideration  after  the  lapse  of  more  than  a  century  since 
it  was  first  proclaimed." 

Against  such  educational  heresy,  in  the  name  of  the  American  peo* 
pie,  — the  educated  and  the  illiterate,  — and  of  the  future  generations 
of  this  free  republic,  we  feel  called  upon  to  enter  a  strong  protest. 

THE  attention  of  the  readers  of  this  magazine  is  respectfully  called 
to  the  leading  article  in  this  number,  written  by  that  well-known 
author.  Miss  Elizabeth  Porter  Gould,  upon  John  Adams  as  a  School- 
master. The  article  will  prove  to  be  of  exceptionable  value  to  all 
teachers.  A  similar  article  on  Daniel  Webster  as  a  Schoolmaster, 
appeared  from  the  same  author  in  Education  for  February,  1886. 


SCIENCE  IN  THE  SCHOOLS. 

REPORT   OF   THE   COMMITTEE   ON   THIS   SUBJECT  MADE  TO   THE   AMER- 
ICAN  SOCIETY   OF   NATURALISTS. 

THE  vote  passed  at  the  New  Haven  meeting  of  the  Society,  made  it 
our  duty  ''to  develop  a  scheme  of  instruction  in  Natural  Science 
to  be  recommended  to  the  schools." 

In  regard  to  the  general  topic  of  Science  Teaching  in  the  Schools,  we 
believe  the  following  propositions  fairly  formulate  the  views  which  are 
held  by  the  members  of  the  Society,  and  which  the  Society  should  use 
its  influence  to  difiuse  :  — 

1.  Instruction  in  Natural  Science  should  commence  in  the  lowest 
grades  of  the  Primary  Schools,  and  should  continue  throughout  the 
curriculum. 

2.  In  the  lower  grades  the  instruction  should  be  chiefly  by  means  of 
object  lessons ;  and  the  aim  should  be  to  awaken  and  guide  the  curiosity 


*48  EDUCATIOy.  [April, 

of  the  child  in  regard  to  natural  phenomena,  rather  than  to  present  sys- 
tematized bodies  of  fact  and  doctrine. 

3.  More  systematic  instruction  in  the  Natural  Sciences  should  be 
given  in  the  High  Schools. 

4.  While  the  Sciences  can  be  more  extensively  pursued  in  the 
English  course  in  the  High  Schools  than  is  practicable  in  the  Classical 
course,  it  is  indispensable  for  a  symmetrical  education  that  a  reasona- 
ble amount  of  time  should  be  devoted  to  Natural  Science,  during  the 
four  years  of  the  High  School  course,  by  students  preparing  for  College. 

5.  An  elementary  (but  genuine  and  practical)  acquaintance  with 
some  one  or  more  departments  of  Natural  Science  should  be  required 
for  admission  to  College. 

Believing  that  the  propositions  stated  above  will  command  general 
acceptance,  we  are  aware  that  there  must  be  difference  of  opinion, 
among  the  members  of  our  own  Society  and  among  intelligent  educators 
in  general,  in  regard  to  details,  and  that  the  precise  subjects  to  be 
introduced  into  the  curriculum  must  vary  somewhat  with  the  circum- 
stances of  different  localities.  We  offer  the  following,  not  as  necessarily 
the  best  scheme,  but  as  a  reasonable  and  practical  scheme  w^hich  may 
at  least  serve  to  illustrate  the  general  principles  which  we  have  for- 
mulated. 

In  the  primary  schools,  and  in  the  lower  grades  of  the  grammar 
schools,  we  would  recommend  that  the  study  of  plants  and  animals 
should  be  the  main  part  of  the  scientific  work.  The  botanical  instruc- 
tion should  commence  with  such  simple  exercises  as  drawing  and 
describing  different  forms  of  leaves,  and  should  gradually  advance  to 
the  easier  and  more  conspicuous  flowers,  and  later  to  the  more  obscure 
and  difficult  forms  of  flowers,  the  fruits  and  seeds. 

The  zoological  instruction  in  the  lower  schools  should  not  attempt  a 
systematic  survey  of  the  whole  animal  kingdom,  but  attention  should 
be  directed  chiefly  to  the  most  familiar  animals,  and  to  those  which  the 
pupils  can  see  alive.  The  common  domesticated  mammals  should  first 
be  studied,  and  later  the  birds,  the  lower  vertebrates,  the  insects, 
Crustacea,  and  moUusks.  While  the  range  of  zoological  instruction 
must  be  limited  as  regards  the  number  of  forms  studied,  those  few 
familiar  forms  should  be  so  compared  with  each  other  as  to  g^ve  the 
pupils,  very  early,  some  conception  of  the  main  lines  of  biological 
study  —  morphology,  physiology,  taxonomy. 

Special  prominence  should  be  given  to  the  study  of  plants  and 
animals  which  are  useful  to  man  in  any  way ;  and  the  teacher  may 
advantageously,  from  time  to  time,  give  familiar  talks  in  regard  to 
useful  products  of  vegetable  and  animal  origin,  and  the  process  of  their 
manufacture. 

Attention  should  also  be  given  to  the  more  obvious  characteristics  of 


1889.]  SCIENCE  IN  THE  SCHOOLS.  549 

the  kinds  of  minerals  and  rocks  common  in  the  region  in  which  any 
school  is  situated,  and  to  such  geological  phenomena  as  are  compara- 
tively simple  and  easily  obser\'ed. 

A  most  important  feature  of  the  scienti6c  instruction  in  the  lower 
grades,  should  be  to  encourage  the  pupils  to  collect  specimens  of  all 
sorts  of  natural  objects,  and  to  make  those  specimens  the  subject  of 
object  lessons.  The  curiosity  of  the  children  will  thereby  be  rationally 
cultivated  and  guided. 

The  subject  of  human  physiology  and  hygiene  is  of  so  immense 
practical  importance,  and  so  few  comparatively  of  the  pupils  ever  enter 
the  high  school,  that  we  regard  as  desirable  some  attempt  to  teach  the 
rudiments  of  the  subject  in  the  grammar,  and  even  in  the  primary, 
schools. 

We  would  recommend  the  introduction  of  exceedingly  rudimentary 
courses  in  physics  and  chemistry  in  the  highest  grades  of  the  grammar 
school. 

We  would  recommend  as  perhaps  the  most  desirable  branches  of 
science  to  be  included  in  the  Classical  courses  in  the  high  school, 
and  to  be  required  for  admission  to  College,  physical  geography, 
phaenogamic  botany,  and  human  physiology.  The  first  is  suggested  as 
tending  to  keep  alive  in  the  student's  mind  a  sympathetic  acquaintance 
with  nature  in  its  broader  aspects ;  the  second,  as  affording  unequaled 
opportunities  for  discipline  in  observation;  the  third,  as  aflbrding 
knowledge  of  the  greatest  practical  importance. 

The  rudiments  of  physics  and  chemistry,  which  we  propose  for  the 
grammar  schools,  will  enable  physical  geography  and  physiology  to  be 
intelligently  studied  in  the  early  years  of  the  high  school  course. 

For  the  scholars  in  the  English  course  in  the  high  school,  there  will 
naturally  be  more  advanced  and  systematic  instruction  in  chemistry, 
physics,  and  zoology,  and  also  instruction  in  geology  and  astronomy. 
But  the  Classical  students  may  with  propriety  leave  these  studies  until 
they  reach  them  in  the  College  course.  The  scientific  instruction  they 
will  have  received  in  the  primary  and  grammar  schools,  and  the  study 
of  the  three  branches  above  specified  in  their  high  school  course,  will 
be  sufficient  to  preserve  that  natural  and  wholesome  sympathy  with 
nature,  the  loss  of  which  is  now  the  main  obstacle  to  the  successful 
study  of  Natural  Science  in  the  Colleges. 

Samuel  F.  Clarke,  Williams  College. 
William  North  Rice,  Wesleyan  University. 
William  G.  Farlow,  Harvard  University. 
George  Macloskie,  College  of  New  Jersey,  Princeton. 
C.  O.  Whitman,  Editor  Journal  of  Morphology. 
December  28,  1888. 


660  EDUCATIOy.  [April, 


C   GOODWIN  CLARK. 

THIS  well-known  educator  died  at  his  home  in  AUston,   Mass., 
March  8th,  at  the  age  of  sixty-three.     He  had  been  master  of  the 
Gaston  School,  Boston,  ever  since  its  first  organization.      He  was  a 
remarkably  successful  teacher.     Hundreds  of  visitors  from  all  parts  of 
the  country  and  from  foreign  lands  have  visited  the  Gaston  School. 
His  methods  of  teaching,  his  clear  thought,  and  good  judgment  of  men 
and  measures  placed  him  in  the  forefront  of  New  England  teachers. 
The  tributes  of  respect  paid  to  him  at  his  funeral  by  Dr.  Larkin  Dun- 
ton,  Masters  James  F.  Blackinton,  and  James  A.  Page,  of  Boston,  and 
Principal  L.  L.  Camp,  of  New  Haven,  Ct.,  and  at  a  meeting  of  the 
Boston  School  Board  by  every  member  of  his  division  committee.  Dr. 
L.  D.  Packard,  Charles  T.  Gallagher,  the  president  of  the  Board,  and 
formerly  a  pupil  of  Mr.  Clark,  Judge  Joseph  D.  Fallon,  William  A. 
Mo  wry,  and  Richard  J.  Walsh,  and  other  tributes  on  difierent  occa- 
sions, attest  in  a  remarkable  manner  the  high  place  Mr.  Clark  had  won 
in  the  affections  and  confidence  of  his  fellow  teachers  and  co-workers. 
The  writer  of  this  had  known  Mr.  Clark  and  observed  his  w^ork  for 
more  than  thirty  years,  and  would  appropriate  as  his  own  ^ords  the 
high  encomiums  pronounced  upon   him  by  those  mentioned  above. 
What  a  testimonial  were  the  words  of  Dr.  Dunton  which  concluded 
his  address  at  the  funeral  services  in  the  Allston  Church  :  — 

'^  He  was  an  all-round  schoolmaster.  He  had  no  specialties,  no 
hobbies,  no  crotchets.  One  subject  was  to  him  of  just  as  much  im- 
portance as  another  till  it  had  received  its  due  share  of  attention.  He 
strove  constantly  for  the  full,  complete,  well-balanced  development  of 
his  pupils,  and  never  for  the  glory  which  comes  from  giving  public  but 
undue  prominence  to  any  one  branch  of  study.  He  was  professionally 
honest  to  as  high  a  degree  as  any  man  I  ever  knew.  This  kept  his 
school  well  poised  ;  and  his  keen  professional  insight,  his  high  ideal  of 
the  art  of  teaching,  and  his  quick,  shrewd,  accurate  judgment,  all  tended 
to  elevate  the  administration  of  all  departments  of  school  work.  So 
that  for  many  years  he  has,  by  the  universal  judgment  of  the  profession, 
stood  at  the  head  of  the  teachers  of  his  grade. 

*' And  still  his  power  was  felt  quite  as  much  beyond  his  school  as  in 
it.  He  was  widely  and  accurately  informed  in  regard  to  all  school 
questions  agitating  the  educational  world,  and  took  a  lively  interest  in 
them  all.  Then,  too,  he  possessed  in  a  marked  degree,  one  trait  for 
which  public  school  teachers  are  not  specially  noted.     He  was  abso* 


1889.]  C.  OOODWm  CLARK.  561 

lutely  fearless  in  the  expression  of  his  opinions.  His  opinions  were 
convictions,  and  he  had  the  courage  of  his  convictions.  If  a  criticism 
ought  to  be  made  on  a  fellow  teacher  or  an  official  superior,  he  seemed 
absolutely  forgetful  of  self  and  all  consequences  to  self,  and  in  the  inter- 
est of  truth,  and  for  the  promotion  of  the  public  good,  spoke  the  truth 
freely  and  fearlessly.  Public  education  in  the  city  of  Boston  and 
throughout  the  country  is  under  deep  and  lasting  obligations  to  him  for 
his  wise  and  earnest  advocacy  of  school  reforms. 

^^  His  acquaintance  with  public  aftairs  was  generous,  and  his  interest 
in  the  welfare  of  the  nation  was  deep.  He  was  something  of  a  prac- 
tical politician,  but  mainly  in  the  direction  of  educational  affairs.  Here 
many  a  man  has  felt  the  power  of  his  opposition. 

^'  His  religious  nature  was  deep,  quick,  devotional.  He  was  catholic 
in  spirit  and  toleranf  in  opinion.  His  creed  was  often  expressed  in 
these  words :  '  The  fatherhood  of  God  and  the  brotherhood  of  man.^' 
God  he  adored  ;  man  he  loved.  Here,  I  believe,  lies  the  secret  of  his- 
great  success.  Thoroughly  conscientious,  he  was  devoted  to  the  good 
of  his  fellowmen. 

^'  But,  afler  all,  what  drew  us,  what  cheered  us,  what  comforted  us^ 
was  his  great,  warm,  generous  heart.  His  social  power  among  his 
friends  was  phenomenal.  Keen,  bright,  genial,  witty,  he  was  pre- 
eminently the  life  of  our  professional  social  gatherings.  At  our  ban- 
quets the  merriest  laugh  rang  out  from  his  end  of  the  table.  The 
broadest,  cheeriest  smile  spread  itself  over  his  face ;  and  the  merriest 
group  found  him  at  its  center.  He  no  doubt  had  his  blue,  sad  hours,  —  as 
who  has  not?  —  but  he  kept  them  for  himself;  to  his  friends  he  brought 
light,  peace,  and  joy. 

^^  The  same  generous,  genial  nature  poured  itself  out  in  fullness  in 
the  domestic  circle.  Few  men  lavish  so  deep  and  warm  an  afiection 
upon  the  members  of  their  own  families.  He  lived  in  and  for  his 
friends. 

^^  A  great,  wise,  inspiring  teacher  has  gone  to  his  reward.  A  noble, 
generous  friend  has  passed  away.  But  what  a  legacy  he  has  left  behind  I 
What  riches  of  sweet  memories,  of  joys,  of  hopes,  of  loving  friendship, 
are  ours !  Though  dead,  how  truly  he  lives,  and  will  forever  live,  in 
the  hearts  of  all  who  knew  him  and  have  been  favored  with  an  intimate 
knowledge  of  his  useful  life.  We  do  well  to  commemorate  and  cherish 
such  a  life,  and  thus  to  make  it  a  perpetual  inspiration  to  better  thought 
and  action." 


ft62  EDUCATIOX.  [April, 


T//B  MA  SSA  CHUSE  TTS  SO  CIE  TT FOR  PR  OAfO  TING 

GOOD   CITIZENSHIP. 

THE  Massachusetts  Society  for  Promoting  Good  Citizenship,  with 
its  headquarters  at  Boston,  is  proving  itself  to  be  an  organization 
which  could  well  be  duplicated  in  every  state  in  the  Union. 

For  those  who  are  not  conversant  with  the  aim  and  w^ork  of  this 
society,  now  in  its  second  year,  an  outline  here  may  not  be  out  of  place. 

As  its  Constitution  says,  its  object  is  to  disseminate  a  knowledge  of 
the  principles  of  good  citizenship,  and  to  promote  the  observance  of  the 
duties  imposed  thereby. 

Any  person,  irrespective  of  sex,  desiring  to  further  the  object  of  the 
society,  either  by  individual  or  organized  effort,  may  become  a  member 
by  signing  the  Constitution,  either  in  person  or  by  proxy. 

The  administration  of  the  society  is  vested  in  a  Body  of  Directors. 
Any  member  may  become  a  director  by  vote  of  a  majority  of  the  direc- 
tors present  at  any  regularly  called  meeting.  These,  who  are  in  £ict 
the  active  members,  are  assessed  an  annual  tax  of  one  dollar. 

The  officers  are  a  President,  one  or  more  Vice-Presidents,  a  Treas- 
urer, a  Secretary,  and  an  Executive  Committee,  consisting  of  the  Presi- 
dent, Secretary,  and  five  others.  These  are  elected  at  the  annual 
meeting  held  on  the  Monday  next  preceding  the  last  Wednesday  of 
May.  Dr.  Edward  Everett  Hale  is  the  President  of  the  society.  Will- 
iam A.  Mowr}',  Hon.  Edward  Atkinson,  and  three  others,  Vice- 
Presidents  ;  Dr.  C.  F.  Crehore,  the  Secretary ;  Seth  P.  Smith,  the 
Treasurer ;  and  Edwin  D.  Mead,  Chairman  of  the  Executive  Commit- 
tee. 

The  directors  elect  annually  the  following  standing  committees,  of 
which  a  member  of  the  executive  committee  is  ex  officio  chairman  :  — 

I.  A  Committee  on  Membership.  2.  A  Committee  on  Courses  of 
Reading,  and  upon  Courses  of  Study  in  schools  and  higher  instittstions 
of  learning  in  matters  pertaining  to  citizenship.  3.  A  Committee  on 
Publications  and  Lectures.     4.     A  Committee  on  Finance. 

But  while  thus  organized  for  work  the  real  success  depends  upon  the 
earnest  individual  eflbrt  of  members ;  to  these  the  society  does  not  desire 
to  give  too  specific  instructions.  It  calls  upon  each  to  follow  out  in  the 
wisest  way  his  best  thought  concerning  the  subject.  Whether  engaged 
in  any  department  of  educational  or  distinctly  religious  life,  whether 


1889.]  SOCIETY  FOB  PROMOTING  GOOD  CITIZENSHIP.  553 

engrossed  in  a  business  career,  or  absorbed  in  the  duties  of  home  and 
social  life,  the  daily  vocation  gives  abundant  opportunity  and  scope  for 
promoting  the  ends  for  which  the  society  exists.  Various  gifts  make 
various  opportunities.  Many  can  help  the  organized  work  of  the  soci- 
ety by  pecuniary  aid  ;  thus,  ten  dollars  will  pay  for  the  publication  of  a 
good  tract ;  thirty  dollars  for  a  pamphlet.  The  publication  of  such  is  a 
prominent  feature  of  the  society,  more  and  more  to  be  encouraged. 
The  Committee  on  Courses  of  Study,  Prof.  Davis  R.  Dewey,  Chairman, 
has  already  published  a  circular  containing  a  list,  with  notes,  of  text- 
books for  the  study  of  Civil  Government,  which  has  been  sent  to  all 
teachers  of  such  in  Massachusetts,  and  in  many  other  states.  The  series 
of  articles  on  *' Preparation  for  Citizenship  in  New  England  Colleges," 
now  appearing  at  successive  intervals  in  Education,  will,  when  com- 
pleted, be  issued  as  a  second  circular  of  information  to  be  distributed 
among  the  colleges  of  the  country.  Another  forthcoming  circular  will 
announce  a  select,  suitable  list  of  books  to  aid  purchasing  committees  in 
libraries  and  schools,  and  for  home  reading.  These  publications  are 
sent  to  all  members  of  the  society. 

In  addition  to  the  annual  meeting  in  May,  meetings  are.held  on  the 
last  Monday  in  September,  December,  and  March.  Those  who  heard 
the  papers  of  Mr.  William  E.  Sheldon,  on  *'  Instruction  in  Citizen- 
ship," and  of  Rev.  Charles  F.  Dole,  on  *'  The  Trustworthy  Citizen,"  at  the 
September  and  December  meetings  respectively,  were  impressed  anew 
with  the  need  and  possibilities  of  the  society.  An  enlarged  opportunity 
for  work  has  recently  opened  in  having  Doctor  Hale*s  well-conducted 
magazine.  Lend  a  Hand^  as  a  public  medium  of  communication. 

A  debt  of  gratitude  is  due  the  society  for  the  valuable  and  entertaining 
lectures  recently  given  in  the  Old  South  Meeting  House  on  Monday 
evenings,  from  January  7th  to  March  4th.  The  subjects,  relating  to 
Municipal  Government  and  Reform,  were  not  only  wisely  selected,  but 
admirably  treated  by  gentlemen  especially  well  fitted  for  the  work.  The 
*'  Rise  of  American  Cities,"  by  Prof.  Albert  H.  Hart,  was  followed  by 
lectures  on  the  Government  of  Birmingham  and  Berlin,  by  Rev.  John 
Cuckson  and  Sylvester  Baxter.  The  newspaper  reports  of  these  could 
not  do  justice  to  the  amount  of  information  they  contained.  Mr.  Cuck- 
son pronounced  Birmingham  to  be  the  best  governed  city  in  England, 
and  Mr.  Baxter  said  Berlin  was  the  best  governed  in  the  world. 

*'  The  New  Ballot  System,"  as  given  by  Mr.  Richard  H.  Dana,  was 
not  only  novel  with  its  illustrations  of  details,  but  exceedingly  timely  in 
view  of  the  fact  that  Massachusetts  is  so  soon  to  make  use  of  the  Aus- 
tralian system.  Doctor  Mowry,  editor  of  Education,  in  ''The  True 
School  Board,"  made  many  a  valuable  suggestion,  which  as  one  of  the 
newlv-elected  members  of  the  Boston  School  Committee,  had  more  than 


SDVCATtOy. 


[Apdl, 


usual  weight  to  some  minds.  The  scholarly  paper  on  "  Josiah  Quincy 
the  Great  Mayor,"  hy  Hon.  Mellen  Chamberlain,  rite  Librarian  of  the 
Boston  Public  Library,  gave  a  historical  value  to  the  course,  not  to  be 
lost  sight  of  in  the  educational  aim  of  the  society.  But  this  uras  not  all. 
An  inspiring  flight  of  the  imaginution  was  revealed  in  Dr.  Edward 
Everett  Hale's  "  Possible  Boston."  After  such  a  hopeful,  though  not 
improbable  outlook,  perhaps  it  was  well  that  the  lectures  should  close 
with  a  practical  look  at  the  "  Government  of  Boston,"  by  Hon.  Heniy 
H.  Sprague. 

A  supplementary  lecture  quite  equal  to  its  predecessors  was  given  at 
the  March  meeting  by  Dr.  William  T.  Harris,  on  "  The  Study  of 
History  as  Productive  of  Good  Citizenship." 

The  strength  of  this  society  lies  in  the  strong  men  allied  to  it.  Be- 
sides the  officers  already  mentioned,  and  a  large  number  of  intelligent 
members,  the  standing  committees  include  such  men  its  John  Fiske, 
Rev.  W.  C.  Winslow,  LL.  D..  Rev.  John  G.  Brooks,  Gamaliel  Brad- 
ford, Curtis  Guild,  Jr.,  and  others  well  known  in  the  various  profe»- 
sions.  But  behind  the  men  are  ever  the  broad,  genuine  principles  of  a 
true  citizenship  seeking  the  best  expression. 

Elizabbtii  Pohtbr  Gould. 


HOMOGENEOUS  EQUATIONS. 

To  THE  Editor  of  Education  :  — 

In  Education  for  February  (1889)  is  an  article  on  "  The  Teaching 
of  Mathematics,"  by  Geo.  W.  Evans.  In  a  foot-note  on  page  387 
388  of  this  article  appears  the  following  :  "  For  a  common  mis-state- 
ment on  this  point,  sec  Bradbury's  Elementary  Algebra,  S  184,  p.  196." 
The  following  is  the  article  referred  to :  — 

184.  A  Homogeneous  Equation  is  one  in  which  the  sum  of  the 
exponents  of  the  unknown  quantities  in  each  term  containing  unknown 
quantities  is  the  same.     Thus, 

or  *3_^  3^_y9_^3^^_|.^_   ay 

or  *^  —  4  *^y  +6  «"y  —^''y^  +>^  —  ^56 

is  a  homogeneous  equation. 

For  the  same  "  mis-statement,"  consult — 

Greenlcaf 's  Elementary  Algebra,  page  259. 
Docharty's  Institutes,  "     190. 

Loomis'  Treatise,  "     198. 

Robinson's  Elementary,  "     250. 


1889.]  FOBEION  NOTES.  666 

Robinson's  University,  page  176. 

Hamblin  Smith's,  '*     190. 

Wentworth's  Elements,  *'     223. 

Wells'  Complete,  "     237. 

Chrystal's,  "     404. 

If  all  these  writers  on  Algebra  ag^ee  to  call  such  an  equation  as 
2y^  —  4  xy  -|-  3  ^"^  z=  1 7  (  Went  worth's  Elements,  page  223) ,  or  ap*  — 
2xy=z  ^  (Wells'  Complete,  page  238),  homog-eneous  equations^  who 
shall  say  them  nay?  If  all  agree,  and  are  consistent  in  using  the 
expression,  they  have  a  perfect  right  to  have  such  a  technical  term. 
Further,  I  cannot  find  anyone  who  has  defined  a  homog-eneous  equation 
in  any  other  way.  Some  do  not  use  the  expression  at  all,  though  some 
of  these  do  define  a  homogeneous  expression,  Chrystal  (Edinburgh, 
1886),  pages  404-5,  calls  such  simults^neous  equations  as  «®-|-;r^  =  l3 
and  xy —  2y^  :zz  i,  '*  The  so-called  Homogeneous  System,''* 

One  who  criticises  another  should  be  very  careful  himself.  On  the 
same  page  of  this  article  Mr.  Evans  (though  he  does  not  himself  define 
a  homogeneous  equation,)  writes  thus :  ^^  As  a  homogeneous  equation 
can  always  be  factored,"  etc.  He  gives  as  a  homogeneous  equation 
65  x^  —  64  xy  •\'i$y^z=iO  (factors  $x  —  3^  z=  o  and  i^x  —  5  j^  =  o) . 
If  this  equation  is  changed  to  61  x^  —  64  xy  -f-  15^^  =  o,  is  it  a  homo- 
geneous equation  }  Are  $  x  —  3^  =:  o,  and  ij^x  —  ^y  =.0  homogene- 
ous equations?  If  not,  what  is  a  homogeneous  equation?  Will  Mr. 
Evans  give  the  factors  of  these  last  three  equations  ? 

W.  F.  Bradbury. 


FOREIGN  NOTES. 

Secondary  Education.  —  The  interest  in  problems  relating  to  sec- 
ondary education  as  manifested  in  our  own  country  at  the  present  time 
finds  its  counterpart  in  discussions  and  experiments  now  going  on  in 
foreign  countries. 

In  some  instances,  notably  in  France  and  Belgium,  these  matters  are 
involved  with  party  politics ;  in  Spain  and  Italy,  where  there  is  great 
educational  awakening,  they  seem  for  the  time  being  less  urgent  than 
the  interests  of  elementary  instruction  for  illiterate  masses;  it  is  in  Ger- 
many and  Great  Britain  par  excellence  that  secondary  education  is 
treated  on  its  merits  without  undue  reference  to  politics  or  to  other 
grades  of  scholastic  work.  In  the  former,  these  discussions  starting 
with  the  question  of  over-pressure  have  worked  by  a  logical  process 
back  to  that  of  the  "  classics  versus  science."  The  traditional  thorough- 
ness and  persistence  of  the  Teutonic  mind  makes  it  certain  that  here  the 
matter  will  be  sifted  down  to  fundamental  principles  and  curricula  and 


\ 


666  EDUCATION.  [  April, 

adjustments  gp^adually  evolved  that  will  give  light  and  guidance  to  the 
civilized  world. 

English  speaking  countries  are  proceeding  hy  practical  experiment 
along  the  same  line  and  in  the  end  will  probahly  find  a  substantial 
agreement  between  their  own  practice  and  the  German  dicta. 

The  conditions  of  secondary  instruction  in  Great  Britain  resemble 
those  of  the  United  States  in  many  particulars.  State  aid,  state  regula- 
tions and  state  inspection,  which  are  the  three  salient  conditions  of 
secondary  education  in  continental  Europe,  are  entirely  wanting  in 
England  and  play  but  a  small  part  in  Scotland.  The  absence  of  these 
restraints  has  both  advantages  and  disadvantages.  Just  now  the  latter 
excite  more  attention  than  the  former  and  even  those  who  are  most 
jealous  of  that  liberty  of  action  which  Englishmen  prize  above  all  other 
privileges,  admit  the  need  of  better  guarantees  of  efficiency  in  the  case 
of  many  secondary  schools. 

The  officers  and  patrons  of  learning  in  England  who  favor  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  minister  of  education  would  place  these  schools  under 
his  direction ;  while  those  who  are  opposed  to  officialism  advocate  a 
law  for  the  registration  of  all  teachers  and  the  development  of  examina- 
tions for  secondary  schools  by  universities  and  other  impractical  agen- 
cies. The  London  Journal  of  Education  defines  its  position  on  the 
subject  as  follows:  ^^We  desire  a  Minister  of  Education.  .  .  re- 
sponsible generally  for  public  instruction  from  the  universities  to  the 
elementary  school.  We  desire  a  compulsory  Registration  Bill  which 
shall  include  teachers  of  every  grade.  Lastly,  we  desire  supervision  of 
all  endowed  schools.*'  This  supervision  is  not  intended  to  imply  gov- 
ernment inspection  or  government  examination  but  some  authoritative 
record  of  the  conditions  of  efficiency. 

In  Scotland  the  experiment  of  government  inspection  of  secondary 
schools  has  been  tried  for  two  years. 

From  the  report  of  '*the  Committee  of  Council  on  Education*'  for 
1887-88  it  appears  that  the  number  of  schools  voluntarily  seeking  the 
inspection  has  increased  and  further  that  while  in  a  few  cases  renewed 
inspection  has  shown  the  adverse  conditions  affecting  individual  schools 
to  be  insurmountable ;  as  a  rule  it  has  given  evidence  of  renewed  activ- 
ity and  a  development  of  curricula  to  meet  modern  requirements.  The 
examinations  show  in  general  that  the  instruction  is  sound  in  what  are 
commonly  called  university  subjects,  viz. :  Latin,  Greek,  and  mathe- 
matics. The  prevailing  tendency  of  parents  to  withdraw  their  children 
before  they  reach  the  highest  class  is  noted  as  a  serious  loss  to  the 
children  themselves.  Another  evil  which  the  report  dwells  upon  as 
affecting  the  general  efficiency  of  the  schools  is  the  irregularity  of  at- 
tendance caused  by  parents  withdrawing  their  children  before  the  close 


1889. J  FOREIGN  NOTES.  557 

of  the  year's  session  and  unduly  prolonging  their  vacations.  These 
complaints  surely  sound  familiar  to  American  readers. 

In  connection  with  the  inspection  of  higher  schools,  the  committee 
have  devised  a  plan  of  examinations  for  leaving  certificates.  Three 
grades  of  certificates  have  been  provided  named  respectively,  honors, 
first  grade,  and  second  grade. 

The  system  of  inspection  and  examination  thus  established  in  Scot- 
land is  closely  analagous  to  that  maintained  by  the  Regents  of  the 
University  of  New  York.  The  experiment  and  its  results  are  the  more 
interesting  to  us  on  account  of  the  many  points  of  resemblance  between 
the  Scotch  system  and  our  own.*  The  higher  classes  of  the  burg  schools 
and  the  endowed  high  schools  like  those  of  Edinburgh  and  Dundee  cor- 
respond to  the  public  high  schools  of  the  United  States,  the  voluntary 
schools  to  the  private  schools  of  our  country  ;  while  there,  as  here,  pro- 
vision for  secondary  instruction  is  completed  in  the  preparatory  work 
undertaken  by  the  universities. 

BELGIUM. 

Clergy  vs.  Schools.  —  By  a  recent  decree  of  the  Belgian  govern- 
ment the  clergy  have  been  given  access  to  all  the  middle  and  higher 
schools  in  the  state.  Heretofore  they  have  had  the  right  to  teach  reli- 
gion in  such  schools,  but  it  has  seldom  been  exercised.  Henceforth 
two  hours  weekly  may  be  given  up  in  each  class  to  their  subjects.  In 
case  they  do  not  use  the  time,  the  ordinary  masters  may  utilize  it  for 
gymnastics,  revising  back  lessons  or  preparing  lessons.  The  power 
given  to  the  clergy  of  interfering  with  the  programs  of  the  schools  is 
much  resented  by  the  teachers  of  the  same. 

The  Educational  Exposition  at  Copenhagen  (1888).  —  The 
Scandinavian  Educational  Exposition  held  in  Copenhagen  last  year 
was  noted  particularly  for  its  art  and  industrial  features.  The  chief 
technical  schools  of  the  three  realms,  viz. :  "  The  Royal  Institute  of 
Art  and  of  Industry"  at  Christiana,  the  '*  Technical  Schools  of  Stock- 
holm" and  of  Copenhagen  formed  the  most  impressive  part  of  the 
exhibition.  Decorative  designs,  models  in  clay,  metal  work  and  wood 
work  were  characteristic  of  all  three.  The  works  of  the  carpenter  and 
the  builder  in  wood  were  most  conspicuous  in  the  *' Royal  Institute  of 
Christiana"  and  gave  a  wonderful  impression  of  the  decorative  and 
architectural  possibilities  of  this  material.  In  his  report  of  the  exposi- 
tion in  the  Revue  Pedagogique  of  January,  Mons.  H.  Durand  dwells 
particularly  upon  this  feature.  He  notes  also  that  girls  were  repre- 
sented in  the  Norwegian  section  by  manual  work  only.  This  comprised 
needlework  of  all  kinds,  implements  of  household  industry  and  natural 


558  EDUCATIOX.  [AprU, 

history  collections,  including  flowers,  mosses,  leaves  and  shells  mounted 
and  classified  with  great  taste  and  skill. 

The  elementary  schools  had  no  place  in  the  Norwegian  section. 

In  Sweden  technical  instruction  is  equally  developed  on  the  scientific 
and  practical  sides.  In  the  former  it  includes  the  study  of  arithmetic, 
algebra,  geometry,  trigonometry,  physical  and  natural  science.  In  the 
latter  it  includes  the  exercises  that  lead  to  the  practical  professions,  par- 
ticularly those  pertaining  to  the  construction  and  decoration  of  houses. 

The  designs  furnished  by  the  technical  school  of  Stockholm  showed 
at  once  force  and  beauty.  They  comprised  a  great  range  of  subjects 
from  the  simplest  geometric  figures  to  the  most  complicated  machines, 
reproductions  of  the  antique  and  original  compositions  for  tapestry  and 
mural  decoration.  Girls  participate  in  this  training  in  Sweden,  and 
while  their  sculptured  work  was  not  equal  to  that  of  the  bo3's  their 
wood  carving  and  modeling  surpassed. 

The  Danish  section  included  all  grades  and  classes  of  schools  and 
very  clear  idea  of  the  entire  system  was  conveyed  by  means  of  maps, 
statistical  charts,  programs,  written  exercises,  drawings,  etc. 

The  interest  in  popular  education  throughout  the  kingdom  is  indi- 
cated by  the  per  capita  expense  for  elementary  schools  which  the  com- 
munes willingly  assume  and  by  the  steady  increase  in  school  attendance. 

The  following  statistics,  showing  the  expense  for  each  child  in  the 
schools  in  six  important  cities  of  Europe,  are  taken  from  a  chart  pre- 
pared for  the  exposition  :  Stockholm,  i8S6,  $13.67  ;  Copenhagen,  1SS8, 
$13.40;  Leipsic,  1S83,  $11.52  ;  Berlin,  1886,  $10.98  ;  Christiana,  1 884, 
$9.38;  Dresden,  1885,  $8.84. 

Drawing  is  an  important  branch  of  all  classes  of  schools  in  Denmark. 
Exercises  in  design  are  introduced  in  a  very  elementary  stage  and 
maintained  throughout  in  accordance  with  the  soundest  principles. 
The  chief  end  of  the  instruction,  as  stated  in  the  programs,  '*is  to  hab- 
ituate the  eye  to  observe  and  the  mind  to  conceive  for  itself  the  form  of 
objects." 

Naturally  upon  such  a  basis,  technical  instruction  has  had  a  large  and 
vigorous  development.  Sixty-six  schools  of  this  character  of  public  or 
private  origin  are  maintained  in  the  kingdom.  Their  work  is  stimu- 
lated by  the  '*  society  of  technical  schools"  whose  headquarters  are  at 
Copenhagen.  The  leading  school  is  that  of  the  capital  city.  This  en- 
rolled one  thousand  seven  hundred  and  fifty  pupils  in  188S  following^ 
courses  of  study  which  appertained  to  forty-five  different  arts  and  trades. 
The  care  and  expense  lavished  upon  the  school  may  be  inferred  from 
the  fact  that  the  director  receives  a  salary  equivalent  to  $5,376  besides 
his  residence.  A.  t.  s. 


1889.] 


BIBLIOGBAPHY. 


659 


BIBLIOGRAPHT  OF   CURRENT  PERIODICAL    LIT- 
ERATURE   UPON  EDUCATION. 


The  following  bibliography  of  current  periodical  literature  includes  articles  upon 
education  and  other  subjects  calculated  to  interest  teachers.  Only  articles  from  peri- 
odicals not  nominally  educational  are  mentioned.  Articles  of  special  importance  to 
teachers  will,  as  a  rule,  be  mentioned  in  notes. 


Adaptiveness  of  Nature,  llie.  Grant 
Allen.  North  American  Review^  March. 

Agno8tiei9m :  a  Reply.  Dr.  Wace 
and  the  Bishop  of  Peterborough. 
Nineteenth  Century^  March. 

Alcibiadefi.  Thomas  D.  Seymour. 
Chautauquan^  March. 

AnarchiAiu,  Scientific.  U.  L.  Os- 
good. Political  Science  Quarterly^  Mar. 

Anglophobia  in  the  United  States: 
A  Reply.  O.  J.  Casey.  Westminster 
i?ev»eto,  March. 

Antiquity,  Some  Leosons  of.  F. 
Max  MUlter.    Fortnightly  Beview^  Mar. 

Art.  An  Art  not  generally  under- 
stood. U.  Arthur  Kennedy.  Contem- 
porary Bevieto^  March. 

Aryans.  The  Aryans  In  Science  and 
Hisitory.  Horatio  Hale.  Popular  Sci- 
ence Monthly y  Man*h. 

Ballot.  The  Bnllot  in  New  York. 
A.  C.  Bernhehu.  Political  Science  Quar- 
terly^ March. 

Barr,  Mrs.,  The  Novels  of.  Oscar 
Fay  Adanifs.    Andover  BeHew^  March. 

Belou,  Pierre,  Sketch  of.  Popular 
Science  Monthly^  March. 

Bimetallism.  A  Dialogue.  E.  Bro- 
die  Hoare.    National  Bevieto^  March. 

Bryce's  American  Commonwealth. 
Woodrow  Wilson.  Political  Science 
Quarterly^  March. 

Canada,  Comments  on.  Charles 
Dudley  Warner.    Harper^s^  March. 

Canada,  The  Manifest  Destiny  of. 
J.  G.  Schurman.     Forum^  March. 

Celestial  Species,  The  Origin  of.  J. 
Norman  I/Ockyer.    Harper^s,  March. 

Centenaire  d*  une  constitution,  Le. 
I.  Jjes  Mecomptes  et  les  Succ^s  des 
Etats-Unis.  Due  de  Noailles.  Bevue 
des  Deux  Mondes^  Feb. 

Chemistry.  The  Chemistry  of  To- 
day. Jra  Remsen.  Popular  Science 
Monthly^  March. 

An  able  argument  for  the  study  of 
Chemistry  for  the  sake  of  pure  sci- 
ence. 


Clay,  Henry.  Coleman  E.  Bishop. 
Chautauquan^  March. 

Colonial  Lawyers  and  their  Work, 
Some.  Frank  Gay  lord  Cook.  Atlan- 
tic^ March. 

Color  in  the  Animal  World.  J.  G. 
Wood.     Chautauquan^  March. 

Competition  and  Trusts.  George 
lies.     Popular  Science  Monthly,  March. 

Copyrighti>,  Common-Sense  and. 
Geort^e  S.  Bouthwell.  North  Ameri- 
can Beview,  March. 

Criminal,  The  care  of.  Z.  R.  Brock- 
way.     Chautauquan,  March. 

A  valuable  article. 

Darwin's  Brlllinnt  Fallacy.  St. 
George  Mivart.    Forum,  March. 

Day-School.  A  Country  Day-School 
Seventy  Years  Ago.  P.  H.  Gosse. 
Longman's,  March. 

Divination  In  the  Seventeenth  Cen- 
tury. F.  I^gge.  National  Beview, 
March. 

Douleur  Morale,  La.  H.  Beaunis. 
Bevue  Philnsophique,  March. 

Dreams  as  related  to  Literature. 
James  Sully.     Forum,  March. 

Earth,  The  Foundat ion-Stones  of 
the.  T.  G.  Bonney.  Popular  Science 
Monthly,  Marc^. 

Ecoe  Homo.  Westminster  Beview, 
March. 

Economy  in  Intellectual  Work.  Wm. 
H.  Burnham.    Scribner^s,  March. 

The  writer  considers  the  important 
question,  '*  How  the  maximum  of  in- 
tellectual work  can  be  done  with  the 
minimum  expenditure  of  energy,"  and 
devotes  special  attention  to  the  rela- 
tion of  unconscious  cerebral  processes 
to  the  problem  of  economy. 

Educational  Policy,  Canon  Grego- 
ry's. Hugh  Price  Hughes.  Contem- 
porary Beview,  March. 

Electricity.  Something  Electricity 
is  Doing.  Charles  Barnard.  Century^ 
March. 


seo 


EDUCATION. 


rApriU 


Embezzlers  and  Defaulters.  John 
Habberton.     Chautanqnan^  March. 

EmigniDts.  Gentlemen  Emigrants 
to  the  United  SUtes.  Blackwood's^ 
March. 

English  Women,  The  Characteria- 
tlcs  of.  II.  E.  Lynn  Linton.  Fint- 
nightly  Review^  Man^h. 

Mentions  some  of  the  learned  women 
who  have  lived  in  England. 

Ethuographlc,  —  0»ur«  de  1*  Ecole 
d'  anthropoiogie  de  Paris :  L*  evolu- 
tion des  my  theBetdes  religions.  Andr^ 
Lefivre.     Revue  Scientijlque^  Feb.  16. 

Examination  and  Education.  Presi- 
dents Adanm,  Gllman,  and  many  oth- 
ers. Nineteenth  Century^  American 
Supplement,  March.  I..eonard  Scott 
Pub.  Co. 

A  collection  of  American  opinions 
on  the  Nineteenth  Century  Protest, 
and  on  the  relation  of  examination  to 
education  In  this  country. 

Experts,  Errors  of  the.  Archibald 
Forbes.     Contemporary  Review^  March. 

Farmer.  How  every  Tenant  Farmer 
may  t>ecome  his  own*  landlord.  Ed- 
ward Atkinson.  Wettminnter  Review^ 
March. 

F^Mrming.  Does  American  Farming 
Pay?  George  B.  luring.  Xorth 
American  Review^  March. 

Fine  Arts,  A  detlnitlon  of  the. 
^    Charles  E.  Norton,    /brum,  Man*h. 

France  and  her  Neighbors.  Black- 
woods^  March. 

France,  The  Crisis  In.  A.  Gauvaln. 
Political  Science  Quarterly^  March. 

French  'i'hought,  The  Decadence  of. 
Mme.  Blaze  de  Bury.  Fortnightly  Re- 
view^  Msrch. 

Glass-Making.  L  A  Pane  of  Glass. 
C.  Hanford  H«*ndei'Son.  Popular  Sci- 
ence Monthly^  March. 

Goethe  Society,  At  the.  Dion  Bou- 
clcault.     North  American  Review^  Mar. 

Greece,  GosMp  about.  VL  J.  P. 
Mahaffy.     Chautauquan,  March. 

Greek  Art.  II.  Clarence  Cook. 
Chautauquan^  March. 

Gymnastic  Exercises  and  Appara- 
tus. Scientific  American  Supplement, 
March  16. 

Reprinted  from  Boston  Herald, 

Homer  und  der  HellenismuA.  Al- 
fred Blese.  PreussiscJie  Jahrbucher, 
February. 

Hutuor.  What  is  Humor?  Alexan- 
der Stuart.     Mficmillan's^  March. 

Institute  of  France,  The.  Theodore 
Child.     Harper's,  March. 

Isthmus  Canal  and  our  Government, 
The.     Stuart  F.  Weld.   Atlantic,  Mar. 


Laogmge,  L^  eTolatlon  phon^Oqne 
du.  Paul  Regnaud.  Bevme  PkUiMt^^ 
iqucy  March. 

License  System,  The  Ethics  of  the. 
John  FaTllle.     Andover  Review^  Mar. 

Luth^rthums.  Die  Symbole  dea.  D. 
Karl  M&ller.  PreutHmske  Jahrbweko'^ 
February. 

Malerel  and  Blldnerei  der  Japaoer, 
Die.  Dr.  D.  Brauna.  Unbare  ZeiL, 
Drittes  Heft. 

Malthus,  Statistics  versMS.  ITeir- 
minster  Review,  March. 

Math^matiques,  —  D^monstratioos 
Elementalres  du  th^r^oie  de  Pythft- 
gore.    Revue  Seienti^ue^  Feb.  16. 

Memory,  Historically  and  Experi- 
mentally Considered.  II.  Wm.  H. 
Burnham.  American  Joumai  of  Pt^^ 
ehology,  February. 

The  writer  continues  his  historical 
sketch  of  the  theories  of  memory,  pre- 
senting the  most  important  views  of 
writers  since  Kant. 

Mental  Science.  Statistics  of  Vis- 
ual Images.    Science^  March  8. 

An  act*ountof  Professor  Minot*s  in- 
teresting study  reported  to  the  Ameri- 
can Psychical  Research  Society. 

Mental  Science,  The  Genesis  of  Er- 
ror.    Science,  March  1. 

A  summary  of  Professor  Exner*s 
recent  essay  upon  this  subject. 

Metric  Systems,  The  Ueclmal  and 
the.     Westminster  Review^  Marc*h. 

Minicoy:  the  Island  of  Women. 
Conclusion.    Blackwoods,  March. 

Miraculous,  The  Value  of  Witness 
to  the.  Professor  Huxley.  Nine- 
teenth  Century,  March. 

Monopolies,  Natural  Monopolies  and 
Local  Taxation.  Richard  T.  Ely. 
Lend  a  Hand,  March. 

Moon-Myths,  South  Slavic.  Fried- 
rich  S.  Krauss.  Popular  Science  Months 
ly,  March. 

Motley's  Letters.  George  William 
Curtis.    Harper's,  March. 

Natural  Science  In  Elementary 
Schools.  J.  M.  Arms.  Popular  Ski- 
ence  Monthly,  March. 

A  paper  read  at  the  National  School 
of  Methods,  Saratoga,   August.   1888. 

Neander,  August,  Rede  auf.     Adolf  ^ 
Harnack.   PreussiscJieJahrbucher,Feb» 

Nesrro,  The  Future  of  the.  W.  S. 
Scarbomugh,  Forum,  March. 

Nunibi»rs.  Favorite  Numl)er8.  Al- 
bert Williams,  Jr.  Scientific  American. 
Supplement,  March  IG. 

Interesting. 

Observatory,  A  Southern.  A.  M. 
Clerke.     Contemporary  Review^  March. 


1889.] 


BIBLIOGBAPHY. 


5611 


Oil.  The  Use  of  Oil  to  Srill  the 
Waves.  W.  H.  Beekler.  Century^ 
March. 

Old  Testament  Literature,  Recent. 
S.  R.  Driver.  Contemporary  Review^ 
March. 

Paranoiac,  Extracts  from  the  Auto- 
biography of  a.  Frederick  Peterson, 
M.  D.  American  Journal  of  Psycholo^ 
gy^  February. 

Pensee  et  le  r^el,  La.  F.  Evellin. 
Bevue  Philosophique^  March. 

Poet,  A  R<>vai.  J.  W.  Crombie. 
Macmillan's^  March. 

Postal  Reform,  The  Next.  Leonard 
W.  Bacon.     Forum^  March. 

Prohibitionism  in  Canada  and  the 
United  SUtes.  Goldwin  Smith.  Mao- 
millan%  March. 

Psychologic,  —  Les  perceptions  in- 
consclentes  de  V  hypnotisme.  A.  Bl- 
uet.   Bevue  SeientiUqite^  Feb.  23. 

Public  School  of  a  Past  Generation, 
A.  W,  Marsham  Adams.  The  Months 
March. 

An  account  of  the  College  of  Win- 
chester, forty  3'ears  ago. 

Public  Schools,  The  Bible  in  the. 
Cardinal  Manning.    Forum^  March. 

The  author  thinks  that  the  public 
school  law  in  America  Is  **  in  conflict 
with  both  parental  rights  and  liberty 
of  conscience." 

Railways,  Legislative  Injustice  to. 
Henry  Clews.  North  American  Be- 
vieto^  March. 

Railway  Mall  Service/rhe.  Thomas 
L.  James.    Scribner'e^  March. 

Railways,  Their  Future  in  China. 
W.  B.  Dun  lap.     Blackwood'e^  March. 

Reality,  What  Is?  Part  1.  The 
Answer  of  Subjective  Analysis.  Fran- 
cis H.  Johnson.    Andover  Bevievo^  Mar. 

Reformation,  The  New.  Mrs.  Hum- 
phrey Ward.   Nineteenth  Century^  Mar. 

Reviewers  and  their  Ways.  Andrew 
Lang.    Forum^  March. 

Science,  New  Chapters  in  the  War- 
fare of.  v.  *^  Demoniacal  Posses- 
sion"  and  Insanity.     Part  II.    An- 


drew D.  White.  PoptUar  Science  Month-^ 
Zy,  March. 

Seward,  William  H.,  Personal  Remi- 
niscences of.  Samuel  J.  Barrows  and 
Isabel  C.  Barrows.     Atlantic^  March. 

Sewlng-Machlne,  Industrial  and  So- 
cial Effects  of  the.  Ernest  IngersolU 
Chautauquan^  March. 

Simplicity.  Charles  Dudley  War- 
ner.   Atlantic^  March. 

Snow,  Frost,  Storm,  and  Avalanche^ 
Cornhill  Magazine^  March. 

Social  Economics.    The  Outline  of 
an  Elective  Cour^  of  Study.    Pro-  / 
fessor  Tucker.    Andover  Beviiw^  Mar. 

Social  Order,  I^w  as  a  Disturber  of. 
Benjamin  Reece.  Popular  Science- 
Monthly^  March. 

Society.  How  Soc^lety  Reforms  It- 
self. Edward  Atkinson.  Porum^  March. 

A  criticism  of  various  proposed 
methods  of  economic  reform. 

Taxes.  Income  and  Property  Taxes. 
Gustav  Cohn.    Political  Science  Quar-^ 
terly^  March. 

Tennyson  as  Prophet.  F.  W.  H. 
Myers.    Nineteenth  Century^  March. 

Tlconderoga.  Bennington,  and  Orla- 
kany.    John  Flske.    Atlantic^  March. 

Unearned  Increment,  Radicals  and 
the.  W.  H.  Mai  lock.  National  Be- 
view^  March. 

United  States,  A  Full  Length  Por- 
trait   of    the.      Edward   Eggleston. 
Century^  March. 

A  review  of  Bryce's  ^^  American 
Commonwealth.'" 

Westminster  Abbey  and  its  Monu- 
ments. William  Morris  and  Editor. 
Nineteenth  Century^  March. 

Women,  Advanced  Education  of.. 
Kate  Stephens.    Forum^  March. 

Women,  The  Education  of.  Eva 
Knatchbull-Hugesseh.  National  Be- 
view^  March. 

Women.  Work  and  Women.  Weet^ 
minuter  Beview^  March. 

Words.  Can  we  think  without 
Words?  Max  Mttller.  Nineteenths 
Century^  March. 


REPORTS  RECEIVED. 

Reports  of  the  Town  Offlceni  of  Middleborongta,  Mass.;  the  Seleotmen  and  othsr  Town< 
Officers  of  Bedford,  Mass.;  the  Town  Officers  of  Medlleld,  Mass.;  tbe  Town  Officers  of 
Revere,  Mass. ;  tbe  Officers  of  the  Town  of  Franklin,  Mass. ;  the  School  Committee  of 
Marlborough,  Mass.;  the  Board  of  Instruction  of  Portsmouth,  N.  H. ;  the  School  Com- 
mittee of  Hopkinton,  Mass. 


4(63  EDUCATIOX.  [April, 


AAfONG    THE  BOOKS. 

The  Government  op  the  People  op  the  United  States.  By  Francis  X. 
Thorpe,  Ph.  D.,  Profesnor  of  History  and  PoliticHl  Science  in  the  PhiUdel- 
phia  Manual  Traioiog  School,  and  Lecturer  on  Civil  Government  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania.    Price,  90  cents.    Philadelphia:    Eldredge  A  Bro. 

At  a  tinne  when  so  much  attention  is  being  paid  to  the  teachini^  of  Civics,  as 

is  the  case  at  the  present,  no  excuse  is  needed  for  the  presentation  of  a  new 

work  on  the  subject.    But  were  the  market  overstocked  with  such  hooks,  room 

•could  easily  be  found  for  a  volume  as  full  of  meat  as  is  this  one  before  as. 

There  is  nothing  hackneyed  or  commonplace  here,  either  in  material  or  nietliod 

of  treatment.    Part  1  takes  up  ^^The  Foundations  of  Government,*^  and  after 

explaining  "The  Four  Stages  of  Society,"  namely:  "  Savages,"  **  Herdsmen,** 

••  Husbandmen/'  and  "  MHnufacturers,"  and  **  The  Four  Groups  of  Rights,'* 

^'  Industrial,"  '*  I^olltical,"  "  Social,"  and  "  Religious  and  Moral  **   (a  novel 

feature  In  such  textbooks),  the  author  proceeds  in  a  clear  and  comprehensive 

manner  to  develop  "  The  American  Constitutions,"  by  relating  the  **  Story  of 

Political  iiights  in  England,"  and  the  '*  Story  of  Political  RIghU  in  Colonial 

AmericH." 

Part  2,  "  Local  Government/'  contains  many  features  that  will  be  much 
4ippreclated  by  wide-awake  teacher:^.  Three  pages  are  devoted  to  '*  Caucuses,** 
their  bnsino8<«,  benf'fits,  and  evils.  A  carefully  prepared  list  of  town  and  city 
officers  and  their  duties  is  found.  The  county,  state,  and  territory  arc  taken  up 
in  the  same  way. 

Part  3,  while  furnishing  In  a  condensed  though  simple  form  all  that  could  be 
asked  for  of  the  '* Constitution  "  study  under  the  head  of  "The  Nation,"  is  not 
ilmited  to  that  alone,  but  contains  much  else  that  will  be  found  of  value  to  the 
pupil.  The  usual  **  State  Papers  "  are  found  In  Part  4,  while  some  interesting 
tables  are  given  In  the  appendix.  A  paragraph  on  the  "  Department  of  Agri- 
culture ''  shows  us  that  the  book  Is  brought  up  to  the  present  time,  and  the  three 
hundred  pages  Indicate  that  It  is  not  too  compendious  for  any  high  school. 

Analytic  Geometry.  By  A.  S.  Hardy,  Professor  of  Mathematics  in  Dart- 
mouth College,  and  author  of  '^  Elements  of  Quaternions.**  Pp.  229.  Price, 
91.60.     Boston  :     GInn  &  Company. 

This  work  is  evidently  designed  for  the  student,  rather  than  teacher.     Pai^ 

ticular  attention   Is  given  to  those  fundamental  conceptions  and  processes 

which  have  been  found  to  be  sources  of  difficulty  to  the  student  in  acquiring  a 

grasp  of  the  subject  as  a  method  of  research.    The  limits  of  the  work  are  fixed 

by  the  time  usually  devoted  to  Analytic  Geometry  In  our  college  courses  by 

those  who  are  not  to  make  a  ;:pechil  stud)'  In  Mathematics.    It  will  prove  to  be 

a  textbook  which  the  teacher  will  use  in  his  clas^^room,  rather  than  a  book  of 

reference  to  be  placed  on  hid  study  shelf.    Many  points  In  its  plan  and  method 

of  presentation  show  plainly  the  exact  and  critical  scholarship  of  the  author. 

We  venture  to  predict  for  it  great  success  as  a  textbook. 


1889.]  AMONG  THE  BOOKS.  66* 

Five  Hundred  Choice  Selections  from  Prose  and  Poetry  for  Grammatical 
Exercises  hdcI  Memorizing,  with  a  Drill  Boole  for  Review  in  English  Gram* 
mar  and  Analyzing.  By  Frances  W.  Lewis,  A.  B.,  Bhode  Island  Normal 
School.  Boards,  pp.  1*60.  Price,  76  cts.  Boston:  Eastern  Educational 
Bureau,  60  Bromtleld  Street. 

Many  teachers  in  High  Schools,  Atiademies,  and  Normal  Schools,  in  at- 
tempting to  induct  the  students  into  the  principles  of  Rhetoric,  have  found 
that  the  pupils  required  review  in  Grammar  and  Analysis  before  they  were 
fitted  to  grasp  the  broader  and  more  practical  applications  of  Rhetoric.  This 
book  is  the  outcome  of  the  careful  study  of  these  difl9culties  and  a  very  suc- 
cessful mastery  of  them.  It  is  emphatically  a  classroom  book  and  will  be 
heartily  welcomed  by  many  teachers  of  Grammar  and  Rhetoric,  both  for  the 
Drill  Book  in  Grammar  and  for  the  most  excellent  list  of  selections  for  memo- 
rizing, parsing,  and  analysis.  These  600  quotations  include  many  of  the  finest 
gems  in  our  language.     The  book  will  meet  a  broad  need. 

Confessions  D  *un  Ouvrier.  By  Emilie  Souvestre.  Edited  by  O.  B.  Super^ 
Ph.  D.,  Professor  of  Modern  Languages  in  Dickenson  College.  Boston :  D» 
C.  Heath  A  Co.,  Publishers.    1889.    Pp.  127.    Price  30  cents. 

It  is  not  always  easy  to  find  a  French  work  that  will  appeal  to  a  large  por- 
tion of  mankind,  that  is  well  adapted  to  use  as  a  class  book  for  translation^ 
This  work,  however,  contains  more  sound  common-sense  and  healthy  inspiring 
views  of  the  philosophy  of  human  life  than  can  often  be  found  in  an  equal 
number  of  pages.  Here,  on  almost  every  page,  is  ^^  the  genuine  expression  of 
noble  feelings  and,  above  all,  an  effort  to  correct  the  false  impression  that 
material  possessions  make  up  the  sum  of  human  happiness.^'  This  work  is 
better  adapted  for  use  in  advanced  classes  than  for  beginners,  and  the  note» 
are  intended  to  supply  only  such  information  as  the  diligent  student  is  not 
likely  to  obtain  by  consulting  the  French-English  dictionaries  ordinarily  ii» 
use. 

A  Textbook  on  Elementary  Biology.  By  R.  J.  Harvey  Gibson,  M.  A.,. 
University  College,  Liverpool.  192  engravings.  London  and  New  Yorkr 
Longmans,  Green  &  Co.    1889.    Pp.  362. 

This  new  and  scholarly  work  deals  with  the  relationship  of  Botany  to  Zool- 
ogy, and  of  both  to  the  fundamental  sciences  of  Physics  and  Chemistry.  Its 
order  is  from  (1)  Matter  to  (2)  Protoplasm,  (3)  Individual  and  Tribal  Life,  (4) 
Protista,  (5)  Protozoa,  (6)  Non-Vascularia,  (7)  Vasculari,  (8)  Invertebrata^ 
and  finally  (9)  Vertebrata.    To  this  is  added  a  History  of  Biology. 

This  enterprising  house,  which  has  lately  established  a  special  branch  in  New 
York,  is  offering  to  American  teachers  a  large  list  of  very  valuable  textbooks- 
upon  various  branches  of  common  school  study  and  of  the  higher  education » 
Anything  which  has  their  imprint  upon  it  Is  worthy  the  careful  attention  of  ail 
teachers. 

An  Essay  on  Household  Service  ;  also.  Legal  Points  and  other  matter  con- 
cerning Domestic  Service,  etc.  Prepared  by  Mary  A.  Ripley.  Published  by 
the  Women *s  Educational  and  Industrial  Union  of  Buffalo,  and  for  sale  at 
the  Union  Rooms,  25  Niagara  Street,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.    1889. 

A  capital  little  treatise  on  the  ^'  Servant  Question,"  and  containing  a  great 

amount  of  valuable  information  and  many  useful  blank  forms.    It  is  besides 

admirably  written. 

A  History  of  Eighteenth  Century  Literature.  1660—1780.  By  Ed- 
mund Gosse,  M.  A.  Clark,  Professor   In  English  Literature  at  Trinity  CoW 


«84  ED  UCA  TION.  [  Api 

lp|t«,  Cambridge.    Pp.  41S.    London  and  N«w  York:    Mftemtllan  A  C 

18S9. 

ThI*  new  phllooophlcat  treaiUe  upon  the  hiatorj  of  our  Utemtare  after  t 
rentoratlon,  will  b«  gladly  irelcomed  bj  a  huat  of  American  teachers.  T 
work  la  acbolarl^r,  orderly,  and  methodical.  lu  treatment  of  tbe  varki 
authora  appears  fair,  honeat,  and  with  Kood  Judgment.  Poetry,  the  dram 
and  prose  are  aeparately  considered,  and  all  la  done  as  b j  a  mast«r'a  han 
The  book  tn  cordially  commended  aa  worth  the  Immediate  attention  of  all  teac 
era  in  this  departinem. 

Choice  Selections.  By  Charles  Northend,  A.  M.,  anthor  of  *' Teacher  ai 
PHrent,"  "  Teacher's  AsslBUnl,"  etv.  New  York :  D.  Appletoa  A  Co.  IK 
P|>.  140. 

This  book  contains  about  six  hundred  extracts  front  more  than  two  hnndn 
different  author*,  designed  (or  loMoni  In  recitation,  reading,  morals  and  lltei 
tiire.  The  volume  was  originally  publlnhed  as  two  separate  parte  but  it  b 
been  thought  that  a  combination  ot  the  two  will  prove  acoeptable,  and  tbej  ai 
therefore,  so  presented  In  this  work.  The  book  contains  an  alphabetical  llat  < 
the  authors  u  well  as  n  list  of  the  selections,  both  prose  and  poetiy,  witb  tl 
autlior  ot  each. 

Thr  Beoimkeh's  Readimo  Book.    By  Eben  H.  Davia,  A.  M.,  Saperintendei 

of  Schools,  Chelsea,  Mass.    Illustrated.    Pp.138.   Price  49  cents.     Ptdladi 

pliia:  J.  B.  LIpplncott  Co.     For  tale  by  F.  M.  Ambrose. 

Thia  Is  a  particularly  attractive  reader.  Any  child  given  such  abooh  to  stnd 

must,  of  necessity,  enjoy  the  lessons  and  get  on  faster  than  with  a  lesa  attn 

tive  work.    It  Is  well  printed  with  clesr  large  type,  on  good  paper,  while  tl 

Illustrations  are  above  the  average.    The  book  la  well  worthy  a  place  In  U 

pini-ott's  Popular  Series.    It  will  at  once  take  first  rank  among  our  best  rea 

Ing  series,  and  will  unquestionably  have  an  extended  sale. 

We  have  received  from  C.  W.  Bardeen,  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  four  Dew  hooka  4 
Education:  The  English  Cyclopedia  op  Education,  The  First  Thki 
Tkaks  or  CuiLUHOou,  The  Kinuekoartek  System,  and  Obtuoept  Mai 
Easy.    They  are  alt  Hrat-claat. 

SOKHEHacnEiN'a  Cvclop.«dia  of  EwnCATiOH.  Arranged  and  edited  by  J 
fred  Ewen  FleUher.  Syracuse,  N.Y.:  C.  W.  Bardeen.  ISS9.  Pp.  H 
Price  »3.7fi. 

This  Immense  work  Is  a  handbook  of  reference  on  all  subjects  connected  irii 
education  (Its  history,  theory,  and  praotlce),  comprising  articles  by  emlnw 
educational  specialists.  The  staff  of  writers  Includes  such  men  as  Osc 
arownlng,  J.  S.  Curwen,  Principal  Donaldson,  Sir  Philip  Uagous,  David  Si 
fnon,  Arthur  Sidgwick,  Profesnor  James  Sully,  and  many  othera.  The  iro 
also  contains  a  carefully  compiled  Bibliography  of  Pedagogy.  The  otje 
kept  in  view  by  the  writers  of  this  work  hits  been  to  make  it  useful  to  all  wl 
take  Hn  lnt<-rest  In  educational  questlono,  and  especially  to  those  en^ged  tn  V 
work  of  teaching,  whether  In  elementary,  secondary,  or  tbe  higher  echool 
It  has  been  the  aim  of  the  contributors  to  give  telescopic  rather  than  a  mlof 
acopie  view  of  the  educational  tuctB  and  questlous  discussed,  and  to  bring  Um 
purely  pedagogical  features  Into  clear  outline. 

The  First  Tkrre  Years  of  CniLutiooD.  By  Bernard  Perez.  Xklited  ai 
translated  by  Alice  H.  Christie,  translator  of  "  Child  and  Child  Kature,''  el 


1889.]  AMONG  THE  BOOKS.  666 

With  an  Introduction  by  James  Sully,  M.  A.     Syracuse:  C.  W.  Bardeen. 
Pp.  294.    Price,  $1.50. 

The  writer  of  this  valuable  treatise  set  himself  to  observe  and  follow  out,  in 
nttle  children,  the  gradual  awakening  of  those  faculties  which  constitute  their 
physical  activity.  He  says :  ^^  As  to  the  interpretation  of  facts,  I  have  striven 
to  be  guided  by  the  spirit  of  the  experimental  method.  If  I  have  sometimes 
been  happy  in  my  observations  and  judgments,  it  is  to  this  method  that  the 
honor  is  due;  the  mistakes  and  omissions  are  my  own  share."  The  translation 
is  clear  and  concise,  as  would  be  expected  from  the  translator.  The  appear- 
ance of  the  book  is  hardly  up  to  the  ordinary  high  standard  of  the  publishers. 
It  might  be  much  more  attractive  In  its  appearance.  It  Is  printed  In  small 
type,  and  looks  cramped  and  uninviting,  and  is  difficult  to  read. 

The  Kindergarten:  Principles  of  FroebeVs  System  and  their  bearing  on  the 
education  of  women,  also  remarks  on  the  higher  education  of  women.  By 
Emily  ShlrrefT,  author  of  '^Intellectual  Education  of  Women.**  Syracuse: 
C.  W.  Bardeen.    Pp.  200.    Price,  $1.00. 

The  short  papers  given  In  this  work  were  originally  published  In  the  '^  Wom- 
en^s  Education  Journal"  In  twt>  distinct  series.  The  real  worth  of  FroebePs 
philosophy  In  training  young  children,  <vnd  in  its  influence  over  the  education 
of  women.  Is  very  Imperfectly  understood  or  recognized,  and,  too  generally,  an 
ignorant  and  mistaken  view  is  taken  of  Its  Importance.  This  little  book  gives 
a  very  clear  and  concise,  though  short,  account  of  Froebel's  principles,  and 
also  shows  how  this  early  training  can  be  carried  on  to  the  ordinary  book 
learning  of  later  schools,  and  what  influence  it  will  have  on  the  pupirs  apti- 
tude for  the  latter. 

Orthoepy  Made  Easy  :  A  Royal  Road  to  Correct  Pronunciation.  By  Marcella 
Wood  Hall.    Syracuse:  C.  W.  Bardeen.    Pp.  103.     75  cents. 

Mrs.  Hall  says,  ^^The  best  method  of  simplifying  the  study  of  orthoepy,  I 
have  found — after  long  and  close  application  to  the  subject — to  be  the  intro- 
duction of  words  commonly  mispronounced  Into  sentences,  and  following  each 
exercise  with  a  key.'*  The  author  gives  the  right  pronunciation,  in  each  case, 
and  no  other.  Webster  is  taken  as  authority,  but  when  Worcester  differs  from 
hini,  Worcester  is  quoted  also.  Many  geographical  and  biographical  names 
have  been  introduced,  also  the  more  difficult  proper  names  in  Shakespeare's 
plays.     The  book  contains  thirty-eight  exercises  with  a  key  to  each  exercise. 

A  Healthy  Body.  A  textbook  on  Anatomy,  Physiology,  Hygiene,  Alcohol 
and  Narcotics,  for  use  in  intermediate  grades  In  public  and  private  schools. 
By  Charles  H.  Stowell,  M.  D.  Professor  of  Histology  and  Microscopy,  in 
the  University  of  Michigan.  12mo.  Cloth.  Pp.223.  Price,  50  cents.  Chi- 
cago :    John  C.  Buckbee  &  Co.    1889. 

The  aim  of  this  work  is  to  present  physiological  laws  in  such  a  manner  that 

the  pupils  In  intermediate  grades  may  become  familiar  with,  and  know  how  to 

•care  for,  the  various  organs  and  tissues  of  the  body.    The  author  has  given, 

careful  attention  to  the  eff'ects  produced  on  the  tissues  of  the  body  by  use  of 

alcohol  and  the  narcotics,  and  his  Ideas  on  this  subject  are  forcible  and  clear, 

and  apparently  In  harmony  with  the  truths  of  science,  as  taught  by  the  best 

authorities  of  our  time,    llie  work  Is  characterized  by  the  following  Important 

features :    1.    The  simple  and  clear  way  of  putting  a  scientiflc  truth.    2.    The 

large  number  of  illustrations.    3.    The  laws  of  healthful  living.    What,  and 

how,  and  when  to  eat.    How  to  prevent  disease,  etc.    4.    The  effects  of  alcohol 


MB  BDVCATIOy.  [. 

OD  the  orfpnii  ftod  ttiioea.  Some  most  forcible  «nd  decUlve  (acta  are  prei 
under  this  hend.  It  U  queatlnnable,  however,  wh«th«r  tha  Autbor**  p 
preeenling  Alcohol  In  lu  vitrloui  phanes  nt  the  beginoln);  of  the  book  I 
considering  the  celli  *ad  atrnuture  of  the  human  bod;  la  the  beat  order. 

Political  IIistort  Hincr  181!t  (Exoludloic  the  UnttedStatea).    ByC.  H 
eminre.  Ph.  D.,  and  D.  R.  D«wfv,  Ph.  D.,  of  the  MaaMehuaeCta  Inaliti 
TechnotoKV.     Pp.  131.     Prlue,  9l.i3.     Introduction,  •1.00.     BcMtoo: 
Schofield,  Publiiht-r. 

ThiB  ia  a  a^rllabuB  of  lectums  upon  Modern  Political  Hiatorjr,  prepared 
nally  for  uae  in  the  Maaaaehoaetls  InatUute  of  Technoiofor.  The  wori 
senta  a  ckeleton  of  nlneteruth  century  hintory  down  to  1SS8,  and  la  baa 
copious  references  to  ttandaid  worka,  and  tn  Important  articiea  In  the  lei 


I,  Mass.    Boston :    New  England  Publishing  Comi 

Owe  HimuREti  Lessons  in  English  CoMPoamoN.  By  W.  H.  Rnaton,  ] 
BoRton:     New  Engtaod  Publlsbing  Company.     18S».    Pp.  68.     Pric 

A  Manual  of  Drawing  to  accompany  Hailea'  Practical  Drawlnir  Serlea. 

Theodore  C.  HalieK,  Superintendent  of  Drawing  In  Albany,  N.  Y.,  F 

Svbooli.    Pp.  GO.    New  York:  Charles  E.  Merrill  A  Co. 

Hoat  manuals  which  aucompanj  seta  ot  drawlng-booka  for  aae  In  f 

schools  are  too  cnmbersorae.    The  average  teacher  only  needs  to  har 

work  outlined.    In  this  brief  work  the  author  has  given  to  teacbera  the  b< 

of  many  years'  experience  as  a  drawing  teacher  Id  the  public  stdioola. 

language  Is  neither  obscure  or  verbose,  but  Is  clear  and  concise.    The  anl 

treated  are  such  as  are  taught  tn  all  drawing  claiees. 

Schiller's  Jung  Fkal'  von  Orleans-  Edited  by  Beid.  W.  Wells,  Fl 
Boston :  D.  C.  Heath  A  Co.  18A9.  Pp.  224.  Price,  65  cents. 
Teachers  of  Qennan  will  welcome  this  edition  of  77ke  Maid  of  Orleana  t< 
intrinsic  merit  of  the  work,  the  beautiful  text  and  clear  type,  and  the  Jndl 
notes.  The  publishers  are  meriting  as  they  are  receiving  the  gratltudi 
good  wilt  of  all  teacbera  of  German  for  the  excellent  editions  of  thebt«t  i 
whii-h   are  so  rapidly  appearing  In  their  "  German  Series." 

Historical  Sketches,  relatlngto  the  First  Quarter  Century  of  the  State 
mal  and  Training  School  at  Oswego,  N.  Y.  Pp.  30.^.  1S8B. 
A  valuable  contribution  to  the  history  of  Education  in  America.  This  a: 
of  the  Oswego  School  shows  clearly  some  of  the  improvements  In  meCtac 
Instruction  which  have  made  their  way  among  our  beat  schools  within  tm 
Ave  years.  It  also  gives  a  very  helpful  Hccount  of  the  prominent  part  D 
Sheldon  has  performed  in  the  Normal  Teaching  of  America.  The  hisUi 
this  school  as  here  given  Is  very  creditable  tn  the  school,  Ita  officers  and  t 
era,  and  to  our  country. 

Handbook  of  Arithmetic.  By  G.  C.  Scbults,  formerly  Profeasor  of  U 
rastU'B  at  the  Pottsdam  Slate  Normal  School,  N.  Y.,  now  of  the  Whitci 
Normal  Schmil,  Wis.     Boston:     Olnn  &  Company.     Pp.  69.     Prlce,30c 

This  Is  designed  to  supply  the  demand  for  a  textbook  to  be  oaed  li 


1889.]  AMONG  THE  BOOKS.  567 

method  and  teachers*  classes  of  normal  schools  and  academies,  and  also  to  be 
a  help  to  regular  teachers  in  their  preparation  for  class  work.  The  order  of 
presenting  subject  matter  though  somewhat  novel  has  been  most  carefully 
planned,  and  the  analogies  to  Icindred  subjects  have  been  prominently  pre- 
sented. The  book  does  not  contain  problems,  but  is  to  be  used  in  connection 
with  a  collection  of  examples. 
* 

An  Elementary  Textbook  op  Chemistry.  By  William  G.  Mixter,  Professor 
of  Chemistry  in  the  SheflHeld  Scientific  School  of  Yale  University.  New 
York :    John  Wiley  &  Sons.    1889.    Pp.  459.    Price,  $2.50. 

This  scholarly  work,  beautifully  printed  and  illustrated  is  designed  for  use 
as  a  textbook  in  high  schools,  academies,  and  colleges.  The  Periodic  Classifi- 
cation is  followed.  The  plan  of  teaching  which  the  author  recommends  is  to 
have  the  work  in  the  laboratory  precede  the  recitation  on  a  topic.  The  author 
wisely  says  ^^  Questions  on  the  laboratory  work  and  a  discussion  of  the  results 
of  experiments  are  perhaps  of  more  value  than  questions  on  the  text.^'  Accu- 
rate scholarship,  clearness  of  statement,  and  methodical  arrangement  strike 
one  who  is  familiar  with  the  subject  as  easily  apparent  upon  a  cursory  glance 
over  the  pages.  Evidently  the  best  teachers  of  this  beautiful,  attractive,  exact 
science  will  be  delighted  at  the  remarkable  perspicacity  of  this  new  work.  It 
will  at  once  take  front  rank  among  our  new  textbooks  upon  chemistry. 

Teachers'  Institute  Note  Book,  with  selections  from  the  Song  Wave. 
New  York :    D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

A  very  attractive  little  note  book  with  sixteen  pages  of  popular  songs  for  the 

use  of  Institutes.    It  must  be  very  popular. 

Appleton*s  Standard  System  op  Penmanship.  Prepared  by  Lyman  D. 
Smith.  Price,  80  cents  per  dozen.  Kegular  course,  seven  numbers.  Full 
course,  ten  numbers.  Business  course,  three  numbers.  Exercise  books,  A 
and  B. 

It  is  astonishing  to  observe  wliat  great  changes  have  been  made  in  the  style 

and  efficiency  of  Writing  Books  within  ten  or  twenty  years.    These  boolcs  are 

surely  among  the  very  best,  and  doubtless  many  will  claim  them  as  the  best  of 

all.    They  are  certainly  very  superior.    One  cannot  but  wish  he  were  a  boy 

again,  that  he  might  have  one  of  these  beautiful  books  in  which  to  learn  to 

write.    Most  of  us  would  have  made  better  penmen,  had  we  been  so  instructed. 

How  TO  Build  a  House.  New  York :  J.  S.  Ogilvie,  Publisher,  57  Bose 
Street.    Price,  25  cents. 

A  neat,  new  book,  containing  plans  and  specifications  for  twenty-five  houses 

of  all  sizes,  from  two  rooms  up ;  also,  engravings  showing  the  appearance  of 

houses  built  from  the  plans  given.    In  addition,  it  has  valuable  information 

on  subjects  relative  to  building  and  building  contracts. 

How  TO  be  Successful  on  the  Road  as  a  Commercial  Traveler.  By  an 
Old  Drummer.  Pp.  96.  Paper.  Price,  20  cents.  New  York:  Fowler  & 
Wells  Co.,  775  Broadway. 

In  a  neat  volume  of  about  one  hundred  pages  that  one  can  carry  in  the 
pocket,  we  have  a  condensation  of  the  experience  and  observation  of  an  old 
and  successful  commercial  traveler.  He  puts  a  deal  of  common  sense  into  his 
advice,  and  shows  how  a  good  knowledge  of  human  nature  is  the  potent  instru- 
mentality in  dealing  with  business  men.  An  appendix  is  bound  in  with  the 
book  containing  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  places  and  hotels  arranged  in  the 


u 


tt»  EDUCATION.  [Ap 

moit  approved  tnanner.  Thii  Ifttle  book  baa  a  great  ralae  to  the  ftalecn 
"OD  the  road,"  at  Uie  store,  behind  the  coanter,  and  wherever  Mlllng  af  goi 
Is  required. 

Sea-Sidk  and  Wat-bide.  No.  3.  B7  Julia  UcNaIr  Wright.  NMtore  Be 
era.  Pp.  397.  BoatOD :  D.  C.  Heath  A  Co.,  Publtahera.  I9S9. 
The  third  number  of  this  ezcelleot  (eriea  U,  If  powlble,  more  Interesting  1 
instructive  than  the  praTlous  Dumbers.  This  little  book  gives  a  very  attrmct 
and  well-written  account  of  Mother  Eanh*s  eldest  children,  the  flowen  i 
tree*,  and  how  they  have  taken  Insects  and  birds  for  their  partners,  and  lu 
gone  Into  buslaess  to  feed  the  earth.  It  also  takes  the  readers  to  the  brm 
and  ponds,  rivers  and  seas,  and  shows  them  the  Fin  Family.  One  of  the  m< 
beautiful  things  about  the  book  Is  the  delightful  way  in  which  the  atitbor  sho 
how  all  the  parts  of  the  world  lit  together,  and  how  they  work  tog«tber.  Tl 
series  is  hearllt;  commended  to  the  attention  of  all  Interested  In  th«  edocatl 
of  children. 

Outlines  or  Lebsons  in  Botany.    By  Jane  H.  Newell.    Pp.  140.    Bosto 

Oloo  ft  Co. 

The  lessons  here  outlined  are  suitable  tor  children  of  twelve  years  of  age  a 
upwards.  They  follow  the  plan  of  Doctor  Gray's  First  Leasone  and  H< 
Plants  Grow,  and  are  intended  to  be  used  Id  connection  j*lth  either  of  th< 
books.  The  book  Is  Intended  for  the  use  of  teachers  or  mothers  studying  wl 
their  children.  Many  of  the  suggestions  are  new  and  valusble.  The  atyh 
good,  the  illustrattoos  escellent,  the  paper  and  printing  of  the  best. 

Hailes'  Practical  Drawing  Series.    Charles  E.  Merrill  A  Co. 

This  series  of  drawing  books,  nine  of  which  are  now  ready,  presents  a  v< 
attractive  appearance.  It  alms  to  Interest  as  well  as  instruct  pupils,  and  tl 
Is  a  great  consideration,  particularly  la  a  drawing  book.  While  the  author 
these  books  has  selected  and  drawn  copies  and  chosen  such  exercises  as  « 
keep  up  a  lively  Interest  In  the  minds  of  the  children,  he  has  not  neglected  1 
edncatioDsl  features  of  a  legitimate  drawiug  series.  The  first  seven  books  1 
tr«e-hand,  the  eighth  book  entirely  mechanical,  while  the  ninth  book  treats 
solids  and  the  methods  of  drawing  them,  Aat  Is  by  perspective.  Books  1, 
and  a  part  of  3  give  the  design,  sod  then  the  points  for  the  corners  of  I 
designs.  Book  1  also  gives  an  intermediate  step,  that  Is,  it  gives,  first,  I 
design  of  short  straight  lines;  second,  a  square  with  iodications  as  to  wbt 
the  lines  should  be  drawn ;  third,  points  to  form  the  square.  No.  4  Introdiu 
plant  forms,  and  contains  exercises  lu  conventionalisation.  No.  S  contai 
advanced  work  In  natural  and  pure  ornamental  form  In  simple  outline.  No 
does  away  with  construction  lines.  No.  7  is  of  the  same  character  as  No. 
only  It  i*  more  advanced.  Great  care  has  been  taken  In  the  selection  and  gra< 
tlOD  of  the  exnmples  of  No.  8,  and  full  directions  accompiiny  every  lesson. 
Book  9  construction  and  representation,  as  well  ns  development,  are  treated 
such  B  simple  way  as  to  be  readily  understood. 

BiVEBSiDE  Literature  Series.  Number  40,  February,  1689.  Tales  of  ti 
White  Hills  and  Sketches  by  Nathaniel  Hawthorne.  Hongbtoo.  Mifl 
&  Co.,  Boston.    Single  numbers  16  cents.    Yearly  Subscription  ^Ix  nanabn 


1889.]  MAGAZINES  RECEIVED.  869 


MAGAZINES   RECEIVED. 

Harper* %  for  March  contains  a  fine  frontispiece  portrait  of  Sir  John  A.  Maodonald, 
Prime  Minister  of  Canada.  Students  of  Astronomy  will  be  mooh  interested  in  an  arti- 
cle by  J.  Norman  Lockyer,  F.  B.  S.,  on  "The  Origin  of  Celestial  Species." T%«  Cailv- 

ry  continues  its  high  standard  of  excellence.  George  Kennan  writes  the  leading 
article  under  the  title  *'  The  Grand  Lama  of  the  Trans-Baikal,"  which  is  illustrated  by 
several  well-known  artists.  The  "  Lincoln  Papers"  have  reached  the  "Edict  of  Free- 
dom. **  Something  Electricity  is  Doing,"  will  be  read  by  scientists.  —  SoHbiMr'ff  con- 
tains another  chapter  on  the  "  Bailway  Mail  Service,"  by  Ex-Postmaster-General  James. 
Stephenson's  story,  begun  in  November,  is  continued.  "Economy  in  Intellectual 
Work  "  by  William  H.  Bumham  will  be  read  with  profit  by  all  students  and  brain- 
workers.    Henry  James,  Bobert  Grant,  and  T.  W.  Higginson,  with  others  help  to  make 

a  valuable  number. Lippincott*$  for  March  has  the  concluding  chapter  of  **  Six  days 

in  the  life  of  an  Ex-Teacher,"  by  John  Habberton.  "  How  I  succeeded  in  Literaturei** 
by  Charlotte  Adams,  will  be  read  with  interest.  The  complete  story  for  this  month  is  a 
very  strong  dramatic  tale  of  the  intrigues,  plots,  and  Jealousies  of  Busslan  life.  It  is 
entitled  "  Bella  Demonia." From  across  the  water  comes  The  Englitk  Ittuttrated  Mag- 
azine with  illustrated  articles  upon  **  Leeds  "  and  the  **  Kensington  Palace,"  and  stories 
and  poems;  CoMeWt  Family  Magazine  with  two  serials  continued,  two  complete  stories 
which  are  interesting,  and  much  that  will  please  and  help  the  lady  In  her  home  life,  her 
dres^,  and  her  family;  The  Quiver  has  much  good  reading  for  the  Sabbath;  there  are 
three  continued  stories  in  Blachcood'M,  which  is  in  its  146th  volume,  and  among  other  ar- 
ticles of  value  and  especial  interest  in  this  number  is  "  M^Jor  Barttelop's  Camp  on  the 

Aruhwimi "  with  chart  of  a  portion  of  the  Upper  Congo  and  plan  of  the  Camp. The 

Andover  Review  for  March  is  full  of  meat.    "  The  Ethics  of  the  License  System  "  and 

"  The  New  Method  of  Voting,"  are  of  special  interest  at  this  time. The  New  Bngkmder 

and  Yale  Review  for  March  has  four  articles  of  interest  to  students.  They  are  **  How  a 
New  England  Frontier  Town  Grew  Up  in  the  Old  Colonial  Times,"  "  The  Why  of  Pov- 
erty," **  Euphuism  in  Literature  and  Style,"  and  "  Ultimate  Distinction  In  Philosophical 

Methods." The  Magazine  cf  American  Hietory  will  please  students  of  American  and 

Colonial  history.  Mrs.  Lamb,  the  editor,  is  a  careftil  and  diligent  student,  and  knows 
how  to  produce  a  magazine  which  will  be  of  interest  and  of  value  and  of  beauty.  — - 
The  Catholic  World  has  some  interesting  reading  for  Protestants  as  well  as  Catholics. 
The  article  on  "  The  Negroes  and  the  Indians  "  shows  something  of  what  is  being  done 
by  the  Catholic  church  among  these  two  races.— ^FFtfale  Awake  still  maintains  its 
reputation  among  children's  magazines.  It  is  used  in  many  places  for  supple- 
mentary reading. Beifor^e  Magazine  contains  an  article  entitled  "Does  the  High 

Tariff  Affect  our  Educational  System."  We  should  say  it  did  not  in  the  manner 
indicated  by  this  writer. Donahoeft  Magazine  for  March  has  an  article  on  "Wash- 
ington's Courtship"  and  one  on  the  coming  centennial  celebration  of  his  inaugu- 
ration.  The  April  number  contains  an  article  on  "Daniel  O'Connel,"  by  William  B. 

Gladstone. The  Academy  continues  sending  good  things  to  teachers  of  secondary 

schools.    Not  one  number  should  be  missed. JBooJ;  Chat,  Literary  Newt,  Pubiiiher*t 

Weekly,  and  Literature  are  well  nigh  indispensable  to  students  of  modem  literature.  — - 
Frank  Le$li^9  Sunday  Magazine  comes  again  filled  with  choice  and  helpftil  literature.  — 
Little  Men  and  Women  is  as  usual  Just  the  thing  for  the  youngest  readers.  ^—  The  Sehool 
Teacher,  Public  Opinion,  The  JEtighland  Cadet,  Treaeure  Trove,  Attoetatian  Notet,  Muntey^t 
Weekly,  The  Chautauquam,  Atnericam  Agricuiiuriet,  are  also  well  filled  with  matter  interest- 
ing the  readers  of  each. 


f 


EDUCATION. 


PAMPHLETS  RECEIVED. 

Twanty-n lath  Ann asl  Report  of  tbe  Sobool  Board  ot  Mil  wkokAe.  Contklnod  In  tbU 
ame  of  MS  p>8a>  1*  tbe  excelleat  rvport  of  Mr.  Saperlntetiileiit  AaderMin.  Tbis  ni 
UoranasoA]  Tftlne.  Among- other  tblnga  It  dlaouaaaa  tbe  avenge  time  and  a^p  at  vl 
paplli  leave  the  achoola.  Tbe  4ilstory  la  gtven  of  three  bandred  KOd  ten  pnplla  i 
entered  aohool  balween  SejiteiiTber,  IS§D  and  July,  1B»I.  Of  tbaav  one  haadrtid 
elBbteen  left  the  Mfaool  before  oompletlngUietblnlKraite.and  tbetr  aubteqaent  hlal 
oonld  not  be  ascertained.  One  hundred  and  thirty  paaiad  Into  the  sixth  grade  bel 
leaving  lobool.  Slxty-toorareiiair  In  tba  tohool  above  tbe  fitth  (trade.  One  handi 
and  aeventy-tbree  paaaedlbe  fonrtbgntde.  Of  tbe  oae  hnndml  and  elKhteen  loM  at 
o<>  It  !■  prvraioed  that  one-tbird  oonttnned  in  *obool  elwvbera.  Tbe  iDperloteDd 
Oonolodu  aa  followa:  "Tbe  average  Utne  or  ag«  at  irbloh  paplld  leave  the  put 
■ohoola  ta  mnch  higher  than  that  heTelofonfliedby  aiuperflolal  rvferenee  to  the  sen 
andaoomparlBOnof  tbennnrber  of  popila  In  the  hl^rber  and  lower  grsdes  of  onr  put 

■ohoola. Report  of  tbe  Prealdent  of  tbe  Cnlrerslty  of  Dakota.    Thli  report  apea 

Of  "  tbe  irboleaome  moral  and  rellgloui  Influence  wbleb  pervades  the  whole  I natitotlo 
and  addi  tbe  following  quotation  from  I>agarde:   "Without  religion,"  (not  seotiul 

tern). "no  culture  la  poaalble." ITn I venilty  Studies,  published  by  tbe  Cnlveralt] 

Nebiaaka.  The  present  namber  of  tbis  quarterly  oontalns  thrve  teamed  articles.  C 
on  Chemistry,  one  on  Sentence- length  In  English  Prosn,  and  one  on  the  Cyprian  Mali 

Sclentltio  Temperance  Inetmctloa,  Annual  Keport  by  Hra.  Kary  H.  Hunt,  Super 

tandent,  October,  1888.  This  report  of  sixty  pages  contains  tnucli  mutter  of  great  Int 
est  to  all  friends  of  Umperance  and  of  value  n>  every  leacber.  ItdeaH  wllh  Importa 
matters,  and  gives  a  great  amount  of  useful  Information  upon  temperance  tnatroctl 
In  schools.  We  do  not  admire  tho  style  In  wbloh  It  Is  prlnlsil.  Its  tffnoral  appeanui 
Is  obeap,  slTlng  one  (he  impression  that  It  \»  an  adrurtl*lng  document  rather  tbai 

valnable  report  of  the  great  iDt«matlonaI  W.  C.  T.  U. Annual  Report  of  tbe  Scbi 

Committee,  Boston,  lAM.  Tbl>  report  should  ba  read  by  every  InteUtgent  cltUen 
Boston.  It  shows  that  the  city  has  naarly  six  hundred  schools,  nearly  flrteeo  hund  r 
teaobem,  over  sixty  thousand  papUa.  auil  the  saboola  cost  more  than  a  million  aD< 
hair  dollars  per  year.    The  olty  bas  recently  Uken  under  its  charge  about  twenty  kli 

ergartens  wlih  tblrtyalx  teacbera  and  a  thousand  pupils. Ueaaage  of  Royal  C.  Ti 

Governor  of  Rhode  laland,  to  the  General  Assembly.  Jannary,  I98S.  Among  other  Int 
eating  matter  In  the  Uovemor's  message,  Is  hia  highly  complimentary  tribute  lo  i 
efllclency  of  tba  State  Normal  School  under  the  care  of  Uenend  Koixaa.  He  aa; 
"  The  principal,  l>r.  Thomas  J.  Morgan,  has  presided  over  the  BCbool  dnrtng  the  paat  I 
years  in  a  most  auUsfao lory  manner.    His  administration  has  been  cbarai:terlsed 

intelligence,  energy,  and  Oddity.    The  morale  of  the  school  was  never  better. 1 

porta  of  tbe  Special  Committees  on  Uanual  Training  and  Edacallon  Slatlatlca.  Dece 
ber,  I8)*§.    An  Interesting  paper  on  manual  training  presented  by  the  ConncU  of  Edn 

tlon  of  the  State  of  New  Jersey,  by  Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  ob airman. The  Right 

Discovery  by  B.  A.  fHasdale.  V\\.  D.,  Ann  Arbor,  Ulcb.  Bepnbllsbed  from  the  Ol 
Arohnologloal  and  Historical  Quarterly,  December,  1SH«.  An  exceedingly  Interest] 
diacusaloo  of  tbe  development  and  basis  of  this  famous"  right  of  discovery"  aa  It  p 
vailed  among  the  nations  of  Europe.    It  displays  sound  scholarship,  mucli  reaean 

and  clear  thought. ProceedlnKS  of  the  PreaeotallOQ  of  three  Portraits  to  the  Pi 

body  Normal  Coilege,  University  of  Nashville,  Tenn.,  October,  1«8S.  The  portradla  p 
•ented  were    those   of  Kdvin    Hickman    Ewlng,  Uooige    Peabody.  and   Hon.  Rob- 

C.  Wlnthrop. Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn.  N.  Y..  ISSg.    A  particularly  attractive  a 

well-written  account  of  tbls  notable  Institution,  with  a  number  of  excellent  viewa 

tUe  building  and  Its  various  departments. Eleventh  Annual  Beport  of  tbe  Board 

Education  of  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  1887-88. School  Doonment  No.  10.  I§g8-    Rules  of  I 

committee  and  regulations  of  tbe  Publlo  Schools  of  tbe  city  of  Boston,  pnbHabed 

Rockwell  A  Churobin.  city  printers. Biennial  Report  of  tbe  Superintendent  of  Pi 

Uclnslmctlonot  Nonb  Carolina,  for  tbe  Scbolaatlc  Years  188T  and  1B88 "Doatl 

White  Folks,"  or  Light  out  of  Darkness.  By  James  T.  Still,  H.  D.,  Boaton,  laa.. 
Messrs.  HougbUin,  Mifflin  A  Co.,  Issue  this  month  a  classified  catalogue  of  thetr  boc 
by  Western  authors,  by  which  It  appears  that  nearly  flfty  of  tbe  anthora  whoas  w<n 
are  pnbUshed  by  Ibelr  House  reilde  In  Illinois,  Indiana,  HiSBonrl,  Ohio,  or  •oma  OtI 
Waatem  State. 


€5)ucrATion, 

DEVOTED  TO  THE   SCIENCE,  ART,  PHILOSOPHY,  AND 

LITERATURE  OF  EDUCATION. 


Vol.   IX.  MAY,    1889.  No.  9. 


THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANUAL  TRAINING. 

Bead  before  the  Department  of  Superintendence,  National  Educational  Associationr 

Washington^    D.   C,    March    7,    1889, 

BY  WILLIAM  T.  HARRIS,  LL.  D. 

IN  bringiDg  forward  my  thoughts  on  the  Psychology  of  Manual 
Training,  I  desire  to  say  in  advance  that  I  shall  endeavor  to 
assume  and  maintain  a  judicial  attitude  towards  this  important 
educational  question.  I  shall  avoid  the  position  of  advocate  or 
polemic  so  far  as  I  am  able. 

As  persons  interested  practically  and  theoretically  in  the  man- 
agement of  schools  we  meet  fi'om  year  to  year  to  discuss  the  vital 
questions  that  may  arise  in  our  province.  Practically  and  theo- 
retically, it  is  our  fortune  and  our  choice  to  find  ourselves  arrayed 
on  different  sides  of  each  question.  A  free  comparison  of  opinions 
in  a  friendly  spirit  gives  us  each  matters  for  further  reflection  and 
may  lead  to  partial  revision  of  opinions  previously  held.  A  free 
comparison  of  grounds  or  reasons  for  opinions  is  still  more  profita- 
ble. All  search  for  grounds,  all  search  for  principles  goes  back 
out  of  the  region  of  surface,  and  diversity  of  facts  —  goes  back  out 
of  the  multiplicity  of  details,  towards  unity.  From  differences 
we  converge  towards  agreement  when  we  begin  to  compare  the 
grounds  of  our  opinions.  Principles  and  fundamental  grounds 
are  held  in  common  by  all  minds,  and  this  is  necessarily  so  in  case 
of  ultimate  principles  at  least. 

Now  as  a  class  of  people  interested  in  the  management  of 
schools  we  have  two  opposite  trends  of  opinion  before  us  —  we 


672 


EDUCATION. 


[Majt 


11. 


may  divide  here,  one  class  of  us  tending  towards  conservatism, 
and  the  other  class  tending  towards  new  experiments  with  a  view 
to  progress  and  improvement.  One  class  holds  by  the  heritage  of 
the  past  and  strives  to  conserve  its  power.  What  is  established 
has  been  established  through  struggle,  and  the  victory  of  the 
strongest.  A  study  of  the  grounds  for  the  existence  of  what  is, 
<liscovers  many  and  powerful  reasons  for  the  continuance  of  the 
existing  order  even  in  presence  of  the  fact  that  defects  are  every- 
where visible.  The  conservative  sees  the  defects,  but  attributes 
themi  to  inefficient  administration,  and  not  to  essential  shortcom- 
ings in  the  old  system  itself. 

On  the  other  hand  the  party  whose  watch-word  is  progress  bends 
its  mind  on  the  discovery  of  what  is  inadequate  in  the  old  system. 
It  marshals  the  shortcomuigs  and  refers  them  to  vicious  methods 
inherent  in  the  old  system.  It  looks  about  for  remedies  and  under- 
takes radical  changes,  bravely  confident  of  their  success.  And 
inasmuch  as  the  teaching  profession  is  for  the  main  part  engaged 
during  its  daily  tasks  in  the  work  of  repression  (inhibition),  hold- 
ing back  pupils  from  doing  wrong  or  improper  things,  teaching 
self-control  and  that  action  of  the  will  which  psychologists  call 
inhibitory,  it  (the  teacher's  profession,)  tends  towards  the  con- 
servative side  too  readily.  It  is  engaged  in  struggling  against 
caprice  and  arbitrariness,  against  raw,  unformed  habits  and  man- 
ners, against  thoughtless  disregard  of  the  interests  of  others.  TMs 
effort  is  apt  to  swallow  up  the  teacher  and  cause  neglect  of  that 
other  side  of  will-training  —  the  side  of  spontaneous,  original 
activity.  It  neglects  the  positive  for  the  negative,  because  the 
negative  is  the  first  and  indispensable,  while  the  positive  may 
appear  of  itself  without  any  education,  after  the  school  period  \& 
over,  or  outside  of  the  school.  Mere  positive  will-power  without 
the  negative  or  inhibitory  power  will  produce  only  anarchy.  The 
new  human  being  must  learn  to  inhibit  or  hold  back  by  an  effort 
of  will  his  native  mere  animal  impulse^  and  desires,  having  due 
regard  to  the  requirements  of  social  existence  —  cleanliness  of 
person  and^  clothing,  courtesy  and  decency  of  manners  towards 
others,  purity  of  life,  temperance,  prudence,  fortitude,  and  justice, 
all  requiring  this  inliibition  (or  self-restraint  over  impulse),  and 
conformity  to  pre-ordained  ideals  of  order.  Mere  spontaneous 
originality  attacks  all  these  things  and  runs  riot. 

On  the  other  hand,  mere   prescription,  mere  inhibitory  will- 


1889.]  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANUAL  TBAININO.  673 

power  developed  to  extremes  produces  only  a  mechanical  civiliza- 
tion —  a  dead  mechanical  state  of  social  existence.  We  look  upon 
the  Chinese  education  as  productive  of  such  a  condition.  All  is 
cut  and  dried  and  given  to  the  pupil  as  a  ready-made  form  into 
which  he  must  fit  himself  by  inhibition  of  natural  caprice  and 
inclination.  The  consequence  is  the  least  possible  progress  and 
the  completest  administration  of  the  old  system. 

What  the  philosophy  of  history  must  regard  as  the  ideal  stan- 
dard of  progress  among  nations  is  therefore  not  a  mere  perfection 
in  administration,  for  this  is  achieved  in  the  perfectly  stationary 
empire  of  conservatism. 

The  ideal  standard  of  progress  is  found  in  the  form  of  govern- 
ment which  secures  the  greatest  degree  of  individual  development 
while  not  losing  the  centralized  power  of  the  whole.  In  the  patri- 
archal empire  the  social  whole  is  perfect  at  the  expense  of  indi- 
vidual freedom.  We  Americans  are  apt  to  think  that  the  German 
empire  sacrifices  to  some  extent  the  development  of  the  individual 
for  the  sake  of  the  perfection  of  the  administration  of  the  will  of 
the  social  whole.  Certain  it  is  that  the  German  statesman  looks 
upon  our  American  regime  as  sacrificing  the  welfare  of  the  social 
whole  in  order  to  give  an  unreasonable  margin  for  individual 
whims  and  preferences. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  doctrine  (expressed  in  French  words) — laissez 
/aire  —  is  thought  to  go  too  far  when  it  permits  parents  to  choose 
illiteracy  for  their  children,  or  when  it  permits  an  illiterate  com- 
munity to  substitute  lynch  law  for  the  regular  judicial  process. 

However  this  may  be  regarded  there  is  certainly  a  mutual  rela- 
tion between  the  form  of  government,  with  its  administrative  pro- 
cess, and  the  self-activity  of  the  individual ;  and  that  government 
is  best  which  secures  the  greatest  perfection  of  central  administra- 
tion through  the  gr^test  development  of  individual  freedom. 
But  it  remains  true  tlmt  the  self -activity  of  the  individual  must  be 
strictly  limited  by  the  necessity  of  perfect  central  administration 
for  the  good  of  the  whole. 

May  we  not  in  like  manner  name  our  criterion  of  Educational 
Progress  as  the  approach  towards  a  system  that  secures  the  great- 
est individual  self-activity  of  the  pupil  while  it  builds  up  in  his 
character  perfect  obedience  to  law,  divine  and  human,  and  a  sacred 
regard  for  truth. 

While  our  progressive  wing  of  superintendents  do  not  always 


B74  EDUCATIOX.  [M 

move  forward  in  a  straiglit  line,  for  not  all  change  is  progrt 
yet  on  the  line  of  cautious  experiment  there  is  most  advance  to 
hoped  for.  I  think  that  the  friends  of  prepress  will  admit  that  < 
of  one  hundred  changes  not  more  than  one  real  gain  resu! 
Yet  without  experiment  there  might  be  no  progress  at  all. 

In  the  present  question,  that  of  Manual  Training,  we  have  ei 
nently  able  men  in  our  body  taking  strong  grounds  in  its  advoca 
and  initiating  bold  experiments  in  the  direction  of  adopting  it  ii 
the  system  of  elementary  instruction.  On  the  other  hand  we  ha 
men  who  look  ujion  the  ex])eriment  as  unnecessary  for  vario 
reasons,  or  else  await  the  issue  of  the  experimentti,  thinking  tl 
it  is  safe  to  adopt  the  new  system  after  it  has  been  proved  a  si 
cess.  Experiments  are  so  costly  that  one  must  be  cautious 
undertaking  them.  Ninety-nine  fail  and  one  succeeds.  Mei 
while  delmte  and  discussion  will  aid  us  in  interpreting  the  resu 
of  experiment  as  they  appear.  It  is  safe  even  for  conservatii 
minded  men  to  approacli  the  subject  theoretically. 

The  Psychology  of  ^ratinal  Tmining  is  concerned  chiefly  wi 
the  mental  effect  of  such  training  and  a  comparison  of  its  resu 
with  those  of  other  branches  of  the  coui-se  of  study  pursued 
school.  Wliat  is  called  the  "educational  value''  of  such  traini 
in  the  use  of  tools  is  a  matter  for  (wychology.  Social  necessii 
the  necessity  for  useful  labor  to  (n-ovidc  a  subsistence,  this  is  ii 
a  psychological  matter  in  its  primary  aspect,  but  only  in  its  si 
ondary,  or  indirect  relation  to  mind  —  the  effect  of  a  consciousnt 
of  possessing  the  ability  of  indejiendent  self-supixtrt  in  elevati 
the  tone  of  idiaracter,  or  the  effect  of  shortening  the  era  of  chi! 
hood  and  hastening  the  day  in  whicli  the  child  a 
sibility  of  self-sujiport.  Whatever  the  ground  J 
brancli  into  tlie  course  of  study,  there  is  evident 
rect  iMsychologiial  question  involved. 

M.  Sluys,  of  lielgium,  tells  us  that  in  Swe3l 
ning  the  economic  conception  was  generally  i 
where  manual  training  was  looked  upon  as  a  n 
the  children  of  the  common  people  to  earn  their  l!l 
gradually  it  came  to  be  recognized  that  manual  training  h 
elevated  purpose  and  one  indeed  more  useful  in  the  i 
ing  of  the  term.  It  came  to  be  considered  as  an  educative  proces 
for  the  complete  moral,  physical,  and  intellectual  development 
the  child."     He  affirms  that  in  Sweden  the  combination  of  manu 


1889.]  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANUAL  TRAINING.  675 

training  and  the  teaching  of  purely  theoretical  subjects  "  ensures 
the  integral  cultivation  of  all  the  faculties  and  all  the  aptitudes 
wliich  make  up  the  complete  man." 

The  expression  which  we  often  hear  used  by  the  advocates  of 
manual  training  — ''  put  the  whole  boy  to  school,"  states  in  a  plain, 
forcible  way  the  meaning  of  the  phrase  "  integral  cultivation  of  all 
the  faculties  and  all  the  aptitudes  which  make  up  the  complete 


man." 


It  has  been  fashionable  in  educational  treatises  since  the  days  of  ^ 
Pestalozzi  to  define  the  province  of  education  as  "the  full  and 
harmonious  development  of  all  our  faculties."  This  is,  however, 
a  survival  of  Rousseauism,  and  like  all  survivals  from  that  source, 
is  very  dangerous.  It  is  of  first  importance  to  consider  this  defini- 
tion in  the  light  of  psychology. 

At  first  glance  we  see  that  it  makes  no  discrimination  among 
the  faculties  themselves;  all  have  a  right,  each  has  a  right  to  culti- 
vation, and  the  only  limitation  of  this  cultivation  is  found  in  the 
word  ''  harmony."  What  the  harmony  should  be  is  not  said.  It 
is  implied,  however,  that  the  harmony  once  reached,  there  would 
be  a  perfect  human  being.  Harmony  implies  a  sort  of  balance,  and 
that  there  is  no  faculty  of  the  soul  which  may  be  developed 
supremely  —  no  faculty  like  that  of  Divine  Charity  for  example, 
which  should  be  supreme. 

Again,  this  definition  ignores  the  great  distinction  between  our 
higher  and  lower  faculties,  between  our  faculties  that  are  means 
to  ends  above  them  and  those  faculties  which  are  ends  in  them- 
selves. Sound  psychology  for  example  looks  upon  ethical  insight 
as  higher  than  insight  into  what  is  useful  as  a  means  to  an  end. 
The  adaptation  of  means  to  ends  —  the  use  of  physical  strength, 
industry,  eating  and  diinking,  any  sort  of  bodily  training  is  sub-  , 
ordinate  to  the  question  of  the  end  for  which  it  is  used  —  moral 
purpose  being  esteemed  higher.  Moral  faculty  is  supreme  as 
regards  all  such  things  and  is  not  a  coordinate  factor. 

Esthetic  faculty,  taste  for  the  beautiful,  is  not  regarded  as  coor- 
dinate with  moral  faculty  by  any  people  since  the  Greeks  or  before 
the  Greeks.  Gracefulness  was  the  supreme  end  of  life  and 
esteemed  to  be  even  higher  than  morality  in  Hellenic  art.  It  was 
in  the  Greek  thought  that  this  notion  of  harmony  arose  as  a  sym- 
bol of  perfection.  For  in  Greek  art  alone  the  physical  and  psychi- 
cal are  in  perfect  balance.     Not  so  in  Christian  art,  —  and  far 


EDUCATION. 


[M.y 


otherwise  in  the  ChriBtian  religion.  For  Ciuistianity  teaches  thai 
food,  drink,  raiment  —  or  creature  comforts  of  all  aorta  — yea,  lifi 
itaelf  is  infinitely  beneath  consideration  when  weighed  against  the 
spiritual  ser\'ice  of  humanity.  Bodily  health  and  vi^r,  sooDiJ 
digestion,  good  sleep,  keen  sense-perception,  are  all  good,  if  rigbtlj 
used,  or  subordinated  to  higher  faculties  ;  but  to  speak  of  them  ac 
forming  a  harmony  with  the  higher  is  placing  the  soul  and  bodj 
on  the  same  plane,  and  this  is  a  fundamental  error  in  educational 
■  psychology. 

In  the  third  place  the  definition  ignores  the  distinction  between 
man  as  an  individual  and  man  as  social  whole,  the  state,  the  civil 
community',  the  church,  the  family.  It  fancies  man  the  individual 
to  be  something  complete  in  himself  and  without  relation  tc 
society  —  just  as  we  can  speak  of  a  clock  or  any  piece  of  mech- 
anism as  complete  when  all  its  [tarts  are  present  and  properly  ad- 
justed. Man  lias  two  selves ;  one  his  natural  self  as  puny  individual 
and  another  his  higher  self  embodied  in  institutions.  This  is  the 
worst  defect  in  the  definition,  because  it  leads  the  thought  of  the 
educator  away  from  the  essential  idea  of  education,  which  is  this: 
Education  is  the  preparation  of  the  individual  for  reciprocal  union 
with  society  —  the  preparation  of  the  individual  so  that  he  can  help 
his  fellow  men  and  in  turn  receive  and  appropriate  their  help. 

The  "  harmony "  definition  is  abstract,  this  definition  is  con- 
crete, ^n  abstract  definition  is  liable  to  misinterpretatiou,  the 
concrete  one  is  not.  Reciprocal  help  of  social  whole  and  indi- 
vidual in  the  first  place  implies  both  special  and  general  education. 
To  help  one's  fellows  one  must  get  skill  in  some  useful  occupa- 
tion. This  may  be  in  any  realm  of  human  labor,  physical  or  intel- 
lectual. But  to  be  able  to  receive  the  help  of  one's  fellow  men 
implies  general  education,  the  capacity  to  receive  and  appropriate 
the  help  of  institutions  —  the  spiritual  help  of  the  race  —  in  sci' 
ence,  art,  literature,  and  moral  and  religious  ideas,  as  well  as 
in  the  matter  of  creature  comfort.  The  world  market  yields 
to  the  individual  man  for  his  day's  labor  a  share  in  the  pro- 
ductions of  the  world;  necessary  food,  clothing,  and  shelter,  luxu- 
ries, amusementjj,  cliurclies.  libraries,  lectures,  newspapers,  and 
books.  The  prudent  man  buys  wisdom  and  develops  his  lowet 
faculties  only  to  tlie  extent  that  they  are  means  to  this  higher  end 
of  acquiring  wisdom  and  dispensing  it  to  others. 

This  criticism  of  the  definition  of  education  which  looks  toward 


1889.]  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANUAL  TRAINING.  577 

a  harmonious  development  of  all  our  faculties  does  not  rule  out 
manual  training  from  education,  but  the  contrary.  Manual 
training  fits  very  many  for  some  useful  occupation  which  they 
may  fill  as  their  special  vocation.  Neither  does  it  prove  that 
manual  training  is  not  of  a  general  educative  character.  That  is 
something  to  be  investigated. 

The  Slojd  instruction,  according  to  Dr.  Otto  Salomon,  the  direc- 
tor of  the  famous  Manual  Training  Normal  School  at  Naas,  in 
Sweden,  secures  the  following  educational  results :  — 

1.  Skill  in  the  use  of  tools;  2.  Love  of  labor  —  industry  and 
persistence ;  3.  Self-reliance ;  4.  Exactness ;  5.  Attentiveness ; 
6.  Sharpens  the  eye  and  sense  of  form ;  7.  Good  bodily  train- 
ing. 

In  another  connection  he  gives  its  educational  results  as,  — 

1.  Acquisition  of  general  dexterity  of  the  hand ;  2.  Instilling 
taste   for  work,   and    respect  for  rough,   honest,   bodily  labor; 

3.  Training  in  habits  of  order,  neatness,  exactness,  cleanliness; 

4.  Accustoming  to  attention,  industry,  and  perseverance ;  5.  Pro- 
moting the  development  of  the  physical  powers ;  6.  Training  the 
eye  and  sense  of  form. 

There  is"  no  disputing  the  assertion  that  the  Slojd  is  educative 
when  we  consider  that  all  work  and  all  play  of  every  kind  are 
educative  in  one  way  or  another. 

When  the  domestic  work  (Hus-slojd),  which  formerly  flourished 
in  the  households  of  Sweden  — it  consisted  in  the  making  of  knick- 
knacks  chiefly  out  of  wood  —  when  this  failed  because  of  the  intro- 
duction of  more  elegant  machine-made  goods,  far  more  tasteful  and 
elegant  in  form,  at  a  very  low  price,  the  peasant  could  not  afford 
to  compete,  and  household  work  tended  towards  neglect  and  dis- 
use. It  is  said  that  more  attention  was  given  to  farming  as  a  con- 
sequence, but  farming  could  not  occupy  all  the  time  in  the  season 
of  long  nights  and  short  days.  Hence  the  rise  of  an  association  to 
restore  the  Slojd  or  domestic  manufacture  of  knick-knacks,  in 
1846.  In  1872,  the  government  began  to  encourage  education  in 
this  branch  of  labor.  At  first,  wood  carving  was  urged  ;  but  only 
to  provoke  resistance.  But  later  it  has  been  decided  that  variety 
of  work  is  essential,  and  at  the  Slojd  normal  school  at  Naas,  the 
various  tools  of  the  carpenter  are  taught,  and  also  those  of  the 
wood  turner,  and  the  blacksmith,  besides  wood  carving;  the 
making  and  mending  of  simple  articles  is  practised ;  even  wheels 


578  EDUCATION.  [lUjr, 

and  carts  are  constructed,  but  mostly  such  articles  as  wooden 
spoons,  boxes,  boot-jacks,  mallets,  and  netting  shuttles.  The  num- 
ber of  schools  in  which  this  work  is  taught  had  increased  to  seven 
hundred  in  1884,  from  eighty-seven  at  the  time  of  our  CentenniaL 

When  we  admit  that  the  use  of  tools  in  the  manufacture  of  arti- 
cles of  wood  or  iron  is  educative,  we  do  not  say  much  for  it.  All 
games  of  boys  —  like  marbles,  quoits,  base-ball.  Jack-straws  —  are 
educative,  especially  in  the  matters  (a)  of  development  of  physi- 
cal powers  ;  (6)  the  acquisition  and  dexterity  of  hand  and  accuracy 
of  eye  ;  (<?)  in  perseverance  ;  (d)  in  attention. 

A  game  of  whist  cultivates  circumspection,  careful  attention, 
the  calculation  of  probabilities,  and  such  matters.  The  first  begin- 
nings of  these  things  in  children  are  of  great  interest  education- 
ally. The  scientific  observations  of  Professor  Preyer  have  taught 
us  how  im|K)rtant  is  the  epoch  when  the  human  infant  ceases  to 
clutch  objects  only  with  the  four  fingers  like  most  of  the  ape 
family,  and  learns  to  use  his  thumb  over  against  his  two  fingers. 
This  contra-position  of  the  thumb  began  in  the  case  he  records 
about  the  twelfth  week  of  the  infant's  life  —  at  first  a  sort  of  reflex 
action  without  the  will,  and  then  soon  after  produced  by  the  will 
so  that  contraposition  of  the  thumb  was  quite  attained  by  the 
fourteenth  week.  The  infant  rejoices  in  each  new  power  gained, 
and  incessantly  practises  it  with  voluntary  attention  until  it  by 
degrees  sinks  into  a  habit. 

The  first  look  of  attention  on  the  part  of  the  child  of  Doctor 
Preyer  was  given  to  some  swinging  tassels  on  the  thirty-ninth  day. 
On  the  ninth  week  it  noticed  and  gave  attention  to  the  ticking  of 
a  watch. 

Other  important  epochs  are  the  following :  1.  Holding  up  its 
head  by  the  act  of  will  in  the  eleventh  week.  2.  Standing  ^one 
in  the  forty-eighth  week.  3.  Walking  in  the  fiftieth  week.  4, 
Recognition  of  its  mother  on  the  sixty-first  day.  6.  Recognition  of 
its  own  image  in  a  mirror  in  the  sixth  month  —  stretching  out  its 
hand  to  the  image  —  also  recognizing  its  father's  image  and  jtum- 
ing  to  look  at  the  real  father  and  compare  him  with  the  image. 
6.  In  the  seventeenth  week  is  noticed  the  first  recognition  of  self, 
indicated  by  attention  to  his  own  hand ;  and  six  weeks  later  an 
elaborate  series  of  experiments  of  touching  himself  and  foreign 
objects  alternately.  7.  The  discovery  of  itself  as  cause  when  it 
can  produce  sound  by  rattling  a  paper,  or  by  striking  one  object 


1889.]  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANUAL  TBAININO.  679 

with  another,  or  tearing  asunder  a  piece  of  paper  —  this  is  a  most 
delightful  discovery  to  the  child.  8.  But  imitation,  which  begins 
about  the  fifteenth  week  and  by-and-by  develops  into  the  use  of 
language,  is  the  most  interesting  evidence  of  the  growth  of  the 
intellect. 

This  glance  at  infant  life  reminds  us  that  in  education  things 
that  are  very  trivial  at  one  epoch  are  of  exceeding  importance  at 
another.  In  cases  of  arrested  development  the  educational  value 
of  such  matters  as  the  contraposition  of  the  thumb  —  the  exer- 
tion of  the  will  in  supporting  the  body  erect,  and  in  imita- 
tion, is  coming  to  be  well  understood,  as  one  may  see  in  recent 
schools  for  the  feeble-minded.  But  the  order  of  development  of 
these  things  is  all  important.  An  act  is  educative  when  first 
learned,  and  then  only.  After  it  has  become  habit  it  is  a  second 
nature  —  a  new  nature  produced  by  the  will,  and  is  no  longer 
educative.     Man  as  a  bundle  of  habits  is  a  self-made  being. 

Professor  Preyer's  child  was  so  delighted  with  the  discovery 
that  it  could  put  a  cover  on  a  box,  that  it  deliberately  took  it  off 
and  replaced  it  seventy-nine  times  without  an  interval  of  rest.  It 
was  an  educative  step  in  its  development  —  a  step  in  the  discovery 
of  its  selfhood  as  an  energy,  as  well  as  a  step  in  the  discovery  of 
adaptiition  in  the  external  world. 

Many  educational  devices  have  been  proposed  for  schools,  wliich 
merely  repeat  lessons  that  the  child  has  already  made  for  itself  in 
infancy.  The  so-called  object  lessons  of  school  are  quite  fre- 
quently of  this  character.  So  lessons  on  the  properties  of  objects 
—  the  qualities  of  wood,  stone,  metals,  etc.,  are  not  of  much  use 
in  school  because  such  things  are  provided  for  in  the  child's  self- 
education.  I  do  not  of  course  refer  to  the  scientific  study  of  such 
things,  which  classifies  and  exhausts  those  qualities,  and  gives  the 
history  and  geography  of  the  object — science  is  a  different  matter. 
The  cultivation  of  the  powers  of  observation  in  our  schools  —  this 
too,  is  very  often  the  farce  of  repeating  lessons  which  have  been 
learned  by  the  child  before  he  could  talk. 

Now  all  the  lessons  of  infancy  involve  such  training  in  dexterity 
of  the  hand,  accuracy  of  the  eye,  the  sense  of  form,  industry,  per- 
severance, the  gaining  of  the  jKJwer  of  careful  attention,  and  the 
development  of  the  body  —  such  training  as  is  claimed  for  the 
Slojd  education.  Moreover,  the  lessons  of  cleanliness,  and  neat- 
ness, and  industry  are  taught  by  the  good  mother  quite  early  to 


660 


BDVCATIOy. 


her  child.  The  child  learns  to  use  knife  and  fork  and  apoon  i 
early.  By^nd-by  he  learns  to  use  the  jack-knife,  and  we  all  ki 
the  self-education  tliat  goes  on  in  tlie  use  of  this  tool  among 
glo-Saxon  boj-s. 

But  what  of  all  this  ?  one  inquires.  Although  it  is  eduiMt 
it  is  not  properly  school  education.  How  does  such  infant  edi 
tion  differ  from  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  ge<^raphy,  histi 
yes,  even  from  grammar?  Here  is  the  vital  point  of  our 
cussioii. 

Man  elevates  himself  above  the  brute  creation  by  his  abUit< 
withdraw  his  attention  from  the  external  world  of  the  senses  ; 
give  attention  to  energies,  forces,  producing  causes,  princip 
He  can  look  from  the  particular  to  the  general,  without  losing 
particular  he  grasps  together  the  whole  realm  of  the  particulai 
the  general — or  in  more  significant  langui^  —  in  mastering 
cause  of  anything  he  grasps  together  and  comprehends  an  inc 
nite  series  of  effects.  He  is  not  obliged  to  hold  the  details,  tha 
to  say,  memorize  all  the  facts  and  hold  their  details  in  a  st< 
house.  He  can  see  them  all  in  a  principle  —  he  can  see  in  aca 
its  possible  consequences.  Understanding  the  meteoric  process 
can  readily  explain  any  step  in  it  —  clouds,  rain,  snow,  evapi 
tion,  fog,  et  cetera.  Without  this  knowledge  of  the  general  wL 
always  rests  on  some  insight  into  causal  process  real  or  suppoc 
man  would  be  bound  down  to  the  present  fact  before  his  seni 
But  with  this  knowledge  man  is  able  to  see  in  the  present  fact 
past  history ;  he  is  able  moreover,  to  see  in  the  present  fact 
future  as  a  possible  fact  which  he  may  realize  by  an  act  of  his  « 

Man  differs  from  the  animal  in  this  great  power  of  seeing  id* 
and  in  reinforcing  sense-perception  by  adding  to  each  thing  or  J 
before  his  senses  the  vision  of  it«  past  and  the  vision  of  its  futi 
Man  thus  becomes  comprehending;  he  explains  the  fact  by 
process  of  evolution,  he  becomes  practical  or  a  will-power  throi 
effecting  some  change  or  modification  in  the  thing  or  fact  in  or 
to  realize  his  vision  of  its  ideal. 

A  false  psychology  tells  us  that  we  derive  all  our  knowle< 
from  sense-perception.  We  see  form  or  shape,  and  color ;  i> 
taste,  smell,  or  hear,  hardness,  flavor,  odor,  and  sound  :  but  we 
not  by  any  of  these  learn  the  idea  of  causal  process.  This  coi 
through  thinking,  and  is  an  original  acquisition  which  think 
mind  brings  with  it.     By  this  idea  of  causal  process  all  the  d 


1889.]  THE  P8TCB0L0GT  OF  MANUAL  TBAININQ.  581 

of  sense  are  transformed  radically.  They  are  given  us  in  sense- 
perception  as  independent  realities.  In  thinking  them  by  the  aid 
of  causality,  we  make  all  these  matters  of  sense-perception  into 
phenomena  —  or  effects  and  manifestations  of  underlying  causes, 
which  are  not  visible  or  tangible  —  not  flavoi-s,  sounds,  nor  odoi'S. 

No  generalization  is  possible  without  ascending  from  the  immedi- 
ate thing  or  fact  to  the  causal  energy.  By  their  common  causal 
energy  we  unite  objects  into  classes,  we  unite  the  various  hetero- 
geneous things,  such  as  acorns,  oak-leaves,  roots,  saplings,  trees^ 
oak-wood,  in  one  causal  process  of  the  oak. 

Without  the  idea  of  causality  we  could  never  distinguish  exter- 
nal objects  from  our  feelings,  and  hence,  experience  never  could 
begin. 

Man  goes  back  from  the  fact  to  its  producing  cause.  But  he 
goes  back  of  its  producing  cause  to  a  deeper  cause  that  unites  two 
or  more  series  of  producing  causes  —  back  of  the  oak  and  pine  to 
tree  in  general ;  back  of  tree,  and  grass,  and  lichen,  to  plant  in 
general;  back  of  plant,  and  animal,  to  life  in  general.  Man's 
power  of  thought  rises  from  thing  to  cause,  and  from  cause  to 
cause,  leaving  a  smaller  and  smaller  residuum  of  mere  sense-data^ 
and  yet  getting  nearer  the  underlying  reality  which  causes  all  these 
sense-data. 

This  is  the  great  point  for  educators  to  observe.  We  do  not  get 
at  the  true  reality  by  sense-perception,  but  by  thought.  Force  is 
never  perceived  directly  by  the  senses  —  a  thing  is  here  and  a 
thing  is  there,  but  motion  is  not  perceived  —  only  inferred ;  force 
is  only  inferred.  Thought  puts  together  this  fact  and  that,  this 
present  one  and  that  past  one,  and  unites  them  by  the  idea  of 
causality,  and  the  idea  of  force  is  born. 

So  thought  produces  the  idea  of  space,  pure  space  containing 
all,  infinite  in  extent,  and  yet  not  material,  not  to  be  perceived  by 
any  of  the  senses.  With  the  ideas  of  space  and  time — ideas  that 
thought  generates  of  itself  in  order  to  think  the  data  of  sense- 
perception  into  a  consistent  whole  — with  these  ideas  of  space  and 
time  the  idea  of  quantity  is  evolved  and  mathematics  becomes 
possible. 

In  mathematics  man  beholds  not  merely  a  few  data  of  sense- 
perception,  but  the  universal  conditions  of  all  sense-perception. 
The  laws  of  quantity  as  formulated  in  arithmetic,  geometry,  and 
the  calculus  give  us  the  logical  conditions  of  the  existence  of  all 


\ 


SSa  EDUCATION. 

matter  and  all  motion,  not  only  all  that  exists,  but  all  that  m 
can  exist. 

Now  this  must  be  bome  in  mind  when  we  make  coniparis' 
tiie  educational  effect  on  the  mind  of  a  child  produced  by  leai 
arithmetic  and  geometry  with  that  produced  by  leamin|r  h( 
make  a  box  or  a  joint,  or  weld  two  pieces  of  iron.  Grant  thi 
these  processes  are  educative,  at  least  in  the  Brat  process  of 
acquirement.  To  make  a  box  requires  special  applicatioi 
knowledge  of  a  special  kind  —  measurement,  adaptation,  divi 
with  the  saw,  the  use  of  the  hammer  and  nails.  It  is  special 
there  is  something  learned  regarding  the  texture  of  wood  and  i 
some  skill  or  knack  acquired  in  the  handling  of  toolB  — 
pleasurable  feeling  of  self  at  the  consciousness  of  what  one  ca 
complish  by  his  labor.  But  in  the  study  of  mathematics  there 
immeasurably  higher  feeling  of  self  in  the  perception  of  the  p 
of  the  intellect  not  merely  to  know  passively,  but  to  know  acti 
not  merely  to  know  the  small  portion  of  the  univerae  present 
its  immediate  senses,  but  to  know  the  conditions  of  existen 
all  matter  near  and  remote,  now,  in  the  past,  and  in  all  future 
What  a. glimpse  of  the  dignity  and  commanding  eminence  of 
arises  through  the  study  of  geometry!  The  three  angles  o] 
triangle  are  equal  to  two  right  angles  —  the  pupil  need  i 
measure  one  real  triangle  to  know  this.  On  the  basis  of  the  i 
of  the  sides  of  the  right  angled  triangle  to  one  another,  niao 
ceeds  to  measure  all  things  inaccessible  to  manual  measure 
— he  measures  the  distance  of  the  sun  and  of  the  fixed 
Compare  the  feeling  of  selfhood  that  is  gained  by  the  soul  i 
use  of  the  tooU  of  thought  with  that  gained  by  any  form  of 
ual  labor. 


GREAT  men  stand  like  solitary-  towers  in  the  city  of  God 
secret  passages  running  deep  beneath  external  nature 
their  thoughts  intercourse  with  higher  intelligences,  which  stre 
ens  and  consoles  them,  and  of  wliich  the  laborers  on  the  si 
do  not  even  dream.  —  Longpki 


1889.]  RENASCENCE  TENDENCIES.  58$ 


RENASCENCE  TENDENCIES. 

BY  R.  H.  QUICK,  ENGLAND. 

IN  considering  and  comparing  the  two  great  epochs  of  intellec- 
tual activity  and  change  in  modern  times,  viz.,  the  sixteenth 
century  and  the  nineteenth,  we  cannot  but  be  struck  with  one 
fundamental  difference  between  them. 

It  will  affect  all  our  thoughts,  as  Sir  Henry  Maine  has  said,, 
whether  we  place  the  Golden  Age  in  the  Past  or  in  the  Future. 
In  the  nineteenth  century  the  "good  time  "  is  supposed  to  be 
"  coming,"  but  in  the  sixteenth  century  all  thinkers  look  back- 
wards. The  great  Italian  scholars  gazed  with  admiration  and  envy 
on  the  works  of  ancient  Greece  and  Rome,  and  longed  to  restore 
the  old  languages,  and  as  much  as  possible  the  old  world,  so  that 
such  works  might  be  produced  again.  Many  were  suspected,  not 
altogether  perhaps  without  reason,  of  wishing  to  uproot  Chris- 
tianity itself,^  that  they  might  bring  back  the  Golden  Age  of 
Pericles. 

At  the  same  time  another  movement  was  going  on  principally 
in  Germany.  Here  too,  men  were  endeavoring  to  throw  off  the 
immediate  past  in  order  to  revive  the  remote  past.  The  religious 
reformers,  like  the  scholars,  wished  to  restore  a  golden  age,  only  a 
different  age,  not  the  age  of  the  Antigone,  but  the  age  of  the 
Apostles'  Creed.  Thus  it  happened  that  the  scholars  and  the 
reformers  joined  in  attaching  the  very  highest  importance  to  the 
ancient  languages.  Through  these  languages,  and,  as  they  thought,, 
through  them  alone,  was  it  possible  to  get  a  glimpse  into  the  bygone 
world  in  which  their  soul  delighted. 

But  though  all  joined  in  extolling  the  ancient  writings,  we  find 
at  the  Renascence  great  differences  in  the  way  of  regarding  these 
writings  and  in  the  objects  for  which  they  were  employed.  A 
consideration  of  these  differences  will  help  us  to  understand  the 
course  of  education  when  the  Renascence  was  a  force  no  longer. 

Very  powerful  in  education  were  the  great  scholars,  of  whom 
Erasmus  was  perhaps  the  greatest,  certainly  the  most  celebrated. 
In  devoting  their  lives  to  the  study  of  the  ancients  their  object 

>  See  Erasmus's  Cictronianut,  or  aooount  of  it  in  Henry  Barnard's  **  German  Teacbers.'* 


/" 


«U  BDUCATIOK.  f] 

was  not  merely  to  appreciate  literary  style,  though  this  wa 
source  of  boundless  delight  to  them,  hut  also  to  underttand 
classical  writings  and  the  ancient  world  through  them.  Tl 
men,  whom  we  may  call  par  exeellencf,  the  Scholars,  cared  iud 
before  all  things  for  literature ;  but  with  all  their  delight  in 
form  they  never  lost  sight  of  the  substance.  They  knew  the  tr 
that  Milton  afterwards  expressed  in  these  memorable  wor 
^'  Though  a  linguist  should  pride  himself  to  have  all  the  tong 
that  Babel  cleft  the  world  into,  yet  if  he  have  not  studied  the  m 
things  iu  them  as  well  as  the  words  and  lexicons,  he  were  noth 
80  much  to  be  esteemed  a  learned  man  as  any  yeoman  or  tnu 
man  competently  wise  in  his  mother  dialect  only."  (Tractat* 
Hartlib,  §  4.) 

So  Erasmus  and  the  scholars  would  have  all  the  educated  utu 
stand  the  classical  authors.  But  to  understand  words  you  m 
know  the  things  to  which  the  words  refer.  Thus  the  Schol 
were  led  to  advocate  a  partial  study  of  things,  a  kind  of  real! 
But  we  must  carefully  observe  a  peculiarity  of  the  scholastic  n 
ism  which  distinguished  it  from  the  realism  of  a  later  date  — 
realism  of  Bacon.  The  study  of  things  was  undertaken  not 
its  own  sake,  but  simply  in  order  to  understand  books.  Perh 
some  of  us  are  conscious  that  this  kind  of  literary  realism  has 
wholly  passed  away.  We  may  have  observed  wild  flowers,  or 
changes  in  tree  or  cloud,  because  we  find  that  the  best  waj 
understand  some  favorite  author,  as  Wordsworth  or  Tenuys 
This  will  help  us  to  understand  the  realism  of  the  sixteenth  c 
tury.  The  writings  of  great  authors  have  been  compared  to 
plaster  globes  (  "  celestial  globes  "  as  we  call  them),  which  aa 
us  in  understanding  the  configuration  of  the  stars  (^GucMeei 
Truth,  j.  47).  Adopting  this  simile  we  may  say  that  the  Scho] 
loved  to  study  the  globe  for  its  own  sake,  and  when  they  lool 
at  stars  they  did  so  with  the  object  of  understanding  the  glc 
Thus  we  read  of  doctors  who  recommended  their  pupils  to  looli 
Actual  cases  of  disease  as  the  best  commentary  on  the  workf 
Hippocrates  and  Galen.  This  kind  of  realism  was  good  as  faa 
it  went,  but  it  did  not  go  far.  Of  course  the  end  in  view  limi 
the  study,  and  the  Scholars  took  no  interest  in  things  except  th 
which  were  mentioned  in  the  classics.  They  had  no  desire 
investigate  the  material  universe  and  make  discoveries  for  tfa< 
selves.     This  is  why  Galileo  could  not  induce  them  to  look  throi 


1889.]  BENASCENCE  TENDENCIES.  685 

his  telescope  ;  for  the  ancients  had  no  telescopes,  and  the  Scholars 
wished  to  see  nothing  that  had  not  been  seen  by  their  favorite 
authors.     First  then  we  have  the  Scholars,  headed  by  Erasmus. 

Next  we  find  a  party  less  numerous  and  for  a  time  less  influen- 
tial, who  did  care  about  things  for  the  sake  of  the  things  them- 
selves ;  but  carried  away  by  the  literary  current  of  their  age,  they 
sought  to  learn  about  them  not  directly,  but  only  by  reading. 
Here  again  we  have  a  kind  of  realism  which  is  not  yet  extinct. 
Some  years  ago  I  was  assured  by  a  Graduate  of  the  University  of 
London  who  had  passed  in  chemistry,  that,  as  far  as  he  knew,  he 
had  never  seen  a  chemical  in  his  life :  he  had  got  all  his  knowledge 
from  books.  While  such  a  thing  is  possible  among  us,  we  need 
not  wonder  if  those  who  in  the  sixteenth  century  prized  the  knowl- 
edge of  things,  allowed  books  to  come  between  the  learner  and  the 
object  of  his  study,  if  they  regarded  Nature  as  a  far-off  country 
of  which  we  could  know  nothing  but  what  great  authors  reported 
to  us. 

As  this  party,  unlike  the  Scholars,  did  not  delight  in  literature 
as  such,  but  simply  as  a  means  of  acquiring  knowledge,  literary 
form  was  not  valued  by  them,  and  they  preferred  Euclid  to  Sopho- 
cles, Columella  to  Virgil.  Seeking  to  learn  about  things,  not 
immediately,  but  through  words,  they  have  received  from  Raumer 
a  name  they  are  likely  to  keep — Verbal  Realists.  In  the  six- 
teenth century  the  greatest  of  the  Verbal  Realists  also  gave  a  hint 
of  Realism  proper ;  for  he  was  no  less  a  man  than  Rabelais. 

Lastly  we  come  to  those  who,  as  it  turned  out,  were  to  have 
more  influence  in  the  schoolroom  than  the  Scholars  and  the  Ver- 
bal Realists  combined.'  I  do  not  know  that  these  have  had  any 
name  given  them,  but  for  distinction  sake  we  may  call  them 
Stylists,  In  studying  Uterature  the  Scholars  cared  both  for  form 
and  substance,  the  Verbal  Realists  for  substance  only,  and  the 
Stylists  for  form  only.  The  Stylists  gave  up  their  lives,  not,  like 
the  Scholars,  to  gain  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  ancient 
writings  and  of  the  old  world,  but  to  an  attempted  reproduction 
of  the  ancient  languages  and  of  the  classical  literary  form. 

In  marking  these  tendencies  at  the  Renascence,  we  must  remem- 
ber that  though  distinguished  by  their  tendencies,  these  Scholars, 
Verbal  Realists,  and  Stylists,  were  not  divided  into  clearly  defined 
parties.  Categories  like  these  no  doubt  assist  us  in  gaining  pre- 
cision of  thought,  but  we  must  not  gain  precision  at  the  expense 


586  EDUCATION.  [Mhj, 

of  accuracy.  The  tendencies  we  have  been  considering  did  not 
act  in  precisely  opposite  directions,  and  all  were  to  some  extent 
affected  by  them.  But  one  tendency  was  predominant  in  one  man 
and  another  in  another ;  and  this  justifies  us  in  calling  Sturm  a 
Stylist,  Erasmus  a  Scholar,  and  Rabelais  a  Verbal  Realist. 

In  one  respect  they  were  all  agreed.  The  world  was  to  be 
regenerated  by  means  of  books.  Nothing  pleased  them  more  than 
to  think  of  their  age  as  the  Revival  of  Learning. 


A  RECENT  GRAFTING   ON  AN  OLD  SHOOT. 

THE  COLLEGE    OF    WILLLAJtf   AND   MARY. 

BT  PROF.   HUGH  S.   BIRD,   A.   M., 
Profu9or  of  Pedagogics  in  the  College  of  William  and  Mary. 

IN  1693,  "  William  and  Mary,  by  the  grace  of  God,  of  England^ 
Scotland,  France,  and  Ireland,  King  and  Queen,  defenders  of 
the  faith,"  at  the  earnest  solicitation  of  their  "  well-beloved  and 
faithful  subjects  "  in  the  colony  of  Virginia,  granted  a  charter  for 
a  college  to  be  called  by  their  names.  The  avowed  object  of  its 
establishment  was  "  that  the  Christian  faith  may  be  propagated 
amongst  the  Western  Indians,  to  the  glory  of  Almighty  God ;  to 
make,  found,  and  establish  a  certain  place  of  universal  study,  or 
perpetual  College  of  Divinity,  Philosophy,  Languages,  and  other 
good  Arts  and  Sciences." 

The  carrying  out  of  this  project  was  entrusted  to  eighteen  men,, 
consisting  of  the  Governor  of  Virginia,  four  "esquires,"  four 
"  clerks,"  and  nine  "  gentlemen,  or  the  major  part  of  them,  or  the 
longer  livers  of  them."  So  runs  the  quaint  old  charter,  and  after 
it  has  repeated  some  dozen  or  more  times  with  due  legal  circumlo- 
cution, the  names  of  the  trustees,  the  studies  to  be  pursued,  and 
other  mattere  of  importance,  it  states  that  the  support  of  the  col- 
lege shall  be  derived  from  certain  taxes,  escheats,  and  rents.  This 
is  not  gratis,  however,  for  there  must  be  a  "  value  received,"  which 
consists  in  the  "  paying  to  us,  and  our  successors,  two  copies  of 
Latin  verses  yearly,  on  every  fifth  day  of  November,  at  the  house 
of  our  Governor  of  Virginia,  for  the  time  being,  forever,  in  full 
discharge,  acquittance,  and  satisfaction  of  all  quit-rents,  serviceSv 


1889.]  A  RECENT  GRAFTING  ON  AN  OLD  SHOOT.  687 

customs,  dues,  and  burdens  whatsoever."  What  rare  old  produc- 
tions these  "  veraes  "  must  have  been ! 

The  college  building  was  planned  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  and 
to  the  first  commencement,  people  from  all  the  colonies  "  came  in 
sloops  and  barges  to  hear  the  graduates  perform  their  exercises," 
and  doubtless  the  colonists  experienced  peculiar  feelings  when 
they  saw,  here  in  the  wilds  of  the  New  World,  the  counterpart  of 
the  quadrangles  and  lecture-halls  which  they  recalled  with  tender- 
ness, and  which  they  had  left  so  far  away  in  the  old  country. 

In  1705  the  college  was  burnt,  but  was  "  restored  to  the  same 
bigness  as  before,"  says  the  chronicler  of  the  day.  Williamsburg 
was  the  centre  of  the  society  and  politics  of  the  times,  for  at  one 
end  of  the  town  the  Burgesses  and  courts  of  the  colony  held  their 
meetings,  and  at  the  other  the  learned  professors  of  the  "  Humani- 
ties," of  "Law  and  Police,"  and  of  the  other  "good  arts  and 
sciences,"  instructed  the  youth  of  the  land.  The  natural  conse- 
quence was,  as  Doctor  Adams  has  so  ably  set  forth  in  one  of  the 
"  Circulars  of  the  Bureau  of  Education,"  Virginia  became  the 
"  Mother  of  Statesmen,"  the  offspring  of  this  union  of  College  and 
Assembly.  Doubtless  young  Jefferson,  Lee,  Randolph,  and  their 
fellows  si)ent  much  of  their  spare  time  listening  to  the  debates  of 
the  doughty  old  Burgesses  and  imbibed  a  love  for  and  knowledge 
of  public  affairs.  So,  when  the  country  needed  "  men  of  affairs  " 
to  draft  a  Constitution,  or  a  Declaration  of  Independence,  the  men 
from  William  and  Mary  meeting  at  Philadelphia  those  from  Har- 
vard, they  compared  their  ideas  and  brought  forth  what  is  now  the 
United  States  of  America. 

Harvard  had  been  established  some  years  before,  because,  per- 
haps, the  New  England  colonists  were  more  ready  at  this  time  to 
dissolve  connection  with  the  mother  country  even  in  regard  to  the 
sending  of  their  sons  to  the  English  colleges  and  universities. 
However,  Harvard  and  William  and  Mary  had  embarked  in  a 
common  cause,  and  when  in  1697  the  administrators  of  the  estate 
of  Robert  Boyle,  the  scientist  and  philanthropist,  looked  about  for 
some  worthy  object  to  apply  his  estate  to,  as  the  testator  had 
directed,  they  bestowed  it  upon  the  two  colleges  in  the  colonies. 

The  bishops  of  London  were,  ex-oflBcio,  chancellors  of  the  insti- 
tution up  to  the  Revolution,  and  during  that  time  many  men  who 
afterward  occupied  high  places  on  "Fame's  eternal  bead-roll," 
went  forth  from  its  walls.     In  this  great  country  of  ours  where 


588  EDUCATION.  [May, 

the  people  rule,  every  college  in  the  land  happily  can  claim  a  large 
number  of  distinguished  alumni,  and  William  and  Mary  is  not  one 
whit  behind  the  others,  and  suffice  it  to  say  she  has  furnished  more 
Chief  Magistrates  of  the  Nation  than  any  other  one  institution  of 
learning. 

As  long  as  the  colonies  formed  part  of  the  British  Empire, 
church,  state,  and  educational  affairs  were  indissolubly  connected, 
but  after  they  gained  their  independence  such  a  condition  of  things 
could,  of  course,  no  longer  exist.  Then  William  and  Mary  lost 
her  chief  source  of  revenue,  the  tax  on  tobacco  and  liquors,  besides 
forfeiting  much  of  her  land,  and  there  was  some  prejudice  against 
her  because  she  had  been  part  of  "  the  establishment."  Naturally 
the  college  was  considered  an  Episcopal  institution  and  remained 
80,  nominally,  up  to  the  last  wat,  although  in  her  short  list  of 
presidents  we  find  a  Baptist  and  a  Presbyterian,  both  of  whose 
teims  of  office  were  exceptionally  long.  In  1788  George  Wash- 
ington, he  to  whom  the  college  had  once  given  a  surveyor's  com- 
mission, was  elected  Chancellor,  and  the  great  man  was  very  much 
pleased  and  continued  to  fulfill  the  duties  of  the  office  until  his 
death.  The  office  remained  vacant  until  1859,  when  John  Tyler, 
after  having  occupied  Washington's  place  in  the  councils  of  the 
nation,  was  made  Chancellor,  and  filled  the  office  most  acceptably. 

To  revert  to  the  ante-Revolutionary  period,  in  looking  over  the 
old  records  of  the  Faculty  we  find  many  curious  and  intei:esting 
entries,  among  which  we  note  two  important  appointments^  to  wit : 

'*June  26,  1761.  Jtesolved^  that  Mrs.  Foster  be  appointed  stock- 
ing-mender to  the  college,  and  that  she  be  paid  annually  the  sum 
of  twelve  pounds,  provided  she  furnish  herself  with  lodging,  diet, 
fire,  and  candles." 

"October  14,  1773.  Agreed  unanimously,  that  Mr.  Thomas 
Jefferson  be  appointed  county  surveyor  of  Albemarle." 

Let  us  hope  that  Mrs.  Foster  performed  her  duties,  as  did  the 
Albemarle  surveyor ! 

In  1774  the  Faculty  sent  a  letter  to  the  Governor  of  Virginia, 
from  which  we  take  the  following  extract :  — 

"  We,  his  Majesty's  dutiful  and  loyal  subjects,  the  President  and 
Professors  of  William  and  Mary  College,  moved  by  an  impulse  of 
unfeigned  joy,  cannot  help  congratulating  your  Excellency  on 
such  a  series  of  agreeable  events  as  the  success  of  your  enterprise 
against  the  Indians,  the  addition  to  your  family  by  the  birth  of  a 


1^ 


1889.]  A  RECENT  GRAFTING  ON  AN  OLD  SHOOT.  589 

daughter,  and  your  safe  as  well  as  glorious  return  to  the  capital  of 
the  Dominion." 

We  see  that  the  college  appreciated  its  position  as  a  part  of  the 
body  politic  and  took  an  interest  in  everything  pertaining  to  the 
government.  The  Presidents  were  for  many  years  the  "commis- 
saries "  of  the  colony  and  the  college  was  entitled  to  two  repre- 
«entatives  in  the  colonial  assembly. 

In  1776,  six  months  after  the  signing  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, John  Marahall,  afterward  Chief-Justice  of  the  United 
States,  together  with  forty-three  of  his  college  mates,  organized 
the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  fraternity,  the  fii-st  in  this  country. 

After  the  Revolution  the  Virginia  legislature  granted  to  the 
college  some  land  as  a  partial  compensation  for  the  losses  it  sus- 
tained when  the  state  entered  the  Union,  but  the  income  was  never 
again  as  large  as  it  had  been. 

Thomas  Jefferson,  while  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Visitors,  suc- 
ceeded in  having  the  chaii^s  of  Divinity  and  of  Oriental  Languages 
abolished,  besides  making  other  impoi^tant  changes.  Notwith- 
stiindiug  the  many  alterations,  the  college  continued  to  send  out 
great  and  good  men  worthy  to  follow  in  the  footsteps  of  their  pre- 
decessors in  the  lecture  halls. 

In  1859  the  college  was  burnt  a  second  time  and  sustained  an 
irreparable  loss  in  the  greater  part  of  its  library  and  old-fashioned 
philosophical  apparatus.  The  Chapel  had  been  at  one  time  "  the 
Westminster  Abbey  of  Virginia,"  and  this  fire  destroyed  the  mural 
tablets  erected  to  the  distinguished  dead.  This  happened  in  Feb- 
ruary, but  before  the  beginning  of  the  next  session  the  main  build- 
ing had  been  restored  and  the  college  once  more  resumed  its  work, 
only  to  be  stopped  by  the  Civil  War.  Just  as  during  the  Revolu- 
tion the  students  and  professors  had  laid  down  their  books  and 
taken  up  their  arms,  so  in  this  later  war  they  entered  the  service 
of  their  state.  During  the  war  the  college  was  unintentionally 
destroyed,  this  time  by  the  Union  soldiery. 

During  the  Reconstruction  period  the  friends  of  William  and 
Mary,  undismayed  by  the  crippled  condition  of  its  funds,  raised 
enough  to  rebuild  the  college  on  its  old  site.  For  about  ten  years 
the  college  was  in  operation,  but  it  seemed  impossible  to  recover 
from  this  last  blow.  It  was  heavily  in  debt  and  its  endowment 
very  much  depleted,  and  the  people  of  Virginia  were  in  no  condi- 
tion to  send  their  sons  to  an  institution  whose  income  was  obtained. 


590  EDUCATION.  [May, 

for  the  most  part,  from  the  tuition  fees.  Soon  after  the  college 
closed,  a  railroad  was  built  through  Williamsburg,  and  certain 
friends  of  William  and  Mary  redoubled  their  efforts  to  start  it 
again.  Senator  Hoar  of  Massachusetts,  introduced  a  bill  in  Con- 
gress to  reimburse  the  college  for  losses  sustained  in  the  late  war. 
He  championed  it  nobly  and  succeeded  in  getting  it  through  the 
Senate,  but  it  failed  to  pass  the  House.  In  defense  of  the  bill 
Senator  Hoar  made  a  most  eloquent  speech,  and  as  it  has  a  point 
in  connection  with  the  history  of  education  we  quote  a  portion 
of  it: — 


it 


To  spare,  and  if  possible  to  protect,  institutions  of  learning,  is  an  obliga- 
tion which  the  most  civilized  nations  impose  on  themselves.  WheneTer,  by 
accident  or  design,  these  institutions  have  been  injured  in  war,  such  govern- 
ments desire,  if  possible,  to  make  reparation.  History  contains  many  conspica- 
ous  and  interesting  examples  of  this  generous  recognition.  ...  In  her 
bloodiest  and  angriest  civil  strifes,  all  factions  in  England  have  revered  her 
institutions  of  learning.  Her  schools  and  colleges,  whatever  side  they  may 
have  taken  in  civil  war,  have  enjoyed  immunity  from  its  injuries,  when  even  her 
stately  and  venerable  cathedrals  have  not  been  spared.  Think  what  perma- 
nence these  schools  enjoy,  shielded  from  the  storms  of  war  by  the  beneficent 
principle  we  invoke.  Wherever  civilization  exists,  wherever  men  are  humane 
and  Christian,  the  college  or  the  school,  wisely  founded,  shall  endure.  I  pur- 
chased at  Eton,  a  few  years  since,  a  little  book  containing  the  history  of  the  ten 
great  schools  of  England.  I  was  struck,  in  looking  over  It,  to  see  the  dates  of 
their  endowment :  Eton,  in  1440;  Winchester,  1560;  St.  Paurs,  1509;  Merchant 
Taylors',  1560;  Charter  House,  1641;  Harrow,  1571;  Rugby,  1567;  Shrewa- 
bury,  1549;  Christ's,  1522;  while  the  origin  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  is  lost  in 
the  darkness  of  antiquity. 

^^  These  schools  have  survived  all  the  changes  of  dynasty,  all  the  changes  of 
institutions  and  manners;  Puritan  and  Cavalier,  York  and  Lancaster,  have 
fought  out  their  battles,  and  yet,  in  the  wildest  tempests  of  popular  excitement^ 
they  — 

*  Hft  not  their  »pear»  agaiiut  the  Mute**  bower,* 

At  Winchester,  William  of  Wykeham  founded  in  1380,  a  school  which  still 
stands  and  has  remained  through  six  dynasties.  Plantiigenet,  Lancaster,  York^ 
Tudor,  Stuart,  and  Hanover  have  successively  struggled  for  and  occupied  the 
English  throne,  while  In  the  building  which  W^ykeham  in  his  lifetime  planned 
and  built  the  scholars  of  Winchester  are  still  governed  by  the  statutes  which 
he  framed. 

''  You  will  scarcely  find  an  instance,  in  England  or  America,  where  a  school 
or  college,  wisely  founded,  has  died.    *  Whatever  perishes^  that  shall  endure." 

"  But  William  and  Mary  has  also  her  own  peculiar  claim  on  our  regard.  The 
great  principles  on  which  the  rights  of  man  depend,  which  inspired  the  states- 
men of  Virginia  of  the  period  of  the  Revolution,  are  the  fruits  of  her  teaching. 
The  name  of  Washington,  to  whose  genius  in  war  and  to  whose  influence  in 
peace  we  owe  the  vindication  of  our  liberties  and  the  successful  inauguration 
of  our  Constitution,  is  inseparably  connected  with  WllUam  and  Mary. 


1889.]  A  RECENT  GRAFTING  ON  AN  OLD  SHOOT.  691 

gave  him  his  first  commission  in  his  yoath;  he  gave  to  her  his  last  public  ser- 
vice in  his  age.  Jefferson,  author  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  who 
announced  the  great  law  of  equality  and  human  rights,  in  whose  light  our 
Constitution  is  at  last  and  forever  to  be  interpreted,  drank  his  inspiration  at  her 
fountain.  Marshall,  without  whose  luminous  and  far-sighted  exposition  our 
Constitution  could  hardly  have  been  put  into  successful  operation,  who  imbed- 
ded forever  in  our  constitutional  law  the  great  doctrines  on  which  the  measures 
that  saved  the  Union  are  based,  was  a  son  of  William  and  Mary.  By  the  ces- 
sion of  the  great  Northwestern  Territory,  largely  due  to  the  efforts  of  one  of 
her  illustrious  sons,  she  lost  a  great  part  of  her  revenues. 

^^  Xext  to  Harvard  she  is  the  oldest  of  American  colleges.  The  gift  of  the 
famous  Robert  Boyle  was  held  by  her  for  many  years,  on  condition  of  an 
annual  payment  of  £90  to  Harvard.  Boyle  was  the  friend  of  many  of  the  early 
friends  and  benefactors  of  Harvard,  and  a  correspondent  of  one  of  its  first 
presidents.  Each  of  these  two  seminaries,  in  its  own  part  of  the  country, 
kindled  and  kept  alive  the  sacred  fire  of  liberty.  In  1743,  the  year  Jefferson 
was  born,  Samuel  Adams  maintained,  on  taking  his  degree  of  master  of  arts  at 
Harvard,  the  affirmative  of  the  thesis,  whether  it  be  lawful  to  resist  the 
supreme  magistrate,  if  the  Commonwealth  cannot  otherwise  be  preserved.  lo 
this  hour  of  the  calamity  of  her  sister  college  I  am  glad  to  believe  that  Har- 
vard does  not  forget  the  ancient  tie.  The  mother  of  the  Otlses  and  the 
Adamses  would  gladly  extend  her  right  hand  to  the  mother  of  Jefferson  and 
Marshall. 

^^  If  civil  strife  or  foreign  war  shall  ever  again  disturb  our  peace,  every  col- 
lege in  the  land  will  be  safer  if  Congress  shall  today  make  this  solemn  recog- 
nition of  the  rule  we  invoke.  To  deny  it  is  to  deny  to  the  college  of  Washington 
the  justice  he  did  to  Princeton.  To  deny  it  is  to  deny  to  Virginia  the  gen- 
erous treatment  which  Connecticut  received  from  Tryon,  Philadelphia  from 
Cooke,  and  William  and  Mary  herself  from  Louis  XVI.  of  France.  The  hal- 
lowed associations  which  surround  this  college  prevent  this  case  from  being  a 
precedent  for  any  other.  If  you  had  injured  it,  you  surely  would  have  restored 
Mount  Vernon;  you  had  better  honor  Washington  by  restoring  the  living 
iountain  of  learning  whose  service  was  the  pleasure  of  his  last  years,  than  by 
any  useless  and  empty  act  of  worship  or  respect  toward  his  sepolchre. 

^^  No  other  college  in  the  country  can  occupy  the  same  position.  By  the 
fortune  of  war  that  sacred  institution,  which  has  conferred  on  the  country  a 
hundredfold  more  benefit  than  any  other  institution  or  college  in  the  South,  has 
become  a  sufferer.  I  desire  to  hold  out  the  olive  branch  to  the  people  of  Vir- 
ginia, to  the  people  of  the  South,  to  show  them  that  we  will  Join  them  In 
rebuilding  the  sacred  place  laid  waste  by  the  fortunes  of  war/' 

In  March  of  last  year  a  bill  passed  the  Virginia  legislature 
appropriating  ten  thousand  dollars  per  annum  to  establish  a  nor- 
mal  college  for  the  white  males  of  the  state  in  connection  with  the 
collegiate  course  at  William  and  Mary.  Thus  does  the  Old  Do- 
minion pay  back  the  debt  she  owes  that  institution  which  was  for 
so  many  years  the  fountain-head  of  those  principles  of  justice  and 
philosophy  whose  fruits  she  now  enjoys  as  one  of  the  United 
States. 


693  EDUCATION.  [lUy, 

At  Farmville,  Va.,  there  is  a  most  excellent  female  normal 
school  for  the  whites,  while  the  "  Virginia  Normal  and  Collegiate 
Institute  "  at  Petersburg,  one  of  the  best  normal  schools,  certainly 
as  far  as  buildings  and  apparatus  go,  in  the  country,  furnishes  to 
the  negroes  of  both  sexes  that  kind  of  training  which  is  implied  in 
•  its  name. 

The  state  and  the  old  Board  of  Visitors  of  William  and  Mary 
have  entered  into  a  joint  partnership,  the  latter  contributing  build- 
ings and  grounds  valued  at  one  hundred  thousand  dollars  and  a 
small  income  derived  from  funds  invested,  and  the  former  the 
sum  mentioned  above.  The  object  of  the  partnership  is  to  furnish 
the  state  with  a  grade  of  teachers  and  at  such  a  low  rate  that  those 
taking  advantage  of  it  will  be  justified  in  accepting  positions  in 
the  public  schools  even  at  the  present  low  salaries,  and  still  receive 
a  handsome  per  cent,  on  the  amount  invested.  The  state  student 
is  guaranteed,  by  legislative  enactment,  that  his  expenses  for 
board,  washing,  fuel,  lights,  and  room-rent  shall  not  exceed  ninety 
dollars  per  session.  No  tuition  fee  is  charged  them.  The  present 
buildings  and  grounds  are  solid  and  substantial,  and  a  little  more 
money  would  make  the  equipment  a  magnificent  one.  The  library 
contains  about  seven  thousand  volumes,  some  of  which  have  g^ne 
through  three  wars  and  as  many  fires.  Very  few  additions  have 
been  made  since  1870,  and  many  books  found  in  nearly  all  libra- 
ries are  missing  from  its  shelves,  the  department  of  fiction  being 
represented  by  only  a  few  volumes,  while  some  can  hardly  be 
duplicated  in  this  country. 

The  college  has  been  entirely  reorganized  with  a  new  corps  of 
professors,  all  the  regular  college  branches  being  represented, 
besides  a  department  of  Methods  and  Pedagogics.  The  professor 
of  the  latter  department  gives  instruction  in  the  methods  of  teach- 
ing the  common  school  branches,  and  lectures  on  the  Theory  and 
Practice  of  Teaching,  History  of  Education,  and  kindred  subjects. 
He  also  has  charge  of  the  practice  of  the  art  itself,  the  introductory 
classes  being  the ,"  Practice  School."  The  great  end  and  aim  of 
the  instruction  and  direction  in  this  department  is  to  inculcate  an 
enthusiastic  professional  spirit,  besides  the  acquiring  of  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  principles  underlying  the  art,  together  with  the  outr 
lines  of  its  history.  What  the  professor  especially  tries  to  avoid 
is  that  his  graduates  be  exposed  to  the  ridicule  of  those  who^ 
sometimes  so  justly,  deride  the  "  normal  school  stamp  "  borne  by 


1889.]  A  BECENT  GBAFTINO  ON  AN  OLD  SHOOT.  593 

some  of  the  profession.  All  through  the  course  no  models,  as 
such,  are  held  up  to  the  teacher  in  embryo,  and  the  great  desid- 
eratim  is  originality. 

The  professional  training  does  not  stop  here,  for  the  instruction 
given  in  all  the  departments,  as  in  most  normal  colleges,  has  a  dis- 
tinctively "  normal "  trend,  and  before  the  student  takes  charge  of 
an  introductory  class  for  any  length  of  time  he  has  conducted 
numerous  reviews  and  short  exercises. 

The  department  of  English  is  presided  over  by  a  distinguished 
Johns  Hopkins  man  who  has  had  long  experience  in  public  and 
private  schools  and  teachers'  institutes.  All  through  the  course 
great  prominence  is  given  to  the  study  of  the  mother  tongue,  and 
the  doctrine  proclaimed  is,  while  there  is  a  crying  need  of  more 
instruction  in  English  in  most  colleges,  more  especially  do  those 
preparing  to  be  teachers  need  thorough  grounding  in  their  own 
language.  The  more  ornamental  part  of  the  structure  is  not  neg^ 
lected  by  any  means,  and  the  professor  of  English  uses  to  a  great 
extent  a  certain  happy  faculty  he  has  for  inculcating  an  ardent 
love  for  good  literature. 

The  lack  of  space  forbids  that  we  should  notice  in  detail  the 
other  departments,  but  it  will  suffice  to  say  that  they  are  all 
specialists  in  their  several  branches. 

The  President,  Mr.  Lyon  G.  Tyler,  a  son  of  a  former  president 
of  the  United  States  and  Chancellor  of  the  college,  is  a  compara- 
tively young  man,  an  A.  M.  from  the  University  of  Virginia,  and 
a  man  of  experience  and  decided  ability. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  old  collegiate  feature  of  the  col- 
lege has  been  retained,  and  William  and  Mary  is  now  a  well- 
equipped  college,  the  completion  of  a  certain  prescribed  course 
entitling  the  student  to  the  degree  of  Licentiate  of  Instruction. 
To  obtain  this  the  student  entering  the  Junior  class  spends  two 
years  each  in  Latin,  Mathematics,  and  English  and  the  department 
of  Methods  and  Pedagogics,  besides  thorough  elementary  instruc- 
tion in  Physiology,  Physical  Geography,  Virginia  and  United 
States  History,  Botany,  Chemistry,  Physics,  Psychology,  and  Civil 
Government.  The  course  is  so  arranged  that  a  man  of  determina^ 
tion  and  some  advancement  can  get  an  L.  I.  in  two  years.  This 
however,  requires  hard  and  steady  work.  If  the  state  student 
wishes  to  go  beyond  the  L.  I.  and  take  an  A.  M.  or  an  A.  B.,  he 
can  do  so  without  paying  any  tuition  fees. 


604  EDUCATJOy.  [May, 

So  Virginia  has  now  extended  the  privileges  of  a  collegiate  edu- 
cation to  many  who  Iiave  hitherto  been  debarred  from  them  and  at 
the  same  time  will  send  many  recruits  into  her  teaching  force. 

It  was  hoped  that  when  those  who  wished  simply  for  an  ordi- 
nary collegiate  education  went  to  William  and  Mary  and  breathed 
the  "  normal "  atmosphere,  they  would  be  induced  to  take  the  pro- 
fessional course  and  prepare  for  service  as  teachers,  even  though 
they  did  not  pledge  themselves  to  it.  This  hope  has  been  already 
realized  to  a  gratifying  extent.  At  present  there  are  one  hundred 
and  three  matriculates,  four-fifths  of  whom  are  state  students 
pledged  to  teach  in  the  public  schools.  A  grand  army  indeed 
moving  on  a  hitherto  unoccupied  territory ! 

The  history  of  William  and  Mary  performs  a  great  part  in  the 
history  of  education  and  it  is  no  wonder  that  Doctor  Adams 
should  have  devoted  an  entire  "  Circular  of  the  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion "  to  it.  In  this  pamphlet  the  Doctor  traces  the  idea  of  a 
"  national  university  "  as  set  forth  by  old  William  and  Mary,  and 
argues  tliat  Virginia  furnished  so  many  statesmen  in  the  early  part 
of  the  century  because  its  college  and  legislative  body  were  in  the 
same  town.  The  argument  is  well  sustained  and  is  accepted,  we 
suppose,  by  every  one. 

Looking  back  over  the  medieval  ages  we  find  the  cause  of  edu- 
cation fostered  by  the  church.  The  monasteries  are  the  schools, 
the  monks  the  teachers,  and  religious  instruction  predominant. 
Church,  state,  and  school  are  almost  inseparably  interwoven  in  the 
governmental  fabric.  Later  on  in  Protestant  England  we  find  the 
same  union  with  these  differences,  the  church  is  more  distinct 
from  the  school  and  the  laymen  very  frequently  teach.  This  state 
of  affairs  exists  at  first  in  cavalier  Virginia,  but  the  very  fact  that 
the  mother  country  neglected  the  cause  of  education  in  the  colo- 
nies made  the  colonists  make  large  private  subscriptions  in  order 
to  insure  Jjiixe  establishment  of  William  and  Mary.  Church,  state, 
and  school  get  wider  and  wider  apart  until  the  revolution,  and 
then  there  is  a  violent  rupture,  the  Episcopal  church  and  the  col- 
lege leaning  on  one  another  for  support.  This  union  proving  no 
more  fortuitous  than  the  old  one,  the  two  parties  to  it  separate  and 
another  war  dissolves  it  altogether. 

However  the  Fates  are  not  content  that  "their  majesty's  royal 
college  "  should  rest  upon  its  laurels  and  end  its  career  of  useful- 
ness after  having  proved  such  a  power  in  the  founding  of  the 


1889.]  THE  STUDENT  LIFE  OF  AGA8SIZ.  595 

republic.  There  is  another  work  for  her  to  do.  The  government 
has  been  founded  and  is  on  a  sound  basis  despite  the  croaks  of  the 
politicians.  Statesmen  are  needed  now,  but  not  as  much  as  of  yore, 
the  present  need  is  for  live,  energetic  men  and  women  whose 
"  stump  "  is  the  school  platform,  whose  politics  the  laws  of  justice 
and  morality,  and  whose  audiences  need  to  be  convinced,  not  of 
the  virtues  of  Protection  or  Free  Trade,  but  that  the  educated  man 
is  far  superior  to  the  ignorant. 

And,  as  old  William  and  Mary  furnished  men  of  the  right  kind 
in  the  country's  most  urgent  need  a  century  and  more  ago,  so  she 
will  send  many  recruits  also  of  the  right  kind  to  join  that  noble 
band  whose  object  is,  not  the  founding,  but  the  preservation  of  a 
Nation. 


TUB  STUDENT  LIFE  OF  AGASSIZA 

BY  F.  TREUDLEY,  YOUNGSTOWN,  OHIO. 

NO  discussion  in  recent  years  has  aroused  greater  interest  among 
thinking  men  and  women,  than  that  which  for  some  time  past 
has  dealt  Avith  the  merits  of  collegiate  requirements,  both  as  to 
substance  of  study  and  liberty  of  choice.  In  an  especial  manner 
has  this  interest  centred  in  the  relative  advantages  to  the  individ- 
ual of  a  classical  or  scientific  training.  The  advocates  of  each 
have  declared  their  opinions  with  warmth  and  supported  them  with 
arguments  as  convincing  to  themselves  as  unconvincing,  perhaps, 
to  their  opponents.  But  the  outcome  is  apparent.  The  growth 
of  public  sentiment  has  undoubtedly  been  away  from  the  strict- 
ness of  classical  training  and  towards  the  study  of  science.  The 
distinctly  "  practical "  with  all  that  term  means  is  preponderating 
in  its  weight,  in  determining  the  characteristics  of  those  called  to 
the  public  service.  It  is  not  contended  that  this  is  well.  But  to 
one  standing  somewhat  outside  of  the  field  of  dispute ;  to  one  who, 
by  reason  of  mingling  with  the  people  in  the  people's  work,  real- 
izes what  qualities  are  most  abiding  and  sustaining  in  the  world's 
work :  to  him  it  is  clear  that  what  is  wanted  most  is  (1)  a  deeper 
conception  of  personal  responsibility  in  the  work  of  preparation, 
and  (2)  a  closer  adjustment  of  this  preparation  to  the  business  of 
life. 

Collegiate  life  will  go  on  tomorrow  probably  as  today.     Courses 

>  Agassiz  was  bom  Hay  28, 1807;  died  Dec.  14, 1878. 


596  ED  UCA  TION.  [May, 

of  study  will  be  offered  and  accepted.  But  it  will  be  as  it  hag 
been,  that  the  few  will  touch  the  inner  circle  of  this  life  and  the 
many  stand  without.  The  few,  whether  students  of  science  or 
students  of  the  classics,  will  acquire  power  to  pass  beyond  the 
experiences  and  researches  of  the  majority,  and  by  new  discoveries 
or  new  adjustments  and  combinations,  render  permanent  service^ 
while  the  many,  whatever  the  confessed  import  and  bearing  of 
either  training,  will  advance  with  the  multitude  ^ri  p<issu.  What- 
ever the  training,  all  will  agree  that  certain  conditions  ought  to 
result,  — 

1.  The  student  should  acquire  an  eagerness  for  truth,  for  truth^s 
sake. 

2.  His  habit  of  mind  should  be  so  flexible  that  it  may  be  turned 
upon  any  subject,  however  repelling,  and  examine  its  grounds  for 
support. 

3.  There  should  be  discipline  such  as  will  enable  the  direction  of 
unwearied  attention  to  the  subject  in  hand. 

4.  There  should  be  such  an  acquaintance  with  things  as  they 
are,  and  with  the  operations  of  thought  as  to  enable  one  to  know 
the  marks  of  truth. 

But  for  the  attainment  of  these  conditions  of  intellectual  life 
there  must  be  a  complete  surrender  of  personal  power  and  per- 
sonal preferences  to  the  work  in  hand,  and  this,  too  many  are 
unwilling  to  allow. 

Agassiz's  training  was,  in  an  especial  sense,  the  training  of  a 
scientist.  His  student  life,  as  told  in  the  pages  of  his  devoted 
biographer,  seems  to  have  been  as  perfectly  adapted  to  his  natiu^ 
and  his  subsequent  life-work  as  was  possible.  It  was  a  singularly 
healthful  training  that  he  received.  It  was  thorough.  It  so  min- 
gled original  work  with  the  study  of  authorities,  supported  as  his 
intense  application  was,  by  an  intellect  naturally  suggestive  and 
keen,  that  by  the  time  most  men  have  only  begun  to  cast  about  for 
work,  he  had  won  his  spurs  and  was  an  acknowledged  authority 
in  certain  departments  of  science. 

His  father  designed  him  for  a  commercial  career,  he  thought  to 
pursue  tlie  profession  of  medicine.  Nature  and  circumstances  cut 
him  out  for  a  scientist,  and  made  him  the  greatest  ichyologist 
of  his  time,  and  one  of  the  most  acute  and  suggestive  searchers 
into  any  line  of  investigation  upon  which  he  felt  impelled  to  enter. 

He  was  born  near  Lake  Neufehatel.     His  father  was  a  Swiss 


1889.]  THE  STUDENT  LIFE  OF  AQASSIZ.  597 

protestant  clergyman.  For  ten  years  he  remained  at  home, 
manifesting  a  great  love  for  pets  of  every  kind,  acquainting  him- 
self with  the  habits  and  haunts  of  fishes,  making  collections  of 
them,  familiarizing  himself  with  the  natural  fauna  and  flora  of  his  re- 
gion, and  growing  up  into  a  healthful,  vigorous  life.  At  ten,  he  was 
sent  to  the  gymnasium  at  Bienne,  where  he  remained  four  years, 
after  wliich  he  spent  two  years  at  an  academy  at  Lausanne.  At 
the  end  of  this  time,  his  taste  being  very  pronounced  in  favor  of 
medicine,  he  went  successively  to  Zurich,  Heidelberg,  and  Munich, 
at  which  latter  university  at  the  age  of  twenty-three,  he  received 
his  degree.  The  record  of  his  career  is  one  of  noble  enthusiasm, 
of  unremitting  toil,  of  intense  devotion,  of  painstaking  accuracy. 
"  The  child  u  father  of  the  man,"  and  whatever  in  Agassiz's  later 
life  charmed  his  acquaintances  and  won  from  them  enthusiastic 
praise,  found  its  germ  and  growing  power  in  these  preparatory 
days.  Of  his  work  at  Bienne  —  in  those  years  when  of  most  boys 
so  little  can  be  said — no  more  need  be  remarked  than  three  things; 
two  in  the  words  of  another,  and  one  in  his  own. 

1.  He  studied  nine  hours  a  day. 

2.  He  began  a  series  of  note  books,  —  which  his  biographer 
says  accumulated  into  many  folios,  ranging  from  four  hundred  ta 
six  hundred  pages,  —  on  subjects  anatomical,  physiological  and 
pathological,  with  investigations  into  natural  history,  written  in  a 
clear  hand,  and  compactly  and  logically  arranged.  In  this  connec- 
tion it  may  be  noted  that  when  at  Zurich  in  his  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  yeai's,  he  spent  many  an  hour  "  copying  books  beyond 
his  power  of  purchase,  although  some  of  them  did  not  cost  more 
than  a  dollar." 

3.  As  indicating  his  maturity  of  thought  at  this  age  I  quote 
these  words :  "  I  wish  to  advance  in  the  sciences,  and  for  that  I 
need  D'Anville,  Ritter,  an  Italian  dictionary,  a  Strabo  in  Greek, 
Mamert  and  Thiersch ;  and  also  the  works  of  Malte-Brun  and 
Seyfert."  And  he  goes  on  to  express  other  necessities  quite  aston- 
ishing for  one  of  his  years.  In  his  subsequent  university  life, 
Agassiz  made  himself  fortunate  in  the  choice  of  his  friends. 
Probably  he  could  not  have  been  otherwise  than  fortunate,  as  his 
habits  of  work  and  his  aspirations  for  the  higher  life  would  have 
permitted  no  other  attachments  than  worthy  ones.  His  compan- 
ions seem  to  have  been  young  men  of  exceptional  industry  and 
elevation  of  mind.     Having  kindred  tastes  but  pursuing  different 


1^08  EDUCATIOy.  [May, 

paths,  they  supplemented  each  other's  work  and  helped  each  other. 
Agassiz  delighted  in  subjects  connected  with  zoology ;  his  friend, 
Alexander  Braun,  excelled  in  botany.  Dinkel  was  an  artist. 
The  latter,  who  served  a  long  time  with  Agassiz,  makes  this  re- 
mark concerning  him  at  this  time :  ^^  He  picked  out  the  gifted 
and  highly-honored  students,  and  would  not  waste  his  time  in 
ordinary'  conversation.  Often,  when  he  saw  a  number  of  students 
going  off  on  some  empty  pleasure-trip,  he  said  to  me,  ^  There  they 
go  with  the  other  fellows ;  their  motto  is,  ^  Ich  gehe  niit  den  an- 
dem.'  I  will  go  my  own  way,  Mr.  Dinkel,  —  and  not  alone:  I 
will  be  a  leader  of  others.'  " 

He  showed,  as  was  natumU  to  an  unusual  degree,  the  confi* 
dence  of  his  teachers.  They  permitted  and  enjoyed  his  company, 
shared  in  his  researches,  granted  him  special  privileges,  encour- 
aged him  to  renewed  zeal,  regarded  him  seemingly  as  an  equaL 
Respecting  his  industry,  he  writes  to  his  father  from  Heidelberg, 
when  he  was  nineteen  years  of  age,  an  account  of  his  daily  habits 
of  work,  saying,  that  he  rose  at  six,  at  seven,  went  to  morning 
lectures,  which  seem  to  have  occupied  the  entire  half  day,  for  he 
says  that,  if  in  the  mean  time  he  had  a  free  hour,  he  devoted  it  to 
making  anatomical  preparations,  and  from  twelve  to  one  practised 
fencing.  Dining  at  one  he  returned  from  a  walk  to  his  studies  at 
two,  which  he  continued  until  five.  From  five  to  six  he  attended 
lectures.  After  that  another  walk,  another  hour  for  study,  and 
then  to  the  Swiss  Club,  or  to  bed.  At  Munich,  he  seemed  to  have 
been  equally  diligent.  From  seven  to  nine  he  was  at  the  hospital, 
from  nine  to  eleven  in  the  library,  from  eleven  to  one  at  lectures, 
from  two  or  three  to  five  at  other  lectures,  or  in  writing  or  read- 
ing. He  economized  his  time  as  though  he  thought  it  were 
precious.  His  story  reminds  one  of  the  industry  of  Margaret 
Fuller  as  told  by  her  biographer,  Mr.  Sanborn,  of  Garfield  at  Hi- 
ram, routing  out  his  companion  at  three  in  the  morning  for  a  round 
in  Greek,  or  holding  Ms  Geology  classes  at  five  in  the  morning,  or 
of  this  note  found  in  Hamerton's  Intellectual  Life,  in  which,  speak- 
ing upon  the  use  of  time,  he  quotes  from  another  these  i^ords  upon 
the  industry  of  the  Germans :  — 

"  Being  astonished  at  the  prodigious  variety  and  at  the  extent  of 
knowledge  possessed  by  the  Germans,  I  begged  one  of  my  firiends, 
Saxon  by  birth,  and  one  of  the  foremost  -geologists  in  Europe,  to 
tell  me  how  his  countrymen  managed  to  know  so  many  things* 


1889.]  THE  STUDENT  LIFE  OF  AGASSIZ,  59» 

Here  is  his  answer  nearly  in  his  own  words :  *  A  German  (except 
myself,  who  am  the  idlest  of  men),  gets  up  early,  summer  and 
winter,  at  about  five  o'clock.  He  works  four  hours  before  break- 
fast, sometimes  smoking  all  the  time,  which  does  not  interfere  with 
his  application.  His  breakfast  lasts  half  an  hour,  and  he  remains, 
afterwards,  another  half-hour  talking  with  his  wife  and  playing 
with  his  children.  He  returns  to  his  work  for  six  hours,  dines 
without  hiuTying  himself,  smokes  an  hour  after  dinner,  plays 
again  with  his  children,  and  before  he  goes  to  bed  he  works  four 
hours  more.  He  begins  again  every  day,  and  never  goes  out. 
This  is  how  it  comes  to  pass  that  Oensted,  the  greatest  natural 
philosopher  in  Geiraany,  is  at  the  same  time  the  greatest  physi- 
cian :  this  is  how  Kant,  the  metaphysician,  was  one  of  the  learned 
astronomers  in  Europe,  and  how  Goethe,  who  is  at  present  the 
first  and  most  fertile  author  in  Germany  in  almost  all  kinds  of 
literature,  is  an  excellent  botanist,  mineralogist,  and  natural  phi- 
losopher." 

Respecting  Agassiz's  management  of  his  time,  it  may  be  further 
remarked  that  his  vacations  were  only  divei'sions  in  work.  If  he 
were  making  a  tour,  which  he  occasionally  did  on  foot,  he  made 
collections  and  studied  the  natural  conditions  of  the  country.  If 
he  tarried  at  the  house  of  his  friend  Braun,  they  carried  on  their 
work  together.  If  in  their  daily  study,  one  could  experiment  or 
dissect  for  two,  the  other  read.  In  this,  one  is  again  reminded  of 
another  student,  probably  of  equal  if  not  superior  natural  gifts. 
Frederick  W.  Robertson,  of  whom  liis  biographer,  the  Rev.  Stop- 
ford  Brooke  says,  that  to  secure  an  accurate  and  critical  knowledge 
of  the  Bible,  it  was  his  habit,  when  dressing  in  the  morning,  ta 
commit  to  memory  daily  a  certain  number  of  verses  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  that  in  this  way,  before  leaving  the  University,  he 
had  gone  twice  over  the  English  version,  and  once  and  a  half 
through  the  Greek.  In  their  work  the  students  lectured  before 
each  other  and  the  professors,  who  frequently  were  in  attendance. 
In  the  evenings  they  had  frequent  meetings,  devoting  them  always 
to  some  discussion  of  important  subjects. 

During  all  this  time  Agassiz  was  carrying  on  independent 
researches  into  matters  that  were  not  settled.  In  one  place  he 
writes  to  his  friend  Braun  upon  what  he  knows  of  the  "  Hebam- 
men  Krote,"  in  another  he  propounds  these  questions  upon  fishes : 
1.     What    are    the    gill    arches?     2.     What    the    gill   blades? 


«00  EDUCATION.  [May, 

8.  What  is  the  bladder  in  fishes  ?  4.  What  is  the  cloaca  in  the 
egg-laying  animals?  5.  What  signify  the  many  fins  of  the  fish? 
To  his  brother  Auguste  he  writes  that  he  has  stuffed  a  superb  otter 
and  exchanged  all  his  little  toads  from  Neufch&tel  for  reptiles 
from  Brazil  and  Java.  He  also  requests  him  to  find  all  the  fish  he 
can  and  ship  them,  and  informs  him  that  he  is  at  work  upon  an 
anatomy  and  natural  history  of  the  fresh-water  fishes  of  Europe. 

In  his  own  recollections  he  affirms  that  "  when  botanizing  and 
geologizing,  I  have  walked  my  twelve  or  fifteen  leagues  a  day  for 
eight  days  in  succession,  carrying  on  my  back  a  heavy  bag  loaded 
with  plants  and  animals."  It  came  to  piiss  that  ere  completing  his 
university  course  he  had  arrived  at  such  a  degree  of  proficiency  in 
his  special  work,  and  was  held  in  such  high  esteem,  that  he  was 
called  uj)on  to  })ublish  an  account  of  the  fishes  brought  home  from 
Brazil  by  an  exploring  party  sent  out  by  the  King  of  Bavaria. 
And  he  writes  to  his  father,  October,  1828,  when  only  twenty- 
one,  "  Already  forty  colored  folio  plates  are  completed.  Will  it 
not  seem  strange  when  the  largest  and  finest  book  in  papa^s  library 
is  one  written  by  his  son  Louis?  " 

This  part  of  Agassiz's  tmining  whicli  led  him  to  do  original 
work,  seems  to  me  the  one  affording  the  greatest  interest  to  the 
university  student.  Thomas  Arnold  declared  that  the  great  value 
of  his  Oxford  fellowship  was  the  opportunity  it  gave  him  of  ac- 
quainting himself  with  original  sources  of  history.  The  interest 
attaching  to  the  contributions  of  (xilbert  White,  Thoreau,  Abbot, 
Edwards,  Burroughs,  Lubbock,  Treat,  rests  on  the  same  ground. 
The  peculiar  value  of  Johns  Hoj)kins  lies  in  its  encouiagement  of 
this  same  manner  of  work,  in  different  departments  of  mental 
activity.  As  for  Agassiz,  his  training  enabled  him  to  turn  his 
attention  with  success,  to  whatever  field  of  thought  he  was  dis- 
posed. To  a  remarkable  degree,  his  work  to  him  seemed  sacred. 
His  fitness  for  it  needs  no  higher  proof  than  his  happiness  in  it. 
If  the  student  of  today  who  thinks  the  name  of  a  degree  almost 
equal  to  the  substance,  and  that  the  exploits  of  the  athlete  ought 
to  bring  greater  honor  than  the  research  of  the  thinker  will  care- 
fully ponder  the  student  life  of  Agassiz,  he  will  find  much  whole- 
some food  for  thought,  and  will  realize,  possibly,  that  below  all 
schemes  or  education  and  infinitely  outweighing  them,  is  the  per- 
sonal character  of  the  student  and  his  attitude  to  the  world's 
work. 


1889.]  CIVIL  RIGHTS.  001 


CIVIL  RIGHTS  GUARANTEED  BT  THE  STATE 

CONSTITUTIONS, 

BY  FRANCIS  NEWTON  THORPE,  PH.  D. 

I. 

THE  introductory  delaratious  of  rights  in  the  several  state  con- 
stitutions are  not  identical  in  their  nature  or  in  their  number. 
The  earlier  constitutions  were  somewhat  uniform  throughout,  i.  e., 
constitutions  framed  from  1776  to  1789.  The  later  constitutions 
contain  declarations  of  rights  which  from  time  to  time  as  the  con- 
stitutions have  been  framed  have  seemed  to  embody  the  principles 
of  the  organic  law  as  it  was  interpreted  at  the  time  of  the  making 
of  the  constitution.  Thus  the  state  constitutions  are  an  index  to 
the  civil  and  to  the  political  history  of  the  country.  Some  might 
think  that  no  wide  variation  would  exist  among  the  organic  laws 
of  the  several  states  in  the  declarations  of  "rights  natural  to 
man,"  to  use  a  phrase  brought  from  France  early  in  the  centuiy. 
But  the  political  experience  of  nations  like  that  of  individuals  dis- 
covers civil  and  political  truths,  and  political  schemes  come  and 
go  like  political  platforms,  with  the  interpretations  of  the  times, 
and  even  the  dicta  of  courts  are  often  corrected  subsequently 
by  the  compulsion  of  events,  as  the  dicta  in  the  Dred  Scott  case 
were  corrected  by  the  verdict  of  war.  It  may  be  affirmed  that  the 
civil  and  the  political  rights  of  the  citizens  of  the  several  states 
have  been  interpreted  as  variously  as  has  been  the  interpretation 
of  the  "  compact  of  the  body-politic."  Recent  state  constitutions, 
those  made  since  1868,  approach  a  definition  of  the  state  as  an 
organism  and  not  as  an  aggregation ;  as  a  living  entity  and  not  a 
mechanical  or  arbitrary  unit  agreed  upon.  Each  constitution, 
however,  avoiding  political  theories,  declares  that  all  men  are  born 
free  and  equal,  and  that  they  are  endowed  by  nature  with  certain 
unalienable  rights.  With  slight  variation  in  language,  this  declara- 
tion may  be  found  from  the  first  constitution  of  New  Hampshire 
of  1776  to  the  last  constitution  of  that  state  in  1889.  The  essen- 
tial rights  guaranteed  by  state  constitutions  may  be  grouped  as 
follows :  — 


eoa  EDUCATION.  [Mmj, 

1.  The  right  to  personal  freedom. 

2.  The  right  to  private  property. 

3.  The  right  to  freedom  of  discussion. 

4.  The  right  to  public  meeting. 

5.  The  right  to  freedom  of  worship. 

6.  The  right  to  the  impartial  administration  of  the  law  of  the 
land. 

These  rights  are  civil  rights  as  distinguished  from  political 
rights ;  they  are  rights  into  which  men  are  bom  as  citizens  or 
inhabitants  of  the  modern  free  community.  Political  rights  are 
conferred:  such  as  the  right  to  vote;  the  right  to  exercise  an 
office.  Civil  rights  are  more  comprehensive  in  their  content  than 
political  rights ;  they  are  fundamental.  The  state  constitutions 
are  solemn  guarantees  of  them.  In  every  day  life,  we  constantly 
exercise  our  civil  rights;  we  occasionally  exercise  our  political 
rights :  they  should  not  be  confused. 

This  paper  proposes  to  discuss  the  first  of  these  rights  and  leave 
the  consideration  of  the  other  five  for  a  subsequent  article. 

Pereonal  freedom  is  not  defined  in  any  of  the  constitutions.  The 
common  law  was  the  essential  part  of  the  body  of  laws  in  force  at 
the  time  of  the  framing  of  the  state  constitutions,  and  was  so  de- 
clared in  several  of  them.  The  twenty-fifth  article  of  the  consti- 
tution of  Delaware,  1776,  declares  :  — 

^^  The  common  law  of  England,  as  well  as  so  much  of  the  statute  law  as  has 
heen  heretofore  adopted  In  practice  In  this  state,  shall  remain  In  force,  unless 
they  shall  be  altered  by  a  future  law  of  the  legislature ;  such  parts  only  are 
excepted  as  are  repugnant  to  the  rights  and  privileges  contained  in  this  Consti- 
tution and  the  declaration  of  rights,  etc.,  agreed  to  by  this  convention.*' 

The  same  provision  in  substance  is  found  in  the  constitutions  of 
Maryland,  — 1776,  1851,  1864,  1867;  New  York,  1821,  1846; 
Florida,  1838,  1865 ;  and  New  Jersey,  1844. 

The  twelfth  article  of  the  constitution  of  Massachusetts  reads : 

^^  No  subject  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  any  crimes,  or  any  oflfenee  until  the 
same  Is  fully  and  plainly,  substantially  and  formally  described  to  him ;  or  be 
compelled  to  accuse  or  furnish  evidence  against  himself;  and  every  sabject 
shall  have  a  right  to  produce  all  proofs  that  shall  be  favorable  to  him ;  to  meet 
witnesses  against  him  face  to  face,  and  to  be  fully  heard  in  his  defence  by  him- 
self or  his  counsel  at  his  election.  And  no  subject  shall  be  arrested,  impris- 
oned, despoiled,  or  deprived  of  his  life,  liberty  or  estate,  but  by  the  Jadgment 
of  his  peers  or  the  law  of  thti  land." 

The  classic  passage  on  this  right,  of  which  this  clause  in  the 
constitution  of  Massachusetts  is  in  part  a  translation,  is  the  thirty- 
ninth  article  of  Magna  Charta :  — 


1889.]  CIVIL  BIGHTS.  603 

^^  Nullus  liber  homo  capiatur,  vel  imprisonetur,  aut  dissaislatur,  aot  utlega- 
tiir,  aut  ezuletur,  aut  in  altquo  modo  destruatur,  nee  super  eum  ibitnos,  nee 
super  eum  mittemus,  nisi  per  legale  |udlcium  parlum  suorum  vel  per  lege 
terrae." —  (Stubbs  Charters,  p.  300,  et  seq.) 

The  expression  "  per  lege  terrae  "  —  "  by  the  law  of  the  land," 
—  is  found  in  the  constitutions  of  Virginia,  1776, 1830, 1850, 1864^ 
1870  ;  Pennsylvania,  1776, 1790, 1838, 1873  ;  North  Carolina,  1776, 
1868, 1876 ;  Maryland,  1776,  1851,  1864,  1867 ;  Vermont,  1777, 
1786,  1793;  South  Carolina,  1778,  1790,  1868;  Massachusetts, 
1780 ;  New  Hampshire,  1784,  1792 ;  Kentucky,  1799,  1850  ;  Dela- 
ware, 1792,  1831 ;  Tennessee,  1796,  1834,  1870 ;  Illinois,  1818, 
1848;  Maine,  1820;  Missouri,  1820,  1865;  New  York,  1821;  Ar- 
kansas, 1836,  1864 ;  Rhode  Island,  1842 ;  Florida,  1838,  1865 ;. 
Kansas,  1857. 

The  expression,  "  due  process  of  law,"  which  means  the  same  as 
the  law  of  the  land  (18  Howard,  272  ;  1855),  is  found  in  the  con- 
stitutions of  New  York,  1846  ;  California,  1849 ;  Michigan,  1850  ;. 
Iowa,  1846,  1857  ;  Minnesota,  1857 ;  Nevada,  1864 ;  South  Caro- 
lina, 1865 ;  Georgia,  1865,  1868 ;  Alabama,  1867,  1875 ;  Missis- 
sippi, ,  Florida,  1868 ;  Arkansas,  1868,  1874 ;  Louisiana, 
1868  ;  West  Virginia,  1872 ;  Missouri,  1875  ;  Nebraska,  1875,  and 
Colorado,  1876. 

Some  constitutions  make  use  of  the  phrase,  "  conformably  to  the 
laws,"  viz. :  — 

Wisconsin,  1848  ;  Vermont,  1786, 1793 ;  Minnesota,  1857  ;  and 
Arkansas,  1868.  The  words  "due  course  of  law"  are  found  in 
the  constitutions  of  Ohio,  1802, 1851 ;  Indiana,  1816, 1851 ;  Missis- 
sippi, 1817,  1832 ;  Alabama,  1819,  1865 ;  Connecticut,  1818 ;  Tex- 
as, 1845,  1866,  1868,  1876;  Kansas,  1855,  1858,  1859;  Oregon, 
1857;  Louisiana,  1864;  and  South  Carolina,  1868.  Thus  in 
emphatic  language  is  stated  in  these  constitutions  the  right  to  per- 
sonal freedom,  by  "  the  law  of  the  land,"  and  also  the  remedy  for 
the  infringement  of  that  right,  "  by  due  process  of  law." 

The  right  to  personal  freedom  (liberty),  is  an  ancient  right  at 
common  law,  and  "  as  understood  in  England,  means  in  substance, 
a  person's  right  not  to  be  subjected  to  imprisonment,  arrest,  or 
other  physical  coercion  in  any  manner  that  does  not  admit  of  legal 
justification."  —  (Dicey,  Law  of  Constitution,  2d  ed.  222.) 

Our  state  constitutions  commonly  contain  several  provisions,  or 
sections,  in  their  bills  of  rights  declarative  and  explanatory  of  this 


604  EDUCATION.  [JUkkj^ 

right :  thus,  in  one  of  the  last  constitutions,  tiiat  of  Colorado,  the 
following  sections  of  the  prefatory  bill  of  rights  may  be  construed 
as  touching  upon  the  right  to  personal  liberty:  — 

Sec.  8.  That  all  penoos  have  certaio  natural,  esseQtial,  and  Inalieiiablfl 
rigbU,  among  which  raay  be  reckoned,  the  right  of  efljoyinic  and  defleadhig 
their  livee  and  liberties. 

Sec.  4.  That  the  free  exercise  and  ei^oyment  of  religious  professioB  aad 
worship  without  discrimination,  sliall  forever  hereafter  be  goaranteed ;  mod  no 
person  stiall  be  denied  any  civil  or  political  right,  privilege  or  capadtr  <ni 
account  of  his  opinions  concerning  religion. 

Sec.  6.  That  all  elections  shall  be  free  and  open ;  and  no  power,  civU  or 
military,  shall  at  any  time  interfere  to  prevent  the  free  exercise  of  the  right  of 
suflhige. 

Sec.  6.  That  courts  of  Justice  shall  be  open  to  every  person,  and  a  speedy 
remedy  alTorded  for  every  Injury  to  person,  property  or  chmrmcter;  and  that 
right  and  Justice  should  Im  administered  without  sale,  denial  or  delay. 

Sec.  7.  That  the  people  shall  l>e  secure  In  their  persons,  papers,  homes  and 
effects  from  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures. 

Sec.  8.  Offences  shall  be  prosecuted  criminally  by  indictment  or  informa- 
tion. 

Sec.  19.  No  person  shall  be  Imprisoned  for  debt  unless  upon  refusal  to  de- 
iiver  up  his  estate  for  the  benefit  of  creditors,  In  such  manner  as  shall  be  pre- 
scribed by  law,  or  in  cases  of  tort,  or  where  there  Is  strong  presumption  of 
fraud. 

Sec.  16.  That  in  criminal  prosecutions  the  accused  shall  have  the  right  to 
appear  and  defend  In  person  and  by  counsel;  to  demand  the  nature  and  cause 
of  the  accusation ;  to  meet  the  witnesses  against  him  face  to  face ;  to  have 
process  to  compel  the  attendance  of  witnesses  in  his  iMhalf,  and  a  speedy  pab> 
lie  trial  by  an  impartial  Jury  of  the  county  or  district  In  which  the  oflfenoe  is 
alleged  to  be  committed. 

Sec.  17.  That  no  person  be  imprisoned  for  the  purpose  of  securing  his  tes- 
timony in  any  case  longer  than  may  be  necessary  in  order  to  take  his  deposi- 
tion. If  he  can  give  security,  he  shall  be  discharged.  If  he  cannot  give 
security,  his  deposition  shall  be  taken  by  some  Judge  of  the  supreme,  district, 
or  county  court,  at  the  earliest  time  he  can  attend,  at  some  convenient  place  by 
him  appointed  for  that  purpose,  of  which  time  and  place  the  accused  and  the 
attorney  prosecuting  for  the  people  shall  have  reasonable  notice.  The  accosed 
shall  have  the  right  to  appear  in  person  and  by  counsel.  If  he  have  no  coon- 
sel  the  Judge  shall  assign  him  one  In  that  behalf  only.  On  completion  of  such 
examination  the  witness  shall  be  discharged  on  his  own  recognizance,  enteied 
Into  before  said  Judge,  but  such  deposition  shall  not  be  used  if,  in  the  opinion 
of  the  court  the  personal  attendance  of  the  witness  might  be  procured  by  the 
prosecution  or  Is  procured  by  the  accused. 

Sec.  18.  That  no  person  shall  be  compelled  to  testify  against  himself  in  a 
criminal  case,  nor  shall  any  person  be  twice  put  in  Jeopardy  for  the  same 
offence. 

Sec.  19.  That  all  persons  shall  be  bailable  by  sufficient  sureUes,  except  for 
capital  offences,  when  the  proof  is  evident  or  the  presumption  great. 

Sec.  20.  That  excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  excessive  fines  im* 
posed,  nor  cruel  and  unusual  punishments  Inflicted. 


1889.]  CIVIL  BIGHTS.  '     605 

Sec.  21.  That  the  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  never  be  sus- 
pended, unless  when  In  case  of  rebellion  or  Invasion  the  public  safety  may 
require  It. 

Sec.  26.  That  no  person  shall  be  deprived  of  life,  liberty  or  property  with- 
out due  process  of  law. 

Sec.  26.  That  there  shall  never  be  In  this  state  either  slavery  or  involuntary 
servitude,  except  as  a  punishment  for  crime,  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been 
duly  convicted.    (Constitution  of  1876.) 

Of  the  twenty-eight  sections  in  the  bill  of  rights  introductory 
to  this  constitution  of  Colorado,  fifteen  sections  pertain  to  the  right 
to  personal  freedom,  by  way  of  explanation,  assertion,  application, 
or  of  remedy  for  its  infringement.  The  remaining  constitutions 
contain  similar  provisions  regarding  this  common  law  right. 

The  right  to  personal  freedom  is  only  to  that  freedom  that  is 
according  to  the  law  of  the  land.  No  man  has  the  right  to  do 
wrong.  A  man  may  be  morally  wrong  in  his  action,  but  unless 
he  has  committed  an  actual  breach  of  the  law  he  is  legally  free. 
The  law  does  not  anticipate  a  breach  of  the  law ;  the  sanction  of 
the  law  should  be  corrective  and  remedial,  and  thereby  preventive 
of  the  commission  of  a  crime.  A  man  cannot  be  punished  merely 
because  he  may  commit  a  breach  of  the  law.  To  this  statement 
are  certain  marked  exceptions,  in  police  regulations,  excusably  for 
the  safety  of  the  state,  and  a  law  that  works  by  anticipation  robs  a 
man  of  his  liberty  and  tends  to  reduce  the  citizen  to  a  state  of  servi- 
tude. In  order  to  prevent  such  a  miscarriage  of  justice,  criminal 
law  aims  to  be  specific,  and  its  process  is,  in  the  language  of  the 
constitutions,  "by  warrants,"  "upon  indictments"  of  a  grand 
jury,  generally,  and  the  indicted  person  is  adjudged  innocent  or 
guilty  by  "  a  trial  by  his  peers,"  that  is,  by  a  jury  trial,  and  "  ac- 
cording to  the  law  of  the  land." 

Therefore,  the  right  to  personal  freedom  is  defined  to  be :  — 

^*  The  power  of  locomotion,  of  changing  situation,  of  moving  one^s  person 
to  whatsoever  place  one's  own  inclination  may  direct,  without  imprisonment 
or  restraint,  unless  by  due  course  of  law." —  (Blackstone,  Bk.  1, 185.) 

A  person,  if  deprived  of  his  liberty,  has  by  common  law,  a  two- 
fold remedy,  provided  at  length  in  our  laws,  declared  by  implica- 
tion in  some  constitutions  and  expressly  in  others.  He  may  pro- 
ceed at  law  for  the  wrongful  arrest  and  begin  legal  action  against 
the  party  or  parties  who  have  deprived  him  of  his  liberty ;  or,  he 
may  seek  deliverance  from  his  arrest  or  imprisonment  by  applica- 
tion for  and  use  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus.  The  right  of  every 
man  to  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  during  his  arrest,  or  imprison- 


606  EDUCATION.  [Ifajv 

ment  is  formally  declared  in  every  constitution  that  has  been 
framed  by  an  American  state.  The  writ  itself  is  known  as  a  writ 
of  right,  and  is,  of  course,  —  i.  e.,  the  judges  are  bound  to  take 
notice  of  it.  It  has  been  called,  therefore,  ^^  the  higrhest  writ  in 
the  law.''  The  process  at  law  after  the  application  for  the  writ 
tests  the  legality  of  the  person's  deprivation  of  his  liberty.  The 
petition  for  the  writ  \a  in  form  and  up«n  oath,  or,  as  it  is  said  in 
law,  is  upon  affidavit,  and  the  person  arrested  or  imprisoned  sets 
forth  in  his  petition  to  the  court  that  he  is  unjustly  held  and  de- 
tained in  custody  by  A.  B.  (constable,  keeper  of  the  prison,  or 
sheriff)  of  a  certain  county,  who  refuses  to  discharge  him  and  set 
him  at  liberty ;  he  declares  in  his  petition  further,  that  he  is  not 
detained  or  confined  by  virtue  of  any  commitment  for  any  criminal 
or  supposed  criminal  matter,  and  therefore  he  asks  the  court  to 
issue  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus  returnable  forthwith  against  the  cus- 
todian, that  cause  may  be  shown  if  any  exist  why  he  should  not  be 
discharged  and  set  free.  Upon  the  receipt  of  the  petition  prop- 
erly drawn  and  presented,  unless  the  writ  is  under  suspension 
throughout  the  state  or  the  United  States  at  the  time,  the  court 
issues  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  of  which  the  following  is  a  copy : 
(The  writ  varies  only  slightly  in  form  throughout  the  states.) 
County  of  Erie,  ss. 

The  CommoDwealth  of  Pennsylvania  to  F.  H.  Staples,  Sheriff  of  the  said 
County  Greeting :  —  We  command  you  that  the  hody  of  Kalph  Smith,  in  oar 
prison  under  your  custody,  detained  (as  it  is  said),  together  with  the  day  and 
cause  of  his  being  taken  and  detained  by  whatsoever  name  he  may  be  called  or 
Icnown,  you  have  in  our  court  before  us  at  Erie  on  the  nineteenth  of  December 
next,  to  undergo  and  receive  all  and  singular  such  matters  and  things  which 
our  said  court  shall  then  and  there  consider  of  him  in  his  behalf;  and  have 
there  then  this  writ. 

Witness  the  Honorable  William  A.  Oalbraith,  President  Judge  of  oar  said 
court  at  Erie  aforesaid,  this  Hfteenth  day  of  November,  A.  D.,  one  thoosand 
eight  hundred  and  eighty-six.    Per  curiam. 

S.  V.  HOLIDAY, 

Prothonotarjf. 

At  the  instance  of  Ralph  Smith. 

A.  E.  SissoN,  710  State  St.,  Erie, 

Attorney^  for  the  said  Ralph  Smith. 

The  chief  part  of  the  whole  process  is  in  the  words  ^^  habeas 
corpus,"  have  ye  the  body^  by  force  of  which  the  court  causes  any 
person  detained  in  custody  to  be  brought  before  it,  that  the  court 
may  judge  of  the  party  "  in  his  behalf,"  and  set  him  at  liberty, 
after  full  examination  of  his  case,  or  remand  him  to  custody.     By 


188d.]  CIVIL  SIGHTS.  607 

this  writ  is  decided  whether  or  not  by  the  law  of  the  land  a  person 
is  entitled  to  the  exercise  of  the  right  to  personal  freedom.  Thus 
the  celebrated  habeas  coi-pus  act  of  31  Car.  11,  Cap.  2,  incorporated 
in  our  state  constitutions  is  the  basis  on  which  rests  an  American's 
security  for  the  enjoyment  of  his  peraonal  freedom.  So  essential 
is  the  security  of  this  right  held  that  it  is  provided  in  the  constitu- 
tions of  several  of  the  American  states,  that  "  The  privilege  of  the 
writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  never  be  suspended."  West  Virginia, 
1872 ;  Maiyland,  1867  ;  Louisiana,  1868 ;  North  Carolina,  1868, 
1876  ;  Alabama,  1875  ;  Missouri,  1875  ;  Texas,  1876. 

In  the  bills  of  rights  of  the  remaining  states  it  is  provided,  that 
the  privilege  of  the  -writ  shall  not  be  suspended  unless  when  in 
cases  of  invasion  or  rebellion  the  public  safety  may  require  it. 

So  paramount  in  importance  is  the  right  to  personal  freedom, 
and  its  protection  by  the  exercise  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  that 
the  right  itself  may  be  abridged,  and  the  privilege  of  the  writ 
denied  only  when  the  actual  existence  of  the  state  is  endangered 
by  invasion  from  without  or  by  rebellion  within.  The  writ  may 
be  suspended  in  any  or  all  of  the  states  according  to  the  provis- 
ions of  the  constitution  of  the  United  States,  but  this  high  act  of 
prerogative  has  been  of  solitary  occurrence  and  then  only  as  a 
*'  war  measure." 

The  right  of  the  citizen  may  be  sacrificed  for  the  supreme  good 
of  the  state  ;  but  only  at  that  time  in  the  history  of  the  state  when 
its  existence  and  preservation  becomes  a  high  and  holy  right,  a 
time  which  discloses  above  other  times  that  the  state  in  the  ex- 
pressive language  of  Penn,  in  his  frame  of  government  for  his 
colony,  in  1682,  is  "  a  part  of  religion  itself,  a  thing  sacred  in  its 
institution  and  end."  Then  it  is  seen  that  the  state  is  not  merely 
a  contract,  an  agreement  at  law,  but  a  moral  organism,  an  en- 
throned morality,  for  preserving  which  must  all  its  sons  make  holy 
sacrifice  of  their  highest  personal  right  —  the  right  to  personal 
freedom. 

No  claim  superior  to  this  gathers  about  the  person  of  the  citi- 
zen ;  it  appeals  to  the  moral  sense  of  mankind ;  and  that  this  essen- 
tial right  may  be  kept  inviolate  among  men,  all  our  constitutions 
have  solemnly  declared  that  the  right  shall  pass  into  temporary 
suspension  only  at  the  time  when  without  that  suspension,  the 
state  itself  would  cease  to  exist. 


006  ED  UCA  TION.  [Mb j, 


ri/£  TEACHING  OF  THE  ENGLISH LAJVGUAGE 

AND  LITER  A  TURE.^ 

VII. 

THE  ORIGIN    OF    ENGLISH. 
BT  EUQENE  DAYEICPORT,  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE,  MICHIOAK. 

ANEW  language  is  commonly  the  result  of  conquest,  in  which 
as  a  result  there  is  more  or  less  blending  of  the  conquerors 
and  the  conquered,  occupying  the  same  soil,  and  ultimately  becom- 
ing a  single  people.     It  thus  has  a  home  and  a  history. 

The  birthplace  of  ours  is  England,  and  the  story  of  its  formation 
and  growth  from  a  barbarous  dialect  to  the  language  of  today, 
forms  one  of  the  most  romantic  pages  of  history. 

The  causes  that  led  to  the  formation  of  the  English  tongue  began 
to  operate  in  the  year  55  B.  C.  — almost  two  thousand  years  ago. 
That  was  a  thousand  years  before  the  Norsemen  set  foot  upon  our 
continent,  and  fifteen  hundred  before  Columbus  crossed  the  Atlan- 
tic.    Let  the  mind  dwell  on  what  the  world  was  at  that  time. 

England  was  then  called  Albion.  It  was  wild  and  wooded,  and 
was  inhabited  by  a  race  of  rude  barbarians  living  in  tribes,  much 
as  did  our  Indians.  These  were  Celts,  who  had,  hundreds  of  years 
before,  wandered  all  the  way  from  Asia.  They  had  seemingly 
reached  the  end  of  the  world  in  this  little  island,  and  here  they 
dwelt  in  temporary  huts,  moving  from  place  to  place  in  search 
of  better  hunting,  or  fresh  pastures  for  their  inferior  flocks.  They 
tattoed  their  bodies,  and  offered  human  sacrifices  to  their  god — 
captives,  if  they  had  them,  if  not,  some  of  their  own  number. 

They  were  wild  and  reckless,  possessing  a  sort  of  brutish  bravery, 
so  that  even  a  meeting  of  two  tribes  was  almost  sure  to  bring  on  a 
battle.  In  this  way  they  would  probably  have  exterminated  them- 
selves, had  it  not  been  for  the  restraining  influence  of  their  priests^ 
the  Druids,  who  exercised  a  sort  of  religious  tyranny  over  them. 
Every  Celt  was  taught  that,  if  he  offended  the  Druids,  his  soul  at 
death  would  enter  the  body  of  an  animal,  only  leaving  it  for  that 

>  Copyright,  1888,  by  Eastern  Edaoational  Bareau. 


1889.]  THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  EN0LI8H  LANGUAGE.  609 

of  one  more  savage  and  loathsome ;  so  would  it  wander  eternally, 
with  no  hope  of  happiness.  A  man  who  had  so  offended  must 
immediately  leave  his  tribe  and  live  like  a  wild  beast.  Death  only 
could  relieve  him,  for  no  friend  dare  offer  him  comfort.  This  had 
a  decided  effect  upon  the  behavior  of  the  common  people,  and  the 
mastery  was  clearly  with  the  Druids. 

How  long  they  had  lived  in  this  little  island,  and  whether  they 
were  the  aborigines,  we  do  not  know.  Only  the  Druids  were  edu- 
cated, and  they  committed  nothing  to  writing.  We  do  know  that 
Phoenecian  ships  had  often  visited  the  island  in  quest  of  tin  and 
lead  when  Tyre  was  in  its  glory  a  thousand  years  before ;  but  if 
any  record  was  made  of  the  land  or  its  people,  it  had  been  lost  be- 
fore history  was  written. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  notice  how  much  of  the  world's  history 
had  been  enacted  up  to  the  time  of  which  we  are  speaking.  Many 
mighty  nations  had  lived,  waxed  strong,  grown  old,  and  died. 
Egypt  had  been  in  its  glory  a  thousand  years  before,  and  was  now 
in  its  last  days  under  the  Ptolemies.  It  had  been  fourteen  hundred 
years  since  the  Jews  wandered  in  the  wilderness.  Solomon  had 
been  dead  almost  a  thousand  years.  His  people  had  dwindled, 
been  through  the  seventy  years'  captivity  at  Babylon,  and  returned 
to  their  own  country,  where  they  were  the  prey  of  every  con- 
queror. It  was  over  five  hundred  years  before,  that  Nebuchadnez- 
zar had  rebuilt  that  beautiful  city,  Babylon,  with  its  hanging 
gardens  for  his  Median  queen.  It  had  long  since  become  "  heaps," 
and  the  Babylonians  with  their  great  rivals,  the  Assyrians,  were 
no  longer  counted  as  nations.  Their  old  enemies,  too,  the  Medes 
and  Persians,  had  gone  down  under  the  great  Alexander.  He 
himself  had  been  dead  almost  three  hundred  years,  and  Greece,  — 
that  cradle  of  literature  and  of  art,  —  for  which  he  had  fought  so 
much,  had  bowed  its  head  to  Roman  rule  an  hundred  years  before. 

Tyre  and  Sidon  had  '^  waxed  old  as  a  garment,"  and  their  ships 
had  not  been  to  Albion  for  hundreds  of  years.  The  ancient  repub- 
lic of  Carthage  was  ended,  and  the  great  bulk  of  the  world's  his- 
tory had,  seemingly,  been  enacted.  The  stage  ot  human  action 
had  passed  from  Egypt  and  from  western  Asia  into  southern 
Europe,  and  Rome  now  ruled  the  world. 

It  was  just  before  her  palmy  days  under  the  Csesars.  Christ 
was  not  yet  born.  Rome  was  ambitious.  Having  conquered  the 
most  of  the  civilized  world,  she  turned  her  attention  to  the  barba- 


610  EDUCATION.  [May, 

rians  of  the  northwest,  and  Csasar  brought  a  force  to  subdue  our 
little  island  Albion.  They  called  it  Britannia,  and  the  savage 
inhabitants  who  came  even  down  into  the  water  to  fight  them,  they 
called  Britons.  The  Celts  fought  the  invaders  fiercely,  but  m 
vain,  and  were  beaten  inland  step  by  step.  The  Romans  paid  in 
blood  for  every  inch  of  ground,  but  came  off  final  conquerors. 
It  is  to  them  we  are  indebted  for  the  first  account  of  this  wild  peo- 
ple, who  will  hereafter  be  known  as  Britons.  When  subdued  they 
learned  from  their  victors  the  peaceful  art  of  agriculture,  and  lost 
the  one  of  warfare,  looking  upon  the  Roman  soldiers  as  their  pro- 
tectors. Civilization  succeeded  war,  and  bridges,  roads,  and  towns 
were  built,  London  dating  from  this  period.  The  Romans  pos- 
sessed the  land  for  five  hundred  years,  or  longer  than  it  has  been 
since  America  was  discovered. 

In  the  meantime  Christ  had  been  bom ;  the  Christian  religion 
had  sprung  up,  and  Paul  had  probably  preached  it  even  here  among 
tlie  Britons  and  Roman  soldiery.  The  Roman  empire  had  passed 
the  zenith  of  its  power,  and,  owing  to  internal  dissensions  and  out- 
side pressure,  was  fast  falling  in  pieces.  About  400  A.  D.,  mat- 
ters reached  a  crisis.  The  northern  warlike  tribes  from  what  is 
now  Germany,  began  to  jmur  into  Italy,  murdering  and  burning 
as  they  went.  Every  available  soldier  was  called  in  to  defend  the 
capital,  and  the  Romans  left  Britannia  as  suddenly  as  they  had 
come.  It  had  never  been  more  than  a  soldier  population,  and  the 
desertion  was  comiJete. 

Only  the  southern  i)art  of  the  island  had  been  conquered  and 
civilized,  and  the  nortliern,  called  Caledonia,  —  now  Scotland,  — 
was  populated  by  the  Picts  and  Scots,  as  savage  tribes  as  the  Brit- 
ons were  when  five  centuries  before  they  called  themselves  Celts, 
and  met  the  Romans  outside  the  water's  edge.     They  saw  their 
opportunity  and  were  not  slow  to  act.     They  swept  down  upon 
the  peaceful  Britons  who  had  lost  the  art  of  self-defence  through 
long  dependence  on  the  Roman  soldiers,  and  burned,  plundered, 
and  murdered  as  they  went.     The  Britons,  everywhere  beaten, 
applied  to  Rome  for  help ;  but  she  was  busy  with  her  OAvn  affairs 
and  could  send  only  tempoi-ary  assistance,  and  finally  none  at  all. 

A  little  before  450  A.  D.,  in  slieer  desperation,  as  a  last  resort 
to  save  life  and  property,  they  applied  for  help  to  tlie  warlike  Sax- 
ons living  just  across  the  sea  where  Denmark  joins  the  mainland. 
Several  tribes  came,  the  Angles  and  Saxons  being  the  most  numer- 


1889.]  THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  611 

OU8.  They  easily  drove  back  the  invaders,  and  the  Britons  loaded 
them  with  thanks  for  their  neighborly  kindness,  and  wished  them 
a  safe  journey  home.  In  truth,  they  were  now  anxious  to  be  well 
rid  of  them. 

But  the  blue-eyed,  fair-haired  warriors  had  observed  the  beauty 
of  the  country.  They  decided  to  remain  ;  turned  their  weapons 
upon  the  Britons  and  utterly  crushed  them.  They  had  been  plan- 
ning an  invasion  when  the  invitation  came,  and  now  the  whole 
Saxon  tribe  migrated  to  Briton.  So  complete  was  the  removal 
that  not  a  trace  was  left  of  them  in  their  former  home.  It  was 
this  move  that  laid  the  foundation  for  the  English  language. 

The  Angles  and  Saxons  being  the  largest  tribes,  the  land  now 
became  known  as  Angle-land,  then  Engle-land,  finally  England ;  and 
the  people,  including  many  tribes,  were  called  Anglo-Saxons,  more 
briefly  known  as  Saxons. 

When  a  nation  moves  it  takes  its  language  with  it,  and  this  is 
why  the  English  language  came  to  be  mainly  Anglo-Saxon.  Rome 
had  possessed  the  land  as  a  province  for  centuries  without  implant- 
ing her  language  or  destroying  the  Celtic.  But  the  Saxons  made 
it  their  home^  and  soon,  only  traces  were  left  of  either  Roman  or 
Celtic. 

Almost  the  only  remains  we  have  of  the  Roman  of  this  time  are 
the  endings  ceBter  or  Chester^  meaning  camp, — as  Westchester, 
west  camp  ;  coln^  meaning  colony,  —  as  Lincoln,  colony  by  the  Lin 
or  pool ;  and  our  word  ntreet  from  strata^  meaning  paved  place. 

From  the  Celtic  a  few  terms  were  preserved  and  have  come 
down  to  us :  as  banket^  button^  mop^  rail^  size  (meaning  glue  — 
hence  our  sizing),  and  a  few  others.  The  more  common  remnants 
of  the  Celtic  are  seen  in  names  of  places,  —  as  kil  or  AtrA,  meaning 
church ;  don  or  dim^  meaning  hill :  mon  or  man^  meaning  rock,  and 
many  others.  So  we  have  kilpatrick  —  church  of  St.  Patrick; 
Dunkirk  —  church  on  a  hill ;  and  Isle  of  Man,  or  rocky  island. 
Since  this  time  many  words  have  come  into  English  from  both 
languages,  but  these  given  are  relics  from  the  time  of  Christ. 

So  the  Britons  lost  their  individuality  and  their  language,  ex- 
cept in  Hibemia  or  Ireland,  and  in  part  of  Caledonia  or  Scotland, 
where  the  Saxons  had  not  pui-sued,  and  they  are  to  this  day  a  dif- 
ferent people  from  the  English ;  and  Celtic  dialects  are  spoken 
among  them,  especially  in  Wales. 

The  Saxons  were  a  tall,  well-formed  people  with  light  hair  and 


6ia  EDUCATION.  [M^y^ 

blue  eyes,  but  were  hard  drinkers,  bold  and  warlike  in  the  extreme ; 
their  very  name,  Saxan^  means  a  short  spear  or  sword.  Their  tri- 
umph in  England  was  complete.  They  overran  the  country,  made 
slaves  of  the  Britons,  and  established  a  multitude  of  litde  king- 
doms ;  as  Su9%ex — :  South  Saxony,  E^Mex — East  Saxony,  etc. 

The  Saxon  language  was  strong  and  simple,  being  made  up  of 
short  words  with  direct  meaning.  It  was  closely  related  to  the 
Danish,  and  all  the  northern  dialects,  and  was  of  the  branch  known 
as  Low  Dutch.  Its  vocabulary  was  full,  and  it  was  well  inflected^ 
in  which  respect  it  was  richer  than  modem  English. 

So  the  language  of  England  became  Anglo-Saxon,  which  after 
many  changes  and  additions  became  English.  The  Saxons  were 
scarcely  well  settled  in  their  new  home  when  the  Norsemen  or 
Danish  pirates,  as  warlike  as  themselves,  commenced  making  in- 
roads upon  their  territory.  They  obtained  quite  a  foothold,  and 
at  one  time  came  near  conquering  the  Saxons. 

Although  Saxon  bravery  prevailed,  we  find  traces  of  the  Danes 
on  the  eastern  shore  in  the  names  of  places ;  the  ending  by  mean- 
ing town,  as  Whitby  —  white  town;  Danby  —  Dane  town;  Derby 
—  deer  town,  etc.,  in  all,  1,373  names  of  places  are  said  to  be  of 
Danish  origin. 

The  Danes,  called  also  Norsemen  or  Northmen,  were  a  disturb- 
ing element  in  western  Europe  in  the  eighth  century.  Besides 
waging  war  on  the  Saxons,  they  were  a  source  of  much  vexation 
to  the  French.  They  finally  gained  so  good  a  foothold  that  a  por- 
tion of  northern  France  was  given  over  to  them,  and  called  after 
them,  Normandy.  After  a  time  this  province  took  on  French 
manners,  and  spoke  a  mixture  of  French  and  Danish,  called  Nor- 
man French,  which  was  French  to  all  intents  and  purposes. 

In  1066  the  then  Duke  of  Normandy,  called  William  the  Con- 
queror, laid  claim  to  the  throne  of  England.  He  headed  a  large 
army,  crossed  the  Straits,  and  conquered  Harold,  king  of  England 
at  the  battle  of  Hastings.  It  was  now  the  turn  of  the  Saxons  to 
become  the  servants,  after  having  ruled  the  land  for  six  hun- 
dred years,  and  Norman  French  manners  and  language  became  the 
fashion  in  England.  All  the  aristocracy  were  Normans.  William 
paid  his  nobles  in  large  land  grants,  laid  the  foundation  for  the 
feudal  system  in  England,  and  made,  of  the  Saxons,  swineherds 
and  laborers. 

Everything  was  done  to  degrade  them,  and  to  force  the  French 


1889.]  THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  6ia 

language  upon  them.  All  stdtB  at  law  were  in  French,  and  no 
document  was  held  to  be  legal  if  not  written  in  French.  It  wa& 
the  language  of  the  court.  The  Norman  looked  with  haughty 
scorn  upon  the  vanquished  Saxon,  who  in  turn  regarded  hia 
oppressor  with  sullen  hatred.  The  Saxon  had  lost  all  but  his  lan- 
guage and  his  pride.  He  clung  to  both  with  grim  determination,, 
and  had  his  reward. 

Two  languages  cannot  long  exist  together  unmixed.  The  Saxon 
could  live  without  the  Norman,  but  the  Norman  depended  upon 
the  Saxon  for  his  very  victuals.  He  must  converse  with  him  ;  and 
to  do  so  he  was  obliged  to  learn  Saxon  for  the  purpose.  So,  while 
only  the  nobility  spoke  the  French,  all  classes  learned  the  Saxon, 
into  which  many  French  terms  gradually  found  their  way. 

Many  dialects  were  spoken.  Those  in  the  southern  parts  were 
mixed  most  with  the  French,  and  those  in  the  northern  with  the 
Danish.  It  was  the  Midland  dialect,  the  purest  of  all,  that  became 
the  "  King's  English."  This  was  first  written  about  1800,  at  the 
revival  of  learning  after  the  dark  ages,  and  from  it  has  developed,, 
by  changes,  additions  and  growths,  our  modern  English,  of  which 
Chaucer  may  fairly  be  called  the  father.  So  the  result  of  the- 
Norman  conquest  was  not  to  destroy  the  Anglo-Saxon,  nor  to* 
supersede  it  as  that  had  replaced  the  Celtic ;  but  to  graft  upon  it 
a  goodly  number  of  French  and  Latin  words. 

The  peculiar  formation  of  our  language  introduced  many  words 
from  both  the  French  and  the  Saxon  with  nearly  or  quite  the  same 
original  meaning,  still  possessing  the  characteristics  of  each  lan- 
guage, and  indicating  the  aristocracy  of  the  one  people  and  the 
simplicity  of  the  other.  In  every  case  the  Saxon  term  is  the  sim- 
pler and  more  often  used,  while  the  French  is  the  finer  and  shows 
its  superiority,  —  the  relation  of  victor  and  vanquished^ 

Thus  '*  Ox  "  was  a  Saxon  term,  but  when  fattened  and  killed  for 
the  Norman,  he  called  him  '*  Joetef,"  literally  the  same  as  ox.  Fi- 
nally, the  Saxon  having  no  better  name  for  the  ox  when  killed, 
adopted  boeuf^  and  it  has  come  down  to  us  as  beef.  He  herded  his. 
"  swine^^^  and  heard  them  called  ^^paurceau "  when  ready  for  the 
Norman's  use.  Pourceau  was  good  French  for  9wine^  either  living- 
or  dead ;  but  the  Saxon  only  heard  it  in  the  latter  sense  and  so- 
used  it.  It  has  come  down  to  us  as  pork.  In  the  same  way  Saxon 
"  sheep  "  was  French  "  mouton^''^  and  has  come  down  into  English 
as  mutton^  and,  as  Wamba  the  jester  in  Scott's  charming  story  of 


•14  EDUCATION.  [lUy, 

Ivanhoe   says,   **  In   the   like  manner  *  Mynheer    calf '    becomes 
*  Motmeur  de  Veau.'  "     This  gives  the  origin  of  our  veal. 

If  we  had  travelled  there  we  should  have  seen  the  humUe 
**  hou9e  "  of  the  Saxon,  and  the  larger  **  maison "  of  the  Norman, 
who  as  master  of  the  situation  lived  in  better  style  than  his  lowly 
neighbor.  So  when  mniHon  changed  to  mansion  and  became  En- 
glish, it  meant  a  beautiful  house,  as  that  was  the  sense  the  Saxon 
had  always  attached  to  the  term. 

Short  words  with  terse  direct  meaning  are  characteristic  of 
Anglo-Saxon,  while  a  slight  admixture  of  French  or  Latin  is  im- 
mediately noticed.  There  is  the  same  difference  as  existed  between 
the  sturdy  matter-of-fact  Saxons  and  the  polished  Normans.  The 
Saxon  %at  upon  his  Btool  or  lay  upon  his  hed^  —  all  Saxon,  —  while 
the  Xorman  repotted  upon  his  chair  or  reclined  upon  his  cou^h  — 
all  French.  Well-heiny  arises  from  well-doiruf  is  Anglo-Saxon,  while 
felicity  attends  virtue  expresses  the  same  idea  in  Latin  terms. 

It  is  noticeable,  in  all  these  instances  when  a  \irord  has  come 
down  to  us  from  each  language  meaning  the  same  originally-,  that 
the  French  has  taken  an  added  meaning,  but  the  Saxon  is  the  one 
most  often  used.  Thus  mansion  now  means  more  than  hoiute^  as  it 
means  a  house  that  is  Ix^th  large  and  l^eautiful,  but  we  use  house 
more  often  than  mansion  ;  and  while  mutton  means  more  than 
sheep^  we  use  it  fewer  times  in  our  language  from  day  to  day. 
Even  when  the  French  term  means  no  more  tlian  the  Saxon,  we 
prefer  the  latter  ;  for  we  use  lie  rather  than  recVnie^  and  bed  is  more 
common  than  couch. 

Less  than  one-third  of  the  words  in  our  dictionaries  are  Anglo- 
Saxon,  yet  these  are  the  words  in  common  use  ;  nine-tenths  of  the 
language  of  our  common  people,  and  almost  as  much  of  our  best 
writers  is  Anglo-Saxon.  The  structure  of  the  sentence  and  the 
idioms  are  the  same,  and  we  could  still  have  a  language  if  all  else 
were  taken  away.  The  great  bulk  of  our  language  other  than 
Anglo-Saxon  is  of  course  French  and  Latin,  both  being  added  rap- 
idly after  the  revival  of  learning. 

We  have  borrowed  many  terms  from  the  Greek,  especially 
classic  and  scientific.  The  Arabic  has  furnished  many  classical 
and  mathematical  terms,  as  both  sciences  came  from  the  Arabs, 
and  we  borrowed  tlieir  terms  when  we  learned  their  science.  We 
get  many  words  from  nations  whose  products  we  import,  importing 
the  name  as  well  as  the  article,  —  thus  tea  is  a  Chinese  word,  and 


1889.]  WHAT  DO  THE  PUPILS  HEAD  f  61» 

coffee  is  Turkish.     Nearly  all  these  additions  are  since  the  time  of 
our  story. 

Upon  the  whole,  the  story  of  our  language  possesses  a  romantic 
interest.  It  is  the  union  of  the  languages  of  peculiar  peoples : 
—  the  quick-witted  Celts,  the  bold  Saxons,  the  reckless  Norsemen, 
and  the  polished  French.  It  is  constantly  meeting  with  changeg 
and  receiving  additions,  and  it  presents  one  of  the  most  fascinating 
themes  for  study. 

WHAT  DO  THE  PUPILS  READ? 

A  VISITOR  called  at  a  school  of  about  sixty  boys  recently,  and 
learned  the  following  facts  as  to  their  reading :  — 

"  What  is  the  last  book  you  have  read  ?  " 

In  reply  one  boy  answered,  '*  I  don 't  remember,"  and  another 
said,  "I  haven't  read  any  lately,"  and  another,  "Can't  tell." 
But  on  the  other  hand,  twenty-seven  had  been  engaged  upon 
works  of  History  and  biography,  including:  Life  and  Times  of 
Benjamin  Franklin,  Life  of  Prescott,  Higginson's  History  of  the 
United  States,  Irving's  Washington,  Life  of  Cicero,  Hannibal, 
Caesar,  Xerxes,  Alexander,  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  Three  boys 
were  reading  Dickens'  Child's  History  of  England,  and  one  was 
diligently  reading  Bancroft's  ten-volume  history  of  the  United 
States.  Three  volumes  of  Macaulay's  Essays  were  mastered  by 
one  boy.  Jules  Verne  and  Oliver  Optic  had  one  reader  each ;  so 
had  Shakespeare,  and  Bulwer,  and  Defoe,  and  Bunyan.  Other 
books  read  were  What  Career?  Avis;  Marble  Faun;  Tattered 
Tom ;  History  of  Propellors ;  Management  of  Horses ;  Seven 
Oaks ;  Miss  Muhlbach's  Empress  Josephine  ;  Ways  of  the  World ; 
Half  Hour  Natural  Science  Series ;  Pilgrim's  Progress ;  Quentin 
Durward ;  American  Explorers  ;  Little  Men ;  Speke's  Sources  of 
the  Nile  ;  Wide,  Wide  World ;  Waverly,  and  Fortunes  of  Nigel. 

Of  certain  popular  works,  it  was  ascertained  that  out  of  the 
boys  in  the  above  mentioned  school  the  reading  statistics  are  as 
follows :  Robinson  Crusoe,  52 ;  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  46 ;  Swiss 
Family  Robinson,  38 ;  Ragged  Dick,  86 ;  Arabian  Nights,  84 ; 
Twenty  Thousand  Leagues  Under  the  Sea,  28 ;  Jack  Harkaway, 
27 ;  School  Days  at  Rugby,  25 ;  Helen's  Babies,  and  Gulliver's 
Travels,  19  each.  And  so  the  list  goes  on  decreasing,  Tom  Brown 
at  Oxford  having  17,  and  Innocent's  Abroad,  11. 

Who  will  give  us  similar  statistics  ? 


«16  EDUCATION.  [Msy, 


EDITORIAL. 

THE  papers  on  Examination  and  Education  forming  the  **  Ameri- 
can Supplement "  to  a  late  number  of  the  ^^  Nineteenth  Centuiy/' 
include  contributions  from  representative  educators  from  all  parts  of  the 
country,  and  form  an  instructive  and  valuable  comment  on  an  impor* 
tant  phase  of  the  educational  question.  The  list  of  contributors  includes 
Ex-President  McCosh  of  Princeton,  Presidents  Adams  of  Cornell,  An- 
^ell  of  Michigan,  Carter  of  Williams,  Eaton  of  Marietta,  Gilman  of 
Johns  Hopkins,  Magill  of  Swarthmore,  Pepper  of  Colby,  Rhoades  of 
Br}'n  Mawr,  and  Sharpless  of  Haverford ;  Chancellors  John  Hall  of 
the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York,  and  Sims  of  Syracuse ;  Pro- 
fessors Wm.  H.  Bumham,  Albert  S.  Cook  of  the  University  of  Califor- 
nia, Wm.  T.  Harris  of  Concord,  T.  W.  Hunt  of  Princeton,  Robert  W. 
Rogers  of  Haverford,  R.  E.  Thompson  of  the  University  •of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  Hamilton  W.  Mabie,  Esq.,  and  Barr  Ferree,  £sq.,  of  New 
York. 

It  will  at  once  be  noticed  that  this  symposium  is  made  up  almost 
exclusively  of  college  presidents.  The  dicussion  is  of  the  college  ques- 
tion. Teachers  in  high  and  grammar  schools  should  not  be  deceived 
l)y  supposing  that  the  principles  here  laid  down  apply  to  any  great 
extent  to  their  work.  President  Angell,  of  Michigan  University,  puts 
this  in  a  clear  light  in  his  closing  paragraph,  when  he  says  :  *^  While 
children,  who  are  too  young  to  appreciate  the  value  of  learning  and 
mental  discipline  for  their  own  sake,  may  properly  be  allured  on  in  the 
path  of  study  by  artificial  attractions,  yet  when  these  children  are  ma- 
ture enough  to  know  the  worth  of  learning  and  mental  discipline,  we 
should  make  our  appeal  simply  to  their  appreciation  of  the  value  and 
charms  of  knowledge  and  culture.  Our  system  of  educating  them  should 
also  be  such  as  to  encourage  them  to.prize  the  results  of  daily,  steady, 
"well-balanced  work  rather  than  the  results  of  a  ^brilliant  spurt,'  or  of 
assiduous  cramming.*' 

Here  lies  an  important  truth.  Teachers  of  experience  and  wisdom 
know  full  well  that  children  are  not  mature  adults  —  that  their  reason- 
ing faculties  generally  govern  their  conduct  even  less  than  is  the  case 
with  adults  —  that  it  is  not  always  possible  to  appeal  successfully  to  the 
highest  motives,  but  it  is  clearly  necessary  to  appeal  to  the  highest  mo- 
tives which  will  produce  successful  results.  Hence,  tests,  written  exer- 
cises, stated  reviews,  formal  and  informal  examinations  are  more  or  less 


1889.]  EDITOBIAL.  617 

• 

needful.  Results  are  what  we  are  all  after.  Let  every  teacher  there- 
fore see  to  it  that  success  is  attained^  and  so  wisely  adapt  means  to  ends 
as  not  to  fail  in  the  g^and  result,  which  it  must  never  be  forgotten  is  the 
building  up  of  manhood  and  womanhood,  the  growth  of  the  mind  and 
the  development  of  high  character. 

THE  impression  can  scarcely  be  resisted  that  a  good  many  of  our 
common  school  experts,  just  now,  are  serving  up  their  ^^  ad- 
vanced "  ideas  on  the  training  of  the  infant  mind  in  a  manner  altogether 
too  elaborate  and  *^fine  cut"  for  practical  application  in  the  every-day 
work  of  the  common  school.  Under  cover  of  a  natural  interest  in  the 
study  of  child-nature,  we  are  flooded  with  a  mass  of  more  or  less  valua- 
ble speculation  on  *^  psychology,"  "  biology,"  etc.,  now  and  then  help- 
ful to  the  teacher,  but,  as  often,  the  emission  of  materialistic  speculation 
whose  logical  outcome  is  the  emptying  of  child-life  of  everything  that 
is  not  in  the  line  of  physiology,  and  '^  all  which  that  implies."  A 
superintendent  in  the  Northwest  questions,  if  the  minute  instruction  con- 
cerning acoholic  drinks,  now  in  the  fashion,  will  not,  on  the  whole, 
turn  out  more  drunkards  from  the  schools  than  the  old-time  system  of 
keeping  children  in  wholesome  ignorance  of  the  shady  side  of  life.  In 
like  manner,  the  average  child,  brought  under  the  observation  glass  of 
our  many-sided  and  all-round  conception  of  educational  development,  is 
in  a  fair  way  to  be  so  confused  and  muddled  that  he  emerges  into  his 
**  teens,"  knowing  nothing  of  any  value,  though  punctured  by  the  cam- 
bric needle  of  every  art  and  science.  Is  it  possible  to  sprout  every 
legitimate  tendency  of  our  wondrous  human  nature,  in  every  scholar,  in 
every  schoolroom,  even  of  '*  the  universal  Yankee  nation"?  Is  not, 
after  all,  the  true  method  to  take  the  child  as  he  is  found,  and  do  a  few 
things,  with  such  force  and  persistence  as  will  wake  him  up  to  the 
meaning  of  education,  arouse  his  desire  for  knowledge,  and  send  him 
forth  with  this  outflt  into  the  broad  university  of  life  ?  Of  all  people, 
educational  experts  are  under  the  temptation  to  ^*  go  on  refining,"  until 
the  obvious  common-sense  purpose  of  common  school  education,  in  a 
land  where  the  common  life  is  the  most  powerful  college  ever  shut  up 
on  the  planet,  is  quite  lost  sight  of.  The  teacher  in  the  country  school,  — 
and  seven-eighths  of  American  children  are  in  the  country  schools, —  has 
no  such  impossible  task  assigned  her  as  to  compass  the  entire  spiritual, 
mental,  and  physical  development  of  her  little  ones;  and  such  an  ambi- 
tion will  be  sure  to  land  her  in  a  painful  limbo  of  confusion  and  failure. 
Nothing  less  than  the  '*  working  together  for  good  "  of  every  American 
institution,  plus  the  mysterious  influences,  human  and  divine,  that 
environ  every  soul,  may  presume  to  compass  a  task  so  great  as  this. 
Perhaps  the  most  serious  fault,  even  among  well-informed  teachers, 


«18  EDUCATION.  [May, 

is  lack  of  grip  in  handling  a  class.  A  great  deal  of  enlightened  instruc- 
tion, given  according  to  good  methods,  goes  for  nothing,  because  the 
teacher  has  no  personal  power  of  holding  even  the  one  pupil  on  hand 
up  to  a  steady  consideration  of  the  point  at  issue  ;  while  the  remainder 
of  the  class  drifls  hopelessly  in  all  ways,  and  the  recitatiorr  leaves  no 
permanent  impression.  Especially  is  this  failing  evident  in  large  num- 
bers of  the  young  girls  graduated  from  our  higher  seminaries,  including 
the  Normal  schools.  The  pressure  in  these  institutions  has  all  been  in 
the  direction  of  the  acquirement  of  knowledge ;  often  pushed  to  the 
extent  that  the  mind  of  the  graduate  is  left  with  a  morbid,  even  hysteri- 
cal craze  for  knowing  and  still  knowing.  Meanwhile,  the  whole  execu- 
tive side  of  womanhood  has  been  left  uncared  for ;  indeed,  too  often, 
studiously  suppressed,  from  a  well-mannered  apprehension  of  the 
calamity  of  "  strong-mindedness."  Such  a  woman,  in  the  classroom 
before  a  crowd  of  average  children,  has  simply  the  effect  of  a  series  of 
beautiful  pictures  upon  a  moving  screen,  or  dissolving  views  in  the 
various  topics  of  study.  The  child  looks  on,  amused,  perhaps  inspired 
for  the  time,  but  never  feels  the  strong  hand  of  personal  power  laid 
upon  him,  compelling  him  to  face  even  the  multiplication  table,  and 
force  it  to  give  up  its  secret  to  his  obstinate  demand.  Hence  it  is  that 
many  a  half-educated,  powerful  man,  in  a  schoolroom,  does  more  for 
the  pupil  than  the  most  accomplished  graduate  of  the  university.  Only 
power  begets  power ;  and  our  elaborate  schemes  of  instruction  must 
"  take  a  new  reef"  in  this  direction,  or  be  a  disappointment  in  the  prac- 
tical working  of  every-day  school  life. 

THE  SUMMER  SCHOOLS  FOR  TEACHERS.  —  The  follow- 
ing note  was  received  at  this  office  a  few  days  ago  :  — 

Worcester,  April  5,  1889. 
Editor  C.  S.  Education, 

Dear  Sir :  —  A  friend  of  mine   is  urging   me  to  attend  a    summer 
school.     What  advantage  will  it  be  to  me  in  my  regular  school  work.^ 

Yours  truly, 

M.  S.  Partridge. 

Until  within  a  few  years  the  writer  of  this  had  never  attended  or 
visited  a  summer  school.  For  several  summers  past  he  has  devoted 
five  weeks  to  summer  school  work  and  has  seen  several  of  the  best, 
most  efficient  and  most  popular  schools.  He  feels,  therefore,  prepared 
to  say  from  his  personal  observations  and  often  repeated  expressions  of 
teachers  in  attendance  that  these  institutions  are  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance to  teachers  of  all  grades.  Primary  school  teachers,  gprammar 
school  teachers,  high  school  teachers,  and  professors  in  colleg^es  have- 


1889.]  EDITORIAL.  619 

spoken  in  the  highest  terms  of  the  advantages  they  have  derived  from 
these  few  weeks  in  which  they  have  divided  the  time  between  special 
work  of  this  sort  and  recreation. 

The  6est  teachers  in  the  land  are  employed,  and  to  come  in  contact 
with  them  is  an  inspiration. 

The  best  methods  of  teaching  are  unfolded,  and  these  cannot  fail  to 
be  of  great  service  to  a  teacher  of  whatever  grade. 

Special  lines  of  study  are  pursued,  and  the  sharp,  well-disciplined 
mind  of  a  teacher  devoted  for  three  or  five  weeks  to  special  work  with 
a  special  object  in  view  will  produce  as  large  results  as  three  or  five 
months  of  study  to  the  ordinary  learner.  Then,  this  is  the  best  way  of 
resting.  To  most  persons  rusting  is  not  resting.  Some  healthy,  light 
work  in  agreeable  lines,  dividing  the  time  with  real  recreation,  such  as- 
can  be  found  at  the  places  where  these  schools  are  held,  will  inevitably 
return  the  tired  teacher  to  the  work  of  school  refreshed,  invigorated, 
and  improved  in  every  way.  It  is  confidently  believed  that  the  summer 
school  has  come  to  stay  and  that  in  the  survival  of  the  fittest  will  be 
found  great  gain  in  them  for  the  teaching  profession. 

THE  average  boy  is  evolved  to  manhood  through  a  painful  experi- 
ence of  children's  diseases, — measles,  mumps,  chicken-pox, — 
to  say  nothingof  the  more  dangerous  maladies  that  beset  his  upward  path- 
way. Thedoctorstell  us  that  half  the  children  born  in  our  great  cities  per- 
ish before  the  age  of  five,  and,  although  our  foreign-born  people  are  more 
prolific  at  the  start,  yet  the  native  Anglo-Saxon  stock  holds  its  own 
in  the  superior  tenacity  of  life  in  the  long  run. 

Somewhat  after  the  same  law  of  evolution,  a  school  system  makes 
its  way  to  success  through  a  gauntlet  of  enemies,  and  only  after  years  of 
stubborn  conflict  can  be  said  to  have  established  itself  as  a  permanent 
fact  in  the  best  ordered  community.  Indeed,  it  is  doubtful  if  any  human 
institution  encounters  foes  so  numerous  and  dangerous  as  the  American 
system  of  free  common  schools.  The  family  is  only  compelled  to  deal 
with  a  houseful,  and  the  outlying  realm  of  '•relations.*'  The  church 
divides  into  classes.  Politics  run  on  partisan  lines,  and  government 
itself  rarely  intrudes  beyond  the  outward  life.  But  the  people's  com- 
mon school  undertakes  to  deal  with  children  of  all  sorts  and  conditions, 
in  that  undefined  realm  of  knowing,  doing,  and  being,  involved  in 
worthy  manhood  and  womanhood,  and  good  American  citizenship. 

First  comes  the  theological  malady  —  which,  until  the  last  half  cen- 
tury, has  made  the  education  of  the  whole  people  an  impossibility  in 
every  Christian  land.  Even  today,  and  in  America,  a  church  hierarchy 
demands  special  recognition  from  the  state,  and  apparently  prefers 
wide-spread   ignorance   to   what   it  calls  "godless  education."     Next 


620  EDUCATIOX.  [May, 

comes  the  social  disease,  in  all  its  varied  forms  ;  demanding  separation 
in  school  on  lines  of  race,  caste,  nationality,  and  wealth  ;  interfering 
with  the  authorities  in  the  choice  of  teachers,  the  discipline  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  entire  school-life.  Then  comes  in  the  economic  disease  and 
the  school  is  starved  into  leanness  ;  every  mouthful  of  nourishment  fought 
over  with  the  desperation  of  a  battle  for  life.  And  now  the  political 
epidemic  breaks  out  and  the  schools  figure  as  the  annex  to  the  caucus. 
And  when  all  these  more  violent  and  vulgar  assaults  are  outlived,  the 
school  system  enters  upon  another  phase  and  is  badgered  by  a  succes- 
sion of  complaints  peculiar  to  a  cultivated  societ}\  One  philosopher 
denies  the  right  of  the  state  to  educate  at  all.  Another  demands  a  sys- 
tem so  elaborate  that  not  one  child  in  a  thousand  can  do  more  than 
become  involved  in  its  labyrinth.  Another  insists  on  the  high  literarv 
tests,  while  his  opponent  would  deny  to  all  but  the  chosen  few  anything 
beyond  the  most  meager  knowledge  of  the  elements.  Then  comes  in 
the  industrial  craze,  which  would  turn  every  schoolroom  into  a  work- 
shop and  make  every  boy  and  girl  a  skilled  worker,  at  fourteen. 

That  our  American  school  system  has  pushed  through  this  formidable 
experience  and  done  as  much  as  it  has  is  a  g^and  tribute  to  the  obsti- 
nate common  sense  of  the  people.  The  end  is  not  yet.  Every  one  of 
these  educational  epidemics  is  liable  to  reappear ;  while  new  and  mys- 
terious distempers  start  up  to  appall  the  very  elect.  Eternal  vigilance 
was  never  so  emphatically  the  watchword  in  American  educational  life 
4IS  today. 

An  hour  was  recently  spent,  it  is  to  be  feared  not  with  success,  in  try- 
ing to  explain  to  a  group  of  accomplished  graduates  of  some  of  our 
most  celebrated  New  England  colleges  for  women,  the  word  method  of 
teaching  children  to  read  in  a  primary  school.     Just  what  the  disability 
is  which  makes  the  entire  process  of  the  natural  method  of  instruction 
a  puzzle  to  the  university  graduate  is  one  of  the  mysteries  of  the  higher 
education.     It  is  evidently  one  of  the  great  mistakes  of  the  period  that 
our  new  colleges  for  women  have  repeated  the  chronic  failure  of  the  old- 
time  college  in  this  respect,  and  are  filling  the  country  with  accomplished 
girl-graduates  whose  ignorance  of  the  science  of  pedagogy  is  only  par- 
alleled by  their  serene  confidence  in  their  own  capacity  to  teach  school 
in  any  or  every  position.     The  crying  need  of  the  day  is  a  genuine  and 
thorough  course  of  didactics  in  every  American  college  and  university, 
nowhere  so  much  needed  as  in  these  new  colleges  which  are  attempting 
so  much  for  the  higher  instruction  of  American  girls. 

THE  American  Institute  of  Instruction  will  hold  its  sixtieth  annual 
meeting  at  Bethlehem,  N.  H.,  July  8  to  ii  next.      This  promises 
to  be  a  large  and  unusually  attractive  meeting.     Papers  and  discussions 


1889.]  EDITORIAL.  621 

on  the  most  important  educational  topics  will  engage  the  attention  of  the 
most  distinguished  educators  of  the  country.  Among  them  may  be  men- 
tioned President  Bartlett  of  Dartmouth  College,  Dr.  William  T.  Har- 
ris, Senator  Blair,  Hon.  T.  B.  Stockwell,  Dr.  James  MacAlister, 
Prof.  E.  B.  Andrews  of  Cornell,  Hon.  J.  W.  Patterson,  and  many 
others.  Readings  by  that  prince  of  elocutionists.  Prof.  J.  W.  Church- 
ill. The  railroads  will  give  reduced  rates  from  all  points.  The  hotels 
have  offered  very  low  rates  with  the  best  of  accommodations.  The 
side  trips  present  the  most  attractive  excursions. 

WHILE  chronic  croakers  of  various  kinds  are  filling  the  land  with 
their  denunciations  of  the  common  school  system,  as  a  moral 
disorganizer,  the  Chief  Inspector  of  the  New  York  City  police  declares 
that  the  common  schools  are  rapidly  educating  the  turbulent  classes  of 
that  city  into  order,  respect  for  law,  and  a  growing  reluctance  to  violent 
methods  of  impressing  public  opinion  and  securing  reforms  in  the  labor 
organizations.  About  the  most  disreputable  business  now  carried  on 
in  this  country  is  the  concerted  howl  of  these  croakers  against  the  com- 
mon schools  as  a  moral  failure.  If  these  men  would  look  carefully  over 
the  country,  they  would  discover  that  the  public  schools  of  every  Ameri- 
can city  have  done  more  to  train  several  millions  of  American  children 
of  humble  birth  to  good  citizenship  and  orderly  living,  than  all  other 
influences  put  together.  At  present  the  majority  of  intelligent  people 
receive  these  declarations  as  the  vaporings  of  theological  partisans  and 
the  loud  complaints  of  politicians  afler  defeat  in  an  election. 

ONE  of  the  foremost  superintendents  in  New  England  is  showing 
his  good  sense  in  joining  with  his  teachers  in  taking  special 
lessons  in  manual  training,  in  order  more  fully  to  comprehend  the  sys- 
tem and  to  be  better  able  to  discuss  its  merits,  or  defects.  That  super- 
intendent will  have  the  respect  of  his  teachers  whenever  he  speaks  on 
the  subject,  or  makes  suggestions  for  them  to  follow.  Can  not  his 
example  be  followed  with  profit  by  others? 


e2a  ED  UCA  TION.  [  Umj, 


SCHOOL    RANK  AS   EVIDENCE    OF   MEJVTAL 

CAPACITY. 

THE  question  whether  there  is  a  difference  between  the  mind  of  man 
and  that  of  woman,  and  if  so,  what  is  the  nature  and  extent  of 
that  difference,  is  one  which  has  been  frequently  discussed  without 
being  brought  much  nearer  to  a  settlement.  Probably  the  political, 
industrial,  and  social  aspects  of  this  question  oflenest  attract  attention, 
but  it  has  a  bearing  on  education  also  which  should  not  be  disregarded. 
For  if  girls'  minds  are  just  like  boys'  minds,  then  the  kind  of  mental 
training  that  is  best  for  one  sex  is  best  for  the  other ;  but  if  there  is  a 
difference,  then  the  mental  training  of  girls  should  diverge  from  that  of 
boys  so  far  and  in  such  a  direction  as  to  conform  to  this  difference. 

In  the  March  number  of  Education  was  an  article  entitled  "  The 
Relative  Mental  Capacity  of  the  Sexes,"  by  R.  Cyrene  MacOonald,  the 
object  of  which  is  thus  stated  by  the  writer :     "  I  propose  to  show  that, 
not  only  is  the  female  —  at  least  as  shown  in  her  school  life — equal 
mentally  to  the  male,  but  that  she  is  so  much  superior  that  the  figures 
I  present  may  astonish  those  who  read."     She  attempts  to  show  this 
(I  take  the  writer  to  be  a  woman,  partly  from  the  middle  name,  and 
partly  from  the  style  of  the  article)  by  a  comparison  of  the  marks  for 
recitations  and  examinations  received  by  boys  and  girls  in   the  same 
classes.     She  is  convinced  by  the  marks  of  the  grammar  school  chil- 
dren that  ^*at  the  earliest  age  the  female  mind  shows  its  superiority  in 
the  acquirement  of  knowledge,"  and  by  those  of  the  high  school  pupils 
that  *'  this  superiority  increases  in  a  marked  degree  with  age.**      Taking 
the  six  grammar  school  classes  together  the  general  average  of  the  girls 
is  80.5  per  cent. ;  that  of  the  boys  is  79.5,  showing  a  difference  of  one 
per  cent,  in  favor  of  the  girls.     This  one  percent  does  not  indicate  any 
very  alarming  inferiority  on  the  part  of  the  boys.     In  all  the  schools  I 
have  known,  as  pupil  or  teacher,  a  difference  of  one  per  cent,  between 
two  pupils  would  be  regarded  as  showing  only  a  trifling  superioriu-  of 
one  over  the  other,  and  the  same  would  be  true  as  between  two  classes, 
or  between  boys  and  girls.     I  fear  that  these  figures  will  fail  to  **  aston- 
ish those  who  read."     The  writer  includes  the  average  ages  of  the  boys 
and  girls  in  her  tables,  much  to  my  satisfaction,  though  she  makes  no 
use  of  them.     These  figures  show  that  in  every  class  boys  are  cotnpared 
with  girls  six  months  older ^   that  is,    the  boys  as  a  group  form  the 
younger  part  of  the  class.     It  is  generally  acknowledged   that  when 
young  pupils  keep  along  in  the  same  class  with  older  ones,  the  younger 
upils  are  naturally  the  smarter.     Certainly  a  difference  of  half  a 


1889.]    SCHOOL  BANK  AS  EVIDENCE  OF  MENTAL  CAPACITY.       623 

in  age  ought  to  be  taken  as  outweighing  a  difference  of  one  per  cent,  in 
rank.  « 

In  the  high  school  the  general  average  of  the  girls  is  nearly  four  per 
cent,  above  that  of  the  boys.  Probably  there  was  some  condition  more 
favorable  to  the  girls  in  the  high  school  than  in  the  grammar  school, 
either  in  the  character  of  the  studies,  or  the  system  of  marking,  or 
something  else.  Why  this  is  probable,  is  that  in  the  first  class  of  the 
grammar  school  the  difference  between  the  boys  and  girls  is  three-tenths 
of  one  per  cent,  while  in  the  lowest  class  of  the  high  school,  the  differ- 
ence jumps  to  4.1  per  cent.  There  is  no  such  jump  between  any  two 
classes  in  the  grammar  or  in  the  high  school,  and  there  is  no  natural 
reason  why  there  should  be  one  in  passing  from  one  school  to  the  other, 
for  the  pupils  in  the  lowest  class  of  the  high  school  are  simply  one  year 
older  than  when  they  were  in  the  first  class  of  the  grammar.  This  sur- 
prising jump  is  the  only  evidence  to  support  the  assertion  that  the 
superiority  of  the  girls  '^  increases  in  a  marked  degree  with  age."  In 
fact,  the  4. 1  per  cent,  difference  of  the  junior  year  is  reduced  to  3.7  in  the 
middle,  and  to  3.3  in  the  senior,  which  seems  rather  to  indicate  the 
opposite.  In  the  high  school,  too,  the  boys  average  six  months  younger 
than  the  girls. 

But  if  girls  do  get  slightly  higher  marks  than  boys  in  school,  what 
does  it  signify?  In  the  article  before  me  it  is  assumed  to  signify  that 
the  girls  have  superior  mental  capacity,  but  really  the  teacher  in  mark- 
ing recitations  and  examinations  is  not  marking  the  pupils'  ability  to 
learn,  but  their  ability  to  recite,  that  is,  their  capacity  for  putting  what 
they  have  learned  into  words.  Moreover,  what  boys  do  learn  does  not 
always  indicate  how  much  they  can  learn.  Girls  are  more  dutiful  than 
boys ;  they  are  not  so  prone  to  neglect  their  lessons  for  play ;  they  are 
more  stimulated  by  rivalry  for  rank,  and  by  mortification  at  a  low  place 
in  the  class.  The  writer  does  not  state  whether  marks  for  conduct  are 
combined  with  those  for  studies  in  her  figures,  as  they  are  in  many 
schools,  but  we  will  assume  that  they  are  not.  School  marks  are 
affected  by  so  many  influences  that  their  indications  are  exceedingly 
ambiguous,  which  makes  them  almost  valueless  as  a  psychological  test. 

Afler  presenting  this  evidence  as  to  the  mental  capacity  of  woman  in 
youth,  the  writer  asks,  *^  If  she  be  so  much  superior  in  school  life,  why 
should  she  not  be,  at  least,  equal  in  the  more  mature  and  active  com- 
petition of  the  world  .^"  The  school  rank  gives  little  indication  of 
what  success  the  individual  will  be  capable  of  in  mature  life,  for  the 
former  depends  chiefly  on  memory,  while  the  latter  brings  other  facul- 
ties to  the  front.  It  is  capacity  for  assimilating  and  using  knowledge, 
not  merely  for  acquiring  it,  which  is  demanded  in  doing  the  world's 
work.  How  oflen  have  the  precocious  youths  who  gained  the  highest 
marks  in  school  failed  to  make  a  visible  mark  in  the  world  I 


eM  EDUCATION.  [May, 

A  reason  why  mature  men  should  appear  to  better  advantage 
than  boys  do  with  reference  to  the  other  sex  is  that  girls  in  their  teens 
develop  much  faster  than  boys,  and  at  the  age  when  they  leave  school 
have  attained  their  maturity.  They  then  cease  to  advance,  but  boys  at 
the  same  age  are  notoriously  immature,  and  continue  to  develop  for  sev- 
eral years  more. 

The  writer  thinks  that  her  showing  in  regard  to  school  rank  is  aston- 
ishing *^when  we  consider  the  immense  advantages  given  to  the  male 
•  .  .  for  centuries,"  implying  that  their  different  environments  have 
caused  the  sexes  to  diverge  so  as  to  form  two  intellectual  species.  K 
she  had  more  than  a  smattering  knowledge  of  evolution,  she  would 
be  aware  that  this  could  not  occur,  for  female  children  inherit  mental 
qualities  from  their  fathers  as  well  as  from  their  mothers,  and  thus 
become  sharers  in  the  '^  immense  advantages  given  to  the  male."  Yet 
there  is  a  female  type  of  mind,  just  as  there  is  a  female  type  of  skele- 
ton, and  other  female  physical  peculiarities,  such  as  absence  of  beard. 
Every  one  with  even  an  elementary  knowledge  of  psychology  knows 
that  the  mind  is  not  a  single  faculty,  but  consists  of  a  number  of  facul- 
ties commonly  classified  in  the  three  chief  divisions,  emotions,  intellect, 
and  will.  Hence  comparing  the  mental  capacity  of  one  person  as  a 
whole  with  that  of  another  can  give  only  the  roughest  estimate  of  the 
relative  worth  of  the  two.  The  variety  which  we  notice  in  the  minds 
of  those  around  us  arises  from  variations  in  the  strength  of  their  several 
faculties.  The  science  of  mind  has  not  yet  advanced  far  enough  to  give 
us  exact  methods  of  measuring  faculties,  still  it  has  shown  beyond  the 
possibility  of  doubt  that  while  certain  faculties  are  stronger  in  man  than 
in  woman,  others  are  stronger  in  woman  than  in  man.  It  follows  that 
the  mind  of  man  is  more  adapted  to  some  kinds  of  activity  than  that  of 
woman,  and  vice  versa.  Hence  it  is  absurd  to  say  that  man  has  a  bet- 
ter mind  than  woman  without  adding  what  it  is  better  for.  It  would 
be  like  saying  that  water  is  better  than  air,  which  is  true  with  regard  to 
some  purposes,  and  false  with  regard  to  others. 

It  is  idle  for  women  to  claim  that  they  can  equal  men  in  the  lines  to 
which  men  are  specially  adapted,  and  to  plead  that  only  artificial  obsta- 
cles prevent  them.  Men  show  their  fitness  for  a  certain  career  by  over- 
coming such  obstacles.  It  would  be  a  far  more  dignified  position  for 
woman  to  take,  to  cease  measuring  herself  by  man's  standard  ;  to  main- 
tain that  while  there  are  some  things  which  man  can  do  better  than  she 
can,  there  are  others  which  she  can  do  better  than  he,  and  that  her 
mental  qualities  while  not  the  same  yet  are  as  valuable  to  the  world  as 
his  ;  and  then  to  set  about  developing  her  mind  in  its  own  proper  direc- 
tion to  the  highest  possible  degree. 

Frederik  a.  Fernald,  New  York. 


1889.]  THE  NASHVILLE  CAMPAIGN.  «25 


THE  NASHVILLE  CAMPAIGN,   N.  E.  A.,  1889. 

MORE  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago  people  from  this  section  of 
the  country  made  a  visit  to  Nashville,  with  guns  and  ammuni- 
tion and  all  the  circumstance  of  war.  They  left  traces  of  their  occu- 
pancy around  the  city  in  earthworks  and  in  devastated  fields  and  forests, 
and  in  ruined  houses  and  shattered  health  of  women  and  children. 

Some  of  those  men  came  back  with  laurels  on  their  brows ;  others 
found  graves  beneath  those  sunny  skies.  And  now  nature  has  restored 
the  beauty  of  the  fields  ;  foliage  drapes  the  spots  made  desolate  by  war, 
and  time  has  mercifully  assuaged  the  bitterness  of  strife.  The  pain  of 
suffering  and  loss  have  gradually  yielded  to  the  generous  impulses  of 
our  nature,  and  where  once  there  was  hatred  and  mistrust,  kindly  feel- 
ing and  a  rivalry  in  benevolent  work  are  now  to  the  front.  In  place  of 
the  thorn  and  the  thistle,  the  vine  and  the  fig-tree ;  and  for  the  laurel, 
symbol  of  bloody  strife,  the  olive  branch,  emblem  of  brotherhood  and 
peace. 

Education  is  well  advanced  at  Nashville.  The  public  schools  are 
excellent ;  the  high  school  is  equal  to  that  in  any  city ;  the  grammar 
schools  are  inferior  to  none.  The  colored  schools  are  as  well  equipped 
and  as  well  conducted  as  the  white  schools ;  the  people  of  Nashville  are 
alive  to  the  necessity  of  educating  the  whole  people,  irrespective  of  color 
or  previous  condition,  as  much  as  in  any  city.  The  higher  education  is 
amply  provided  for.  Vanderbilt  University  ranks  with  the  best  in  the 
land,  both  in  its  equipment  and  in  its  students.  No  normal  school  has 
a  more  advanced  course  or  better  instructors  than  the  Peabody  Normal 
College. 

The  College  for  Young  Women  ranks  with  the  best  seminaries  in  the 
country,  and  it  is  not  alone  in  that  city.  The  Fisk  University  and  two 
others  provide  higher  education  fbr  the  colored  people.  If  anybody 
goes  to  Nashville  expecting  to  find  an  educational  desert  he  will  be  much 
surprised.  If,  like  the  Englishman  on  visiting  America  half  a  century 
back,  he  expects  to  find  an  inferior  civilization  in  Tennessee,  he  will  be 
delightfully  disappointed.  If  he  has  not  been  to  California  he  will  learn 
for  the  first  time  what  genuine  hospitality  means ;  and  if  he  was  at  San 
Francisco  last  summer  he  will  see  that  there  is  more  than  one  way  of 
doing  the  same  thing.  In  the  homes,  where  we  shall  meet  the  people 
on  their  native  heath  ;  in  the  hotels  and  public  places,  where  citizens 


636  EDUCATION.  [Xaj, 

congregate ;  on  the  streets  and  in  the  places  of  amusements  the  groves 
and  the  pleasure  resorts,  —  everywhere  the  teachers  of  the  country'  from 
the  east  and  the  west,  from  the  north  and  the  south,  w^ill  meet  wntha 
cordiality  of  welcome  that  will  captivate  their  hearts  ;  and  in  the  asso- 
ciation with  each  other,  a  bond  of  friendship  will  grow,  stronger  to  bind 
the  sections  than  any  federal  laws.  In  no  place  where  the  N.  £.  A. 
has  met,  except  in  San  Francisco,  has  so  g^at  outlay  been  made  by  the 
inhabitants  to  entertain  the  teachers  of  the  country,  and  no^vhere  else  is 
the  growing  influence  of  this  class  of  workers  upon  the  future  of  our 
country  more  fully  recognized  than  in  Nashville. 

And  the  city  itself  is  a  gem.  Nestled  among  a  cordon  of  hills, 
wooded,  or  surmounted  with  noble  institutions  and  elegant  residences, 
or  covered  with  verdant  fields,  the  city,  built  upon  an  undulating  sur- 
face, has  many  noble  buildings,  fine  residences,  and  substantial  business 
houses.  And  from  the  porticoes  and  terraces  of  the  capitol,  itself  an 
imposing  specimen  of  Grecian  architecture,  there  is  a  view  of  the  city 
and  the  surrounding  country  which  is  extremely  lovely.  The  distant 
hills  are  bathed  in  a  mellow  radiance  that  softens  the  outline  and  imparts 
that  indescribable  charm  which  painters  seek  in  vain  to  transcribe.  The 
river  winds  noiselessly  below,  and  the  breeze  upon  this  eminence  brings 
to  the  ear  the  hum  of  a  busy  little  city.  In  this  building  the  educational 
exhibit  will  be  held,  and  perhaps  some  of  the  department  meetings  will 
be  there.  The  General  Association  will  meet  in  a  fine  theater  called 
the  Vendome,  and  convenient  places  will  accommodate  the  meetings  of 
other  departments  in  the  afternoons.  It  is  my  intention  before  long  to 
say  a  few  words  to  your  readers  about  the  program  for  the  Nashville 
meetings,  and  something  about  the  ways  of  going  there,  and  the  scenery 
on  the  way,  and  the  excursions  planned  for  the  members  of  the 
N.  E.  A. 

A.  P.  Marble,  President  ybr  i88g. 


\ 


1889.]  FOREIGN  NOTES,  627 


FOREIGN  NOTES. 

FRANCE. 

Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Science.  —  The  French 
Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Science  is  similar  in  its  purposes  to 
the  American  Economic  Association.  Its  province  was  happily  defined 
by  the  president  in  his  address  on  the  occasion  of  the  last  annual  meet- 
ing. '*  Other  classes  of  institutions,"  said  Monsieur  Gr^ard,  "  live 
more  or  less  in  the  past  and  upon  the  past.  The  contemporaneous 
social  state  is  the  principal  object  and  matter  of  our  investigations.  The 
speculations,  philosophical  and  moral,  the  sentiments,  the  interests  in 
the  midst  of  which  the  modern  world  is  being  developed  and  trans- 
formed are  the  subjects  of  our  study." 

This  characterization  was  borne  out  by  the  subjects  that  had  been 
assigned  for  the  prize  essays.  Among  these  were  :  The  Results  of  Pro- 
tection ;  The  Permanence  of  Economic  Laws  in  Antiquity  ;  The  Exposi- 
tion of  the  Origin,  the  Formation,  and  the  Development  up  to  1789  of 
the  Public  Debt  of  France ;  The  Homes  of  Workmen  considered  in 
respect  to  their  bearing  upon  the  Spiritof  the  Family.  These  subjects 
were  treated  with  that  union  of  the  practical  and  the  ideal  which  seems 
to  be  the  special  gift  of  the  French  savant.  Nineteen  prizes  were  dis- 
tributed, of  which  two  are  provided  by  the  state  and  the  remainder  by 
private  donations. 

Educational  Monographs  for  the  French  Centennial.  —  In 
preparation  for  the  Exposition  of  1889,  the  French  government  will 
publish  a  series  of  Monographs,  —  sixty-three  in  all,  —  upon  Education. 
The  list  includes :  Legislation  and  Regulations  from  1878  to  1888;  A 
History  of  the  Progress  of  Pedagogic  Ideas,  by  Henri  Marion;  Sum- 
marized Review  of  the  Development  of  Public  Primary  Instruction  in 
each  Department ;  Monographs  on  Education  in  the  Leading  Cities ; 
The  History  of  the  Superior  Council  of  Education ;  The  History  of 
Private  Schools ;  School  Libraries,  and  School  Hygiene.  These  titles 
will  suffice  to  show  the  great  range  of  subjects  contemplated. 

Progress  of  Popular  Education  in  France,  1789- 1889. — In 
an  article  published  in  Just's  "  L'  Annuaire  de  I*  Enseignement  Pri- 
maire,"  for  1889,  Monsieur  Buisson  has  traced  the  progress  of  Primary 
Education  in  France  from  178910  1889.  Few  chapters  of  history  afford 
more  striking  illustration  of  the  innate  force  and  persistence  of  ideas. 

The  law  of  1881,  which  made  primary  instruction  gratuitous,  and 


8M  KDUCATIOS.  \Jbf. 

congregate ;  on  the  streets  and  in  the  pUces  of  amusement,  the  groves 
and  the  pleasure  resorts.  — everywhere  the  teachers  of  the  countr>' from 
the  east  and  the  west,  from  the  north  and  the  south,  will  meet  with  a 
cordiality  of  welcome  that  will  captivate  their  hearts ;  and  in  the  ano- 
ciation  with  each  other,  a  bond  of  friendship  will  grow,  stronger  to  bind 
the  sections  than  any  federal  laws.  In  no  place  where  the  X.  £.  A. 
has  met,  except  in  San  Francisco,  has  so  great  outlay  been  made  br  die 
inhabitants  to  entertain  the  teachers  of  the  country,  and  nowhere  cite  it 
the  growing  influence  of  this  class  of  workers  upon  the  future  <^o<ir 
country  more  fully  recognized  than  in  Nashville. 

And  the  city  itself  is  a  gem.  Nestled  among  a  cordon  of  hilU, 
wooded,  or  surmounted  with  noble  institutions  and  elegant  residences, 
or  covered  with  verdant  fieldB,  the  city,  built  upon  an  undulating  sur- 
face, has  many  noble  buildings,  fine  residences,  and  substantial  business 
houses.  And  from  the  porticoes  and  terraces  of  the  capitol,  itself  an 
imposing  specimen  of  Grecian  architecture,  there  is  a  vievr  of  the  d^ 
and  the  surrounding  country  which  is  extremely  lovely.  The  distant 
hills  are  bathed  in  a  mellow  radiance  that  softens  the  outline  and  imparts 
that  indescribable  charm  which  painters  seek  in  vain  to  transcribe.  The 
river  winds  noiselessly  below,  and  the  breeze  upon  this  eminence  brings 
to  the  ear  the  hum  of  a  busy  little  city.  In  this  building  the  educational 
exhibit  will  be  held,  and  perhaps  some  of  the  department  meetings  will 
be  there.  The  General  Association  will  meet  in  a  fine  theater  called 
the  Vendome,  and  convenient  places  will  accommodate  the  meetings  of 
other  departments  in  the  afternoons.  It  is  my  intention  before  long  to 
say  a  few  words  to  your  readers  about  the  program  for  the  Nashville 
meetings,  and  something  about  the  ways  of  going  there,  and  the  sceneiy 
on  the  wav,  and  the  excursions  planned  for  the  members  of  the 
N.  E.  A. 

A.   P.   Makhle,  President  ybr  jS8g. 


1889.]  FOREIGN  NOTES,  627 


FOREIGN  NOTES. 

FRANCE. 

Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Science.  —  The  French 
Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Science  is  similar  in  its  purposes  to 
the  American  Economic  Association.  Its  province  was  happily  defined 
by  the  president  in  his  address  on  the  occasion  of  the  last  annual  meet- 
ing. ''Other  classes  of  institutions,"  said  Monsieur  Gr^ard,  "live 
more  or  less  in  the  past  and  upon  the  past.  The  contemporaneous 
social  state  is  the  principal  object  and  matter  of  our  investigations.  The 
speculations,  philosophical  and  moral,  the  sentiments,  the  interests  in 
the  midst  of  which  the  modern  world  is  being  developed  and  trans- 
formed are  the  subjects  of  our  study." 

This  characterization  was  borne  out  by  the  subjects  that  had  been 
assigned  for  the  prize  essays.  Among  these  were  :  The  Results  of  Pro- 
tection ;  The  Permanence  of  Economic  Laws  in  Antiquity  ;  The  Exposi- 
tion of  the  Origin,  the  Formation,  and  the  Development  up  to  1789  of 
the  Public  Debt  of  France ;  The  Homes  of  Workmen  considered  in 
respect  to  their  bearing  upon  the  Spiritof  the  Family.  These  subjects 
were  treated  with  that  union  of  the  practical  and  the  ideal  which  seems 
to  be  the  special  gift  of  the  French  savant.  Nineteen  prizes  were  dis- 
tributed, of  which  two  are  provided  by  the  state  and  the  remainder  by 
private  donations. 

Educational  Monographs  for  the  French  Centennial.  —  In 
preparation  for  the  Exposition  of  1889,  the  French  government  will 
publish  a  series  of  Monographs,  —  sixty-three  in  all,  —  upon  Education. 
The  list  includes :  Legislation  and  Regulations  from  1878  to  1888;  A 
History  of  the  Progress  of  Pedagogic  Ideas,  by  Henri  Marion ;  Sum- 
marized Review  of  the  Development  of  Public  Primary  Instruction  in 
each  Department ;  Monographs  on  Education  in  the  Leading  Cities ; 
The  History  of  the  Superior  Council  of  Education ;  The  History  of 
Private  Schools ;  School  Libraries,  and  School  Hygiene.  These  titles 
will  suffice  to  show  the  great  range  of  subjects  contemplated^ 

Progress  of  Popular  Education  in  France,  1789- 1889. — In 
an  article  published  in  Just's  "  L'  Annuaire  de  1*  Enseignement  Pri- 
maire,"  for  1889,  Monsieur  Buisson  has  traced  the  progress  of  Primary 
Education  in  France  from  1789  to  1889.  Few  chapters  of  history  afford 
more  striking  illustration  of  the  innate  force  and  persistence  of  ideas. 

The  law  of  1881,  which  made  primary  instruction  gratuitous,  and 


{ 


«»  SDUCATlOy.  [JUj, 

that  of  iSSj,  which  made  it  obligatory  and  non-cleric:al,  are  the  final 
outcome  of  that  noble  clause  in  the  constitution  of  17S9  which  pro- 
claimed the  necessity  "of  creating  and  organizing  a  syatmi  of  puUk 
inBtruction  common  to  all  citizens  and  gratuitous  as  regards  the  instmc- 
tion  which  is  essential  for  all  men." 

The  law  of  October  30,  1SS6,  advanced  a  step  farther,  and  by  prohib- 
iting the  employment  of  other  than  lay  teachers,  completed  the  separa- 
tion of  the  new  order  of  things  from  the  old. 

'' There  remuins."  says  Monsieur  Butsson,  "but  a  single  part  vet  to 
be  achieved  in  this  legislative  monument.  That  is  a  law  wbich  shall 
give  the  teachers  salaries  commensurate  with  their  duties.  When  she 
has  discharged  this  debt,  the  last  and  not  the  least  sacred,  the  French 
republic,  will  have  made  in  behalf  of  popular  instruction  an  etTort  such 
as  perhaps  can  be  equalled  only  by  that  of  the  great  American  Repub- 
lic." 

Monsieur  Buisson  notes  that  an  important  step  in  respect  to  the  arae^ 
lioration  of  the  condition  of  primary  teachers  was  taken  in  1875  by  tlie 
passage  of  a  law  which  divided  the  teachers  into  four  categories  and 
fixed  the  minimum  salaries  at  $174,  $1951  $212,  and  $231,  respect- 
ivdj. 

As  a  measure  of  progress  made  during  the  century  under  review, 
Monsieur  Buisson  notes  that  the  state  budget  for  the  service  of  primal^ 
education  has  risen  from  $9,650  to  $18,914,000. 

The  total  estimate  of  state  and  communal  appropriations  for  the  sup 
port  of  popular  education  in  1SS9  amounts  to  $38,754,400. 

The  Science  of  Education  is  the  School  of  Political  Sci- 
ENCE.  —  Mons.  Edmond  Dreyfus- Br i sac,  editor-in-chief  of  the  "  Rct-u< 
Internationale  de  1'  Enseignement,"  inaugurated  in  January  of  the  pre» 
ent  year  in  llie  School  of  Political  Science,  Paris,  a  course  on  educatioi 
in  France  and  in  foreign  countries.  The  course  is  exceedingly  com 
prehensive,  embracing  the  history,  philosophy,  and  practice  of  educa 
tion. 

Chl'rch  vs.  State.  —  The  contest  between  church  and  state,  witb 
respect  to  the  conduct  of  education,  manifests  itself  with  more  or  les! 
intensity  in  all  European  countries.  An  eftbrt  has  recently  been  madt 
in  the  Prussian  landtag  to  secure  for  the  clergy  the  control  of  the  reb 
gious  instruction  given  in  the  schools.  The  effort  was  vigorouslj 
resisted.  Doctor  Von  (Jossler,  Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  whc 
contended  that  the  present  regulations  offer  sufficient  guarantees  to  th( 
Catholics,  and  the  new  proposition  was  unconstitutional.  Up^n  the 
vote  it  was  defeated  bv  a  large  majority.  In  Switzerland,  an  interesting 
decision  has  just  been  rendered  which  will  become  a  precedent  for  tb« 


1889.J  FOREIGN  NOTES.  62» 

interpretation  of  the  federal  constitution  in  all  similar  cases.  At  Lich- 
tensteig,  in  the  canton  of  Saint  Gall,  tWo  elementary  schools,  one  Catho- 
lic, the  other  Protestant,  were  maintained.  In  1886  the  Commune,  by 
a  vote  of  135  against  82,  decided  to  unite  the  two  schools.  The  Catho- 
lics protested  and  appealed  to  the  cantonal  government.  Failing  in  this 
endeavor  they  carried  the  case  before  the  federal  tribunal,  where  again 
they  met  with  an  adverse  decision.  Determined  to  try  all  sources  of 
authority  they  then  appealed  to  the  federal  chambers.  After  prolonged 
discussion  the  lower  chamber  rejected  the  appeal.  The  decision  of  the 
upper  chamber  has  not  yet  been  rendered. 

By  a  recent  order  of  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  Russia,  the 
public  schools  of  Odessa,  aided  by  the  municipality  and  the  provincial 
council,  have  been  placed  under  the  charge  of  the  clergy.  The  provin- 
cial council  has  petitioned  the  Czar  for  a  modification  of  this  order. 

SCOTLAND. 

University  Notes.  —7  The  attendance  upon  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh during  the  last  year  is  rejK)rted  to  have  been  3,532,  distributed  as 
follows  :  Faculty  of  Arts,  i  ,008  ;  Divinity,  108  ;  Lawf  474 ;  and  Medi- 
cine, 1,942. 

A  technical  laboratory  for  special  instruction  in  dyeing  and  bleaching 
has  just  been  opened  in  connection  with  University  College,  Dundee. 

Scientific.  — The  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  which  entered  upon 
the  second  century  of  its  existence  in  1 883-^84,  has  borne  an  important 
part  in  the  development  and  encouragement  of  science.  A  report  of  its 
proceedings  from  1883-87  has  recently  been  published.  This  includes 
the  address  of  the  chairman  at  the  annual  meeting  in  1886,  in  which 
attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  '^  with  respect  to  Scotland,  the  only 
government  grant  for  scientific  purposes  in  aid  of  learned  societies  is 
JC300  paid  annually  to  the  Royal  Society,  which  is  repaid  to  a  depart- 
ment of  the  government  in  the  form  of  rent."  '*  One  might  well  ask,'* 
says  the  chairman,  '^  what  Scotland  has  done  that  her  learned  societies 
and  scientific  men  should  be  treated  so  niggardly  as  compared  with 
those  in  England  and  Ireland.  It  cannot  be  because  she  does  no  scien- 
tific work.  .  .  I  question  if  any  country  in  the  world,  taking  into 
consideration  its  size,  can  show  a  better  record  of  scientific  work,  or  a 
more  excellent  volume  of  scientific  literature  than  Scotland,  during  the 
past  ten  or  twenty  years." 

TUNIS. 

Primary  Schools.  — According  to  the  official  statement  prepared 
for  the  Educational  Exposition  held  in  Tunis  in  April  and  May,  1888, 
the  ^'  Regency  "  had  at  that  time  forty-seven  public  schools  classified  as 


630  EVUCATIOy.  [lUj, 

follows :  Fifteen  schools  for  girls ;  twenty-six  for  boys ;  six  for  both 
sexes.  Of  the  entire  number,  thirty  were  secular  foundations,  and  sev- 
enteen religious.  The  number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  the  public  schools 
was  4,8511  of  whom  1,814  were  girls,  and  3.037  boys.  They  were 
under  the  direction  of  214  teachers. 

There  were  also  nine  private  schools,  attended  by  2,450  pupils,  of 
whom  1,398  were  boys,  and  1,052  girls.     This  gives  7^301  as  the  total 

of  pupils  following  a  course  of  instruction  in  French. 

A.  T.  s. 


NOTES  FROM  NE  W  ZEALAND. 

THERE  has  been  considerable  stir  in  our  educational  ^vorld  of  late. 
The  teachers  in  the  primary  schools  have  just  held  their  annual 
conference  at  the  capital  of  the  colony,  and  in  this  letter  I  will  confine 
myself  to  its  doings  and  results,  reserving  an  account  of  the  meeting  of 
the  secondarv  teachers  for  another  occasion. 

It  is  just  six  years  ago  since  the  primary  teachers  of  this  colony  held 
their  first  yearly  meeting  of  delegates  in  Wellington.  On  that  occasion 
there  were  but  six  representatives  present.  At  the  gatherings  held  this 
month  there  were  at  least  six  times  that  number  and  the  delegates  came 
from  nearly  every  part  of  the  colony.  I  may  add  parenthetically  that 
the  annual  meeting  of  these  delegates  takes  place  in  a  different  city  each 
year,  and  the  round  of  the  cities  is  just  completed.  The  president  this 
year  was  a  head  master  of  one  of  the  Wellington  schools,  and  his  ad- 
dress was  remarkable  for  its  high  tone  and  for  its  grasp  of  the  great 
principles  of  education,  which  he  urged  should  be  understood  by  every 
teacher  in  the  land.  To  assist  in  realizing  this  high  ideal  the  president 
suggested  the  appointment  by  the  Department  of  two  specialists  who 
should  be  peripatetic  teachers  of  psychology  in  its  bearing  on  education. 
As  we  have  as  yet  no  chair  of  education  established  in  any  one  of  our 
university  colleges,  this  suggestion  ought  to  meet  with  favor. 

When  the  council  got  to  work  there  was  an  animated  discussion  on 
the  question  of  teaching  temperance  in  our  schools.  The  subject  is  not 
laid  down  in  our  code  or  syllabus  of  instruction,  but  the  department  has 
allowed  Dr.  Richardson's  Temperance  Lesson  Book  and  First  Lessons 
in  Temperance  to  be  placed  on  the  list  of  permissible  readings-books, 
and  some  of  the  Boards  in  the  colony  have  prescribed  its  use  in  their 
particular  districts.  Some  teachers  argued  that  the  introduction  of  the 
book  was  inconsistent  with  the  spirit  of  the  education  act,  and  others 
asserted  that  the  book  was  unfit  for  its  purpose.      It  was  ultimately 


1889.]  FOREIGN  NOTES.  631 

agreed  to  ask  the  Minister  of  Education  to  remove  the  list  of  books, 
many  members,  however,  avowing  their  sympathy  with  the  temperance 
cause,  and  all  either  tacitly  or  openly  declaring  their  anxiety  that  the 
great  virtue  of  self-control  should  in  every  way  possible  be  enforced 
upon  the  scholars  of  the  country.  A  most  interesting  debate  took  place 
on  the  subject  of  technical  education,  one  speaker  distinguishing  very 
clearly  the  various  phases  of  this  pressingly  important  subject.  A  large 
majority  felt  that  the  secondary  school  and  the  night  or  continuance 
school  were  the  places  in  which  this  phase  of  education  could  be  most 
successfully  prosecuted.  Several  teachers  related  their  experience  of 
carpentry  classes  in  connection  with  the  schools,  but  afler  school  hours. 
Very  few  seemed  to  realize  what  I  see  is  so  largely  done  in  America, 
that  much  can  be  done  during  school  hours  to  give  deftness  of  hand  and 
a  bias  towards  manual  work.  This  clearly  can  be  done  because  many 
of  your  teachers  are  doing  it,  and  I  trust  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when 
the  teachers  of  this  colony  will  rise  to  your  high  level.  Our  country  is 
just  the  one  where  manual  training  is  most  wanted,  for  our  land  is  good 
and  our  minerals  are  both  varied  and  plentiful.  There  is  one  way  in 
which  an  impetus  will  be  given  to  this  matter  of  hand-training.  While 
the  council  declined  to  ask  the  Minister  of  Education  to  give  pound  for 
pound  to  establish  and  maintain  schools  of  design,  the  Minister  himself 
at  a  subsequent  interview  actually  promised  to  do  his  utmost  to  secure 
this  result.  He  purposes  bringing  a  bill  into  Parliament  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  the  proposal  is  pretty  sure  to  be  entertained  and  acted  upon. 
This  is  one  step  in  advance  towards  a  most  desirable  reform  in  our  ed- 
ucational work. 

The  teachers  of  the  colony,  as  represented  by  the  action  of  their  dele- 
gates, have  now  made  a  step  forward  towards  centralization.  At  pres- 
ent the  Boards,  thirteen  in  number,  have  the  appointment  and  control 
of  our  inspectors.  In  some  cases  there  is  but  one  inspector ;  in  others 
two,  and  in  three  cases  three  inspectors  under  each  Board.  Of  course 
the  little  sets  under  each  Board  work  in  concert,  but  there  is  never  any 
conference  of  the  inspectors  as  a  whole.  This  system  is  now  working 
so  badly  that  the  teachers  have  resolved  to  ask  the  Minister  of  Educa- 
tion to  place  all  these  inspectors  under  the  Department.  By  so  doing 
it  is  felt  that  greater  uniformity  of  action  will  be  secured.  At  present 
both  the  code  and  regulations  are  interpreted  differently.  Each  in- 
spector follows  his  own  sweet  will.  There  was  absolute  unanimity  in 
wishing  for  a  change,  and  as  the  proposal  meets  the  views  of  the  Minis- 
ter of  Education  we  may  expect  to  see  it  carried  out  at  no  distant  date. 

An  interesting  feature  of  the  late  meeting  was  the  appointment  of  a 
committee  to  wait  on  the  Minister  of  Education  before  whom  the  most 
important  points  of  the  business  could  be  at  once  brought.     This  was 


BlfCCATIO.V. 


Ht;. 


accordingly  6imc  and  with  mod  satufitctory  rotilts.  The  Minister  u 
(incc  said  that  the  withes  of  the  council  as  to  placing  the  iiuptcton  un- 
der central  control,  as  to  drawing  being  made  a  class  inMead  ct  tpcu 
sutiiect,  and  as  to  the  enlargement  of  areaa  in  which  committHS  *rt 
now  elecied  should  receive  hi»  full  sanction,  and  he  would  use  bisbeS 
elfort!)  ('■  get  ihr-«  matters  made  the  Uw  of  the  land. 

The  Educational  Institute  of  New  Zealand  is  DO«r  an  assured  success, 
and  its  influence  l>oth  over  the  Department  and  the  public  at  Urge  on 
har<llv  be  overestimated. 

Thomas  Flaiel. 


JillSLlOGRAPIir  OF   CLRREXT  PERIODICAL   LIT- 
ERA  TL'RE    L  'POX  ED  L  'CA  T/OX. 


Till-  tiillowlrn  lilbllomphy  of  cum 
«(lucitIloii  ami  uUicr  nbJecM  calcalkto 
oilli'iili  not  niimlnsIlT  wlucktlonal  >» 
tviuliiTit  ■rlll.M  ■  rule.  1>«  mrntloiieil  la  noi 

.\f[>-«il<>uii.  Thoiun*  D.  .Sevniour. 
<-fl-i«(.i»yM«H.  .Vprll. 

Atciiootieioiii :  A  Rejoinder.  Pro- 
(p"..T  lluxlcy.  Sin'lMnth  Cfntnrg, 
Ajiril. 

AiciiuHtki*))!.  "liiwmnllv-  AKnoRtl- 
cl-iii."  W.  H.  MulliH-k.  F-'rtnighllt 
JlTi'-r.  Ai)ril. 

.\Kii<»ll«:l'i">  Pri)f«'ii«or  Huxlfj-  Bnd. 
]{.  (i.  [li«*Ti'oll.  .\orth  Am>-rk'iH  Ht- 
vi'"-.  A|irll. 

AicDculiun-.  ■'in  an  .\griiultiir»i 
Dfimi'tiiii'Ut  ilmlrahlRf"  Itowlaiiil  E. 
I'r<>ili'-r<>.     \in-f'nth  CrMnrg.   April. 

Ami-rWit  Ni'w  I'reslilcnt .'  Wliy  und 
Jlow  he  wnn  Kl<i-t<-d.     lii-orK^  Brooks. 


iV-» 


r  rt.r 


■.  A[.ri 


.  Lilly. 


VW   Kilik' 
/WiiiH,  A|irll. 

At-aHxIiiHtion,  Ih-tiire  llie.  Ilnrrlet 
Wuti-m  rrei-nm.     Atlantic^  April. 

A  If  11  lit pne  of  t'U-oru's  Hie. 

Aitoinilta.  IMiKion  and  MornM  hi. 
K.  *V.  lIuJR.  iUintewii'irnry  Jlerieic, 
AjJrll. 

Itut'in.  )>I<1  ItfD  Jimooti  Write  Ba- 
ci.rr*  Wurks!'   AITn-d  W.iilesi.    Shni-fg- 


John  il.  l: 
Ad  ■■  ii| 
lt<»ik<. 


ril. 
■  Thi-     fniv. 


ij<h. 


■Olid  Sheir  of  <m 
..  Mrs.  Jumts  T.  VWUU.  Scrib- 
At>riL 

k«,     Notk'CHlile  Books.      W.  K. 
tone,  et   ul.     Xinflpenth  Ceiitiiri), 


I  pertcMlleal  lltermiore  iDclnde*  krtl«l«  iva 

o  la(cr«*t  icAclker*.    Only  article*  Mm  pal 

A  rtlcia*  oT  •perlaU  ImparuDa  ta 


BostuD,  The  Po«sibte.     E.  E.  Hik. 
Lrnd  a  HaRit,  April. 
Bniln,  The  Double.     H.  Msodtier. 

»N.I,  April. 

BralD-Power  of  Plants.  The.  A. 
Smith.     Xati'tnal  Rrvi*ui.  April. 

BrowDlDK.  Elizabeth  Barrrtt.  lntr 
diiH  Quartrrlif  Brrietc,  AprU. 

A  revlfu-  of  lajcraui'A  Mognphr 
ul  Mrs.  Browninj;. 

Bryee'*  .\mpricitii  rommoDiraltli- 
tt'fftmimler  Rerieic,  April. 

BulTon  «•[  Dxrwin.  J.  de  LanaH- 
SBD.     Smut  .ScienH^i/iie.  Man'h  30. 

Capital.  "  The  Poattive  Theon-  o( 
Capital. "  ■lames  Bonar.  Qmaiierit 
Journal  of  Er.»Ho«iiet.  April- 

Ad  extended  review  of  ProfeMW 
&ibm-Bairerk'B  book  ol  the  same  ti- 
He. 

Chemical  ElenieDta,  The.  Jociab  P. 
Cooke.     F^ular  Science  MontUf,  Apr. 

CheBR,  In  PralM  of.  Robert  ijhlnd- 
litr.     QrntUmaK'a  Maffozimt,  April. 

Chlldrca,  We«k-Da7  Bellgloua  Id- 
HtruuliOD  ol :  An  ExMritnenl.  Fraak 
Foxcrolt.    AitdovfT  Rerifw.  April. 

Chinese.  The  Chinette  Must  Staf- 
Van  Phou  I^ee.  Nortll  Amrrieaa  Bt- 
vieir.  April. 

Christianity  and  the  "Geocentric' 
System.  Edward  A.  Froeinan.  Oaa 
Itmporary  BevleiB,  April. 

Chrlsilaalty  versus  8oclalUm.  ReT 
l.yiuan  Abbott.  A'ortA  ^maieam  Be 
vita,  April. 


1889.] 


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Review,  April. 

Hall4icinations,  Des,  sugg^rees  a  V 
etat  de  veille.  (Suite  et  fin.)  Emile 
Yong.    Revue  Uypnotisme,  April. 

Hobbes,  Thomas.  Ferdinand  Ton- 
nies.    Deutsche  Rundschau,  April. 

Hunt,  Leigh.  George  Saintsbury. 
Macmillan''s,  April. 

Insane,  Tlie  Care  of  the.  A.  G.  War- 
ner.    Chautauquan^  April. 

Irish  Struggle.  The  American  Strug- 
gle of  the  last  Century,  and  the  Irish 
Struggle  of  Todny  :  A  Comparison. 
Westminster  Review,  April. 

A  suggestive  comparison. 

Istruzione  secondaria  inlnghilterra. 
Collegio  di  Eton.  R.  Bonghi.  Nuova 
Antologia,  March  1. 

Japan,  High  Schools  and  Colleges 
in.    Rev.  C.  S.  Eby.     Our  Day,  April. 

Japan  Constitutionnel,  I^.  Auguste 
Moireau.    Revue  Bleue,  March  30. 

An  account  of  Japan's  new  constitu- 
tion. 

Jevons's  '*  Theory  of  Political 
Economy,"  On  certain  Passages  in. 
Philip  H.  Wicksteed.  Quarterly  Jour- 
nal of  Economics,  April. 

Josephine's  Garden,  In.  Gail  Ham- 
ilton.   North  American  Review,  April. 

Kalevala,  The.  James  T.  Bixby. 
Unitarian  Review.  April. 

An  account  of  the  great  Finland 
epic  recently  translated  by  Mr.  Craw- 
ford. 

Kant.  Note  critique  sur  la  primaut^ 
de  la  raison  pratique  selon  Kant.  A. 
Fouillee.    Revue  Philosophique,  April. 

Kant.  Zu  dem  R.  Seydelschen  Auf- 
satz:  ^^Kant^s  syuthetische  Urteile 
a  priori,*^  etc.  Ludwig  Fischer.  Zeit- 
schrift fiir  PhUosophie,  H.  1. 

Keller,  Helen.  Mrs.  Bernard  Whit- 
man.   Lend  a  Hand,  April. 

Another  interesting  account  of  this 
remarkable  child. 

Lamennais,  La  philosophie  de.  III. 
Lamennais  metaphysicien  et  esthet- 
icien.  Paul  Janet.  Revue  des  Deux 
Mondes,  March  15. 

Law  School  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  The.  C.  Stuart  Patter- 
son.    The  Ghreen  Bag,  March. 

Macbeth,  Considered  as  a  Celt.  J. 
D.  Montgomery.  National  Review, 
April. 

Married  Women:  An  Historical 
Sketch.  R.  M.  Minton-Senhouse. 
Westminster  Review,  April. 


6S4 


EDUCATION. 


[M«j, 


Martial,  der  r5iiili»ch^  Eplgrnminen- 
dichter.  C.  IlUbner.  DeuUche  Buml- 
ichau^  April. 

Mental  Association  investigated  bv 
Experiment.  J.  McK.  Cattell,  et  al. 
Mind,  April. 

Gires  the  results  of  long  series  of 
experiments. 

Mind.  The  Derivatire  Origin  of  the 
Human  Mind.  G.  J.  Romanes.  Popu- 
lar Science  Monthly,  April. 

From  the  author's  recent  book  on 
''  Mental  Evolution  in  Man.** 

Morals.  Shall  the  Common  Schools 
teach  Common  Morals?  Joseph  Cook. 
Onr  Day,  April. 

Munroe  I>octrine,  The  Scope  of  the. 
H.  C.  Bunts.     Forum,  April. 

Musset,  Alfred  de.  I.  Arsine 
Houitsaye.    Fortnightly  Beriew,  April. 

O'Connell,  Daniel,  A  few  more 
Words  on.  Sir  Wm.  Gregory.  Nine- 
teenth  Century^  April. 

Oekonomische  Situation,  Die,  und 
die  Wdhaungsfrage.  I.  Dr.  William 
Scharbing. 

Ortheilo,  The  Genesis  of.  II.  SchQtz 
Wilson.    Gentleman* 8  Magazine,  April. 

Pfianzenphonix,  Der.  Dr.  Carl  du 
Pre  I.     Sphinx,  April. 

Photographie,  1^,  au  service  de 
I*  aMtronomie.  K.  Kadau.  Revue  des 
Deux  Mondes,  April  1. 

Physician,  The  Family.  Andrew 
H.  Smith.     Harper's,  April. 

Plants  In  Witchcraft.  T.  F.  Thisel- 
ton  Dyer.  Popular  Science  Monthly, 
April. 

Poet.  What  is  a  Great  Poet?  Ed- 
mund Gosse.     Forum,  April. 

Presidentiiil  Inauguration,  The  First. 
Charles  Carleton  Cuttln.  Chautauquan, 
April. 

ProsH,  Ueber  die  nouere  deutsche. 
G.  Ruiuelln.  Deutsche  Rundschau, 
April. 

l*8ychologie.  I-a  Littcrature  psy- 
chologlquo  nctuelle.  Gabriel  Sarra- 
zin.     youvelle  Revue,  March  15. 

Psychologic.  Le  plalsir  du  mouve- 
ment.  P.  Souriau.  Revue  Scienti/ique, 
March  23. 

Public  School  Papers.  F.  Edward 
IlulniP.     Genthman's  Magazine^  April. 

An  interesting  account  of  English 
student  newspapers. 

Public  Schools  and  Religion,  The. 
Wm.  Elliot  GrilHs.  Andover  Review, 
April. 

Public  Schools,  Cardinal  Manning 
and.  Prof.  G.  P.  Fisher.   Forwm, April. 

An  able  answer  to  Cardinal  Man- 
ning's recent  article  in  the  Forum. 


Railroad  Strikes,  Tli«  Preveotioitof. 
Charles  Francis  AdAms.  Saribner'i. 
April. 

Revolution,  Sf^ns  of  ImpeodiDf. 
Dr.  Wm.  Barry.     J^brmm.  April. 

RossetU,  Dante  Gkibrlei,  "rae  Pdctiy 
of.  Hamilton  Wright  Mable.  Ando- 
ver Review,  April. 

Savonarola,  l^ndon  Quarieriy  Bt- 
view,  April. 

A  review  of  the  recent  tnuulation  of 
Villari*s  Savonarola. 

Scherer,  Edroond.  £.  Dowdea. 
Fortnightly  Revi^w^  April. 

Si*holattiseheii  Lehrmethode,  Ueber 
den  Ursprunir  und  die  Entwicklung 
der.  Dr.  Jos.  Ant.  Endres.  I%iUh 
sophiseheM  Jahrbuch^  H.  1. 

8i*ience  and  ^^  Christian  Science.'' 
Freder ik  A .  Fernald .  Pbpuiar  Sciencs 
Monthly,  April. 

Reports  many  interesting  facts. 

Science  Students.  Why  our  Science 
Students  go  to  Grermany.  Sainnel 
Sheldon.    Atlantic^  April. 

Scottish  Universltlep^  Parliameot 
and  the.     WeMminUer  Review,  April. 

Shakespeare  in  Somerset.  £.  H. 
Plumptre.  Contemparrtrp  Review,  Apr. 

Shakespeare's  En^plish  King^.  Wal- 
ter Pater.    Scribner^m,  April. 

Social  Economics.  I.  'Hie  Outline 
of  an  Elective  Course  of  Study.  Pro- 
fessor Tucker.     Andover  Review,  Apr. 

Social  Ills,  Remedies  for.  Edward 
Atkinson.    Forum^  '^BT''* 

Sonnet  in  America,  The.  W.  Sharp. 
XaHonal  Review,  April. 

Special  Correspondent,  The  First. 
Paul  Sylvester.    NationAi  Review,  Apr. 

An  account  of  Melchlor  Grimm. 

Spelling.  A  Way  to  Teach  English 
Spelling.  Dr.  Thomas  Hill,  /bnm, 
April. 

Spiritualism,  The  Psychology  of. 
Joseph  Jastrow.  P^uiar  Sdemce 
Monthly,  April. 

An  interesting  article. 

Student  Life  in  Paris.  F.  M.  War- 
ren.    Chautauqnan,  April. 

Suggestion,  Quelques  remarquea  sur 
la.  Auguste  Forel.  Hevue  JS^mo- 
tisme,  April. 

Swedenborg^an  View  of  tlie  Prob- 
lem of  Philosophy,  A.  W.  Denooao. 
Mind,  April. 

Tariff  Question,  Some  Aspects  ol 
the.  F.  W.  Taussig.  Quarieriy  Jour- 
nal of  Economics,  April. 

Travail.  I^a  reglementation  du  trav- 
ail industriel  en  Autriche.  IV.  Lc 
travail  des  enfants  et   des-  femmes. 


1889.] 


AMONG  THE  BOOKS. 


636 


Victor  Brants.  La  B^forme  Sociale^ 
March. 

Truth.  Some  Kinds  of  Necessary 
Truth  (II).    L.  Stephen.    Mind^  Apr. 

Vice,  Success  in  the  Suppression  of. 
Bev.  John  Hali  and  Chauncey  M.  De- 
pew.     Our  Day^  April. 

Vision  mentale,  La.  A.  Binet.  Be- 
vue  PhUosophique^  April. 

Washington  at  Mount  Vernon  after 
the  Revolution.  Mrs.  Burton  Harri- 
son.    Century^  Aprii. 

Washington  in  New  Yorlc  in  1789. 
Mr8.  Burton  Harrison,  Century^  April. 

Washinirton,  The  Inauguration  of. 
Clarence  Wlnthrop  Bowen.  Century^ 
April. 

Washingtonland,  Footprints  in. 
Moncure  D.  Ck>nway.    iJarper*«,  Apr. 

Washington's  Inauguration.  John 
Bach  McMaster.    Harper's^  April. 


White  Minorities.  Shall  White  Mi- 
norities Rule?  Albion  W.  Tourgde. 
Forum^  April. 

Woman,  The  Apple  and  the  Ego  of. 
Westminster  Bevieto^  April. 

Women  as  Social  Reformers.  F.  M. 
Foster.    Natiotial  Beview^  April. 

Women^s  Clubs  in  Tendon.  Susan 
Hayes  Ward.    ChatOauquan^  April. 

Women's  Suffrage  Bill,  The:  I. 
The  Enfrancisement  of  Women.  Mil- 
llcent  Garrett  Fawcett.  II.  ITie  Pro- 
posed Subjection  of  Men.  J.  S.  Stuart 
Glennie.    Fortnightly  Beview^  April. 

Wundt*s  Ethik.  Eduard  von  Hart- 
niann.  ZeUschrift  fur  Philosophies 
H.  1. 

Zoological  Gardens:  Their  Uses 
and  Management.  R.  W.  Shufeldt. 
Popular  Science  Monthly^  April. 


AMONG    THE  BOOKS. 


Narrative  and  Critical  History  of  America.  Edited  by  Justin  WInsor. 
Librarian  of  Harvard  College.  Vol.  I.  Aboriginal  America.  Illustrated, 
Cloth,  $5.50  per  volume.    Boston  and  New  York :    Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

Six  volumes  of  this  remarkable  work  have  already  appeared.  This  first  vol- 
ume has  been  delayed  to  secure  certain  material  which  seemed  desirable  for 
such  a  work.  It  contains  470  large  octavo  pages,  and  is  devoted  wholly  to  the 
consideration  of  ^*  Aboriginal  America,*'  or  this  continent  as  it  was  before 
Columbus  first  saw  land  on  that  memorable  day  In  1492.  It  treats  of  such  sub- 
jects as  ^^The  Geographical  Knowledge  of  the  Ancients  Considered  In  Relation 
to  the  Discovery  of  America/'  '^  Pre-Colnmbian  Explorations/*  '^  Mexico  and 
Central  America,** ''  llie  Inca  Civilization  In  Peru,*'  ^'  The  Red  Indian  of  North 
America  In  Contact  with  the  French  and  English,**  ^^  The  Prehistoric  Archaeol- 
ogy of  North  America.**  Besides  these  six  chapters  the  book  contains  an 
Introduction  written  by  the  editor.  Part  I.  ^'  Americana  in  Libraries  and  Bib- 
liographies.** Part  II.  '^  Early  Description  of  America,  and  Collective  Ac- 
counts of  the  Early  Voyages  thereto,**  also  an  appendix  by  the  editor. 
Appended  to  most  of  the  chapters  are  critical  essays  and  editorial  notes  of 
great  value.  Illustrations  and  maps  are  numerous  throughout  the  work, 
are  of  incalculable  value  in  throwing  light  upon  the  discussions,  and  give  much 
satisfaction  to  the  historical  student. 

There  has  been  a  vast  amount  of  research  into  the  Pre-Columbus  history  of 
America  within  a  few  years  past,  and  much  light  has  been  thrown  npon  the 
subject.  This  volume,  which  forms  the  initial  namber  of  the  fullest  and  best 
history  of  the  New  World,  contains  the  results  of  the  latest  and  most  exhaust- 
ive research  into  all  that  relates  to  the  subject.  It  Is  profound,  exhaustive, 
reliable,  interesting,  and  valnable.  One  more  volume,  the  eighth,  will  com- 
plete the  work.    This  will  be  published  within  two  or  three  months. 


636  KDVCATION.  [ll»j. 

Ol'ti.inf^  or  rmvERSAL  History.     In  Three  Parts.     DeMljcDed  *■  a  Textbook 
■Dd  ror  Private  Rendlnfc-    By  Georee  Park  Fliher,  D.  D..  LL.  D.,  Profwur 
Id  Ynle  Cullege.     New  York  and  Cblcajj^:     Ivicon,  Blakeiuan  A  Co. 
Part  I.     Ancient  Illgtory .     Part  II.     Uedieval  History.      Part  III.     Hodern 
Hlsiory. 

'■Ills  excellent  history  series,  that  U  becomlnf;  so  popular,  presents  ttieetKo- 
tial  tacts  ol  history  Id  due  order,  and  Id  coaformitjr  to  the  best  and  lateM 
reaearclies.  It  polots  out  clearly  the  coDuectlon  of  ev^nla  and  of  siwceMiTC 
eras  with  one  sDolher ;  it  relieves  the  drynesg  ot  a  mere  summary  by  the  inter- 
est Hwakenml  by  the  natural  unforced  view  (falned  br  thU  unity  of  history,  tod 
liy  fui'h  llliiHtrHtivo  Incldenta  H!>  the  brevity  of  the  narrative  allows  to  be  wnwffat 
Into  It.  it  li  free  from  sect;irlHD  pHrtlallcy,  sad  IIihICb  itself  to  well-estabiuiied 
Judguients  and  ciincluAions  on  all  matters  subject  to  party  contention.  Hostof 
the  historical  msps,  lo  IliuBtrute  the  text  of  the  Ancient  UiPtory,  havetnta 
enjcraved  from  dniwlnji^s  after  Spruner,  Putiger,  Kreeroan,  etc.  These  nnpi 
are  numerous  and  of  the  utmost  Importanee  to  a  full  knowledge  of  this  moit 
Intereatini;  and  uxeful  study.  The  growlDf;  popularity  of  this  series  is  owing 
to  lis  great  worth,  especially  to  Its  accuracy,  fairness,  candor,  and  trustworthi- 


Coll£(;e  Botanv.    By  VAmn  ».  Bustin.    Chicago:    G.  P.  Engethard.    1S81- 

If  we  must  have  additional  textbooks  of  bouay,  and  at  present  the  tendency 
appears  to  be  In  that  direction,  it  is  a  satisfaction  to  have  them  food.  Tbe 
publishers  certainly  have  done  their  part  in  providing  superior  paper  aod  type. 
The  author  we  think  has  equally  well  discharged  his  duty.  This  is  a  second 
edition,  revised  and  improved.  It  liluatraies  one  of  the  stgaa  of  the  times.  We 
find  Id  it  —  as  well  as  Id  several  recent  re-lasues  of  laboratory  guides  —  adii- 
tinct  stHtement  that  it  Is  well  to  proceed  "  from  the  known  to  the  uokaowD." 
Our  OWD  faith  has  never  been  shaken  In  this  regard.  What  is  easy  and  logical 
tor  the  trained  observer  is  often  difficult  and  UDressonable  to  a  beglDoer. 
Hence,  we  find  our  author  adopting  the  old  plans  familiar  lo  Gray's  Lesson* 
and  Textbook. 

Part  1.  treats  of  Organography,  and  the  course  Is  from  Root  up  to  Seed. 

Part  II.  relates  to  Vegetable  Histology,  aDd  proceeds  from  simple  cells  to 
complex  tissues.  In  this  part,  also,  there  Is  a  useful  appendix  In  regard  to  the 
use  of  the  microscope. 

Part  HI.  treats  of  Vegetable  Physiology. 

Part  IV.,  of  Taxonomy,  or  Clasaificatjon.  We  shall  be  surprised  If  this  part 
of  the  book  escapes  criticism.  But  the  author  has  the  satUfactlou  ot  knowing 
that  any  system  he  could  have  adopted  would  be  as  a  red  rag  to  the  critics.  As 
loDg  as  nolhlng  seems  well  established,  there  will  be  this  gaerrllla  warfare. 
We  must  wait  sometime  yet  for  a  general  and  equitable  peace. 

The  lliuslratiuns  seem  well  choscD  aod  clearly  defined. 

HoMKH's  Oi)VSSEr.    Books  I.- 

Collcge,  ClcvelHnd.     Boston  : 

jiaper,  91.10;  text  separate,  2(1  cents. 

Tills  work  Is  bused  on  the  edltlou  of  Auiels-Hentze  and  belongs  to  the  College 
Series  ot  Greek  Autiiors.  The  German  edition  has  been  freely  changed  to 
adapt  it  to  the  needs  of  .American  college  classes,  but  record  is  made  in  the 
appendix  of  all  Important  deviations  from  the  opinions  ot  the  Oermai 
The  Qotes  are  particularly  full  and  numerous,    ftlqch  attention  1|a«  bepo  p 


1889.]  AMOKQ  THE  BOOKS.  637 

to  the  indication  or  citation  of  '*  iterati,''  conventional  phrases,  and  metrical 
^^  formulae.**  The  book  is  very  attractive  in  appearance,  Mrith  large,  clear  type, 
and  good  paper,  as  are  all  the  volumes  of  this  series. 

The  Household  History  op  the  United  States  and  its  People  for  Young 
Americans.  By  Edward  Eggieston.  New  York:  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
Pp.  396. 

This  valuable  history  is  published  in  two  forms :  a  school  edition  with  ques- 
tions, blackboard  illustrations,  geographical  studies,  and  other  apparatus  for 
the  use  of  the  teacher,  and  a  *^  household  edition  **  in  which  the  questions,  etc., 
are  omitted,  and  the  text  enlarged,  with  additional  illustrations  and  embellish- 
ments. The  history  is  one  of  general  accuracy,  fullness,  fairness,  and  interest, 
llie  various  subjects  are  treated  with  sufficient  brevity  to  avoid  being  volumi- 
nous, and  yet  the  history  is  clearly  and  fully  given.  The  style  is  highly  inter- 
esting, bright,  and  vivacious,  the  number  of  Incidents  and  stories  helping  greatly 
in  this  respect.  This  ^'  household  edition ''  is  full  of  illustrations  of  ancient 
houses,  places,  customs,  scenes,  and  noted  persons.  The  dress  of  difTerent 
nationalities  during  the  various  periods  covered  by  this  history  is  graphically 
pictured  and  illustrated.  Maps  of  the  different  historical  places  during  the 
period  of  their  fame,  are  numerous  and  good.  Several  colored  pages  showing 
the  uniforms  of  the  various  officers  and  troops  in  the  war,  are  inserted.  Par- 
ticular mention  should  be  made  of  the  great  number  of  excellent  pictures  of 
noted  and  famous  men  of  American  history.  A  long  and  valuable  index  Is  ap- 
pended to  the  work,  adding  greatly  to  its  usefulness  and  convenience.  The 
book  is  printed  in  Iiandsome  type,  on  excellent  paper,  and  Is  a  great  credit  to 
its  publishers,  and  will  be  a  beautiful  as  well  as  a  most  useful  and  valuable  ad- 
dition to  any  library. 

Hygienic  Physiology.  With  Special  Reference  to  the  use  of  Alcoholic  Drinks 
and  Narcotics,  being  a  revised  edition  of  the  Fourteen  Weeks  in  Human 
Physiology.  By  Joel  Dorman  Steele,  Ph.  D.  Enlarged  edition  with  selected 
readings.    New  York :    A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co.    Price,  $1.00. 

This  excellent  work  belongs  to  the  Pathfinder  Series  of  temperance  physiolo- 
gies, prepared  under  the  supervision  of  the  department  of  scientific  instruction 
of  the  Woman*s  Christian  Temperance  Union  of  the  United  States,  with  special 
reference  to  the  instruction  to  be  given  under  the  recent  temperance  legislation 
obtained  in  the  various  states  through  the  infiuence  of  Mrs.  Hunt  and  her  col- 
leagues. The  work  contains  all  the  excellent  and  popular  features  that  have 
given  Doctor  Steele^s  Science  Series  so  wide  a  circulation.  Among  them  are 
the  following :  Colored  lithographs,  blackboard  analysis,  practical  questions 
at  the  close  of  each  chapter,  and  carefully  prepared  seleotions  upon  the  physio- 
logical action  of  alcohol,  tobacco,  opium,  etc. 

Elements  of  Composition  and  Grammar.  By  Gtordon  A.  Southworth,  Mas- 
ter of  the  Prescott  School,  Somervllle,  Mass.,  and  F.  B.  Goddard,  Ph.  D., 
(Harvard).    Boston:    Leach,  Shewell  &  Sanborn. 

As  its  title  implies,  the  design  of  this  book  Is  twofold:  (1)  to  provide  for 

children  such  training  In  the  ready  use  of  good  English,  as  they  can  never  get 

by  the  study  of  grammar  alone ;  and  (2)  to  teach  them  the  essential  facts 

regarding  the  structure  of  sentences,  and  the  kinds,  forms,  and  uses  of  words. 

Material  for  this  training  is  given  in  abundance  and  variety  in  the  first  nine 

chapters,  while  the  rest  of  the  book  presents  the  grammar  of  the  language  so 

thoroughly  as  to  be  intelligible  to  children.    The  book  is  the  work  of  practical 


MS  XDUCAnOir.  (Haj, 

toachen,  kod  ftrew  oat  of  the  best  work  In  the  Mboolroom.      It  doMncalht 
mottckreful  ■tt«D(ioD  Irom  ■]!  te«Gh«n  of  tbta  ImpurtKBt  Mil^ecC 

Stdoirs  in  Civics.  By  J.  T.  HcCle«rv,  Htiikato  State  Norouil  Scbod.  8L 
Paul,  Hluii.:  U.  D.  Merrill,  Publliber.  Pp.Sm.  latrodaoUoB  fMlee,  ll.lt. 
ThU  book  ii  deii)(ned  to  flU  the  demand  tor  a  practlail  work  en  Clvln  appn- 
prlal«  to  place  In  tbe  hand*  at  pupils.  It  la  not  limply  a  referonev  tMok  tnm 
whiubteacben  can  cull  thouglita  upon  government,  although  It  ctetoa  la eift- 
tain  more  actual  Infurmatlon  than  other  work*  on  vlvii  gowetamtmt.  The 
thought  conttantly  In  mind  in  the  preparation  of  the  book  wms  to  fnmWi  Me- 
ful  materlul  In  a  uwMp  form.  The  work  is  not  intended  aa  an  oSoe-faoUtr^ 
manuHl.  or  on  sn  ttlemeotarf  treatise  on  law,  but  that  atadenu  nuj,  by  Ita  Mp, 
get  sn  Insight  into  the  way  In  wbkh  public  bnslneas  la  oanied  on.  and  nteh 
something  of  the  spirit  of  law.  It  Is  cordlallj  commended  to  tbe  attentloa  wt 
all  wbo  huve  nny  interest  In  the  snbject. 

Sticknev's  Rkaiiers.    By  J.  H.  Stickney,  author  of  "The  Chlld'a  Book  of 

Lsoguugv,"  "  Ijetters  and  T^ssoni  In  Language,"  etc.     Boeton :    QIbb  AOd. 

Siinie  of  [he  good  points  of  this  most  axuellent  series  of  Header*,  are  that 
they  are  bs^ed  on  the  right  Idea  Of  what  a  reading-book  ahonld  be,  tbey  icean 
the  best  restiitiat  the  least  expense  of  time  and  etfbrt.  Mid  thej  iuoiilcAte  a  Ion 
of  reading.  'Vhej  are  the  fnilt  of  many  years  of  anoceaatal  experlsDoe,  thay 
supply  reading- matter  enough  so  that  no  supplenxotarj  aetien  la  iiu  leisij. 
and  they  have  been  adopted  by  many  large  citlea. 

1.  A  FiHST  ItKAUKB.  The  type  is  large  and  clear,  the  Illustratlona  nnmer- 
ous  and  excellent,  the  gmding  good,  the  style  bright  and  vlvmcloaa.  Intradw- 
tory  price,  21  (.-ents;  mailing  price,  30  cents.    Pp.  103. 

3.  A  Second  Keadkr.  The  selections  are  wholesome  In  tone  and  w«U  writ- 
ten.   Introduvtory  price,  S2  eents ;  mailing  price,  40  cents.    Pp.  188. 

3.  A  TiiiKi)  Keadkk.  Stories  continued  through  aereral  leSMms  an  ooca. 
slonally  Introduced  to  prepare  tor  the  reading  ot  books.  Introdnctorr  prioe, 
40  cents ;  mulling  price,  fiO  cents.    Pp.  US. 

4.  A  Foi'UTii  Reaiiek.  The  selecUoaa  in  this  Header  are  mainly  lltaaryli 
chanwler.  and  are  selected  with  exquisite  taste.  They  are  In  tbe  aarrath* 
style,  whlfh  ntakes  uttmctlve  reading.  The  type  is  excellent,  the  lllnatnitlms 
flttliig,  the  paper  good,  and  the  binding  neat  and  strong.  Introdactory  price, 
60  cents ;  mailing  price,  00  cents.  Pp.  36^.  Altogether,  one  ot  tbe  moat  at- 
tractive series  ot  Readers.    They  deserve  a  wide  use. 

What  WoKits  Sat.  A  practical  Analysis  of  Words  tor  Use  In  Eletnentan 
Schools.  By  John  Kennedy,  New  ^nrk:  Kennedy  A  Co.,  PnblIabeT«,H 
PHrk  Row.    Price,  3i>  cents. 

The  true  scholar  always  wishes  to  get  to  the  bottom  ot  whateTer  atady  be  li 
interested  In.  The  etymologist  goes  back  to  the  Latin  and  Greek,  to  the  H» 
brew  and  Sanskrit.  To  go  to  the  bottom  of  any  subject  tbe  scholar  tnnat  kaow 
the  meaning  of  words.  To  tbe  classical  scholar,  words  Dieao  •otnetUng' 
They  mean  what  they  "  say."  Those  who  have  bad  the  advantage  of  a  collwi 
course  can  obtain  tl)c  meaning  from  the  derivation  ot  the  wordltaelt,  Buttoi 
those  who  bave  not  had  that  advantage,  It  Is  fortunate  that  there  la  a  iray  ol 
getting  at  the  exact  significance  of  words  without  a  knowledge  of  Latin  aai 
Greek.  In  this  work  Mr.  Kennedy  has  so  classified  and  arranged  tbe  wof^ai 
to  make  It  an  easy  and  Interesting  study.    He  has  made  tbe  worda  apaak  IM 


18890  AMONG  THE  BOOKS.  639 

themselves.  Uoder  his  treatment,  words  are  no  longer  mere  arbitrary  signs, 
but  stand  out  full  of  vigorous  life.  The  work  is  adapted  for  the  teacher  or 
scholar,  and  no  teacher  should  be  without  it. 

Hints  for  Teachers  op  Physiology.  No.  XIV.  Guides  for  Science  Teach- 
ing.   Boston :    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.    Price,  25  cents. 

These  helps  for  Science  Teaching  are  very  much  in  demand. 

Civil  Service  Help  Manual.  Ten  Weeks'  Course  of  Study.  By  Seymour 
Eaton.     Boston :    Seymour  Eaton,  Publisher,  50  Bromfleld  Street. 

This  help  manual  is  intended  for  the  use  of  young  persons  who  desire  to  enter 

the  Civil  Service  of  the  United  States,  as  an  aid  in  the  preparation  for  the 

examination.     It  contains  an  ^^  Epitome  of  Revised  Civil  Service  Rules,''  '^  Ten 

Weeks'  Course  of  Study,"  and  "  How  to  Write  a  Good  Business  Letter."    It  is 

having  an  immense  sale. 

A  Laboratory  Guide  in  Chemical  Analysis.  By  David  O'Brine,  E.  M., 
M.  D.,  D.  Sc.,  Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Geology  in  Colorado  State  Agri- 
cultural College,  Chemist  of  the  Experiment  Station.  Second  Edition.  En- 
tirely re-wrltten  and  revised.    New  York:    John  Wiley  &  Sons. 

This  volume  is  intended  for  the  use  of  students  who  possess  some  knowledge 
of  Chemistry.  I'he  object  is  to  present  a  practical  guide  in  Chemistry  adapted 
to  the  wants  of  the  college  or  the  medical  laboratory.  This  second  edition  has 
been  entirely  re-written,  and  Is  practically  a  new  book.  The  chapter  on  re- 
agents has  been  extended,  so  that  It  occupies  nearly  four  times  the  original 
space.  The  uses,  impurities,  and  tests  for  each  re-agent  have  been  added.  The 
tests  in  the  dry  way  have  been  doubled,  and  are  now  presented  in  a  more  sys- 
tematic form.  Chapter  V.  is  entirely  new.  The  second  edition  will  be  found 
to  be  of  even  more  value  than  was  the  first. 

The  School  Hymnary.  Compiled  and  arranged  bv  Joseph  A.  Graves,  Ph.  D. 
New  York :    Charles  E.  Merrill  &  Co.    Price,  50  cents. 

A  collection  of  hymns  and  tunes  and  patriotic  songs  for  use  in  public  and  pri- 
vate schools.  The  hymns  are  entirely  unsectarlan,  and  are  believed  to  be 
adapted  both  in  word  and  thought  to  the  purpose  of  worship  In  song.  Among 
the  patriotic  songs  have  t>een  included  the  more  popular  and  widely  known 
national  antliems,  together  with  some  pieces  that  are  less  familiar. 

King's  Daughters'  Diary.  A  journal  of  Religious  Themes,  Meditations  and 
incidents.  By  Adeline  B.  Avery  and  Julie  E.  Finch.  Philadelphia:  Chris- 
topher Sower  Company,  Publishers,  614  Arch  Street.    Pp.  396.    Price,  $1.75. 

This  exquisite  book,  richly  bound  in  royal-purple  cloth,  silk  finish,  orna- 
mented wlih  a  handsome  design  in  gold  and  black,  of  the  five  wise  virgins 
standing  on  the  steps  between  the  polished  columns  of  the  temple,  is  intended 
as  a  help  and  inspiration  to  the  members  of  that  valuable  society,  ^^  The  King^s 
Daughters.*'  The  work  contains  a  beautiful  selection  or  text  for  each  day  of 
the  year,  from  the  Bible,  or  some  Christian  writer,  to  be  prayerfully  read  or 
memorized  and  thought  over.  Below  the  selection  is  a  blank  place  for  the  jot- 
ting down  of  thoughts,  experiences,  resolutions  and  incidents  that  may  be 
found  useful  in  meetings  of  the  Daughters  or  profitable  to  the  writers.  The 
pages  are  fine  writing-paper,  and  a  liberal  space  is  left  for  noting  down  the 
plans  and  thoughts  of  the  day.  The  selections  are  particularly  appropriate 
and  beautiful,  and  all  members  of  this  praiseworthy  organization  should  obtain 
a  copy  of  this  handsome  volume.  At  the  end  of  the  book  are  blank  pages  for 
names  and  addresses,  autographs,  miscellaneous,  etc. 


ft40  EDUCATIOIf.  plif. 

Frkytag*8  die  JouRNALiBTEN.  A  Coiuedj  \u  tovLV  AcU.  A  critical  transia- 
tioD.    Cambridge :    Waterman  A,  Amee. 

In  this  play  the  tranglator  has  given  a  literal  transiatlon  wherever  it  was  cod- 

slstent  with  good  English.    lie  has  made  It  his  chief  aim  never  to  sacrifice 

idiomatic  expression  In  conveying  the  meaning,  to  literal   translation.    Tlie 

comedy  is  a  Germs n  play  of  considerable  merit. 

TiieCiiokal  Book.  Translated  by  Friedrich  Zuehtraann  and  Edwin  L.  Kirt- 
iand.     Boston :    Ginn  &  Co.     1889.    Price,  70  cenU. 

The  Choral  Book  consists  of  ninety  choice  choral  pieces  which  have  proved 
their  quality  by  centuries  of  use  in  the  homes,  schools,  and  churches  of  Ger- 
many. The  tunes  are  unclianged  by  a  single  note,  while  the  hymns  have 
l)eeu  translated  with  religious  fidelity  to  both  sentiment  and  music.  The  matdh 
less  harmonies  of  these  tunes  should  serve  to  establish  the  elevated  musiral 
idea  which  was  possessed  by  the  masters  who  composed  them. 

Profit  Sharing  between  Employer  and  Employee.  A  Study  in  tlie  Evo- 
lution of  the  WHges  System.  By  Nicholas  Paine  Gllman.  Pp.  -100.  Bo«ttoB 
and  New  York; :    Houghton,  Mifilin  &  Co. 

The  literature  of  the  *^  LatK>r  Question ''  has  multiplied  of  late  years  to  t 
remariiable  degree.  The  discussion  which  is  herewith  presented  to  the  public 
evidently  does  not  seek  a  place  among  comprehensive  attempts  at  the  settle- 
ment of  the  ^^  labor  troubles.*'  It  has  been  the  aim  of  the  author  to  gatlier, 
from  all  quarters,  material  of  every  Icind  for  a  work  which  should  present  i 
history  of  Profit  Sharing  at  home  and  abroad,  an  unbiased  treatment  of  the 
results  actually  achieved,  and  a  full  statement  of  the  claims  of  the  system  upon 
the  consideration  of  the  industrial  world.  In  the  introduction  to  the  work  the 
author  gives  a  brief  account  of  ^'  the  Industrial  problem/*  which  is  followed  by 
a  chapter  on  **  Product  Sharing,''  and  another  on  **  Wage  System.'*^  After 
reciting  the  history  of  '^  Profit  Sharing,"  the  results  which  seem  to  the  author 
to  be  Indicated  by  the  whole  body  of  experience  are  summarized.  He  then 
passes  to  the  argument  of  *•*•  Profit  Sharing,*'  as  It  has  shaped  itself  in  his  own 
mind,  after  thorough  study.    The  treatment  Is  clear,  concise  and  logical. 

SE(iUNi>o  I^iBKO  DE  EsPANOL.  Scgun  el  metodo  natural  por  J.  H.  Wormsn, 
A.  M.,  l*h.  1).,  Carlos  Bransby,  A.  M.  New  York:  A.  S.  Barnes  A,  Co. 
Price,  40  cents. 

This  ''  Second  Spanish  Book  "  belongs  to   Worman's  Chautauqua  Language 
lU  Series.    It  Is  designeil  to  follow  the  First  Spanish  Book  of  the  Worman's  Lan- 

>l  giiage  Seri«»9.     In  the  Second  Book  the  student  is  introduced  further  and  fur- 

I J  ther  into  the  domain  of  the  language;  and  yet  the  lessons  are  so  carefully 

graded,  that  the  progross  is  easily  made.  The  lessons  also  cover  a  wide  range 
of  subjects,  and  these  are  such  as  are  most  frequently  talked  about  in  every- 
day life. 


v. 


CAS8KLI/S  National  Library.    No.  157.    Holv  Living.     By  Jeremy  Taylor, 
D.  D.    No.  158.    Timon,  of  Athens.     By  William  Shakespeare. 


1889.]  MAGAZINES  BECEIVED.  641 


MAGAZINES   RECEIVED. 

A  most  excellent  article  ou  *'  Memory  "  by  W.  H.  Bambam,  Pb.  D.,  appears  in  ibe 
A  merican  Journal  of  Ptyckology,  Tbis  article  ffives  a  bistory  of  **  memory  "  and  is  a  credit 
to  tbe  autbor  and  of  great  value  to  tlie  student.  Professor  G.  Stanley  Hall  is  publisbing 
tbis,  a  quarterly  of  great  merit,  wbicb  is  a  great  credit  to  American  science.  Tbe  admir- 
able reviews,  are  of  tbemselves,  wortli  tbe  price  of  the  magazine.    Price  $5.00  a  year, 

single  numbers  $1JW. Most  of  tbe  magazines  for  April  are  fVill  of  tbe  Inauguration 

celebration  and  contemporary  subjects  and  of  persons  living  a  century  ago. Tbe 

Century  devotes  seventy-flve  pages  to  tbese  interesting  subjects.  It  contains  a  large 
number  of  illustrations  of  bistoric  buildings  and  places  and  of  famous  men  of  tbat 

period. Tbe  opening  article  in  Harper'i  Magazine  is  an  article  by  Jobn  Baob  Mc- 

Master,  on  "  Wasbington's  Inaugfuration." Tbe  Magazine  of  American  Hietory  bas  an 

article  by  Mrs.  Lamb,  tbe  editor,  on  "  Wasbtngton  and  some  of  bis  Contemporaries,*'  an 
article  entitled  '*  Reminiscences  of  Wasblngton  City,"  and  also  one.  '*  Washington  on 

Agriculture,"  containing  bis  letters  to  Sir  Jobn  Sinclair. Hamilton  Wrlgbt  Mabie, 

editor  of  tbe  **  Christian  Union,"  bas  contributed  a  "  special  paper,"  "  A  Word  about 

tbe  Small  College."  in  tbe  CoUegian. The  PoUHeal  Science  Quarterly  contains  a  strong 

article  by  Professor  Wooilrow  Wilson,  on  "Bryoe*s  American  Commonwealth." 

F.  W.  Taussig  bas  contributed  an  article  to  tbe  Quarterly  Journal  of  Eeonotniet,  **  Some 

A  spec  s  of  tbe  Tariff  Question." The  Popular  Science  Monthly  for  April  contains  an 

article  on  '*  Agnosticism  "  by  Prof.  Thomas  H.  Huxley. Wm.  Elliot  Griffls,  D.  D.,  bas 

an  article  on  "The  Public  Schools  and  Religion,"  in  the  Andover  Review. The  Forum 

contains  an  article  by  Professor  Flsber  on  "  Cardinal  Manning  and  Public  Schools." 
This  article  is  vigorous  in  style,  logical  in  argument,  and  temperate  in  tone  and  spirit. 
Col.  K.  G.  Ingersoll  bas  as  article  in  tbe  JVorth  American  Review  on  "  Professor  Hux- 
ley and  Agnosticism." Mrs.  James  T.  Fields  bas  contributed  a  particularly  interest- 
ing article  to  Scribner'St  entitled  "A  Second  Shelf  of  Books." ShcppelVi   Modem 

HouttM  contains  some  very  pretty  and  unique  plans  and  illustrations  of  modem  bouses, 
and  much  useful  information  oq  this  subject. Tbe  April  Wide  Awake  bas  a  very  inter- 
esting as  well  as  instructive  article  on  "Raleigh  and  tbe  Potato." Artittic  Japan, K 

Monthly  Journal  of  Arts  and  Industries,  conducted  by  S.  Bing,  220  Fifth  Avenue  and 
Brentano's  publishers,  6  Union  Square,  New  York.  The  American  edition  will  contain 
precisely  the  same  engraved  and  colored  plates  as  are  Issued  for  the  European  edition. 
Each  part  is  issued  in  an  attrative  colored  cover,  varied  monthly,  and  in  addition  to 
Illustrated  text,  will  contain  Ten  Royal  Quarto  Colored  Plates.     Subscription  price, 

$6.00  per  annum. The  School  Timei,  a  Monthly  Journal,  devoted  to  tbe  interests  of 

education  in  Manitoba  and  the  Northwest.  Published  by  tbe  School  Times  Co.,  Winni- 
peg, Manitoba.  The  March  number  of  this  educational  magazine  contains  the  first  part 
of  *'  The  Story  of  a  School,"  by  Professor  Johonnot,  which  seems  to  be  the  beginning 
of  a  most  valuable  serial.    It  contains  much  sound  and  reliable  doctrine  on  tbe  subject 

of  true  education. La  Revue  Ftamcaiee,  Literature,  Art,  Science.    Directeur-Edlteur, 

L.  Boisse.  New  York,  89  West  14th  street,  and  W.  B.  Jenkins,  891  and  858  Sixth  Avenue. 
For  sale  also  at  144  Tremont  street,  Boston.  Carl  Soboenhof.  The  object  of  this  new 
magazine  is  two-fold ;  it  aims  to  offer  to  its  readers  a  great  variety  of  Interesting,  read- 
able matter  from  the  pens  of  tbe  best  French  writers,  and  also  to  explain  the  ssmtax 
and  tbe  niceties  of  the  French  language  by  the  aid  of  corrected  compositions  and 
answers  to  queries  sent  by  its  subscribers.   $2.00  a  year;  20  cents  a  copy. 


64) 


SDUCATIOK. 


llU, 


i 


^if 

p 
k 


PAMPHLETS  RBCEIVEn. 


Prospectus  of  th«  C«otary  Dlotionary,  an  Encyelopwilc  Lteicleon  of  Um  JEngUib  Lh- 
iraaffe,  prepared  under  the  mperlnteodence  of  WUIIam  Dwlg^t  WlilCaey,  Pb.  D  .LL.D, 
ProfeMor  of  CoinparatlTe  Phllolo^  and  Sanskrit  In  Yale  UnWeraltjr.  Pablisbed  liytke 
Century  Co.,  New  York.  These  adranee  sheeU  show  that  the  Century  Oletioaary  It  bolk 
a  dictionary  and  a  condensed  and  usable  encyclopedia.  It  contains  apwanis  of  SN^ 
word«.  It  do4*i*  not  stop  at  mere  definitions  of  wchnIs,  bat  ^soem  Into  partlcalan,  ia4 
fflTes  a  Kreat  deal  of  detalle«l  Information.    It  can  be  booirbt  In  eeetlona  (M  In  nurtcr} 

at  9«A0  eneh,  or  In  volumes  (6  In  number)  at  tlO-OO  or  •ISjOOeaeh. Dedlcatkeor 

School  House  and  Town  Hall,  Bradford,  Mass.,  Aoff.  SB,  1885.  Poem  by  Harrisoo  L 
Chadwlck,  A.  M.  This  poem  is  briirht,  witty,  appropriate,  and  well  done.  It  Is  a  ertdli 
to  the  author  and  to  the  town.    It  Is  hamlsomely  printed  on  irood  paper  In  clear  type. 

Bradford  Academy,  Bradford,  Mass.    CIreular  fbr  HWO-09 Lend  a  Hand.moothly. 

Extra.    March,  ItM.    Lectures  upon  Municipal  Government  and  Reform.    An  abstiwi 

of  Lecturen  dellvere«l  at  the  Old  South  meeting  house  In  Boston Report  of  the  Xs- 

ttonal  Divorce  Reform  Leafuo  for  the  year  ending  Deeember  SI ,  1888. Proeecdii|i 

of  the  I>epartment  of  Superintendence  of  the  National  Sdncatlonsd  AaaoclatlOB  st  Itt 
meeting  in  Washington,  February  14-16,  1888.  —  Topics  and  refereneea  In  PoUtkil 

Kconomy,  VI.  Ilar>-ard  College. Tariff  Leglslatlcm  In  tbe  United  States. ProesM- 

Ings  of  the  Thiriy-fourih  Annual  Meeting  of  the  New  York  State  Aeooclatlon  of  Sebool 

Commissioners  and  Superintendents. First  Biennial  Report  of  tbe  Territorial  Bosid 

of  B<lucation,  and  Nlneteimth  Annual  Report  of  the  Territorial  Superintendent,  Ttfii- 
tory  of  Dakota. —  Industrial  Education  In  the  South,  by  Rot.  A.  I>.  lleyo.  ^— Aneii- 

can  Economic  Assoi*iation.  Branch  Associations  by  E.  W.  Bemla,  Pb.  D, Presideatii 

Annua]  Report  of  Brown  University.    1887-88. Theory  of  Wa^ea,  by  Stuart  Wsod, 

Ph.  I).,  and  PosHibllity  of  a  Scientific  Law  of  Wages  by  J.  B.  Clark.  A.M.,  published  by 

the  American  Kconomio  Association. The  Sstnltary  Conditions  and  Necessities  cf 

SchoolhoutM.'*  and  SchooMlfe.  by  D.  F.  Lincoln,  M.  D. The  History  of  Educattoa  li 

N(»rth  Carolina,  by  Charles  Lee  Smith,  printed  by  the  Burean  of  Edncatlon. —  School 

Laws  of  the  State  of  Vermont,  enacted  by  the  General  Assembly  In  1888. SngUsh  ii 

Secondary  Schools.    Report  of  a  Committee  of  the  Masaaobnaetta  Teachers*  Assods- 

tion The  Technical  School  of  Cinclnnstl.    1888-80.    The  Second  Annual  Catakigae. 

Report  of  Medical  Education,  Medical  Colleges,  and  tbe  Reffolatlon  of  the  PrscHet 

of  Medicine  in  tbe  United  SUtes  and  Canada.    1785-1888. CIrcolar  of  State  Nornsl 

Training  School,  Oswego,  N.  Y. 


H'' 


Qductatior 

DEVOTED  TO  THE    SCIENCE,  ART,  PHILOSOPHY,  AND 

LITERATURE  OF  EDUCATION. 


Vol.   IX.  JUNE,    1889.  No.  10. 


WILLIAM  BRADFORD. 

SNATCHES   FROM   THE    LIFE   AND   WORK  OF    THE  GREAT  MARIN£^ 

ARTIST. 

BY  REV.  F.  H.   KASSON,  ▲.  M. 

TIT" AVE  you  ever  visited  Mr.  Bradford's  studio?"     I  had  to 

J — L     confess  to  my  friend  that  I  had  not. 

"  Well,  you  had  better  go."     And  I  went. 

The  silver-haired,  kindly-faced  artist  gave  me  a  cordial  welcome, 
and  showed  me  some  of  his  remarkable  Arctic  paintings.  But  I 
soon  became  more  interested  in  his  life.  Knowing  that  he  had 
had  such  experiences  as  seldom  fall  to  the  lot  of  man,  I  one  day 
urged  him  to  tell  me  his  life-story.  And  this  is  what  he  told  to 
me,  with  the  privilege  of  telling  it  to  you. 

"  I  was  born  in  this  town  (Fairhaven,  Mass.),  up  near  the  head 
of  the  Acushnet  River,  sixty-five  years  ago.  Father  kept  a  store 
and  was  not  very  well  to  do  for  many  years,  and  my  education 
was  quite  meagre.  I  early  felt  a  desire  to  paint,  but  had  no  idea 
that  I  would  ever  do  anything  very  special  in  this  line  or  make  it 
a  life  calling. 

"  In  my  youth  I  became  a  clerk  in  a  dry  goods  store  in  New 
Bedford,  and  years  later  was  taken  into  the  company.  But  all  this 
time  my  love  for  drawing  was  growing  stronger.  Alone  and 
unaided,  I  copied  all  the  drawings  in  an  English  drawing-book 
nearly  four  times  through.  I  kept  at  it  without  any  master,  often 
till  midnight.  That  is  the  way  I  first  learned  my  art.  No,  I  've 
picked  up  about  all  that  I  know  of  painting. 


644 


EDUCATION. 


[Jone^ 


'^  After  a  time  I  started  a  wholesale  clothing  establishment  in 
New  Bedford,  and  began  furnishing  clothing  and  other  necessary 
supplies  to  the  men  going  out  in  whaling  shij>s.  This  was  about 
1852.  But  I  spent  too  much  time  in  painting  to  succeed.  Father, 
who  was  in  business  in  Fairhaven,  had  invested  heavily  in  whaUng 
enterprises  which  turned  out  Imdly,  and  things  did  not  go  ver}* 
well  with  me,  and  in  a  few  veai-s  we — well,  we  both  failed.  For 
we  had  signed  each  other's  paper.  But  it  was  a  bona  Jiiie  failure, 
and  our  creditors  when  thev  looked  over  our  books  were  satisfied 
that  we  had  done  the  l>est  we  could,  and  they  asked  ns  to  close  up 
our  business  oui-selves,  which  we  did.  We  had  failed,  both 
together,  for  •'5<40,000,  and  were  able  to  pay  nearly  forty  per  cent. 
But  my  father-in-law,  Nathan  Breed,  of  Lynn,  stepped  in  and 
made  it  up  to  fifty  cents  on  the  dollar.  And  that  was  the  end  of 
my  store  keei)ing. 

"  This  failure,  however,  came  near  causing  my  expulsion  from 
the  Friends'  meeting.  But  my  wife,  who  stood  high  among  them, 
said:  'If  you  expel  William  Bradford,  I  will  rise  in  my  place 
and  resign  my  membership  in  the  meeting.  I  will  stand  by  my 
husband.  He  has  not  done  any  real  wrong.'  Nathan  Breed  said 
to  her,  '  Mary,  if  thee  leaves  the  meeting  I  will  disinherit  thee/ 
But  undismayed  she  answered  him,  '  Very  well,  father,  then  dis- 
inherit me.'  However,  Nathan  Breed,  who  was  a  broad-minded, 
generous-hearted  man  and  a  loving  father,  lived  to  feel  ashamed  of 
this  impetuous  speech.  But  I  must  tell  you  one  thing*  that  liaj)- 
pened  before  I  left  the  store.  I  was  the  first  man  that  ever  ran  a 
sewing  machine  in  this  country.  We  had  several  machines  in  use 
in  our  establishment  —  partly  our  own  invention,  but  unpatented 
and  running  on  about  the  same  principles  as  Elias  Howe's  ma- 
chine, (though  we  did  not  know  this).  We  kept  them  up  stairs 
and  did  not  let  anybody  see  them.  One  day  Elias  Howe  came  to 
New  Bedford  and  asked  to  see  them.  I  said,  '  No,  we  can't  let 
anybody  see  them.'  Then  he  told  me  how  his  ran,  and  that  it  was 
patented.  I  said,  '  Is  that  so  ?  '  '  Yes,'  he  said,  '  it  was.'  *  Well,' 
said  I,  '  then  you  've  got  us.  But  I  never  knew  that  we  were 
infringing  upon  your  patent.'  I  went  right  to  Boston  and  saw  the 
men  who  had  some  interest  in  these  machines  and  told  them  that 
I  wished  to  fix  this  matter  up  with  Mr.  Howe.  But  they  were 
ugly  and  would  n't  do  it.  However,  they  gave  me  security  on 
some  houses  in  case  Howe  entered  a  suit  against  me,  which  he  did- 


1889.]  WILLIAM  BRADFORD.  645 

"Mr.  Howe  retained  Rufus  Choate  as  counsel.  Mr.  Choate 
came  to  me  and  said,  '  Mr.  Bradford,  the  only  way  I  can  reach 
these  Boston  parties  is  through  you.'  '  Very  well,'  said  I ;  *  go 
ahead.'  So  he  instituted  a  suit  against  me  for  several  thousand 
doUara  and  won  it.  Then  he  comes  to  me  and  says,  '  Mr.  Brad- 
ford, now  I  will  put  this  through  for  you  and  it  sha'  n't  cost  you  a 
cent.'  So  he  had  me  seized  for  debt  and  held  a  few  moments  while 
he  clapped  an  attachment  right  on  those  houses.  That  brought 
the  men  to  terms.  They  settled  with  him,  and  I  got  about  seven 
hundred  dollars,  myself,  out  of  it. 

"  About  the  time  father  and  I  failed,  I  began  making  drawings 
of  whaling  vessels.  The  fii'st  money  I  received  was  twenty-five 
doUai-s  for  a  drawing  of  the  whaler,  '  Jireh  Perry.'  Then  Captain 
Gliddon  of  Boston,  gave  me  an  order  to  paint  a  vessel.  A  little 
later,  Thatcher  Magoon  gave  me  one  hundred  dollars  for  a  large 
picture,  about  four  feet  long.  And  William  Baker  paid  m^,  I 
think,  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  for  another  large  one.  This 
was  about  the  year  1856. 

"  Then  foi'  eighteen  months  I  painted  portraits  of  whalers  and 
merchantmen,  till  the  broadside  of  a  vessel  grew  absolutely  loath- 
some to  me.  My  studio  was  a  little  building  on  Union  Street, 
Fairhaven.  About  this  time  Father  Breed  bought  a  farm  for  my 
wife  and  myself,  and  urged  me  to  give  myself  seriously  to  fartkiing. 
I  hired  five  men  and  tried  to  do  so,  but  farming,  evidently,  was 
not  my  vocation.  The  following  story  will  illustrate  this :  Urged 
on  by  Father  Breed,  I  went  to  farming  and  raised  some  good  pota- 
toes and  some  nice  celery  and  turnips.  Then  I  took  them  in  to 
Boston,  saw  Mr.  Parker  of  Parker  House  fame,  and  agreed  to 
furnish  him  a  large  quantity  of  celery  and  turnips  the  following 
season.  Visions  of  success  danced  in  my  brain.  I  concluded  to 
raise  half  an  acre  of  celery  and  a  corresponding  quantity  of  tur- 
nips. I  went  to  work  in  good  earnest  and  the  celery  started 
finely. 

"  One  lovely  autumn  morning,  while  it  all  lay  open  to  the  sun, 
I  walked  down  to  my  studio  (two  and  a  half  miles)  and  did  a 
good  morning's  work  with  the  brush.  About  three  o'clock,  as  I 
started  home,  I  realized  that  a  great  change  had  taken  place.  I 
thought  of  my  celery  and  quickened  my  pace.  Soon  I  broke  into 
a  run  and  ran  nearly  all  the  way  home.  Breathless,  I  rushed  out 
to  the  celery  patch,  and  leaning  over  the  fence  saw  the  blackness 


646  EDUCATION.  [June, 

of  desolation.  The  celery  hod  not  been  banked  in,  the  frost  had 
come  and  it  was  all  dead.  My  i>ent-up  feelings  found  expression 
in  these  two  vigorous  exclamations :  *  Dam  the  celery  I  Dam 
farming ! ' 

"Just  then  I  heard  the  strong,  calm  voice  of  Nathan  Breed 
behind  me  saying,  *  William,  how  do  things  look  ? ' 

**  Turning  upon  my  father-in-law,  I  broke  oat  again  :  *  Dam  the 
celery  I  Darn  the  turnips  I  I  'm  done  with  farming.'  And  I 
was.  But  Father  Breed  was  indignant.  Quite  as  indignant,  per- 
haps, as  it  was  proper  for  a  good  Quaker  to  be.  I  had  failed  in 
business  (an  almost  unheard-of  thing  among  the  Friends)^  and  failed 
in  farming,  and,  although  I  could  paint  some  fairly  good  *  picturs,' 
very  few  wanted  to  buy  them.  He  feared  that  his  good  daughter 
Mary  had  married  a  ne'er-ilo-weel.  He  had  told  her,  rich  mer- 
cliaut  that  he  was,  that,  in  leaving  her  home  to  marry  me,  poor 
William  Bradford,  though  she  was  getting  a  kind  husband,  she 
would  not  have  all  the  good  things  she  had  been  accustomed  to  at 
home.  And  now  he  threatened  to  do  nothing  for  her  if  I  did  not 
stick  to  the  farm.  But  the  proud-spirited  daughter  of  Nathan 
Breed  had  inherited  his  resolution,  and  when  I  said  to  her,  '  I  can 
not  farm.  I  must  give  myself  to  my  art.  But  if  I  do  your  father 
may  disinherit  you,' — she  replied,  like  the  brave,  true  wife  she 
was,  '  William,  if  thee  thinks  thee  must  give  thyself  to  painting, 
and  that  thee  '11  succeed,  I  am  willing  for  thee  to  try,  and  I  '11 
stand  by  thee.' " 

Ten  years  later,  when  success  had  come  to  Mr.  Bradford,  a  pic- 
ture for  which  he  was  paid  ten  thousand  dollars  was  on  exhibition 
in  Boston.  James  Oliver,  the  trusted  cashier  of  the  bank  of  which 
Nathan  Breed  was  a  leading  director,  went  to  Boston  and  sat 
amazed  and  delighted  before  the  noble  scene.  Returning  to  Lynn, 
he  saw  Mr.  Breed  and  called  to  him,  "  Nathan,  Nathan,  stop ! " 
Mr.  Breed  stopped.  ''  Has  thee  been  up  to  Boston  to  see  Will- 
iam's pictur  yet?"  "No."  "Well,  I  would  advise  thee  to  go 
and  see  it,  lest  thee  gets  a  reputation  for  being  ignorant.'* 

Nathan  Breed  had  seldom  been  spoken  to  in  that  way.  He 
went  home,  thought  it  over  and  decided  to  go.  Next  morning  he 
ran  up  to  Boston,  and  entering  the  gallery  sat  before  "  William's 
pictur  "  for  an  hour.  But  the  shrewd  old  Quaker  was  not  looking 
at  the  picture  all  the  time.  His  ears  were  wide  open  to  hear  all 
that  people  were  saying  about  it.     Finally,  the  old  man  got  so  full 


1889.]  WILLIAM  BBADFOBD.  647 

that  he  coyld  neither  look  nor  listen  any  longer.  He  hurried 
home  feeling  that  he  must  say  sometliing  to  somebody  about  that 
wonderful  ''pictur."  But  he  had  said  so  much  to  his  family 
against  William's  painting  that  it  would  not  do  to  praise  it  to 
them.  He,  therefore,  rushed  out  into  his  garden,  calling  for  his 
man  of  all  work :  "  Roger,  Roger,  where  is  thee  ?  "  "  Here,  sir." 
*'  Roger,  has  thee  been  up  to  Boston  to  see  William's  pictur  ? " 
*'  No,  sir."  "  Well,  thee  must  go  tomorrow  and  see  it.  It  is  a  very 
wonderful  pictur.  And  here  are  tickets  and  a  quarter,  Roger,  to 
pay  thy  fee." 

Scarcely  any  one  today  can  realize  with  how  much  aversion  the 
old-time  Quakers,  like  Nathan  Breed,  were  brought  up  to  look 
upon  painting  or  art  in  any  form.  And  yet  he  was  one  of  the 
most  hospitable  and  public-spirited  men  of  his  day.  Before  he 
died  his  opinion  of  "  picturs  "  had  changed  very  decidedly.  And 
still  he  was  ever  a  most  practical  man.  When  his  daughter  was 
telling  him  that  William,  then  in  England,  had  been  warmly 
received  by  the  Royal  family,  and  by  many  of  the  first  men  of  the 
Kingdom,  he  broke  in  with  the  remark,  "  Has  he  sold  any  picturs  ?  " 
That  was  to  him  the  one  impo^rtant  point. 

But  we  are  getting  a  little  ahead  of  our  stoiy.  Mr.  Bradford, 
before  giving  up  farming,  at  which  he  had  done  almost  nothing 
with  his  own  hands,  had  taken  some  lessons  of  instruction  from  a 
Dutch  artist  named  Van  Beest,  who  soon  accepted  Mr.  Bradford's 
offer  and  came  and  worked  in  his  Fairhaven  studio  for  two  years. 
Van  Beest,  —  whose  work  in  India  ink,  and  whose  sepia  drawings 
were  very  fine,  —  was  a  great  help  to  the  young  artist.  Often 
they  worked  together.  Van.  Beest  painting  the  sky  and  water,  and 
Bradford  painting  in  the  vessels. 

Later,  Mr.  Bradford  went  to  Boston,  and,  after  spending  the 
summers  along  the  shores  of  Swampscott  and  Nahant,  passed  the 
winters  in  his  studio,  at  the  corner  of  Tremont  and  Bromfield 
streets.  But  those  were  bitter  years  for  the  proud-spirited  artist. 
For  three  years  he  earned  very  little.  His  pictures  would  not  sell. 
Williams  &  Everett,  who  did  so  much  in  those  days  to  encourage 
struggling  artists,  helped  Mr.  Bradford  to  the  extent  of  several 
hundred  dollars.  But  very  little  money  came  in ;  only  once  in  a 
great  while  a  picture  was  sold  for  perhaps  twenty-five  dollars. 
However,  deliverance  was  at  hand. 

One  day  Benjamin  S.  Roach  walked  into  hi^  studio  and  said  that 


SiS  EDUCATIOX.  [June, 

he  wanted  one  or  two  of  Mr.  Bradford's  pictures  for  some  friends. 
"  I  '11  take  that  one  on  the  easel  and  give  you  fifty  dollars  for  it 
I  like  that."  ''  Oh,  but  that  is  promised  to  an  auction."  "  All 
right.  Let  it  go,  and  I  '11  go  there  and  buy  it.  And  that  one, 
over  there,  I  '11  take  that,  too.  Send  them  both  to  the  auction  and 
I'll  buy  them  there." 

So  to  the  auction  they  went.  At  the  sale  Mr.  Roach  was  on 
hand  with  one  or  two  friends,  and  the  bidding  was  spirited.  Final- 
ly, Mr.  Roach  secured  one  at  eighty-four  dollars,  and  the  other  at 
seventy  dollars.  And  these  latter  prices  he  insisted  on  paying  the 
artist.  One  of  these  pictures  went  into  the  home  of  James  Law- 
rence, and  the  other  of  Augustus  Lowell.  After  that^  Mr.  Brad- 
ford's pictures  began  to  sell.  Henrj^  Sayles  and  Doctor  Sharp  each 
took  one,  at  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars.     And  others  followed. 

But  now,  the  reading  of  Doctor  Kane's  books  fired  the  artist 
with  an  uncontrollable  desire  to  go  to  the  Arctic  regions.  Then 
came  the  question  how  to  raise  the  necessary  funds.  His  first 
determination  was  to  go  to  Labrador.  The  more  he  thought  of  it 
the  more  his  soul  became  aflame  with  this  absorbing  desire.  Men- 
tioning his  purpose  to  Nathan  Breed,  the  latter  replied,  somewhat 
hotly:  "I  won't  help  thee  one  cent.  Thee  better  keep  on  paint- 
ing thy  little  picturs."  But  the  artist's  enthusiasm  was  not 
damped.  The  going  to  Labrador  became  a  fierce  consuming  pas- 
sion. 

One  day  a  Boston  gentleman.  Dr.  J.  C.  Sharp,  who  had  visited 
Mr.  Bradford's  studio  and  had  had  several  conversations  with  liim 
as  to  his  purpose  of  going  to  Labrador,  came  in  and  said,  quietly : 
"Mr.  Bradford,  I'm  thinking  that  you  had  better  go  now.  And 
for  that  purpose  I  have  just  deposited  fifteen  hundred  dollars  in 
the  bank." 

Mr.  Bradford  was  almost  beside  himself  with  joy.  **  I  went 
home,"  said  he,  "  fairly  treading  on  air.  I  told  Father  Breed, 
*I'm  going  to  Labrador.'  He  said,  'Thee  can't  go.  I  won't 
give  thee  one  cent.'  I  answered,  'Father  Breed,  I  don*t  want  a 
cent.  I've  got  enough  without  it.'  'Where  does  thee  get  it?' 
'  Doctor  Sharp  is  going  to  let  me  have  it.  He  ofifere  me  fifteen 
hundred  dollars  for  that  purpose.'  '  What  security  does  thee  give 
him  ?  '     '  None  at  all.'     '  He 's  a  fool  I '  " 

Thus  spoke  sturdy  Nathan  Breed.  The  idea  that  any  man 
should  offer  fifteen  hundred  dollars  out  of  hand  to  a  young  artist 


1889.]  WILLIAM  BBADFOBD.  049 

to  go  to  Labrador  just  to  paint,  a  few  "  picturs  " !  How  absurd ! 
He  would  not  do  it.     Not  he ! 

But  Doctor  Sharp  —  honor  to  his  memory  —  did  it,  and  William 
Bradford  went  to  Labrador.  Just  as  the  clouds  of  war  were  dark- 
ening over  the  land,  in  the  last  days  of  April,  1861,  the  enthusias- 
tic Quaker  artist  (now  thirty-eight  years  old,)  sailed  away  from 
Boston  in  a  one  hundred  and  twenty  ton  schooner  for  Labrador  — 
and  fame. 

In  a  little  over  two  weeks  he  reached  Labrador,  and  anchoring 
amidst  the  icebergs,  began  sketching  and  securing  photographs. 
After  four  months  spent  in  this  way  he  sailed  for  home.  A  new 
phase  of  nature  had  now  opened  before  him.  He  was  able  to  offer 
to  his  countrymen  a  unique  kind  of  superb  paintings.  And  they 
grew  rapidly  in  favor  with  the  public. 

Each  summer  for  six  successive  seasons,  Mr.  Bradford  went  to 
Labrador  i;o  increase  and  improve  his  stock  of  artistic  material. 
On  these  northern  trips  he  went  as  far  up  as  Hopedale,  a  Morav- 
ian station,  above  Cape  Chudley. 

"'  Never,"  says  the  artist,  "  have  I  seen  men  who  commanded  my 
respect  as  did  these  Moravian  missionaries.  They  live  lives  of  utter 
self-abnegation.  They  devote  themselves  wholly  to  the  spiritual 
welfare  of  the  natives.  One  of  these  men  had  not  been  home  in 
twenty  years.  But  he  had  translated  the  New  Testament  and 
Psalms  into  the  Esquimo  tongue.  I  tell  you,  sir,  wherever  they 
have  labored  you  can  leave  anything  about  the  deck  of  a  vessel 
with  perfect  safety.  But,  once  get  beyond  their  influence  and  you 
find  the  natives  a  treacherous,  thievish  —  I  don't  mean  murderous 
—  race.  The  missionaries  put  a  strong  impress  upon  the  na- 
tives." 

But  the  worst  foe  of  the  missionary  to  the  North  is  the  wicked 
white  man  who  sells  the  natives  rum.  It  seems  that,  like  the  In- 
dians, the  Esquimos  and  Greenlanders  fall  easy  victims  to  strong 
drink.  But  to  drink  rum  in  those  high  latitudes  is  far  more  dan- 
gerous than  in  warmer  climates.  On  the  Labrador  coast,  though 
the  traders  come  in,  the  missionaries  are  constantly  on  the  alert 
and  prevent  the  natives  from  trading  with  them.  On  the  Green- 
land coast,  traders  are  not  allowed  to  land  and  sell  liquors.  The 
men  of  Greenland  are  prohibited  from  drinking  save  on  one  occa- 
sion. Once  a  year,  on  the  King's  birthday,  the  men  of  each  settle- 
ment are  allowed  to  go  to  the  Government  House  and  receive,  each 


660  EDUCATION.  [Jne, 

in  turn,  a  glass  of  schnapps^  which  he  drinks  to  the  health  of  the 
king  occupying  the  Danish  throne.  Women  are  excluded  from 
this  privilege  (?),  but  a  wife  may  accompany  her  husband,  and  be 
may  kiss  her  when  he  wiU,  and  as  he  does  so,  may  drop  from  his 
capacious  maw  as  much  as  he  pleases  and  no  one  the  wiser  for  it 

On  the  Pacific  coast  the  Alaska  Fur  Company  allows  no  liquors 
to  be  landed  for  the  natives.  Of  course,  unscrupulous  traders 
occasionally  set  these  laws  at  defiance.  A  trader  can  undo  in  one 
week  more  than  a  missionary  can  do  for  the  natives  in  six  months. 
The  old  artist's  eyes  blazed  and  his  blood  fairly  boiled  as  he  told 
of  one  such  instance.  ^^  Captain  Hooper,  of  the  United  States 
steamer  *  Corwin '  is  my  authority,"  said  Mr.  Bradford,  "  for  the 
following  terrible  tale:  Three  whaling  vessels  —  one  from  the 
Sandwich  Islands,  one  from  San  Francisco,  and  one  from  New  Bed- 
ford— went  up  to  the  islands  in  Behring  Strait  and  engaged  in 
trade  with  the  natives,  buying  thousands  of  pounds  of  whalebone 
of  them,  which  they  paid  for  with  rum,  or  the  worst  kind  of  spir- 
its, also  some  fireanns  aild  ammunition.  Most  of  this  illegal  sell- 
ing was  done  by  the  New  Bedford  wlialer. 

"  As  Captain  Hooper  steamed  into  the  little  harbor  where  this 
whaler  was  trading  with  the  natives,  the  latter  (having  already 
disposed  of  nearly  all  its  rum),  hastened  to  obliterate  all  traces  of 
its  nefarious  traffic.  What  little  was  left  they  secreted  in  the 
hold.  Captain  HoojHjr  searched  the  whaler,  but,  finding  no  evi- 
dence against  her,  let  her  go.  Six  hours  later,  the  evidence  of  her 
deadly  traffic  was  plainly  seen  in  multitudes  of  drunken  natives. 
The  next  year  Captain  Hooper  found  that  upwards  of  five  hundred 
men,  women,  and  children  lay  dead  upon  the  ground  from  the 
effects  of  the  rum  then  sold  them.  At  the  end  of  two  years,  he 
told  me,  fully  nine  hundred  natives  were  dead,  either  directly  from 
the  effects  of  that  rum,  or  indirectly  by  starvation  due  to  the  same 
cause.  For  as  long  as  the  whiskey  lasted  the  natives  would  do 
nothing  towards  securing  blubber  and  other  necessary  provisions 
for  the  winter.  For  this  terrible  destruction  of  the  lives  of  human 
beings,  one  New  Bedford  agent  and  his  captain  are  directly  respon- 
sible." How  terrible  is  '*  man's  inhumanity  to  man."  Such  men 
are  among  the  blackest  of  criminals. 

Among  William  Bradford's  warmest  Quaker  friends  was  the 
genial  poet,  John  G.  Whittier.  The  artist's  famous  Labrador 
labors  fired  the  poet's  heart  and  called  forth  the  beautiful  tribute 


1889.]  WILLIAM  BBADFORD.  651 

("  To  W.  B.")  with  which  the  poem  *'  Amy  Wentworth  "  opens. 
It  was  right  in  war  time,  which  leads  the  Quaker  poet  to  thus 
address  his  artist  friend :  — 

^^  So,  thou  and  I 
Nursed  in  the  faith  chat  Truth  alone  is  strong 
In  the  endurance  which  outwearies  Wrong, 
With  meelt  persistence  baffling  brutal  force, 
And  trusting  Qod  against  the  universe,  — 
We,  doomed  to  watch  a  strife  we  may  not  share 
With  other  weapons  than  the  patriot's  prayer, 
Yet  owning,  with  full  hearts  and  moistened  eyes, 
The  awful  beauty  of  self-sacrifice. 
And  wrung  by  keenest  sympathy  for  all 
Who  give  their  loved  ones  for  the  living  wall 
'  Twixt  law  and  treason,  —  in  this  evil  day 
May  haply  find,  through  automatic  play 
Of  pen  and  pencil,  solace  to  our  pain, 
And  hearten  others  with  the  strength  we  gain. 


Let  us  keep  sweet, 
If  so  we  may,  our  hearts,  even  while  we  eat 
The  bitter  harvest  of  our  own  device 
And  half  a  century's  moral  cowardice. 
As  NUrnberg  sang  while  Wittenberg  defied, 
And  Kranach  painted  by  his  Luther's  side. 
And  through  the  war  march  of  the  Puritan 
The  silver  stream  of  Marvel Ps  music  ran. 
So  let  the  household  melodies  be  sung. 
The  pleasant  pictures  on  the  wall  be  hung,  — 
So  let  us  hold  against  the  hosts  of  night 
And  Slavery  all  our  vantage-ground  of  light. 


And  while,  with  hearts  of  thankfulness,  we  bear 

Of  the  great  common  burden  our  full  share, 

Let  none  upbraid  us  that  the  waves  entice 

Thy  sea-dipped  pencil,  or  some  quaint  device. 

Rhythmic  and  sweet,  beguiles  my  pen  away 

From  the  sharp  strifes  and  sorrows  of  today. 

Thus,  while  the  east-wind  keen  from  Labrador 

Sings  in  the  leafless  elms,  and  from  the  shore 

Of  the  great  sea  comes  the  monotonous  roar 

Of  the  long-breaking  surf,  and  all  the  sky 

Is  gray  with  cloud,  home-bound  and  dull,  I  try 

To  time  a  simple  legend  to  the  sounds 

Of  winds  in  the  woods,  and  waves  on  pebbled  bounds, 

A  song  for  oars  to  chime  with,  such  as  might 


EDUCATION. 


[J«^ 


Be  suQfc  by  tired  sea-palnten,  who  at  ni^ht 

Ix>ok  from  their  hemlock  campi,  bj  quiet  cave 

Of  beach,  mooo-ll^hted,  on  the  wave*  thej  love. 

( Ho  hast  thoa  looked,  when  lerel  sunset  lay 

On  the  calm  bosom  of  some  Eastern  bay. 

And  all  the  spray-moist  rocks  and  wavea  that  rolled 

Up  the  white  sand-slopes  flashed  with  ruddy  goXd..^ 

Something  it  has  —  a  flavor  of  the  sea, 

And  the  sea*s  freedom  —  which  reminds  of  thee/* 

William  Bradford  was  now  anxious  to  win  greater  laurels.  Hifl 
magnificent  jmintings  of  Labrador  scenery  had  but  whetted  hifl 
appetite  for  Arctic  explorations.  They  had  made  him  known  u 
the  first  |)ainter  in  his  special  field,  and  had  brougrht  him  in  con- 
siderable money.  For  one  superb  view  —  '*  Sealers  Crushed  Among 
the  Icebergs,"  —  previously  referred  to  in  connection  with  Nathan 
Breed's  name,  LeGrand  Lockwood,  at  that  time  a  generous  Nei 
York  millionaire  and  patron  of  art,  had  paid  Mr.  Bradford  ten 
thousand  dollars.  He  was  now  anxious  to  go  to  the  coast  oJ 
Greenland.  But  this  would  require  an  outlay  of  thirty  thousand 
dollars.  In  this  emergency  Mr.  Lockwood  stepped  forward  and 
offered  to  bear  twenty  thousand  dollars  of  the  expense  of  the 
ex{)edition.  Tlie  way  l)eing  thus  opened,  Mr.  Bradford  chartered 
a  staunch  English  steamer,  "  The  Panther,"  an  Arctic  sealer  oi 
tliree  hundred  and  seventy-five  tons  burden,  and  loading  her  witl 
five  hundred  tons  of  coal,  steamed  away  from  St.  John's,  Newfound 
land,  for  Greenland.  This  was  July  3,  1869.  He  was  accom 
panied  on  this  expedition  by  Dr.  I.  I.  Hayes,  the  famous  Arcti( 
explorer  (for  whose  company  and  services  he  paid  him  fifteen  bun 
dred  dollars  in  gold  ),  and  by  five  other  young  men.  This  expedi 
tion,  which  went  as  far  north  as  Melville  Bay,  was  exceptional!^ 
successful,  and  mide  Mr.  Bradford's  name  famous  on  both  side 
of  the  Atlantic  as  the  great  {lainter  of  Arctic  scenery. 

This  voyage  also  brought  out  the  sterling  qualities  of  Mr.  Brad 
ford's  nature.  He  can  be  firm  as  a  rock  on  occasion,  as  the  foUon 
ing  incident  will  show:  Thi  weather  suddenly  grew  cold  an< 
their  situation  began  to  grow  critical.  The  question  arose  whethe 
to  steam  ahead  into  a  fiord,  or  to  try  to  get  back  through  the  thick 
ening  icebergs.  A  conflict  of  authority  arose  between  the  CaptaL 
and  Doctor  Hayes.  The  latter  declared  that  they  should  gp  foi 
ward  and  enter  the  fiord.  The  Captain  said :  "  I  can  see  by  tb 
action  of  the  water  that  there  are  many  sunken  rocks  there.     I 


1889.]  WILLIAM  BRADFORD.  653 

we  strike  on  one  of  those  we  are  gone.  I  don't  dare  to  force  my 
vessel  in  there.  But  I  know  tliis  vessel.  I  built  her,  and  I  know 
I  can  steam  her  out  safely  between  those  icebergs."  But  Doctor 
Hayes  said :  "  No  !  The  only  thing  to  do  is  to  run  the  vessel  up 
into  that  fiord." 

Then  Mr.  Bradford  spoke  up :  "  Captain,  you  know  this  vessel. 
You  built  her ;  you  know  what  you  can  do.  Now  I  place  the 
responsibility  upon  you.     Go  ahead  and  do  your  best." 

Doctor  Hayes  said:  "Then  you've  no  further  use  for  my 
services  ?  "  ''  No,  sir,  not  just  now.  The  Captain  will  command 
this  vessel  today."  He  turned  on  his  heel  and  went  off.  Captain 
John  Bartlett,  a  big  six-foot  Englishman,  with  great  skill  and  dex- 
terity guided  his  sliip  back  through  the  icebergs  till  they  reached 
a  place  of  safety.  The  next  morning  Doctor  Hayes  acknowledged 
that  Captain  Bartlett  had  been  in  the  right,  and  said:  "  Oh,  if  I 
had  had  such  a  six-foot  Englishman  as  you  are,  what  could  I  not 
have  done  in  my  Arctic  explorations ! " 

When  Mr.  Bradford  reached  New  York  in  November,  1869,  bad 
news  awaited  him.  His  kind  friend,  Le  Grand  Lockwood,  after 
one  payment  of  twenty-five  hundred  dollars,  had  failed,  and  he 
was  left  with  twenty-two  thousand  dollars  indebtedness  and  noth- 
ing to  pay  it  with.  But  D.  Willis  James  and  other  good  friends 
gathered  around  him  and  his  own  splendid  pluck  carried  him 
through.     The  debt  was  ultimately  paid. 

About  this  time  he  met  Lord  Lome,  who  took  a  great  interest, 
in  his  work  and  strongly  urged  him  to  go  to  England.  He  did  so, 
and  met  such  a  reception  as  is  seldom  accorded  to  an  American 
artist.  He  received  a  commission  from  Her  Majesty  Queen  Vic- 
toria, and  the  picture  is  now  in  the  library  at  Windsor  Castle. 
This  painting  is  entitled  "The  Panther  off  the  Coast  of  Greenland 
under  the  Midnight  Sun."  His  pictures  also  grace  the  galleriea 
of  Princess  Louise,  Lord  Dufferin,  the  Duke  of  Argyle,  the  very 
wealthy  Duke  of  Westminster,  Baroness  Burdett-Coutts,  besidea 
Baron  Rothschild  of  Paris,  and  many  other  notables. 

In  England  he  was  warmly  received  by  such  men  as  Tyndall,. 
Lord  Lindsay,  Sir  Henry  Holland,  and  Sir  Roderic  Murchison* 
He  was  invited  to  speak  before  the  Royal  Institution  and  the  Royal 
Geographical  Society  of  London.  In  1873,  Messrs.  Sampson  Low» 
Marston,  Low  &  Searle  of  London,  published  his  superb  volume^ 
"  The  Arctic  Regions."     It  is  a  book  25  x  20  inches  in  size,  bound 


654 


EDUCATION. 


[JoM, 


in  morocco  extra,  all  gilt  edges  and  covers,  and  sold  at  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-five  dollars  (twenty-five  guineas^  per  copy.  Both 
the  text  and  the  one  hundred  and  forty-four  photographs  illus- 
trating this  magnificent  work  are  by  the  artist.  It  was  broughi 
out  under  the  patronage  of  Queen  Victoria,  the  Duke  of  Argyle, 
Lord  Dufferin,  TyndalL,  and  other  disting^uished  men  of  London. 
The  edition  was  limited  to  three  hundred  and  fifty  copies,  thougl 
more  might  liave  been  sold. 

During  the  last  fifteen  years  Mr.  Bradford  has  traveled  exten- 
sively in  this  countr}'  and  has  kept  his  brush  almost  constant!} 
employed.  He  spent  seven  years  on  the  Pacific  slope.  The  To 
Semite  Valley  and  the  Mariposa  Valley  of  California  were  thor 
oughly  studied,  as  well  as  the  Sierra  Nevada  range  of  mountains 
He  is  still  hard  at  work  and  reaping  the  fruits  of  victory.  Hii 
grandly  impressive  paintings  may  be  found  clear  across  our  coun 
tr}',  from  Boston  to  San  Francisco.  And  many  of  his  best  worb 
grace  English  collections.  His  winters  are  passed  in  New  Tor) 
City,  but  the  summer  finds  him  back  in  the  haunts  of  his  child 
hood.  Here  his  studio  is  in  the  upper  i)art  of  a  roomy  old  build 
ing,  facing  the  Acushnet  River  and  looking  down  across  a  portioi 
of  Buzzard's  Bay.  And  here,  surrounded  by  his  paintings,  cm 
may  often  find  him  busil}*  at  work,  pallet  in  hand,  at  six  o^cloel 
in  the  morning.  He  delights  to  work  in  the  cool  of  the  mominj 
and  later  in  the  day  to  chat  with  his  friends.  As,  with  stoopinj 
shoulders  and  bowed  head,  the  artist  turns  his  keen  blue-^^ray  eye 
to  the  creation  before  him,  we  cannot  but  wonder  at  the  grea 
results  which  this  modest,  upright,  high-souled  man  has  reache< 
under  very  adverse  circumstances.  We  rejoice  that  now  th( 
evening  sky  has  for  him  a  silver  lining. 

Among  the  completed  paintings  in  his  summer  studio  is  a  nobl( 
one  entitled,  "  Whalers  after  the  Nip  in  Melville  Bay."  It  is  \ 
powerful  picture.  Heavy,  dense  masses  of  dark  clouds  are  rolling 
off  into  the  background ;  the  storm  is  passing  and  the  sun  almos< 
breaks  through.  In  the  middle  of  the  canvas  is  a  hig-h  peak  o: 
ice,  partly  in  a  white  light,  partly  of  a  deep  bluish  tingle.  In  froni 
of  this  is  a  large  three-masted  whaler  caught  in  the  ice,  and  neai 
by,  men  are  seen  pulling  loaded  boats  over  the  ice.  Just  at  the 
bottom  of  the  picture  is  seen  a  little  water  of  a  greenish  hue 
This  painting  is  soon  to  be  sent  across  the  water  to  the  Duke  oi 
Westminster,  whose  son,  the  late  Earl  Grosvenor,  had  already  paid 
for  it. 


1889.]  WILLIAM  BBADFORD.  655 

Another  picture,  with  a  fairer  sky,  presents  a  high  mass  of  ice 
with  a  smaller  berg  to  its  right.  The  latter  looks  like  a  beheaded 
lion,  between  whose  icy  feet  lies  an  open  cave,  looking  through 
which  the  beholder  sees  a  far  distant  bit  of  sky.  In  the  front  is 
seen  a  large  ship  with  sails  all  set,  while  other  ships  to  right  and 
left,  with  distant  ice  peaks,  crowd  the  sides  of  the  canvas.  A 
smaller  picture  shows  a  beauteous  Arctic  midnight  sky.  But  we  will 
not  tire  the  reader's  patience,  only  to  say  that  here  is  a  pleasing 
variety  of  Arctic  views  specially  adapted  to  relieve  August  heats. 
It  is  a  charming  place  to  lounge,  or  rest  the  eye,  or  catch  a  sum- 
mer's breeze.  We  do  not  wonder  that  the  artist's  wife  and  daugh- 
ter often  come  here,  and  bring  their  guests,  to  rest  and  chat. 

In  recent  years  Mr.  Bradford  has  spent  some  time  lecturing 
about  the  Arctic  regions.  He  is  about  to  give  a  series  of  six  lec- 
tures, entitled  "  Glimpses  of  the  Arctic  Regions,"  before  the  Low- 
ell Institute  of  Boston.  These  lectures  discuss  the  discovery  of 
America  by  the  Norsemen  —  a  wonderful  people  who  were  blotted 
out  of  existence  some  centuries  ago  ;  different  phases  of  life  and  na- 
ture in  the  far  North ;  the  Greeley  expedition,  and  its  relief  expe- 
dition. These  lectures  are  exceedingly  interesting  and  are 
illustrated  by  scores  of  photographic  views,  many  of  which  were 
taken  by  the  artist  himself. 

Mr.  Bradford  is  also  an  exceedingly  benevolent,  Christian  man> 
and  is  doing  good  continually.  And  thus,  in  many  ways,  this, 
intense,  conscientious,  unassuming  painter  is  busily  at  work  advan- 
cing his  art  and  serving  his  fellow-men. 


Nay,  I  think 
Merely  to  bask  and  ripen  is  sometimes 
The  student's,  wiser  business ;  the  brain 
Will  not  distil  the  juices  it  has  sucked, 
To  the  sweet  substance  of  pellucid  thought, 
Except  for  him  who  hath  the  secret  learned 
To  mix  his  blood  with  sunshlDe,  and  to  take 
The  winds  into  his  pulses. 

Lowell. 


^66 


EDUCATIOX. 


[Juk, 


T//E   PSrCHOLOGT  OF  MAXC/AIL     TRAIXISG, 

Jiead  before  the  Department  of  Su})erintendence^  XcUionai  Educational  Ajuudatm, 

WashintjtoH,    D.    C,   March    7,    IS89. 

BY   WILLIAM  T.   HARRIS,   LL.  I>. 

II. 


IN  learning  aritlimetic  the  b<\v  learns  to  quantify  and  measure 
all  things  nuinerieally.  It  is  not  coiirdinate  Avith  the  knowl- 
edge of  carpentering,  but  it  underlies  it ;  at  least,  there  c^in  be 
no  use  of  the  carpenter's  rule  without  some  arithmetic. 

But  the  school  studies  are  for  the  most  part  given  to  a  knowl- 
edge of  human  nature  and  human  combination,  rather  than  tot 
knowledge  of  material  things.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  already 
seen,  namely :  that  man  is  a  social  being,  and  is  all  that  he  is  as  i 
spiritual  being  —  an  educative  being  —  through  this  fact  of  organ- 
ized existence  in  institutions.  All  science,  all  literature,  all  art, 
the  whole  world  of  learning  in  fact,  takes  its  rise  in  man's  dei)end- 
ence  on  society.  Society  is  the  miraculous  instrumentality  by 
which  each  individual  aids  everv  other  and  in  turn  is  aided  bv  all 
In  food,  clothing,  and  shelter,  he  brings  by  commerce  all  produc- 
tions of  all  climes  to  his  market,  collecting  from  all  and  distribut- 
ing to  each. 

In  mattei-s  of  human  experience  it  is  still  better,  because  Um 
aggregate  of  human  wisdom  does  not  have  to  be  divided  in  dis 
tributing  it.  Each  man  may  receive  it  whole  if  he  will  only  lean 
the  symbols  in  which  it  is  stored  up.  If  the  child  will  learn  ho^ 
to  read  and  write,  he  may  learn  the  experience  of  the  race  througl 
the  countless  ages  of  its  existence.  He  may  by  scientific  book 
and  })eriodicals  see  the  world  through  the  senses  of  myriads  o 
trained  specialists  devoting  whole  lives  to  the  inventory  of  nature 
What  is  immensely  more  than  this,  he  may  think  with  their  brain 
and  assist  his  feeble  powers  of  observation  and  reflection  bj'  thi 
gigantic  aggregate  of  the  mental  labor  of  the  race.  This  is  thi 
great  meaning  of  school  education :  to  give  to  the  pupil  the  use  o 
the  means  for  availing  himself  of  the  mental  products  of  the  race 
Compared  with  what  he  receives  from  the  race  the  productions  o 


1889.]  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  NANUAL  TRAINING,  667 

the  most  original  of  men  are  a  mere  speck  in  a  wide  field  of  view. 
Every  one  may  add  something  to  the  aggregate  of  the  world's 
knowledge,  but  he  must,  if  he  is  educated  and  rises  above  the 
brute,  receive  infinitely  more  than  he  gives. 

Hence,  in  comparing  the  educative  effect  of  learning  to  read 
with  the  educative  effect  of  learning  the  carpenter's  trade,  we 
must  consider  this  difference  of  scope.  The  one  leads  to  knowl- 
edge of  a  few  tools  and  a  limited  sphere  of  the  botany  of  trees  — 
an  empirical,  but  not  scientific  knowledge  of  a  few  wood  textures, 
a  few  simple  processes  of  combination  into  shapes  for  use  or  orna- 
ment —  all  of  which  brings  also  a  limited  knowledge  of  self  and  of 
human  nature.  Its  whole  educative  effect  is  exhausted  in  a  brief 
time  at  the  manual  training  school  —  for  we  are  told  by  authori- 
ties that  manual  training  for  educative  purposes  must  not  be 
carried  far  enough  to  produce  skill.^  On  the  other  hand,  the  edu- 
cation of  learning  to  read, — although  it  is  an  efficient  process  of 
education  while  in  school,  yet  it  is  followed  by  its  greatest  educa*- 
tive  effects  afterwards  throughout  life.  For  the  person  is  destined 
to  use  this  knowledge  of  reading  daily  as  a  key  by  which  to  unlock 
the  treasures  of  all  human  learning.  The  school  has  given  him 
possession  of  the  means  of  permanent  and  continuous  self-educa- 
tion. It  is  the  difference  between  a  piece  of  baked  bread  which 
nourishes  for  the  day  and  the  seed  corn  which  is  the  possibility  of 
countless  harvests.  Education  that  educates  the  child  in  the  art 
of  self-education  is  that  which  the  aggregate  experience  of  man- 
kind has  chosen  for  the  school.  The  course  of  study  involves  the 
mastery  of  letters  or  the  means  of  intercommunication  with  the 
race,  the  means  too  of  preserving  the  harvest  of  observation  and 
reflection.  It  moreover  involves  the  use  of  letters  in  certain  fun- 
damental studies  —  80  as  to  show  the  pupil  how  to  master  the  great 
general  classes  of  books.  It  initiates  him  into  the  use  of  mathe- 
matical books,  showing  him  how  to  understand  them  by  persistent 
attention  and  thought  —  showing  him  that  memorizing  the  words 
of  the  arithmetic  does  not  master  the  book,  but  that  it  is  necessary 
to  think  out  for  one's  self  every  statement  and  see  the  necessity  of 
it.  The  mathematical  province  of  letters  reveals  to  the  child  the 
realm  of  man's  victory  over  nature,  because  having  invented 
mathematics  it  is  only  a  question  of  detail  —  "divide  and  conquer  " 
—  to  subdue  all  nature. 

>  See  Professor  Woodward's  ezoellent  remarks  ontbe  educative  limits  of  manual  train- 
ing, in  his  book. 


«B8  EDUCATION.  {. 

Then  comes  geogTaphy,  lifting  a  curtain  and  showing  the  < 
his  race  divided  into  |>eoiileit  and  nations  round  the  globe,  aUn 
ing  at  something  that  he  himself  needs,  and  the  spectacle  of 
world-commerce  bringing  to  him  over  all  seas  the  desired  arti 

Then  there  is  histon',  lifting  another  curtain  and  sbowisf 
doinga  of  man  in  the  jiast.  Man  reveals  human  nature  bj 
actions.  Each  one  reveals  to  himself  a  small  fragment  of  ho 
nature,  but  he  does  not  know  much  of  human  nature  till  he  1 
into  history ;  for  history  reveals  the  higher  self  of  man  as  organ 
in  institutions.  For  the  tirst  time  man  conies  to  know  his 
stantial  self  when  he  comes  to  study  history.  His  litde 
beliohls  his  colossal  self. 

Then  there  is  literature,  which  shows  in  its  prose  and  poeti^ 
collisions  which  individuals  have  made  with  institutions — l 
beth  and  Othello.  Paris  and  Helen.  (Edipus  and  Faust.  It  i 
jiietes  for  us  the  revelation  of  human  nature  and  more  thai 
other  studies  is  humanizing  and  civilizing.  The  school  initi 
the  child  into  this  realm  through  the  intense  bursts  of  impassti 
t)rose  and  i>oetr)-  that  the  school  readers  contain,  showing  in  t! 
all  the  varieties  of  style  to  lie  mastered  and  how  to  master  tl 
how  to  ascend  from  the  mere  cnllociuial  vocabulary  which  the  c 
brings  with  him  from  the  family  to  the  literary  styles  adequat 
express  deep  thought  or  tine  shades  of  emotion. 

The  school  also  makes  a  study  of  language  in  itself  —  it  teai 
grammar,  the  most  difficult  of  all  school  studies  and  the  most  i 
Cfttive  of  subtle  powers  of  thought. 

But,  it  is  objected  to  me  here:  Does  not  nature  ^ve  us 
material  of  thought,  and  language  only  the  symbols  of  thoiu 
Is  not  language  an  arbitrary  symbol  and  nature  the  eternal  teali 
I  remember  saying  this  once  myself  when  I  was  a  youth  in 
lege,  and  the  thought  so  oppressed  my  mind  that  I  did  notb 
jiatience  to  remain  and  graduate,  but  I  left  college  midway  in 
course. 

Afterwards,  when  I  came  to  clear  up  my  thoughts,  I  begai 
see  that  I  lived  in  two  worlds  —  the  world  of  nature  and  the  w< 
of  man.  Moreover,  the  world  of  man  was  much  more  comp 
than  that  of  nature,  and,  strange  as  it  then  seemed,  the  woric 
man  was  really  much  closer  to  me  than  the  world  of  nature. 
enwrapped  me,  so  to  speak,  like  a  garment  —  a  clothing  for 
mind.     Think  of  nature  with  its  two  kingdoms,  the  organic  i 


1889.]  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANUAL  TRATNINQ.  659 

inorganic,  and  the  human  world  with  its  three  provinces  —  the 
realization  of  (1)  the  will ;  (2)  of  the  intellect ;  (3)  of  the  crea- 
tive imagination.  For  example,  there  is  the  province  of  institutions 
with  laws,  and  customs,  and  usages,  national  forms  of  government^ 
religious  systems,  moral  codes,  political  methods,  etc.,  as  the 
embodiment  of  human  will,  revealing  the  nature  of  human  will 
just  as  the  habits  of  ants  and  bees  reveal  ant  and  bee  nature.  If 
things  and  realities  are  the  material  of  thought,  what  material  of 
thought  is  so  important  for  our  examination  as  human  institutional 
growth.  Is  it  a  product  of  arbitrary  will  ?  It  is  at  least  as  much 
a  reality  as  the  habits  and  actions  of  animals  and  plants  in  which 
the  botanist  and  zoologist  discovers  the  nature  of  animals  and 
plants.  More  than  this,  these  laws  and  customs  are  the  most  dread 
reality  that  we  know  of.  It  is  a  matter  of  life  and  death  to  ignore 
the  laws  of  the  state  —  it  is  a  matter  of  wasting  all  one's  strength 
uselessly  to  disobey  the  behests  of  custom  however  slight.  What 
is  so  close  to  man  as  his  wrappage  of  customs  and  usages  ?  This 
is  his  bond  of  union  with  his  fellow  men. 

If  it  is  admitted  that  these  products  of  man's  will  are  realities 
and  material  for  thought,  think  of  their  vast  complexity  and 
extent.  But  the  products  of  man's  intellect  are  the  multifarious 
sciences  and  fragments  of  science,  all  his  philosophic  theories  and 
all  his  inventions  in  the  arts.  Within  this  division  there  is  the 
province  of  language  —  a  vast  complex  system  with  a  structure 
all  its  own,  and  yet  revealing  the  structure  of  thought  itself  just 
as  forms,  and  usages,  and  laws  reveal  the  nature  of  the  human 
will.  And  is  not  language  a  reality  —  is  it  not  the  material  vehi- 
cle of  thought,  and  does  it  not  exist  as  an  object  for  thought  and 
scientific  consideration  ?  In  its  language  lies  embalmed  the  deep- 
est peculiarity  or  idiosyncrasy  of  a  people's  growth.  It  is  worth 
while  to  study  a  steam  engine  —  an  arbitrary  product  of  man's 
inventive  mind.  Because  the  steam  engine  is  the  instrument  for 
the  annihilation  of  distance  and  separation.  It  renders  intercom- 
munication easy  and  cheap.  It  assists  in  producing  civilizbcion  by 
bringing  about  spiritual  communion.  But  infinitely  more  impor- 
tant to  study  is  the  structure  of  language,  because  it  is  the  inven- 
tion of  the  soul  as  a  direct  and  adequate  means  of  expressing  its 
internal  acts  and  states  —  its  thoughts,  volitions,  and  feelings.  By 
language,  social  union  and  civilization  are  realized.  To  study  the 
grammar  and  vocabulary  of  a  language  is  to  gain  an  insight  into 


660  EDUCATION.  [Joae. 

the  structure  of  soul  itself  and  at  the  same  time  to  gauge  the 
spiritual  development  of  the  people  who  spoke  it.  Even  the 
smattering  of  grammar  taught  in  schools  has  the  great  educative 
effect  of  turning  the  mind  of  the  pupil  inward  so  far  as  to  seize 
definitions  and  classify  words  by  the  meaning'  that  thej-  have.  It 
is  a  study  of  the  effect  which  form  has  upon  the  meaning  of  wonk 
Moreover,  a  training  in  grammar  gives  one  the  power  to  some 
extent  of  discriminating  the  accidental  from  the  substantial— a 
training  which  fits  the  mind  to  enter  successfully  other  fields  of 
subtle  thought. 

The  province  of  literature  and  art  furnishes  wonderful  material 
of  thought  —  for  it  furnishes  the  symbol  of  human  ideals  and 
aspirations,  the  gmnd  impulses  that  move  at  the  bottom  of  our 
civilization. 

It  has  been  claimed  by  some  of  its  advocates  that  we  have  in 
manual  training  an  executive  action  of  the  mind  while  we  have 
only  a  receptive  activity  in  the  other  school  studies. 

There  is  a  distinction  in  psychology  between  efferent  and  affer- 
ent nerves  — nerves  that  convey  outward  impulses  from  the  brain 
to  the  muscles,  and  nerves  that  convey  impulses  from  the  surface 
inward  to  the  brain  and  give  rise  to  feeling.     These  are  named 
also  motor  nerves,  and  nerves  of  sensation  —  or  centrifugal  and 
centripetal  nerves.     This  distinction  between  executive  and  recep- 
tive activities  seems  to  be  based  on  this  difference  of  nerves.    It 
would  be  assumed  in  the  first  place  that  the  most  essential  forms 
of  human  activity  are  sensor  and  motor.     The  individual  should 
be  receptive  of  impressions  from  without  through   his  nerves  of 
sensation  or  else  he  should  be  executive  through  using  his  mus- 
cles.    Moreover,  in  order  to  make  this  theory  apply  to  manual 
training  it  must  be  held  that  manual  training  covers  the  ground  of 
the  motor,  or  executive.     The  use  of  the  tools  for  wood  working 
and  metal  working  —  such  use  of  a  portion  of  these  tools  as  the 
manual  training  school  furnishes  is  in  fact  supposed  to  be  an  execu- 
tive training  in  an  eminent  degree.     But  all  the  metal  workers  in 
the  country,  according  to  our  last  census,  amounted  to  only  585,- 
493  (counting  the  twenty-two  important  trades),  out  of  a  totaJ 
number  of  17,392,099  returned  as  engaged  in  gainful  occupations. 
This  is  less  than  three  and  one-half  per  cent,  of  the  laboring  popu- 
lation, and  yet  the  annual  product  even  of  this  small  fraction  of 
our  people  exceeds  the  home  consumption  of  metallic  goods.     The 


1889.]  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANUAL  TBAININO.  661 

workers  in  wood,  counting  twenty-five  trades,  numbered  only 
763,814  out  of  the  seventeen  and  one-half  millions  of  laborers  — 
about  four  and  one-half  per  cent.  But  it  is  claimed  that  skill  in 
the  use  of  the  tools  of  these  trades  would  be  valuable  to  all,  no 
matter  what  their  employments  might  be.  This,  however,  is  a 
position  that  cannot  be  maintained,  for  the  following  reasons: 
Every  trade  has  its  special  knack  or  skill,  and  not  only  requires 
special  education  to  fit  the  laborer  to  pursue  it,  but  it  reacts  on 
the  laborer  and  fixes  in  his  bodily  structure  certain  limitations 
which  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  unfit  him  for  other  occupations. 
Even  within  the  trades  devoted  to  the  transformation  of  metals  it 
is  found  that  a  long  apprenticeship  to  blacksmithing  unfits  one  for 
fine  work  on  jewelry,  or  for  engraving.  Too  much  work  at  planing 
and  sawing,  moreover,  would  injure  the  skill  of  the  wood  carver. 
Out  of  the  ninety-two  per  cent,  of  laborers  not  engaged  in  any  form 
of  wood  or  metal  work,  nearly  five  per  cent,  are  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  textile  fabrics  or  clothing.  Counting  together 
those  who  have  to  do  with  these  manufactures  and  with  the  care 
of  clothing,  and  with  leather  manufactures,  there  are  seven  per 
cent,  in  all  whose  occupations  would  be  more  or  less  injured  by  an 
apprenticeship  in  blacksmithing  and  carpentry.  For  a  certain 
delicacy  of  touch  is  required  in  the  manipulation  of  textile 
material,  that  can  be  acquired  only  by  long  continued  and  one- 
sided training.  Trade  and  transportation  employ  eleven  per 
cent,  of  the  laborers;  agriculture  forty-five  per  cent.  Manual 
training,  if  it  includes  only  wood  and  metal  work,  fits  only 
eight  per  cent,  for  their  vocation,  and  more  or  less  unfits  for 
their  vocations  a  large  part  of  the  remaining  ninety-two  per  cent, 
of  laborers. 

But  the  psychology  on  which  this  distinction  of  executive 
and  receptive  activities  is  based  is  not  sound.  It  omits  the 
elaborative  faculties  of  the  mind  altogether.  The  nerves  of 
sensation  may  bring  in  impressions  and  the  nerves  of  motion  may 
carry  impulses  outward,  but  what  connects  these  two  activities  ? 
Physiological  psychology  informs  us  that  the  brain  and  the  great 
ganglia  at  the  base  of  the  brain  are  used  by  the  soul  in  receiving, 
coordinating,  and  comparing  these  impressions  —  in  short,  in  think- 
ing upon  the  data  furnished.  Moreover,  before  a  decision  is 
reached  there  must  be  internal  impulses  consulted,  such  as  pro- 
ceed from  desires  and  wishes,  and  then  a  comparison  of  .ideals,  for 


662  EDUCATIOy.  [Jue, 

one  does  not  act  in  order  to  make  a  thing  into  ^vhat  it  is«  because 
it  is  that  already.  He  aet8  in  order  to  chang-e  some  real  condition 
into  some  other  condition  tliat  exists  only  in  his  mind  as  an  ideal 
possibility.  The  purpose  or  ideal  being  fixed,  and  the  means  of 
realizing  it  being  chosen,  the  will  acts  and  the  motor  nerves  are 
called  into  use  to  set  the  limbs  in  motion  or  to  utter  words  of 
command.  Tliat  the  ordinary  branches  of  instruction  in  school 
relate  to  this  function  of  elaboration  of  data  into  plans  of  action 
far  more  than  they  relate  to  the  mere  reception  of  sense-impressions 
or  to  the  exercise  of  the  motor  nerves,  is  obvious.  It  is  obvious, 
moreover,  that  in  the  perfection  of  this  function  of  elaboration  Ues 
the  culture  of  true  directive  power.  The  genei*al  who  plans  the 
battle  and  directs  the  movement  of  his  troops  so  that  they  secure 
victory  is  of  course  the  executive  man  in  a  far  higher  sense  than 
the  private  soldier  who  mechanically  obeys  what  he  is  ordered  to 
do.  The  geneml  may  use  his  motor  nerves  only  in  issuing  the 
wortls  of  command,  while  the  private  soldier  may  exert  to  the 
utmost  ever}^  muscle  in  his  body  —  yet  the  real  executive  is  the 
general. 

It  is  not  desirable  that  children  shall  be  taught  that  rough  hand 
labor  is  in  itself  as  honorable  as  the  elaborative  toil  of  thought 
which  gives  rational  direction  to  the  hand.  The  best  function  of 
the  manual  training  school  is  its  training  of  the  elaborative  -facul- 
ties of  the  mind  —  its  studies  on  the  rationale  of  the  construction 
and  use  of  tools  —  its  study  of  mathematics  and  science.  This 
points  out  the  road  of  permanent  usefulness  for  such  schools. 
They  may  fit  master  workmen  for  the  several  trades  and  occupa- 
tions and  thereby  furnish  overseers  who  not  only  can  direct  but 
can  teach  besides.^ 

1  It  Is  sometimes  claimed  that  the  educative  elTeot  of  the  manaal  training  sehool  i«  tbe 
remedy  for  a  prevailing  distaste  for  manual  labor.  Professor  Woodward  phrase*  it 
"  the  overcoming  a  most  humiliating  repugnance  on  th*  part  of  so-caUed  edaoated 
people  to  using  their  hands.'*  To  this  It  may  be  said,  that  if  It  is  the  object  of  the 
manual  training  school  to  cure  dudes  of  their  contempt  for  honest  labor.  It  should  first 
get  some  compulsor>'  system  of  attendance  for  that  class  of  the  community.  Professor 
Woodward  declares  that  "  Tbe  manual  training  school  is  not  an  asylum  for  the  lasr." 
Indeed,  his  entrance  examinations  carefully  sift  out  all  boys  who  do  not  ^ve  evidence 
of  past  Industry  and  good  habits  —  In  short,  all  boys  who  are  not  already  in  love  with 
honest  hand  work.  If  the  object  of  the  school  Is  to  fit  ordinary  boys  for  Uie  trades  and 
cure  tliem  of  aspiration  for  clerkships  and  professional  work,  the  statistics  show  an 
alarming  Influence  in  another  direction.  In  the  Chicago  Manual  Training  school,  oat  of 
the  eighty-seven  graduates  in  the  three  years,  1886,  *87,  '88,  there  were  fifty H>ne  at  least 
who  lire  reported  as  looking  higher  than  manual  labor,  namely:  four  teaobera,  twenty* 
eight  students  In  higher  Institutions,  seven  entering  the  professional  work  of  aicbtteet 
or  engineer,  and  twelve  clerks,  while  only  twenty -five  appear,  to  be  engaged  In  manual 
work,  either  al}  overseers  or  workmen.    Of  the  one  hondred  graduates  of  the  8%.  T.««ia. 


1889.]  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANUAL  TBAININQ.  663 

It  is  evident  that  the  elaborative  function  of  the  mind  is  the  true 
source  of  executive  power.  The  problems  of  life  must  be  solved 
by  thought  before  they  can  be  reduced  to  action  without  waste  of 
energy. 

There  is  one  phase  of  the  psychology  of  manual  training  which 
deserves  special  commentary.  Esthetic  traming  through  draw- 
ing properly  taught  gives  an  educative  effect  of  a  far-reaching 
character  as  respects  all  of  our  industries.  In  it  is  also  contained 
the  solution  of  the  economic  problems  that  lie  deep  down  under 
the  manual  training  questions  here  considered. 

By  proper  instruction  in  drawing  one  must  mean  the  cultivation 
of  the  hand  and  eye  by  the  use  of  the  pencil — but  this  is  only  the 
first  and  least  impoitant  part  —  it  is  more  manual  and  less  mental 
than  the  second  requisite  which  is  an  instruction  in  the  ideals  of 
tasteful  and  decorative  form  which  should  be  taught  in  parallel 
lessons  in  connection  with  the  practical  use  of  the  pencil. 

Once  trained  to  recognize  the  beautiful  and  graceful  in  form  and 
arrangement  and  to  criticise  all  defects  in  this  particular,  the  pupil 
has  acquired  a  precious  quality  of  mind  useful  in  every  occupation 
and  in  every  station  in  life,  whether  subaltern  or  directive.  Cul- 
ture in  taste,  such  as  drawing  gives,  fits  all  laborers  for  more 
lucrative  stiitions  and  helps  our  industries  by  giving  our  commerce 
a  firm  hold  on  the  markets  of  the  world.  Not  merely  wood  and 
metal  work  profits  by  this  cultivation  in  taste,  but  all  manufact- 
ures, whether  of  food,  clothing,  or  shelter. 

The  educative  effect  of  art  is  also  ennobling,  for  it  leads  to  the 
preference  of  an  ideal  which  is  not  a  selfish  one. 

If  we  could  see  in  the  Slojd  training  a  more  prominent  place 
offered  to  art  studies,^  we  could  predict  with  some  certainty  the 
rise  of  Sweden  from  the  low  rank  she  holds  among  manufacturing 

Manual  Training  school  In  the  years  1888,  '84,  and  '85,  It  appears  that  sixty^flve  look 
above  manual  labor  (six  teachers,  twenty-nine  students  in  higher  institutions,  twenty- 
one  clerks,  nine  professionals),  while  only  twenty-live  are  reported  as  engaged  in  work 
of  farming  and  mechanical  pursuits  as  laborers  or  overseers. 

1  In  the  Siajd  work  it  is  stated  that  the  chief  tool  used  is  the  jack-knife,  though  it  is  the 
object  of  the  training  schools  of  Sweden  to  secure  skill  in  the  use  of  other  tools.  The 
political  economist  cannot  commend  the  encouragement  of  home  manufacture  of  kniok- 
knacks,  though  he  may  admit  that  it  Is  better  than  sheer  idleness  during  the  winter 
months.  Far  better  would  be  the  introduction  of  manufactures  requiring  skilled  and 
combined  labor  that  would  draw  the  peasants  into  villages,  as  our  own  manufacturing 
establishments  have  done.  To  some  extent  work  can  be  given  out  by  the  large  manu- 
facturers to  the  families  of  the  rural  population,  as  for  example,  as  is  done  here  with 
the  manufacture  of  clothing,— and  such  work  is  found  far  more  profitable  than  knick- 
knacks,  especially  when  the  latter  are  not  made  of  graceftil  patterns,  or  from  tasteftd 
designs. 


(m 


EDUCATION. 


[Jfme, 


nations.  Instead  of  furnishing  raw  material  to  other  nations  — 
she  sends  us  pig  and  scrap  iron,  and  ragp  *  —  she  would  begin  to 
send  out  finished  goods,  as  Belgium  and  France  have  sent  out  for 
a  long  time,  and  as  England  has  sent  out  since  the  foundation  of 
the  South  Kensington  Museum. 

However  this  may  be,  it  is  pleasant  to  record  the  fact  that 
American  manual  training  schools  give  far  more  attention  to  the 
study  of  drawing,  although  perhaps  not  enough  to  the  analysis  and 
discussion  of  the  forms  of  ornament  and  free  design,  or  in  othei 
words  to  the  theory  of  art. 

Whether  manual  training  schools  shall  develop  into  industrial 
schools  for  the  training  of  apprentices  to  the  several  trades,  or,  or 
the  other  hand  become  incorporated  into  the  school  system  as  i 
general  discipline,  depends  of  course,  upon  the  ans\rer  which  Edn 
cational  Psychology  finally  gives  to  the  question. 


EDUCATIONAL    VALUE  OF  MANUAL    TRAINING. 


bi 


BY  CEO.   P.  BROWN,  BLOOMINGTON,    ILL. 
\^Rtadai  iht  Superintendtnts*  Convention  in  Weuhington,  March  7,  18S9.] 

ON  my  way  to  this  meeting,  I  fell  in  with  a  paper  by  Mr.  C.  M 
Woodward,  in  a  recent  publication,  which  I  interpret  to  be  i 
statement  of  the  educational  value  of  shop-training*  as  it  is  esti 
mated  by  an  intelligent  advocate  of  this  method  of  educating  th( 
young.  This  paper  was  written  as  a  reply  to  some  opinion; 
expressed  by  Dr.  Edward  Brooks  some  months  ago,  to  the  effec 
that  but  little  reliance  should  be  placed  upon  work-shop  traininj 
as  a  method  of  intellectual  development.  I  think  that  I  may  saj 
that  all  will  be  pleased  to  know  that  one  apostle  of  this  method  o 
education  has  undertaken  to  state,  with  some  definiteness,  the  edu 
cational  value  of  the  work-shop.  This  is  the  first  attempt  of  thi 
kind  that  has  lieen  made  public  which  was  not  too  vague  to  be  o 
any  great  assistance  in  solving  the  problem.     His  claim,  in  briel 

>  In  the  official  report  of  Commerce  and  Xavlgation  of  the  United  States  for  1881,  lb 
Imports  from  Sweden  and  Norway  are  reported  as  pig  Iron,  $111,176;  bar  iron,  $517,991 
old  and  scrap  iron,  $1U,8S3.  Total,  1^744,018.  But  of  manufactures  of  iron  and  ateel,  onl 
$111,749  are  reported.  It  is  HurprlMing  to  note  that  we  Imported  wood  manufiaotQi^s  troi 
them  only  to  the  small  amount  of  $137,  while  we  imported  rags  for  paper  manntectai 
to  the  amount  of  $39,090.  but  no  manufactured  clothing  to  speak  of .  Tbe  same  yei 
Belgium  sent  us  wood  manufactures  to  the  value  of  $118,146,  or  nearly  one  UK>tt8att 
times  the  value  of  the  same  item  from  Sweden  and  Norway  I    (See  pp.  4S,  09^60,  tt,  78, 7$. 


1889.]  EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  MANUAL  TBAINING.  665 

is  that  in  the  construction  of  things  with  tools  from  the  raw  material 
there  is  a  mastery  of  the  constructive  process  and  an  exercise  of 
the  intellectual  faculties,  essential  to  a  proper  education,  that  is 
not  possible  to  the  same  extent  in  the  exercises  already  provided 
in  good  schools :  that  observation  and  drawing  are  two  necessary 
preliminary  steps,  but  that  actual  construction  stimulates  a  neces- 
sary psychical  activity  that  the  two  former  do  not  give.  He  inci- 
dentally remarks,  "  I  do  not  say  that  every  public  school  should 
have  a  shop  and  teach  the  use  of  tools." 

But  why  not  ?  If  these  gentlemen  have  discovered  a  new  form 
of  intellectual  training  superior  to  the  old,  and  having  capabilities 
which  it  does  not  possess,  why  should  it  not  become  an  integral 
part  of  the  common  school  curriculum  ?  We  are  told  that  no  en- 
vironment other  than  a  manual  training  school  will  suffice  to  give 
this  training.  Mr.  Woodward  declares  that,  "  The  ideas  involved 
in  the  construction  of  (with)  tools  —  and  tools  are  crowded  with 
ideas  —  are  by  no  means  obvious  to  the  average  boy.  Under  the 
guidance  of  a  skillful  teacher  the  student  recognizes  qualities  in 
right  methods  which  he  never  would  discover  for  himself ;  and 
this  is  true  in  a  tool-laboratory,  as  it  is  in  a  chemical-laboratory,  or 
in  the  class  lecture-room.  Nothing  so  stimulates  intellectual  life, 
as  intellectual  life,  and  a  skillfully  guided  class  in  tool-work  is  full 
of  intellectual  life.  As  I  said,  the  tools  are  full  of  ideas,  and  those 
ideas  are  directly  related  to  the  materials  to  be  wrought,  and  to  the 
correct  use  of  tools.  Without  that  correct  u^e  the  ideas  involved  will 
not  be  recognized.  When,  however,  under  skillful  guidance  the 
boy  with  his  own  hands  realizes  correct  methods  of  using  tools,  he 
unlocks  the  secrets  of  their  construction,  and  the  thought  of  the 
maker  or  contriver  stands  revealed  with  a  vividness  that  makes 
the  impression  lasting,  and  the  enjoyment  keen.  A  skillful  teacher 
transforms  a  shop."  In  another  connection  he  says,  "  There  is 
no  doubt  but  that  the  untaught,  unreasoning,  unscientific  laborer 
is  extremely  stupid."  This  is  said  in  reply  to  the  statement  of 
Doctor  Brooks,  that  the  father's  work-shop,  where  he  works  with- 
out a  teacher,  furnishes  the  best  manual  discipline  for  a  boy.  So  it 
seems  that  to  get  at  this  hidden  virtue  in  manual  training  the 
work-shop  and  the  skillful  teacher  are  needed.  Why  then  ought 
not  every  school  to  have  a  shop,  and  teach  the  use  of  tools  ? 

I  understand  that  the  question  now  before  the  educational  pub- 
lic is  whether  instruction  in  the  use  of  mechanical  tools  is  of  such 


eoe  SDUCATIOH.  [Joe 

educational  value  as  to  justify  its  introduction  as  an  int^nl  ytn 
of  the  common  school  curriculum.  If  this  question  Is  answered 
in  the  affirmative,  then  the  work-shop  must  go  into  crerv  public 
Bcliool  at  the  earliest  moment  practicable.  If  it  is  answered  in  the 
negative,  then  manual  training  mar  he  remanded  to  the  de]«n- 
ment  of  ttiiecial  instruction,  and  special  schools  'n'ill  be  estaliliiihed 
as  communities  feel  the  need  of  such  instruction,  and  the  general 
discussion  of  the  subject  may  cease.  That  there  is  something  oi 
educational  value  in  work-shop  training  under  the  direction  of  i 
skillful  teaclier  there  can  be  no  doubt.  But  the  quesdon  ii. 
whether  the  time  of  the  pupil  cannot  be  better  employed,  and  i 
more  practical  and  useful  education  obtained,  than  is  passible 
through  a  work-shop  course  of  discipline.  That  question  has  not 
been  answered  in  the  negative  by  Mr.  Woodward  in  tlie  papet  ta 
which  reference  has  been  made.  In  fact,  he  does  not  seem  to  hive 
considered  it.  The  question  can  be  Answered  intelligently  onh 
when  one  has  clearly  in  mind  the  end  of  common  school  education 
aii<l  the  [)syc1iiciil  processes  involved  in  the  different  kinds  of  trun 
ing.  There  arc  four  things  tliat  the  school  should  do  for  tb< 
pupil,  that  are  essential  to  an  adequate  preparation  for  successfd 
living,  wliatever  else  it  may  do  or  leave  undone  :  — 

1.  It  shouhl  make  him  intelligent  —  which  implies  a  reasonable 
wide  mnge  of  knowledge,  and  the  ix>wer  to  use  this  in  the  acqni 
sition  of  new  knowledge. 

2.  It  should  cultivate  in  him  the  spirit  of  obedience  to  convic 
tion  and  the  habit  of  conformity  to  law. 

8.  It  should  make  him  industrious,  which  is  ])etsi8tent  self 
directed  activity  toward  a  worthy  end,  avoiding  the  two  extreme 
of  injietion  and  of  "active  idleness." 

4.  It  should  establisi)  a  reasonable  control  over  the  '■'■  hand  un 
the  eye,"  or  the  rule  of  the  mind  over  the  body. 

An  analysis  of  our  present  curriculum  of  study,  including  draw 
ing  in  all  the  grades,  will  reveal  the  fact  that  all  of  these  result 
naturally  flow  from  it  wht-ii  it  is  proiterly  taught.  I  believe  tha 
our  endeavor  should  Ik^  directed  toward  the  better  teaching  of  thi 
curriculum  until  its  jiossibilities  liave  been  fairly  realized.  Whft 
clianges  tire  needed  in  it  will  liecome  manifestas  our  knowledgeo 
it  increases.  The  limits  imposed  upon  this  discussion  will  pennii 
mc  to  speak  briefly  to  Ijut  one  of  the  pur[>06e8  of  the  school  as  w 
forth  above. 


1889.]  EDUCATIONAL   VALUE  OF  MANUAL  TRAINING.  667 

To  be  intelligent,  as  we  have  said,  one  must  have  knowledge 
and  an  ability  to  use  it  in  acquiring  new  knowledge.  It  is  the 
fault  of  the  teaching  if  the  power  to  use  knowledge  does  not  keep 
pace  with  the  acquisition. 

The  two  distinct  groups  of  activities  involved  in  intelligence  are 
generally  named  Observation  and  Reflection. 

Observation  is  thinking  in  the  presence  of  the  object.  It  might 
be  called  concrete  thinking.  The  material  with  Avhich  it  deals  is 
things,  and  images  of  things ;  and  the  purpose  is  to  discover  rela- 
tions between  these.  Words  are  not  essential  to  tliis  kind  of 
thinking.  All  the  faculties  of  perception  and  understanding  are 
involved  in  Observation.  Perception,  memory,  imagination,  gen- 
eralization, judgment,  reasoning,  are  all  there.  But  the  range  of 
their  comprehension  is  a  narrow  one.  The  mind  limits  itself  to 
the  relation  of  individual  to  individual,  for  the  most  part,  and  I 
will  add  parenthetically,  that  to  be  able  to  discover  the  true  rela- 
tions of  individuals  to  one  another  is  the  great  end  of  education,  from 
the  standpoint  of  intelligence.  It  is  with  individuals  that  we  have 
ever  to  deal  in  the  end.  He  who  can  properly  relate  these,  or  him- 
self to  these,  is,  so  far,  well  equipped  for  successful  living. 

But  while  we  all  agree  that  this  is  the  end  of  intellectual  train- 
ing, there  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  means  whereby 
it  is  best  attained. 

''  Learn  to  observe  by  observing,"  is  the  injunction  of  the  reform- 
ers. They  would  keep  the  gaze  riveted  upon  things.  See  some- 
thing—  then  draw  it  —  then  make  it.  This  is  the  sequence  of 
steps  by  which  the  child  is  to  come  into  a  mastery  of  the  world 
through  the  manual  training  process,  according  to  Mr.  Woodward. 

The  importance  of  this  study  and  construction  of  things  in 
primary  grades  is  conceded.  This  importance  has  not  been  suffi- 
ciently emphasized  until  more  recent  years  and  since  teachers  have 
begun  to  make  a  more  careful  and  continued  study  of  the  process 
of  the  mind's  growth.  The  pupil  must  pass  on  from  the  stage  of 
growth  we  have  called  observation  into  that  in  which  reflection 
becomes  prominently  active.  While  in  this  lower  intellectual  stage 
objects  of  sense  and  of  the  imagination  must  command  his  atten- 
tion. It  is  not  probable  that  too  much  emphasis  will  be  given  to 
the  necessity  for  persistent  and  systematic  training  by  skillful 
teachers  in  the  observation  and  construction  of  things.  Mr.  Wood- 
ward does  not  place  too  high  an  estimate  upon  teaching  a  child 


668 


EDUCATIOy. 


LJ 


the  meaning  of  a  ^*'  process.^^  But  it  seems  to  me  that  he  does  place 
too  high  an  estimate  upon  the  relative  value  of  the  process  oi 
mechanical  construction. 

All  processes  are  not  of  the  sort  that  can  be  worked  out  by  the 
use  of  mechanical  tools.  The  most  important  and  valuable  ones 
in  education  are  those  that  are  purely  mental,  with  which  the  hand 
and  the  eye  have  nothing  to  do.  As  the  child  accumulates  experi 
ence  and  his  |>o\ver  to  construct  mental  images  grows,  and  his  ston 
of  "  concepts  of  objects  of  sense  "  increases,  more  reliance  can  b< 
placed  upon  drawing  for  learning  these  mechanical  processes 
(Who  will  say  that  the  educational  value  of  constructing  a  rail 
road  bridge  with  his  pencil  is  essentially  less  to  an  engineer  thai 
if  he  constructs  it  with  tools?)  Now  the  child  is  more  and  mon 
exercised  in  those  processes  that  appeal  to  the  constructive  imagina 
tion  through  the  use  of  pictures  and  words.  Reading,  Greography 
Elementary  Arithmetic,  History,  make  these  appeals.  Whili 
Drawing,  Writing,  and  Moulding  continue  to  be  employed  to  exei 
cise  the  pupils  in  the  purely  mechanical  processes. 

But  a  tnmsition  must  come  in  the  growth  of  mind  from  concret 
to  general  thinking.  If  we  should  define  Observation  as  the  exti 
cise  of  the  senses  re-enforced  by  the  results  of  previous  experieno 
and  by  reflection,  we  would  define  Reflection  as  the  exercise  of  tk 
thnmiJit  proresifes  re-enforced  by  experience  and  the  products  of  th 
senses.  The  one  consists  in  relating  sense-objects,  while  the  othe 
discovers  the  relations  between  general  notions.  The  tnateriali  c 
thovf/fit  in  the  two  processes  differ,  as  objects  and  images  diffe 
from  general  notions.  General  notions  are  not  things  of  sense  nc 
of  the  imagination,  and  their  only  sense-symbols  are  words  and  sei 
tences. 

The  true  function  of  the  school,  as  an  intellectual  training,  is  1 
lead  the  child  on  through  concrete  thinking  into  general  thinking 
which,  as  I  understivnd  it,  is  the  seeing  of  the  wider  and  moi 
remote  relations  of  individual  things.  These  more  remote  rel 
tions  of  things  it  is  needful  to  know  in  oixler  that  one  may  be  ah 
to  observe  the  things  themselves  as  they  really  are. 

This  transition  from  the  concrete  to  the  general  is  a  severe  di 
cipline.     It  is  hard  work  and  little  play,  sugar  coat  as  we  may. 
is  not  at  all  surprising  that  Mr.  Woodward's  bright  Latin  pup 
should  express  his  greater  delight  in  slioi>-work.      It  is  certain! 
much  easier,  and  Rosenkranz  asserts  that  "  man  is  by  nature,  lazy 


tf 


1889.]  EDVCATIOXAL  VALUE  OF  MANUAL  TBAINING.  669 

What  the  pupil  most  enjoys  is  not  a  safe  criterion  from  which  to- 
judge  of  what  is  best  for  him.  The  good  teacher  has  had  this 
severer  discipline  of  the  mind  in  view  during  the  previous  years, 
of  school  life,  and  has  allowed  the  young  mind  to  try  its  wings^ 
whenever  it  was  so  inclined.  But  now  he  begins  to  force  it  from 
ite  resting  place  in  the  world  of  sense  into  what  seems  to  it  the 
less  real  world  of  general  ideas ;  not  that  things  are  to  be  lost  to 
view,  but  what  is  eternally  true  in  them,  and  not  what  is  acciden- 
tal and  fleeting,  is  made  the  principal  object  of  study.  Laws, 
Rules,  Definitions  must  be  seized  and  these  must  be  made  the  step- 
ping-stones to  still  higher  laws,  and  a  more  comprehensive  outlook  \. 
in  order  that  one's  observation  of  the  things  he  needs  to  know  may 
be  enriched.  I  do  not  suppose  that  any  one  here  needs  an  illustra- 
tion of  my  meaning.  Agassiz  could  build  up  a  fish  from  a  scale  ; 
Cuvier,  a  mammal  from  a  bone  ;  Gray,  a  tree  from  a  leaf  ;  an  artist,, 
a  statue  from  a  limb,  or  a  temple  from  a  column.  Suppose  that 
Agassiz,  and  Cuvier,  and  Gray,  had  been  held  to  the  practice  of 
shop-work  and  mechanical  drawing  in  their  youth  until  these  had 
become  the  nervous  tracks  along  which  the  mental  energy  had 
become  habituated  to  pass,  and  those  other  lines  of  broader  gen- 
eralizations had  never  been  run.  They  might  by  the  force  of 
genius  have  afterwards  broken  the  chains  in  which  their  school 
training  had  bound  them,  but  a  common-place  boy  would  have 
remained  bound  forever. 

It  seems,  therefore,  that  we  must  learn  to  reflect  if  we  would 
learn  to  observe  truly.  To  "  learn  to  observe  by  observing  '*  does, 
not  seem  the  most  economical  use  of  time  after  the  child  haa 
reached  that  maturity  that  makes  reflection  practicable.  Is  it  not 
through  the  mastery  of  the  broader  and  more  comprehensive  pro- 
cess of  general  thinking  that  the  most  accurate  and  ready  observa- 
tion is  cultivated  ?  Of  course,  it  is  possible  for  one's  estrangement 
from  the  sense-world  to  be  so  complete  that  he  cannot  return  to  it. 
But  that  is  the  result  of  bad  teaching  that  is  only  paralleled  by 
that  other  kind  of  bad  teaching  which  keeps  the  pupil  so  buried  in 
sense  that  he  never  acquires  the  power  to  reflect.  When  the 
pupil  has  attained  to  this  power  of  general  thought  he  should  be 
driven  as  rapidly  as  he  can  go  with  safety  along  this  way,  for  his 
school  life  is  very  brief.  But  he  travels  with  safety  only  when  he 
keeps  a  firm  hold  of  his  sense-world,  and  tests  the  truth  of  every 
generalization  by  that,  so  far  as  it  is  practicable. 


«T0  EDUCATtOX.  rjw 

It  rteenis  vvi«U>iit  tliat  reflection  must  be  developed  throngbtk 
antX  of  exerc-Lse  that  iit  stimulated  tlirou^h  the  study  of  btjut. 
guided  and  corrected  by  a  continued  reference  to  things,  ud  in 
«x])erience.  This  has  long  been  knon*!!  as  objective  teiching. 
The  wrtrk-tthop  ouglit  not  to  go  into  the  upper  grades  of  a  ^neni 
educKtional  system,  as  an  integral  part  of  the  curriculumof  ^tndr. 
for  the  reason  that  the  time  of  the  pupils  can  be  lietter  emplove^ 
and  for  the  aililitional  reason  that  if  it  is  put  there  bja  a  proce:£<^ 
direct  educational  \'alue  it  is  an  instance  of  educational  malpm- 
tice.  The  great  educational  aim  at  this  jieriod  should  be  to  nu 
the  lines  —  blaze  the  way,  so  to  si>eak  —  of  reflectire  thinking  in 
the  pupirs  consciousness.  Tliis  jieriod  of  running'  lines  is  iIm 
determining  [teriiHl  of  the  child's  future  intellectual  and  monl 
character.  The  tracks  of  a  reflective  thinking  must  be  laid  mi 
extended  in  many  directions  in  the  flve-fold  n'orld  in  whicbill 
must  ever  live.  They  may  be  ballasted  and  fully  equipped  lit«, 
It  is  a  commt^n  error  to  try  to  equip  each  line  as  it  is  extended 
We  seek  for  tlmrough  and  comprehensive  knowledge  when  tb 
child  can  acquire  only  vague  outlines  of  it.  And  I)ecau8e  thi 
knowledge  is  shailowy  and  vague  at  the  first  some  deem  it  les 
valuable  than  the  more  distinct  and  defiuite  knowledge  of  indi 
vidual  things.  The  workshop  conies  in  at  a  time  when  the  bo] 
has  attained  to  the  age  of  i-eason.  and  it  demands  that  be  slal 
devote  his  energy  to  shaping  bits  of  wood  and  iron  ! 

The  first  ten  years  of  a  child's  life  is  the  (lerind  of  concrete  iIudI 
ing.  The  next  seven  to  ten  years  is  the  period  of  transition ;  whj 
tlie  phj-siologists  call  the  jwriod  of  brain  development.  In  thi 
the  nc<!ewsity  of  tliinking  with  images  or  with  things  diminishes) 
the  power  to  deal  with  geneml  notions  increases.  After  thi 
transition  periinl  the  college  takes  the  pupil  and  practises  himi 
the  use  of  general  notions  in  gaining  a  theoretical  knowle^^e  ( 
the  world.  The  university  follows  the  college,  and  directs  tl 
pciwer  acquircil.  to  the  mastery  of  a  3j>ecial  vocation.  This  is  i 
brief,  the  ideal  scheme  of  education.  We  are  considering  bei 
only  the  first  two  stages  of  it.  But  no  teacher  can  conduct  tl 
pupil  along  any  portion  of  this  couiue  with  certainty,  who  b^R  ni 
surveyed  the  whole  route. 

The  coui-se  of  study  of  the  St.  Louis  Manual  Training  Schoc 
which  is  fur  young  men.  provides  that  three  hours  per  day  1 
devoted  to  this  manual  work,  and  three  houra  to  studies  that  trai 


't 


1889.]  EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  MANUAL  TRAINING,  671 

to  reflection.  This  really  means  three  hours  of  the  twenty-four  for 
reflective  study ;  for  the  out  of  school  life  is  devoted  to  observa- 
tion in  so  far  as  it  is  educative.  I  fear  that  these  boys  are  deceived 
to  their  permanent  injury,  when  they  are  taught  that  in  this  way* 
they  will  receive  the  best  intellectual  preparation  for  living.  The 
explanation  made  by  Mr.  Woodward  last  evening,  that  his  boys- 
devote  six  hours  in  every  twenty-four  to  reflective  studies,  and  one 
to  drawing,  besides  their  two  hours  per  day  in  the  shop,  takes  the 
St.  Louis  school  out  of  the  list  to  which  this  last  remark  will  apply. 
But  his  explanation  shows  why  these  boys  go  through  the  manual 
training  school  so  well  prepared  for  the  college.  They  devote,  prac- 
tically, the  same  amount  of  energy  to  their  reflective  studies  that 
those  boys  do  who  attend  a  high  school  without  a  manual  training 
attachment.  According  to  his  statement,  they  work  nine  hours 
per  day.  I  think  that  we  all  agree  that  this  is  too  much  time  for  a 
boy  of  fourteen  to  spend  in  severe  reflective  study.  From  six  to 
seven  hours  per  day  is  all  of  such  work  we  expect  of  him.  The  rest 
of  his  time  is  spent  on  a  sort  of  work  that  makes  no  more  demand 
upon  this  mental  energy  than  does  the  shop-work  that  Mr.  Wood- 
ward requires  of  him.  For  the  lighter  kinds  of  work  in  the  high 
school  he  has  substituted  the  work-shop.  It  gives  an  excellent 
kind  of  physical  exercise  and  gives  it  peraistently  and  system- 
atically. It  is  a  success  as  a  gymnasium.  The  bodily  health  and 
vigor  of  many  of  the  boys  is  undoubtedly  improved  by  it.  Reduce 
tliis  to  one  hour  per  day,  and  require  the  boys  to  spend  the  other 
hour  in  the  easier  kind  of  studies  now  omitted  from  his  curriculum 
and  the  result  would  be  still  more  satisfactory.  It  should  be  noted 
that  only  three  studies  are  pursued  contemporaneously.  There  is. 
a  gain  here  over  the  prevalent  practice  of  attempting  to  carry  five 
or  six  heavy  studies  together.  It  is  probable,  too,  that  there  is  & 
degree  of  interest  and  enthusiasm  among  teachers  and  pupils  in 
this  school  incident  to  the  fact  that  it  is  regarded  as  exemplifying 
a  new  movement  in  education,  that  keep  all  working  at  high 
pressure.  The  Lancastrian  craze  produced  wonderful  results  at 
first,  we  are  told.  We  all  know  the  marked  difference  between 
schools  of  every  sort  in  which  the  teachers  are  drones,  and  those 
where  they  are  enthusiastic  and  capable.  When  all  of  these  things 
are  taken  into  the  account  it  does  not  seem  to  me  that  any  proof 
or  hardly  any  evidence  has  been  advanced  by  Mr.  Woodward  that 
the  work-shop  training  is  of  any  direct  intellectual  value  to  his. 


A7i 


EDUCATION. 


bov8.  Would  not  all  the  educational  results  obtained  be  snbiU' 
tially  what  they  are  if  the  work-:»hop  were  converted  into  an  oit 
nary  g}'mnasiuni«  and  the  same  interest  and  enthusiasm  in  regud 
to  it  maintained  ? 

I  liave  not  time  now  to  consider  the  relative  merits  of  Dnvii^ 
and  the  work-shop,  and  to  show  that  the  latter  is  substantially  i 
repetition  of  the  former  in  these  upi)er  grades.  This  I  have  doa 
before  at  diflferent  times.  I  believe  in  drawing  in  all  the  grafa 
of  the  fii*8t  two  [>eriod8  of  education  as  firmly  as  I  disbelieve  in  the 
work-shop  in  the  higher  grades.  I  see  in  drawing,  if  well  taugii 
every  kind  of  mind  activity  found  in  the  work-shop,  and  rniiA 
that  is  n4)t  found  there.  The  work-shop  is  a  wjisteful  repetitid 
of  what  the  drawing-room  furnishes,  unless  the  design  istoedncatt 
mechanics.  But  that  design  classes  the  manual  training  school 
with  special  schools,  and  not  among  the  common  schools.  If  thi 
w*ork-«hop  is  put  into  the  school  as  a  g}'mnasium  there  can  le  » 
serious  objection.  In  this  very  meclianical  age  of  ours  in  whicl 
so  much  attention  is  given  to  storing  up  energy  to  be  expendeda 
other  times  and  places,  it  is  not  strange  that  the  notion  become 
prevalent  that  the  physical  energy  ex|>ended  in  exercise  for  bodfl 
health  and  vigor  may  be  stored  up  in  mechanical  tools  for  possibl 
future  use.  But  all  of  these  things  are  very  different  from  the  do 
trine  advocated  by  the  a^)ostles  of  manual  ti-aining,  which  is  th 
it  is  entitled  to  a  place  in  the  common  schools,  for  its  direct  edi 
cational  value.     That  doctrine  is  not  i>edagogicallv  sound. 

I  have  been  able  to  consider  but  one  function  of  the  school - 
that  of  training  in  intelligence  —  and  but  one  point  in  that,  whi< 
is  the  importance  of  training  in  reflection  or  general  thinkinj 
But  the  work-shop  will  not  be  found  more  useful  in  realizing  tl 
other  functions.  It  is  only  as  a  special  school  that  its  right  to 
place  in  a  public  school  system  can  be  maintained.  As  such  speci 
school  there  is  not  only  no  objection  to  it,  but  it  is  needed.  It 
to  take  the  place  of  the  old  apprentice  system  now  happily  obs 
lete.  Let  us  have  trade-schools  and  every  kind  of  special  scho 
that  our  complex  civilization  requires.  But  let  us  see  to  it  th 
we  build  these  upon  as  broad  a  foundation  of  general  culture  ai 
as  complete  an  intellectual  training  as  time  and  circumstance  w 
allow  the  child  to  receive.  It  is  the  function  of  a  common  schc 
that  is  common  to  give  this  culture  and  training. 


1889.]         OX  TEACHING  ZOOLOGY  TO  COLLEGE  CLASSES.  678 


THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE.^ 

I. 

ON  TEACHING  ZOOLOGY  TO  COLLEGE  CLASSES. 

BY   WILLIAM   A.    LOCY. 
Pr€f€$$or  of  Zoology  and  Comparative  Anatomy  in  Lake  Forest  UnivertUy. 

IT  is  not  my  aim  to  consider  at  present  the  importance  of  the 
study  of  zoology  as  a  means  of  training  and  culture,  but  to 
speak  from  the  standpoint  of  a  teacher,  of  teaching  that  subject  to 
college  classes. 

It  will  be  well  to  notice  fii*st,  that  in  dealing  with  a  biological 
subject,  like  zoology,  we  have  under  consideration  the  phenomena 
manifested  by  matter  in  its  living  state,  and,  therefore,  there  is  a 
natural  division  between  the  domain  of  physics  and  chemistry 
(which  deal  with  the  phenomena  of  non-living  matter)  and  that 
of  zoology.  Although  this  boundary  line  between  living  and  non- 
living matter  is  well  defined,  the  two  are  so  intimately  associated 
in  all  living  organisms,  that  for  the  comprehension  of  zoology  the 
phenomena  of  each  kind  should  be  studied,  and  since  the  processes 
of  life  are  physico-chemical,  rather  than  vital,  in  their  nature,  ele- 
mentary physics  and  chemistry  should  precede  zoology. 

As  regards  methods  of  teaching,  the  physical  and  the  biological 
sciences  belong  to  the  same  group,  and  what  will  prove  a  good 
method  of  teaching  either  one  will  be  satisfactory  (as  far  as  broad 
principles  are  concerned)  if  applied  to  the  other.  Physics  and 
chemistry  have  been  taught  longer  than  zoology  and  its  kindred 
subjects,  and  with  them  the  pioneer  work  has  been  done  and  a 
fairly  satisfactory  method  reached.  Teachers  of  zoology  cannot 
do  better  than  to  accept  the  principles  arrived  at,  and  build  their 
particular  methods  up  on  the  well-earned  experience  of  their  broth- 
ers in  the  physical  sciences. 

The  fundamental  principle  that  underlies  all  good  science  teach- 
ing is  the  direct  appeal  to  nature  for  data,  and  inductive  reasoning 
from  the  same.     In  this  way,  the  characteristics  of  objects  are 

*■  Copyright,  1889,  by  Eastern  Edaoational  Bareaa. 


\ 


674  SDUCATIOS. 

iletemiiiie<l  by  observHtiotu  apon   the  objects  themseWtt.  ilJ 
iminenu  aikI  Itiws  are  investigated  by  direct  experimeiiL   .\!ia 
tliU  ]>riiiciiile  rvcvives  almost  univei^sal  recognitioD.  it'uiif 
tucAiis.  bi'vii  uiiifonnly  adopted  in  teaching'  the  iBologialeu 
untl  th«  twK-lier  who  Ajipliea  it  consiiitently  to  these  snW^ 
tliv  j>ri-»fiit  state  of  biological   teacliin^.   almost  a  pioner:.  lil 
tiilil  by  iiifmU-rs  of  this  associatinn  (Western  Society  of  SnI 
iMls ).  tliiit  tlifv  know  of  "  many  "  colleges  and  high  $ch»ilii):| 
tbi-  /iHibi^ii-al  tearhing  consists  of  textbook  study  of  tbecii 
lion  or  Ici'tuFfs  on  tlie  same:  but    that  this  deplotabtca 
affairs  is  tie:tr  its  end  is  evidenced  by  the  improremeniinni 
liiiil  the  nipid  incn-a^ie  of  lAb.>raU>ries,  and  other  facilitiesinui^l 
ing  Natiiml  Histnry.  that  are  being  introduced.  througlibeBbl 
cine  tif  [iri'iRTly  educated  science   teachers,  into  highscWia 
lolU'gi's  ttinm^bmit  thecomitrj-. 


In  tfUi-liing  /oiilogy  tlie  first  thing  necessarv  to  carry  (dtv 
prinriplc  eiiunciiitvd  is  a  room  fitted  for  practical  work— dKi* 
l.i^jital  liilninit'.ry.  This  is  fully  as  imf>ortant  to  zoology  »* 
lalKiniliiry  is  to  thcmistrh',  and  for  similar  reasons.  In  foini^ 
tilt'  lalHiriili.iy.  tin-  thought  to  keep  upt>erraost  is  that  it  glullcii 
tain  fvi-rylliing  that  Jh  aljsohitely  essential  and  nothliw  lOon. 
is  in  tla-  iiitclligfiit  upplicntinn  of  this  last  clause,  "andnotta 
niiiri',"  tliiil  fiuiinniy  is  to  l)e  cxereised.  The  teacher  i*  oB 
upon  I"  know  very  dctiiiitely  wliat  he  needs.  Paime»  to 
lx>iii-d.  to  bis  students,  and  to  his  work,  requires  that  hisontfitil 
l>t'  iidciiualc  tti  muct  tlie  deiwinds  made  upon  it,  and  jtisticett 
liuard  re'iuin-s  tbiit  there  shall  be  nothing  suxierfluous.  WU 
am  not  an  ailvocatc  of  elaUimtc  furnishing  it  is  my  conviction  t 
there  should  1r'  no  coinpii>mise  on  the  i>art  of  the  teacher  with 
Ixmrd  upon  whiil  is  really  needed  for  proper  -work.  As  ana 
uf  course,  the  needs  vary  fjreiitly  witb  the  scope  and  importi 
of  the  work,  bnt  every  college  laboratory  should  contain  eno 
microscopes  for  the  individual  use  of  students,  water,  work^al 
a  microtome  iif  late  pattern  for  outtiug  serial  sections,  mean 
imbedding  in  piinitlinc  and  eelloidin,  some  of  the  current  refen 
Ixioks,  a  Zeiss  eiimera  or  an  end>ryograph  of  some  kind,  aloe 
reagent,s,  and  ilyes.  These  lire  the  staple  articles  of  foinisb 
Other  ftceessiiries  will  correspond  to  the  quality  of  the  worit 
teacher  is  expected  to  conduct. 


».]  ox  TEACHING  ZOOLOGY  TO  COLLEGE  CLASSES.  675 

''^  the  matter  stands  today,  the  college  teacher  of  zoology  finds- 
ecessary  to  begin  his  work  at  the  foundation ;  there  is  no  pre- 
%atory  work  leading  to  his  department,  as  there  is  in  Latin  and 
eek  and  several    other   college   studies.      His  first  course  of 
truction,  therefore,  becomes  one  of  preliminaiy  training,  and  is 
itected  towards  teaching  the  students  to  observe  accurately,  and 
form  intelligent  (although  simple)  conclusions  from  their  own 
BipiBrsonal  observations. 

ri  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  this  preliminary  work  is  not  done  in 

iie  preparatory  schools,  when  the  students  are  younger,  and  their 

erving  powers  are  naturally  more  active.     In  fact,  the  work 

■iriliQuld  be  better  done  there,  if  in  the  hands  of  properly  trained 

ii^eachers.     It  is  unquestionably  the  duty  of  colleges  and  universi- 

n^jies  to  furnish  such  trained  teachers,  and,  therefore,  the  reform 

nust  begin  at  the  top.     But  the  reform  has  already  begun  ;  every- 

svhere  intelligent  school  boards  are  demanding  properly  trained 

teachers  of  science,  and  in  many  places  where  such  teachers  have 

■Fbeen  procured,  efficient   training   in   observation   is  being  done. 

•■'But  this  kind  of  work  is  not  yet  universal  enough  to  impress  iteelf 

•'  upon  the  character  of  a  Freshman  class  whose  members  are  drawn 

■  from  a  comparatively  wide  range. 

^tt  The  natural  result  of  the  laboratory  work  should  be,  to  cultivate 
(•  in  the  student  a  scientific  attitude  of  mind,  to  give  accuracy  in 

■  observation,  and  independence  in  forming  a  judgment  upon  what 
li  is  known  from  personally  acquired  knowledge.  This  first-hand 
.  t  knowledge  must,  of  course,  be  acquired  from  actual  objects,  and 
U  the  more  completely  they  are  studied  the  better ;  let  them  be  han- 
1^  died,  observed,  drawn,  described,  impressed  upon  the  mind  through 
Ir  as  many  channels  of  sense  as  possible.  This  direct  study  from  the 
f  actual  object  is  so  fundamental,  that  I  venture  to  repeat  that  it  is 
i     the  foundation  of  all  good  teaching  in  zoology. 

The  results  of  personal  observations  on  the  part  of  the  student 
ought  to  be  recorded  in  the  form  of  drawings  and  written  descrip- 
tions. The  objects  should  be  carefully  observed  before  drawing  is 
attempted,  as  it  is  essential  to  remove  the  mechanical  element  as 
far  as  possible.  The  value  of  drawing,  in  giving  directness  to 
observation,  is  recognized  by  all  teachers,  and  additional  points  of 
structure  and  relationship  of  parts  will  be  noticed  by  the  students 
as  soon  as  they  begin  to  sketch.  These  laboratory  sketches  should 
be  viewed,  not  as  artistic  efforts,  but  as  a  means  of  expressing 


678  BDUCAT/Oy.  [Jw 

ohservatiniis  aii<l  coiicluaions  in  lines,  and  of  value  in  proponiu 
t4>  the  at.runuy  witli  which  they  represent  characteristics  actnili 
oWtvccI  uiid  iiiti-lligeiitly  interpreted.  The  best  executed  dai 
injTs.  as  rcgiinis  foresharteiiiitg  and  Hliadiiig-,  are  often  those  of  !ai 
valiiu. 

The  sketches  shouhl  be  described  in  the  clearest  and  mo>liIirp 
laiiyiiage  thiit  the  student  can  c(intman<].  not  liiniplv  on  the  ^]K 
of  the  nionient.  hnt  by  elalxiratu  effort.  This  practice  I'luuj-t 
the  sliidenl  In  use  Ids  understanding,  and  aUio.  if  ciiiisMfnt 
followed  out  day  after  day.  will  ojierute  as  a  check  to  Imsiv  geut 
alixatiiih.  siueo  it  hiihls  the  student  down  t<)  what  is  actual 
known,  antl  teaches  him  to  distinguish  between  what  is  kno* 
and  what  is  only  surndsed.  The  object  itself,  the  drawing  ic 
written  description  of  it.  afford  a  counter-cheek  upou  eaehcibt 
and  give  the  stuilent  a  means  of  criticising  his  own  work.  In 
careful  comparison  of  the  object,  sketch,  and  description,  he  shoui 
find  self-satisfying  answers  to  the  questions :  Is  the  represenuiii 
and  description  adcijuate?  Is  anything  essential  omitted?  ,\i 
any  inaccunicics  introduced  ?  Is  the  description  clear  and  logical 
The  quickest  way  to  detect  discrepancies,  is  to  practice,  in  ima 
ination,  the  geometrieal  method  of  super[K>sition,  audtoobser 
whether  the  object  coincides  with  the  drawing  and  the  descriptio 
when  superimposed  upon  them.  Tlie  practice  of  writing  descri 
tions  of  the  sketches  outside  the  laboratory  ought  not  to  be  pc 
nutted,  since  it  will  lead  to  general  and  loose  descriptions,  andtl 
stuilent  should  be  made  to  feel,  from  the  beginning,  thatascrapi 
or  loose  description  is  fundamentally  bad,  and  to  give  it  point,  ti 
description  must  be  made  while  the  object  is  under  ob6e^^'atio 
and  carefully  compared  with  it  step  by  step. 

There  is,  ils  every  laboratory  teacher  knows,  a  remarkable  hel 
lessness  on  the  part  of  average  college  students  when  first  thi 
begin  laboratory  work,  and  the  unusual  task  of  studying  fro 
nature  is  set  before  them.  Although  somewhat  mature  as  studeD 
of  Ixioks,  they  have  no  power  of  independent  work  in  studvii 
actual  things.  They  donotknowhow  to  begin,  nor  how  tocontim 
having  been  once  Nt4irtcd.  Their  first  question  to  the  teacher  i 
What  do  y I) w  expect  me  to  see?  The  disposition  to  lean  upon 
printed  account  of  the  objects  is  very  strong,  and,  given  such 
jirinled  account,  they  will  go  to  work  readily  enough  and  leai 
from  it  whatever  is  set  down,  and  persistently  get  vrong  notioi 


1889.]  ON  TEACHING  ZOOLOGY  TO  COLLEGE  CLASSES.  677 

from  so  doing.  Indeed,  it  is  noteworthy,  that  the  impressions 
received  from  reading  about  objects  are  entirely  different  from 
those  obtained  by  studying  the  objects  themselves.  This  would 
seem  to  make  the  acquisition  of  anything  like  adequate  knowl- 
edge of  things  an  indefinitely  long  process,  but,  after  studying  a 
class  of  subjects  by  the  method  of  actual  contact,  we  can  read 
along  the  same  lines  with  corrected  impressions. 

Besides  the  acquired  habit  of  dependence  on  the  printed  page, 
the  student  finds  another  difficulty  to  overcome,  in  holding  the 
mind  down  to  actual  work  in  the  laboratory.  It  takes  a  long  time 
to  accomplish  this  in  the  new  field  of  work,  but  the  student  should 
ultimately  acquire  the  power  of  working  in  the  laboratory  with  as 
much  concentration  of  mind  as  he  can  bring  to  bear  on  any  other 
work.  This  is  important ;  the  first  impression  of  the  student  is, 
that  the  laboratory  practice  is  "  light  work,"  but  in  reality,  good 
work  there,  as  elsewhere,  requires  the  utmost  activity  of  the  mind. 

The  unremitting  attention  of  the  teacher  is  required  to  see  that 
the  laboratory  students  are  started  aright.  The  habits  they  adopt 
at  first  will  stick.  But  the  teacher  can  accomplish  his  aims  only 
with  the  cooperation  of  his  students,  and  those  with  whom  I  come 
in  contact  work  better  after  some  general  talks  upon  the  nature 
of  the  laboratory  work  and  what  is  its  purpose.  If  they  set  before 
themselves  the  aim  of  becoming  independent  observers,  and  deter- 
mine, at  all  hazards,  to  keep  their  minds  actively  engaged  upon 
what  they  are  observing,  they  will  become  in  due  course  of  time 
students  of  phenomena,  instead  of  mere  lookers-on.  In  the  earlier 
work  the  student  ought  not  to  be  hurried  from  one  subject  to 
another,  but,  on  the  contrary,  should  be  encouraged  to  work  upon 
one  thing  until  he  has  done  absolutely  his  best  in  point  of  accurate 
observation,  drawing,  and  description. 

Until  some  independence  is  gained  in  observation,  no  books 
should  be  used,  but  every  laboratory  should  be  provided  with  the 
best  current  reference  books,  and  the  students  taught  how  to  use 
them  in  connection  with  their  work. 

11. 

The  function  of  the  science  teacher  in  the  laboratory  is  a  very 
important  one,  and,  in  fact,  I  think  that  his  greatest  efficiency  and 
skill  as  a  teacher  is  shown  by  the  manner  in  which  he  conducts  his 
laboratory  work.     Remsen  has  expressed  his  idea  of  the  relation- 


ATS  EDUCATIOX.  [Ji 

ship  of  the  teacher  of  chemistry  to  his  laboratory  work  in  to 
that  sound  also  the  key-note  for  teachers  of  zoology.  He  mj?:  ■ 
the  BtudentH  work  in  the  laboratory  it  ie  of  prime  importance  t 
they  should  not  be  left  to  shift  for  themselves.  They  will  m 
acquire  bad  liabit«  of  work,  and  will  generally  fail  to  undenu 
what  they  are  doing.  A  thorough  system  of  questioning  i 
cross-tjuestioning  id  neceasarj'  in  order  that  tLe   Trork  shall  be ! 

cessfnl The  instructor  should  be  as  watchfn 

the  lattoratory  an  in  the  recitation-room,  and  should  be  as  euct 
in  regard  to  the  exi>eriineiital  work  as  the  teacher  of  langu^ 
in  regard  to  the  words  of  a  lesson.  A  bttdly  performed  ei; 
ment  should  be  considered  as  objectionable  as  a  bod  recitation  i 
btully  written  exercise.  When  teachers  of  chemistry  acquire  i 
feeling,  and  work  in  this  spirit,  the  educational  value  of  laboral 
courses  will  be  great«r  than  it  frequently  is  now.  The  avei 
playing  with  testr-tubes  and  precipitates  is  of  questionable  ben 
As  it  has  been  dignified  by  the  undeserved  name  of  scientific  tr 
ing,  and  put  forward  in  place  of  the  real  thing,  many  thinl 
men  have  been  led  to  question  the  value  of  scientific  training 
to  adiiere  to  the  old  drill  in  grammatical  forms  and  mathetnal 
])roblems.  A  slovenly  laboratory  course  in  chemistry  is  a  | 
substitute  for  a  well-conducted  course  in  mathematics  and 
guages.  It  behooves  those  who  are  convinced  of  the  great  ad' 
tages  to  l>e  dorived  from  good  laboratory  courses  to  see  to  it 
these  courses  are  conscientiouslj-  conducted."' 

The  mere  introduction  of  practical  work  is  not,  then,  a  pan 
for  the  ilia  of  tt^aching  zoology  by  the  old  methods.  The  ws 
which  the  tcat-her  conducts  the  laboratory  work  is  all  impor 
Wliile  the  aim  should  be  not  so  much  to  demonstrate  to  tJie 
dent  as  to  lead  him  to  see  for  himself,  still,  the  teacher  ha 
times,  important  work  to  do  as  a  demonstrator,  both  in  the  lal 
tory  and  in  the  lecture-room. 

Parallel  with  the  laboratorj'  work  come  the  classroom  exert 
in  which  the  teacher  should  attempt  to  create  a  genuine  inta 
in  the  work,  and  above  all  to  see  that  the  meaning  of  the  obs( 
tions  made  in  the  laborator}'  are  well  understood.  Eveiy  U 
mate  effort  should  be  made  to  impress  tlie  senses.  In  the  « 
of  Huxley :  "  The  great  business  of  tlie  scientiiio  teacher  i 
imprint  the  fundamental,  irrefragable  facts  of  his  science,  not 
by  words  upon  the  mind,  but  by  sensible  impressions  upon  the 


I 


1889.]  ON  TEACHING  ZOOLOGY  TO  COLLEGE  CLASSES.  679 

and  ear,  and  touch  of  the  student,  in  so  complete  a  manner,  that 
every  term  used,  or  law  enunciated,  should  afterwards  call  up  vivid 
images  of  the  particular  structural,  or  other  facts  which  furnished 
the  demonstration  of  the  law,  or  the  illustration  of  the  term.'* 

III. 

Having  now  outlined  briefly  the  method  of  instruction,  and 
taken  a  general  view  of  the  relations  of  the  zoological  teacher  to 
his  work,  the  next  question  is,  what  should  constitute  the  course 
of  instruction ;  and  in  what  order  should  the  different  topics  follow 
each  other  ?  It  is  evident,  that  in  laboratory  work  we  have  an 
efficient  means  of  training  the  judgment  and  the  observing  powers  ; 
while  in  the  high  school  this  may  be  the  chief  or  only  end  sought 
in  teaching  zoology,  college  students  should  be  given,  in  addi- 
tion to  this  mental  training,  a  comprehensive  and  symmetrical  view 
of  the  facts  and  principles  of  the  science ;  not  simply  that  they 
may  take  special  work  in  the  same  line,  but  that  they  may  read 
and  think  intelligently  in  the  field  of  biological  thought.  It  is 
important,  and  at  the  same  time  practically  difficult,  to  preserve 
the  proper  balance  between  the  different  parts  of  the  subject ;  the 
illustrative  material  on  hand  is  not  always  comprehensive  in  its 
range,  and,  further,  it  always  happens  that  the  teacher  has  a  lean- 
ing towards  a  particular  branch  of  his  subject,  but,  so  important  is 
it  that  students  should  not  absorb  distorted  views,  he  should  waive 
this  personal  interest  and  endeavor  to  give  a  symmetrical  treat- 
ment of  the  whole  subject.  The  specialist  on  fishes,  whose  course 
of  instruction  to  general  students  is  all  icthyology,  and  the  ento- 
mologist, who  teaches  to  the  same  class  of  students  nothing  but 
structure  and  classification  of  insects  are  building  upon  insufficient 
foundation.  Now  this  very  kind  of  specialized  instruction  is  of 
immense  value,  and  is  needed  in  colleges  and  universities,  but  it 
should  be  preceded  by  work  of  a  more  general  character  and  is  out 
of  place  until  the  students  have  a  comprehensive  grasp  on  the 
elements. 

The  entire  work  of  undergraduate  instruction  ought  to  be  graded 
carefully  and  coherently.  Nevertheless,  it  has  been  urged  by  both 
college  and  high  school  teachers  that  the  most  efficient  work  in 
Natural  History  consists  in  studying  whatever  comes  to  hand  with- 
out reference  to  the  order  of  its  appearance ;  thus  to  vary  the 
topic,  with  the  changes  incident  to  collecting,  and  to  take  for 


Ill  tlie  onler  ot  tlieir  natural  dependencies*  ai 
teacher  ouglit  not  to  depart  widely  from  a  pre 
It  ia  one  of  the  teacher's  duties  to  procure  by  pi 
or  througli  sjiecial  collectors,  the  material  that  if 
tratv  his  work. 

I  would  urge,  that  in  the  introductory  n'ork 
study  be  not  coiitiiied  to  the  department  of  zoo 
botanist  and  the  zoiilogist  (where  the  work  is  is 
fereiit  men),  sliould  join  forces,  and  make  no  at 
tlie  earliest  studies  into  botanical  and  zoological 
ivcly.  This  forms  the  best  foundation  for  subs> 
either  botany  or  zoiilogj-,  since  it  gives  a  knowie 
mental  principles  of  the  science  of  living  things,  ^ 
uiiinial  or^nisms.  This  metliod  has  been  in  u 
lending  institutions  for  several  years,  and  is,  I  i 
gniw  in  fa^'or  as  an  introductorj-  course  with  tes 

Tliere  is  much  diversity  of  opinion  regarding  tl 
jioiiit  for  a  einirec  in  zniilogy  ;  whether  to  begin 
work  forwiird.  or  to  begin  with  some  higher  foi 
to  tlie  students,  —  these  are  questions  upon  which 
ment.  To  begin  with  the  cniy-fish  and  to  worl 
idly,  and,  liaving  reached  the  sub-kingdom  Proto 
the  scale  of  animal  life  more  systematically,  hi 
advantages.  I  jn-efer.  however,  to  study  as  an  in 
the  properties  of  living  matter,  to  work  through 
ireneral  bloloirv.  and  then,  beErinniniF  with  thn  I 


1889.]  OX  TEACHING  ZOOLOGY  TO  COLLEGE  CLASSES,  G81 

a  new  type  have  been  studied,  it  should  be  compared  in  structure, 
«  physiology,  and  ultimately  in  development,  with  all  the  other 
I  types  studied.  It  would  be  advantageous  to  approach  the  study  of 
.  each  type  from  the  standpoint  of  embryology ;  but  the  study  of 
I  embryology  requires  an  elementary  knowledge  of  comparative 
I  anatomy  and  physiology,  and  it  is,  therefore,  inadmissible. 
i  It  would  be  ill-advised  in  the  present  formative  period  of  zoologi- 
r  cal  instruction,  to  attempt  to  map  out  in  detail  a  course  for  other 
1  teachers,  since  each  must  arrange  his  own  work  and  must  choose 
his  illustrative  material.  I  can,  however,  best  illustrate  what  I 
think  should  be  included  in  teaching  the  elements  to  undergradu- 
ates, by  reference  to  the  course  in  zoology,  in  Lake  Forest  college. 
The  introductory  studies  are  substantially  those  suggested  by 
Sedgwick  and  Wilson,  in  their  "  General  Biology,"  and  deal  with 
such  topics  as,  —  the  characteristic  properties  of  living  matter ;  the 
relations  of  non-living  to  living  matter  ;  the  cell  doctrine,  cell  life, 
nuclear  division ;  karyokinetic  phenomena ;  the  origin  of  the  tis- 
sues and  of  organs  ;  vital  energy ;  and  the  structure  and  physiology 
of  a  representative  plant  and  animal.  For  the  plant,  I  have  hith- 
erto (following  Sedgwick  and  Wilson)  used  the  fern,  and  for  the 
representative  animal,  sometimes  the  cray-fish  (Huxley),  and  on 
other  occasions,  the  earth-worm  (Sedgwick  and  Wilson).  Pro- 
ceeding upon  this  foundation,  the  structure  and  physiology  of  the 
invertebrates  is  studied  by  an  examination  of  type-forms.  The 
work  with  the  unicellular  forms  is  very  important,  and  forms  the 
basis  for  understanding  structure,  and  especially  the  physiological 
processes  in  higher  animals.  I  am  convinced  that  it  is  a  great 
advantage  to  get  a  hold  on  the  work  from  this  side  of  approach. 
As  a  student,  I  was  led  up  the  other  way,  but  I  remember  that  I 
had  to  go  over  this  work  on  the  simplest  organisms  before  under- 
standing what  I  had  already  studied.  The  processes  of  life  are  in 
them  reduced  to  their  simplest  form,  and  the  cell  is  the  unit  of 
structure,  and  also  of  physiology.  The  course  following  this  study 
of  the  invertebrates,  is  the  histology  and  development  of  some 
typical  plants :  and  this  is,  in  turn,  followed  by  work  with  the 
vertebrated  animals.  In  this  latter  course,  I  have  made  a  practice 
of  demonstrating  in  the  classroom  the  structure  of  the  five  verte- 
brate classes,  after  the  model  of  anatomical  demonstration  in  the 
medical  colleges,  while  in  the  accompanying  laboratory  practice, 
the  students  work  on  osteology,  and  dissect  different  organs,  such 


674  EDUCATION.  [June, 

determined  by  observations  upon  the  objects  themselves,  and  phe- 
nomena and  laws  are  investigated  by  direct  experiment.  Although 
this  principle  receives  almost  univei'sal  recognition,  it  has,  by  no 
means,  been  uniformly  adopted  in  teaching  the  biological  sciences, 
and  the  teacher  who  applies  it  consistently  to  these  subjects  is,  in 
the  present  state  of  biological  teaching,  almost  a  pioneer.  I  am 
told  by  members  of  this  association  (Western  Society  of  Natural- 
ists), that  they  know  of  "  many  "  colleges  and  high  schools  where 
the  zoological  teaching  consists  of  textbook  study  of  the  classifica- 
tion or  lectures  on  the  same ;  but  that  this  deplorable  state  of 
affairs  is  near  its  end  is  evidenced  by  the  improvement  in  methods, 
and  the  rapid  increase  of  laboratories,  and  other  facilities  for  teach- 
ing Natural  History,  that  are  being  introduced,  through  the  influ- 
ence of  properly  educated  science  teachers,  into  high  schools  and 
colleges  throughout  the  country. 

I. 

In  teaching  zoology  the  first  thing  necessary  to  carry  out  the 
principle  enunciated  is  a  room  fitted  for  practical  work  —  the  zoo- 
logical laboratory.  This  is  fully  as  important  to  zoology  as  the 
laboratory  is  to  chemistry,  and  for  similar  reasons.  In  furnishing 
the  laboratory,  the  thought  to  keep  uppermost  is  that  it  shall  con- 
tain everything  that  is  absolutely  essential  and  nothing  more.  It 
is  in  the  intelligent  application  of  this  last  clause,  ^^  and  nothing 
more,"  that  economy  is  to  be  exercised.  The  teacher  is  called 
upon  to  know  very  definitely  what  he  needs.  Fairness  to  his 
board,  to  his  students,  and  to  his  work,  requires  that  his  outfit  shall 
be  adequate  to  meet  the  demands  made  upon  it,  and  justice  to  the 
board  requires  that  there  shall  be  nothing  superfluous.  While  I 
am  not  an  advocate  of  elaborate  furnishing  it  is  my  conviction  that 
there  should  be  no  compromise  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  with  his 
board  upon  what  is  really  needed  for  proper  work.  As  a  matter 
of  course,  the  needs  vary  greatly  with  the  scope  and  importance 
of  the  work,  but  every  college  laboratory  should  contain  enough 
microscopes  for  the  individual  use  of  students,  water,  work-tables, 
a  microtome  of  late  pattern  for  cutting  serial  sections,  means  of 
imbedding  in  paraffine  and  celloidin,  some  of  the  current  reference 
books,  a  Zeiss  camera  or  an  embryograph  of  some  kind,  alcohol, 
reagents,  and  dyes.  These  are  the  staple  articles  of  furnishing. 
Other  accessories  will  correspond  to  the  quality  of  the  work  the 
teacher  is  expected  to  conduct. 


1889.]         ON  TEACHINO  ZOOLOGY  TO  COLLEGE  CLASSES,  675 

As  the  matter  stands  today,  the  college  teacher  of  zoology  finds- 
it  necessary  to  begin  his  work  at  the  foundation ;  there  is  no  pre-^ 
paratory  work  leading  to  his  department,  as  there  is  in  Latin  and 
Greek  and  several  other  college  studies.  His  first  course  of 
instruction,  therefore,  becomes  one  of  preliminary  training,  and  is 
directed  towards  teaching  the  students  to  observe  accurately,  and 
to  form  intelligent  (although  simple)  conclusions  from  their  own 
personal  observations. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  this  preliminary  work  is  not  done  in 
the  preparatory  schools,  when  the  students  are  younger,  and  their 
observing  powers  are  naturally  more  active.  In  fact,  the  work 
could  be  better  done  there,  if  in  the  hands  of  properly  trained 
teachers.  It  is  unquestionably  the  duty  of  colleges  and  universi- 
ties to  furnish  such  trained  teachers,  and,  therefore,  the  reform 
must  begin  at  the  top.  But  the  reform  has  already  begun  ;  every- 
where intelligent  school  boards  are  demanding  properly  trained 
teachers  of  science,  and  in  many  places  where  such  teachers  have 
been  procured,  efficient  training  in  observation  is  being  done. 
But  this  kind  of  work  is  not  yet  universal  enough  to  impress  itself 
upon  the  character  of  a  Freshman  class  whose  members  are  drawn 
from  a  comparatively  wide  range. 

The  natural  result  of  the  laboratory  work  should  be,  to  cultivate 
in  the  student  a  scientific  attitude  of  mind,  to  give  accuracy  in 
observation,  and  independence  in  forming  a  judgment  upon  what 
is  known  from  personally  acquired  knowledge.  This  first-hand 
knowledge  must,  of  course,  be  acquired  from  actual  objects,  and 
the  more  completely  they  are  studied  the  better ;  let  them  be  han- 
dled, observed,  drawn,  described,  impressed  upon  the  mind  through 
as  many  channels  of  sense  as  possible.  This  direct  study  from  the 
actual  object  is  so  fundamental,  that  I  venture  to  repeat  that  it  is 
the  foundation  of  all  good  teaching  in  zoology. 

The  results  of  personal  observations  on  the  part  of  the  student 
ought  to  be  recorded  in  the  form  of  drawings  and  written  descrip- 
tions. The  objects  should  be  carefully  observed  before  drawing  is 
attempted,  as  it  is  essential  to  remove  the  mechanical  element  as 
far  as  possible.  The  value  of  drawing,  in  giving  directness  to 
observation,  is  recognized  by  all  teachers,  and  additional  points  of 
structure  and  relationship  of  parts  will  be  noticed  by  the  students 
as  soon  as  they  begin  to  sketch.  These  laboratory  sketches  should 
be  viewed,  not  as  artistic  efforts,  but  as  a  means  of  expressing 


676  EDUCATIOK.  [June, 

observations  and  conclusions  in  lines,  and  of  value  in  proportion 
to  the  accuracy  with  which  they  represent  characteristics  actually 
observed  and  intelligently  interpreted.  The  best  executed  draw- 
ings, as  regards  foreshortening  and  shading,  are  often  those  of  least 
value. 

The  sketches  should  be  described  in  the  clearest  and  most  direct 
language  that  the  student  can  command,  not  simply  on  the  spur 
of  the  moment,  but  by  elaborate  effort.  This  practice  compels 
the  student  to  use  his  understanding,  and  ako,  if  consistently 
followed  out  day  after  day,  will  operate  as  a  check  to  hasty  gener- 
alization, since  it  holds  the  student  down  to  what  is  actually 
known,  and  teaches  him  to  distinguish  between  what  is  known 
and  what  is  only  surmised.  The  object  itself,  the  drawing  and 
written  description  of  it,  afford  a  counter-check  upon  each  other, 
and  give  the  student  a  means  of  criticising  his  own  work.  In  a 
careful  comparison  of  the  object,  sketeh,  and  description,  he  should 
find  self-satisfying  answers  to  the  questions :  Is  the  representation 
and  description  adequate  ?  Is  anything  essential  omitted  ?  Are 
any  inaccuracies  introduced  ?  Is  the  description  clear  and  logical  ? 
The  quickest  way  to  detect  discrepancies,  is  to  practice,  in  imag- 
ination, the  geometrical  method  of  super]^)osition,  and  to  observe 
whether  the  object  coincides  with  the  drawing  and  the  description, 
when  superimposed  upon  them.  The  practice  of  writing  descrip- 
tions of  the  sketches  outside  the  laboratory  ought  not  to  be  per- 
mitted, since  it  will  lead  to  general  and  loose  descriptions,  and  the 
student  should  be  made  to  feel,  from  the  beginning,  that  a  scrappy 
or  loose  description  is  fundamentally  bad,  and  to  give  it  point,  the 
description  must  be  made  while  the  object  is  under  observation, 
and  carefully  compared  with  it  step  by  step. 

There  is,  as  every  laboratory  teacher  knows,  a  remarkable  help- 
lessness on  the  part  of  average  college  students  when  first  they 
begin  laboratory  work,  and  the  unusual  task  of  studying  from 
nature  is  set  before  them.  Although  somewhat  mature  as  students 
of  books,  they  have  no  power  of  independent  work  in  studying 
actual  things.  They  do  not  know  how  to  begin,  nor  how  to  continue 
having  been  once  started.  Their  first  question  to  the  teacher  is, 
What  do  you  expect  me  to  see  ?  The  disposition  to  lean  upon  a 
printed  account  of  the  objects  is  very  strong,  and,  given  such  a 
printed  account,  they  will  go  to  work  readily  enough  and  learn 
from  it  whatever  is  set  down,  and  persistently  get  wrong  notions 


1889.]         ON  TEACHING  ZOOLOGY  TO  COLLEGE  CLASSES.  677 

from  so  doing.  Indeed,  it  is  noteworthy,  that  the  impressions 
received  from  reading  about  objects  are  entirely  different  from 
those  obtained  by  studying  the  objects  themselves.  This  would 
seem  to  make  the  acquisition  of  anything  like  adequate  knowl- 
edge of  things  an  indefinitely  long  process,  but,  after  studying  a 
class  of  subjects  by  the  method  of  actual  contact,  we  can  read 
along  the  same  lines  with  corrected  impressions. 

Besides  the  acquired  habit  of  dependence  on  the  printed  page, 
the  student  finds  another  difficulty  to  overcome,  in  holding  the 
mind  down  to  actual  work  in  the  laboratory.  It  takes  a  long  time 
to  accomplish  this  in  the  new  field  of  work,  but  the  student  should 
ultimately  acquire  the  power  of  working  in  the  laboratory  with  as 
much  concentration  of  mind  as  he  can  bring  to  bear  on  any  other 
work.  This  is  important ;  the  first  impression  of  the  student  is, 
that  the  laboratory  practice  is  "  light  work,"  but  in  reality,  good 
work  there,  as  elsewhere,  requires  the  utmost  activity  of  the  mind. 

The  unremitting  attention  of  the  teacher  is  required  to  see  that 
the  laboratory  students  are  started  aright.  The  habits  they  adopt 
at  first  will  stick.  But  the  teacher  can  accomplish  his  aims  only 
with  the  cooperation  of  his  students,  and  those  with  whom  I  come 
in  contact  work  better  after  some  general  talks  upon  the  nature 
of  the  laboratory  work  and  what  is  its  purpose.  If  they  set  before 
themselves  the  aim  of  becoming  independent  observers,  and  deter- 
mine, at  all  hazards,  to  keep  their  minds  actively  engaged  upon 
what  they  are  observing,  they  will  become  in  due  course  of  time 
students  of  phenomena,  instead  of  mere  lookers-on.  In  the  earlier 
work  the  student  ought  not  to  be  hurried  from  one  subject  to 
another,  but,  on  the  contrary,  should  be  encouraged  to  work  upon 
one  thing  until  he  has  done  absolutely  his  best  in  point  of  accurate 
observation,  drawing,  and  description. 

Until  some  independence  is  gained  in  observation,  no  books 
should  be  used,  but  every  laboratory  should  be  provided  with  the 
best  current  reference  books,  and  the  students  taught  how  to  use 
them  in  connection  with  their  work. 

II. 

The  function  of  the  science  teacher  in  the  laboratory  is  a  very 
important  one,  and,  in  fact,  I  think  that  his  greatest  efficiency  and 
skill  as  a  teacher  is  shown  by  the  manner  in  which  he  conducts  his 
laboratory  work.     Remsen  has  expressed  his  idea  of  the  relation- 


678  EDUCATIOy.  [Jane, 

ship  of  the  teacher  of  chemistry  to  his  laboratory  work  in  words 
that  sound  also  the  key-note  for  teachers  of  zoology.  He  says :  "  If 
the  students  work  in  the  laboratory  it  is  of  prime  importance  that 
they  should  not  be  left  to  shift  for  themselves.  They  will  surely 
acquire  bad  habits  of  work,  and  will  generally  fail  to  understand 
what  they  are  doing.  A  thorough  system  of  questioning  and 
cross-questioning  is  necessary  in  order  that  the  work  shall  be  suc- 
cessful. .  .  .  .  The  instructor  should  be  as  watchful  in 
the  laboratory  as  in  the  recitation-room,  and  should  be  as  exacting 
in  regard  to  the  experimental  work  as  the  teacher  of  languages  is 
in  regard  to  the  words  of  a  lesson.  A  badly  performed  experi- 
ment should  be  considered  as  objectionable  as  a  bad  recitation  or  a 
badly  written  exercise.  When  teachers  of  chemistry  acquire  this 
feeling,  and  work  in  this  spirit,  the  educational  value  of  laboratory 
courses  will  be  greater  than  it  frequently  is  now.  The  average 
playing  with  test-tubes  and  precipitates  is  of  questionable  benefit. 
As  it  has  been  dignified  by  the  undeserved  name  of  scientific  train- 
ing, and  put  forward  in  place  of  the  real  thing,  many  thinking 
men  have  been  led  to  question  the  value  of  scientific  training  and 
to  adhere  to  the  old  drill  in  grammatical  forms  and  mathematical 
problems.  A  slovenly  laboratory  course  in  chemistry  is  a  poor 
substitute  for  a  well-conducted  course  in  mathematics  and  lan- 
guages. It  behooves  those  who  are  convinced  of  the  great  advan- 
tages to  be  derived  from  good  laboratory  courses  to  see  to  it  that 
these  courses  are  conscientiously  conducted.'' 

The  mere  introduction  of  practical  work  is  not,  then,  a  panacea 
for  the  ills  of  teaching  zoology  by  the  old  methods.  The  way  in 
which  the  teacher  conducts  the  laboratory  work  is  all  important. 
While  the  aim  should  be  not  so  much  to  demonstrate  to  the  stu- 
dent as  to  lead  him  to  see  for  himself,  still,  the  teacher  has,  at 
times,  important  work  to  do  as  a  demonstrator,  both  in  the  labora- 
tory and  in  the  lecture-room. 

Parallel  with  the  laboratory  work  come  the  classroom  exercises^ 
in  which  the  teacher  should  attempt  to  create  a  genuine  interest 
in  the  work,  and  above  all  to  see  that  the  meaning  of  the  observa- 
tions made  in  the  laboratory  are  well  understood.  Every  legiti- 
mate effort  should  be  made  to  impress  the  senses.  In  the  words 
of  Huxley :  "  The  great  business  of  the  scientific  teacher  is,  to 
imprint  the  fundamental,  iiTefragable  facts  of  his  science,  not  only 
by  words  upon  the  mind,  but  by  sensible  impressions  upon  the  eye> 


1889.]  ON  TEACHING  ZOOLOGY  TO  COLLEGE  CLASSES.  679 

and  ear,  and  touch  of  the  student,  in  so  complete  a  manner,  that 
every  term  used,  or  law  enunciated,  should  afterwards  call  up  vivid 
images  of  the  particular  structural,  or  other  facts  which  furnished 
the  demonstration  of  the  law,  or  the  illustration  of  the  term." 

III. 

Having  now  outlined  briefly  the  method  of  instruction,  and 
taken  a  general  view  of  the  relations  of  the  zoological  teacher  to 
his  work,  the  next  question  is,  what  should  constitute  the  course 
of  instruction ;  and  in  what  order  should  the  different  topics  follow 
each  other  ?  It  is  evident,  that  in  laboratory  work  we  have  an 
eflBcient  means  of  training  the  judgment  and  the  observing  powers  ; 
while  in  the  high  school  this  may  be  the  chief  or  only  end  sought 
in  teaching  zoology,  college  students  should  be  given,  in  addi- 
tion to  this  mental  training,  a  comprehensive  and  symmetrical  view 
of  the  facts  and  principles  of  the  science ;  not  simply  that  they 
may  take  special  work  in  the  same  line,  but  that  they  may  read 
and  think  intelligently  in  the  field  of  biological  thought.  It  is 
important,  and  at  the  same  time  practically  difficult,  to  preserve 
the  proper  balance  between  the  different  parts  of  the  subject ;  the 
illustrative  material  on  hand  is  not  always  comprehensive  in  its 
range,  and,  further,  it  always  happens  that  the  teacher  has  a  lean- 
ing towards  a  particular  branch  of  his  subject,  but,  so  important  is 
it  that  students  should  not  absorb  distorted  views,  he  should  waive 
this  personal  interest  and  endeavor  to  give  a  symmetrical  treat- 
ment of  the  whole  subject.  The  specialist  on  fishes,  whose  course 
of  instruction  to  general  students  is  all  icthyology,  and  the  ento- 
mologist, who  teaches  to  the  same  class  of  students  nothing  but 
structure  and  classification  of  insects  are  building  upon  insufficient 
foundation.  Now  this  very  kind  of  specialized  instruction  is  of 
immense  value,  and  is  needed  in  colleges  and  universities,  but  it 
should  be  preceded  by  work  of  a  more  general  character  and  is  out 
of  place  until  the  students  have  a  comprehensive  grasp  on  the 
elements. 

The  entire  work  of  undergraduate  instruction  ought  to  be  graded 
carefully  and  coherently.  Nevertheless,  it  has  been  urged  by  both 
college  and  high  school  teachers  that  the  most  efficient  work  in 
Natural  History  consists  in  studying  whatever  comes  to  hand  with- 
out reference  to  the  order  of  its  appearance ;  thus  to  vary  the 
topic,  with  the  changes  incident  to  collecting,  and  to  take  for 


680  EDUCATION.  [Jane, 

study  closely  or  widely  related  forms  indiscriminately.  A  valua- 
ble series  of  running  observations  may  be  thus  kept  up,  but  it  is 
a  loose  and  scrappy  way  in  which  to  study  a  subject.  With  a 
beginning  class,  the  principles  of  the  science  ought  to  be  presented 
in  the  order  of  their  natural  dependencies,  and,  therefore,  the 
teacher  ought  not  to  depart  widely  from  a  preconceived  outline. 
It  is  one  of  the  teacher's  duties  to  procure  by  purchase,  exchange, 
or  through  special  collectors,  the  material  that  is  required  to  illus- 
trate his  work. 

I  would  urge,  that  in  the  introductory  work,  the  material  for 
study  be  not  confined  to  the  department  of  zoology,  but  that  the 
botanist  and  the  zoologist  (where  the  work  is  in  the  hands  of  dif- 
ferent men),  should  join  forces,  and  make  no  attempt  to  separate 
the  earliest  studies  into  botanical  and  zoological  subjects  respect- 
ively. This  forms  the  best  foundation  for  subsequent  studies,  in 
either  botany  or  zoology,  since  it  gives  a  knowledge  of  the  fiuida- 
mental  principles  of  the  science  of  living  things,  and  not  simply  of 
animal  organisms.  This  method  has  been  in  use  in  some  of  our 
leading  institutions  for  several  years,  and  is,  I  think,  destined  to 
grow  in  favor  as  an  introductory  course  with  teachers  of  zoology. 

There  is  much  diversity  of  opinion  regarding  the  proper  starting- 
point  for  a  course  in  zoology  ;  whether  to  begin  with  amceba,  and 
work  forward,  or  to  begin  with  some  higher  form,  more  familiar 
to  the  students, — these  are  questions  upon  which  there  is  not  agree- 
ment. To  begin  with  the  cray-fish  and  to  work  backwards  rap- 
idly, and,  having  reached  the  sub-kingdom  Protozoa  to  proceed  up 
the  scale  of  animal  life  more  systematically,  has,  indeed,  many 
advantages.  I  prefer,  however,  to  study  as  an  introductory  topic^ 
the  properties  of  living  matter,  to  work  through  the  principles  of 
general  biology,  and  then,  beginning  with  the  Protozoa,  take  up 
the  study  of  animals. 

Whatever  may  be  the  starting-ix)int,  the  subsequent  work  should 
include  studies  in  structure,  physiology,  and  embryology  of  animals^ 
and  should  embrace  a  knowledge  of  the  leading  types  of  animal 
structure,  to  be  obtained  through  the  dissection  of  type-forms  of 
the  seven  or  eight  sub-kingdoms  of  invertebrates,  and  the  five 
classes  of  vertebrates.  It  is  important  that  the  studies  in  physi- 
ology should  go  hand  in  hand  with  those  in  morphology. 

The  method  followed  in  studying  the  types  should  be  broadly 
'*    unparative,  not  desei\^t\N^  ^vca^-^ .    MXet  -vJca  K^haracteristics  of 


1889.]         ON  TEACHING  ZOOLOGY  TO  COLLEGE  CLASSES.  G81 

a  new  type  have  been  studied,  it  should  be  compared  in  structure, 
physiology,  and  ultimately  in  development,  with  all  the  other 
types  studied.  It  would  be  advantageous  to  approach  the  study  of 
each  type  from  the  standpoint  of  embryology ;  but  the  study  of 
embryology  requires  an  elementary  knowledge  of  comparative 
anatomy  and  physiology,  and  it  is,  therefore,  inadmissible. 

It  would  be  ill-advised  in  the  present  formative  period  of  zoologi- 
cal instruction,  to  attempt  to  map  out  in  detail  a  course  for  other 
teachers,  since  each  must  arrange  his  own  work  and  must  choose 
his  illustrative  material.  I  can,  however,  best  illustrate  what  I 
think  should  be  included  in  teaching  the  elements  to  undergradu- 
ates, by  reference  to  the  course  in  zoology,  in  Lake  Forest  college. 
The  introductory  studies  are  substantially  those  suggested  by 
Sedgwick  and  Wilson,  in  their  "  General  Biology,"  and  deal  with 
such  topics  as,  —  the  characteristic  properties  of  living  matter ;  the 
relations  of  non-living  to  living  matter  ;  the  cell  doctrine,  cell  life, 
nuclear  division ;  karyokinetic  phenomena ;  the  origin  of  the  tis- 
sues and  of  organs ;  vital  energy  ;  and  the  structure  and  physiology 
of  a  representative  plant  and  animal.  For  the  plant,  I  have  hith- 
erto (following  Sedgwick  and  Wilson)  used  the  fern,  and  for  the 
representative  animal,  sometimes  the  cray-fish  (Huxley),  and  on 
other  occasions,  the  earth-worm  (Sedgwick  and  Wilson).  Pro- 
ceeding upon  this  foundation,  the  structure  and  physiology  of  the 
invertebrates  is  studied  by  an  examination  of  type-forms.  The 
work  with  the  unicellular  forms  is  very  important,  and  forms  the 
basis  for  understanding  structure,  and  especially  the  physiological 
processes  in  higher  animals.  I  am  convinced  that  it  is  a  great 
advantage  to  get  a  hold  on  the  work  from  this  side  of  approach. 
As  a  student,  I  was  led  up  the  other  way,  but  I  remember  that  I 
had  to  go  over  this  work  on  the  simplest  organisms  before  under- 
standing what  I  had  already  studied.  The  processes  of  life  are  in 
them  reduced  to  their  simplest  form,  and  the  cell  is  the  unit  of 
structure,  and  also  of  physiology.  The  course  following  this  study 
of  the  invertebrates,  is  the  histology  and  development  of  some 
typical  plants ;  and  this  is,  in  turn,  followed  by  work  with  the 
vertebrated  animals.  In  this  latter  course,  I  have  made  a  practice 
of  demonstrating  in  the  classroom  the  structure  of  the  five  verte- 
brate classes,  after  the  model  of  anatomical  demonstration  in  the 
medical  colleges,  while  in  the  accompanying  laboratory  practice, 
the  students  work  on  osteology,  and  dissect  different  organs,  such 


682  EDUCATION.  [June, 

as  the  eye,  the  brain,  the  larynx,  etc.  Embryology  forms  the  next 
subject  of  study,  and  it  must  be  said  that  any  course  in  zoology 
that  omits  embryology  is  incomplete.  We  have,  in  this  study,  an 
excellent  field  for  fine  manipulation,  in  the  preparation  of  mate- 
rial, and  also  for  the  constructive  imagination  in  reproducing, 
from  serial  sections,  the  structure  of  embryos.  For  the  course  I 
have  used  the  eggs  of  spiders,  and  the  hen's  egg.  The  former  are 
excellent  for  the  purpose,  easily  obtained,  and  readily  handled, 
except  in  mattei-s  of  orientation  for  cutting.  Fish  eggs  are  also 
very  good.  It  is,  then,  my  conviction  that  a  course  in  the  elements 
of  zoology,  comprehensive  enough  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
college  classes,  should  include :  1.  The  fundamental  principles 
of  biology  as  a  foundation.  2.  These  principles  applied  to  the 
invertebrated  animals.  3.  The  same  applied  to  the  vertebrated 
animals;  and  4.    Embryology. 

Obviously,  this  work  requires  considerable  time,  and  is  suitable 
for  scientific  students,  or  others,  who  are  to  give  some  time  to  the 
subject  of  zoology.  When  the  work  must  be  abbreviated  for  stu- 
dents who  elect  the  work  late  in  their  course,  the  work  in  general 
biology  is  to  be  preferred,  since  it  is  the  best  to  give  fundamental 
notions,  and  to  establish  a  few  fixed  points.  It  certainly  has  every 
advantage  over  a  lecture  course  upon  the  principles  and  classifica- 
tions of  zoology,  which,  at  best,  will  do  the  students  little  good, 
and  which  will  surely  fail  to  give  them  either  the  elements  of  the 
subject  or  the  training  to  be  derived  from  it.  The  effect  of  the 
introduction  into  the  college  curriculum  of  abbreviated  courses  in 
the  sciences  (one  or  two  terms  or  less  to  a  science),  has  been  to 
spread  the  erroneous  notion  that,  somehow  or  other,  a  respectable 
knowledge  of  these  sciences  could  be  obtained  in  a  short  time.  I 
remember  it  was  a  broadly  spread  opinion  in  my  own  Alma  Mater, 
that  a  classical  student,  with  his  training,  could  easily  and  quickly 
"  read  up "  and  get  a  comprehensive  knowledge  of  any  science  in 
a  very  short  time.  But  the  element  of  time  is  necessarily  con- 
cerned here,  as  in  all  other  work,  even  under  the  most  approved 
method.  Little  time,  little  return,  and  students  should  work  with 
this  feeling.  I  think  that  the  course  in  the  elements  outlined 
above  requires  more  time  than  many  college  students  would  feel 
like  giving  to  the  subject,  but  there  is  but  one  alternative,  the 
student  must  either  give  the  time  or  go  without  the  comprehensive 
knowledge  of  the  subject.     I  do  not  deem  it  important  that  all 


1889.]      SOME  SUGGESTIONS  BEOABDIXO  SCHOOLHOUSES.  683 

students  should  take  a  course  in  biology  or  zoology,  but  for  those 
who  do  choose  the  subject,  enough  time  ought  to  be  allowed  to 
cover  the  elements. 

If  the  instruction  in  zoology  extends  so  far  as  to  include  si)ecial 
investigations,  founded  upon  the  courses  spoken  of,  a  different 
principle  is  brought  into  action.  So  far  from  dealing  in  comprehen- 
sive views  and  generalities,  the  work  should  be  specialized  and 
consist  in  working  out  completely  some  problem  in  structure 
physiology  or  development,  with  a  critical  review  of  the  entire 
literature  upon  the  subject.  The  inaccessibility  of  the  literature, 
on  account  of  its  extent  and  great  expense,  makes  it  almost  impos- 
sible, outside  of  Cambridge,  Mass.,  and  Philadelphia,  to  undertake 
this  work.  The  successful  teacher  of  zoology  must  be  an  investi- 
gator, and  it  is  the  absence  of  the  literature  that  is  the  greatest 
obstacle  to  his  personal  advancement.  Out  of  reach  of  it  he  is 
compelled  either  to  forego  original  research,  or  undertake  it  at 
enormous  disadvantages.  In  truth  the  greatest  desideratum  today, 
for  teachers  of  zoology  and  their  advanced  students,  is  a  distributing 
center  of  the  literature  in  this  region. 


SOMB  PRACTICAL' SUGGESTIONS  REGARDING 

S  CHO  OL  HO  USES, 

BV     C.    F.    CREHORE,    »I.     D. 
I.       SITES. 

THE  selection  of  a  suitable  location  for  a  schoolhouse  must  in 
the  first  place  be  controlled  in  great  measure  by  the  pro- 
priety, if  not  necessity,  of  having  it  readily  accessible  from  all 
parts  of  the  district  which  it  is  destined  to  serve.  It  should  also 
possess  proper  sanitary  conditions,  which  will  require  more  atten- 
tion in  country  districts,  where  its  location  is  a  larger  factor  in 
this  respect,  than  in  closely  built  cities  provided  with  sewerage, 
etc.  In  all  cases,  if  possible,  a  spot  open  to  the  sun's  rays  should 
be  looked  for.  The  moral  character  of  the  immediate  surround- 
ings should  be  considered.  Price  must  also  be  taken  into  account. 
With  a  given  sum  to  dispose  of,  increase  in  the  cost  of  the  loca- 
tion means  lessened  amount  for  construction.     A  certain  minimum 


684  EDUCATION,  [June, 

sum  must  be  fixed  upon  as  essential  to  providing  suitable  accom- 
modation in  the  required  edifice,  and  not  more  than  the  remain- 
der of  the  appropriation  expended  for  its  site. 

Without  going  farther  into  the  consideration  of  these  limitations, 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  selection  of  a  location  is  a  matter  of  some 
considerable  difficulty,  requiring  much  patient  thought  and  bal- 
ancing of  relative  merits. 

But  there  is  a  wider  aspect  to  the  problem  when  it  has  to  be 
determined  whether  one  large  or  two  or  three  smaller  houses  will 
best  suit  the  conditions  to  be  met.  The  local  pride  of  municipal 
authorities  not  infrequently  leads  to  the  construction  of  a  large 
and  imposing  (often  imposing  by  reason  of  its  ugliness)  building, 
when  the  best  fulfilment  of  the  requirements  of  the  community 
would  have  led  to  the  erection  of  two  or  three  smaller  ones  at  a 
less  cost. 

It  should  ever  be  borne  in  mind  that,  with  a  given  sum  to 
expend,  the  less  that  there  is  expended  upon  site  and  building 
the  more  is  left  with  which  to  hire  teachers.  I  have  in  mind  two 
actual  cases  where  this  principle  has  been  conspicuously  disre- 
garded. Each  occurs  in  a  country  village,  averaging  perhaps 
one  and  one-half  miles  in  diameter. 

No.  1,  some  twenty  years  ago  had  a  very  good  house,  but  slightly 
insufficient  in  capacity.  A  portion  of  the  district  it  serves  is  at  a 
distance  from  the  village  and  somewhat  compactly  settled,  and 
furnishes  perhaps  one-third  of  the  pupils.  An  appropriation  of 
twenty-eight  thousand  dollars  was  made  by  the  town.  The  old 
house  had  been,  as  it  were,  notched  in  upon  a  hill-side  upon  the 
main  street.  This  was  traded  off  for  a  small  additional  piece  of 
land,  another  small  estate  on  the  top  of  the  hill  purchased,  and  a 
huge  building  perched  upon  the  summit,  requiring  expensive 
grading  and  roadways  to  make  it  accessible.  After  the  lapse  of 
twenty  years  this  is  still  in  excess  of  the  requirements,  as  far  as 
space  is  concerned.  At  the  time,  the  writer  suggested  to  the 
authorities,  that,  if  they  expended,  say  three  thousand  dollars  in 
renovating  the  old  house  where  it  stood,  took  five  thousand  more 
and  built  a  small  subsidiary  house  in  the  separate  settlement 
referred  to  above,  and  invested  the  remaining  twenty  thousand 
dollars,  they  would  have  sufficient  income  to  maintain  an  additional 
first-class  teacher  in  perpetuity. 

In  the  other  instance   alluded  to,  a  very  fair  building,  well 


1889.]      SOME  SUGGESTIONS  REGARDING  SCHOOLHOUSES.  685- 

located,  has  recently  been  abandoned,  and  now  stands  empty,  save 
for  occasional  use  as  a  hall  or  a  ward  room,  and  a  new  and  elegant 
structure  has  been  built  in  a  more  expensive  but  less  desirable  loca- 
tion. One-tenth  of  the  cost  of  this  new  structure  would  have  put 
the  old  building  and  grounds  into  very  good  condition,  and  left  a 
balance,  the  income  from  which  would  have  been  enough  to  pay 
for  all  time  the  salary  of  an  liigh  grade  teacher.  If  the  argument 
is  sound  upon  which  the  writer  has  heard  both  of  these  structures 
defended,  i.  e.,  that  it  is  proper  to  make  schoolhouses  ornamental 
monuments  in  a  town,  then  his  reply  is  equally  sound :  The  addi- 
tional sum  thus  expended  should  not  be  charged  to  the  school  expen- 
ditures^ but  to  the  department  of  public  improvements.  School- 
houses  can  be  perfectly  adapted  to  their  requirements  and  without 
the  expenditure  of  a  dollar  for  purposes  of  display,  and  yet  be  ele- 
gant and  harmonious  features  in  any  landscape.  The  inquiry,. 
"  What  is  that  building  ?  "  should  never  arise  in  the  mind  of  the 
passing  stranger.  He  should  at  once  exclaim  :  "  What  a  fine,  cosy 
schoolhouse  that  is."  Proper  adaptation  to  its  end  will  stamp  its. 
designation  upon  its  face  better  than  a  marble  tablet  bearing  its 
name  and  the  date  of  its  erection. 

U.      BUILDINGS. 

We  will  assume  that  the  houses  are  numerous  enough  to  be  of 
moderate  dimensions  and  located  within  easy  reach  of  the  pupils. 
What  conditions  should  govern  their  construction  ?  No  cheap  or 
inferior  work  should  be  tolerated;  good  substantial  structure; 
plate  glass  windows ;  schoolroom  utilizing  the  south  side  where 
they  can  get  the  full  benefit  of  the  sunlight;  excellent  ventilation 
combined  with  the  most  improved  methods  of  warming ;  all  these 
must  be  had. 

The  big  square  schoolhouse  referred  to — the  first  above  —  has. 
the  whole  south  side  given  up  to  stairways  and  closets.  And 
speaking  of  stairways,  it  may  be  said  that,  wherever  practicable, 
these  cumbrous,  space-occupying,  expensive  nuisances  should  be 
avoided.  One  story  buildings  are  in  every  way  better.  Far  safer 
in  case  of  fire,  far  better  for  the  health  of  urchins  (who  will  run 
up  and  down  stairways  to  the  detriment  of  their  heart  and  lungs), 
far  more  conducive  to  the  close  supervision  of  the  teacher,  is  the 
one  story  building  with  its  rooms  upon  the  ground  floor. 

The  pupil  should  enter  first  upon  a  light,  tile-floored  vestibule. 


«86  EDUCATIOy.  [June, 

with  coarse  mats  for  scrubbing  muddy  feet.  Convenient  accom- 
modations for  his  outer  garments  should  be  at  hand.  Facilities 
for  washing  hands  and  face  should  be  provided,  and  separate  water- 
closets,  in  a  light,  cheerful  place.  Cleanliness  and  decency  are 
parts  of  education. 

The  ceiling  of  one  story  buildings  should  be  swept  in  curves 
into  the  angle  of  the  roof,  where  ventilators  should  be  placed  to 
afford  exit  to  the  air.  Fresh  air  heated  over  hot  water  pipes  should 
be  forced  by  a  fan,  in  a  downward  direction,  from  apertures  above 
the  windows.  Passing  over  them  it  takes  up  and  warms  any 
in-draught  of  cold  air,  strikes  the  floor  and  turns  upwards  to  the 
ceiling,  escaping  by  the  ventilators.  This  is  perhaps  the  best  sys- 
tem, and  it  is  none  too  good  for  our  future  citizens.  It  is  useless 
to  suggest  designs  for  plans  of  schoolhouses,  but,  where  the  cost 
of  land  is  not  exorbitant,  a  system  of  wings  radiating  from  a  cen- 
tral space  in  which  the  head  master  could  have  his  desk  and  look 
from  his  chair  into  every  room,  would  seem  to  be  well  adapted  to 
Becure  that  constant  supervision  essential  to  a  well  conducted 
Bchool.  To  ensure  him  privacy,  a  screen  like  those  in  use  in  busi- 
ness offices  should  enclose  the  desk.  The  central  space  or  hall, 
upon  which  the  wings  open,  would  also  serve  as  an  entrance  hall 
through  which  whoever  entered  or  left  the  rooms  would  have  to  do 
BO  under  the  eye  of  the  head  teacher.  The  outside  spaces  between 
the  wings  would  afford  suitable  play-yards. 

One  great  advantage  of  this  system  of  construction  with  its  large 
overhead  air  space  and  mechanical  forced  in-draft  of  pure  warm 
air,  constantly  changed  by  the  escape  through  the  ventilators,  is, 
that  it  will  be  perfectly  safe  to  use  the  utmost  seating  limit  of  the 
floor  space  without  detriment  to  the  health  of  the  pupils.  In  fact, 
bearing  this  in  mind,  and  allowing  for  the  extra  cost  of  walls  and 
stairways  in  a  high  building,  the  cost  of  such  a  house  per  pupil 
should  not  exceed  that  of  one,  two  or  three  stories  in  height.  Of 
course  it  takes  more  land. 

It  is  not  expected  that  these  random  thoughts  will  throw  much 
light  upon  the  problem  of  schoolhouse  location  and  construction, 
but  they  may  serve  to  point  the  moral,  that  an  average  committee 
of  a  city  council  can  hardly  be  expected  to  bring  to  such  work  a 
competent  judgment,  and  that  even  an  experienced  school  commit- 
tee, familiar  with  many  of  the  conditions  involved,  can  only  arrive 
at  a  decision  after  long  and  patient  study  aided  by  the  ad\'ice  of 
teachers  and  architects. 


1889.]  CIVIL  BIGHTS.  687 

There  should  be  no  fashion  in  schoolhonses ;  each  should  be 
built  to  suit  the  special  conditions  involved.  A  school  composed 
largely  of  the  children  of  well-to-do  people  has  different  require- 
ments from  one  whose  pupils  come  from  foul  and  pestilent  slums; 
different  locations  have  widely  differing  land  values;  which 
must  modify  the  plans. 

As  a  general  rule,  quiet  by-streets,  removed  from  business  prop- 
erty and  near  residences  would  seem  the  most  appropriate  loca- 
tions, the  kind  of  construction  best  suited  to  each  locality  and  its 
especial  needs  the  one  to  be  adopted. 


CIVIL  EIGHTS  GUARANTEED  BT  THE  STATE 

CONSTITUTIONS, 

BY  FRANCIS  SEWTOX  THORPE,   PH.  D. 

II. 

IN  a  previous  article  the  first  of  six  rights  guaranteed  by  the 
state  constitutions  was  discussed.  In  this  paper,  which  is  a 
continuation  of  the  discussion  of  these  guaranteed  rights,  it  is  pro- 
posed to  consider  the  remaining  five,  which  makes  up  the  list  of 
civil  rights  as  distinguished  from  political  rights  which  our  consti- 
tutions propose  to  defend  to  all  citizens.  This  list  of  six  was 
enumerated  in  the  former  article.  The  first  having  been  disposed 
of,  the  second  may  be  named  as  follows :  — 

n.      THE    RIGHT    TO   PRIVATE   PROPERTY. 

This  right  signifies  the  right  to  do  as  a  man  wills  with  his  own, 
and  it  is  expressed  in  the  constitution  of  Massachusetts,  as  fol- 
lows :  — 

^'  No  part  of  the  property  of  any  individoal  can  with  jastice  be  taken  from 
him  or  applied  to  public  uses  without  his  consent,  or  that  of  the  representative 
body  of  the  people.  And  whenever  the  public  exigencies  require  that  the  prop- 
erty of  any  individual  should  be  appropriated  to  public  uses,  he  shall  receive  a 
reasonable  compensation  therefor."— [Art.  10,  1780. 

This  provision  is  found  in  substance  in  the  constitutions  of 

every  state.     The  right  to  private  property  is  incident  to  that  of 

personal  freedom,  for  if  a  man  is  free  there  is  on  his  part  a  right 

to  things,  a  ju%  rerunu,  and  it  follows  that  a  man  shall  be  free  to 


688  EDUCATION.  [June, 

have  his  own  and  to  enjoy  it  without  let,  or  hindrance,  or  harm  to 
or  from  his  fellow.  This  right  is  defined  to  be,  '*  In  the  free  use, 
enjoyment,  and  disposal  of  all  his  acquisitions,  without  any  con- 
trol or  diminution,  save  only  by  the  laws  of  the  land." —  [Black- 
stone,  I.,  139. 

The  language  of  the  state  constitutions  is  quite  uniform  on  this 
subject.  But  the  language  used  leads  to  the  inference  that  there 
may  be  circumstances  under  which  the  right  disappears  before  a 
superior  or  preeminent  right  in  the  state  itself.  The  uniform  lan- 
guage in  the  constitution  is  that  '*  private  property  shall  not  be 
taken  for  public  uses,  except  for  a  just  compensation." 

The  constitutions  that  formally  set  forth  the  right  of  private 
property  are  as  follows :  — 

Pennsylvania,  1776,  1790,  1838,  1873 ;  Virginia,  1776,  1850, 
1870 ;  Vermont,  1777,  1786,  1793 ;  Kentucky,  1792,  1799,  1850 ; 
New  Hampshire,  1784, 1792  ;  Ohio,  1802, 1851 ;  Connecticut,  1818 ; 
Delaware,  1792,  1831 ;  Alabama,  1819,  1865, 1867,1875  ;  Indiana, 
1816,1851;  IllinoU,  1818,  1848,  1870;  Maine,  1820;  Tennessee, 
1834,1870;  Michigan,  1835 ;  Rhode  Island,  1842;  Florida,  1838, 

1865,  1868;  New  Jersey,  1844;  New  York,  1846;  Texas,  1845, 

1866,  1868,  1876  ;  Iowa,  1846,  1857  ;  Wisconsin,  1848  ;  California, 
1849 ;  Kansas,  1855,  1857,  1858 ;  Oregon,  1857  ;  Minnesota,  1857 ; 
West  Virginia,  1861,  1872 ;  Georgia,  1865,  1868 ;  Nevada,  1864  ; 
Nebraska,  1866,  1875;  Missouri,  1865;  Arkansas,  1868,  1874; 
South  Carolina,  1868 ;  North  Carolina,  1868,  1876 ;  Mississippi, 
1868;  Colorado,  1876. 

The  constitutions  of  Maryland  and  of  Louisiana  make  no  formal 
declarations  of  the  right  to  private  property  in  the  exact  language 
employed  in  other  constitutions.  It  is  provided  in  the  constitu- 
tion of  Florida,  1845,  Art.  109,  that  vested  rights  shall  not  be 
divested,  unless  for  purposes  of  public  utility,  and  for  adequate 
compensation  previously  made.  Also  in  the  constitution  of  1852, 
of  1864;  words  coextensive  in  meaning  with  those  quoted  from 
the  constitution  of  other  states  ;  and  in  the  constitution  of  Mary- 
land, it  is  written,  1776,  no  freeman  ought  to  be  deprived  of  his 
property  but  by  the  judgment  of  his  peers,  or  by  the  law  of  the 
land,  which  article  is  introduced  into  the  constitution  of  1851, 
1864,  and  of  1868. 

The  declaration  of  the  right  of  private  property  is  therefore  made 
n  all  the  state  constitutions.     Some  of  the  provisions  in  this  regard 


1889.]  CIVIL  RIGHTS,  689 

are  worthy  of  closer  examination  because  they  illustrate  economic 
changes  at  length  recognized  in  the  constitution  of  the  state. 
Railroads,  canals,  public  highways,  irrigation,  drainage  for  the 
benefit  of  the  public,  and  works  of  necessity,  whether  of  a  tempo- 
rary or  of  a  permanent  nature,  have  caused  constitutional  modifica- 
tions of  the  extent  of  the  right  to  private  property.  In  other 
words,  private  rights  are  defined  from  time  to  time  according  to 
the  economic  conditions.  These  rights  have  not  a  fixed  content. 
In  the  constitution  of  New  York,  1846,  Art.  1,  Sec.  7,  is  written  : 

"  When  private  property  shall  be  taken  for  any  public  u&e,  the  compensation 
to  be  made  therefor,  when  such  compensation  is  not  made  by  the  state,  shall  be 
ascertained  by  a  jury,  or  by  not  less  than  three  commissioners  appointed  by  a 
court  of  record,  as  shall  be  prescribed  by  law.  Private  roads  may  be  opened 
io  the  manner  to  be  prescribed  by  law ;  but  in  every  case  the  necessity  of  the 
road,  and  the  amount  of  all  damage  to  be  sustained  by  the  opening  thereof, 
«hall  be  first  determined  by  a  jury  of  freeholders,  and  such  amount,  together 
with  the  expenses  of  the  proceeding,  shall  be  paid  by  the  person  to  be  bene- 
fitted.'' 

In  the  constitution  of  Iowa,  1846,  Art.  1,  Sec.  18,  is  written :  — 

^^  Private  property  shall  not  be  taken  for  public  use  without  just  compensa- 
tion first  being  made  or  secured,  to  be  paid  to  the  owner  thereof,  as  soon  as  the 
•damages  shall  be  assessed  by  a  jury,  who  shall  not  take  Into  consideration  any 
advantages  that  may  result  to  said  owner  on  the  account  of  the  improvement  for 
which  it  is  taken.'' 

This  provision  protects  private  property  against  disturbance  un- 
der the  plea  that  the  improvement  to  the  party  disturbed  will 
advantage  him  more  than  the  private  ownership  of  the  property 
ibefore  the  invasion  of  the  private  right. 

In  the  constitution  of  Nevada,  1864,  Art.  1,  Sec.  8,  is  written  :  — 

^^  Nor  shall  private  property  be  taken  for  public  use  without  just  compensa- 
tion having  been  first  made  or  secured,  except  in  cases  of  war,  riot,'  fire,  or 
great  public  peril,  in  which  case  compensation  shall  be  made  afterwards." 

The  twenty-fifth  section  of  the  declaration  of  rights  in  the  con- 
stitution of  Alabama,  1865,  reads:  — 

(South  Carolina,  1868,  Art.  1,  Sec.  23.) 

.  .  .  **  Nor  shall  private  property  be  taken  for  private  use,  or  for  the  use 
of  corporations  other  than  municipal,  without  the  consent  of  the  owner;  pro- 
vided, however,  that  laws  may  be  made  securing  to  persons  or  corporations  the 
jright  of  way  over  the  lands  of  other  persons  or  corporations,  and,  for  works  of 
internal  improvement,  the  right  to  establish  depots,  stations,  and  turn-outs; 
ibut  just  compensation  shall,  in  such  cases,  be  first  made  to  the  owner." 

This  provision  is  the  first  in  an  American  state's  bill  of  rights 


690  EDUCATION.  [June, 

that  formally  sets  forth  the  rights  growing  out  of  those  economic 
changes  which  went  imder  the  common  name  of  internal  improve- 
ments, and  which  during  the  first  lialf  of  the  century  divided 
political  parties  in  America. 

In  the  last  constitution  of  Alabama,  1875,  Sec.  14  of  the  bill 
of  rights  declares  :  — 

**  The  exercise  of  the  right  of  emiDent  domain,  shall  never  be  abridged  or  so 
construed  as  to  prevent  the  general  assembly  from  taking  the  property  and 
franchises  of  incorporated  companies  and  subjecting  them  to  public  use  the 
same  as  individuals.  But  private  property  shall  not  be  taken  for  or  applied  to 
public  use,  unless  Just  compensation  be  first  made  therefor;  nor  shall  private 
property  be  taken  for  private  use,  or  for  the  use  of  corporations,  other  than 
municipal,  without  the  consent  of  the  owners;  provided,  however,  that  the 
general  assembly  may  by  law  secure  to  persons  or  corporations  the  right  of 
way  over  the  lands  of  other  persons  or  corporations,  and  by  general  laws  pro- 
vide for  and  regulate  the  exercise  by  persons  and  corporations  of  the  righta 
herein  reserved;  but  Just  compensation  shall  in  all  cases  be  first  made  to  the 
owner;  and  provided,  that  the  right  of  eminent  domain  shall  not  be  so  con- 
strued as  to  allow  taxation  or  forced  subscription  for  the  benefit  of  railroads 
or  any  other  kind  of  corporations  other  than  municipal,  or  for  the  benefit  of 
any  individual  or  association.^' 

Ohio  provides  in  its  last  constitution,  1851,  as  follows  :  — 

**  Private  property  shall  ever  be  held  inviolate  but  subservient  to  the  public 
welfare.  When  taken  in  time  of  war  or  other  public  exigency  imperatively 
requiring  its  immediate  seizure,  or  for  the  purpose  of  making  or  repairing 
roads,  which  shall  be  ypen  to  the  public  without  charge,  a  compensation  shall 
be  made  to  the  owner  in  money,  and  in  all  other  cases  where  private  property 
shall  be  taken  for  public  use,  compensation  therefor  shall  be  first  made  in 
money  or  first  secured  by  a  deposit  of  money :  and  such  compensation  siiall  be 
assessed  by  a  Jury  without  deduction  for  benefits  to  any  property  of  the 
owner." 

The  constitution  of  Georgia,  1865,  Sec.  15,  Art.  1,  provided,, 
that  private  property  should  not  be  taken  for  public  uses  unless 
compensation  be  first  provided  and  paid,  saving  that  if  there 
be  a  "  pressing,  unforseen  necessity,"  the  general  assembly  should 
make  early  provision  for  such  compensation,  and  the  property 
could  be  condemned. 

The  last  constitution  of  Illinois,  1870,  Art.  11,  Sec.  13,  pro- 
vides :  — 

**  The  fee  of  land  takeu  for  railroad  tracks  without  consent  of  the  owners- 
thereof  shall  remain  in  such  owners  subject  to  the  use  for  which  it  is  taken." 

And  the  last  constitution  of   Colorado,  1876,  Art.  2,  Sec.  14; 
declares :  — 
^^  That  private  property  shall  not  be  taken  for  private  use  unless  by  consent 


1889.]  CIVIL  BIGHTS,  691 

of  the  owner,  except  for  private  ways  of  necessity,  and  except  for  reservoirs, 
drains,  flumes,  or  ditches  on  or  across  the  lands  of  others,  for  agricultural, 
mining,  milling,  domestic,  or  sanitary  purposes/' 

The  constitution  of  Arkansas,  1874,  Art.  11,  Sec.  22,  sums  the 
nature  of  the  right  to  private  property  in  the  following  words :  — 

^^  The  right  of  property  is  before  and  higher  than  any  constitutional  sanc- 
tion." 

From  these  various  provisions  touching  this  right  as  it  is  set 
forth  in  the  state  constitutions,  it  may  be  concluded  that  ample 
protection  of  the  right  is  guaranteed  in  every  state  by  its  organic 
law.  With  the  development  of  the  country  the  determination  of 
this  right  has  changed  toward  a  free  interpretation  of  the  right  of 
eminent  domain  in  the  state  for  all  purposes  public  in  their  nature, 
that  is  for  the  general  good.  The  rapid  growth  of  railroads  has 
modified  the  organic  law  in  this  respect.  The  law  of  corporations 
has  forced  changes  in  the  older  constitutions  regarding  this  private 
right.  It  is  now  only  necessary  for  a  corporation  to  make  it  appear 
to  the  court  that  the  condemnation  of  private  property  by  a  com- 
mission is  consistent  with  the  powers  conferred  by  charter,  and  the 
court  will  administer  the  law  of  its  charter  and  practically  give  to 
the  corporation  the  standing  in  court  of  a  law-making  body.  The 
growth  of  corporations  has  affected  the  rights  of  private  property 
in  such  ways  that  the  people  of  the  states  have  been  forced,  as  in 
Illinois,  to  formally  declare  in  constitutiou,  that  the  fee  or  owner- 
ship of  the  land  shall  remain  in  the  owner,  although  the  use  of  the 
land  may  remain  in  the  corporation  ;  thus  by  the  separation  of  the 
fee  and  the  use,  the  right  to  private  property  is  sustained  and 
the  public  use  is  at  the  same  time  secured. 

From  the  special  quotations  above,  it  may  be  seen  that  only  the 
sovereign  state  can  lawfully  abridge  the  right  to  private  property. 
The  right  to  private  property,  like  that  to  personal  liberty,  must 
disappear  when  it  is  necessary  for  the  safety  and  highest  welfare 
of  the  state  that  it  should  disappear.  The  right  of  eminent 
domain  is  a  prerogative  of  the  state,  and  the  state  can  and  some- 
times does  delegate  this  right,  as  when  it  incorporates  by  charter 
a  body  politic  or  a  municipality  to  make  by-laws, —  a  case  of  not 
uncommon  occurrence. 

But  the  action  of  the  incorporated  body  is  limited  by  its  nature, 
for  the  sovereign  state  may  revoke  its  grant,  or,  as  it  is  commonly 
expressed,  compel  a  surrender  of  the  charter  of  incorporation.     The 


EDUCATION.  [June, 

tendency  of  constitutional  enactments  in  this  country  since  1820, 
so  far  as  those  constitutions  have  touched  upon  the  right  to  private 
property,  has  been  toward  the  limitation  of  the  right  and  at  the 
same  time  toward  the  security  of  the  right,  by  compelling  first,  the 
payment  of  a  just  compensation  before  the  property  of  the  indi- 
vidual can  be  taken,  and  that  condemnation  must  be  by  a  jury, 
sworn  to  do  justly ;  that  the  finding  of  the  jury,  or  as  they  are 
usually  called,  the  commission,  may  be  reviewed  in  a  court  of 
record,  and  that  the  owner  of  property  has  his  final  relief,  in  the 
decision  of  the  court  and  the  verdict  of  a  jury.  His  right  is 
therefore  guaranteed  to  him  by  the  law  of  the  land. 

The  right  to  private  property  declared  in  the  state  constitutions 
means,  therefore,  the  right  of  the  owner  to  possess  it,  to  enjoy  it 
unmolested,  and  to  be  protected  in  it.  It  is  a  common  law  right ; 
it  does  not  depend  upon  the  statute.  But  when  "  public  exigency 
imperatively  requires,"  this  private  right,  like  the  right  to  per- 
sonal liberty,  may  be  abridged,  suspended,  or  even  wholly  taken 
away ;  but  in  such  case,  the  individual  shall  have  a  just  compensa- 
tion, the  amount  of  which  may  be  determined  by  a  trial  at  law. 
The  status  of  the  right  to  personal  freedom  is  determined  by  the 
civil  organizations  of  the  state,  whether  it  is  at  peace  or  at  war, 
whether  its  citizens  are  in  rebellion,  or  it  is  invaded  by  an  enemy. 
The  civil  organization  of  the  state  determines  the  extent,  or  the 
content  of  the  right,  and  the  civil  status  depends  upon  the  moral 
character  of  the  citizens,  their  conduct  toward  each  other,  and 
toward  others.  At  the  same  time  that  the  right  to  personal  free- 
dom may  be  abridged,  the  right  to  private  property  may  be 
abridged,  and  for  similar  reasons.  Economic  changes  in  the  coun- 
try, the  growth  of  institutions,  corporations,  internal  improve- 
ments, commerce,  interstate  relations  of  a  material  kind,  and  the 
incorporation  of  municipalities  with  special  powers,  modify  the 
exercise  of  these  two  rights  as  the  exigencies  of  the  state  require. 


NEITHER  ought  any,  even  in  their  playing  and  jesting,  to  give  way 
to  their  anger,  for  it  turns  good  will  into  hatred ;  nor  when  they 
are  disputing,  for  it  turns  a  desire  of  knowing  truth  into  a  love  of  con- 
tention ;  nor  when  they  sit  in  judgment,  for  it  adds  violence  to  authori- 
ty ;  nor  when  they  are  teaching,  for  it  dulls  the  learner,  and  breeds  in 
him  a  hatred  of  all  learning.  —  Plutarch's  Morals. 


1889.]  THE  ADVANTAGES  OF  STATE  EXAMINATIONS,  693 


THE  ADVANTAGES    OF   STATE    EXAMINATIONS. 

BY  SUPT.  W.   P.   BECKWITH. 

THE  transfer  of  the  power  to  admit  candidates  to  the  teacher's 
profession  from  school  committees  to  state  boards  of  exam- 
iners would  give  the  former,  in  the  end,  more  liberty  than  it  would 
take  away.  It  would  free  them  at  once  from  the  importunity  and 
persistence  of  many  unfit  persons,  because  it  would  be  utterly  use- 
less for  such  to  approach  them  before  passing  the  state  examina- 
tions, which  they  would  be  unable  to  do.  To  the  committees  the 
measure  would  thus  be  a  boon,  and  a  little  experience  under  its 
workings  ^vould  commend  it  to  all. 

Who  would  profit  by  thus  more  carefully  hedging  about  the 
entrance  to  the  teacher's  profession  ?  It  goes  without  saying  that 
the  schools  would  profit  much  ;  but  all  earnest  teachers  should  be 
reminded  that  they  could  not  fail  to  share  in  the  advantages.  Who 
are  responsible  for  the  low  estimate  so  often  put  upon  the  teach- 
er's calling  ?  Not,  as  a  class,  those  who  are,  properly  speaking, 
professional  teachers,  who  have  entered  upon  the  work  from  the 
same  class  of  motives  as  influence  men  and  women  to  seek  other 
professions,  who  have  a  pride  in  their  work,  because  it  is  to  them 
an  abiding  purpose  in  life,  and  not  a  mere  incident  on  the  way  to 
a  permanent  settlement.  Whose  fault  is  it  that  teachers  are  so 
often  compelled  to  work  for  extremely  meager  salaries  ?  Is  it  not 
because  the  lowest  ranks  are  already  more  than  full,  from  the 
desire  of  so  many  to  prove  the  truth  of  the  fool's  saying,  that 
"  anybody  can  keep  school  "  ? 

Among  the  would-be  candidates,  every  year,  are  thousands  who 
estimate  so  lightly  the  teacher's  work  and  responsibility  that  they 
prefer  it  to  other  employment,  because,  in  their  opinion,  it  is  easier ; 
or  because,  with  false  pride,  they  deem  it  more  honorable  than 
manual  labor.  Other  thousands,  not  compelled  to  earn  a  living 
for  themselves,  but  desiring  th.e  independent  control  of  an  income 
of  some  sort,  come  into  competition  with,  and  underbid  or  drag 
down  to  their  own  figures,  those  entirely  dependent  upon  their 
own  exertions.  All  these  classes  tend  to  a  lowering  of  the  pro- 
fessional standard  and  a  reduction  of  the  professional  remunera- 


«M  EDUCATION. 

tion.  The  worst  sufFerers  in  this  unfortunate  i 
from  the  schoola,  are  the  superior  women  tea( 
effects  much  more  disastrously  than  men,  becai 
of  the  transient,  indifferent,  and  non-professii 
women.  But  the  effects  of  the  unseemly  scran 
or  indirectly,  upon  the  whole  hody  of  teachers. 

The  professional  teacher  has  a  direct,  personal 
and  keeping  the  standards  of  his  calling  high ; 
non-profeasional  teacher  in  keeping  them  low :  t 
ing  for  advancement  with  his  profession ;  the  1 
ment  at  any  price. 

It  is  of  course  true  that,  asat present,  thousand 
era  would  still  be  removed,  every  year,  from  t 
allurements  of  domestic  life.  But  the  highei 
admission  to  the  profession  is  made,  the  less  like 
to  lightly  undertake  its  duties,  and  by  reason 
pecuniary  compensation  which  would  follow,  the 
would  all  be  relieved  of  anxiety  for  the  future, 
more  free  to  consider  all  contingencies  before  ac« 
change  in  circumstances.  If  a  higher  stands 
upon  applicants,  the  average  age  of  those  begii 
teaching  would  be  raised,  —  a  result  which  by 

More  time  would  be  spent  in  preparation,  and 
would  have  a  larger  capital  invested,  and  this  \ 
mote  a  longer  continuance  in  the  work.  No  pen 
any  work  for  a  short  time  with  that  enthusiasm 
acterize  the  same  person  if  the  term  of  service 
So  the  class  of  teachers  who  expect  to  teach  ind 
powerfully  influenced  to  prepare  themselves  as 
cumstances  would  allow,  and  to  recompense  t 
extra  outlay  of  time  and  money,  by  higher  sa 
service. 

An  improvement  in  the  character  and  efficien( 
force  will  surely  be  followed  by  an  increase  of  coi 
state  is  justified  in  constant  requisitions  for  a  hi 
vice,  and  the  histoiy  of  the  past  fifty  years, 
shows  that  the  efforts  of  teachers  have  met  with 
within  that  period  their  average  wages  per  mon 
four-fold.  It  may  be  doubted  if  any  other  salari' 
show  a  greater  increase. 


1889.]  EDITOBIAL.  695 


EDITORIAL, 

BEYOND  all  question  the  most  important  achievement  in  educational 
affairs  of  the  present  year  is  the  passage  of  the  new  compulsory 
education  law  of  the  stote  of  Ohio.  The  act  in  which  this  great  prin- 
ciple is  embodied  is  the  real  supplement  to  the  ordinance  of  a  hundred 
years  ago,  by  which  a  generous  portion  of  the  public  domain  was  set 
apart  for  the  education  of  the  people  by  the  new  republic.  The  first  to 
avail  itself  of  this  gift,  Ohio,  is  also  the  first  of  the  states  that  owe  their 
existence  to  the  nation  to  adopt  a  thorough-going  statute  which  shall 
secure  to  every  child  the  blessing  of  elementary  education.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  conceive  a  more  comprehensive  statute  than  the  new  Ohio  law. 
It  only  needs  a  fair  enforcement  to  confer  untold  blessings  and  further 
exalt  the  influence  of  that  great  commonwealth.  The  time  is  rapidly 
approaching  when  the  southern  states  must  follow  the  lead  of  New 
England  and  Ohio  by  vagrant  laws  which  will  clear  the  land  of  the 
intolerable  swarms  of  children  and  youth  now  growing  up  in  ignorance 
and  all  manner  of  vice,  and  compulsory  education  laws  to  secure  to 
every  child  the  benefit  of  a  fair  elementary  education.  This  is  not  only 
the  southern,  but  the  western,  the  American  question,  before  which  all 
others  sink  into  insignificance. 

THE  most  significant  movement  for  the  benefit  of  the  negro  race  is 
a  new  secret  organization,  said  to  be  taking  deep  root  among  the 
colored  people  of  South  Carolina,  under  the  name  of  "  The  Colored 
Farmers' National  Alliance  and  Co-operative  Union."  It  proposes  to 
elevate  the  colored  people  in  the  old-fashioned  way  of  promoting  edu- 
cation, industry,  clean  domestic  life,  and  the  moral  and  civic  virtues. 
In  other  words,  instead  of  looking  to  Washington  for  political  direction 
and  judging  the  progress  towards  the  millennium  by  the  number  of 
offices  to  be  distributed  *'  to  the  race,"  these  sensible  people  have  hit  on 
the  true  secret  of  American  citizenship,  in  their  determination  to  take 
themselves  in  hand  and  make  their  increasing  seven  millions  of  people 
more  and  more  worthy  of  the  theoretical  freedom  which,  with  them 
as  everybody,  is  "a  glittering  generality"  until  realized  in  the  life, 
conduct,  and  character  of  every  freeman.  We  have  noted  with  g^eat 
interest  the  fact  that  the  southern  negroes  seem  to  be  very  little  moved 
by  the  tremendous  discussion  on  *'  the  race  question,"  with  which  the 
second-rate  politician  so  delights  to  regale  the  readers  and  hearers  of 


(196  EDUCATION.  [June, 

his  journal  or  oration.  These  people  are  steadily  improving ;  on  the 
whole,  faster  than  any  people  under  similar  circumstances.  We  have 
no  fear  that  the  country  will  permit  any  set  of  fanatics  to  seriously 
impede  their  progress  on  these  great  lines  which  open  before  every 
American  child.  All  that  is  required  of  the  American  people  is  a 
moderate  amount  of  patience,  Christian  forbearance,  and  the  exercise 
of  the  true  manhood  that  finds  its  greatest  glory  in  lifting  up  and  aid- 
ing in  the  development  of  every  class  and  condition  of  God's  creatures, 
to  assure  a  favorable  outcome  of  this  great  experiment.  The  negro  has 
a  place  and  an  important  place  in  the  future  of  American  civiliza- 
tion, and  this  new  alliance  has  its  eye  on  the  only  true  road  to  that  con- 
summation. 

THE  American  Institute  of  Instruction,  believed  to  be  the  oldest 
teachers'  organization  in  the  world,  holds  its  annual  meeting  for 
the  present  year  on  July  8  to  12  at  Bethlehem,  N.  H.,  amid  the  mag- 
nificent scenery  of  the  White  Mountains.  There  are  indications  of  a 
large  gathering  from  New  England,  New  York,  and  states  further  west. 
Sng^cm.ents  for  addresses  have  been  made  with  Professor  E.  Benja- 
min Andrews  of  Cornell  University,  Dr;  William  T.  Harris  of  Concord, 
Mass.,  President  S.  C.  Bartlett  of  Dartmouth  College,  Senator  Henry 
W.  Blair  of  New  Hampshire,  Superintendent  James  MacAlister  of 
Philadelphia,  Dr.  C.  C.  Rounds  of  Plymouth,  Professor  John  F.  Wood- 
hull  of  the  College  for  the  Training  of  Teachers  in  New  York  City, 
Gen.  T.  J.  Morgan  of  Providence,  Professor  Albion  W.  Small  of  Colby 
University,  Superintendent  J.  W.  Patterson  of  New  Hampshire,  and 
Commissioner  Stock  well  of  Rhode  Island.  Professor  J.  W.  Churchill, 
of  Andover,  will  give  readings.  Correspondence  with  other  speakers 
of  eminence  is  not  yet  concluded.  The  hotels  of  Bethlehem,  —  and 
they  are  legion, — offer  generous  reductions,  railroad  fares  are  made 
reasonable,  and  membership,  on  which  these  courtesies  depend,  is  open 
to  all,  whether  teachers  or  not,  being  easily  secured  at  the  meeting. 
The  sessions  are  held  mornings  and  evenings,  — the  latter  in  the  elegant 
new  Casino  at  the  Maplewood.  The  afternoons  will  be  devoted  to  rest 
and  sight-seeing.  The  occasion  can  readily  be  made  one  of  delightful 
recreation  as  well  as  of  positive  educational  growth.  A  bulletin  giving 
complete  details  will  be  sent  to  all  whose  names  are  forwarded  to 
George  A.  Littlefield,  Newport,  R.  I. 

THE  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION,  which 
meets  at  Nashville,  Tennessee,  next  July,  will  receive  a  large 
number  of  members,  doubtless,  from  New  England.  There  are  four 
routes  from  Boston,  and  round  trip  tickets  will  be  sold  at  rates  from 


1889.]  EDITORIAL.  697 

$32.50  to  $39.59,  including  the  $2.00  membership  ticket.  All  needed 
information  concerning  these  tickets  will  be  given  by  C.  P.  Gaither,  at 
290  Washington  Street,  Boston.  For  the  benefit  of  all  readers  the  fol- 
lowing information  is  here  given  :  — 

Get  your  Membership  Certificate  immediately  upon  your  arrival  in 
Nashville,  but  do  not  get  your  Railroad  Ticket  stamped  and  signed 
until  you  are  ready  to  return  home.  If  you  have  a  round  trip  or  excur- 
sion ticket,  you  can  remain  South  until  September,  but  after  your  ticket 
has  been  signed  by  you,  stamped  and  witnessed  by  agent  at  Nashville, 
you  must  use  it  for  the  return  trip  without  delay.  Persons  holding 
excursion  tickets  may  make  visits,  side  trips,  or  excursions  from  Nash- 
ville in  all  directions  and  stay  as  long  as  they  wish,  provided  they  return 
to  Nashville  to  sign  and  have  their  tickets  stamped  by  the  ticket  agent 
in  time  to  reach  home  before  the  expiration  of  the  time  within  which 
tickets  are  good  for  return  passage. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  each  person  purchasing  a  round  trip  excursion 
ticket  to  Nashville  pays,  at  the  time  of  purchase,  the  $2.00  fee  for  mem- 
bership in  the  Association.  All  such  are  entitled,  free  of  any  other 
charge,  to  have  sent  them  on  request,  the  bound  volume  of  the  proceed- 
ings of  the  meeting  of  1889;  but  in  order  to  secure  its  reception,  care 
must  be  taken  while  in  Nashville  to  obtain  a  certificate  of  membership. 

The  general  rate  from  Nashville  to  almost  any  point  of  interest  in  the 
South  will  be  one  fare  for  the  round  trip,  and  tickets  will  be  on  sale 
July  1 6th  to  25th,  inclusive.  Special  rates  for  large  parties  of  excur- 
sionists can  be  arranged  for  upon  arrival  at  Nashville. 

A  number  of  the  many  points  of  interest  to  be  visited  are  here  given  : 
The  Hermitage,  Mammoth  Cave,  Chattanooga  and  Lookout  Mountain, 
Franklin  and  Murfreesboro,  Birmingham,  Montgomery,  Atlanta,  Knox- 
ville,  Memphis,  Tullahoma,  South  Pittsburg  and  Tracy  City,  Sewanee, 
Monteagle,  Huntsville,  Kingston  Springs,  Clarksville,  Lebanon,  Fort 
Donelson. 


THE  Forty-fourth  annual  meeting  of  the  New  York  State  Teachers' 
Association,  to  be  held  at  the  Academy  of  Music,  Brooklyn,  July 
2d  and  3d,  under  the  Presidency  of  Prin.  E.  H.  Cook  of  the  Potsdam 
Normal  School,  promises  to  be  of  unusual  interest  to  all  who  attend. 
Among  those  who  are  to  speak  are  Supt.  James  MacAlister  of  Phila- 
delphia, Hon.  Andrew  S.  Draper,  Supt.  of  Public  Instruction,  State 
of  N.  Y.,  Prof.  Walter  S.  Perry,  who  is  well  known  to  the  readers  of 
Common  School  Education,  and  others.  Teachers  within  reason- 
able distance  of  Brooklyn  should  send  for  a  circular  giving  all  the 
particulars. 


EDUCATIOy. 


THE   INFLUENCE    OF  MANUAL    TRAi 
THE  PUPILS. 


THE  committee  on  Manunl  Training  Schools  of  t 
lately  received  the  following  communication  I 
M.  Crozier,  first  assistant  of  the  Chapman  School, 
interesting  information  on  the  subject  of  the  influence 
ing  on  the  pupils  and  the  schools  that  it  is  given  here 

One  great  result  of  the  manual  training  in  the  gradi 
Chapman  School,  East  Boston,  has  been  an  tncreas 
the  ordinary  school-work.  Boys  who,  in  the  carpe 
had  their  faults  set  plainly  before  them  by  their  failure 
an  imperfect  joint,  or  who,  in  the  printing  class,  havi 
in  a  paragraph  full  of  errors  —  and  this  even  when  t 
nestly  to  do  well,  —  begin  to  cultivate  patience  and 
carry  these  qualities  into  their  school  work  as  well. 
the  public  school  will  occasionally  examine  specimens 
in  the  school  for  manual  training  (as  she  readily  cai 
few  pieces  of  the  work  of  her  class,  or  better  still,  bj 
even  once  at  their  work),  she  will  see  what  the  boy  s( 
—  the  real  needs  of  the  individual,  and  can  thus  make 
ing  a  constant  aid  to  the  every-day  work.  Sometin 
brilliant  in  her  classes  will  make  failure  after  failure 
from  lack  of  deftness  of  hand,  but  because  he  has  neii 
patience.  Some  of  the  brightest  minds  in  my  das; 
this,  and  are  now  ready  to  put  into  their  school-worl 
attention  and  willingness  to  plod  which  they  begin 
not  only  in  the  shop,  but  in  all  mental  work  of  value. 

Then,  too,  I  am  sure  that  we  have  had  a  much  more 
on  account  of  the  industrial  work.  Our  graduates  ofti 
years  in  business,  "  If  I  could  only  come  back,  how 
So  these  pupils  who  have  each  week  a  taste  of  somethi 
more  closely  resembling  the  practical  work  of  the  wi 
lessons  with  a  sense  of  their  real  value.  I  am  sure,  ti 
makes  them  more  appreciative  of  the  worth  of  the! 
quite  another  reason.  They  have  been  used  to  seeinj 
metic  and  geography  come  to  them  apparently  withe 
are  likely  to  know  that  to  go  to  any  other  cooking-sch 
a  lesson,  at  least,  and  that  to  take  a  course  of  lessons 


1889.1  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  MANUAL  TBAINJNG.  699 

pentry,  printing,  or  shoemaking,  is  likely  to  be  quite  beyond  their 
parents*  means.  In  some  way  they  come  to  realize  that  somebody  pays 
for  the  public  schools  as  well,  and  that  in  them  they  are  receiving  some- 
thing of  substantial  money  value. 

The  boys  themselves  tell  me  that  the  work  makes  them  more  patient, 
attentive,  and  determined.  There  is  a  lively,  happy  interest  throughout 
the  class ;  and  while  the  girls  are  gaining  greatly  in  order  and  fore- 
thought through  the  work  in  the  cooking-class,  many  of  the  boys  are 
acquiring  these  same  traits  through  their  work  in  the  shops.  They 
enjoy  the  lessons  with  their  novelty  and  interest  thoroughly,  although 
they  are  work,  and  often  hard,  plodding  work. 

1  feel  sure,  that  if  teachers,  whose  pupils  attend  the  manual  training 
school,  will  take  pains  to  visit  it,  and  will  thoroughly  acquaint  them- 
selves with  the  work  their  pupils  are  doing  there,  by  quiestioning  them 
after  each  lesson,  and  by  having  the  work  of  the  day  made  the  subject 
of  an  occasional  composition,  their  own  interest  in  the  work  will  be 
greatly  increased,  and  that  of  their  pupils  also.  Just  as  in  a  home  when 
parents  interest  themselves  in  the  work  of  their  children,  their  lessons, 
their  music,  their  collections,  the  child's  zeal  is  doubled ;  so  if  the 
teachers  of  these  boys  and  girls  will  interest  themselves  in  this  work, 
the  appreciation  and  faithfulness  of  the  children  will  grow,  and  thfj 
will  be  tided  over  those  hard  places  which  occur  in  all  serious  pursufts, 
whether  trades  or  professions,  where  enthusiasm  flags,  and  steady, 
dogged  patience  must,  for  a  time,  fill  its  place. 

I  have  had  an  especially  good  opportunity  to  see  this  work,  for, 
through  the  kindness  of  the  managers  of  the  North  Bennet-street  Indus- 
trial School,  I  have  been  allowed  to  take  the  course  in  carpentry  with 
my  own  class  of  boys.  I  have  felt,  personally,  the  same  gain  to  which 
the  boys  themselves  testify,  —  greater  self-knowledge,  and  development 
in  patience  and  concentration.  Beyond  this  has  come  a  great  sympathy 
for  the  slowest  plodders  in  my  classes  at  school,  for  many  of  my  boys 
have  succeeded  in  doing  easily  what  I  have  only  accomplished  after 
failure  and  with  much  effort. 


EDVCATION. 


IN  MBMORIAM. 


DIED,  in  Chelsea,  Mr.  James  Hovey,  for  man 
Phillips  school,  Boston. 

It  was  once  said  by  an  eminent  divine,  "  It  is  : 
some  men  that  they  lived  and  died."  We  can  tnil 
Hovey  1  he  has  won  an  eminent  place  among  ed 
extreme  modesty  never  permitted  him  to  take  any 
among  his  fellow  teachers. 

It  is  more  than  thirty  years  since  my  acquaint! 
Hovey.  About  that  time  I  visited  his  school  for  t 
pany  with  a  young  teacher  from  the  country  who  ' 
ing  some  of  the  best  Boston  schools.  Mr.  . 
superintendent  of  schools,  mentioned  the  "  Phi 
school,  adding:  "Mr.  Hovey  is  a  model  teac 
kindly  accompanied  us  to  visit  the  school.  I  had 
before,  but  had  never  visited  his  school.  We  sper 
in  that  school,  and  in  Mr.  Hovey's  room.  It  was 
here  we  saw  the  influence  and  power  of  this  moi 
boy  seemed  to  love  to  do  -well,  aye,  the  best  he  c 
his  teacher  wished  it.  The  deport-nent  of  the  si 
the  schoolroom  was  scrupulously  neat  and  quiet, 
ment  was  made  as  silently  as  possible.  The  re 
cheerfully,  and  with  a  manifest  tnleresi  in  each  oni 

One  feature  of  the  teaching  that  I  noticed  then,  s 
wards  in  that  school,  was  the  determined  effort  on  t 
to  have  the  scholar  acquire  the  habit  of  thinking 
same  time  accurately ;  and  he  insisted  upon  a  dail) 
in  every  room  of  the  Phillips  School,  from  the  p 
nowhere  have  I  ever  seen  so  fine  an  exhibition  i 
used  to  see  in  that  school.  One  boy,  who  was  s< 
habit  of  thought,  said  to  Mr.  Hovey  :  "  Of  what 
tiresome  drill  of  rapid  work  be  to  us  in  the  bustnes 
The  reply  was,  *'When  you  become  a  bank  cashii 
not  wish  in  adding  a  column  of  figures  or  coi 
obliged  to  stop  and  count  your  fingers."  That  be 
an  honored  CHShier  of  a  noted  bank,  and  is  look 
accountant  and  expert  in  his  business,  both  for 
accuracy ;  perhaps  he  owes  this  superior  ability 
training  under  Mr.  Hovey  in  the  Phillips  school. 


1889.]  H0M00ENE0U8  EQUATIONS.  701 

Mr.  Hovey  was  a  thorough  teacher,  always  insisting  upon  a  complete 
understanding  of  the  principle  of  the  subject  under  consideration,  expect- 
ing afterwards  a  faithful  and  clear  explanation  from  every  scholar  of  the 
application  of  the  same.  I  think  he  was  one  of  the  most  faithful,  con- 
scientious teachers  I  ever  knew.  He  was  ever  looking  for  the  g'ood  of 
his  scholars,  making  each  one  so  much  at  home  with  him,  and  at  his 
ease ;  so  much  so  that,  when  they  left  his  school  for  a  different  one  it 
was  always  with  regret  at  the  change. 

Mr.  Hovey  was  so  genial  and  so  happy,  always  ready  to  give  a  smile 
and  pleasant  word  of  greeting  to  all  whom  he  met.  Indeed,  his  friendly 
nature,  with  the  addition  of  culture  and  refinement,  made  him  the  com- 
plete "  Christian  gentleman."  He  often  told  his  boys  that  "  what  the 
boy  was,  such  would  be  the  man ;  that  the  impress  for  their  manhood 
was  made  when  they  were  boys."  I  have  no  doubt  many  of  those  same 
boys  who  now  are  filling  places  of  trust  and  note,  have  been  reminded 
of  these  very  words  many  times,  and  that  when  they  read  the  notice  of 
his  death  they  would  be  ready  to  drop  a  tear  to  the  memory  of  so  dearly 
loved  a  teacher. 

I  could  say  much  more  in  praise  of  Mr.  Hovey,  but  knowing  his 
modesty  so  well,  his  shrinking  nature  as  to  any  praise,  I  will  forbear, 
and  only  add,  that  those  who  knew  his  worth  will  agree  with  me  in 
saying,  ^'The  world  is  better  for  his  having  lived  in  it." 

And  so  they  are  going  "  one  by  one,"  the  old  and  highly  valued  and 
honored  fellow-teachers  of  a  past  generation  of  our  early  days.  We 
shall  see  their  pleasant  faces  no  more  on  earth,  but  we  expect  to  meet 
them 


*'  In  the  dawning^  of  the  morning^ 
When  the  mists  have  rolled  away." 


Mrs.  J.  M.  Lord. 


HOMOGENEOUS  EQUATIONS. 

MR.  BRADBURY'S  note  on  Homogenous  Equations  (Education, 
April,  1889,  p.  554) »  is  divided  into  two  parts;  the  first  cites 
authorities  against  a  criticism  made  by  me,  and  the  second  challenges  a 
fundamental  law  of  homogeneous  equations,  and  moots  instances.  I 
will  endeavor  to  state  the  point  at  issue  as  clearly  as  possible,  and  to 
answer  his  objections. 

The  degree  of  a  term  is  the  number  of  its  unknown  factors ;  homo- 
geneous terms  are  of  the  same  degree,  and  a  homogeneous  expression 
consists  of  such  terms.  In  the  pseudothomogeneous  equation,  which 
Mr.  Bradbury  champions,  all  the  terms  save  one  are  of  the  same  degree, 


7W 


EDUCATION. 


[June, 


that  one  being  of  the  zero  degree  ;  my  criticism  on  this  implied  that  a 
homogeneous  equation  had  all  its  terms  homogeneous.  Of  the  first 
kind  is  zy^ — ^ xy -\- '^ x^  =ii*] ^  and  of  the  second  is  6i  x^ — 6^xy-\- 
i5y»=:o. 

The  pseudo-homogeneous  equation  possesses  no  characteristic  prop- 
•ertieft,  except  when  it  occurs  in  a  simultaneous  system  ;  a  system  of  such 
equations,  in  two  unknowns,  has  only  one  characteristic  property,  and 
that  is  that  it  may  be  reduced  to  a  single  equation  having  for  unknown 
-quantity  the  ratio  of  the  original  x  and^.  Thus,  Mr.  Bradbury  reduces 
the  equations  2;ry-j->^  =  5-  *"^  3*^  —  xy=i  lo,  to  3  t^ — 5  v=.2  where 
v:=:x-^y.  This  last  equation  is  the  same  as  3  at*  —  ^xy — 2^  =  0, 
which  is  a  homogeneous  equation. 

Now  the  homogeneous  equation  may  also  occur  in  a  simultaneous 
system,  as  I  pointed  out  in  my  February  article,  so  that  it  is  at  least 
coordinate  with  the  pseudo-homogeneous  equation  ;  and  as  I  have  just 
«hown,  the  homogeneous  equation  furnishes,  by  its  characteristic  prop- 
erty of  factorability,  the  only  distinguishing  feature  and  the  only  means 
of  solution  of  the  ^^  so-called  homogeneous  system";  and  further,  the 
true  homogeneous  equation  possesses  so  many  valuable  properties,  and 
has  been  so  wrought  into  the  foundation  of  the  modern  theory  of  equa- 
tions, that  even  if  it  were  desirable  its  name  could  not  now  be  changed. 
As  Mr.  Bradbury  intimates,  textbooks  do  not  always  hnd  it  imperative 
to  give  any  name  to  the  pseudo-homogeneous  equation  ;  it  is  sufficient 
to  characterize  it  as  one  whose  unknown  terms  constitute  a  homogeneous 
•expression.^  To  sum  it  up,  the  discussion  seems  to  be  whether  we 
shall  continue  to  give  one  name  two  meanings,  or  keep  it  in  its  most 
natural  and  important  meaning  only. 

This  is  rather  a  question  of  common-sense  than  of  authority  ;  authority 
is  of  value  only  as  an  exponent  of  usage,  just  as  a  political  constitution 
is  valid  only  so  far  as  it  embodies  the  spirit  of  the  institutions  to  which 
it  seems  to  dictate.  Writers  of  textbooks  are  not  necessarily  mathema- 
ticians, and  their  agreements  as  to  nomenclature  are  authoritative  only 
so  far  as  they  are  well  considered  and  consistent  with  good  mathemati- 
cal usage.  Chrystars  expression,  *'  the  so-called  homogeneous  sys- 
tem "  is  unobjectionable,  as  might  be  expected  from  the  facts  that  he  is 
a  writer  for  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  on  mathematical  subjects,  and 
that  his  book  is  valuable  rather  as  a  mathematical  treatise  than  as  a  text- 
book. 

The  last  paragraph  of  Mr.  Bradbury's  note  challenges  the  statement 
that  homogeneous  equations  can  always  be  factored.  That  statement  is 
of  course  to  be  understood  in  the  same  sense  as  the  one  that  equations 
in  one  unknown  quantity  can  always  be  solved.     This  does  not  mean 

1  Todhunter,  p.  19S. 


1889. J  FOBEIQN  NOTES.  703: 

that  the  solutions  are  always  numerically  rational  or  even  real,  nor  that 
they  can  always  be  obtained  by  elementary  algebra.  Taking  the  three 
equations  proposed  by  Mr.  Bradbury  in  this   paragraph,  the  factors- 

of  6i  x^  —  6^xy+i5j^  =  o  are  6i(x^^^±^p^(x  —  ^^^r^^  ; 

^x  —  3^  and  i^x — ^y  are  homogeneous,  and  therefore  factorable,  int 
the  same  sense  that  x — y  is  the  difference  of  odd  powers  and  therefore- 
factorable  ;  the  factors  are  algebraic  surds. 

Geo.  Wm.  Evans. 


FOREIGN  NOTES. 

International  Congress  on  Primary  Instruction  at  Paris. — 
In  a  previous  number  of  Education,  reference  was  made  to  the"  Inter- 
national Congress  on  Primary  Instruction,'*  which  is  to  form  a  feature 
of  the  French  Centennial.  It  will  be  held  at  Paris  from  the  nth  to  the 
1 8th  of  August.  The  choice  of  topics  for  discussion  has  purposely  been 
limited  to  those  of  universal  interest.     They  are  as  follows  :  — 

1.  Under  what  form  and  to  what  extent  professional  instruction^ 
(viz  :  agricultural,  industrial,  and  commercial),  should  be  given  in  pub- 
lic schools,  including  elementary  and  intermediate  grades,  and  normal 
schools. 

2.  The  part  which  it  is  wise  to  assign  to  women  in  the  conduct  of 
primary  instruction  as  teachers,  directors,  and  inspectors. 

3.  The  scope  and  organization  of  practice  schools  annexed  to  nor- 
mal schools. 

The  conflicting  interests  which  must  be  considered  in  the  develop- 
ment of  what  is  termed  in  the  first  of  these  inquiries,  professional 
instruction,  are  clearly  recogpiized  in  France,  where  indeed,  they  all 
have  full  play.  As  expressed  in  a  recent  article  by  Monsieur  Corn- 
pay  r^,  "  on  one  hand  the  interests  of  an  ideal  democracy  make  it 
important  to  pursue  as  far  as  possible  instruction  properly  so  called, 
that  is,  the  intellectual  education  of  the  children  of  the  people ;  on  the 
other  hand,  the  progress  of  commerce  and  of  industry  has  created  a 
demand  for  more  thorough  and  complete  special  training,  while  the 
necessities  of  the  poor,  their  struggle  for  daily  bread,  make  it  necessary 
that  this  preparation  should  be  early  begun  and  early  terminated." 

Both  sides  of  this  great  question  will  be  fully  presented  before  the 
congress,  and  while  it  cannot  there  be  definitely  and  permanently  settled, 
its  settlement  will  be  materially  advanced  by  the  discussion. 

With  respect  to  the  employment  of  women  in  the  service  of  public 
education,  the  United  States  is  said  to  take  the  lead,  Germany  stands  at 


1 


704  ED  UCA  TION.  [J  une, 

the  other  extreme,  while  France  occupies  a  middle  position.  The 
German  view  is  likely  to  find  full  expression  in  the  congress,  while  the 
policy  of  employing  women  will  be  ably  defended  and  their  qualifica- 
tions aptly  illustrated  by  French  instructresses  who  will  plead  their  own 
cause  with  ardent  and  persuasive  eloquence. 

The  University  of  Paris. — One  of  the  most  interesting  historical 
monographs  of  recent  date  bears  the  title :  "  The  University  of  Paris 
and  the  Jesuits."  It  is  by  Mons.  A.  Douarches,^  a  French  magistrate, 
and  was  presented  originally  before  the  Faculty  of  Paris  as  a  thesis  for 
the  doctorate  of  letters. 

The  history  is  well  calculated  to  excite  the  expression  of  intense  feel- 
ing, but  the  author  has  wisely  restrained  himself  to  setting  forth  in  a 
style  of  grave  simplicity  the  successive  contests  by  which  a  great  centre 
of  learning  sought  to  protect  itself  from  the  encroachments  of  a  power- 
ful and  aggressive  society.  Whatever  be  his  denominational  bias,  the 
candid  reader  can  hardly  rise  from  the  perusal  of  this  volume  without 
the  conviction  that  the  liberty  of  instruction  is  as  important  a  factor  in 
human  progress  as  the  liberty  of  conscience.  The  origin  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris  dates  back  to  the  great  movements  which  agitated  the 
christian  world  in  the  twelfth  century.  Around  Ab^lard  and  his  coterie 
of  disciples  upon  Mount  St.  Genevieve,  sprang  up  a  number  of  private 
free  schools.  Free  in  the  scholastic  sense  in  which  the  term  is  still 
used  in  France.  In  1209,  Pope  Innocent  III.  conferred  upon  these 
schools  the  University  organization.  There  follows  an  interrupted  but 
various  history  to  1793,  when  the  University  was  abolished  by  a  decree 
of  the  Convention.  The  University  of  France  (which  has  succeeded 
that  of  Paris) ,  is  little  more  than  an  "abstract  term,  signifying  the 
whole  professional  body  understate  control,  and  comprising  faculties 
located  at  different  centres." 

Mr.  J.  G.  Fitch  on  Manual  Training.  —  The  published  testimony 
taken  by  the  Royal  Commission  on  the  English  Elementary  Education 
Acts,  forms  an  almost  inexhaustible  body  of  information.  The  follow- 
ing taken  from  Mr.  Fitch's  evidence,  is  a  description  of  what  he  wit- 
nessed in  a  class  of  children  about  ten  years  of  age  in  the  Model  School 
•(Ecole  Modele)  of  Brussels  :  *'  Around  the  room,"  he  says,  "  was  a 
continuous  blackboard ;  it  was  marked  off  in  sections,  and  each  child 
stood  in  front,  and  had  on  a  shelf — clay,  a  graduated  metrical  rule,  a 
little  wooden  instrument  for  manipulating  the  clay,  compasses,  and 
chalk.  The  master  stood  in  the  middle  of  the  room,  and  said  :  '  Now 
draw  a  horizontal  line  five  centimetres  long ; '  and  he  walked  round  and 
saw  that  it  was  done.  '  Now  draw  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees, 
another  line  three  centimetres  long.*     And  so  by  a  series  of  directions 

<  Published  by  Hachette  &  Co.,  Paris. 


1889.]  FOREIGN  NOTES.  705 

he  got  them  all  to  produce  a  pre-determined  geometrical  pattern  that 
was  in  his  own  mind.  '  Now,'  he  said,  '  take  clay  and  fasten  it  on  to 
the  outside,  making  a  sort  of  ornamental  frame- work,  and  let  it  be 
exactly  such  a  fraction  of  a  metre  thick.'  They  worked  it  round  with 
the  help  of  the  instrument.  Then  he  said  at  the  end,  '  Now  which  of 
you'thinks  he  can  do  anything  to  improve  it,  and  make  it  more  orna- 
mental ? '  And  some  by  means  of  the  compasses,  and  some  by  means 
of  the  rule,  or  by  fixing  pieces  of  clay,  placed  little  additional  orna- 
ments at  the  corners,  or  round  the  border.  At  the  end  of  the  lesson 
every  child  had  before  him  a  different  design.  That  was  throughout  an 
exercise,  not  in  hand-work  only,  but  in  intelligence,  in  measurement, 
in  taste,  and  in  inventiveness.     It  was  really  an  educational  process." 

With  respect  to  the  general  character  of  this  ''  Model  School,"  Mr. 
Fitch  explained  that  it  has  a  graduated  system  beginning  with  kinder- 
garten work,  which  is  continued  with  children  up  to  six  years  of  age. 
From  six  to  eight  years  of  age  they  go  on  with  similar  exercises  in 
plaiting,  in  cutting  out  patterns,  and  in  modelling.  From  eight  to  ten 
years  they  take  up  what  is  called  '*  cartonnage,"  the  cutting  out  of  paper 
patterns  and  fixing  them  to  scale ;  then  from  ten  to  fourteen  years  of 
age,  working  in  wood. 

In  his  evidence  Mr.  Fitch  distinguished  very  carefully  between  tech- 
nical instruction  and  training  for  the  development  of  manual  dexterity. 
Technical  instruction,  which  is  intended  to  make  skilled  artisans,  he 
held  to  be  "  quite  outside  the  province  of  the  elementary  school,  and  to 
be  properly  dealt  with  by  continuation  schools,  or  apprentice  schools, 
or  evening  schools,  or  in  the  workshops." 

As  to  how  far  it  is  desirable  to  make  manual  exercise  a  part  of  gen- 
eral elementary  education,  ''  there  is,"  he  said,  ''  very  little  experience 
to  guide  us."  In  the  curriculum  of  instruction  issued  by  the  govern- 
ments of  France,  Belgium,  and  Italy,  there  is  no  compulsory  provision 
of  this  sort,  and  it  is  only  here  and  there  on  the  continent  that  manual 
instruction  has  been  regularly  organized  and  arranged  for  the  elementary 
schools." 

Mr.  Fitch  declared  his  agreement  with  the  following  conclusions 
reached  by  the  Principal  of  the  Brussels  school,  and  by  the  leading 
teachers  of  Sweden  :  — 

First.  That  manual  training  should  not  be  a  separate  thing  from  the 
ordinary  teaching,  but  should  be  under  the  control  and  in  the  hands  of 
the  teachers  themselves. 

Second.  That  it  should  never  be  separated  from  intellectual  work, 
its  educational  value  arising  wholly  from  its  connection  with  mental 
exercises. 


706 


EDUCATION, 


[Jane, 


Classics  vs.  Modern  Course.  —  The  relative  importance  of  the 
ancient  and  the  modem  languages  continues  to  be  the  absorbing  educa- 
tional theme  in  Germany.  It  was  the  subject  of  a  spirited  debate  in  the 
Prussian  Diet  in  March  last.  In  the  course  of  this  debate,  Professor 
Virchow  stated  that  during  the  last  forty  years  he  had  observed  that  the 
classical  studies  had  gone  from  bad  to  wrorse.  Deputy  Schmelzer,  who 
had  been  at  the  head  of  a  gymnasium  for  twenty  years,  thought  it  a 
mistake  to  suppose  that  no  thorough  mental  training  can  be  given 
except  through  the  classical  languages.  He  advocated  making  the 
examination  of  the  Real  schools  of  equal  value  with  that  of  the  Gymna- 
sia. Deputy  von  Schenckendorff  presented  a  petition  signed  by  twen- 
ty-four thousand  educationists,  praying  for  the  reform  of  the  Gymnasia. 
He  stated  that,  whereas  in  Prussia  there  are  four  hundred  and  sixty 
schools  giving  an  exclusively  classical  training  for  youths  from  twelve 
to  sixteen  years  of  age,  there  are  only  fifty-three  where  no  Latiji  is 
taught.  These  latter  are  distributed  in  no  more  than  thirty  towns,  so 
that  the  middle  classes  are  well-nigh  forced  to  have  their  boys  taught 
classics.  He  desired  to  see  the  number  of  modern  schools  increased^ 
and  the  disabilities  under  which  they  now  labor  removed. 

Herr  von  Goszler,  the  Minister  of  Education,  defended  the  existing 
order  of  things.  A.  t.  s. 

BIBLIOGRAPHT  OF   CURRENT  PERIODICAL    LIT- 
ERATURE   UPON  EDUCATION. 


The  following  bibliography  of  ourrent  periodical  literature  inclndes  artioles  upon 
education  and  other  tubjects  calculated  to  interest  teachers.  Only  articles  from  peri- 
odicals not  nominally  educational  are  mentioned.  Articles  of  special  importance  to 
teachers  will,  as  a  rule,  be  mentioned  in  notes. 


^schylus  on  some  Modern  Social 
Problems.  Charles  Chauncj  Shack- 
ford.     VniUvrian  Beview^  May. 

Afrlkanern,  Besitz,  Recht,*Hdrizkelt 
UDter.  Pechuel-LcBSche.  Deutsche 
Bund8chau^  May. 

Agnostic  Expositions.  T.  Vincent 
Tymms.     Contemporary  Beview^  May. 

Art  in  Popular  Education.  Prof. 
^  James  M.  Hoppin.    Forum^  May. 

Australasia,  Reflections  after  a  Wan- 
dering Life  in.  Part  I.  Josiah  Royce. 
Atlantic^  May. 

Beneficiary  Education  Societies. 
Robert  C.  Matlock.  Church  Beview, 
April. 

Botanical  Gardens.  Dr.  F.  Hoffmann. 
Popular  Science  Monthly^  May. 

Boys,  Work  for.    Lend  a  Hand^  May. 

An  account  of  the  plan  of  work  out- 
lined by  the  International  Coniiuittee 
on  **  Work  for  Boys." 


Brandywine,  Germantown,  and 
Saratoga.   John  Fiske.    Atlantic^  May. 

Bright,  John.  Karl  Blind.  jFori-- 
nightly  Beview^  May. 

Bright,  Mr.  R.  W.  Dale.  Contem- 
porary  Beview^  May. 

Bryce's  *'The  American  Common- 
wealth." D.  McG.  Mears.  And€n>er 
BtvieWy  May. 

Centenaire  d^  une  constitution,  Le. 
II.  Le  conservatlsme  aux  Etats-Unls. 
Due  de  Noailles.  Bevue  des  Deua^ 
MondeSy  April  15. 

Child  and  the  Community,  The*. 
Helen  Campbell.     Chautauquan^  May. 

Christianity  and  Agnosticism.  Doc- 
tor Wace.    Nineteenth  Century^  May. 

Christianity  of  Christ,  The.  Eliza- 
beth Stuart  Phelps.    Forum^  ^^Y* 

Cities,  Misery  in  Great  Cities.  Fred- 
erick Greenwood.  Nineteenth Oentwrjf^ 
May. 


1889.] 


BIBLIOORAPHT. 


707 


Civil  Service  Reform,  The  Use  and 
Abuse  of.  R.  R.  McMahan.  North 
American  Beview^  May. 

Civil  Service,  The.  Its  Organization 
and  Competitive  Examinations.  Lon- 
don Quarterly  Beview^  April. 

Based  on  recent  Official  Reports. 

Civil  War,  An  English  View  of  the. 
Viscount  Wolseley.  North  American 
Beview^  May. 

Damlen,  Father,  and  the  Lepers.  Ar- 
chibald Ballantyne.    Longman's^  May. 

An  interesting  account  of  Father 
Damien*8  worii  in  the  island  of  Molo- 
kai. 

Darwinism.  Wliere  Darwinism  Fails. 
Prof.  St.  George  Mivart.  Forum^  May. 

Democracy,  Perils  of.  Emile  de 
Laveleye.    Forum^  May. 

Demosthenes.  Thomas  D.  Seymour. 
Chantauquan^  May. 

Destitute,  Relief  of  the.  Edinburgh 
Beview^  April. 

Based  on  recent  literature. 

Determini8me,Le  sens  commun  con- 
tre  le.  E.  R.  Clay.  Bevue  Philoaoph- 
ique^  May. 

Douleur,  La.  Jules  Rochard.  Be- 
vue dea  Deux  Mondes^  April  15. 

Economic  Tlieories,  Edward  Atlcin- 
son's.    F.  B.  Hawley.     Forum^  May. 

Education  Commission  and  the 
School  Rate,  The.  Cardinal  Manning. 
Fortnightly  BevieWy  May. 

**  Robert  Elsmere  "  as  a  Symptom. 
R.  Y.  Tyrell.  Fortnightly  BevieiOy 
May. 

Enseignement  des  Sciences.  L*  En- 
seignement  scientifique  a  V  ecole  pri- 
malre.  Felix  Hement.  Bevue  Scien- 
tijique^  April  27. 

Espace,  Sur  la  gen^se  de  la  notion 
d\  L.  de  la  Rive.  Bevue  Philosoph- 
ique^  May. 

Euripides,  The  Bacchanals  of.  Wal- 
ter Pater.    Macmillan's^  May. 

Examinations,  School.  Pres.  Wm. 
DeW.  Hyde.    Forum^  May. 

Contains  most  sensible  advice  upon 
methods  of  examination.  President 
Hyde  urges  that  examination  should 
test  the  pupil's  fidelity,  his  power,  and 
his  appreciation  of  a  subject  as  an  or- 
ganic whole.  The  method  should  be 
"informal  reviews  of  brief  periods," 
practical  tests  in  applying  power,  and 
final  reviews  and  examinations  upon 
main  principles  and  fundamental  rela- 
tions. 

Fiction  as  a  Literary  Form.  Hamil- 
ton W.  Mabie.    Scribner^s^  May. 

In  the  writer's  opinion  the  novel  is 
contemporaDeous  with  the  developing 


consciousness  of  the  solidarity  of  hu- 
manity. *'  That  which  the  student  ot 
Social  questions  seeiss  as  matt-er  of 
science  the  novelist  seeks  as  matter  of 
art.** 

Fishes,  Odd.  J.  G.  Wood.  Chau- 
tatiquan^  May. 

Freight-car  Service,  The.  Theodore 
Voorhees.    Scribner's^  May. 

French    Critic,    A  Preface  of     a. 
Gamaliel  Bradford,  Jr.    Andover  Be-^ 
vieWy  May. 

Glass-Making.  II.  The  History  of 
a  Picture-Winoow.  C.  H.  Henderson* 
Popular  Science  Monthly^  May. 

Hamlet.  Die  TrHgodie  des  Pessi* 
mismus.  Fr.  Paulsen.  Deutsche  Bund* 
schaUy  May. 

Higher  Education  in  Ireland,  The 
Government  and.  Dublin  Beview^ 
April.     Editorial. 

Huxley,  An  Explanation  to  Pro- 
fessor Huxley.  Bishop  of  Peterbor- 
ough.    Nineteenth  Century^  ^^Zl 

Imitation  as  a  Factor  in  Human 
Progress.  Lord  Justice  Fry.  Con- 
temporary BevieWy  May. 

Individualism  and  Socialism.  Grant 
Alien.     Contemporary  Bevieio^  May. 

Industrial  Schools  for  Indians  and 
Negroes.  H.  B.  Frissell.  Church  Be^ 
tnet(j,  April. 

Internal  Improvements.  Franklin 
H.  Giddings.     Chautauqaan^  May. 

Istruzione  secondaria  in  Infi^hilterra* 
CoUegio  di  Eton.  R.  Bonghi.  Nuova 
Antologiay  April  1. 

Italy  in  1888-'89.  W.  E.  Gladstone. 
Nineteenth  Century^  ^^7* 

Izdubar  Epic,  The  Deluge  in  the,  and 
in  the  Old  Testament.  Prof.  M.  L. 
Kellner.     Church  Beview^  April. 

Jerusalem,  Round  About.  Edward 
L.  Wilson.     Century^  May. 

Kraftwechsel,  Zur  Geschichte  der 
Ijchre  vom.  Briefe  von  Julius  Robert 
Mayer  in  Ueilbronn  und  Wilhelm  Gri&- 
singer  aus  den  Jahren  1842-1846. 
Herausgegeben  von  W.  Preyer.  I.- 
VII.    Deutsche  Bundschau^  May. 

Labor  in  Parliament.  Thomas  Burt. 
Contemporary  Bevieto^  May. 

Land  Purchase.  A  Profitable  State 
Investment.  Westminster  Beview^  May. 

Lavoro.  Le  associazioni  cooperatiye 
di  produzione  o  di  lavoro  nelle  Ro- 
magne.  Enea  Cavalieri.  Nuova  An- 
tologiay  April  1. 

.  Lawyer  in  National  Politics,  The. 
Frank  Gaylord  Cook.    Atlantic^  May. 

An  interesting  account  of  the  law- 
yer** work  in  public  office. 


706 


EDUCATION. 


[June, 


Making  Way,  Are  We?  Frederick 
Harrison.    Nineteenth  Century^  May. 

Mars,  The  Strange  Markings  on. 
Garrett  P.  Serviss.  Fopular  Science 
Monthly^  May. 

Missionary  Success,  The  Great.  La- 
dy Dilke.    Fortnightly  Beview^  May. 

Morals.  Shall  the  Common  Schools 
teach  Christian  Morals  ?  Joseph  Cook. 
Our  Day^  May. 

Musset,  Alfred  de.  II.  Ars^ne 
Houssaye.    Fortnightly  Beview^  May. 

National  Bank  Notes.  H.  C.  Ad- 
ams.    Chautauquan^  May. 

National  Gallery,  Prices  at  the.  Ed- 
ward T.  Cook.  Contemporary  Beview^ 
May. 

Negro,  The  Republican  Party  and 
the.    £.  L.  Godkin.    Forum^  May. 

Old  Homes  in  America,  The  Lack  of. 
Charles  Eliot  Norton.  Scribner^s^  May. 

Oxford,  A  Past  Generation  at.  By 
an  Old  Wykehamist.  The  Months  May. 

Paintres  primitifs  de  TAUemagne, 
Les.  T.  de  Wyzewa.  Bevue  de$  Deux 
MondeM^  April  15. 

Paris  Exposition  in  Dishabille,  The. 
William  Henry  Bishop.  Atlantic^  Ma  v. 

Paris  Mob  and  Its  Achievements,  A. 
I.  Charles  J.  Little.  Chautauquanj 
May. 

Philosopher,  **Our  Great  Philoso- 
pher.'* W.  S..  Lilly.  Contemporary 
Bevieuj^  May. 

A  critique  of  Herbert  Spencer's 
philosophy. 

Philosophy  and  Poetry  of  Tears, 
The.  J.  T.  L.  Preston.   Atlantic,  May. 

Photography.  John  Trowbridge. 
8cribner'8t  May. 

A  very  interesting  account  of  recent 
applications  of  photography. 

Physical  Culture  in  Ancient  Greece. 
J.  A.  Harrison.      Chautauquan^  May. 

Political  Knowledge,  The  Tree  of. 
£.  £.  Hale.  North  American  BevieWj 
May. 

Population,  The  Malthusian  Theory 
of :  A  Reply  to  '*  Statistics  versus  Maf- 
thus."  Charles  R.  Drysdale.  West- 
minster Beview^  May. 

Psychologic.  Les  criminels,  d'  apres 
des  travaux  r^cents.  L.  Marillier. 
Bevue  Scientifique^  April  20. 

Psychologic.  La  science  experi- 
mentale  de  la  pens^e.  R.  Ardlgo. 
Betme  Scienti/lque^  April  27. 

Railways  in  China.  Charles  S.  Ad- 
dis.    Contemporary  Review^  May. 

Reality.  What  is  Reality?  The 
Answer  of  Objective  Analysis.  Fran- 
cis H.  Johnson.    And^>ver  Review^  May. 

Reconstruction,  La,  de  la  France  en 


1800,  demi^re  partie.    H.  Taine.    Be- 
fme  dee  Deux  Mondee^  April  15. 

Religious  Life,  The  Future  Develop- 
ment of.  Part  I.  Ijson  Ramsey. 
Weetmineter  Beview^  May. 

Richter.  Un  humoriste  allemand. 
Jean-Paul-Fn§deric  Richter.  Paul 
Staffer.  Bevue  dee  Deux  Mondee^ 
May  1. 

Based  upon  J.  Firmery's  Etude  eur 
lavie  et  lee  eeuvree  de  Jean-Paul-Fred- 
Mc  Richter. 

Samoa,  Our  Relations  to.  George 
H.  Bates.     Century^  May. 

Samoa :  The  Isles  of  the  Navigators. 
Harvey  W.  Whitaker.     Century^  May. 

Schneckenburger,  Max.  Der  S^ger 
der  **  Wacht  am  Rhein,''  und  seine 
T&gebUcher.  W.  Laug.  Deuteche 
Bundechau^  May. 

Science.  B^unings  in  Science  at 
Mugby  School.  Dr.  J.  £.  Taylor. 
Popular  Science  Monthly^  May. 

Science.  Modem  Science  in  Bible 
Lands.     Weetmineter  Review^  May. 

Science  Museum,  The  National.  Na- 
<tire,  May  2. 

Science  Teaching,  The  New  Code 
and.  J.  H.  Gladstone.  Nature^  May  2. 

Scientific  Education  and  Industrial 
Prosperity.  Professor  Frankland. 
National  Review^  May. 

Scotia's  Fair  Capital.  Eugene  L. 
Didier.     Chautauquan,  May. 

Shakespeare-Bacon  Controversy^ 
The.     Weetmineter  Review^  May. 

Silver,  and  the  Fall  of  Prices. 
Moreton  Frewen.  National  Review^ 
May. 

Social  Economics.  I.  The  Outline 
of  an  Elective  Course  of  Study.  Pro- 
fessor l\icker.  II.  Cooperative  Banks. 
D.  Collins  Wells.  Andover  Review^ 
May. 

Society  and  Democracy  in  France. 
Frederick  Marshall.  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury^ May. 

Soldier's  Life.  Is  a  Soldier's  Life 
worth  Living?  General  Wolseley. 
Fortnightly  Review^  May. 

Gives  reasons  for  answering  this 
question  in  the  affirmative. 

Sunday-School,  The  American.  Man- 
cius  H.  Hutton.  Preebyterian  Review^ 
May. 

Syndicates,  Trusts,  and  Comers. 
Miss  E.  M.  Clarke.  Dublin  Review^ 
April. 

Technical  Training,  The  Industrial 
Value  of.  Marquis  of  Hartington,  Sir 
Henry  E.  Roscoe,  and  others.  Con- 
temporary RevieWy  May. 

Temperance  Legislation:  Uses  and 


1889.] 


AMONG  THE  BOOKS. 


709 


Limits.  Charles  Worcester  Clark. 
Atlantic^  May. 

Temperature,  La,  et  la  vie.  Henry 
de  Vari^ny.  Bevue  des  Deux  Mondes^ 
May  1. 

Theatre.  A  Plea  for  an  Endowed 
Theatre.  William  Archer.  Fort- 
nightly  Beview^  May. 

Tolstoi,  Couut  Leo,  Twenty  Years 
Ago.  Eugene  Schuyler.  Scribner's^ 
May. 

Toynbee,  Arnold.  Mrs.  M.  R.  F. 
Oilman.    Lend  a  Hand^  May. 

Utopie.  Questions  sociales.  IIL 
Mon  utopie.  Ch.  Secretan.  Bevue 
Philosophique^  May. 

Warfare  of  Science,  New  Chapters 


in  the.  VI.  Diabolism  and  Hysteria. 
Part  I.  Andrew  D.  White.  Popular 
Science  Monthly^  May. 

Woman^s  Place  in  Nature.  Grant 
Allen.    Forum^  May. 

Women.  Are  Women  to  Blame? 
Rebeirca  Harding  Davis  et  ai.  North 
American  Beview^  May. 

Words,  Queer  Uses  of.  Rebecca 
Hart.     Chautauquan^  May. 

Working  Woman's  Speech,  A.  Clem- 
entina Black.  Nineteenth  Century^ 
May. 

Zeit-Geist.  The  Great  Zelt-Geist 
under  Drill.  Col.  F.  Maurice.  FoH- 
nightly  Bevievo,  May. 


AMONG    THE  BOOKS. 


The  Leading  Facts  of  French  History.  By  D.  H.  Montgomery.  Boston  : 
Ginn  &  Co.    Pp.  321.    Price,  81.25. 

The  author  of  this  valuable  book  seems  to  have  used  all  possible  means  to 

make  the  work  as  near  perfect  as  possible.    It  is  based  upon  such  reliable 

French  histories  as  those  of  Gulzot,  Rambaud,  Martin,  Duroy,  etc.    The  author 

has  spent  some  time  in  France,  and  has  thus  been  able  to  gain  much  valuable 

information  through  his  somewhat  prolonged  stay  there  that  he  would  not 

otherwise  have  had.    The  book  is  written  in  an  interesting  style,  is  clear  and 

concise,  has  large  headings  to  the  various  topics,  thus  enabling  one  to  find  any 

desired  portion  without  trouble.    There  are  fourteen  valuable  maps  of  France 

during  the  different  periods.    In  the  back  of  the  book  is  a  ^'  Summary  of  the 

Principal  Dates  in  French  History,^*  a  ^^  Genealogical  Table  of  the  Sovereigns 

of  France,"  ^^  A  Short  List  of  Books  of  French  History,^'  and  a  valuable 

^^  Index  "  of  the  words  used,  with  the  pages,  as  Aberlard,  Acadia,  Agino  court, 

etc. 

Reports  on  Elementary  Schools,  1852-1882.  By  Matthew  Arnold,  D.  C.  L., 
LL.  D.,  one  of  Her  Majesty's  Inspectors  of  Schools.  Edited  by  the  Right 
Honorable  Sir  Francis  Sanf ord,  K.  C.  B.  London :  MacmlUan  &,  Co.  1^9. 
For  sale  by  Willard  Small,  Boston.    Pp.  302.    Price,  $2.25. 

This  volume  contains  the  nineteen  Greneral  Reports  to  the  Education  Depart- 
ment on  Elementary  Schools  in  England,  omitting  matters  of  local,  personal, 
or  temporary  Interest,  made  by  Matthew  Arnold  during  the  time  that  he  was 
Inspector  of  Schools,  from  1851  to  1886.  llie  publication  of  this  volume  has 
been  called  for  by  many  of  Arnold's  old  friends  as  a  contribution  to  the  record 
of  the  life  of  one  who  was  very  dear  to  them ;  and  as  a  means  of  rescuing  some 
interesting  and  characteristic  work  from  the  oblivion  which  so  rapidly  over- 
takes Blue  Book  literature,  however  valuable. 

Mac  Coun's  Historical  Geoorapht  of  the  United  States.  One  volume, 
Cloth,  H  X  H  inches.  43  Maps,  with  Explanatory  Text.  Price,  fl.OO.  1889. 
New  York:    Townsend  Mac  Coun. 

This  new  book  contains  a  most  valuable  set  of  maps  illustrating  to  the  eye 

the  changes  and  growth  territorially  of  our  country,  from  the  first  settlements 


0^'' 


no  EDUCATIOK.  [June, 

to  the  preient  time,  together  with  clear  and  intelligible  text  explaining  the 
same.  It  shows  at  a  glance  the  period  of  discovery,  of  settlements,  the  growth, 
political  changes,  and  the  development  of  the  present  great  Republic,  in  the 
most  correct  and  vivid  manner  possible.  It  is  an  invaluable  and  indispensable 
aid  in  teaching  the  history  of  oar  country. 

Studies  in  Pedaooot.  By  Gen.  Thomas  J.  Morgan,  A.  M.,  D.  D.,  Principal 
of  the  Rhode  Island  Normal  School.  Pp.  355.  Boston:  Silver,  Burdett 
A  Co. 

In  this  book  the  author  has  endeavored  to  give  to  the  teachers  of  America  a 
series  of  studies  which  will  tend  strongly  to  promote  higher  ideals  and  better 
methods  of  teaching. 

While  reading  the  twenty  chapters  of  this  book,  one  is  interested  in  such 
topics  as  Training  the  Senses,  Training  the  Imagination,  Training  to  Think, 
Training  to  Use  Books,  Training  for  Freedom,  Method  in  Questioning,  Exam- 
inations, The  Ideal  Schoolmaster,  and  in  the  last  chapter  under  the  general 
title,  Advice  to  Young  Teachers,  we  And  valuable  hints  on  Independent  Think- 
ing, The  Work  of  the  Primary  Teacher,  A  Professional  Spirit,  Character  Build- 
ing, and  other  topics  of  value  to  all,  and  particularly  to  young  teachers. 

Ko  teacher  who  has  any  desire  to  improve  will  wish  to  lay  this  book  aside 
till  it  has  been  carefully  read  and  thoroughly  absorbed  into  the  mind. 

How  TO  Studt  Qbogripht.  By  Francis  W.  Parker.  New  York :  D.  Apple- 
ton  A  Co.    1889. 

This  work  of  Colonel  Parker  is  one  of  the  volumes  of  that  excellent  ^*  Edu- 
cation Series,^'  edited  by  W.  T.  Harris,  LL.  D.  It  was  prepared  for  the 
Professional  Training  Class  of  the  Cook  County  Normal  School,  Illinois.  It 
aims  to  give  the  dynamics  of  geography,  the  ever-active  living  forces  of  the 
earth  that  produce  its  differences  of  climate  and  soil,  and  thus  favor  or  retard 
its  occupation  by  man.  It  is  confessed  by  many  enlightened  teachers  that  this 
branch  of  study  has  suffered  more  than  any  other  through  the  prevalence  of 
bad  methods.  It  is  thought  that  mere  isolated  details  of  topography  have  been 
memorized,  while  the  processes  of  earth,  water,  and  atmosphere,  that  go  to  pro- 
duce the  differencres  and  characteristics  of  the  earth's  surface,  have  been  neg- 
lected. No  teacher  should  be  without  a  copy  of  this  book  upon  the  desk  to  use 
for  reference,  at  least. 

* 

Lelakd's  Practical  Education.  By  Charles  G.  Leland,  late  director  of  the 
Public  Industrial  Art  School,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  and  author  of  books  on 
Industrial  Education.  Cloth,  12mo.  Pp.  280.  Price,  $2.00;  to  teachers, 
$1.60;  by  mail,  10  cents  extra. 

This  is  a  valuable  volume  on  manual  training,  recently  published  by  Mr. 
Leland  in  England.  It  treats  of  the  development  of  Memory,  the  increasing 
quickness  of  perception,  and  training  the  constructive  faculty. 

Mr.  Leland  was  the  first  person  to  introduce  Indu»trial  Art  as  a  branch  of 
education  in  the  public  schools  of  America.  The  Bureau  of  Education  at 
Wasliington,  observing  the  success  of  his  work,  employed  him  in  1862  to  write 
a  pamphlet  showing  how  hand-work  could  be  taken  or  taught  in  schools  and 
families. 

Usually  the  Bureau  publishes  an  edition  of  fifteen  thousand  of  its  circulars. 
In  this  instance,  sixty  thousand  were  issued  in  two  years.  The  book  has  been 
greatly  enlarged,  and  is  now  published  in  England,  and  imported  by  Messrs. 
S.  L.  Kellogg  A  Co.,  New  York,  who  are  selling  it  at  a  very  low  price. 


1889.]  AMONG  THE  BOOKS.  711 

"  The  baaU  of  Mr.  Leiand's  theory,"  saya  a  reviewer,  "  is  that  before  learn- 
ing, children  should  acquire  the  art  of  learning.  It  is  not  enough  to  fill  the 
memory;  memory  must  first  be  created.  By  training  children  to  merely 
memorize,  extraordinary  power  in  this  respect  is  to  be  attained  in  a  few 
months.  With  this  is  associated  exercises  in  quickness  of  perception,  which 
are  at  first  purely  mechanical,  and  range  from  merely  training  the  eye  to  men- 
tal arithmetic,  and  problems  in  all  branches  of  education.  Memory  and  quick- 
ness of  perception  blend  in  the  development  of  the  constructive  faculties  or 
hand-work.    Attention  or  interest  is  the  final  factor  in  this  system." 

It  will  have  a  wide  circulation  in  America.  It  treats  especially  of  the  mem- 
ory,  perception,  and  the  constructive  faculty. 

Sadler*s  Commercial  Arithmetic.  By  W.  H.  Sadler  and  W.  R.  Will. 
Second  edition.  Pp.  404.  Published  by  W.  H.  Sadler,  6  and  8  No.  Charles 
Street,  Baltimore,  Md.  Retail  price,  $1.60.  Examination  copy  to  tejichers, 
75  cents. 

This  is  essentially  a  business  arithmetic.    In  its  construction  as  to  rules, 

examples  for  practice,  and  particularly  in  the  numerous  short  processes  of 

reaching  a  solution  of  given  problems,  it  will  commend  itself  to  those  looking 

for  an  arithmetic  for  use  in  English  high  schools  and  business  colleges. 

English  Composition.  Adapted  to  the  wants  of  High  Schools,  Preparatory 
Schools,  and  Academies.  By  Alfred  H.  Welsh,  A.  M.,  Ohio  State  University. 
Pp.  204.  Chicago :  John  C.  Buckbee  &  Co.,  122  and  124  Wabash  Avenue. 
Price,  50  cents.  Specimen  copy  to  teachers  sent  post-paid  on  receipt  of  35 
cents. 

It  is  a  hopeful  sign  of  the  times  that  the  attention  of  students  is  turning 
toward  the  production  of  books  which  will  assist  the  youth  of  today  to  obtain 
a  clearer  and  broader  knowledge  of  the  language  which  is  soon  to  be  the  lan- 
guage of  the  world.  Professor  Welsh  has  added  another  excellent  book  to  the 
list,  and  has  also  added  to  his  reputation  as  a  student  of  English  and  English  lit- 
erature. His  English  Composition  is  written  for  the  young  scholar,  and  will  be 
used  in  many  high  schools  and  academies. 

A  Handbook  of  Rhetorical  Analysis.  Studies  In  Style  and  Invention, 
designed  to  accompany  the  Author^s  Practical  Elements  of  Rhetoric.  By 
John  F.  Genung,  Ph.  D.    Pp.  306.    Boston :    Glnn  A  Co.    Price,  $1.25. 

This  Is  another  book  which  will.  In  a  different,  though  no  less  valuable  direc- 
tion, aid  the  student  of  English  to  gain  a  true  estimate  of  Its  beauties.  The 
selections  are  representative  of  the  authors,  and  though  not  of  sufficient  full- 
ness to  be  considered  as  giving  an  accurate  knowledge  of  each  author,  they  will 
give  the  student  an  Insight  Into  what  constitutes  the  particular  character  of  the 
writers,  and  at  the  same  time  afford  an  Idea  of  what  good  literature  demands  as 
to  style  and  models  of  construction. 

First  Greek  Reader.  Easy  selections  adapted  from  Xenophon  and  Thacyd- 
Ides,  and  an  introduction  to  the  Anabasis  of  Xenophon;  with  Notes  and 
Exercises  adapted  to  both  Hadley*s  and  Goodwin*s  Grammars,  by  Edward  J. 
Coy,  M.  A.,  Professor  of  Greek  In  Phillips  (Andover)  Academy.  Pp.  142. 
New  York :    D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

'ilils  is  the  third  edition  of  this  book,  and  to  those  who  have  used  it  in  earlier 

editions  nothing  need  be  said,  for  they  know  the  aid  It  has  been  to  them  in 

starting  young  students  In  Greek  translation,  to  think,  and  to  use  the  right 

EnglUh  word,  as  well  as  properly  to  form  the  sentences.    Those  who  have  not 

seen  the  book  will  And  In, It  much  to  please  them. 


712  EDUCATIOK.  [June, 

HoxsRic  YOCABULART.  Bv  Tbomas  D.  Seymoar,  Professor  of  Greek  in  Tale 
College.    Boston :    Ginn  k  Co.    Pp.  105.    Price,  80  cents. 

In  this  book,  compiled  from  the  Iliad  directly,  the  author  has  given  to  stu- 
dents of  Homer  a  handbook  which  will  be  helpful  in  giving  them  both  original 
and  derived  meanings  of  words,  and  many  concise  renderings  of  particular 
words. 

The  Constitution  op  the  United  States  and  the  Declaration  of  Inde^ 
PENDENCE.  In  German,  French,  and  English,  in  parallel  columns.  Trans- 
lated by  A.  H.  Laidlaw,  Jr.  Revised  by  Professors  Hellmrich,  Schroeder 
and  Feyandie.  Second  edition.  Laidlaw  Brothers  &  Co.,  137  W.  41st  Street, 
New  York.    Pp.  88. 

As  has  been  said,  '*  The  issue  of  this  book  is  a  capital  idea,**  for  it  will  afford 
(he  thousands  of  natives  of  Germany  and  France  who  are  yearly  coming  to  our 
oonntry,  to  make  for  themselves  homes,  an  opportunity  of  learning  the  funda- 
mental law  of  the  land,  and  the  causes  which  lead  to  the  beginning  of  the  coun- 
try, which  they  would  get  in  no  other  way  with  anything  like  the  ease  and 
accuracy  which  this  book  will  affbrd  them.  The  preface  is  in  itself  worth  the 
time  of  a  busy  man  to  read. 

The  Great  English  Writers,  prom  Chaucer  to  Georoe  Eliot  ;  with  selec- 
tions illustrating  their  works.  A  textbook  of  £ngli9h  Literature  for  the  use 
of  schools.  By  Truman  J.  Backus  and  Helen  Dawes  Brown.  New  York : 
Sheldon  &  Co. 

The  collaboration  of  these  two  distinguished  educators  has  produced  a  vol- 
nme  which  will  be  heartily  welcomed  by  teachers  as  a  tangible  expression  of 
the  best  idea  of  teaching  English  Literature.  It  will  be  generally  conceded  that 
it  is  unwise  and  impracticable  to  attempt  an  exhaustive  study  of  this  important 
branch  in  the  curriculum  of  the  high  school.  In  this  volume  the  essentials 
only  are  given, 'but  they  are  given  in  such  a  way  as  to  lay  broad  and  deep  the 
foundations  upon  which  to  build  futare  knowledge.  The  relative  value  of  the 
authors  here  given  |s  carefully  sustained  and  contemporary  writers  are  recog- 
niced  while  assigning  to  them  a  minor  place.  The  copious  extracts  af- 
ford the  pupil  a  fair  opportunity  to  Judge  of  the  quality  of  the  writers,  and 
the  critical  reviews  and  analyses  are  enriched  by  the  estimates  given  of  each 
author  by  various  other  authors.  The  ^*  Suggestions  to  Readers  '^  at  the  close 
of  each  chapter  bring  the  student  in  contact  with  the  best  productions  of  the 
authors.  The  development  of  each  author  is  full,  progressive,  and  systematic. 
The  style  is  simple  and  perspicuous,  and  the  amount  of  information  compacted 
into  each  chapter  is  ample.  The  selection  of  subjects  for  treatment  under  each 
author  is  made  with  dignity  and  discrimination.  Altogether,  the  book  is  a  dis- 
tinct and  valuable  addition  to  the  list  of  school  manuals  on  this  subiect. 

The  new  volume  of  The  Century,  November,  1888  to  April,  1889,  in  its  old 
gold  cloth  covers  is  Just  out,  and  will  be  prized  by  thousands  who  are  fortunate 
enough  to  obtain  a  copy.  In  looking  through  the  table  of  contents  one  sees  the 
titles  of  articles  which  will  interest  the  student  of  Biography,  of  Literature,  of 
History,  including  Biblical  Mediaeval,  Early  American,  and  contemporaneous, 
of  Music  and  Art,  of  The  Sciences,  and  Philosophy. 

The  list  of  writers  contains  many  of  the  foremost  men  of  letters  of  the  day. 
We  find,  beside  the  writers  of  '^  Abraham  Lincoln,  A  History,*'  the  names  of 
Zenas  Clark,  John  B.  McMaster,  Edward  Atkinson,  Murat  Halstead,  Mary  Hal- 
lock  Foote,  George  W.  Cable,  Ivan  Parrin,  Ernest  H.  Crosby,  Dr.  Lyman 
Abbott,  Thos.  B.  Reed,  Geo.  H.  Bates,  Washington  Gladden,  Julian  Haw- 


1889.]  AMONG  THE  BOOKS.  718 

thorne,  Edward  Eggleston,  James  Whitcomb  Riley,  Margaret  Yandegrift,  Geo. 
Parsons  Lathrop,  Joaquin  Miller,  Thomas  Wentworth  Higginson,  and  others  of 
as  wide  and  deserved  reputation. 

While  the  success  of  this  magazine  seems  truly  wonderful,  we  are  inclined 
to  think  the  labor  and  thought  put  into  it,  when  combined  with  the  unprece- 
dented expense  to  which  it  has  gone  to  secure  material  for  some  of  its  articles, 
entitle  it  to  the  success  which  it  has  achieved. 

A  Uniform  Method  of  Computino  Interest  (whatever  the  time  and  rate), 
with  a  classification  and  an  analysis  of  Arithmetical  Problems.  By  £.  A. 
Hubbard.    Pp.  32.    Hatfield,  Mass. :    Published  by  the  author. 

Professor  Hubbard,  formerly  agent  of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education, 
has  produced  here  a  unique  little  manual.  Teachers  of  High  School  Arithme- 
tic will  find  in  it  a  method  of  computing  interest  which  will  be  new  to  many, 
and  which  will  be  of  help  to  all.  The  problems  which  are  here  given  are  alone 
worthy  of  study  and  use. 

Orandfather^s  Stories.  Compiled  and  arranged  by  James  Johoniiot.  Pp. 
137.    New  York :    D.  Appleton  <&  Co. 

These  historical  stories  adapted  for  reading  by  little  folks,  will  prove  an 

acceptable  addition  to  the  list  of  reading  books  for  the  younger  children.    The 

teachers  and  scholars  alike  will  enjoy  them.    The  illustrations,  of  which  there 

are  many,  are  of  a  high  grade,  and  the  whole  make-up  of  the  book  is  worthy 

the  author,  the  contents,  and  the  publishers. 

Algebraic  Analysis.  By  G.  A.  Wentworth,  A.  M.,  Professor  of  Mathemat- 
ics in  Phillips  Exeter  Academy;  J.  A.  Mcl/ellan,  LL.  D.,  Inspector  of  Nor- 
mal Schools,  Ontario.  CanadH,*and  J.  C.Glashan,  Inspector  of  Public  Schools, 
Ottawa.  Canada.  Part  I.  Pp.  418.  Introduction  and  Teacher's  Price,  $1.50 ; 
Mailing  Price,  $1.60. 

This  work,  which  has  been  previously  announced  as  Wentworth  and  McLel- 
lan's  University  Algebra,  is  intended  to  supply  students  of  mathematics  with  a 
well-filled  storehouse  of  solved  examples  and  unsolved  exercises  in  the  appli- 
cation of  the  fundamental  theorems  and  processes  of  pure  algebra.  The  work 
will  be  issued  in  two  volumes,  the  first  of  which  closes  with  an  extensive  col- 
lection of  exercises  in  determinals. 

Applied  Psychology.  An  Introduction  to  the  Principles  and  Practice  of 
Education.  By  J.  A.  Mcl^llan,  M.  A.,  LL.  D.  Director  of  Normal  Schools 
for  Ontario.    Toronto :    The  Copp  Clark  Co. 

llils  is  a  very  interesting  volume,  and  contains  a  deal  of  valuable  matter, 
llie  part  that  treats  of  Psychology  is  a  condensation  of  Dewey's  work,  and  Is 
well  executed.  It  presents  the  subject  in  a  fresh  and  striking  way.  The  peda- 
gogical part  is  devoted  to  Principles  of  Teaching,  Methods  of  Instruction,  and 
a  brief  exposition  of  Kindergarten  work.  As  an  elementary,  popular  treatise 
to  be  put  into  the  hands  of  yoimg  teachers,  the  volume  can  be  highly  com- 
mended. The  title  is  rather  a  misnomer,  as  the  book  is  not  so  much  applied 
psychology,  as  psychology  and  pedagogy. 

Aristophane  et  L'Anciexne  Comedie  Attique.  Par  A.  Couat,  Recteur  de 
L'  Academic  de  Lille.    Paris :    H.  Lecene  et  H.  Oudin,  Edlteurs.    1889. 

This  book  gives  a  capital  account  of  Attic  Comedy,  and  contains  a  complete 
treatment  of  the  comedies  of  Aristophanes.  Students  of  French  who  are  inter- 
ested in  the  ancient  classics,  will  find  the  volume  both  interesting  and  valua- 
ble. 


714  EDUCATION,  [June. 

Jules  Lkmaitrk  lks  Contemporains.  Etudes  et  Portraits  Lltteraires. 
Quatrieiue  S<'>rie.    Paris :    Librnirl  11.  l^ecene  et  H.  Oudin.     1889. 

This  work  gives  short  accounts  of  Stendhal,  Baudelaire,  Merimee,  Barbey 
D*Aurevilly,  Paul  Verlaine,  Victor  Hugo,  Lemartine,  G.  Sand,  Taine  et  Napo- 
leon, Sully- Prudhoimue,  Alphonse  Daudet,  Jeau  Labor,  Grosclaude. 

TiiK  Text  on  the  Beach.  By  John  Green  leaf  Whittier,  with  introduction 
and  notes.  Kiverftide  Literature  Series.  M&rch,  1889.  Boston :  Houghton, 
MltHin  &  Co.  Single  numbers,  15  cents.  Yearly  subscription  (six  narubers), 
80  cents. 


/ 


MAGAZINES   RECEIVED. 

In  looking  over  the  Century  for  May  we  are  atruck  by  the  range  of  subjects  and  the 
reputation  of  the  writer*.  Among  those  of  apecial  interest  at  this  time  is  another  arti- 
cle from  Mr.  Geo.  H.  Batf^s,  on  '*Our  Relations  to  Samoa.*' In  Harptr*$  Vicomte 

Eugvno  Melchoir  do  VogUe  begins  a  series  of  articles  on  **  Social  Life  in  Russia,'*  and 

with  this  number  the  Seventy-eighth  volume  is  completed. ScribHer**  has  for  its 

frontispiece  a  spirited  engraving  of  Burns'  drawing  of  Carcajon  Pool,  which  seems  par- 
ticularly appn)priate  to  face  the  atiicle  on  "  The  land  of  the  Winanlshe.'*  The  Railway 
series  is  continued,  and  "  Count  Leo  ToUtoi, Twenty  Years  Ago**  is  within  one  chapter 

of  completion. *•  A  chain  of  Errors,"  by  E.  W.  Latimer  is  the  story  in  Lipptnoott^M, 

while  as  appropriate  to  the  time  are  articles  on  "  George  Washington  and  Rev.  Jona- 
than Boucher,  by  Moncure  I>.  Conway,  and  Wanhington's  New  York  residence  in  I7S8, 

by  Anna  H.  Wharton. Tht^  Magazine  of  American  Hittory  is  as  usual  replete  with 

historic  facts  ot  interest.    "  The  Harrisons  in  History,"  *'  Indiana's  first  Settlement,'* 

"Washington's  Historic  Luncheon  in  Klizubeth,"  are  among  the  topics  treated. 

CattetVs,  beside  the  two  continueil  stories,  which  are  growing  in  interest,  contains  two 
complete  stories,  and  otherarticles  worthy  of  notice,  notomiting*'Whatto  Wear'*  from 

the  Paris  and  London  correspondents,  which  will  of  course  please  the  ladies. The 

North  American  Reriew  opens  with  '  The  Annexation  of  Mexico," by  the  representative  of 
that  eountr>'  In  Washington.  Viscount  Wolseley  begins  a  series  of  papers  on  "  An  Eng- 
lish View  of  the  Civil  War,"  which  will  be  of  much  interest.    Other  valuable  contriba- 

tions  follow  these  making  a  very  excellent  number. The  Popular  Science  Monthlp  may 

bo  Judged  by  the  writers  for  its  pages,  among  whom  are  Andrew  D.  White,  LL.D.,  L.  H. 
D.,  Prof.  C.  Ilanford  Henderson,  Dr.  J.  E.  Taylor,  F.  L.  $.,  John  C.  Branner,  Ph.  D.,  Rev. 

Dr.  Henry  Wace,  Bishop  W.  C.  Magee,  and  others. The  Andortr  Review  is  well  up  to 

its  usual  high  standard.    Among  the  topics  discussed  are  "  What  is  Reality,'*  **  Chorcb 

Union  in  Japan," and  "Was  our  Sepai'ation  from  England  Needless." The  CathoUc 

World  is  worthy  a  perusal  by  ProteMtint  as  well  as  Catholic. The  Sew  Englander  and 

Yule  Revieic  has  "Election  Bribery,"  *- Economics  of  the  Strike,"  "Commonplace  in 

Fiction,"  "  A  IMoneer  of  German  Art,"  besides  the  University  Topics. The  Forum 

has  articles  by  Grant  Allen,  on  "  Woman's  Place  in  Nature."  by  Elizabeth  Stuart  Phelps 
on  "  The  Christianity  ot  Christ,"  and  Pres.  William  De  W.  Hyde  on  **  School  Examina> 

tions,"  and  others  equally  prominent. Edinburgh  Magazine,  the  Engliah  Ilhutraied 

Magazine,  and    The  Quiver  from  across  the  water   are  worthy  of  more  attention  on 

this  side. Lend  a  Hand  is  growing  in  value,  and  will    be   much  enjoyed  by  its 

readers. The  Chautnuquan  is  of  value  to  all  C  L.  S.  C.  students  and  to  the  general 

reader  as  well. Frank  Lealie^s  .!»um/ay  ^fa^nztne  contains  much  good  reading  for  the 

Sabbath  as  well  us  other  days. I)onahoe*8  Magazine  contains  several  articles  written 

particularly  for  Catholics  which  should  be  read  by  all  Protestants. Little  Men  and 

Women  is  as  full  as  ever  of  good  things  for  the  little  ones. The  American  Antiquarian 

will  interest  the  lover  of  the  antique. The  Acadfmy  has  several  articles  which  will 

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Magazine  is  particularly  valuable  to  any  contemplating  a  removal  to  the  Northwest. 
The  Iowa  JIi«t(frical  Rvgiater  opens  with  a  sketch  of  Governor  Sherman. 


Vol..  IX. 


sr.i'Tr.MUKi;,  i^ss. 


N...   1 


Q)Ug;atio^ 

A  Monthly  Magazine 


r)?.voTir>  TO 


9 


THE    SCIENCE,    ART,    PHILOSOPHY.    AND 
LITERATURE    OF    EDUCATION. 

IV/LL/AM  A.  MO  WRY, 

H.ITOR. 


CONTENTS. 


rJi«''i'iM.lii!i;,^i.i  I.:.;::..     tW  i:.  li     ..■■.'..  a/../'.. /;.o' . ..    .    . 

'J'ln'  JCf'ii.'iiiv  <»I    M*-5!i"rv    ill  fli'- ^":'I .   '-I'  A:  i'luii,  •' '  *» " 

*   iillciii'.    IIXjMM.-i-".       //    ■■  .     "l  ■     .    '  '.     »'■        '.    -l'-      '■•   '■■.     ^-    //...- 
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ni:';i-,.'  \-. •••'•.::  :i."  I'i   ;   i->.i:j.'-- ;:'i  Mm-  L'-tni-n.-j:!"!!.     /■•'■    .V. 

I'll.- >;:.■!/ i\.iw-i.      r...'!ii.      ./■■■■     //.  V.  ■•      

<  "hil'i  >»"'»'*li,  .iijil  Mn    I.:i\v  III  Mi'i»iMnu:ii.'i:i;iMn.     I.     F.-'..'"n'.   V 

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jWMiJNI'  ANNnrY  BOND  ••:  :i.-  Penn  Mutual 

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i'-'\  ■■-.  \  <>..  ruMishers. 


\  \  :  \  >.      ■. 


«   Vl'«    \l.l>. 


HA.>     1  UAA4  IMO. 


Q)ug:atiou 

A  Jfo/i//i/i/  Maijiixiiif 


THE    SCIENCE.    ART,    PHILOSOPHY.    AND 
LITERATURE    OF    EDUCATION. 


lurji.ijr  J.  .'K.'iiA'i; 


tONTi:NTS. 


DUNTON'S      - 

ARITHMETIC    CHARTS. 


I'^HM^^flS 


I>lllI.OR<>lMll('AL 

in   TItKATMKXT. 

KDI'CATKIXAI, 

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I.OOICAI.  Ill 

MKTIIllO. 

TIIK  fllKAI'KST, 

MOST   Ikl'KAItl.K. 
AM>    BliST 
AUITIIMKTK^ 

CHAItTS   IX 

Till-:   MAItlvKT. 


Price,   »ith  supporters,  S3. 00;  wHfiOut  supporian,  fS.OO. 

Ki'M  1,11.  I'KIt  i:   ] i:  •.iiii:-; i-v.  f.'[  t: \;i ml  11.11  :<"i,  clmrt^  .iixl  »it|>portt'i-.s  •n.OO, 

V    ■ITOs;...!..  loil.u.-      |-v!,l)0.'t(liny      BollClIlMl. 

EASTERN  EDUCATIONAL  BDREAH, 

50  Bromfleld  Street.  Boston,  Mass. 


New  Educational  Works. 


MKTiioDs  Avi>  Air>>  IN  (;rn(;K\nn    ri:.\i  niN  ..  \'.\  (iim.us  k   Kin-;.    i*i k  : 

jKiI  lit"  tin-  l>i-:ii'">ru  "^I'liiMil.  IJii>iiiu.  i  lui  :i.  jiii.^ir  I'fil.  lili-i'it  ^l----.  I'liitt  >.-..r  P\'i:_'"- 
i'oniplclc  siiid  |H'!U'liv.il  Iri'iHiinMit  nl  lln**  .-iil»j«fl  i.t  \)\v  ii'>-ull  n|  ■.tiHui'  i  ui.-i.ty  yiiii-" 
(!XliiM'iciiro  in  lh«'  MclKHiI-i-dnin.     .luM  ri-Mily. 

IU':.\I>IN(;n    KHOM    WAVKKI.Y    NmV|;|,s.      m.-  \V:il:.:r  >,-ott   riii.l   liK  ».*...!.<.  i...-  yonnj,' 
IN-uiili'.     t'lii  liiiiiM>  ii-:itliii;:  Mild 'ti-iiiM>l  Nrii.tv ,  u  iih  i)(iir<«  i-tiiNit  )iv   All  inn  I- .  i;i  \i-« 
i*v  I  1.,  A.  M..  Muriiin"  oi  "  l-h-l  Sii-p>  w  iili  Aiiiii  u  :iii  ii'nl  Ilrii:>i|i  Aiiiluir-  "  •'  I'l,*-  •«f  n-iy 
i»I  Ijih;1i.-<I)  d.-iSNii's,"  ttr.    rlfUh.  almiir  T'>  «mi*i~  int.     It>  iiciil  •=."■*•  iits 

blU-'T  MKrs  WITH  AMKUH  AN  A\I»  l*IHTI<H    \l  THnl:>.      Ai.  hiiii»l.M!i.ry  Ihi  i-l 
luMik  of  Kn^rlislj  I.ihMMturc  lor  jnipils.     \'.\  Ai.ikipK   Hi-Ai-^iii  i  i..  \  >!.  <  Ii-th,  7..  ■••jil" 
lift ;  iiy  iiiuil  .n'>  cijiitN. 

I'UIMAK'V     MhTlltM)-*     IN     Z'MI[,oi,V     TIlViniM;     K'H:    TK  \«  III  i:^    IN    (i»M.MnN 
MllOn|>Ji\  l»r.  W.  r.  MANIif.N,  K.  »:.  M.  >..  K. /..>."  :iiilli"r    l    l:i  \:'U  tthv  v\.i!,i.Mt   ;, 
T»';irlior."  "Inserts:    Iliiw   t<i  i.Mtili  !i'.*J  llnw  m  ri»-).iui-,"  "  Ih-I-J  i;iH.iiiy."    '  iWmu 
niii;{rt  with  ihc  Mirn»>cn]>«*."    tlotli,  illnslraN'il,  .'»<»  iniit.-t. 

CIIAI'TIIKS  KIloM  .lANT  A  C'hTKN.  Ii>r  li.-in'M-.-.uliii','  :iM>i  -.'IkmiI  -Tt:.!y.  with  iict.-^  )^y 
•  ».siai:Ka\  AiiAM-*.  l.lnlli.  iibiiiit  *I.i«"  mt.  Mi-i.-  Mi^lfM'-.  iinv«  l«*  un-  iii.i-^-N  n!  jimh- 
KtitrlNIi,  mill  :><«siicli  hiivi'  Ikm'D  ailuptfii  im'  -«tii<iy  in  '•i'iu>ol<:iuii<i  ariutrinii  -,  an>i  t<»r  n*«<' 
in  llarvani.    Jii'^t  iviKiy. 

CHIPS  FIJOM  A  TKA<  IIKK''^  \\  4)i;KsiI<»r.      IMu.atinn.il  Topj,..  ...f  iJn'  I«.iv.  l.y  I..  II 
Kl.KUM,  IMi.  I),    (.'lo'.li.  $l..*<i  iii.'l,  l»y  mail.  $]:.',:> 

K\rKLLi;NT  <^roTATH»N<.  Fnr  lionio  Mil.!  ^.-Ii.ui!,  tor  th.-  ii^t-  <.f  ti-u-liri-^  :in.l  pnpiN. 
liyJri-lA  I*.  lloiiT,  hi-jMity  sispiTinn-nili:iil  i»f  I'unlio  lii-'rurf  ion.  >iatf  i.ii  (  ahlV»r:ii!i. 
C'ldtli,  7."»C'tMits,  ni't  ,  Iiy  mail  r-.'i  r.'i;n!«i. 

Sfihf  hy  oil  bonl-^dlers,  mni  At  nf  hi/  muil,  /n'.«7;Mi''/,  "«  n  ■'•  ijtf  nf  pro''. .     ("iit'if-'t/'n-.t  '\f  /V  .f  /.'.u  *  v 

und  Snjifiltmetttfirif  li'iuUinj,  unrHni /rt'\ 

Lee  &  Shepard,  Publishers,    -    Boston 


BOSTON. 


June  12,  1888, 


"  Harper's  Copy  Books'*  wen* 

IHianilllMli'ilv    .iildlttiMl   hv   llic  lM*;il'ii 


^"  ^^  MOHK  of  "Harper's  Copy  Books'*  an*  n<vi\  in 

I    ^/     I^CLYh     tike   liostoii    puMii.'    Si;luu>ls    th:iii   '//'v  "fh-  r  .<>  ri'  s. 


ri  Hr.i.snKi)  nv 


HARPER  &  BROTHERS, 

FRANKLIN  SQUARE,  NEW  YORK  CITY. 

49-WRlTK  FOIS  SAMl'LKS   .\.ND  I>1C[CKn.'u«  j: 

A.  C.  STOCKIN,       -       -       50  BRO^F\^\JO  ^T  ..  V.Q^'^r^^' 


RtCEKT    J(m\.      ISSUES. 


1  ";    - 
(ll    ^- 

11  ■■•^ 


1 

H-    -: 

y.\  -A-   ■:::    ■  0K\    Of    TH!-    l^N 

1  ^[>  bi  ATES. 

S  ''  '  '■ 

'.    ■■■:-'-\K   :  H.  -.l.    -iKi  1  i;Mr  !  !L', 

.,-..,-.:...,■ 

...■..■...,.■,.:.. 

""  ■■■     ■■:   ■A  :  rK.w  pHiiosorHV. 


'%■  SANAJ1ASIS. 


K'=:  OF  QUIKTILIAN 


'..<       '..-.    ,.      ;  \   :      ..  I    UXrt,     SAN    FK»NCISC 


Vol,.  IX. 


N<)\  r.MiiKi;.  l-^-«^. 


V 


6i)U(5ATIOU 

A  3Ionth1ij  Mitijazine 


F)KVOiKI>  Ti> 


THE    SCIENCE,    ART,    PHILOSOPHY,    AND 
,^-  LITERATURE    OF    EDUCATION. 

y  ^^     ':  WILLhUT  A,  MOWR\\ 


Fl)nc»k 


CONTENTS. 


// 


^V'.  I'l'iii  t  '■  '''•  /.     .      .  .      •  .... 

l*rlni:ii*\  :iij«1  '^•••m.{i!:ii".   **ih-'Ml*  i.t  )|  .':  |.  •]       /.!.*» 

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ARITHMETIC    CHARTS. 


O^HM^^afl^ 


nilLOKOIMIKAI^ 

In  TKKATMFAT. 

i:i>l'fATU>XAI, 

111   riMXCIPLE. 

UHacAI.  ill 

MKTIIOll. 

Till:  ciii:\im:st. 

MOST   lUKAni.r, 
AM»    HKST 
AltlTII>IKTIf 

CIIAHTS   IX 

TIIK   MAKICET. 


S     00     w  thout  supporiers    SG  I 


EAiJhRH  tDUCATIONAL  BHREAD, 

.viO  i'.'oiiilii.'ld  Street.  Boston,  Mass. 


New  Educational  Works. 


METHODS  AMU  All)**   IN   <iKo<;UArilY    TKAc  IIIMJ,   Uv  ni\KM:s   V.  Kim;.     I'rn^.  > 
jml  of  tli«' I)«*Jii'l»'»rn  Scli«uil.  Itii>tiMi.     rinih.  il|ii-'r:i»»Mj,  :i1miii|   f -JJ  «hi.     rinti  .,»nr  KiiiU'* 
Cdiiiplctii  (iii«i  piiu'lU'al  tifatniLiit  ut  this  Miliji  rt  m  tlic  vlmiII  oi' uIkiu!  l»tiily  yi-ai'^' 
tiilif  rit'Dce  ill  th«  scluMilrnniii.     .hi-t  n'.i»l>  . 

REA1>1V(;S   FIIOM   WAVKKLV   NoVI- LS.      ?ijr  \V;illir  Scott  ami  Ihn  brinks  fiu    vnm.- 
Pooplv.    For  liniiitii  ri'Uilini;  iiiid  sfliiHi]  Ntiiily.vMlli  imti-s  i-iliiiil  )>y  Al.)  iu.i>  1-'    iti.\i> 
liK.l.L,  A.  M.,  niitiuii'  ot  •' Kir^t  '•li-p.-  witli  AiiiiTifiin  .'iiiii   Biitisli  Autliors  "  •' Tin;  SUuly 
of  l-Iii;|{Iisli  (  luHsit'**,"  otv.    Clolli,  ulmut  Ta  tMnl>  m.l.     ISy  mail  ^j  itmI>. 

FIRST  STKl'S  WITH  AMKKKAN  ANI>  njlTI^H   Al  Tlloli<.      An  [iitnuliutniy  llan.j 
b4Mik  of  Kii^lish  i.itiTatiuv  tor  pupils.     IW  Al.hUl.li  F.  HL.\lM>f  l.i.,  A.M.   (.'loth,  ;.'>  im-ii'^ 
net;  by  iiuitl  >5ci>iits. 

PKIMAKY     MKTIlnDS     IN    ZO()I,(k;v    TI:A(IIIN<;     K«»U    TKA(  IlKKS    IN    <'OM.M«»\ 
SCHOOLS,  liv  Iir.  W.  I*.  Mamov,  F.  I:.  M.  >..  K.  /.  s..  ".lurhitr  "f  T:i\i.hriii>   \vHh.-«»  a 
TiiUfluT,"  "  l!i«i»'t:tf*:    How  to  tatt'h  aii>I  llnw   lo  I'ri-p.iu',"' "  Kirhi  IJiitauy,"  "  Ur:,'in 
nini;^ri  with  tin:  Mi<.T«»M*»»pt*."    C  k»th,  iMiistiiiti'il,  .Vi  fviitJ*. 

CHATTKUS  FKOM  .lANK  ACVrFN.  for  hoiiu- n-a«Iiiiir  joul  .m-IhmiI  Mu'ly.  with  im-is  hv 
OsrAlJ  FaV  Ai»AMS.  rioth.  ahont  ^1.(m»  lu-t.  Mi*."  \!istMiV  nnvi  N  an- inoiiols  m  imri* 
Kimli-h,  iiiiila«iMii^h  ha\  t*.  \^v^^\^  :iiloplo<l  tor  study  in  M'h«iol.<4:tiii!  ai-aihMiiii--,  :iii<(  tor  •t<'<- 
In  Hitr%'iinl.    Jii.-t  rva'ly. 

CHIPS  FKOM  A  TI:A(  HKUN  WOJIK*iHOI».  K.hi.atioi.al  Topics  of  tho  Dav.  by  I.,  ii. 
KlXMM,  rii.  1».    Cloth,  ^1  -J>i  ni-( .  hy  uiail,  -^l.:ri. 

KXCKI.KKNT  Or'<»TATHiN<.     For  hoiix'  aii'l  .-i-hool,  inr  thi-  u««f  of  t«*;u'h«M'<-  anil  pupils. 
hv.lt  i.tA  It.  Hour,  Hc]Mity  Snp(Tin1i:ii<U-nt  of  I'ulilu-  iiotnictl'in.  ^iritc  of  (  aliliMiiia 
(.'^oth,  T.'i  fonts,  not;  hy  mail  >.'»  oi-nl**. 

Sultl  by  all  bovbst/ltrSj  nnd  SvhI  toi  nitiii,  /M-.v/ymi-i,  on  nfi/it  "//ii  4.1 .     1  'iit»i!'"/ii*:A  .>/  iVil  /;i»i  .'..■> 


Lee  &  Shepard,  Publishers, 


Boston 


A  Slu»rt  History  of  i\w  Siu-ossioii  War. 

iJy  Uo«Hirru  JoiiN.<^ii.N-.  ;iuih<'i  "f  *'  ili"  Mi^t.i;-.  ■■•.  li  ■    \^  .r  "f  l-L'-l.'i."  t  :••.    >»•  ■■,  ^:':  !  ■;•.  '. .:''  i."  •>  •;  ■ 

kn-.l  I'l.ins.    $,'i.i.>ii. 
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Tin*  Ki!i;il  hiinl.x;  iUi.-. . 

Koc'ollortioii.s  of  a  IMmiiiiiiii'i*  Itoy. 

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The  I>oa<l  Doll  and  otliiT  V4'rM's. 

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Tli''*>"  ]«-iiiii'^  .I.-'   :i-''  I'.  '. .  \  I'     ;i'-:  I   ;■■■    1  .-1  .nl  ■:••■.■.:'••'  :■■       r..  '    ;l  "!.•  y  .n--'  !ii\  -  .1  -n-.il  •  i-:.-!     i:    .■. 
flip  iili '.vli'-viri.  !■  :  f.  i:....   i..-:.    ■■:■*•.■■;■.■.«•.  1. .■'..•;.■■  ■  ■■ .■■   i  :<■. 

Siilfi  cnrt^trhcrv.      Svnt,  p'^^ffmiff,  nn  r.-rript  <*/ ftn'fc,  Ay  the  pHhh'shpo. 


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\' 


Xjl-f.Hl.x     W  ii|«l>      \ilM)»l**t|. 


EGGLESTON'S 

History  of  tlie  United  States 


//^  *  t  ,/  /  N     1 1  iff  hi  sf     (iiiiiim  §ifltfthms. 


•  ■  "1 


-/ .  . 


;  J 


k  CO.:  PUBLISHERS. 


•  •x 


^.\\i   F:  Jin-'lSCo 


Vol.  IX.  DECEMBER,  1888.  No.  4. 

SuGTATIOr^ 

A  Monthly  Magazine 

DBVOTRD  TO 

THE    SCIENCE,    ART,    PHILOSOPHY,    AND 
LITERATURE    OF    EDUCATION. 

J      y  ^j- '     ^  \  WILLIAM  A.  MO  WR  Y, 

-%       r*  -  .r^il  EDITOR. 

CONTENTS. 

Excps^iive  Holps  in  Kduoation.  WUliam  T.  JLirrU,  LL.  IJ,,  Concord^  ^fni*:*.  .  ill 
Th«?  I'tTitaiioii.  ]V.  Ji.  FirrjuHitn,  Snjn  riiitviuhnt  ttf  Srhottls^  Muhlhtotrn,  Conn,  .  2*20 
Thn  Stuilv  of  Kn;rli>l»  T/it<Taniri».  Mrs.  Laura  Safunhrsou  IJincif^  A.  M.  .  .  '1'2\) 
Pn' pa  rat  ion  for  Cilizon^hip.      II.     At  Amherst  Gollepe.     Anson  D.  Mortn\ 

A.  M. 'rM\ 

'WvM'hhvx  Alj^ibra  to  H«*;;i!imMR.     II.     John  F.  Casty^  EntjU»h  Wtjh  Schm,}^ 

liosfnn , 247 

riie  'IVaelior's   Proparalion.    Juhn  E.   Brndhy^   J%.  />.,  Suprrinti'inhnt  "/ 

St'honfg^  Minnnifmlis^  Minn 2."i;i 

*•  Aiioipiti,"     Prof.  W.  S.  Srarhomnt/fi^  LL,  IJ.^ '2fV,i 

K.IiloHal -ir.'J 

MUrrllnny 27.*{ 

FonMp:n  Notes 27(1 

The  National  Mii«e»m  at  \Vashin;;toii.     -1.  Tulman  Smith 277 

Hit)lii»^raphy  of  Current  IVriudical  Literature  upon  Education 2.'<n 

Anions  the  Ho<»ks Jsl 

31  ai^a  i^i  lies  •>••..•..•••.•.•••.•..  •>  «•''■ 
Pamphlets        2;»4 

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Stanfoid  Wall  maps. 

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POINTS  OF  EXCELLENCE. 

1  ,•       Th' tj  'U    <n-'it.f!-;  j/f'/i.i'. '/  i»u  th«-  !h  -f  «|ii.iiity  «"f  linen. 

:  i       /''•  7    •/•'•  ."*.•;•    -htl  '  j.;-iUiiij!'j  ,!t>:ti-\  Im-Ih:;  wiilioiit   niinutt*  and 
i!     •!  ■  ■-  il'  !  ■'.ii- 
:  i         J  '.    :    •;•    '■■"   .  .■(•"•••:hf  !■'  *1  K' ,  ll.ivili:;  Im-i'Ii  i'.'ir'.'full V  Fi'.vi.M'il. 

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I..,  ..-'.••  i,  .!:••   '.lii'lli  liiy  fomhiiifil. 

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THE  SERIES  CONTAINS: 


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I    M  ■  ■  -  '  >  M   - 


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WoKi.i*  .  Ml  i«rAnu:'s  Picojectionv 

A I  mi:  \i  lA 

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The  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish. 

Hv  lh-Ni:\  W.iiiswuijiii  l.oM.ri.i.i.ow.  A  llitliilav  vulunif,  itu-ln'Iiii;;  nuin- 
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rinitiiin*  iM'ti'J*  rclailn^  tn  l\f'  !mtiijij'HJ«'s  »if  riyinouih,  with    lac-^imilcs  aini 

•  •Ihrr  jiit'iiirial  n-pr*  ^i-Mlaii-in^  (if  ulijirt"  "I"  ;;rt'at  lii-iorii-  msi'i**"!.     A1''»^'i*!i»t 
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Ancient  Rome  in  the  Light  of  Recent  Discoveries. 

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aiiJ  IMnctiir  <il  tlti*  K'niiari    Mu'^i'iiiii.     >Vitli  abnul   lUO  Ji]ustrati(Mi>.     hi 

im«'  VdlMlltr,  Svo.  t:i>l«'l'ull\    lnmiiij,  .Sf'i.OM. 

* 

'I'ln' I  \i'av.iiii»ii>  wliii'lj  ihi"  It.iliaii  ;,r'»\.riiiin-nr  ha';  iiiaHi'  ^iiivtr  1*^71,  uinl«  i 
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Jii«Mi;^lif  ti»  li;;lir  ih»;  I'Mnmi.  tlh-  ll«.ij^.'  ot  ihi-  X'^-Jal  Niij^iu-,  \\ir  r.ilai.'i'  nt  tin- 
<".i-.ir-i.  tin-  wall-  nf  ilu.'  **iijati'  Ilini"-'.  atnl  niultituil'*-^  of  -latiii-;.  iu  xiTiittion^. 

The  Critical  Period  of  American  History,  1783-1789. 

lU.T'iiiN  Fi^Ki,  aiKh'M- nf  '*.M\f|i-  an"!  M\  ilimak'T-."  "Ourliu.'^  .if  (wiini.- 

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!i«>ii  ais'l    th»'  .iiltpiiiin    nf  i!;.'  I  i.ii'.ritiitii.f].     l\  i-.  I»:»*"i|  nii  |iM.f..iiriil  r»'."»i'ar(!i 
.iinl  \Mi;!«fi  ui?h  -'•  imu-h  I'tin*  an>i  iJi'iiii»*.-N  as  l«»  hf  r\i'r»'iliii:^lv  Inreri'-tiiii: 

Young  Sir  Henry  Vane. 

I>\  .Iami.'^  K.  n'»^Mi.!i,  autli'H'if  '•  ^aiUMfl  .Vilani-/*  in  ih.-  mtI*'-  t*\  .\iinTiia?i 
Sfa!i->irii  II.  \\  illi  a  |".j-rrait  «t  N'aii.'.  t  ii:r''avi-«l  oii  \m»'«i1.  plan-'  >»t  ihi*  iJat- 
lli-  I'f  Mai>tnn  MiMir  an-l  Na-«'liy.  a />■■-.»•/'''''•  i.l  a  l'-tr«'r  l.v  Van.*,  ami  .i 
^•«»|)y 't  thi'liirrcf  Si  al  t*f  l)i»'  ' '•nii'iMiiw  i-alth  iiiiiliT  < 'nunwril.  >\i>,  i;i|! 
t«'p,  >i.«ni. 

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•  •\t«'nii»d  rr.-rur-li.  M!«I  w  rlilrii  in  a.-i  mi^a^L^i-'i*:  >ly)r. 

Ireland  Under  Coercion. 

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NIW  XOW.  W?\W,  U^^V%^.  VWMkWx  %VK  \>»!N»SW^. 


Vol.  IX.  .lANlAlJY,  ixs'.t.  Nc  .".. 

Qdug^atioi^ 

A  Monthly  3fagazine 

nEVOTKr>  TO 

THE    SCIENCE,    ART,    PHILOSOPHY,    AND 
^Ory^  LITERATURE    OF    EDUCATION. 

A 

O    -    S  1  WILLIAM  A.  MO  WR  V, 

Co   y  EDITOR. 

CONTENTS. 

Tniinin;;  tin.' SfU^iliilifi*'^.     '»♦//.  'I'-fn-'ts  J.  Mnr'im -*'•» 

N'H"»ri:il    lii>titiit'-<.     'f.  M.  Iri'n  1,11'"*"!.  h'-tii ,<•'.<  <.'/■';/,  ^fi'<.<ft"f'^ .'<•»•'» 

Thr  r.iliu'jitioii.-il  Utitlnnk  ill   lU'iitl;!.     ^.  •<,-,.,    /,-»,•./   /;»'.-//.   I'h.  //..   /•./'.- 

r/r  "\    A'/'./'i/?        'l- 

'I'ln-  Hur.ui-  Miiiiii  ^r!i..oi   fur  \ho  l>.'Mf.     /•;/>.»  A.  If'>'-'rr -I-'-J 

A  ^  c'lr  vvirli  l,«ini:rillM\v.  mul  N\  linr  In-  T-iii:;!!?  u-.  .l/"v  M-irkiof'tsh  .  .  ;<Ji) 
Ttu*   lli-l«»ii«'al   l»a^i-  !n|- »  fiinin  M.-iIumI-  in   .\l;:i-Jn:i   T'lMhiiij;.     '•■".•/•:/» 

U "/'■'■"■.'/,.'   /•.''"•/.'>.  I',"j''i>f<  li-'jfi  Srffuf,   l!iis("ii. •^••t 

I-Mit<.ii:il         ••*" 

Tin- .s'M'iy  »'l    !Ii*ti»i  \  lln«niiih  Uinj;r:i|ili\ .      Willt-'n,   11. ,'/..• ^UiJ 

MiM'..|l..ny     ..." ' -«••» 

■  kv^l 
J-'jlJl-JM  li      ^t'llt«-S •*•■'- 

Ifi»iri-»L'iM|"!iy  oM'iiinjil  r«ri<'tli»';iM.it'r;»iurr  u|.(>h  r.ihii-."iTii-ri     ....    ;i.'«» 

l*;iini»h]«'l»i •*•'•■• 

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BOSTON: 
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D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  Publishers, 

Ni'w  Ycirk.      Boston,      Chica^^o.     Atlanta,     San  Francisco. 


Vol.  IX.  FKIiKUAKY,  lS8ii.  No.  C. 

A  Monthly  Magazine 


DEVOTED  TO 


THE    SCIENCE,    ART,    PHILOSOPHY,    AND 
^\'or^>.    LITERATURE    OF    EDUCATION. 


-  I 

k  3  ja     '\  WILLIAM  A.  MO  WRY, 

^-^  .O*./  EDITOR. 


r- 


^f 


CONTENTS. 

Evoliitinii  and  Ktliu'atioi).  I.  yV'*/.  \Vrii»tir  ('nnk\  Uuirt^fMOj  nf  Michvjan  Sfl!:* 
Soino  Hints  npi»n  \\i\\  Scient'O  iind  Art  of 'IVachin^.     y^.t^  JnUn  M,  Jlfrh- 

anUtni^  7V^*m 'M'> 

A  Cc>n.<»istr'nt  IMan  for  the  Toiu'liin^  of  Al;ri*l>ra  Imlurtivt^ly.     (ffirf/f  Will- 

i'lm  Kran:*^  Ktujlhlt  Ili'jh  SrhttnJ^  llnf(nH IJS4 

Author  and  Library  Work  in  Schools.     SnjiL  L.  H.  llufsr'/,  Ilntlh'  ('rakt 

Mirhn/uu     .     .' ;J!)0 

On  thi»  Atvent  and  Mciinin^of  Arlmtns.     Pmf.  ]\'.  ,S.  Srarf'ttromjh,  LL.lf.^ 

]\'ilh4'rfnr''r.  l.'uirt.rsihf .'tl'(5 

Si?ho<»l  K»M*ordfl  of  IMivsii-al  rontliliofin.     r.  r.  Cnhorr,  M.  p ;;tn» 

Pr«ijarati«»n  for  <'iti/onship.  III.  At  Smith  ('•dlt^tje.  Prof.  J,  U.  nnrk  Am 
On  th«»  'IVarhinjf  of  the  History  of  Art.     Vrcf.  llirnm  M.  Stanhii.  Is'.iIk 

FocsL  Unii'tr/iiUj 407 

r>i.«cipline.     iPinn^n,)     Julia  11.  Mnq 410 

Kditorlal       .^ 411 

The  Promotion  of  I'uplls.     K.  K.  White  415 

HcwardR  for  Merilurious  l>i.scovi.Ti('8 410 

Fifty  Dollar  rri/.c- 421 

Foreign  Notes l-Jif 

Biblioj^raphy  of  (.'urrrnr  IVritHlical  Liloralure  upon  Edui-atiou     ....  42.'> 

Anion;?  the  Books 42S 

Muj^azineA 4;{2 

Pauiphletg  Ileteived l.'^i 

BOSTON: 
EASTERN  EDUCATIONAL   n[:i:KAr,    riMLisiiKiis,  ^O  BkOMKiEi.D  .SruKri 

^KW  Yohk:   3«   HoNI»  .STKKKr. 
LONitoN:  TIIO.MAS  LAl'ittE,  31  Patkunostrh  Uow. 

JFWce,  as  cents.  $a.OO  a  ^eo-T- 


Publishers'  Announcement. 


Books  Especially  Suited  for  Public  Schools. 

•♦  • 

Brooks's  Shorter  C'oiirso  in  Aritliiiiotir. 

Brooks\s  Standard  <ir  <ira<l<ul  <'ourso  in  Aritliniotic*. 

BrooksN  Normal  Kh'iiifiitar.v  Al;r<'l>ra  .    .    $O.St  O.r.O 

Till"  UHl«|1l«*  book  liM"-  I'l'fjM  m!.i'";;» 'I  Hi  IiMm!  ft"'*  w  !"•?  -  •»'  tin   •■   \\.-Ji  :::;    !•» 

Brooks*s  Normal  Cit»iiiin»try  aii<l  Trijjroiiomctry  .    .    .     .HI      .IM> 

A  iiiiihImt  of  iit.'w  th.  onMii-  ti.wi*  \n'C\t  Ji'M»'«l.  ai.-l  llu*  l«'M»k  l.;i-  Imvh  "tliri- 
wUi- oiilai'iri'')  aiiM  iiii|>i(>\«>ii. 

Brooks's  iii<»onn»try  :N|Kirat»' ru\      .40 

Brooks's  IMiilosopliy  of  Aritliiiiotii*    ...  .     .  2.2.% 

9,  31<*iital  Plii1o>o|>liy 1.75 

„  M<*tliods  of  Teaching; 1.7*% 

Tlic.*i»  are  not  w/ut  f«»r  rx.iiiii>i:itu»ii.  i'\»  v\t\  i.:i  riTvipf  >*f  jir:««', 

Westlako's  How  to  Write'  Ki'ttcrs 07 

A  work  wlilrh  on^rht  in  !»#•  i^n  t-xi-rv  luJ  !••. 

Wost lake's  Common  St'liool  l.itt'ratiin* lO 

Thj-  Www  Jioiik  .:rhf-  :«  il'.»r«iii::}i  kii'»\vli-  !u«'  "f  l!.«'  f»\v  fuM.I.-unriital  Ln-U 
In  cacti  l>r:ir.rii  ot  Iiut.ii  uvr. 

I^yte's  I*rarti4*al  Hookkc(*piii«;r OO 

Till*  llttli' liot'k  Ki\«':*;i  iir.ii't««:il  :iiiii  thi»HM._--»i  kM«i\\i«'«Iiri' uf  t'.v  -.'ii:!'-.- ..f 
aci'oiiiit-  in  h;il!  llif  ^I'.ji*-  i.lii«  r  i.  -ok-  n-.n.,;.-. 

Moiitjromory's    Iiiiliistrial    Draw  in;?.   Primary    Nuni- 

lK»rs OS 

Montffomery's  Drawing,  Intrrmeiliato  NiinilM*r>    .  ,\10 

,9  ««  (Grammar  Srlmol  \umborH      .l!0 

Fowsinlth's  K1onH*n(ary  i.rammar :iO      .20 

„  KiiK'lisli  liramniitr .      .12      .;>0 

Grlflin's  Natural  IMiilosofiliy .S4      .t;0 

Th!-»  hook  <"Oiit:ilii.'*  tlif  latr-t  ili-oM':!*  -  i  i  •   «•<  i- .1     •  ,  i  :i';     i.'*  :..    1   ..  1 
iiu;nt,  i'ti'. 

Peterson's  Familiar  S«'i«MMT,  l^nm  .r>o 

99  ««  •,  I2:ii<> 1.00 

Slieppard's  I'nited  Stah-s  i  on^litiHimi  .."iO 

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the  I'nitcd  Stat«*>  20 

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CHRISTOPHER    SOWER    CO.,   Publishers. 

<>14   Anil  siicci.  riiilsiililr>liiii.  i'li. 


New  Books  for  Language  Study. 

A  Coiiiplcte  Graded  Course  in  Hiiglish  Gram- 
mar and  Composition. 

!»>   I'll  N  I    \  .  (  tiSKi  IN.  Priihiji.il  (iraiiiin.'ir  Srliool  No.  3,  Hrooklyu.  X.  V. 

I.NTIIOIU  C  riON     fKICI*:,    «.-»    CKMS. 

V  i»r.«i'ii':ii  U'M-Ui.'iL'^  iiiaiiu.il  f«ir  Imtli  it'.'iiluT  unti  |iii|iil.    C'oiiiprisc««  the '^n- 
:ii«-  ri'::;».  ••!  jIm-  ii4ii.ii  iwn-hnnk  ioiir*t'.     rri'piin'<l  oii  tht*  iudiK'tive  iiK^tlunl, 


I  .  '- !  I  ^  ••■  i»  .!:>:;::'■:« iMiii. 11  liv  ii  w.iikiiiy  iiiiiTi.  Tin?  iiulhor  hfi<7 'n'itli  mnarkablo 
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•  m'  -ij. .•••••  .  ...  Im  •■;i-.i- :  ).•  tM'.'>- till-  jui|i!l  w  li;it  hi"  lia- Hlr»':itly  If  .iviii'ii.  Iry  tuniinlilag 
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lii«\  :•■■.-  \  .1  .:•..{  I'll.  :i  I-.  .i''iM'l.ini'f  of  l.iirjua^r  wm-k  witli«>ut  toili«iii>iM<<«8:  ami 
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Ml  1".  !■  .  •  I-  } -.%  f.'l.- ■<.•*  jti-  M.i  lilt*  ri\'iv«  :i  thu!  tin-  jiupil  ii>'<iiiiri-?  thu  knuM'Iviljy^e  of 
'III- «.<•■<    s  .;■    •■'  t'.    -I '!••  •5i«'  u  mil   :ii»ai»i:iiir  l»«»w«'i  tt» 'iiiMiiiiiruai**'.  \' 

"It  u«  \  •  ••'«  ■■!  Ti.i  !i.Mik  Is  Ti>  iniki- rhililn'ii /Ai»il' aiinl  »/•'.  IMs  lnyal  to  Tho '■  ob- 
;«'''Ti»i   !•..■:■.  i!      i\  •'■:»::  .in;.  i'\  Tli*- v.iirii«-  mm-!  virmim  i*>!iiU-ii<-it>9  t  lull '  liavc  ski  oftvu 

The  \\\\i\\  School  German  Grammar, 

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Vol.  IX. 


.MAl:(IL  issi*. 


N<».  1 


Qdugtatioi^ 

A  Monthly  3[(igaziue 


DKVOTKI*  TO 


THE    SCIENCE,    ART,    PHILOSOPHY,    AND 
LITERATURE    OF    EDUCATION. 


WILLIAM  A.  MO  WRY, 


CONTENTS. 


("«illi'i:««  <in»\vrh  ill  (Hru».    ./'/^i.  /.■•/.././,/..//../*'•-''.  "'   •'   V"/. '.•■    ' 
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I'h.n..  I.L.h..  I..  II.  If 

'I'lu'  i;«-l:itiv«'  Mtiit.il  «  ;i|i.M-i>>  .'t  111"  *^«\.-.      //.  '  .•'••■•    V.  •• ''    •  •    *    /- 
Wriitm  K\:iiniii:Hi«»n*       rh«ii    Xlm-*-.  mimI    lli'-ii    I  -^f.     .i.'...s*V    ' 

H  f/>//» /I.//".. .  It.  '  .        ... 

KV"ilItiM||  Mini    KiIiUmSImTI,      II.       /•»■.'.     H'  'n/.  .     <  •■■■J.-.    I 'i.ir.  ,.<'>.■  '■>'    »/ • '• 

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Vol.  IX. 


A  PR  1 1.,  1«S^   ,      '         .  .  / 


No.  K 


enxsATm 

A  Monthly  Magazitw 

DEV01'F.I>  TO 

THE    SCIENCE,    ART,    PHILOSOPHY,    AND 
LITERATURE    OF    EDUCATION. 

WILLIAM  A.  MO  WR  V, 

KDITO^. 


CONTENTS. 

tlohii  .\il:iiii«*  :h  n  Schiiolm.-ivttT.     /■yi-.'ih.fh  I'm't' r  *!>'uh1 ."lOM 

l*r(.*pMr:Ui<>ii  for  ( "iti/i'ii^hip.     IV.     Al  WiMi.-nii-s  <  M|U'i;»'.     Arffcr  /../rhm,i 

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S.  li'iri''^!.  A.    M..  ('•'i,if-i'i-f>ir ."»;Hi 

Alxiiir  Kri<;]i<ii.     M'ny  .1.  R>pl"j '''t? 

K4lit<»rial -"'H 

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ni>«*<l|i'«<;  (It't.iiN. 

Irh.    'rii»'V  :«r»*  |>riiiT<'il  m  i-nntn'nt  'il  f<«/'*r*,  uhivh.  (h"ii;;h  r'-.ulily  «li*- 
tiii;;<u»)i>-<t.  :iri-  :irli-li<  allv  roiiilMneil. 

■%'h.    'J'li'-ii    in'>iiiiiiiij^«  arn  (H'ciili:ir.     Kiich  roller  i»  splic  auil  Lho  map, 

♦'iih.    'riM'V  an*  iiiilf'UMi  ill  »;/♦%  .'J  x  n»  imli.* 

THE  SERIES  CONTAINS: 


Ka^IKKN    HhMI'-rilKftK, 

1 

WnKLli   .MkUCATUU'S   PkOJECTION). 

Wk»ih;n  IIiiMi^riii.KK, 

1 

ArSTIJALlA. 

Kl  iJnI'F. 

INIHA. 

A"!  A, 

('«iiiinioti 

New  Enclani*. 

AKKP'A, 

St'hiiol  Sft. 

UUITI^II    |S1.R!», 

1 

N<)i:in  AMKKirA, 

ENiil.ANlN 

1      Ksperially  gi)od 

Sm  ru   AMn:ii'A, 

SCOTLANlt, 

for  History. 

I'm  I  Ml   M  \1F.^ 

LOMMJN, 

>iij:rii'  iii:t|»,  ^."i.oo. 

.>«'i  of  ♦JLihi  iiiaiis.  *:{L».0(). 

Kuriii-^lnii  on  >|»rij»;:  II«>11«t-  If  tl<"*lred. 

If  n'[iirii'«l  ai  ii«i  «'X|iriis»'  !n  u>,  ^aiii|il«*:i  will  be  M^nt  free  for  examinatloi* 


We  also  have  a  full  line  of 

PHYSICAL  BIBLICAL,  AND  CLASSICAL  MAPS. 

A  New  Map  of  the  Cominonwealth  of  Massachusetts. 

/■'i.    ,,.'.^'  I- ■•',•!  -iii'l  /.r.si    y-ij-  puJflitth"!,  tjivintj  town  huundarifs^  rnilru»ids^ 

EASTERN    EDUCATIONAL    BUREAU, 

50  BROMFIELD  STREET,  BOSTON. 


Ms  Especially  Suited  for  Public  Scliools. 

Brooks's  Shorter  Course  in  Aritliinotu*. 

BrooksN  Htaiidard  or  Ciradod  ('ourse  in  Aritlinietic. 

I:.»r.»J.  r:»rh. 

Brooks's  N<iriiial  Kloiiu'iitary  Al«-rl>ni  ...    $0.84  0,<M) 

TliH  iiiit*|Ut'  book  lia-  Irt'i'Ti  i'iil;ir;r«'il  tit  inrrt  tin*  w.iiits  of  thn-i-  ^\i^hill;;  l«» 
pU'^.'f  llic  ivxuiiiliKiUon  or  uiliiii>-^ioii  lo  t)ii>  lii^lH-.'>i  uiii\«;r>:tic.-'. 

Brooks's  Korinal  CiiMniirtry  aiul  TrijrononiHry  .    .    .     .84      .OO 

A  iiuiinK'rof  iirw  tliiMiifin-  Icivi*  \tvv.u  a<l<U'<|,  -iii.l  t)ie  iiuok  has  Ih'«.'ii  orlior- 
wlsf  (Milui-geii  ami  iiiipiiivi'tl. 

Brooks's  Geometry  (Sf|».init«*) 50      .40 

Brooks's  Pliilosopliy  of  Aritliiiietic 2.125 

9,  Moiital  Philosophy 1.75 

„  Metliofls  of  T4*ac*hiii$<r 1.7.5 


i» 


Tlu'sc  ftri"  lint  seiil  Tor  f\:iiii|ii:itioii,  i»mm'|>i  nii  n  rvijit  nf  |»rlco 

Westlake's  How  to  AVritc  Krttors 07 

A  work  Avliirh  «>iiirlit  to  In*  on  i'm-jv  lal»l»'. 

Westlako's  Coiiitnoii  School  Utoratiire 40 

Thi-s  llttlf  b«"»k  ;rl%e«i  a  tliornnirh  kiii>\vli.-i|;;i' of  tho.  frw  fiiixlaiiKMital  facts 
111  I'ui'ii  liraiii'ii  of  ntrratiirt'. 

Lyte's  l*rat'tlc.*al  H<iokko4*piii^ HO 

Tljl<  lltlli'  )nMik  alv«'N  a  i»r:iftit'a1  ami  llmroiuli  kimu  It'<I;:f  nf  tho  m 'u'«i-i'  of 
act'oiiiil-'  ill  hall  tjiv  "pai-**  otlirr  Imok-  •uTiipv . 

Mont^oiiiory's   liidiistrhil    l>ra\viii;:-.   Primary   Nuiii- 

hers 08 

t 

Moiit$;oiiH*ry's  nrawiiiK^,  liiteniKHliati*  Nimiliers    .    .      .!iO 
9,  yy  Ciraniiiiar  St'liool  Nniiihors      .1!0 

FewsmithN  Kh'tiirtitary  tiraiiiiiiar :{0      .20 

„  Kii^lish  Grammar 42      .:{0 

Gritliirs  Natural  Philostiphy S^t      .OO 

Tlii«  f>o«ik  roiMaili>  till*  lato^^t   'liM-oMiii-   lu  rl«  •  Ir  ■•■■ly,  liiiil'i  oT  iiii.i-u?-«' 
IliCIll,   vU-. 

Peterson's  familiar  Seieiire,  ISum 50 

„  ,.  M  \2uxn I.OO 

Siieppanl's  I'liited  Stat«'s  ('oii*<ti(iiHoii 50 

Topi<*aI  Giidliies  in  the  lliNtorv  and  ('iin>(k(iition  of 

tlie  liiited  States     .     .     .     .  ' 2t> 

Thi- i-<  a  I'ai'l'MMitf  1<' w.'uk.  mh'ii'ii''^  <•>    -i.i   't.-iii'?-  l«'.-iir  n-  ^\  r  ;  iij  mm 

tin-  bl;irk''<i.'il -i,  an-l  pujill-.   lii   i<»|.j  1 1-.-.    !<■:•■.       >:i    Ii.-t.i-.,   i-!i  .,    t-'i"   il;l:;i't: 

e\uii>iii.itiiiii.->. 
Peltoii's  OutliiK*  >laps ]••  r  nt  ^•'S.tN) 


CHRISTOPHER    SOWER    CO.,   Publishers, 

oil  Ai-rli  striM't,  riiila(l«>l|tliia,  l>:i. 


APPLETON'S  READERS 

Are  Unexcelled   In 

AUTHORSHIP. 

I»      W    I.  n.tni-,  l>r    \iiln-.v  .1.  i:iiU«:r,  I'm'!*"**"!-  M.irk  H:iiley.  staMil  al 

GRADATION. 

I  ii'*  ;:•  ••  |i:.!l  •i'\ ♦  .•.|.in»'ii-  fi«'iii  tin*  •jyintMil  l..ii»»r.  t«»  t!i»*  »'.«m|>I''\  ««Mit<*:u'e; 
•';••  ;!:  I'l:;  i'  ••••i-  r  in  uhi-  !i  ii''v\  W'.nU  :iiv  iiiln»iliie«*il :  .\ii.I  thi*  ilt»vt»iop- 
:'.4  ji»u-.T  <•!   'h'^i*  v\oi«l*    -  I'.iHii  itMiIiT  t«»  pm-Km'- -  rin*  .iitiMt'fiaio.i  by 

METHOD. 

•    ••-  i.'.i::.^  'li.-  >V..i.i  .iij-l  rii-iiii-  inrflit)-!.*.     Hirro  i'«  tlK»iiji:lio!it  tlio  rnt.ire 
-   ill  '  .1  •i«!i'.i'.:«'  lit  •i!i".|  i.t  i!iitriii.ti'.!i  tlj.it.  «mii  1»c  pi.uf  ioally  f.»llo\»i»d. 

BEAUTY  OF  ILLUSTRATION. 

\.  *    :•:•■  :i»      •;':-*;i    •  Xiiil-i.r*-,  Jmi!   tin    -ri#ry  I'lu-h   p'n-tiiiv  ttlis,  ip.ak^!* 

NOTES. 

I:.-  li\li' ;•  •• -Mu- {•!' r.l-li  -'.J  IT:,'*'*;  "IK  i-r  Ml  :ilin'i*t  uiiliioiwii 'iiii'Miiir  of 
•■  vv..-;.  »-t:;:-4.->i  ^*'  «"p'.''*  I"!  .ii*vMi*"«l'»n  —  lii"jrn»|'liic.'il.  irt.'ir«»'iral, 
-•  i!l<-.  ■«:••:  i:  >,•:••. .  i  \«  r- i-«'.  \u  ^|i'lllij;r.  I'lonutu  i.»fi««n,  l.j!i:iii.i:;e- 
'  ■-'i.  '  '.  ,   •  •.'..'  '.r  •••.!.  .!•  si-r'i.':s*.  «•!.•.      I'Ih'  u«»ik  nl   Mr.  Harris  in  th«*s»' 

ELOCUTION  EXERCISES. 

r    •:         ■••    r.     ■    '    «    I.'  -»  'U-    "•.:    ••  lli.w    f.i    |Jf:iii  " -- !•!  loi'il     .it     iutiTV.iI.-* 

''".;*i  '    '•■   U«       *«.  A  t-.A'ivt"  t»ii;^iii.il  w -rh   .lUd   iM-r'.-Ji  ir   !<» 


I 

I     < 


'  .  • 


APPLETON'S  READERS  STILL  LEAD  ALL  OTHERS. 


D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  Publishers, 

Now  \o.'k.      Boston,      Chici^'o,     Atlanta,     San  Francisco. 


rt ' 


Vol.  IX. 


MAN.   l^^l». 


No.  • 


S)U(5ATI0I^ 

A  3foHf/fff/  Ilayazine 


l>i- von.i>  i") 


THE    SCIENCE,    ART,    PHILOSOPHY,    AND 
LITERATURE    OF     EDUCATION. 

WILLIAM  A.  ilOWRW 


CONTENTS. 


Ii 


I     •< . 


I'th.i-'"  .■    ••     I  •  •.•:':i«  !•  -.       'V     '/.    V  / 

/'..  ■'.  //  ••••■    ^.  '■..•-•.     I     •/ .   .' 

!»  ■     «/ 

•    'i\  I.    I. ':•.•.?.•:  -«.:.••  '1 

/•••■      ,    /v      //. 
rill-  '  »•  '..'il'  "I     Im:;.  S'-Is. 

u  li.r  I »..  j'l-   r  y-'\-  i:.-.. 

Ivls!-ii:.i 

^.  I;.-.'  I;  ..  1.    ..   >    .  -.      •  • 

J  •..••-        .      .      . 
I  !.••   \-.  -!• . ."  ••  •     I:.:   •'  :• 
!*»^'.'   ... 

l:l!i!i...;r;i!.'-      •  I    •      ■  i-  • 

^l  5::  \r\\*  -   W      •■  v •   . 
P.i.,:..!.!.  •-    I.'.  .  ■  :■   . 


II  ■•     ••   .    /.    •: 


/  • 


I   \N 


•'!  . 


•    M 


•/  ■  ■ 


\ 


K  \<«  i.i:\ 


.1 1 


- 1 


VvWi:,  .'V>   *  t  n,^. 


ii:i  on  *t  ijtitr. 


II-  I 


I 


Stanford  Wall  maps. 

They  are  the  Best,  and  the  Best  are 

the  Cheapest. 


» 


POINTS  OF  EXCELLENCE. 

\*i.     Th**t'it''  sfrnh'/l'f  uvHut'd  on  ilif  h»"»i  iitialiivof  linen. 

'J'l.      7Vi. //  't,H  lu'.f,    fiii'l  *'/'•* t'liu'jhj  dtsriiirt,  iK'iii.:^  without   minute  and 

Ut*«*>ll»  "-  •l''I:iil'*. 

:i  I.      '/'■*• ';  •"■•■  *''*'■ 'J  hr,,}i,iht  t't  '/'I/',  h:iv)ii«;  b»'i'ii  o.in'frilly  n-visiMi. 

•I:h     Thfv  .-iif  itriiif«'»l  in  }Hrmu>>ut  fil  C'ti'rs^  wliioh,  tliou«Th  readily  4lis- 
tiii::  ii*hr«i.  atr  ;ir' i  'i'-ally  rMiiiMuO'l. 

.'••Ii      III-  H    iii<"iii!iii;:*  an*  iM-ruliar.    Kach  roller  i<  uplit,  and  the  map, 

i.th      riii'x  m*  uuifiTin  in  .•i/<',  'vl  x  O'l  iiirhi''*. 

THE   SERIES  CONTAINS: 


R\-i  1  I.N   Ml  Mi*rnFKi\ 

Wiiinu  vMKUc7ATOU"sk  Pkojectiox). 

\\  1  -1  1  l.N    III  Ml-ini  KK, 

A  IS  IK  ALIA. 

K«  i:'»ri . 

Inhia. 

A"!  \. 

Coiniiion 

Xkw  Kn«:i-am». 

A^!.^  A. 

Sl'IiooI  >i'i . 

r.lMIl'^U     l>LKS, 

N   -M  n     \MI  IMIA, 

Kn«;i.an!», 

E*p»»cia]1y  good 

*i".  :  it    \^ii  i;i«  V. 

SCOri.ANO, 

for  Hi.st<»ry 

I '  M  •  1  1  •   M  A  I  1  - 

LOXIKIN, 

S:iiL'''»-  111  ip.  >''.'»<'. 

I'M  fi'^ljiil  ".I  ^i»i'r:i::  KolliT"  If  df-^iri'd. 

If  i.-Miiii'-i  .'  '••  ex |Mri^f  !•>  u<*.  suiiiplrji  will  be  sent  free  for  examinHtlon 


Wo  also  have  a  full  line  of 


PHYSICAL.  BIBLICAL  AND  CLASSICAL  MAPS. 

A  New  Map  of  tlie  Conimonwealth  of  Hassachosetts. 

EASTERN    EDUCATIONAL    BUREAU. 

:.0  H  ROM  FIELD  STREET,  BOSTON. 


Books  Especially  Suited  for  Public  Schools. 

—  — -»♦«- — 

Brooks's  Shorter  Course  in  Arithmetic. 

Brooks's  Standard  or  Cj railed  Course  in  Aridinietic. 

li'fr«ii!.  Ka«h 

Brooks*s  Normal  Eloiiioiitary  Aljrohra  ...    $1^84  O.OO 

Till'*  iintr|u«'  book  ha-*  Imm'II  i*n';n>'«"«l  to  iiiiM't  fin-  w.'tuts  of  tlm<i'  wlshiii;;  tct 
pa^iii  the  i!\aiiniiiiiK»ii  i»l  n<hiii-.>u>n  in  liio  )iij4tn'-*l  iiijivcrriiu-:-. 

BrooksN  Normal  (Jrooiiiotry  aiul  Tri^oiioinotry  .    .    .     .84      .OO 

A  iiumhprof  iiuxv  th<'oroin->  ii.'ivo  hucii  n(liK>*t,  .in«l  thr  book  hn.i  \tvcu  otiiur- 
\vi»o  enlargiMl  and  iiiiimivtMl. 

Brooks's  Cicomotry  (Si'[iar;itf) ni\      .40 

Brooks*8  IMiilosopliy  of  Aritlunetic 2.25 

ff  Mental  J  Philosophy 1.75 

«•  Metlimls  fif  Tt*aoliiii^ 1.75 

ThcrC  are  not  s»i*nt  for  vx.-tinlii.'itioi),  rx<t|it  on  n'rcliit  of  price. 

Wcstlakc^'8  How  to  Write  Letters 07 

A  work  wiik-h  cMi^ht  t<i  In*  oii  e\ery  table. 

Westlake's  Common  School  rJteratiire 40 

Tlil.«  llttlo  bonk  irlvt««*  a  Ihoroiuh  kuowlriljie  «»f  the  few  fundaiiK-ntnl  fart."* 
In  eaiii  branch  ul  literatiin'. 

lijle's  l*raetieal  liookkeepin^ <H> 

Thty  lltlU'  liiKik  u'Uex  a  prartii'.'il  himI  tiiun>u-|i  Ui.uwli'il^e  uf  the.  Fi-ieiH-e  of 
aiU'Oiiiit'^  ill  Iialf  the  .-pafe  i>tl.(-i  biiok>  MC(-u|iy. 

MoiitftTomery's   Indiistrhil   I>ra\viii^,   Priinary  Xuiii- 

hers OS 

Montjromery's  I>ra\vliijr,  Inteniiediate  Xiiiiiliers    .    .      .20 

„  ,9  <«raiiunar  St*lio<il  Niiiiilirrs     .20 

Fewsniith*s  1'3lem<Mitary  liraniiiiar liO      .20 

y,  Kii^li.sli  <jiraiiniiar 42      ..'iO 

Grlflhrs  Natural  riiihi.sopliy HI      A)0 

Thf  •  biMiU  cunlain- tm."  lati^t  «!i.-««»\ri  n  ■   in  rl«  «:i'!«-ly,  Vi'il-  «n'  !in  aj-iivr 
mem,  vu-. 

Peterson's  Familiar  Sfiomu*,  l^ni«> „%0 

9,  ««  M  \2\\\*' I  .OO 

Slieppard's  I'Oited  St:it<<N  <'<iii>titii(i(iii 50 

Topiral  Outlines  in  the*  lli^lnrv  aiul  (oiistitiitinii  of 

the  liiitiil  StalcN 1*4) 

Tlii- 1-  a  •"!}  l':il  I  !!'••  V...' I  .  ;>*i-i.  =  ",  •  !  .  1  ••  !,•  .}•■■-  !  .!.ii"  <i  ^<.  i;f"i:_'  ,.-. 
thi' bia>-l.' oa!!!.  .iii'l  i-wi)  !  1i  <.•■•....  '.•..=  -  >-.  :•• -'n.  ..  •••.<•..  :.  {!i:i'.:«- 
exaiii'.ii.ii:'  II-. 

Pelton's  Oiitlimr  >Iap> ]>  r  -  t   25.tK> 


/•  • 


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■  •    ■,  •  • 


\       .■% 


■  ■  ■  ■ 


■i 


■  f  I       1^  .  i  I  I    I 


'  'fii »  • 


.  .^ 


•  • 


« 


'OL.   IK. 


JINK.  !>'"•.'. 


.     \ 


N.. 


GSdugtatioi^ 

A  Mont  hit/  Mdijftzine 

THE    SCIENCE,    ART,    PHILOSOrHV.    ANO 
LITERATURE    OF    EDUCrTICN, 

WTLUAM  A.  MO  WR  Y, 


CONTENTS. 


//.  A'- :•'>'•«,  -1.  .V. 

E<1iicat{'in:ii  \  :!!ii>     ■•   '.liiii-j:! 
Oil  T»'ar!ii»!L'  /■•  i--''     !..*.'■ 

8oiiie  rr:t*il<'ii   >i^\^* 

.V.  />     .... 
Oivl!  IMJt-  i'-        :  ■ 


W 


•  •*  '.>     •' 


X  • 


•     ill- 


Th'-'i"  .  J  '■■■  j'      . 

. 

Th«r  A.l'.'ii.S'tri- .-:  >■.•-.  )    ■  ■•.•     !■. 

•■  . '    '  .  "•    .  ■ 

■ 

Eiiit^»r!sii       ... 

■ 

'Hio  !;j!!''  ■••'••    ■•■■«••. 

• 

* 

• 

Hi.»iii";j'*i»*«'*i«'  I"  •I'l.-is  \". 

■ 

IiiM.Mi'.!l'ii!i      V-..   •   ..'    '.     : 

■                                 • 

■           • 

Forftlpn  N''<  "4      .                       ... 

■        « 

■           ■ 

Hs:..i  .^--v                  . .   ;     : 

■ 

.A.ir:'*rjr  '■'•.'«»»■•    '  ■ 

M?igr,/i!,»  w  i:.. .  ■■. 

ft        ■        •                        ■ 

- 

»    •  *  : 

•  ' . 

:AsrEK-.    .•    •  . 

■ 

■ 

I  .".'  s    \.'  '   ■ '    .  s    ■■.• 

•      .\-    >*:!,■'■•    ■.  . 

'*'*  ■"  . 

JPticet  -W  «4»*M. 

fUJUie  a  ymr. 

\ 


F0;NTS  Or   EXCELLENCE. 

;       T"".-.'    ■-.    ■:'■■■     i:.'.   ■."■-   ll-i-j'y  ^lU-iK--!,  Mi!^  wHli-.-ut   i 
r-  ;  ■-  '•■•:,  *■■■■■«;..  l::-,  liai  im:  Ik^'h  .■jm-tuUy  n-vl^' 

■f:.      I  h-  ;  ..rv  i.r:Mi-.l  :ii  j-tji.  i:,rnt  "ii  Cv.'vi*,   wlltvli,  titoujfh 

1-I1..I.  ■■ir-  ..ri:'.ll-  ally  i.'..i.il-iii.a. 

■•.      i\    r  ::  ■■.:■-  •■.:■   ..f  pifulnr.     Kni-li  nilkr  I.'  *l';lt,  aiji 

-■:.      .■>.-;   .r.   i::,;(.-!i:i  In -./-■,  :.J  x  r,.  ii....t„.;u 

TH£   SbHIES  CONTAINS: 
-    .V    if,  v.-t,,,,.;,  W.mu.     MuKCATOli'S  1*1M 

.   ,\  ,;■■-  ;  . ;.;..].    !  .\i>iKiLI.v- 

IM-IA. 

'■•■■. irioil      NKW  KvilJiVl.. 
1  r  .Sli.>'a.S-;l.   Hi;iu-1[   1.-1.1--.     1 

■■"■    v  *.  I  K\.ii.oi.,  I      E*i-i 

..\:  .,;     V,  ;  S_"!l,iN;i,  f  loi 


W»  arM>  havo  a  full  Iln«  of 

!'7LICAL,  AND  CLASSICAL 


Books  Especially  Suited  for  Public  Schools. 


Brook8*s  Shorter  Course  In  AritliinetU*. 

Brooks's  Htaiulard  or  (iraded  Course  in  Arltlnnetio. 

BrcM>ks*s  Xoriual  Klemeiitary  A1];^ebni  ...    J?o,H4  O.«;o 

TIjU  iinlipic  liook  lia-  Im.'vu  «-ii!riiir««l  tn  me*-!  t!iv  \v:iiit-  i.f  t»i.»-n  wl.-httu  I" 
I>asd  ttio  (!XuiaiKatl<>ii  ui  tLtluiUj^Utu  l<>  tlic  ).i/!:i:i  uii!\  or  •;(]«-. 

Br(M>kH*s  Noriiiul  ijiiM>iiiotry  uiul  Tri;;oiioiiH'-try  .    .    .     iK4      .C>0 

A  mnnluTof  now  thfon-m-t  have  Ihtm  ail<li-«l,  atvl  the  Ihh-K  ha*  t-*.-*,'!!  <»ti«T- 
wIm.*  «iilarge<l  un<l  li:H>i-<)Vi'<l. 

Brook.s*s$  Geoiiiotry  « SHI,:^^Jllt.^ JUl      .IO 

Brooki»*s  IMillosopliy  of  Arttliinctio 2.:25 

M  Mental  IMiUosopliy I.T.l 

«•  MetliodH  of  Toacliiiiff 1.75 

Thc^i  are  not  pent  for  v\:i  ml  nation,  fx«-4>]it  on  n*<x.!i>t  *»t  priiv. 

Wcstlako's  How  to  Wrlto  L<»tt<*rs 157 

A  work  which  oiivht  to  }m<  on  «*vvry  tahio. 

Wc.st1ake*8  Coiiiiuoii  School  Litcnitiire 4HI 

Tills*  lUth'  U»ok  u'lves  a  fhon^udi  kiiuwk-lKt*  *ft  tJic  U  w  fux»«Uni«  i;Uil  t:v  t- 
In  c;u*ii  brunch  of  ittt-ratuic 

Jjyto*H  Practical  Hookkccpifi*; jm^ 

Thl-  lltths  J-iMit  pi VI'-  a  |inu  th  u\  :ti  •!  thinoii.  h  kr..r\»l«M!^^. ,,(  t}.,..  «,  j.  i. f 

Aoco until  in  h.i:l'  th«'  .-i»ai"««  i.iJi«'i-  !j<>iik'<  <*«•«■  «:py. 

Moiitsromery's  Industrial  I^rawiii^,  I'riniiiry  Xuiii- 

bersi jm 

IIIontfironier>'*H  ]>rawin(;.  Intern uMliati*  \niiilH*r^    .    .     ,ift> 

M  9«  Ciraniiiiar  ScIi4H»1  NiinilN*rs     .*JO 

Fcvvtiniltli^H  Klenicntary  i;rannnar ;$0      .iiO 

M  Kn^Iisti  <;nininiar IIT      .;m 

Griflln*H  Natural  IMillosoptiy ,h^%      .f>ii 

This  lm«»k  i-ontuli-.-  tho  latv-t  tils- <  •mi'..  ^  In  i  I*. i -{.••♦ ,-,  u:  :t?  ^  f  if  ..  li:-* . 
nunu,  ul4:. 

l»eterson'H  Familiar  Selcncc,  >:{p»      ....  .     J^t 

Bhrppanrs  United  States  t'^MisClt  lit  ion •"»<! 

Topical  Outlines  in  tli«'  IINtory  and  <'4>n*«tUiu.lMii  oi 

tlio  United  States     .    .    .    .  ^ i*<l 


:■' . 


Thl-l-.n«-lt.lJH!  l!tt!i- '.\f.rk.  !':f4!il!'i-.' ••-•.•..■  uv.'Ii.  r.  hiN-r  ••.  VTi'!ii.'  .■. 
tin*  h!;i«kJ.«  Mil,  aii-i  jiUii^l.i  I.;  i..;:-  r.j  i.:;.:-.»  It.  hSl'.'v,  ot«  .  1  r  :  .f  r^ 
t\u:j:ra:;'.:--. 

P«^lt4UiV  Outline  >Iaps ;•  r  •;*  t  •^«">JK^ 


CHRISTOPHF.R    SOWtJJ    CO..   Putriish^rs. 

«l-«  Ar.il  rir-fvi,  ri<iliMl«*l|ihla,  l*i». 


{ 


Some  Recent  Text-Books. 

Word-Manual, 

|.    „■■.■■■, 1-^,1,1    \i.i.-.-t.  I.--*  i;.v.it.T-.    rr.].:.!-..!  !.r  I  1 -.w-  M;m  ;!i.   .\>.-- ... 

Khh:   -u:.'U   «.  I..4KK.  riiif-;|.!il    ..|  l'ii:,.'.iv    ^.-h.  ■■■-.     \:.r..  .,    ■■;:!. 

KiM-  1  i;\i  MM,ui;.>..iTriiJi.-i..]ri.t  -1  sdi<--l-,  Ak;..,.,  ■.:.;.,.     l.!::-,) 

t-i   Hiiiioi   l:.  Il\ui-ii;.  Yril- ri.:v.f»iiv. 

A  I-.:.-!!.  :i;  .,i  i  !■■  iMiliir.^  r."..li..i.'.     In-i«rii..l  i-  f.,ii.i:!->i:/..  rl.-,  ;.  ;;  :;  "i'.ti 

;,,.- -i.,- i.f  i.."..  r-:iii-l  their  o-ii.'.Ji.i(U.j.-  i-.i..  «-..i.1m..!  w-i--.-  .n.i  :i,  ■.-  ■•ii.- 

)   '  ,'\--.-.  11.1..  '>i.;.[i<vi.  kikI  of  <ii-t.I<'ii-'<->  m,>l  lli.-tr  I'r'U.MT.wi.-j.-  '.:.:■  lor^ul 

Jntrmtuetlttn    J'rlcrit, 

I..  ,ill.!-.  t.>^.-."ii.|..i'iv  Ai'iiliLMi'-  Fir-i  l{.-s>I.T,  1J,»MI 

V-,.,.l-M  .iL-i  ,1.  I..   1.1  .;i„|.;iiiy  Ai.I.!'-t.>ii-B  Kir-t  .lU^l  S.,.-..ii.i  Hv-,'..:-i,  ;■■,  .,-..■» 

V.l.l-SI:t!.li^.l,l-l'lIll.l.-, SOOI.T- 

Cranclfather's  Stories. 

\Mlm,i..  I.:.f  (1,..  lIMi.iivil  S.Tl.  ..  Api-kl-n'*  In-Inu-tlv.-.  li-.vllr.-' Ilv  .i  *, 
.•..li.l.il..niy.lAMKi  J..II..NS-..T. 

A  viTv  uur.i.'iivc  sii'l  lN-ir<ii-iiv>:  lltil-  \>--k.  Wi^miViUv  lliu«:rai".l.  ^n-zv 

■   ■r,.rl  U-T  silj.l'1'iii>'»!;>r>  ri».lii.i,-.  ailRl-l.'.!  U'  rriii'iry  j:r:i.i.  ;•. 

InlrodurtluH  J'rlee,  it  c^Mt-it, 

Stories  of  the  Olden  Time. 

\"..li;i!i.  IV.,  I'.rt  ir.  ..f  til.'  ni-I..rl.Ml  S.-rl.''.  A].iil.'f.!i-i  r-.-tt'i.-Mv-  V.-^i- 
li.:;  Il.".|t-i.  ...iiii-iltil  In-  .lAjiK*  .li.ii.'XSMi.  Kully  lllii.lr:tr,..i  f.y  Wtt 
..Hj-U,  nJsi.1.,!  I.,  ^■^.^lrtll  li.M.lor  lirml,-*. 

iHlrviltirlhrn  t'rire,  3J  e*'Ht». 

How  to  Study  Geography, 

I'v  Viiw.  1-  W.  I'AiiKru.  l'r!iii'l|>:,l(>f  tlioCK.kr.i.,  Mll.~.  X..rri.'il  Ativ-.I, 
V..i.  X.  ]t,i.-riii.ti-.ii:.l  K'lu.'!Hi.-[i  S,Tk». 
A  j.rn.-ii.':'l  "■-."■-iii-'i  "f  til.'  iiipiIi."U  mi.l  il^vkw  In  t.^ictiln-  l'<  ^-^.-riiri? 
>'i  ,  ]i:.i'|-i>  il,.')..:N<.'li.N';.nNil].l;iii^.>i  i;iiii-r:iii<lliiiv..t.   A  ^-.ly  \.ilvi.><!.  l>-->k 
I  ■.  -iiryr;  ..l..i.    !:iiTi..,  IW  (.iiri-i-     llviiiil  i-ruv,  ¥l.."H'. 

Memory. 


l:!ui".    IIi'I;ilI  JTlu-,  ei.r.11. 


.  'I  fur  In)}  7>.  -rr-ljiiit'i-  ('Irrnliirn,  ttrm"  fur  intrtnlartton,  cfir. 
■  i:.l.u;!tS,„Ml  .Y'.f. »  "  for  Juty,  IftHU,  tMtilM  fnv  tu  hy/trA'  r*. 


D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  Publishers, 

\(:.v  York.      Boston,      Chicago.     Atlanta,     San  Pranolsco. 


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