ILP 390
J3 P5
Copy 1
AN EDUCATIONAL SURVEY
OF
JANESVILLE, WISCONSIN
Issued by
C. P. GARY
State Superintendent
State Department of Pitblio Instbitction
MADISON, WISCONSIN
1918
Class_LA5JW.
Bnok^ilSLAS- -
■r i::i\ ui -r- -r^ \ , o \-^
/A.
AN EDUCATIONAL SURVEY
OF
JANESVILLE, WISCONSIN
Issued by
C. P. GARY
State Superintendent
Prepared by
W. W. Theisen, director of the survey; H. L. Terry; B. R. Buckingham;
H. N. Goddard; Amy Bronsky; Maybell G. Bush; Annie
Reynolds; Janet R. Rankin; J. M. Dorrans; 0. S.
Rice; A. B. Cook; P. W. Dykema; and
Lucy D. Hale.
State Department of Public Instruction
Madison, Wisconsin
1918
L/J3ic
0. of B
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
vii
Introduction
PART I. PROBLEMS OF ADMINISTRATION
Chapter I. — The Problem of High School Organization 1
Chapter II.— The Building Problem 6
Location of Buildings 8
Condition of the Present Buildings 12
General Health and Sanitary Conditions, and
Equipment of Buildings 19
Standards for School Buildings and Grounds 27
Summary of Recommendations 34
Chapteb III. — Teachers and Salaries 36
The Teachers 36
Salaries 40
The Cost of Living. . 40
Salaries in Other Cities 43
Conclusions and Recommendations 44
Chapter IV. — Financing the School System 47
The Educational Problem at Janesville 47
The Means for Solving the Problem; Resources;
Receipts 51
The Way in Which the Problem is Being Solved 59
Taxes and tax Rates 59
Analysis of City Expenditures 61
Anaylsis of School Expenditures: (a) By Items 71
Analysis of School Expenditures: (b) By
Schools 77
Analysis of School Expenditures: (c) Elemen-
tary Schools and High Schools 80
Teachers ' Salaries 83
High School Costs 91
Summary 95
iv Educational Survey of Janesville
Page
•Chaptee V. — The Board of Education 99
The Organization of the Board 100
Committees 101
The Relation of the Board and the Superintendent 101
The Duties Which the Board Should Pertorm 104
Chapter VI. — Census, Enrollment, and Attendance 106
Census and Census Taking 106
Enrollment and Attendance 109
School Attendance 110
Nonresidents 112
High School Graduates and Higher Schools 113
PART II. PROBLEMS OF INSTRUCTION
Chapter VII. — The Problem of Industrial Education 115
Social and Industrial Conditions 115
Industries 117
The Present Manual Training Work 119
The Present Equipment for Manual Training 121
Evening School Courses 123
Domestic Science 124
The Industrial School 125
The Children Who Need Industrial Education 126
Educational Recommendations 128
Summary of Recommendations 132
Chapter VIII. — Classroom Instruction in Elementary Schools 134
Introduction 134
Section I
General Observation of Classroom Instruction... 136
How Instruction was Judged 136
Factors Considered in Judging Classroom in-
struction 137
The Results of Inadequate Supervision 143
Improvements That May be Effected Through
Closer Supervision 144
Recommendations 145
Section II
Types of Lessons Observed 145
The Development Lesson 147
The Study Lesson 149
,. The Recitation Lesson 149
The Lesson for Appreciation 151
The Drill Lesson 152
The Review Lesson 1 53
Summary 154
Contents ^
Section III Pag®
The Teaching of Classroom Subjects 15*
Beading ^^^
English ^^'^
Spelling 161
Geography 1"^
Arithmetic
General Eeeommendations on Classroom Instruc-
tion
168
171
Chapter IX.— High School Instruction 172
Factors in Efficient High School Teaching 172
Observations on High School Teaching in Janes-
ville 178
Summary of Recommendations 182
Chapter X. — Special Courses and Instruction in Special Subjects 183
Section I — Music 183
Section II — Drawing 193
Section III — Agricultural Department 198
Section IV — School Gardening 207
Chapter XI. — Library Work 210
General Eeading 210
Classroom Libraries 213
Test in General Eeading 215
Magazine Reading 220
Ability to Find Information; Reference 221
Grade Libraries 222
Reference Work in the High School 224
Test in Reference Work 226
Summary of Recommendations 228
Chapter XII. — Time Allotments and Course of Study 229
Time Allotments 229
The Elementary Course of Study 234
Chapter XIII. — Measuring Results in School Subjects 237
Arithmetic 237
TheWoody Tests 237
The Courtis Tests 2.52
The Stone Reasoning Test 254
Reading 259
Spelling 265
The Results on the Ayres Test 266
The Results on the Buckingham Test TfiS
Writing 276
vi Educational Survey of Janesville
Page
Composition 286
The Trabue Language Tests 292
Summary 295
Eecommendations 298
Chapter XIV. — Supervision of Instruction 299
Preparation for Supervising Instruction 299
Present Organization of Supervision in Janesville 300
Eemedying Existing Conditions 302
Chapter XV. — Progress and Classification of Pupils 306
Age-Grade Study 306
Age-Progress Study 308
High School Mortality 309
Students Dropped, Failed and Promoted in High
School Subjects SIX
Chapter XVI. — Provisions for Special Classes 314
Eecommendations 317
Chapter XVII. — Home Cooperation, Health and Eeereation 319
Home Cooperation and Eeereation 319
Health 322
Chapter XVIII. — Summary of Conclusions and Eecommendations. . . 325
INTRODUCTION
The survey of the Janesville schools was undertaken by the
State Department of Education upon the invitation of the Board
of Education of that city. In accepting the invitation, the State
Department of Education was not unmindful of the amount of
labor it entailed. The acceptance was prompted not only by a
willingness to point out the educational needs of a particular
city, but by a desire to present in organized form for the schools
of Wisconsin the views of the State Department on city school
administration. The report is transmitted with the hope that
the statements of general principles contained therein may re-
sult in an improvement in the work of city schools in Wisconsin.
The survey has, 'been carried on under the general direction
of State Superintendent C. P. Gary. Active direction of the
field work and of the preparation of this report has been in
charge of Dr. W. W. Theisen, Supervisor of Educational Meas-
urements. Other members of the survey staff were Mr. H. L.
Terry, State Supervisor of High Schools; Dr. B. R. Bucking-
ham, Educational Statistician of the State Board of Education ;
Dr. H. N. Goddard, State Supervisor of High Schools; Miss
Amy Bronsky, State Super\dsor of City Grades; Miss May-
bell G. Bush, State Supervisor of City Grades ; Miss Annie Rey-
nolds, State Supervisor of Teacher Training; Mr. J. M. Dor-
rans, State Supervisor of Industrial Education; Miss Janet R.
Rankin, School Service Secretary; Mr. 0. S. Rice, State Super-
visor of School Libraries; Mr. A. B. Cook, State Supervisor of
Day Schools for the Deaf and Blind ; Professor P. W. Dykema,
Chairman of the Department of Music, University of Wiscon,-
sin; and Miss Lucy Dorrit Hale, Supervisor of Drawing, Mil-
waukee State Normal School. In addition, special acknowledg-
ment should be given to Mrs. Cecile White Flemming, Assistant
Supervisor of Educational Measurements, Department of Public
Instruction to Dr. Benjamin P. James, Professor of Psychology
and Education, Whitewater State Normal School ; Dr. Edgar F.
Riley, Principal of the Training School, Platteville State Nor-
mal School ; Mr. Frank J. Lowth, Principal of the Rock County
Training School; and to the students of these institutions who
viii Educational Survey of Janesville
assisted in the giving and scoring of the tests in various school
subjects.
The special lines of investigation undertaken by each mem-
ber of the staff are indicated by chapters. It was originally in-
tended to include recommendations on educational and financial
record forms. The State Board of Education, however, has re-
cently undertaken to formulate a uniform system of records
for all city schools of the State, and for this reason any special
recommendations at this time would seem to be premature. It
is expected that the uniform system for all the city schools will
be available for use at the beginning of the school year 1918-19.
Chapter I The Problem of High School Organization —
Terry
" II The Building Problem — Theisen, Terry, Dor-
rans
" III Teachers and Salaries — Theisen
" IV Costs and Finance — Buckingham
" V The Board of Education— Theisen
" VI Census Enrollment and Attendance — Ran-
kin
" VII The Problem of Industrial Education — Dor-
rans, Terry, Theisen
" VIII Classroom Instruction in Elementary
Schools :
General Observations of Classroom Instruc-
tion— Bronsky
Types of Lessons Observed — Bush
The Teaching of Classroom Subjects — Rey-
nolds
'* IX High School Instruction — Goddard, Terry
" X Special Courses and Instruction in Special
Subjects
Music — Dykema
Drawing — Hale
School Gardening — Goddard
Agriculture — Goddard
XI Library Work— Rice
" XII Time Allotments and the Course of Study—
Theisen
XIII Measuring Results in School Subjects— Thei-
sen
" XIV Supervision of Instruction— Bush, Bronsky
" XV Progress and Classification of Pupils— Ran-
kin
" XVI Provisions for Special Classes— Cook
" XVII Home Cooperation, Health, and Recreation—
Bronsky
" XVIII Summary
Part I
I THE PROBLEM OF HIGH SCHOOL
ORGANIZATION
In making definite plans for the future of any system of
schools, account should be taken of certain ideas which are be-
coming very pronounced, in regard to plans of organization and
administration of both high schools and of grades below high
school.
The belief is becoming very prevalent and widespread that the
present custom of making the division between the grades and
high school at the end of the eighth year, leaving the last four
years for secondary school work, is not wise from either an ed-
ucational or a physiological standpoint. There is general agree-
ment that there is at present a great loss of time and waste of
effort in the seventh and eighth grades ; greater than an^^where
else in the entire course of study, not only on account of poor
methods of instruction but also especially through the use of
unsuitable subject matter and an inefficient grouping of stu-
dents A\'itb certain details of promotion and management which
dull interest and hamper advancement.
The great M^ork of the grades from the academic standpoint
is to give thorough training in the common knowledge which is
absolutely necessary for success in any of the great occupations
by w^hich people get a living. Without some ability to read,
write, calculate, and express thought a person is so hampered as
to be almost helpless in his business and social relations with
others. This same training also forms an excellent basis for fu-
ture work in school.
The amount of this absolutely necessary knowledge, however,
is much less in some subjects than is generally supposed. The
arithmetical calculations, for instance, required of most people
are limited to the very simplest operations, only a very small
part of the matter covered in the arithmetic used in the grades ;
the English composition for the majority is mainly confined to
2 Educational Survey of Jaiusville
simple business forms and to letter Avriting; if a person can
write legibly with a fair degree of rapidity little question is
raised as to the artistic appearance of his penmanship ; and so
we might go through the entire list of the so-called fundamen-
tals. Thorough mastery of the very simplest operations rather
than a wide range of knowledge is what is demanded.
The opinion is becoming common that six years is ample time
for the average child if well taught to acquire this absolutely
necessary information and skill and that our practice of allow-
ing eight years to do what might easil}^ be done in six, for this
is practically what our present course for the eight grades
amounts to, is largely responsible for the. poor work, lack of in-
terest and falling off of students so common in the seventh and
eighth grades. New material is needed, adapted not merely to
meet the simple business demands, but such as Avill widen the
interests and give a broader outlook on life with some knowledge
of what people do for a living and of their social relationships
and obligations.
The thought, too, seems to be rapidly crystalizing that the
seventh, eighth and ninth grades form a more natural group
in all their activities than we have under the present system of
placing the ninth grade with the young men and women of the
upper grades of the high school, and the seventh and eighth with
the children of the lower grades. Following out this idea in
an arrangement of the school system we should have six years
of grade work proper, an intermediate or junior high school in-
cluding what are now the seventh, eighth and ninth years of
s«hool, and a senior high school composed of the tenth, eleventh
and twelfth years. The belief is so strong that the seventh and
eighth grades should receive a different treatment from those
below, that many advocate a combination with the high school
in a 6-6 plan in schools too small to not permit of the 6-3-3
form rather than to continue the present grouping. It should
be understood, however, that the real intermediate or junior
high school is an organization distinct from the grades below
and the senior high school above, having its own building or
distinct part of building, its own principal independent of the
senior high school principal, its own peculiar pl'ogram and course
of study, and most of all its own peculiar objects to be attained,
these last differing to a very considerable extent from those of
either the school above or below.
Tlu I'rohloii of Jliyh ScJiool Or</(tiiiz(itio)i . 3
Among others there are two very pronounced weaknesses com-
mon in school work as it is now managed. It is usually safe to
say of any class of fair size that from a third to a half of the
members jnight do approximately double the work and be bet-
ter for it, that as it is they are being trained to dawdle rather
than to exert themselves in a vigorous, effective manner. At
the same time it is likely that there are some who are being
dragged along over work too difficult for them in the vain ef-
fort to equalize to fit the whole. That is, the work is not adapted
to the capacities, and aptitudes of the students as it should be.
Another serious fault is that students are passed through the
school and turned out without any definite ideas of the great
lines of work which people follow for a living upon which to
base a judgment as to their own fitness or liking for any partic-
ular occupation.
It is believed that the 6-3-3 type of organization would lend
itself much more readily to meeting these defects than is possi-
ble under the present system with its subjects and methods so
bound and hampered by tradition that it is almost impossible
to bring about a real change.
The new organization is as yet free to act in almost any di-
rection. It is not yet out of the experimental stage. In large
schools it should be very easy to gather together many groups
of like abilities and inclinations and give work accordingly. A
comparatively few groups so formed, even as few as three, in
any given subject Avould so nearly meet individual aptitudes
that there should be a great improvement over what is possible
in indiscriminate sectioning. At the same time promotion should
be by single subjects instead of by grades as now, so that when
a student has completed a required amount in arithmetic or any
other study he may take other work without being held back
through not having completed the other subjects of his grade.
In the present graded system this is difficult to do because it
usually implies a change of rooms and a serious interference
with programs. Thraugh such grouping and promotion it would
bo a comparatively simple matter either to allow the naturally
stronger in any particular subject to finish sooner or to take a
wider or more difficult range of work while weaker ones were
taking the necessary minimum, or another study might be en-
tered upon earlier. Students strong in grammar and weak in
4 Ediicafiovdl Survcu of Junesville
history would be in the corresponding strong or weak sections.
The second great weakness mentioned, that of lack of voca-
tional instruction, should be dea,lt with to an extent at least in
the same manner except that there should be a still greater
measure of individualization. After a boy has made a fair ef-
fort in working with tools and has demonstrated to his own and
his teacher's satisfaction that his tastes lie in other directions
he should be allowed to try something else ; as commercial work
or agriculture. It may finally develop that he should prepare
along academic or professional rather than industrial lines. In
short the junior high school form of organization as outlined
above would seem peculiarly well-adapted to (a) give a good
academic preparation for either continued study or for meeting
the more common business and social demands of life; (b) to
give sufficient practice in a few of the great classes of occupa-
tions by which people live to form a basis of judgment as to
what will be Avorth while either to try as a trade or to specialize
toward in the senior high school; (c) to give such a knowledge
of many special occupations, the nature of the work, wages, cost
of preparation for, opportunities they offer for the exercise of
true citizenship etc., etc., that a choice may not be made blindly
or through a mere haphazard fancy.
To secure these results, however, would require much more
attention to industrial work than is now given, probably from
one-fourth to one-third of the school time would be none too
much even though there were considerable correlation Avith aca-
demic subjects additional. It would also require more rooms
and better industrial equipment than is now generally allowed
for such grade work. The expense would probably be consider-
ably increased unless the junior and the senior schools were so
located and their enrollments were such that equipment could
be used in common.
Different plans in regard to buildings for junior and senior
high schools, dependent largely upon local conditions, are be-
ing worked out in different localities both in our own and other
states. One now in use at Menominee, Michigan, places separate
buildings near enough together to permit of use by either school
of an assembly room, gymnasium, and shops. A second, pro-
posed at Waukesha is a single large building for the two schools
with shops, assembly room, and gymnasium which may be used
Tlie Prohhm of Iligli Scliool Organization 5
in common or separately. A third plan is that for the two jun-
ior high schools of Kenosha in which each school is in a large
building with the lower grades, while the senior high school is
at considerable distance. Still a fourth, probably the advisable
provision where schools are large, is a distinct building fully
equipped for the junior high school alone. This is the plan
favored in the larger cities of California.
In any reorganization affecting the buildings, courses of study,
or the nature of the work of the schools of Janesville, or any
other city, the first question to be settled is — "Shall the plan
of a junior high school be adopted?" Until this is settled lit-
tle can be done according to any settled plan for the future.
The conditions at Janesville seem particularly favorable iov
the establishment of the junior and senior systems. The present
high school building is outgrown for the present four year high
school ; several new grade buildings are needed, their number
and size depending upon the disposition of the seventh and
eighth grades. The enrollment is such that the 7th, 8th and 9th
grades would form a good working size for a group, and the 10th,
lltli and 12th grades would form a good senior high school. These
and other facts taken together afford an unusual opportunity
for a general reorganization in line with the most progressive
schools of the country ; not merely a few changes to meet con-
ditions for the time being but a comprehensive scheme looking
toward future needs and growth, n.ot merely in number but in
possible educational demands as well.
Educational Survey of Janesville
II THE BUILDING PROBLEM
Janesville at present has nine grade buildings and one high
school building. The dates of erection, size and valuation may
be seen from the table opposite. The table Avas prepared for the
survey by the state architect. With the exception of the Jackson
and the Garfield, two of the smaller buildings, and the additions
to the Douglas and the Jefferson, all were built more than twen-
ty years ago. The Lincoln, Washington, and Jefferson, with the
exception of the addition on the last mentioned building date
back more than a half century.
That the city has few good school buildings is a fact that is
perhaps familiar to most of its citizens. Several of the buildings
are antiquated and poorly suited to school purposes. The
amount of capital invested in buildings is small. This isin some
respects fortunate. It will mean less in the way of financial sac-
rifice when the time comes to replace the present buildings by
moilevn sehoolhouses.
Tahi.k T. — Cubages, Areas, and Values of Public School Buildinr/s, as
Computed by the State Architect, Mai/ 1911
Year of
construction
1
Cubical conte'ntof
entire ttullding'
5^'
c 5
|s
II
o
ei S
9-
^ ID
-J
« £.
O -r.
"So
Net
o
0)
1.1
£5
a.
?85,000
50.000
12,000
25,000
17,055
7,500
2.000
5 000
8,800
8,500
0^.
03 <U
Name of school
Cub.
con.
Floor
area
3 a
, *^ — ^^
of g-ym-
nasium only
Prese
bull
cub
Hiffh Sf'hool
.Tefferson
1S94
1857
1914'
1904
l«ii8
about 1880
1914'
about 1880
1900
about 1878
about 1855
1855
696,500
524,185
129,590
341,000
223,440
■ 149.940
53, -^40
95,890
185.730
189,300
280, 050
201,948
.38,955
100,800
66,173
40,800
16,128
3',, 900
66,413
94,900
50,000
31,585
8,5X0
22,750
13,680
9,180
3,970
6,457
13,590
15, 130
21.390
14,335
3,180
8,400
5,190
3,200
1,344
2 800
5,313
7,965
98,650
6,930
12V5C
8c
Garfield
1.3c
91/ic
Adams
7Vsc
Doujrlas
5c
Grant
13c'
5c
•Tackson
3%c
Webster
SVic
Washington
Lincoln
4%c
4V2C
Totals
2,588,825
942.057
174,922
73,137
98,650
6,930
220.855
These items are included in .lef-
ferson school but are used by
the Rock County Trainingr
School
101,100
64,300
6 245
4,345
A 1 1
The Building Problem 7
The present school buildings are poorly distributed about the
city. They are too many in nuniber and several of them are
too small both from the point of economical teaching and of
cost of operation. Doubtless, they were so placed originally that
most of the children would have but a short distance to go.
Distance is, however, not the sole criterion and is, in fact, of
small consequence in a city of Janesville's size. A reasonable
walking distance is even to be desired for health and recreation
purposes.
Wherever possible children should be grouped in the ways in
which they can profit most educationally. They should be so
grouped as to make possible good teaching organization. In the
judgment of the survey staff, the present grouping is such as to
make good organization next to impossible. It is much to be de-
sired that grades, classes and courses be so arranged that child-
ren of somewhere near equal ability and of similar" tastes be
taught together. As may be seen by reference to the chapter on
Measuring Results in School Subjects, a diversity of abilities
prevails in nearly every grade room. In every group tested,
children were found who did far better than the score for the
class as a whole. Others were found who did far less. This may
be expected because some children are by natural endowment
capable of learning more and in less time than others.
If children are economically grouped and taught, there "will
be some children who can accomplish one of two things; either
they can complete the course of study in less time or they can
cover a richer course in the same time. On the other hand,
children of less ability can complete an amount of work more
nearly suited to their own ability. These can progress normally
Avith other members of their own group, whereas "under the pres-
ent arrangement they are more likely to fail of promotion.
Nothing is more trying to teacher and pupil than to have some
children in a class for whom the work is much too difficult, and
others who must mark time waiting for slow children to grasp
what to these brighter children is perfectlj^ clear. Such condi-
tions very often lead to loss of interest and lax habits on the
part of normally bright children, and to- discouragement and
loss of interest on the part of the less gifted children.
Not only are we forced to recognize a difference in ahUity
among children, but also a difference in tasfea. This difference
8 Educational Survcif of Janesville
in tastes quit« often manifests itself strongly at about the time
the child reaches the grammar grades. Some indicate a gro"vving
desire to explore the fields of industry or comtnerce. Others ex-
hibit a taste for xjrofessional lines. To the boy of a mechanical
turn of mind the thought of actually doing things makes a strong
appeal. To the girl of domestic inclinations the traditional sub-
jects may seem wasteful and unproductive. Children who show
an inclination to learn more about these various fields should be
be given some opportunity to do so. A form of reorganization
such as a junior high school which brings together the children
of the 7th, 8th and 9th gi'ades in sufficient numbers can arrange
courses which will permit children to further develop these tastes
and to discover something as to their own natural fitness for
the different life occupations.
The present organization in Janesville tends to retard both the
bright and the slow. In view of the desirability of a form of
grouping which shall bring children both of like abilities and of
like inclinations together and at the same time provide classes
large enough for economical teaching there must be a large
number from which to select for the different groups. The
greater the number of sections the nearer the approach to indi-
vidual ability. A combination of the 7th and 8th or 7th, 8th
and 9th grades of the entire city into a single building would
provide such a number and it is the judgment of the survey
committee that it would be wise for the city of Janesville, to
bring these grades together for this purpose. More satisfactory
results than are now being attained could be had if the children
were housed in fewer and larger buildings. If buildings were
larger, then this desirable grouping of children according to
ability or degree of attainment could be carried out, for it would
then be possible to have several sections of the same grade.
Location of Buildings
The board of education must first of all decide upon the ques-
tion of organization. The future development of building plans
will be aff'ected by the course taken with reference to a junior
high school. If the board adopts the junior high school organiza-
tion recommended by this survey, it will mean that the seventh
and eighth grades shall be housed with the ninth in a central
plant. At present this would remove more than 300 children
The Building Problem
Map showing location of present buildings and the present
enrollment of elementary school pupils from each section of the
city.
10 Educational Snrvcn of JancsvRle
from the present grade buildings leaving about 1500 children to
be aceoniniodated in grade buildings.
The board should in the near future adopt a building program.
It should decide approximately where all buildings to be erected
within the next twenty 3^ears shall be placed and the number of
buildings the city shall have when this progj^am is in full effect.
The accompanying map shows the location of the present build-
ings, and the number of children now attending elementary
school from each section of the city.
Before recommendations can be made with reference to the
number and location of future grade buildings some considera-
tion must be given to the probable directions of the city's future
development. The city itself is located in a rich agricultural
section and has in addition the advantage of good water power.
While the city has not grown rapidly within the last two dec-
ades, it is not safe to assume that there will not be further de-
velopment of manufacturing plants.
Manufacturers have in the main chosen sites in near proxim-
ity to the river and it is quite likely that they will contintle to do
so. The combination of the retail business section, the manu-
facturing plants and the river separates the city into two dis-
tinct residential sections. Hence it would be unwise to place
grade buildings near the central line of the city. The Adams
and Jefferson buildings approximate the ideal location for build-
ings to the east of the river. On the west side, however, building
sites appear to have been chosen with little regard at the time
for the probable direction of future growth. The high school
building is centrally located as should be the case with a build-
ing that is to serve the entire school population, but the same
cannot be said of the Webster, Garfield, Lincoln, Douglas and
Grant. The needs of the children in the southwest quarter of
the city could more appropriately be served by a single building
centrally located with reference to that quarter of the city. It
is unfortunate, indeed, that the location of the newest building,
the Garfield, is such as it is. The Washington site is well-suited
to a building which shall ser^'e the northwest quarter of the
city. The territory now served by the Grant building could well
be divided between two buildings located as we have just indi-
cated. The pupils of the two room Jackson school across the
bend of the river should be transported. They cannot hope to
T!i( Build i)i(/ Pi-()l)l(}ii 11
receive gootl school achaiitages under present conditions. In the
event that a building program is adopted as we have outlined
above, it will mean that the city will eventually have four ele-
mentary school buildings located approximately in the four
quarters of the city. The number of elementary school children
to be provided for in each building may be judged by reference
to the accomi)anying map, which indicates the number in each
quarter on the basis of the present enrollment.
The central location of the high school plant makes it easily
accessible from all parts of the cit.y. The site is fairly free from
dust, noise, and smoke and is convenient to the street-car line
and the two bridges. The lot, however, is very small and any
suitable addition to the present building seems out of the ques-
tion. Even if a little additional ground could be secured to
the west, it would be of such a shape and so hemmed in by streets
that it would be very unsuitable.
• Again, the present building is a complete unit and docs not
lend itself well to any addition. A good site of adequate size not
far from the present location would be most desirable.
In case the 6-3-3, or junior-senior type of organization is
adopted, the ideal high school plant would be a building large
enough and planned to accommodate both the junior and senior
high schools as distinct organizations. Making alloAvance for
fair future growth, this would mean accommodations for from
1200 to 1500. The lot should comprise several acres or be large
enough to provide facilities for the various athletic, playground,
and physical training activities which are certain to be increas-
ingly important factors as the coming greater emphasis is laid
upon healtli training.
In ease such a high school plant is impracticable, an alterna-
tive may be to continue the present building as a senior high
school and secure a large enough addition to the Lincoln site
across the street, so that a junior high school may be erected
upon it. Such a plan, if adopted, should provide eventually for
a complete high school building, housing both the senior and
junior high schools. The building on the Lincoln site should be
made large enough to accommodate both high schools with gym-
nasium and such other facilities for common use as may be ad-
visable. By adopting a construction plan capable of being added
to, the two high schools can be eventually united into a single
12 Educational Survey of Janesville
building when the present building becomes too old for use and
is replaced. Until that is done, the two buildings might be con-
nected by a bridge or possibly it might be feasible to close the
short street and add this ground to the present sites.
Condition of the Present Buildings
As intimated previously Janesville 's school buildings are not
modern. A school building in order to be modern must be so in
at least thren respects. It must be modern in construction, ar-
rangement and the purposes which the building itself is to serve.
Present day buildings are constructed with a due regard for
the type or types of education w^hich the system expects to of-
fer. If a city intends to provide not only for the teaching of
traditional subjects but for prevocational or industrial subjects
as well, or if it plans to offer gymnasium and assembly facilities,
it .should take such factors into account in planning its school
buildings. A dwelling house is not suitable as a factory.
Neither is a school building which was intended to provide for
only one type of activity suitable to many. Twenty years ago
schools were not offering many of the activities which are now
commonplace. Not only have schools made marked progress
during this time in the advantages offered, but such matters as
proper lighting, heating, sanitation, and ventilation have re-
ceived careful consideration. When new buildings are erected,
the city will do well to take advantage of the progress that has
been made.
The only building which can be said to approximate a modem
building is the Garfield. The condition of the Lincoln is such
as to make it unfit for school purposes. Its use should be dis-
continued. The AYashington and Webster buildings, along with
the Lincoln, were classed as obsolete by the state architect.
None of the other buildings with the possible exception of the ad-
ditions to the Douglas and Jefferson can be classed as better than
fair.
The Adams
The site upon which this building is located is approximately
three-fourths as large as the present enrollment demands.
The classrooms are poorly lighted. The ratio of glass area to
floor area ranges from 9% to 18^c, whereas good practice re-
The Bmldhii] PvohUm 13
quires at least 20%. Unusually wide niullioiis between win-
dows is a contributing factor to the poor lighting conditions.
The smallest of these is 5^^ ft. The front windows in several
rooms come within 4 ft. of the front of the room. This tends to
produce a glare in the faces of the pupils. It is a significant
fact that upon the sides considered proper for light to enter only
two windows are found in each case. This building should be
remodelled to provide sufficient and correct lighting.
This building is one of the few provided with thermostatic
control of temperature. It is provided with the so-called ' ' split
system" of heating and ventilating and is equipped with an air
washer. It is to be regretted that other buildings were not simi-
larly equipped in the matter of heating and ventilating.
The Lincoln
This building occupies a small site directly opposite the high
school. The playground area is less than one-half enough to
provide an area of 200 sq. ft. per pupil on the basis of enroll-
ment.
Three floors are used for school purposes. Corridors are
narrow and dark. The upper corridor measures only four feet
one inch, and in addition is used as a wardrobe. The stairways
are narrow and in bad condition. The tread dimensions of
eight and one-half inch riser with nine inch tread make them
unusualh' steep and dangerous in case of fire. The building
is not fireproof. In the judgment of those who examined the
building it is a fire hazard. The basement of this building is
poorly lighted and ventilated. It is necessary to use electric
light even on sunshiny days.
Classrooms are lighted from the left and rear. The light area
in all but two rooms is less than 14% of the floor area. The
window mullions arc nowhere less than four feet.
Toilets are poorly ventilated, depending on windows, doors
and floors. The result is that ventilation takes place in part
through the classrooms above.
The building as a whole is poorly ventilated, depending on
gravity. In mild weather the air movement is almost imper-
ceptible and a disagreeable stench permeates the air unless win-
doAvs are kept open. The building is used in part by the Indus-
trial school and odors escaping from gas engines fill corridors
and classrooms at times.
1-i: Educational Survey of Janesville
Five hot air furnaces are required for this building. This con-
dition necessitates a large amount of janitor service and fuel
consumption is unnecessarily large.
The building as a whole presents an unsightly appearance
both inside and out. More efficient janitor service which places
a higher value upon cleanliness of ceilings, floors, walls and
windows would add somewhat to its attractiveness.
The Wehster
• This is an antiquated type of building located on a small
site of ground in the vicinity of the river and but a few short
blocks from the Garfield and Lincoln buildings. Its corridors
are extremely narrow, occupying either side of a central stair-
Avay. They are three feet three inches wide and are used as
cloakrooms causing an undesirable congestion at dismissal times.
While the classrooms are supplied with a sufficient amount of
light, it comes in from three sides. This causes not only cross
lights but places an undue strain upon the eyes of the teachers
who must face the light.
The Garfield
This building is a four room building erected in 1904. It is
a well-lighted and airy building. Here we find the opposite ex-
treme in the matter of corridors and stairways from that found
in the Lincoln and Webster. More than one-third of the floor
area of each floor is occupied by halls, stairways and cloakrooms.
This building has a double stairway to accommodate the two
rooms above. Each section measures four feet wide. A single
stairway would have been sufficient.
It is indeed surprising that a new four room building erected
so late as 1904 should have been provided with two hot air fur-
naces instead of a single steam plant.
The Grant
The Grant is an exact duplicate of the older portion of the
Douglas. It was erected about 1880 near the west limits of the
city. While the building occupies an attractive site, it is not
well located with reference to the needs of the school population.
It is recommended elsewhere that this site be abandoned when
the new building program is completed.
The Bnilding Frohlem ' 15
The toilets are not modern and are poorly ventilated. If the
building is to be used for some years as it may be, modern
equipment should be installed. Washing facilities at present
are limited to the overtlow from drinking fountains in a combi-
nation fountain sink.
Tlie Douglas
The Douglas building is located upon a clean and well-drained
site of ground. It is made up of the original building and an ad-
dition erected in 1914.
Classrooms in this building are among the best lighted in the
city.
Each portion of the building is heated by a separate plant.
In the opinion of the janitor the hot air furnace which heats the
newer portion consumes an undue proportion of coal, while
some difficulty is experienced in producing sufficient heat with
the present steam boiler for the older portion. It is possible
that the latter situation could be improved by proper piping.
This building is one of the few equipped with modern sanitary
individual automatic flushing toilets. Toilet rooms are well
lighted. The building is noticeable for its cleanliness.
The Jacksoyi
The Jackson is a small two-room building on the outskirts of
the city. It is recommended elsewhere in this report that the
use of this building be eventually discontinued and the pupils
transported. The site occupies low lying ground. It is so low
that water interferes with the operation of the heating appar-
atus at certain seasons of the year.
The classrooms of this building are both insufficiently and im-
properly lighted. The light area measures 13% of the floor
area. Each room has four windows on one side and one on each
of the other two sides. MuUions between windows are 28 inches
wide. The room now occupied by the third and fourth grades is
of unusual dimensions being twenty-four feet long and twenty-
seven feet wide. To provide sufficient light for this room will
require enlarging of windows.
The toilets for this building are of the common out-of-door
type. The urinals were obser\^ed to be in a filthy and unsanitary
condition.
16 Educational Survey of Jancwille
The Washington
The Washington building occupies a site well adapted for a
school ground. The playground is of adequate size to accommo-
date the present enrollment and is equipped with playground ap-
paratus. A good growth of trees and shrubbery adds to its at-
tractiveness.
This building is more than a half century old. It is regarded
as obsolete by the state architect. The serviceableness of this
eight-room building is decreased by the condition of the lighting
and the small size of its corridors. From the enclosed nature of
the four centrally located rooms, it is difficult to provide suf-
ficient light for these rooms. Prism glass has been introduced
but the glare was observed to be so pronounced as to warrant
the suggestion that its use was unwise. The situation can be
somewhat improved by increasing the size of the windows. In
the remaining four rooms the light enters from three sides.
The toilet rooms in this building are particularly deficient in
quantity of light.
Corridors in this building are cramped. The main corridor
measures 7% — 8 ft. wide, and in addition is used for cloakroom
space. A secondary corridor measures but four feet in width.
The Jefferson
This building is located on a site of ample size. The site with
the exception of the southeast quarter is well drained. It has
been made attractive through the planting of grass and trees and
the provision of playground apparatus.
The building itself is one of the larger ones of the system.
There are three floors, the upper of which is now used by the
Rock County Training School. This building was at one time
used as a high school building. Even though it has been re-
modeled to some extent, undesirable evidences of the fact still
remain.
Classrooms in the older portion are poorly lighted and of im-
proper dimensions for good school use. The light area is but
12% of the floor area when 20 to 25% is to be expected. Un-
fortunately, the rooms are so constructed that they are wider
than they are long as they are now used. The dimensions are
24'x30'. Light enters from one side only but in each case it is
the short side. This makes it necessary for the light to pass a dis-
The Building Prohhm 17
tanee of 30 ft. across classrooms. Prism glass has been installed
in some rooms but this has been found to produce a troublesome
glare.
The building is very inconvenient in arrangement. It is im-
possible to pass from one end of the building to the other without
passing through classrooms. There is no central corridor on
either floor. If the cost of remodeling is not excessive some im-
provements could be made b}' removing the present cloakrooms,
thus adding the width of these rooms to the classrooms. Inside
wardrobes could be installed along the wall fartherest removed
from the light. These could be made a combination blackboard
type.
The basement of this building presents a filthy appearance. It
has only a dirt floor in places and is being used to store outworn
equipment.
The High School Building
In common with many others in the state the Janesville High
School has grown within the last few years until the enrollment
has become much larger than the intended capacity of the build-
ing. Allowing 14 square feet of floor space (not a large allow-
ance) per pupil, the assembly room can accommodate about -400
students. The building in general appears to have been planned
for about this number. The present enrollment is 530 or 130
more than it should be for comfort, convenience, or proper
sanitation.
The result is that not only the assembly room but cloakrooms
and many recitation rooms are so badly overcrowded as to be
not only inconvenient but unhealthful and in some cases unsafe.
It is surprising that there have been no accidents in some of
these rooms ; in the girls ' cloakroom for instance during the noQn"
intermission when the girls are pushing in and out of the single
door and struggling with the mass for their hats and wraps.
Rooms are being used for recitation purposes which were origin-
ally intended for cloakrooms, museums, or offices; s]mees have
been partitioned off in the third stofy for recitation purposes
inadequately lighted and ventilated and unsuitable in every way
for such use. The attic rooms used for commercial work and the
domestic science department are especially objectionable, inter-
ferred with as they are by the truss work of the building, incon-
18 Educational Survey of Janesville
veuient of access and very poorly lighted and ventilated. It
would seem, too, that there might be serious danger in case of
fire though there are two exits besides two fire escapes. A re-
deeming feature is tliat of the large halls in the first and second
stories which give space for rapid and easy movement of large
classes.
• The Building Code regulations of the state prescribe that there
shall be at least one square foot of glass surface for each six
square feet of floor surface ; one square foot for every five square
feet is recommended. This rule applies to study, class, recita-
tion and laboratory rooms. The assembly room and five class-
rooms now in use meet these requirements ; the remaining eleven
rooms used for the purposes stated range from one square foot
of lighting surface to every eight feet of floor space, down to
less than one-half of the recommended ratio of one to five, sev-
eral having less than one to ten. None of the rooms used for
class purposes are properly lighted. Artificial light is very
often necessary during even fairly light days. Some of the
rooms are very poorly equipped for this, the electric lights be-
ing small and few in number. A number of the rooms, including
those in the attic should be absolutely condemned on account of
insufficient light if for no other reason.
The adequacy of the heating and ventilating system could
hai'dly be determined at Ihe season of the year when the survey
was made. There seems to be strong evidence that the heating
plant is insufficient under present conditions. The truth prob-
ably is that both the htntuig and ventilating plants were well
adapted to the requirements when the school was of proper size
for the building. It is mC'St likely that after more than twenty
yc.ifs of service the heating equipment should be thoroughly
overhauled or replaced by new. In short, a very considerable
amount of repairs will be necessary to put the building into
good condition for even a school of the size originally intended
to be accommodated. In addition to this a higher standard of
janitor service should be insisted upon.
The Building Problem 19
<t:;.vkral IIkalth and Sanitary Conditions and Equipment of
Buildings
Lighting
The question of correct and sufficient lighting is one of no
small importance. A system of education which compels a child
to attend school should be willing to assure him that his eye-
s 'tht will he propei-ly safeguarded. An insufficient quantity of
l:;,ht, the glare of direct sunlight, and cross lights are each in-
iurious to the mechanism of the eve. In modern schoolhouses
classrooms are lighted from the left only, but of fifty-two rooms,
only seven were lighted from the left, twenty-four from the left
and rear, two from the right and rear, seventeen on three sides,
one from the left and front, and one from two sides. But even
though windows are correctly placed lighting may be unsatisfac-
tory because the total glass area is too small. Figures on the
ratio of the glass area to the iioor area were submitted by the
principals. On the basis of a ratio of one square foot of glass
area to floor area, the Adams, Grant, Lincoln, Jackson, two of the
four rooms in the Garfield, the rooms of the older portion of the
Jefferson and four of the eight rooms in the Washington build-
ing have an insufficient quantity of light, regardless of the
source. There is no building in the city in which the light for
all of the rooms is properly distributed. The seventeen class-
rooms indicated above as having windows on three sides of the
room are distributed among five buildings, Adams, Grant, Jack-
son, Washington, and Webster.
Blackboards
A large blackboard area is a desirable feature of classroom
equipment. In this respect the schools are well provided. In
some buildings, however, a high grade quality of maferial has
not been used. Patent composition blackboards have not pro-
vided a satisfactory substitute for slate. They are expensive be-
cause sooner or later they must be replaced, while a high grade
slate or ground glass board is practically permanent. The com-
position boards ncTw in use should be replaced.
Blackboards in order to be most serviceable should be placed
at heights best suited to those who are to use them. Small
children cannot use a "board profitably where a large part of it
extends above their heads. In thirty-seven rooms, at present.
20 Eduattional Survey of Janesville
boards are from one to sixteen inches too high for children of
the grades. In a few rooms children stood on benches to reach
the board. In two rooms boards are placed slightly lower than
the desired table of heights indicated elsewhere in this chapter.
In many of the rooms boards are wider than is ordinarily re-
quired. The space near the top of the board is used by some
teachers for illustrative purposes. Whenever new blackboards
are installed a saving may be effected by selecting boards ac-
cording to the table of standards indicated elsewhere. For illus-
trative purposes a more satisfactory cork bulletin board may be
placed at the top of the board.
Seating
The eighth grade of the Adams building is supplied with the
most modern type of school desk. It is a combination seat and
desk which can be adjusted to the needs of the child. It is mov-
able, permitting the teacher to adapt the grouping of the child-
ren at any time to the requirements of the particular class or
study period. If she desires to have the children work or study
in groups where each may learn from the other, she may do so.
If instead of compelling the children in the rear of the room
to observe the backs of classmates, she desires to seat them in
the form of a semicircle it will be easy to do so. Each pupil in
the class can then see the responsive expression which lights up
the faces of his classmates when he contributes anything of real
merit to the class or group discussion. The backs of pupils and
chairs are ordinarily quite unresponsive and not adapted to
drawing from the piipil his best efforts to make a convincing im-
pression on his class mates. Too often the recitation is little
more than a dialogue between pupil and teacher. Some of the
qualities we value most include the ability to discuss a topic be-
fore a group of active listeners. If these valued social qualities
are to be enhanced, the type and arrangement of seats in the
classroom should be such as to facilitate that kind of teaching.
It is to be hoped that as the old type of seats are discarded they
will be replaced by substantial seats of the movable kind.
With the single exception above, the seats in all rooms
except kindergartens are of the stationary type. Unfortu-
nately an insufficient number of these are adjustable. With
the exception of the Jackson building every building has
Th( Iiuil(li)t(/ Problem 21
some rooms with iiou-Mdjustal)le seats. This coiHlition would
bo less serious were it not for the fact that all too fre-
quently the seats in a room are of one size only. The children
of a room are not often all of one size. In one room of the
"Washington building the feet of eleven out of the thirty-six
children in the room did not touch the floor. Even with the
present equipment an immediate attempt should be made to
distribute the seats in use to fit as nearly as possible the phys-
ical needs of the children. Janitors should be instructed as to
]iroper arrangement of seating. It is generally agreed that
for scats of the stationary tyj)e the front edge of the seat
should extend two inches beyond a line dropped vertically from
the edge of the desk. However, no uniformity in this respect
was found in any of the buildings. In some cases seats and
desks "lapped" as much as four and one-half inches and in
others failed by two inches to "lap" at all.
Cupboards and Filing Cabinets
The buildings are inadequately provided with storing and
filing facilities. Unfortunately most of the building 'plans did
not take the need of store room facilities into account. Teachers
are handicapped by this lack of room. When such equipment
is not provided, books and other materials are not apt to receive
the best of care nor can they be put away in such manner that
they can quickly be brought out again w^hen necessary. Often
times it is very desirable and profitable to the teaching and
sujiervision if samples of children's work can be properly filed.
Such material can be used to indicate improvement over a given
period of time or to indicate possible degrees of attainment.
Cupboard and filing facilities are comparatively inexpensive
and the board should make immediate provision for this neces-
sary equipment. For temporary filing or exhibit purpose cork
bulletin boards may be added to the classroom equipment.
Floors
All buildings have been provided with good maple floors.
This makes a smooth good wearing surface, that can be easily
cleaned. In the construction of new buildings, however, it will
be well to provide for fireproof construction. If floors are made
of concrete they can be overlaid wath patent process finish or
22 Educational Surveij of Jancsville
covered with heavy battleship linoleum. Either of these is
superior to wood floors in many respects. Thej- are easily
cleaned, noiseless and free from cracks.
Stairways and Corridors
An open stairway of the ' ' well-hole ' ' type provides a constant
danger to the children who use it. Such open stairways as
found in the Adams building should be remedied at once. Stair-
ways in this building are of the winding type with a low ban-
ister railing. It is a very easy matter for some children to be
pushed over the banister. The janitor of this building reports
that in the past some children have fallen over. Luckily no ser-
ious accident has happened thus far. Gcod stairways provide
either a solid balustrade or steel banisters five feet high. AVith
a solid balustrade stairways can be inclosed making it less likely
that smoke will fill the passage way in case of fire. '
Unless the tread and riser of a stairway are of the proper pro-
portions the step produced is not one which is adapted to the
natural step of the child or other person using it. It may be
too flat or too steep. In the case of a sharply rising stairway
the tread may be even dangerous. The danger of falling on
such a stairway as that in the Lincoln building where the tread
and riser measure 9 and Sy^ inches respectfully^ is obvious^
tread and riser dimensions 11 x 6V> in. are both safe and com-
fortable to the user.
The corridors in the Lincoln, Webster, and Washington are
much smaller than good schoolhouse architecture demands. The
second floor corridor of the Lincoln building, indicated elsewhere
as a fire hazard, is only slightly more than four feet wide in
places. In addition it is used as a cloakroom. Good corridors
should l)e 8-12 ft. wide in grade buildings.
Toilets
Adequate sanitation requires that toilets shall be clean, well-
ventilated and properly equipped. A number of buildings have
toilets that are poorly ventilated and located in some dark and
damp corner of the basement. Immediate steps should be taken
to enlarge the windows in toilet rooms to admit a sufficient
quantity of light and to provide for proper ventilation. In
the interest of health and morals toilet rooms should be as well
The Building rrohJan 23
kept as othei' parts of a school building. There is no reason
why standards of toilet room sanitation and appearance should
be any less than that found in good homes. The toilet rooms in
nearly all buildings are provided with open stalls. A due regard
for privacy demands that doors be i)rovided. They can be made
in slatted form to admit light and of a height that will permit
supervision. Each stall should be equipped with paper holding
facilities of a kind which prevent excessive waste. At present it
is customary to provide only one or two rolls of paper for the
entire toilet room. The present form of porcelain urinal troughs
should be discontinued as soon as those now in use are outworn.
They should be replaced by a form that is adapted to continuous
flushing and that is suited to the height of all children.
Toilet room fixtures in some cases are not well adapted to the
height of the children. The scats in the kindergarten room of
the Douglas building unfortunately are adult size.
In all cases washing facilities should be provided in toilet
rooms or iii some adjoining room. Children should be required
to use them. Parents teach children as a matter of habit to wash
immediately after using the toilet and the school should in no
way tend to break down this habit. With the present washing
facilities it is altogether improbable that the children will keep
up 'this habit. The toilets in several of the buildings have no
washing facilities whatever. The only facility for washing in
many eases is a small combination sink and fountain in the main
corridor of each floor. The water in those is always at a low
temperature. No soap is provided and frequently no towels.
Watei' Supply
A sufficient number of lavatories should be provided to
furnish washing facilities in toilet rooms and on each floor.
Paper towels and liquid soap should be furnished. It is re-
gretable, indeed, that too much economy is practiced in this re-
spect. In only a few buildings was there any soap of any kind
to be found. On the other hand a number of children were ob-
served whose hands were in evident need of washing. The
teaching of hygiene or physiology should be of such a practical
nature th^t good personal habits are established by the children,
and the school should provide proper facilities to permit the
children to apply the classroom teaching.
24
Educational Survey of Janesville
The combination sinks and drinking fountains now in general
use throughout the buildings should be replaced. Children
should not be required to depend for wasii water upon the over-
flow from the drinking fountain. The present arrangement re-
sults in an insufficient supply of water at undesirable temper-
atures and makes an unsanitary appearance. Warm water for
washing purposes should be supplied in all buildings.
Heating and Ventilating
The method of heating employed in the Garfield, Jackson,
Lincoln, Washington, Webster and a part of the Douglas build-
ing is that of the hot air furnace. This system is costly and is
not suitable to a building of any size, a fact which can be judged
from the number installed in the above mentioned buildings.
The number and kind of heating plants and the number of class-
rooms, not including basement rooms, can be seen from the
following table. The undesirability of the hot air furnace
Tahlk 2
Building:
No. of
classrooms
No. heating
plants
T^'pe of heating
system
Hifrh School
22
8
6
4
4
2
12
12
8
4
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
5
4
2
steam
steam
Douglas
hot air and steam
Garfield
hot air
Grant
i»team
hot air
steam
Lincoln
hot air
Washington
hot air
Webster
hot air
may be judged from the number found in the Lincoln and Wash-
ington buildings. A consequence of the present system in these
buildings is an undue amount of janitorial service and excessive
fuel cost. This type of heating system should not be installed
in any new buildings to be erected. Whenever new boilers are
installed they should be of the sectional type. This will permit
of enlarging in case of an addition to the building. Had this
plan been followed in the Douglas, Ave would not find there now
both a steam plant and a hot air system each serving S, portion
of the building.
The system of ventilation in a number of buildings is of the
The Building Problem 25
"parity" type. This system requires a low outside temper-
ature for efficient service. In temperate weather there is little
circulation of the air. A better type of ventilation is that
furnished by such a system as that in the Adams building. This
system is a so-called "split" system. The heating and ventilat-
ing systems are separate. During school hours a fresh supply
of heated air is introduced by means of a motor driven fan. The
direct radiators are on separate piping and are used for initial
heating and for keeping the building warm after school hours
or in extremely cold weather. This building is further pro-
vided, as should be the case, with an air washer for insuring
clean air with a proper amount of moisture. The air as it comes
into the building passes through the washer and then over
tempered coils. The washer, however, was turned* off at the time
the building was visited. This should not be done. The health
and comfort of the children demand that heated air entering a
schoolroom shall contain a relative humidity of 40-50%.
Cleanliness
The janitors could very profitably be instructed in methods of
cleaning school buildings. They need also to be instructed on
such matters as the relation of dust to disease. In two of the
buildings it was noticeable that the pride of the janitor in a
clean building had much to do with the appearance of the floors,
hallways and windows. In other cases windows were in need of
washing and floors presented a dust}' appearance, even when
swept. Sweeping compound is used, but all too sparingly in
some buildings. An inexpensive "home made" sweeping com-
pound should be provided in sufficient quantity at all times.
The efforts of the janitors to keep buildings clean can be aided
by better grading of the school grounds. This is especially true
for the grounds of the Adams building and for the southeast
quarter of the Jefferson.
The installation of vacuum cleaning apparatus would aid ma-
terially not only in cleaning floors but in cleaning walls and
ceilings as well. In a number of rooms, i)articularly in the
Lincoln building the walls and ceilings presented a dirty appear-
ance. Schoolrooms should at least be clean and inviting if
nothing more. With adequate facilities for cleaning ceilings,
floors, and walls readily, together with some instruction of the
26 Educational Survey of Janesville
janitors on proper methods of cleaning school buildings, it
should be impossible to find an unsanitary room in any building.
The efficiency of the janitor service could be very nuich im-
proved by the employment of a competent supervisor of janitors
and buildings serving under the immediate direction of the
superintendent, lie should be a competent engineer familiar
with the various types of heating and ventilating systems and the
best methods of operating them. He should be a man familiar
with accepted standards of- schoolhouse construction and ar-
rangement and the methods of keeping buildings in a sanitary
condition. He could very well act as head janitor of some large
building such as the high school. A portion of his time could
profitably be spent in visiting other buildings, supervising the
janitors and instructing both janitors and principals in methods
of cleaning and caring for buildings.
Fire Protection
Entrances to all buildings should be equipped at once with fire
bolts. A due regard for safety must be constantly maintained
or the city may with some reason live in fear of a repetition of
the celebrated Collingwood fire. Without fire bolts doors are apt
to be found securely fastened at a time of panic. Fire drills,
fire extinguishers and fire escapes especially of the type now in
use are insufficient protection. The present buildings are not
of a fireproof construction. ]\Ioreover, several buildings are
heated all or in part by hot air furnaces which add to the danger
from fire. The type of fire escape now provided is that of the
iron exterior stairway type. The common method of access to
these is through classroom windows. In case of a fire on the
lower floor this furnishes a grave danger for the children above
in case they attempt to use it. The stairway becomes so hot that
it cannot be used with safety. In buildings that are to be used
for some time, fire escapes of this type should be replaced by an
enclosed spiral type. In the better type of modern buildings,
the ordinary interior stairway is fireproof and smokeproof and
so shut off from the remainder of the building that it forms the
natural means of fire escape. Moreover, the children are less
apt to become panic stricken since they make use of the custom-
ary means of going out of the building.
Fire gongs which can be readily sounded from each floor and
The Building Problem ■ 27
heard in all parts of the building should be installed. Under
the. present -arrangement the signal for fire drill in a number of
buildings is given by ringing a hand bell usually in possession of
the principal. It is by no means asured that a fire, if it should
ooeu!'. would necessarily break out in or near the principal's
room. While attention has been given to fire drill in all build-
ings, it was found that it does not always operate successfully
when the signal comes from other than the customary source nor
are all schools equally proficient in this type of work. In the
Lincoln building, the most dangerous fire-trap in the city, seven
rooms failed to heed the signal given at the request of members
of the survey staff.
Fire extinguishers are now provided but fire fighting ap-
paratus which includes only fire extinguishers is insufficient.
The buildings are not provided with fire water piping and fire
hose as should be the case in all properly fire protected buildings.
Most assuredly neither the school authorities nor the public care
to have the children exposed to undue dangers from fire. It is
recommended that immediate steps be taken to provide adequate
fire protection in all buildings.
Standards for School Buildings and Grounds.^
In the erection of new buildings, modern principles of school-
house construction should be observed. The following are re-
commended as standards for school buildings and sites. While
these standards apply more fully to new buildings a number
of them may be made use of in remodeling or improving the
buildings now in use.
I. Sites.
Whenever the board decides to select a new site, it should
choose one large enough for the proper placing of the building
and for adequate playgrounds. Two hundred square feet of
playground surface per pupil is not too large for elementary
schools. A high school with its athletic field requires even
more.
1 Ailiipted from a Inicf on scliool buildings by Gambrill, Tlieisen, and Woody, Dcpt.
of Educational A<iininistration, Teachers' College, New York (Unpublished). The brief
Is a compilation of the opinions of leading school architects, authorities on school hy-
giene and sanitation, and school administrators.
28 Educational Survey of Janesville
II. Buildings.
A. Orientation and Position with Reference to Site —
The orientation should be such that schoolrooms can
be lighted from the east or west. This affords ample
light and sunshine. A southern exposure is to be avoided
on account of glare, and a northern because of insuffi-
cient light and sunshine.
The building should not be too near a noisy street. It
should permit a maximum utilization of playgrounds and
allow future additions.
B. Gross Structure —
1. Type— A building should be of the open T, H, E, V,
or Y, with provision for unit additions.
2. Materials — Vitrified brick with terra cotta trim-
mings is preferable. The building should be fireproof
throughout.
3. Height should be not more than two stories above
the basement.
4. Foundations should be of reenforced concrete with
wide footing. They should be water-proofed and damp-
proofed.
5. Walls — Outer and interior bearing walls should be
of hard brick laid in cement. Interior nonbearing walls
should be of hollow tile.
6. Roof — This should have only a slight pitch and
should be surfaced with thick slate laid in high melting
asphalt. This is durable, water-proof and economical.
Its cost is much less than that of tile roof.
7. Entrances — The central entrance should be 10 to 12
ft. wide. Secondary entrances should be 8 to 10 ft. wide
and near stair landings. If a gymnasium is provided,
one entrance should lead directly from the playground
to the gymnasium. To protect small children in case of
fire, the kindergarten room should have a separate en-
trance. All entrances should be free from obstructions.
(a) Vestibules — should be 10 to 12 ft. wide with double
swinging wire glass doors and water-proof floors.
(b) Doors — There should be two pairs of double doors
opening outward. There should be no pockets or space
between the doorways and walls of the vestibules where
children might be massed in case of fire. They should
be substantial, but light enough so that small children
can open them. Firebolts and automatic closing devices
should be provided.
8. General appearance — A building should be symmet-
rical and pleasing to the eye, but extensive and costly
ornamentation which does not add to utility should be
avoided. Variations in construction which add to ap-
pearance but not to cost are to be desired.
The Building Problem 29
Internal Structure —
1. Stairways— These should be of fireproof construc-
tion. It is preferable that they be isolated by wire
ribbed glass partitions from the corridors and from the
remainder of the building by solid fireproof balustrades.
This obviates the need of separate fire escapes.
To provide for durability and fireproofness, stairway
frames should be of steel and encased in cement with
• treads of the same material.
Metal handrails with ends turned into wall should be
provided on both sides of stairs. Where both large and
small children are to use the stairway, two sets of rails
at varying heights should be furnished.
A good width for stairways is 5 feet. This will permit
two rows of children to ascend or descend without crowd-
ing. Steps having a tread of 10 to 12 inches and a 6Y2
inch riser are satisfactory.
Stairways should be located on outer walls at the inter-
section of main and secondary corridors and should lead
directly to exits. This, will provide for safety and a
minimum of travel distance between various parts of the
building.
2. Corridors — The location should be determined by
the position of the classrooms and special rooms and ease
of access to stairways. They should be made of durable
material, fireproof and noiseless. Cement overlaid with
patent process or battleship linoleum is most desirable.
In grade buildings the main corridor should be 12 ft.
wide. Secondary corridors may be 8 ft. The main cor-
ridor of a high school building should be 14 to 15 ft. and
secondary corridors 10 ft. wide. They should be ade-
quately lighted. Lockers, cases and other obstructions
are undesirable in a corridor.
3. Basement or Ground Floor — It should be not more
than 3 ft. below grade level with a ceiling of 12 to 15 ft.
This provides for light and space for heating and venti-
^ lating ducts.
The boiler room, fuel room and room for heating ap-
paratus should be effectively shut off from the remainder
of the building by masonry walls, fireproofed at the ceil-
ing. Good practice provides no doorway to the remainder
of the basement.
The ceiling should be sound proof.
4. Classrooms —
a. Location — -They should be grouped on each
side of the corridors so as to be accessible to ex-
its and stairways and to maintain a high propor-
tion of classroom to corridor space.
30 Educatiunal Survey of Junesvill
b. Construction and Finish —
(1) Size for grade classrooms — Allow not
less than 15 square feet of floor space and
200 cu. ft. of air space per child. The stand-
ard size 22x28x12 ft. seats 30 pupils. A few
rooms should be larger seating 35 to 40 pu-
pils; a few, smaller seating 20 pupils — the
latter for the use of special classes. A few
rooms which may be converted into double
rooms upon occasion should be arranged
with sound proof adjustable partitions be-
tween them.
High school classrooms should vary in
size to suit the number of students to be
accommodated in different subjects. The
standard size 22x28 should be the maxi-
mum except for 2 or 3 which may be 24x32
for lecture sections of 50 pupils.
(2) Floors — Cement overlaid with hard-
wood or battleship linoleum makes a very
desirable floor. These floors are smooth,
durable, sound proof and will not retain
dust.
(3) Walls and ceilings — Hard smooth
non-glass plaster should be used except for
dado where cement plaster Is preferable.
(4) Doors — Wire ribbed glass doors (2
ft. 8 in. X 7 ft., with a 6 inch clear area in
the upper half are most satisfactory. Glass
doors permit light to enter the corridor and
the clear space permits observation without
interruption of class activities. Doors
should swing in both directions. Transoms
and thresholds are unnecessary.
(5) Closets — Each room should have at
least one. It should be adapted to the
building construction and the location of
wardrobes.
(6) Blackboards and bulletin boards —
Highest grade slate or ground glass, dull
black is most satisfactory. They should be
placed at heights and be of a width suited
to the size of the children. Satisfactory
heights of chalk rail are by grades 1-2, 24
in.; 3-4, 26 in.; 5-6, 28 in.; 7-8, 30 in.;
high school, 32-36 in. Good widths are in
grades 1-3, 28 in.; 4-6, 32 in.; 7-8, 36 in.;
high school, 36-40 in. The amount of sur-
The Building Problem 31
face must be determined by the children to
be accommodated. Double sliding boards in
the front of classrooms and lecture rooms
are very desirable for demonstration pur-
poses. Since about 50% of the light strik-
ing blackboards is absorbed, light curtains
should be provided for covering boards on
dark days when not in use. Space not pro-
vided with blackboards or space above
boards should be provided with cork bulle-
tin boards for illustrative purposes.
(7) Color scheme — Suitable colors for
walls are light buff, very light green or
gray. White or light cream are best for
ceilings. The dado should be slightly
darker than the walls. The woodwork and
furniture should be of dull finish and har-
monize in tone.
c. Illumination —
The glass area should be Vs-Vi of the
floor area. The presence or absence of light
obstructions effect somewhat the area re-
quired. Windows should be on one side of
the classroom only. Where movable furni-
ture is used the light may come from the
rear and one side. The windows should be
grouped with narrow steel 8 inch mullions
between. They should be as near the ceil-
ing as possible and 31-^-4 ft. from the floor.
The first window nearest the front should
not be nearer than 7 ft. from the front wall.
Ribbed (not prism) glass is preferred by
some. This breaks up direct rays, does not
produce glare and requires less washing
than prism glass. Shades should be adjust-
able from the center. Bisque or light sage
colors are most -desirable.
d. Cloakroom, Wardrobes— To facilitate teacher
control the cloakroom should rarely be accessible
from the corridor. The recessed wardrobe type
of cloakroom obviates the necessity of separate
cloakrooms. These should be 2 ft. in depth, and
well-ventilated. The height of hooks should be
adapted to the children. Umbrella and shoe racks
add to convenience.
e. Equipment— Individual adjustable, movable
seats of good construction are most satisfactory
for all around purposes. Movable furniture is
better adapted than any other to the social pur-
32 Educational Survey of Janesville
poses of the recitation and makes it easy to adapt
the room for use of either older or younger
grades.
5. Special Rooms —
a. Auditorium — A good modern school building
provides auditorium facilities for the school and
the community.
lis location should be central and on the first
floor in order to make it accessible from class-
rooms and the main entrance when used for com-
munity purposes. The seating capacity should
accommodate 50% of the pupils in grade buildings
and 100% in the high school.
The floor should be level and furnished with
movable tiers of seats in order to permit a maxi-
mum use for such purposes as festivals, social
center meetings and recreation.
It should be provided with a stage of suflBcient
depth for use with large choruses and class plays,
and convertible into an accessory gymnasium.
b. Gymnasium — The gymnasium should be in
the basement and accessible from the playground
in order to permit its use while the remainder of
the building is closed. The minimum size should
be not less than 50'x80'xl5'. This height will be
necessary to permit basketball games. A roller
partition may be provided dividing the room into
parts, 40'x50' which may be used separately by
boys and girls. The room should be sound-
proofed from classrooms. There should be pro-
vision for a spectator's gallery. Separate locker
rooms, showers and dressing rooms will be neces-
sary for each sex.
c. Alternative Plan for Combined Auditorium
and Gymnasium — For reasons of economy, partic-
ularly in grade buildings it may be advisable to
combine gymnasium and auditorium. In such
event, the room should be equipped primarily as
a gymnasium and fitted with a stage.
d. Teachers' rooms — Each building should be
provided with a teachers' rest room, equipped
with dressing room and toilet facilities. In the
case of high school buildings, 2 rooms — one each
for men and women should be provided. 18'x22'
is a sufficient size for these rooms.
e. Nurses room — A small room on the first floor
well-ventilated and properly equipped should be
provided for the use of the school nurse and for
emergency sickness.
The Buildiiig Problem -33
D. Special Service Systems —
1. Toilets — For grade buildings a basement location is
best. Small emergency toilets may be provided on each
floor. Separate toilets should be provided for kinder-
garten children accessible only from the classroom. In
the high school toilet facilities should be provided on
each floor for both boys and girls.
Toilets should be properly secluded and afford privacy
to individuals. Stalls should be provided with doors set
10 in. above the floor and 4 ft. in height, painted white.
The fixtures should include porcelain seats of the open
type with individual automatic flush. Urinals should be
of white carrara glass which is nonabsorbent and easily
cleaned, or alberene or good quality slate. Fixtures
should be of different heights to accommodate both large
and small children. One seat and one urinal is required
for each 25 boys and one seat for each 15 girls in grade
buildings. About 20% less will be required for high
schools. Paper towels and washing facilities should be
provided in toilet rooms or rooms adjoining.
Good sanitation makes a southern exposure desirable
for toilet rooms in order to provide good light and sun-
shine. Toilets and urinals should be ventilated directly
down and through them to prevent odors escaping. Ceil-
ings should be sound-proof and odor-proof.
2. Water supply — One automatic bubbling fountain
easy of access from classrooms is required for each 75-
100 children. Fountains should be wall-attached to facili-
tate cleaning. They should be at heights adapted to the
children. No drinking fountains should be found in
toilet rooms.
Washbowls should be adapted to the height of the chil-
dren. They should be placed in toilet rooms, shower
rooms, teachers' rooms, janitor's room and laboratories.
3. Cleaning system — A system of stationary vacuum
cleaners should be installed. It should include perma-
nent piping designed to bring every part of the building
within 50 ft. of a hose outlet.
4. Heating and Ventilation — The kind of system at
present considered most satisfactory is known as the
"split system". The heating and ventilating equipments
are separate and distinct from each other. It includes
a double fan system for ventilating and supplying air at
proper temperature, humidity and rate. Direct radiators
are installed on separate piping for the initial heating
and for preventing heat losses from windows and walls.
Two or more radiators should be placed under class-
room windows. This will supply heat where the loss is
Edacaiional ISurvcij uf Jaiiesville
greatest. Wherever sufficient radiation surface can be
had radiators should be of the wall type and bracketed
five inches from the floor and three inches from the wall.
This permits easy cleaning.
Ventilating construction should include individual
ducts from the fan chamber to each classroom flue. Each
duct should be equipped with automatically controlled
mixing and volume dampers in the plenum chamber. The
individual ducts with dampers provide for air at the
temperature suited to the individual room.
The fresh air fan should be located in the basement
and the exhaust fan at the roof. Fans should be electri-
cally driven. Both motors and fans should be sound
proof.
The temperature control should be that of automatic
thermostats. These prevent fuel waste and add to com-
fort. They should be attached to both systems to prevent
one system operating against the other.
5. Fire Protection — Buildings should be provided either
with automatic sprinklers consisting of a series of cold
water pipes under pressure with heads located in the pro-
portion of one to one hundred square feet of floor area;
or with a standpipe system. If the latter system is
used, pipes should be arranged so that the fartherest por-
tion of the building is not more than seventy-five feet
from the nearest hose outlet. A gravity tank should be
located on the roof. The equipment should include a mo-
tor driven fire pump installed in the basement.
One fire extinguisher should be placed in the corridor
between each two classrooms. The standard is one to
each 1,000 square feet of floor area.
All electrical work in school buildings should be in-
stalled in accordance with the rules of the underwriters.
Where fireproof stairways are not provided, closed fire
escapes of the circular winding slide type should be
erected. Entrances should be on the side farthest from
the building.
Summary of Recommendations
1. That a comprehensive future building program calling for four
grade buildings be adopted. That three of these be located at
or near the present sites of the Adams, Jefferson and Wash-
ington buildings and that a fourth site be chosen w^hich shall
be central with reference to the southeast quarter of the city.
2. That these buildings be planned to house grades below the
seventh.
The HnikUnu Problem 35
3. That one of two plans with reference to the development of the
high school be adopted:
a. The ideal high school plant which provides a build-
ing large enough for and planned to accomodate both the
junior and senior high schools.
b. An alternative plan which would continue the present
high school building as a senior high school and which
would provide for a junior high school building on the Lin-
coln site.
4. That the Adams and Jefferson buildings be remodelled suffici-
ently to provide sufficient light.
5. That blackboards be immediately adjusted to proper heights.
6. That new seats purchased be of the movable and adjustable com-
bination seat and desk type.
7. That additional cupboard and filing cabinet facilities be pro-
vided.
8. That stairways be made safe.
9. That toilet room windows be enlarged and that individual stalls
with doors be provided.
10. That toilet or adjoining rooms be provided with washing facili-
ties.
11. That vacuum cleaning systems be provided.
12. That a supervisor of janitors be employed.
13. That buildings be fire water-piped and provided with fire gongs.
36 Educational Survey of Janesvilh
III TEACHERS AND SALARIES
The Teachers.
The most important factor in a school system is a corps of
active, well-prepared, trained and growing teachers. Good
teaching is the fundamental basis of a good school system. All
other phases of a school are merely accessories and aids to
facilitate good and effective teaching. Splendid buildings and
equipment, good textbooks and courses of study, good organiza-
tion and well-kept records in and of themselves will not make
successful schools. They are usually marks of and aids con-
tributing to an efficient system of schools but first of all there
must be a high grade of teaching.
A high grade of teaching is scarcely to be expected by a
board of education which does not pay salaries high enough to
purchase a first-class quality of instruction. A board of edu-
cation no less than any other class of employers gets approxi-
mately what it pays for and pays for what it gets. Janesville
should have sufficient pride in its schools to be satisfied with none
but the best when it goes into the market for teachers. In order
to secure a high grade of teaching the board should follow two
guiding principles with respect to its teaching body :
1. Establish a high standard of qualification.
2. Insist upon continuous growth on the part of its teachers.
The first of these is to be attained by setting a standard re-
quiring normal or college graduation with specific training in
the application of teaching methods and a minimum of success-
ful experience. In the case of local teachers at least two years
of successful teaching elsewhere should be required.
The second of these principles is to be attained through the
training of teachers in service.
The most effective means of training teachers in service are
(1) efficient supervision and (2) additional preparation on the
part of teachers.
To accomplish these conditions it will be necessary for the
board to (1) pay a salary sufficient to attract well-prepared
TeacJiers and Salaries 37
teachers regardless of residence; (2) to pay salai'ies that will en-
courage teachers to continue their own prepai-ation, nnd (3) to
provide for sufficient high grade sui)ervision.
Table 3. — Preparation of Teachers
Kinder-
garten
Elemen-
tary
Special
High
School
Elem.
H. S.
Total
1
Part high school
1
14
1
22
1
3
2
1
0
■>
Hitjh School
14
H
1
5
2
4
5
2
i
34
"i
2
ft
Part Col lege
i
1
2
4
7
1)
7
7
s
7
Total
5
44
3
8
14
74
Table 3 represents a summary of the preparation of teachers
in Janesville. Teachers have been classified with reference to
the amount of preparation they have had. Teachers who have
had only a four year high school preparation or less are listed
under "High School" or "Part High School" respectively.
Those who have completed a full normal school course are listed
as "Normal". "Part Normal" indicates less than a full course
and "Advanced Normal" indicates a year or more of special
preparation beyond that required for graduation. Under the
heading "Part College" are those who have had some college
training but less than a complete course. Teachers who have
had considerable work toward advanced college degrees are
listed as "Advanced College".
It would seem highly desirable that grade teachers in cities
such as Janesville should have at least full normal school train-
ing. High-school teachers should have sufficient additional prep-
aration to make them college graduates. Approximately one-
fourth of the Janesville teachers fall short of this requirement.
The suiwey staff does not wish to convey the impression that all
of these teachers are poor teachers. Neither does it wish to ap-
pear to endorse the work of all who have had a normal school
education or more. The teachers referred to above are all
teachers of experience. Many of them have given the best years
of their lives to the service of the Janesville schools. Among
38 Educational Survey of Jancsville
these who are not normal or college graduates none have had less
than seven years of experience. Only three have had less than
twenty. Experience, however, is not the only prerequisite to
good teaching. Teachers must have a sufficient scholastic found-
ation at the beginning. This must be supplemented by adequate
supervision and additional preparation at not infrequent inter-
vals, if good teaching is to be expected. In many eases the work
being done by these teachers is not of as high a quality as could
be desired. Some of these teachers are capable of doing better
work than they are now doing. The work of the teachers as a
whole could be improved by closer supervision and through ad-
ditional study on the part of the teachers themselves.
Even if the building principals may be assumed to be familiar
with grade work they are not to be regarded as supervisors of
instruction. Their entire time is devoted to teaching and other
duties of an administrative character. The supervision of the
entire corps of seventy-four elementary and high-school teachers
is left to the superintendent. This is expecting more than any
one person can accomplish, no matter how competent he may be.
It is especially true in view of the other duties he must perform
as chief executive officer of the schools. In the judgment of the
members of the survey a grade supervisor should be employed to
assist the superintendent. This can be done without addi-
tional cost of any consequence. A sufficient amount of money to
employ a high grade supervisor may be found by decreasing the
present number of kindergarten teachers. There are at present
five kindergarten teachers and five assistants. It is recom-
mended that these be reduced to three each.^ The kindergartens
are in session for a half day only. During a part of the re-
maining half day the kindergarten teachers are engaged in
telling stories to children of the primary grades. This is an ex-
pensive luxury. The present arrangement should be discon-
tinued and the work of story-telling conducted by the regular
teachers.
More supervision is not, however, the sole need in Janesville.
Supervision cannot bear its best fruit on sterile soil. It is the
unanimous opinion of the survey staff that additional prepara-
tion in the way of further study is necessai'y on the part of the
^ On the strength of the preliminary report of tlie survey this recommendation was
adopted and placed in effect in September, 1917.
Teachers and Salaries 39
present corps. As stated above the most important essential in any
group of teachers is continuous professional growth. This condi-
tion can only be brought about by further and systematic study
on the part of the teachers. They should be encouraged and in
some cases be required to attend summer schools of an approved
character. A few teachers were found to be taking extension or
correspondence courses bearing upon their schoolroom work.
This should be encouraged. Entirely too few teachers have been
in the habit of attending summer sessions at either normal
schools or universities.
We noted in Table 3 that fifteen of the elementary teachers had
no more than a high school preparation. Only four of these have
attended a summer school within the last five years. Six have
never attended even a normal or university summer sesison. Of
the twenty-eight normal school graduates teaching in the grades,
eighteen were graduated more than five years ago, but only two
of these eighteen have attended a summer session within the past
live years. Fifteen of the eighteen have never attended a sum-
mer session since graduation. One of the ten who completed
normal school courses within the past five years has attended a
summer session. These figures speak for themselves. Even
normal school graduation has not proved a guarantee against
professional lethargy. No matter how thorough a nomial school
course may be no teacher can keep abreast of modern educa-
tional progress unless she makes some effort to continue her pre-
paration.
The board should realize that teachers cannot remain profes-
sionally alive and grow under such lax efforts of self-improve-
ment. It is evident that many Janesville teachers have either
been financially unable to continue their preparation or have felt
that further preparation was unnecessary. The survey staff is
convinced that in view of the present high cost of living many
teachers cannot at their present salaries make the necessary
financial sacrifice to secure further training. The first relief
must come through the provision of adequate pay by the board.
The board should then set up definite requirements regarding
summer school or extension courses. Teachers who are not nor-
mal or college graduates and who desire to be retained in the
school should be required to attend two summer schools within
the next three years. Nor is it alone necessary that those who
40 Educational Survey of Jane.sville
are not normal or college graduates should attend summer
school. Far from developing within students a thirst for addi-
tional study, college or normal graduation too frequently leaves
them with a feeling that their education is sufficient and that
further efforts in that direction are unnecessary. It is recom-
mended that teachers who have not graduated from a normal
school or college within the past five years and who desire to be
retained be given the option of attending summer school either
during the coming summer or the one following. No teacher
should permit herself or be permitted by the board to continue in
service if she has not attended a summer school within the last
five years. The obligation of the board is to pay such salaries as
will command a high degree of initial preparation and encourage
further preparation when once employed, and to purcliase a
sufficient quantity of high grade supervision.
Salaries
Schools cannot hope to secure a high grade of teaching ser-
vice without paying reasonable salaries. The present scale of
salaries for teachers in Janesville as in many other cities is en-
tirely inadequate to command a high quality of teaching. This
does not mean that the immediate remedy is to be found in a
blanket raise in salaries for the present corps. It does mean
that a schedule must be adopted which is sufficiently high to at-
tract good teachers to the system and the benefits of which may
be offered -to teachers in the present corps as an inducement to
them to improve their preparation.
Tlte Cost of Living
The teachers were asked to report their expeuditures for var-
ious items. The median or middle expenditure for each item foi-
both elementary and high-school teachers may be seen in the fol-
lowing table. This means that one-half of the teachers spend
less than the aniount opposite each item and the other half
spend more.
Tcaclicrs and SnUifivs
41
Table 4.
Median Amitial Expenditures for Eacli Item Reported by
Teachers
Board and room
Clothing-
Lau nd ry
Church, entertaitiment and philanthrophy
Professional books and mat,'azines
Teachers' associations
Travellinar expenses
Dental and medical services
Toilet articles
Gifts
Pensions
Miscellaneous
Total
Grades
High School
S301.56
$350.00
131.67
198.33
15.83
38.33
30.00
47.50
4.33
5.67
17.69
17.22
3.62
30.00
10.62
22.50
5.40
10.17
26.67
30.00
6.83
10.50
55.00
85.00
S609.22
$345.22
The total of the medians for the various items is $609.22 for
grade teachers and $845.22 for high-school teachers. When the
total expenditures by all teachers were taken the median living
expense was found to be $687.50. High-school teachers spend
more than grade teachers. The higher salary received by a
high-school teacher evidently enables her to live somewhat better
than the average elementary teacher. She receives a median
salary of $950 while the median salary of grade teachers is
only $625. Doubtless a considerable part of the highei* cost of
living for high-school teachers is to be explained by the fad
that very few of them are local teachers. Approximately three-
fourths of the grade teachers are local teachers for whom the
cost of board and room, laundry, and traveling expenses may be
expected to be lower. This fact may alsa account for some of
the difference in the amount expended for clothing.. Another
factor accounting for the higher cost of living for high-school
teachers in Janesville is the fact that the high school group in-
cludes married teachers with families.
With a median expenditure for elementary teachers of $609
and a minimum salary much less than this it is quite evident
that some teachers received less than a living wage during the
past year. Under such conditions the schools cannot hope to
attract the most ambitious teachers.
In order to distinguish between expenditures by those who live
at home and those who do not, teachers were asked to indicate in
each case. They were then divided into four groups. (1) those
42 Educational Survcij of Jancsville
who live at home both during the school term and during vaca-
tion, (2) those who live at home during the year but not during
vacation, (3) those who live away for the entire year, (4) those
Avho live away during the school year but are at home for the
summer months. The median annual expenditure for each
group is given below.
At home all year
Not at home all year
Ai home in school
year but not summer
At home summer only
643
825
600
625
These figures show a decidedly higher figure for teachers who
are not at home for any part of the year. This group is made up
chiefly of high-school teachers.
It may appear surprising that the second largest expenditure
is made by those who live at home entirely. This may be ex-
plained by the fact that many of them have established their own
homes ajid frequently have one or more persons dependent in
part at least upon them. When teachers live at home it does not
laean that they receive board and room gratis.
It ishould not be necessary to call attention to the increases
during late years in the cost of living which are apparent to any
observer. The median expense reported by all Jancsville
teachers for a single item, board and room for the year 1912-13
was $264 and for 1916-17, $317. This represents a 20% increase
for the five year period. During the same time the median
salary reported by teachers increased 18%. Even during a
period of prosperity salaries have not increased in proportion
to the increased cost of board and room.
The effect of paying salaries which represent less than a living
wage is three-fold: (1) Ambitious young men and women are
not attracted to the teaching professison; (2) There is a tend-
ency to select an undue proportion of local teachers resulting in
what is conunonly called "inbreeding"; (3) Teachers are not
encouraged and can little afford to improve their training
through summer school attendance or otherwise.
Teachers and Salaries
43
Salaries in Other Cities
"Were the board to pay average salaries it would be doing none
too well. However Avhen the median salary of grade teachers is
compared with those of teachers in 33 other cities in mid-
dle western states other than Wisconsin, it is found that two-
thirds of them pay better than Janesville. In high school sal-
aries it ranks somewhat nearer the average. The median salaries
in each of these cities to the nearest five dollars may be seen from
the table folloAving:
Table 5. — Median Salaiics of Elrmentary and High-School Teachers in
S'l Cities Showing Rank of Each City.'^
Cities
Topeka, Kan
Hammond, Ind
Lincoln, Neb ;..
Ann Arbor, Micli
Richmond, Ind
Virginia, Minn
Jackson, Mich
Davenport, Iowa... .
Waukegan, 111
Battle Creek, Mich . .
Burlington, Iowa —
Dubuque, Iowa
Freeport, 111
Council Bluffs, Iowa
Decatur, 111
Rockford, 111
Elkhart, Ind
Elgin. Ill
Winona, Minn
Iron wood, Mich
Muskegon, Mich
St. Cloud, Minn
JanesTllle, i;¥is...
Red Wing, Minn
Grand Island, Nebr.
Lawrence, Kansas...
Mankato, Minn
Coffey ville, Kan
Fremont, Nebr
Stillwater, Minn —
Beatrice. Neb
York, Nebr
Kearney, Nebr
Pittsburg, Kan
Elementary
Rank
Median
1
S860
2
855
3
820
4
805
5
800
6
78.5
7
780
8
775
9
745
10
730
11
715
12
710
13
700
14
695
16
690
16
690
16
690
18
685
19
67(1
20
665
21
655
22
630
23
625
24i
605
24i
605
26
600
27
590
28
585
29
580
30
565
31
560
32
555
33
545
34
520
High
School
Rank
Median
3i
fl,125
3 J
1,125
8i
1.0.55
16i
1,015
lOi
1,0,50
1
1,285
6
1,100
9
1,225
5
1,110
l4
1,030
10*
1,050
16i
1,015
12J
1,(35
21
920
15
1,020
8i
1,055
23
905
18
985
19
955
12i
1,035
7
1.061
26
865
i 20
U50
24
895
22
915
■m
815
29J
815
28
835
25
885
! 31
800
334
775
32
790
33i
775
27
850
From data reported by superintendents in these cities April, 1917.
44
Educational ^urvt'ij of Jancsvillc
Table 6. — Median Salaries of Elementary and High-Srhool Teachers in
11 Wisconsin Cities Showing Rank of Each City*
Cities
Superior
Madison
Kenoslia
La Crosse
Racine
Manitowoc
Janesvllle. ..
Asliland
Oshkosh
Wausau
Slieboygan
Waukeslia
Chippewa Falls
Stevens Point..
Green Ba.v
Beloit
Marinette
Elementary
High School
Rani?
Median
Rank
Median
1
$750
1
$1,065
2
715
3
1,010
3
705
4
985
4i
695
2
1,020
4 J
695
7
940
6
640
5J
950
8
625
5i
t)50
8
625
12
890
8
625
8
920
10
605 1
13
875
11
600
11
895
12
595
9
915
13
575
10
910
14
565
17
810
15
560
14i
850
Ifi
555
14J
850
17
530
16
845
' From data reported by superintendents in these cities April. 1917.
How teaching salaries in Janesville compare with other cities
in Wisconsin may be observed in Table 6. Among these 17 cities
it occupies a middle ground in the matter of elementary teachers'
salaries and takes rank with the upper third for salaries of high-
school teachers. Salaries in Wisconsin as typified by these cities
are however on the whole lower than in neighboring states. This
may be seen by comparing Tables 5 and 6. A more detailed con-
sideration of the subject of salaries will be found in the chapter
on Finance.
Conclusions and Recommendations on Teachers and Salarip:s
General.
1. The board of education should employ such number of teachers as
good business policy demands.
2. The board ought to be able to go wherever and to pay whatever
is necessary to secure good teachers.
3. If a teacher is to be retained at all, she should show a growth in
ability which the board should consider as possessing a cash value.
4. It is expected that every teacher in the employ of the board shall
do something to improve her qualifications while in the service of the
board.
Teachers and Salaries 45
5. Many of the present teachers are only high school graduates. The
survey staff is of the opinion that this is wrong policy. Teachers who
are thus lacking in preparation should either show that such lack has
not affected the teaching or be expected to make up this deficiency.
6. Careful estimates place the minimum cost of living at $600. Un-
less there are peculiar circumstances, no teacher should receive less
and retain her position.
7. The present number of kindergarten teachers should be reduced.
With the present half-day schedules, three kindergarteners and three
assistant kindergarteners would be sufficient. While kindergarteners
at present spend a portion of the day in telling stories to children of
the primary grades, such arrangement should be discontinued, and the
work done by the primary teachers. The change here recommended
would affect a saving at the present salary rates of approximately
$1600.
8. The saving effected by reducing the number of kindergarteners
should be devoted to the payment of the salary of a grade supervisor.
Salary Schedule.
1. That a distinction be made between regular and probationary
teachers. That in order to become regular teachers, probationary
teachers shall have taught successfully at least one year in the Janes-
ville schools.
High-ScJiool Teachers
1. That the minimum salary for regular teachers be .^850.
2. That an annual increase of $50 be given to successful teachers up
to $1000. Further increases shall be conditioned on superior
merit.
3. That for the present at least no fixed maximimi be established
for high-school teachers.
Elementary Teachers
1. That teachers be engaged on probation for one year at a salary
not less than $600. (Cheaper teachers may be had but in the
judgment of the survey staff, teachers worth less than $600
should not be employed.)
2. That the minimum salary for regular teachers be $650.
3. That an annual increase of $25 be added each year to the salaries
of successful teachers. (Teachers not deserving an increase
of $25 should not be retained.)'
4. That teachers who attend a six weeks' session of an approved sum-
mer school and whose course shall be approved by the superin-
1 Adopted by tlie board and placed in effect Sciiteiiibi'V, li»17
46 Educational Survey of JanesvUle
tendent shall receive an additional annual increment of $50
beginning with the year of such attendance; provided that no
teacher shall receive more than two $50 increments,^
5. That the present maximum salary be raised to $850.
6. That teachers of unusual merit may with the approval of the
superintendent be given an additional increase of $50 beyond
the maximum of $850.
Elementary Principals
1. That principals be subject to the same salary provisions as ele-
mentary teachers, and that in addition each be allowed a cer-
tain amount for administrative duties as follows: Principals
of the Adams, Jefferson and Washington buildings $100 each;
principals of the Douglas, Garfield, Grant, Lincoln, and Web-
ster buildings $75 each.
1 Adopted by the board and placed in etteot September, V.n;
Financing the School System 47
IV FINANCING THE SCHOOL SYSTEM
It is proposed to offer in tliis chapter some material upon the
financial management of the public schools of Janesville, and
to classify it under three principal headings : First, the prob-
lem which the educational authorities of the city have to face;
Second, the means which they have of doing it ; Third, the man-
ner in which it is being done. A fourth .heading might logically
be added although it will not be specifically separated from the
other three. Such a heading would have to do with suggestions
for a better means of financing the public schools.
1. The Educational Problem at Janesville.
The work to be done by a city school system may be variously
estimated. A rough measure of it may be obtained by consider-
ing the number of persons who are to receive benefit from it.
This would mean, broadly speaking, the entire population of the
city in question, for there is no doubt but that the influence of
the public schools directly and indirectly affects all the people.
Indeed, it is part of the modern movement in education to
provide means by which the public schools may exercise directly
rather than indirectly, their influence upon adults as well &-s
children. The population of the city of Janesville is practically
stationary at about 14,000 persons. The following are the es-
timates of the Census ' Bureau for each year of the past five
years :
1912 14,051
1913 14,123
1914 14,195
1915 14,267
1916 14,339
Obviously, however, the problem, educationally, at Janesville,
is more specifically determined not by the population of the city'>
but by the number of persons of school age. It is welL-known
that the ratio of children to total population is not the same in
different localities. Some recent school surveys have especially
48 Educational Purvey uf Janesville
emphasized this fact. For example, at Portland, Oregon, the per-
centage of the population between the ages of five and fifteen is
but twelve, while at Salt Lake City it is between eighteen and
nineteen. Clearly, the educational problem of a city in which
eighteen or nineteen out of every hundred people are of school
age, is larger than that of a city in Avhich the propoi'tion is only
twelve out of each one hundred. The census ages in Wisconsin
are from four to twenty. The number of persons at Janesville
between those ages is about 3,800. Clearly, however, not all
fn-^rsons between the ages of four and twenty are enrolled in ihe
public schools. Few children enter the kindergarten at four,
and large numbers of children drop out of school at the age of
fourteen or fifteen. The normal age for graduation from the
high school is but eighteen. The United States Census Bureau
reports the number of persons in each city between the ages of
six and fifteen years. In 1910 there were 1,994 persons between
these ages ill Janesville, and, since the population is practically
f^tationary, this is probably about the number at present. These
age limits, while they correspond rather closely to the normal age
limits for children in the elementary school, do not include most
of the pupils in the high school. Moreover, among the two
thousand or more children between the ages of six and fifteen, a
rather large number are attending parochial schools. During
the year 191G-17 the enrollment in the three parochial schools
at Janesville was 503. While from the broad and civic point
of view the problem in public education is set l)y the number of
children of school age in the community, from another point of
view the problem is really to be stated in terms of the number of
children actually enrolled in or attending the public schools.
Of course, enrollment and attendance figures do not indicate the
extent to Avhich those who ought to be attending school are doing
so. It is reasonable, however, to assume that the number of chil-
dren evading the compulsory education law is small in a city of
the character of Janesville.
The following table shows the number of days school has been
in session during each of the past five years together with the
enrollment and the average daily attendance in each of these
years, distributed according to types of schools.
Financing the School System
49
Table 7. — Enrollment & Attendance
Numbe r
Net Enrollment
Average Daily Attendance
a
of days
^
>.s
Year
schools
eS
C3
o
«s c
o
were in
it
c
o
cSS
■g
session
QJ
<V
^
£,«-S
o
•a
s
si
03
O
Si C C8
H
w
£
H
W
ffi
1912-13...
190
2567
243
1899
425
2067
1693
374
1913-14...
184
2517
279 1 1794
444
2099
1727
372
1914-15..
186
2470
271 1 1726
473
2068
1638
430
1915-16...
186
2298
285 1511
502
1964
1516
448
1916-17. .
186
2540
274 1496
570
1914
1428
486
Source of data: City Superintendents' reports to Stale Department of Public In-
struction, oxcept that figures for 1912-13 are from piincipals' reports to the city su-
perintendents.
From this table it is evident that the total number of different
children who were at any time enrolled during the year has
amounted to about 2500 a year. Janesville, therefore, has not
before it the problem of keeping up with a rapidly increasing
school population. In this its situation is quite different from
that of many other cities of the country, whose task is not only
to maintain adequate educational opportunities for their school
children ; but also to expand tlieir systems to meet increasing
populations.
Observe that in Table 7 the figures for elementary schools are
decreasing, while those for the high school are increasing. As
part of our problem, therefore, we must recognize the fact that
the city is being called upon to finance a growing high school.
From Table 7 it may be shown that, based on the enrollment,
more than 22% of the children were in high school in 1916-17
while there were but 16% five years before.
It may be interesting to compare the proportion of high school
pupils at Janesville with the proportion in other cities. Among
twenty-three cities in middle western states whose population is
between 10,000 and 25,000 the percentages of high school enroll-
ment on total public school enrollment were found to range be-
tween 6.1 and 27.4. Probably there is some special reason for
these extremes. It is not likely that a city has but six out of
each hundred public school children in its high school, unless
there is present some force tending to draw away from the
public high school the children who would otherwise attend it.
50 Educational Survey of Janesville
There may be a technical school in the community, or a normal
school offering work for elementary school graduates; or there
may be a strong competitor to the high school in the form of a
private academy. On the other hand, a city at the other ex-
treme— a city showing a surpassing proportion of high school
pupils — may be equally exceptionally situated. It may, for
example, be the only high school within an area much larger
than the district which supports it, and may, therefore, have an
unusually large number of non-resident pupils.
Among the cities which do not show extreme conditions, how-
ever, we may find the prevailing or normal figures. Half the
middle western cities of the population class of Janesville have
proportions of high school pupils ranging from about 15% to
22.5% — at least that appears to have been the situation in 1914-
15, according to the report of the Commissioner of Education.
In that year, the corresponding figure for Janesville was 19%.
It may, therefore, be inferred that the proportion of children at
Janesville who remain in school long enough to become enrolled
in the high school is about the normal or typical proportion.
Speaking merely in terms of the persons to be benefited by the
public schools, one may summarize by saying that at Janesville
we have a stationary population of about 14,000 ; that the chil-
dren of census age (four to twenty) are about 3,800, but that
those of the ages six to fifteen are only about 2,000. Thus be-
tween fourteen and fifteen out of every 100 persons in the popu-
lation are children of the ages six to fifteen. Of the number of
children who would otherwise have to be provided for in the
public schools, about 500 were enrolled in parochial schools last
year (1916-17). Finally, the actual enrollment of the ele-
mentary schools is about 1,500, and is decreasing. The enroll-
ment of the high school was 570 last year, and is increasing. The
enrollment in kindergarten is slightly on the increase. On the
whole, the enrollment is practically stationary when all schools
are considered. Accordingly, the city is not confronted with
the need of rapidly expanding its school system to accommodate
increased enrollment.
Financing the Sclwol System 51
II. The Means For Solving the Problfjvt ; Resources ;
Receipts
Fundamentally, the basis for meeting the requirements of edu-
cation at Janesville is the property valuation in the city. The
full valuation of real and personal property at Janesville in
1916 was $16,981,097. Since the estimated population of the
city for that year was 14,339, the wealth per capita was $1,184.
Such a statement, however, conveys little meaning until we are
able to compare it with similar statements about other cities of
the same class as Janesville. Accordingly, I have shown in
column 4 of Table 8 the wealth per capita for nine Wisconsin
cities, including Janesville. These are the cities which, accord-
ing to the 1910 census, had a population between 10,000 and
25,000.
I have used figures for true valuation rather than for as-
sessed valuation, because the assessments vary from nearly a
100% basis to about 65% among these nine cities. The figures
for true valuation were furnished by the Wisconsin Tax Com-
mission and are based upon the reports of county assessors of
income.
According to Table 8, the city having the largest wealth per
person is Janesville which in the year in question (1916) had
property amounting to $1,184 per person. Kenosha is next with
$1,129 per capita, followed by Appleton and Manitowoc. The
wealth of each of these four cities amounts to well over a thou-
sand dollars for each "man, woman, and child" in the population.
A remark on the reliability of these figures may not be inap-
propriate. It is assumed, in the first place, that the figures for
true valuation represent uniformly the resources of each city.
The figures given for population are the United States Census
Bureau's estimates for 1916 as contained in the "Estimates of
Population of the United States," Bulletin 133, Bureau of the
Census, page 30. These are estimates and not enumerations.
The figures are, therefore, no more than approximations. How-
ever, the figures both for true valuation and for population are
the best ones obtainable. The discrepancies between the re-
ported and the true figures cannot be great, and I feel sure that
the entries for "wealth per capita" contained in columns 4 and
5 are substantiallv accurate.
62
Educational Survey of Janesville
?5.
0^ Qj
c8 C
3^
03 cij
^
oo
cooeo
iraf^rt
^3CI-.
K
-^
ooorvi
s2s
5
o
F
-
1O0C-*
<;
i^Tio
^ ^ as ■rt<£>'rr
t^ — ;0
00 00 50
^"^r oo
Sc©g
oscoso
10 05 0
2i X 0)
■c2o
c a q
o «.«^
o «
o a;
<S<a fe»sM SS^
iS
O p3
O c o
53 S a
g 3 t,
Sill
Financing Uic ScJiool System. ■ 53
So far, therefore, as wealth per capita may be an indication
of the ability of a city to finance its educational and other ac-
tivities, we may say, with confidence, that Janesville has un-
usually large opportunities compared with other cities in Wis-
consin of the same class. None of the cities possess more wealth
per person than does Janesville. Not only do all of the cities
possess less wealth per person, but some of them possess a great
deal less ; for example, the wealth per person at Ashland is but
little more than half that at Janesville.
This does not by any means tell the whole story. It is proper
to observe that the large wealth per capita at Janesville is no
more significant in regard to schools than in regard to other mu-
nicipal departments. So far as the schools are concerned, how-
ever, the wealth per pupil in average daily attendance has a
special meaning. It indicates the amount of wealth back of ev-
ery child who attends the public schools. It is manifestly af-
fected b}^ at least two important factors. The first is the propor-
tion of persons of school age in the total population of the city
in question,* and the second is the proportion of children of
school age who are attending the public schools. Aside from
the fact that there is difference among cities in the enforcement
of the compulsory education law, there is also the eff'ect of the
existence of private and parochial schools in a community.
Columns 7 and 8 of Table 8 show that the position of Janes,-
ville is scarcely less favorable in respect to wealth per pupil than
in respect to wealth per capita of the population. Its wealth per
pupil, amounting to $8,646, was exceeded by that of but one city
of the list. Not only did seven of the eight other cities have less
wealth for each child, but two of them had less than half as
much. Whatever Janesville may or may not choose to do educa-
tionally, it is not in a position to plead poverty. For example,
it has more wealth and fewer public school children than either
Marinette or Manitowoc. It provides education for practically
the same number of children as does Ashland, and has more than
twice as much money with which to do it. With about the same
wealth as Beloit, Fond du Lac, or Wausau, it teaches about 1300
fewer children.
* It is surprising- liow great the variation is in this respect. Tlie
Bureau of the Census reported in 1910 the number of children in each
city who -were between the ages of six and fifteen. The percentage
of such children varied among the 25 cities with which comparison is
made elsewhere in this chapter from less than 10 to 21. Janesville's
percentage was 14.4.
54
Educational Survcij of Janesville
The foregoing table and discussion have to do with what the
city resources are in a large way. More significant, with refer-
ence to the schools, is the question of the amount of money at the
disposal of the Board of Education. Table 9 shows the school
receipts for the past five years. The revenue receipts and the
nonrevenue receipts are shown separately. It is the former, of
course, which are most significant in this connection; not only
because they constitute the bulk of the money available for
school purposes, but also because the nonrevenue receipts repre-
sent corresponding liabilities rather than unencumbered funds
available for use. Receipts from loans or bond sales must be off-
set at other times by revenue receipts for their payment, while
"refunds of payments" have no doubt been offset by excess pay-
ments which at the time they were made must have corresponded
to an equal amount of revenue receipts.
Table 9. — Receipts. Janesville Schools
1912-13
1913-14
1914-15
1915-16
1916 17
Subventions and grants from State..
Subventions and grants from oounty
Appropriations from city treasur.v . . .
Rent and interest
111. 495
10,753
44,000
542
1,108
854
$12,104
10, 356
45.000
""i,^n
1.682
$12,666
10,905
44.000
'2,973
1,183
813,723
11,328
48,000
$13,661
10,899
53,000
1,050
Tuitions and other fees
3,530
3,489
3,845
Other revenue receipts
778
Total revenue
868,752
$70,754
$71,727
$80,070
$83,233
Temporary loans
$13,000
$10,000
$10,000
9,019
2,300
$20,800
$21,100
Other loans and bond sales
Refunds of payments
46
Total non-revenue
$13,000
810.000
$21,319
820,800
$100,870
$21,146
Grand total
$81.7£2
$80,754
$93,046
8104,379
From Table 9 it appears that the total revenue receipts for
school purposes at Janesville have increased from $68,752 in
1912-13 to $83,233 in 1916-17 or 21%. The table also shows
the sources of this revenue. The entries for 1916-17 will show,
in a general way, the relation of the amount derived from each
of the various sources to the total revenue. By converting these
entries into percentages, we find that the grants from the State
amounted in that year to 16% of the total revenue, that the
proceeds from the county tax — which, however, is levied upon
the city — amounted to 13%, and that the appropriations from
Fmancing the School System 55
the city treasury amounted to 64%. Receipts from rent and
interest in 1916-17 amounted to 1% of the total receipts; re-
ceipts from tuitions and other fees to 5% ; while other revenue
receipts amounted to 1%. Since the county tax is levied upon
the city only — i. e., is based upon the same property valuation
as is the city assessment — it is, for every practical purpose, a
city levy. Thus, the amount raised on city property for school
purposes was $63,899 in 1916-17. This amounted to 77% of the
total revenue for that year.
The principal sources of school revenue are, therefore, those
from the state and those from city taxation. People in Janes-
ville will no doubt be interested to know how receipts from these
sources compare with receipts from similar sources for other
cities of the same population class.
Table 10 shows for 21 cities out of 25 which have been selected
for various purposes of comparison in this chapter the total
revenue receipts for school purposes, and a division of these
receipts into those from the state, those from the city and coun-
ty combined, and those from other sources. It also shows the
receipts per pupil enrolled (a) from city and county combined
and (b) from all sources. The data are for the year 1914-15 —
the last for which the figures are available. The 25 cities are
all in the population class of Janesville, and they are all in the
Middle West. The fact that returns from these cities have been
used in other chapters of this report was a factor in their
selection.
The receipts per pupil from county and city combined ranged
from a maximum of $60.94 to a minimum of $16.82. Janesville 's
amount was $21.81, and only two cities had smaller amounts.
The middle of the range — i. e., the median amount, was $30.57.
Accordingly, we may say that typically these 20 cities raised and
appropriated for school use nearly nine dollars per pupil (or
40%) more than did Janesville. To equal this, Janesville would
have been obliged to appropriate $76,900 instead of the $54,905
which it did appropriate. Moreover, in doing so it would still
have been surpassed by half of the cities. In order to take a
commanding position, it would have been obliged to appropriate
about $100,000. Such an appropriation would have amounted
to $39.73 per child, and would have barely placed Janesville
among the first quarter of the 20 cities.
5G
Educatiunal Survey of Jancsville
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Financing the Scliool System 57
Among the nine Wisconsin cities listed in Table 10 the rank of
Janesville was seventh in the amount appropriated per child.
In other words, two of the cities made less money available and
six made more available in relation to the number of children
to be educated at public expense. Indeed, two of the Wisconsin
cities, namely Appleton and Kenosha, each made nearly twice as
much available per child. To have equaled them, it would have
been necessary for Janesville to appropriate more than $100,000
instead of $54,905.
In Column 8 of Table 10 are shown the total receipts from
all sources per pupil enrolled in the public schools. Roughly
speaking, these entries indicate for each city the amount of
money behind every school child. Janesville ranked seventeenth
out of the twenty cities. The amount per child was $28.50. The
largest amount for any city was $102.19 per child ; the smallest
was $23.53. The median or most typical amount was $40.32.
If the Janesville Board of Education had received that much
per child, the city would have been obliged to appropriate (State
grants and "other receipts" remaining the same) $106,000 in-
stead of $54,905.
Table 11 is designed to show for the 21 cities we have selected,
the proportions of total school receipts which are derived from
state grants, local taxation, and other sources (such as rents and
interest, tuition and other fees from patrons). The entries in
this table, obviousl}^, have nothing to do with the amounts of the
receipts from any of these sources. Virginia, Minnesota, which
in virtue of appropriating $190,426 from local taxes, ranked
first both in the total amount and in the amount for each school
child from this source, nevertheless, because of large receipts
from other sources, derived only 59.7% of its educational re-
ceipts from local taxation. This was a lower per cent than for
any other city of the list. The table, however, is useful in
showing the relative importance of the sources of receipts. Most
typically, receipts from the state amounted to 16 or 17 per cent ;
and the figure for Janesville w^as 17.7. Among the nine Wiscon-
sin cities the variation was from 22.9% (Ashland) to 10.8%'
(Beloit), and Janesville was the middle city.
In respect to the proportion of receipts from local taxation,
the median for the 21 cities was 78.0%. Janesville's percentage
was 76.5, and it ranked 17th among these cities. Among the
58
Educational Survey of Jane.wiUe
nine Wisconsin cities, it was seventh. These facts indicate thaf
it was providing from its city taxation for a relatively small
proportion of its total school receipts.
Table 11. — Proportion of Revenue Receipts for School Purposes from
State, County, and City — 21 Cities — 19JJt-i5
Cities
Subventions
and grants
from state
Receipts from
local lax
(city and
county)
Otlier
sources
Rank in
appropria-
tions from
local tax
1
2
3
4
3.1
2.8
9.5
4.3
10.8
15.4
12.5
13.8
16.2
21.4
19.2
19.0
19.0
19.2
13.5
17.7
20.7
24.3
22.9
28.1
6.4
96.1
94.0
90.4
87.5
85.7
83.5
82.8
82.3
80.5
78.3
78.0
77.9
77.6H-
77.6-
76.8
76.5
75.1
74.1
72.8
71.5
59.7
0.8
3.2
0.1
8.2
3.5
1.1
4.7
3.9
3.3
0.3
2.8
3.1
3.4
3.2
9.7
5.8
4.2
1.6
4.3
0.4-
33.9
1
2
3
4
Beloit Wis
5
Appleton, Wis
6
Kenosha, Wis,
7
Riciimond, Ind
8
Manitowoc, Wis
9
10
11
Pond du Lac, Wis
12
13
Wausau, Wis
14
15
16
Iron wood, Micii
Muskegon, Micli
Asliland, Wis
17
18
19
Marinette, Wis
20
21
Medians
16.2
78.0
3.3
Summarizing conditions as they were in 1914-15, — the latest
year for which comparative data are available — we may say:
(1) That in point of total revenue receipts (Table 10, Col-
umn 4), the $71,727 provided for the Janesville schools was le^iS
than was provided by any Wisconsin city except one, and that
only three cities of the entire twenty-one showed smaller
amounts ;
(2) That the $54,905 provided from the taxation of city
property for school purposes was exceeded by the appropriations
of all but two of the Wisconsin cities (Table 10, column 2) ;
(3) That the amount provided by local tax when taken in
connection with the number of pupils enrolled iu the public
schools was likewise low, being exceeded in six of the nine Wis-
consin cities, and in all of the cities in the other states (Table 10,
column 6) ;
(4) That in order to provide total receipts per pupil equal
Financing the Sclioot System 59
to those most typically provided for schools in the other cities,
$40.32, Janesville would have been obliged to raise nearly twice
as much from city taxation ;
(5) That among the nine Wisconsin cities as well as among
the entire 21 cities, it ranked relatively low in the proportion of
its school receipts provided from local taxation (Table 11, col-
umn 2).
III. The Way in Which the Problem is Being Solved
In this section an account will be given of the way in which
the schools at Janesville are actually being financed. We have
considered above the educational problem which confronts the
citizens of that city, and the means at hand for solving it. This
section will deal primarily with expenditures.
Taxes and Tax Rates
Table 12 shows for each of the nine Wisconsin cities classified
by the Census Bureau as having populations in 1910 between
10,000 and 25,000 the total tax and the state, county, city, and
school taxes, (levy of 1916) with the corresponding tax rates
based on full property valuation. Four of the cities raised a
larger State tax than Janesville; all of them raised a larger
county tax, three a larger city tax, and six a larger school tax.
All but two of the cities raised a larger total property tax.
A better comparison, however, may be made on the basis of
the tax rates. It is to be understood that these are not the
actual rates as they were used in levying the taxes, because the
levy was upon assessed valuation. These rates are based on the
full valuation as furnished by the Wisconsin Tax Commission
from the reports of county assessors of incomes. The total tax
rate for Janesville in 1916 was $1.42 per $100 of full property
valuation. This was a lower rate than obtained in any of the
other cities. A glance at the rates for state, county, city, and
school taxes will show which of them are effective in determining
the low rate of total taxes. As to the State tax, the difference
between the cities was very small, the variation being from
about thirteen and one-half cents (Janesville, $.134) to about
fourteen and one-half cents (Ashland, $.146) . The rates for coun-
ty taxes varied a great deal, and Janesville 's rate was the low-
est among these cities. The rate for the city taxes at Janesville
60
Educational Survey of Janesville
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Financing the School System 61
($.747) was not far from the typical rate. The rate for school
taxes ($.417) was lower than was the case in any other of these
cities. Wausau's rate of $.572 was the most typical one, four of
the city rates being higher and four lower. If this rate had pre-
vailed at Janesville, the amount of money raised by tax for
school purposes would have been $97,132. The conclusion,
therefore, is that, considering its wealth, Janesville was lightly
taxed, and that this was true because the rates were low for
county and school taxes.
Analysis of City Expenditures
A classification devised by the Wisconsin Tax Commission will
now be used to show, both for Janesville and for the other eight
Wisconsin cities of the same population class, the purposes for
which city expenses are incurred. Table 13 shows the Janes-
ville city expenditures for the year ending April 15, 1916. The
headings with which we are chiefly concerned are (a) those in-
cluded under Departmental expenditures (exclusive of "Munic-
ipal public service enterprises"*) and (b) "Payments to school
treasurer". Items of secondary importance in this connection
are payments on account of indebtedness (interest and princi-
pal), and "Payments to other civil divisions."**
The variation among cities in respect to this item seems to make
it inadvisable to include it in a comparative showing. It includes ex-
penditures for public utilities, such as city water or lighting systems.
These are largely self-supporting.
** These payments are agency and trust payments, including, to
quote the schedule of the Tax Commission: "State tax on general prop-
erty, school district loans from state trust funds, county tax on prop-
erty paid in cash, county tax on property paid by delinquent property
rolls, income tax for state and county (30%), teachers' insurance and
retirement fund, and special assessments paid to treasurers of incor-
porated drainage districts."
62 Educational Survey of Jancsville
Table 13. Expenditures of the City of Janesville For the
Year Ending April 15, 1916*
I. DEPARTMENTAL EXPENDITURES:
A. General Government $17,457
B. Protection of Person & Property 34,777
C. Conservation of Health 5,662
D. Highways 64,273
E. Charities & Corrections 8
F. Education other than schools 4,781
G. Recreation 1,851
H. Municipal Public Service Enterprises 32,415
I. Unclassified 4,642
II. PAYMENTS ON ACCOUNT OF INDEBTEDNESS:
J. Interest 10,576
K. Principal 42,835
III. AGENCY & TRUST PAYMENTS:
L. Payments to other Civil Divisions 49,197
M. Payments to School Treasurer 90,498
TOTAL EXPENDITURES $358,972
From Table 13 it appears that the total expenditures of the
the city of Janesville for the year ending April 15, 1916 were
$358,972. If, however, we consider only the items which I have
just mentioned as of primary importance, i. e. if we exclude
public service enterprises, indebtedness, and agency or trust
payments to other civil divisions, the expenditure was $223.9-1:9.
This being the most significant expenditure, and the one upon
the basis of which comparison between cities may most properly
be made, Table 14 represents for Janesville and the other Wis-
consin cities of its class a comparison of expenditures under the
item leading to this figure for Janesville. Interest charges are
likewise shown. Clearly, no comparison can be made between the
expenditures of the cities without reducing them to common
terms. Accordingly, in Table 14 the city expenditures for dif-
ferent purposes are expressed in amounts per capita of the popu-
lation.^ Table 15 shows the rank of each city in the amount per
capita spent for eacn purpose.
It is evident from Tables 14 and 15 that the amount of expen-
diture for each item when reduced to common terms was quite
* From report to W^isconsin Tax Commission.
1 Population as estimated for July 1st, 1916, by the Bureau of the Census.
Fmancing the ScJiool System
63
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64 Educational Survcij of Janesville
different in different cities. Beloit spent $2.49 per capita for
general city government, while Kenosha spent but 59 cents for
the same purpose. Janesville spent $1.22 for this item and
ranked fifth among the nine cities. In other words, it had a
middle position. It spent $2.43 for protection of person and
property and only one of the nine cities spent less than this
amount. Its expenditures for ' ' conservation of health ' ' and for
"charities and corrections", were also low compared to those of
the other cities. In fact, for the last item its entire expenditure
amounted to but $7.50 which on a per capita basis was nil. Its
payments for "education other than schools" (i.e. for libraries)
and its unclassified expenditures were relatively high. It spent
13 cents per capita for recreational purposes, which was rather
low, being exceeded by the amounts for five of the other eight
cities. Its expenditures for school purposes amounted to $6.31
per capita, which was exceeded in five of the cities, three of
them spending less for this item. The maximum expenditure per
capita for school purposes Avas that of Marinette, being $12.12,
or nearly twice as much as at Janesville. Appleton's expendi-
ture of $9.96 per capita and Beloit 's of $8.20 were 58% and
30% respectively more than the expenditure of Janesville.
Kenosha's expenditure of $7.26 for school purposes was 15%
more than that of Janesville, while Wausau's expenditure of
$6.83 was 8% more. The three cities whose expenditure for
school purposes was exceeded by that of Janesville spent re-
spectively 6%, 7% and 10% less than Janesville. It will, there-
fore be seen, first, that Janesville was exceeded by more than half
of the other Wisconsin cities in its expenditure for school pur-
poses; and second that the cities which spent more spent much
more, while those which spent less spent only a little less. Ac-
cordingly, while the rank of Janesville was sixth among the nine
cities in school expenditures, it really did not take as high a po-
sition as even that fact would apparently indicate. The per cap-
ita expenditure for school purposes for all the nine cities taken
together amounted to $7.88. If Janesville had spent this amount
per capita, it would have spent $112,991 for school purposes in-
stead of $90,489.
As to the expenditures for all purposes exhibited in Tables 14
and 15, Column 12, we observe that only one city spent less
than Janesville, and that in that city the expenditure was only
FijuDtviny llie Scliool System 65
slightly less. The aiiioiuil per capita for all i)urposes* was
$16.36. Ill four of the other cities the expenditure was over
$20.00 per capita. It is evident that from the point of view of
money expended for each person living in the city, the burden
falls lightly on the citizens of Janesville.
Tables 16 and 17 indicate from another point of view — namely
that of wealth — the expenditures for the same purposes exhib-
ited in Tables 14 and 15. The figures in Table 16 are expressed
in amounts per $1,000 of wealth (full valuation of real and per-
sonal property). Table 17 shows the rank of the cities in ex-
penditures for each of the different purposes in proportion to
their wealth. In the first place, we may observe that the total
expense in proportion to the wealth was much less at Janesville
than at any other of the cities with which we are making com-
parisons. Thirteen dollars and eighteen cents ($13.18) per
$1,000 of wealth paid all the city expenditures for the year, or,
if interest payments on indebtedness are added, the amount re-
quired was $13.80 per $1,000 of true valuation. Adopting the
latter figure, w^e observe (Table 16, Column 12) that every city
expended more money in proportion to its wealth than did Janes-
ville, and that two of them spent more than twice as much.
When we look at the different purposes for which the cities
spent their money we find that the amounts for Janesville were
relatively low for all of them. The amount spent for school
purposes ($5.33 per $1,000 of wealth), was less than that of
any other city in the list. The expenditure of Marinette ($18.18
per $1,000 of w^ealth) was on a distinctly different plane from
that of the other cities, and was more than three times as great
as the expenditure of Janesville. The median city (Wausau)
spent $7.81 per $1,000 of wealth for school purposes. If Janes-
ville had spent as much, its support of its schools would have
amounted to $111,988 instead of $90,498. In making such an
expenditure, moreover, the city would still have been surpassed
by half of the remaining cities.
It is evident, as might be expected, that on the expenditure
basis the position of Janesville is much the same as- it was shown
to be on the basis of the receipts by the Board of Education.
The city is not burdening itself from any point of view in the
♦ Exclusive, as before, of public service enterprises, payments of
principal on indebtednes.*^, and general or trust payments to otlier civil
divisions.
66
Educational Survey of Janesville
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Financing tlie School System 67
financing of its public schools. The opportunity for advance-
ment in the schools of Janesville is particularly favorable. Oth-
er chapters in this Survey show the need of progress. This
chapter shows the chance for it.
In order to give this report a wider scope, I have sought data
on expenditures for cities outside of Wisconsin. For cities of
over 30,000 inhabitants this would not be difficult, but for those
of Janesville 's population class no figures have been published
since those of 1913. Even for that year some of them are unsat-
isfactory. The reader is therefore cautioned that the entries
in Table 18, particularly those which involve the wealtli of the
cities, can do no more than show conditions approximately.
The same 25 cities are represented as was mentioned above (page
55). Twenty-one of them are listed in Table 11.
The nine Wisconsin cities separately listed in other tables,
are included. The figures in Table 18 are as published by the
Bureau of the Census ("Wealth, Debt, and Taxation" Vol. II,
1913). The expenditures of the Wisconsin cities are repre-
sented to be considerably less than those furnished by the Wis-
consin Tax Commission. This is largely accounted for by three
facts : First, the Census figures are for an earlier year ; second,
they do not include paj^ments for permanent improvements ; and
third, they include only such as were made from municipal rev-
enues (e. g. state aid is excluded from school expenditures.)
Nevertheless, the census figures as given in Table 18, are on
the same basis for all cities and comparison is permitted.
In column 4 of Table 18 is given for each city the proportion
of its total payments for city departments which was devoted to
its public schools. Janesville 's proportion was 38.6%. The
reader will note that the percentages of payments for schools
range from 58.2 to 33.0. The median percentage was 15.3.
Janesville 's percentage (38.6) was low, being exceeded by the
percentage for all but three of the remaining cities. All of the
other Wisconsin cities devoted a greater proportion to schools.
TTiese figures tend to show that Janesville is devoting a rela-
tively small proportion of its city expenditures to the public
education of its children.
The payments for all general departments per $1,000 of as-
sessed valuation are shown in column 5 of Table 18. The most
typical amount was $18.64. Tbe amount for Janesville was
68
Educational Survey of Janesville
o ^
;?? H
C3 fa
corcifiaiir5.4«^oa;ooo'-C'iocccCT#*-^*«— (lrto■w'^!**■^ao^ft^>•
a- CO o CI 00 j; trt irt o Oi I— ^ 30 o CO tft CO CI OS X"r*' ao ^ C-- 1^
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»^c3»i>-t-;;^^ci-r**4nincicoi— cD'^D^oci^'Xii-'OOcicxs
'x; p CO o "Xi *, 00 ift p ■* c- --0 — 00 oD iTi --0 -r) Si — a: 1-- o — p
< CM ^ ^ ^ *j — CI CI ^ ^ CI CI ^ CI —
c o «
o+^ o
o) 3^ o
t— CO c — X <*i oc r* cj — ^ -^^ t-- CI oo . o CI -H CO in CO ^ "X" CI o
ocooi^ci^ci^inaiooi— llnlncc?tclcoo■^occo^cool
?o in a; o I-
-co-^cociin-^oi-^'^j'X'-ococo-xit-.'-poioo
■"■^■^inift'-^roco-^ir: ininco-^-^co-^co-^
-- a
•< a;
ioo«cJOl»i^inoi^ftmot^-ie«aDOoo-*«<My5QO'<»>
. r-> T-i o ^ --* W OJ
i-M-So-. "Si-iiMOO-. coocoira — — rcci-* — <»c-ltoai
5 '-D o ai 5^ ■* *-s Ci cc oi '-o 3c -^ »n ^ a; 00 (M I - ^ »f^ c>i :o ^
t— — . -^ lOOl'
. iftcoirt^r^rotn-
a « oj
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$5.2 « :c« = d ;'o-o"o;H.g_: :c • = = =
= •? i§ -•= § ^' 2 5 5 ?oi o S-i =.-^22
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Fintnuiuy flic Svltool Sijsteni 69
$12.98. Only three cities, (one in Wisconsin) show lower
amounts tlian this. Some cities spent two or three times as much
as this per $1,000. Again, therefore, we have from a different
source, a confirmation of the fact we have already brought out,
namely, that the bui'den of taxation on the property of Jancs-
ville is relatively light. The payments for scliool purposes per
$1,000 of assessed valuation amounted at Janesville to $5.01
(column 6.) The amounts for other cities were less in onh' two
instances. The median amount for all the cities was $8.27. This
points in the same direction as before and supports the state-
ment made in another connection that Janesville is not expend-
ing as much money for schools in proportion to its wealth as
most of the cities of its class.
The statements made in the preceding paragraph would be
much more reliable if it were possible to base them upon true
rather than assessed valuation of property. It is likely, how-
ever, that the ranking of the cities would be little affected if
this were done. For example, a ranking of the nine Wisconsin
cities was made on the basis of both assessed and true valua-
tion. The first and last cities were the same on both bases and
the seven intermediate cities, except in two instances, either had
the same rank or their rank on one basis differed from their
rank on the other by but one. It is certain that whatever
changes in the entries in columns 5 and 6 of Table 18 might
be made by using the true valuation of city property, it would
not be such as to make Janesville 's amounts expended per one
thousand dollars other than low.
In relation to population, however, the expenditures of Janes-
ville are higher than those of most of the cities with which we
are making comparison. Column 7 of Table 18 shows that the
expenditure i^er capita for all general departments was $13.82.
This was above the median ($11.34), and was exceeded by the
amounts for only four of the cities. The expenditure per capita
for school purposes (column 8) was $5.34. This was also above
the median and was exceeded by the amounts for eight of the
other 24 cities. According to Table 18, therefore, it appears
that, while in relation to wealth Janesville 's support of schools
is small, its support of them in relation to its population is above
the average. As has been said before, the w^ealth of Janesville
is large and this ought to enable it to take a commanding posi-
70
Educational Survey of Janesville
tion among cities of its class in the amount of its expenditures
for school purposes. It has about $1200 per person. In 1913,
even on the assessment basis, it had well over $1000. Whether
$5.34 of this is enough to spend for public schools, and whether
with such resources a position of ninth among these 25 cities is
satisfactory — these are questions for the citizens of Janesville
to decide.
In Table 19 is shown for each city the average cost per pupil
enrolled. Twenty -two of the same 25 cities are represented. The
enrollment figures (column 1) are as given in the Report of the
Commissioner of Education for the school year 1912-13. Cost
data are for 1913. (See Table 18, column 3) The Janesville ex-
penditure amounted to $30.39 per pupil, and it ranked 12th
among the 22 cities. The median for these cities was $30.66.
Thus the amount expended at Janesville in 1912-13 was some-
what less than the most typical figure for these cities. The cities,
however, which exceeded Janesville did so by large amounts,
while the cities which did not spend as much as Janesville fell
short of it by small amounts. While, therefore, the rank of
Table 19.— Cost of Schools Per Pupil Enrolled— Data for 1913
City
Public school
enrollment
School cost uer
pupil enrolled
Rank
1
2
3
Aupleton, Wis
Ashland. Wis
2,784
2,021
3,684
3,767
3,316
a,480
2,173
2,981
3, 86.5
3,2.30
2,671
No data
4,188
4,309
4,057
4,7.58
2.703
2,879
No data
2,978
2,730
2,-516
No data
1,581
1,510
$36.87
36.30
22.83
28.. 56
29.24
30.a9
34.49
22.08
.23.59
23.66
23.83
3
4
Beloit. Wis
Kenoslia. Wis
Fond du Lac, Wis
21
15
14
Janesville, Wis
Manitowoc. Wis
Marinette. Wis
Wausau. Wis
Coffevville. Kan
13
8
22
20
19
Lawrence, Kan
18
Pittsburg. Kan
(Tary. Indiana
35.32
27.58
30.92
34.53
46.05
34.62
5
Hammond, Indiana
17
Richmond. Indiana
11
Muslcegrun, Mich
7
Ann Arbor. Mich
Iron wood, Mich
Waul^egan, Illinois
1
6
Freeport. Illinois
29.53
44.62
28.36
13
Virgrlnia. Minn
2
Winona INIinn
16
St. Cloud. Minn
Mankato, Minn
31.13
32.20
10
Still water, M inn
9
Mediau. ..
30.66
Financing the School Sjistivi 71
Jan«sville was only a little below a middle one, its expenditure
of $30.39 was considerably nearer the miniinnin ($22.08) than
the maximum ($46.05).
Analysis of School Expenditures: (a) By Items:
Having given an analysis of city expenditures, and having
shown as one item of the city expenditure the expenditure for
school purposes, we shall now analyze the latter into sub-items,
indicating more finely distinguished purposes of expenditure.
Table 20 shows for the most recent 5-year period such an analy-
sis of expenditure. The data were furnished by the Secretary
of the Janesville School Board. The increase in total expendi-
tures amounted to nearly $19,000, which was an advance of
28% over those for 1912-13. The item showing the largest
amount of increase is that for high-school teachers' salaries,
which was $6,841, or 48%. While the expenditures during the
period increased nearly $19,000, the enrollment was practically
stationary, (See Table 7 above). It is clear, therefore, that the
schools are being more liberally financed as the years go by. A
part of this increase is due to a general tendency everywhere for
education to become more important as a city enterprise and
more expensive.
Expenditures for various purposes in different cities may be
compared through the use of material reported in the publica-
tions of the Bureau of Education. So far as it is accurate, we
are able to infer whether a given city is high or low in the money
which it spends for its board office, its superintendent's office,
for the salaries of its teachers, the wages of its janitors, etc.
Table 21 is the fundamental table for exhibiting such compari-
sons. It gives the amounts expended for various purposes in
1914^15, and the total for school purposes.* It needs interpreta-
tion, however. It is not easy to say whether, for example, the
$7,612 which Janesville spent for wages of janitors was unusu-
ally high or unusuall}^ low. Table 22 is computed from Table 21
by converting each amount into a percentage of the total expen-
diture for the city in question. It now becomes evident that ill
* It will be observed that the total amount for Janesville is not the same
as is given in Table 20. The Secretary of the Janesville Board of Educa-
tion furnished the data for Table 20, while the data for Table 21 were
taken from the Report of the Commissioner of Education. The extent to
which items were included in the one and not in the other cannot now be
ascertained. Table 21, however, having- been collected from all cities on a
uniform schedule is valid for purposes of comparison. ■
72
Educational Survey of Janesville
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74
Educational Survey of Jqnesville
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Financing the School System
75
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'^'6 Educational Survei/ of Janesville
the matter of wages of janitors the expenditure at Janesville
was inordinately high, exceeding, in relation to the total expendi-
ture, that of any other city in the list. Of each $100 of ex-
penditure for school purposes, Janesville devoted $10.49 to the
payment of janitors' wages. The median amount for these cities
was $7.51. The relative expenditure for fuel was also high,
a,mounting to $5.82 out of each $100, only five of the 25 school
systems spending more for this item. The proportion of money
spent for maintenance ($9.36 in each $100) was unusually high,
only four of the 25 school systems spending more. The unduly
large proportion of school money devoted to janitors' salaries,
fuel, and maintenance at Janesville is no doubt occasioned by
the large number of small buildings with their numerous and
more or less unsatisfactory heating systems, and by the fact that
the buildings are for the most part old and in need of frequent
repairs. More than one-fourth of the school money was devoted
to these three purposes.
Table 23 is to be taken in connection with Table 22 as ex-
plaining and interpreting the expenditures for the various pur-
poses set up in Table 21. Table 23 reduces these expenditures
to amounts per pupil in average daily attendance. Janesville
(in 1914-15) spent for all school purposes $35.08 per child in
average daily attendance. The median for the 20 cities* listed
in Table 23 was $38.54. Thus the amount for Janesville was
$3.46 less than the most typical amount for these cities and its
rank was 14th among the 20. The expenditures for wages of
janitors, for fuel, and for maintenance are again shown to have
been unusually high. For janitors' wages, only one city spent
more mone.y i)er pupil than did Janesville ; for maintenance, only
three cities spent more; and for fuel, seven cities spent more.
The most essential form of expenditure for school purposes in
the sense of yielding the largest returns educationally is the
amount spent for teachers and supervisors. Any defect in this
respect will surely be reflected in the character of the work done
by the schools. At Janesville $23.82 was spent in 1914-15 per
child in average daily attendance for salaries of principals and
teachers. This was relatively low, being nearly $2.00 less than
the median amount. The rank of the city in this item of ex-
penditure was 13th among the 20 cities.
Data for 5 of the cities not being' available.
Financing tlie School System 77
AVe may summarize the situation for Janesville as revealed by
Table 23 by saying that its expenditures Avere below the most
typical figure for the 20 cities for (a) the board's office; (b) the
salaries of teachers and principals; (c) water, light, etc., and
(d) miscellaneous exijenses. We may further say that its ex-
penditures were markedlj- above the typical figures in the fol-
lowing items: (a) wages of janitors and other employees; (b)
fuel, and (c) maintenance (repairs and replacements). Wheth-
er the items upon which emphasis is being placed are the ones
on which it should be placed is a question. The expense for jan-
itorial service, fuel, and repairs is excessive and no doubt ab-
sorbs money which should be available for instructional pur-
poses.
Analysis of School Expenditures: (h) By Scliools:
A further analysis of expenditures may be made by schools.
In the original draft of this chapter which was furnished to the
Board of Education and the Survey Committee, tables were in-
cluded showing the expenditures for each 3'ear of the most re-
cent 5-year period, distriljuted by schools. A table was also sub-
mitted showing for the same years the cost per pupil in average
daily attendance at each school. These tables are not repeated
here. They may be consulted at the office of the Board of Edu-
cation by any who are interested in them. They showed, among
other things, a conspicuous increase in the expenditures for
special work — i. e. for such subjects as Drawing, Music, Manual
Training,- etc. — both in the elementary schools and in the high
school. They also showed that the cost per pupil in average
daily attendance had increased within the last four years much
more rapidly in some schools than in others, while the cost
per pupil in all the elementary schools combined had increased
from $25.14 to $36.47. While the absolute increase in the cost
of high school work was nearly twice as great as that of elemen-
tary school work, the increased high school cost was mainly
due to increase in the number of pupils. On the basis of ex-
penditures per pupil, the cost for elementary schools increased
in the four years from 1912-13 to 1916-17 from $25.14 to $36.47,
or 45.0%, During the same period, the cost per pupil for the
high school increased from $35.09 to $42.43, or 38.7%.
As to the elementary schools. Table 24 shows the cost per pu-
pil for each school distributed according to the purposes for
78 Ediicatiunal tiurvcy of Janesville
which the money was spent. The total cost per pupil is also
shown. The data are for 1916-17. The total cost ranged from
$25.60 per pupil at the Adams school to $51.97 at the Jackson
school. Students are transferred from one school to the other
on the assumption that instruction given in one of them is
equivalent to that given in another. Clearly all the schools of
the city are presumed to be doing work of same quality. It is
surprising, therefore, that the city is paying twice as much for
it in one school as it is in another.
The size of the school has apparently a pronounced effect up-
on the cost per pupil. The large schools are run much more
cheaply than the small ones. The Jackson school, at which the
cost is very much greater that at any other school, is also the
smallest organization. If columns 1 and 2 of Table 24 are com-
pared, the relation between the size of a school and the economy
of its operation is at once evident. Small schools cost more than
large schools, and large schools, through the superior organiza-
tion which they are able to put into effect, can do better work.
A detailed showing of the extent to which a more economical
organization is found in the larger schools is given in columns 3
to 10 of Table 24. The cost of teachers' salaries, for example,
is much lower at the Washington, Adams, and Jefferson schools
than .'it any of the others. These schools had average attend-
ances in 1916-17 of 241, 282, and 305 respectively. Nn other
school had an average attendance of more than 130. The ele-
mentary schools, therefore, fall naturally into two rather dis-
tinct groups. One group is characterized by large numbers of
pupils and low cost for teachers' salaries, while the otl^er grouj)
is characterized by small numbers of children and large costs for
teachers' salaries. This same distinction obtains in the matter
of janitors' salaries. The three schools just mentioned cost
markedly less per pupil for janitorial service than did any of
the remaining six schools.
It has been recommended in the chapter on "Buildings" in
this Survey that the Jackson school be discontinued and the
pupils transported to another building. The extraordinarily
high unit cost for jafaitorial salary ($13.99 per pupil) at the
Jackson school oft'ers a suggestion for financing the transporta-
tion of pupils without additional cost to the city. The 39 chil-
dren who attended the Jackson school last year belonged to the
Financing Ike Sciiuol System
79
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80 Educational Survey of Jancsville
first four grades. If they had been transported on each of the
190 days of school by street car at half fare, the cost per ])upil
would have amounted to $9.50 (190 x $.05) and the janitorial
service alone last year cost $13.99 per pupil, through keeping the
Jackson building open. Of course, other savings would be ef-
fected by closing the Jackson building. The cost last year of
$3.94 per pupil for fuel would have been greatly reduced — if
the building had not been used; while the item for repairs
($0.45 per pupil) would have been entirely wiped out. If the
building should be sold, the item for insurance, which araounted
to $0.91 per pupil last year, would be eliminated. A reasonable
estimate would be that by closing the Jackson building, the city
would save $8.00 per pupil. If one or both of the teachers at the
Jackson school could be dispensed with by such an arrangement
— a tiling not at all improbable — the saving would be much
greater. Moreover, such an arrangement would give better in-
struction to the pupils, since at the Jackson school the two
grades are now taught in each room, and the time allotments, to
the various s^ibjects are said to be too small in some cases to
permit effective teaching.
"Supplies", "repairs", and "incidentals" do not appear to
be items which are distinctly affected by the size of the school
when figures are given on a unit basis. The item of fuel is great-
ly affected b.y the character of the heating and ventilating sys-
tems. This fact tends to obscure the economy due to size of
building. Nevertheless, the Adams and Washington schools
(two of the three largest) have the lowest unit cost for fuel. In
many ways, therefore, the essential economy of conducting the
school business of the city in larger units than those at present in
use is apparent.*
Analysis of School ExpcncliUircs: (c) Elementary Scliools and
High School
With a given amount of money available, the question of how
it is distributed as between elementary and secondary or high
school work is important. Table 25 shows for each year of the
most recent 5-year period the cost per pupil in the high school
* A further analysis of school expenditures could be shown, if space-
permitted, in which the expenditures for each vear would be given by
schools and by items, such as teachers' salaries, janitors' salaries etc
These tables have been made up and will be made available to' any
who are interested in them.
.Financing the Scliool Sjistcni
81
and in the eleiiK'nta ry schools of the city. In tlie first year of
the period, the cost of instructing a high school pupil was more
than twice the cost of instructing an elementary school pupil.
Table 25. — Cost Per Pupil In Average Daily Attendance.
Year
High
School
1
Elementary
school
2
Total
3
1912-13
1913 14
55.31
69.54
54.72
62.04
59.97
25.14
27.78
30.22
33.79
.36.59
34.28
37 10
1914-15
37 81
1915-16
42 54
1916-17
44 77
During the last three years of the period, however, the cost in the
elementary schools has increased so much more rapidly than
the cost in the high school that the ratio of two to one has been
considerably reduced. Nevertheless, it is apparent that instruc-
tion in the high school is costing a great deal more than instruc-
tion in the elementary schools. This difference is universal
throughout the country. It has been impossible to obtain for
the other cities of the class of Janesville figures comparable to
those in Table 25. The Report of the Commissioner of Educa-
tion, however, permits a comparison of the expenditures in 1914-
15 for teachers' salaries in high and elementary schools in the
nine Wisconsin cities belonging to the population class of Janes-
ville.
Table 26 is an answer to two questions: First, what propor-
tion of the payments for teachers' salaries are for high school
sei-vice and for elementary school service; Second, what is the
cost of teachers ' salaries per pupil in the high school and in the
elementary school. It appears that of the entire amount spent
for teachers' salaries in 1914-15, Janesville spent a little more
than 34% for high-school teachers' salaries. This was a greater
proportion than for any other city except one. Correspondingly,
of course, Janesville devoted a smaller proportion of its salary
money to elementary schools than did any other city except one.
The figures in columns 1 and 2 to which we are referring have to
do with proportional expenditure, i. e. with relative emphasis.
It would be possible for a city actually to be spending little for
82
Educational Survey of Janesville
high school salaries and yet to be devoting to high school pur-
poses an extraordinarily large percentage of its salary pay-
ments. As far as Janesville is concerned, however, when we
consult the cost of teachers' salaries per pupil (Table 26 col-
Table 26. — Relation of Expenditures for Teachers' and Principals'
Salaries in High ScJiool and in Elementary Schools^
Per cent of teachers' and
principals' salaries for
Cost of teachers'and princi-
pals' salaries per pupil in
average daily attendance
City
Hit,'-h schools
i
Elementary
schools
High schools
Elementary
schools
2
3
$60.72
39.53
44.69
44.24
45.70
47.73
42.22
40.38
43. bO
4
Appleton
33.51 66.49
31.43 68.57
33.82 66.18
$26.74
22.42
Beloit
16.51
Kenosha
Fond du Lac
Jaueetvllle
Manitowoc
Marinette
Wausau
21.17
27.21
34.15
37.54
32.63
32.04
78.83
72.79
65.85
62.46
67.37
67.96
22.69
19.05
1».82
20.67
14.54
16.91
1 Source of Data : Report of Commissioner of Education for the year
ended June 30, 1916. The figures, however, are for 1914-15.
umns 3 and 4), we find that the actual money spent for high-
school teachers' salaries was also high, being $47.73 per pupil —
an amount exceeded in the case of but one city. On the other
hand, we find that the cost per pupil for elementary teachers
was not high. It amounted to $19.82. The amounts for four of
the cities were smaller, and the amounts for four of them were
larger. Thus the relative basis and the unit basis unite to show
that the high school is being more lil^erally financed than the
elementary schools. This might mean that the high school is be-
ing over-financed, but all that we have shown above concerning
receipts and expenditures indicate that this is not the case. The
alternative statement is forced upon us, namely, that the discrep-
ancy between the support of the high school and that of the ele-
mentary schools is due to the fact that the elementary schools are
under-financed. Not only are the payments for their operation
relatively small when compared w^ith payments for similar
purposes in other cities, but an unusually large proportion of
these payments are being diverted from the essential work of
education to the carrying on, under adverse conditions, of the
Financing the ScJiool System 83
work of heating, cleaning, and repairing the buildings. More-
over, a part of the money which is being used for instructional
purposes — e. g., for teachers' salaries — is being unproductively
employed because the large number of small buildings requires
the teaching of the children in small groups with two grades in
a room and prevents the effective organization of the instruc-
tional Avork.
Teachers- Salaries
No satisfactory treatment of how schools in any city are
financed can be given without considering teachers' salaries.
The schools exist for the instruction of the children, and the
instructional cost is primarily the money paid for teachers'
salaries. The amount used for this purpose, therefore, repre-
sents more than any other the productive expenditures for school
purposes. Not only docs the item of teachers' salaries derive
great importance from this fact, but it is also important since
payment for teachers' salaries usually involves about two-thirds
of the entire educational expenditure of a city system.
A table, included in the manuscript copies of this chapter
and furnished to the members of the Board of Education and the
Survey Committee, contained the salaries paid to each incum-
bent of a teaching position for each school year from 1905-06 to
1916-17 inclusive. This table is not reproduced here. Tables
27, 28, and 29 are, however, deduced from it.
Table 27 shows the number of positions, the average salary,
and the variation in salaries in the high school, the elementary
schools, the kindergartens, and in all schools combined from
1905-06 to and including 1916-17. Under the heading "Aver-
age Deviation" there is shoAvn, for each type of school and for
each year, a measure of the amount by which the individual sal-
aries differ from the ascertained average. A word of explana-
tion concerning the significance of the Average Deviation may
not be amiss. An average is a melisure of the general weight of
a series of items. It gives, as well as a single figure can, the pur-
port of the series. It indicates nothing, however, as to the
■closeness of grouping of the measures around the average. For
example, the average salary of the ten high-school teachers in
1905-06 Avas $736. There is nothing in the figure to indicate
^vhether all the teachers received $736. or Avhether thev differed
84
Edxcaf tonal Survey of Jancsville
bt.9
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Od 03 03 99 Q) 03 09 OS Od Ob 91 09
Financhuj Ihc School iSjjstoH 85
widely above aud below this amount. When to the fact that the
average salary was $736 is added the further fact that the aver-
age deviation of the ten salaries was $43, we see at once that the
range of salaries above and below the average was rather
wide — wide enough so that when the differences between the in-
dividual salaries and the average are summed and divided by
the nmnber of persons, the result is $43. In other words, the
individual salaries differ, on the average, from $736, by $43.
These two figures — namely the average and the average devia-
tion— constitute a fairly satisfactory summary of the series of
salaries for each year.
It is evident from Table 27 that the average salary of a teacher,
whether in the high school, elementary school, or the kinder-
garten, has been steadily increasing during the last ten years.
The increase in the average salary of high-school teachers has
been $227, or 31% ; that for elementary-school teachers has been
$200, or 45% ; and that for kindergarten teachers has been $152,
or 34%. When all the teachers are considered as a single group,
the average salary has increased $240,^ or 48i/o%.*
The average salaries of elementary-school teachers as given in
Table 27 include bonuses paid to those who act as principals.
According to the arrangement at Janesville, the teacher of the
highest class in any building acts as principal and receives an
extra compensation for the service amounting to $1.50 per room
each month.** Since there are 49 rooms in the nine elementary
school buildings, this amounts to $735 as the expenditure for
elementary school principals. This is not a satisfactory arrange-,
ment from an educational point of view. The teacher-principal
cannot supervise ; her functions aside from those of a teacher are
mainly clerical. Janesville, therefore, has no elementary school
supervision except such as the superintendent himself can ex-
ercise. In "The Tangible Rewards of Teaching,"*** the en-
tire teaching staff of a great number of the cities of the country
are given as they were in 1912-13. Among the ten Wisconsin
cities of the population class of Janesville three had, at that
* It will be observed that the amount and percentage of increase for
all teachers taken together is greater than the same figures for any one
of the groups. This is caused by the fact that while the number of
elementary and kindergarten teachers has remained practically stationary
thioughout tlie period, tlTe number of liigh-school teachers has more than
doubled.
** If these amounts had been excluded, the average salary of ele-
mentary .'school teachers would have been shown to be $16 or $17 less
than the amounts given in Table 27.
*♦♦ U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin 1914, No. 16.
86 Educational Survey of Janesville
time, supervising principals in their elementary schools, and five
others had principals. Janesville had neither ; nor has it at the
present time. The conclusion is that the schools lack sufficient
supervision.
At present (1916-17) the average salary of high-school
teachers at Janesville is $963; the average salary in the ele-
mentary schools is $645 (or, if the principal's bonus is included,
$661) ; and the average salary of kindergarten teachers is $600.
The average salary of all teachers in the public schools is $735.
Abundant material for comparisons of teachers' salaries at
Janesville with those of teachers in other cities of the same
population class is afforded in the bulletin of the United States
Bureau of Education entitled "A Comparative Study of the
Salaries of Teachers and School Officers." The data contained
in this publication are for the year 1914-15. The average salar.y
of elementary-school teachers at Janesville is given (page 97)
at $565. Among the 244 cities other than Janesville listed as
having populations between 10,000 and 25.000, the average
salaries were higher in 113 cities and lower in 131. The median
of the 245 averages— which may be taken as the most repre-
sentative figure for all of them — was .$560. Since Janesville 's
average salary is given at $565, it will be seen that the salaries
at Janesville are indicated to be slightly above the median or
average conditions in cities of the same population class through-
out the country. When we recognize, however, that many sec-
tions of the country are included whose educational condition
the State of Wisconsin does not desire to emulate, and when we
consider that nearly half of the cities provide salaries in excess
of those paid at Janesville, we may properly conclude that the
salaries of teachers in that city are lower than they ought to be.
The insufficiency of the average, even when supplemented by
a measure of variation such as the average deviation, lies in the
fact that in giving a generalized statement it obscures the de-
tails. In Table 27 the entire teaching force at Janesville as it
was in 1916-17 is distributed according to the salaries received.
The variation for high-school teachers is from $750 to $1,200.
Elementary-school teachers range from $500 to $1,000. The
variation in salaries at Janesville is not conspicuously large.*
* For comparative data on this point, see BuHetin Bureau of Educa-
tion. 1915, No. 31. page 97. If the three sijecial teachers classified as
elementary school teacher.'' are excluded, the upper range of salaries is
$65f>. If the bonus for acting- as principal is added, the maximum salary
Financing the School System
87
The salaries of the elementary-school teachers have been ex-
amined with the idea of showing: (1) whether or not the policy
at Janesville is to pay higher salaries in some grades than in
others, and (2) whether the increase in average salaries in the
past ten years has been especially for the benefit of teachers in
any particular grade or group of grades. In general, it was
Table 28. — Distribution of Teachers According to Their Salaries,
1916-17.
(Note: The bonus to principals of elementary schools is not included.)
Salary (i roups
High school
Elementary
school
Kindergarten
All
1
2
3
4
500 549
7
7
9
20 (a)
2
2
1(a)
550-599
9
600 648
11
650-699
21 (a)
700-749
1
2
1
2
2
6
750 799
2
800-849
1 (b)
2
850 899...
2
900 949
2
950-999
6
1,000-1,049
2 (b)
2
1.050 1,099
1,100-1,149
4
4
1,150 1,199
1,200
3
3
Total
21
46
5
72
(a) $650
(b) Teachers of special subjects.
found that, even after deducting the principals' bonuses, the
average salary of the upper grade teachers is higher than that
of the lower grade teachers. In 1916-17, the average salary
for each year diminished regularly, with but two exceptions,
from the 8th grade to the 1st. The difference between the maxi-
mum average (8th grade) and the minimum average (3rd grade)
was $71.81. As to the grades whose teachers have received the
largest increases in the past ten years, we may say in general
that the larger increases have been received by the upper grade
teachers. Teachers of the kindergarten, 1st, 2nd, and 3rd grades
have increased in average salaries in the past ten years a little
over $150. The average salaries of teachers from the 4th to
the 8th grade have increased more than $200. Of course, this
matter of average salaries and of increases in average salary as
88 Educational Survey of Janesville
applied to the different grades is affected by the number of
teachers of long experience in any given grade.
In order to eliminate this variable factor, Table 29 is given to
show the salaries for the past' eleven years as received by all the
teachers noAV in service who were also in service during the first
year of the period. This provides opportunity for ten incre-
ments for each of these teachers and indicates the salary policy
for teachers who remain in service a long time. In the high
school there are but four teachers now serving who were on the
force in 1906-07. Their salaries in the first year of the period
were respectively $902.50, $712.50 (two) and .$807.50. Three
of the four are men and are now receiving $1,200, and the
fourth is a woman, who, at the beginning of the period, re-
ceived $712.50, and is now receiving $950.00. The average
salaries of the four high-school teachers in 1906-07 was $783.75.
The average rose in the next five years to $950, an increase of
$166.25, or 21%. In the following five years a further increase
in the average salary ' occurred, amounting to $187.50, or 20%.
In the entire ten years, therefore, the increase in the average
salaries of these four teachers was $353.75 from an initial aver-
age of $783.75. This was an increase of 45%.
In the elementary schools, twenty teachers served throughout
the entire period from 1906-07 to 1916-17. Theic a\crage
salary in the first year of the period was $472.83. It rose
steadily, until at the end of five years it was $565.73, represent-
ing an increase up to and including 1911-12 of $92.90, or 20%.
During the second five-year period, the average increased from
$565.73 to $676.50, an increase of $110.78, or 20%. During the
entire ten years, therefore, teachers who have been in the service
continuously in the elementary schools have, on the avcrngo, in-
creased their salaries $203.67, or 43%. This may be compared
with the increase of $353.75, or 45%, for the high-school teachers.
Considering the high and elementary-school teachers together,
if the increase in salary had been equally distributed to all
■who have served in the same position for ten years, each would
have received in 1916-17 $228.69 more than in 1906-07. In
other words, the teacher who has served in the city of Janes-
ville for ten years has increased his or her salary on an average
$228.69, or 44%, from an initial salary of $524.65.
Financing the Scliool Systoii
89
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Educational Survey of Janesville
133
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FiiKuuinfj ike Scliool System 91
Ilif/li Scliool Costs
The programs of the teachers in the high school were ob-
tained, and from them a number of studies of the organization
of the high school were made. A few of these will be presented
in concluding this chapter. In Table 30 are shown some of the
significant facts concei'ning tlie w(n'k of the high school, dis-
tributed according to the subjects taught. The number of po-
sitions required to teach each of the subjects is given in column
1. The fractions arise from the fact that several teachers in-
structed in more than one subject. From this column it appears
that the largest amount of teaching service is devoted to English
work and that Mathematics requires nearly as nuich. The time
of rather more than two teachers is required to do the work in
each of the following subjects: History, Manual Training, Do-
mestic Science, Commercial work, and Science. Somewhat'
more than the time of one teacher is devoted to instruction in
Latin. The remaining subjects occupy less than the time of one
teacher.
In column 2 of Table 30, the total salary cost for each subject
is given. Taken in connection with the total salary cost for all
subjects, this serves to indicate from another point of view the
degree of emphasis placed on each subject. Nothing funda-
mental, however, can be shown concerning the cost of each
subject from the entries in this column. Consideration must be
given to the amount of instruction — i. e. to the number and size
of the classes taught in each subject.
Column 3 shows something concerning the amount of service
rendered by the teachers whose positions and salaries are entered
in column 1 and 2. In English we observe that the time of the
3.13 teachers, wdiosc total salary amounted to $2,912.50, was oc-
cupied in the classroom for 90 periods per week. In column 4
we have the quotient obtained hy dividing this by the number
of positions, yielding 28.8 as the average number of class periods
per week in English for each position.
In column 5 are shown the number of classes which recite in
each subject, and in column 6 the total registers of these classes.
By dividing the entries in column 6 by those in column 5, we ob-
tain the average number of pupils per class in each subject.
This is a significant figure and indicates from one point of
92 Educational Survey of JancsviUe
view the cconoin}- of orgaiii/cation, and from another the liber-
ality in the provision of teachers to carry on the worlv.
In column 8 we have the best unit in terms of which to ex-
press either efficiency of organization or the unit cost — namely,
the student-period per week. The student-period per week is
one student taught a period a week throughout the year. A class
of 20 pupils meeting five times a week would yield 100 student-
periods. At Janesville the class period is 40 minutes, and the
school year 1916-17 consisted of 37 weeks (or, to be exact, 186
days.) Column 8 shows that in the English Department the
3.13 teachers taught in the aggregate 2,200 student-periods per
week, or (column 9) an average of 703 student-periods for each
position. This is a significant figui-e in reaching am^ conclusion
about efficient organization. It takes into account both the
•number of class pei-iods for each teacher and the size of the
classes taught. The larger the number of student-periods per
position — i. e. the larger the entry in colunni 9 for any given
subject — the more economically is work in that subject being-
conducted.*
If we divide the entry in column 2( salary cost) by the entry
in column 8 (number of student-periods) for any given subject,
we obtain the salar.y cost for each student-period per week.
This is a valid figure for making comparisons to show the ex-
pense of conducting the work in the various subjects, except so
far as the subjects differ in the type of teaching required.
English is costing $1.32 per unit of work (i. e. per student-
period per week) ; Mathematics is costing $1.34; Latin costs ap-
preciably more ; while Greek costs more than three times as
much. German and History are on a par with Latin, while
Commercial subjects cost a little more than Latin or Mathe-
matics. Physical Training is relatively inexpensive on account
of the large classes which may be taught in it (see column 7) ;
while in Agriculture the cost is higher because the classes are
small. The cost in Science and Domestic Science is low, both be-
cause the classes are large and because the teachers teach a large
number of periods per week. In Manual Training the cost is
relatively high, because, although the teachers teach a large
number of periods a week, the classes are ver}^ small.
* One Important distinction, however, must be made. In the Sciences,
and in such subjects as Manual Training: and Physical Training, the
number of periods ought to be larger than in the case of subjects re-
quiring outside preparation and having no laboratory work, such as
English. Mathematics, History, and the Languages.
Fi)iancin<j (he School System 93
Among the possible economics to be effected in the high school
are (1) the dropping of Greek, which, since it is offered to but
a single class consisting of six students, hardly justifies its ex-
istence, and (2) the combining of classes in Agriculture and also
in Manual Training.
The cost data given in column 10 are comparable as between
subjects taught in the Janesville high school. The unit is the
student-period per week, the period being 40 minutes. Of late,
several studies of high school organization have been made, in
which a unit of this kind has been used. Two of the best of
these studies are by Prof. H. G. Childs* and Prof. J. F.
Bobbitt.** Their statements of cost are given as amounts "per
100 student-hours." The student-hour is a student taught one
(iO-minute-hour — not an hour per week. A class of 20 students
meeting five hours a week for the year (37 weeks) would repre-
sent 3,700 student-hours. At Janesville the recitation periods are
forty minutes. Column 11 of Table 30 shows the cost per 100
student-class-periods of forty minutes each. For example, in
English, the cost of each 100 forty-minute periods was $3.55.
Since Childs and Bobbitt both use the 60-minute period, this
amount must be increased by one-half before comparison with
their figures can be made. Table 31 shows the resulting Janes-
ville figures, together with the median figures as given in the two
studies referred to. In his tables, Childs gives data for three
groui)s of Indiana cities. His "Group II" consists of cities
having 200 to 500 high school pupils ; and the figures given in
Table 31 are for this group. Bobbitt 's data are for schools all
but four of which belong to the North Central Association.
Observe that for the high school as a whole, the salary cost
l)er 100 student-hours Avas $5.81 at Janesville, and that this is
17 cents more than the cost for the middle city in Childs' group,
and 39 cents less than the cost for the middle city in Bobbitt 's
list. Similar comparisons may be made for the cost of each sub-
ject. In general, Janesville 's cost is not high, except in Agricul-
ture. History, Latin, and German.
* Third Conference on Educational Measurements, University of In-
<liana, 1917, page 126.
•* "Scliool Review." volume XXIII, No. 8, October, 1915, page 505.
94
Educational Survey of Janesville
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Financiny the Scliool System 95
In the matter of the size of classes, Table 31 shows that the
children at Janesville are being taught in rather larger groups
than is typically true in the cities listed by Childs and Bobbitt.
On the other hand, the number of class hours of work per teacher
is relatively low, as is the average number of student-hours per
week for each teacher. Finally, the average salaries at Janes-
ville are higher than is the case at the median cities in the two
lists with which we are making comparison. Thus, of the three
principal elements entering into the matter of cost, namely size of
class, hours of teaching per week, and average salaries, Janes-
ville is economical in one, and is relatively uneconomical in two.
It is probable, however, that further economy in salaries would
detract from the quality of the work. On the whole, Janesville
does well from all these material points of view in High School
organization and support. •
Summary.
1. The Problem
Janesville, a city of little more than fourteen thousand in-
habitants, has about 3,800 persons between the ages of four and
twenty, and about 2,000 between the ages of six and fifteen.
About 500 of its children attend parochial schools, and about
2,500 the public schools. Of the latter, about 570, including 108
nonresident tuition pupils, are in high school. The elementary
schools are decreasing, and the high school is increasing in en-
rollment, although neithci- movement is rapid. The city does
not have to meet the problem of providing for material increases
in school population.
2. Means for Solving the Problem
In 1916 the assessed valuation of property at Janesville was
$15,609,631, and the true valuation was $16,981,097. The
Avealth per capita on the latter basis was $1,184, which was high-
est among the Wisconsin cities of its class. Its wealth per pupil
in average daily attendance was $8,646, which placed it second
among the same cities. It has, therefore, large resources from
Avhich to meet its educational problem — nearly, if not quite, twice
as large as some of the cities with Avhich it has been compared.
The receipts of the Board of Education have increased 21%
in four years. The State grants amount to about 16% of all
the receipts, and the proceeds of city tax to about 77%. The
06 Educational Survey of Janesville
amount from the latter source was less per pupil enrolled than
in any except two of the twenty middle western cities watli
which comparison was made in Table 10. The middle cit}' made
40% more money available for schools than did Janesville.
3. The Way in Wlticli the Problem is Being Solved
(a) Taxes and Tax-rates. The total tax-rate is lower
than in any other Wisconsin city of the same population class,
and it is low largely because the school tax-rate is low.
(b) Analysis of City Expenditures. According to the
reports of the Tax Commission, Janesville spends less money per
capita for all cii[i purposes than any other Wisconsin city except
one in its population class. Some of its citj^ departmental ex-
penditures were low, and others were high. Its school expendi-
tures per capita of the population were outranked by five of the
eight other Wisconsin cities. That this low expenditure per
capita was not due to financial inability is evident from the fact
that the rank of the city in expenditures per $1,000 of wealth
was even lower than it was on a per capita basis. Indeed, its
rank on the wealth basis was lower than that of any other city.
The school expenditures in relation to wealth were, likewise,
markedly less than those of any other of the Wisconsin cities.
On the better basis of children enrolled in the public schools,
the amount spent at Janesville was much nearer the minimum
than the maximum amount for all the cities.
(c) Analysis of School Expenditures by Items. When
the payments for the past five years are separated "into the pur-
poses for which the money was spent, it is shown that the larg-
est increase has been for high-school teachers' salaries. The ex-
pense for janitors' salaries, for fuel, and for maintenance, are
unusually high, when these are expressed on a unit basis. On
a similar basis, the expenditures for teachers' salaries are rel-
atively low, and this may be^a serious defect. There is good
reason for thinking that in spending school money the city is
not distributing it to the fullest advantage.
(d) Analysis of School Expenditures by Schools.
Among the elementary schools, the cost per pupil varies greatly,
being twice as much (1916-17) in one school as in another. In
general, the larger the school the smaller the cost. The smallest
school (Jackson) is the most expensive. If it were closed and
Financing (he School Sysicvi 97
the pupils transported, the city woukl save money, and the
children would be better taught.
(e) Elementary School and High School. The cost per
high-school pupil is nearly twice that per elementary school
pupil. The latter cost, however, is growing more rapidly, not
only because the expenditures are increasing in the elementary
schools, but also because the enrollment is decreasing. In the
high school both expenditures and enrollment are increasing,
and hence the cost per pupil shows little increase. Evidence
from teachers' salaries tends to show that Jancsville is spending
an unusually large proportion of its school money for the high
school. The elementary schools are relatively under-financed.
(f) Teachers' Salaries. Salaries have been increasing
for the past ten years. During that period the average salary
of all teachers has increased $240, or 48^%. Salaries of ele-
mentary school principals are hardly existent, being represented
by bonuses given to the teachers of the highest grade in each
building. No real supervision can be expected. The cost for
the non-instructional work of teacher-principals is about $735
per year. The average salaries of high-school teachers rank well,
being about 50% higher than the average salaries of elementary-
school teachers. The latter, however, are little, if any, better
than the salaries in cities throughout the country having popu-
lations between 10,000 and 25,000. Most of the cities in pro-
gressive states pay more — some a great deal more. Although
the variation among salaries is not conspicuous, the upper grade
teachers in elementary schools are paid more than the lower
grade teachere, and the larger increases in recent years have been
in the salaries of teachers above the third grade. The increase in
the average salary of high-school teachers who have been con-
tinuously in service for the past ten years has been $353.75, or
45%. The corresponding increase for elementary-school teach-
ers who have held the same positions for the past ten years has
been $203.67, or 43%.
(g) High School Costs. On a unit basis, certain sub-
jects are costing more in terms of teachers' salaries than others,
and, by comparison with data for other cities, are apparently
costing more than is usual. Such subjects are Greek, Latin,
German, History, and Agriculture. The classes in the high
school at Janesville are, on the average, rather larger, though
98 Edncatioudl Surveij of Janesvillc
not conspicuously so, than the typical classes in those cities
from which data are shown. The average salaries are rather
high, while the number of class hours of work required of the
teachers is not excessive. On the whole, the high school, though
it might profit by some minor adjustments, is from the
point of view adopted in this chapter, creditably organized and
supported. There are more evidences of weakness in the ele-
mentary schools.
Board of Education 99
V BOARD OF EDUCATION
The city of Janesville has sho^vn itself to be among the more
progressive cities with respect to its form of city administration.
It has at present a commission form of city government. Under
this system of government the city's welfare is in the hands of
men elected from the city at large. These men are elected in
the interests of the entire city rather than in the interests of a
particular ward. This form of city administration is generally
noted for its efficiency. Men are selected with reference to their
ability to serve the city without regard to any artificial ward
boundary lines within the city. The fact that two able men live
in the same ward does not automatically bar one of them from
eligibility to membership on the commission. Janesville is to
be commended on the progressive step which it has taken with
reference to the administration of its city affairs. But strange
as ^t may seem the city has not adopted a similar policy ,vith
reference to its schools. The present method of selecting school
board members is antiquated. The city charter provides for the
election of two members at large and one member from each
ward, making eight in all. This out-of-date method of selecting
a board of education should be abolished at the first opportunity.
►^election by wards cannot be justified under the pretense that
the interests of a given ward will be better taken care of under a
system of ward representation. Ward interests see things vvith
one eye and that onlj'^ partly open. It must not be inferred
from this that the present board has placed ward interests above
the interests of the city at large. The board as a group is public
spirited and aims to serve the city to the best of its ability.
But there is no assurance that such a state will continue. The
point to be considered is that the present form of organization
lends itself well to ward manipulation and in the hands of a less
sincere group of men might prove disasterous to the city's best
educational interests.
Another condition resulting from ward selection which is
perhaps equally bad is that which automatically prevents the
selection of some of the city's most able men for membership
100 Educational Survey of Janesville
on the lioard. Not infrequently in many cities a number- of the
most able men in the community reside in the same section of
the city. Under a ward system of selection, however, not more
than one of these at a time can become a member of the board.
Janesville now selects two of its board members at large. It
should select all of them in that manner.
The electors of the Janesville school district may provide for
the election of members of the board at large under the pro-
visions of the general laws of the state if they so vote. Under the
provisions of section 925 — 113 of the General City Charter Law
electors of the school district may at a special election, called and
held pursuant to the provisions of the present city charter law
governing special elections vote to change the present system.
This would give the city a board of seven members. It is recom-
mended that the Board take the necessary preliminary steps to
submit this question to the electors at a special electum as
authorized by law. A form of ballot similar to the following
and in accord with sections 925 — 113m of the General City
Charter Law should be used.
"Shall the board of education be elected in accordance with
section 925— 113n"
Yes
No
The Organization of the Board
In the past the board has Ijeen organized with one of its
members as president and with the elorical duties performed by
a paid secretary. The secretary in the performance of his duties
is independent of the superintendent except as each has cooper-
ated with the other of his own accord. The board has had four
standing committees, as follows : finance ; buildings and grounds ;
teachers; and textbook, equipment and supplies. The newly
organized board in accord with suggestions made by members
of the survey has decreased this number and now has a single
committee on teachers. Regular meetings of the board are held
each month. The volume of business demanding the attention
of the board is not large in point of importance but it is fre-
quently time consuming.
Board of Education 101
Committees
With a small board there is little need for standing com-
mittees. The present board is to be commended for having re-
duced the number of these. Too often committees undertake
work which should be left to the professional judgment of those
whom the board employs to manage its school system. On
questions of importance the board as a whole should act.
When important matters of policy such as a building program,
methods of financing the schools, or the extension of the scope
of the schools activities arise it may be advisable to appoint
temporary committees with whom the superintendent may dis-
cuss in a preliminary way his proposals in these matters uf
policy. The function of a committee in any case however should
be that of advising with the superintendent, giving him the
benefit of its group judgment and supporting him when a pro-
posed policy which it has considered is placed before the board.
Under the regulations previously in effect the most important
committee was that on teachers. Recommendations on the elec-
tion of teachers were made to the committee hy the sui)erintend-
ent and then by the committee to the board. This is not the
most satisfactory method of procedure. The superintendent is
employed because of his professional ability to judge the fitness
of teachers and to him should be left entirely the matter of rec-
ommending them. He and not the committee assumes the re-
sponsibility for their success or failure. The function of the
committee is more properly that of discussing with the super-
intendent the schedule of salaries and the number of teachers
to be employed.
TJie Relation of the. Board and the Superintendent
The superintendent is the chief executive whose services the
board purchases because of his professional training and ex-
perience. He is the person upon whom falls the responsibility
for the successful administration of the school system. His
position is akin to that of the general manager of a business
corporation and the board constitutes the directors. In success-
ful business concerns the directors look to the general manager
(1) to propose new policies, (2) to carry them out when adopted
by the board, and (3) hold him responsible for the success of
the system. In a well-administered school system the position
102 Educational Survey of Jane.wille
of the superintendent parallels that of the general manager of a
business enterprise. This means then that the board must give
the superintendent adequate authority properly to conduct live
schools. He must make such recommendations as he deems wi'se
for the further development of the schools and the board must
hold hnn responsible, through the reports it demands of him and
his assistants, for the success of the system.
The present board is to be commended for the confidence it
has reposed in the professional judgment of the superintendent.
Good results can be secured only when his authority is commen-
surate with his responsibility. One of his most important
duties is the selection of teachers. In this his judgment must be
trusted. Few of us would care to ride on trains whose crews
were selected by the board of directors. Only those judged
most fit by the expert division su])erintcndents are trusted to
man the crews. Neither should a board of education attempt
to select the teachers who guide the train of the child's life. The
superintendent's judgment of merit should be the sole consider-
ation in the selection of teachers and other assistants.
In return for the confidence reposed in the superintendent's
ability to suggest lines of action and to carry them out when
authorized by the board, it should demand an adequate account-
ing of past performances. Through such a report it is able to
assure itself that the schools are well-conducted. It should re-
quire detailed and systematic reports based upon facts and so in-
terpreted as to indicate where the schools have succeeded and
where they have failed together wdth the reasons therefor.
These should be the subjects of discussion at board meetings and
its actions should be based upon such reports.
The Selection of Teachers
It is the practice of the teachers committee to accept almost
without exception the recommendations of the superintendent.
This is commendable. There is however no guarantee that the
superintendent's choice must be selected. This should be a part
of his contract with the board. A definite rule should be
adopted and considered binding during the superintendent's
term of office that no teacher will be elected except as recom-
mended by him. Too often his recommendations to the com-
mittee must be made on the basis of application and personal
Board of Education 103
recommendations sent in by teachers in search of a position
rather than on the basis of actual observation of the prospective
teacher's classroom teaching. There is frequently the danger
under this system that the superintendent will be placed in the
position of purchasing a "cat in a bag" or choosing from those
who make application in person. Too many local teachers are
apt to be found in the system. The fact that more than two-
thirds of the present corps of grade teachers are local teachere
suggests that somewhere in the past a poor policy of selecting
teachers has existed. The board will do well to authorize the
superintendent to visit the actual classroom teaching of promis-
ing applicants at the board's expense.
Teachers are elected annually without designation as to the
building or grade to be served. This is as it should be and leaves
the superintendent free to assign and transfer teachers in Avays
calculated to permit them to render their best services.
Dismissals are recommended by the superintendent to the
committee on teachers and then to the board. It is recom-
mended elsewhere in this report that teachers be elected for a
probationary period. When teachers have demonstrated their
ability to teach successfully and have shown a capacity for
growth it should not be necessary to reelect them each year.
They should be assured of their position as long as they con-
tinue to exhibit these qualities.
TJie Annual Budget
The most important instrument through which the board may
exercise its control over the destinies of the school children is
the annual budget of expenditures. At present it is prepared
by the secretary. The superintendent recommends the educa-
tional items to be included. In the judgment of the survey this
method needs improvement. As stated previously the present
secretary is independent of the superintendent. This should be
changed, making the superintendent the single administrative
head of the school system. The budget should then be prepared
by the secretary under the superintendent's direction.
The proposed budget is the instrument then through which the
superintendent should recommend new policies and through
which he should be held responsible for educational results.
The budget is the one instrument through which the board may
104 Educational Surveji of JanesvWe
exercise its legislative functions knowing definitely what policies
are to mean and what is to be achieved with the money appro-
priated. The board should require all estimates to be in teni's
of unit specifications accompanied by such data as may be neces-
sary to show whether increases or decreases for any given item
are due to changes in cost, in quality, or in amount of materials
or service to be purchased. Expenditures for each major item
should indicate the per cent which it represents of the total ex-
penditures accompanied by similar figures for the present and
preceding years, and for other cities of the class of Janesville.
All expenditures for such items as textbooks, supplies, adminis-
trative control, supervision, instruction, fuel, janitor's service
and supplies should be shown in per pupil cost terms. The pro-
posed budget should be accompanied by data showing the tax-
able wealth per child, the amount of indebtedness, the tax rate
for all pi7rposes and for schools compared witu similar ex-
penditui'es in olher cities. Such analytical data should be ac-
companied by graphic representations to show the full effect of
the proposed expenditures. The proposed budget should be ac-
companied by brief statements of explanation in all instances
where significant changes from pj-evious years are proposed.
Adopting a Building Program
One of the most important matters now facing tlie board i?
the adoption of a building program. In this it should look to
its superintendent for guidance and all architectural plans for
buildings should be first approved by him to insurt their con-
formity to modern standards of schoolhouse con'^truction.
the Duties Which the Board Shoidd Perform
From what has been said above it may be fearea that the
board will be only a "rubber stamp" for the superintendent's
program. On the contrary it will find many matters of im-
portance demanding its attention. An examination of the
minutes of the board suggests that the board and its committees
are now devoting considerable attention to matters w^hKih mif^ht
well be disposed of by executive officers. For the gaiaaiicc of
the board the duties which in the opinion of several hundred
competent judges are among those most worthy of the boards
attfcjition are given here.
Board of Education 105
1. Select the superintendent and support him in the discharge
of his duties.
2. Pass upon the annual budget for maintenance prepared
by the superintendent and his assistants.
3. Require and discuss the reports of the superintendent and
his assistants concerning the progress of the schools in terms of
the achievements of pupils, teachers and supervisors.
4. Require and consider the report of the business transacted
or pending and of the financial status of the system.
5. Appoint upon nomination and recommendation of the
superintendent teachers, principals and supervisors.
6. Advise with the superintendent, affording a group judg-
ment on his recommendations for extensions or readjustinents
of the scope of educational activities.
7. Represent the needs of the schools before the city council,
the legislature or the public.
8. Debate and pass upon recommendations of the superin-
tendent for additional capital outlays and determine the meuiis
of financing them.
9. Pass upon architects plans, approved by the chief ex-
ecutive and his assistants, for buildings that have been autlior-
ized.
10. Determine, after consultation and discussion Avith the
superintendent, the schedule of salaries.
The most important of these is of course the first mentioned,
that of selecting the superintendent iind supporting him in the
discharge of his duties. Such matters as giving ear to complaints
find communications should occupy little of the board's time.
106 Educational Survey of Janesville
VI CENSUS. ENROLLMENT, AND
ATTENDANCE
Census and Census-Taking
A census of the school children between 4 and 20 years of age
is taken on June 30th of each year in each "Wisconsin school
district. This census has two main uses. It is taken primarily
as a basis for distributing state money, which is apportioned
according to the number of school children in the state. An-
other possible use of the school census, to which it is not put as
fre(iuently as would be desirable, is that of checking up compul-
sory school attendance at the beginning of and continuously
during each school year.
The Janesville census procedure was studied from three
points of view, — (1) the completeness of the census taking, (2)
the adequacy of present methods of taking and recording, and
(3) the actual and the possible use made of the census.
The 1914, 1915, and 1916 census reports were studied. Those
for 1914 and 1915 were found bound in alphabetized form. The
1916 census was not bound nor alphabetized. All three census
reports were found to omit considerable data. Frequently the
age or date of birth was lacking, and sometimes even the name of
the child.
The following table shows the number of children of various
ages in the three census reports. The accompanying curve
shows these findings graphically, with curves for the three years
superimposed to keep a given group of children in each of the
three years on a given line.
Total 3338
4 years old 199
5
6
7
9
10
11
12
914
1915
1916
338
3325
3066
199
180
162
235
195
184
210
231
196
219
210
226
202
231
203
234
198
209
232
222
196
213
238
218
226
213
226
Census, Enrollnn nl and Ailcndancc
107
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
1914 1915 1916
217 218 200
211 208 201
184 211 165
204 178 183
188 214 172
206 190 173
158 188 152
A^3
340
300
160
rH 130
eo
40
4__5 a
fl 0 10 11 13 IZ 14 ip 16 17 18 19 30 31
l'J14
191
i9ia
Fig. I. The Number of Chlldrer. of Each Year Age as Indicated by the
School Census for 1914, 1915 and 1916.
Note: Age headings are as of the 1916 census. E. j?., children 6 of
1914, and 7 of 1915, are grouped on the 8 year line of 1916.
From this table and curve it seems evident that there is con-
siderable error in Janesville census records.
For example, it is not probable that there are considerably
fewer children four and five years old than eleven and twelve
years old, yet this is what the census seems to indicate.
In the 1916 census, the age groups from 15 to 19 inclusive
show a large degree of variation from the corresponding age
groups for 1914 and 1915.
Further to analyze the probability of the Janesville census
record's being accurate, comparison was made between the pro-
portion of school census to total population, in Janesville and
in the cities of Wisconsin in general. It was found that this
108 Educational Survey of Jancsvillc
proportion in cities of the state in general is 31.8%. In Janes-
yilleitis27.4%.
It is, therefore, concluded that the Janesville census in all
probability shows a total that is smaller than the number of the
children of school age in the Janesville district.
A like conclusion would be inevitable from a study of pres-
ent methods of census taking and recording. This work has
been entrusted to a single individual qualified by an extensive
experience and acquaintance with Janesville and its residents.
It has not been felt necessary to make a complete house-to-house
canvass. The census report of the former year has been used as
a base ; names known to be ' ' dead ' ' have been stricken out, and
new names entered on the basis of memory and somewhat ran-
dom records. The ledger method of recording the census has
been used, by which the name of each child in a given family is
written on one line of a page.
This method of census taking and recording is obviously ob-
solete and inefficient. It makes it impossible to record com-
pletely, to alphabetize accurately, or, most important of all, to
use the school census in administering the compulsory attend-
ance.
The Janesville school authorities have determined to change
to the card index system of census taking. This course has the
unqualified approval of the survey staff.
A sufficient number of enumerators should be employed to
take the census. Preference should be given to principals of
ward buildings who are in Janesville through the summer or to
teachers in the various schools. Remuneration should be made
probably at the rate of four cents per child enumerated. Each
enumerator should be given a blank card form to ascertain that
all necessary data is secured, and the manner of taking the cen-
sus should be thoroughly discussed before enumerators go to
work.
Upon receipt at the central office of notes of enumerators,
census cards should be filled out. This procedure will make it
possible to use the census records for administrative purposes.
At present, as has been intimated, the Janesville census has
no function beyond that of a preliminary to reporting the
school population to the state office. Its local use as a check, on
compulsory attendance has not been demonstrated, and indeed,
Census, Em'ollment and Attendance 109
such use would be impossible under past conditions and methods.
It is recommended that the census cards for those children
between the ages of 7 and 16 be taken from the files by attend-
ance officers at the beginning of the school year, and that these
cards be sorted by districts within the city. They should then
be checked carefully to determine the enrollment or nonenroU-
ment of each child and the cases of those not enrolled should be
investigated. It would probably be well to make a separate
group of children 14-10 not enrolled, for the director of the in-
dustrial school, and of children who have completed the eighth
grade, for the high school principal. Cards may be kept in
these groups through the school year, for convenience in use.
If a separate alphabetized census file is desired, it will be neces-
sary to fill out cards in duplicate.
Enrollment and Attendance
In the public schools of the state, the proportion of children
from 4-20 j^ears of age enrolled in school is 57% (1915-16).
Including incomplete parochial school figures, it is 63%. In
the cities, the proportion enrolled in public school is 55%.
Comparison of this figure with the records for Janesville
shows that the Janesville schools are serving an adequate pro-
portion of the population of school age. The per cent of chil-
dren enrolled in public school (1915-16) is 60.4. Including paro-
chial school enrollment, it is 73.5%. A factor which inflates
somewhat the figures for Janesville is the nonresident high
school enrollment, which is comparatively large. This factor,
however, is fairly constant throughout the state, and will not af-
fect the fact that Janesville stands out well in the proportion of
school population enrolled in school.
The high school enrollment has been increasing rapidly, hav-
ing gained 19% in the past four years. In 1915-16, it was
21.8% of the total Janesville school enrollment. Omitting non-
residents, this per cent becomes 18.7%.
If every pupil in the grades finished 12 grades in 12 years,
the high school would contain 33V{j% of the total school enroll-
ment. This ideal condition is of course not possible practically.
The Janesville figure for high school to grade enrollment ranks
high with the state as a whole, where the figure is 10% (cities,
including nonresidents, 17%).
110
Educational Survey of Janesville
The following table gives census and enrollment data for
Janesville 1915-16. State data are to be found in the Biennial
Report of Wisconsin Schools for 1914-lG. The Janesville fig-
ures are those reported to the state department office.
1911-12
1912-13
1913-14
1914-15
1915-16
Census 4-20
3,837
2,480
2,959
(81%)
421
(19*)
64.7
3,806
2,567
2,142
(83.5%)
425
(16.5%)
67.4
3,827
2,517
2,073
(82.3%)
444
(17.7%)
65.7
3,824
2,470
1,997
(80.8%)
473
(19.2%)
64.6
3,799
Total enrollment
2,298
Grades
1,796
Hig'h school
(78.2%)
502
Per cent of enrollment to
census
(21.8%)
60.4
Parochial school enrollment, 1916-17—524.
SCHOOL ATTENDANCE
The pupil enrollment in Janesville schools is a high propor-
tion of the census. The attendance, on the other hand, is poor
in comparison with state average or general attendance stand-
ards. It will not profit a child to be enrolled in school if he
fails to attend. There is an obvious need for revised attendance
supervision in Janesville. This need and suggestions for the
manner of meeting it are outlined in the following paragraphs.
In 1915-16, the proportion of average daily attendance to en-
rollment in Wisconsin cities was 88%. In Janesville. this pro-
portion was as follows:
Enrollment Attendance Proportion
1911-12 2480 2048 82.6%
1912-13 2567 2146 83.5%
1913-14 2517 2099 83.5%
1914-15 2470 2068 83.7%
1915-16 2298 1964 85.4%
This attendance figure for Janesville means that every day the
schools were in session a considerable number of children were
absent. Some of the difference between 2298 and 1964 can be
accounted for through pupils removing from the city and ethers
entering the city after the opening of the schools in Septem'Der,
but only a portion. Certainly such a large number of absences
daily from public grades and high school alone without count-
ing the problems of compulsory school enrollment, would form a
Census, Enrollment and Attendance 111
cause for the employment of a much more adequate attendance
system thau that at present in use in the Janesville schools. The
experience of Kenosha among other cities, in the value of ade-
quate attendance supervision, cannot fail to convince one of the
vital necessity of this phase of school administration.
A full-time attendance officer should be employed for a tweJxe-
months year. For the school year, attendance duties will oc-
cupy this person's full time. This officer should supervise the
taking of the census. During the remainder of the summer
months, the attendance officer will be employed at various admin-
istrative duties, such as hel})ing in the compilation of the annual
report to the state office, keeping current track of the arrival and
departure of resident families, working to influence dropped pu-
pils to reenroll in school or eighth grade graduates to enter
high school, and otherwise aiding in planning for the sclicol
procedure of the following year.
At the beginning of the school year the enrollment should be
checked by the attendance officer through the use of the census
cards and all cases of nonenrollment should be investigated
within the first week of school. This work will also be done cur-
rently throughout the school year for families newly arriving in
Janesville, and for children who may drop out of school.
In checking daily school attendance, the cooperation of teach-
ers and principals is vital. Within ten minutes of the opening of
each session, each teacher should send to her principal a list of
all the children who are absent from her room, together with
I'casons where these are known The attendance officer should
call each building in turn at a specified time, and receive all
names, with facts where possible. The list of absences should
then be made the basis for investigation, to be made by tele-
phone where convenient, and by personal visit where necessary
or advisable.
Through the year the attendance officer should actjuire as ex-
tensive attendance data as possible. This should be compiled,
analyzed, and studied for variation by days, weeks, or months,
causes of absence, etc. Graphic representations should be
made, and all material used for talks before women's clubs,
parent-teacher associations, and teachers' meetings, and for ar-
ticles in local newspapers.
In order to discharge his or her duties successfully, the at-
tendance officer should be a person fitted to command the re
112 Educational Survey of Janesville
spect and cooperation of school and community. This person
should have some teaching experience, preferably, and should
be able and ready to give talks in public concerning the work
of the attendance department. Experience in some form of so-
cial service is almost indispensable, and to this list of qualifica-
tions can be added training and experience in nursing and pub-
lie health work. The health side of attendance work can, how-
ever, be carried on separately if desired.
NONRESIDENTS
The laws of Wisconsin compel any school district not main-
taining a high school to pay tuition for any local graduate at-
tending high school in another district. Under this law, there
are at present over 10,000 nonresident pupils in Wisconsin high
schools, constituting about 21% of the total high school enroll-
ment.
The Janesville high school is nearest and most convenient to
38 rural school districts, comprising a territory of over 150
square miles. The proportion of nonresident to total enrollment
in 1916-17 was as follows :
Of 173 freshmen 27 or 16% were nonresident
Of 150 sophomores 27 or 18% were nonresident
Of 101 juniors 21 or 21% were nonresident
Of 81 seniors 15 or 19% were nonresident
Of 65 graduating- seniors 11 or 17% were nonresident
Of 505 high school students 90 or 18% were nonresident
This puts Janesville slightly below the state average for non-
resident enrollment. To determine whether it would be easily
possible to attract more rural school graduates, a study was
made of the graduating classes of 1914, 1915, and 1916 in the
38 districts tributary to the Janesville high school.^
There were in the classes of 1914, 1915, and 1916, 119 di-
ploma graduates from the rural schools in the Janesville high
school territory. Of these 119,
64 or 54% attended JanesviHe high school one-half year or more
3 or 2% attended county training school
14 or 12% attended high schools other than Janesville
.5 or 4% attended 9th or 10th grades in state graded shcools
2 or 2% attended country school another year
31 or 26% attended no school after graduation
> "Diploma" graduates only are included; that is, those passing county
examinations in common school branches.
Census, Enrollment and Attendance 113
Out of the 64 at some time enrolled in the Janesville high
school, only 44 were enrolled during the school year 1916-17.
This means that 20 of the 64 dropped out within 3 years or
less. It also shows that only about 60% of the nonresident pop-
ulation of the Janesville high school in 1916-17 was drawn from
the territory directly tributary to it.
Two Recommendations Rise From This Analysis
1. Definite attempt should be made through every possible means to
induce rural school graduates to come to the Janesville high
school. Some of this work is carried on at present, but it may
well be extended. Possible means include lectures, musical
programs, agricultural demonstrations, and other meetings at
rural centers and at Janesville, circulars and letters sent to
the list of graduates, articles on the value of high school edu-
cation, for local papers, and commencement talks at rural
graduating exercises by high school principal and teachers.
2. Attempt should be made to keep nonresident pupils from dropping
out of school. It is sometimes felt that rural pupils are more
poorly prepared for high school work, and that this fact causes
them to drop out. That this is not the case is indicated by a
recent study* showing that rural pupils do as good or better
work than city pupils in most secondary subjects, and by the
fact that resident and nonresident eliminations in Janesville
are practically equal. Too little effort to keep pupils in school
is made, whether these pupils are resident or nonresident.
HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES AND HIGHER SCHOOLS
A study was made of the high school graduating classes of
1914, 1915, and 1916, to determine what proportion went on to a
higher institution of learning. It was found that graduates
went on to school in the following proportions:
1914 1915 1916
Total graduates 55 78 63 .
Total going on to school 25 38 20
Per cent going on to school 45% 49% 32%
Davis: Educational Administi-ation and Supervision, Mar. 1916.
114 Educational Survey of Janesville
Students went on to higher schools as follows:
1914 1915 1916
University or college 21 29 16
Normal school 0 5 1
County Training school 3 0 2
Special school 1 4 1
Total 25 38 20
This record of graduates entering higher schools is com-
mendable.
At present no aids are given high school graduates in the
way of choosing a vocation, or obtaining congenial employment.
Such work as this is coming to be recognized as a legitimate
function of the schools, and would constitute a progressive activ-
ity if carried on in the Janesville high school.
Part II
VII THE PROBLEM OF INDUSTRIAL
EDUCATION
Social and Industrial Conditions
Janesville is a eity of approximately 15,000 population. Its
growth during the decade 1900-1910 was comparatively small,
and it is safe to assume that except for some unusual and un-
foreseen condition which may arise, its future development
will not be marked by any rapid groAvth in population.
The number of wage earners reported in 1910 was 1451, This
is approximateh^ 10 per cent of the city's population. The city
has an over-population of females, the ratio being approximately
9 males to 10 females. This is to be accounted for by the pres-
ence of textile factories employing chiefly female labor. Ap-
proximately 2000 of the city's population are foreign born.
These are mainly of North European and Canadian stocks, Eng-
lish, German, Irish, Norwegian, and Scotch. No other nation-
ality was represented by more than 50 in 1910. It will be seen
that Janesville is primarily an American city, and it has no
difficult problem of providing education for foreigners.
The city represents a combination of factors, — agricultural,
commercial, manufacturing, and residential. It is situated in a
fertile agricultural region less than 100 miles from two large
cities, Chicago and Milwaukee. The natural water power af-
forded by the Rock river has been the direct cause of its devel-
opment along manufacturing lines. The number of its manu-
facturing establishments as reported by the Federal Census in
1910 was 78. This number has probably been somewhat in-
creased during the period intervening.
To determine the educational needs of such a city, it is quite
obvious that any adequate survey of educational conditions
must include a survey of the leading industries and occupations.
Such a study is necessary in order to determine more fully the
types of education needed. Whether a city school system shall
adhere closely to the traditional sul3Jects or whether it shall in-
clude in its program of education more liberal support of the so-
116 Educational Surve]/ of Janesville
called "practical" subjects is a matter that must be determined
by investigation of the city 's industries and occupations.
A survey of the industries, however, should not be under-
taken without a recognition of the fact that any type of educa-
tion whether industrial or otlierwise must take into account the
interests of the individual, the community, and the state. The
individual desires to prepare himself to do the thiiigs which he
is by nature and inclination best fitted to do. The community de-
sires boys and girls trained to meet the social and vocational
needs of the city. It desires that they shall become citizens in
the best sense, and that they shall contribute to the city's com-
mercial and industrial development. These onlj' in a bi'oader
sense are likewise the interests of the state.
Before recommendations can be made as to the kind of indus-
trial education to be offered, another group of factors should be
considered. This is the extent of the demand for specific lines
of industrial training and the cost of meeting such demands.
Wise economy requii-es that there be a reasonable demand for the
specific type of training and that the type of work be of a kind
which is socially worth while from the standpoint indicated in
ihe paragraph preceding. If an occupation is undesirable as a
vocation, then the school should be unwilling to train for it.
This means that the type and scope of the industries whose
needs are to be met must be considered. They must be consid-
ered from three points of view. These are: (1) the economic
standing of the occupation itself, i. e., whether it is local or gen-
eral ; seasonal or fluctuating ; its probable future ; and the sup-
ply and demand of labor in that field; (2) the opportunity
which it offers the worker, educational, financial, industrial and
social; (3) the conditions which surround it, health, social, and
moral.
With a view to discovering more definitely the instructional
needs of the community, particularly in its industrial phases,
nine representative factories were visited by members of the
survey. These included a fountain pen factory, a shade factory,
a tobacco factorj^, a machine factory, two machine shops, and
three textile factories. These factories employ more *than a
1000 workers. When this figure is compared with the city's to-
tal wage earners, it will be seen that the group of factories vis-
ited is fairly representative of the city's leading industries.
The visits of the members of the survey staff included not only
Problem of Industrial Ednaiiiott 117
an observation of the processes involved but included interviews
and discussions with managers, foremen, and workers. In the
course of these interviews, direct information was sought on
such questions as the number of persons employed in various
branches of the industry, the method of selecting employes, the
requirements from the standpoint of knowledge and skill, the
time required to learn the various processes, the wages paid, the
hours and seasons of labor, the ways in which the workers spend
leisure hours, the frequency with which workers change occupa-
tions, and their reasons for changing. In addition, the repre-
sentatives interviewed were questioned as to the preparation
which the schools might offer to those seeking employment in the
particular occupation or industr\^ They were also questioned
as to how the schools might help the worker on the job.
In addition to the visits to individual factories, a conference
was held at the Commercial Club Rooms with representatives of
various occupations, including l)oth employers and tradesmen.
At this conference, the members of the surA'ey sought to discover
the educational needs of the occupations represented.
Industries
The industries of Janesville are al3out equally divided between
those of a textile nature and those which might be classed as in-
dustrial or manufacturing. At the present time, there is a lim-
ited demand for skilled workers for the machine shops, foundry,
woodworking factories, printing, and building trades. There
is evidently a growing demand for highly specialized workers
for the textile factories.
Textile Industries
Almost all of the work in the textile factories is done on au-
tomatic machines, which call for speed in operation rather than
any high degree of skill or knowledge. In the opinion of the
superintendents of the various textile factories visited, most
machines can be operated at a high speed in from two to six
weeks and any preparation that the school could give other than
the general preparation now given Avould be of no material value
in this work.
For the girls in the factory it was suggested, however, by
some, that a knowledge of sewing might be the most helpful of
118 Educational Survey of Janesvillc
any training of a special nature. Others again said this would
be of no material value.
Practically all of the work in the textile factories is done under
the piecework system which pays by the quantity of work done.
When this amo,unt falls below a minimum requirement, it is
concluded that the worker is not adapted for that particular op-
eration or machine and an opportunity is given him to try out
on some other machine before being counted a failure. Usually
a girl works at the same machine or operation during her employ-
ment. A change of machine or work usually means a reduc-
tion, temporary at least, in the earnings of th? individual. It
is, therefore, to her advantage and especially to the advantage
of the employer that she continue the work on the same machine.
It is but a few years before most of the girls in these factories
marry and have a home of their own. Few of them are pre-
pared for the duties of home life and homemaking. It is in this
field that the school should offer training.
Machine SJiop Industries
The machine industries of Janesvillc demand a number of
skilled tradesmen. They also give employment to a large num-
ber of what may be called semiskilled workers, who are not
tradesmen, but who have gained skill in two or three operations.
The trained machinist is one who is skilled in the use of hand
tools and capable of operating and understanding with a degree
of skill any of the common machines in the industries.
Building Trades
The building trades are represented by about 190 Avorkers.
This number includes bricklayers, painters, carpenters, plumb-
ers, etc. It may be said that Janesville's slow growth does not
make any large demand for such workers.
Woodworking Trades
Two carriage factories and a table factory are the main wood-
working concerns. They employ about 80 workers. The work
may be said to be characteristic of such factories.
Specialized Industries
Such work as is carried on in most of the city's factories is
highly specialized. Some of the work in fact may be said to
Problem of hidustrial Education 111)
be almost purely local. Inasmuch as these specialized industries
and in fact all of the factories, run all the year round, there is.
no problem of so-called seasonable employment.
In cases where the work is highly specialized the school can
do but little to train the workers for the industry. Training in
this case should be for the responsibilities of home and citizen-
ship.
The Present Manual Training Work
Work of an industrial nature for boys in the Jancsville
schools begins in the seventh grade, and is continued through
the high school. The work is required in the seventh and eighth
grades but is elective in the high school. The work of the sev-
enth and eighth grades consists in the making of a series of
simple models in wood that vary in difficulty of processes as the
pupil advances. These models are of the older stereotyped
variety and do not embody the newer ideas of manual training.
The high school offers mechanical drawing, architectural- draw-
ing, advanced woodwork, wood turning, forge, and machine shop
work. None of the work shows the development it should.
There is also an almost entire absence of correlation between the
various courses.
Pupils of the parochial schools in the seventh and eighth
grades attend high school for manual training w^ork, and re-
ceive the same privileges as the pupils of the public schools.
Woodwork is the medium used in the seventh and eighth grades.
Standard of Work
As would be expected when conditions are considered, the
standard of the work is below fair for most subjects. In one
particular subject, however, (drawing) it may be classed as
very good. The weakness of the work lies in the fact that there
is no definite policy outlined, and no correlation between depart-
ments. Each teacher works out his own salvation independent
of the others.
Reorganization of the Present Industrial and Manual Training
Work
A reorganization of industrial and manual training work
might be effected to the advantage of both the manual training
department and the industrial school. The present woodworking
120 Educational Survey of Janesvillc
and drawing room in the high school could be made into one
large woodworking room with the woodworking machines placed
at the drawing room end. The present lathe and mill room could
be used for an electrical room and metal wo'rking room. A re-
arrangement of the machine room would permit of the addi-
tion of more machines and a drawing and a woodworking room
could still be maintained in the industrial school, where all
drawing could be done and where the work for the seventh and
eighth grades and the elementary industrial high school work
could still be done. Pupils who are taking the advanced in-
dustrial work could receive this training at the high school.
Much of the new equipment could be made by the industrial
and high school classes.
The Teaclmig Staff
There are six teachers employed in the industrial and manual
training work — two give full time to high school work ; one one-
quarter time to high school work and one one-quarter time to
industrial work, and one one-half time to grades ; two give all
of their time to industrial work and one part time to industrial
school work and part time to grade work.
The present system, whereby the industrial school is trying to
build up an equipment for industrial school work in a building
that is thoroughly inadequate for such work, will not i)crmit of
the best development of the work. The recommendation is of-
fered that the industrial school and the high school combine
equipments, and place a man in charge of each subject so that
he may be able to teach classes all day. This will permit of
high school and industrial school pupils getting the benefits that
accrue from a combination of equipment and tools. Inasmuch
as pupils have but to cross the street, no real objection can be
raised as to the inconvenience of this method. This plan will
permit of a considerable saving to the community and at the
same time make for better development of high school and in-
dustrial school work.
The teaching staff in manual training and industrial work,
while perhaps well-prepared for this work, lack forcefulness or
''snap" in execution. This is probably due somewhat to the un-
inviting condition of the rooms and equipment, but perhaps
more largely to the need of a capable director who should be
held responsible for all industrial work.
Problem of Industrial Education ' 121
Development Side of Manual Training and Industrial Work
There is need for greater emphasis on the development or in-
itiative side of industrial work. At the present time, most of
the emphasis seems to be placed upon the actual accomplish-
ment by the hands. This does not permit of the broadest de-
velopment of the work. There is also need for supervision of the
industrial and manual training work, A policy or plan should
be outlined and followed. Meetings and discussions of the work
at stated periods by the teachers interested should be encouraged.
THE PRESENT EQUIPMENT FOR MANUAL TRAINING
Equipment in Drawing Room
The drawing tables are poor and should be replaced by new
ones of a type that will house a drawing board and the instru-
ments of the pupils at the same table where the pupil works.
This type of desk will eliminate the necessity of furnishing
large lockers to take care of the drawing boards and instru-
ments and will permit of more space. This method also elim-
inates confusion at the beginning and ending of the class per-
iods. The individual drawing equipment and material is pur-
chased by the pupils.
Liglit
In the drawing room, according to the evidence of the teach-
er, some artificial light has to be used about fifty per cent of the
time. In the woodworking room and machine shop, the light is
also far below the minimum requirements.
Floors
The floor of the drawing room is of cement. This is a most
undesirable type of floor for a drawing room. It is desirable
that this should be covered with linoleum. The floors in the
other rooms are satisfactory.
Equipment in Woodworking Room
The individual bench equipment is inadequate for the pres-
ent needs. The general equipment also needs to be considerably
increased. It is necessary also in connection with bench equip-
ment to inaugurate an inventory system to keep account of all
tools.
122 Educational Survey of Janesville
The woodworking benches are in a most discotiraging con-
dition. The tops in many cases are split and it is impossible to
do work that calls for any degree of accuracy. The making of
new benches would make a satisfactory problem for the wood-
working class. This would be true also in making drawing
tables for the drafting room.
Storing ProMems
There is urgent need for space to store projects under con-
struction. The present cupboard is totally inadequate for this
purpose. Projects under construction have to be placed around
the woodworking room from period to period. This takes up a
great deal of valuable floor space. No provision is made for
wood finishing. It is practically impossible to finish any wood-
working project under existing conditions.
Mill and Lathe Room
A reorganization of the floor space in the mill room and the
removal of all equipment that is not necessary would contribute
materially to the floor space. The present wiring of some of the
machines is not satisfactory, and probably does not conform to
the State Building Code requirements. The circular saw and
jointer should be turned around so that they will face the light.
At the present time, these machines cannot be used to the best
advantage. The element of danger is also considerably in-
creased under existing conditions. A surfacer added to this
equipment would be of inestimable value in saving the time of
the pupils, thus permitting a broader development of the work.
Machine and Forge Boom
This room has as much equipment as is wise to place in a
room of this size. This does not mean, however, that it is over-
equipped, but rather that it is not large enough for development
through the new organization of the work. A rearrangement of
the motors and shafting would permit of more light and increased
efficiency. A system of taking care of tools and repairing them
should be installed immediately.
The condition of the present equipment of tools and machines
is fair but is inadequate for the proper development of the work.
In the machine and forge work, there is evidently little correla-
Problem of Industrial Education 123
tion with the other subjects. There seems to be little or no de-
velopment work designed to make the pupils think.
Pupils taking the four-year industrial course should have op-
portunity to take machine shop work in the junior year so that
the student may have the last year for special study in some one
subject.
Blackboards
All of the blackboards in the classrooms are in poor condition.
They should be replaced by slate boards at an early date.
System
There is need for the installation of a business-like system to
take care of the cost of the projects made for the school and for
the individual pupil. Such a system offers many practical prob-
lems in mathematics.
Physical Condition of the Booms
There is need for vigilance on the part of the janitor to keep
these rooms in an inviting condition. Removal of cases in the
woodworking room which are little used, would afford more
floor space. Calcimining the walls would contribute materially
to the brightness of the rooms. This work of altering and re-
pairing might well be done by pupils, with advantage to them
and to the school.
Evening School Courses
Courses offered in the evening school of Janesville may be
divided into four groups : general ; including arithmetic, Span-
ish, English and spelling: commercial; including penmanship,
business English, commercial arithmetic, bookkeeping, stenog-
raphy and typewriting : industrial ; including shop mathemat-
ics, telegraphy, agriculture, chemistry, physics, gas engine
work, electrical work, mechanical drawing, woodwork, machine
work.: household arts ; including sewing, cooking, millinery : art ;
including sketching and painting, and china painting: physical
culture. The total enrollment for the session of 1916-17 was
449. This includes an afternoon class for mothers and a short
course in agriculture.
124 Educational Survey of Janesville
Enrollment hy Departments
General 45
Commercial 72
Industrial 28
Household arts 209
A short course in agriculture consisting of five lectures was
given during the month of March. This course had an enrollment
of 45. Tlie enrollment in the afternoon course for mothers was
50.
Time ScJiedule
The evening school is in session from seveurthirty to nine-
thirty, on Tuesday and Thursday for 7 months, beginning in
October and ending in -April. One apparent fact in evening
school work is the large number (one to 32 of the population)
attending the evening school. Another desirable feature is the
good attendance on the part of those enrolled. This indicates in
a general way at least that the evening school of Janesville in-
terests and meets the needs of the community.
Mother's Afternoon Course
A course that seemed to be particularly worthwhile and com-
mendable is the mother's afternoon sewing course. This class
meets in three sections of the city one afternoon each week. The
course is designed for mothers who are interested in acquiring
knowledge of how to make garments needed in the home.
Domestic Science
Unfortunately owing to circumstances it has not been found
practicable to make an extended survey of the domestic science
department as originally planned. Only a cursory inspection
was made and only general conclusions reached.
The enrollment in that department was 126 or 41% of the
306 girls in the high school; of these 46 were first year; 50
second year ; 20 third year and 15 fourth year students. This
is a gratifying showing and indicates a hearty interest in this
branch of the school work. These figures good as they are do
not indicate the whole number of girls who have had this train-
ing since the majority have had considerably more work in the
grades before entering the high school.
Problem of Industrial Education 125
The work includes the usual lines of sewing and other types,
common in schools such as Janesville with the additional fact
that it is offered four years instead of two as is the case in most
places.
The courses of study in the different lines are definitely and
carefully outlined and the administration appears very efficient.
The annual exhibit of the work was highly commendable and in-
dicated the very practical nature of what is being done.
The equipment is plain and serviceable and probably ade-
quate though a part of the kitchen apparatus and fixtures is not
up to the standard of the newer schools.
The rooms are poorly lighted, inconvenient, difficult of access
and inadequate. They are evidently an after thought to meet
an emergency owing to a growth in courses not originally pro-
vided for. Janesville was one of the leaders among the cities of
the state in the introduction of the course in domestic science in-
to their schools and naturally made the best of accommodations
then available in its building, but the time has come when it
should again be in line in the matter of facilities for efficient
and successful work. It is to be hoped that in the near future
such accommodations can be provided.
The Industrial School
The industrial school had a total enrollment of 87 pupils
(1916-17) in the all day class and 218 in the permit class. The
permit class attend four hours per week. The courses offered
to the boys besides the academic work are woodwork, gas engine
and electric wiring, work. The girls are offered, besides the
academic work, domestic science, and commercial work. All pu-
pils must be 14 years of age or over. A director and two teach-
ers give all of their time to the work. Four other teachers give
part time. The director is a competent man and is himself a
capable teacher. •
This school is seriously handicapped through the lack of prop-
er rooms to carry on laboratory work, and also for the lack of
equipment. There can be little development under the present
conditions. A development of the work in such lines as electri-
cal, gas engine, and auto mechanism, is highly desirable. It
would give added interest to the work, and would give the boy a
keener sense of appreciation of the industries.
126
Educational 8urvc!j of Jancsville
The Children Who Need Indithtrial Education
In any school system, there are to be found children who are
several years overage for their -grade. These overage children
seldom complete the regular elementary grades in any great
numbers. The reasons for this are several. Some of these
children would in all probability advance more rapidly with bet-
ter teaching. There are others who, for some reason or other,
have not attended school regularly. Still others are bored by
dry and unappealing subject matter in the curriculum. These
consequently fail to make normal progress because they fail to
regard it as worth while.
There are some who, by nature, are not as capable of profiting
from certain types of instruction and for whom other types of
instruction of a manual nature must be provided. Finally, there
are children who are normally bright and capable and who ad-
vance regularly but who express a preference for industrial
pursuits.
At present, 28.9% of the children in the Jancsville schools
are one or more years overage. If we take a single age group;
the children who were 11 years old in September, 1916, we find
them distributed in every one of the elementary grades from the
first to the eighth. If we take the 14-ycar olds, we find them
scattered from the third grade to the junior year of the high
school. Eleven-year-old children ought normally to be found
in the sixth and not lower than the fifth grade. Children 14
years of age in September sliould have completed grade eight
and be in grade nine. These facts will be seen more definitely
from the f olloAving table :
Table 32. — Grades Completed by Children 11 and H Years of Age.
Grades Completed and Grades Now in
^ ^
, 1
y
^
i^
>
>
>
>
>
X
X!
-
:
•
-
■a
•
;
No.
^
c4
:
;
■;
'
'
^
2
X
of
chil-
Age
-a
:i;
h- 1
>
>
>
>
>
Total
dren
T3
-a
-a
-a
•a
01
-a
0
3J
<D
«
<s>
a>
IP
a
V
O,
a
a
a
a
a
a,
a
Or
a
^
fl
E
a
P
P.
a
3
B
B
8
•^
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
0
0
ai
o
o
o
O
o
o
O
o
0
0
11 yr.
1
2
3
16
36
38
44
11
151
"79"
14 yr.
1
3
3
5
34
15
1
141
Problem of Industrial Education ■ 127
Some of these children who are overage for their grade will,
doubtless, remain long enough to complete the course in the
regular elementary grades but it is improbable that children
three and four years behind their normal grade will do so. These
children frequently leave school before they complete the fifth,
sixth or seventh grades. It requires no argument to convince
any fair-minded individual that children who leave school with
no more education than that afforded by these grades are not
Avell equipped for life. Here then is where a distinct problem
of education arises and it cannot be solved by any single blanket
panacea. Some improvement can be accomplished through
better teaching of the traditional subjects, and revision of the
subject matter. Some additional improvement can be brought
about through the organization of special classes for exceptional
children and through the organization of a junior high school
with its provisions for prevocational training, and through offer-
ing more definitely vocational training in the high school.
What becomes of these children who leave school early ? The
future of the children who will leave school early must be ser-
iously considered. A number of them will enter so-called "blind-
alley" jobs receiving a relatively high initial wage, but advanc-
ing little during their normal working life. They are quite apt
to become social misfits at fifty or earlier. Others will become
machine operators in industries not requiring educational train-
ing and emphasizing speed rather than skill. These too in the
course of the few weeks or months required to attain a high
speed will receive a relatively high initial wage, and likewise
will advance but little in pay or position. They may expect
to find themselves displaced by younger workers rather early in
life. At the present time, relatively few young workers can
hope to pass through a stage of apprenticeshij) and into a trade.
Some trades are slowly but surely giving way to machine proc-
esses and even were it advisable to prepare definitely for certain
trades at this time there is little assurance that that trade too
will not be largely displaced by machine labor a few years
hence. From the standpoint of the home, consideration must be
given to those young girls who enter upon factory work and who
consequently lose the opportunity of an apprenticeship in cook-
ing and homemaking under the mother's supervnsion. Few fe-
male workers in Janesville factories remain after marriage. The
J 28 Educatiunal i^urvcy of Janesville
period of factory labor for them covers but a few years. They
are suddenly . faced with the problem of managing a household
after a period of factory labor which has afforded them no
training for the duties they will be expected to perform. For
these, the school must make some provision.
Educational Recommendations
Suggestions from Manufacturers and Workers
A significant outstanding fact resulting from the conference
with manufacturers and Avorkers was the frequent small concern
of these practically minded men for either the knowledge or the
skill ends of school training. It might be expected that these
men representing the practical side of everyday life would ex-
press a desire that boys and girls be trained in doing things with
their hands. Much to the surprise of the surveyors, neither of
these ends was emphasized as fundamental. Training in the
fundamental qualities of character was mentioned as the primary
function of the schools. Personal habits of cleanliness and
temperance, politeness, thoroughness, and accuracy in work at-
tempted, initiative, and originality are qualities necessary for
business or vocational success. Grood habits of thinking, rather
than book knowledge or specific skill in the manipulation of
machinerj^, the ability to express thoughts and qualities in writ-
ing briefly and to the point are prized in the business Avorld.
For office workers, a good general knowledge is desirable. In
some of the establishments employing large numbers of office as-
sistants, a high school education is required and a university
education preferred. Some business training with a good com-
mand of written and spoken Fjuglish are important factors con-
tributing to success. A criticism frequently encountered by
the surveyors centered on the poor preparation of the average
stenographer in Englisli. More thorough training in correct
expression should be given in the schools. Business men desire
office assistants to whom they can dictate a letter with an assur-
ance that it will not be written and mailed containing errors in
expression, spelling, or punctuation. Accuracy, rather than
speed so often emphasized by the "get-an-education-quick" type
of business college, is preferred.
In the printing trade, proficiency in spelling, punctuation,
and the elements of composition were urged. Training should
Problem of Industrial Education 129
include advertising" methods and publicity. These it will be
noted are all suggestions calling for instruction in academic sub-
jects.
For the building trades, architectural drawing and mathe-
matics are desirable. Painters in particular prefer in addition
to the above training an appreciation of color schemes and dec-
oration, and the knowledge of the properties, characteristics
and methods of treating common woods.
Success in telegraphy- requires both a connncrcial and a
technical training. Office management is an essential.
For mechanical pursuits, mathematics, freehand sketching,
mechanical drawing and blue print reading are the courses
most needed.
It is the opinion of the manufacturers and workers of Janes-
^^lle who were questioned by members of the survey who visited
the various factories, that the need of Janesville is not for
specific training for girls and boys in any bi'anch of the in-
dustries, but rather for a general industrial or vocational train-
ing that will train for development and initiative within certain
fields so that the pupils may readily adjust themselves to meet
the conditions of any kind of industrial or factory work after
leaving school, no matter in what grade the pupil is forced to
leave school, providing it is in the upper grades.
The growth of industrial factories in Janesville demanding
skilled labor has not been very rapid and while there is a steady
demand for a certain amount of skilled labor, there are no large
industries springing up that would call for the establishment of
a trade school by the city. The expense of such a school must
necessarily be large, and is not demanded by the industries of
Janesville at this time. The demand for training in any one
trade or industry is not sufficient to warrant special training for
that particular line.
General School Problems
In making provision for industrial education, three factors
are involved: (1) Employment of properly trained teachere
under adequate supervision and who should have facilities for
further training when in service; (2) Organization of industrial
courses with a view of cooperating with the industrial estab-
lishments; (3) Suitable rooms and necessary equipment to carry
on all the work intelligently. The question of how much time
should be devoted to industrial or vocational work in the seventh,
130 Educational Survey of Janesville
eighth, and ninth grades is one that should be given careful con-
sideration. If the work is designed to give a knowledge of the
industries and social conditions and opportunities, and an op-
portunity for a boy to find himself, it is obvious that more time
(eighty minutes per week, is the amount of time usually allotted
to the work) must be given to this phase of the work.
Industrial Courses
Prevocational courses should be offered in the junior high
school. These should aim to enable boys and girls to discover
their own aptitudes. They should help a boy to find out if he
is mechanically inclined and fitted to become an electrician,
carpenter, printer, or whether he is better adapted to com-
mercial, agricultural, or professional ]nirsuits. Girls should be
given an opportunity^ to learn something of the various phases of
home economics as well as knowledge of courses leading to com-
mercial and professional activities. Industrial art courses
should be taught from the fifth grade uji without any thought
of future vocation on the part of the pupils. The work should
be centered upon the development and nature of the necessary
common industries of our daily life.
Work of a prevocational nature should begin in the seventh
grade. The courses should be so arranged that the boy and girl
may spend one.-half year at least in several different types of
work before completing the eighth grade. The ninth grade
might well be used as a year in which the pupil may concentrate
on some special subject, if it is necessary that he or she should
leave school at the end of the ninth grade. To do this, it would
be necessary to increase the time given to industrial work and
to make it a daily subject. The special subjects offered for
boys might well be as follows :
For Boys
Woodwork.
Electrical work.
Gas engine and general metal work.
Printing, forge and machine work.
Agricultural work.
For Girls.
Cooking.
Sewing.
Household management.
FrohUm of Induslrial Education 131
The industrial work of the high school after the ninth grade
should be such that pupils desiring an advanced technical train-
ing, but who may not go on to college, may receive it in the
three latter years of the senior high school. To do this it will
be necessary for students who intend to follow a technical
course to spend about one-third of the school day in the school
shop (with the possibility of a cooperative arrangement with
manufacturers). Before specializing one year of woodwork
should be required of all high school students. The fact that
one-third of the day is spent in the shop by the students who
are to follow a technical course should not interfere with the
work of the pupils who are taking industrial work for the gen-
eral practical value and training that is obtained from such a
course, and designed to round out a practical education. How-
ever, the courses in industrial work should be so arranged that
pupils who signify a desire or are particularly adapted for such
courses are given an opportunity to develop this work along
lines of special interest. Such courses should be closelj'
vocational.
Opportunities for Learning About Industries
The industrial classes should obtain first-hand information of
civic life, industrial and commercial occupations by visiting in-
dustrial plants. Information on how the city's business is
carried on, conditions under which employers work, the nature
of the occupation, and the attractiveness of the work may be
learned at close range. A member of the firm visited may be
asked to give a talk to the class before or after the visit on the
requirements of the particular work of his firm, the type of
worker desired, the time recpiired to learn the trade or occupa-
tion, the amount of training and skill demanded, the wages and
opportunities for advancement. Reports of what transpired dur-
ing the visit may be written as a report for the English work.
The girls may visit the textile factories and other plants where
female help is largely employed. A schedule of such visits
should be made out at the beginning of the school year. A
series of illustrated lectures or talks about industry should be
made a part of each year's program.
132 J'Ah{c((ti())i(iJ Si(rv€i/ of Jancsville
Education for Private Life
Finally, one other phase of education for those who enter in-
dustry needs to be considered. Suggestions from manufacturers
reveal a regard for the particular knowledge deemed necessary
for the workers' success in the occupation. They do not, how-
ever, express sufficient concern for the social and civic aspects
of the child's education. Not only his immediate present but
his future must be considered. Not only his working hours but
the hours which he will devote to household, business, or civic
affairs and to leisure need attention. The children must be
taught how to live. As a man or a woman, he will need to knoAV
how to buy and sell, how to invest, how to insure his own future
•comfort. A knowledge of the personal and eonnnunity aspects
of health is a necessary part of every child's equipment. He
should be equipped also wuth the means of finding enjoyment
in books, music and art whereby leisure hours may be made a
source of pleasure, and profit. Children thus trained will
make not only workers but American citizens.
Summary of Recommendations
A. Courses and Instruction
1. That no attempt be made in the grades or the industrial school to
train for any special industry or trade, but rather that a gen-
eral training for ready adjustment to many occupations be
offered.
2. That the attempt to provide specific training for industries in-
clude more thorough training in English, practical courses in
drawing, mathematics, and business practice.
3. That prevocational courses planned to meet the needs of boys
and girls in finding the occupations to which they are best
suited be organized under the junior high school plan.
4. That industrial art courses begin in grade five.
5. That industrial work in the high school be made more definitely
vocational in character.
6. That the schools attempt to establish a cooperative arrangement
with manufacturers for the training of boys and girls in in-
dustry.
7. That systematic visits to industrial and commercial establish-
ments be made to gain first-hand information of working con-
ditions and be made a part of the program of training for in-
dustries.
.8. That the present industrial and manual training work be reor-
ganized under a capable director responsible for this work.
Probh))i of Indnstriol Educniiuii 133
9. That a rearrangement of courses be made so that industrial
school pupils may have. the use of a high school cabinet shop,
machine shop, and forge shop.
10. That greater emphasis be placed upon the developmental or. in-
itiative side of all industrial work.
11. That whenever possible, teachers for industrial work be experi-
enced workmen with pedagogical training.
12. That the director of industrial work svipervise teachers and con-
duct teachers' meetings at frequent periods for discussions on
the development of the work.
13. That closer correlation between the industrial courses be Avorked
out.
14. That the courses offered in the evening and industrial schools
include instruction in the care and •mechanical operation of
automobiles.
B. Equipment and Physical Conditions
1. That better accommodations and equipment be provided for do-
mestic science.
2. Industrial school: there is urgent need of new shop quarters for
the industrial school.
C. Manual Training
1. That new woodworking benches and drawing tables be made and
the present benches and tables discarded.
2. That much of the new equipment required for the reorganization
of the work be made by the pupils.
3. That alterations in the woodworking and drawing rooms be car-
ried out as suggested elsewhere in this report.
4. That the equipment in the mill room be rearranged to reduce the
danger hazard.
5. That the motors and other equipment in the machine shop be
rearranged to permit of more light entering the room.
6. That the present composition blackboards be replaced by slate
boards.
7. That arrangements for better cleaning facilities for the manual
training rooms be made.
8. That the basement halls of the high school be not used for stor-
ing old equipment.
134 Educational Surren of Janesville
VIII CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION IN
ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS
Introduction
1. The Importance of the- Elementary Scliool
The elementary school is in a special sense the* school of tlie
people. It is this because of the fact that it reaches larger
numbers than do the higher schools.
In the 1915-16 Biennial Report of the State Superintendent
of Public Instruction, it is stated that in Wisconsin for every
group of one hundi-ed children in the first grade there are only
eleven graduates from the high school. This shows the rela-
tively small number who receive the benefits of complete high
school education. The Wisconsin compulsory education law
aims to secure full school attendance for all pupils up to the age
of fourteen and at least partial attendance up to seventeen years
of age. This laAv justly and beneficently reaches the great mass
of eliildren and makes the grades the most universally attended
and most democratic of our schools. Since the great majority
cf children receive their only schooling in the grades, it is evi-
dent that favorable conditions should prevail in the elementary
schools. Do they?
In the business Avorld, one criterion that is generally accepted
for measuring the value received is the cost. How does th6
cost of schooling for pupils in the Janesville grades compare
with the cost throughout the country? For the year 1915-16,
each pupil in the Janesville grades cost the city $18.40. The
1916 Report of the United States Commissioner of Education
gives $27.11 as the estimated cost per pupil for public elementary
schools, which shows that Janesville spent $8.71 less in 1915-16
for each grade pupil than did the average school in the United
States. The importance of the elementary school and the cost
fact should be borne in mind when considering the findings of
the staff of grade visitors.
Cl(i!isro()»i I)isfi-ucli(>n in Elcmtntary Schools 135
2. Methods of Presenting the Report on Classroom histruction
Tlie report on instruction in the elementary grades is pre-
sented in three sections. The first of these is devoted to a general
treatment of the sun-ey of instruction. It discusses the method
by which instruction was judged, the factors considered in judg-
ing the ([uality of instruction, and includes a general summary
of the findings.
In the second section a more detailed consideration is given to
the types of teaching witnessed. From a constructive point of
view any survey of instruction Avill quite likely be of more help
to the teachers Avhose work the survey seeks to improve if it
analyzes quite fully and indicates specifically the particular
points of strength and weakness. Accordingly the meml)ei's of
the staff who judged instruction have attempted to classify the
lessons seen according to recognized types in order to determine
(1) the relative frequency of each of the different types and (2)
the adaptability of the particular type of presentation chosen
to the material in hand.
Regardless of whatever criticisms may be made of the general
character of the instruction or of the various types of teaching
there are teachers who desire some indication as to the merits of
their ways of presenting a particular subject such as reading,
arithmetic or spelling. While a teacher may see the application
of certain teaching principles to certain subjects in the course of
study she is not equally capable of adapting them to others.
It was not uncommon, indeed, to find teachers who were strong
in presenting a particular subject, such as geography or reading
but whose work in other subjects was much below this standard.
In view of these facts those who judged instruction have deemed
it best to present a discussion of the quality of instruction with
reference to particular subjects of the curriculum. The third
section of this chapter treats instruction from this point of view.
136 Educational Survey of Jancsville
SECTION I.
General Observation of Classroom Instruction
How Lnstrucfion was Judged
The grades were visited by four supervisors of the State De-
partment of Education whose training and experience have been
devoted to the problems of elementary education. Before
undertaking the work, they met with the State Superintendent
and discussed standards by which it was to be measured. While
recognizing that a certain uniformity in standards is desirable,
they did not ignore the fact that justice to teachers and pupils
demands flexibilit}^ as well as uniformity, and they therefore
aimed to avoid the rigidity that not infrequently accompanies
the setting up of fixed standards. Furthermore, to insure a
just as well as a critical estimate of each teacher's work, it Avas
determined that each should be visited by more than one member
of the staff. This was done in every case. p]ach supervisor
kept a record of the details of the visits to individual teachers;
each passed independent judgment upon what had been seen be-
fore entering into discussion with the other members of the
staff. At the conclusion of the survey, the supervisors met and
discussed the details of each teacher's work and justified their
estimations of it by statements of the reasons that led to their
conclusions.
In addition to the supervisors' })ersoual judgments on the
character of the teaching and the quality of the results secured.
standard tests were given to the pupils in each grade beyond
the second. The results of these tests were not relied upon to
furnish a basis for the judgment of each individual teacher's
Avork, though the findings were consulted after the teaching was
estimated, and in a numbur of cases it was found that the results
corresponded very closely to the judgments formed by the super-
visors. The supervisors moreover did not lose sight of the fact
that promotions had occurred shortly before these tests were
given and that as a consequence, some grades were being taught
by teachers who were but slightly responsible for the pupil's
achievement or lack of achievement. However, the results of the
tests by indicating the accomplishments of each grade, furnished
a basis for comparison of corresponding grades in Janesville, as
VJdssnxtm I )isf)itcf ioit i)i FJ( ))U'Hliini Schools I'M
well as for comparison with jirades of other cities where similar
tests have been applied.
Additional information concerning the teachers' potentialities
and professional equipment were secured by a questionnaire deal-
ing with professional problems which each teacher was asked to
till out. Questions were of such a nature as to indicate the
teacher's breadth of thought, professional outlook, and attack
on professional problems. For illustrative purposes, a few are
here inserted :
Are you consciously working this year on one or more definite prob-
lems of instruction in connection with your work? What is the
most important of these and tell what is being done?
"What is the most important thing that has happened during this
year that has made a difference in the way you teach?
By what standards do you think your teaching should be judged?
What are the chief difficulties encountered in your work?
It is interesting to note that after the staif members had set-
tled in their ov>'n minds the character of a teacher's work, they
consulted the questionnaire tilled in by the teachers and fre-
quently found marked agreement between their judgment
of the teacher's work and the teacher's own statement of her
understanding of an attack on professional problems. The
strong teachers were consciously working toward definite goals,
were aware of the difficulties to be overcome, and gave com-
mendable standards by which they thought their work should be
judged.
Factors Considered in Judging Classroom Instruction
The standards established for the judgment of work will de-
pend largely upon the judges' conceptions of the aims to be ac-
complished by the school. The object of the school should be, of
course, to give each child those opportunities for cultural, social,
and vocational development that are best suited to his tastes,
and abilities, and that will therefore enable him to render to
society his best contribution. Only recently has it been recog-
nized that the common school has any obligations other than
cultural. For this reason, the work along social and vocational
lines has not been widely introduced in schools and is largely
in the experimental stage. Janesville has pursued a somewhat
conservative policy and judgment of its elementary work, there-
138 Educational Snrvcy of Janesville
fore, resolved itself largely into a judgment of the teachers'
conduct of the traditional school exercises which center upon a
study of the connnon branches as treated in textbooks, nnd tlie
reaction of the pupils.
The investigating staff agreed that there are four main factors
that determine the quality of school work. These are the pupils,
the course of study, the teachers, and the supervision.
Pupils. Before we pass judgment upon the quality of in-
struction and its influence upon the pupils, we must take into
consideration the kinds of children who are to be instructed.
Curricula are ordinarily prepared with physically' sound and
mentally alert children in view. Our schools, however, gather
in pupils of all degrees of physical and mental strength. Their
responses to school work are therefore as varied as are their
physical and mental states.
Janesville is not ministering adequately to the physical needs
of its school children and as the progress of pupils is determined
in part by their physical condition, it is clear that best results
will not be secured in the schools until a thorough system of
health supervision is established.
Concerning the various degrees of mental ability represented
in the citj' schools, it should be noted that following the Janes-
ville grade inspection of 1916, made by the grade supervisors
of the State Department, the State Superintendent's report to
the board of education and to the city superintendent drew at-
tention to the fact that at that time there existed a grave problem
of retardation; that Janesville was not making provision for the
varying needs of pupils, and was not taking into consideration
the differences in their mental abilities. It was suggested that
measures be adopted to correct this situation.
In the section of this report dealing with retardation. Chapter
XV, it is shown that the introduction of semiannual promotions
has greatly reduced the percentage of retardation. This is a
most desirable reduction, but it must be borne in mind that it
is as yet largely a surface correction. Semiannual promotions
will work continuously against retardation, because promotion
periods having been reduced from one year to a half year it is
possible for pupils to regain lost ground more readily. This
change is therefore a most commendable one, but at present a
number of children are still below grade in their acquirements
ChissrooDi htslnicti())i i)i Kh m< ntorn Schools 139
thou^li classified as belonging to grades that arc ai)i)i'oi)i'iate for
their years. This aceonnts somewhat for the fact that in nam-
ing the chief difficnlties encountered in their work, a number of
grade teachers listed the fact that retarded pupils require an un-
due proportion of their time and thus interfere with the progress
of other members of the class. Special teachers should be em-
ployed for ungraded work, and thus make provision for the
teaching of i)upils who recpiire special attention. This would
combat and in many cases correct retardation itself rather than
merely correct it on the surface.
The establishment of summer schools is another measure that
is being adopted in numerous cities to provide opportunity for
pupils to make up work in which they have failed and thus to
make more rapid progress.
Such measures as these Avill do much to help the normal child
Avho is in need of individual instruction, but it nmst be re-
membered that there is another group of children for whom in-
struction of a different type should be provided. These are
children who cannot progress at the normal rate, pupils who are
three or more years overage for their grades. Every school
system has some such children enrolled. Janesville undoubtedly
has enough of these to make imperative the establishment of a
special room wherein they may be taught. The removal of these
pupils from the regular grades would greatly imi)rove working
conditions in the school.
Before the best working conditions can prevail and best re-
sults can be secured in the schools, it is necessary that a study
be made of the types of children represented and that as far as
possible, education suited to each of these be provided.
Given children in good health and possessing normal degrees
of ability, what responses are we justified in expecting"? This
is de{)endent in the majority of cases upon the stimuli offered
by the teachers. Pupils' response maj^ fall under the general
heads of conduct and mental activitj^ Regarding the former,
the supervisors agreed that on the whole, the discipline is good.
They saw few instances that would indicate that this is not true.
This is a commendable matter, for good results cannot be secured
when discipline is poor. It is evident that Janesville teachers
recognize the importance of good discipline and have consciou.sly
worked to secure it, for in answer to the question, "By what
140 I'J(]uc(ifi())i(iJ Siifvcn "f JdnvsviJh
stiiiidai'ds do you think yoiu- work should be judged.'"" the ma-
jorit>- listed discipline as one of these.
Just as there was agreement among the survey staff that the
school discipline, with few exceptions, was good, there was also
agreement that in many cases the mental activity was not the
best; that an undesirable passivity characterized the attitude
of the children in many of the rooms. This may be traced to
the fact that in some cases the subject matter was unsuited to
the needs and interests of the pupils, that no attempt was made
to make it real by linking it with out-of-school experience or
with present day conditions, and in other cases, to the fact that
teaching aims and methods were not the best.
Course of Study. The course of study is at present being re-
vised with a view to eliminating material that is not suitable. A
detailed consideration of this factor in determining the quality
of instruction is therefore omitted. The organization of a
junior high school recommended elsewhere in this repoi't will in
itself call for a course of studj' better suited to the needs and
interests of pupils. The fact that some of the unsatisfactory
class work could be traced directly to poor teaching brings us to
a discussion of the work of the teachers.
Teachers. The most important factor in determining the
character of school work is the teacher. A teacher's success is
determined to a certain extent by her natural mental endow-
ments and character. Teaching, however, is a profession that
demands careful preparation from those who engage in it. Of
the forty-nine grade teachers, twenty-seven have been graduated
from normal school; one has had a year's training at normal;
fifteen have had less than the eciuivalent of one year beyond high
school. Of the fifteen who are only high school graduates, only
six have attended summer school during the past ten years. Of
those who are normal school graduates, three have attended sum-
mer .school during the past five years. Of eighteen normal school
graduates who were graduated befoi-e 1912, fifteen have never
attended as much as a six weeks' summer session since gradua-
tion.
It is evident from these statements that a number of the grade
teachers have made very limited professional preparation for
their work. This fact, however, was not taken into consideration
by the survey staff until the classroom visits were made, and judg-
(IdssrooDi I list nu'l i(>)i i)t Kl< ))K iilarij SvJiools 141
ment had been passed upon the work observed. Then it was
found that thei'e was a inai'ked I'ehition between the work in prog-
less and the teaclier's ])rofessional training. For this ]'eason,
attention is caDed to the importanee of encouraging increased
professional training and professional growth by increasing sal-
aries of deserving teachers.*
In judging the teachers' ability, the importance of a cheerful,
patient, vigorous and inspiring personality was taken into con-
sideration. A successful teacher requires these characteristics.
Judgment was also passed on the teachers' preparation for the
day's work, on her organization of the subject matter, on her
teaching methods, aiid on her ability to develop initiative and in-
dependence on the part of the pupils. Witli these standards
in mind, it was judged that twenty-two of the forty-nine teach-
ers were doing vigorous work. It was well-prepared, organ-
ized and presented, and the pupils were acquiring good habits
of study, thinking, and industry. These are commendable mat-
ters, but unfortunatel}' they Avere not general througliout the
Janesville grades. The work of twenty-seven of the teachers was
not characterized by these traits. It was lacking in stimulation
and vigor, and the methods that were emi)ioyed did not secure
the best results.
A brief summary of the estimation of the work of the grade
teachers is as follows :
There are forty-nine teachci's in the grades: of those four were
found doing veiy good work ; eighteen doing good work, twenty-
two doing fair work, and five doing poor work. Very good and
good represent creditable work; fair represents work that is.
lacking in the stronger characteristics, and poor represents work
that is unsatisfactory. It is evident that fair and poor are-
grades of work that are below the standard that a good school
system should establisli. and that more than 507c of Janesville 's
teachers are doing such work.
Earlier reference has been made to the fact that the teachers
themselves were called upon to state standards by wliich tJiey
thought the work should be judged. These statements show that
some of the teachers have good ideals of what should characterize
good work. These ideals however are not generallv entertained.
*Note: Since the verbal report showing- the advisabiHty of thi.s -was
made to the board of education, a salary schedule has been adopted
■which has already stimulated professional study.
142 Educational Survey of JancsviUe
The subject of aims would therefore be a profitable one for dis-
cussion at local teachers' meetings in order that a better under-
standing of desirable goals might be established.
Some of the undesirable features, that were frequently ob-
served are here listed :
a. Teachers do too much reciting and talking. The class
jicriod is primarily the pupils' period and should be treated as
such.
b. The work was almost entirely memory work. Lessons
were assigned by paragraph, pages, or topics. This is not in
ficcord with the newer conception of education which supports
tlie claims of the problem method of assignment and emphasizes
the importance of independent thinking and judgment on the
part of pupils. The questions too frequently merely tested the
memory by calling for textbook facts and seldom for the reaction
of the pupils on these. Many questions were answered by single
words or phrases; too few called for topical recitations.
c. The work failed to challenge the interest and attention of
the majority of the class. Frequently only the pupil who was
reciting gave full attention. It was also observed that this lack
of interest carried over to the study period and that a number
of pupils failed to make proper preparation for their work.
d. The work was not socialized. Pupils recited to teachers
and frequently so indistinctly that they could not be heard by
other members of the class. Under these circumstances, it neces-
sarily followed that any comments or corrections that were of-
fered were made by the teachers. Greater effort should be piit
forth to organize and present the material in such a way that
pupils will be interested in class discussions and will be stimu-
lated l)y this interest to ask questions about doubtful points, to
offer necessary corrections, and to contribute additional ma-
terial from their observation, experience, or outside reading.
Supervision. The fact that teaching methods were in many
cases ineffective and wasteful leads to the suggestion that this
situation may be corrected by making provision for more grade
supervision. This would undoubtedly call for the appointment
of a grade supervisor. The supervision in the grades has been
limited in the past because of the fact that the superintendent's
duties have been so numerous that he has been unable to give
a due amount of time to grade supervision. It seems scarcely
Classroom litstntclion i)i Elemoiidvy ScJiools 143
necessary to state that the results secured throughout the schools
of any system are dependent to a great extent ui)on the quality
and amount of supervision that is provided. Able supervisors
devoting a sufficient amount of time to the supervision of the
schools greatly increase their efficiency. When there is in-
adequate supervision, there is great variety in the quality of
teaching. Supervision standardizes work and thus unifies the
teachers' efforts. A due expenditure of money for supervision
is justified if it secures and makes general, high standards,
definite aims, good methods, desirable habits of industry, and
the maximum accomplishment for each pupil.
Tlie Eesults of Inadequate Supervision
1. ]Mueh of the work lacked definiteness. It is true that at
present teachers are preparing a new course of study, but in the
meantime, they are handicapped by an indefinitcness of aim,
for they apparently have been thrown on their own resources
because of lack of copies and lack of suitability of the old course.
In many cases, teachers in corresponding grades were working in
complete independence of each other. This means that if a
pupil in one school were transferred to another, there would bo
nothing to insure that he had had work that would fit him to
enter the class to which he had been transferred. While a rigid
uniformity throughout the city is undesirable, a definite body of
knowldege should constitute the minimum accomplishment for
each grade.
2. Often, the subject matter was not wisely selected. One
of the surveyors noted that the spelling words which one of the
teachers was dictating were unsuited to that grade of children.
When she questioned the teacher concerning the selection, she
found that each teacher selected her own list, regardless of the
selection that had been made by the preceding teacher, or of
that which would be made by the teacher in the following year,
or regardless of help other than her own judgment. In view
of the fact that scieutific studies and investigations of spelling
have been at the disposal of the public for several years, it
seems short-sighted for teachers not to have benefited from
them. It is understood that this will be corrected when the new
course of study is ready.
Another illustration might be offered. The schools were
144- Educdtiona] Surveii of ■/(uusriJlc
visited shortly after the seiniannual promotions had taken ]dace.
In a number of cases, the visitors asked the teachers what their
felasses had read before their promotion and in each case, the
teacher was unable to state.
3. Many experienced teachers were employing wasteful
methods. This was especially noted in drill exercises which were
so conducted that only the child reciting was receiving the bene-
fit of the work. The employment of better methods would
have intensified the drills so that each member of the class would
have profited from them.
4. Study periods were not properly supervised. Some
teachers were attempting to supervise class study and failing in
doing so because they were not sufficiently imbued with its
s])irit nor aer[uainted with its technique.
5. Some teachers were failing to see and to study their own
problems. One of the questions put to the teachers was : What
are the chief difficulties encountered in your work? Eleven
teachers failed to list any.
In reply to the question, "Are you consciously working on
one or more definite problems of instruction in connection with
your work?" nine teachers failed to answer, which Avould indi-
cate that they were not doing so. Though a number of teachers
listed problems that were i)ertinent and well worth their study,
other replies showed a lack of comi)rehension of professional
])roblems.
hnprovenioit.s That Man -^^ Effected Tlirouejli Closer Super-
vision
Improvements in classroom instruction could be brought about
through closer supervision :
1. By providing for greater definiteness.
2. By providing for more departmental and grade meetings
at which aims and specific methods and results could be dis-
cussed. At these meetings, demonstration classes could be con-
ducted by the strongest teachers, for the purpose of illustrating
good methods.
3. By making it possible for each teacher to be visited more
frequently and to profit from these visits by individual con-
ferences with the supervisor Avho would discuss the work with
her and offer constructive criticism and encouragement.
Cldssroo))! Iiislnicfioji in EleuK litorj/ Schools 145
Recommendations
1. That the problem of pupil health be investigated and adequate
follow-up measures provided.
2. That special teachers be supplied to give individual help to those
children who are in need of this.
3. That a room for exceptional children be provided for those pupils
who are three or more years overage.
4. That summer school work be organized for grade pupils who de-
sire the opportunity of making up work.
5. That a grade supervisor .be appointed to assist the superintendent
in supervisory work.
6. That the school be reorganized on the 6 — 3 — 3 plan.
7. That the salary schedule be based upon merit, preparation and pro-^
fessional interest, so that teachers may develop an interest in
professional study and improvement.
SECTION II
Typks of Lessons Obserykd
"Education is worth just tlie dift'erencc it makes in the
activities of the individual who has been educated. The ques-
tion is not how many 1)ooks did we compel the child to. read; how
much does he know of arithmetic, geography, history, music, art.
and the like; but rather, what use does he make of his
knowledge; how is he different from the person who does not
possess this information ; and, still more important, are these dif-
ferences in his activity desirable from the point of view of the
group in which he lives." — Strayer.
AVith social efficiency as the aim of eciucation, the means em-
ployed should always contribute something to the end desired ;
and methods of teaching must be rated as good or as poor in
so far as they lend themselves to, or fail to lend themselves to,
the self-development of the i)apil.
The great variety of ways in which children learn has necessi-
tated a varied procedure in the teaching process; therefore, cer-
tain types of instruction, though somewhat overlapping in scope
and often hard to define, have been accepted as fundamental.
These types .are all necessary, yet some are out of place under
certain conditions and often one type is used by the teacher
when another would be of much greater benefit to the pupil.
146 EdHCdtionaJ Survey of Janesville
True skill in teaching, then, calls for careful discrimination in
the use of lesson types. Those methods must be at all times en-
ployed which grow naturally out of the nature of the subject
matter to be presented and the desired results to be obtained.
Also, those means must be used which make for a maximum
amount of pupil activity on the intelligence plane and a min-
imum amount on the mere memory plane.
The instruction in the Janesville schools has been' analyzed
with the view of determining (1) the relative amounts of thought
and mere fact memory work that ar.e being required of pupils ;
and (2) the amount of pupil organization, of pupil initiative,
and of pupil judgment that is being encouraged. This discus-
sion also aims to show the advantages of the motivated exercise
over the formal teacher-dominated recitation.
The genei-ally recognized lesson types are as follows : the
inductive and deductive development lessons, the study lesson,
the recitation lesson, the lesson for appreciation, the drill lesson,
and the review lesson. Others that are sometimes found are the
object lesson and the assignment lesson. The surveyors took
into account the fact that few actual teaching exercises fall en-
tirely into any one of these groups, and in all cases the main
Ijart of the lesson was used as a basis for the classification, hop-
ing thereby to get a fair estimate of the proportion of the teach-
ing of each type that was being done. Eleven of the 150 lessons
seen were unclassified because of the fact that their composite
nature made it difficult to determine which type best defined
the instruction being given. The composite lesson is often
justifiable and the percentage of lessons of this kind noted is an
evidence that the teachers make use of this means of instruction
when conditions demand it.
The following tables indicate the summary of the visits made
and form the basis of the conclusions reached.
Number of lessons seen 150
Number of lessons classified 139
Number of lessons unclassified '. 11
Classification by Tji^e
Number of lessons classified as drill 65
Formal drill 51
Motivated drill 14
Number of lessons classified as development lessons 3
Number of lessons for appreciation 20
(U(tss)'(>())ii Insirucll<t)i i}i Elc))teii{(irii Schools 147
Number of recitation lessons 41
Questions and answers 19
Topical 8
Socialized 1-1
Nmnber of study lessons 10
Number of review lessons 0
(Some of the unclassified lessons were partially review lessons)
Number of opening exercises 0
(Outside of kindergarten) 139
Classification by Siibje<'t
Reading 33 Music 7
Language 21 Grammar 6
Phonics 13. Art 5
Arithmetic 12 Physical Ex 2
Geography 12 Construction 1
Kindergarten 10 Nature Study 1
Writing 10 Physiology 1
History 8 Stcreopticon 1
Spelling 7
150
Tlie Development Lessori
By development lessons are meant those commonly known as
inductive or deductive lessons. These lessons are always con-
cerned with related ideas. When a lesson aims to find the gen-
eralization or the common element that relates several ideas,
it is an inductive exercise. To illustrate: In a primary grade
the following problems might serve as a basis for an inductive
exercise.
1. I bought six apples for 30 cents. James wants one of them. How
much should he pay me for it?
2. We needed 10 quarts of milk for our school lunch today. Mary
paid 90 cents for it. What does the milkman charge per quart?
3. Fred brought 3 new pencils to school this morning. He told me
that they cost 6 cents. Who can tell us how many pennies they
will need, to buy one pencil like Fred's?
After these prol)lems are solved by means of skillfully put
■questions, using the pupils' knowledge as a basis for each step,
the teacher may ask, "What did you actually do in order to
solve the first problem? The second? The Third? Did you do
the same thing in each case? AVhat was told in each problem?
What was asked? Who can give us a statement that will tell us
how to solve all problems of this kind?" The inductive de-
velopment lesson, therefore is practical whenever new material,
regarding which numerous illustrations may be given, and about
which the child has a slight knowledge, is to be presented. This
148 Ednvdiiounl Survcj/ of ./(ousviUi
type is also effective in arithmetic and grammar when the class
knows the necessary particular data w^ith which to deteraiine
general truths which are new to them. These two subjects are
often less advantageously taught by the deductive method. The
inductive lesson calls for practically all of the elements of good
thinking. A high degree of pupil efficiency may be acquired by
the judicious use of this exercise. On the other hand, when
the process is reversed and the general truth or explanation is
applied to a new case to explain it . the deductive method is em-
ployed. This can be illustrated by a lesson in geography.
Children learn by the study of North America that the Arctic
regions are cold. "When Asia is studied, this fact may be called
up and the question asked: "What would you expect th«
climate of Northern Asia to be? Whyf" This is a valuable
type of exercise and illustrates what is meant by the deductive
develojiment process l)ecause the child really uses his previous
knowledge and thinks independently in arriving at a new eoii-
clusiou. He may verify this conclusion by the use of his text.
This is a higher type of thinking than is secured by just
memorizing the fact that Siberia is cold. The deductive de-
velopment lesson is thei-efore equally as effective as the induc-
tive lesson when the former is used with intermediate or gram-
mar grade pupils. It is not so often advantageously used with
young children since they are apt to have difficulty in making
inferences from abstract data. It wall be noticed from the table
that out of the 150 lessons "witnessed, only three fell under the
development classification, yet nearly all of the subjects of the
curriculum lend themselves most advantageously to this means
of teaching.
The survey staff noted eases where inductive and deductive
lessons could have been used in place of the ones employed,
thereby giving pupils more real practice in thinking. A lesson
in arithmetic was Avitnessed by the obseiwers in which a problem
involving papering a room was being discussed. It was evident
that the class needed to know more about the subject. Here
was an excellent oppoi'tunity for inductive work, but instead of
doing this, the teacher tried to get the complete process from
someone who remembered how to work problems in papering.
The partial knowledge of the class could have been used to great
advantage in a develo]iment exercise so that all would have
CIds.sroo))} I)tsfn(cll())i in EI( )>i( }it(iry Schools 14!)
I)articii)ate(l in the thought work. In another instance, a study
lesson on Russia was being conducted. Deduction would have
l)een very effective here, as the ])upils had the necessaiy data at
their oomnuind. They could have reasoned out approximately the
climate, probable products and occupations of Russia and could
have then verified their conclusions from tlieir texts and other
authorities.
The Siudij Lesson
The study lesson, when correctly planned, is productive of
much initiative and constructive training in the thinking pro-
cess. The aim of the lesson, however, must be clear to the
children; the assignment nuist be definite and stimulating; the
references must be available: the means of verification must be
at hand ; the organization must be made ])y the pupil ; and the
assimilation must be thorough if correct study habits are to be
inculcated. In the main, the ciualities noted, above were not
characteristic of the study lessons observed by the survey staff.
The study lessons seen, in general, consisted of reading the text
orally or silently and, in the main, of answering the teachers*
quesiioHs upon what was read. This plan denies to the pupils
training in finding for themselves the necessary things to be
done in order to master a lesson. The ability to analyze the
situation and to solve a real problem is the sort of training that
boys and girls need in their school work. The analysis referred
to involves self-questioning on the pupils' part, which calls for
a very constructive type of thinking. In two instances out of
the ten lessons seen, the teachers were endeavoring to have the
pupil select the main topic of each paragraph. This is helpful,
but it is only one of the elements of true study.
The Fecitettion Lesson
Therecitation lesson is in general" a clearing house of ideas."
It may be (1) a question and answer type of lesson, (2) the
topical method, or (3) the socialized recitation.
1. The ([uestion and answer metho.l was the kind of
recitation most frequently observed by the survey staff'. This
method often defeats the valuable purpose for which it was
intended, in that it fails to give to the pupil sufficient oppor-
tunity for organization, for judging the relative work of details,
150 Educational Survey of Jancsvillc
and for acting upon his own initiative. Nineteen lessons out of ,
the total of 41 recitation lessons were of the question and answer
type. Another danger in the use of this plan is found in the
common practice of directing rpiestions to only one pupil at a
time without challenging the attention and effort of the re-
mainder of the class. It is true that the question and answer
recitation method is often necessary, but it should not be used
extensively unless the nature of the subject matter lends itself to
no other type of recitation; and whenever it is employed, the
questions riuist be thought provoking and should call forth real
effort on the part of all of the pupils. In several of the lessons
observed, the nature of the cpiestions asked was such that they
could be answered by facts memorized from the text. It was also
noted that in most cases the questions did not call for original
thought or for information beyond the one text in the hands of
the pupils. AVhen this condition exists, the formal nature of
the work robs this type of exercise of its usefulness.
The well put question is the greatest stimulation to thought
activity that there is, but to be most effective, it should precede
study, as this is the time when the pupil is expected to do his
thinking about the topic in hand. AVhen the question or prob-
lem follows blind stud}^ it is usually answered by scrappy bits
remembered- from the text. It thereby fails to provoke the de-
sirable amount of constructive thought upon the subject. The
time to put the main questions relative to au}^ topic is when the
assignment is made. They then become the topics of the reci-
tation. This does not imply that questions to stimulate more
intensive thought or to clear up hazy notions are out of place
at any time.
2. The second variety of recitation lesson is the topical meth-
od. By topical method is in no sense meant the almost word-for-
word recitals of textbook material called forth by the announce-
ment of 'subject headings by the teacher. On the other hand,
this method rightly used calls for such an assignment that the
pupil must make his own organization of the material to be dis-
cussed. It has its advantages over the question and answer plan
in that the pupil has greater opportunities for exercising initia-
tive and originality'. The student also enjoj^s the sense of power
that comes from accomplishing a complete unit of work. This
method enables the pupil to see his o^vn growth through an in-
Classroo))i Instruction in Etcmcntary Schools 151
creasing mastery of the tools of knowledge. He also has an op-
Iiortiinity of witnessing his own added facility and satisfaction
in the continued nse of these tools. There is probably no more
effective way of doing real teaching than through the topical
recitation rightly conducted. There were 8 lessons of tliis type
observed by the visitors. In most cases they were of a construc-
tive nature.
3. Social relationships and training for citizensliip are vital
aims of school activities. These features are prominent in the
third kind of recitation lesson which is a socialized recitation.
This method combines the advantages of topical procedure with
added emphasis upon pui)il direction, pupil organization, and
general pupil responsibilit,y for the conduct of the lesson. That
fourteen of these lessons were seen indicates that no little atten-
tion is being given to this tj^pe of instruction. This method,
when based upon a problem assignment calls forth the highest
type of pupil activity and results in a gratifying amount of pu-
pil growth and accomplishment. The dangers of this form of
recitation are apparent and of the fourteen lessons reported up-
on, nine are characterized by the observers as scattering in
their organization and five are indicated as being uniiied. How-
ever, this type of recitation eliminates much of the waste men-
tioned in the discussion of the question-and-answ^er type, and
it stimulates good thinking and continuous activity on the pu-
pils' part. It is a very commendable type of exercise when well
conducted. It is hoped that teachers will develop skill in the
management of this means of instruction so that it may always
be a unified whole and give to the student a definite answer to
a definite problem which he has done his part to solve.
The Lesson for Appreciation
Much of the richness of life is lost if one is not able to enjoy
the beautiful in art, in music, in nature, and in literature.
Therefore the lesson for appreciation is one of the most impor-
tant types. Its method of necessity varies with every use of the
exercise. However, the fundamental pedagogical principle upon
which this lesson is based is that the teacher must fully appre-
ciate whatever she is trying to make appear beautiful to the
children. Some knowledge of the technique of the particular
subject being considered is helpful but is not absolutely neces-
152 Educational Survey of Janesville
san^ to true appreciation. This type of lesson tests to the utter-
most the teacher's power to inspire; and her personality is of tea
more largely responsil)le for her success than is the actual meth-
od employed. Twenty lessons of this type are rcjjorted and in
most cases they were found to be of such a nature that tlie
])upi]s were being made more ai)i)reeiative of their environment.
In a few eases the lesson was applied immediately. A pai"tieu-
larly good lesson was witnessed in the study of Hiawatha. The
children read parts of the selection and skillful questions put by
the teacher drew from them answers which showed that the\
had grasped the spirit and beauty of the Indian tale. Tlie
teacher was particularly careful to compare the scenery w^hich
these children had observed with that depicted by Longfellow" in
order that they could really visualize his beautiful description.
The children gave evidence of experiencing real joy and appre-
ciation from this study.
llie Drill Lesson
The drill lesson has its place and makes automatic certain
types of knowledge. However, care must be exercised lest ]nai\v
facts which are seldom used and which should in most cases
be arrived at by the use of principles and laws, when )ieeded,
are not imposed upon pupils. Often the children have no im-
mediate use for these facts, and consequently do not feel the need
of attacking them vigorously at the time they are presented.
It is not the isolated facts such as a chronological table that con-
stitute knowledge. The memorized knowledge that functions in
life is organized, assimilated knowledge. The ability to use
sources, to observe and to find out related facts whenever they
are needed is of the utmost value.
The waste caused by teaching only one pupil at a time has
been referred to. This waste even more frecjuently occurs in
the drill lesson, and needs to be constantly guarded against.
One of the survey staff reports that eight out of sixteen drill
lessons seen failed in this respect, as only one pupil at a time
was working, while large groups of children remained idle until
their turn came. The survey staff also observed that often an
entire class was drilled upon facts wdiich all but a very few of
the children knew. This condition can be avoided by selecting
from the group those pupils who need extra work, and by giv-
CIassn)()})i I xsfniclioii in Kh )n( iilarii School!^ 153
ing the others useful cniph)yni('i!t ; wliilc the sclceted group are
receiving additional 1 mining. Another advantage in drill work
is gained by taking out of any package of drill cards those facts
or words which are known to all of the i)upils, thereljy giving
added repetition and emphasis to facts really needing more at-
tention. If drill is necessary, it must be motivated in some way
for the pupils, e. g., by being conducted Avith a time limit, by
making it a competitive game, or by approximating as nearly
as possible a real situation in which the knowledge is needed.
Of the 65 drill lessons repoi-ted, 14 wei'e motivated drills and
the rest were formal and not related to child interests. In some
eases these drills occupied an entire class period. A prolonged
drill period, as for example in arithmetic or spelling, has been
found by experiment to be largely a waste of time. The best
results are obtained by frequent, snappy, and varied drills on
material which is to be used as soon as possible in order that
acquired skill may function Avithout loss. Formal drill upon
facts which are not vital to the cliild is not a high type of teach-
ing and does not develop in the pui)il desirable habits of attack
upon any task. In the judgment of the survey staff there was
too much of this kind of work being done.
The Iicvicw Lessoyi
The review lesson is necessary, and when it means a new vieAv
of the subject and calls for a real use of information previously
gained, it requires a very constructive type of work upon the
pupils' part. No lessons were witnessed which came really un-
der this classification since mere repetition camiot be classed as
review.
The teacher should find many opportunities for review work.
To illustrate, a very profitable review period can be spent after
studying the two countries of Brazil and. Argentina by discuss-
ing the ways in which these countries are alike and the ways in
which they are different. This discussion calls forth a summary
of all of the conditions existing in each, and judgment is exer-
cised in making each comparison. This affords a new view of the
subject matter, and is much more effective than simply repeating
the characteristics of either comitiy. After a class has covered a
period of history, each child may personify a character who
helped to shape the period or who lived at that time and knew
154 . Educational Survcii of Janesville
the conditions. The children's personal narratives of their ex-
periences add a decidedly realistic sense to the information, and
this exercise confomis to the conditions expected in a review
lesson.
Summary
1. Approximately 46 per cent of all the lessons classified by the sur-
veyors were of the drill type, in spite of the fact that only about
26 per cent of the lessons observed were in arithmetic, spelling,
writing and phonics, which are the so-called drill subjects.
2. It is also noticeable that although the development method is one
of the best ways of promoting pupil growth, only about 2 per
cent of the lessons seen were of this type.
3. It is gratifying to find that about 13 per cent of the lessons ob-
served were for appreciation.
4. It would seem that more efficiency would result from an increase
in the number of topical and socialized recitations and a cor-
responding decrease in the amount of formal drill exercises.
It will be seen from the table that only 22 topical and social
recitations were recorded as against 51 formal drills.
5. Approximately 6 per cent of the lessons seen were study lessons.
Here again a comparison of the number of formal drill exercises
may lead to a greater emphasis upon and an improvement of
the study exercises.
6. Many more interesting comparisons and suggestions for improve-
ment can be derived from the results of this study. Among
these would be a further inquiry into the methods now being
used in Janesville with a view to finding out whether or not the
teachers actually make use of all of the recognized lesson types,
thereby doing constructive and balanced teaching.
SECTION m
The Tkachinc of Classroom Sub.jects
READING
It may be well to state first the aims to be kept in mind in
the teaching of reading in the elementary school. Pupils should
get from the study of reading in the grades the habit of rapid
and thoughtful silent reading for the purpose of acquiring use-
ful information concerning many subjects of interest and im-
portance to people in general ; the habit of going to books, maga-
zines, and papers for this information ; and a sufficiently wide
Classroom IitstrucUox i)i Eloni iiiiiyii Schools 155
ac'ciiiaintance with literatui'c, in the iian'ow sense of the word,
to aequirc a genuine love for I'eadinjj;' books of the highest order
of excellence, for purposes of entei'taiiuneiit. inspiration, and
guidance.
The members of the survey staff saw enough to warrant their
belief that the teachers in Janesville are preparing ])upils with
some measure of success to acquire this information. Not a little
skill was sho^vii by the pupils of certain classes in pronouncing
independently, rapidly, and accurately, the words found in the
reading lessons. A number of primary pupils have acquired
the ability to take in several words at a glance. These good
habits were the product of the Avord and phonic drills used by
teachers to prepare the pupils for studying each reading as-
signment. The survey staff felt that this vocabulary work might
have been strengthened by calling on pupils promiscuously, not
consecutively ; by more indi\ddual and less concert Avork ; by so
handling the perception cards that all the ])upils in the section
reciting could see them; by writing phrases, as well as isolated
words, in the columns used for drill purposes ; by writing phonic
words on the blackboard without diacritical or other aids; and
by placing m,ore responsibility upon the pupils for their pronun-
ciation. The teachers in many -cases gave too mucli help in
pronouncing words.
In many eases Janesville teachers recognize the imi)ortance of
saving the time of pupils by good organization of the work in
the mechanics of reading. The words for the phonic drills were
"written on the blackboard beforehand in order not to take up
class time for the writing. An improvement possible here is
the use of texts in hygiene and history, for silent reading and
discussion, instead of for purposes of oral reading, w^hieh is the
curi-ent practice. The use of texts in hygiene and history is a
common practice in Janesville, owing to the fact that these sub-
jects are not in the curriculum below the eighth grade, except
as they are treated in connection Avith reading. Another time
saver will be found in such record keeping, and visiting of one
grade by the teacher of the next higher grade as to make pos-
sible a knowledge of the reading matter used and the results at-
t-ained by the previous teacher.
The teaching in Janesville is in accord with the best modern
usage in attaching importance to the value of elementary pupils
156 E(h(c((fi()H(i] Snrv< !i of Jancsvinc
receiving daily practice in consulting books for information.
Pupils were asked questions on the content of the reading matter
studied ; in some cases the preliminarj' conversation was so di-
rected as to require pupils to use some of the technical expres-
sions or literary phrases of the selections to be read, in reciting
their own experiences. HoAvever, the survey staff are of the
opinion that the teachers are somewhat handicapped in not hav-
ing access to enough suitable reference books and supplemen-
tary material in which they, as well as the pupils, may look up
topics and so contribute to the interest of the reading recita-
tion. Pupils reporting on topics occasionally confined them-
selves to reading verbatim from paper what they had copied.
Lack of familiarity on the teacher's part with the topic under
consideration, was indicated by her not asking questions which
would reciuire pupils to exercise judgment, to weigh values, or
to challenge any statements made. Facts were too often accepted
without attention to their relative importance and essential ac-
curacy.
Since the material at hand is so slight in amount, not much
has been accomplished in stimulating pupils to do silent reading.
Increasing the reading rate of pupils has not received adequate
attention. The use of standard measurements during the pres-
ent 3'ear, Avill, doubtless, be of much assistance here. The fact
that the supply of reading material needs enlargement, accounts,
in all probability, for the fact that classes fre(iuently spend so
much time on selections, that interest in the reading recitation
is no longer keen. Moreover, a scanty supply of reading ma-
terial prevents needed contact with an extensive vocabulaiy used
in widely differing contexts.
In regard to the use of literary selections the survey stall' was
gratified to see a number of well-selected stories and poems in
use. One recitation illustrating the kind to which pupils look
forward with expectancy, deserves mention. The pupils sat in a
circle and read. with interest and enthusiasm, a well-chosen
dramatic story. Their audience was kept in mind by the pupils
reading, and the pleasure felt by the children in the activity
in which they were engaged, was unmistakable. Their expres-
sion and enunciation were good, for they had mastered the vo-
cabulary ; they were not interrupted by the necessity of having
mistakes corrected; and they had been helped beforehand by
Classroo))! hislniclion in FJcm( nlaru ScJiools 157
the teacher to iiuaj»'iiie the situations depicted. The listeners
could ]iot fail to note that the pupils were reliving the experi-
ences of the ehai'acters in the story. However, this kind of
class exercise was not so coniiuon as it ndght have been. There
was, on the contrary, considerable mere word calling.
An excellent illusti-ation of the service furnished by pictures
was seen in a few classes in which the teachers were directing a
study of the illustrations used in the text. Another recitation in
which ]nipils were exhibiting laudable activity w^as one in which
each child read aloud to the others a short selection new to his
listeners. The auditors (juestioned the one reading and questioned
one another on the subject matter. These two instances are good
indications of the important part which it is possible for a teach-
er to play in a reading recitation. These teachers just described
were not confining themselves to a word of praise or dispraise
or to simply calling on pupils in regular order to read.
In conclusion the survey staff believe that as Janesville teach-
ers secure a larger supply of suitable books and become more in-
timately acquainted with the selections best suited to children of
varying ages, capacities, and tastes, they will be able to furnish
more illustrations of the connnendable kind of work noted in
this report. This definite preparation, coupled with enough
reading material of the right kind, will enable them to use
question, comment, and suggestion which will put childi'cn in the
right mood and furnish a worth while motive for the nuistery of
the mechanics of reading. They will enjoy so directing the pu-
pils that these pupils will get from the literature studied a better
understanding of themselves and their schoolmates, and a richer
appreciation of the fact that the most commonjdace expei'iences
may be associated with the incidents that come into the lives of
favorite characters in literature, and so borrow dignity from
their association. This comparison and association will lend sig-
nificance to events depicted in books and to happenings in eveiy-
day life and make both seem worthy of the children's best effort
at interpretation and expression.
ENGLISH
The teaching of English in the Janesville grades may be
classified under two broad heads. — namely, those of language
and formal grammar.
158 Educational Survey of Janesville
It is quite generally agreed that for the elementary school pu-
pil, the more important of these is the study of language. Fa-
miliarity with the laws of grammar does riot insure correct usage.
It is not an unusual occurrence to hear the members of a class
recite the grammar lesson glibly and at the same time violate
the principles that they are expounding. Since the chief aim
of the study of English is to teach pupils to express themselves
effectively, those measures should be employed which are best
calculated to secure this in the shortest possible time. In pri-
mary and intermediate grades, well-selected language exercises
are better adapted for tliis purpose than is formal grammar.
For this reason, it is held that formal grammar should not be be-
gun before the eighth grade.
The survey staff found that in Janesville the study of formal
grammar has its beginning in the fifth grade. This is much too
early. It is recommended that the new course of study be so
organized as to eliminate formal grannnar in the intermediate
grades.
The language teaching observed in Janesville concerned it-
self chiefly with the phases here enumerated :
Stories — their narration, reproduction, and dramatization;
Oral composition, current events, etc.;
Language games;
Correction of errors and establishment of correct usage;
Memorization of poems;
Dictation exercises;
Dictionary work;
Letter writing;
Themes and compositions.
Each of these has a place in the language curriculum and if
properly developed is a powerful factor in establisliing correct
language habits.
The supervisors saw individual cases of good work in each of
these fields. Such work, however, was not general.
Good points observed that should be incorporated in the work
of all rather than of a few were these:
1. Recognition by teachers of the fact that best results are accom-
plished when the language period is a pleasurable one and when
the subject matter selected is suited to the interests, experiences,
and needs of the pupils.
2. Recognition of the fact that classes must be conducted in a spirited
manner and that since the class exercise is designed to teach all
Classroom Instruciio)i ni Ehim nidyy Schools 159
of its members, contributions should be received from the ma-
jority, if not from all, rather than several contributions from a
few pupils.
3. Recognition of the fact that since the language exercise is to train
pupils in habits of correct English, the teacher must give them
an opportunity to express themselves freely rather than do the
greater portion of the oral work herself.
4. Recognition of the fact that careful and definite oral composition
should precede the written work in the intermediate grades in
order to insure successful accomplishment.
5. Recognition of the value of definiteness in the work. The lessons
in grammar were on the whole well-conducted. Teachers were
definite in their requirements and thorough in their work.
Some weaknesses obsci'ved were :
1. In a number of instances, lessons dependent for their successful
accomplishment upon spontaneity and enthusiasm were con-
ducted formally. One illustration of this was a language game
which failed to accomplish its aim because its formal and unin-
teresting presentation made so slight an impression upon the
pupils. The teacher conducted it without spirit, did not acquaint
pupils with its purpose, called upon them in regular order, and
abruptly discontinued the game at the end of the period. There
was no effort made to have pupils arrive at the conclusion that
they should endeavor to use the expression that the game aimed
to teach. Teachers must recognize that the permanent substitu-
tion of correct for incorrect forms is dependent upon the force-
ful presentation of the correct, upon a sufficient number of repe-
titions to insure its automatic use, upon the satisfaction that
accompanies the exercise and upon the conscious effort of pupils
to use the correct.
2. Drill exercises did not sufficiently challenge the interest nor did
they secure effort on the part of the majority of the class. Many
drills therefore lacked intensity.
3. In general, little emphasis appears to be given to original com-
position, either oral or written. Most of the oral composition
was reproduction. It is advisable to make provision for original
work. Training in this respect may be secured in connection
with suitable models.
4. There were but few indications that pupils were receiving proper
training in the organization of material. Little use was made
of outlines.
5. Opportunities for the inspirational study of literature were some-
what neglected.
6. Not enough recognition was given to the fact that each lesson
should be a language lesson, and consequently should train chil-
dren in the habits of good expression.
160 Educational Survey of Janesville
Recommendations
1. It is recommended that the strong as well as the weak points here
enumerated be made the subject of discussions at teachers'
meetings, so that the desirable may become general and that the
undesirable may be eliminated.
2. It is recommended that in the new course of study the teaching
of grammar be discontinued in the intermediate grades and not
introduced before the eighth grade.
3. It is recommended that the new course of study lay greater stress
upon the following:
a. Oral composition in its different phases, — narration, de-
scription, exposition, and persuasion. It must be remembered
that to be valuable, these must be suited to the pupils' experi-
ences and interests. Exposition in some of its aspects would
be too difficult for grade pupils, but such an exercise as one
calling for an explanation of how to make a kite, or play a
certain game, or make a pan of fudge is well suited to the
language needs of children who are living these experiences.
b. The use of models. We learn by imitation, and the well
selected model is invaluable in the teaching of English.
c. Definite vocabulary work (see the manual- of elementary
course of study, 1916).
d. The selection of poems and stories. A list of poems and
stories should be prepared for each grade so that the teachers
will, by occasional review, help pupils to retain the most valu-
able of these.
e. Correction of errors. A survey should be made of errors
in English that are common to the children so that each grade
may be made responsible for the correction of certain of these.
To be sure, each teacher will correct errors as they occur in
pupils' speech, but will feel particularly responsible for those
assigned for her year's work.
f. That stress be given to motivating the work in language
by such means as the following:
(1) Literary clubs;
(2) School entertainments;
(3) School papers;
(4) Use of local newspapers for the publication of work
on timely subjects;
(5) Diaries and booklets.
S- Emphasis upon the inspirational side of the work.
Classroom Instructio)i in Elementary Schools 161
SPELlLING
The survey staff believe that not a little progress has been
made among some Janesville teachers in teaching spelling, so
that it compares favorably with what is considered good teach-
ing of the subject.
A few of the ways in which modern methods of teaching
spelling differ from the methods once considered good are the
following :
1. The source of a good spelling list is found in the language
needs of children, both immediate and remote. Such in-
vestigations as those made during the last few years by
Ayres, Buckingham, and Jones have helped in deter-
imning what words are in most common use in writing,
and hence are the words whose spelling must be made
automatic.
In some cases, the words assigned to the children in the
Janesville grades for study in spelling were those al-
ready in their reading and speaking vocabularies. In
other cases, the observers' noted that the words assigned
were of such a nature that the teacher must necessarily
have been very uncertain as to whether or not the pupils
were familiar with them. Under such circumstances,
teachers should require pupils to furnish good sentences
illustrating the use of the words. There was little of
this sentence illustration required from pupils. In-
stead of this, teachers were frequently content with
technical definitions so worded as to give the impression
that i^upils very frequently had only the most hazy
idea of the meaning of words whose spelling they were
studying. It was not uncommon for the teacher to fail
to require any indication that the words studied in
spelling had any significance for the children.
2. After teaching a well chosen list, the next essential is to
require the pupils to write the words. This written test
should preferably include considerable sentence work.
In a number of cases, the pupils were tested on isolated
words, either orally or by means of writing ; in only a
few cases were sentences containing the words dictated.
However, the dictation of sentences in the spelling ex-
162 Educdtional iSurvey of Jamsville
ercises is not enough. The real test of spelling knowl-
edge is the abilitj^ to spell words correctly when the at-
tention of the writer is on the subject matter itself.
The surveyors are inclined to think that the Janes-
ville teachers are neglecting to take a very necessary
final step, viz., that of emphasizing the fact that pupils
study spelling in order that they may automatically
spell words in the written work adapted to their lan-
guage needs. It has become the custom in many pro-
gressive school systems to excuse pupils in any grade
from studying the spelling list used in that grade, pro-
vided their written work bears testimony to the fact
that the elements of the written forms of the Avords
needed by these pupils in that stage of their lives, have
been organized into habits. This stimulating custom
should become general. Certainly any pupil who spells
correctly Avords embodied in sentences identical with
the complex situations of practical life should not be
required to waste his time studying spelling.
3. The number of words assigned should be less than ten in
order to secure intensive initial attention, and hence
enable the pupils to write a list of Avords entirely free
from spelling errors. The number of AA'ords pronounced
in one spelling lesson observed Avas three; in another,
five ; in a third, six. If adequate repetition Avas later
provided for these words, pupils must thus have built
up good permanent spelling habits.
4. The method used in teaching spelling should be one Avell
fitted to prevent errors. The Janesville teachers evi-
dently understand the importance of a multiform ap-
peal. Teaching exercises requiring close detailed ob-
servation for a very limited time, folloAved by a sti.U
shorter test period, were occasionally seen. As an il-
lustration of this, pupils in one grade were tracing
AA^ords in the air before attempting to Avrite them on
paper. The Avords thus made an appeal to both the eyes
and muscular sense of pupils. In other rooms, Avorcls
Avere spelled aloud in concert during the study period.
In a fourth grade observed, pupils Avere discovering a
particular difficulty in each Avord before attempting to
Cla6^ro(j)ii litslrucl io)t i)i Kh im nl<iry Schools 163
study its spelling. Tlie different Ivinds of procedure
just noted deserve much commendation. Unfortunately,
they were not common.
The kinds of assignments mentioned above require more
time than does the testing of children on the spelling
of the words so studied. It was gratifying to' note that
the era of real teaching of spelling, according to the
modern viewpoint has arrived among some of the grade
teachers in Janesville.
Well-organized phonic work in the primary grades, is one
of the best preventive measures, as it secures the cor-
rect and effortless spelling of all phonetic words. The
teaching of primary spelling in the Janesville grades
did not satisfy the surveyors that the pupils are getting
sufficient practice in writing phonetic word lists. Pupils
will not, unaided, arrive at the conclusion that a list of
phonetic words presents no spelling difficulty, provided
the common phonogram can be spelled and the symbol
for each consonant instantly called to mind. As an il-
lustration, pupils who have been taught to pronounce
the all words, recognize them instantly. They should
be equally certain, as soon as they know the names of
the letters which make up all and know the name of the
consonant associated wdth each sound, that they can
spell automatically, hall, call, fall, fall, etc. No all
words need hereafter come into a spelling list.
In one case, pupils were attempting to Avrite an extended
list with which they were supposed to be familiar with-
out having been given an opportunity to study the
spelling of the words. They had been previously tested
on the list and had not attained satisfactory standings.
The teacher had a very definite end in mind in pro-
nouncing the words a second time: she desired to have-
pupils see for themselves that close attention to words
as they are pronounced is of great assistance to listen-
ers. The experiment proved to teacher and pupils that
failures are lessened to quite an appreciable extent
when pupils learn to listen closely. The procedure just
described is not recommended for general practice, but
it does demonstrate the importance of prescribing for
the special needs of a class.
164 Educational Surveij of Jancsville
5. Records of progress made by pupils arc perhaps the most
stirring incentive possible in teaching spelling. A few
teachers are keeping and posting records in such a way
that pupils are enabled to compare their standings re-
ceived during a considerable period of time, and thus
feel the necessity for doing uniformly good work.
6. Insistence on a minimum general list must not be construed
to mean that each grade should not have its own local
spelling list. Nor must it be forgotten that each pupil
has his own individual spelling problem. An impor-
tant service rendered by a good teacher of spelling is
that of helping every pupil discover the reason for his
mistakes in spelling. This should be followed by in-
citing him to a feeling of responsibility for learning to
spell with facility, accuracy, and dispatch. In only one
case did members of the survey staff find that pupils
were keeping personal lists. This isolated instance
should become the general practice.
7. Spelling tablets or permanent spelling books in which to
write words, sentences, and paragraphs are indispensa-
ble if pupils are to continue to take interest and pride
in good work. Excellent written spelling is seldom
general in classes in which it is customary to discard
the dail}^ spelling papers after they are corrected.
Undoubtedly, the results in teaching spelling in Jancs-
ville are not so satisfactory as they should be, partly be-
cause of this lack of attention to essential spelling
equipment.
In conclusion, the members of the survey staff are of the
opinion that the teaching of spelling in Janesville will
reach a high standard as soon as all of the teachers put
into practice what a few of their number are doing
and at the same time guide and vitalize their efforts by
becoming acquainted with the reports of recent in-
vestigations. The essentials in teaching spelling are
not many, but they place upon teachers the following
obligations to which they must strictly adhere if success
is to crown their efforts.
CJttss)'()(nn I iisl )■!((■! ion i)t Kl( })i( ntarij ScJiools 165
(1) To teach the spelling of the words most useful to
every one to know;
(2) To train pupils in forming automatic spelling habits
in all their written work;
(3) To teach a few words at a time so as better to secure
their permanently correct spelling;
(4) To anticipate rather than to correct errors;
(5) To systematize the keeping of spelling records for
purposes of comparison and stimulation;
(6) To interest pupils in their individual spelling prob-
lems;
(7) To arouse in every pupil, by every available means,
such a pride in correct spelling that he will not
be satisfied with anything but the correct auto-
matic spelling of every word in every sentence he
writes.
GEOGRAPHY
Formerly geography was defined as a description of the earth,
I'he present understanding of the subject is, however, quite dif-
ferent and today geography is generally understood to mean
tlie relation of tlie earth to man. Perhaps no other elementary
school subject contributes more to the child's grasp of his en-
vironment and to his understanding of the life of which he is a
part than does geography. It is fascinating when Avell-taught,
but flat, stale and unprofitable when poorlj^ taught. It is best
learned in the primarj'^ grades by observing and studying nature.
The weather, the M^nds, preparation for winter, signs of spring,
etc., are topics that lead the child naturally into the study of the
science of geography. In spite of the fact that it forms the basis
of geography, nature study as a. separate subject was not found
b}" the survey staff to be on the programs of the Janesville
schools.
It has been found that even young pupils are able, when ques-
tioned skillfull}', to reason very accurately from result to cause
in geography. Causal geography, under the teacher's guidance
therefore, is very important, because it enables the pupils to
arrive at the great fundamental truths of nature and later to
apply them, thereby eliminating the necessity for memorizing
many isolated facts which are apt to be confused, if not forgot-
ten. The best geography teaching also concerns itself Avith giv-
ing to the pupil a rich content regarding the conditions that ex-
ist on the earth, always, however, through their relationslnp to
himself. To illustrate, the child must know Naples as a city
from which tlie boats leave which bring him olives and Italian
166 Edi(((ilio)i(il Siirv('!i of ./(utcsvilh
chestnuts which he enjoys. He must in imagination see Naples.
The stereopticon, pictures in Ms book, and the National Geo-
graphic Magazine, for Oct. 1916, will make this posvsible.
It is tiiie that children must be able to tell accurately where
places are located, but the day is past when mere place informa-
tion coupled Avith the ability to bound countries, name products,
and describe the courses of rivers is called geography. The
Tiew^er texts in the subject reflect the modern standards of what
geogi-aphy really is. They are written from the child's view-
point and Avith his interests in mind. They contain, to a far less
•degree than the older books, formal condensed information val-
uable perhaps to the adult but wholly -without meaning to the
child. Janesville is using one of these newer texts, and if
these books were supplemented by up-to-date geographical read-
ers, the National Geographic ^lagazine, and a wider use of sterc-
>opticons with well-classified slides (to be used by all classes in
turn) together Avith the necessary maps and globes, very con-
structive work would be possible. It is to be regretted that the
necessary reference material noted above was not generally
found in the schools.
The survcyoi's ixport that out of the twelve geography lessons
seen, none was of the inductive or deductive type. In too many
instances teachers were allowing the pupils to memorize facts
without requiring them to think. Why should probably be the
most frequently asked question in this subject, because mere fact
answers are often almost meaningless to the child? There was
real effort being made to furnish a content for some of the Avork.
One stereopticon lesson on Belgium was witnessed. It would
seem that lessons of this nature could be repeated for other
classes in nearb}^ schools, and that the slides could then go to
another part of the city so that all could be benefited instead of
just one group of pupils.
Geog]-aphy is especially adapted to outside reference work.
The observers saw four exercises in which outside reading had
been done. This feature of the work, however, was found to be
largely memory work or reading from notes material Avhich was
not meaningful to the cliild. In two classes, the teacher showed
lack of familiarity with the subject that the pupil was present-
ing. Greater care is necessary if pupils are really to profit by
outside reference work. Thev must have material which thev
CJassr(>o}K I)t.slnicli())i in Elcmfniary ScJwoJs 167
can gras}) or else they must reeeive help "while preparing it if
they or the class are to be strengthened.
CtoocI assignments are particularly necessary in geography,
and these must at all times stimulate the cliild's interest. "Know
the principal cities for tomorrow" is not stimulating. Follow-
ing a partial discussion of ranching, the assignment, "What
would you need to know about ranching before you could man-
age a ranch?" is much more of a challenge to real effort.
The study lesson was seen in three of the twelve lessons ob-
served. These lessons consisted in reading and answering
questions on textbook material. Geography can be profitably
studied with the teacher. However, it seemed to the survey
staff that study time would perhaps be more beneficial if de-
voted to aiding the pupil in map reading and in the acquiring
of tentative information by this means. The children could
later verify and reinforce their knowledge from the text.
In general, the elementary text in geography is rather brief
and may be used as a sort of outline to be filled in by the teacher
and pupils from outside sources. The advanced geography
contains much information which the pupil can often infer for
himself with the aid of skillful questions by the teacher. After
the pupil has spent the study period on inference work, he is
greatly interested in testing his inferences and adding to them
from the text and other sources.
The use of real things as a means of teaching is always com-
mendable, and the utilization of exhibits of oil, coal, etc., was
noted. The teachers were not in possession of sufficient infor-
mation about the specimens, however, to make the lessons highly
interesting.
Two lessons of especial merit were seen by the observ^ers.
These were of a socialized type and the discussions were closely
related to child interests. The material was made as real as
possible to the pupils and the organization of the lessons showed
careful preparation.
On the whole, the geography teaching in several instances
seemed to the surveyors to be lacking in vitality. The interde-
pendence of nations, the relation of the individual to the earth,
the great need for geographical knowledge as a requisite for a
successful business life, and the opportunity to see geographic
phenomena every day are motives which every teacher can make
168 Educational Sun'cy of JancsviUe
use of and these larger views, with a few exceptions, were not
brought out in the lessons witnessed. Therefore, the survey-
staff makes the following suggestions:
1. That more emphasis be placed upon map reading and inference
leading to the use of fundamental truths as helps for acquir-
ing needed geographical information.
2. That visual instruction through the use of the stereopticon be
extended.
3. That additional references, maps, globes, and industrial exhibits
be secured and used more extensively.
4. That the elementary text especially be enriched by outside ma-
terials contributed both by the teacher and the pupils, and
that the advanced geography be used by the pupils as a means
of verification as well as an original source of information.
5. That the work whenever possible be motivated by making the
geography lesson satisfy a real need in the child's life or help
him to solve a real problem.
ARITH.>IETIC
In teaching arithmetic, it is necessary that teachers recognize
the fact that the aim is practical efficiency in the numljer Avork
that life demands. A good course of study in arithmetic is the
joint product of experience in practical affairs, vivid imagina-
tion, and intimate acquaintance Avith the mental life of children.
In organizing a good curriculum, the compilers should also keep
in mind the number situations common to children and adults.
Such a course makes evident that business situations must be
made real through the use of suitable material in the hands of
pupils: inch squares, paper money, a clock face, rulers, drill
cards, tapelines, model store outfits, time-tables, and business
forms are among the essentials required to put into effect an
efficient course of study.
A modern course of study in arithmetic needs reinforcement
through the use of well-adapted texts in the hands of all inter-
mediate and grammar grade children.
An examination of such texts discloses that the present and
future vocational needs of pupils have not been foi|!;otten. In
the choice, organization and gradation of material, the compilers
emphasize the practical computations needed daily in the com-
mon occupations. In general, in their economic and social rela-
tions, all hiunan beings need to make use of counting, and of the
Classroom Tnstruciioyi in Elementary Schools 169
fundamental operations. They need to understand how to buy,
sell, and invest intelligently. They find it necessary to estimate
distance ; to measure ground, floors, and similar areas. They are
frequently required to carry on transactions involving the loan-
ing and borrowing of money. They are fortunate if they can
make wise application of arithmetic to their own affairs in keep-
ing accurate accomit of personal or household, or occupational
receipts and expenditures. Pupils should become familiar ^vith
rhe use of graphs. They should frequently be asked to draw to
a scale. Market reports and current prices should be consulted.
A good text makes adequate provision for such everyday occur-
rences.
Such a text will not make it unnecessary for teachers to omit
from it or add to it, but it will make it possible for tliem to suc-
cessfully teach arithmetic without doing either an excessive
amount of dictation work or laboring unduly in writing black-
board assignments, both of which are wasteful of a teacher's
time, and, in case of blackboard assignments, frequently injuri-
ous to pupils' eyes. It is far easier to give abundant practice in
the optional work for which special credit can be given to pu-
pils with an aptitude for mathematics, if there is a textbook in
the hands of pupils.
The members of the survey staff kept in mind the require-
ments of a good course of study, and the essential qualifications
of a good text as well as the various kinds of problems daily
arising in connection with natural interests and activities, in
forming their judgment of the arithmetic work seen in the
Janesville grades. There were twelve arithmetic recitations ob-
served. Of these, eleven were drill exercises. The proportion
was large, in view of the following considerations :
]\Iuch piactice should be provided in stating the process neces-
saiy to the solution of problems without manipulating figures.
Pupils should develop the ability to ask themselves such ques-
tions as will help them to decide on the processes to be employed.
Significant motives for learning new processes should be en-
listed. They should be incited to gather data for original jjrob-
lems. The local industrial situation should be called on to fur-
nish many problems.
Teaching exercises should alternate with those designed to
provide drill. The efficiency of both teaching and drills should
170 Educational Survey of JanesviUe
be tested. It is in the test, carefully conducted, that teachers
have an opportunity to measure pupils' abilities, discover in-
dividual Aveaknesses, ai4d so are enabled to help pupils to over-
come their defects, and to see that assignments adapted to both
the weak and strong pupils are planned.
Some of the good features noted in the arithmetic Avork seen
are the following : The work on the whole was well-graded. No
work generally regarded as obsolete was attempted. The in-
terest of the pupils in the class work was frequently good. In
some recitations, all of the pupils were participating. In one
grade, the teacher worked every example herself in order to
see whether or not she could beat the record of the pupils, and so
aroused much enthusiasm. In two or three rooms, there Avas
a model store-keeping outfit, which was evidently used. One
very spirited drill in multiplication and division was seen. The
assignments bear witness to the fact that something has Ijeen
done in applying standard measurements and tests.
On the other hand, the drill exercises seen were deficient in
the following ways :
1. Too many facts were used in the drill. Careful and gradual
elimination of facts which no longer require drill and the sub-
stitution of new facts recently taught are necessary to keep
the drill effective.
2. There was not much variety in the devices used. This was partly
due to the very scanty amount of equipment seen. No set of
well made arithmetic drill cards was observed in use.
3. Pupils were tested at the blackboard on work which required
more teaching. In consequence very few pupils were able to
do independent work.
4. In one room, four multiplication tables were on the blackboard in
view of the pupil workers who might thus refer to them in
doing their examples. It is better, in case the children are
temporarily unable to take the same test or drill, to section
the class and by means of a flexible assignment, give the better
prepared section the test or drill planned and meanwhile teach
the weaker pupils what they need to know.
5. A class at work in measurements was not required to correct the
inaccurate ideas of the pupils by having them measure the
room in which they were sitting.
CIassroo))i Insirucdon in Elcmcntory Schools 171
Recommendations
1. Certain indispensable habits should be emphasized in arithmetic
work.
a. Automatic mastery of the combinations and tables
b. Neatness and order in the arrangement of work and
materials
c. The cultivation of pride in accuracy, speed and neatness
d. The ability to estimate and then quickly to check the
estimate
In acquiring these habits, it is very helpful to have pupils list their
standings from day to day, and by comparing present with past rec-
ords of accuracy and rapidity, be incited to do better work.
2. Teachers should become acquainted with the arithmetic work in.
perspective. The teacher of each grade should know in detail
what was done in the preceding grade and what is to be dona
in the succeeding grade.
3. The importance of using worth while motives in inciting pupils toi
greater interest in the practical importance of arithmetic can;
hardly be overestimated.
4. So far as possible, statistics from such studies as geography,.
hygiene, manual training, domestic science should furnish;
necessary data for much of the applied arithmetic supplemen-
tary to that furnished by the best obtainable textbook. Much
of this should have a local application.
5. Extending the use of the different standard tests and measure-
ments which have proven successful in giving teachers infor-
mation regarding the arithmetical ability of pupils.
6. Continual study of reports of investigations made in this sub-
ject and of books recording the best practice in its teaching.
Gexerai. Recommendations on Classroom Instruction
1. That proper attention be given to the question of pupil health.
2. That adequate provision be made for increasing the professional
preparation of teachers and that provision be made in the
salary schedule for stimulating such increased professional
preparation of teachers.
3. That greater recognition be made of individual differences through
such measures as special classes, summer vacation schools,,
and a junior high school.
4. That a more adequate supply of teaching materials be purchased.
5. That a grade supervisor be employed.
6. That methods of instruction be modified to conform to the beat
current educational practices.
172 Educational Survey of Janesville
IX HIGH SCHOOL INSTRUCTION
I. Factors ix Efficiext High School Teaching
Several factors are vital to effective instruction work. In the
estimates made by the survey of the high school work, the follow-
ing have been especially considered : first, general spirit of the
school as a whole ; second, effective personality and a right atti-
tude of mind on the part of teachers ; third, attitude of interest
v.nd sympathetic cooperation on the part of pupils ; fourth, schol-
arly command of subject matter and materials of instruction by
teachers; fifth, methods of presentation adapted to the needs and
capacities of pupils and to a realization of the educational values
involved ; sixth, effective organization of departmental work, and
finalh^ adequate supervision. A brief discussion of these points
may lielp in an understanding of the particular comments which
follow.
No school can do effective work without a good spirit toward
all the activities of the school. So far as instruction work is
concerned, this spirit should show itself in what may be called
a scholarly attitude. Tliis means an atmosphere of orderly pro-
cedure and business like attention to each day's Avork. Pupils
should show a readiness and enthusiasm in doing to the best of
their ability whatever tasks are assigned. The whole school
should give the impression of smooth and harmonious action
without indication of friction or waste of time and effort.
Supervisors nearly always form judgments in this regard very
soon after entering a school, and the difference between a good
and a poor school is almost sure to shoAv itself in this general
spirit.
Everyone recognizes the importance of vigorous and effective
personality on the part of a teacher. This shows itself in the
general attitude toward school and classroom problems. One
type is the active, aggressive teacher who shows mastery and
skill in handling these problems, while the other is the passive,
inert type which takes things as they come, showing little ability
to shape and direct conditions. The first type finds it easy to
stimulate pupils to their best efforts and to inspire them with en-
High School Instruction 173
thusiasm and zeal in relation to the subject in hand. The latter
type finds it necessary to resort to threat and compulsion. This
inspirational power may depend to some degree upon the specific
character of tlie subject or upon special aptitudes of pupils,
but to a far greater degree, it depends on the personality of the
teacher. So true is this that the enthusiasm of pupils is aroused
by certain teachers no matter what the subject matter or ma-
terial.
Though this power of personality is largely a matter of native
qualification, it can be cultivated and may be greatly improved
by well-directed experience. A teacher should always aim to be
at her best at the time of a class period. Again, a careful study
of the interests and sym]nithies of pupils, not only in a partic-
ular classroom, l3ut in the activities of home and social life,
gives a teacher a most decided advantage. .Likewise, the
teacher who can enter into the community life and become iden-
tified with its civic and social problems, gains most decidedly in
his or her influence as a teacher.
The third factor, that of sympathetic cooperation on the part
of pupils, is closely related to the personality of the teacher.
Recent changes in educational thought have resulted in a largely
changed point of view regarding relations between teachers and
pupils in classroom instruction. The older idea regarded the
teacher largely as a task master whose business it was to force
something upon the pupils which was supposed to be necessary
to the learning process, or to extract something out of pupils as
a test of the study and preparation which had been made. The
student who goes to class Avith a poorly prepared lesson, and then
goes away at the end congratulating himself that he escaped be-
ing called upon, largely reflects this old idea.
The present viewpoint is suggested by the comparatively re-
cent expression, "the socialized recitation. " In such a recita-
tion, the whole class, including teacher and pupils, is whole
heartedly active in developing the special work of the day. The
same spirit is suggested in the following recent definition :
"Education is that school experience in which the pupil is whole
heartedly active in acquiring the ideas and skills needed in meet-
ing the problems of his expanding life." In such a recitation,
pupils are not only interested and attentive, but are eager and
ready to respond whenever opportunity offers, and will indeed
174 JEducafional Survey of Janesville
seek for chances to ask questions and contribute discussion along
the line of topics in hand. There is a special danger of sup-
pressing or at least of failing to arouse this natural questioning
•attitude in pupils of high school age. One who has not visited
many high schools can scarcely realize the difference in the whole
atmosphere of schools in this matter. In one type, pupils are list-
less and passive though they may be quite orderly. They have
the attitude of waiting to be quizzed or called upon to "recite"
the lesson prepared. When questioned, they respond in a life-
less way and wuth formal, scrappy answers, apparently con-
tributing the least that will satisfy the teacher. In the other
type of class exercise, responses are ready and generous, while
orderly questioning and discussion by both teacher and pupils
are vigorous and enthusiastic.
Though well-recognized in 'our present theory, it is often for-
gotten in practice that education is a growth process which goes
•on within through reaction to external materials. The work
-of the teacher is therefore largely that of providing an atmos-
phere in which the factors of educational growth are present in
"the most perfect degree, and then arousing wholesome appetites
which result in healthy reactions toward these materials. It is,
therefore, of essential importance for good work, that the largest
interest should be developed and that pupils should feel an atti-
tude of sympathy and cooperation toward the work of each
class.
A :ain, it is well-recognized that every teacher should have a
scholarly knowledge of subjects and materials to be used for
classroom instruction. However, this scholarship is often too
largely limited to the formal and traditional knowledge. This is
the l)ody of knowledge usually presented in textbooks in highly
organized form, and most emphasized in academic institutions,
and largely also in schools training high-school teachers. Such
knowledge is usually stated in general and abstract terms with
a minimum of the particular and concrete for purposes of illus-
tration and application. By the very nature of the case, this
body of material cannot be specially adapted to particular lo-
■calities or to special groups of students. It must be for general
Tise.
AVhile this body of material is of essential importance, the
practical and concrete materials of the particular locality are
High School InsfrucHon 175
of even greater impurtaiice, thuuoli much iiKjrc often neglected
by teachers. These materials are especially valuable because
the experiences of the pupils are almost wholly within this field.
It has been quite generally held as a matter of theory that one
who has gained a knowledge of the general principles of a sub-
ject will readily make applications of these principles to any re-
lated facts or phenomena which may be observed. However,
practice and present day investigation have shown beyond cjues-
tion that the inexperienced student or teacher has, as a rule,
little ]>ower or habit of maldng these applications, without con-
siderable study of local material. For this reason, the tendency
of the young teacher and sometimes of more experienced ones,
is to follow the formal and abstract method of the text and make
little if any use of the local material and problems most closely
related to the experiences of the pupils. For example, botany
teachers often have a good general knowledge of the groups of
plants and of the principles of plant activity, and, at the same
time, have little familiarity with the plants of the region or of
the practical problems of plant growth and propagation in the
community. A civics teacher may have a fairly good knowledge
of the general organization of government, and be almost wholly
ignorant of the present vital problems which are demanding
the attention of every good citizen, and which, are finding ex-
pression in the messages of governors and president, and which
are receiving attention from legislatures and law making bodies.
This local material should be regarded as the most vital and
valuable teaching material of the subject, and it is the failure
to make use of this material that constitutes one of the greatest
weaknesses of present high-school teaching.
Beyond this scholarly command of material, any effective
high-school teaching demands also a thorough command of
teaching methods. It is not enough to know subject matter as
mere knowledge, but it must be mastered as an instrument for
the teaching and training of young people of high school age.
The fallacy that all the training needed for becoming an
efficient high-school teacher is to know the subject or subjects to
be taught, has now been pretty well abandoned. Over emphasis
is. however, still placed in some cjuarters upon the idea of special-
ization in subjects. Many teachers with this notion in mind,
are very desirous of reducing the number of subjects they have
176 Educational Survey of JanesviUe
to teach as much as possible, some being anxious to teach a single
subject only, in order that they may be able to specialize more
fully in this line. Such specialization is in great danger of hav-
ing a very narrowing effect in relation to the really large and
vital problems of secondary education. We need, in the high
school at the present time, specialists and experts in teaching far
more than we need specialists and experts in subjects.
A good command of methods demands a clear understanding
of the vital values of secondary education and a special recogni-
tion of the relative values of the various subjects of study in re-
lation to the main problem. There is further demanded an
understanding and mastery of the various forms of classroom ex-
ercise with a discriminating sense of the purpose and place of
each in relation to values to be realized. The forms which
should be kept most clearly in mind are — assigning of lessons,
teaching, testing, drilling, and developing effective expression.
It is not appropriate here to go into any extensive discussion
of these different phases of teaching, but it Avill assist the pur-
poses of this report to point out briefly one or two sources of
special weakness in present high school practice.
In the first place, too little attention is often given to a good
assignment. Present discussion of teaching pupils how to study,
and of supervised studj^, is emphasizing the importance of di-
rected study. Such study must be directed toward definite
ends and these ends or objectives must be put before the pupils
largely in the form of problems which become effective motives
for concentrated effort, providing the pupil is led to see their
relationship to his world of interest and experience. It is the
business of the assignment to help pupils see these worth-while
problems in relation to new materials. This means more of
questioning and development and less of mechanical fixing of
pages, paragraphs or topics in any good assignment.
The teaching process is a natural continuation of the work
begun in the assignment. In this part of the work the so-called
"problem method" should be more largely used. Vital prob-
lems always arise out of the common experiences and situa-
tions of life. Questioning should therefore begin Avith these
familiar experiences rather than Avith the formal material of
the text. Skillful questioning should lead pupils from these
familiar things in the direction of more difficult problems in re-
High Scliool I nsi ruction 177
lation to the topics of the day's lesson. The teacher should
then assist pupils by further skillful development to organize
the knowledge gained, bring this into relationship wnth the
formal knowledge presented in the text, and develop wider ap-
plications. In connection with this final organization, needed
terms should be applied to the ideas developed and definitions
should be formulated. Such a method may be called vital be-
cause it deals Avith those materials and experiences which have
real meaning to the pupils and because it results in real under-
standing of the problems involved. It is to be noted that defini-
tions and general statements are here made the final result of
the development rather than the means of approach. This prob-
lem method is nothing more than the application of the familiar
pedagogy Avhich says that good teaching should begin with what
is knoAvn and concrete and proceed from this to the abstract and
the unknown, and yet it is the general opinion of high-school
supervisors that it is the exception to find the method here de-
scribed skillfully used in high school work. Unfortunately the
formal method of the text is far more commonly observed.
This so-called "problem method" of development can be ap-
plied to most if not all of the high school subjects. It is espe-
cially applicable to the content subjects such as science, civics,
history, and even to considerable extent, English and mathe-
matics. It is the method based upon the natural operation of
the young mind in approaching any new field of thought. In
fact, it is the common method of meeting the every day problems
of life. It makes large use of the reasoning activity while the
formal method overemphasizes the use of memory. As the
student accumulates and organizes larger knowledge in any line,
he comes to use more and more the formal or deductive method,
but the young student finds this method difficult and through
its approach often gets mere verbal knowledge or at best only
vague and confused ideas, failing entirely to see the real mean-
ing of instruction.
Skillful development should be followed by abundant review,
and adequate amount of drill work and some topical study. In
all the steps, and especially in the organization, the review and
the topical Avork, there should be well-planned effort to get good
English and effective expression in all classes. Weak work here
178 Educational ISurvey of Janesville
is uiidoubtedh' responsible for much general weakness in
English.
Effective drill work is especially neglected in the high school.
The tendency is to apply university ideals in this matter rather
than those of the grades which are much more applicable to
liigh school needs especially in the earlier yeai's. Every new
subject has a language of its own which is very largely new to
the beginning student. Much of the confusion in pupils' minds
is due to lack of familiarity with the vocabulary of this language.
. As new ideas are developed, they should be labeled with proper
terms and then the teacher should help pupils establish and
fix associations between symbols and meanings by first develop-
ing as many associations as possible and then fixing these by
adequate repetition through vigorous drill work.
Again, skill in the use of the tools of knowledge can be gained
only by much practice. Such practice should be furnished by
a large amount of vigorous, well-varied drill, with the use of as
many effective de\ices as the resourceful teacher can develop.
Without question, skill, alertness and readiness in the applica-
tion of knowledge could be brought to a much higher standard in
most high schools, by a more adequate amount of work of this
kind. This general statement of viewpoint is made for the pur-
pose of showing the Ijasis on Avhich high school work is judged.
Department organization and adequate supervision will be
given fuller consideration in the section which follows.
II. Observations on High School Teaching in Janesville
With these considerations especially in view, a general esti-
mate may now be made of the high school instruction seen in the
survey.
First of all, the high school is deserving of high commenda-
tion for the splendid spirit of sympathetic cooperation and busi-
ness like attention to work, shown by the school as a whole. In
this respect the school is ranked among the best high schools
in the state. This spirit shows itself in the orderly movement of
pupils about the building, in business like attention to work in
the study rooms and in orderly procedure throughout the daily
program. In a special degree it manifests itself also in the at-
titude of students toward the work of the various classrooms.
High Scliool Instruction 179
iSucli a spirit contri])utes very largely to the general efficiency
of instruction and is much to the credit of the management.
This spirit shows itself in a special way in the readiness and
■efficiency of pujiils in their responses to the problems and ques-
tions of the various classrooms. Much of the spirit of the social-
ized recitation was observed throughout the classroom work.
Along with this spirit was manifest in the school as a whole a
good ability in the effective use of English as a means of ex-
pression. There were indications that some especially good
training along this line was being developed.
While the school was strong in the above points, the regular
instruction work itself was not considered above the average
for similar high schools throughout the state. Out of the
seventeen teachers here included (manual training, music, draw-
ing, physical training, and one domestic science teacher
omitted) , one was rated excellent, five very good, six good, four
fair and one poor. It should perhaps be stated that the
teacher rated poor was teaching a subject considerably out of
the line of her regular work.
A number of points of general strength should be commended.
First, practically without exception, teachers showed a scholarly
command of the subjects being taught, at least on the side of gen-
eral or formal knowledge of the subject, i. e. such knowledge as is
commonly found in books. The use of vital, local material was
not so nmch in evidence.
Again, teachers were generally getting good cooperation and
were showing a sympathetic attitude in the development of their
subjects. Teachers Avere also, with few exceptions, possessed
of vigorous and pleasing personalities which gave evidence of
exerting a wholesome and stinuilating influence upon pupils.
However, the decided inspirational power which is desirable,
while found in a numl^er of cases to a marked degree, was re-
garded as the exceptional thing rather than the rule.
Along the line of effective classroom methods much can be said
in commendation of the work. Most of the teachers showed the
poise and much of the skill which comes from experience and
mastery of classroom practice. However, methods on the whole,
were regarded as showing more of the formal, bookish type of
work than that of the vital point of view which is the central
thought connected with the present reorganization spirit. The
180 Educational Survey of JancsviUe
cxi)ericiiccs of pupils, the local problems of the community, and
the eui-rent world happenings might have been utilized in muoli
of the work to a far greater extent with beneficial results. In
man}- cases the questioning was adapted to tHe formal rather
than the problem or vital method of approach. For example, in
one class a good part of a period was consumed in trying to get
pupils to formulate an exact statement of a definition. In the
social studies, so far as seen, there was a tendency rather to or-
ganize formal knowledge than to develop understanding by de-
veloping relationship with present day problems. The science
work seen M'as somewhat stronger from this vital viewpoint, but
there was a tendency to develop a stereotyped form of labo-
ratory Avork which was imposed upon the pupil rather than de-
veloped out of the needs and problems of his oavtl experience
and those of the practical world about him. Some questioning
of several students in connection with experiments which had
been worked and were being written up, indicated that these
pupils had done little vital thinking in connection with the work-
ing of these experiments. This does not apply to all work seen.
Some very good laboratory work was in progress and in some
of the class work teachers were utilizing the problem method to
quite a degree. The criticism here speaks only of a tendency
which appeared to characterize too much of the work.
A good deal of strong work was seen in connection vnth. the
English and foreign language departments, although in some-
cases the emphasis in the literature and reading work appeared
to be too much on logical organization of the subject matter
itself, rather than on the more vital aim of developing apprecia-
tion, good habits of thought, high ideals of action and skill in
the use of an elTpctive tool. As previously suggested, good re-
sults in oral and written composition were especialh'" noticed.
Oral English which is most often neglected, was regarded as es-
pecially strong.
Very little effective drill work was seen in the classes
visited. While it is entirely possible that much of such
work is done at various times, it is nevertheless believed that
general results in most classes might be greatly improved by a
larger amount of such work. High-school teachers might profit
greatly by taking opportunity to visit some strong grade teacher
occasionallv for the studv of devices for effective drill work.
High School Inslruction 181
'Such devices could often be applied advantageously with very
little modification to high school work. Such drill work to be
effective must be vigorous enough to arouse interest in the very
activity itself ; it should have good variety ; it should stimulate
a wholesome spirit of rivalry ; it should be adapted to the slower
as Avell as the keener pupils of the class; and it should ])e brief
but frequent.
The departmental plan of limiting each teacher's work to one
■or at most two subjects, seems to have been pretty closely fol-
lowed in the arrangement of all the instruction work. While
this is probably desirable as a general plan in as large a high
school as Janesville, nevertheless, there is a decidedly narrowing
effect in too close adherence to this plan. There is much danger
■of teachers coming to have the viewpoint of teaching subjects
rather than emphasizing the viewpoint of developing young
people. From the latter point of view, training should be broad
rather than intensive, and teachers should therefore keep them-
selves broad with reference to many subjects rather than one
only. It is therefore regarded as very wise policy frequently
to give teachers work in several lines. It is even wise with
strong teachers occasionally to give them some new subject as
a source of fresh material and new enthusiasm. Such a plan
nearly always results in better appreciation of the pupils' view-
point and a greater understanding of their difficulties.
While this is true from the standpoint of individual teaching,
there is need for systematic organization of all the work of
each department under a strong centralized plan. It is believed
that it would be a source of greater strength in the Janesville
high school, if departments such as English, social studies,
mathematics, and science were organized with greater unity of
plan. This would require a thoroughly strong teacher who
should act as head of each department and who should be re-
sponsible for all the work of the department, which should of
course be planned under the direction of this head in conference
with the assistants and with the principal or superintendent.
This plan is here suggested as a possible improvement which
should receive careful consideration.
Finally, strong instruction work in a school as large as Janes-
ville depends in a large degree upon wise and effective super-
vision. A good deal of this has no doubt been given in the past.
182 Educational Survey of Janesville
However, after considerable conference and discussion witli
the teachers and the principal, the surveyors concluded that this
supervision could be much strengthened. This could be accom-
plished through more frequent visits by principal and superin-
tendent and also by a careful follow-up plan by wiiich the
newer teachers might receive frequent visits followed by confer-
ences on their work until they had fully caught the viewpoint
of the school and had perfected their methods of work, after
which less frequent visits would be necessary. It is a very gen-
eral conviction that such helpful supervision is a very large
factor in developing strong teachers and in unifying the ideals
of a school. It is recommended that a more perfect organiza-
tion of this phase of the work be given careful consideration.
Summary of Kecommendatioxs
1. A general effort on the part of the teaching force to iitil'ze in
larger degree the vital and current practical material which is
most closely related to the life of the pupils and the community.
2. A further effort to use more largely the problem or vital method
in developing the subjects of instruction.
3. More vitalized drill work in connection with class instruction.
4. Greater unification of the work of each general department of in-
struction in the high school to the end of correlating the work
of all the teachers in the department as closely as possible about
common purposes.
5. More frequent and more systematic visiting of the work of differ-
ent teachers for the purpose of helpful supervision.
special Courses and Special Subjects 183-
X SPECIAL COURSES AND INS! RUCTION
IN SPECIAL SUBJECTS
SECTION I— Music
The Procedure.
During the nioniiiig Mr. Dykenia, observed by his three assist-
ants, conducted a test in a first grade room. After this, four
upper grade rooms were tested, each one by an investigator work-
ing alone. In the afternoon all went to the high school, to
observe the work of the high school chorus; then the three
assistants, observed by Mr. Dykema, carried on tests in three
grades, — two lower and one higher, and finally Llr. Dykema,
observed by all, concluded the day by a test in a 6th grade.
Four buildings were visited. A complete test would entail
working with all or nearly all of the children at least once and
visiting some of them at least twice.
The Maierml Used for the Survey.
The work done in testing followed closely the outline pre-
pared in advance, which is given below:
Notes for Survey of School Music.
1. Purpose:
(a) General
(1> To ascertain what effect the teaching of school music
is having on the life of the children both In and
out of school.
(2) To determine what aspects of the school music
teaching are particularly valuable so as to rein-
force these and also wha^ ^--'vt'^ ''re weak and need
either strengthening or eliminating.
(3) Insofar as possible to determine the causes for (1)
and (2) and to make such constructive criticisms
as will assist in giving music its proper place in
the school.
(b) Specific:
• In the observations on school music Professor Dykema was as-
sisted by three of his students. Miss Maude G]ynn, Miss Frances Leibing,
and Miss Hilda Mayer. The observations were made, June 8, 1917.
184 Educafioxal Survey of Janesville
Our inquiries v.ill proceed along four lines, aiming to determine:
(1) the function of music in
(a) the school
(b) the home
(c) the community at large
(2) the spirit or interest in which the children enter into
the music work
(a) in performance
(1) of songs learned
(2) of new songs to be learned
(a) by rote
(b) by note
A similar test will also be applied to the question of exercises.
(b) in listening to music
(3) the knowledge
(a) of general music history and biography (in
very elementary form)
(b) technical facts about music notation
(4) the technical power of the children as manifested in
their ability to attack new material, especially
that to be done by note.
II. Procedure:
In this first test, all that will be attempted will be under two head-
ings:
A. Written Work — B. Singing. These will be subdivided as
follows:
A. Written Work
(1) for function
(a) school (b) home (c) community as above
,„, . 1 , , ( these to combine material
2 or knowledge ^^^^^ knowledge,
(3) for appreciation / ^^^, technical power above
B. Singing
While most of the singing will be by the class as a whole, there
will also be some attempt to have individual tests if time allows.
The tests in singing will endeavor to bring out
(1) Spirit
(1) in songs which the children choose
(2) in songs which the teacher chooses
(2) Repertoire, with divisions as above
(3) Ability both in rote and note material
The points to be looked for here are:
(a) tone
(b) correctness
(c) interpretation, involving phrasing and general
beauty of delivery, including clear vjusical
enunciation.
Special Courses and Special Siihjects . 185
III. Special Questions:
Intended to cover most of the above headings.
A. (1) Questions for the pupil: to be written if possible
a. If you could arrange the program in your room,
would you give more or less time to music than
is now given, or would you leave it just as it
is? Why?
b. Do you ever use at home anything you have
learned in the music period at school? Tell
just what if anything.
c. What songs that you learned at school have you
ever sung out of school? Which, where, when?
d. Name the five songs you like best to sing —
these need not be school songs if you like
others better. Indicate where you learned each
of the songs.
e. Tell what other music than singing you like very
much. Name some particular pieces and the
instruments that play them.
(2) Questions for the Room Teacher:
(a) What effect, if any, does the music given in
the school have upon the general work of
the school? Be as specific as possible.
(b) If music is ever used in your room other than
during the music period, tell when, how
often, for what reason, and what the effects
are.
(c) When the supervisor of music visits your
room, are the benefits to the children greater
when you teach the lesson and receive crit-
icisms from the supervisor or when the su-
pervisor teaches the lesson? How and why?
(d) If you could arrange the program in your
room, would you give more or less time to
music than is now given or would you leave
it just as it is? Why?
B. Knowledge
(1) For the pupil
Place a quarter note where both high and low doh
or the keynote are to be found after each of the
following signatures: (three will be given)
(2) Place the bars in tUe proper places of the following
music: (Material of increasing difBculty through-
out the grades will be given.)
C. Performance
(1) Learning a song by rote:
Song to be taueht grades 1. 2. 3, and 4: "The
Tailor and the Mouse." Observation will be on the
number of times required to sing it to the children
before the class as a whole can reproduce it cor-
rectly.
186
Ediicdl hnuil Snrveji of JancsviUe
The song for grades 5, 6, 7, and 8 is "Under the
Greenwood Tree."
Both of these are found in "Grammar School
Songs" by Farnsworth, published by Scribners'
Sons.
(2) Sight Reading: An exercise to be placed upon the
board or on a chart. The exercises, presented on
large charts, were these:
EvEfiC/SES USED FOR S/GHT SlNGlUG TeST
rwf Gumis J X 4
^3
^
5
^
5
i
^^
Z±l
!^Uf1HER IS COHIH/a ,
'■^^ fi/f Guns S kb
^ ^ ^j I ' ^T I r ^
■>00N WELL BE RT PLffY.
j "^ J I Jlj
s
Heru the. sono wz siwG TO Thee
HenR us, SEnK F/itmer,
The birds am the flowers all feel thpj it is
dfc
J.-^^v^-
^^^=^^
pp
^?±=f
5~r T f f rt
Sps/nc Come jo/n th£ glrb r"o»i;s, CotiE i^hu the echoes ii"'c.
(3) For grades 5, 6, 7, and 8
Of what songs are these notes the beginning?
(Well known songs will be selected.)
(4) Give the scale names of the tones in the two above
examples.
(5) Write from heating six times the exercise which is
dictated to you — a different one for each grade.
Summary of Wliat Wa.^ Expected.
From the outline, it is evident that the investigatoTS hoped
to find
(1) That music was playing an important part in the lives of the
children both in and out of school, adding pleasure and
Special Courses and ISpccial Subjccis 187
significance to many hours besides those specifically as-
signed to music study.
(2) That, inspired by the love of song, the children were gaining
steadily individual command of the simpler technical de-
tails so that at the end of the grammar school course each
child would be able to sing alone his part in any com-
paratively simple music, such as an ordinary hymn tune.
(3) That some guidance was systematically being given to help the
children to know and enjoy the better kinds of music when
they hear them.
(4) Although not mentioned in the notes above, it was hoped that
there might be found at least preliminary steps for the
introduction of systematic instrumental instruction in the
grades.
The Report
The brief time, one da3% taken for observing the work in
the schools and the somewhat unsettled condition of the school
music, due to the fact that the day for visiting fell near the
end of the year and just before a special music festival, which
for some two weeks or more preceding had occupied most of the
nuisic periods, makes this report somewhat fragmentary; in fact,
hardly more than a beginning of a real study that might well
be carried ou,t with profit.
I
llie General. Attn ude Toward the Music
The music in the schools seems to have the approval of the
teachers and pupils to a very large extent. Most of the teachers
feel that the time allotment at present is about the right one. The
majority of the children would welcome more time given to
music. The main help that the teachers mention is the change
and recreation which singing affords in connection with the
other studies.
A Contrast Between School and Life
The music seems to stress more than is necessary the school
music aspect, i. e., it is not of a type that enters vitally into
the life of the child outside of the music period. There were
few evidences of music being used in other subjects, few in-
stances of its being used as a recreation at times other than the
music period. Moreover, although it was encouraging to find
much evidence of the knowledge and frequent use of patriotic
188 Educational Survey of Janesville
songs, and possibly this is all one can expect under present con-
ditions, there seemed too little mention of the music learned in
the school being used in the home ov the community at large.
This may be explained by the small amount of folk songs Avhich
are taught to the children and also the lack of songs of a rol-
licking and highly rhythmic nature. In other words, the school
does not seem to supply material which competes successfully
with children's interest in popular songs.
Children are Interested
The interest of the children in their music work seemed to b&
good throughout the system from the lower grades through the
high school. While as is natural, they are more interested in
the songs than they are in technical w^ork, especially exercises,
they attack this latter material in good shape. This final state-
ment applies only to the grades, because there is practically
no technical study carried on in the high school.
No Training in Listenhig
Moreover, the entire statement applies practically to the per-
formance by the children only. They are singularly lacking in
training and knowledge in music, to which they are to listen.
There is apparently an entire lack of information concerning
the great composers of instrumental music and a knowledge of
compositions by them.
Knowledge of a Fair Average
The children manifest a fair degree of knowledge about the
technical facts of music notation insofar as these are necessary
for the reading and singing by note. It is probable that the
means, we used of testing — that of Avriting and interpreting
written music by eye rather than voice, is strange to the children.
Although much writing of music is unnecessary, some training
is very "desirable.
Tcclinical Ability — i. e. Singing by Note
The technical power in the rendering of music by the children
has reached a good standard so long as unison singing is carried
on. The part work, however, is hardly up to grade, at least in
the attack of new material. We are glad to say, however, that
Spcciul Coiiraes and ISpecial ISuhjecis 189
^ye heard some excellent part singing of learned material in
the 7th grade. The main faults in the sight singing seem to
be along rhythmic lines. The children lack independence,
surety, and the ability to attack new problems. We are not
sure that they have been given enough intellectual drill in con-
nection with their "rhythmic patterns" to enable them to use
their patterns in new and strange combinations. The dotted
quarter followed by an eighth note seemed to trouble several
grades.
Tlic Tone is Good Except in Upper Grades
The tone used by the children is good in the "lower grades,
but rather poor in the period where the changed voices of the
boys appear. The eighth grade which we heard was quite un-
satisfactory from the point of view of tone. Moreover, the
treatment of the boy with the changed voice has not been given
sufficient attention.
.Suggestions for Improvement
The main points of attack in improving the work will be
along three lines : 1st, better and more varied material for
singing ; 2nd, the introduction of opportunities to listen to music
•other than that which the children themselves produce ; 3d, a
•change in the spirit of the instruction. We shall deal with
these somewhat at length.
1. Material. The series of books now in use throughout
the school is quite inadequate from either the point of view of
song material or method of technical development. It is one
of the older series and does not reflect the modern spirit of
school music teaching which emphasizes the need of a large
amount of attractive song material so arranged that the technical
powers of the children can be largely developed in connection
^vith song. This would mean the replacing of the present book
-by one of the newer and i)referably by two of the newer series of
music books. We say two because the teaching of music read-
ing to children is very similar to the teaching of children to
read litei-ature, with this important additional point, that
practically every home either through its own resources or
through the public library can ])rovide the child with reading
■other than his story ])ook at school. The supplementary idea is in
190 Educational Survey of JancsviUe
fact more important in music, if possible, than in literature.
Janesville should be so provided with music books that each
child should own one which he could and would gladly take
home with him for use there, — a condition which apparently
does not obtain at present ; and this should be supplemented
by a different book w^hich the school Avould supply for reading
(singing) in the classroom.
In deciding upon these books, it is essential that much at-
tention be given to the inclusion of folk song material. This
is a field which is just being opened up now, and we are realiz-
ing that the child is entitletl to the heritage of folk music. This
same principle may be stated in connection with the material
which the supervisor uses for rote songs. It should be much
more largely folk material rather than the made songs by
modern composers for children. Moreover, if the material is
to appeal to the boy, especially so that it Avill satisfy that need
that is now met by the singing of ragtime, it must be of a more
vigorous and hard}' character than is usual in the modern-made
song. Tlie rollicking song which we used for the primary grades,
— ''The Tailor and the Mouse," with its nonsensical chorus but
with its vigorous rhythm throughout, is the type of song that we
have in mind as the new element to be added to the children's
repertoire.
2. Listening Material. The Janesville schools are back-
ward in the matter of giving the children the opportunity to
listen to music other than that which they themselves produce.
We have only to mention the fact that progressive schools all
over the country are making it possible for children to hear fre-
quently during their regular school hours and in the classroom
a large amount of material that is adapted to them and that
they love intensely. We refer to the introduction of the phono-
graph as a part of the music instruction. We should be re-
luctant, however, to see this introduced and have it result in a
reduced amount of time now given to the present type of music.
The children need all the time the.y now have for learning to
perform. It ought to be possible, however, to find five minutes
additional a daj^ in which the children could become acquainted,
through appropriate material and proper guidance, with some
of the world's great treasures Avhich the phonograph is waiting
to give them! While it is also valuable to have concerts by
Special Courses and Special Su1)jects 191
the supervisor, by talented teacliers, and by other musicians
(here shoukl be mentioned as especially valuable organ recitals
at monthly intervals given in some of the larger churches of
the city), these are less easy to obtain regularly, and, moreover,
have certain extraneous personal elements which compare un-
favorably with the impersonality of the phonograph.
3. A Change in the Spirit. We wish to commend the energy
and devotion which the supervisor has succeeded in imparting
to l)(>th teachers and pupils. The new si)irit which we have in
mind is one that is difficult to describe, l)ut is so important that
we shall attempt it.
Insofar as the i)resent conditions are unfortunate, they arise,
we believe, from the feeling of pressure which almost harries the
supervisor. With her desire to accomplish large results in the
comparatively short time allotted to music, she has possibly at-
tempted to do more Avork than is wise. It is an open ques-
tion as to whether there Avould be a gain if the supervisor were
to do less actual teaching and Avere to have monthly meetings
with the teachers in classes, — the primary teachers in one group,
intermediate in another, or in some such selective arrangement.
Two results have folloAved : First, the supervisor has been
I>ushed and has constantly applied a goad to the children; and
secondly, she does not give enough time and thought to leading
the children to appreciate the beauty of music and to allowing
it time to impress itself upon their minds. As a result, the
children are lacking in independence and a deep love for music.
Every supervisor needs to accomplish two things in herself,
namely, the increasing of her. own delight in music, and the
learning to believe that power is more important in children
than the getting over any certain amount of material. These
conditions Avill be retlected in the pupils by getting them to
take time to enjoy music, — both in producing and in listening
to it, and by making them more self-reliant, more independent,
more able to Avork out their material alone. It ought to be a
common part of the music Avork for the supervisor, and the
grade teacher also, in her absence, to give the children their key
note, tell them to sing a ncAv song or exercise through, and then
actually leave them alone until they have gone through with it.
An exemplification of the faults AA-ill be found in the matter
of the tAvo-part singing. Both oui- oAvn tests and such informa-
192 Educational Survey of Janesville
tion as we obtained through conversation leads us to believe
that tlie usual way of carrying on new ])art work in Janesville
is to take first one part and then the other so that two-part sing-
ing is practically the putting together of two melodies compara-
tively unrelated at first. The children should have simple
enough two-part material at first so that they can sing the two
parts at the same time and still appreciate the lovely effect that
is produced when two tones are sung simultaneously.
Music in tlie High Scliool
While we saw very little of the music in the high school and
while we realize the difficulties of this problem, it seems to us
unfortunate that no arrangements are made for carrying on
systematically the good work which has been begun in the
grades. The high school ought to offer more advanced singing
for those children who have done well in the grades. It ought
to offer opportunities for appreciation work which should con-
tinue that which we have advocated for the grades and which at
the present time should attcniy)t to remedy the pitable lack of
training along these lines. There ought also to be some provi-
sion made for technical musical study, presumably in harmony,
for students who may wish to do something ^vith music later
in life.
Possibilities in Instrumental Music
The commendable assistance given to the high school chorus
by a group of instrumentalists brings up the question of a con-
siderable extension of purely instrumental work. These high
school players would Avith careful preparation fomi the nucleus
of an orchestra which could add a fine element to the musical
life not only of the school but of the entire community. The
dignifying of such an organization would necessitate for its
perpetuation a systematic plan for preparing players in the
grades. This would mean the introduction with the grades of
some of the plans for instrumental work in the grades which
are now being pushed vigorously by a large number of the
progressive public school systems throughout the country.
Conclusion
The above report is by no means complete and is certainly
not to be considered as an entirely satisfactory analysis of the
situation. It is submitted with considerable hesitation because
Special Courses and Special Subjects 193
we realize that our observations are based upon an insufficient
knowledge of affairs Avhich was, moreover, obtained at a time
that was not typical of the year's work. But we have felt it
worth while to submit these impressions because the work in
music in the Janesville schools shows such progress already and
gives such hope for improvement that it can profit by such
queries and suggestions as we have presented.
SECTION ir
Drawing
Art Education in public schools is comparatively a new
feature. The forty or more years in which it has been tried
in this country indicate the demand which has arisen for it.
Briefly stated, there are four aims in teaching art:
1. To develop ability of the child to express himself. Such ability
is developed by two types of work. One is the free illus-
tration in the lower grades, which helps the child visualize.
This process of graphic expression serves to clarify his ideas.
The second type of drawing portrays facts in science, —
biology, physiology, and geography. Usually a drawing of
this type is more enlightening than words, both to the one
who draws and to the one who inspects the drawing.
2. To cultivate taste in design and color, and to produce beauty in
both. Art education is a failure if it does not result in a
demand for beauty in dress, in the home, and in the com-
munity, and in efforts to meet this demand.
3. To create an interest in and appreciation of beauty in nature
and in one's environment, and an appreciation of the accom-
plishment of artists who have expressed themselves in vari-
ous mediums. Art teaching from this standpoint should in-
clude the study of architecture, painting, and sculpture.
4. To cultivate , ability to read working drawings and to make such
drawings for construction problems made in manual and in-
dustrial arts classes.
In making a study of a course in Art Education, with the
above mentioned aims in mind, one examines the work to dis-
cover if the essentials that form a basis for accomplishing these
aims have been observed in teaching. In each type of drawing
there is a sequence in the steps that lays a foundation for
effective results. These fundamentals should form the back-
bone of a flexible course that may be adjusted to suit individual
pupils and classes in various localities.
194 Educational Survey of Janesville
Two days were spent by the writer in observing the teaching
of drawing in Janesville. The work of both the supervisor and
of the grade teachers were examined. Some time was spent in
conference with these instructors. A request was made for
three sets of drawings, each set to represent work from all of
the eight grades. Each was to illusti-ate one of the three types
of drawing in whieli the pupils had been taught.
Table 33. — Distribution of Scores in Drawing — Set I Paper Cutting
Quality
No. of
Grade
pupils
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
33
9
23
1
II
21
2
11
8
III
39
2
2
4
25
6
IV
24
8
12
4
V
34
14
3
12
5
VI
23
5
2
3
13
VII
24
1
4
5
9
5
VIII
19
5
3
2
4
5
Total 217 27 40 38 53 21 24 9 5
The specimens in the set of drawings graded in Table 33
were decorations done in paper cutting, either borders, or cir-
cular or square designs. The exercise was similar in all grades.
The cutting was freehand and the repeats made by cutting the
paper folded. The specimens were sorted by the writer into
groups which in her judgment represented increasing merit,
each group differing from the next by approximately equal
steps. Class A has the least merit and Class H is made up of
drawings by no means perfect, but the best submitted. The
judgment of excellence was based upon quality of design, as
to shapes and spacing and upon technique.
Table 34. — Distribution of Drawing Scores — Set II — Nature Drawings
Quality
No. of
Grade
pupils
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
38
14
24
II
27
3
16
8
III
29
11
15
3
IV
38
12
12
9
5
V
36
4
18
13
1
VI
38
17
13
8
VII
29
2
3
4
15
5
VIII
26
1
11
8
6
Total 261 17 67 53 44 23 23 23 11
Special Courses and Special Subjects
195
Table 34 the result of a similar process of assorting a set
of nature drawings, done in colored crayons, a tulip being
used as the subject in grades 1-4 and vegetables or fruit in
grades 5-8. The basis for the judgment of excellence in these
were form, color, light and shade, and technique. As in Table
33 Class A comprises the poorest drawings and H the best,
the variation from one class to another being about equal.
Table 35. — Distribiiiion of Drawing Scores — Set III.
Part
1.
Part 2.
Quality
Quality
No. of
No. of
Grade
Pupils
17
A
S
B
9
C
D
Grade
Pupils
A
B
C
D
I
V
25
15
8
1
1
II
26
4
14
8
VI
39
23
10
6
III
27
2
8
14
3
VI]
32
11
7
10
4
IV
30
8
18
4
VIII
28
4
3
10
11
Total
100
14 39 40 7 Total
124
53 28 27 16
Table 35 shows the results from assorting a set made up of
two kinds of drawings, showing the appearance of objects. The
first four grades did a free illustration of a game of ball, and
the four higher grades drew a flower pot from the object when
placed below the level of the eye. The writer -wished a record
of drawings of these types, and selected these subjects because
free illustration is usually taught in lower grades and drawing
from the object in higher grades.
In assorting this last set the Thorndike scale was of assist-
ance as it is made up of drawings of these kinds. The degrees
of merit, however, were not estimated according to that scale,
but by letters to accord with Tables 33 and 34. The classes
are lettered from A to D only, as the two kinds were assorted
separately, A representing the poorest, and D the best in each.
The merits correspond approximately to those of the Thorndike
scale as given below:
Table 35, Part 1.
A — 2.4 degrees of merit
B— 3.9 " " "
C— 6.5
D— 8.6 " " "
Table 35, Part 2.
A — 10.5 degrees of merit
B— 12.6 " " "
C— 14.4 " " "
D— 16 " " '•
196 Educational Survey of Janesville
There is an increase of approximately two degrees of merit
from class to class. ^
From a study of these tables it will be seen that the greater
number of drawings possess intermediate qualities of merit, and
that just as good work is done by some pupils in lower grades
as by others in higher grades. Overlapping of abilities in
drawing is quite marked. It will also be seen that progress is
not continuously sustained, the number of pupils attaining the
higher degrees of excellence being very small. This may be the
result of wide variations in native ability within a grade tending
to retard the progress of all, if all are taught the same thing at
the same time.
These observations lead to two conclusions: 1. The course
surveyed is not arranged and carried out so that the rate of prog-
ress increases uniformly. 2. If children as now classified
differ so much in ability that progress cannot be sustained to a
greater degree, the drawing lesson should be arranged so that
children of more nearly equal ability may work together. If
the need for readjustment of classes according to ability can-
not be met in a large way, at least pupils within one classroom
may be taught in groups, according to their ability.
Conclusions and Recommendations
Opportunity for initiative was afforded especially in the
higher grades. Technique was not insisted upon at the expense
of the child's originality. The criticism given pupils was such
that they were encouraged to further effort. Furthermore
pupils showed unusual power of attack.
The course can be improved by relating it more directly to
other phases of education. Too much of the material of the pres-
ent course is unrelated to the needs of the children. This con-
dition can be remedied by more careful supervision. The
supervisor should keep closely in touch with what the children
are doing in other subjects. She should enlist the cooperation
of the teachers in her efforts to correlate drawing with the
other subjects. Besides having a good art training the super-
visor should be thoroughly acquainted with the principles of
teaching and of psychology. The addition of construction prob-
> The Thorndike scale could not be used in assorting- the other types
of drawing represented in Tables 33 and 34 for as stated by the author
himself iri his "Measurement of Achievement in Drawing," the scale is
not adapted for use with these types of drawing.
Special Courses and Special Subjects 191
lems to the present coiirise would afford an oppoi'tvmity for ap-
plying principles of design and color. The work in illustrative
drawing could well be associated with the reading, language,
geography, and history. Poster making could be an outgrowth
of the need for announcements and advertisements for the
school.
Mechanical drawing might well be taught to the grades that
take bench work in manual training. Boys may be taught
this, while the girls are given applied design in connection with
household arts.
The essentials of the different types of drawing should be
more thoroughly emphasized in the course than at present.
It would be desirable to have in each building enough models
so that prints and copies need not be used. Sufficient illustra-
tive material is desirable to create ideals in design and color
and to permit adequate study of the technique of all varieties of
work.
The proper distribution of the supervisor's time is a difficult
problem in a city of this size in which she spends much of her
time in actual teaching. If a supervisor does one-third or one-
half of the teaching the grade teacher is likely to lose sight of
the larger relations of the problem and to fail to comprehend
the needs in drawing
It would be better therefore if the supervisor were to do less
teaching of pupils than she now does. She should spend more
time in observing the drawing teaching of the regular teachers
to see whether drawing is being taught as it should be taught
and if it is not to indicate how it should. This is the kind of
supervision of drawing for which she is being paid. When she
devotes her entire time to teaching children she is merely a
teacher of drawing and in no sense a supervisor. It is not to be
understood that she should never teach a class of pupils. On
the contrary she should do this frequently but for the purpose
of demonstrating to the teacher how to teach a particular type
of lesson. Teaching of this sort should be preceded by con-
ference with the teacher in which the aims of the lesson, the prin-
ciples to be illustrated and the method to be used are carefully
discussed. The lesson should be followed by a similar confer-
ence with the teacher to make certain that she has grasped the
essential points of the demonstration. The supervisor will need
198 Educational Survey of Janesvitte
to spend more time in careful sympathetic constructive super-
vision and in conducting teachers' meetings where art teaching
is the subject of discussion than she now does. More attention
should be given to assisting teachers to adjust the course to
meet the individual needs of pupils and classes. Finally the
supervisor should form a class in art instruction for the teachers
of drawing. This should be a part of her supervisory program.
The class should meet ijeriodically.
SECTION III
Agricultural Department
Growth of Agricultural Departments in Cities
An idea has been prevalent that an agricultural course is
adapted only to the needs of the rural high school. There has
been, however, a growing tendency in the last few years to de-
velop departments for this kind of work in city high schools as
well as those in the country. Three arguments may be advanced in
favor of agriculture in cities. First, a steadily increasing
number of tuition pupils from the comitry have been asking
admission in city high schools. Agriculture is an especially de-
sirable line of work for these pupils, most of whom will go back
to the farms. Again, many city pupils are very easily inter-
ested in agriculture and many of them may be led to seek farm-
ing as their vocation, thus helping to overcome the effect of the
rapidly growing tide from the country to the city. Farming
offers a most desirable occupation to many of these city boys
and girls. '
A third important value of an agricultural course in a city
high school lies in its beneficial effect upon the entire rural prob-
lem of the region. Everything that can be done to raise the
general intelligence and efficiency of the farming industry and
to elevate the ideals of living among rural people, has a very di-
rect helpful influence upon the city or town which forms the
commercial center of the region, as well as upon the rural people
themselves. This is true not mereh" as a matter of general so-
cial uplift but because the more prosperous and cultured a rural
population in any region becomes the more will this population
enter into trade and business relations with the town or city
Special Courses and Special Suhjects 199
Which is able to supply its higher needs. Thus by sending out
an intelligent and well-trained class of young people to the
farms an agricultural course may be made a most directly help-
ful business asset to the city.
Growing appreciation of these benefits has led an increasing
number of cities to develop, during the last few years, agricul-
tural departments in connection with their high schools. In ad-
dition to Janesville, the following Wisconsin cities may be cited
as examples of this tendency: Green Bay, Marshfield, Neenah,
Waupaca and Chippewa Falls. Three of these have organized
agricultural departments within the last two years. Outside the
state, the same tendency is shown in many city high schools.
Cleveland has just established a special agricultural course in
connection with both her technical high schools and the number
taking these courses is rapidly increasing. The Gary schools are
just beginning to give special attention to an agricultural course
for the high school, a specially trained teacher for this subject
having been employed during the last year for the first time.
Favorable Situation of Janesville
A survey of Janesville conditions shows this city to be espe-
cially well situated for a course of this kind. The city is located
in the center of a large and remarkably fruitful fanning region,
of which the Janesville high school forms the natural educa-
tional center. Land in this area brings from 150 to 200 dollars
per acre. The average distance of the five nearest high schools
surrounding Janesville is about fifteen miles. Assuming that
half this distance should naturally belong to the Janesville ter-
ritory, we should get a farming area of somewhere between one
hundred fifty and two hundred square miles. As shov^Ti in an-
other part of this report, there are thirty-eight rural districts
in this area. During the years 1914, 1915 and 1916 there were
graduated from the eighth grades of these districts 119 pupils,
who then were eligible to enter the high school. During the
last year there were actually 01 tuition pupils in the Janesville
high school. A very large per cent of these rural pupils are go-
ing back to the farm and therefore need a training adapted to
the needs of that work. Likewise this rich and fruitful region
offers unusual attractions to those city young people whose in-
terests naturally turn in that direction. That the providing
^00 I^ducational Survey of Jancsvitie
of a good agricultural training in the Janesville high school will
result in a great benefit to this great farming region and indi-
rectly to all the business interests of Janesville, few people will
doubt and especially after carefully noting the results of this
survey in relation to this course.
Growth of the Course
The agricultural course was introduced in 1910. The number
of pupils taking the course has steadily increased as shown in
following figures :
Enrollment by Years
1910-11—11 pupils 1913-14—28 pupils
1911-12—15 " 1914-15—53 "
1912-13—19 " 1915-16—60 "
1916-17—71 "
This shows an average annual increase of approximately 38%
while the average annual increase in the entire high school en-
rollment has been but 3.8%. These figures show a wholesome
growth of interest in the course since the work is entirely elec-
tive on the part of students. The enrollment of 71 during the
past year is a good showing in comparison with other special
departments when it is considered that the interests of pupils
are so large^v urban in such a school as Janesville. With the
attraction of a larger number of the eligible rural pupils, else-
where recommended in this report, there ought to be a contin-
ued growth in this course for at least a number of years.
Occupation Represented in Enrollment
It was interesting to find that a very large per cent of pupils
in this course come from homes where farming or some phase
of agricultural work such as truck gardening, is the occupa-
tion. The total number of separate pupils who have been in
the course at any time is 168. Out of these 73 or 43.5% came
from farm homes. Out of the 73, 56 were tuition pupils. The
following table shows the classes of occupations represented:
From farm homes 73
From professional occupations (doctor, clergyman, etc.).. 3
From commercial occupations 18
From trades (machinist, painter, tailor) 19
From laboring class 20
Undetermined 35
Tuition pupils 56
Special Courses and Special Subjects 20l
These figures indicate rather strikingly that this course is
contributing strongly to the needs of the pupils from rural
homes. It is also attracting a good many pupils from the homes
of laboring, trade and commercial classes who live in the city.
As previously suggested, such training for city pupils whose
interests lie in this direction is exceedingly desirable and the
showing here given speaks well for the results of the course,
so far as this point is concerned.
What Pupils Do After LeoAjing the Course
Out of the 168 separate pupils who have entered the course,
71 were still in the course at the end of the last school year.
This leaves 97 who have left the course. Of these 16 were still
in school though taking no agricultural work. Six have gone
to higher institutions for study in lines other than agriculture.
Of the remaining 75 who have gone out into industry, 35 or
47% have taken up some line of agricultural work. Nearly all
of these have gone directly to the farm, though two of them
have gone to take up advanced study at the agricultural col-
leges and will later take up some phase of farm work. This is
regarded as a very good showing as to the vocational value of
the course. The training given is actually being utilized imme-
diately and effectively by a large number of the pupils taking
the work.
A good many concrete examples were found to show that the
work has actually aroused new interest and resulted in more
efficient methods of farming. One boy since finishing the course
has been given the management of his father's two hundred
acre farm, and conspicuous improvement has resulted. In an-
other case, the father purchased a farm through the interest of
the boy and the latter has now gone to the agricultural college
to get a better training for the management of the new project.
Another boy has gone to manage his uncle 's farm ; one has taken
up official cow testing work, while many others are now work-
ing on the home farm.
Length of Time Devoted to Course
Four units or years of agricultural work are offered in the
course. It was found that only a small number of those enter-
ing completed the full four years' work. A very large number
SOS Educational Survey of JanesvilU
took one year or less. Of the 97 pupils who have left the cour^e^
8 took 4 years' work; 7 took 3 years' work; 7 took 2 years' work
and 75 took 1 year's work or less. This would make the aver-
age taken by these pupils less than IV2 years. A somewhat bet-
ter showing is made among the pupils still in the course. The
present freshman class has had a chance to take only one year.
In the sophomore class with 22 members, 10 have taken 2 years ;
1 has taken II/2 years, and 10 have taken but one year. In the
present junior class of 15, 1 has taken 4 years; 5 have taken 3
years; 4 have taken 2 years; 3 have taken IV2 years and 2 have
taken 1 year. In the present senior class of 6 members, none
have taken more than 1 year.
It is by no means to be expected that all students entering
this course must necessarily complete the full four years of
work. It is desirable that the course should be open to those
who wish to try out the work and test their interest and adapta-
bility in this line. The course should be flexible enough to allow
such pupils to take a year or even two years and then shift to
other courses if this seems wise after due conference with super-
visors. However, the figures here given indicate rather too great
a tendency to dabble in the course. It would be desirable in the
judgment of the survey that a much larger per cent of pupils
should complete the course or at least continue the work over a
longer period. The question is raised whether pupils have not
been left too much to their own whims and to passing notions as
to what work they would like to elect. It is strongly urged that
decided effort be made to see that pupils are given adequate
advice. They should not be allowed to drop out of the course
until this seems wise for the pupil in the judgment of superin-
tendent or principal after careful investigation. It is believed
that the efficiency of the course might be much strengthened by
holding pupils, as a rule at any rate, for a longer time in the
course.
Equipment
The equipment found indicates that the school authorities
have been fairly liberal in providing for the material needs of
the work. However, it is thought that the equipment for agri-
culture is somewhat scant in comparison with that provided In
other special courses, such as manual training, commercial
Special Courses and Special Subjects 203
work and domestic science. While the fann itself furnishes a
large part of what is needed in the way of laboratory work,
nevertheless, a good deal of equipment is needed for suitable
demonstration and experiment work in direct connection with
the school.
The room now provided for this work is adapted to many of
the needs, but it would be a great advantage to have another
room which could be used for storing corn and other materials
and for carrying on .such i)ractical farm operations as milk sepa-
ration, incubator work etc. This need should be especially kept
in mind in connection with any new building plans.
Again, while a school farm is not a necessity and perhaps not
even desirable, there is great need of a small plot' of ground
which can be used for demonstration and experimental purposes.
It would be a distinct advantage if a plot of at least two acres
could be supplied as near as possible to the school. Work in
connection with this plot would not at all take the place of the
home project work which is a fundamental necessity. How-
ever, much instruction work needs to be done in relation to ac-
tual practice which can be provided for on a school plot. Of
the 90 agricultural departments in Wisconsin high schools,
nearly half operated small plots in 1915-16 and this work was
considered of great value in every case. Green Bay, the city
nearest the size of Janesville, operating a high school agricul-
tural department, has had school plots in both high schools for
a number of years. On the west side the plot has grown from
two acres to twenty-two acres as the work has developed.
Methods of Woi'k
The methods of work found in operation in this course were
regarded on the whole as very effective. Much practical work
is being done. Home projects were receiving main attention, al-
though incubator work, seed testing, etc. have been extensively
carried on as group projects at school. In the freshmen class 8
boys were carrying on incubator work; 4 garden work; 8 keep-
ing milk records ; 1 raising a calf ; 2 building and setting up
bird houses, and 1 was caring for an orchard.
In the sophomore class, 3 pupils were doing orchard pruning ;
1 raising baby beef ; 4 testing seed com at home ; 2 doing incu-
bator work; 4 raising gardens; 3 caring for chickens; 1 raising
204 Educational Survey of JdnesvilU
ducks; 1 keeping a poultry record, and 2 managed hotbeds.
Two had dropped from school and 3 had not organized any
project work.
In the junior class, 1 was doing landscape work on home
grounds; 3 were managing hotbeds; 1 incubator work; 3 test-
ing cows; 1 care of chickens; 3 no project. All of the 6 in the
senior class were doing landscape work on home grounds.
Successful completion of these projects requires summer su-
pervision. The plan now in operation of employing the agri-
cultural teacher during practically the whole year in order to
provide this necessary supervision is highly commended. The
teacner should visit each student of the department at least five
times during the vacation and proper instruction should be
given in relation to each project. This project work is not
something that should be left to the choice or whim of the pupil.
It should be considered the most essential part of this course,
and students who do no such work should not expect credit in
the work. A careful system of reports should be kept in con-
nection with the projects. Reports should include those by the
agricultural teacher to the school board and by the pupils to the
instructor.
Classroom instruction in this course is generally commended.
Pupils showed good interest and a business-like attitude. The
only suggestion in this connection is that the work might be
somewhat strengthened by a fuller discussion and rounding up
of fundamental scientific principles in connection with class-
room presentation. This does not mean a technical, severely
scientific treatment of topics, but it does mean as full an or-
ganization of material as is possible within the capacity of pu-
pils and the establishing of scientific relationships and wide
applications of scientific knowledge gained by the pupils in
other science studies, to the agricultural problems in hand.
Exhibits, Contests and General Activities
Exhibit and contest work has been given considerable atten-
tion for a number of years. A district stock judging contest
has been held annually for two years in connection with the
State Stock Judging Contest. In 1916-17 Janesville secured
third place in the district contest. An exhibit of the high school
agricultural department was held at the Rock County Fair in
Special Courses and Special Subjects 205
1916, and many prizes were taken by the boys. At the same
event a stock judging contest was held at which most of the
prizes were secured by boys in this course. A school exhibit was
held in May of this year at which incubator work, rope tying
and corn testing demonstrations were prominent features. The
domestic science department participated in this exhibit. These
activities are of great value in arousing interest and in rounding
up results of practical work in such a way as to lead both pu-
pils and community to see that the course is worth while. A
fall exhibit is especially important as a means of showing the
results of the students' project work. This exhibit ought to be
made a prominent feature for the whole school and community.
It has already been shown that the results of the course have
been most helpful to the whole farming community about Janes-
ville. This has come, first of all, through the work with the pu-
pils and through them to their homes. There have also been
carried on a number of helpful activities which have reached
the rural community directly. During the last year or two
about twenty farmers, largely fathers of boys in the course,
have been advising quite regularly about their farm problems
with the agricultural director. An agricultural column has been
maintained for five years in the Janesville Gazette under the
direction of the department. In 1915-16, 3000 ears of com, and
in 1916-17 400 ears, were tested by pupils for local farmers.
This was done at school as a part of the regular work. Another
activity which aroused unusual interest in 1917 was a debate
between four teams in Rock county on the subject, "Resolved
that the Holstein Cow is the Most Profitable for the Rock County
Parmer." All these activities are most valuable and should be
encouraged as far as possible.
A phase of work which is exceedingly valuable in connection
with an agricultural department does not seem to have received
much systematic attention at Janesville. This is a type of man-
ual training especially adapted to the needs of the farm. The
regular manual training course demands too much time and
usually deals with much general work which is not of special
value to the farm boy. It is therefore very desirable that spe-
cial classes be organized for agricultural pupils and that the
work should be planned with special reference to farm needs,
dealing with such problems as rough carpentry, forge work,
206 Educational Survey of Janesville
farm building construction etc. Two double periods a week
would furnish enough time for a good line of work of this kind
and agricultural pupils could easily carry this in addition to
the regular four study program. If the full time of a regular
study is given, the work should in any case be of a distinctly
agricultural type closely related to direct farm needs.
The report may be summarized in the following points and
recommendations :
1. The practical character and general efficiency of the work of this
course are highly commended.
2. The course has had an encouraging growth since its organization
and the work has contributed much to the rural problems and
through this help has benefited the city as well.
3. The great majority of pupils in the course have come from the
farm and almost 50% of the boys on leaving the course take
up farming pursuits. This number includes many city boys.
The following recommendations are submitted :
1. That special effort be made to hold pupils in the course for a
longer time and that they be allowed to give up the work only
after very careful advice and confei-ence with superintendent
or principal.
2. That in connection with new building plans larger accommoda-
tions be provided for this course including a second room
which should be adapted to much of the practical work.
3. That as liberal provision as possible be made for additional
equipment during the next year or two.
4. That special classes in farm manual training be organized for the
agricultural pupils and the work be made distinctly agricul-
tural in type.
5. That a school plot of at least two acres be secured if possible to be
operated in connection with this course for demonstration,
practical experiment and for securing adequate illustrative
material.
6. That the employment of the agricultural teacher for at least an
eleven months' year be continued as a permanent policy and
that a systematic plan of reports be developed in connection
with the project work especially during the summer vacation.
Special Courses and Special Subjects 207
SECTION IV
School Gardening
Considerable Avoi^k in gardening has been a regular part of
ike agricultural projects. A more special effort has been made
in this line during the last two years in connection with the city
grades. In view of the present war emergency, the work has
been given more attention during the present year. The agri-
cultural director who is now employed for an eleven and one-
half month's year has for part of his work the supervision of
the gardening. Special supervision is provided during the va-
cation months.
The following plan, worked out by the director in coopera-
tion with the mayor and some of the business firms of the city,
is now in operation. B}^ running a notice in the local paper
and by doing some direct solicitation, 103 vacant lots were se-
cured. Each lot is approximately 120 feet by 50 feet and eon-
tains about one-seventh of an acre. These lots have been appor-
tioned to grade pupils who could not get land at home. Alto-
gether, 184 pupils have started gardens. As a means of holding
enthusiasm and emphasizing the motive in the work, a garden
picnic and celebration have been planned for the fall when re-
sults will be rounded up. No special prizes have been offered
by the school, but some of the pupils are working for prizes
which have been offered by the Janesville Machine Company,
the Eock River Cotton Company, and the Parker Peii Company.
The suggestion is here offered that this phase of the work
might be given more emphasis. A special school exhibit as a
means of rounding up garden results is regarded as very valu-
able. In connection with this, clubs and contests should be or-
ganized. Although in the present crisis every effort ought to
be made to arouse patriotism as the highest motive in this work,
nevertheless such a motive may well be reinforced by the mo-
tive which always appeals strongly to children, — that of excell-
ing in competition with others of their own group. The keep-
ing of a careful account of all financial operations in connec-
tion with the work should receive special attention.
No doubt many other grade children besides the 184 who are
208 Educational Survey of Jane.wille
working under the supervision of the agricultural director are
carrying on some garden work. Some data were gathered from
the different ward schools to determine definitely just how
much of such work was being done. HoAvever, the limits of time
and space have prevented the organization of this data or the
drawing of any definite conclusions. While 184' pupils is a
good many in the aggregate, and makes a very favorable show-
ing, nevertheless, Avith 640 pupils in the grades from 5 to 8 in-
clusive, it would seem that this work might easily be very much
extended if adequate supervision could be pro\dded. It is
doubtful if any phase of manual or industrial training has more
value than this garden work. It would be verj'' valuable, at
least as group or class work, in grades below the fifth. Of
course, it would be impossible for the agricultural director to
handle all this work if it became general among all the pupils
even of the upper grades.
This leads to the suggestion that a distinct forward movement
would be made possible in Janesville by emplojang a special
teacher especially qualified to supervise such work. This teach-
er would be able also to organize nature work in all the grades,
a kind of work sadly neglected in view of its fundamental edu-
cational value. A number of American cities are meeting with
remarkable results from the operation of such a plan. The city
of Cleveland, where a special supervisor of garden work has
been employed for a number of years, has come to have a very
wide reputation for its wonderful gardens, which include both
practical flower and vegetable gardens and also landscape decora-
tion of school and home grounds. The cities of Madison, Su-
perior, and Milwaukee have been carrying on a systematic plan
of garden work for a nunxber of years with excellent results.
This leads the way to a little fuller discussion of the ques-
tion of good landscape planting about school and home grounds.
Very little of this work has been done about the grounds of the
various schools of Janesville. Pupils in the agricultural course
of the high school have done a little on some of the homes of
the city. However, the whole city offers a great opportunity for
more work of this kind. It would be very easy to popularize
this work throughout the whole city so that JanesAalle might
become known for its attractive yards, not only those of the
well-to-do class, but also those among the people of every class.
Special Courses and Special Subjects 209
The town of Harvard, Illinois, is an excellent example of how
such an ideal may find expression everywhere in the commu-
nity through systematic effort under good leadership. Why
should not the school above any other civic agency furnish such
leadership? The city of Wausau, Wisconsin, is a fine example
of hoAV such work can be developed as a form of civic biologJ^
The school grounds should receive special attention. School
children are entitled to as beautiful surroundings as are the in-
sane or the county's dependents. Yet few school yards compare
in attractiveness with the grounds of asylums and hospitals.
There is need of definite landscape plans for each school yard,
worked out by those who have had training in this art. When
carefully made plans have been secured, a number of yeai*s
may then be taken for realizing the complete plan, but when it
is finished it becomes a source of beauty and enjoyment for all
future years, not only for the school but for the whole com-
munity. This influence of attractive school grounds upon the
spirit of the whole community is appreciated altogether too
little.
It is recommended that greater attention be given to the idea
of decorative planting in connection with both the school
grounds and the homes of the city. The school garden movement
should also be more fully developed. This is a particularly op-
portune time for adequate provision for this work, since the
great world food crisis has roused everyone as never before to
the great need.
210 Educational Survey of Janesville
XI LIBRARY WORK
Two aims are given prominent attention when the purposes
of education are discussed. One of these is the development of
good reading tastes which shall function throughout life; the
other, training in the ability to find information when it is
needed. These two aims constitute the basis of this survey of
the library work in the Janesville schools.
Method op Survey
A visit was made to the high school, to some of the grade
buildings, and to the public library, to get a general idea of the
situation. A questionnaire was then sent to the superintendent,
asking for specific data as to books, library equipment, etc., in
the grades and high school. Later, a test in general reading
and a test in ability to use references was given to the fresh-
man class in the high school, and to all the eighth grades, with
the exception of the Washington School, which, for lack of time,
could not be reached on the day the tests were given.
General Reading
By general reading is here meant the reading of books not
connected Avith class work, but which is done for its own sake
and largely on the voluntary basis. Such reading in school has
the twofold purpose of developing a taste for good reading and
training in the wise selection of reading matter. That which we
want to have done voluntarily throughout life we must plan to
have done without compulsion in school, otherwise it will be
dropped like any other task work when the compulsion of
school requirements ceases. The purpose of this survey of gen-
eral reading, then, is to determine to what extent good volun-
tary reading is being done and what reading tastes are being
developed.
That much good reading is being done in the Janesville pub-
lic schools is evident from the fact that over half of the grade
pupils and 300 of the 530 high school students are reading under
the auspices of the Wisconsin Young People's Reading Circle.
Library Work 211
Grade pupils who are not reading under such auspices are re-
quired to report on other reading done from lists provided.
The circumstance that over ninety per cent of the pupils in
the three upper grades and four out of every five high school
students hold borrowers' cards from the public library is also
significant in the direction of good voluntary reading.
To throw some light on the development of reading tastes
and training in selection of reading, a test on general reading
was given to the eighth grades and to the high school freshmen
class.
Number of Books Read
As will be seen by referring to the questions of the test, page
215, the first question relates to the number of books drawn
by the pupils from the public library. In these figures were in-
cluded books draAvn from classroom libraries. They include the
outside reading done from the beginning of school in September
until the time the tests were given in April.
Since neither the grades nor the high school have libraries
of their own for general reading and since reading of worth
while books from other sources on the part of pupils is usually a
negligible factor, the figures with regard to books borrowed from
the public library (including classroom libraries) are made the
basis for the following remarks on the amount of reading done.
The answers to question 1, give the following results:
Average number of books borrowed and read by grade children, 17:
Adams school, 16; Garfield, 18; Jefferson, 15; Lincoln, 25. Average
for High School freshmen, 12.
Eighth Grades Freshmen
Drew no books 9 18
" from 1 to 5 18 22
6 to 10 20 22
" 11 to 15 8. 18
" 16 to 20 8 7
" 21 to 30 19 21
" 31 to 50 6 3
" over 50 5 1
In the eighth grades, one drew 55 books; two 60; one 85; and one
90.
It will be noted in the above tabulation that 9 (9.6%) of the
eighth graders and 18 (15.8%) of the freshmen drew no books;
also that 18 (19.2%) of the eighth graders and 22 (19%) of the
212 Educational Swvey of Janesville
freshmen drew only from 1 to 5 books. These pupils presum-
ably did but little Avorth while general reading during the
school year.
While compulsion in general reading is scrupulously to be
avoided whenever possible, yet it would seem that these non-
readers ought to be reached in some way that will give them
the stimulus and training that good reading fosters. The lowest
satisfactory limit set in marking the papers was eight books.
It is difficult to draw the line between a reasonable and an
excessive amount of general reading. More than one book a
week, however, is, in most instances, excessive. This limit is ex-
ceeded by eight pupils in the eighth grades and by only three
freshmen in the high school. Hence it is not a serious problem,
at least so far as the reading of books drawn from the public li-
brary is concerned. More discussion among pupils and with the
teacher about the books read will have a tendency to reduce ex-
cessive reading by giving the reader a motive for paying more
attention to the content of his reading and taking time for some
independent thinking about what he reads. It will probably
also be found that excessive reading is largely fiction. By wid-
ening the reading interests, the tendency to haste and superfi-
ciality will be lessened.
Effect of Distance from the Library
Does distance from the public library make any considerable
diiference in the amount of reading done?
Pupils were asked to indicate on their test papers the num-
ber of blocks from their homes to the public library. In the
following tabulation, the pupils in each school were divided into
Table 36
GROUP FARTHER FROM; GROUP NEARER TO
LIBRARY LIBRARY
Adams 15 J5.3 11 13 8 22
Garfield 7 12.7 12 8 7 10
Jefferson 12 10.5 18 14 3..'t 12
Lincoln 12 15.2 24 12 7.6' 28
High School 56 19 10 56 6.2 15
Library Work 213
two equal or nearly equal groups, in one of which were placed
those farther from the public library and in the other those
nearer to tlie library.
It will be sQen that in the Adams and Lincoln schools and in
the high school, the groups nearest to the library drew decidedly
the largest number of books; in the Adams school, 100% more;
in the Lincoln school, 16% ; and in the high school, 50%. In
the Jefferson and Garfield schools, the groups nearest the library
drew the feAvest books. This is perhaps explainable on the the-
ory that those nearest the library in these schools are so near
the library that they do more reading in the library and so draw
fewer books. It will be noted that these two schools are nearest
to the public library.
Possibly, too, the home influences which bring about a satis-
factory amount of general reading are not, on the whole, so ef-
fective in the parts of the city nearest to the library as in those
parts with which comparison is made.
We may, then, conclude that increasing distance from the li-
brary rapidly decreases the amount of reading of library books.
Since most homes depend ©n the public library for their gen-
eral reading, this means that as the distance from the public li-
brary increases, the amount of general reading decreases, even
when there is close cooperation between schools and library, as is
the case in Janesville.
Classroom Libraries
In view of this fact, classroom libraries sent to the different
schools by the library are of great importance. They help to
equalize conditions with respect to general reading and to give
to all the pupils equal opportunities in the development of good
reading habits and tastes.
The following tabulation of figures relating to classroom li-
braries provided by the public library for the grades and for
use in the high school during the school year 1916-17 was pro-
vided by the librarian of the public library.
214
Educational Survey of Janesville
The following grade schools received books from the library:
School Grade Sent in Fall Sent in Spring Total
Washington .
2nd
0
0
3rd
29
29
"
4th
31
31 .
"
5th
30
30
7th
32
32
"
8th
31
31
306
Adams
1st
0
0
30
29
0
0
0
0
30
8
30
29
0
0
0
0
2nd
.<
3rd
..
4th
"
5th
..
6th
"
7th
..
8th
156
Jefferson ....
2nd
0
15
"
3rd
0
0
"
4th
0
0
" ...
5th
0
0
" ...
6th
0
0
"
7th
0
0
8th
0
0
15
Douglas
2nd
0
11
"
3rd
29
29
4th
31
31
131
Grant
...1st & 2nd
0
15
'«
. . .3rd & 4th
27
29
29
27
29
29
..
. . . 5th & 6th
«
6th
185
Jackson
. . .1st & 2nd
14
14
. ..3rd & 4th
25
25
78
Lincoln
3rd
0
0
"
4th
0 .
0
"
7th
0
0
8th
0
0
0
Garfield
5th
29
29
"
6th
30
30
"
7th
32
32
8th
31
31
244
Webster
2nd
0
0
5th
27
27
54
Final
total
1169
Library Work 215
In all the grades above the second grade the books were re-
turned to the library and a new set issued in February.
Forty-two classroom libraries were sent out, including 1169
books.
These school libraries were retained an average of about three
months.
Iltgli School
To the high school, the^e were sent from the public library a
total of 209 books. These were sent to individual teachers at
their request. Teachers of the folloAving subjects received thc^c
))ooks, the number to each teacher ranging from 3 to 84 books:
History (117), English (32), Science (11), Mathematics (9),
Manual Training (7), Physical Training (7), Latin (5), Do-
mestic Science (4), Agriculture (3), Miscellaneous (14).
JDistrihution of the Classroom Libraries
The marked unevenness of distribution of the classroom li-
braries which a cursory inspection of the above tabulation dis-
closes is due in part to the policy of sending more such libraries
to the schools farthest from the public library. It is expected
that the pupils in the schools nearer the library will more often
visit the public library and so not have as much need for class-
room libraries.
However, there are apparently a number of inconsistencies in
the carrying out of this policy. The Lincoln and Garfield
schools are approximately the same distance from the library,
yet the former had no classroom libraries for its 124 pupils,
while the latter had 8 classroom libraries supplying 244 books
for its 100 pupils. The Adams school had no classroom libraries
for its four upper grades, although it is farther from the library
than the Garfield school which had 244 volumes for the same
grades.
Further discussion of classroom libraries is given on page 217
in connection with the comments on the standings in general
reading.
Test in General Beading
Following is the test given in general reading, to which refer-
ence has already been made.
1. How many books have you drawn fiom the public library and
read this school year?
216 Educational Surven of Jan(.TvUh
2. Title of the work of fiction read within the last two years that
you liked best.
3. Other books — not fiction — read within the last two years that
you liked best.
4. Title of work of fiction which you have not yet read, but which
you are anxious to read soon.
5. Other book — not fiction — which you have not yet read, but
which you are anxious to read soon.
6. What two magazines do you like best to read?
The Standings in General Reading
It is of course a difficult matter to grade papers in general
reading so as to express by percentages the condition with re-
spect to the development of reading tastes and habits. The
standings tabulated below should be looked upon only as approx-
imations, with liberal allowance for the fact that the test was
given without previous warning and that it is a kind of test with
which the pupils are very likely unfamiliar. The questions were
rated as of equal value.
With the above in mind, it will be seen that the standings
should l)e given a higher estimate than the figures given usually
receive. We may consider 90 or over as excellent ; 80 to 89, very
good; 70 to 79, good; 60 to 69, fair; 50 to 59, poor; below 50,
very poor.
Table 37. — Result of Test in General Reading
Standings on a Scale of 100
SCHOOLS
No. of
High
Adams
Garfield
Jefferson
Lincoln
Standings
School
90-100
4
1
5
1
80- 89
3
6
9
5
23
15
70- 79
5
4
7
7
23
18
60- 69
4
5
3
12
22
50- 59
6
1
3
3
13
21
40- 49
5
2
2
9
17
30- 39
3
1
4
9
20- 29
1
2
3
8
10- 19
1
1
3
0- 9
1
1
Average
56.6
81.8
68
.6
62.4
65.7
57.
Median
56.7
84.2
73,
.6
71.4
71.7
59.5
Library Work 217
Comments on Standings in General Reading
The standings in general reading, with the exception of those
in the Garfield school, are considerably lower than might reason-
ably be expected, in view of the good showing as to the amount
of reading. and the circumstances under which it is done. The
following suggestions are made with a view to accounting for
and improving this condition.
A clear idea of what books read, please and help us most and
why, is an essential element in good reading tastes and habits.
Informal discussion by the pupils in groups, with the teacher
as leader, and informal conversations between the teacher and
individual pupils based on books read are among the best means
of developing this clarity with respect to reading done.
The answers to questions 4 and 5, relating to books which the
pupil has not yet read, but which he is anxious to read soon,
show that many have no "waiting list" of worth while books,
and so, when left to themselves, are too likely to take up with
"trashy" reading which happens to attract their attention.
Developing the habit of having such a waiting list is an effective
means of ])romoting good choice of books throughout life. Here
again the discussions mentioned in the preceding paragraph are
to be recommended.
The average standings are considerably lowered by the stand-
ings of those who drew the fewest books from the public library.
The group of 47 pupils in the eighth grades Avho borrowed from
0 to 11 books each have an average standing of 61.2% ; the group
of 46 pupils who borrowed 12 or more books each have an aver-
age standing of 71.4%. In the high school freshmen class, the
group of 63 who borrowed from 0 to 10 books each received an
average standing of 48.8% ; the group of 51 who borrowed more
than 10 books each averaged 67%.
It may be objected that the number of books drawn was in
and of itself a factor in determining standings. Since, however,
this was only one of six questions, it does not affect the stand-
ings enough to make any difference in the conclusion that the
group who drew the fewest books have achieved the poorest re-
sults in the development of good reading tastes and habits.
The figures given on page 211 show that twenty-nine per cent
of the eighth graders and thirty-five per cent of the high school
freshmen drew either no books or not to exceed five books. This
218 Educatioudl Survcji of Ja)usviU(
fact, in connect ion with the above considerations, leads to the
suggestion that special efforts should be made to get all i)upils
to do at least a reasonable niininiuni of reading.
The average standing of the eighth graders in the Garfield
school, it will be noted, is very much higher than that of any of
the other grade schools in which the test was given. ■ This is the
only one of these schools which is shown by the tabulation on
page 214 to have received classroom libraries for the upper
grades. This may possibly be only a coincidence. It is likely,
however, that the use of classroom libraries in the Garfield
school is also to a considerable extent a cause of the difference
of standings in favor of that school.
Classroom libraries give teachers frequent opportunity to pro-
mote worth while reading. When interest has been awakened
by reading from the books, by book reports, or otherwise, the
books are at hand to be loaned while the desire to read them is at
its height. Classroom libraries also give opportunity for fre-
quent ''broAvsing" among good books, and this is conceded to
be one of the best means of developing good reading tastes. The
limited number of books in such libraries, compared with, the
large collection in the public library, gives prominence to the
very books among which the pu])il should select his reading, thus
greatly increasing the likelihood of wise selection.
It is, therefore, recommended t'hat classroom libraries be pro-
vided for every grade in all the grade buildings, irrespective of
the distance of the building from the library. Pupils should,
however, be encouraged and expected to make frequent visits to
the public library, in order that they may make use of its larger
collections and get into the habit of drawing upon its resources.
Standings of the High School F)-csh)ncn
The lower standing of the high school freshmen as compared
with the eighth grades in all except one school is a puzzling
feature.
It was thought that possibly the nonresident freshmen, who,
coming mostly from rural communities, presumably had had
fewer library advantages, might, in part, account for the result.
That such is not the case, however, is revealed by a comparison
of the average standing of the nonresident freshmen with the
average standing of both residents and nonresidents who took
the test. The average standing of the nonresident freshmen is
Lihranj Work 219
56.7%, and that of all freshmen, 56.98%, a difference of less
than one-third of one per cent.
The average standing of the eighth graders in the Garfield
school was 81.8 as compared with 56.98 in the case of the high
school freshmen. Perhaps some contrasting conditions between
the two may give a clue.
During the school year 1916- '17, there were sent from the
public library to the Garfield school two classroom libraries to
each grade. The total number of books thus sent was 244 for
the 100 pupils enrolled. These books were for the general read-
ing of the pupils, largely in connection with the Young People's
Reading Circle. There were sent from the public library to
thii'teen of the high-school teachers for use of students in their
classes and for their own use as teachers 209 volumes. This is
all the books sent to the high school for its 530 students. Most
of these books were presumably for collateral reading or refer-
ence in connection with the subjects taught. Since, too, the high
school library supplies but little in the way of general reading,
we may conclude that the pupils of the Garfield school were
much better provided with good general reading, in a way which
made a direct appeal, than were the high school freshmen. It is
altogether likely that this accounts to a considerable extent for
the better showing by the Garfield school as compared with the
freshmen in the high school.
The establishment of a good sized well-organized high school
library containing, in addition to reference material and books
for collateral reading, a well-selected lot of books for general
reading, will decidedly improve the condition as to general
reading by high school students. The books for general reading
may well be provided by the public library, somewhat as class-
room libraries are supplied to the grades.
As has already been stated, page 211, 15.8% of the high school
freshmen drew no books from the public library and 19% from
one to five books each. This is a total of 35% who fell below a
reasonable minimum of reading. This fact, doubtless, contrib-
uted largely to the low average standing of the freshmen. One
of the remedies is suggested above, namely, bringing the books
to the students through the high school library. This, together
with some geneiwl requirements as to outside reading which
will reach all high school students, is a conclusion clearly indi-
cated by the facts of the case.
220
Educational Survey of Janesvilla
Magazine Reading
Magazines offer as wide a variety of general reading as books
and they are read by many people who seldom read books. It is
of importance, therefore, that schools should acquaint their pu-
pils with the best magazines and develop a taste for reading
them. Only a beginning can be made in the upper grades and
the first year of the high school, but upon that beginning, the
future reading of many pupils will depend.
The following tabulation was made of the answers to ques-
tion 10 in the test on general reading; namely, What two maga-
zines do you like best to read ?
Most Popular Magazines. Eighth Grades and Freshmen
Mag'azlne
Eighth
Graders
Fresh-
men
Magazine
Eighth
Gradei's
Fresh-
men
Ad venture
1
1
26
1
1
1
1
4
2
America
American
4
"i
1
National Gpographic. .
5
American Boy
American Continent..,
Outing
1
Boy's Life
People's Home .lournal
People's Magazine
Photoplay
9
i
3
Boy's Mag-azine
Campaign Survey
1
Classmates
1
3
Pictorial Review
I'opular Magazine ......
Popular Mechanics
Popular Science
Red Boole
8
1
19
1
4
Colliers
1
1
2
1
• 2
2
Comfort
88
Cosmopolitan
4
7
Countrv Gentleman,..
1
Delineator
2
i
1
1
Review of Reviews
3
Desifrner
St. Nicliolas
21
1
2
16
Detective
2
2 '"
2
Electric Experimenter
Everytaoclv's
Saturda.v Evening Post
1
Gentlewoman
Scientific American.. .
Something-to-do.
i" ■
1
Geoeriapliic Survey
1
1
........
Good Housclieepins. . . .
2
1
Sunday Sch'i Advocate
Technical World
To-day's Magazine
1
1
1
Hearst's
2
Health
1
Hearth
1
V
Hearthstone
1
2
1
10
2
i Woman's Home Corn-
5
1
1
1
Home
■ ■-■■■
14
3
1
12
1
Illustiatefl World
Woman's World
World's Magazine
World's Outlook
World's Worlv
1
Leslie's ,
Life
6
McCall's
9
1
1
Young Chur'-hman
Yoving People's Maga-
1
1
22
3
7
Mechanics Magazine. . .
2
Metropolitan
Youth's Companion
No magazines read
Only 1 magazine read
21
Modern Priscilla
Monthly Masrazine
1
1
3
2
Mother's Magazine ....
6
P A few of ths abDve titles cannot be found in magazine lists: it is lilcel.ythat most
of these are incorrectly given titles of magazines read.
Library Work 221
The first five magazines in favor, with the number of votes for
each, are as follows:
Eighth Grades High School Freshmen
1. American Boy 26 1. Popular Mechanics 38
2. Youth's Companion 22 2. American Boy 22
3. St. Nicholas 21 3. Youth's Companion : 21
4. Popular Mechanics 19 4. St. Nicholas 16
5. Ladies' Home Journal 10 5. Ladies' Home Journal 14
Considering the age and stage of the readers, these favorites,
with the exception of the fifth on the list some will say, testify
to good choices in magazine reading. However, there are too
many scattering votes for periodicals which have little or no
merit to recommend them. On the other hand, some of the scat-
tered choices are very good, as witness: Colliers, Good House-
keeping, National Geographic Magazine (9 votes), Review of Re-
views, Scientific American, World's Work. One misses in these
scattering choices the Independent, Literary Digest, and Outlook.
It is recommended that some system be adopted by which the
leading magazines will come regularly to the high school and a
carefully selected minimum to each of the grade . buildings
housing the granmiar grades, and that the ne(3essary equipment
for facilitating and encouraging magazine reading be installed.
The public library might well be made the center for magazine
distribution to the various schools.
Ability to Find Information ; Reference
Education is sometimes defined as the ability to find informa-
tion when you need it. While this is only a partial definition,
yet it expresses the fundamental importance of this function of
education. If pupils are trained to use reference sources effect-
ively, they will increasingly demand less of the teacher's time,
will not need to be loaded down with information which they
can find when they need it, and will leave school with a train-
ing that they can put into practice throughout life.
Equipment in tJie Grades
In order that reference work may be properly carried on, it
is necessary that there be certain easily accessible reference ma-
terial in the different grade buildings and in the high school.
To secure data as to reference equipment in the grades, the
222 Educational Survey of Janesville
following questionnaire was filled out by the Superintendent at
the request of the department.
Grade Libraries
1. In how many of the grade buildings housing grades above
the fifth is there a copy (in at least fair condition) of:
a. Webster's New International Dictionary? No New Web-
ster's International Dictionaries; several old ones.
b. An up-to-date yearbook, such as the World Almanac?
None.
c. An up-to-date (within five years of present date) encyclo-
pedia of six or more volumes? None.
d. Champlin's Cyclopedia of Common Things? None.
e. Champlin's Cyclopedia of Persons and Places? None.
f. Champlin's Cyclopedia of Literature and Art? None.
g. Champlin's Cyclopedia of Natural History? None.
h. The latest Wisconsin Blue Book (1915)? None.
i. An up-to-date atlas (within five years of present date)?
None,
j. Robert's Rules of Order? None.
2. How many grade buildings housing grades above the fifth
grade? Six.
3. In how many grade rooms of the 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th
grades are there a number of smaller dictionaries for*
reference'? ^4 of total.
Which dictionaries are used for this purpose? Webster's
Collegiate.
4. In which grades does each pupil have a copy of a smaller
dictionary at his seat? Nearly all from 4th up.
5. To how many of the seventh and eighth grade rooms does
at least one daily newspaper come regularly? None.
6. How many of such grade buildings have :
a. A filing system for pamphlets and clippings, including
pamphlet boxes? None.
b. A reading table for each of the three upper grades, with
chairs around it, for use in reference work, etc.? None.
c. A bookcase in each grade room? All.
d. A conveniently located dictionary holder (a stand fastened
to the wall or a definite place on a reading table or a
holder on its own stand) in each of the three upper
grade rooms? Only a few rooms so equipped.
Lihnirii Work 223
8. In how many of the grade buildings are definite lessons given
in reference work, including a course in the use of the
dictionary, lessons on the use of the encyclopedia, year-
book, an atlas, care of books, printed parts of a book, Wis-
consin Blue Book, quotations, magazines, the daily news-
paper? Only incidental teaching along this line.
9. How many of the eighth grade classes are given definite
instruction in the use of the public library, including a
practice lesson in the library building? All.
If such instruction is given, liow many lessons does each
class receive? One per year, eighth gi-ade only.
It will be seen by a perusal of the above questions and an-
swers that the most obvious reference material and equipment
are to a large extent lacking in the grade buildings.
There is no copy of an ui)-to-date unabridged dictionary, such
as Webster's New International Dictionary, which was issued in
1909. The previous edition, mentioned as being in some of the
buildings, was issued in 1900 and hence is very much out-of-date ;
but even that is not at hand in all the schools.
There are no reading tables on which reference books may
be spread out and around which pupils may be seated in prox-
imity to shelves holding the reference books ; and, which is per-
haps more to the point, inviting and attracting the pupils to
make use of reference material.
There is no up-to-date encyclopedia, none of the smaller one-
volume encyclopedias by Champlin, no up-to-date yearbook, no
up-to-date Blue Book, no up-to-date Atlas, no copy of Robert's-
Rules of Order. These with an up-to-date unabridged dic-
tionary are a very modest minimum of reference material for
the upper grades.
There is much material in the form of pamphlets and clippings
valuable for reference which can be easily accumulated. There
should be some system of pamphlet boxes and folders for filing
such material where pupils and teachers can readily find it when
it is needed.
One or more good representative daily newspapers coming
regularly to each building would be valuable for reference in
current affairs and would, besides, be of use in teaching how to
read newspapers quickly and effectively.
224 Educational Survey of Janesville
Instruction in Reference Work in Grades
Learning what reference material to use and how to use it re-
quires much systematic study as well as material with which to
work. Every one will remember how slowly and with what
effort he learned to get information from textbooks even though
definite pages were usually assigned for study. Now, learning
to use reference material is a more complex matter, and definite
instruction in a systematic course of lessons is necessary to get
satisfactory results. This is only beginning to be realized in our
educational system. In fact schools have but recently had the
library facilities to serve as laboratory material for this in-
struction. Tests in reference work held in a number of city and
village' schools the past school year have given uniformly poor
results. And this is to be expected wherever definite lessons are
not given in reference work. The State Department of Educa-
tion has published a course of such lessons for the guidance of
teachers, and can supply one to each teacher in the system.
Library Work
By the answer to question 8, it will be seen that only inci-
dental instruction is given in the grades in finding information
in reference sources.
The use of the public library is of the highest importance in
reference work. Upper grade pupils will need five or more les-
sons on its use in order to become fairly well able to use its re-
sources for reference. A start has been made in that each
eighth grade is given one lesson by the public librarian. This
should be increased to at least five lessons; and it would be
well to give them in the sixth grade so that the public library
may be used as a reference source throughout the upper grades.
These lessons will supplement reference lessons given in the
schools, but cannot even begin to be a substitute for the very
many more lessons which should be. given by the teachers.
Beference work in the High School; Equipment
The reference work in the high school requires much more in
the way of 'books and other material than is the case with the
grades. This comes from the more advanced studies pursued and
the larger share that the student should take in the learning of
assigned lessons and the study of topics upon which reports are
Library Work 225
to be made. lie should now learn how to work u]) a topic inde-
pendently ; and, in order to do this, he must know how to use ref-
erence sources.
A good-sized, well-selected reference library which each year
receives new material, and from which out-of-date material is
promptly removed, is a necessity in the modern high school. Its
resources should be supplemented by those of the public library,
but the latter cannot be a successful substitute for the former.
We understand that the establishment of an effective high
school library has been decided upon for some time, but that the
crowded condition of the high school has prevented the execu-
tion of the project.
It is therefore unnecessary to go into any great detail as to
library conditions in the high school at the present time.
There are approximately 500 volumes in the high school li-
brary', scattered in fourteen different rooms, including the as-
sembly room. Since a considerable proportion of these books
are out-of-date, the usable part of the library is very small com-
pared Avith the 1500 to 3000 volumes needed in a good high school
library in a city of the size of Janesville.
The books in the assembly room, which presumably represent
the core of the library, are arranged in no definite order, and
give no indication by their character, numbers or condition, of
the importance of reference work as a part of the functions of
a high school. The lack of organization is illustrated by the
fact that there is no accession book.
Teachers are privileged to draw books from the public library
for use in connection with reference work or collateral reading
in the subjects which they teach and apparently this privilege is
made use of to a considerable extent. This, of course, greatly
supplements the meager resources of the high school library.
The city appropriates $500 per year to the city library for school
purposes. In addition some reference w^ork is done at the public
library, though the distance between school and library is so
great that the loss of time necessitated in doing reference work
at the public library acts as a deterrent.
The reference Avork is apparently largely that in which cer-
tain pages in certain books are given out. That, of course, must
be done to an extent. But if there were a well-organized high
school library, independent reference Avork on assigned topics
226 Educaiional Surveij of Janesvillv
could more often be done and to the great advantage of all con-
cerned.
The principal of the high school, in replying to the question
as to how the need of a high school library has made itself felt,
said:
"It is difficult, in the fall and winter, for young children to
find time to go to the library excepting on Saturday. They can-
not be sent from the study room or the classroom to look up a
reference. It is impossible for them to become as familiar with
card indexes, files, etc., as they might in the school library under
the direction of a teacher librarian."
Instruction
There is no definite course of instruction in reference work in
the high school. Some instruction is given on the reading of
magazines. Indeed it would be difficult to give such instruction
without a fairlj^ well-organized high school library, at least be-
yond what should be given in the grades.
There ought to be some lessons given on the use of the public
library to all in the freshman English class. This should be
done by the public librarian, at least until there is a trained
librarian in charge of the high school library. A minimum of
five lessons should be given, and to those students who have had
no previous lessons on the use of the public library, at least ten
lessons should be given.
Test in Beferencc Work
In order to determine the condition with respect to training
in finding information, the following test was given :
Note: Do not mention textbooks.
1. In what book would you look for a map showing what counties
constitute the congressional district in which you live?
2. In what book would you find how many bushels of wheat were
raised in the U. S. in 1915?
3. Where would you look to find out who the present governor of
Colorado is?
4. If you were asked to go to the public library and get material
for an account of the Life of General Joffre, and were not
permitted to ask for the help of the librarian, what helps \vould
you use? Name at least two.
5. Where could you most quickly look up the year of the birth and
the year of the death of Patrick Henry?
6. Where would you ascertain whether or not it is good English to
say, "If a young rran is to succeed, he must always be on
the square?"
Lihrarij ^S'ovl;
227
7. If you were going to preside at a public meeting and wanted to
have a book at hand as a guide in putting motions, etc.,
what book would probably best answer the purpose?
8. Where would you look for a short account of the Boxer rebellion?
(Rebellion in China in the year 1900.)
9. If, in reading a news item of the European War, you saw men-
tion of the Camonica valley, where could you quickly get in-
formation as to its location?
10. In what kind of a book could you learn who wrote?
"Peace hath her victories
No less renowned than war."
From what has been said above, it was to be expected that the
standings in reference Mork would show but little ability in the
finding of information. Little or no reference equipment and
only incidental instruction, following no definite course ac-
count for the results of this test, of which the following is a
tabulation :
Table 38. — Test in Reference
Distribution of Standings (Scale of 100)
Schools
Total
for
these
grades
High
Adams
Garfleld
.lelfersoii
Li 11 coin
school
Over 70
60-6)
50 59
1
40 49
2
2
I
3
isl
1.5.5
0
1
2
3
6
10
48
27
11.5
14.6
22
7
80 39
•>
I
n
8
12.2
,4.6
14
:jo 29
k
16
5
7.1
14.4
10
36
10 19
n
11
iTi
10.94
5
39
0 9
17
~20^00~
20.3
Number of zeros
5
Note: At ihe left, in the above tabulation, is ihe rarge of standings, atthe right
of which is given the number of pupils of eacheiglith grade who received standings
within that range and the 'otal number for all the^e grades, also the number of high
snhool freshmen within that range of standings. Tt.is is followed by the "average,"
"median." and the number who received zero on the test.
To those who inspect the above tabulation, we would repeat
what is said above to the effect that poor results have been ob-
tained in all public .schools where the same test was given this
school year, and that until there are definite courses in reference
work, we cannot expect any better resitlts. These figures put
the condition before us in black and white and should bring
about such a change in the curriculum as shall substitute for
such lack of results at least as good standings as we expect in
geography, history, and other traditional school subjects.
228 Educational Survey of JanesviUe
Summary of Recommendations With Respect to Library
Work
GENERAL READING
1. Continue and extend the good work of the reading circles.
2. Provide classroom libraries for each grade in all the graded
schools.
3. Provide a well-organized high school library with a trained
librarian in charge. In this library, have a well-chosen col-
lection of books for general reading.
4. Arrange for more informal conversations and discussions
about books read, these to be participated in by the pupils
in groups, the teacher acting as leader. (Reading classes
make good groups for this purpose.)
5. Supplement present arrangements for outside reading so that
all the students in the high school as well as in the grades
above the third do at least as much outside reading as is pre-
scribed in the Wisconsin Young People's Reading Circle
lists.
6. Provide magazines in the grammar grades and High School;
also one or more good daily newspapers.
7. Get pupils interested in good general reading connected with
the subjects studied. For example, books of travel and ad-
venture in connection with geography; biography and histori-
cal fiction in connection with history.
REFERENCE
1. For the grammar grades, provide at least the minimum of
reference books and equipment mentioned in the question-
naire on page 222.
2. Provide a well-organized high school library especially strong
in reference material.
3. Introduce a definite course in reference, both in the grades and
in the freshman English class in the high school. In this
course give the lessons in the publication of the State Depart-
ment of Education entitled Lessons on the Use of the School
Library, or their equivalents.
4. Give at least five lessons on the use of the public library to all
sixth grades.
5. Give at least five lessons on the use of the public library to the
freshman English class in the high school.
6. Much of the reference work should be done independently by
the pupils after the necessary reference lessons have been
given. Page references should be much less exclusively
used.
Time Allotments and Course of Study 229
XII TIME ALLOTMENTS AND COURSE OF
STUDY
Time Allotments
The apportionment of the time avaihable to each of the various
subjects in the curriculum is a matter which all too frequently
receives little serious consideration. The problem of proper time .
allotments is one which is not easily solved. A diversity of
opinion prevails as to the most satisfactory apportionment. This
has resulted in wide variations in the time given to each subject
among cities. Several factors contribute to this w^ide variation.
These include differences in opinion as to the relative worth of
each subject offered, the subjects which should be taught, the
extent of the subject matter to be included in a given subject,
the standard of proficiency which should be attained in what is
taught, the time required to reach such standards, and the age at
which children should be introduced to a given subject, or the
grades in which particular subjects should be stressed. Still an-
other factor to be considered is the eliaracter and needs of the
children in a particular school. Each of these factors doubtless
has its influence in deciding the time to be allotted to each subject.
In common practice, however, there are certain fundamental
principles upon which school administrators are fairly well
agreed. Nearly every one admits that reading especially in
lower grades is one of the most important subjects of the
curriculum. AYe know too that it requires less time to
attain a satisfactory degree of proficiency in cooking or
drawing than it does in reading or arithmetic. It is
commonly considered advisable to devote a large propor-
tion of the time in the primary grades to reading and
onlv in the advanced grades should such subjects as manual
training, domestic science, physiology and history be strongly
emphasized. At present our only accepted guide as to the
proper distribution of the time available is that of the average
city. What is the average time given to arithmetic, to reading,
and to the various other subjects in a large number of cities?
230
Educational Survey of JanesvUh
Schools which differ radically from the average, or the general
tendency, may well be asked to account for such divergence. It
is not infrequently found that schools within the same city differ
widely. While uniformity may not ahvays be desirable, the
variation found is often more than differences in the needs of
the different groups of children Avould warrant.
To discover the amount of time allotted to each subject in the
elementary grades in Janesville, each teacher was asked to sub-
mit a copy of her daily program and to indicate carefully the
number of minutes devoted to both study and recitation periods
in each subject. It is quite noticeable that there are marked
variations in the time allotted to various sul)jects in different
buildings. Extreme variations within the same grade and for
which little justification can be found, do exist. Reading, ex-
clusive of phonics, varies in the first grade from 150 to 400
minutes per week, and in the second, from 150 to 300.
Geography in the third grade, and spelling in the fourth, vary
from 75 to 175 minutes. The degree of variation which occui-s
in the group of subjects which includes reading, phonics, mem-
orization of poems, word study and language, may be seen in
Table 39. This group may be designated as the "language"
group, and in a city as homogeneous as Janesville, it might be
expected that there would be little variation in the attention
given these subjects.
Table 39. — Miniviwn, Maximum, and Average Time Allotted Per Week
to Reading, Phonics. Memorization of Poems. M'ord Study,
and Language in Grades I-IV
Grade
Total of
I
11
III
IV
Grades I-IV
Minimum
325
730
585
525
300
630
435
485
400
600
555
435
500
600
530
400
1,625
Maximum
2,635
Averaije ,
Averageof 50 American cities
2,185
1,845
The table gives the minimum, maximum, and average time al-
lotted per week to this group of subjects in the first four grades,
for each grade, and for the four grades of a building combined.
Time Allotments and Course of Study
231
Avora.iios for 50 Amoricau cities arc also included. It will bo
seen that in the first two grades more than twice as nuich time
is assigned in some buildings as in others. This difference de-
creases in the third and fourth grades. A pu])il who passes
through these grades in the school giving the largest amount of
time to these subjects, spends, on the whole, about 60% more time
on them than does the pupil Avho attends the school giving the
smallest amount of time to these subjects. Certainly no justi-
fication for such variation in Janesville can be found. A more
reasonable basis of apportioning time to these subjects could be
reached by taking either the average or the average for 50
American cities as a guide.
In Table 40 both the average and the median number of
minutes allotted per week to each subject is shown. These
numbers include both study and recitation periods. In com-
puting these figures for any given subject only those schools
were considered which reported time given to that subject. How
practice in Janesville compares with the average of 50 American
cities, may be seen by comparing Tables 40 and 41.
Table 40. — Average and Median Nnmher of Minutes Per Week Allotted
to Each Sut)ject
I
II
III
IV
' V
VI
VII
VIII
•32
Av.
45
345
65
M
50
400
65
Av.
185
220
50
M
175
200
50
Av.
230
245
M
250
250
Av.
245
240
M
250
250
Av.
260
250
M
250
250
Av.
250
245
M
250
250
Av.
250
215
M
250
240
Av.
M
II
245
220
250
225
1710
1980
115
Meniorizalioii of
65
70
215
80
95
120
•65
75
250
75
100
100
75
65
245
90
125
190
100
75
250
ICO
100
200
60
50
40
40
60
60
~300
100
100
80
40
75
100
75
50
90
105
80
85
50
100
75
100
325
245
90
80
255
250
100
75
250
255
80
85
250
250
75
75
■250
245
65
85
235
250
70
75
250
235
70
70
250
70
75
1645
Writintr
635
SpelUii?
665
1050
250
135
100
140
135
95
50
"115
1725
1720
250
125
100
80
75
125
50
'ioo
250
155
Drawing: and con-
struction
90
100
95
100
110
100
100
100
125
125
120
125
110
140
140
IOC
35
25
125
1690
1660
100
90
85
125
25
25
100
850
Manual trainintr
280
Domestic science
27S
Music
80
40
50
110
1145
1570
75
40
40
125
85
45
30
115
uFs
1600
75
50
25
110
95
35
40
145
1545
1680
100
25
40
150
105
40
50
140
mo
1670
100
40
50
150
125
30
40
130
1690
1655
125
2^1
40
140
115
45
35
145
1665
1660
125
50
25
150
800
Physical ex
Opening ex
Recess
Total
Average of 50 Ameri-
can cities
320
270
1025
12355'
13165
Note: Only schools givin? all itments are considered.
(■) Domestic science not included.
232
Educational Survey of Janegville
Table 41.
-Average Amount of Time Allotted Per Week to Each Sub-
ject in 50 American Cities
I
95
410
'11
85
25
40
55
150
65
70
70
60
135
120
11
111
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
Total
Arithmetic
1.50
363
1:0
95
100
10
50
6.:
85
75
130
65
60
130
100
205
290
145
80
115
75
55
60
85
60
75
60
60
130
135
1,630
230
235
165
80
105
130
90
55
80
70
75
60
55
120
120
225
195
180
75
95
160
105
55
75
75
70
60
50
115
120
1^655
225
180
185
75
90
165
110
60
75
85
70
60
50
110
120
T.'eeo
215
150
210
60
80
150
140
70
75
110
70
60
50
100
120
lieeo
220
150
220
55
80
120
180
90
75
115
70
60
50
100
133
T720
1,565
Readinsr
1,975
Lang-uasje
1,340
Writiogr
595
Spelling
750
Geography
8S5
Histor.v
Science
770
510
Art and construction
700
Manual Training
655
Music
630
Physical training
495
Opening exercises
435
Recess
940
Miscellaneous
970
Total
1,570
1,600
13,165
Note: Reading includes phonics. Lterature, dramatics, story-telling, memoriza-
tion of poems, etc.; language includes compjjition, grammar, word study, etc.;
aritlimetic includes algebra: history includes civics; science includes nature study,
elemontary science, physiology and hygiene; drawing includes picture study, art'
etc.: manual training includes industrial training, liandwork:, etc.: physical train-
ing includes athletics, gymnastics, folk dancing.
1 Arranged from Holmes' 8tudy in 14th YearbDok National Society for the Study
of Education.
It should be noted that the list of subjects in the two tables
is not identical. In the table representing 50 American cities,
reading, phonics and memorization of poems are combined and
recorded as reading. Word study is similarly combined with
language. Science in Table 41 includes physiology, nature
study and elementary science. This fact should be taken into
account when making comparisons.
From a comparison of the two tables, it may be said that the
averages for Janesville do not differ verj^ radically from those in
50 American cities in the more fundamental branches. To the
fundamental subjects of arithmetic, reading, language, geog-
raphy and writing, Janesville devotes somewhat more than the
average amount of time. Spelling receives slightly less than the
average time. History and science receive much less attention
than the average of 50 American cities. On the whole, Janes-
ville cannot be accused of neglecting the fundamental subjects,
and any failures to secure satisfactory results in the teaching
of these subjects cannot be attributed to lack of time. The city
is not overemphasizing the newer subjects, such as music, draw-
ing, manual training, domestic science and physical training.
I'wie AUoti)icnts and Course of ISIudy 233
This may be noted more particnlarly when the total of the
average time by grades in any of these subjects is compared with
the total allotted to such subjects as reading, arithmetic and
.language. The subjects of draAving and construction, manual
training and domestic science, music and physical exercises to-
gether take up only 18% of the total time. This is slightly less
than the pj'oportion in fifty American cities. The combined
studies of arithmetic, reading, language, (including phonics,
memorization of poems and word study), writing and spelling
take up nearly 60% of the time in Janesville. These same
subjects in fifty American cities receive slightly more than
47%. It will be noted that the grand total number of minutes
upon the weekly program for all grades coml)ined, is less than
that for fifty American cities. The reason for this difference is
to be found in the first and second grades. The school day in
Janesville for these grades is less than average length. In view
of the fact that a longer rather than a shorter school day is being
advocated by progressive educators, the superintendent and the
board should consider the wisdom of the present practice. These
grades begin work at 9 A. M. in the morning, and at 1 :15 P. M.
in the afternoon. The morning session closes at 11 A. M. and
the afternoon session at 3 :10 P. M. This makes an unusually
short day and it is reconnnendcd that the morning session be in-
creased by thirty minutes, and the afternoon by twenty minutes.
This would add 250 minutes to the weekly schedule of each of
these grades. The function of the school is to reach the child
rather than to get rid of him. More time can well be given to
construction Avork and to directed play. The time allotted to
recess and physical training in these grades at present is less
than the average of 50 American cities. No time is given to
geography, history and physiology. In these grades the work
in these subjects would consist principally of nature study and
stories. This should receive some attention in these grades and
in others. History and science are neglected in nearly every
grade. Time for the teaching of these subjects can be found by
reducing the excessive amount allotted to some of the funda-
mental subjects. Pland training receives too little attention in
the primary grades. No time is assigned under the heading of
manual training and that given to drawing and construction in
these grades is less than the average for fifty American cities.
234 Educational Survey of Janesville
The Elementary Course of Study
No attempt has been made to pass upon the course of study
in detail for the reason that the course in use previous to 1916-
17 has been in the process of revision. Due to the absence of a
modern and definite course of study, a somewhat chaotic condi-
tion with reference to the subject matter to be taught has existed.
Teachers have had to rely upon their own judgment as to what
to include and what not to include. As stated elsewhere in this
report, this has resulted at times in a duplication of effort from
one grade to the next. At the same time there has been little
assurance that certain essentials would be taught at all. Further-
more, in the absence of a course of study, teachers have been
without the suggestions on methods of presenting particular
topics which good courses contain.
The teachers and the superintendent have realized the need
€f an up-to-date course of study. For the past year they have
heen engaged in preparing a new course of study in several
subjects. This is commendable. The teachers have been or-
ganized into groups. Eacli group, under the direction of the
superintendent, has devoted its efforts to a particular subject.
These groups have included a course for the kindergarten de-
partment, and courses in arithmetic, geography, language and
grammar, history and spelling. The progress made thus far
indicates that the teachers and the superintendent have at-
tempted to prepare courses which embody modern educational
ideals in curriculum making. In each case the course includes
a preliminary statement of aims, suggestions of general method
to be used in teaching, and the subject matter to be taught. In
the judgment of those who have examined the tentative courses,
much more remains to be done in formulating more definitely
the aims or ends to be accomplished and the methods of teaching
which may be employed. In many respects, the suggested sub-
ject matter indicates a Avholesome desire to modernize tlie ma-
terial of instruction. It is to be hoped that the teachers will
regard the progress thus far accomplished merely as preliminary.
The amount of time available for the survey has made it im-
possible to consider each of the tentative courses of study in de-
tail. Numerous suggestions, however, which may be applied
to the course of study will be found by a careful reading of the
Time Allotments and Course of Study 235
-chapters of this report dealing with the quality of instruction and
the measurement of results in school subjects. Further sug-
gestions of a general nature for grammar grade teachers will
be found under the discussion of the proposed junior high school
organization.
Certain suggestions as to the method of preparing these
courses may, however, be made here. In general, those en-
trusted with this work will need to give careful thought to the
■civic, moral, social, vocational, or aesthetic values which train-
ing in any given subject should aft'ord. This requires a con-
sideration of the needs of the children and of the values of par-
ticular subject matter for producing the kind of efficiency de-
sired. Individual differences among children must be taken
into account. The brightest children, — those who give promise
of becoming leaders in life, can by no reasonable measure of
justice be expected to suffer by requiring them to cover the
same subject matter or to spend the same amount of time in
mastering it as the backward pupils. They are capable of
grapi)ling with new and more difficult sul)ject matter and should
be permitted to do so. Neither should the less capable children
be, expected to become as proficient in all or the same material
of instruction that is expected of the most capable. Variations
and options should be permitted, not only to meet differences in
ability, but in taste or probable life vocation.
Not only the question of selection, but of arrangement must be
considered. The arrangement or organization must be adapted
to the teaching process. The ease with which particular methods,
such as that of the problem, may be applied is conditioned upon
the organization of the subject matter of the course of study.
Certain organizations of subject matter make it next to im-
possible for any but the very best teachers to secure good teach-
ing results.
In apportioning the work of preparing the course of study
in the various subjects, it will be well to include in each group
those especially skilled in teaching the particular subject and
those possessing a rich knowledge of the subject itself. The
results of scientific investigations in each field should be care-
fully considered. Illustrations of several successful methods
of teaching various phases of a subject, together with lesson
plans and suggested sources of reference material, should be
236 Educational Survey of Janesville
included. Wherever possible, it Avill be well to submit the ten-
tative course in any subject to recognized specialists in the prep-
aration of courses of study for criticism. Courses should then
be given actual trial to determine their suitability and to dis-
cover needed revisions before adoption by the board. Even then
continued improvement should be permitted. Provision should
be made for incorporating new ideas and needs or improved
methods. The course of study should be in loose leaf type-
written form so that revised pages may be readily substituted.
Measuring Results in School Subjects 237
XIII MEASURING RESULTS IN SCHOOL SUB-
JECTS
Arithmetic
In measuring the achievement of Janesville children in arith-
metic three series of tests were used. The Woody series A and
Courtis series B tests were used in testing the Avork in the funda-
mentals— addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
The Stone Reasoning test was used to measure ability of the
children to solve written problems.
THE WOODY TESTS
The nature of the Woody tests for each of the fundamental
operations may be seen from the following:
Add^
(1)
'tion
(2) (3)
(4;
1
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
2
2 1
7
53
72
60
3 + 1 ^
2+5 + 1:
=
20
3
4
3
-
45
'lii
37
10
2
30
25
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
21
32
43
23
25 + 42 :
100
9
199
2563
88
59
1
25
33
24
194
1387
35
17
2
16
45
12
295
4954
13
"■
201
46
15
19
156
2065
(19)
(2(1)
(21)
(22)
(24)
(25)
81.75
$12.-50
$8.00
547
(23)
4.0125
i + i
i + i
+ J =
.25
16.75
5.75
197
i + i
=
1.5907
.49
15.75
2.33
685
4.10
4.16
.94
6.32
678
456
393
525
240
152
8.673
(26)
(27)
(28)
(29)
(30)
(31)
(32)
12J
4 + i +
i =
I + i =
4}
2i
113.46
J + i + i
—
62i
2i
61
49.6097
12i
5i
3i
19.9
37i
9.87
"^
.0086
18.253
6.04
238
Educational Survey of Janesville
Addition — Continued.
(33
.40
.28
.63
.95
1 69
(34)
2
3
4
(35)
ft. 6 in.
ft. 5 in.
ft. 9 i-.
(36)
2 .\i. 5
3 > r. 6
4 XT. 9
5 jr. 2
6 .\ r. 7
(.'i7
mo. 16i
mo 1 i
n o. 214
mo. 323
mo. —
.22
.33
36
1.01
.56
88
.75
.56
1.10
.18
.56
(3-!)
25.091 + 100.4 + 25 + 98.28
+ 19.3614 =
Suhtraction
(1)
8
5
(2)
6
0
(3)
2
1
(4)
9
3
(5)
4
4
(6)
11
7
(7)
13
8
(8) (9)
59 78
12 37
(10) (11)
7 - 4 = 76
60
(12)
27
3
(13)
16
9
(14)
50
25
(15)
21
9
(16)
270
190
(17)
393
178
(18)
1000
537
(19) (20)
567482 23 - 1 =
106493
(21)
10.00
3.49
3i
(22)
(23)
80836465
49178036
(24)
U
53
(25)
27
121
(;6)
4 .\ds. 1 ft. 6 in.
2 yds. 2 ft 3 in.
5 .vds.
2 yds.
(27)
1 ft. 4 in.
2 ft. 8 in.
10
1912
1910
(28)
- 6.25
(32)
6 mo
7 mo. :
8 da.
15 da.
(29)
753
52 i
5
(33)
2
(.30)
9.80B3 - 9.019 =
7.8 -
(31)
. 3.00081
=
(34) (35)
6J 3i - H =
2S
12
10
—
Multiplication
(V
3X7 =
(
5 X
2)
: 1
= 2
(3)
X 3
= 4
(4)
X 8 =
(5)
23
3
(6)
310
4
(7)
7X9 =
(8)
50
3
(9)
254
6
(10)
623
7
(11)
103<i
8
(12)
5096
6
(13)
8754
8
(
;i4) (15)
165 235
40 23
(16)
7K88
9
(17)
145
206
(18)
24
234
(19)
9.6
4
(20)
287
.05
(21)
24
2i
(22)
8 X 53 =
(23)
U X 8 =
(24)
16
2i
(25)
i X 3 =
=
(26)
9742
59
(27)
6.25
3.2
(58)
.0123
9.8
(29)
+ X 2 =
(30)
2.49
36
(31)
12 15
— X —
(32)
6 dollars 49 cents
8
(33)
24 X 34
=
(34)
4X4 =
—
25
32
—
-
(35)
987J
25
(36)
3 ft. 5
5
in.
2J
(37)
X 44 X 14
=
(38)
.0963*
.084
(39)
8 ft. 94 ir.
9
Measuring Results in School Subjects 239'
Division
(1)
3]T
(2)
»Tl7
(3)
4 728
(4)
1 "iT
(5)
9 "36
(6)
3 1 39
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
4+ 2 =
91 0
11 1
6 X = 30
2! 13
2 H- 2 -=
(13)
(14)
875856
J
(15)
of 128
(16)
= 681 2108
(17)
50 -
7 =
4 1 24 lbs. 8oz.
(18)
(19)
(20)
(21)
(22)
131 65065
248 -s-
7 =
2.l72i72
251 9750
21 13.50
(23)
23ri«9^
(24)
751 2250300
-
(25)
24001 504000
(26)
127^76
(27)
(28)
(29)
(30)
* of 624 =
.0031
.093e
1
3i - 9 =
3 H- 5 =
(311
5 3
Is""
(32)
98 H- 3J =
33)
21 375(5
(34)
62.50 - li =
(35)
5311 37722
(36)
91 69 IbsTooz.
The tests in this series are so arranged as to present a gradu-
ated scale of difficulty. The first problem in each test is a very
simple problem and the next is slightly more difficult. Each
succeeding problem increases in difficulty and the achievement
of the class is measured by the degree of difficulty of the problems
which the group can solve. A reasonable length of time, twenty
minutes, is allowed for each test in the series. Not more than
two of the tests were given in any half day. The tests in ad-
dition, subtraction and multiplication were given in all ele-
mentary grades beginning with the third. Division was given
in grades four to eight.
Uniform directions were given in each room\ After the
headings had been filled in the person giving the test in-
structed the class as follows: "This is to be an exercise in di-
vision, (in case of division). The game is to see how many
problems you can divide and get right in twenty minutes. Every
problem on this sheet is a division problem, an 'into' problem.
Work as many of them as you can and be sure you get them
right. If you come to one you cannot work leave it out and go
on to the next. Do all of your Avork on this sheet and don't
ask anybody any questions. Begin." Each teacher was given
^ These are practically identical with those recommended by Dr. Woody.
240
Educational Survey of Janesmlle
an answer sheet for use in correcting the papers. She was in-
structed to check each paper twice. The answers were then
rechecked by a second person.
The Di.strihufion of Scores
The distribution of the scores made by the children in each
grade in the four fundamental operations is shoAvn in the ac-
companying table :
■Distribution of Scores in Woody Arithmetic Series A —
Table 42 Addition Table 43 Subtraction
No. proijlems
coriecl
Ill
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
No. Problems
correct
0
1
2
Ill
1
2
4
3
IV
1
V
VI
VM
VIII
0
1
2
3
3
6
7
7
4
12
13
7
11
26
23
13
11
12
14
3
4
1
1
2
2
3
1 3
i 4
4
1
5:::::.::::::::
6
1
3
6 -
. . .
1
1
7
7
9
5
6
20
19
12
20
16
8
13
12
5
'0
.5
1
1
3
2
2
4
2
7
3
12
9
11
18
19
2S
19
18
5
1
1
1
8
1
8
9
10
11
12
9
10
2
11 . ...
1
1
2
1
6
3
12
12
15
31
19
13
15
4
2
2
12
2
5
5
13
9
18
24
16
16
25
12
12
6
4
2
2
1
13
1
1
13
14
15
14
15
"i
4
4
9
9
10
5
21
10
16
17
13
10
8
6
2
4
3
1
\
3
4
4
12
4
10
\l
11
8
13
14
12
14
5
4
Ifi
3
5
6
6
14
15
Iri
17
15
9
10
4
1
2
5
1
16
17
17
IS
18
19
2
5
6
8
10
9
10
5
9
11
23
11
14
8
11
10
7
1
2
19
20
2
1
3
2
4
2
6
9
6
11
11
20
9
15
23
14
7
......
3
3
1
3
5
8
4
5
10
23
13
13
17
12
'1
20
1
21
21
22
23 ..!. .....
3
22
23
4
2
24
24
25
25 . . .
1
26
26
16
27
27
13
28
28
17
29
29
17
30
30
18
31
31
12
32
32
11
33
1
33
7
34
34
6
35
1
35
2
36
36
37
37
38
38
39
39
40
40
l87
16.6
14.5
15.7
T74
19.5
18.3
20.2
"1T3
23.3
23.1
22.7
Total
.Janesville
Median
Woody's
Standard
Median
Wisconsin
Median
"180
13.4
11.2
13.3
169
18.4
15.7
18.1
I43
-0.5
20.4
20.8
I53
147
Total
162
29.3
29.8
28.4
149
32.8
32.4
31.9
136
33.2
34.
33.1
139
Janesville
Median
Woody's
Standard
Median
Wisconsin
Median
25.2
25.
25.6
28.7
28.5
28.4
29.2
31.7
30.4
Mcasui\)u/ Results in School Subjects
241
Distribution of Scores in Woody AritJwietic Series A —
Table 44 Multiplication Table 45 Division
No. problems
correct
[II
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
No. problems
correct
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
0
17
5
6
10
14
8
16
13
14
■1
12
12
■!
3
i
0
1
1
1
2
2
3
3
1
1
3
3
8
14
18
25
17
19
7
15
4
5
10
5
3
5
2
4
■■■4
2
3
a
4
7
9
12
13
11
9
16
21
27
10
12
3
2
1
1
1
4
5
6
3
6
7
1
4
3
4
6
6
12
11
8
11
10
10
u
13
12
4
5
5
4
7
1
g
....
1
2
4
4
5
9
10
13
18
18
27
10
5
2
3
5
3
2
8
9
9
10
10
1
11
11
12
12
13
13
14
1
2
7
8
8
9
5
11
9
13
13
13
10
13
9
3
7
5
2
1
2
2
1
14
15
15
2
1
1
\
6
4
8
9
17
14
13
16
16
11
2
11
6
2
•>
i
1
16
1
1
4
6
6
16
8
7
6
13
6
11
12
8
10
9
12
9
6
Id
17
2
1
I
17
18
1
1
::::::
■■■I
18
1
19
19
20
1
20
3
21 ...
21
4
22
•)■)
5
23
\
3
7
3
11
14
14
11
14
19
13
13
9
6
5
1
■■■■3'
2
6
9
11
9
16
21
15
11
12
12
1 4
2
1
23
2
9
24
7
25 . .
25
7
26
11
27
i 27
1
....
17
28:::: :.
29
16
29
1
12
30
31
1 15
31
17
32
6
33
33
! 34
3
1
35
1
1 33
2
i
2
1
36
1
37
1 .. .
37
1
38
1
30
39
148
154
40
1
Total
Janesville
Median
Woody's
Standard
Median
Wisconsin
Median
168
142
154
I4S
169| 172
15^
{ 139
139
Median
Standard
Wisconsin
7.7
4.7
6.S
1
16.4
11.1
15.2
19.2
1
18. S
19.2
27.5
26.1
27.r
32.;:
30.
30.
1
32.4
i
) 32.9
): 33.2
11. e
9.t
13..^
16. E
16. E
19. f
) 23.2
) 23.*
) 25.
27. f
27.-
28.^
) 28.2
1 30.1
I 30.
As in the case of the results in other subjects certain facts
are revealed by these distribution tables. We may note :
(1) Progress from grade to grade.
(2) An overlapping of grade abilities.
(3) Large variations within eacti grade.
(4) Tlie medians of actiievement for Janesville.
(1) Progress from grade to grade — A distinct progress from
grade to grade is to be seen from the greater number of increas-
ingly difficult problems solved. Progress may be observed
roughly from the general movement of the figures toward the
242 Educational Survcij of Jancsvilh
lower extremes of the distribution sheets as we proceed from
grade to grade. This progress is especially noticeable in the
lower grades but is less evident in upper grades where
problems are of course more difficult. A more definite idea of
the improvement which takes place from grade to grade may be
gained by reference to the graphical representation of tl ; dis-
tribution table for division in Fig. II. In the graph for each
grade the number of children is reduced to a basis of 100%.
It is not surprising that these tests in the fundamental oper-
ations reveal progress from grade to grade, since the problems
gradually grow more difficult. Lower grade pupils soon found
that some of the problems were beyond their ability. This
was to be expected. The number of examples which children
are expected to solve increases steadily from grade to grade.
This is especially true in the lower grades. In the upper
grades, however, the degree of accuracy attained in processes
with which pupils are supposedly familiar rather than dif-
ficulties offered by the complexity of the problems is a decided
factor effecting the amount of progress, e. g. few processes in-
volved in the division test are commonly introduced later than
grade six. Decimals, fractions, denominate numbers and re-
duction of fractional remainders which are the processes on
wliich pupils most frequently fail on the test are all processes
Avhieh pupils in upper grades have usually been taught.
(2) The overlapping of grade ahilities — In any uniform
test which contains problems so eas.y that the poorest child in
any grade can solve some of them and also problems that are
difficult for even the most capable pupils in every grade we
may expect to find a degree of overlapping. The best fourth
grade pupils will solve more problems than a number in the
fifth grade or even the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. This
overlapping of abilities is serious only when it becomes very
marked. That it is quite marked in Janesville is evident. If
a line be drawn in the graph showing the distribution of di-
vision scores at probem 15, Fig, II, it will be seen that no small
number of fourth graders made a score better than that of the
poorest eighth grade score. Ten per cent of the eighth graders
did poorer than the best fourth graders in division. In ad-
dition and subtraction some third grade children excelled some
eighth graders.
(3) The variation within grades — In every grade in each
Measuring Results in Scliool Subjects
24^
,sr
0
SoorlO
Fig. II. Distribution of Division Scores by Grades
244 Educational Survey of Janesville
of the four tests there is a wide range between the scores made
by the best and the poorest. This is represented in the distribu-
tion table of the scores. For division it is represented graphically
in Fig. II by the width of the areas enclosing the scores of each
grade. A more satisfactory condition would be represented by
less width and greater height near the center of the class areas in
each case. Extreme variations in the scores made by pupils in
the same grade should receive the careful attention of teachers
and supei^v'isors. It is difficult to understand why some children
in nearly every grade solved fewer than ten subtraction prob-
lems correctly or why some children as far advanced as the
seventh and eighth grades should solve less than half of the total
number of problems in division. Children who make a score
far below the median for the class should be made the subject
of individual study by the teacher. When 10% of the eighth
'grade children show poorer results in division than the best
fourth grade pupils some, attention to drill in the fundamentals
ijs necessary for these children. Children who make unusually
liigh scores for their grades should be considered as possible
candidates for early promotion to the next higher grade, par-
ticularly if their work in other subjects shows a similar pro-
ficiency. A better teaching economy may be accomplished by
requiring less time to be devoted to the subject by these pupils.
When children in any grade can solve more difficult problems
than 75% of the children in the next higher grade, it is not
usually profitable for them to spend much time on that type
of work. See table 45. There may be other subjects to which
these children could well devote more time.
More satisfactory results in teaching can be secured by
grouping children with others of a similar degree of proficiency.
Children who may be counted upon to leave school before they
have progressed very far should be given work of a type that
is suited to their interests and needs. It is not necessary that
they be required to complete the same course of study as do
others who exhibit a fondness for the subject.
(4) The Medians of Achievement for Janesville — -A com-
mon method of judging whether results are satisfactory is to
compare the median or middle performance of each grade with
the standard median for that grade. The median refers to the
mark that one-half of a class or grade exceeds and that the
other half fails to reach. If the median scores for Janesville
Measunng Results in School Subjects
245
are compared with Woody 's standard medians the lower grades
do very well. When compared with scores made by several
thousand Wisconsin children the results are not so flattering,
particularly in division where they fall below. The fifth, sixth
and seventh grades differ but little from Woody 's standards ex-
cept in nuiltiplieation where Janesville children are somewhat
superior. These grades compare favorably with those of
other Wisconsin cities except in division. The showing of
the eighth grade is unsatisfactory. It is particularly weak in sub-
traction and division.
From these results it would seem that the fundamentals are
not underemphasized in the lower grades. That the advantage
decreases in succeeding grades and is in fact lost in the eighth
would indicate that teachers cannot be content to rest upon
their oars at any time. Even in advanced elementary grades a
certain amount of Avell-conducted drill based upon the needs of
the children in the class is necessary.
The unusual proficiency in the lower grades becomes more
striking still when we compare the scores in multiplication
made by the pupils who were given special promotion at the
time the system of semiannual promotions was instituted with
those who remained in the grade. The comparative scores in
multiplication made by two classes selected at random from
each grade are given below.
Table 46. — Scores Mode by Promoted and Nonpromoted in Multi-
plication
;\Iedian
Class 1.
Class 2.
Combined
in
P N. P.
No. pupils represe'ted 21
Standard I
9.8
9.7
4.7
IV
P N.P,
12.5
12.2
12.2
31.
18.4
18.9
18.6
37.
11.1
16.5
18.
17.2
29.
N.P.
16.5
18.5
17.3
24.
18.3
VI
P N.P.
25.5
19.9
21.6
33.
28.3
31.9
30.2
26.1
VII
P N.P.
33.7
31.8
32.8
29.
29.8
31.5
30.8
35.
30.6
VIII
P N. P.
31.0
32.8
31.9
25.
32.1
33.
32.5
36.
32. a
Were it not for the presence of these specially promoted pu-
pils in grades three and four the class scores for these grades
would be even higher. On the other hand it cannot well be
said that the presence of these children in the upper grades has
very materially reduced the class scores as far as results iu
246
Educational Survey of Janesville
multiplication may be taken as an index. Indeed, the pro-
moted groups in grade seven for the schools here represented
made the better scores. In the sixth grade the promoted pu-
pils did less than the expected standard. The fact that some
promoted groups made a good showing and others a poor one
seems to indicate that as far as ability in the fimdamentais of
arithmetic is concerned the pupils were not always well selected
for the special promotion. It appears, however, to have been
amply justified in most cases.
Additional facts as to the achievements in arithmetic are re-
vealed when we examine the scores made in each building. On
the surface results for any entire grade of the city may appear
fairly satisfactory. Unusual proficiency in certain rooms tends
to offset extreme weakness in others.
Variation in Median Scores by Buildings
The variations within the same grade in the different build-
ings for each of the tests in fundamentals may be seen from the
accompanying table.
Table 47. — Median Scores in Woody Arithmetic Scries A— By Buildings
Buildings
Janes-
ville
Median
16.6
19.5
23.3
- 29.3
32.8
33.2
13.4
18.4
20.5
25.2
28.7
29.2
7.7
16.4
19.2
27.3
32.3
32.4
Standard
Addition
Grade III
1
17.
17.4
20.2
31.7
.33.8
35.
14.2
19.4
19.3
26.4
26.
29.9
9.1
16.3
16.8
29.8
3?.l
34.3
2
14.
21.1
13.
17.3
9.5
17.5
3
'26.8
27.9
32.
32.7
'26!5
21.9
26
28.7
■26!3
27.5
30.
31.3
4
12.8
18.8
24.5
28.1
5
20.
21.
6
12.3
19.3
23.
29.3
32.9
32.
12.
17.
21.2
25.1
29.3
30.
5.7
13.7
20.7
25.6
31.5
31.7
7
16.7
21.7
8
19.
19.3
23.5
9
'24!'
Median
14 5
IV
18.3
V
23.1
VI
29.8
VII
31.5
32.9
11.4
19.4
55.1
33.5
15.
17.4
20.4
'20;4
32.4
VIII
34.
Subtraction
Grade III
11.5
19.8
21 3
24.9
19.3
20.1
11.2
IV
15 7
V
20.4
VI
25
VIT
29.3
28.8
6.8
16.8
■31.5
31.7
31.4
27.9
6 3
16.5
18.
'is.'i
28.5
VIII
31.7
Multiplication
Grade III
2.5
12.3
19.3
27.
12.2
19.
4 7
IV
11.1
V
18.3
VI
26.1
VII
.34 2
33.2
30.6
VIIl
Division
Grade III
32 9
IV
9.9
12.9
26.8
26.
27.9
13.5
'ik'.i
22.3
26.5
27.7
10.9
20.5
22.5
18.
10.9
19.5
23 7
27.3
'8 ?
12.6
10.1
15.3
■]5'.3
11.6
16.5
23 2
27.5
28.2
9.9
V
16 5
VI
23.8
VII
27.1
28.8
27.5
28.2
27.4
VIIT
30.1
Pleasuring Results in ScJiool Subjects 247
Why the children of certain rooms should be consistently
high and others low in all of the fundamentals is a matter de-
manding supervisory attention. It is a striking fact that in
grade seven the children in building number eight excel in ev-
ery one of the four fundamentals. This is not to be explained
by the amount of time spent on arithmetic in this room for it
spends no greater amount than any other seventh grade.
There are rooms, however, such as grade four in building seven
of the table where unusual results are explained by the large
amount of time devoted to the subject. In the main, however,
time and results bear little relation.
As may be expected with tests including problems of differ-
ent degrees of difficulty and requiring familiarity with a vari-
ety of processes certain types of problems proved more trouble-
some to pupils than others.
Examples Which Proved Difficult
The scores made by the pupils on each of the tests in the
fundamentals were recorded in such a manner as to indicate the
frequency with which each particular example was solved cor-
rectly and incorrectly. The accompanying table indicates the
number of children in each grade who took the test and the
number of times each problem in division was solved correctly.
A study of the table reveals the particular problems which
proved difficult for each grade.
The table exposes some facts as to the teaching which are in-
teresting to say the least. It should be a matter of concern to
teachers when pupils miss examples as easy as a number of
those on the test. There was only one problem which was not
missed at least once in every grade. It is difficult to understand
why more than one-half of the fourth grade children should miss
an example like No. 6, which is 3)39 or why only 54 of the 129
pupils in grade VI can solve the example 2.1)25.2. However
much one may be surprised at the showing made by lower grade
pupils on some problems, this is not so striking when viewed in
the light of the scores made by eighth grade pupils on the same
examples. Some of the more difficult problems for eighth grade
pupils may be seen from the table following. The table indi-
248 Educational Survey of Jan
Table 48. — Number of Papiis Solving Each
Division Correctly
csi'illc
Particular Example in
Problems
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
1
3)6~
151
161
145
162
159
152
165
136
146
145
146
150
125
122
98
112
89
87
86
00
73
87
58
71
63
57
47
41
13
17
15
14
.6
10
9
6
1
123
127
126
126
128
120
122
117
122
121
117
111
85
117
99
97
90
85
91
54
73
83
95
68
62
71
64
32
32
27
24
19
17
10
8
4
129
147
147
145
145
148
145
141
136
137
146
143
113
128
136
135
117
129
117
117
102
112
128
102
109
107
124
105
80
63
68
42
72
49
60
36
28
148
135
2
9)27
138
3
4)28
155
154
159
76
113
137
148
1S9
98
88
38
78
35
40
38
21
16
42
13
33
24
9
6
3
6
138
4
1)~5~
136
5
9) 36
136
6
3)39
137
4 ^ 2 -
136
8
9)0~
128
9
10
1J1~
6 X . . = 30
127
137
11
2)13
136
12
2 - 2 =
100
13
4)24 lbs 8 oz
114
14
8)5856
133
15
i of 128 —
138
16
68)2108
123
17
50 -!- 7 —
116
18
13)65065
107
19
248 - 7 —
108
20
2.1)25.2
94
21
25)9750
108
22
2)13.50
119
23
23)469
111
24
75)2250300
111
25
2400) 504000
104
26
12)2.76
113
27
I of 624 —
121
28
.003) 0936
74
29
3i + 9 — .'
47
30
1 H- 5 —
71
31
5i s- % —
47
32
91 H- 3J —
53
2
33
52)3756
63
34
62.50 - li —
68
35
531).37722 -
39
36
9) 69 lbs 9 oz
25
Number of children takintr test
168
167
139
Measuring Results in School Subjects
249
cates the score in per cent for the entire grade and each eighth
grade separately on ten examples.
Table 49. — Ten Troublesome Examples in Grade VIII
Per cent of pupi
correctly-
Is who solved each of ten
-for the city and by building
examples
s
Example
Cit.v
Buildings
1
2
3
4
5
2 -i- 2 —
71.9
67.6
77.7
53.2
33.8
51.1
33.8
45.3
28.1
18.
139
64.5
61.3
74.2
35.5
35.5
48.4
38.7
38.7
26.8
35.5
31
61.1
66.7
77.8
55.6
5.6
27.8
16.7
61.1
33.3
5.6
18
89.7
65.5
79.3
65.5
.34.4
51.7
34.5
41.4
27.6
3.5
29
71.4
75.
82.1
46.4
42.9
64.3
32.1
57.1
32.1
25.
28
69.7
2 1)25 2
69.7
25)9750
003) 0936
72.7
3i -!- 9 —
39.3
J -i- 5 —
54.5
*/4 - 3 5—
39.4
52)3;'5d
36.3
531)37722
24.2
9)69 lbs. 9 oz
15.
No. pupils taking- test
33
Some of the facts revealed by the table are astonishing in-
deed. It is almost inconceivable that only 72% of the pupils in
grade eight solved the example 2-^2=: correctly. Incorrect an-
swers often given were 2 and 0. In building two only 61.1%
of the class solved this problem correctly. A problem like
31/2 H- 9 = is beyond two-thirds of the eighth grade children.
But what is even worse is the fact that only 45.3% of the eighth
grade can obtain the correct answer to the problem 52)3756,
Too many* failed to reduce the fractional remainder in this
example.
A striking difference in the effectiveness with which differ-
ent processes are taught by different teachers is revealed by a
comparison of the scores made by each eighth grade class on
lliese problems. Building two makes the poorest showing ou
five of the ten problems while building four makes the boi^t
score obtained on four of the ten examples. The class m
building two contains only two i^upils who have not been in the
grade since September, while that in building four is almost
evenly divided between those who entered the grade in Septem-
ber and those who entered in January.
250 Educational Survey of JanesviUe
Particular Processes Which Proved Difficult
The results found from a study of the ten problems above
suggests the need of specific drill upon particular processes.
Quite contrary to a common opinion that a poor showing by any
group of children on problems in division is to be remedied by
devoting more attention to drill in division or that improvement
in multiplication is to be brought about by drill upon that
phase of arithmetic, the table suggests that the weakness may
be in certain forms of division exercises. In that event drill
upon division as a whole rather than upon certain processes in
which the pupils are weak would be poor economy. To dete)"-
mine more fully specific processes in Avhich Janesvilie pupils
aie weak an analysis was made of the errors which were made
by seventh and eighth grade pupils in the division test.
The different forms of errors found among 1500 that were
analyzed are given below together with the frequency with
^7llich each occurred. The relative frequency of each may be
judged from the length of the bar opposite in each case.
FIGURE III
No. % 4% i°/, n'/. 16'/.
1. Incorrect Inverting or Failure to Invert 277 18.46
2. Incorrect Division 246 16 . 4
3. Incorrect placing, of, or omitting of 189 12.6
decimal point
4. Failure to reduce or incorrect reduc- 133 8.87
tion of remainder or answer
5. Incorrect division of denominate num- 132 8.8
bers
6. Omitting or adding cipher in quotient 101 6.73
7. Not completing division 92 6 . 13
8. Incorrect subtraction 81 5.4
9. Incorrect multiplication 61 4.07 B
10. Using incorrect denominator of re- 36 2.4 ■
mainder "^
11. Failure to classify result 35 2.33 B
12. Failure to employ both parts of frac- 29 1.93 H
tion
13. Incorrect placing or bringing down.. 28 1.87 ^
14. Incorrect reduction of mixed numbers 28 1.87 ^
15. Failure to lecognize the sign of opera- 15 1. ■
tion ■
16. Incorrect addition 7 .47 |
17. Error in copying 4 .27 |
18. Illegible answer 4 .27 |
19. Incorrect cancellation 2 .13 |
Total 1500 lOO'^o
Measuring Results in Scliool Subjects 251
In this analysis of errors in division it is to be noted that
there is, of course, a difference in the number of possibilities
for making each of the various type errors. Among those proc-
esses offering a greater chance for error are those of simple
subtraction, multiplication, division and placing. Decimals oc-
cur in only five of the thirty-six exercises and a familiarity with
the process of inverting is necessary in five. These two proc-
esses, however, are among those on which pupils most fre-
quently fail.
It should be clear to any observer that the need of the chil-
dren who made the 1500 errors in the test in division is not drill
in pure division alone. The greatest source of weakness on the
part of these children occurs in connection Avith examples
which involve such processes as inverting, the use of decimals,
the reduction of a remainder, denominate numbers, and the
placing of a cipher in the quotient. This does not mean that a
few lessons for the entire class need necessarily be devoted to
drill upon each of these particular processes. For a portion of
the class this might be a waste of valuable time. Some children
who are weak in one or two processes may be strong in others.
That drill will probably be most effective which affords each in-
dividual well directed practice upon those operations in which
he or she is weak. When individual drill is not feasible group
drill lessons may be utilized. This will require more thinking,
more study of individual and class needs, and more careful
planning on the part of the teacher, but if well done it should
mean more economy in time, achievement, and interest on the
part of the pupil.
A desirable habit to be cultivated in all teaching of arithme-
tic is that of forming a quick rough estimate of the answer in
every operation. When eighth grade pupils divide 469 by 23
and obtain 2-i as manv did, it is certain that those children
have not formed the habit of estimating answers. To show a
pupil that he has omitted a cipher in the quotient and even to
drill him thoroughly upon that process is not sufficient. It
does not prevent him from accepting absurd answers in other
problems. It is the general habit of estimating answers that
should be aimed at here and not alone the highly specialized
one of the particular i)rocess of putting down ciphers.
Another habit which many Janesville children have not
252
Educational Survey of Janesville
"formed is that of checking all answers. Many errors are trace-
able to this fault. No competent business man, bookkeeper,
banker, or statistician thinks of accepting a statement of figures
totally unchecked. To do so would spell failure. Teachers
should not be unmindful of the fact that boys and girls expect
to share in such responsibility later in life and no opportunity
should be lost to train them for it.
THE COURTIS TESTS
The Courtis Tests in Fundamentals Series B were given in
two buildings, the Jefferson and Washington as i-epresentative
of the city. The test in each fundamental consists of several
easy examples of presumably equal difficulty. A selected sam-
ple from each test is given below.
Addition
Subtraction
Multiplication
Division
136
340
988
75088824
5368
49)284:0
386
57406394
95
353
904
547
192
439
A. definite amount of time was given for each test ; addition
and division eight minutes each, subtraction four, and multi-
plication six. Each test purposely contains more problems
than any pupil can solve in the time allowed. The test thus
becomes one of speed and accuracy.
The average of the scores for each building and the standard
of achievement for each grade and test in both speed and ac-
curacy may be seen from the table following.
Measuring Results in ScJiool Subjects
Table 50. — Average Results on Courtis Tests
253
Addition
IV
V
VI
VII
V
I
>,
>>
tt
>»
u
o
o
u
u
c«
eS
a
CS
e*
13
t-,
a
o
o
-a
a
u
S
w
o
a
3
o
o
9.3
3
y
o
<1
■a
a
S-
o
u
<
Average of two buildings
5.5
1.9
7.4
4..')
8.6
5.2
6.2
10.2
8-.
Standard average ,
7.4
4.7
8.6
6.
9.8
7.2
1U.9
8.2
11.6
8.8
Subtraction
Average of two buildings
Standard average
6.4
.'J.I
9.7
7.1
8.6
5.2
11.2
8.9
12.6
7.4
5.9
9.
7.5
10.3
8.8
11.8
10.
12.9
11.
11.2
Multiplication
Average of two buildiiigs
ytaiulard average
6.5
6.2
2.7
4.2
7.2
7.5
5.2
5.6
8.6
9.1
5.2
7.1
8.3
10.2
6.
8.2
10.7
11.5
8.^
9.3.i
Division
Average of two buildings
Standard average
2.
4.6
.6
5.8
6.1
4.1
4.7
8.6
8.2
5.2
7.1
8.6
9.6
7.1
8.6
10.6
10,7
».8
9.T
Speed here refers to the number of problems attempted and
accuracy to the number correct. As far as the results from
the two schools tested are representative of the school system
it is to be noted that the children did not do as well as was to be
expected in either the number of examples attempted or the^
number correct. Only grade four in multiplication and grade:
five in subtraction reached the standard for speed. Only grade
eight in division reached the standard for accuracy. The lower-
grades, which- it will be recalled, did well on the Woody tests^.
did not show unusual ability on the Courtis tests. This indi-
cates lack of sufficient emphasis upon rapid and accurate calcu-
lation in the schools.
While June standards may be criticised as being somewhat
high certainly classes which do not exceed the standard of
children one grade lower are by no means to be excused. This-
occurred in at least six of the twenty eases. The standard
scores include both A and B children. All of the pupils here
represented in grade six are A pupils i. e., children who have
been in the grade since September. These should be expected
to exceed the standard, but they failed to do so on the test.
254
Educational Survey of Janesville
THE STONE REASONING TEST
Even though a school system may be securing satisfactory
results in the fundamental operations it may or may not be
achieving satisfactory results in problems requiring a careful
analysis and selection of the various operations which must be
performed. Quite frequently, though not necessarily, it occurs
that proficiency in the fundamentals is accompanied by pro-
ficiency in thought or reasoning processes. When a child has
acquired such a degree of attainment in performing the funda-
mental operations that many of them may be spoken of as
"automatic" he should be less absorbed with the mechanical
side of the work and freer to devote attention to the analysis of
a problem. This is a common assumption, which is not with-
out some foundation in fact. The achievement of the pupils in
the fundamentals it will be recalled was not on the w^iole above
the average of children in other school systems. Hence it will
aiot be surprising if we find no better than an average showing
on the test in reasoning problems. A copy of the test used
together with the value assigned to each problem may be seen
below.
Problem Solve as many of the follo^vins problems as you have time
Value for; VFork them in order as numbered:
1.0 1. If you buy 2 tablets at 7 cents each and a book for 65
cents, how much change should you receive from a two-dollar
bill?
1.0 2. John sold 4 Saturday Evening Posts at 5 cents each. He
kept % the money and with the other % he bought Sunday
papers at 2 cents each. How many did he buy?
1.0 3. If James had 4 times as much money as George, he would
have $16. How much money has George?
1.0 4. How many pencils can you buy for 50 cents at the late of
2 for 5 cents?
1.0 5. The uniforms for a baseball nine cost $2.50 each. The
shoes cost $2 a pair. What was the total cost of uniforms
and shoes for the nine?
1.4 6. In the schools of a certain city there are 2.200 pupils;
Vi are in the primary grades, 14 in the grammar grades, Va in
the High School and the rest in the night school. How many
pupils are there in the night school?
1.2 7. If 31/2 tons of coal cost $21. what will 51/2 tons cost?
1.6 8. A news dealer bought some magazines for $1. He sold
them for $1.20, gaining 5 cents on each magazine. How many
magazines were there?
2.0 9. A girl spent % of her money for car fare, and three times
as much for clothes. Half of what she had left was 80 cents.
How much money did she have at first?
2.0 10. Two girls receive $2.10 for making button-holes. One
makes 42, the other 28. How shall they divide the money?
2.0 11. Mr. Brown paid one-third of the cost of a building; Mr.
Johnson paid % the cost. Mr. Johnson received $500 more an-
nual rent than Mr. Brown. How much did each receive?
2.0 12. A freight train left Albany for New York at 6 o'clock.
An express left on the same track at 8 o'clock. It went at the
rate of 40 miles an hour. At what time of day will it over-
take the freight train if the freight train stops after it has
gone 56 miles?
Measuring Results in School Subjects 255
Exactly fifteen luiiiutes were allowed for the test. Each
problem Avas marked on the basis of right or wrong answers.
No credit was given for solutions that were only partly correct.
While it maj' be held by some that this was unfair it should be
noted that the conditions were exactly similar to those observed
in the surveys of other cities with w^hich comparisons are made.
More than that an attempt to score the papers by allowing
credit foi- answers partly correct did not prove satisfactory.
Papers which gave answers only could not then be used. This
suggested a comparison of the scores attained by pupils who
performed tlie operations mentally and put down answers
only with those of pupils who wrote out the work of each step.
A random selection of i)apers from each group was made and
results tabulated. The results were in favor of those who put
down answers only and the method of scoring part "corrects"
was therefore rejected.
In view of the fact that puj^ils who do not write out an elab-
orate analysis of each problem did not do as well as those who
wrote answers only it is evident that a grave question is raised
as to the relative merits of the teaching method. Teachers will
need to observe classroom I'esults from day to day to discover
when it is no longer profitable to continue an elaborate analysis
of each problem solved. Teachers should rememljer that it is a
habit of thinking which is desired and not a methodical form
for exhibiting the child's work. If a pupil has acquired such
a degree of proficiency that he analyzes the problem and per-
forms the operations mentally it is clear that any method which
continues to require him to write out an elaborate analysis of
each step is wasteful. Elaborate statements are sometimes use-
ful in teaching a new process but a careful observation of re-
sults is necessary to determine when such ])rocedure is no long-
er profitable.
The Median Scores — Reasoning Problems
The showing of Janesville's children is not satisfactory in
this phase of arithmetic. This may be seen by comparing
Janesville medians with those for Butte and Salt Lake included
in the table showing the distribution of scores in the reason-
ing test. The standing for each grade as compared with Butte
and Salt Lake for each grade is shown in graphic form in Fig.
IV.
256
Educational. Survey of Janesville
Table 51. — Distribution of Scores in Stone Reasoning Test
No. Problems Correct
V
VI
VII
VIII
0
34
25
36
32
10
7
1
8
26
31
42
24
20
6
1
2
2
3
6
13
34
31
23
13
6
11
1
1
1
2
3
5
8
4
18
5
6
7
28
24
10
8
12
9
11
10
4
11
2
1
6
12
1
13
5
14
15
1
16
17
2
18
Total
145
2.4
4.3
2.7
160
3.4
6.9
4.1
145
5.5
9.1
6.3
137
6 3
Salt Lake Median
11.
8 2
In no grade did Janesville children do as well as the children
of either Butte or Salt Lake. It should be observed that the
test in each of the latter cities was given approximately two
months later in the year. This is not however a sufficient ex-
planation as to why the scores for the sixth grade in Janesville
should be lower than that of the fifth in Salt Lake or Avhy the
V V
I V
11 VII
21
10
^^--
q
fl
,--''"
7
6
,, - ' '
^
^
^,-''
4
^— — ^^ — --"'
7:
-—- '
Salt Lake
?.
1-
Butte
1
Janesville
0
Figure IV Mellan Reasoning Scores in Janesville, Butte and Salt Lake
scores for the seventh and eighth grades should be lower than
those of Salt Lake for grades six and seven. In the judgment
of the survey staff this phase of the work in arithmetic is not
well done in Janesville.
Measuring Results in School Subjects
257
As to whether or not certain rooms do not do much better
than others may be judged from the accompanying table. With
few exceptions the results in the several classes for each grade
are fairly uniform. No seventh or eighth grade class reaches
the score of either Butte or Salt Lake for these grades, two ex-
ceed that of Butte in grade five. None reach that of Salt Lake.
The score for grade six in building three includes two classes.
In one all of the children entered the grade in January and in
the other all had entered in September. The respective medi-
ans for the two classes are 3 and 4.6. The latter while a pure
sixth exceeds but little the score for Butte which is made up of
both A and B classes.
Table 52. — Median Scores by Buildings — Stone Reasoning Test
Grades
Building-s
V
VI
VU
VIII
1
0.8
2.1
2.5
2.8
3.6
3.1
3.6
3.1
4.8
5.6
7 3
2
5 6
3
4
5
5.8
5.4
5.6
6.1
6 3
6
2.3
2.9
2.3
4.3
2.7
6 2
7
Janes ville
Salt Lake
3.4 5.5
6.9 9,1
4 4 R -^
6.3
21
Butte
S 2
Progress From Grade to Grade
The amount of progress from grade to grade is small and a
marked degree of overlapping is evident. This may be seen
both from the table showing the distribution of reasoning
scores and Fig. IV. Some children in every grade failed to
solve a single problem correctly. 44% of the eighth grade pu-
pils did not do as well as the best fifth grade pupil. The high-
est 25% of the fifth grade did better than a considerable pro-
portion of the children in grades above. These fifth grade pu-
pils made a higher score than 51.9% of the pupils in grade six.
They did better than 11.4% of the seventh grade and better
than 7.6% of the eighth grade.
The effect of instituting semiannual promotions upon the
scores in the reasoning test may be judged from the table below.
258
Educational Survey of JanesviUe
The table gives the median scores for each group of two classes
in each grade selected at random.
Table 53. — Median Stone Reasoning Scores by Promoted d- Non-Pro-
moted Sections
Medians
V
VI
VII
VIII
P.
N. P.
P.
N. P.
P.
N. P
P-
N. P.
Class I
3.2
2.4
2.6
29
2.6
2.
2.4
19
3.
3.8
3.2
31
4.6
3.6
4.
52
6.3
4.9
5.3
26
5.8
4.7
5.4
37
I 6.3
5.8
6.
' 24
1
6.
Class II
6.4
6.2
37
In six of the eight cases the promoted pupils excelled the
scores of those who had spent an entire year in the grade. In
no case did the promoted groups score less than the group which
remained in the grade below. The poor showing on the test
cannot be explained by the i)eculiar condition existing from
the introduction of semi-annual promotions.
One of the difficult tasks before the teachers and supervisors
as revealed by the test on reasoning problems is to secure im-
provement in this imiKirtant phase of arithmetic. Some of the
suggestions made for the improvement of the w^ork in the fun-
damental operations can be applied here as w^ell. As stated in
the chapter on Instruction children should be trained to read
problems for the thought of the statements and conditions. At
times it may even be advisable to use the arithmetic text as a
reader. Conditions should be visualized from matter of habit.
Pupils will do this more readily when problems are such as
come directly within their own experience, when they appeal
to them as worth while, and when the answer appeals to them
as Avorth knowing. It is not necessary that the same problems
be solved by all.
Pupils should be habituated in the matter of forming ([uick
mental estimates of the answers not only to the problem itself
but to the various parts. They should be so taught that they
will not be satisfied Avith answers that have not been checked.
Elaborate w^'itten analysis should be employed judiciously.
Frequent short tests of a single example or two for the purpose
of analyzing teaching needs will serve to guide the teacher.
Mcdsuring Hesulfs in School Subjects 259
More careful study of the achievements of each child and less
fretting over failures will do much to economize teaching ef-
forts. As a stimulus to the teaching of arithmetic, plans for
supervision might well include some experimental teaching by-
some of the school > most capable teachers to test the validity
of different methods of teaching i)articnlar processes.
Reading
Results in reading were tested by use of the Kansas Silent
Reading Test. This test was chosen in preference to others
that might have been used because of its simplicity. It is a test
of the child's ability to grasp the thought of selected para-
graphs as shown by his answers to questions on each paragraph.
The time allowed for the test is five minutes. Each paragraph
has an assigned value and the pupil's score is the combined
value of the passages correctly interpreted in the time allotted.
While it may be desirable to test certain other phases of read-
ing achievement in and of themselves such as pronunciation,
expression, and rate of reading, it was decided to confine the
testing of reading to the particular phase of the subject gener-
ally considered most important — the ability to get information
from the printed page rapidly and accurately.
No matter how far a child may progress in school or later in
life his success will depend in no small measure upon his ability
to glean thought from the printed page. In the busy world of
affairs most of our information comes to us from newspapers,
magazines and books. In the immediate schoolroom environ-
ment of the child his success depends largely upon his ability
to read with a clear understanding the thought of problems in
arithmetic or the subject matter of history, geography, science
and literature. Whether his pronunciation be accurate or his
expression good, when put to the test is of minor importance
for his own future progress. Unless he be trained in the man-
ner indicated he will derive little pleasure in reading, either
for entertainment or information and the quality of the read-
ing matter which appeals to his tastes will scarcely be such as
to contribute materially to his mental growth and equipment.
The nature of the test used may be seen from the following
representing a portion of the test for grades III, "IV and V.
260
Educational Survey of Janesville
No. 8.
■\"alue
2.6
Here are two squares. Draw a line from the upper left-hand
corner of the small suuare to the lower right-hand corner of the
large square,
D D
Xo. 9.
A farmer puts one-half the hay from his field Into the first stack,
a f? then two- thirds of what is lett into a second stack, and the remain-
'•" derin a third stack. Which stack is the largest?
No. 10.
Below are two squares and a circle. If the circle is the largest
Value ' of the three, put a cross in it. If one square is smaller than the
3.9 circle, put a cross in the large square. If bothsquares are smaller
than the circle, put a cross in the small square.
□ O D
No. 11.
Value
4.0
"The curfew tolls the knell of parting- day,
The lowiny herds wind slowly o'er the lea.
The ploughman homeward plods his weary way.
And leaves the world to darluiess and to me."'— (Gray)
Study the above quotation carefully. The author lets us know his
feeling about the coming of night. If you think his feeling is one
of fear and dread, underscore curfew. If his feeling is one of peace
and gladness, underscore ploughman .
No. 12
Value
4.0
Read these carefully:
Bears are larger than bugs.
Houses are larger than bears.
Mountains are larger than houses.
Then bugs are not as large asmountains.
I have tried to make no false statement among these four. If I
have succeeded, underline the word success. If I have failed, un-
derline the word failure.
success
failure
Measuring Results in School Subjects
261
There are three separate tests in the series. Test I is used in
grades III, IV and V; Test II in grades VI, VII and VIII,
and Test III in the high school. Each test is similar in nature
to each of the others but somewhat more difficult. These tests
have been given to over 100,000 children in other cities and the
median or middle scores obtained by combining the results of
all cities can be taken as standard performance.
The scores made in each grade for the city as a whole may be
seen from the following table showing the distribution of read-
ing scores. The table reads, e. g. in grade III there were twen-
ty-three pupils who scored less than one. Twenty-three scored
between 1 — 1.9, fifteen scored between 2 — 2.9, etc.
Table 54.
-Distribution of Scores in Kansas Silent Reading Test —
Janesville
Grades
scores fall between
Ill
23
23
15
12
19
28
28
9
7
9
6
1
IV
1
3
■■-••
6
2.5
35
34
23
15
13
1
1
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
0 9
1
1
2
1
6
11
Hi
21
20
29
21
6
3
1
1
1 1 q
!
2- 2 9
1
'"2"
5
17
15
18
20
22
20
10
9
5
6
3-3 9 ....
i
......
6
9
13
23
20
18
13
12
4
10
2
"i"
1
3
4
10
12
26
13
25
19
8
9
1
1
1
4 4 9
5-6 9.'
3
3
7
11
10
28
27
20
32
16
25
6
7
1
2
4
3
20
15
12
17
10
21
6
4
2
3
7 8 q
9 10 9
1
4
4
7
6
9
14
11
m
4
I
5
1
1
11 12 9
13-14 9
3
15-17 9
5
18 20.9
10
21-23 9
3
24-26 9
14
27-29 9
6
30 34 9
13
35 39 9
3
40-44 q
5
45-49 9
50-59 9
0
60-09 9
70-79 q
1
2
199
Above 80
::::::i::::.'.:
1
12:
1
1
166
139
132
Total
180
140
150
94
G6
Janesville Median
4.9
5.3
9.2
9.5
12.1
13.2
13 9
16 5
16 2
20 1
19.2
22.4
22.7
24.4
24.7
27 6
26.1
26.4
Standard Median
28 3
Certain facts with reference to reading ability may be noted
from this table: (1) The scores indicate first of all a wide
range of ability within each grade. In the third grade there
were some children who did not interpret a single sentence cor-
rectly, and others who scored as high as 18 or better. (2) They
262
Educational Survey of Janesville
indicate that there are some ehiklren in the fourth and fifth
grades who did no better on the same test than some of the
children in grade three. Indeed, few children in those two
grades did better than the best third grade children. Nine-
teen in the fourth and eleven in the fifth grades did no better
than the median or middle score of the third grade. This over-
lapping of abilities is likewise evident in the three upper ele-
mentary grades, in which test II Avas given. (3) A third point
indicated by the table is seen when we compare the median
scores with the standard median. .From this standpoint it will
be noted that the children in the seventh and eighth grades and
the eleventh grade of the high school read better than the
standard representing the median scores of 100,000 children
selected from many states. The children of the remaining
grades do not read as well as children in other states.
That several of the grades did not do as well as they should
is due in part to several causes: The recent introduction of
semi-annual promotions, the scarcity of suitable reading matter,
and mediocre teaching of reading. .Each of these factors is
treated elsewhere in this report. It may be said here, however,
that the teachers will need to devote careful thought to ways
of securing good work in silent reading. A discussion of meth-
ods of securing improvement in thought reading might well be
made the subject of discussion at teachers' meetings.
(4) A more striking result than any so far indicated is the
variation between schools. The table following indicates the
median scores attained by the several elementary grades of
each school. Median scores exclusive of the model department
of the Jefferson school, which has but few pupils in any grade,
vary Ijy grades as follows:
Table 55.
Ill
g
1.3
5.3
IV
10.7
7.4
9.5
V
14.5
9.5
13.2
VI
15.6
11.8
13.9
VII
19.5
14.
16.2
VIII
Hiffhest
Lowest
Standard
24.8
IS.
19.2
Measuring Iiesults in Scliool Subjects 263
Tablk 56. — Median Scores in Kansas Silent Reading Test
Buildintr
Ill
4.3
6.7
IV
8.8
10.7
V
VI
VII
VIII
1
10
15.6
16.5
18.5
2
3
13.2
14.5
14.8
13.7
19.
24.8
4
1.3
8.
7.7
4.1
3 6
8.7
10.
9 9
9.8
7.4
6
7
14.1
15.
16.1
14.
19.5
18.8
18.
8
9.5
9.8
12.1
13.2
21.9
9
J anesvilleMedian
Standard Median.
4.9
5.3
9.2
9.5
Kt.7
13.9
16.5
16.2
20.1
19.2
It is evident that some of the classes in every grade can read
better than the standard expected and it is also evident that
there are some classes in nearly every grade whose work is much
below" the standard. The achievements of those making the high-
est scores might well serve as a mark worthy of emulation for
those who did not do as well. It is also noteworthy that not
more than one of the best median performances is to be found
in any one building. Why exceptionally good reading and un-
usually poor reading are to be found in the same building is a
matter demanding .supervisory attention.
At this point some reference should be made to the scores
made by the pupils who were promoted at the Ijeginning of the
present semester. These pupils it will be remembered had spent
only one semester, except for those who had failed of promotion
the preceding June, in the grade below. A tabulation of the
median scores made by classes selected at random from those
promoted and those who remained in the grade is given below\
Table 57. — Median Reading Scores hy Promoted d Ncyiipromoted
Sections
Ill
IV 1
V
VI
VII
VIII
Medians
Class 1
" 2
" 3
P
4.5
7.
N P
4.3
7.5
P
8.7
6.
N.P.
6.7
10.
P
14
9.5
N.P.i
H.2
11
P
14.6
10.3
N.P.
18.8
IB
15 5
P
21.
16.1
N.P.
21.
16.5
P
19 5
16 5
2i.8
18.
34.
li:
V.P.
17.8
21.4
?1 1
Combined
No. puuils repre-
sented
Standard
5.3
19.
6
4 9
37.
3
8.
15.
0
7.7
28.
5
11.
28.
1;
13.3
30. 1
2
13.
42.
15.9
71. j
.9
17.4
31.
It
18.
32.
.2
20.3
53.
.2
264 Educational Survey of Janesville
The standard score is given by way of comparison. It should
be noted that the standard score represents a combination of
the scores of pupils who have been in the grade one and two
semesters respectively. The children who were not promoted in
January and who were thus well along in the second semester's
work for the grade should exceed the standard.
Suggestions for Improving Work in Reading
For suggested changes in method and selection of reading
material the reader is referred to the section on reading in the
chapter of this report devoted to Instruction. Practice in rapid
silent reading, motivation of the work in reading through such
means as dramatization, reading for the entertainment or infor-
mation of other members of the class, and discussion of the
most interesting sections of the reading lesson, systematic train-
ing in getting the thought accurately and a sufficient supply of
supplementary reading material will do much to bring about
improvement.
The results of the test in reading indicate a positive correla-
tion between the amount of subject matter read during the
year and the scores made on the tests. In the main the classes
which read more books did better than those that did not read
as many. As suggested in the chapter on Instruction the board
should take immediate steps to provide a sufficient supply of in-
teresting supplementary reading material. The first requisite
to good reading is interesting material. Too much time is de-
voted at present to material that does not appeal directly to
the child's interests.
Training in the ability to gain thought from the printed
page as stated elsewhere is a vital aim in all reading work.
Training to this end should include the frequent choice of well
selected paragraphs for practice work in rapid and accurate
thought getting. Questions may be placed upon the blackboard
and the children be given a limited amount of time to read the
paragraphs and write the answers to the questions. Mimeo-
graphed sheets containing selected paragraphs and questions
for practice work in particular grades on certain days might
well be sent out from the superintendent's office. To ask the
meanings of words as teachers frequently do is not sufficient.
Children require practice in independent interpretation if they
Measuring Results in School Subjects
265
are to acquire the facility in thought getting necessary to read
rapidly and understandingly the kind and amount of material
which today forms our greatest means of communication.
Spelling
The achievements of the schools in the subject of spelling
were tested by use of both the Ayres and Buckingham tests.
The Ayres test included four groups of 25 Avords each of ap-
proximately equal difficulty selected from Dr. Ayres' list of
the 1000 words most commonly used. The four lists included
one for grade two, a second for grades three and four, another
for grades five and six, and a fourth for grades seven and
eight. These words were pronounced by the teachers. Teach-
ers were instructed to illustrate the use of each word with a
sentence. The Avords are given below.
2
nine
miss
tree
got
white
foot
block
river
cut
■\\ inter
free
page
end
feet
back
paper
each
came
show
yet
give
letter
after
thing
than
The Buckingham test was given in the form of dictated sen-
tences. The test covered 50 words in grade two, 60 in grades
three and four, 65 in grades five and six and 65 in grades seven
and eight.
T?ie
Ayres Words
Grades
3&4
5&6
7&8
cash^
sometimes
meant
warm
engage
earliest
clothing
terrible
distinguish
able
period
consideration
suit
employ
assure
watch
select
probably
fell
firm
foreign
buy
convict
responsible
walk
command
beginning
soap
crowd
difficulty
email
publish
finally
summer
term
develop
express
relative
issue
lesson
entire
luaterial
father
measure
mere
table
serve
senate
talk
remember
respectfully
right
effort
agreement
road
due
unfortunate
next
running
majority
four
position
elaborate
power
ledge
citizen
because
primary
"ecessary
country
Saturday
divide
another
information
receive
^This word should have been "catch."
266
Educational Survey of Janesville
THE RESULTS ON THE AYRES TEST
The Average Scores
The results in spelling on the Ayres test are not satisfactory.
When the average for the words used in each grade is compared
with the average for 84 cities, we find that Janesville does not
attain an average standing in any grade.^
Table 58
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
Average of 84 cities
73
73
88
73
84
73
84
J anesville's average
42.9
66.9
82.1
56.3
74.9
62.6
71.1
The weakness of certain grades is evident. Grades six and
eight were tested on the same lists of words that were used for
children one grade lower in each case. It is to be noted that
the eighth does not reach the standard for grade seven. Grade
six is only slightl.y above the standard for grade five. The
showings made by the second and fifth grades are unusually
poor. The most satisfactory showing is made in grades three
and four. When compared with' other cities in Wisconsin the
Table 59. — Average Ayres Spelling Scores in Twelve Wisconsin Cities
Wisconsin
cities
Date
tested
Sec-
tion
test-
ed
R
K
B
|{
H
H
H
K
A
B
B
A&B
11
42.9
III
IV
68.4
7!). 3
.50.2
77,8
74.5
01.
76 1
74.2
75.2
68.8
71.1
78.5
82.1
V
46.4
49
29.5
57.3
46.8
57.3
54.5
.54.9
54.6
59.
54.3
47.6
56.3
VI
75.4
66.3
76.1
69.8
70.6
64.8
69.7
77..
71.3
74.2
70.2
74.2
74.9
VII
62.5
60.9
72 1
.57.3
50.6
.50.7
65.
61.9
60.6
40.7
66 3
52.6
62.6
VIII
69.6
75.9
72.4
62.6
78.9
56.2
81.4
70 9
80. !1
72.2
64.4
64.7
71.1
Numijer
children
tested
1
10 3 16
2/ 5/17
10/2516
12 8 16
9 28 16
10 20 16
10/25 16
10/26, 16
1/ V/17
10, 8/16
10 20/16
12/ 8 16
3 29 17
38.5
61.1
2S.9
49.8
38.9
42.:^
68.8
51.1
41.8
46.8
28.1
.58.6
66.9
529
2
'i'.'.'.'.'..'.'.'.'.".'.'.'.'.'.
4
1,868
195
439
5
248
6
470
7
8
9
10
11
12
Janesville
211
2J8
2,075
201
386
307
1,087
1 Ayres' standard averages are based upon scores made by "children who had com-
pleted just half of the work of each grade." Approximately one-third of the children
in Janesville were promoted in January. Since the test was given during the last week
of March this third of the children had completed approximately one-fourth of the
work of the grade Avhile the remaining two-thirds had completed three-fourths of the
work of the grade. On the average then the children in Janesville had completed
slightly more than half of the work of the grade at the time the test was given, and
valid comparisons may therefore be made.
Measuring Results in School Subjects
267
results are not as poor in comparison. This is a reflection on
teaching of spelling in Wisconsin rather than a cause for ela-
tion in Janesville.
The Variation of Spelling Achieveme7it Within Grades
Poor spellers and good spellers, when in the same class, prove
a vexing problem to the teacher. Both are found in every grade
in Janesville. This may be seen by dividing the children into
three divisions according to the scores made on the test. The
following table shows the number who made an average of
40% (i. e. 10 words) or less, those who did better than 40% but
less than Ayres standard for 84 cities, and those who reached or
exceeded Ayres standard. The expected average is 19 or more
words correct in grades two, three, five and seven, 22 or more
in grade four, and 21 or more in grades six and eight.
Table 60. — The Number of Children Making an Average o/ -J0% or Less,
Those Between ^0% and Ayres Standard, and Those Reaching or
Exceeding Ayres Standard
II
Ill
IV
V
VI
VII
23
69
61
143
VIII
40% 01 less
Between 40% and Ayers Stand-
ard
Ayres Standard or better
Total children tested
74
37
43
is?"
34
72
77
183
10
t)7
97
itjT
46
48
4!
138~
16
7.5
70
11
74
49
134
The table serves to indicate the problem facing the teachers
and supervisors in Janesville. There are many more in each
grade except the fourth who fell below the expected standard
than there are of those who reach or exceed it. Nearly half of
the second, and a third of the fifth grade children did not spell
more than 10 (i. e. 40%) of the 25 words correct. Yet in each
of these two grades a considerable proportion of the children
are at least average or better than average spellers. Grade
four shows a large number of good spellers and only a small
number of very poor ones. In grade eight there are some very
poor spellers, a large number of mediocre ones, and an insuf-
ficient proportion of good ones. Grades two, five, seven, and
268
Educational Survey of Janesville
eight have a relatively small proportion of good spellers. To
adapt the teaching of spelling to meet the needs of groups
showing such different achievements as the three groups of the
table represent, is a problem which should be squarely faced by
teachers and supervisors.
To discover something as to the effect of instituting semi-
annual promotions upon the scores in spelling, separate aver-
ages were computed for each group for three classes each of
the second, fifth, and eighth grades selected at random. The
average scores made by each are :
Table 61
II
v
VIII
Promoted
Non-
Promoted
1 Promoted
Non-
Promoted
Promoted
Noil- Promoted
32.3
65.
60.7
59.6
67.1
71.5
Undoubtedlj' the promoted children have had a marked ef-
fect upon the spelling results in the second grade. In the other
grades its effect was not so marked.
THE RESULTS ON THE BUCKINGHAM TEST
Since the tests arranged b.t Dr. Buclvingham have been so
standardized that the percentage of the pupils in a given grade
who should spell each of the words is known, the words used,
together with the expected score and the Janesville score for
each, are reproduced here.
Measuring Results in ScJiool Subject.-.
269
Table 62. — Percentage of Children in The Second Grade Who Spelled
Each of the Given Words Correctly
Words
Standard
score
Janes ville
score
48.7
41.6
53.9
32.5
29.2
12.3
65.
29.9
24.7
40.9
28.6
23.4
55.2
68.2
61.
35.1
25.3
45.5
41.6
47.4
29.2
26.
9.1
16.2
30.5
37.
Words
Standard
score
Janesville
score
baby
72.5
61.4
76.4
48.4
38.0
29.0
67.3
44.0
38.1
63.1
51.8
30.3
75.5
83.2
79.
51.4
42.5
54.1
79.6
60.8
56.1
46.5
27.5
20.9
43.4
40.9
50.0
33.4
37.4
80.8
67.5
86.9
25.4
59.8
48.7
54.5
54.5
49.4
52.3
45.1
21.8
51.7
58.6
75.9
27.5
52.4
38.1
61.3
67.3
52.9
52.6
23 4
Kreal
22.1
oak
tree
21.4
63 6
close
lather
41 6
76
climb
14 3
city
very
31 2
high
22 7
eats
1 fortrot
name
42.9
39 6
street
35 7
girls
\\i?e\)
cent,
20.1
25 3
earn
1.3
39 6
j here
1 nice
30 5
late
auple
55 8
9 7
sits
low
chair
white
cloud
locks
46.1
33.8
42 2
sew
big-
, boat
1
Average
57 8
gentle
stands
33.8
35.8
Table 63. — Percentage of Children in the Third and Fourth Grades
Who Spelled Each of the Given Words Correctly
Words
pitcher . . .
half
goose
searclied .
food
hang
linen
curtain .. .
space
aliove
stairs
where
Queen
shining .. .
bracelet ..
clo-e
knife
leave
w agon . . .
bread
cheese
breakfast
pagle
floated
breeze
flour ....'.
wheat
noticed . . .
oar
canoe
tin.v
Ill
1
IV
aj
«
"H
T3
cd 0)
> aj
i4 «
> u
■a ^
■ji fc.
'O tH
en t^
a o
o
(U O
5"
5^
g^
m
^i
■n
1-5
48.4
19.6
60.9
36.6
68.4
57.
88.5
75.4
61.1
53.8
85.7
62.3
23.2
14.7
47.6
32.
83.9
78.8
95.9
93.1
72.3
50.5
89.8
81.7
39.9
15.2
63.2
36.6
35.7
9.8
.55.8
34.9
59.4
36.4
86.
64.
57.4
42.9
80.5
73.
61.3
43.5
80.5
65.7
, 79.9
73.4
91.6
76.9
65.9
46.7
86.5
73.7
48.1
25.5
55.5
40.
24.7
10.9
42.2
21.1
77.1
52.2
90.6
70.1
68.1
48.4
82.4
66.9
54.2
25.
79.5
47.4
62.1
59.8
84.3
73.7
83.4
79.9
95.3
86.3
60.5
38.6
79.7
6r,.7
1 54.
44.0
75.4
64.6
1 42.9
42.4
74.2
69.1
38.7
23.4
60.7
36.6
45.8
26.6
71.
37.1
58.1
38.
76.9
63.4
60.
53.8
84.4
74.3
27.6
13.6
56.1
27.4
32.2
9.8
55.8
19.4
27.3
14.1
55.
17 7
59.1
48.9
78.
59.4
III
Words
stream . .
reacli
great
broad
sea
brother..
wrote
cheerful.
aunt
rich
lady
paid
high
price . . . .
clothes . .
tried
walk
crowd . . .
color
fancy. . . .
waist
blue
climl) .. .
pole
fasten . . .
rope
sew
earn
living
Average..
54.9
66.3
69.9
78.
74.
47.1
73.8
68.9
48.2
49.7
74.5
30.4
58.2
48.6
35.7
75 2
51.9
67.1
52.1
66.
53.4
56.8
50.9
56.7
39.1
52.2
51.6
34.8
77.2
81.5
29 4
28.8
33,7
71.2
66.8
31.
51.6
47.8
28.8
32.1
71.2
28.8
.34.8
21.2
25.
67.4
34.8
48.9
25.
56.5
23.9
32.6
31.5
40.9
IV
78.7
87.7
87.7
71 8
95.8
92.5
71.8
64.2
82.7
92.5
91.2
65.8
89.4
86.6
65.9
69.4
88.4
50.1
71.8
68.
64.7
89.8
73.9
87.
75.7
86.8
71.2
84.1
72.9
76.5
60.1
76.
74.3
53.7
88.6
79.7
51.4
38.3
57.7
85.7
80.
50.9
73.1
69.8
49.1
49.7
85.7
34.3
57.1
45.7
42.3
86.3
56 fi
78 9
■37.7
84.6
45.7
63.4
55.4
59.3
270
Educational Survey of Janesville
Table 64.-
-Percentage of Children in the Fifth and Sixth Grades Who
Spelled Each of the Given Words Correctly
\
VI
Words
\
'
VI
Words
Siand-
Janes-
stand-
Janes-
Sland-
Janes-
Stai d-
Janes-
ard
ville
ard
ville
aj d
ville
ard
ville
t<core
.Score
." cor«-
Score
:^i.ore
Score
Score
Score
restrain . . .
76.7
63.6
89.
77.4
noticed . . .
69.5
51.7
80.6
63.6
grief
6.5.5
58.
76.3
73.6
debts
57.
39.2
74.3
61.6
double
72.9
66.4
82.9
72.3
continued.
60.8
50.3
77.6
64.8
77.4
49.7
83.6
68.6
source
41.4
32.9
64.4
42.1
icicle
38.
17.5
43.3
31.5
trouble
72.3
64.3
81.9
76.2
high
94.4
86.
95.
95.
repair
76.9
53.1
8/.1
70 4
90.
77.7
95.
89.3
canvas
51.
54.5
63.5
71.1
64.2
77.
31.5
49.7
74.1
85.8
60.4
67.9
; curtain
needle .. .
71.4
75.2
63.6
62.2
81.7
84.7
V4.2
canoe
71.1
aunt
88.2
73.4
92.8
80.5
thread
83.2
71.3
91.3
91.2
purchased.
49.1
21.
68.4
52.2
sew
73.
60.8
76.2
69.2
bracelet . . .
62.2
21.7
63.1
35.2
j lining
64.2
58.
71.4
62.3
bargain
61.6
46 2
75.3
57.9
sleeve
.56.6
43.4
69.3
51.6
repeals
78.3
62.2
86.2
74.8
j holiday ...
79.2
48.3
84.6
77.4
dailv...
87.7
78.4
92.3
88.7
approaches
37.4
18.2
49.8
24.5
promise
74.3
49.
85.8
71.1
exercise. . .
55.5
28.
70.7
36.5
Quiet
69.
49.7
71.1
71.1
breathe . . .
48.8
31.5
54.7
37.7
beggar
55.
35.
71.
53.5
season
91.
68.5
96.1
90.6
searched . .
62.4
37.8
69.3
61.
oysters
84.2
51.
90.7
74.2
village
83.7
70.
88.4
81.1
course. ...
66.6
51.7
76.4
62.3
clothes
75.2
58.7
77.3
70.4
excuse
82.7
60.8
91.6
84:3
complete . .
64.2
42.7
81.6
61.6
women
80.8
59.4
86.9
74.8
calm
55.6
28.7
73.6
54.1
paid
77.6
67.8
80.2
78.6
lying
71.8
59.4
82.3
67.3
cocoa
.58.7
32.2
67.2
40.3
pitcher . . .
67.1
40.6
68.
.56.
hominy,...
22.
17.5
46.5
29.6
contains. . .
84.
70.
91.3
81.1
cheese
87.8
78.3
91.3
91.8
hone.v
88.4
72.
91.
86.8
celery
63.7
18.9
77.5
49.1
thumb
68.1
58.
75.2
72.3
behavior..
51 9
10.5
73.8
23.3
bruised
41.
34.3
60.5
50.9
burglar ...
51.1
33.6
52.1
51.6
rinsed
21.
20.3
23.1
23.3
truly
71.5
67.8
76.3
74.8
dried
62.
80.5
47.6
64.3
70.8
87.8
66.
77.4
dangerous
57.8
43.4
81.9
62.9
absence
51.9
21.7
64.1
45.9
Average
66.7
49.1
76.4
64.
lawyer
57.5
37.1
77.5
49.7
Measuring Results in ScJiool Subjects
271
Table 65. — Percentage of Children in the Seventh and Eighth Grades
Who Spelled Each of the Given Words Correctly
Words
secrecy .
wretch .
gallows,
treason ,
vehicle .
accommodate
valise
sceiier.v
enthusiasm.. .
yacht
vaguely
discernible . ..
recipe
marmalade,
accuracy . ..
apparent. . . .
science
beneficiaJ. ..
discoveries .
sacrifici' ....
endeavor . ..
eliminate. . .
distillery ...
vicinity
solemn
reverence.. .
reigrn
heir
achieve
persevere. . .
tortoise
resign
volunteer. . .
mortgage...
Vll
Vlll
stand-
Janes-
Stand-
Janes-
ard
ville
ard
ville
score
score
score
score
.51.5
33.8
68 5
47.1
67.5
59.2
82.9
61.
77.8
69.
88.7
72.8
84.9
65.5
93.1
83.8
62.4
38.7
76 6
.52.9
39.9
16.2
47.9
14.7
51.7
33 8
70.1
41.9
73.3
59.9
85.7
68.4
40.1
11.3
68.9
27.9
62.
33.1
75.1
48.5
27.5
28.9
43.3
50.
5.3
5.6
13.9
5.2
37.2
29.6
50.1
34.6
42.8
43.7
54 1
44.1
45.4
35.2
67.4
39.
60.8
44.4
77.1
57.4
56.3
35.2
79.3
50.
48.
23.9
64.2
25.
70.7
51.4
84.3
58.8
E.6.6
38.7
69.2
46.3
43.4
35.9
54.6
41.9
38.5
24.6
.55.2
39.7
53.6
41.5
65,
45.6
.59..'}
42.3
75.7
54.4
57 8
47.2
70.7
46.3
69.1
52.1
77.7
62.5
70.
56.3
87.4
62.5
67.9
47.9
87.!)
71.3
72.3
48.6
81.9
55.1
52.5
41.5
70.6
49.3
33.9
31.7
60.4
26.5
85.1
77.5
93.8
88.2
61.3
39.4
74.
49.3
31.3
32.4
70.5
45.6
Words
debt
peiceived
responsible
embaiiassmenl
musii-ian
rehearse
celer.»
moisel
confectionery. .
purcha.«ed
souvenir
behavior
resemlilance
treaci eiy
promise
release
s ege
biscuits
restaurant
dige«iit)le
snjgeon
appendicitis
dispensary
interfere
wre>tle
discipline
dissension
investigation.. .
reveal
desirable
resources
Average
VII
VIII
Stand-
ard
score
88.3
40.6
61.1
14.6
64.9
72.7
81.4
65.3
48.6
79.2
13.
79.9
.50.5
53.
92.7
83.2
63.3
69.4
45.5
40.1
35
12 5
19.6
63.8
73.6
30.5
4.2
73.4
82.3
57.5
56.1
•55.0
Janes-
ville
score
78.9
32.4
53.5
5.6
44.4
57.7
65.5
45.1
16 2
65.5
3.5
47.9
32.4
47.2
84.5
65.5
31.
52.1
16.2
18.3
41.5
12.7
11.3
56.3
71.8
29.6
1.4
62.7
64.8
33.1
50.7
TiT
stand-
ard
score
94.9
58.5
78.8
30.2
73.5
79.5
88 9
67.4
52.9
86.7
22 2
82.7
61.3
65.7
95,7
88.2
60.8
76.9
53.
46.1
65.9
35.3
39.8
74.4
75.3
47.8
5.8
84.8
88,8
70.4
65.4
67y
Janes-
ville
score
90.4
26.5
58.8
7.4
48.5
65.4
75.7
40.4
5.9
84.6
.7
47.8
43.4
55.9
69.1
70.6
44.9
64.
12.5
37.5
56.6
14.7
11.
65.4
68.4
53.7
2.2
68.4
79.4
55.9
43.4
The achievenient of the children may be seen more strikingly
by summarizing the facts in table form. The table following
indicates the number of words in the tests, for each grade, the
number of words on which Janesville children exceeded the ex-
liected average and the number on which they did not do as
well.
Table 66
II
III
IV
v
VI
VII
VIII
Number of words in test
50
0
60
60
65
65
65
65
No. on which Janesville children equalled
or exceeded standard
1
0
1
4
61
6
2
No. on which Janesville children are below
stand ard
50
59
60
64
59
63
272
Educational Survey of Janesville
This is indeed a severe indictment of the work in spelling.
The 65-word test used in grades seven and eight was likewise
given to the high school. The median number of words correct-
ly spelled for each high school grade and for grades seven and
eight are given below.
Table 67
Median score.
VH
25.2
viir
33.2
rx
40.6
47.7
jl.2
XI [
This indicates some progress from the grammar grades to
the high school even though spelling is not a regular high
school subject. There are pupils in every grade including the
12th, however, who do not exceed the median 33.2 attained by
the eighth grade.
The Words WliicJi Children Spell
A part of the responsibility for the poor results in spelling
undoubtedly may be attributed to the lack of a course of study.
The teachers have realized tliis disadvantage and for the past
year have been engaged in the preparation of new courses. The
tentative outlines indicate a wholesome desire to take advantage
of the more recent studies of Ayres, Jones and others on the
words in common use and words commonly misspelled. They
will need to be cautious however, in not making the lists of
words to be studied too narrow.
Among the questions asked with reference to the Avork in
spelling was one asking for the proportion of words derived
from each of the various sources. The proportion of words tak-
en from the readers ranges from none at all to 90%. This cer-
tainly represents extremes in practice. The motives for so do-
ing should be carefully examined by supervisors. One-half of
the 36 teachers I'eporting select 50 or more per cent of the
spelling words from readers. Teachers who are accustomed to
selecting such large proportions of the Avords from reading
texts will profit by a careful study of the actual needs of the
children as indicated by their writing and speaking vocabu-
laries. Twelve teachers report one-half or more as selected
from spelling texts. It is clear that reading and spelling texts
Measuring Results in School Subjects 273
serve as the course of study in spelling and that the spelling
needs of the children are not necessarily considered.
It is bad practice to select a large number of the words for
spelling from the reading text. The words used in the language
of the readers are not those in which the child does his thinking
and which he needs to know how to spell. In fact the reading
vocabulary is often considered as about two years or more in
advance of the spelling vocabulary. Too often the words of the
reader are those used by adults. The language of the child is
relatively simple and consists of relatively common and simple
words.
Slavish adherence to the spelling text may be a contributing
factor to poor spelling results in some cases. Most spelling
texts like reading texts contain many words which children
will rarely be called upon to spell. Words when taken from
spellers must be such as are most commonly used and which
children need to be taught how to spell.
The teachers will do well to continue their examinations of
the more recent studies of spelling vocabularies. In addition
to those of Jones and Ayres, the works of Buckingham, Pryor,
Cook and O'Shea, Eldridge, Chancellor and others should be
consulted. Perhai>s no more fruitful work could be under-
taken by the teachers with reference to the course in spelling
than to make a tabulation of the \\ords which Janesville chil-
dren use in their written and spoken English. When the re-
sults of the individual tabulations made by each teacher have
been brought together into a single list it will be well to com-
pare them with several of the spelling studies referred to above
for additions which it may appear wise to make.
In order to meet more nearly the needs of the individual
children the teachers should adopt the practice of having each
child keep an individual spelling list made up of words which
he misspells. These are the words for the learning of which
lie has a motive. Each child should be systematically drilled
upon his own list. A further discussion of the subject of the
words spelled and of a number of the topics treated in the re-
maining pages of this chapter will be found in the chapter on
Instruction.
274 Educational Survey of JanesvUle
The Time Devoted to Spelling
The cause of poor spelling is not to be found in the time de-
voted to the subject. In grade two the time ranges from 50
to 100 minutes per week. The highest average score made by
any second grade 73.2 per cent was made by a class which de-
votes 50 minutes per week to spelling and a class of which one-
third of the pupils entered in January. Another class which
devotes 100 minutes to the subject contains only pupils who en-
tered the grade in September. This class made an average of
only 52.5 per cent. In the sixth grade the lowest score is made
in a school which gives 100 minutes per week to spelling and
the highest by one that gives only 75. In general it may be
said that time and results bear little relation in spelling. A
large amount of time devoted to the subject is no assurance of
success. The time devoted to spelling in Janesville is not ex-
cessive. More than one-half of the rooms tested reported 75
minutes as the time given per week. This is a sufficient amount
for securing good results if the subject is well taught.
Organization of the Teaching
When very good and very poor spellers are found in the
same classes as they are in Janesville it is poor economy to as-
sign the same spelling lesson and the same number of minutes
for study to every pupil in the class. For this purpose it will
be well to discover whether children already know some of the
words in the day's lesson before they are assigned. Words
which children know may well be omitted for those children
and the time devoted to other words or other subjects. Wher-
ever feasible within a building the daily program may be so
arranged as to permit all of the spelling to come at the same
period of the day. Children may then take spelling in some
grade other than their own and where the spelling taught is
more nearly at their level of ability. Under this form of ar-
rangement children would not be retained an additional year in
any grade because of poor spelling ability.
The number of new words taught per week should receive im-
mediate supervisory attention. Good practice recommends two
new words daily. This will permit of the direct teaching of ap-
proximately 2500 words during the elementary school course.
The median number of new words taught per week in Janesville
at present is somewhat more than 20 or double the number recom-
Measuring Results in School Subjects 275
mended. It ranges from 5 in one third grade to 60 in one of
the seventh grade classes. Three rooms teach 10 words per
week and all others teach more. Poor results and a large num-
ber of words seem to go hand in hand. More attention should
be devoted to teaching well the words that are taught, and ta
a careful selection of words to be taught.
Teaching the Children to Spell
Some children are by nature capable of learning with little
effort. Others will make good spellers only with great effort.
Each teacher should attempt to diagnose the spelling ability of
each individual in the class early in the year.
Not ^11 words require an equal effort for mastery. The
studies particularly of Dr. Buckingham and others have proved
this beyond question. Differences in the difficulty of the words
used in the Buckingham tests for each grade may be noted^
from the differences in the standard expected. The results of
such studies should be made available for the teachers by the
central office, in order that they may have some idea of tha-
teaching eft'ort required for different words..
In teaching new words care should be exercised to associate
each word with the child's past experience so that it will have
meaning to him and become a part of his thinking vocabulary.
To illustrate — the word ''parade" as it' occurs in the text may
mean little until associated with circus; "salary" may have no
significance until associated with an elder brother. When a
word is associated with some of the child's own experiences and
when he sees that it will help him to express some of his own-
ideas more clearly and forcefully he has an impelling reason
for learning how to spell that word. Some children will learn
more readily through the eye and others through the ear. Some
will learn to spell a word by pronouncing it, and others are
aided by tracing the letters or writing the word. It is well to
make use of all of these means. Words may be learned more
readily if the child acquires the habit of looking at a word in-
tently for a brief period then looking away and attempting to
picture it mentally. Children should be taught to analyze a
word into parts as habitually as they do the steps in a problem
in arithmetic to discover the peculiar combinations of letters
or syllables that offer a difficulty.
A systematic plan for reviewing words taught in previous
lessons should be developed. Words taught today should be re*
276
Educatio7ial Survey of Janesville
viewed tomorrow, again next week and a third or even fourth
time a month or several months later.
Each child should keep a record of his own performances in
spelling whereby he may note how his own record improves
and how it compares with the average for his grade, whether
he is above the average of a grade higher or below, that of a
grade lower.
Writing
Results in writing were measured for both quality and speed.
Pupils were asked to write on unruled paper the series of words
"One, two, three" etc., as far as they could go in the time
alloAved. In grades lower than the fourth they were asked to
write this series of words to ' ' four ' ' and then to repeat as often
as time permitted. Pupils were instructed to write well. Two
minutes were given for the test. The papers were scored by ad-
'vanced students of the Rock County Training School, without
'knowledge of the particular grade to which any paper belonged.
Scoring papers for speed required merely a computing of the
.number of letters written per minute. In the scoring for qual-
ity the Thorndike Handwriting Scale was used. Some time
was devoted to preliminary practice in the use of the scale by
rating writing sample? of standardized value. This was done
under the direction of a member of the survey staff.
The Quality of Hmidwriiing
The distribution of the scores for quality of handwriting may
be seen from the table below.
Table 68. — Distribution of Scores for Quality of Handwriting — Thorn-
dike Scale
Quality
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
4
4
15
26
42
33
17
7
13
1
9
25
40
43
45
5
5
1
5
1
2
7
29
48
18
19
9
4
i
$
10
20
32
56
26
20
3
1
7
3
19
52
18
33
15
8
1
2
9
44
23
44
10
8
1
1
8
4
9
27
10
17
n
35
12
26
13
1
12
14
8
15
1
16
2
Total ._.
Median ....
158
7.3
174
7.8
168
8.9
137
9.1
149
9.5
142
10.2
133
11
Rated
at
Measuring Results in ScJiool Subjects 277
^yyU -^^^^ ^<^u^^
xo
u
^-<f>L/ /tM^^tr ;tA/xM. .^Cfi-UA^ ./^^-^^^ /LA^)^ /l£^V>^
12 ^^Wt)- JVL^xjUi^ -^VuxL/ ^^^L-i^^tf, ..<L-<-^;*>-
Fig. V Specimens of Each Quality of Handwriting
:278 Educational Survey of Janesville
Variations in Quality
The Thorndike scale consists of a series of samples ranging
from one which is scarcely legible as handwriting to one which
is near perfect. The poorest is valued at 4 and the best at 18.
Each step improves in quality by an approximately equal
amount. From the distribution table above it will be seen that
poor writers and good writers were found in every grade. Any
piece of writing which scores less than quality nine on the
Thorndike Scale is read with difficulty. On the other hand
children who write a hand better than quality twelve may be
regarded as fairly good writers. Some idea of the quality
which the different steps of the scale represent may be gained
from Figure V. In this figure the specimens of handwriting
are arranged in order of merit from 4 to 16 as judged by the
scorers. With the exception of the sample rated as 14 and the
sample rated as 16 which are taken from the Thorndike scale it-
self, the specimens represent writing produced by Janesville
children.
The proportion of poor writers as may be seen by reference
to the distribution table of scores is large while the proportion
of unusually • good writers (i. e. those who write as well as
quality 15 or better) is very small. Only three children at-
tain this degree of merit. The Avriting of many of the children
in every grade is unsatisfactory. From a teaching standpoint
some of the problems to be faced are: What shall be done for
the children in upper grades who write no better than many
of the children in the second or third grade? Plow much writ-
ing shall be required of children in the second, third and
fourth grades who already write as well or better than the me-
dian eighth grade child? How can instruction in writing be
made to fit the needs of children in the same grade where
writing ability ranges from that which is scarcely legible to
that which approaches nearly perfect penmanship?
TTie Median Achievements in Quality
The median score in each grade together with similar figures
from cities of Wisconsin and elsewhere may be seen from the
table following. The figures for other Wisconsin cities were
obtained from tests given under the same uniform directions
as were observed in Janesville. The median scores for Janes-
ville indicate improvement from grade to grade. They indi-
Measuring Results in School Subjects
279
cate that in the quality of handwriting the children write about
as well as average children in Wisconsin. Teachers should not
however, be satisfied with average writing. Present writing
averages in Wisconsin are mediocre and are not commensurate
with the time devoted to the subject.
Table 69. — Median Scores in Qtiality of Handwriting for Wisconsin and
Other Cities — Thorndike Scale
Date
Tested
Wisconsin Cities
"
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
9—28 16
1
9.4
9.2
9.2
7.9
8.9
9.3
8.7
8.
9.4
8.9
9.1
8.9
8.4
11.2
9.3
10 1
10.
9.3
9 5
9.4
8.8
10.3
10.5
9.1
8.9
8.7
9.4
9.5
11.6
8.9
12.1
9.8
11.
10.4
10- 9-16
10-23-16
12— 5—16
?
3
4
7.6
8.6
8.2
8.8
s.-e
7.7
8 5
7.8
8.2
7.8
8.0
7.3
10.7
8.2
8.8
8.8
8 9
9.2
8.6
9.
9.2
8.1
8 S
8.4
8.8
8.9
8.8
8.1
10.9
8.7
9.6
9.4
i6.9
11.3
9.2
10.
10.7
11.2
8.9
9.4
10.2
10.3
11.2
9.5
12.1
10.4
11.7
11.
10.8
8.8
9.8
12— 8-16
9.7
3— 8-17
6
8.3
8.
6.8
12.1
4 10—17
9.4
4-12—17
8
12.
5—10—17
9
7.7
7.3
8.2
10.4
3—23 17
11.
Bultp
12.1
Sept ....
10.
Salt Lake
9.3
7.5
8.2
8.3
13.1
Starch's standard .
(') Freeman's st am 1-
10.9
12.1
(') Iowa
11.5
(1) Converted from A.vres to Thorndike units li.r Kelly's method of eauating the
two scales. ""Each Thorndike unit equals 7.9 as great a distance as an Ay res
unit".
Janesville children on the whole do not write as well as the
children in other cities from which comparative data were
obtained. The Iowa scores represent rural, village, and city
children and are not too high to be reached by any city in which
writing is well taught. Freeman's standard representing the
better half of 56 cities is a mark that any good school may well
strive to attain, and which the teachers of Janesville should
set out to reach in the immediate future. What may be accom-
plished where a city really does well in writing may be seen by
reference to the scores for Salt Lake.
The quality of handwriting in Janesville as compared with
the average of Wisconsin cities, the Iowa scores and Freeman's
standard are represented graphically in Fig VI.
280 Educational Survey of Janesville
IV V VT vn VIII
12
11
10
9
,,^'-'
.--''"
-^
;^-^'^^
^^'^^"
^^-^
^
Freeman's S
Iowa Star.da
tandarl 55
rd - 38,000
Cities
Children
Janesville
Fig. VI. The Quality of Handwriting in Janesville Coir.pared with thi
Freeman and Iov.'a Standards
Good teaching in penmanship is more essential than time.
This may be made plain from the scores made in a number of
rooms. In the Webster building 150 minutes per week are de-
voted to writing in the first grade and 100 in the second. In
the Adams and Jefferson the time is 75 minutes for each grade.
The median second grade score for the Webster is much below
that of the Jefferson. The question is where are the results
which account for the extra 50 minutes per week.
Table 70
Webstor
Adams
Jefferson
A V. time for writing- per week first two years. .
12.5
75
75
Median second grade score
7.35
6.9
9.1
Measuring Results in ScJiool Subjects
281
A child who passed through the entire eight grades in the
Adams school would devote on an average about 10 minutes more
time per week to writing each year than if he passed through the
same grades in the Jefferson building. Yet in six of the eight
grades the children in the Jefferson excell those in the Adams.
Median Quality Scores Measured by tlie Ayres Scale
In view of the fact that some of the teachers in Janesville are
using the Ayres scale in the classroom and in order that results
may be compared with other schools which are doing so, the
writing scores as determined by the Thorndike scale have also
been converted to Ayres units. The median scores for Janes-
ville and other cities may be seen from the table following:
Table 71.— Median Scores in Qiialit)/ of Handwriting (Ayres Scale)
11
1
in
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
Iowa (28,000 children)
35.7
39.8
26.
44.5
31.
49.1
38.
45.
51.7
52.1
,50.1
41.9
52.3
43.
48.
58.3
57.3
56 6
45.1
57.
51.
50.
61.4
62.8
62 3
50.7
61.
.57.
55.
29.4
29.9
35.
27.7
34.5
31.7
39.3
31.6
44.4
36.8
45.6
40.3
68.4
74.2
Freeman's Standard (56cilies).
Janesville *
65.8
56.9
*Converted from Thorndike to A.vres units by Kelly's m-^thod, in which each
Thorndike unit is considered as euual to 7.9 as great a distance as an Ayres unit.
THIRTEEN
Variation in Speed
In the table showing the distribution of writing scores ac-
cording to speed pupils' scores have been recorded according to
the number of letters written per minute. Slow writers and
rapid writers are found in each grade. There are some chil- .
dren in every grade who write more than three times as fast
as others in the same grade. The proportion of slow writers
in the lower grades is unusually large. Some pupils evidently
develop a slow habit early in their school life and they con-
tinue to be slow writers throughout their course. A glance at
the table showing the distribution according to speed reveals
children in grades six, seven, and eight who do not write half
as rapidly as the most rapid writers several grades lower.
Teachers should attempt to develop early the habit of writing
at a fair rate of speed.
282
Educational Survey of Janesville
Table 72. — Distribution of Scores for Speed of Handivriting
Speetl in letters
per minute
11
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VJII
0— 10
6
27
58
37
23
2
1
3
1
1
7
22
40
37
39
12
8
6
11_20
1
10
33
28
53
15
7
1
1
1
5
20
28
36
16
20
6
3
1
2
6
14
19
47
34
22
4
1
1
1
2
7
18
25
34
26
14
8
4
2
21—30
1
31 40
1
41—50
3
51 60
14
61—70
19
71 80
31
81-90
91 100
28
26
101 110
8
111-120
1
1
121 130
1
1
131-140
1
141—150
.
151—160
1
Total
158
26.1
174
45.5
168
56.3
137
56.5
149
56.6
142
75.6
133
Median(')
77 5
(') Medians were computed from a more detailed distribution than that shown
above.
Tlie Median Scores in Speed
The median scores for speed of handwriting are marked by
a large increase from grade two to grade three. There is no
appreciable improvement from grade four to grade six. The
seventh grade makes a creditable showing in improvement over
grade six. How Janesville children compare with children
elsewhere in speed of their handwriting may be seen in the
table following:
Table 73. — Median Scores in Speed of Handwriting
II
Ill
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
Jaiie!«ville
ae.i
39.2
45.5
49.6
56.3
61.9
56.5
65.5
60.
54.
64.9
66.
57.
65.
56.6
72.6
70.
63.
73.
70.
65.
72.
75.6
75.
76.
66.
77.9
75.
75.
80.
77.5
Iowa (28, 000 children)
76.5
Cleveland
80.
Denver
36.
50.1
57.
38.
48.
50.
59.3
64.
47.
56.
69.
Grand Rapids
33.5
31.
31.
36.
84.3
St. Louis
73.
Starch's standard
83.
Freeman's standard
(56 cities)
90.
Compared with these cities Janesville children are about aver-
age performers in grades three, four, seven and eight, but they
do not write as rapidly as children elsewhere in the second,
Measuring Results in School Subjects
283
fifth and sixth grades. The low rate of writing in these grades
can scarcely be attributed to anything else than a lack of em-
phasis on speed by teachers in these grades.
The scores made by Janesville children may be compared
graphically with those made by children in Iowa and in the
better half of the 56 cities tested by Professor Freeman in the
figure following.
II I
ri IV \
r VI VII VIII
90
fln
, - '
70
--'--^
— ^^^
fiO
— j"^'"^
■<i''^'
//
^
^'
y
sn
40
^
"^n
Freeman' 8 St
andard - 56
:ities
/
Iowa Standai
Janesville
1 - 38,000 C
lildren
an
in
0
Flg.Vil The Speed of Handwriting in Janesville Conpared rith
Freeman and Iowa Standards
Speed and Quality in Janesville as Compared with Freeman's
Standard
In Figure VIII the results for both speed and quality have
been represented upon a single graph. Speed is represented
horizontally and quality vertically. The small numbers at in-
tervals along the curve indicate the location of each of the re-
spective grades. For example beginning with grade two the
position of Janesville is located at quality 7.3 and speed at
26.1. The Freeman standard is 8.2 for quality and 36.6 for
speed in the same grade. The amount which any given Janes-
ville grade falls below the standard in speed is represented by
the length of the small dotted horizontal line bearing the num-
ber of the grade. The similar dotted vertical line indicates
the amount which a grade falls below the Freeman Standard
in quality. From this it will be noted that grades two, five,.
284
Educational Survey of Janesville
six and eight are the most serious offenders in speed. In point
of quality grades three, five, six, seven and eight are farthest
from the standard established by Professor Freeman. Taking
speed and accuracy together grades six, and eight are seen to
be notably weak in both. The sixth grade has attained nearly
fourth grade standard in quality and in speed. The eighth
has not quite reached sixth grade quality and seventh grade
speed.
/2-
3- -^ 8
/o
6;
^/"
^ ' -
8
M
?
^life^
.-.r.vj-'"
-4,
7
a
:;i
2--
^i
7
2—
2
-3
^
i.i^
•<
J-
Freei
iGLn'a Bta
ulard
i
vllle
O 7
0 :
a f
0 j
Speed
0 s
0 fe
0 7
0 t
0 ^i;
Fig. VIII. Speed and Quality of Har.d7.Tlt ing as Compared with
Freeman's Standard
TJie Relation Between Speed and Quality
It is desirable that children shall learn to write a good hand
at a fair rate of speed. Quality is not to be sacrificed en-
tirely for the sake of speed nor vice versa. As a matter of fact
it is not the usual thing to find children who are rapid writers
producing handwriting which is poor in quality. In general
we may expect rapid writers to be good writers and slow writers
to be poor writers. The results showing both speed and quality
for the same children for grade seven are given in Table 74.
The table reads:
Measuring Results m School Subjects
285
Table 74. — Distribution of Handwriting Scores in Speed and Qualitp,
for Grade Seven
Speed
Quality
0-40
41-
50
51-
60
61-
70
71-
80
81-
90
91-
100
101-
110
Ill-
no
121-
130
Total
5
1
1
6
7
1
1
6
1
5
1
, 3
1
3
6
5
10
2
8
'
1
3
1
"2"
1
8
10
8
3
3
1
■■i2'"
2
9
3
i
5
2
5
1
2
3
1
2
9
9
44',
10
23:
11
2
2
44-
12
10'
13
1
1
8
14
1
4"~
7"
Total
18
25
34
26
14
8
4
2
142
16.2
1
One pupil wrote as good as quality 5 on the Thorndike scale
at a speed of 40 letters or less per minute, etc. From
the table it will be seen that some of the very poorest writers
are among the slowest and that some of the best writers are
among the most rapid. The relation between speed and quality
however is not as marked as one might expect.
Measures for Improving Results in Handwriting
In view of the present unsatisfactory showing in handwriting
some attention should be devoted to improving the efficiency of
the instruction in the subject. An improvement in quality of
less than 4 steps on the Thorndike scale (7.3 to 11) from grade
two to grade eight does not speak well for six years of effort..
Good writing is more readily obtained when the teacher is
a good writer. Some improvement can be brought about by
the setting up of definite goals to be reached in each grade in
both speed and quality and the frequent measuring of results,
so far achieved. The standard established by Freeman repre-
senting the average scores derived from the better half of 56>
cities represents a standard that is not too high for Janesville-
to strive to attain. Teachers will derive profit by a care-
ful examination of the studies of Freeman and others on the-
teaching of handwriting. Children should be taught system-
atically to measure and to analyze their own handwriting frona
286 Educational Survey of Janesville
time to time. Each child should be led to discover the par-
ticular factors in his own handwriting which effect its quality.
Shape of the letters, spacing of letters and words, uniformity
of slant and height, openness of the letters, fineness and
smoothness of the lines, and alignment all enter in. The chil-
dren need to discover first in which of these respects their own
writiig is good or faulty and second the best method of remedy-
ing each particular weakness.
COMPqSITION
As a test of ability in written English all children beginning
with grade three and including grade ten of the high school
were asked to write a composition on the subject ''How I
Should Like to Spend Next Saturday." Twenty minutes were
allowed with the instruction that not over one page was ex-
pected. The Hillegas, Thorndike and Trabue scales were used
in grading the composition. The former was used as a basic scale
:and the latter two were used as guides in deciding the exact
"value to be assigned to each composition. The scoring of the
papers in the elementary grades was done by the teachers after
an evening spent in preliminary practice and discussion of
methods of marking. The papers for the high school were
scored by psychology students of the Whitewater Normal
School under the direction of a memljer of the faculty. Each
paper was marked independently at least twice. Papers on
which the values assigned by each of the two judges did not
agree were marked by a third judge. In case two of the three
judgments agreed the mark assigned by them was taken as the
final value. "Whenever each of the three judges assigned a
different mark to a paper the highest and lowest were both re-
jected and the middle mark taken as the final mark.
The distribution of the scores made by each grade in com-
position is indicated in the table following. The medians for
Janesville as well as those attained in other cities in Wisconsin
and elsewhere are given in Table 76.
Measuring Results in School Subjects 287
Table 75. — Distribution of Composition Scoi'es by Grades
Value
Ill
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
0
31
95
33
9
3
69
50
27
8
1
9
39
34
28
18
8
1
1
3
19
42
31
23
11
5
1.8
14
36
47
36
10
6
3
10
28
54
31
13
3
2
1
2.6
3.6
6
50
66
52
19
4.7
18
5 8
17
6 7
41
7.7
29
8 3
15
Total
Median
168
1.65
161
2.38
137
2.78
152
3.74
141
3.79
135
4.31
194
5.9
120
6 87
Tablk 76. — Median Composition Scores
I. — Wisconsin Cities
Wisconsin
cities
Date
of
test
Sec.
test-
ed
B
B
B
B
n
B
B
A
A
A
B&A
B&A
B&A
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
1
1916
9-28
10- 3
10— 9
10-23
11-27
12- 5
1917
1- 9
3- 8
4-10
4-12
6- 4
6- 6
3-24
2
2.43
i!93'
2.57
2.'dz"
1.72
1.72A
1.65
3.97
2.7
2.89
3.33
2.26
2.5
2.86
2.13
2.97
2.92
3.18
2.38
4.35
2.97
3.68
4.47
2.43
3.9
3.68
3.92
3.51
3.60B
2.78
4.87
3.74
4.19
4 3
4.19
4.2
4.4
4.19
4.18
4 .77 A
3.74
5.55
4.17
4.55
5.97
4.41
5.35
4.22
4.08
3.77
5.27B
4.49A
3.79
5.
4.29
5.26
3
4
5
4.76
5.66
6.67
6
4.36
4.9
8
9
4.51
4.27
5.41B
5. 55 A
1
4.31
10
11 .
4.92
5.
5.44
5.44
12 ..•
Janesvllle.
5.9
6.87
II.— Cities Outside of Wisconsin (')
Median score attained in grades
School System
IV
V
VT
VII
VIII
5.57
5.27
5.74
5.29
6.87
4.11
4.56
5.62
1st
2nd 3rd
High School
4th
Lead, So. Dakota
Newark, N.J. (one school)
Ethical Culture School, N.Y.C
Chatham, N. J
Salt LakeCitv, Utah ,
3.57
2.39
3.58
2.34
2.76
2.31
3.20
3.31
4.11
2.51
4.01
2.85
3.84
2.80
3.42
2.55
3.91
3.85
4.64
3.-56
4.72
4.10
4.61
3.41
3.82
3 78
4.34
4.60
5.01
4.. 83
5.39
4.02
5.16
3.77
4.18
4.75
4.22
4.95.
Butte, Montana
Nassau Count.v, N , Y
South River, N. .1
5.00
5.18
5.56
6.69
4.99
6.0
5.25 1 5.68
5 02 ^ 0?;
5.94
6 30
Mobile County, Ala
Mobile. \la
6.38
6.93
5.88
6.5
6.05
7.24
6.38
6.9
6.77
7 54
54 high schools
6 69
Tentative Standard Medians . .
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
7.2
(') From Trabue
Jan. 1917.
"Supplementin!? the HiUegas Scale." Teachers College Record
288
Educational Survey of Janesville
The Median Scores for the City as a Whole
The median scores indicate that the children make a poor
si:howing in every elementary grade. This may be seen more
strikingly if we consider how Janesville ranks when compared
with the cities represented in the table above.
Table 77
Ill
TV
V
VI
VII
Vlll
IX
X
No. schools represented for each grade
7
7
1
21
16
8
21
18
3
21
18i
8
22
19
19
18
I.')
13.5
8(")
2
8('>
2
Rank of Janesvilie's best classes
* Seven Schools and one group of 54 schools.
If the highest scores made by any class in each of the grades
are taken it will be seen that the language work of the schools
is not uniformly poor in all classes except in grades seven and
eight. Here no class attains even the average rank for gram-
mar grades in cities. The median or middle score for the
seventh grade (3.79) was judged as being no better than the
sample below taken from the Trabue scale rated at 3.8.
I would like to go out in the after noon and play catching the ball.
Go over to Bertha's house and have a few girls to come with me and
be on each others side. I have a tennis ball too play with. The game
is that one person should stand quite aways from another person and
throw the ball too one then another. Someone has to be in the middle
and try too get the ball a way from someone then she takes this per-
sons place who she caught the ball from. Then till every person has
a chance.
This is an unsatisfactory average performance for grades
that far advanced in the elementary school course. Only in the
liigh school grades do the scores attain the expected level.
In the judgment of those who observ^ed the classroom instruc-
tion the poor results obtained in English composition partic-
ularly in the grammar grades are to be explained by the over-
emphasis upon formal grammar.
Too much emphasis on the mere formal and fact side of teach-
ing in all subjects and not enough of that kind of teaching
which develops good thinking characterizes the instruction in
Janesville. The effect of this formalized teaching is reflected
in the lack of ideas shown by pupils when asked to express
themselves in written English. The subject assigned was one
Measuring Results in Scliool Subjects 289
which should appeal to the imagination but too often the re-
sponse was a mere cataloging of matter of fact and common-
place activities in serial order. Few wrote compositions which
contained a central thought or idea to which all else that was
said related. Few papers showed that vivid imagination and
fluency of thought and expression characteristic of good work
in composition and which should result from effective teaching
of the subject.
Progress and Variation Within Grades
The progress in English from grade to grade is an insufficient
return for the time and energy now spent in teaching it. The
median achievement is low in grade three and continues to be
low in grade eight. In the high school the effect of more con-
centrated and sj^stematic training in English is marked by the
improvement shown over grammar grades and the close ap-
proximation to the expected standard. The improved showing
in the high school is probably due in part to a selection of
pupils. The less capable students commonly drop out of school
in greater numbers than do the brighter class. This would
tend to raise tlip general level of these grades. In the elementary
grades this factor is not so evident because some of the less
capable students continue in school until the high school is
reached.
In every elementary grade there were pupils whose papers
were rated as possessing a merit not better than the first step
on the Hillegas scale, or the sample valued at 1.9 on the Trabue
Scale shown below.
one next S aturday I expect to go to the city leve next G aturday to
see my ofriend archie king I am going to grow to the baning balys
circus with hime next S aturday fefore I go I have to do my jobs
feedsing the cows ard horse ard chinkens and geese next Saturday
My friend is a very good fellow to go and see So my mother S aid "If
I do my work during Easter week vacation I can go to the barning
baley circus with, hime
On the other hand, compositions such as those from which an
extract is given below were found in the grades indicated.
Grade III Rated as 3.7
I should like to have a birthday party next Saturday for my little
brother for he is going to be five years old Then I hope that he will
invite M. P. and M. F. and D. F. and of course he has to invite me.
290 Educational Survey of Janesville
Because, Mamma saids, so I hop to have ice cream and cake and cream
potatos beans and many other good things to eat. I hope that paper
will bring home some animal crackers and then we can hunt them I
think that is fun last year I remember that M. F. got the moste Mamma
said this year the one that found the moste was going to get a price.
The reason M. F. got the most was because
Grade IV Rated as 4.7
Next Saturday H. and myself are going up a mile from our place and
get some pussy willows. We are going to take some baskets and get
a lot of them. H. is going to come up in the morning and we are not
going till the afternoon. I wish H. would come up Friday night and
go to school monday morning with me. When H. comes out we will
have so much fun.
Grade V Rated as 5.8
Next Saturday I would like to go to Spaldings pond on a hike. I
would take my dinner and cook it over a fire. After dinner I would
fix some set lines for bullheads and take a tramp in the woods and see
if I could'nt shoot some Snipes.
Grade VI Rated as 6.7
If it were summer I would like to go to Lake Koshkonong fishing. I
and my father would start out early in the morning. Four o'clock
would be early enough. We would go to the livery and hire a horse
and buggy. When the sun comes up we would be about to Milton Junc-
tion. I would fall asleep riding and wake up to find my self in a
strange place. My father would be coming to unharness the horse and
the sun would be quite high by this * * *
Grade VIII Rated as 6.7
I would like to spend next Saturday playing Robin Hood.
We go deer hunting by having one boy for a deer and the others for
Robin Hood and his hunters. We shoot at the deer with blunt arrows.
When the deer has been shot we go to our trysting tree and capture
some other boy in the band for the sheriff of Nottingham. When we
have the sheriff we make him stay to our make believe feast and rob
him.
Teachers may bring about improvement by building upon the
work of these good writers among the children. Their work
may serve as a level of expectancy for others in the class to
attain. Teachers will do well to analyze the productions of
the?e children carefully to determine the elements which make
them superior to those of other children. Well-known stand-
ard scales should be employed frequently to facilitate analysis
and to measure the amomit of improvement over a given
period. Such analysis should stimulate teachers to a thoughtful
study of the whole subject of composition, its purposes and pos-
sibilities. They will do well to observe the work of good live
language teachers elsewhere. This should be supplemented by
Measuring Results in ScJiool Subjects 291
reading and group discussion of the best professional books on
the teaching of English composition.
The Qualities Valued in Cotnposition
Preliminary to grading the children's papers the teachers
were asked to name qualities which they considered in marking
composition papers. These were made the subject of a group dis-
cussion. Qualities commonly considered may be listed some-
what as follows:
Unity Vividness Sentence structure
Coherence Imagination Punctuation
Emphasis Choice of words Spelling
Life Visualization Paragraphing
Maturity of thought Color Use of capitals
Originality Figurative language Grammar
The first twelve of these belong more purely to the thought
or expressional side of composition. They consider the ideas
which the child has to express and the. tone in which they are
expressed. The latter six represent the more purely mechan-
ical features of the composition. Several of them would
scarcely be considered were a child's compo.iiition given orally.
Strange as it may seem the mechanical or formal qualities were
among those to be mentioned first by the teachers. This is,
however, in accord with the formal grammar teaching so com-
mon in the Janesville schools. As previously mentioned in the
chapter on Instruction the teachers of Janesville will need to
devote more thoughtful effort to the development of the ex-
pressional side of language. Children must be led to develop
ideas in connection Avith all subjects. They must be taught
primarily to think and to express more so than to memorize
facts and rules. There are few children whose life is not rich
with first hand experiences, e. g. those with pets and other an-
imals, friends, adventures, plays and games, pleasures, fears
and observations of nature. These they love to tell about when
properly encouraged. It is the task of the teacher to discover
these experiences and to train the children to express them ef-
fectively both in oral and written form. This is a far differ-
ent procedure from that which requires them to memorize
grammatical forms and rules of syntax and then gives little or
no occasion for their use. The child must be taught first to
desire to express ideas and only secondly will he need to search
292 Educational Survey of Janesville
for the mechanical form in which to state them. Then it is
that forms cease to be "dry bones" for him and have a useful
purpose. He has a motive for learning those forms which h&
needs to know while those which serve but to discourage him.
with school itself may be left untouched.
Recommendations
1. That teachers devote less time to formal grammar teaching and
more to the development of the thought and expressional side
of language work.
2. That the amount of formal and fact teaching in all subjects be
decreased and that more attention be devoted to the thought
content of each. Every lesson should afford training in lan-
guage expression.
3. That the best composition work in each grade be carefully studied
for its merits and that it serve as a level to be reached by
others.
4. That the teachers make frequent use of standard scales to measure
the degree of attainment and the amount of improvement.
5. That teachers observe successful language teaching elsewhere.
6. That the teaching of language be made the subject of study and
discussion at teachers' meetings.
The Trabue Language Tests
The Trabue Language Completion Tests B and C were given
in all elementary grades beginning with the second. The na-
ture of the test may be seen from the reproduction of the C
test below. Each test offers approximately equal difficulty.
Write only one word on each blank
Time Limit: Seven minutes
Name
TRABUE
LANGUAGE SCALE C
2. The sky blue.
5. Men older than boys.
12. Good boys kind , their sisters.
19. The g-irl fell and her head.
24. The rises the morning and
at nig-ht.
Measuring Results in School Subjects 293
30. The boy who ,. . hard do well.
37. Men nioi e to do heavy work
women.
44. The sun is so that one can not
directly caus-
ing- great discomfort to the eyes.
53. The knowledge of use Are is
of important things known by
but unknown animals.
56. One ought to . ., great care to the
right of for one who
bad habits it to get away from
them.
The tests measure the child's command of language through
the aptness shown in filling out sentences from which some
words have been omitted. They afford an indication as to the
general maturity and richness of the child's thinking and as
such furnish a very satisfactory measure of his general intelli-
gence. Children who do well on this test are quite likely to do
well on any other test of good social qualities. If general in-
telligence and maturity of thought are to be considered, as they
should be, in making promotions and organizing class groups
these tests furnish a valuable aid in making such selection.
These tests afford very desirable means of discovering such facts
as the variation of abilities within grades, the progress from
grade to grade and the overlapping of abilities from one grade
to another.
Seven minutes Avere given to each of the two tests. The
papers were scored by the teachers. Each paper was checked
by a second person and in case any change was made by the
second person they were passed upon by a member of the sur-
vey. Two points were allowed for each sentence correct, (i. e.
making perfect sense), one point for each almost correct, (i. e.
making sense but not the very best), and no value to those in-
correct or incomplete. The highest possible score on each is 20.
The distribution of the scores on each test will be seen from
the distribution tables following:
294
Educational Survey of Janesville
Distribution of Scores in Trabiie Language
Table 78 Scale C Table 79 Scale B
Score
ir
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
Score
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
0
20
0
1
i 2
3
32
2
21
V
1
1
17
2
33
2
7
3
22
7
39
13
30
12
25
6
12
4
....
•>
31
3
27
7
22
7
18
4
10
5
1
1
1
1
"l
3
4
8
3
2
4 42
5 4
6 sfi
4
1
16
11
20
15
41
22
22
11
8
■"i
2
1
3
3
17
14
25
5
91
5
6
28' 17
6
6
22
13
23
19
27
12
5
3
1
7
13
20
25
34
28
22
4
3
1
2
5
2
10
12
25
29
25
20
10
7
7
9
26
22
16
14
6
2
1
9
30
21
29
22
12
13
7
2
1
2
3
10
16
14
28
23
24
11
10
2
1
1
......
3
9
14
27
22
23
13
13
6
4
1
1
137
13.7
13.3
7
9
8
1
1
g
9
9 5
10 ,
10
1
11
11
1
15 "1
10
21
12
12
25
21
8
5
"i
1
30
39
20
8
6
2
13
13.
21
14
14,
20
15
15
IS
16
16
20
17 1...
17
g
18 1....
18
7
19
19
2
20 1.. ..:....
20
■"
Total.. 156 183
Median.... ^.9 7.5
Its
9 9
8.0
lil
10.9
9.6
lei
12.3
11. 0
T46
13.
12.3
Total.
Median...
Standard.
~155
4.5
3.0
l83
7.9
6,0
Its
10.2
8.0
Til
11.3
9.6
l62
12.8
11. 0
l48
13.6
12.3
' lii
14.3
13.3
The schools make a good showing in every grade on both
tests. No single grade falls below the standard median on either
test. Janesville children do not show a lower ability in lan-
gange and general intelligence than children elsewhere in the
same grades. From this standpoint it appears that the special
promotions made in February were justified.
There is a decided overlapping of abilities from one grade
to another as in other tests. The best pupils in grade two ex-
cel some of the children in each of the other grades. It is
more striking in the case of test C. Here the best 10 per cent
of the second grade did about as avcII as the poorest 10 pc cent
of the eighth grade. The pupils who make high scores pa7'-
ticularly in lower grades will bear watching throughout the
course. Many of these will very probably be able to progress
more rapidly through the grades. On the other hand children
who made low scores on these tests will bear watching in a
different respect. These will fill the ranks of the overage chil-
dren in years to come unless determined efforts are made to
adapt the teaching and teaching material to their level of abil-
ity. It is recommended that the records made by individual
Pleasuring Kcsults in ScJiool Suhjects 295
children on these and other tests be carefully preserved and ex-
amined from time to time. Those who made especially good
scores and those who made poor scores are in evident need of
individual attention. Records of individuals in the tests of
general intelligence should be compared with the records of the
same individuals in other tests. This will serve to discover
whether a child shows marked aptitude or weakness in certain
subjects. The scores in these tests should be freely referred to
in organizing classes for a junior high school.
Summary
The schools as a whole show satisfactory attainments in the
lower grades in the fundamental operations of arithmetic when
measured by the AVoody tests. In these grades, Janesville chil-
dren do much better than Woody 's expected standard. They do
somewhat better than other Wisconsin children, except in di-
vision. In advanced grades, the results are not so gratifying.
Apparently teachers cannot expect proficiency attained in
earlier years to persist throughout the course without some at-
tention to drill in later years. Wide variations in the per-
formances of children of the same grade and marked overlap-
ping of abilities from grade to grade suggest the need of care-
ful study of the individual needs of children on the part of
the teachers. The fact that some classes in the same grade
were consistently high and others consistently low in each of the
fundamental operations indicates the need of a study of the
methods in use by different teachers.
Analysis of the particular types of examples which proved
difficult reveals that certain processes are more potent causes
of failure than others. In division, this is indicated by the
greater frequency of error in upper grades on examples which
involve inverting the divisor, decimals, reduction of re-
mainders, placing a cipher in the quotient, and denominate
numbers. Failures result not only from marked weakness in
ability to manipulate certain processes, but from the absence
of well formed general habits of estimating answers and check-
ing results. When results in the fundamental operations are
measured by the Courtis tests, requiring rapid calculation, the
children do not exhibit superior attainments even in the lower
296 Educational Survey of Janesville
grades. This can be accounted for by a lack of emphasis on
rapid and accurate calculation.
On the thought side of arithmetic, i. e., in written examples
requiring reasoning, the children make a very poor showing.
There is small progress from grade to grade. The poor re-
sults are fairly uniform. Only in a very few cases do classes
exceed standards attained in other cities.
This condition of a satisfactory attainment in the funda-
mental operations and poor ability in reasoning processes sug-
gests the need of greater economy in teaching. Increased pro-
ficiency may be attained through emphasis upon abbreviated
forms of analysis, better training in reading, practice in vis-
ualizing the conditions called for, and careful analysis of in-
dividual needs of pupils to determine their teaching needs.
The results in reading indicate that in grades seven, eight,
and eleven, Janesville children read better than average chil-
dren, but in the remaining grades, they do not read as well.
It would be far from the truth, however, to say that all of the
children in any grade are poor readers. A study of the results
by buildings indicates that the city has some classes in every
grade that read far better than the average. The marked dif-
ferences found between classes of the same grade in different
buildings should be a cause for careful study of the methods
of teaching reading now in use. Some of the causes which
may be offered in explanation of the low scores in some grades
and classes are: (1) the fact of the recent introduction of
semiannual promotions; (2) a scarcity of suitable reading ma-
terial; (3) a lack of sufficient emphasis on thought reading;
and (4) mediocre teaching.
The schools did not do well in either of the spelling tests.
No grade reached or exceeded the expected average on the Ayres
test. There are very few words in the Buckingham test on
which the children exceeded the expected average. They were
below on most of them. The poor showing in spelling is not
due to lack of time devoted to the subject. It is probal^ly due
to several causes. Among the possible causes are: (1) the
lack of a definite course of study which results in a poor selec-
tion of words taught; (2) the selection of too large a proportion
of Avords taught from reading and spelling texts; (3) the fail-
ure to ada])t the selection of words to the needs of individual
children on the basis of their own need for knowing how to
Measuring Results in ScJiool 8ul)jects 297
spell them; (4) the attempt to teach too many words; (5) the
failure to recognize differences in the difficulty of words and
consequent differences in the effort required for mastery ; and
(6) inadequate methods of teaching.
The schools have a large proportion of children who are poor
writers and only a small proportion of those who are good
writers. The children write about as well as average Wisconsin
children, but not as well as Iowa children nor as well as the
children in most of the large cities outside of Wisconsin with
whom comparisons may l)e made. In point of speed, there are
both rapid and slow writers in every grade. The proportion
of slow writers in the lower grades is unusually large. It is
probable that this is due to a lack of sufficient emphasis upon
speed in these grades. In the upper grades, Janesville children
attain a speed more nearly equal to that of other large cities
and to the Iowa standard. In every grade, however, they are
much below the Freeman standard representing the average of
the better half of 54 cities.
Satisfactory results in writing are not to be attained through
giving more time to the subject. While considerable variation
was discovered in the time allotted to writing in different build-
ings, the results do not vary proportionately. There is a need
of setting up definite goals in both speed and quality of hand-
writing which teachers and pupils should consciously attempt
to reach.
Poor results in composition are evident in each of the ele-
mentary grades. There is little progress from grade to grade.
The high school, on the other hand, does well in composition.
When the results are compared with other cities, Janesville
ranks well up among high schools, but she ranks near the foot of
the list among elementary schools. It is not to be under-
stood from this that Janesville grade children are uniformly
poor in composition. In every grade except the seventh and
the eighth, some classes rank well up with the best. The work
of these best classes and of the best composition writers in every
class may well serve as standards which a large proportion of
the children in any given grade can hope to attain. The
cause of the poor results in composition is evidently due to too
great an emphasis upon the formal and fact side of teaching
in all subjects, and to a lack of stress upon that kind of teach-
ing which developes good thinking. Emphasis on the formal
298 Educational Survey_ of Janesville
and mechanical phases of the subject characterize the teaching
in composition.
On the whole, the achievement of the children, as shown by
the tests in various subjects, is not satisfactory.
Eecom mendations
1. A definitely outlined course of study which shall include a state-
ment of aims, minimum requirements of subject matter, sug-
gested variations and options, and successful methods of pre-
senting various topics.
2. More careful provision for, and grading according to, individual
needs. This can be accomplished through varying the con-
tent of the course of study, promotion of unusually capable
pupils at irregular intervals, and special classes.
3. The establishment of definite standards of attainment.
4. Analysis and critical study of the methods of teaching in use.
5. A greater emphasis upon training children to think and to exer-
cise judgment in all subjects and less upon formal facts.
6. Additional preparation on the part of the teachers.
7. Closer supervision of instruction in all subjects.
Supervision of Instruction 299
XIV SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION
Skillful supervision of classroom teaching is the most ef-
fective single means of increasing the efficiency of a school
system. The results secured throughout any system of schools
are dependent to a great extent upon the quality of the super-
vision that is provided. The efficiency of the schools is in-
creased because of the fact that intelligent, professional super-
vision (1) establishes better educational ideals among teachers,
(2) establishes definite and valuable aims, (3) improves teach-
ing methods, (4) insures greater economy of effort on the part
of teachers, and (5) consequently stimulates greater interest
and effort on the part of the pupils.
Successful achievement of the aims just indicated requires:
(1) A high grade professional preparation on the part
of those who supervise instruction.
(2) An adequate amount of time to devote to the busi-
ness of supervision.
(3) Good organization of the system of supervision.
Preparation for Supervising Instruction
Ability to supervise grade instruction successfully implies
that the supervisor should possess an intimate knowledge of
the amount and kind of work that should be expected from the
elementarj^ schools. It implies also that the supervisor should
be familiar with the best methods of accomplishing such re-
sults and finally it implies the ability to secure such skill on
the part of the teaching corps as will bring about the desired
results. In the judgment of the survey staff, the present super-
intendent is prepared to carry on the work of supervision but
he is handicapped by the lack of time at his disposal.
Time for Supervision
It is the chief business of the superintendent of schools to
bring about efficient teaching and supervision. At present in
Janesville, as in other cities, office work, answering corres-
pondence and telephone calls and preparing records occupy a
300 Educational Survey of Janesville
large portion of his time. "While the success of a superintend-
ent in the eyes of the public is often measured by his success
in managing the business affairs of the schools, it is a costly
method of conducting the school business when the major por-
tion of the superintendent's time is given to office work. There
is a difference betw^een "keeping school" and "teaching
school" and there is a difference between routine office w^ork
and supervising instruction. At present the amount of office
work demanding the superintendent's attention prevents him
from giving sufficient time to supervision. Sufficient high
grade office assistance should be furnished so that he may be
free to devote much more time to supervisory activities.
The number of teachers employed and the wide distribution
of buildings in Janesville makes it impossible for one person
even devoting all of his time to supervision, to do all that needs
to be done. When we consider that more than 50% of the ele-
mentary teachers were rated as doing work that was no better
than fair, the need is evident.
Present Organization of Supervision in Janesville
While some time is devoted to personal conferences with
teachers in the classroom, the limited time available has made
it necessary to conduct much of the supervision through the
medium of teachers' meetings and bulletins. During the past
year the number of meetings held included 12 general teachers'
meetings, 6 principals' meetings and 6 departmental meetings.
The plan for the coming year includes for each month one meet-
ing of a general nature, one of principals and one for each de-
partment. This number is none too great. Provision should
be made so that teachers will not be required to take all of the
time necessary to attend meetings from after school hours.
School can be closed at least thirty minutes early for those very
remote from the central meeting place, and fifteen minutes be-
fore regular dismissal time for those near by, enabling all to
reach the meeting at the same time.
The general quality of the bulletins sent out from the central
office during the past year indicates a high degree of super-
visory ability on the part of the superintendent. These
bulletins on instruction included the following timely topics :
The general conduct of the recitation
What is meant by a good instructor
Supervision of Instruction 301
Matters considered important in the conduct of the recitation
Suggestions on examinations and marking papers
Provisions for self-activity at home and at school
The approximate memory spans in syllables for meaningful sen-
tences for children at each age
A list of expressions and verses valuable in enunciation drills
Games for primary children
A suggested list of books on hygiene
A suggested list of topics on morals and mannei's
Suggestions on the preparation of the course of study
A nmiiber of these were made the svibject of discussion at
teachers' meetings.
Where the Need of Supervision is Urgent
The need of more supervision in Janesville is made more
pressing and its difficulties are increased owing to the absence
of a course of study. The work of preparing a new course in
a number of subjects upon which the teachers and superintend-
ent have been engaged during the past year needs to be con-
tinued. A good course of study will indicate the aims which
the teaching of each subject strives to accomplish and it will
likewise give some indication as to the relative importance of
each. It will contain a minimum of subject matter to be taught
together with suggested variations and optional choices of
material which may be used. It will include also some of the
most successful methods used by teachers in presenting various
topics and sources of reference material. At present these aids
to teachers are largely lacking. As a result aims in teaching
the various subjects and conceptions of what should be ac-
complished are indefinite and varying. Teachers work inde-
pendently of each other and there is little assurance that one
teacher will not duplicate the efforts of another. A definite
course of study would remedy such conditions as found in the
case of spelling, referred to in the chapter on Instruction, in
which each teacher selects her own list of spelling words with-
out reference to selections made by the teachers in grades below.
The effectiveness of the teaching in Janesville would be very
much increased were teachers familiar with the technique of
teaching children how to study. The present efforts of some of
the teachers to supervise class study do not meet with a marked
degree of success because of this lack of training in teaching.
This condition could be remedied through closer supervision.
302 Educational Survey of Janesville
Wasteful and uneconomical methods of instruction now in
use need to be eliminated. Such practice as conducting drill
exercises so that only the child reciting benefits, when all are in
need of being helped, or of requiring all to spend time on proc-
esses that are already familiar to most of the class, are per-
nicious since they tend to destroy interest.
Conditions can be improved through closer supervision. Much
good will result by capitalizing the efforts of the most success-
ful teachers for this purpose. It should be possible for the
supervisor to have the services of either the office or advanced
student stenographers at times so that unusually good recita-
tions may be taken down verbatim. Copies can then be pro-
vided for each teacher. The report of a well-taught lesson
may be made the basis of a discussion at teachers' meetings
and its particular elements of strength made evident.
The teachers are in need of being taught to see the impor-
tant problems in their own teaching. "When some teachers re-
port no difficulties encountered in their work as eleven did
there is an evident lack of progressiveness. The most success-
ful teachers are continually finding new teaching difficulties
demanding a solution. They are continually experimenting
with new methods of attack. It is significant that a number of
teachers failed to answer the question: "Are you consciously
working on one or more definite problems of instruction in
connection with your work," and that others failed to list pro-
fessional problems of any particular merit.
Remedying Existing Conditions
In justice to the school, the community, and the teacher, it is
to be desired that each teacher render the best servdee of which
she is mentally and physically capable. In the judgment of
the surveyors, the capacity of the teachers of the city to render
a high grade of service has by no means reached its highest
level. The quality of the teaching can be much improved
through more supervision of the best kind. It will be neces-
sary for supervisors to make use of all the means at their com-
mand. Teachers must be kept grooving mentally and profes-
sionally through proper stimulus and guidance.
Neither the board nor those in charge of the immediate super-
vision can afford to lose any opportunity whereby teachers may
become imbued with new and improved ideas, an enlarged
Supervision of Instruction 303
scope of view, and a more scientific attitude toward teaching
and teaching products. Some of the means of supervision in-
cluding those at present utilized and others which the super-
visor should employ are these:
1. Preparation of a modern course of study containing statements of
aims; suggested subject matter and optional variations thereof;
together with illustrations of successful methods of presenta-
tion. This should be carried on with the assistance of the
teachers.
2. Special attention given to observation and analysis of classroom
teaching by the supervisor. In each case, this should be fol-
lowed by individual conference with the teacher for discus-
sion of the exercise and the making of constructive suggestions
for improvement.
3. Careful directions for making daily programs in each classroom
together with later discussion and correction. This should in-
clude the subjects to be taught, their proper sequence, and the
time to be allotted each subject.
4. Demonstration teaching by the supervisor or the superintendent
or by successful teachers to illustrate a given method or prin-
ciple of educational practice. This should include both teach-
ing before the individual teacher and teaching before groups
of teachers. In each case, the teaching should be followed by
a careful discussion of the particular points which the demon-
station sought to illustrate.
5. Provisions for visiting periods whereby not only weak but strong
teachers ma*y visit successful teaching in other grades, build-
ings, or cities. These should be accompanied by conferences
both before and after the visit at which the supervisor or
superintendent, the teacher whose work is to be observed, and
the teacher who is to make the observation are present.
6. The application of standard tests and measurements for the pur-
pose of discovering such matters as the degree of success at-
tained, the variation between the individuals within a class,
or between the same grades in different buildings, and the
seriousness of the overlapping of abilities from one grade to
another. The application of standard tests should be fol-
lowed by a careful study and interpretation of the conditions
revealed and a discussion of remedial measures.
7. Frequent department and single grade teachers' meetings for the
discussion of principles, methods, and results of classroom
procedure.
8. Promotion of school exhibits, parents' days, social center work,
professional reading, summer school attendance, and partici-
pation in the meetings of local and state teachers' associations.
304 Educational Survey of Janesville
9. Careful supervision of plan, books in which each teacher outlines
a problem or topic (for example in geography, or history) ex-
tending over several lessons together with an indication of
the methods of presentation she intends to use. The super-
vision of lesson plans should include the distribution of plans
for the teaching of a particular lesson or series of lessons pre-
pared by the supervisor and also the preparation of copies of
the most successful lesson plans worked out by teachers within
the system. It should include also bulletins of information,
sources of material, and the results of successful experiments
conducted by local teachers and teachers elsewhei'e.
It may be readily seen from tlie topics indicated that super-
vision is complicated and that it requires much time and en-
ergy. The second means mentioned, classroom visitation, if
efficient, requires that the superintendent visit at least a whole
lesson unit. This observation should be followed by a careful
study of the lesson and its aims by the superintendent. He
is then ready for a thoughtful, friendly analysis of it with the
teacher. He must show her if need be the relation of this par-
ticular lesson to basic principles of education. Free discus-
sion by both teacher and observer must follow if benefit is to
result. This necessary procedure implies that the supervisor,
except in primary grades, must remain in the classroom at
least thirty minutes to see the lesson. He may need to spend
some little time in thoughtful study of just how best to help
this teacher to discover the strong points in her own teaching
and to see her errors, and how to aid her to grow and improve.
He will often be obliged to remain until after school to do this.
This plan of class visitation gives real help to teachers, and en-
courages them to study earnestly their own problems and con-
sequently to increase their skill from year to year.
The short visit, the written criticism, the general meeting are
stimulating, but they do not get at the individual causes of
strength or weakness nor do they insure the required amount
of improvement in teaching practices. The plan outlined for
effective classroom visitation can be carried on only wlien the
superintendent or supervisor can visit each teacher often
enough to keep in touch with'her ivork arid to have her feel his
personal interest in her problems.
As has been said, Janesville is too large a city for this type
of work to be accomplished by one person. Either of two plans
Supervision of Instruction 305
for improvement is possible. Each building may have a super-
vising principal who does the kind of supervision suggested,
under the general direction of the city superintendent or an
assistant supervisor may be employed to extend the super-
vision from the main office. The latter plan is recommended
by the survey staff.
The employment of an expert grade supervisor who will co-
operate with the superintendent in carrying out all of the
agencies of supervision has been planned for the coming
year. It may be found, however, that there will be need
for still more supervision later, in order to vitalize the
teaching service in Janesville to such a degree that each
teacher in the system will be doing the most constructive kind
of teaching of which she is capable. Adequate supervision does
not make the Avork of the regular teacher more difficult. On
the contrary, it makes teaching more of an art and more of a
joy to the teacher who is able to realize her own continued im-
provement and increased capability for service. It often hap-
pens that school boards, not appreciating the difficulty and
complexity of real supervision, take a teacher from the system
for this work, or secure some one from outside, who has not
had the best modern training. This would, of course, be in the
case of Janesville a grevious mistake.
306 Educational Survey of Janesville
XV PROGRESS AND CLASSIFICATION OF
PUPILS
Age-Gradi<: Study
The age-grade conditions, like the elimination statistics, in
Janesville, have been much affected by the system of semi-
annual promotions installed in mid-year 1916-17. The follow-
ing method was used in installing the system: Grades were
divided into advanced and slow sections. The advanced sec-
tions were designated as the A section and were promoted to
the B section of the grade above at the middle of the year.
Thus, the 2B grade would consist of those pupils who had
entered the first grade school in September 1916, but had
shown themselves able to do a good grade of work during the
half year of their school life. The 2A section would consist
of those pupils who had been in school a year and a half, but
who had not made an unusual record of accomplishment dur-
ing the first semester of their second year.
The result of this change as affecting the first 8 grades is
shown in retardation figures for 1013-14, as compared to those
for the second semester 1916-17.
Underage Normal Overage
State average, 1913-14 13% 34% 53%
Janesville 1913-14 16% 39% 45%
Janesville 1916-17 (2d half) 36% 35% 29%
The detailed table for the 12 grades of the Janesville schools,
according to age-grade conditions found in March 1917, is as
follows :
Progress and Classification of Pupils
307
Table 80. — Age-Grade Distributions
March, 1917
Total
Total 1880
Grade 1 171
Grade II 176
Grade III 202
Grade fV 186
Grade V 156
Grade VI 179
Grade Vll 159
Grade V[] I 146
Grade IX 173
Grade X 150
Grade XI 101
GradeXfl 81
4 5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12
13
14
15 16 17
18
19 20
3 39 175 183 157
78 146 151 170
122
141
117 128 107
44
U
3 "4 106~l6" 6
6 1 1
59, 70 29
8 1 2
10 801 65
29 13 3 1
I
17 49
61 30 16 9
4
8
47 42 36| 14
27 461 38 54!
6
11
3
3
13 44 53
41
5
2 1
11 391
50
34
10 2
~~8|
79
501 29 6
1
?
l5j
46 56| 27
4
1
9 32 44
12
3
9 29
"271
15 1
Tho followiii'.r table intorprets these fif^'iires:
Table 81
Total
1880
171
176
202
186
156
179
1"9
146
173
150
101
81
Underage
Normal
1 yr.
No.
446
16
29
29
30
36
54
41
34
50
56
44
27
Over
age
%
24
9
17
14
16
23
30
26
23
29
37
43
33
2yr
and
up
No
Over
age
No
536
35
66
90
66
55
73
57
50
8
17
10
9
*
28
21
37
45
35
35
41
36
34
5
11 i
10
11
No.
671
106
70
Ki
61
42
38
53
50
79
46
32
29
%
36
62
40
32
33
27
21
33
34
45
31
32
36 i
%
Tjli
GradK I
227
14
11
18
29
23
14
8
12
36
31
15
16
12
12
Grade 11
Grade II'
Grade IV
6
9
16
Grade V
15
Grade VI
Grade VII
8
5
Grade VIII
GradelX
Grade X
Grade XI
9
21
21
15
Grade XII
20
The outstanding facts which appear from this study are
three. (1) There is an unusually low proportion of age re-
tardation, as technically defined, in the Janesville public
schools. (2) The proportion of pupils of normal age is also
unusually low. (3) Retardation in the high school does not
reflect the low proportion found in the grades,
308 Educational Survey of Jancsville
1. Retardation in the Janesville schools is technically low.
This is accounted for in large part by the recent inauguration
of semiannual promotions. The correction has been in part but
a surface correction, and while this was perhaps inevitable, still
the fact constitutes a problem for future solution. It will
be easier to bring grades up to standard under present con-
ditions and there is every indication that the future will es-
tablish and continue the progress which has thus far been
made.
2. It is probable, from the age-grade analysis, that the
pupils advanced through the semiannual pi'omotion system
were largely the normal and the underage pupils. The result is
a very small proportion of pupils of normal age in the various
grades. As the system works out, it is to be hoped that both
the underage and retarded groups will decrease so that the
majority of pupils will be of normal age, and the underage
and overage groups will continue approximately equal to each
other.
3. Retardation in the high school is large (54.5%). Part
of this is due to past grade conditions, and to retardation in
rural schools. A large part, however, is remediable. Too many
high school students take five years to finish as is shown in the
section on High School Mortality, p. 309, or are failed in
high school work (see "Students Dropped, Failed, and Pro-
moted," p. 311.) Too few students (none in 1915-16 and
1916-17) finish in less than four years, or are encouraged to
try to do so. It is recommended that activity looking toward
the correction of these conditions be instituted in the Janes-
ville high school.
A(je-Progress Study
In addition to the age-grade study, an age-progress study was
made, correlating the age of the pupil with the number of years
he had spent in school. For the purpose of this study, one year
only per grade was reckoned as normal, i. e. six years old for
the first grade, seven years old for the second, and so on. In
the table following, children who have made rapid progress are
listed as rapid ; those who have made normal progress, as nor-
mal ; and those who have made slow progress, as slow. The
summary of findings is as follows :
I'rofjrcss and ('[(issificulion of pKpils
309
Table 82
Age
Progress
Total
Young,
but
Normal, and
Old
and have made rapid progress,
normal
slow
rapid "
" normal
" slow "
rapid
normal
slow
but
and
but
Number
Per cent
1.375
100.0
309
22.5
170
12.4
13
0.9
41
3.0
36fi
26.fi
7X
5.7
14
1,0
115
8.4
269
19.5
A table showing the coiiil)iiicd results for the eight grades as
a whole follows:
TABiJi 83. — Age-Progress, Jancsville, March, 1917
The showing of this study is practically the same as that of
the age-grade study. The analysis was not extended to the
high school. It is not necessary to analyze results in detail ;
they show good conditions as to slow progress, and an unusually
small proportion of "normal-normal" progress.
High School Mortality
V It is essential to the maintenance of a successful high school
system that as many eighth graders as possible enter and pro-
gress normally through the four high school years. To form
grounds for an opinion on the success of the Jancsville high
school in this regard, a study was made of the 1912-13 eighth
310 Educational Survey of Jancsville
grade class, together Avith their subsequent record of school at-
tendance. 153 pupil records were investigated, comprising
17, or 11%, who dropped out of school during 8th grade.
17, or 11%, who failed of promotion to high school in 1913.
32, or 21%, who received average 8th grade scholarship
marks of 73--80.
41, or 27%;, who received average 8th grade scholarship
marks of 81-85.
46, or 30%, who received average 8th grade scholarship
marks of 86-94.
The following tal)le shows the history of the 136 eighth grade
students who attended 8th grade through the school year
1912-13 :
Table 84
"Lost" between 8tli gi-ade and H. S 33
One year of high school 14
Two years of high school 19
Two years of high school (sophomore 1916-17) 1
Three years of high school 8
Three years of high school (junior 1916-17) 4
Four years of high school (junior 1916-17) 17
Four years of high school (seniors 1916-17) 36
Went to school away from Janesville 4
Total 136
Never entered high school 33 or 24 %
Dropped before completing 41 or 30 %
Retarded two years 1 or 1 %
Retarded one year 21 or 15.5%
Normal progress 36 or 26.5%
Entered other high schools 4 or 3 %
Total 136 or 100 %
This table, interpreted by percentages, is as follows :
The result of this study points to a high mortality and a large
amount of retardation within the Janesville high school. Upon
correlating scholarship records with subsequent history it was
found that there was the connection to be expected between
scholarship and high school progress. Records for the four
scholarship groups follow :
1. Pupils failing of promotion
Never entered high school 8 or 47 %
Dropped before completing 4 or 23 . 5%
Retarded 2 years 1 or 6 %
Retarded 1 year 4 or 23.5%
Total 17 or 100 %
Progress and Classification of Pupils 311
2. Pupils marked 73-80
Never entered high school 9 or 28%
Dropped before completing 13 or 41%
Retarded 1 year , . , , 5 or 16%
Normal progress 3 or 9%
Entered other high schools 2 or 6%
Total 32 or 100%
3. Pupils marked 81-85
Never entered high school 10 or 24%
Dropped before completing 14 or 34%
Retarded 1 year 7 or 17%
Normal progress 9 or 22%
Entered other high schools 1 or 3%
Total 41 or 100%
4. Pupils marked 86-94
Never entered high school 6 or 13%
Dropped before completing 10 or 22%
Retarded 1 year 5 or 11%
Normal progress 24 or 52%
Entered other high schools 1 or 2%
Total 46 or 100%
The recommendation arising from this study is increased at-
tention to the problem of keeping children in school and of
making it possible for every child to make normal school prog-
ress. The establishment of a Junior High School is no doubt
desirable in this connection.
Students Dropped, Failed, and Promoted in High School
Subjects
During the school year 1916-17, a study was made in the de-
partment of public instruction to find the proportion of high
school students dropped, failed, and promoted, in each of
fifteen high school subjects. Results were published in the
Biennial Report for 1914- '16, and also in "Educational Ad-
ministration and Supervison," January 1917.
The Janesville records show a considerable variation from the
norm of the seventy-five Wisconsin high schools studied. A
comparison follows:
312 Educational Sarvcij of Jancsvillc
Table S5.— Seventy-five Wisconsin High Schools J91'i-'15
Total
English
1st year.
2nd year
4th y« ar.
Mathematics
Algebra. —
Ueomeiry..
Science
Physics
Physical Geography
Ancient History
German
1st year.
2nd year
Latin
1st year. ,
2nd year ,
Dom»'stic Science
C!ooUlng
Sewing
Manual Training.
Total
Diopped
Fai
led
Piom
No.
No.
Pir ct.
No.
Per ct.
No.
38,640
3.703
9.6%
3,408
8.8%
31,529
5,432
4,136
1,781
566
367
86
10%
9%
5%
544
308
48
10%
7%
3%
4,322
3,461
1,647
5.966
3,542
716
415
12%
12%
1 847
, 448
14%
13%
4,403
2,679
1.988
2,446
89
217
4%
9%
56
249
3%
10%
1,843
1,980
3,317
349
10%
329
10%
2,639
2,276
1.380
262
71
12%
5%
235
65
10%
5%
1,779
1,244
1,030
572
115
27
11%
5%
122
39
12%
7%
793
506
1,S63
1,723
128
177
7%
10%
41
38
2%
2%
1,694
1,508
1,188
118
10%
39
3%
1,931
Per ct.
81.6%
80-0
84 '0
92%
74%
75%
93%
81%
80%
78%
77%
88*
91%
88%
87'?^
Seventy-five Wisconsin High Schools 1915-16
Total
English
1st year.
2nd year.
4th year.
Mathematics
Algebra
Geometry ..
Science
Physics
Physical Geo ..
Ancient History
German
1st year .
2nd year .
Latin
1st year.
2nd year .
Domestic Science.
Cooking
Sewing
Manual Training
Total
Dropped
Fa
led
No.
40,071
No.
Perot.
No.
3,538
Perct
9%
3,878
10%
5,885
4,143
2.029
698
409
102
12%
10%
5%
634
372
59
11%
9%
3%
6,058
3,612
764
372
13%
11%
778
466
13%
13%
1,894
2,160
97
164
5%
7%
71
230
4%
11%
2,855
267
9%
329
12%
2,141
953
244
81
11%
6%
180
61
9%
4%
1,188
675
150
39
13%
6%
142
51
12%
7%
2,359
2,215
158
177
7%
8%
67
69
3%
3%
1,421
156
11%
29
2%
Promoted
No.
32,655
4,5.i3
3.362
1,868
4,516
2,774
l,72o
1,766
1,717
1.298
S92
585
2.134
1,969
1,236
Per ct.
81%
77%
81%
92%
74%
76%
91%
h2%
90%
75%
90%
89%
I'royrcss mid Classified tioii of Pupils
113
Janesville 1915-'16
Total
No.
Dropped
No
Per ct.
Failed
No.
Perct.
Promoted
No,
Per ct.
Total
English
1st year.
2nd yfar.
4th year.
Mathematics
Algebra
Geometry..
Science
Physics
Physical Geo.
Ancient History
German
1st year.
2nd year.
Domestic Science
Cooking
Sewing
Manual Trainins
1.356
184
131
38
215
105
119
153
159
52
96
7.1%
5%
11%
3%
5%
5%
5%
7%
7.5%
10%
9%
9%
12%
138
22
10.2%
10%
11%
16%
3%
20%
18.5%
22%
17%
6%
1,122
156
105
37
181
83
130
135
82.7%
80%
97%
84%
79%
92%
73%
74%
68%
83%
A comparison of these tables reveals that Janesville ranks
slightly higher than the average of the seventj^-five high schools
in the per cent of pupils promoted at the end of the school
year in high school subjects. This standing, however, is true in
only six of the thirteen high school subjects studied. In the
other seven, the results show that Janesville is distinctly below
the average in the number of students failed.
In the study of high school mortality, page 309, it was noted
that a considerable number of pupils took five years to graduate
from high school. This was to be expected from the large pro-
portion of failures in high school subjects.
Causes for failure should be studied, and teachers should be
impressed with the fact that an undue number of students
failing constitutes a reflection on their teaching powers. The
subjects in which most work needs to be done are: geometry,
physical geography, ancient history, and German.
ol-i Educational Survey of Janesville
XVI PROVISIONS FOR SPECIAL CLASSES
Exceptional children for whom special classes should be pro-
vided may be divided into two groups. In one group will be in-
cluded those children of superior ability who are able to pro-
gress much more rapidly than the average pupil, and in the
other group are included all pupils who, for various reasons,
are unable to progress as rapidly as the average child.
This second group may be divided into two large classes;
namely, the socially comj)etent and the socially incompetent.
The first includes children who are deaf, blind, crippled, back-
ward, or suffering from other physical handicaps. These
children, through the agency of the special class, may be greatly
benefited, and a large percentage of them enabled to take their
place in society.
The second class of this group includes the mentally deficient
who should have the opportunities offered by special classes
but most of whom cannot be fitted to take their places as self-
supporting individuals in society except under competent
supervision.
The benefits to be derived from the formation of special
classes may be considered from two standpoints; that of chil-
dren remaining in the regular classes and that of children placed
in the special classes. The most serious problems of the class
teacher usually center about children who are so much superior
to the average of the class that they can do the required work,
and still have considerable spare time to spend in mischief
making; or children who are so hopelessly out distanced by
the class that they have lost all interest in the work and devote
very little time to the work of the class, except under the im-
mediate direction of the teacher. Children of these types not
only fail to profit by the work given in the class, but interfere
with others for whom the instruction may be well suited.
Investigations show that in pi'actically every class a con-
siderable number of children are capable of progressing at a
rate more rapid than that of the average class. It is also found
that there are some children who are incapable of keeping pace
Provisions for Special Classes 315
with the avera^'e class. Of the latter group, a number var-
iously estimated at from one-half per cent to one per cent of the
total enrollment of the school system are positively deficient
mentally, so they do not profit by the instruction given in tlie
regular class. Removal of these misfits, whether they be of in-
ferior or superior ability, leaves the teacher free to devote her
time and energy to the instruction of children for whom the
instruction is well adapted. This improvement must neces-
sarily I'csult in the smaller number failing of promotion, which
means a reduction in overage pupils. The child of superior
ability, placed in a special class, and provided with special in-
struction, may be enabled thereby to complete the school course
in less than the usual time. Besides the saving of time affected,
the child who is thus afforded an opportunity to work up to
liis full capacity, develops a keener interest in the work and
will acquire hal)its of attention and industry wliich are of more
value than mere inasteiy of subject matter. The child who is
merely backward or slow may, through the agency of the
special class, or the special help teacher, be strengthened in his
work so he may again take his place in the regular class. He is
thus not only prevented from being a failure, but has increased
interest, confidence, and self-respect, and a better attitude
toward the work of the school.
The feeble-minded, the mentally deficient child, cannot profit
except to a limited degree, bj^ the kind of instruction given in
the regular class. He should be placed in a special class where
the w^ork given is adapted to his needs and capacities. He will
not only derive more profit fi-om such instruction, but will be
much happier than when in the regular class.
In a school system in a city the size of Janesville, there is not
a sufficient number of children in need of special instruction to
make it practicable to form all of the various special classes
needed in a larger school sj^stem. The results of tests in school
subjects indicate that there is need of special provision for the
children who are decidedly superior or decidedly inferior to
the general average in various subjects, and classes for pupils
who show marked retardation in all or practically all of their
school work.
Tests that were given in grades 2-8 inclusive, in the differ-
ent schools, showed a wide range of ability in each subject in
316 Educational ISurvcy of JanesviUc
every grade. (See Chap. 1-4). While the results of the tests
show that the situation is not such as to demand extraordi-
nary measures, it was found that there were individual cases
in some of the classes where the pupils' retai-dation was so
marked as to make it urgent that a special class or special
classes be provided to relieve the situation. Cases were found
where a pupil had been in the same grade for three years, and
was still rated by the teacher as the poorest in the class. It
was not practicable to give all of these children intelligence
tests to determine their mental status, but tests were given in
a few cases, and the results considered in connection with the
marked retardation of those tested point strongly to mental
deficiency.
A consideration of the ({uestion of establishing si)ecial classes
involves consideration of the cost incurred thereby. The ad-
dition of the special teachers in charge of these classes Avould
at first appear to be an increase in the cost of instruction, but
there are other factors entering into this question which great-
ly reduce, if they do not entirely eliminate, this apparent in-
crease.
On the basis of average daily attendance, the per capita cost
in Janesville in the grades below the high school for the year
ending June 30, 1917, Avas $36.59. Every child who fails of
promotion must after each failure, repeat the work of a half
year. This means a proportionate increase in the cost of edu-
cating this child.
The annual report of the city superintendent for the above
named year showed 105 children in the elementary grades
failed of promotion at the end of the year. This will give an
idea of the increased cost to the city resulting from failures.
On the other hand, every child of superior ability who com-
pletes the course in less than the required time means a corres-
ponding saving to the city.
The work of the special classes will not only decrease the
number of pupils failing of promotion, but will also increase
the number who complete the course in less than the usual
time. When all of these factors are considered, it becomes evi-
dent that even from the standpoint of dollars and cents,
a special teacher would have to prevent a comparatively small
number of failures in order to save the city as much as she re-
ceives in salary.
Provisions for Sjyecial Classes 317
111 the ease of a teacher doins' corrective speech work, the
aid received from the state has been, and probably will continue
to be, sufficient to pay the entire salary of the teacher. The
state will also pay one-third of the salary, not to exceed $300,
of one teacher employed to ^\\e instruction to exceptional
children.
Recommendations
1. That one class be formed for children who are mentally
deficient. The survey indicates that this class would have a
membership of from 10 to 15 or possibly more. The location
of this class should be determined by the geographical distri-
bution of the pupils enrolled therein, and the available room
for the accommodation of such class. All children placed in
this class should be thoroughly tested and their mental status
determined as accurately as possible before they are assigned
to the class. The supervisor employed by the state in the
Department of Public Instruction can assist greatly in this,
and the State Superintendent will supply full instructions as
to how this class shall lie oi'tianizel and conducted in order to
receive the special aid from the state.
2. The employment of at least two special help teachers for
the slow children and specially gifted children. A class es-
tablished in the Washington or Jefferson building would be
sufficient to meet the needs of these schools. One class should
be established in a school on the west side of the river. To de-
termine the location of this class would I'equire consideration of
available room and the geographical distribution of the pupils
belonging in such class. On account of the rather wide dis-
tribution of the school poi)ulation on this side of the river, it
may be found advisable to have this teacher take charge of a
class in one building in the forenoon and a class in another
building in the afternoon, the pupils of these classes attending
the regular classes when the special class to which they belong
is not in session.
3. The continuation of corrective speech work. As time
goes on, it may be found that the corrective speech work will
not demand the full time of a teacher, and in that event, such
spare time might be devoted to the gifted or slow pupils.
4. For the class for mentally deficient children, a teacher
should be employed whose training and experience meets the
318 Educational Survey of Janesville
requirements fixed by the State Superintendent in the regula-
tions governing such classes. The teacher in charge of cor-
rective speech work must have had special preparation for this
work, and it is desirable that she shall have had considerable
experience in teaching, so as to understand the problems of
the regular classroom. The teachers in charge of the classes
for the retarded and slow children should be teachers with
good training, and with several years of successful experience.
It is perhaps needless to add that all of the teachers employed
in special classes should be alert and thoroughly alive to the
trend of the best thought on educational problems generally,
and on the special problems related to their respective fields of
special work. It is not deemed necesasry nor advisable that
teachers in these classes be paid salaries disproportion-
ately high as compared with salaries received by teachers in
the regular classes. These teachers being chosen on account of
their superior ability, training and experience must, of course,
]>e paid a higher salary than the average grade teacher on ac-
count of the limited supply of such specially fiualified teachers.
This superior ability, training and added experience should con-
stitute the basis for determining the salary, not the mere fact
that they are employed as teachers in special classes.
Home Cooperation, Health and Recreatio7i 319
XVII HOME COOPERATION, HEALTH, AND
RECREATION
Home Cooperation and Recreation
Much of the success of the school depends upon the cooper-
ation that exists between it and the home. Each of these
agencies supplements the other in the training that it gives
the child, and each is helped by the understanding and cooper-
ation that it receives from the other. That an appreciation of
this relation is becoming more general throughout the country
is evident from the rapid growth of parent-teacher associations,
— organizatiors which exist for the express purpose of promot-
ing better understanding between the school and the home and
appreciation ou the part of the parents of the new ideals of
education, and as a consequence, better working conditions in
the schools.
Investigation of the extent of the cooperation that has been
developed in Janesville reveals the fact that, in general, a good
feeling exists between the home and the school. A number of
teachers report visits from parents for the purpose of observing
regular school work, and others report a good attendance at
school entertainments. Probably nothing gives the parents a
better understanding of the progress that their children are
making than visits to the school with the opportunities that
these afford for comparing the ability and efforts of their chil-
dren with those of other members in the class. Not only do
such visits dispel the erroneous idea of teacher-favoritism that
some parents hold when their children are not doing well in
school, but they also materially assist teachers in their under-
standing of the pupils. Even a slight acquaintance with
parents enables teachers to better understand pupils and con-
sequently to work more sympathetically and intelligently for
the promotion of their best interests. Moreover, the parents'
visits usually give teachers an assurance of cooperation that is
very bracing to them in times of discouragement. For these
reasons, means should be taken to encourage closer acquaintance
-Jbetween parents and teachers. Some teachers have undertaken
320 Educational Survey of Janesville
to visit the homes. One reports having called at the home of
each child in her school. This is an excellent record, but one
Ihat is sometimes difficult for teachers to achieve. Parents
should not make it necessary for teachers to take the initiative
in this, but should recognize the burden that such an effort
places upon them, and should relieve them of the necesity of
it by visiting the school early in the fall so that the best under-
standing may be promptly established.
It is the feeling of the surveyors that though the parents
have by their attendance at school programs responded well,
in the main, to the school's efforts to get in touch with them,
they have not been as active as is desirable in creating oppor-
tunities to understand and better school conditions. For this
reason, it is suggested that the parents of each school form a
parent-teachers' association and undertake a consideration of
work for the benefit of the school. Excellent work has been
done in many cities by such organizations.
The presidents of these associations might be made an ad-
visory council, together with the city superintendent, high
school principal, and one or two school board members, to talk
over school conditions and needs, make suggestions for the work
of ward associations, and bring recommendations for action
before the superintendent.
Many problems will present themselves for study. Two
very important lines of work that might profitably be under-
taken for the first year are the subjects of health supervision
and recreation of children. The need for the first of these has
been mentioned elsewhere in this report. The need for the
second is evident to anyone who gives the matter thought.
Nature intends that children develop physically and mentally
through play. Frequently the opportunities for play offered by
the school, home, and community are too meager. It is felt that
this is at present the condition in Janesville. Playground ap-
paratus and play space are urgent needs of the grades and the
high school. Some of the grade teachers have taught their
pupils games and have frequently gone on the playground with
them to supervise their play. This condition, however, is not
general. While it is asking considerable of teachers to expect
them to go to the playground with their pupils at each school in-
termission, it is not asking too much to expect that in each build'
Home Cooperation, Health and Recreation 321
ing play supervision will be so organized and so distributed
among the members of the teaching body that provision may
be made that will result in a general pupil participation in
play. The social spirit of upper grade pupils may be de-
veloped by calling upon them for assistance in directing the
play of the younger children. The problem of directing play
would be simplified to some extent were an adequate amount
of playground apparatus supplied. A beginning has been
made by placing some equipment on the grounds, but addi-
tional apparatus is needed.
The above suggestions have reference to the play periods
that are directly connected with school sessions, but children
have longer unoccupied periods for recreation for which pro-
vision should be made. Provision for these is considered
so vital that a number of cities are employing recreational
supervisors for the entire year. Such organizations as Boy
Scouts and Campfire Girls Avithout doubt offer as complete and
desirable programs for the leisure of adolescent boys and girls
as can be obtained. It is felt that in Janesville not enough
thought has been given to the needs of these children. To be
sure, certain churches have Boy Scouts, Campfire Girls, and
other clubs, but these do not begin to enroll all of the young
people who are in need of the opportunities that such clubs
give for personal development, healthful recreation, and service.
It is, therefore, suggested that school patrons, through
parent-teachers' associations, women's clubs, or other suitable
agencies make a study of the needs of the young people and of
the recreational opportunities offered, with a view of providing
the maximum amount of wholesome recreation for them. In
this way, a great deal will be done to safeguard the lives of the
young people and to lead them to a useful citizenship.
England "has been diligently studying the problem of the
rapidly increasing numbers of juvenile delinquents. The fol-
lowing are the main causes.
1. Relaxation of domestic discipline.
2. The absence of fathers of families on military service.
3. A great demand for adolescent labor and preposterously high
wages.
4. The inevitable withdrawal of influences making for the social im-
provement of boys and girls.
322 Educational Survey of Janesville
5. The accentuation of tendencies adversely affecting the develop-
ment of character and efficiency.
6. The harmful effect of moving picture shows.
7. Disregard of responsibility for their children shown by parents.
It is also stated that there was a sad lack of parental control
before the war began, but the situation is worse now. It is
stated that teachers and others agree that leaders of juvenile
gangs are alert and precocious boys rather of supernormal
than subnormal intellects. Duller children are led into mis-
chief.
Evil influences are bad literature, the penny dreadful, down
grade posters and postcards, crime films, dark streets, and
plenty of money to spend. All are agreed that the pleasures
and occupations which have attracted the London children from
the street^ to the play centers in ever increasing numbers are, —
handwork, such as cooking, both for boys and girls, sewing,
knitting, basket Avork, carpentry, clay modeling, painting,
drawing, dancing combined with old English song and nursery
rhymes, musical drill, gymnastics, games, acting, and the chil-
dren's library of story and picture books.
The school needs the cooperation of parents and parents
need the cooperation of teachers in the effort to prevent chil-
dren from falling into evil ways and to enable them to occupy
their time in a profitable and pleasurable way while the school
is not in session.
Health
In the not remote past, a community felt that when it had sup-
plied the school, the equipment and the teacher, its responsibility
had been adequately met. The results of medical inspection
throughout the country show that "in each school system, no
matter where it may be located or to what social classes its
patrons may belong, from 50 to 85 per cent of its pupils are
suffering from one or more physical defects serious enough to
require skilled attention."* This being true, it is clear that
supplying school equipment does not completely discharge a
community's obligations. It is a matter of vital importance
for it to concern itself with means for correcting poor physical
conditions of children, thus making possible their best develop-
• Hoag and Terman, "Health Work in Schools," page 2.
Hom-e Cooperation, Health and Recreation 323
ment. Since the progress of school children is determined in
large part by their physical conditions, it is evident that it is
shortsighted to neglect the correction of defects when by so
doing pupils' progress would be accelerated and their enjoy-
ment of life and work increased.
The subject of pupil health has not been given proper at-
tention in the Janesville schools. Medical inspection of school
children should be incorporated as part of each year's pro-
gram. A forward step was taken last year when dental in-
spection was introduced and provision made to give treatment
to those children whose parents were unable to pay for the
work. This is a commendable measure that should be con-
tinued. There is undoubtedly not a more important school
matter at present demanding the attention of the Board of
Education than that of health supervision. It is recom-
mended, therefore, that this subject be taken under advisement,
with a view to the permanent establishment of medical and
dental inspection with a thorough system of follow-up work.
This follow-up work will call for the continuance of the dental
clinic and for the employment of a school nurse. In the past,
the city nurse has not been expected to attend to the school's
needs and would doubtless find it impossible to do so in con-
nection with her regular city duties.
A questionnaire was sent to the teachers, asking for the
number of pupils in their rooms who appeared to be suffering
from removable physical defects. It was not expected that the
teachers would be able to locate all of these, but that they
would recognize those whose cases were extreme. They re-
ported 177 children in present need of attention. This un-
doubtedly represents but a smaU percentage of the number. It
may be safely assumed, however, that these are cases that are
in urgent need of attention. One member of the survey staff
noted that from a group of 15 children who were reported as
making unsatisfactory progress in their work, 7 were without
doubt victims of adenoids. A thorough inspection by people
trained to pass judgment would reveal many more in need of
corrective measures. For these reasons, it is urged that this
subject be given the immediate attention of the board.
A phase of health work frequently overlooked but demanding
more and more attention on the part of progressive school sys-
S24 Educational Survey of Janesville
terns is the matter of proper nourishment. Some who cannot go
home for the noonday meal must eat cold lunches. Others are
under nourished or anemic when they come to school. At pres-
ent it is the custom in the high school to serve warm lunches dur-
ing the winter months for the benefit of nonresident pupils and
others bringing their lunches to school. This is a good begin-
ning. The work should be further extended to include warm
lunches for grade children.
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Sum)nary 325
XVIII SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
The conclusions reached in the preceding pages are • based
upon facts which those intrusted with passing upon the
efficiency of the school system regard as obvious. They have
attempted throughout to give the school district the benefit of
their unbiased judgment as to the present efficiency of its
schools and the reforms which are needed. The object in view
has been the improvement of school conditions in Janesville
and other Wisconsin cities to which portions of this report will
apply equally well.
In making the remommendations which follow the members of
the survey have not been unmindful of the fact that any recom-
mendations of merit must lie within the bounds of the city's
ability to carry them out. They have endeavored to make no
recommendations which might appear idealistic or which in-
volve radical reforms. On the otlier hand they have felt that
they would be negligent in their duty were they not to point
out the most obvious and urgent needs of the schools which they
believe the school district is in position to carry out. The
recommendations are therefore those which the surveyors re-
gard as representing needs that are vital and which can with
reasonable effort be carried out.
Organization
The present organization in the upper grammar and lower
high school grades does not permit a grouping of children of
similar tastes and abilities. It is recommended that a junior
high school including grades seven, eight and nine be estab-
lished to meet this situation.
Buildings
The city has an unusually large niun.ber of small and out-
worn buildings. The present high school building is over-
crowded and inadequate. To meet the present high school
needs one of two building courses should be pursued :
a. The provision of a high school plant with an athletic
field and a building especially constructed and large
326 Educational Survey of Janesville
enough to accommodate both a junior and a senior
high school,
b. An alternative plan which would continue the present
high school building as a senior high school and which
would provide for a junior high school on the present
Lincoln site.
To meet the needs of grades below the seventh a compre-
hensive future building program calling ultimately for four
grade buildings which shall be centrally located with reference
to each of the four quarters of the city should be adopted.
Buildings Avhich are to be continued in use should be suf-
ficiently remodeled to make them conform to reasonable re-
quirements for safety and sanitation.
Teacliers and Salaries
The teachers for the most part are experienced but poorly paid.
The present salaries in the elementary grades do not command
teachers with sufficient preparation. It is recommended that
provision be made in the salary schedule for stimulating further
professional preparation on the part of teachers. It is recom-
mended that the number of kindergarten teachers be reduced
from five to three.
Costs and Finance
The number of children to be trained does not show a marked
rate of increase and has not done so in recent years. Janes-
ville's wealth is relatively large. Its appropriations for educa-
tion are relatively small. The expenditures for education are less
than is typical among cities of its population class whether these
expenditures are related to the number of pupils to be trained,
the number of persons in the population or the wealth of the
city. The city should provide more money for its schools and
distribute its school expenditure to better advantage. Many
of the recommendations of this report cannot be carried out
without additional expense.
Board of Education
The city is handicapping itself by persisting in a ward method
of selecting members of the board of education. The electors
of the school districts should adopt the provisions of the general
charter law whereby the board of education shall consist of
seven members elected at large.
Census, Enrollment and Attendance
The present method of recording the school census is anti-
quated and inefficient. The sj'stem of census taking should be
reorganized and pro\'ision made for modern and continuous
census records.
Summary 327
The proportion of children of school age enrolled in Janes-
ville is as large as in other Wisconsin cities. The enrollment in
the high school has increased steadily in late years.
The average daily attendance is low and reveals the need of
more adequate attendance supervision. It is recommended
that a full time attendance officer be employed.
Records and Reports
The schools are without a modern and efficient system of
records and reports. When the results of the investigation of
record forms for city school systems now under way become
available a new system of school records should be adopted.
Industrial Education
Better quarters should be provided for the teaching of man-
ual and industrial arts. This applies to the work in the ele-
mentary grades, the high school and the industrial school.
The work in industrial and manual training in the grades
and in the high school should be reorganized under a single
director acting as head of the department. More adequate
supervision should be provided for the teachers of industrial and
manual training.
There is no urgent demand on the part of manufacturers,
laborers or other citizens for specialized industrial training.
There is, however, a need for prevocational courses in the upper
elementary and lower high school grades. It is recommended
that prevocational courses be organized under the junior high
school and that industrial work in the senior high school be
made more definitely vocational in character,
Instrtiction
The quality of instruction in the high school is on the average
good. In the elementary grades it is fair. In both the high
school and the elementary grades there are some teachers whose
work is much superior to the average and others who.se work
is far from satisfactory.
There is urgent need of a more adequate supply of teaching
materials.
Special Subjects and Courses
Music. The series of books now in use is inadequate from
the point of view both of song material and of technical method.
Better and more varied material should be provided. More
frequent opportunities should be given for the pupils to listen
to good music. The supervisor should spend a larger proportion
of her time in supervision of the instruction by the classroom
teacher.
The high school instruction in music should be planned to
continue systematically the work begun in the grades, and
328 Educational Survey of JanesvUle
should include both the development of appreciation and of
technical power.
Drawing. There is need of correlation between courses in
dra^ving and courses in other subjects. A larger proportion
of the drawing supervisor's time should be spent in supervising
the drawing teaching of other teachers.
Agriculture and School Gardening. The schools have made
commendable progress in development of school gardening and
courses in agriculture. It is recommenlled that a school plot of
at least two acres be secured for demonstration and practical
«xperiment in agriculture and that special classes in farm man-
ual training be organized for argicultural pupils.
Library Work
Some good reading circle work is being done by the children.
There is, however, insufficient stress upon the development of
good taste in reading. There is urgent need of a high school
library. This should be placed in charge of a trained librarian.
Course of Study and Time Allotments
The length of the school day in the primary grades should
be increased to confonn more nearly to the average in other
American cities. The schools in the past have been severely handi-
capped by the absence of a modern and definite elementary
course of study. The commendable beginnings that have been
made in the formulation of a new course should be continued.
Results in School Subjects
As measured by the tests in a number of the fundamental
subjects the children are achieving results that are not above
fair. This is not true of all children, however, for a wide range
of proficiency from good to poor was found in every grade and
subject tested. There is a need of establishing definite ob-
jective standards of attainment, a careful analysis of the teach-
ing methods in use and a more careful grading of the children.
Supervision
An insufficient amount of high grade supervision is provided
in the elementary grades and in the high school. It is recom-
mended that the work of each general department of instruction
in the high school be organized under a competent head. Each
department head should be immediately responsible to the prin-
cipal under the general direction of the superintendent. It is-
recommended that an elementary grade supervisor who shall
perform her duties under the immediate direction of the super-
intendent be employed.
Summary 329
Progress and Classification of Pupils
Due in large measure to the recent introduction of semi-
annual promotions the proportion of overage children is rela-
tively low, while the proportion who are underage for their
grade is large. The number of normal age children is low.
Janesville ranks slightly higher than the average of Wisconsin
high schools in the percentage of pupils promoted at the end of
the year in high school subjects.
Provisions for Special Classes
The city is to be commended for its effort to care for children
with defective speech but there is an insufficient provision for
other exceptional children. It is recommended that a class be
organized for mentally unfortunate children and that special
classes or special help teachers be provided to care for the chil-
dren of superior ability, and also for the children who are of
normal mentality but who show marked retardation in one or
more school subjects. In addition a summer vacation school
should be established to permit backward childi'cn to make up
work and strong pupils to do advanced work.
Home Cooperation, IlealtJi and Recreation
Parents on the whole exhibit a wholesome desire to cooperate
with the teachers and the schools. The problems of pupil health
and recreational activities are in need of immediate attention.
A thorough study of the matter of health supervision should be
made with a view to the permanent establishment of medical
and dental inspection and the employment of a school nurse.
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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
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