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ILP  390 

J3  P5 

Copy    1 


AN  EDUCATIONAL  SURVEY 


OF 


JANESVILLE,  WISCONSIN 


Issued  by 
C.  P.  GARY 

State  Superintendent 


State  Department  of  Pitblio  Instbitction 

MADISON,  WISCONSIN 

1918 


Class_LA5JW. 
Bnok^ilSLAS- - 


■r  i::i\  ui  -r-  -r^  \  ,    o    \-^ 

/A. 
AN  EDUCATIONAL  SURVEY 

OF 

JANESVILLE,  WISCONSIN 


Issued  by 
C.  P.  GARY 

State  Superintendent 


Prepared  by 

W.  W.  Theisen,  director  of  the  survey;  H.  L.  Terry;  B.  R.  Buckingham; 

H.  N.  Goddard;    Amy  Bronsky;    Maybell  G.   Bush;    Annie 

Reynolds;  Janet  R.  Rankin;  J.  M.  Dorrans;   0.  S. 

Rice;    A.   B.   Cook;    P.   W.    Dykema;    and 

Lucy  D.  Hale. 


State  Department  of  Public  Instruction 

Madison,  Wisconsin 

1918 


L/J3ic 


0.   of  B 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


Page 

vii 

Introduction   

PART  I.     PROBLEMS  OF  ADMINISTRATION 

Chapter  I. — The   Problem   of   High   School   Organization 1 

Chapter  II.— The   Building    Problem 6 

Location  of  Buildings 8 

Condition  of  the  Present  Buildings 12 

General  Health    and    Sanitary    Conditions,    and 

Equipment  of  Buildings    19 

Standards   for    School     Buildings    and     Grounds  27 

Summary    of    Recommendations 34 

Chapteb  III. — Teachers    and    Salaries 36 

The    Teachers 36 

Salaries    40 

The  Cost   of  Living.  . 40 

Salaries   in   Other   Cities 43 

Conclusions   and    Recommendations 44 

Chapter  IV. — Financing  the  School  System 47 

The  Educational  Problem  at  Janesville 47 

The  Means  for  Solving  the    Problem;  Resources; 

Receipts     51 

The  Way  in  Which  the  Problem  is  Being  Solved  59 

Taxes   and   tax   Rates 59 

Analysis   of  City   Expenditures 61 

Anaylsis  of  School  Expenditures:  (a)  By  Items  71 
Analysis  of     School     Expenditures:      (b)      By 

Schools     77 

Analysis  of  School  Expenditures:    (c)  Elemen- 
tary Schools  and  High  Schools 80 

Teachers '   Salaries    83 

High  School  Costs    91 

Summary     95 


iv  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

Page 

•Chaptee  V. — The  Board  of  Education  99 

The  Organization  of  the  Board 100 

Committees    101 

The  Relation  of  the  Board  and  the  Superintendent  101 

The  Duties  Which    the    Board    Should    Pertorm  104 

Chapter  VI. — Census,  Enrollment,   and  Attendance    106 

Census  and  Census  Taking   106 

Enrollment  and  Attendance    109 

School  Attendance    110 

Nonresidents     112 

High  School  Graduates  and  Higher  Schools 113 

PART  II.  PROBLEMS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

Chapter  VII. — The  Problem  of  Industrial  Education 115 

Social  and  Industrial  Conditions   115 

Industries    117 

The  Present  Manual  Training  Work   119 

The  Present  Equipment  for  Manual  Training  121 

Evening  School  Courses   123 

Domestic  Science 124 

The  Industrial  School 125 

The    Children    Who    Need    Industrial    Education  126 

Educational  Recommendations   128 

Summary  of  Recommendations  132 

Chapter  VIII. — Classroom  Instruction  in  Elementary  Schools 134 

Introduction      134 

Section  I 

General  Observation  of  Classroom  Instruction...  136 

How  Instruction  was  Judged   136 

Factors    Considered     in    Judging    Classroom    in- 
struction      137 

The  Results  of  Inadequate  Supervision 143 

Improvements    That    May    be   Effected    Through 

Closer   Supervision    144 

Recommendations     145 

Section  II 

Types  of  Lessons  Observed    145 

The  Development  Lesson   147 

The  Study  Lesson   149 

,.  The  Recitation  Lesson   149 

The  Lesson  for  Appreciation 151 

The  Drill  Lesson   152 

The  Review  Lesson 1 53 

Summary   154 


Contents  ^ 

Section  III  Pag® 

The  Teaching  of  Classroom  Subjects 15* 

Beading   ^^^ 

English    ^^'^ 

Spelling   161 

Geography     1"^ 

Arithmetic     

General  Eeeommendations  on  Classroom  Instruc- 
tion      


168 


171 


Chapter  IX.— High   School  Instruction 172 

Factors  in  Efficient  High  School  Teaching 172 

Observations  on  High  School  Teaching  in  Janes- 

ville    178 

Summary  of  Recommendations   182 

Chapter  X. — Special   Courses   and   Instruction    in    Special    Subjects  183 

Section   I — Music    183 

Section  II — Drawing    193 

Section  III — Agricultural   Department    198 

Section  IV — School  Gardening 207 

Chapter  XI. — Library   Work    210 

General  Eeading    210 

Classroom  Libraries    213 

Test  in  General  Eeading 215 

Magazine   Reading    220 

Ability  to  Find  Information;   Reference 221 

Grade    Libraries    222 

Reference  Work  in  the  High  School 224 

Test  in  Reference  Work 226 

Summary  of  Recommendations 228 

Chapter  XII. — Time  Allotments  and  Course  of  Study 229 

Time  Allotments    229 

The  Elementary  Course  of  Study 234 

Chapter  XIII. — Measuring  Results  in  School  Subjects 237 

Arithmetic     237 

TheWoody  Tests    237 

The  Courtis  Tests   2.52 

The  Stone  Reasoning  Test    254 

Reading     259 

Spelling   265 

The  Results  on  the  Ayres  Test 266 

The  Results  on  the  Buckingham  Test TfiS 

Writing    276 


vi  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

Page 

Composition    286 

The  Trabue  Language  Tests  292 

Summary     295 

Eecommendations     298 

Chapter  XIV. — Supervision  of  Instruction   299 

Preparation  for  Supervising  Instruction 299 

Present  Organization  of  Supervision  in  Janesville  300 

Eemedying  Existing  Conditions 302 

Chapter  XV. — Progress  and  Classification  of  Pupils 306 

Age-Grade  Study  306 

Age-Progress   Study    308 

High  School  Mortality   309 

Students  Dropped,  Failed  and  Promoted  in  High 

School  Subjects  SIX 

Chapter  XVI. — Provisions  for  Special  Classes 314 

Eecommendations     317 

Chapter  XVII. — Home  Cooperation,  Health  and  Eeereation 319 

Home  Cooperation  and  Eeereation 319 

Health     322 

Chapter  XVIII. — Summary  of  Conclusions  and  Eecommendations. .  .  325 


INTRODUCTION 


The  survey  of  the  Janesville  schools  was  undertaken  by  the 
State  Department  of  Education  upon  the  invitation  of  the  Board 
of  Education  of  that  city.  In  accepting  the  invitation,  the  State 
Department  of  Education  was  not  unmindful  of  the  amount  of 
labor  it  entailed.  The  acceptance  was  prompted  not  only  by  a 
willingness  to  point  out  the  educational  needs  of  a  particular 
city,  but  by  a  desire  to  present  in  organized  form  for  the  schools 
of  Wisconsin  the  views  of  the  State  Department  on  city  school 
administration.  The  report  is  transmitted  with  the  hope  that 
the  statements  of  general  principles  contained  therein  may  re- 
sult in  an  improvement  in  the  work  of  city  schools  in  Wisconsin. 

The  survey  has, 'been  carried  on  under  the  general  direction 
of  State  Superintendent  C.  P.  Gary.  Active  direction  of  the 
field  work  and  of  the  preparation  of  this  report  has  been  in 
charge  of  Dr.  W.  W.  Theisen,  Supervisor  of  Educational  Meas- 
urements. Other  members  of  the  survey  staff  were  Mr.  H.  L. 
Terry,  State  Supervisor  of  High  Schools;  Dr.  B.  R.  Bucking- 
ham, Educational  Statistician  of  the  State  Board  of  Education ; 
Dr.  H.  N.  Goddard,  State  Supervisor  of  High  Schools;  Miss 
Amy  Bronsky,  State  Super\dsor  of  City  Grades;  Miss  May- 
bell  G.  Bush,  State  Supervisor  of  City  Grades ;  Miss  Annie  Rey- 
nolds, State  Supervisor  of  Teacher  Training;  Mr.  J.  M.  Dor- 
rans,  State  Supervisor  of  Industrial  Education;  Miss  Janet  R. 
Rankin,  School  Service  Secretary;  Mr.  0.  S.  Rice,  State  Super- 
visor of  School  Libraries;  Mr.  A.  B.  Cook,  State  Supervisor  of 
Day  Schools  for  the  Deaf  and  Blind ;  Professor  P.  W.  Dykema, 
Chairman  of  the  Department  of  Music,  University  of  Wiscon,- 
sin;  and  Miss  Lucy  Dorrit  Hale,  Supervisor  of  Drawing,  Mil- 
waukee State  Normal  School.  In  addition,  special  acknowledg- 
ment should  be  given  to  Mrs.  Cecile  White  Flemming,  Assistant 
Supervisor  of  Educational  Measurements,  Department  of  Public 
Instruction  to  Dr.  Benjamin  P.  James,  Professor  of  Psychology 
and  Education,  Whitewater  State  Normal  School ;  Dr.  Edgar  F. 
Riley,  Principal  of  the  Training  School,  Platteville  State  Nor- 
mal School ;  Mr.  Frank  J.  Lowth,  Principal  of  the  Rock  County 
Training  School;  and  to  the  students  of  these  institutions  who 


viii  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

assisted  in  the  giving  and  scoring  of  the  tests  in  various  school 
subjects. 

The  special  lines  of  investigation  undertaken  by  each  mem- 
ber of  the  staff  are  indicated  by  chapters.  It  was  originally  in- 
tended to  include  recommendations  on  educational  and  financial 
record  forms.  The  State  Board  of  Education,  however,  has  re- 
cently undertaken  to  formulate  a  uniform  system  of  records 
for  all  city  schools  of  the  State,  and  for  this  reason  any  special 
recommendations  at  this  time  would  seem  to  be  premature.  It 
is  expected  that  the  uniform  system  for  all  the  city  schools  will 
be  available  for  use  at  the  beginning  of  the  school  year  1918-19. 

Chapter  I     The  Problem  of  High  School  Organization — 

Terry 
"  II     The  Building  Problem — Theisen,  Terry,  Dor- 

rans 
"  III     Teachers  and  Salaries — Theisen 

"  IV     Costs  and  Finance — Buckingham 

"  V     The  Board  of  Education— Theisen 

"  VI     Census   Enrollment   and  Attendance — Ran- 

kin 
"  VII     The  Problem  of  Industrial  Education — Dor- 

rans,  Terry,  Theisen 
"  VIII     Classroom    Instruction    in    Elementary 

Schools : 
General  Observations  of  Classroom  Instruc- 
tion— Bronsky 
Types  of  Lessons  Observed — Bush 
The  Teaching  of  Classroom  Subjects — Rey- 
nolds 
'*  IX     High  School  Instruction — Goddard,  Terry 

"  X     Special  Courses  and  Instruction  in  Special 

Subjects 
Music — Dykema 
Drawing — Hale 
School  Gardening — Goddard 
Agriculture — Goddard 
XI     Library  Work— Rice 
"  XII     Time  Allotments  and  the  Course  of  Study— 

Theisen 
XIII     Measuring  Results  in  School  Subjects— Thei- 
sen 
"  XIV     Supervision  of  Instruction— Bush,  Bronsky 

"  XV     Progress  and  Classification  of  Pupils— Ran- 

kin 
"  XVI    Provisions  for  Special  Classes— Cook 

"         XVII     Home  Cooperation,  Health,  and  Recreation— 

Bronsky 
"       XVIII     Summary 


Part  I 

I     THE  PROBLEM  OF  HIGH  SCHOOL 
ORGANIZATION 

In  making  definite  plans  for  the  future  of  any  system  of 
schools,  account  should  be  taken  of  certain  ideas  which  are  be- 
coming very  pronounced,  in  regard  to  plans  of  organization  and 
administration  of  both  high  schools  and  of  grades  below  high 
school. 

The  belief  is  becoming  very  prevalent  and  widespread  that  the 
present  custom  of  making  the  division  between  the  grades  and 
high  school  at  the  end  of  the  eighth  year,  leaving  the  last  four 
years  for  secondary  school  work,  is  not  wise  from  either  an  ed- 
ucational or  a  physiological  standpoint.  There  is  general  agree- 
ment that  there  is  at  present  a  great  loss  of  time  and  waste  of 
effort  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades ;  greater  than  an^^where 
else  in  the  entire  course  of  study,  not  only  on  account  of  poor 
methods  of  instruction  but  also  especially  through  the  use  of 
unsuitable  subject  matter  and  an  inefficient  grouping  of  stu- 
dents A\'itb  certain  details  of  promotion  and  management  which 
dull  interest  and  hamper  advancement. 

The  great  M^ork  of  the  grades  from  the  academic  standpoint 
is  to  give  thorough  training  in  the  common  knowledge  which  is 
absolutely  necessary  for  success  in  any  of  the  great  occupations 
by  w^hich  people  get  a  living.  Without  some  ability  to  read, 
write,  calculate,  and  express  thought  a  person  is  so  hampered  as 
to  be  almost  helpless  in  his  business  and  social  relations  with 
others.  This  same  training  also  forms  an  excellent  basis  for  fu- 
ture work  in  school. 

The  amount  of  this  absolutely  necessary  knowledge,  however, 
is  much  less  in  some  subjects  than  is  generally  supposed.  The 
arithmetical  calculations,  for  instance,  required  of  most  people 
are  limited  to  the  very  simplest  operations,  only  a  very  small 
part  of  the  matter  covered  in  the  arithmetic  used  in  the  grades ; 
the  English  composition  for  the  majority  is  mainly  confined  to 


2  Educational  Survey  of  Jaiusville 

simple  business  forms  and  to  letter  Avriting;  if  a  person  can 
write  legibly  with  a  fair  degree  of  rapidity  little  question  is 
raised  as  to  the  artistic  appearance  of  his  penmanship ;  and  so 
we  might  go  through  the  entire  list  of  the  so-called  fundamen- 
tals. Thorough  mastery  of  the  very  simplest  operations  rather 
than  a  wide  range  of  knowledge  is  what  is  demanded. 

The  opinion  is  becoming  common  that  six  years  is  ample  time 
for  the  average  child  if  well  taught  to  acquire  this  absolutely 
necessary  information  and  skill  and  that  our  practice  of  allow- 
ing eight  years  to  do  what  might  easil}^  be  done  in  six,  for  this 
is  practically  what  our  present  course  for  the  eight  grades 
amounts  to,  is  largely  responsible  for  the.  poor  work,  lack  of  in- 
terest and  falling  off  of  students  so  common  in  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades.  New  material  is  needed,  adapted  not  merely  to 
meet  the  simple  business  demands,  but  such  as  Avill  widen  the 
interests  and  give  a  broader  outlook  on  life  with  some  knowledge 
of  what  people  do  for  a  living  and  of  their  social  relationships 
and  obligations. 

The  thought,  too,  seems  to  be  rapidly  crystalizing  that  the 
seventh,  eighth  and  ninth  grades  form  a  more  natural  group 
in  all  their  activities  than  we  have  under  the  present  system  of 
placing  the  ninth  grade  with  the  young  men  and  women  of  the 
upper  grades  of  the  high  school,  and  the  seventh  and  eighth  with 
the  children  of  the  lower  grades.  Following  out  this  idea  in 
an  arrangement  of  the  school  system  we  should  have  six  years 
of  grade  work  proper,  an  intermediate  or  junior  high  school  in- 
cluding what  are  now  the  seventh,  eighth  and  ninth  years  of 
s«hool,  and  a  senior  high  school  composed  of  the  tenth,  eleventh 
and  twelfth  years.  The  belief  is  so  strong  that  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  should  receive  a  different  treatment  from  those 
below,  that  many  advocate  a  combination  with  the  high  school 
in  a  6-6  plan  in  schools  too  small  to  not  permit  of  the  6-3-3 
form  rather  than  to  continue  the  present  grouping.  It  should 
be  understood,  however,  that  the  real  intermediate  or  junior 
high  school  is  an  organization  distinct  from  the  grades  below 
and  the  senior  high  school  above,  having  its  own  building  or 
distinct  part  of  building,  its  own  principal  independent  of  the 
senior  high  school  principal,  its  own  peculiar  pl'ogram  and  course 
of  study,  and  most  of  all  its  own  peculiar  objects  to  be  attained, 
these  last  differing  to  a  very  considerable  extent  from  those  of 
either  the  school  above  or  below. 


Tlu   I'rohloii  of  Jliyh  ScJiool  Or</(tiiiz(itio)i  .      3 

Among  others  there  are  two  very  pronounced  weaknesses  com- 
mon in  school  work  as  it  is  now  managed.  It  is  usually  safe  to 
say  of  any  class  of  fair  size  that  from  a  third  to  a  half  of  the 
members  jnight  do  approximately  double  the  work  and  be  bet- 
ter for  it,  that  as  it  is  they  are  being  trained  to  dawdle  rather 
than  to  exert  themselves  in  a  vigorous,  effective  manner.  At 
the  same  time  it  is  likely  that  there  are  some  who  are  being 
dragged  along  over  work  too  difficult  for  them  in  the  vain  ef- 
fort to  equalize  to  fit  the  whole.  That  is,  the  work  is  not  adapted 
to  the  capacities,  and  aptitudes  of  the  students  as  it  should  be. 

Another  serious  fault  is  that  students  are  passed  through  the 
school  and  turned  out  without  any  definite  ideas  of  the  great 
lines  of  work  which  people  follow  for  a  living  upon  which  to 
base  a  judgment  as  to  their  own  fitness  or  liking  for  any  partic- 
ular occupation. 

It  is  believed  that  the  6-3-3  type  of  organization  would  lend 
itself  much  more  readily  to  meeting  these  defects  than  is  possi- 
ble under  the  present  system  with  its  subjects  and  methods  so 
bound  and  hampered  by  tradition  that  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  bring  about  a  real  change. 

The  new  organization  is  as  yet  free  to  act  in  almost  any  di- 
rection. It  is  not  yet  out  of  the  experimental  stage.  In  large 
schools  it  should  be  very  easy  to  gather  together  many  groups 
of  like  abilities  and  inclinations  and  give  work  accordingly.  A 
comparatively  few  groups  so  formed,  even  as  few  as  three,  in 
any  given  subject  Avould  so  nearly  meet  individual  aptitudes 
that  there  should  be  a  great  improvement  over  what  is  possible 
in  indiscriminate  sectioning.  At  the  same  time  promotion  should 
be  by  single  subjects  instead  of  by  grades  as  now,  so  that  when 
a  student  has  completed  a  required  amount  in  arithmetic  or  any 
other  study  he  may  take  other  work  without  being  held  back 
through  not  having  completed  the  other  subjects  of  his  grade. 
In  the  present  graded  system  this  is  difficult  to  do  because  it 
usually  implies  a  change  of  rooms  and  a  serious  interference 
with  programs.  Thraugh  such  grouping  and  promotion  it  would 
bo  a  comparatively  simple  matter  either  to  allow  the  naturally 
stronger  in  any  particular  subject  to  finish  sooner  or  to  take  a 
wider  or  more  difficult  range  of  work  while  weaker  ones  were 
taking  the  necessary  minimum,  or  another  study  might  be  en- 
tered upon  earlier.     Students  strong  in  grammar  and  weak  in 


4  Ediicafiovdl  Survcu  of  Junesville 

history  would  be  in  the  corresponding  strong  or  weak  sections. 

The  second  great  weakness  mentioned,  that  of  lack  of  voca- 
tional instruction,  should  be  dea,lt  with  to  an  extent  at  least  in 
the  same  manner  except  that  there  should  be  a  still  greater 
measure  of  individualization.  After  a  boy  has  made  a  fair  ef- 
fort in  working  with  tools  and  has  demonstrated  to  his  own  and 
his  teacher's  satisfaction  that  his  tastes  lie  in  other  directions 
he  should  be  allowed  to  try  something  else ;  as  commercial  work 
or  agriculture.  It  may  finally  develop  that  he  should  prepare 
along  academic  or  professional  rather  than  industrial  lines.  In 
short  the  junior  high  school  form  of  organization  as  outlined 
above  would  seem  peculiarly  well-adapted  to  (a)  give  a  good 
academic  preparation  for  either  continued  study  or  for  meeting 
the  more  common  business  and  social  demands  of  life;  (b)  to 
give  sufficient  practice  in  a  few  of  the  great  classes  of  occupa- 
tions by  which  people  live  to  form  a  basis  of  judgment  as  to 
what  will  be  Avorth  while  either  to  try  as  a  trade  or  to  specialize 
toward  in  the  senior  high  school;  (c)  to  give  such  a  knowledge 
of  many  special  occupations,  the  nature  of  the  work,  wages,  cost 
of  preparation  for,  opportunities  they  offer  for  the  exercise  of 
true  citizenship  etc.,  etc.,  that  a  choice  may  not  be  made  blindly 
or  through  a  mere  haphazard  fancy. 

To  secure  these  results,  however,  would  require  much  more 
attention  to  industrial  work  than  is  now  given,  probably  from 
one-fourth  to  one-third  of  the  school  time  would  be  none  too 
much  even  though  there  were  considerable  correlation  Avith  aca- 
demic subjects  additional.  It  would  also  require  more  rooms 
and  better  industrial  equipment  than  is  now  generally  allowed 
for  such  grade  work.  The  expense  would  probably  be  consider- 
ably increased  unless  the  junior  and  the  senior  schools  were  so 
located  and  their  enrollments  were  such  that  equipment  could 
be  used  in  common. 

Different  plans  in  regard  to  buildings  for  junior  and  senior 
high  schools,  dependent  largely  upon  local  conditions,  are  be- 
ing worked  out  in  different  localities  both  in  our  own  and  other 
states.  One  now  in  use  at  Menominee,  Michigan,  places  separate 
buildings  near  enough  together  to  permit  of  use  by  either  school 
of  an  assembly  room,  gymnasium,  and  shops.  A  second,  pro- 
posed at  Waukesha  is  a  single  large  building  for  the  two  schools 
with  shops,  assembly  room,  and  gymnasium  which  may  be  used 


Tlie  Prohhm  of  Iligli  Scliool  Organization  5 

in  common  or  separately.  A  third  plan  is  that  for  the  two  jun- 
ior high  schools  of  Kenosha  in  which  each  school  is  in  a  large 
building  with  the  lower  grades,  while  the  senior  high  school  is 
at  considerable  distance.  Still  a  fourth,  probably  the  advisable 
provision  where  schools  are  large,  is  a  distinct  building  fully 
equipped  for  the  junior  high  school  alone.  This  is  the  plan 
favored  in  the  larger  cities  of  California. 

In  any  reorganization  affecting  the  buildings,  courses  of  study, 
or  the  nature  of  the  work  of  the  schools  of  Janesville,  or  any 
other  city,  the  first  question  to  be  settled  is — "Shall  the  plan 
of  a  junior  high  school  be  adopted?"  Until  this  is  settled  lit- 
tle can  be  done  according  to  any  settled  plan  for  the  future. 

The  conditions  at  Janesville  seem  particularly  favorable  iov 
the  establishment  of  the  junior  and  senior  systems.  The  present 
high  school  building  is  outgrown  for  the  present  four  year  high 
school ;  several  new  grade  buildings  are  needed,  their  number 
and  size  depending  upon  the  disposition  of  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades.  The  enrollment  is  such  that  the  7th,  8th  and  9th 
grades  would  form  a  good  working  size  for  a  group,  and  the  10th, 
lltli  and  12th  grades  would  form  a  good  senior  high  school.  These 
and  other  facts  taken  together  afford  an  unusual  opportunity 
for  a  general  reorganization  in  line  with  the  most  progressive 
schools  of  the  country ;  not  merely  a  few  changes  to  meet  con- 
ditions for  the  time  being  but  a  comprehensive  scheme  looking 
toward  future  needs  and  growth,  n.ot  merely  in  number  but  in 
possible  educational  demands  as  well. 


Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


II     THE  BUILDING  PROBLEM 

Janesville  at  present  has  nine  grade  buildings  and  one  high 
school  building.  The  dates  of  erection,  size  and  valuation  may 
be  seen  from  the  table  opposite.  The  table  Avas  prepared  for  the 
survey  by  the  state  architect.  With  the  exception  of  the  Jackson 
and  the  Garfield,  two  of  the  smaller  buildings,  and  the  additions 
to  the  Douglas  and  the  Jefferson,  all  were  built  more  than  twen- 
ty years  ago.  The  Lincoln,  Washington,  and  Jefferson,  with  the 
exception  of  the  addition  on  the  last  mentioned  building  date 
back  more  than  a  half  century. 

That  the  city  has  few  good  school  buildings  is  a  fact  that  is 
perhaps  familiar  to  most  of  its  citizens.  Several  of  the  buildings 
are  antiquated  and  poorly  suited  to  school  purposes.  The 
amount  of  capital  invested  in  buildings  is  small.  This  isin  some 
respects  fortunate.  It  will  mean  less  in  the  way  of  financial  sac- 
rifice when  the  time  comes  to  replace  the  present  buildings  by 
moilevn  sehoolhouses. 


Tahi.k   T. — Cubages,  Areas,  and   Values  of  Public  School  Buildinr/s,  as 
Computed  by  the  State  Architect,  Mai/  1911 


Year  of 

construction 

1 
Cubical  conte'ntof 
entire  ttullding' 

5^' 

c  5 

|s 

II 
o 

ei  S 

9- 

^  ID 

-J 

«  £. 

O  -r. 

"So 

Net 

o 

0) 

1.1 

£5 

a. 

?85,000 
50.000 

12,000 
25,000 
17,055 

7,500 
2.000 
5  000 
8,800 
8,500 

0^. 

03  <U 

Name  of  school 

Cub. 
con. 

Floor 
area 

3  a 

,  *^  — ^^ 

of  g-ym- 
nasium   only 

Prese 
bull 
cub 

Hiffh  Sf'hool 

.Tefferson 

1S94 
1857 
1914' 
1904 
l«ii8 

about  1880 
1914' 

about  1880 
1900 

about  1878 

about  1855 
1855 

696,500 
524,185 

129,590 
341,000 
223,440 

■  149.940 
53,  -^40 
95,890 
185.730 
189,300 

280, 050 
201,948 

.38,955 
100,800 
66,173 

40,800 
16,128 
3',,  900 
66,413 
94,900 

50,000 
31,585 

8,5X0 
22,750 
13,680 

9,180 
3,970 
6,457 
13,590 
15, 130 

21.390 
14,335 

3,180 
8,400 
5,190 

3,200 
1,344 
2  800 
5,313 
7,965 

98,650 

6,930 

12V5C 
8c 

Garfield 

1.3c 

91/ic 

Adams 

7Vsc 

Doujrlas 

5c 

Grant 

13c' 
5c 

•Tackson 

3%c 

Webster 

SVic 

Washington 

Lincoln 

4%c 
4V2C 

Totals 



2,588,825 

942.057 

174,922 

73,137 

98,650 

6,930 

220.855 

These  items  are  included  in  .lef- 
ferson  school  but  are  used  by 
the     Rock     County    Trainingr 
School 

101,100 

64,300 

6  245 

4,345 

A  1  1 


The  Building  Problem  7 

The  present  school  buildings  are  poorly  distributed  about  the 
city.  They  are  too  many  in  nuniber  and  several  of  them  are 
too  small  both  from  the  point  of  economical  teaching  and  of 
cost  of  operation.  Doubtless,  they  were  so  placed  originally  that 
most  of  the  children  would  have  but  a  short  distance  to  go. 
Distance  is,  however,  not  the  sole  criterion  and  is,  in  fact,  of 
small  consequence  in  a  city  of  Janesville's  size.  A  reasonable 
walking  distance  is  even  to  be  desired  for  health  and  recreation 
purposes. 

Wherever  possible  children  should  be  grouped  in  the  ways  in 
which  they  can  profit  most  educationally.  They  should  be  so 
grouped  as  to  make  possible  good  teaching  organization.  In  the 
judgment  of  the  survey  staff,  the  present  grouping  is  such  as  to 
make  good  organization  next  to  impossible.  It  is  much  to  be  de- 
sired that  grades,  classes  and  courses  be  so  arranged  that  child- 
ren of  somewhere  near  equal  ability  and  of  similar"  tastes  be 
taught  together.  As  may  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  chapter  on 
Measuring  Results  in  School  Subjects,  a  diversity  of  abilities 
prevails  in  nearly  every  grade  room.  In  every  group  tested, 
children  were  found  who  did  far  better  than  the  score  for  the 
class  as  a  whole.  Others  were  found  who  did  far  less.  This  may 
be  expected  because  some  children  are  by  natural  endowment 
capable  of  learning  more  and  in  less  time  than  others. 

If  children  are  economically  grouped  and  taught,  there  "will 
be  some  children  who  can  accomplish  one  of  two  things;  either 
they  can  complete  the  course  of  study  in  less  time  or  they  can 
cover  a  richer  course  in  the  same  time.  On  the  other  hand, 
children  of  less  ability  can  complete  an  amount  of  work  more 
nearly  suited  to  their  own  ability.  These  can  progress  normally 
Avith  other  members  of  their  own  group,  whereas  "under  the  pres- 
ent arrangement  they  are  more  likely  to  fail  of  promotion. 
Nothing  is  more  trying  to  teacher  and  pupil  than  to  have  some 
children  in  a  class  for  whom  the  work  is  much  too  difficult,  and 
others  who  must  mark  time  waiting  for  slow  children  to  grasp 
what  to  these  brighter  children  is  perfectlj^  clear.  Such  condi- 
tions very  often  lead  to  loss  of  interest  and  lax  habits  on  the 
part  of  normally  bright  children,  and  to-  discouragement  and 
loss  of  interest  on  the  part  of  the  less  gifted  children. 

Not  only  are  we  forced  to  recognize  a  difference  in  ahUity 
among  children,  but  also  a  difference  in  tasfea.    This  difference 


8  Educational  Survcif  of  Janesville 

in  tastes  quit«  often  manifests  itself  strongly  at  about  the  time 
the  child  reaches  the  grammar  grades.  Some  indicate  a  gro"vving 
desire  to  explore  the  fields  of  industry  or  comtnerce.  Others  ex- 
hibit a  taste  for  xjrofessional  lines.  To  the  boy  of  a  mechanical 
turn  of  mind  the  thought  of  actually  doing  things  makes  a  strong 
appeal.  To  the  girl  of  domestic  inclinations  the  traditional  sub- 
jects may  seem  wasteful  and  unproductive.  Children  who  show 
an  inclination  to  learn  more  about  these  various  fields  should  be 
be  given  some  opportunity  to  do  so.  A  form  of  reorganization 
such  as  a  junior  high  school  which  brings  together  the  children 
of  the  7th,  8th  and  9th  gi'ades  in  sufficient  numbers  can  arrange 
courses  which  will  permit  children  to  further  develop  these  tastes 
and  to  discover  something  as  to  their  own  natural  fitness  for 
the  different  life  occupations. 

The  present  organization  in  Janesville  tends  to  retard  both  the 
bright  and  the  slow.  In  view  of  the  desirability  of  a  form  of 
grouping  which  shall  bring  children  both  of  like  abilities  and  of 
like  inclinations  together  and  at  the  same  time  provide  classes 
large  enough  for  economical  teaching  there  must  be  a  large 
number  from  which  to  select  for  the  different  groups.  The 
greater  the  number  of  sections  the  nearer  the  approach  to  indi- 
vidual ability.  A  combination  of  the  7th  and  8th  or  7th,  8th 
and  9th  grades  of  the  entire  city  into  a  single  building  would 
provide  such  a  number  and  it  is  the  judgment  of  the  survey 
committee  that  it  would  be  wise  for  the  city  of  Janesville,  to 
bring  these  grades  together  for  this  purpose.  More  satisfactory 
results  than  are  now  being  attained  could  be  had  if  the  children 
were  housed  in  fewer  and  larger  buildings.  If  buildings  were 
larger,  then  this  desirable  grouping  of  children  according  to 
ability  or  degree  of  attainment  could  be  carried  out,  for  it  would 
then  be  possible  to  have  several  sections  of  the  same  grade. 

Location  of  Buildings 

The  board  of  education  must  first  of  all  decide  upon  the  ques- 
tion of  organization.  The  future  development  of  building  plans 
will  be  aff'ected  by  the  course  taken  with  reference  to  a  junior 
high  school.  If  the  board  adopts  the  junior  high  school  organiza- 
tion recommended  by  this  survey,  it  will  mean  that  the  seventh 
and  eighth  grades  shall  be  housed  with  the  ninth  in  a  central 
plant.     At  present  this  would  remove  more  than  300  children 


The  Building  Problem 


Map  showing  location  of  present  buildings  and  the  present 
enrollment  of  elementary  school  pupils  from  each  section  of  the 
city. 


10  Educational  Snrvcn  of  JancsvRle 

from  the  present  grade  buildings  leaving  about  1500  children  to 
be  aceoniniodated  in  grade  buildings. 

The  board  should  in  the  near  future  adopt  a  building  program. 
It  should  decide  approximately  where  all  buildings  to  be  erected 
within  the  next  twenty  3^ears  shall  be  placed  and  the  number  of 
buildings  the  city  shall  have  when  this  progj^am  is  in  full  effect. 
The  accompanying  map  shows  the  location  of  the  present  build- 
ings, and  the  number  of  children  now  attending  elementary 
school  from  each  section  of  the  city. 

Before  recommendations  can  be  made  with  reference  to  the 
number  and  location  of  future  grade  buildings  some  considera- 
tion must  be  given  to  the  probable  directions  of  the  city's  future 
development.  The  city  itself  is  located  in  a  rich  agricultural 
section  and  has  in  addition  the  advantage  of  good  water  power. 
While  the  city  has  not  grown  rapidly  within  the  last  two  dec- 
ades, it  is  not  safe  to  assume  that  there  will  not  be  further  de- 
velopment of  manufacturing  plants. 

Manufacturers  have  in  the  main  chosen  sites  in  near  proxim- 
ity to  the  river  and  it  is  quite  likely  that  they  will  contintle  to  do 
so.  The  combination  of  the  retail  business  section,  the  manu- 
facturing plants  and  the  river  separates  the  city  into  two  dis- 
tinct residential  sections.  Hence  it  would  be  unwise  to  place 
grade  buildings  near  the  central  line  of  the  city.  The  Adams 
and  Jefferson  buildings  approximate  the  ideal  location  for  build- 
ings to  the  east  of  the  river.  On  the  west  side,  however,  building 
sites  appear  to  have  been  chosen  with  little  regard  at  the  time 
for  the  probable  direction  of  future  growth.  The  high  school 
building  is  centrally  located  as  should  be  the  case  with  a  build- 
ing that  is  to  serve  the  entire  school  population,  but  the  same 
cannot  be  said  of  the  Webster,  Garfield,  Lincoln,  Douglas  and 
Grant.  The  needs  of  the  children  in  the  southwest  quarter  of 
the  city  could  more  appropriately  be  served  by  a  single  building 
centrally  located  with  reference  to  that  quarter  of  the  city.  It 
is  unfortunate,  indeed,  that  the  location  of  the  newest  building, 
the  Garfield,  is  such  as  it  is.  The  Washington  site  is  well-suited 
to  a  building  which  shall  ser^'e  the  northwest  quarter  of  the 
city.  The  territory  now  served  by  the  Grant  building  could  well 
be  divided  between  two  buildings  located  as  we  have  just  indi- 
cated. The  pupils  of  the  two  room  Jackson  school  across  the 
bend  of  the  river  should  be  transported.     They  cannot  hope  to 


T!i(    Build i)i(/  Pi-()l)l(}ii  11 

receive  gootl  school  achaiitages  under  present  conditions.  In  the 
event  that  a  building  program  is  adopted  as  we  have  outlined 
above,  it  will  mean  that  the  city  will  eventually  have  four  ele- 
mentary school  buildings  located  approximately  in  the  four 
quarters  of  the  city.  The  number  of  elementary  school  children 
to  be  provided  for  in  each  building  may  be  judged  by  reference 
to  the  accomi)anying  map,  which  indicates  the  number  in  each 
quarter  on  the  basis  of  the  present  enrollment. 

The  central  location  of  the  high  school  plant  makes  it  easily 
accessible  from  all  parts  of  the  cit.y.  The  site  is  fairly  free  from 
dust,  noise,  and  smoke  and  is  convenient  to  the  street-car  line 
and  the  two  bridges.  The  lot,  however,  is  very  small  and  any 
suitable  addition  to  the  present  building  seems  out  of  the  ques- 
tion. Even  if  a  little  additional  ground  could  be  secured  to 
the  west,  it  would  be  of  such  a  shape  and  so  hemmed  in  by  streets 
that  it  would  be  very  unsuitable. 

•  Again,  the  present  building  is  a  complete  unit  and  docs  not 
lend  itself  well  to  any  addition.  A  good  site  of  adequate  size  not 
far  from  the  present  location  would  be  most  desirable. 

In  case  the  6-3-3,  or  junior-senior  type  of  organization  is 
adopted,  the  ideal  high  school  plant  would  be  a  building  large 
enough  and  planned  to  accommodate  both  the  junior  and  senior 
high  schools  as  distinct  organizations.  Making  alloAvance  for 
fair  future  growth,  this  would  mean  accommodations  for  from 
1200  to  1500.  The  lot  should  comprise  several  acres  or  be  large 
enough  to  provide  facilities  for  the  various  athletic,  playground, 
and  physical  training  activities  which  are  certain  to  be  increas- 
ingly important  factors  as  the  coming  greater  emphasis  is  laid 
upon  healtli  training. 

In  ease  such  a  high  school  plant  is  impracticable,  an  alterna- 
tive may  be  to  continue  the  present  building  as  a  senior  high 
school  and  secure  a  large  enough  addition  to  the  Lincoln  site 
across  the  street,  so  that  a  junior  high  school  may  be  erected 
upon  it.  Such  a  plan,  if  adopted,  should  provide  eventually  for 
a  complete  high  school  building,  housing  both  the  senior  and 
junior  high  schools.  The  building  on  the  Lincoln  site  should  be 
made  large  enough  to  accommodate  both  high  schools  with  gym- 
nasium and  such  other  facilities  for  common  use  as  may  be  ad- 
visable. By  adopting  a  construction  plan  capable  of  being  added 
to,  the  two  high  schools  can  be  eventually  united  into  a  single 


12  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

building  when  the  present  building  becomes  too  old  for  use  and 
is  replaced.  Until  that  is  done,  the  two  buildings  might  be  con- 
nected by  a  bridge  or  possibly  it  might  be  feasible  to  close  the 
short  street  and  add  this  ground  to  the  present  sites. 

Condition  of  the  Present  Buildings 

As  intimated  previously  Janesville 's  school  buildings  are  not 
modern.  A  school  building  in  order  to  be  modern  must  be  so  in 
at  least  thren  respects.  It  must  be  modern  in  construction,  ar- 
rangement and  the  purposes  which  the  building  itself  is  to  serve. 
Present  day  buildings  are  constructed  with  a  due  regard  for 
the  type  or  types  of  education  w^hich  the  system  expects  to  of- 
fer. If  a  city  intends  to  provide  not  only  for  the  teaching  of 
traditional  subjects  but  for  prevocational  or  industrial  subjects 
as  well,  or  if  it  plans  to  offer  gymnasium  and  assembly  facilities, 
it  .should  take  such  factors  into  account  in  planning  its  school 
buildings.  A  dwelling  house  is  not  suitable  as  a  factory. 
Neither  is  a  school  building  which  was  intended  to  provide  for 
only  one  type  of  activity  suitable  to  many.  Twenty  years  ago 
schools  were  not  offering  many  of  the  activities  which  are  now 
commonplace.  Not  only  have  schools  made  marked  progress 
during  this  time  in  the  advantages  offered,  but  such  matters  as 
proper  lighting,  heating,  sanitation,  and  ventilation  have  re- 
ceived careful  consideration.  When  new  buildings  are  erected, 
the  city  will  do  well  to  take  advantage  of  the  progress  that  has 
been  made. 

The  only  building  which  can  be  said  to  approximate  a  modem 
building  is  the  Garfield.  The  condition  of  the  Lincoln  is  such 
as  to  make  it  unfit  for  school  purposes.  Its  use  should  be  dis- 
continued. The  AYashington  and  Webster  buildings,  along  with 
the  Lincoln,  were  classed  as  obsolete  by  the  state  architect. 
None  of  the  other  buildings  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  ad- 
ditions to  the  Douglas  and  Jefferson  can  be  classed  as  better  than 
fair. 

The  Adams 

The  site  upon  which  this  building  is  located  is  approximately 
three-fourths  as  large  as  the  present  enrollment  demands. 

The  classrooms  are  poorly  lighted.  The  ratio  of  glass  area  to 
floor  area  ranges  from  9%  to  18^c,  whereas  good  practice  re- 


The  Bmldhii]  PvohUm  13 

quires  at  least  20%.  Unusually  wide  niullioiis  between  win- 
dows is  a  contributing  factor  to  the  poor  lighting  conditions. 
The  smallest  of  these  is  5^^  ft.  The  front  windows  in  several 
rooms  come  within  4  ft.  of  the  front  of  the  room.  This  tends  to 
produce  a  glare  in  the  faces  of  the  pupils.  It  is  a  significant 
fact  that  upon  the  sides  considered  proper  for  light  to  enter  only 
two  windows  are  found  in  each  case.  This  building  should  be 
remodelled  to  provide  sufficient  and  correct  lighting. 

This  building  is  one  of  the  few  provided  with  thermostatic 
control  of  temperature.  It  is  provided  with  the  so-called  ' '  split 
system"  of  heating  and  ventilating  and  is  equipped  with  an  air 
washer.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  other  buildings  were  not  simi- 
larly equipped  in  the  matter  of  heating  and  ventilating. 

The  Lincoln 

This  building  occupies  a  small  site  directly  opposite  the  high 
school.  The  playground  area  is  less  than  one-half  enough  to 
provide  an  area  of  200  sq.  ft.  per  pupil  on  the  basis  of  enroll- 
ment. 

Three  floors  are  used  for  school  purposes.  Corridors  are 
narrow  and  dark.  The  upper  corridor  measures  only  four  feet 
one  inch,  and  in  addition  is  used  as  a  wardrobe.  The  stairways 
are  narrow  and  in  bad  condition.  The  tread  dimensions  of 
eight  and  one-half  inch  riser  with  nine  inch  tread  make  them 
unusualh'  steep  and  dangerous  in  case  of  fire.  The  building 
is  not  fireproof.  In  the  judgment  of  those  who  examined  the 
building  it  is  a  fire  hazard.  The  basement  of  this  building  is 
poorly  lighted  and  ventilated.  It  is  necessary  to  use  electric 
light  even  on  sunshiny  days. 

Classrooms  are  lighted  from  the  left  and  rear.  The  light  area 
in  all  but  two  rooms  is  less  than  14%  of  the  floor  area.  The 
window  mullions  arc  nowhere  less  than  four  feet. 

Toilets  are  poorly  ventilated,  depending  on  windows,  doors 
and  floors.  The  result  is  that  ventilation  takes  place  in  part 
through  the  classrooms  above. 

The  building  as  a  whole  is  poorly  ventilated,  depending  on 
gravity.  In  mild  weather  the  air  movement  is  almost  imper- 
ceptible and  a  disagreeable  stench  permeates  the  air  unless  win- 
doAvs  are  kept  open.  The  building  is  used  in  part  by  the  Indus- 
trial school  and  odors  escaping  from  gas  engines  fill  corridors 
and  classrooms  at  times. 


1-i:  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

Five  hot  air  furnaces  are  required  for  this  building.  This  con- 
dition necessitates  a  large  amount  of  janitor  service  and  fuel 
consumption  is  unnecessarily  large. 

The  building  as  a  whole  presents  an  unsightly  appearance 
both  inside  and  out.  More  efficient  janitor  service  which  places 
a  higher  value  upon  cleanliness  of  ceilings,  floors,  walls  and 
windows  would  add  somewhat  to  its  attractiveness. 

The  Wehster 

•  This  is  an  antiquated  type  of  building  located  on  a  small 
site  of  ground  in  the  vicinity  of  the  river  and  but  a  few  short 
blocks  from  the  Garfield  and  Lincoln  buildings.  Its  corridors 
are  extremely  narrow,  occupying  either  side  of  a  central  stair- 
Avay.  They  are  three  feet  three  inches  wide  and  are  used  as 
cloakrooms  causing  an  undesirable  congestion  at  dismissal  times. 
While  the  classrooms  are  supplied  with  a  sufficient  amount  of 
light,  it  comes  in  from  three  sides.  This  causes  not  only  cross 
lights  but  places  an  undue  strain  upon  the  eyes  of  the  teachers 
who  must  face  the  light. 

The  Garfield 

This  building  is  a  four  room  building  erected  in  1904.  It  is 
a  well-lighted  and  airy  building.  Here  we  find  the  opposite  ex- 
treme in  the  matter  of  corridors  and  stairways  from  that  found 
in  the  Lincoln  and  Webster.  More  than  one-third  of  the  floor 
area  of  each  floor  is  occupied  by  halls,  stairways  and  cloakrooms. 
This  building  has  a  double  stairway  to  accommodate  the  two 
rooms  above.  Each  section  measures  four  feet  wide.  A  single 
stairway  would  have  been  sufficient. 

It  is  indeed  surprising  that  a  new  four  room  building  erected 
so  late  as  1904  should  have  been  provided  with  two  hot  air  fur- 
naces instead  of  a  single  steam  plant. 

The  Grant 

The  Grant  is  an  exact  duplicate  of  the  older  portion  of  the 
Douglas.  It  was  erected  about  1880  near  the  west  limits  of  the 
city.  While  the  building  occupies  an  attractive  site,  it  is  not 
well  located  with  reference  to  the  needs  of  the  school  population. 
It  is  recommended  elsewhere  that  this  site  be  abandoned  when 
the  new  building  program  is  completed. 


The  Bnilding  Frohlem  '  15 

The  toilets  are  not  modern  and  are  poorly  ventilated.  If  the 
building  is  to  be  used  for  some  years  as  it  may  be,  modern 
equipment  should  be  installed.  Washing  facilities  at  present 
are  limited  to  the  overtlow  from  drinking  fountains  in  a  combi- 
nation fountain  sink. 

Tlie  Douglas 

The  Douglas  building  is  located  upon  a  clean  and  well-drained 
site  of  ground.  It  is  made  up  of  the  original  building  and  an  ad- 
dition erected  in  1914. 

Classrooms  in  this  building  are  among  the  best  lighted  in  the 
city. 

Each  portion  of  the  building  is  heated  by  a  separate  plant. 
In  the  opinion  of  the  janitor  the  hot  air  furnace  which  heats  the 
newer  portion  consumes  an  undue  proportion  of  coal,  while 
some  difficulty  is  experienced  in  producing  sufficient  heat  with 
the  present  steam  boiler  for  the  older  portion.  It  is  possible 
that  the  latter  situation  could  be  improved  by  proper  piping. 

This  building  is  one  of  the  few  equipped  with  modern  sanitary 
individual  automatic  flushing  toilets.  Toilet  rooms  are  well 
lighted.    The  building  is  noticeable  for  its  cleanliness. 

The  Jacksoyi 

The  Jackson  is  a  small  two-room  building  on  the  outskirts  of 
the  city.  It  is  recommended  elsewhere  in  this  report  that  the 
use  of  this  building  be  eventually  discontinued  and  the  pupils 
transported.  The  site  occupies  low  lying  ground.  It  is  so  low 
that  water  interferes  with  the  operation  of  the  heating  appar- 
atus at  certain  seasons  of  the  year. 

The  classrooms  of  this  building  are  both  insufficiently  and  im- 
properly lighted.  The  light  area  measures  13%  of  the  floor 
area.  Each  room  has  four  windows  on  one  side  and  one  on  each 
of  the  other  two  sides.  MuUions  between  windows  are  28  inches 
wide.  The  room  now  occupied  by  the  third  and  fourth  grades  is 
of  unusual  dimensions  being  twenty-four  feet  long  and  twenty- 
seven  feet  wide.  To  provide  sufficient  light  for  this  room  will 
require  enlarging  of  windows. 

The  toilets  for  this  building  are  of  the  common  out-of-door 
type.  The  urinals  were  obser\^ed  to  be  in  a  filthy  and  unsanitary 
condition. 


16  Educational  Survey  of  Jancwille 

The  Washington 

The  Washington  building  occupies  a  site  well  adapted  for  a 
school  ground.  The  playground  is  of  adequate  size  to  accommo- 
date the  present  enrollment  and  is  equipped  with  playground  ap- 
paratus. A  good  growth  of  trees  and  shrubbery  adds  to  its  at- 
tractiveness. 

This  building  is  more  than  a  half  century  old.  It  is  regarded 
as  obsolete  by  the  state  architect.  The  serviceableness  of  this 
eight-room  building  is  decreased  by  the  condition  of  the  lighting 
and  the  small  size  of  its  corridors.  From  the  enclosed  nature  of 
the  four  centrally  located  rooms,  it  is  difficult  to  provide  suf- 
ficient light  for  these  rooms.  Prism  glass  has  been  introduced 
but  the  glare  was  observed  to  be  so  pronounced  as  to  warrant 
the  suggestion  that  its  use  was  unwise.  The  situation  can  be 
somewhat  improved  by  increasing  the  size  of  the  windows.  In 
the  remaining  four  rooms  the  light  enters  from  three  sides. 
The  toilet  rooms  in  this  building  are  particularly  deficient  in 
quantity  of  light. 

Corridors  in  this  building  are  cramped.  The  main  corridor 
measures  7% — 8  ft.  wide,  and  in  addition  is  used  for  cloakroom 
space.     A  secondary  corridor  measures  but  four  feet  in  width. 

The  Jefferson 

This  building  is  located  on  a  site  of  ample  size.  The  site  with 
the  exception  of  the  southeast  quarter  is  well  drained.  It  has 
been  made  attractive  through  the  planting  of  grass  and  trees  and 
the  provision  of  playground  apparatus. 

The  building  itself  is  one  of  the  larger  ones  of  the  system. 
There  are  three  floors,  the  upper  of  which  is  now  used  by  the 
Rock  County  Training  School.  This  building  was  at  one  time 
used  as  a  high  school  building.  Even  though  it  has  been  re- 
modeled to  some  extent,  undesirable  evidences  of  the  fact  still 
remain. 

Classrooms  in  the  older  portion  are  poorly  lighted  and  of  im- 
proper dimensions  for  good  school  use.  The  light  area  is  but 
12%  of  the  floor  area  when  20  to  25%  is  to  be  expected.  Un- 
fortunately, the  rooms  are  so  constructed  that  they  are  wider 
than  they  are  long  as  they  are  now  used.  The  dimensions  are 
24'x30'.  Light  enters  from  one  side  only  but  in  each  case  it  is 
the  short  side.    This  makes  it  necessary  for  the  light  to  pass  a  dis- 


The  Building  Prohhm  17 

tanee  of  30  ft.  across  classrooms.  Prism  glass  has  been  installed 
in  some  rooms  but  this  has  been  found  to  produce  a  troublesome 
glare. 

The  building  is  very  inconvenient  in  arrangement.  It  is  im- 
possible to  pass  from  one  end  of  the  building  to  the  other  without 
passing  through  classrooms.  There  is  no  central  corridor  on 
either  floor.  If  the  cost  of  remodeling  is  not  excessive  some  im- 
provements could  be  made  b}'  removing  the  present  cloakrooms, 
thus  adding  the  width  of  these  rooms  to  the  classrooms.  Inside 
wardrobes  could  be  installed  along  the  wall  fartherest  removed 
from  the  light.  These  could  be  made  a  combination  blackboard 
type. 

The  basement  of  this  building  presents  a  filthy  appearance.  It 
has  only  a  dirt  floor  in  places  and  is  being  used  to  store  outworn 
equipment. 

The  High  School  Building 

In  common  with  many  others  in  the  state  the  Janesville  High 
School  has  grown  within  the  last  few  years  until  the  enrollment 
has  become  much  larger  than  the  intended  capacity  of  the  build- 
ing. Allowing  14  square  feet  of  floor  space  (not  a  large  allow- 
ance) per  pupil,  the  assembly  room  can  accommodate  about  -400 
students.  The  building  in  general  appears  to  have  been  planned 
for  about  this  number.  The  present  enrollment  is  530  or  130 
more  than  it  should  be  for  comfort,  convenience,  or  proper 
sanitation. 

The  result  is  that  not  only  the  assembly  room  but  cloakrooms 
and  many  recitation  rooms  are  so  badly  overcrowded  as  to  be 
not  only  inconvenient  but  unhealthful  and  in  some  cases  unsafe. 
It  is  surprising  that  there  have  been  no  accidents  in  some  of 
these  rooms ;  in  the  girls '  cloakroom  for  instance  during  the  noQn" 
intermission  when  the  girls  are  pushing  in  and  out  of  the  single 
door  and  struggling  with  the  mass  for  their  hats  and  wraps. 
Rooms  are  being  used  for  recitation  purposes  which  were  origin- 
ally intended  for  cloakrooms,  museums,  or  offices;  s]mees  have 
been  partitioned  off  in  the  third  stofy  for  recitation  purposes 
inadequately  lighted  and  ventilated  and  unsuitable  in  every  way 
for  such  use.  The  attic  rooms  used  for  commercial  work  and  the 
domestic  science  department  are  especially  objectionable,  inter- 
ferred  with  as  they  are  by  the  truss  work  of  the  building,  incon- 


18  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

veuient  of  access  and  very  poorly  lighted  and  ventilated.  It 
would  seem,  too,  that  there  might  be  serious  danger  in  case  of 
fire  though  there  are  two  exits  besides  two  fire  escapes.  A  re- 
deeming feature  is  tliat  of  the  large  halls  in  the  first  and  second 
stories  which  give  space  for  rapid  and  easy  movement  of  large 
classes. 

•  The  Building  Code  regulations  of  the  state  prescribe  that  there 
shall  be  at  least  one  square  foot  of  glass  surface  for  each  six 
square  feet  of  floor  surface ;  one  square  foot  for  every  five  square 
feet  is  recommended.  This  rule  applies  to  study,  class,  recita- 
tion and  laboratory  rooms.  The  assembly  room  and  five  class- 
rooms now  in  use  meet  these  requirements ;  the  remaining  eleven 
rooms  used  for  the  purposes  stated  range  from  one  square  foot 
of  lighting  surface  to  every  eight  feet  of  floor  space,  down  to 
less  than  one-half  of  the  recommended  ratio  of  one  to  five,  sev- 
eral having  less  than  one  to  ten.  None  of  the  rooms  used  for 
class  purposes  are  properly  lighted.  Artificial  light  is  very 
often  necessary  during  even  fairly  light  days.  Some  of  the 
rooms  are  very  poorly  equipped  for  this,  the  electric  lights  be- 
ing small  and  few  in  number.  A  number  of  the  rooms,  including 
those  in  the  attic  should  be  absolutely  condemned  on  account  of 
insufficient  light  if  for  no  other  reason. 

The  adequacy  of  the  heating  and  ventilating  system  could 
hai'dly  be  determined  at  Ihe  season  of  the  year  when  the  survey 
was  made.  There  seems  to  be  strong  evidence  that  the  heating 
plant  is  insufficient  under  present  conditions.  The  truth  prob- 
ably is  that  both  the  htntuig  and  ventilating  plants  were  well 
adapted  to  the  requirements  when  the  school  was  of  proper  size 
for  the  building.  It  is  mC'St  likely  that  after  more  than  twenty 
yc.ifs  of  service  the  heating  equipment  should  be  thoroughly 
overhauled  or  replaced  by  new.  In  short,  a  very  considerable 
amount  of  repairs  will  be  necessary  to  put  the  building  into 
good  condition  for  even  a  school  of  the  size  originally  intended 
to  be  accommodated.  In  addition  to  this  a  higher  standard  of 
janitor  service  should  be  insisted  upon. 


The  Building  Problem  19 

<t:;.vkral  IIkalth  and  Sanitary  Conditions  and  Equipment  of 

Buildings 
Lighting 

The  question  of  correct  and  sufficient  lighting  is  one  of  no 
small  importance.  A  system  of  education  which  compels  a  child 
to  attend  school  should  be  willing  to  assure  him  that  his  eye- 
s  'tht  will  he  propei-ly  safeguarded.  An  insufficient  quantity  of 
l:;,ht,  the  glare  of  direct  sunlight,  and  cross  lights  are  each  in- 
iurious  to  the  mechanism  of  the  eve.  In  modern  schoolhouses 
classrooms  are  lighted  from  the  left  only,  but  of  fifty-two  rooms, 
only  seven  were  lighted  from  the  left,  twenty-four  from  the  left 
and  rear,  two  from  the  right  and  rear,  seventeen  on  three  sides, 
one  from  the  left  and  front,  and  one  from  two  sides.  But  even 
though  windows  are  correctly  placed  lighting  may  be  unsatisfac- 
tory because  the  total  glass  area  is  too  small.  Figures  on  the 
ratio  of  the  glass  area  to  the  iioor  area  were  submitted  by  the 
principals.  On  the  basis  of  a  ratio  of  one  square  foot  of  glass 
area  to  floor  area,  the  Adams,  Grant,  Lincoln,  Jackson,  two  of  the 
four  rooms  in  the  Garfield,  the  rooms  of  the  older  portion  of  the 
Jefferson  and  four  of  the  eight  rooms  in  the  Washington  build- 
ing have  an  insufficient  quantity  of  light,  regardless  of  the 
source.  There  is  no  building  in  the  city  in  which  the  light  for 
all  of  the  rooms  is  properly  distributed.  The  seventeen  class- 
rooms indicated  above  as  having  windows  on  three  sides  of  the 
room  are  distributed  among  five  buildings,  Adams,  Grant,  Jack- 
son, Washington,  and  Webster. 

Blackboards 

A  large  blackboard  area  is  a  desirable  feature  of  classroom 
equipment.  In  this  respect  the  schools  are  well  provided.  In 
some  buildings,  however,  a  high  grade  quality  of  maferial  has 
not  been  used.  Patent  composition  blackboards  have  not  pro- 
vided a  satisfactory  substitute  for  slate.  They  are  expensive  be- 
cause sooner  or  later  they  must  be  replaced,  while  a  high  grade 
slate  or  ground  glass  board  is  practically  permanent.  The  com- 
position boards  ncTw  in  use  should  be  replaced. 

Blackboards  in  order  to  be  most  serviceable  should  be  placed 
at  heights  best  suited  to  those  who  are  to  use  them.  Small 
children  cannot  use  a  "board  profitably  where  a  large  part  of  it 
extends  above  their  heads.     In  thirty-seven  rooms,  at  present. 


20  Eduattional  Survey  of  Janesville 

boards  are  from  one  to  sixteen  inches  too  high  for  children  of 
the  grades.  In  a  few  rooms  children  stood  on  benches  to  reach 
the  board.  In  two  rooms  boards  are  placed  slightly  lower  than 
the  desired  table  of  heights  indicated  elsewhere  in  this  chapter. 
In  many  of  the  rooms  boards  are  wider  than  is  ordinarily  re- 
quired. The  space  near  the  top  of  the  board  is  used  by  some 
teachers  for  illustrative  purposes.  Whenever  new  blackboards 
are  installed  a  saving  may  be  effected  by  selecting  boards  ac- 
cording to  the  table  of  standards  indicated  elsewhere.  For  illus- 
trative purposes  a  more  satisfactory  cork  bulletin  board  may  be 
placed  at  the  top  of  the  board. 

Seating 

The  eighth  grade  of  the  Adams  building  is  supplied  with  the 
most  modern  type  of  school  desk.  It  is  a  combination  seat  and 
desk  which  can  be  adjusted  to  the  needs  of  the  child.  It  is  mov- 
able, permitting  the  teacher  to  adapt  the  grouping  of  the  child- 
ren at  any  time  to  the  requirements  of  the  particular  class  or 
study  period.  If  she  desires  to  have  the  children  work  or  study 
in  groups  where  each  may  learn  from  the  other,  she  may  do  so. 
If  instead  of  compelling  the  children  in  the  rear  of  the  room 
to  observe  the  backs  of  classmates,  she  desires  to  seat  them  in 
the  form  of  a  semicircle  it  will  be  easy  to  do  so.  Each  pupil  in 
the  class  can  then  see  the  responsive  expression  which  lights  up 
the  faces  of  his  classmates  when  he  contributes  anything  of  real 
merit  to  the  class  or  group  discussion.  The  backs  of  pupils  and 
chairs  are  ordinarily  quite  unresponsive  and  not  adapted  to 
drawing  from  the  piipil  his  best  efforts  to  make  a  convincing  im- 
pression on  his  class  mates.  Too  often  the  recitation  is  little 
more  than  a  dialogue  between  pupil  and  teacher.  Some  of  the 
qualities  we  value  most  include  the  ability  to  discuss  a  topic  be- 
fore a  group  of  active  listeners.  If  these  valued  social  qualities 
are  to  be  enhanced,  the  type  and  arrangement  of  seats  in  the 
classroom  should  be  such  as  to  facilitate  that  kind  of  teaching. 
It  is  to  be  hoped  that  as  the  old  type  of  seats  are  discarded  they 
will  be  replaced  by  substantial  seats  of  the  movable  kind. 

With  the  single  exception  above,  the  seats  in  all  rooms 
except  kindergartens  are  of  the  stationary  type.  Unfortu- 
nately an  insufficient  number  of  these  are  adjustable.  With 
the    exception    of    the    Jackson    building    every    building    has 


Th(   Iiuil(li)t(/  Problem  21 

some  rooms  with  iiou-Mdjustal)le  seats.  This  coiHlition  would 
bo  less  serious  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  all  too  fre- 
quently the  seats  in  a  room  are  of  one  size  only.  The  children 
of  a  room  are  not  often  all  of  one  size.  In  one  room  of  the 
"Washington  building  the  feet  of  eleven  out  of  the  thirty-six 
children  in  the  room  did  not  touch  the  floor.  Even  with  the 
present  equipment  an  immediate  attempt  should  be  made  to 
distribute  the  seats  in  use  to  fit  as  nearly  as  possible  the  phys- 
ical needs  of  the  children.  Janitors  should  be  instructed  as  to 
]iroper  arrangement  of  seating.  It  is  generally  agreed  that 
for  scats  of  the  stationary  tyj)e  the  front  edge  of  the  seat 
should  extend  two  inches  beyond  a  line  dropped  vertically  from 
the  edge  of  the  desk.  However,  no  uniformity  in  this  respect 
was  found  in  any  of  the  buildings.  In  some  cases  seats  and 
desks  "lapped"  as  much  as  four  and  one-half  inches  and  in 
others  failed  by  two  inches  to  "lap"  at  all. 

Cupboards  and  Filing  Cabinets 

The  buildings  are  inadequately  provided  with  storing  and 
filing  facilities.  Unfortunately  most  of  the  building 'plans  did 
not  take  the  need  of  store  room  facilities  into  account.  Teachers 
are  handicapped  by  this  lack  of  room.  When  such  equipment 
is  not  provided,  books  and  other  materials  are  not  apt  to  receive 
the  best  of  care  nor  can  they  be  put  away  in  such  manner  that 
they  can  quickly  be  brought  out  again  w^hen  necessary.  Often 
times  it  is  very  desirable  and  profitable  to  the  teaching  and 
sujiervision  if  samples  of  children's  work  can  be  properly  filed. 
Such  material  can  be  used  to  indicate  improvement  over  a  given 
period  of  time  or  to  indicate  possible  degrees  of  attainment. 
Cupboard  and  filing  facilities  are  comparatively  inexpensive 
and  the  board  should  make  immediate  provision  for  this  neces- 
sary equipment.  For  temporary  filing  or  exhibit  purpose  cork 
bulletin  boards  may  be  added  to  the  classroom  equipment. 

Floors 

All  buildings  have  been  provided  with  good  maple  floors. 
This  makes  a  smooth  good  wearing  surface,  that  can  be  easily 
cleaned.  In  the  construction  of  new  buildings,  however,  it  will 
be  well  to  provide  for  fireproof  construction.  If  floors  are  made 
of  concrete  they  can  be  overlaid  wath  patent  process  finish  or 


22  Educational  Surveij  of  Jancsville 

covered  with  heavy  battleship  linoleum.  Either  of  these  is 
superior  to  wood  floors  in  many  respects.  Thej-  are  easily 
cleaned,  noiseless  and  free  from  cracks. 

Stairways  and  Corridors 

An  open  stairway  of  the  ' '  well-hole ' '  type  provides  a  constant 
danger  to  the  children  who  use  it.  Such  open  stairways  as 
found  in  the  Adams  building  should  be  remedied  at  once.  Stair- 
ways in  this  building  are  of  the  winding  type  with  a  low  ban- 
ister railing.  It  is  a  very  easy  matter  for  some  children  to  be 
pushed  over  the  banister.  The  janitor  of  this  building  reports 
that  in  the  past  some  children  have  fallen  over.  Luckily  no  ser- 
ious accident  has  happened  thus  far.  Gcod  stairways  provide 
either  a  solid  balustrade  or  steel  banisters  five  feet  high.  AVith 
a  solid  balustrade  stairways  can  be  inclosed  making  it  less  likely 
that  smoke  will  fill  the  passage  way  in  case  of  fire. ' 

Unless  the  tread  and  riser  of  a  stairway  are  of  the  proper  pro- 
portions the  step  produced  is  not  one  which  is  adapted  to  the 
natural  step  of  the  child  or  other  person  using  it.  It  may  be 
too  flat  or  too  steep.  In  the  case  of  a  sharply  rising  stairway 
the  tread  may  be  even  dangerous.  The  danger  of  falling  on 
such  a  stairway  as  that  in  the  Lincoln  building  where  the  tread 
and  riser  measure  9  and  Sy^  inches  respectfully^  is  obvious^ 
tread  and  riser  dimensions  11  x  6V>  in.  are  both  safe  and  com- 
fortable to  the  user. 

The  corridors  in  the  Lincoln,  Webster,  and  Washington  are 
much  smaller  than  good  schoolhouse  architecture  demands.  The 
second  floor  corridor  of  the  Lincoln  building,  indicated  elsewhere 
as  a  fire  hazard,  is  only  slightly  more  than  four  feet  wide  in 
places.  In  addition  it  is  used  as  a  cloakroom.  Good  corridors 
should  l)e  8-12  ft.  wide  in  grade  buildings. 

Toilets 

Adequate  sanitation  requires  that  toilets  shall  be  clean,  well- 
ventilated  and  properly  equipped.  A  number  of  buildings  have 
toilets  that  are  poorly  ventilated  and  located  in  some  dark  and 
damp  corner  of  the  basement.  Immediate  steps  should  be  taken 
to  enlarge  the  windows  in  toilet  rooms  to  admit  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  light  and  to  provide  for  proper  ventilation.  In 
the  interest  of  health  and  morals  toilet  rooms  should  be  as  well 


The  Building  rrohJan  23 

kept  as  othei'  parts  of  a  school  building.  There  is  no  reason 
why  standards  of  toilet  room  sanitation  and  appearance  should 
be  any  less  than  that  found  in  good  homes.  The  toilet  rooms  in 
nearly  all  buildings  are  provided  with  open  stalls.  A  due  regard 
for  privacy  demands  that  doors  be  i)rovided.  They  can  be  made 
in  slatted  form  to  admit  light  and  of  a  height  that  will  permit 
supervision.  Each  stall  should  be  equipped  with  paper  holding 
facilities  of  a  kind  which  prevent  excessive  waste.  At  present  it 
is  customary  to  provide  only  one  or  two  rolls  of  paper  for  the 
entire  toilet  room.  The  present  form  of  porcelain  urinal  troughs 
should  be  discontinued  as  soon  as  those  now  in  use  are  outworn. 
They  should  be  replaced  by  a  form  that  is  adapted  to  continuous 
flushing  and  that  is  suited  to  the  height  of  all  children. 

Toilet  room  fixtures  in  some  cases  are  not  well  adapted  to  the 
height  of  the  children.  The  scats  in  the  kindergarten  room  of 
the     Douglas  building  unfortunately  are  adult  size. 

In  all  cases  washing  facilities  should  be  provided  in  toilet 
rooms  or  iii  some  adjoining  room.  Children  should  be  required 
to  use  them.  Parents  teach  children  as  a  matter  of  habit  to  wash 
immediately  after  using  the  toilet  and  the  school  should  in  no 
way  tend  to  break  down  this  habit.  With  the  present  washing 
facilities  it  is  altogether  improbable  that  the  children  will  keep 
up  'this  habit.  The  toilets  in  several  of  the  buildings  have  no 
washing  facilities  whatever.  The  only  facility  for  washing  in 
many  eases  is  a  small  combination  sink  and  fountain  in  the  main 
corridor  of  each  floor.  The  water  in  those  is  always  at  a  low 
temperature.     No  soap  is  provided  and  frequently  no  towels. 

Watei'  Supply 

A  sufficient  number  of  lavatories  should  be  provided  to 
furnish  washing  facilities  in  toilet  rooms  and  on  each  floor. 
Paper  towels  and  liquid  soap  should  be  furnished.  It  is  re- 
gretable,  indeed,  that  too  much  economy  is  practiced  in  this  re- 
spect. In  only  a  few  buildings  was  there  any  soap  of  any  kind 
to  be  found.  On  the  other  hand  a  number  of  children  were  ob- 
served whose  hands  were  in  evident  need  of  washing.  The 
teaching  of  hygiene  or  physiology  should  be  of  such  a  practical 
nature  th^t  good  personal  habits  are  established  by  the  children, 
and  the  school  should  provide  proper  facilities  to  permit  the 
children  to  apply  the  classroom  teaching. 


24 


Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


The  combination  sinks  and  drinking  fountains  now  in  general 
use  throughout  the  buildings  should  be  replaced.  Children 
should  not  be  required  to  depend  for  wasii  water  upon  the  over- 
flow from  the  drinking  fountain.  The  present  arrangement  re- 
sults in  an  insufficient  supply  of  water  at  undesirable  temper- 
atures and  makes  an  unsanitary  appearance.  Warm  water  for 
washing  purposes  should  be  supplied  in  all  buildings. 

Heating  and  Ventilating 

The  method  of  heating  employed  in  the  Garfield,  Jackson, 
Lincoln,  Washington,  Webster  and  a  part  of  the  Douglas  build- 
ing is  that  of  the  hot  air  furnace.  This  system  is  costly  and  is 
not  suitable  to  a  building  of  any  size,  a  fact  which  can  be  judged 
from  the  number  installed  in  the  above  mentioned  buildings. 
The  number  and  kind  of  heating  plants  and  the  number  of  class- 
rooms, not  including  basement  rooms,  can  be  seen  from  the 
following  table.     The  undesirability  of  the  hot  air  furnace 


Tahlk  2 


Building: 

No.  of 

classrooms 

No.  heating 
plants 

T^'pe  of  heating 
system 

Hifrh  School 

22 
8 
6 
4 
4 
2 

12 

12 

8 

4 

1 
1 
2 
2 
1 
1 
1 
5 
4 
2 

steam 

steam 

Douglas 

hot  air  and  steam 

Garfield 

hot  air 

Grant 

i»team 

hot  air 

steam 

Lincoln 

hot  air 

Washington 

hot  air 

Webster 

hot  air 

may  be  judged  from  the  number  found  in  the  Lincoln  and  Wash- 
ington buildings.  A  consequence  of  the  present  system  in  these 
buildings  is  an  undue  amount  of  janitorial  service  and  excessive 
fuel  cost.  This  type  of  heating  system  should  not  be  installed 
in  any  new  buildings  to  be  erected.  Whenever  new  boilers  are 
installed  they  should  be  of  the  sectional  type.  This  will  permit 
of  enlarging  in  case  of  an  addition  to  the  building.  Had  this 
plan  been  followed  in  the  Douglas,  Ave  would  not  find  there  now 
both  a  steam  plant  and  a  hot  air  system  each  serving  S,  portion 
of  the  building. 

The  system  of  ventilation  in  a  number  of  buildings  is  of  the 


The  Building  Problem  25 

"parity"  type.  This  system  requires  a  low  outside  temper- 
ature for  efficient  service.  In  temperate  weather  there  is  little 
circulation  of  the  air.  A  better  type  of  ventilation  is  that 
furnished  by  such  a  system  as  that  in  the  Adams  building.  This 
system  is  a  so-called  "split"  system.  The  heating  and  ventilat- 
ing systems  are  separate.  During  school  hours  a  fresh  supply 
of  heated  air  is  introduced  by  means  of  a  motor  driven  fan.  The 
direct  radiators  are  on  separate  piping  and  are  used  for  initial 
heating  and  for  keeping  the  building  warm  after  school  hours 
or  in  extremely  cold  weather.  This  building  is  further  pro- 
vided, as  should  be  the  case,  with  an  air  washer  for  insuring 
clean  air  with  a  proper  amount  of  moisture.  The  air  as  it  comes 
into  the  building  passes  through  the  washer  and  then  over 
tempered  coils.  The  washer,  however,  was  turned*  off  at  the  time 
the  building  was  visited.  This  should  not  be  done.  The  health 
and  comfort  of  the  children  demand  that  heated  air  entering  a 
schoolroom  shall  contain  a  relative  humidity  of  40-50%. 

Cleanliness 

The  janitors  could  very  profitably  be  instructed  in  methods  of 
cleaning  school  buildings.  They  need  also  to  be  instructed  on 
such  matters  as  the  relation  of  dust  to  disease.  In  two  of  the 
buildings  it  was  noticeable  that  the  pride  of  the  janitor  in  a 
clean  building  had  much  to  do  with  the  appearance  of  the  floors, 
hallways  and  windows.  In  other  cases  windows  were  in  need  of 
washing  and  floors  presented  a  dust}'  appearance,  even  when 
swept.  Sweeping  compound  is  used,  but  all  too  sparingly  in 
some  buildings.  An  inexpensive  "home  made"  sweeping  com- 
pound should  be  provided  in  sufficient  quantity  at  all  times. 
The  efforts  of  the  janitors  to  keep  buildings  clean  can  be  aided 
by  better  grading  of  the  school  grounds.  This  is  especially  true 
for  the  grounds  of  the  Adams  building  and  for  the  southeast 
quarter  of  the  Jefferson. 

The  installation  of  vacuum  cleaning  apparatus  would  aid  ma- 
terially not  only  in  cleaning  floors  but  in  cleaning  walls  and 
ceilings  as  well.  In  a  number  of  rooms,  i)articularly  in  the 
Lincoln  building  the  walls  and  ceilings  presented  a  dirty  appear- 
ance. Schoolrooms  should  at  least  be  clean  and  inviting  if 
nothing  more.  With  adequate  facilities  for  cleaning  ceilings, 
floors,  and  walls  readily,  together  with  some  instruction  of  the 


26  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

janitors  on  proper  methods  of  cleaning  school  buildings,  it 
should  be  impossible  to  find  an  unsanitary  room  in  any  building. 
The  efficiency  of  the  janitor  service  could  be  very  nuich  im- 
proved by  the  employment  of  a  competent  supervisor  of  janitors 
and  buildings  serving  under  the  immediate  direction  of  the 
superintendent,  lie  should  be  a  competent  engineer  familiar 
with  the  various  types  of  heating  and  ventilating  systems  and  the 
best  methods  of  operating  them.  He  should  be  a  man  familiar 
with  accepted  standards  of-  schoolhouse  construction  and  ar- 
rangement and  the  methods  of  keeping  buildings  in  a  sanitary 
condition.  He  could  very  well  act  as  head  janitor  of  some  large 
building  such  as  the  high  school.  A  portion  of  his  time  could 
profitably  be  spent  in  visiting  other  buildings,  supervising  the 
janitors  and  instructing  both  janitors  and  principals  in  methods 
of  cleaning  and  caring  for  buildings. 

Fire  Protection 

Entrances  to  all  buildings  should  be  equipped  at  once  with  fire 
bolts.  A  due  regard  for  safety  must  be  constantly  maintained 
or  the  city  may  with  some  reason  live  in  fear  of  a  repetition  of 
the  celebrated  Collingwood  fire.  Without  fire  bolts  doors  are  apt 
to  be  found  securely  fastened  at  a  time  of  panic.  Fire  drills, 
fire  extinguishers  and  fire  escapes  especially  of  the  type  now  in 
use  are  insufficient  protection.  The  present  buildings  are  not 
of  a  fireproof  construction.  ]\Ioreover,  several  buildings  are 
heated  all  or  in  part  by  hot  air  furnaces  which  add  to  the  danger 
from  fire.  The  type  of  fire  escape  now  provided  is  that  of  the 
iron  exterior  stairway  type.  The  common  method  of  access  to 
these  is  through  classroom  windows.  In  case  of  a  fire  on  the 
lower  floor  this  furnishes  a  grave  danger  for  the  children  above 
in  case  they  attempt  to  use  it.  The  stairway  becomes  so  hot  that 
it  cannot  be  used  with  safety.  In  buildings  that  are  to  be  used 
for  some  time,  fire  escapes  of  this  type  should  be  replaced  by  an 
enclosed  spiral  type.  In  the  better  type  of  modern  buildings, 
the  ordinary  interior  stairway  is  fireproof  and  smokeproof  and 
so  shut  off  from  the  remainder  of  the  building  that  it  forms  the 
natural  means  of  fire  escape.  Moreover,  the  children  are  less 
apt  to  become  panic  stricken  since  they  make  use  of  the  custom- 
ary means  of  going  out  of  the   building. 

Fire  gongs  which  can  be  readily  sounded  from  each  floor  and 


The  Building  Problem  ■  27 

heard  in  all  parts  of  the  building  should  be  installed.  Under 
the.  present  -arrangement  the  signal  for  fire  drill  in  a  number  of 
buildings  is  given  by  ringing  a  hand  bell  usually  in  possession  of 
the  principal.  It  is  by  no  means  asured  that  a  fire,  if  it  should 
ooeu!'.  would  necessarily  break  out  in  or  near  the  principal's 
room.  While  attention  has  been  given  to  fire  drill  in  all  build- 
ings, it  was  found  that  it  does  not  always  operate  successfully 
when  the  signal  comes  from  other  than  the  customary  source  nor 
are  all  schools  equally  proficient  in  this  type  of  work.  In  the 
Lincoln  building,  the  most  dangerous  fire-trap  in  the  city,  seven 
rooms  failed  to  heed  the  signal  given  at  the  request  of  members 
of  the  survey  staff. 

Fire  extinguishers  are  now  provided  but  fire  fighting  ap- 
paratus which  includes  only  fire  extinguishers  is  insufficient. 
The  buildings  are  not  provided  with  fire  water  piping  and  fire 
hose  as  should  be  the  case  in  all  properly  fire  protected  buildings. 
Most  assuredly  neither  the  school  authorities  nor  the  public  care 
to  have  the  children  exposed  to  undue  dangers  from  fire.  It  is 
recommended  that  immediate  steps  be  taken  to  provide  adequate 
fire  protection  in  all  buildings. 

Standards  for  School  Buildings  and  Grounds.^ 

In  the  erection  of  new  buildings,  modern  principles  of  school- 
house  construction  should  be  observed.  The  following  are  re- 
commended as  standards  for  school  buildings  and  sites.  While 
these  standards  apply  more  fully  to  new  buildings  a  number 
of  them  may  be  made  use  of  in  remodeling  or  improving  the 
buildings  now  in  use. 

I.     Sites. 

Whenever  the  board  decides  to  select  a  new  site,  it  should 
choose  one  large  enough  for  the  proper  placing  of  the  building 
and  for  adequate  playgrounds.  Two  hundred  square  feet  of 
playground  surface  per  pupil  is  not  too  large  for  elementary 
schools.  A  high  school  with  its  athletic  field  requires  even 
more. 


1  Ailiipted  from  a  Inicf  on  scliool  buildings  by  Gambrill,  Tlieisen,  and  Woody,  Dcpt. 
of  Educational  A<iininistration,  Teachers'  College,  New  York  (Unpublished).  The  brief 
Is  a  compilation  of  the  opinions  of  leading  school  architects,  authorities  on  school  hy- 
giene and  sanitation,  and  school  administrators. 


28  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

II.     Buildings. 

A.  Orientation  and  Position  with  Reference  to  Site — 

The  orientation  should  be  such  that  schoolrooms  can 
be  lighted  from  the  east  or  west.  This  affords  ample 
light  and  sunshine.  A  southern  exposure  is  to  be  avoided 
on  account  of  glare,  and  a  northern  because  of  insuffi- 
cient light  and  sunshine. 

The  building  should  not  be  too  near  a  noisy  street.  It 
should  permit  a  maximum  utilization  of  playgrounds  and 
allow  future  additions. 

B.  Gross  Structure — 

1.  Type— A  building  should  be  of  the  open  T,  H,  E,  V, 
or  Y,  with  provision  for  unit  additions. 

2.  Materials — Vitrified  brick  with  terra  cotta  trim- 
mings is  preferable.  The  building  should  be  fireproof 
throughout. 

3.  Height  should  be  not  more  than  two  stories  above 
the  basement. 

4.  Foundations  should  be  of  reenforced  concrete  with 
wide  footing.  They  should  be  water-proofed  and  damp- 
proofed. 

5.  Walls — Outer  and  interior  bearing  walls  should  be 
of  hard  brick  laid  in  cement.  Interior  nonbearing  walls 
should  be  of  hollow  tile. 

6.  Roof — This  should  have  only  a  slight  pitch  and 
should  be  surfaced  with  thick  slate  laid  in  high  melting 
asphalt.  This  is  durable,  water-proof  and  economical. 
Its  cost  is  much  less  than  that  of  tile  roof. 

7.  Entrances — The  central  entrance  should  be  10  to  12 
ft.  wide.  Secondary  entrances  should  be  8  to  10  ft.  wide 
and  near  stair  landings.  If  a  gymnasium  is  provided, 
one  entrance  should  lead  directly  from  the  playground 
to  the  gymnasium.  To  protect  small  children  in  case  of 
fire,  the  kindergarten  room  should  have  a  separate  en- 
trance.    All  entrances  should  be  free  from  obstructions. 

(a)  Vestibules — should  be  10  to  12  ft.  wide  with  double 
swinging  wire  glass  doors  and  water-proof  floors. 

(b)  Doors — There  should  be  two  pairs  of  double  doors 
opening  outward.  There  should  be  no  pockets  or  space 
between  the  doorways  and  walls  of  the  vestibules  where 
children  might  be  massed  in  case  of  fire.  They  should 
be  substantial,  but  light  enough  so  that  small  children 
can  open  them.  Firebolts  and  automatic  closing  devices 
should  be  provided. 

8.  General  appearance — A  building  should  be  symmet- 
rical and  pleasing  to  the  eye,  but  extensive  and  costly 
ornamentation  which  does  not  add  to  utility  should  be 
avoided.  Variations  in  construction  which  add  to  ap- 
pearance but  not  to  cost  are  to  be  desired. 


The  Building  Problem  29 

Internal  Structure — 

1.  Stairways— These  should  be  of  fireproof  construc- 
tion. It  is  preferable  that  they  be  isolated  by  wire 
ribbed  glass  partitions  from  the  corridors  and  from  the 
remainder  of  the  building  by  solid  fireproof  balustrades. 
This  obviates  the  need  of  separate  fire  escapes. 

To  provide  for  durability  and  fireproofness,  stairway 
frames  should  be  of  steel  and  encased  in  cement  with 
•  treads  of  the  same  material. 

Metal  handrails  with  ends  turned  into  wall  should  be 
provided  on  both  sides  of  stairs.  Where  both  large  and 
small  children  are  to  use  the  stairway,  two  sets  of  rails 
at  varying  heights  should  be  furnished. 

A  good  width  for  stairways  is  5  feet.  This  will  permit 
two  rows  of  children  to  ascend  or  descend  without  crowd- 
ing. Steps  having  a  tread  of  10  to  12  inches  and  a  6Y2 
inch  riser  are  satisfactory. 

Stairways  should  be  located  on  outer  walls  at  the  inter- 
section of  main  and  secondary  corridors  and  should  lead 
directly  to  exits.  This,  will  provide  for  safety  and  a 
minimum  of  travel  distance  between  various  parts  of  the 
building. 

2.  Corridors — The  location  should  be  determined  by 
the  position  of  the  classrooms  and  special  rooms  and  ease 
of  access  to  stairways.  They  should  be  made  of  durable 
material,  fireproof  and  noiseless.  Cement  overlaid  with 
patent  process  or  battleship  linoleum  is  most  desirable. 
In  grade  buildings  the  main  corridor  should  be  12  ft. 
wide.  Secondary  corridors  may  be  8  ft.  The  main  cor- 
ridor of  a  high  school  building  should  be  14  to  15  ft.  and 
secondary  corridors  10  ft.  wide.  They  should  be  ade- 
quately lighted.  Lockers,  cases  and  other  obstructions 
are  undesirable  in  a  corridor. 

3.  Basement  or  Ground  Floor — It  should  be  not  more 
than  3  ft.  below  grade  level  with  a  ceiling  of  12  to  15  ft. 
This  provides  for  light  and  space  for  heating  and  venti- 

^  lating  ducts. 

The  boiler  room,  fuel  room  and  room  for  heating  ap- 
paratus should  be  effectively  shut  off  from  the  remainder 
of  the  building  by  masonry  walls,  fireproofed  at  the  ceil- 
ing. Good  practice  provides  no  doorway  to  the  remainder 
of  the  basement. 

The  ceiling  should  be  sound  proof. 

4.  Classrooms — 

a.  Location — -They  should  be  grouped  on  each 
side  of  the  corridors  so  as  to  be  accessible  to  ex- 
its and  stairways  and  to  maintain  a  high  propor- 
tion of  classroom  to  corridor  space. 


30  Educatiunal  Survey  of  Junesvill 


b.  Construction  and  Finish — 

(1)  Size  for  grade  classrooms — Allow  not 
less  than  15  square  feet  of  floor  space  and 
200  cu.  ft.  of  air  space  per  child.  The  stand- 
ard size  22x28x12  ft.  seats  30  pupils.  A  few 
rooms  should  be  larger  seating  35  to  40  pu- 
pils; a  few,  smaller  seating  20  pupils — the 
latter  for  the  use  of  special  classes.  A  few 
rooms  which  may  be  converted  into  double 
rooms  upon  occasion  should  be  arranged 
with  sound  proof  adjustable  partitions  be- 
tween them. 

High  school  classrooms  should  vary  in 
size  to  suit  the  number  of  students  to  be 
accommodated  in  different  subjects.  The 
standard  size  22x28  should  be  the  maxi- 
mum except  for  2  or  3  which  may  be  24x32 
for  lecture  sections  of  50  pupils. 

(2)  Floors — Cement  overlaid  with  hard- 
wood or  battleship  linoleum  makes  a  very 
desirable  floor.  These  floors  are  smooth, 
durable,  sound  proof  and  will  not  retain 
dust. 

(3)  Walls  and  ceilings — Hard  smooth 
non-glass  plaster  should  be  used  except  for 
dado  where  cement  plaster  Is  preferable. 

(4)  Doors — Wire  ribbed  glass  doors  (2 
ft.  8  in.  X  7  ft.,  with  a  6  inch  clear  area  in 
the  upper  half  are  most  satisfactory.  Glass 
doors  permit  light  to  enter  the  corridor  and 
the  clear  space  permits  observation  without 
interruption  of  class  activities.  Doors 
should  swing  in  both  directions.  Transoms 
and  thresholds  are  unnecessary. 

(5)  Closets — Each  room  should  have  at 
least  one.  It  should  be  adapted  to  the 
building  construction  and  the  location  of 
wardrobes. 

(6)  Blackboards  and  bulletin  boards — 
Highest  grade  slate  or  ground  glass,  dull 
black  is  most  satisfactory.  They  should  be 
placed  at  heights  and  be  of  a  width  suited 
to  the  size  of  the  children.  Satisfactory 
heights  of  chalk  rail  are  by  grades  1-2,  24 
in.;  3-4,  26  in.;  5-6,  28  in.;  7-8,  30  in.; 
high  school,  32-36  in.  Good  widths  are  in 
grades  1-3,  28  in.;  4-6,  32  in.;  7-8,  36  in.; 
high   school,   36-40   in.  The  amount   of  sur- 


The  Building  Problem  31 

face  must  be  determined  by  the  children  to 
be  accommodated.  Double  sliding  boards  in 
the  front  of  classrooms  and  lecture  rooms 
are  very  desirable  for  demonstration  pur- 
poses. Since  about  50%  of  the  light  strik- 
ing blackboards  is  absorbed,  light  curtains 
should  be  provided  for  covering  boards  on 
dark  days  when  not  in  use.  Space  not  pro- 
vided with  blackboards  or  space  above 
boards  should  be  provided  with  cork  bulle- 
tin  boards   for   illustrative   purposes. 

(7)  Color  scheme — Suitable  colors  for 
walls  are  light  buff,  very  light  green  or 
gray.  White  or  light  cream  are  best  for 
ceilings.  The  dado  should  be  slightly 
darker  than  the  walls.  The  woodwork  and 
furniture  should  be  of  dull  finish  and  har- 
monize in  tone. 

c.  Illumination — 

The  glass  area  should  be  Vs-Vi  of  the 
floor  area.  The  presence  or  absence  of  light 
obstructions  effect  somewhat  the  area  re- 
quired. Windows  should  be  on  one  side  of 
the  classroom  only.  Where  movable  furni- 
ture is  used  the  light  may  come  from  the 
rear  and  one  side.  The  windows  should  be 
grouped  with  narrow  steel  8  inch  mullions 
between.  They  should  be  as  near  the  ceil- 
ing as  possible  and  31-^-4  ft.  from  the  floor. 
The  first  window  nearest  the  front  should 
not  be  nearer  than  7  ft.  from  the  front  wall. 
Ribbed  (not  prism)  glass  is  preferred  by 
some.  This  breaks  up  direct  rays,  does  not 
produce  glare  and  requires  less  washing 
than  prism  glass.  Shades  should  be  adjust- 
able from  the  center.  Bisque  or  light  sage 
colors   are  most  -desirable. 

d.  Cloakroom,  Wardrobes— To  facilitate  teacher 
control  the  cloakroom  should  rarely  be  accessible 
from  the  corridor.  The  recessed  wardrobe  type 
of  cloakroom  obviates  the  necessity  of  separate 
cloakrooms.  These  should  be  2  ft.  in  depth,  and 
well-ventilated.  The  height  of  hooks  should  be 
adapted  to  the  children.  Umbrella  and  shoe  racks 
add  to  convenience. 

e.  Equipment— Individual  adjustable,  movable 
seats  of  good  construction  are  most  satisfactory 
for  all  around  purposes.  Movable  furniture  is 
better  adapted  than  any  other  to  the  social  pur- 


32  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

poses  of  the  recitation  and  makes  it  easy  to  adapt 
the    room    for    use  of    either    older    or    younger 
grades. 
5.  Special  Rooms — 

a.  Auditorium — A  good  modern  school  building 
provides  auditorium  facilities  for  the  school  and 
the  community. 

lis  location  should  be  central  and  on  the  first 
floor  in  order  to  make  it  accessible  from  class- 
rooms and  the  main  entrance  when  used  for  com- 
munity purposes.  The  seating  capacity  should 
accommodate  50%  of  the  pupils  in  grade  buildings 
and  100%  in  the  high  school. 

The  floor  should  be  level  and  furnished  with 
movable  tiers  of  seats  in  order  to  permit  a  maxi- 
mum use  for  such  purposes  as  festivals,  social 
center  meetings  and  recreation. 

It  should  be  provided  with  a  stage  of  suflBcient 
depth  for  use  with  large  choruses  and  class  plays, 
and  convertible  into  an   accessory  gymnasium. 

b.  Gymnasium — The  gymnasium  should  be  in 
the  basement  and  accessible  from  the  playground 
in  order  to  permit  its  use  while  the  remainder  of 
the  building  is  closed.  The  minimum  size  should 
be  not  less  than  50'x80'xl5'.  This  height  will  be 
necessary  to  permit  basketball  games.  A  roller 
partition  may  be  provided  dividing  the  room  into 
parts,  40'x50'  which  may  be  used  separately  by 
boys  and  girls.  The  room  should  be  sound- 
proofed from  classrooms.  There  should  be  pro- 
vision for  a  spectator's  gallery.  Separate  locker 
rooms,  showers  and  dressing  rooms  will  be  neces- 
sary for  each  sex. 

c.  Alternative  Plan  for  Combined  Auditorium 
and  Gymnasium — For  reasons  of  economy,  partic- 
ularly in  grade  buildings  it  may  be  advisable  to 
combine  gymnasium  and  auditorium.  In  such 
event,  the  room  should  be  equipped  primarily  as 
a  gymnasium  and  fitted  with  a  stage. 

d.  Teachers'  rooms — Each  building  should  be 
provided  with  a  teachers'  rest  room,  equipped 
with  dressing  room  and  toilet  facilities.  In  the 
case  of  high  school  buildings,  2  rooms — one  each 
for  men  and  women  should  be  provided.  18'x22' 
is  a  sufficient  size  for  these  rooms. 

e.  Nurses  room — A  small  room  on  the  first  floor 
well-ventilated  and  properly  equipped  should  be 
provided  for  the  use  of  the  school  nurse  and  for 
emergency  sickness. 


The  Buildiiig  Problem  -33 

D.  Special  Service  Systems — 

1.  Toilets — For  grade  buildings  a  basement  location  is 
best.  Small  emergency  toilets  may  be  provided  on  each 
floor.  Separate  toilets  should  be  provided  for  kinder- 
garten children  accessible  only  from  the  classroom.  In 
the  high  school  toilet  facilities  should  be  provided  on 
each  floor  for  both  boys  and  girls. 

Toilets  should  be  properly  secluded  and  afford  privacy 
to  individuals.  Stalls  should  be  provided  with  doors  set 
10  in.  above  the  floor  and  4  ft.  in  height,  painted  white. 

The  fixtures  should  include  porcelain  seats  of  the  open 
type  with  individual  automatic  flush.  Urinals  should  be 
of  white  carrara  glass  which  is  nonabsorbent  and  easily 
cleaned,  or  alberene  or  good  quality  slate.  Fixtures 
should  be  of  different  heights  to  accommodate  both  large 
and  small  children.  One  seat  and  one  urinal  is  required 
for  each  25  boys  and  one  seat  for  each  15  girls  in  grade 
buildings.  About  20%  less  will  be  required  for  high 
schools.  Paper  towels  and  washing  facilities  should  be 
provided  in  toilet  rooms  or  rooms  adjoining. 

Good  sanitation  makes  a  southern  exposure  desirable 
for  toilet  rooms  in  order  to  provide  good  light  and  sun- 
shine. Toilets  and  urinals  should  be  ventilated  directly 
down  and  through  them  to  prevent  odors  escaping.  Ceil- 
ings should  be  sound-proof  and  odor-proof. 

2.  Water  supply — One  automatic  bubbling  fountain 
easy  of  access  from  classrooms  is  required  for  each  75- 
100  children.  Fountains  should  be  wall-attached  to  facili- 
tate cleaning.  They  should  be  at  heights  adapted  to  the 
children.  No  drinking  fountains  should  be  found  in 
toilet  rooms. 

Washbowls  should  be  adapted  to  the  height  of  the  chil- 
dren. They  should  be  placed  in  toilet  rooms,  shower 
rooms,  teachers'  rooms,  janitor's  room  and  laboratories. 

3.  Cleaning  system — A  system  of  stationary  vacuum 
cleaners  should  be  installed.  It  should  include  perma- 
nent piping  designed  to  bring  every  part  of  the  building 
within  50  ft.  of  a  hose  outlet. 

4.  Heating  and  Ventilation — The  kind  of  system  at 
present  considered  most  satisfactory  is  known  as  the 
"split  system".  The  heating  and  ventilating  equipments 
are  separate  and  distinct  from  each  other.  It  includes 
a  double  fan  system  for  ventilating  and  supplying  air  at 
proper  temperature,  humidity  and  rate.  Direct  radiators 
are  installed  on  separate  piping  for  the  initial  heating 
and  for  preventing  heat  losses  from  windows  and  walls. 

Two  or  more  radiators  should  be  placed  under  class- 
room windows.     This  will  supply  heat  where  the  loss  is 


Edacaiional  ISurvcij  uf  Jaiiesville 

greatest.  Wherever  sufficient  radiation  surface  can  be 
had  radiators  should  be  of  the  wall  type  and  bracketed 
five  inches  from  the  floor  and  three  inches  from  the  wall. 
This  permits  easy  cleaning. 

Ventilating  construction  should  include  individual 
ducts  from  the  fan  chamber  to  each  classroom  flue.  Each 
duct  should  be  equipped  with  automatically  controlled 
mixing  and  volume  dampers  in  the  plenum  chamber.  The 
individual  ducts  with  dampers  provide  for  air  at  the 
temperature  suited  to  the  individual  room. 

The  fresh  air  fan  should  be  located  in  the  basement 
and  the  exhaust  fan  at  the  roof.  Fans  should  be  electri- 
cally driven.  Both  motors  and  fans  should  be  sound 
proof. 

The  temperature  control  should  be  that  of  automatic 
thermostats.  These  prevent  fuel  waste  and  add  to  com- 
fort. They  should  be  attached  to  both  systems  to  prevent 
one  system  operating  against  the  other. 

5.  Fire  Protection — Buildings  should  be  provided  either 
with  automatic  sprinklers  consisting  of  a  series  of  cold 
water  pipes  under  pressure  with  heads  located  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one  to  one  hundred  square  feet  of  floor  area; 
or  with  a  standpipe  system.  If  the  latter  system  is 
used,  pipes  should  be  arranged  so  that  the  fartherest  por- 
tion of  the  building  is  not  more  than  seventy-five  feet 
from  the  nearest  hose  outlet.  A  gravity  tank  should  be 
located  on  the  roof.  The  equipment  should  include  a  mo- 
tor driven  fire  pump  installed  in  the  basement. 

One  fire  extinguisher  should  be  placed  in  the  corridor 
between  each  two  classrooms.  The  standard  is  one  to 
each  1,000  square  feet  of  floor  area. 

All  electrical  work  in  school  buildings  should  be  in- 
stalled in  accordance  with  the  rules  of  the  underwriters. 

Where  fireproof  stairways  are  not  provided,  closed  fire 
escapes  of  the  circular  winding  slide  type  should  be 
erected.  Entrances  should  be  on  the  side  farthest  from 
the  building. 

Summary  of  Recommendations 

1.  That  a  comprehensive  future  building  program  calling  for  four 

grade  buildings  be  adopted.  That  three  of  these  be  located  at 
or  near  the  present  sites  of  the  Adams,  Jefferson  and  Wash- 
ington buildings  and  that  a  fourth  site  be  chosen  w^hich  shall 
be  central  with  reference  to  the  southeast  quarter  of  the  city. 

2.  That    these    buildings    be  planned  to    house    grades    below    the 

seventh. 


The  HnikUnu  Problem  35 

3.  That  one  of  two  plans  with  reference  to  the  development  of  the 

high  school  be  adopted: 

a.  The  ideal  high  school  plant  which  provides  a  build- 
ing large  enough  for  and  planned  to  accomodate  both  the 
junior  and  senior  high  schools. 

b.  An  alternative  plan  which  would  continue  the  present 
high  school  building  as  a  senior  high  school  and  which 
would  provide  for  a  junior  high  school  building  on  the  Lin- 
coln site. 

4.  That  the   Adams  and   Jefferson   buildings  be   remodelled   suffici- 

ently to  provide  sufficient  light. 

5.  That  blackboards  be  immediately  adjusted  to  proper  heights. 

6.  That  new  seats  purchased  be  of  the  movable  and  adjustable  com- 

bination seat  and  desk  type. 

7.  That    additional    cupboard    and    filing    cabinet    facilities    be    pro- 

vided. 

8.  That  stairways  be  made  safe. 

9.  That  toilet  room  windows  be  enlarged  and  that  individual  stalls 

with  doors  be  provided. 

10.  That  toilet  or  adjoining  rooms  be  provided  with  washing  facili- 

ties. 

11.  That  vacuum  cleaning  systems  be  provided. 

12.  That  a  supervisor  of  janitors  be  employed. 

13.  That  buildings  be  fire  water-piped  and  provided  with  fire  gongs. 


36  Educational  Survey  of  Janesvilh 


III     TEACHERS  AND  SALARIES 

The  Teachers. 

The  most  important  factor  in  a  school  system  is  a  corps  of 
active,  well-prepared,  trained  and  growing  teachers.  Good 
teaching  is  the  fundamental  basis  of  a  good  school  system.  All 
other  phases  of  a  school  are  merely  accessories  and  aids  to 
facilitate  good  and  effective  teaching.  Splendid  buildings  and 
equipment,  good  textbooks  and  courses  of  study,  good  organiza- 
tion and  well-kept  records  in  and  of  themselves  will  not  make 
successful  schools.  They  are  usually  marks  of  and  aids  con- 
tributing to  an  efficient  system  of  schools  but  first  of  all  there 
must  be  a  high  grade  of  teaching. 

A  high  grade  of  teaching  is  scarcely  to  be  expected  by  a 
board  of  education  which  does  not  pay  salaries  high  enough  to 
purchase  a  first-class  quality  of  instruction.  A  board  of  edu- 
cation no  less  than  any  other  class  of  employers  gets  approxi- 
mately what  it  pays  for  and  pays  for  what  it  gets.  Janesville 
should  have  sufficient  pride  in  its  schools  to  be  satisfied  with  none 
but  the  best  when  it  goes  into  the  market  for  teachers.  In  order 
to  secure  a  high  grade  of  teaching  the  board  should  follow  two 
guiding  principles  with  respect  to  its  teaching  body : 

1.  Establish  a  high  standard  of  qualification. 

2.  Insist  upon  continuous  growth  on  the  part  of  its  teachers. 

The  first  of  these  is  to  be  attained  by  setting  a  standard  re- 
quiring normal  or  college  graduation  with  specific  training  in 
the  application  of  teaching  methods  and  a  minimum  of  success- 
ful experience.  In  the  case  of  local  teachers  at  least  two  years 
of  successful  teaching  elsewhere  should  be  required. 

The  second  of  these  principles  is  to  be  attained  through  the 
training  of  teachers  in  service. 

The  most  effective  means  of  training  teachers  in  service  are 
(1)  efficient  supervision  and  (2)  additional  preparation  on  the 
part  of  teachers. 

To  accomplish  these  conditions  it  will  be  necessary  for  the 
board  to   (1)   pay  a  salary  sufficient  to  attract  well-prepared 


TeacJiers  and  Salaries  37 

teachers  regardless  of  residence;  (2)  to  pay  salai'ies  that  will  en- 
courage teachers  to  continue  their  own  prepai-ation,  nnd  (3)  to 
provide  for  sufficient  high  grade  sui)ervision. 


Table  3. — Preparation  of  Teachers 


Kinder- 
garten 

Elemen- 
tary 

Special 

High 

School 

Elem. 

H.  S. 

Total 

1 

Part  high  school 

1 

14 

1 

22 
1 
3 
2 

1 

0 

■> 

Hitjh  School 

14 

H 

1 
5 

2 

4 

5 

2 

i 

34 

"i 

2 

ft 

Part  Col  lege 

i 
1 

2 
4 

7 

1) 

7 

7 

s 

7 

Total 

5 

44 

3 

8 

14 

74 



Table  3  represents  a  summary  of  the  preparation  of  teachers 
in  Janesville.  Teachers  have  been  classified  with  reference  to 
the  amount  of  preparation  they  have  had.  Teachers  who  have 
had  only  a  four  year  high  school  preparation  or  less  are  listed 
under  "High  School"  or  "Part  High  School"  respectively. 
Those  who  have  completed  a  full  normal  school  course  are  listed 
as  "Normal".  "Part  Normal"  indicates  less  than  a  full  course 
and  "Advanced  Normal"  indicates  a  year  or  more  of  special 
preparation  beyond  that  required  for  graduation.  Under  the 
heading  "Part  College"  are  those  who  have  had  some  college 
training  but  less  than  a  complete  course.  Teachers  who  have 
had  considerable  work  toward  advanced  college  degrees  are 
listed  as  "Advanced  College". 

It  would  seem  highly  desirable  that  grade  teachers  in  cities 
such  as  Janesville  should  have  at  least  full  normal  school  train- 
ing. High-school  teachers  should  have  sufficient  additional  prep- 
aration to  make  them  college  graduates.  Approximately  one- 
fourth  of  the  Janesville  teachers  fall  short  of  this  requirement. 
The  suiwey  staff  does  not  wish  to  convey  the  impression  that  all 
of  these  teachers  are  poor  teachers.  Neither  does  it  wish  to  ap- 
pear to  endorse  the  work  of  all  who  have  had  a  normal  school 
education  or  more.  The  teachers  referred  to  above  are  all 
teachers  of  experience.  Many  of  them  have  given  the  best  years 
of  their  lives  to  the  service  of  the  Janesville  schools.     Among 


38  Educational  Survey  of  Jancsville 

these  who  are  not  normal  or  college  graduates  none  have  had  less 
than  seven  years  of  experience.  Only  three  have  had  less  than 
twenty.  Experience,  however,  is  not  the  only  prerequisite  to 
good  teaching.  Teachers  must  have  a  sufficient  scholastic  found- 
ation at  the  beginning.  This  must  be  supplemented  by  adequate 
supervision  and  additional  preparation  at  not  infrequent  inter- 
vals, if  good  teaching  is  to  be  expected.  In  many  eases  the  work 
being  done  by  these  teachers  is  not  of  as  high  a  quality  as  could 
be  desired.  Some  of  these  teachers  are  capable  of  doing  better 
work  than  they  are  now  doing.  The  work  of  the  teachers  as  a 
whole  could  be  improved  by  closer  supervision  and  through  ad- 
ditional study  on  the  part  of  the  teachers  themselves. 

Even  if  the  building  principals  may  be  assumed  to  be  familiar 
with  grade  work  they  are  not  to  be  regarded  as  supervisors  of 
instruction.  Their  entire  time  is  devoted  to  teaching  and  other 
duties  of  an  administrative  character.  The  supervision  of  the 
entire  corps  of  seventy-four  elementary  and  high-school  teachers 
is  left  to  the  superintendent.  This  is  expecting  more  than  any 
one  person  can  accomplish,  no  matter  how  competent  he  may  be. 
It  is  especially  true  in  view  of  the  other  duties  he  must  perform 
as  chief  executive  officer  of  the  schools.  In  the  judgment  of  the 
members  of  the  survey  a  grade  supervisor  should  be  employed  to 
assist  the  superintendent.  This  can  be  done  without  addi- 
tional cost  of  any  consequence.  A  sufficient  amount  of  money  to 
employ  a  high  grade  supervisor  may  be  found  by  decreasing  the 
present  number  of  kindergarten  teachers.  There  are  at  present 
five  kindergarten  teachers  and  five  assistants.  It  is  recom- 
mended that  these  be  reduced  to  three  each.^  The  kindergartens 
are  in  session  for  a  half  day  only.  During  a  part  of  the  re- 
maining half  day  the  kindergarten  teachers  are  engaged  in 
telling  stories  to  children  of  the  primary  grades.  This  is  an  ex- 
pensive luxury.  The  present  arrangement  should  be  discon- 
tinued and  the  work  of  story-telling  conducted  by  the  regular 
teachers. 

More  supervision  is  not,  however,  the  sole  need  in  Janesville. 
Supervision  cannot  bear  its  best  fruit  on  sterile  soil.  It  is  the 
unanimous  opinion  of  the  survey  staff  that  additional  prepara- 
tion in  the  way  of  further  study  is  necessai'y  on  the  part  of  the 


^  On  the  strength  of  the  preliminary  report  of  tlie  survey  this  recommendation  was 
adopted  and  placed  in  effect  in  September,  1917. 


Teachers  and  Salaries  39 

present  corps.  As  stated  above  the  most  important  essential  in  any 
group  of  teachers  is  continuous  professional  growth.  This  condi- 
tion can  only  be  brought  about  by  further  and  systematic  study 
on  the  part  of  the  teachers.  They  should  be  encouraged  and  in 
some  cases  be  required  to  attend  summer  schools  of  an  approved 
character.  A  few  teachers  were  found  to  be  taking  extension  or 
correspondence  courses  bearing  upon  their  schoolroom  work. 
This  should  be  encouraged.  Entirely  too  few  teachers  have  been 
in  the  habit  of  attending  summer  sessions  at  either  normal 
schools  or  universities. 

We  noted  in  Table  3  that  fifteen  of  the  elementary  teachers  had 
no  more  than  a  high  school  preparation.  Only  four  of  these  have 
attended  a  summer  school  within  the  last  five  years.  Six  have 
never  attended  even  a  normal  or  university  summer  sesison.  Of 
the  twenty-eight  normal  school  graduates  teaching  in  the  grades, 
eighteen  were  graduated  more  than  five  years  ago,  but  only  two 
of  these  eighteen  have  attended  a  summer  session  within  the  past 
live  years.  Fifteen  of  the  eighteen  have  never  attended  a  sum- 
mer session  since  graduation.  One  of  the  ten  who  completed 
normal  school  courses  within  the  past  five  years  has  attended  a 
summer  session.  These  figures  speak  for  themselves.  Even 
normal  school  graduation  has  not  proved  a  guarantee  against 
professional  lethargy.  No  matter  how  thorough  a  nomial  school 
course  may  be  no  teacher  can  keep  abreast  of  modern  educa- 
tional progress  unless  she  makes  some  effort  to  continue  her  pre- 
paration. 

The  board  should  realize  that  teachers  cannot  remain  profes- 
sionally alive  and  grow  under  such  lax  efforts  of  self-improve- 
ment. It  is  evident  that  many  Janesville  teachers  have  either 
been  financially  unable  to  continue  their  preparation  or  have  felt 
that  further  preparation  was  unnecessary.  The  survey  staff  is 
convinced  that  in  view  of  the  present  high  cost  of  living  many 
teachers  cannot  at  their  present  salaries  make  the  necessary 
financial  sacrifice  to  secure  further  training.  The  first  relief 
must  come  through  the  provision  of  adequate  pay  by  the  board. 
The  board  should  then  set  up  definite  requirements  regarding 
summer  school  or  extension  courses.  Teachers  who  are  not  nor- 
mal or  college  graduates  and  who  desire  to  be  retained  in  the 
school  should  be  required  to  attend  two  summer  schools  within 
the  next  three  years.     Nor  is  it  alone  necessary  that  those  who 


40  Educational  Survey  of  Jane.sville 

are  not  normal  or  college  graduates  should  attend  summer 
school.  Far  from  developing  within  students  a  thirst  for  addi- 
tional study,  college  or  normal  graduation  too  frequently  leaves 
them  with  a  feeling  that  their  education  is  sufficient  and  that 
further  efforts  in  that  direction  are  unnecessary.  It  is  recom- 
mended that  teachers  who  have  not  graduated  from  a  normal 
school  or  college  within  the  past  five  years  and  who  desire  to  be 
retained  be  given  the  option  of  attending  summer  school  either 
during  the  coming  summer  or  the  one  following.  No  teacher 
should  permit  herself  or  be  permitted  by  the  board  to  continue  in 
service  if  she  has  not  attended  a  summer  school  within  the  last 
five  years.  The  obligation  of  the  board  is  to  pay  such  salaries  as 
will  command  a  high  degree  of  initial  preparation  and  encourage 
further  preparation  when  once  employed,  and  to  purcliase  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  high  grade  supervision. 

Salaries 

Schools  cannot  hope  to  secure  a  high  grade  of  teaching  ser- 
vice without  paying  reasonable  salaries.  The  present  scale  of 
salaries  for  teachers  in  Janesville  as  in  many  other  cities  is  en- 
tirely inadequate  to  command  a  high  quality  of  teaching.  This 
does  not  mean  that  the  immediate  remedy  is  to  be  found  in  a 
blanket  raise  in  salaries  for  the  present  corps.  It  does  mean 
that  a  schedule  must  be  adopted  which  is  sufficiently  high  to  at- 
tract good  teachers  to  the  system  and  the  benefits  of  which  may 
be  offered -to  teachers  in  the  present  corps  as  an  inducement  to 
them  to  improve  their  preparation. 

Tlte  Cost  of  Living 

The  teachers  were  asked  to  report  their  expeuditures  for  var- 
ious items.  The  median  or  middle  expenditure  for  each  item  foi- 
both  elementary  and  high-school  teachers  may  be  seen  in  the  fol- 
lowing table.  This  means  that  one-half  of  the  teachers  spend 
less  than  the  aniount  opposite  each  item  and  the  other  half 
spend  more. 


Tcaclicrs  and  SnUifivs 


41 


Table    4. 


Median    Amitial   Expenditures  for  Eacli   Item    Reported    by 
Teachers 


Board  and  room 

Clothing- 

Lau  nd  ry 

Church,  entertaitiment  and  philanthrophy 

Professional  books  and  mat,'azines 

Teachers'  associations 

Travellinar  expenses 

Dental  and  medical  services 

Toilet  articles 

Gifts 

Pensions 

Miscellaneous 


Total 


Grades 

High  School 

S301.56 

$350.00 

131.67 

198.33 

15.83 

38.33 

30.00 

47.50 

4.33 

5.67 

17.69 

17.22 

3.62 

30.00 

10.62 

22.50 

5.40 

10.17 

26.67 

30.00 

6.83 

10.50 

55.00 

85.00 

S609.22 

$345.22 

The  total  of  the  medians  for  the  various  items  is  $609.22  for 
grade  teachers  and  $845.22  for  high-school  teachers.  When  the 
total  expenditures  by  all  teachers  were  taken  the  median  living 
expense  was  found  to  be  $687.50.  High-school  teachers  spend 
more  than  grade  teachers.  The  higher  salary  received  by  a 
high-school  teacher  evidently  enables  her  to  live  somewhat  better 
than  the  average  elementary  teacher.  She  receives  a  median 
salary  of  $950  while  the  median  salary  of  grade  teachers  is 
only  $625.  Doubtless  a  considerable  part  of  the  highei*  cost  of 
living  for  high-school  teachers  is  to  be  explained  by  the  fad 
that  very  few  of  them  are  local  teachers.  Approximately  three- 
fourths  of  the  grade  teachers  are  local  teachers  for  whom  the 
cost  of  board  and  room,  laundry,  and  traveling  expenses  may  be 
expected  to  be  lower.  This  fact  may  alsa  account  for  some  of 
the  difference  in  the  amount  expended  for  clothing..  Another 
factor  accounting  for  the  higher  cost  of  living  for  high-school 
teachers  in  Janesville  is  the  fact  that  the  high  school  group  in- 
cludes married  teachers  with  families. 

With  a  median  expenditure  for  elementary  teachers  of  $609 
and  a  minimum  salary  much  less  than  this  it  is  quite  evident 
that  some  teachers  received  less  than  a  living  wage  during  the 
past  year.  Under  such  conditions  the  schools  cannot  hope  to 
attract  the  most  ambitious  teachers. 

In  order  to  distinguish  between  expenditures  by  those  who  live 
at  home  and  those  who  do  not,  teachers  were  asked  to  indicate  in 
each  case.     They  were  then  divided  into  four  groups.  (1)  those 


42  Educational  Survcij  of  Jancsville 

who  live  at  home  both  during  the  school  term  and  during  vaca- 
tion, (2)  those  who  live  at  home  during  the  year  but  not  during 
vacation,  (3)  those  who  live  away  for  the  entire  year,  (4)  those 
Avho  live  away  during  the  school  year  but  are  at  home  for  the 
summer  months.  The  median  annual  expenditure  for  each 
group  is  given  below. 


At  home  all  year 

Not  at  home  all  year 

Ai  home  in  school 
year  but  not  summer 

At  home  summer  only 

643 

825 

600 

625 

These  figures  show  a  decidedly  higher  figure  for  teachers  who 
are  not  at  home  for  any  part  of  the  year.  This  group  is  made  up 
chiefly  of  high-school  teachers. 

It  may  appear  surprising  that  the  second  largest  expenditure 
is  made  by  those  who  live  at  home  entirely.  This  may  be  ex- 
plained by  the  fact  that  many  of  them  have  established  their  own 
homes  ajid  frequently  have  one  or  more  persons  dependent  in 
part  at  least  upon  them.  When  teachers  live  at  home  it  does  not 
laean  that  they  receive  board  and  room  gratis. 

It  ishould  not  be  necessary  to  call  attention  to  the  increases 
during  late  years  in  the  cost  of  living  which  are  apparent  to  any 
observer.  The  median  expense  reported  by  all  Jancsville 
teachers  for  a  single  item,  board  and  room  for  the  year  1912-13 
was  $264  and  for  1916-17,  $317.  This  represents  a  20%  increase 
for  the  five  year  period.  During  the  same  time  the  median 
salary  reported  by  teachers  increased  18%.  Even  during  a 
period  of  prosperity  salaries  have  not  increased  in  proportion 
to  the  increased  cost  of  board  and  room. 

The  effect  of  paying  salaries  which  represent  less  than  a  living 
wage  is  three-fold:  (1)  Ambitious  young  men  and  women  are 
not  attracted  to  the  teaching  professison;  (2)  There  is  a  tend- 
ency to  select  an  undue  proportion  of  local  teachers  resulting  in 
what  is  conunonly  called  "inbreeding";  (3)  Teachers  are  not 
encouraged  and  can  little  afford  to  improve  their  training 
through  summer  school  attendance  or  otherwise. 


Teachers  and  Salaries 


43 


Salaries  in  Other  Cities 

"Were  the  board  to  pay  average  salaries  it  would  be  doing  none 
too  well.  However  Avhen  the  median  salary  of  grade  teachers  is 
compared  with  those  of  teachers  in  33  other  cities  in  mid- 
dle western  states  other  than  Wisconsin,  it  is  found  that  two- 
thirds  of  them  pay  better  than  Janesville.  In  high  school  sal- 
aries it  ranks  somewhat  nearer  the  average.  The  median  salaries 
in  each  of  these  cities  to  the  nearest  five  dollars  may  be  seen  from 
the  table  folloAving: 


Table  5. — Median  Salaiics  of  Elrmentary  and  High-School  Teachers  in 
S'l  Cities  Showing  Rank  of  Each  City.'^ 


Cities 


Topeka,  Kan 

Hammond,  Ind 

Lincoln,  Neb ;.. 

Ann  Arbor,  Micli 

Richmond,    Ind 

Virginia,    Minn 

Jackson,  Mich 

Davenport,  Iowa...  . 

Waukegan,  111 

Battle  Creek,  Mich . . 

Burlington,  Iowa  — 

Dubuque,  Iowa 

Freeport,  111 

Council  Bluffs,  Iowa 

Decatur,  111 

Rockford,  111 

Elkhart,  Ind 

Elgin.  Ill 

Winona,  Minn 

Iron  wood,  Mich 

Muskegon,  Mich 

St.  Cloud,   Minn 

JanesTllle,  i;¥is... 

Red  Wing,  Minn 

Grand  Island,  Nebr. 
Lawrence,  Kansas... 

Mankato,   Minn 

Coffey ville,  Kan 

Fremont,  Nebr 

Stillwater,  Minn    — 

Beatrice.  Neb 

York,  Nebr 

Kearney,  Nebr 

Pittsburg,    Kan 


Elementary 

Rank 

Median 

1 

S860 

2 

855 

3 

820 

4 

805 

5 

800 

6 

78.5 

7 

780 

8 

775 

9 

745 

10 

730 

11 

715 

12 

710 

13 

700 

14 

695 

16 

690 

16 

690 

16 

690 

18 

685 

19 

67(1 

20 

665 

21 

655 

22 

630 

23 

625 

24i 

605 

24i 

605 

26 

600 

27 

590 

28 

585 

29 

580 

30 

565 

31 

560 

32 

555 

33 

545 

34 

520 

High 

School 

Rank 

Median 

3i 

fl,125 

3  J 

1,125 

8i 

1.0.55 

16i 

1,015 

lOi 

1,0,50 

1 

1,285 

6 

1,100 

9 

1,225 

5 

1,110 

l4 

1,030 

10* 

1,050 

16i 

1,015 

12J 

1,(35 

21 

920 

15 

1,020 

8i 

1,055 

23 

905 

18 

985 

19 

955 

12i 

1,035 

7 

1.061 

26 

865 

i           20 

U50 

24 

895 

22 

915 

■m 

815 

29J 

815 

28 

835 

25 

885 

!           31 

800 

334 

775 

32 

790 

33i 

775 

27 

850 

From  data  reported  by  superintendents  in  these  cities  April,  1917. 


44 


Educational  ^urvt'ij  of  Jancsvillc 


Table  6. — Median  Salaries  of  Elementary  and  High-Srhool  Teachers  in 
11  Wisconsin  Cities  Showing  Rank  of  Each  City* 


Cities 


Superior 

Madison 

Kenoslia 

La  Crosse 

Racine 

Manitowoc 

Janesvllle. .. 

Asliland 

Oshkosh 

Wausau 

Slieboygan 

Waukeslia 

Chippewa  Falls 
Stevens  Point.. 

Green  Ba.v 

Beloit 

Marinette 


Elementary 

High  School 

Rani? 

Median 

Rank 

Median 

1 

$750 

1 

$1,065 

2 

715 

3 

1,010 

3 

705 

4 

985 

4i 

695 

2 

1,020 

4  J 

695 

7 

940 

6 

640 

5J 

950 

8 

625 

5i 

t)50 

8 

625 

12 

890 

8 

625 

8 

920 

10 

605       1 

13 

875 

11 

600 

11 

895 

12 

595 

9 

915 

13 

575 

10 

910 

14 

565 

17 

810 

15 

560 

14i 

850 

Ifi 

555 

14J 

850 

17 

530 

16 

845 

'  From  data  reported  by  superintendents  in  these  cities  April.  1917. 

How  teaching  salaries  in  Janesville  compare  with  other  cities 
in  Wisconsin  may  be  observed  in  Table  6.  Among  these  17  cities 
it  occupies  a  middle  ground  in  the  matter  of  elementary  teachers' 
salaries  and  takes  rank  with  the  upper  third  for  salaries  of  high- 
school  teachers.  Salaries  in  Wisconsin  as  typified  by  these  cities 
are  however  on  the  whole  lower  than  in  neighboring  states.  This 
may  be  seen  by  comparing  Tables  5  and  6.  A  more  detailed  con- 
sideration of  the  subject  of  salaries  will  be  found  in  the  chapter 
on  Finance. 


Conclusions  and  Recommendations  on  Teachers  and  Salarip:s 

General. 

1.  The  board  of  education  should  employ  such  number  of  teachers  as 
good  business  policy  demands. 

2.  The  board  ought  to  be  able  to  go  wherever  and  to  pay  whatever 
is  necessary  to  secure  good  teachers. 

3.  If  a  teacher  is  to  be  retained  at  all,  she  should  show  a  growth  in 
ability  which  the  board  should  consider  as  possessing  a  cash  value. 

4.  It  is  expected  that  every  teacher  in  the  employ  of  the  board  shall 
do  something  to  improve  her  qualifications  while  in  the  service  of  the 
board. 


Teachers  and  Salaries  45 

5.  Many  of  the  present  teachers  are  only  high  school  graduates.  The 
survey  staff  is  of  the  opinion  that  this  is  wrong  policy.  Teachers  who 
are  thus  lacking  in  preparation  should  either  show  that  such  lack  has 
not  affected  the  teaching  or  be  expected  to  make  up  this  deficiency. 

6.  Careful  estimates  place  the  minimum  cost  of  living  at  $600.  Un- 
less there  are  peculiar  circumstances,  no  teacher  should  receive  less 
and  retain  her  position. 

7.  The  present  number  of  kindergarten  teachers  should  be  reduced. 
With  the  present  half-day  schedules,  three  kindergarteners  and  three 
assistant  kindergarteners  would  be  sufficient.  While  kindergarteners 
at  present  spend  a  portion  of  the  day  in  telling  stories  to  children  of 
the  primary  grades,  such  arrangement  should  be  discontinued,  and  the 
work  done  by  the  primary  teachers.  The  change  here  recommended 
would  affect  a  saving  at  the  present  salary  rates  of  approximately 
$1600. 

8.  The  saving  effected  by  reducing  the  number  of  kindergarteners 
should  be  devoted  to  the  payment  of  the  salary  of  a  grade  supervisor. 

Salary  Schedule. 

1.  That  a  distinction  be  made  between  regular  and  probationary 
teachers.  That  in  order  to  become  regular  teachers,  probationary 
teachers  shall  have  taught  successfully  at  least  one  year  in  the  Janes- 
ville  schools. 

High-ScJiool  Teachers 

1.  That  the  minimum  salary  for  regular  teachers  be  .^850. 

2.  That  an  annual  increase  of  $50  be  given  to  successful  teachers  up 

to  $1000.  Further  increases  shall  be  conditioned  on  superior 
merit. 

3.  That  for  the   present  at  least  no  fixed  maximimi  be  established 

for  high-school  teachers. 

Elementary  Teachers 

1.  That  teachers  be  engaged  on  probation  for  one  year  at  a  salary 

not  less  than  $600.  (Cheaper  teachers  may  be  had  but  in  the 
judgment  of  the  survey  staff,  teachers  worth  less  than  $600 
should  not  be  employed.) 

2.  That  the  minimum  salary  for  regular  teachers  be  $650. 

3.  That  an  annual  increase  of  $25  be  added  each  year  to  the  salaries 

of  successful  teachers.  (Teachers  not  deserving  an  increase 
of  $25  should  not  be  retained.)' 

4.  That  teachers  who  attend  a  six  weeks'  session  of  an  approved  sum- 

mer school  and  whose  course  shall  be  approved  by  the  superin- 


1  Adopted  by  tlie  board  and  placed  in  effect  Sciiteiiibi'V,  li»17 


46  Educational  Survey  of  JanesvUle 

tendent  shall  receive  an  additional  annual  increment  of  $50 
beginning  with  the  year  of  such  attendance;  provided  that  no 
teacher  shall  receive  more  than  two  $50  increments,^ 

5.  That  the  present  maximum  salary  be  raised  to  $850. 

6.  That   teachers  of  unusual   merit  may   with   the   approval  of   the 

superintendent  be  given  an  additional  increase  of  $50  beyond 
the  maximum  of  $850. 

Elementary  Principals 

1.  That  principals  be  subject  to  the  same  salary  provisions  as  ele- 
mentary teachers,  and  that  in  addition  each  be  allowed  a  cer- 
tain amount  for  administrative  duties  as  follows:  Principals 
of  the  Adams,  Jefferson  and  Washington  buildings  $100  each; 
principals  of  the  Douglas,  Garfield,  Grant,  Lincoln,  and  Web- 
ster buildings  $75  each. 


1  Adopted  by  the  board  and  placed  in  etteot  September,  V.n; 


Financing  the  School  System  47 


IV    FINANCING  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM 

It  is  proposed  to  offer  in  tliis  chapter  some  material  upon  the 
financial  management  of  the  public  schools  of  Janesville,  and 
to  classify  it  under  three  principal  headings :  First,  the  prob- 
lem which  the  educational  authorities  of  the  city  have  to  face; 
Second,  the  means  which  they  have  of  doing  it ;  Third,  the  man- 
ner in  which  it  is  being  done.  A  fourth  .heading  might  logically 
be  added  although  it  will  not  be  specifically  separated  from  the 
other  three.  Such  a  heading  would  have  to  do  with  suggestions 
for  a  better  means  of  financing  the  public  schools. 

1.     The  Educational  Problem  at  Janesville. 

The  work  to  be  done  by  a  city  school  system  may  be  variously 
estimated.  A  rough  measure  of  it  may  be  obtained  by  consider- 
ing the  number  of  persons  who  are  to  receive  benefit  from  it. 
This  would  mean,  broadly  speaking,  the  entire  population  of  the 
city  in  question,  for  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  influence  of 
the  public  schools  directly  and  indirectly  affects  all  the  people. 
Indeed,  it  is  part  of  the  modern  movement  in  education  to 
provide  means  by  which  the  public  schools  may  exercise  directly 
rather  than  indirectly,  their  influence  upon  adults  as  well  &-s 
children.  The  population  of  the  city  of  Janesville  is  practically 
stationary  at  about  14,000  persons.  The  following  are  the  es- 
timates of  the  Census '  Bureau  for  each  year  of  the  past  five 
years : 

1912 14,051 

1913 14,123 

1914 14,195 

1915 14,267 

1916 14,339 

Obviously,  however,  the  problem,  educationally,  at  Janesville, 
is  more  specifically  determined  not  by  the  population  of  the  city'> 
but  by  the  number  of  persons  of  school  age.  It  is  welL-known 
that  the  ratio  of  children  to  total  population  is  not  the  same  in 
different  localities.     Some  recent  school  surveys  have  especially 


48  Educational  Purvey  uf  Janesville 

emphasized  this  fact.  For  example,  at  Portland,  Oregon,  the  per- 
centage of  the  population  between  the  ages  of  five  and  fifteen  is 
but  twelve,  while  at  Salt  Lake  City  it  is  between  eighteen  and 
nineteen.  Clearly,  the  educational  problem  of  a  city  in  which 
eighteen  or  nineteen  out  of  every  hundred  people  are  of  school 
age,  is  larger  than  that  of  a  city  in  Avhich  the  propoi'tion  is  only 
twelve  out  of  each  one  hundred.  The  census  ages  in  Wisconsin 
are  from  four  to  twenty.  The  number  of  persons  at  Janesville 
between  those  ages  is  about  3,800.  Clearly,  however,  not  all 
fn-^rsons  between  the  ages  of  four  and  twenty  are  enrolled  in  ihe 
public  schools.  Few  children  enter  the  kindergarten  at  four, 
and  large  numbers  of  children  drop  out  of  school  at  the  age  of 
fourteen  or  fifteen.  The  normal  age  for  graduation  from  the 
high  school  is  but  eighteen.  The  United  States  Census  Bureau 
reports  the  number  of  persons  in  each  city  between  the  ages  of 
six  and  fifteen  years.  In  1910  there  were  1,994  persons  between 
these  ages  ill  Janesville,  and,  since  the  population  is  practically 
f^tationary,  this  is  probably  about  the  number  at  present.  These 
age  limits,  while  they  correspond  rather  closely  to  the  normal  age 
limits  for  children  in  the  elementary  school,  do  not  include  most 
of  the  pupils  in  the  high  school.  Moreover,  among  the  two 
thousand  or  more  children  between  the  ages  of  six  and  fifteen,  a 
rather  large  number  are  attending  parochial  schools.  During 
the  year  191G-17  the  enrollment  in  the  three  parochial  schools 
at  Janesville  was  503.  While  from  the  broad  and  civic  point 
of  view  the  problem  in  public  education  is  set  l)y  the  number  of 
children  of  school  age  in  the  community,  from  another  point  of 
view  the  problem  is  really  to  be  stated  in  terms  of  the  number  of 
children  actually  enrolled  in  or  attending  the  public  schools. 
Of  course,  enrollment  and  attendance  figures  do  not  indicate  the 
extent  to  Avhich  those  who  ought  to  be  attending  school  are  doing 
so.  It  is  reasonable,  however,  to  assume  that  the  number  of  chil- 
dren evading  the  compulsory  education  law  is  small  in  a  city  of 
the  character  of  Janesville. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  days  school  has  been 
in  session  during  each  of  the  past  five  years  together  with  the 
enrollment  and  the  average  daily  attendance  in  each  of  these 
years,  distributed  according  to  types  of  schools. 


Financing  the  School  System 


49 


Table  7. — Enrollment  &  Attendance 


Numbe  r 

Net  Enrollment 

Average  Daily  Attendance 

a 

of  days 

^ 

>.s 

Year 

schools 

eS 

C3 

o 

«s  c 

o 

were  in 

it 

c 

o 

cSS 

■g 

session 

QJ 

<V 

^ 

£,«-S 

o 

•a 

s 

si 

03 
O 

Si  C  C8 

H 

w 

£ 

H 

W 

ffi 

1912-13... 

190 

2567 

243 

1899 

425 

2067 

1693 

374 

1913-14... 

184 

2517 

279      1        1794 

444 

2099 

1727 

372 

1914-15.. 

186 

2470 

271      1        1726 

473 

2068 

1638 

430 

1915-16... 

186 

2298 

285               1511 

502 

1964 

1516 

448 

1916-17.   . 

186 

2540 

274              1496 

570 

1914 

1428 

486 

Source  of  data:  City  Superintendents'  reports  to  Stale  Department  of  Public  In- 
struction, oxcept  that  figures  for  1912-13  are  from  piincipals'  reports  to  the  city  su- 
perintendents. 


From  this  table  it  is  evident  that  the  total  number  of  different 
children  who  were  at  any  time  enrolled  during  the  year  has 
amounted  to  about  2500  a  year.  Janesville,  therefore,  has  not 
before  it  the  problem  of  keeping  up  with  a  rapidly  increasing 
school  population.  In  this  its  situation  is  quite  different  from 
that  of  many  other  cities  of  the  country,  whose  task  is  not  only 
to  maintain  adequate  educational  opportunities  for  their  school 
children ;  but  also  to  expand  tlieir  systems  to  meet  increasing 
populations. 

Observe  that  in  Table  7  the  figures  for  elementary  schools  are 
decreasing,  while  those  for  the  high  school  are  increasing.  As 
part  of  our  problem,  therefore,  we  must  recognize  the  fact  that 
the  city  is  being  called  upon  to  finance  a  growing  high  school. 
From  Table  7  it  may  be  shown  that,  based  on  the  enrollment, 
more  than  22%  of  the  children  were  in  high  school  in  1916-17 
while  there  were  but  16%  five  years  before. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  compare  the  proportion  of  high  school 
pupils  at  Janesville  with  the  proportion  in  other  cities.  Among 
twenty-three  cities  in  middle  western  states  whose  population  is 
between  10,000  and  25,000  the  percentages  of  high  school  enroll- 
ment on  total  public  school  enrollment  were  found  to  range  be- 
tween 6.1  and  27.4.  Probably  there  is  some  special  reason  for 
these  extremes.  It  is  not  likely  that  a  city  has  but  six  out  of 
each  hundred  public  school  children  in  its  high  school,  unless 
there  is  present  some  force  tending  to  draw  away  from  the 
public  high  school  the  children  who  would  otherwise  attend  it. 


50  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

There  may  be  a  technical  school  in  the  community,  or  a  normal 
school  offering  work  for  elementary  school  graduates;  or  there 
may  be  a  strong  competitor  to  the  high  school  in  the  form  of  a 
private  academy.  On  the  other  hand,  a  city  at  the  other  ex- 
treme— a  city  showing  a  surpassing  proportion  of  high  school 
pupils — may  be  equally  exceptionally  situated.  It  may,  for 
example,  be  the  only  high  school  within  an  area  much  larger 
than  the  district  which  supports  it,  and  may,  therefore,  have  an 
unusually  large  number  of  non-resident  pupils. 

Among  the  cities  which  do  not  show  extreme  conditions,  how- 
ever, we  may  find  the  prevailing  or  normal  figures.  Half  the 
middle  western  cities  of  the  population  class  of  Janesville  have 
proportions  of  high  school  pupils  ranging  from  about  15%  to 
22.5% — at  least  that  appears  to  have  been  the  situation  in  1914- 
15,  according  to  the  report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education. 
In  that  year,  the  corresponding  figure  for  Janesville  was  19%. 
It  may,  therefore,  be  inferred  that  the  proportion  of  children  at 
Janesville  who  remain  in  school  long  enough  to  become  enrolled 
in  the  high  school  is  about  the  normal  or  typical  proportion. 

Speaking  merely  in  terms  of  the  persons  to  be  benefited  by  the 
public  schools,  one  may  summarize  by  saying  that  at  Janesville 
we  have  a  stationary  population  of  about  14,000 ;  that  the  chil- 
dren of  census  age  (four  to  twenty)  are  about  3,800,  but  that 
those  of  the  ages  six  to  fifteen  are  only  about  2,000.  Thus  be- 
tween fourteen  and  fifteen  out  of  every  100  persons  in  the  popu- 
lation are  children  of  the  ages  six  to  fifteen.  Of  the  number  of 
children  who  would  otherwise  have  to  be  provided  for  in  the 
public  schools,  about  500  were  enrolled  in  parochial  schools  last 
year  (1916-17).  Finally,  the  actual  enrollment  of  the  ele- 
mentary schools  is  about  1,500,  and  is  decreasing.  The  enroll- 
ment of  the  high  school  was  570  last  year,  and  is  increasing.  The 
enrollment  in  kindergarten  is  slightly  on  the  increase.  On  the 
whole,  the  enrollment  is  practically  stationary  when  all  schools 
are  considered.  Accordingly,  the  city  is  not  confronted  with 
the  need  of  rapidly  expanding  its  school  system  to  accommodate 
increased  enrollment. 


Financing  the  Sclwol  System  51 

II.     The    Means    For    Solving    the    Problfjvt  ;    Resources  ; 

Receipts 

Fundamentally,  the  basis  for  meeting  the  requirements  of  edu- 
cation at  Janesville  is  the  property  valuation  in  the  city.  The 
full  valuation  of  real  and  personal  property  at  Janesville  in 
1916  was  $16,981,097.  Since  the  estimated  population  of  the 
city  for  that  year  was  14,339,  the  wealth  per  capita  was  $1,184. 
Such  a  statement,  however,  conveys  little  meaning  until  we  are 
able  to  compare  it  with  similar  statements  about  other  cities  of 
the  same  class  as  Janesville.  Accordingly,  I  have  shown  in 
column  4  of  Table  8  the  wealth  per  capita  for  nine  Wisconsin 
cities,  including  Janesville.  These  are  the  cities  which,  accord- 
ing to  the  1910  census,  had  a  population  between  10,000  and 
25,000. 

I  have  used  figures  for  true  valuation  rather  than  for  as- 
sessed valuation,  because  the  assessments  vary  from  nearly  a 
100%  basis  to  about  65%  among  these  nine  cities.  The  figures 
for  true  valuation  were  furnished  by  the  Wisconsin  Tax  Com- 
mission and  are  based  upon  the  reports  of  county  assessors  of 
income. 

According  to  Table  8,  the  city  having  the  largest  wealth  per 
person  is  Janesville  which  in  the  year  in  question  (1916)  had 
property  amounting  to  $1,184  per  person.  Kenosha  is  next  with 
$1,129  per  capita,  followed  by  Appleton  and  Manitowoc.  The 
wealth  of  each  of  these  four  cities  amounts  to  well  over  a  thou- 
sand dollars  for  each  "man,  woman,  and  child"  in  the  population. 

A  remark  on  the  reliability  of  these  figures  may  not  be  inap- 
propriate. It  is  assumed,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  figures  for 
true  valuation  represent  uniformly  the  resources  of  each  city. 
The  figures  given  for  population  are  the  United  States  Census 
Bureau's  estimates  for  1916  as  contained  in  the  "Estimates  of 
Population  of  the  United  States,"  Bulletin  133,  Bureau  of  the 
Census,  page  30.  These  are  estimates  and  not  enumerations. 
The  figures  are,  therefore,  no  more  than  approximations.  How- 
ever, the  figures  both  for  true  valuation  and  for  population  are 
the  best  ones  obtainable.  The  discrepancies  between  the  re- 
ported and  the  true  figures  cannot  be  great,  and  I  feel  sure  that 
the  entries  for  "wealth  per  capita"  contained  in  columns  4  and 
5  are  substantiallv  accurate. 


62 


Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


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Financing  Uic  ScJiool  System.  ■  53 

So  far,  therefore,  as  wealth  per  capita  may  be  an  indication 
of  the  ability  of  a  city  to  finance  its  educational  and  other  ac- 
tivities, we  may  say,  with  confidence,  that  Janesville  has  un- 
usually large  opportunities  compared  with  other  cities  in  Wis- 
consin of  the  same  class.  None  of  the  cities  possess  more  wealth 
per  person  than  does  Janesville.  Not  only  do  all  of  the  cities 
possess  less  wealth  per  person,  but  some  of  them  possess  a  great 
deal  less ;  for  example,  the  wealth  per  person  at  Ashland  is  but 
little  more  than  half  that  at  Janesville. 

This  does  not  by  any  means  tell  the  whole  story.  It  is  proper 
to  observe  that  the  large  wealth  per  capita  at  Janesville  is  no 
more  significant  in  regard  to  schools  than  in  regard  to  other  mu- 
nicipal departments.  So  far  as  the  schools  are  concerned,  how- 
ever, the  wealth  per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance  has  a 
special  meaning.  It  indicates  the  amount  of  wealth  back  of  ev- 
ery child  who  attends  the  public  schools.  It  is  manifestly  af- 
fected b}^  at  least  two  important  factors.  The  first  is  the  propor- 
tion of  persons  of  school  age  in  the  total  population  of  the  city 
in  question,*  and  the  second  is  the  proportion  of  children  of 
school  age  who  are  attending  the  public  schools.  Aside  from 
the  fact  that  there  is  difference  among  cities  in  the  enforcement 
of  the  compulsory  education  law,  there  is  also  the  eff'ect  of  the 
existence  of  private  and  parochial  schools  in  a  community. 

Columns  7  and  8  of  Table  8  show  that  the  position  of  Janes,- 
ville  is  scarcely  less  favorable  in  respect  to  wealth  per  pupil  than 
in  respect  to  wealth  per  capita  of  the  population.  Its  wealth  per 
pupil,  amounting  to  $8,646,  was  exceeded  by  that  of  but  one  city 
of  the  list.  Not  only  did  seven  of  the  eight  other  cities  have  less 
wealth  for  each  child,  but  two  of  them  had  less  than  half  as 
much.  Whatever  Janesville  may  or  may  not  choose  to  do  educa- 
tionally, it  is  not  in  a  position  to  plead  poverty.  For  example, 
it  has  more  wealth  and  fewer  public  school  children  than  either 
Marinette  or  Manitowoc.  It  provides  education  for  practically 
the  same  number  of  children  as  does  Ashland,  and  has  more  than 
twice  as  much  money  with  which  to  do  it.  With  about  the  same 
wealth  as  Beloit,  Fond  du  Lac,  or  Wausau,  it  teaches  about  1300 
fewer  children. 


*  It  is  surprising-  liow  great  the  variation  is  in  this  respect.  Tlie 
Bureau  of  the  Census  reported  in  1910  the  number  of  children  in  each 
city  who  -were  between  the  ages  of  six  and  fifteen.  The  percentage 
of  such  children  varied  among  the  25  cities  with  which  comparison  is 
made  elsewhere  in  this  chapter  from  less  than  10  to  21.  Janesville's 
percentage  was  14.4. 


54 


Educational  Survcij  of  Janesville 


The  foregoing  table  and  discussion  have  to  do  with  what  the 
city  resources  are  in  a  large  way.  More  significant,  with  refer- 
ence to  the  schools,  is  the  question  of  the  amount  of  money  at  the 
disposal  of  the  Board  of  Education.  Table  9  shows  the  school 
receipts  for  the  past  five  years.  The  revenue  receipts  and  the 
nonrevenue  receipts  are  shown  separately.  It  is  the  former,  of 
course,  which  are  most  significant  in  this  connection;  not  only 
because  they  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  money  available  for 
school  purposes,  but  also  because  the  nonrevenue  receipts  repre- 
sent corresponding  liabilities  rather  than  unencumbered  funds 
available  for  use.  Receipts  from  loans  or  bond  sales  must  be  off- 
set at  other  times  by  revenue  receipts  for  their  payment,  while 
"refunds  of  payments"  have  no  doubt  been  offset  by  excess  pay- 
ments which  at  the  time  they  were  made  must  have  corresponded 
to  an  equal  amount  of  revenue  receipts. 


Table   9. — Receipts.    Janesville   Schools 


1912-13 

1913-14 

1914-15 

1915-16 

1916  17 

Subventions  and  grants  from  State.. 
Subventions  and  grants  from  oounty 
Appropriations  from  city  treasur.v . . . 
Rent  and  interest 

111. 495 

10,753 

44,000 

542 

1,108 

854 

$12,104 
10, 356 

45.000 

""i,^n 

1.682 

$12,666 
10,905 
44.000 

'2,973 
1,183 

813,723 
11,328 
48,000 

$13,661 

10,899 

53,000 

1,050 

Tuitions  and  other  fees  

3,530 
3,489 

3,845 

Other  revenue  receipts 

778 

Total  revenue 

868,752 

$70,754 

$71,727 

$80,070 

$83,233 

Temporary  loans  

$13,000 

$10,000 

$10,000 
9,019 
2,300 

$20,800 

$21,100 

Other  loans  and  bond  sales 

Refunds  of  payments 

46 

Total  non-revenue 

$13,000 

810.000 

$21,319 

820,800 
$100,870 

$21,146 

Grand  total 

$81.7£2 

$80,754 

$93,046 

8104,379 

From  Table  9  it  appears  that  the  total  revenue  receipts  for 
school  purposes  at  Janesville  have  increased  from  $68,752  in 
1912-13  to  $83,233  in  1916-17  or  21%.  The  table  also  shows 
the  sources  of  this  revenue.  The  entries  for  1916-17  will  show, 
in  a  general  way,  the  relation  of  the  amount  derived  from  each 
of  the  various  sources  to  the  total  revenue.  By  converting  these 
entries  into  percentages,  we  find  that  the  grants  from  the  State 
amounted  in  that  year  to  16%  of  the  total  revenue,  that  the 
proceeds  from  the  county  tax — which,  however,  is  levied  upon 
the  city — amounted  to  13%,  and  that  the  appropriations  from 


Fmancing  the  School  System  55 

the  city  treasury  amounted  to  64%.  Receipts  from  rent  and 
interest  in  1916-17  amounted  to  1%  of  the  total  receipts;  re- 
ceipts from  tuitions  and  other  fees  to  5%  ;  while  other  revenue 
receipts  amounted  to  1%.  Since  the  county  tax  is  levied  upon 
the  city  only — i.  e.,  is  based  upon  the  same  property  valuation 
as  is  the  city  assessment — it  is,  for  every  practical  purpose,  a 
city  levy.  Thus,  the  amount  raised  on  city  property  for  school 
purposes  was  $63,899  in  1916-17.  This  amounted  to  77%  of  the 
total  revenue  for  that  year. 

The  principal  sources  of  school  revenue  are,  therefore,  those 
from  the  state  and  those  from  city  taxation.  People  in  Janes- 
ville  will  no  doubt  be  interested  to  know  how  receipts  from  these 
sources  compare  with  receipts  from  similar  sources  for  other 
cities  of  the  same  population  class. 

Table  10  shows  for  21  cities  out  of  25  which  have  been  selected 
for  various  purposes  of  comparison  in  this  chapter  the  total 
revenue  receipts  for  school  purposes,  and  a  division  of  these 
receipts  into  those  from  the  state,  those  from  the  city  and  coun- 
ty combined,  and  those  from  other  sources.  It  also  shows  the 
receipts  per  pupil  enrolled  (a)  from  city  and  county  combined 
and  (b)  from  all  sources.  The  data  are  for  the  year  1914-15 — 
the  last  for  which  the  figures  are  available.  The  25  cities  are 
all  in  the  population  class  of  Janesville,  and  they  are  all  in  the 
Middle  West.  The  fact  that  returns  from  these  cities  have  been 
used  in  other  chapters  of  this  report  was  a  factor  in  their 
selection. 

The  receipts  per  pupil  from  county  and  city  combined  ranged 
from  a  maximum  of  $60.94  to  a  minimum  of  $16.82.  Janesville 's 
amount  was  $21.81,  and  only  two  cities  had  smaller  amounts. 
The  middle  of  the  range — i.  e.,  the  median  amount,  was  $30.57. 
Accordingly,  we  may  say  that  typically  these  20  cities  raised  and 
appropriated  for  school  use  nearly  nine  dollars  per  pupil  (or 
40%)  more  than  did  Janesville.  To  equal  this,  Janesville  would 
have  been  obliged  to  appropriate  $76,900  instead  of  the  $54,905 
which  it  did  appropriate.  Moreover,  in  doing  so  it  would  still 
have  been  surpassed  by  half  of  the  cities.  In  order  to  take  a 
commanding  position,  it  would  have  been  obliged  to  appropriate 
about  $100,000.  Such  an  appropriation  would  have  amounted 
to  $39.73  per  child,  and  would  have  barely  placed  Janesville 
among  the  first  quarter  of  the  20  cities. 


5G 


Educatiunal  Survey  of  Jancsville 


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Financing  the  Scliool  System  57 

Among  the  nine  Wisconsin  cities  listed  in  Table  10  the  rank  of 
Janesville  was  seventh  in  the  amount  appropriated  per  child. 
In  other  words,  two  of  the  cities  made  less  money  available  and 
six  made  more  available  in  relation  to  the  number  of  children 
to  be  educated  at  public  expense.  Indeed,  two  of  the  Wisconsin 
cities,  namely  Appleton  and  Kenosha,  each  made  nearly  twice  as 
much  available  per  child.  To  have  equaled  them,  it  would  have 
been  necessary  for  Janesville  to  appropriate  more  than  $100,000 
instead  of  $54,905. 

In  Column  8  of  Table  10  are  shown  the  total  receipts  from 
all  sources  per  pupil  enrolled  in  the  public  schools.  Roughly 
speaking,  these  entries  indicate  for  each  city  the  amount  of 
money  behind  every  school  child.  Janesville  ranked  seventeenth 
out  of  the  twenty  cities.  The  amount  per  child  was  $28.50.  The 
largest  amount  for  any  city  was  $102.19  per  child ;  the  smallest 
was  $23.53.  The  median  or  most  typical  amount  was  $40.32. 
If  the  Janesville  Board  of  Education  had  received  that  much 
per  child,  the  city  would  have  been  obliged  to  appropriate  (State 
grants  and  "other  receipts"  remaining  the  same)  $106,000  in- 
stead of  $54,905. 

Table  11  is  designed  to  show  for  the  21  cities  we  have  selected, 
the  proportions  of  total  school  receipts  which  are  derived  from 
state  grants,  local  taxation,  and  other  sources  (such  as  rents  and 
interest,  tuition  and  other  fees  from  patrons).  The  entries  in 
this  table,  obviousl}^,  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  amounts  of  the 
receipts  from  any  of  these  sources.  Virginia,  Minnesota,  which 
in  virtue  of  appropriating  $190,426  from  local  taxes,  ranked 
first  both  in  the  total  amount  and  in  the  amount  for  each  school 
child  from  this  source,  nevertheless,  because  of  large  receipts 
from  other  sources,  derived  only  59.7%  of  its  educational  re- 
ceipts from  local  taxation.  This  was  a  lower  per  cent  than  for 
any  other  city  of  the  list.  The  table,  however,  is  useful  in 
showing  the  relative  importance  of  the  sources  of  receipts.  Most 
typically,  receipts  from  the  state  amounted  to  16  or  17  per  cent ; 
and  the  figure  for  Janesville  w^as  17.7.  Among  the  nine  Wiscon- 
sin cities  the  variation  was  from  22.9%  (Ashland)  to  10.8%' 
(Beloit),  and  Janesville  was  the  middle  city. 

In  respect  to  the  proportion  of  receipts  from  local  taxation, 
the  median  for  the  21  cities  was  78.0%.  Janesville's  percentage 
was  76.5,  and  it  ranked  17th  among  these  cities.     Among  the 


58 


Educational  Survey  of  Jane.wiUe 


nine  Wisconsin  cities,  it  was  seventh.  These  facts  indicate  thaf 
it  was  providing  from  its  city  taxation  for  a  relatively  small 
proportion  of  its  total  school  receipts. 


Table  11. — Proportion  of  Revenue  Receipts  for  School  Purposes  from 
State,   County,  and  City — 21   Cities — 19JJt-i5 


Cities 

Subventions 
and  grants 
from  state 

Receipts  from 

local  lax 

(city  and 

county) 

Otlier 
sources 

Rank  in 
appropria- 
tions from 
local  tax 

1 

2 

3 

4 

3.1 
2.8 
9.5 
4.3 
10.8 
15.4 
12.5 
13.8 
16.2 
21.4 
19.2 
19.0 
19.0 
19.2 
13.5 
17.7 
20.7 
24.3 
22.9 
28.1 
6.4 

96.1 
94.0 
90.4 
87.5 
85.7 
83.5 
82.8 
82.3 
80.5 
78.3 
78.0 
77.9 
77.6H- 
77.6- 
76.8 
76.5 
75.1 
74.1 
72.8 
71.5 
59.7 

0.8 
3.2 
0.1 
8.2 
3.5 
1.1 
4.7 
3.9 
3.3 
0.3 
2.8 
3.1 
3.4 
3.2 
9.7 

5.8 
4.2 
1.6 
4.3 
0.4- 

33.9 

1 

2 

3 

4 

Beloit     Wis 

5 

Appleton,  Wis 

6 

Kenosha,    Wis, 

7 

Riciimond,  Ind  

8 

Manitowoc,  Wis 

9 

10 

11 

Pond  du  Lac,  Wis 

12 

13 

Wausau,  Wis 

14 
15 

16 

Iron  wood,  Micii 

Muskegon,   Micli 

Asliland,  Wis 

17 

18 
19 

Marinette,  Wis 

20 

21 

Medians 

16.2 

78.0 

3.3 

Summarizing  conditions  as  they  were  in  1914-15, — the  latest 
year  for  which  comparative  data  are  available — we  may  say: 

(1)  That  in  point  of  total  revenue  receipts  (Table  10,  Col- 
umn 4),  the  $71,727  provided  for  the  Janesville  schools  was  le^iS 
than  was  provided  by  any  Wisconsin  city  except  one,  and  that 
only  three  cities  of  the  entire  twenty-one  showed  smaller 
amounts ; 

(2)  That  the  $54,905  provided  from  the  taxation  of  city 
property  for  school  purposes  was  exceeded  by  the  appropriations 
of  all  but  two  of  the  Wisconsin  cities  (Table  10,  column  2)  ; 

(3)  That  the  amount  provided  by  local  tax  when  taken  in 
connection  with  the  number  of  pupils  enrolled  iu  the  public 
schools  was  likewise  low,  being  exceeded  in  six  of  the  nine  Wis- 
consin cities,  and  in  all  of  the  cities  in  the  other  states  (Table  10, 
column  6)  ; 

(4)  That  in  order  to  provide  total  receipts  per  pupil  equal 


Financing  the  Sclioot  System  59 

to  those  most  typically  provided  for  schools  in  the  other  cities, 
$40.32,  Janesville  would  have  been  obliged  to  raise  nearly  twice 
as  much  from  city  taxation ; 

(5)  That  among  the  nine  Wisconsin  cities  as  well  as  among 
the  entire  21  cities,  it  ranked  relatively  low  in  the  proportion  of 
its  school  receipts  provided  from  local  taxation  (Table  11,  col- 
umn 2). 

III.     The  Way  in  Which  the  Problem  is  Being  Solved 

In  this  section  an  account  will  be  given  of  the  way  in  which 
the  schools  at  Janesville  are  actually  being  financed.  We  have 
considered  above  the  educational  problem  which  confronts  the 
citizens  of  that  city,  and  the  means  at  hand  for  solving  it.  This 
section  will  deal  primarily  with  expenditures. 

Taxes  and  Tax  Rates 

Table  12  shows  for  each  of  the  nine  Wisconsin  cities  classified 
by  the  Census  Bureau  as  having  populations  in  1910  between 
10,000  and  25,000  the  total  tax  and  the  state,  county,  city,  and 
school  taxes,  (levy  of  1916)  with  the  corresponding  tax  rates 
based  on  full  property  valuation.  Four  of  the  cities  raised  a 
larger  State  tax  than  Janesville;  all  of  them  raised  a  larger 
county  tax,  three  a  larger  city  tax,  and  six  a  larger  school  tax. 
All  but  two  of  the  cities  raised  a  larger  total  property  tax. 

A  better  comparison,  however,  may  be  made  on  the  basis  of 
the  tax  rates.  It  is  to  be  understood  that  these  are  not  the 
actual  rates  as  they  were  used  in  levying  the  taxes,  because  the 
levy  was  upon  assessed  valuation.  These  rates  are  based  on  the 
full  valuation  as  furnished  by  the  Wisconsin  Tax  Commission 
from  the  reports  of  county  assessors  of  incomes.  The  total  tax 
rate  for  Janesville  in  1916  was  $1.42  per  $100  of  full  property 
valuation.  This  was  a  lower  rate  than  obtained  in  any  of  the 
other  cities.  A  glance  at  the  rates  for  state,  county,  city,  and 
school  taxes  will  show  which  of  them  are  effective  in  determining 
the  low  rate  of  total  taxes.  As  to  the  State  tax,  the  difference 
between  the  cities  was  very  small,  the  variation  being  from 
about  thirteen  and  one-half  cents  (Janesville,  $.134)  to  about 
fourteen  and  one-half  cents  (Ashland,  $.146) .  The  rates  for  coun- 
ty taxes  varied  a  great  deal,  and  Janesville 's  rate  was  the  low- 
est among  these  cities.    The  rate  for  the  city  taxes  at  Janesville 


60 


Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


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Financing  the  School  System  61 

($.747)  was  not  far  from  the  typical  rate.  The  rate  for  school 
taxes  ($.417)  was  lower  than  was  the  case  in  any  other  of  these 
cities.  Wausau's  rate  of  $.572  was  the  most  typical  one,  four  of 
the  city  rates  being  higher  and  four  lower.  If  this  rate  had  pre- 
vailed at  Janesville,  the  amount  of  money  raised  by  tax  for 
school  purposes  would  have  been  $97,132.  The  conclusion, 
therefore,  is  that,  considering  its  wealth,  Janesville  was  lightly 
taxed,  and  that  this  was  true  because  the  rates  were  low  for 
county  and  school  taxes. 

Analysis  of  City  Expenditures 

A  classification  devised  by  the  Wisconsin  Tax  Commission  will 
now  be  used  to  show,  both  for  Janesville  and  for  the  other  eight 
Wisconsin  cities  of  the  same  population  class,  the  purposes  for 
which  city  expenses  are  incurred.  Table  13  shows  the  Janes- 
ville city  expenditures  for  the  year  ending  April  15,  1916.  The 
headings  with  which  we  are  chiefly  concerned  are  (a)  those  in- 
cluded under  Departmental  expenditures  (exclusive  of  "Munic- 
ipal public  service  enterprises"*)  and  (b)  "Payments  to  school 
treasurer".  Items  of  secondary  importance  in  this  connection 
are  payments  on  account  of  indebtedness  (interest  and  princi- 
pal), and  "Payments  to  other  civil  divisions."** 


The  variation  among  cities  in  respect  to  this  item  seems  to  make 
it  inadvisable  to  include  it  in  a  comparative  showing.  It  includes  ex- 
penditures for  public  utilities,  such  as  city  water  or  lighting  systems. 
These  are  largely  self-supporting. 

**  These  payments  are  agency  and  trust  payments,  including,  to 
quote  the  schedule  of  the  Tax  Commission:  "State  tax  on  general  prop- 
erty, school  district  loans  from  state  trust  funds,  county  tax  on  prop- 
erty paid  in  cash,  county  tax  on  property  paid  by  delinquent  property 
rolls,  income  tax  for  state  and  county  (30%),  teachers'  insurance  and 
retirement  fund,  and  special  assessments  paid  to  treasurers  of  incor- 
porated  drainage   districts." 


62  Educational  Survey  of  Jancsville 

Table  13.     Expenditures  of  the  City  of  Janesville  For  the 
Year  Ending  April  15,  1916* 

I.  DEPARTMENTAL  EXPENDITURES: 

A.  General    Government $17,457 

B.  Protection   of   Person  &  Property 34,777 

C.  Conservation   of  Health 5,662 

D.  Highways    64,273 

E.  Charities  &  Corrections 8 

F.  Education  other  than  schools 4,781 

G.  Recreation 1,851 

H.  Municipal  Public  Service  Enterprises 32,415 

I.  Unclassified    4,642 

II.  PAYMENTS  ON  ACCOUNT  OF  INDEBTEDNESS: 

J.  Interest   10,576 

K.  Principal    42,835 

III.  AGENCY  &  TRUST  PAYMENTS: 

L.  Payments  to  other  Civil  Divisions 49,197 

M.  Payments  to  School  Treasurer 90,498 

TOTAL  EXPENDITURES $358,972 

From  Table  13  it  appears  that  the  total  expenditures  of  the 
the  city  of  Janesville  for  the  year  ending  April  15,  1916  were 
$358,972.  If,  however,  we  consider  only  the  items  which  I  have 
just  mentioned  as  of  primary  importance,  i.  e.  if  we  exclude 
public  service  enterprises,  indebtedness,  and  agency  or  trust 
payments  to  other  civil  divisions,  the  expenditure  was  $223.9-1:9. 

This  being  the  most  significant  expenditure,  and  the  one  upon 
the  basis  of  which  comparison  between  cities  may  most  properly 
be  made,  Table  14  represents  for  Janesville  and  the  other  Wis- 
consin cities  of  its  class  a  comparison  of  expenditures  under  the 
item  leading  to  this  figure  for  Janesville.  Interest  charges  are 
likewise  shown.  Clearly,  no  comparison  can  be  made  between  the 
expenditures  of  the  cities  without  reducing  them  to  common 
terms.  Accordingly,  in  Table  14  the  city  expenditures  for  dif- 
ferent purposes  are  expressed  in  amounts  per  capita  of  the  popu- 
lation.^  Table  15  shows  the  rank  of  each  city  in  the  amount  per 
capita  spent  for  eacn  purpose. 

It  is  evident  from  Tables  14  and  15  that  the  amount  of  expen- 
diture for  each  item  when  reduced  to  common  terms  was  quite 


*  From   report    to    W^isconsin   Tax   Commission. 

1  Population  as  estimated  for  July  1st,  1916,  by   the  Bureau  of  the  Census. 


Fmancing  the  ScJiool  System 


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64  Educational  Survcij  of  Janesville 

different  in  different  cities.  Beloit  spent  $2.49  per  capita  for 
general  city  government,  while  Kenosha  spent  but  59  cents  for 
the  same  purpose.  Janesville  spent  $1.22  for  this  item  and 
ranked  fifth  among  the  nine  cities.  In  other  words,  it  had  a 
middle  position.  It  spent  $2.43  for  protection  of  person  and 
property  and  only  one  of  the  nine  cities  spent  less  than  this 
amount.  Its  expenditures  for  ' '  conservation  of  health ' '  and  for 
"charities  and  corrections",  were  also  low  compared  to  those  of 
the  other  cities.  In  fact,  for  the  last  item  its  entire  expenditure 
amounted  to  but  $7.50  which  on  a  per  capita  basis  was  nil.  Its 
payments  for  "education  other  than  schools"  (i.e.  for  libraries) 
and  its  unclassified  expenditures  were  relatively  high.  It  spent 
13  cents  per  capita  for  recreational  purposes,  which  was  rather 
low,  being  exceeded  by  the  amounts  for  five  of  the  other  eight 
cities.  Its  expenditures  for  school  purposes  amounted  to  $6.31 
per  capita,  which  was  exceeded  in  five  of  the  cities,  three  of 
them  spending  less  for  this  item.  The  maximum  expenditure  per 
capita  for  school  purposes  Avas  that  of  Marinette,  being  $12.12, 
or  nearly  twice  as  much  as  at  Janesville.  Appleton's  expendi- 
ture of  $9.96  per  capita  and  Beloit 's  of  $8.20  were  58%  and 
30%  respectively  more  than  the  expenditure  of  Janesville. 
Kenosha's  expenditure  of  $7.26  for  school  purposes  was  15% 
more  than  that  of  Janesville,  while  Wausau's  expenditure  of 
$6.83  was  8%  more.  The  three  cities  whose  expenditure  for 
school  purposes  was  exceeded  by  that  of  Janesville  spent  re- 
spectively 6%,  7%  and  10%  less  than  Janesville.  It  will,  there- 
fore be  seen,  first,  that  Janesville  was  exceeded  by  more  than  half 
of  the  other  Wisconsin  cities  in  its  expenditure  for  school  pur- 
poses; and  second  that  the  cities  which  spent  more  spent  much 
more,  while  those  which  spent  less  spent  only  a  little  less.  Ac- 
cordingly, while  the  rank  of  Janesville  was  sixth  among  the  nine 
cities  in  school  expenditures,  it  really  did  not  take  as  high  a  po- 
sition as  even  that  fact  would  apparently  indicate.  The  per  cap- 
ita expenditure  for  school  purposes  for  all  the  nine  cities  taken 
together  amounted  to  $7.88.  If  Janesville  had  spent  this  amount 
per  capita,  it  would  have  spent  $112,991  for  school  purposes  in- 
stead of  $90,489. 

As  to  the  expenditures  for  all  purposes  exhibited  in  Tables  14 
and  15,  Column  12,  we  observe  that  only  one  city  spent  less 
than  Janesville,  and  that  in  that  city  the  expenditure  was  only 


FijuDtviny  llie  Scliool  System  65 

slightly  less.  The  aiiioiuil  per  capita  for  all  i)urposes*  was 
$16.36.  Ill  four  of  the  other  cities  the  expenditure  was  over 
$20.00  per  capita.  It  is  evident  that  from  the  point  of  view  of 
money  expended  for  each  person  living  in  the  city,  the  burden 
falls  lightly  on  the  citizens  of  Janesville. 

Tables  16  and  17  indicate  from  another  point  of  view — namely 
that  of  wealth — the  expenditures  for  the  same  purposes  exhib- 
ited in  Tables  14  and  15.  The  figures  in  Table  16  are  expressed 
in  amounts  per  $1,000  of  wealth  (full  valuation  of  real  and  per- 
sonal property).  Table  17  shows  the  rank  of  the  cities  in  ex- 
penditures for  each  of  the  different  purposes  in  proportion  to 
their  wealth.  In  the  first  place,  we  may  observe  that  the  total 
expense  in  proportion  to  the  wealth  was  much  less  at  Janesville 
than  at  any  other  of  the  cities  with  which  we  are  making  com- 
parisons. Thirteen  dollars  and  eighteen  cents  ($13.18)  per 
$1,000  of  wealth  paid  all  the  city  expenditures  for  the  year,  or, 
if  interest  payments  on  indebtedness  are  added,  the  amount  re- 
quired was  $13.80  per  $1,000  of  true  valuation.  Adopting  the 
latter  figure,  w^e  observe  (Table  16,  Column  12)  that  every  city 
expended  more  money  in  proportion  to  its  wealth  than  did  Janes- 
ville, and  that  two  of  them  spent  more  than  twice  as  much. 

When  we  look  at  the  different  purposes  for  which  the  cities 
spent  their  money  we  find  that  the  amounts  for  Janesville  were 
relatively  low  for  all  of  them.  The  amount  spent  for  school 
purposes  ($5.33  per  $1,000  of  wealth),  was  less  than  that  of 
any  other  city  in  the  list.  The  expenditure  of  Marinette  ($18.18 
per  $1,000  of  w^ealth)  was  on  a  distinctly  different  plane  from 
that  of  the  other  cities,  and  was  more  than  three  times  as  great 
as  the  expenditure  of  Janesville.  The  median  city  (Wausau) 
spent  $7.81  per  $1,000  of  wealth  for  school  purposes.  If  Janes- 
ville had  spent  as  much,  its  support  of  its  schools  would  have 
amounted  to  $111,988  instead  of  $90,498.  In  making  such  an 
expenditure,  moreover,  the  city  would  still  have  been  surpassed 
by  half  of  the  remaining  cities. 

It  is  evident,  as  might  be  expected,  that  on  the  expenditure 
basis  the  position  of  Janesville  is  much  the  same  as-  it  was  shown 
to  be  on  the  basis  of  the  receipts  by  the  Board  of  Education. 
The  city  is  not  burdening  itself  from  any  point  of  view  in  the 


♦  Exclusive,  as  before,  of  public  service  enterprises,  payments  of 
principal  on  indebtednes.*^,  and  general  or  trust  payments  to  otlier  civil 
divisions. 


66 


Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


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Financing  tlie  School  System  67 

financing  of  its  public  schools.  The  opportunity  for  advance- 
ment in  the  schools  of  Janesville  is  particularly  favorable.  Oth- 
er chapters  in  this  Survey  show  the  need  of  progress.  This 
chapter  shows  the  chance  for  it. 

In  order  to  give  this  report  a  wider  scope,  I  have  sought  data 
on  expenditures  for  cities  outside  of  Wisconsin.  For  cities  of 
over  30,000  inhabitants  this  would  not  be  difficult,  but  for  those 
of  Janesville 's  population  class  no  figures  have  been  published 
since  those  of  1913.  Even  for  that  year  some  of  them  are  unsat- 
isfactory. The  reader  is  therefore  cautioned  that  the  entries 
in  Table  18,  particularly  those  which  involve  the  wealtli  of  the 
cities,  can  do  no  more  than  show  conditions  approximately. 
The  same  25  cities  are  represented  as  was  mentioned  above  (page 
55).     Twenty-one  of  them  are  listed  in  Table  11. 

The  nine  Wisconsin  cities  separately  listed  in  other  tables, 
are  included.  The  figures  in  Table  18  are  as  published  by  the 
Bureau  of  the  Census  ("Wealth,  Debt,  and  Taxation"  Vol.  II, 
1913).  The  expenditures  of  the  Wisconsin  cities  are  repre- 
sented to  be  considerably  less  than  those  furnished  by  the  Wis- 
consin Tax  Commission.  This  is  largely  accounted  for  by  three 
facts :  First,  the  Census  figures  are  for  an  earlier  year ;  second, 
they  do  not  include  paj^ments  for  permanent  improvements ;  and 
third,  they  include  only  such  as  were  made  from  municipal  rev- 
enues (e.  g.  state  aid  is  excluded  from  school  expenditures.) 
Nevertheless,  the  census  figures  as  given  in  Table  18,  are  on 
the  same  basis  for  all  cities  and  comparison  is  permitted. 

In  column  4  of  Table  18  is  given  for  each  city  the  proportion 
of  its  total  payments  for  city  departments  which  was  devoted  to 
its  public  schools.  Janesville 's  proportion  was  38.6%.  The 
reader  will  note  that  the  percentages  of  payments  for  schools 
range  from  58.2  to  33.0.  The  median  percentage  was  15.3. 
Janesville 's  percentage  (38.6)  was  low,  being  exceeded  by  the 
percentage  for  all  but  three  of  the  remaining  cities.  All  of  the 
other  Wisconsin  cities  devoted  a  greater  proportion  to  schools. 
TTiese  figures  tend  to  show  that  Janesville  is  devoting  a  rela- 
tively small  proportion  of  its  city  expenditures  to  the  public 
education  of  its  children. 

The  payments  for  all  general  departments  per  $1,000  of  as- 
sessed valuation  are  shown  in  column  5  of  Table  18.  The  most 
typical  amount   was  $18.64.     Tbe  amount   for  Janesville   was 


68 


Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


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$12.98.  Only  three  cities,  (one  in  Wisconsin)  show  lower 
amounts  tlian  this.  Some  cities  spent  two  or  three  times  as  much 
as  this  per  $1,000.  Again,  therefore,  we  have  from  a  different 
source,  a  confirmation  of  the  fact  we  have  already  brought  out, 
namely,  that  the  bui'den  of  taxation  on  the  property  of  Jancs- 
ville  is  relatively  light.  The  payments  for  scliool  purposes  per 
$1,000  of  assessed  valuation  amounted  at  Janesville  to  $5.01 
(column  6.)  The  amounts  for  other  cities  were  less  in  onh'  two 
instances.  The  median  amount  for  all  the  cities  was  $8.27.  This 
points  in  the  same  direction  as  before  and  supports  the  state- 
ment made  in  another  connection  that  Janesville  is  not  expend- 
ing as  much  money  for  schools  in  proportion  to  its  wealth  as 
most  of  the  cities  of  its  class. 

The  statements  made  in  the  preceding  paragraph  would  be 
much  more  reliable  if  it  were  possible  to  base  them  upon  true 
rather  than  assessed  valuation  of  property.  It  is  likely,  how- 
ever, that  the  ranking  of  the  cities  would  be  little  affected  if 
this  were  done.  For  example,  a  ranking  of  the  nine  Wisconsin 
cities  was  made  on  the  basis  of  both  assessed  and  true  valua- 
tion. The  first  and  last  cities  were  the  same  on  both  bases  and 
the  seven  intermediate  cities,  except  in  two  instances,  either  had 
the  same  rank  or  their  rank  on  one  basis  differed  from  their 
rank  on  the  other  by  but  one.  It  is  certain  that  whatever 
changes  in  the  entries  in  columns  5  and  6  of  Table  18  might 
be  made  by  using  the  true  valuation  of  city  property,  it  would 
not  be  such  as  to  make  Janesville 's  amounts  expended  per  one 
thousand  dollars  other  than  low. 

In  relation  to  population,  however,  the  expenditures  of  Janes- 
ville are  higher  than  those  of  most  of  the  cities  with  which  we 
are  making  comparison.  Column  7  of  Table  18  shows  that  the 
expenditure  i^er  capita  for  all  general  departments  was  $13.82. 
This  was  above  the  median  ($11.34),  and  was  exceeded  by  the 
amounts  for  only  four  of  the  cities.  The  expenditure  per  capita 
for  school  purposes  (column  8)  was  $5.34.  This  was  also  above 
the  median  and  was  exceeded  by  the  amounts  for  eight  of  the 
other  24  cities.  According  to  Table  18,  therefore,  it  appears 
that,  while  in  relation  to  wealth  Janesville 's  support  of  schools 
is  small,  its  support  of  them  in  relation  to  its  population  is  above 
the  average.  As  has  been  said  before,  the  w^ealth  of  Janesville 
is  large  and  this  ought  to  enable  it  to  take  a  commanding  posi- 


70 


Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


tion  among  cities  of  its  class  in  the  amount  of  its  expenditures 
for  school  purposes.  It  has  about  $1200  per  person.  In  1913, 
even  on  the  assessment  basis,  it  had  well  over  $1000.  Whether 
$5.34  of  this  is  enough  to  spend  for  public  schools,  and  whether 
with  such  resources  a  position  of  ninth  among  these  25  cities  is 
satisfactory — these  are  questions  for  the  citizens  of  Janesville 
to  decide. 

In  Table  19  is  shown  for  each  city  the  average  cost  per  pupil 
enrolled.  Twenty -two  of  the  same  25  cities  are  represented.  The 
enrollment  figures  (column  1)  are  as  given  in  the  Report  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Education  for  the  school  year  1912-13.  Cost 
data  are  for  1913.  (See  Table  18,  column  3)  The  Janesville  ex- 
penditure amounted  to  $30.39  per  pupil,  and  it  ranked  12th 
among  the  22  cities.  The  median  for  these  cities  was  $30.66. 
Thus  the  amount  expended  at  Janesville  in  1912-13  was  some- 
what less  than  the  most  typical  figure  for  these  cities.  The  cities, 
however,  which  exceeded  Janesville  did  so  by  large  amounts, 
while  the  cities  which  did  not  spend  as  much  as  Janesville  fell 
short  of  it  by  small  amounts.     While,  therefore,  the  rank  of 


Table  19.— Cost  of  Schools  Per  Pupil  Enrolled— Data  for  1913 


City 

Public  school 
enrollment 

School  cost  uer 
pupil  enrolled 

Rank 

1 

2 

3 

Aupleton,  Wis 

Ashland.  Wis 

2,784 
2,021 
3,684 
3,767 
3,316 

a,480 
2,173 
2,981 
3, 86.5 
3,2.30 
2,671 

No  data 
4,188 
4,309 
4,057 
4,7.58 
2.703 
2,879 

No  data 
2,978 
2,730 
2,-516 

No  data 
1,581 
1,510 

$36.87 
36.30 
22.83 
28.. 56 
29.24 
30.a9 
34.49 
22.08 

.23.59 
23.66 
23.83 

3 
4 

Beloit.  Wis 

Kenoslia.  Wis 

Fond  du  Lac,  Wis       

21 
15 
14 

Janesville,  Wis 

Manitowoc.  Wis 

Marinette.  Wis 

Wausau.  Wis 

Coffevville.  Kan 

13 

8 
22 
20 
19 

Lawrence,  Kan 

18 

Pittsburg.  Kan 

(Tary.  Indiana 

35.32 
27.58 
30.92 
34.53 
46.05 
34.62 

5 

Hammond,  Indiana 

17 

Richmond.  Indiana 

11 

Muslcegrun,  Mich 

7 

Ann  Arbor.  Mich 

Iron  wood,  Mich 

Waul^egan,  Illinois 

1 

6 

Freeport.  Illinois 

29.53 
44.62 
28.36 

13 

Virgrlnia.  Minn 

2 

Winona  INIinn 

16 

St.  Cloud.  Minn 

Mankato,  Minn 

31.13 
32.20 

10 

Still  water,  M  inn 

9 

Mediau.  .. 

30.66 

Financing  the  School  Sjistivi  71 

Jan«sville  was  only  a  little  below  a  middle  one,  its  expenditure 
of  $30.39  was  considerably  nearer  the  miniinnin  ($22.08)  than 
the  maximum  ($46.05). 

Analysis  of  School  Expenditures:  (a)  By  Items: 

Having  given  an  analysis  of  city  expenditures,  and  having 
shown  as  one  item  of  the  city  expenditure  the  expenditure  for 
school  purposes,  we  shall  now  analyze  the  latter  into  sub-items, 
indicating  more  finely  distinguished  purposes  of  expenditure. 
Table  20  shows  for  the  most  recent  5-year  period  such  an  analy- 
sis of  expenditure.  The  data  were  furnished  by  the  Secretary 
of  the  Janesville  School  Board.  The  increase  in  total  expendi- 
tures amounted  to  nearly  $19,000,  which  was  an  advance  of 
28%  over  those  for  1912-13.  The  item  showing  the  largest 
amount  of  increase  is  that  for  high-school  teachers'  salaries, 
which  was  $6,841,  or  48%.  While  the  expenditures  during  the 
period  increased  nearly  $19,000,  the  enrollment  was  practically 
stationary,  (See  Table  7  above).  It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  the 
schools  are  being  more  liberally  financed  as  the  years  go  by.  A 
part  of  this  increase  is  due  to  a  general  tendency  everywhere  for 
education  to  become  more  important  as  a  city  enterprise  and 
more  expensive. 

Expenditures  for  various  purposes  in  different  cities  may  be 
compared  through  the  use  of  material  reported  in  the  publica- 
tions of  the  Bureau  of  Education.  So  far  as  it  is  accurate,  we 
are  able  to  infer  whether  a  given  city  is  high  or  low  in  the  money 
which  it  spends  for  its  board  office,  its  superintendent's  office, 
for  the  salaries  of  its  teachers,  the  wages  of  its  janitors,  etc. 
Table  21  is  the  fundamental  table  for  exhibiting  such  compari- 
sons. It  gives  the  amounts  expended  for  various  purposes  in 
1914^15,  and  the  total  for  school  purposes.*  It  needs  interpreta- 
tion, however.  It  is  not  easy  to  say  whether,  for  example,  the 
$7,612  which  Janesville  spent  for  wages  of  janitors  was  unusu- 
ally high  or  unusuall}^  low.  Table  22  is  computed  from  Table  21 
by  converting  each  amount  into  a  percentage  of  the  total  expen- 
diture for  the  city  in  question.    It  now  becomes  evident  that  ill 


*  It  will  be  observed  that  the  total  amount  for  Janesville  is  not  the  same 
as  is  given  in  Table  20.  The  Secretary  of  the  Janesville  Board  of  Educa- 
tion furnished  the  data  for  Table  20,  while  the  data  for  Table  21  were 
taken  from  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education.  The  extent  to 
which  items  were  included  in  the  one  and  not  in  the  other  cannot  now  be 
ascertained.  Table  21,  however,  having-  been  collected  from  all  cities  on  a 
uniform  schedule  is  valid  for  purposes  of  comparison.  ■ 


72 


Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


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74 


Educational  Survey  of  Jqnesville 


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Financing  the  School  System 


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'^'6  Educational  Survei/  of  Janesville 

the  matter  of  wages  of  janitors  the  expenditure  at  Janesville 
was  inordinately  high,  exceeding,  in  relation  to  the  total  expendi- 
ture, that  of  any  other  city  in  the  list.  Of  each  $100  of  ex- 
penditure for  school  purposes,  Janesville  devoted  $10.49  to  the 
payment  of  janitors'  wages.  The  median  amount  for  these  cities 
was  $7.51.  The  relative  expenditure  for  fuel  was  also  high, 
a,mounting  to  $5.82  out  of  each  $100,  only  five  of  the  25  school 
systems  spending  more  for  this  item.  The  proportion  of  money 
spent  for  maintenance  ($9.36  in  each  $100)  was  unusually  high, 
only  four  of  the  25  school  systems  spending  more.  The  unduly 
large  proportion  of  school  money  devoted  to  janitors'  salaries, 
fuel,  and  maintenance  at  Janesville  is  no  doubt  occasioned  by 
the  large  number  of  small  buildings  with  their  numerous  and 
more  or  less  unsatisfactory  heating  systems,  and  by  the  fact  that 
the  buildings  are  for  the  most  part  old  and  in  need  of  frequent 
repairs.  More  than  one-fourth  of  the  school  money  was  devoted 
to  these  three  purposes. 

Table  23  is  to  be  taken  in  connection  with  Table  22  as  ex- 
plaining and  interpreting  the  expenditures  for  the  various  pur- 
poses set  up  in  Table  21.  Table  23  reduces  these  expenditures 
to  amounts  per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance.  Janesville 
(in  1914-15)  spent  for  all  school  purposes  $35.08  per  child  in 
average  daily  attendance.  The  median  for  the  20  cities*  listed 
in  Table  23  was  $38.54.  Thus  the  amount  for  Janesville  was 
$3.46  less  than  the  most  typical  amount  for  these  cities  and  its 
rank  was  14th  among  the  20.  The  expenditures  for  wages  of 
janitors,  for  fuel,  and  for  maintenance  are  again  shown  to  have 
been  unusually  high.  For  janitors'  wages,  only  one  city  spent 
more  mone.y  i)er  pupil  than  did  Janesville ;  for  maintenance,  only 
three  cities  spent  more;  and  for  fuel,  seven  cities  spent  more. 

The  most  essential  form  of  expenditure  for  school  purposes  in 
the  sense  of  yielding  the  largest  returns  educationally  is  the 
amount  spent  for  teachers  and  supervisors.  Any  defect  in  this 
respect  will  surely  be  reflected  in  the  character  of  the  work  done 
by  the  schools.  At  Janesville  $23.82  was  spent  in  1914-15  per 
child  in  average  daily  attendance  for  salaries  of  principals  and 
teachers.  This  was  relatively  low,  being  nearly  $2.00  less  than 
the  median  amount.  The  rank  of  the  city  in  this  item  of  ex- 
penditure was  13th  among  the  20  cities. 


Data  for  5   of  the  cities  not  being'  available. 


Financing  tlie  School  System  77 

AVe  may  summarize  the  situation  for  Janesville  as  revealed  by 
Table  23  by  saying  that  its  expenditures  Avere  below  the  most 
typical  figure  for  the  20  cities  for  (a)  the  board's  office;  (b)  the 
salaries  of  teachers  and  principals;  (c)  water,  light,  etc.,  and 
(d)  miscellaneous  exijenses.  We  may  further  say  that  its  ex- 
penditures were  markedlj-  above  the  typical  figures  in  the  fol- 
lowing items:  (a)  wages  of  janitors  and  other  employees;  (b) 
fuel,  and  (c)  maintenance  (repairs  and  replacements).  Wheth- 
er the  items  upon  which  emphasis  is  being  placed  are  the  ones 
on  which  it  should  be  placed  is  a  question.  The  expense  for  jan- 
itorial service,  fuel,  and  repairs  is  excessive  and  no  doubt  ab- 
sorbs money  which  should  be  available  for  instructional  pur- 
poses. 

Analysis  of  School  Expenditures:  (h)  By  Scliools: 

A  further  analysis  of  expenditures  may  be  made  by  schools. 
In  the  original  draft  of  this  chapter  which  was  furnished  to  the 
Board  of  Education  and  the  Survey  Committee,  tables  were  in- 
cluded showing  the  expenditures  for  each  3'ear  of  the  most  re- 
cent 5-year  period,  distriljuted  by  schools.  A  table  was  also  sub- 
mitted showing  for  the  same  years  the  cost  per  pupil  in  average 
daily  attendance  at  each  school.  These  tables  are  not  repeated 
here.  They  may  be  consulted  at  the  office  of  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation by  any  who  are  interested  in  them.  They  showed,  among 
other  things,  a  conspicuous  increase  in  the  expenditures  for 
special  work — i.  e.  for  such  subjects  as  Drawing,  Music,  Manual 
Training,-  etc. — both  in  the  elementary  schools  and  in  the  high 
school.  They  also  showed  that  the  cost  per  pupil  in  average 
daily  attendance  had  increased  within  the  last  four  years  much 
more  rapidly  in  some  schools  than  in  others,  while  the  cost 
per  pupil  in  all  the  elementary  schools  combined  had  increased 
from  $25.14  to  $36.47.  While  the  absolute  increase  in  the  cost 
of  high  school  work  was  nearly  twice  as  great  as  that  of  elemen- 
tary school  work,  the  increased  high  school  cost  was  mainly 
due  to  increase  in  the  number  of  pupils.  On  the  basis  of  ex- 
penditures per  pupil,  the  cost  for  elementary  schools  increased 
in  the  four  years  from  1912-13  to  1916-17  from  $25.14  to  $36.47, 
or  45.0%,  During  the  same  period,  the  cost  per  pupil  for  the 
high  school  increased  from  $35.09  to  $42.43,  or  38.7%. 

As  to  the  elementary  schools.  Table  24  shows  the  cost  per  pu- 
pil for  each  school  distributed  according  to  the  purposes  for 


78  Ediicatiunal  tiurvcy  of  Janesville 

which  the  money  was  spent.  The  total  cost  per  pupil  is  also 
shown.  The  data  are  for  1916-17.  The  total  cost  ranged  from 
$25.60  per  pupil  at  the  Adams  school  to  $51.97  at  the  Jackson 
school.  Students  are  transferred  from  one  school  to  the  other 
on  the  assumption  that  instruction  given  in  one  of  them  is 
equivalent  to  that  given  in  another.  Clearly  all  the  schools  of 
the  city  are  presumed  to  be  doing  work  of  same  quality.  It  is 
surprising,  therefore,  that  the  city  is  paying  twice  as  much  for 
it  in  one  school  as  it  is  in  another. 

The  size  of  the  school  has  apparently  a  pronounced  effect  up- 
on the  cost  per  pupil.  The  large  schools  are  run  much  more 
cheaply  than  the  small  ones.  The  Jackson  school,  at  which  the 
cost  is  very  much  greater  that  at  any  other  school,  is  also  the 
smallest  organization.  If  columns  1  and  2  of  Table  24  are  com- 
pared, the  relation  between  the  size  of  a  school  and  the  economy 
of  its  operation  is  at  once  evident.  Small  schools  cost  more  than 
large  schools,  and  large  schools,  through  the  superior  organiza- 
tion which  they  are  able  to  put  into  effect,  can  do  better  work. 

A  detailed  showing  of  the  extent  to  which  a  more  economical 
organization  is  found  in  the  larger  schools  is  given  in  columns  3 
to  10  of  Table  24.  The  cost  of  teachers'  salaries,  for  example, 
is  much  lower  at  the  Washington,  Adams,  and  Jefferson  schools 
than  .'it  any  of  the  others.  These  schools  had  average  attend- 
ances in  1916-17  of  241,  282,  and  305  respectively.  Nn  other 
school  had  an  average  attendance  of  more  than  130.  The  ele- 
mentary schools,  therefore,  fall  naturally  into  two  rather  dis- 
tinct groups.  One  group  is  characterized  by  large  numbers  of 
pupils  and  low  cost  for  teachers'  salaries,  while  the  otl^er  grouj) 
is  characterized  by  small  numbers  of  children  and  large  costs  for 
teachers'  salaries.  This  same  distinction  obtains  in  the  matter 
of  janitors'  salaries.  The  three  schools  just  mentioned  cost 
markedly  less  per  pupil  for  janitorial  service  than  did  any  of 
the  remaining  six  schools. 

It  has  been  recommended  in  the  chapter  on  "Buildings"  in 
this  Survey  that  the  Jackson  school  be  discontinued  and  the 
pupils  transported  to  another  building.  The  extraordinarily 
high  unit  cost  for  jafaitorial  salary  ($13.99  per  pupil)  at  the 
Jackson  school  oft'ers  a  suggestion  for  financing  the  transporta- 
tion of  pupils  without  additional  cost  to  the  city.  The  39  chil- 
dren who  attended  the  Jackson  school  last  year  belonged  to  the 


Financing  Ike  Sciiuol  System 


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80  Educational  Survey  of  Jancsville 

first  four  grades.  If  they  had  been  transported  on  each  of  the 
190  days  of  school  by  street  car  at  half  fare,  the  cost  per  ])upil 
would  have  amounted  to  $9.50  (190  x  $.05)  and  the  janitorial 
service  alone  last  year  cost  $13.99  per  pupil,  through  keeping  the 
Jackson  building  open.  Of  course,  other  savings  would  be  ef- 
fected by  closing  the  Jackson  building.  The  cost  last  year  of 
$3.94  per  pupil  for  fuel  would  have  been  greatly  reduced — if 
the  building  had  not  been  used;  while  the  item  for  repairs 
($0.45  per  pupil)  would  have  been  entirely  wiped  out.  If  the 
building  should  be  sold,  the  item  for  insurance,  which  araounted 
to  $0.91  per  pupil  last  year,  would  be  eliminated.  A  reasonable 
estimate  would  be  that  by  closing  the  Jackson  building,  the  city 
would  save  $8.00  per  pupil.  If  one  or  both  of  the  teachers  at  the 
Jackson  school  could  be  dispensed  with  by  such  an  arrangement 
— a  tiling  not  at  all  improbable — the  saving  would  be  much 
greater.  Moreover,  such  an  arrangement  would  give  better  in- 
struction to  the  pupils,  since  at  the  Jackson  school  the  two 
grades  are  now  taught  in  each  room,  and  the  time  allotments,  to 
the  various  s^ibjects  are  said  to  be  too  small  in  some  cases  to 
permit  effective  teaching. 

"Supplies",  "repairs",  and  "incidentals"  do  not  appear  to 
be  items  which  are  distinctly  affected  by  the  size  of  the  school 
when  figures  are  given  on  a  unit  basis.  The  item  of  fuel  is  great- 
ly affected  b.y  the  character  of  the  heating  and  ventilating  sys- 
tems. This  fact  tends  to  obscure  the  economy  due  to  size  of 
building.  Nevertheless,  the  Adams  and  Washington  schools 
(two  of  the  three  largest)  have  the  lowest  unit  cost  for  fuel.  In 
many  ways,  therefore,  the  essential  economy  of  conducting  the 
school  business  of  the  city  in  larger  units  than  those  at  present  in 
use  is  apparent.* 

Analysis  of  School  ExpcncliUircs:  (c)  Elementary  Scliools  and 

High  School 

With  a  given  amount  of  money  available,  the  question  of  how 
it  is  distributed  as  between  elementary  and  secondary  or  high 
school  work  is  important.  Table  25  shows  for  each  year  of  the 
most  recent  5-year  period  the  cost  per  pupil  in  the  high  school 

*  A   further  analysis  of  school   expenditures   could   be    shown,    if  space- 
permitted,   in   which   the  expenditures  for   each  vear  would   be   given   by 
schools  and   by    items,    such   as   teachers'   salaries,  janitors'    salaries     etc 
These    tables    have    been    made    up    and    will    be    made    available    to'  any 
who  are  interested  in  them. 


.Financing  the  Scliool  Sjistcni 


81 


and  in  the  eleiiK'nta ry  schools  of  the  city.  In  tlie  first  year  of 
the  period,  the  cost  of  instructing  a  high  school  pupil  was  more 
than  twice  the  cost  of  instructing  an  elementary  school  pupil. 


Table  25. — Cost  Per  Pupil  In  Average  Daily  Attendance. 


Year 

High 
School 

1 

Elementary 
school 

2 

Total 
3 

1912-13 

1913  14 

55.31 
69.54 
54.72 
62.04 
59.97 

25.14 
27.78 
30.22 
33.79 
.36.59 

34.28 
37  10 

1914-15 

37  81 

1915-16 

42  54 

1916-17 

44  77 

During  the  last  three  years  of  the  period,  however,  the  cost  in  the 
elementary  schools  has  increased  so  much  more  rapidly  than 
the  cost  in  the  high  school  that  the  ratio  of  two  to  one  has  been 
considerably  reduced.  Nevertheless,  it  is  apparent  that  instruc- 
tion in  the  high  school  is  costing  a  great  deal  more  than  instruc- 
tion in  the  elementary  schools.  This  difference  is  universal 
throughout  the  country.  It  has  been  impossible  to  obtain  for 
the  other  cities  of  the  class  of  Janesville  figures  comparable  to 
those  in  Table  25.  The  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion, however,  permits  a  comparison  of  the  expenditures  in  1914- 
15  for  teachers'  salaries  in  high  and  elementary  schools  in  the 
nine  Wisconsin  cities  belonging  to  the  population  class  of  Janes- 
ville. 

Table  26  is  an  answer  to  two  questions:  First,  what  propor- 
tion of  the  payments  for  teachers'  salaries  are  for  high  school 
sei-vice  and  for  elementary  school  service;  Second,  what  is  the 
cost  of  teachers '  salaries  per  pupil  in  the  high  school  and  in  the 
elementary  school.  It  appears  that  of  the  entire  amount  spent 
for  teachers'  salaries  in  1914-15,  Janesville  spent  a  little  more 
than  34%  for  high-school  teachers'  salaries.  This  was  a  greater 
proportion  than  for  any  other  city  except  one.  Correspondingly, 
of  course,  Janesville  devoted  a  smaller  proportion  of  its  salary 
money  to  elementary  schools  than  did  any  other  city  except  one. 
The  figures  in  columns  1  and  2  to  which  we  are  referring  have  to 
do  with  proportional  expenditure,  i.  e.  with  relative  emphasis. 
It  would  be  possible  for  a  city  actually  to  be  spending  little  for 


82 


Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


high  school  salaries  and  yet  to  be  devoting  to  high  school  pur- 
poses an  extraordinarily  large  percentage  of  its  salary  pay- 
ments. As  far  as  Janesville  is  concerned,  however,  when  we 
consult  the  cost  of  teachers'  salaries  per  pupil   (Table  26  col- 


Table    26. — Relation   of   Expenditures   for   Teachers'    and    Principals' 
Salaries   in  High  ScJiool  and  in   Elementary  Schools^ 


Per  cent  of  teachers'  and 
principals'    salaries  for 

Cost  of  teachers'and  princi- 
pals' salaries  per  pupil  in 
average  daily  attendance 

City 

Hit,'-h  schools 

i 

Elementary 
schools 

High  schools 

Elementary 
schools 

2 

3 

$60.72 
39.53 
44.69 
44.24 
45.70 
47.73 
42.22 
40.38 
43.  bO 

4 

Appleton 

33.51                     66.49 
31.43                     68.57 
33.82                     66.18 

$26.74 

22.42 

Beloit 

16.51 

Kenosha 

Fond  du  Lac 

Jaueetvllle 

Manitowoc 

Marinette 

Wausau 

21.17 

27.21 

34.15 

37.54 
32.63 
32.04 

78.83 

72.79 

65.85 

62.46 
67.37 
67.96 

22.69 
19.05 
1».82 
20.67 
14.54 
16.91 

1  Source    of    Data :     Report    of    Commissioner    of    Education    for    the    year 
ended  June  30,  1916.      The  figures,  however,  are  for   1914-15. 

umns  3  and  4),  we  find  that  the  actual  money  spent  for  high- 
school  teachers'  salaries  was  also  high,  being  $47.73  per  pupil — 
an  amount  exceeded  in  the  case  of  but  one  city.  On  the  other 
hand,  we  find  that  the  cost  per  pupil  for  elementary  teachers 
was  not  high.  It  amounted  to  $19.82.  The  amounts  for  four  of 
the  cities  were  smaller,  and  the  amounts  for  four  of  them  were 
larger.  Thus  the  relative  basis  and  the  unit  basis  unite  to  show 
that  the  high  school  is  being  more  lil^erally  financed  than  the 
elementary  schools.  This  might  mean  that  the  high  school  is  be- 
ing over-financed,  but  all  that  we  have  shown  above  concerning 
receipts  and  expenditures  indicate  that  this  is  not  the  case.  The 
alternative  statement  is  forced  upon  us,  namely,  that  the  discrep- 
ancy between  the  support  of  the  high  school  and  that  of  the  ele- 
mentary schools  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  elementary  schools  are 
under-financed.  Not  only  are  the  payments  for  their  operation 
relatively  small  when  compared  w^ith  payments  for  similar 
purposes  in  other  cities,  but  an  unusually  large  proportion  of 
these  payments  are  being  diverted  from  the  essential  work  of 
education  to  the  carrying  on,  under  adverse  conditions,  of  the 


Financing  the  ScJiool  System  83 

work  of  heating,  cleaning,  and  repairing  the  buildings.  More- 
over, a  part  of  the  money  which  is  being  used  for  instructional 
purposes — e.  g.,  for  teachers'  salaries — is  being  unproductively 
employed  because  the  large  number  of  small  buildings  requires 
the  teaching  of  the  children  in  small  groups  with  two  grades  in 
a  room  and  prevents  the  effective  organization  of  the  instruc- 
tional Avork. 

Teachers-  Salaries 

No  satisfactory  treatment  of  how  schools  in  any  city  are 
financed  can  be  given  without  considering  teachers'  salaries. 
The  schools  exist  for  the  instruction  of  the  children,  and  the 
instructional  cost  is  primarily  the  money  paid  for  teachers' 
salaries.  The  amount  used  for  this  purpose,  therefore,  repre- 
sents more  than  any  other  the  productive  expenditures  for  school 
purposes.  Not  only  docs  the  item  of  teachers'  salaries  derive 
great  importance  from  this  fact,  but  it  is  also  important  since 
payment  for  teachers'  salaries  usually  involves  about  two-thirds 
of  the  entire  educational  expenditure  of  a  city  system. 

A  table,  included  in  the  manuscript  copies  of  this  chapter 
and  furnished  to  the  members  of  the  Board  of  Education  and  the 
Survey  Committee,  contained  the  salaries  paid  to  each  incum- 
bent of  a  teaching  position  for  each  school  year  from  1905-06  to 
1916-17  inclusive.  This  table  is  not  reproduced  here.  Tables 
27,  28,  and  29  are,  however,  deduced  from  it. 

Table  27  shows  the  number  of  positions,  the  average  salary, 
and  the  variation  in  salaries  in  the  high  school,  the  elementary 
schools,  the  kindergartens,  and  in  all  schools  combined  from 
1905-06  to  and  including  1916-17.  Under  the  heading  "Aver- 
age Deviation"  there  is  shoAvn,  for  each  type  of  school  and  for 
each  year,  a  measure  of  the  amount  by  which  the  individual  sal- 
aries differ  from  the  ascertained  average.  A  word  of  explana- 
tion concerning  the  significance  of  the  Average  Deviation  may 
not  be  amiss.  An  average  is  a  melisure  of  the  general  weight  of 
a  series  of  items.  It  gives,  as  well  as  a  single  figure  can,  the  pur- 
port of  the  series.  It  indicates  nothing,  however,  as  to  the 
■closeness  of  grouping  of  the  measures  around  the  average.  For 
example,  the  average  salary  of  the  ten  high-school  teachers  in 
1905-06  Avas  $736.  There  is  nothing  in  the  figure  to  indicate 
^vhether  all  the  teachers  received  $736.  or  Avhether  thev  differed 


84 


Edxcaf tonal  Survey  of  Jancsville 


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Financhuj   Ihc  School  iSjjstoH  85 

widely  above  aud  below  this  amount.  When  to  the  fact  that  the 
average  salary  was  $736  is  added  the  further  fact  that  the  aver- 
age deviation  of  the  ten  salaries  was  $43,  we  see  at  once  that  the 
range  of  salaries  above  and  below  the  average  was  rather 
wide — wide  enough  so  that  when  the  differences  between  the  in- 
dividual salaries  and  the  average  are  summed  and  divided  by 
the  nmnber  of  persons,  the  result  is  $43.  In  other  words,  the 
individual  salaries  differ,  on  the  average,  from  $736,  by  $43. 
These  two  figures — namely  the  average  and  the  average  devia- 
tion— constitute  a  fairly  satisfactory  summary  of  the  series  of 
salaries  for  each  year. 

It  is  evident  from  Table  27  that  the  average  salary  of  a  teacher, 
whether  in  the  high  school,  elementary  school,  or  the  kinder- 
garten, has  been  steadily  increasing  during  the  last  ten  years. 
The  increase  in  the  average  salary  of  high-school  teachers  has 
been  $227,  or  31%  ;  that  for  elementary-school  teachers  has  been 
$200,  or  45%  ;  and  that  for  kindergarten  teachers  has  been  $152, 
or  34%.  When  all  the  teachers  are  considered  as  a  single  group, 
the     average  salary  has  increased  $240,^  or  48i/o%.* 

The  average  salaries  of  elementary-school  teachers  as  given  in 
Table  27  include  bonuses  paid  to  those  who  act  as  principals. 
According  to  the  arrangement  at  Janesville,  the  teacher  of  the 
highest  class  in  any  building  acts  as  principal  and  receives  an 
extra  compensation  for  the  service  amounting  to  $1.50  per  room 
each  month.**  Since  there  are  49  rooms  in  the  nine  elementary 
school  buildings,  this  amounts  to  $735  as  the  expenditure  for 
elementary  school  principals.  This  is  not  a  satisfactory  arrange-, 
ment  from  an  educational  point  of  view.  The  teacher-principal 
cannot  supervise ;  her  functions  aside  from  those  of  a  teacher  are 
mainly  clerical.  Janesville,  therefore,  has  no  elementary  school 
supervision  except  such  as  the  superintendent  himself  can  ex- 
ercise. In  "The  Tangible  Rewards  of  Teaching,"***  the  en- 
tire teaching  staff  of  a  great  number  of  the  cities  of  the  country 
are  given  as  they  were  in  1912-13.  Among  the  ten  Wisconsin 
cities  of  the  population  class  of  Janesville  three  had,  at  that 


*  It  will  be  observed  that  the  amount  and  percentage  of  increase  for 
all  teachers  taken  together  is  greater  than  the  same  figures  for  any  one 
of  the  groups.  This  is  caused  by  the  fact  that  while  the  number  of 
elementary  and  kindergarten  teachers  has  remained  practically  stationary 
thioughout  tlie  period,  tlTe  number  of  liigh-school  teachers  has  more  than 
doubled. 

**  If  these  amounts  had  been  excluded,  the  average  salary  of  ele- 
mentary .'school  teachers  would  have  been  shown  to  be  $16  or  $17  less 
than   the   amounts   given   in   Table   27. 

*♦♦  U.  S.   Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin   1914,  No.   16. 


86  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

time,  supervising  principals  in  their  elementary  schools,  and  five 
others  had  principals.  Janesville  had  neither ;  nor  has  it  at  the 
present  time.  The  conclusion  is  that  the  schools  lack  sufficient 
supervision. 

At  present  (1916-17)  the  average  salary  of  high-school 
teachers  at  Janesville  is  $963;  the  average  salary  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools  is  $645  (or,  if  the  principal's  bonus  is  included, 
$661)  ;  and  the  average  salary  of  kindergarten  teachers  is  $600. 
The  average  salary  of  all  teachers  in  the  public  schools  is  $735. 

Abundant  material  for  comparisons  of  teachers'  salaries  at 
Janesville  with  those  of  teachers  in  other  cities  of  the  same 
population  class  is  afforded  in  the  bulletin  of  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Education  entitled  "A  Comparative  Study  of  the 
Salaries  of  Teachers  and  School  Officers."  The  data  contained 
in  this  publication  are  for  the  year  1914-15.  The  average  salar.y 
of  elementary-school  teachers  at  Janesville  is  given  (page  97) 
at  $565.  Among  the  244  cities  other  than  Janesville  listed  as 
having  populations  between  10,000  and  25.000,  the  average 
salaries  were  higher  in  113  cities  and  lower  in  131.  The  median 
of  the  245  averages— which  may  be  taken  as  the  most  repre- 
sentative figure  for  all  of  them — was  .$560.  Since  Janesville 's 
average  salary  is  given  at  $565,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  salaries 
at  Janesville  are  indicated  to  be  slightly  above  the  median  or 
average  conditions  in  cities  of  the  same  population  class  through- 
out the  country.  When  we  recognize,  however,  that  many  sec- 
tions of  the  country  are  included  whose  educational  condition 
the  State  of  Wisconsin  does  not  desire  to  emulate,  and  when  we 
consider  that  nearly  half  of  the  cities  provide  salaries  in  excess 
of  those  paid  at  Janesville,  we  may  properly  conclude  that  the 
salaries  of  teachers  in  that  city  are  lower  than  they  ought  to  be. 

The  insufficiency  of  the  average,  even  when  supplemented  by 
a  measure  of  variation  such  as  the  average  deviation,  lies  in  the 
fact  that  in  giving  a  generalized  statement  it  obscures  the  de- 
tails. In  Table  27  the  entire  teaching  force  at  Janesville  as  it 
was  in  1916-17  is  distributed  according  to  the  salaries  received. 
The  variation  for  high-school  teachers  is  from  $750  to  $1,200. 
Elementary-school  teachers  range  from  $500  to  $1,000.  The 
variation  in  salaries  at  Janesville  is  not  conspicuously  large.* 


*  For  comparative  data  on  this  point,  see  BuHetin  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion. 1915,  No.  31.  page  97.  If  the  three  sijecial  teachers  classified  as 
elementary  school  teacher.''  are  excluded,  the  upper  range  of  salaries  is 
$65f>.     If  the  bonus  for  acting-  as  principal  is  added,  the  maximum  salary 


Financing  the  School  System 


87 


The  salaries  of  the  elementary-school  teachers  have  been  ex- 
amined with  the  idea  of  showing:  (1)  whether  or  not  the  policy 
at  Janesville  is  to  pay  higher  salaries  in  some  grades  than  in 
others,  and  (2)  whether  the  increase  in  average  salaries  in  the 
past  ten  years  has  been  especially  for  the  benefit  of  teachers  in 
any  particular  grade  or  group  of  grades.     In  general,  it  was 


Table  28. — Distribution  of  Teachers  According  to  Their  Salaries, 

1916-17. 
(Note:     The  bonus  to   principals  of  elementary  schools  is   not  included.) 


Salary  (i roups 

High  school 

Elementary 
school 

Kindergarten 

All 

1 

2 

3 

4 

500  549 

7 
7 
9 
20  (a) 

2 

2 

1(a) 

550-599 

9 

600  648 

11 

650-699 

21  (a) 

700-749 

1 

2 
1 
2 
2 
6 

750  799 

2 

800-849 

1  (b) 

2 

850  899...                  

2 

900  949 

2 

950-999 



6 

1,000-1,049 

2  (b) 

2 

1.050  1,099 

1,100-1,149 

4 

4 

1,150  1,199 

1,200  

3 

3 

Total   

21 

46 

5 

72 

(a)  $650 

(b)  Teachers  of  special  subjects. 

found  that,  even  after  deducting  the  principals'  bonuses,  the 
average  salary  of  the  upper  grade  teachers  is  higher  than  that 
of  the  lower  grade  teachers.  In  1916-17,  the  average  salary 
for  each  year  diminished  regularly,  with  but  two  exceptions, 
from  the  8th  grade  to  the  1st.  The  difference  between  the  maxi- 
mum average  (8th  grade)  and  the  minimum  average  (3rd  grade) 
was  $71.81.  As  to  the  grades  whose  teachers  have  received  the 
largest  increases  in  the  past  ten  years,  we  may  say  in  general 
that  the  larger  increases  have  been  received  by  the  upper  grade 
teachers.  Teachers  of  the  kindergarten,  1st,  2nd,  and  3rd  grades 
have  increased  in  average  salaries  in  the  past  ten  years  a  little 
over  $150.  The  average  salaries  of  teachers  from  the  4th  to 
the  8th  grade  have  increased  more  than  $200.  Of  course,  this 
matter  of  average  salaries  and  of  increases  in  average  salary  as 


88  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

applied  to  the  different  grades  is  affected  by  the  number  of 
teachers  of  long  experience  in  any  given  grade. 

In  order  to  eliminate  this  variable  factor,  Table  29  is  given  to 
show  the  salaries  for  the  past' eleven  years  as  received  by  all  the 
teachers  noAV  in  service  who  were  also  in  service  during  the  first 
year  of  the  period.  This  provides  opportunity  for  ten  incre- 
ments for  each  of  these  teachers  and  indicates  the  salary  policy 
for  teachers  who  remain  in  service  a  long  time.  In  the  high 
school  there  are  but  four  teachers  now  serving  who  were  on  the 
force  in  1906-07.  Their  salaries  in  the  first  year  of  the  period 
were  respectively  $902.50,  $712.50  (two)  and  .$807.50.  Three 
of  the  four  are  men  and  are  now  receiving  $1,200,  and  the 
fourth  is  a  woman,  who,  at  the  beginning  of  the  period,  re- 
ceived $712.50,  and  is  now  receiving  $950.00.  The  average 
salaries  of  the  four  high-school  teachers  in  1906-07  was  $783.75. 
The  average  rose  in  the  next  five  years  to  $950,  an  increase  of 
$166.25,  or  21%.  In  the  following  five  years  a  further  increase 
in  the  average  salary ' occurred,  amounting  to  $187.50,  or  20%. 
In  the  entire  ten  years,  therefore,  the  increase  in  the  average 
salaries  of  these  four  teachers  was  $353.75  from  an  initial  aver- 
age of  $783.75.     This  was  an  increase  of  45%. 

In  the  elementary  schools,  twenty  teachers  served  throughout 
the  entire  period  from  1906-07  to  1916-17.  Theic  a\crage 
salary  in  the  first  year  of  the  period  was  $472.83.  It  rose 
steadily,  until  at  the  end  of  five  years  it  was  $565.73,  represent- 
ing an  increase  up  to  and  including  1911-12  of  $92.90,  or  20%. 
During  the  second  five-year  period,  the  average  increased  from 
$565.73  to  $676.50,  an  increase  of  $110.78,  or  20%.  During  the 
entire  ten  years,  therefore,  teachers  who  have  been  in  the  service 
continuously  in  the  elementary  schools  have,  on  the  avcrngo,  in- 
creased their  salaries  $203.67,  or  43%.  This  may  be  compared 
with  the  increase  of  $353.75,  or  45%,  for  the  high-school  teachers. 

Considering  the  high  and  elementary-school  teachers  together, 
if  the  increase  in  salary  had  been  equally  distributed  to  all 
■who  have  served  in  the  same  position  for  ten  years,  each  would 
have  received  in  1916-17  $228.69  more  than  in  1906-07.  In 
other  words,  the  teacher  who  has  served  in  the  city  of  Janes- 
ville for  ten  years  has  increased  his  or  her  salary  on  an  average 
$228.69,  or  44%,  from  an  initial  salary  of  $524.65. 


Financing  the  Scliool  Systoii 


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Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


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FiiKuuinfj  ike  Scliool  System  91 

Ilif/li  Scliool  Costs 

The  programs  of  the  teachers  in  the  high  school  were  ob- 
tained, and  from  them  a  number  of  studies  of  the  organization 
of  the  high  school  were  made.  A  few  of  these  will  be  presented 
in  concluding  this  chapter.  In  Table  30  are  shown  some  of  the 
significant  facts  concei'ning  tlie  w(n'k  of  the  high  school,  dis- 
tributed according  to  the  subjects  taught.  The  number  of  po- 
sitions required  to  teach  each  of  the  subjects  is  given  in  column 
1.  The  fractions  arise  from  the  fact  that  several  teachers  in- 
structed in  more  than  one  subject.  From  this  column  it  appears 
that  the  largest  amount  of  teaching  service  is  devoted  to  English 
work  and  that  Mathematics  requires  nearly  as  nuich.  The  time 
of  rather  more  than  two  teachers  is  required  to  do  the  work  in 
each  of  the  following  subjects:  History,  Manual  Training,  Do- 
mestic Science,  Commercial  work,  and  Science.  Somewhat' 
more  than  the  time  of  one  teacher  is  devoted  to  instruction  in 
Latin.  The  remaining  subjects  occupy  less  than  the  time  of  one 
teacher. 

In  column  2  of  Table  30,  the  total  salary  cost  for  each  subject 
is  given.  Taken  in  connection  with  the  total  salary  cost  for  all 
subjects,  this  serves  to  indicate  from  another  point  of  view  the 
degree  of  emphasis  placed  on  each  subject.  Nothing  funda- 
mental, however,  can  be  shown  concerning  the  cost  of  each 
subject  from  the  entries  in  this  column.  Consideration  must  be 
given  to  the  amount  of  instruction — i.  e.  to  the  number  and  size 
of  the  classes  taught  in  each  subject. 

Column  3  shows  something  concerning  the  amount  of  service 
rendered  by  the  teachers  whose  positions  and  salaries  are  entered 
in  column  1  and  2.  In  English  we  observe  that  the  time  of  the 
3.13  teachers,  wdiosc  total  salary  amounted  to  $2,912.50,  was  oc- 
cupied in  the  classroom  for  90  periods  per  week.  In  column  4 
we  have  the  quotient  obtained  hy  dividing  this  by  the  number 
of  positions,  yielding  28.8  as  the  average  number  of  class  periods 
per  week  in  English  for  each  position. 

In  column  5  are  shown  the  number  of  classes  which  recite  in 
each  subject,  and  in  column  6  the  total  registers  of  these  classes. 
By  dividing  the  entries  in  column  6  by  those  in  column  5,  we  ob- 
tain the  average  number  of  pupils  per  class  in  each  subject. 
This   is   a  significant   figure   and  indicates   from   one   point  of 


92  Educational  Survey  of  JancsviUe 

view  the  cconoin}-  of  orgaiii/cation,  and  from  another  the  liber- 
ality in  the  provision  of  teachers  to  carry  on  the  worlv. 

In  column  8  we  have  the  best  unit  in  terms  of  which  to  ex- 
press either  efficiency  of  organization  or  the  unit  cost — namely, 
the  student-period  per  week.  The  student-period  per  week  is 
one  student  taught  a  period  a  week  throughout  the  year.  A  class 
of  20  pupils  meeting  five  times  a  week  would  yield  100  student- 
periods.  At  Janesville  the  class  period  is  40  minutes,  and  the 
school  year  1916-17  consisted  of  37  weeks  (or,  to  be  exact,  186 
days.)  Column  8  shows  that  in  the  English  Department  the 
3.13  teachers  taught  in  the  aggregate  2,200  student-periods  per 
week,  or  (column  9)  an  average  of  703  student-periods  for  each 
position.  This  is  a  significant  figui-e  in  reaching  am^  conclusion 
about  efficient  organization.  It  takes  into  account  both  the 
•number  of  class  pei-iods  for  each  teacher  and  the  size  of  the 
classes  taught.  The  larger  the  number  of  student-periods  per 
position — i.  e.  the  larger  the  entry  in  colunni  9  for  any  given 
subject — the  more  economically  is  work  in  that  subject  being- 
conducted.* 

If  we  divide  the  entry  in  column  2(  salary  cost)  by  the  entry 
in  column  8  (number  of  student-periods)  for  any  given  subject, 
we  obtain  the  salar.y  cost  for  each  student-period  per  week. 
This  is  a  valid  figure  for  making  comparisons  to  show  the  ex- 
pense of  conducting  the  work  in  the  various  subjects,  except  so 
far  as  the  subjects  differ  in  the  type  of  teaching  required. 
English  is  costing  $1.32  per  unit  of  work  (i.  e.  per  student- 
period  per  week)  ;  Mathematics  is  costing  $1.34;  Latin  costs  ap- 
preciably more ;  while  Greek  costs  more  than  three  times  as 
much.  German  and  History  are  on  a  par  with  Latin,  while 
Commercial  subjects  cost  a  little  more  than  Latin  or  Mathe- 
matics. Physical  Training  is  relatively  inexpensive  on  account 
of  the  large  classes  which  may  be  taught  in  it  (see  column  7)  ; 
while  in  Agriculture  the  cost  is  higher  because  the  classes  are 
small.  The  cost  in  Science  and  Domestic  Science  is  low,  both  be- 
cause the  classes  are  large  and  because  the  teachers  teach  a  large 
number  of  periods  per  week.  In  Manual  Training  the  cost  is 
relatively  high,  because,  although  the  teachers  teach  a  large 
number  of  periods  a  week,  the  classes  are  ver}^  small. 


*  One  Important  distinction,  however,  must  be  made.  In  the  Sciences, 
and  in  such  subjects  as  Manual  Training:  and  Physical  Training,  the 
number  of  periods  ought  to  be  larger  than  in  the  case  of  subjects  re- 
quiring outside  preparation  and  having  no  laboratory  work,  such  as 
English.   Mathematics,   History,   and   the   Languages. 


Fi)iancin<j  (he  School  System  93 

Among  the  possible  economics  to  be  effected  in  the  high  school 
are  (1)  the  dropping  of  Greek,  which,  since  it  is  offered  to  but 
a  single  class  consisting  of  six  students,  hardly  justifies  its  ex- 
istence, and  (2)  the  combining  of  classes  in  Agriculture  and  also 
in  Manual  Training. 

The  cost  data  given  in  column  10  are  comparable  as  between 
subjects  taught  in  the  Janesville  high  school.  The  unit  is  the 
student-period  per  week,  the  period  being  40  minutes.  Of  late, 
several  studies  of  high  school  organization  have  been  made,  in 
which  a  unit  of  this  kind  has  been  used.  Two  of  the  best  of 
these  studies  are  by  Prof.  H.  G.  Childs*  and  Prof.  J.  F. 
Bobbitt.**  Their  statements  of  cost  are  given  as  amounts  "per 
100  student-hours."  The  student-hour  is  a  student  taught  one 
(iO-minute-hour — not  an  hour  per  week.  A  class  of  20  students 
meeting  five  hours  a  week  for  the  year  (37  weeks)  would  repre- 
sent 3,700  student-hours.  At  Janesville  the  recitation  periods  are 
forty  minutes.  Column  11  of  Table  30  shows  the  cost  per  100 
student-class-periods  of  forty  minutes  each.  For  example,  in 
English,  the  cost  of  each  100  forty-minute  periods  was  $3.55. 
Since  Childs  and  Bobbitt  both  use  the  60-minute  period,  this 
amount  must  be  increased  by  one-half  before  comparison  with 
their  figures  can  be  made.  Table  31  shows  the  resulting  Janes- 
ville figures,  together  with  the  median  figures  as  given  in  the  two 
studies  referred  to.  In  his  tables,  Childs  gives  data  for  three 
groui)s  of  Indiana  cities.  His  "Group  II"  consists  of  cities 
having  200  to  500  high  school  pupils ;  and  the  figures  given  in 
Table  31  are  for  this  group.  Bobbitt 's  data  are  for  schools  all 
but  four    of  which  belong  to  the  North  Central  Association. 

Observe  that  for  the  high  school  as  a  whole,  the  salary  cost 
l)er  100  student-hours  Avas  $5.81  at  Janesville,  and  that  this  is 
17  cents  more  than  the  cost  for  the  middle  city  in  Childs'  group, 
and  39  cents  less  than  the  cost  for  the  middle  city  in  Bobbitt 's 
list.  Similar  comparisons  may  be  made  for  the  cost  of  each  sub- 
ject. In  general,  Janesville 's  cost  is  not  high,  except  in  Agricul- 
ture. History,  Latin,  and  German. 


*  Third    Conference    on    Educational    Measurements,    University    of    In- 
<liana,    1917,    page    126. 

•*  "Scliool  Review."   volume  XXIII,  No.    8,  October,   1915,  page  505. 


94 


Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


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Financiny  the  Scliool  System  95 

In  the  matter  of  the  size  of  classes,  Table  31  shows  that  the 
children  at  Janesville  are  being  taught  in  rather  larger  groups 
than  is  typically  true  in  the  cities  listed  by  Childs  and  Bobbitt. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  number  of  class  hours  of  work  per  teacher 
is  relatively  low,  as  is  the  average  number  of  student-hours  per 
week  for  each  teacher.  Finally,  the  average  salaries  at  Janes- 
ville are  higher  than  is  the  case  at  the  median  cities  in  the  two 
lists  with  which  we  are  making  comparison.  Thus,  of  the  three 
principal  elements  entering  into  the  matter  of  cost,  namely  size  of 
class,  hours  of  teaching  per  week,  and  average  salaries,  Janes- 
ville is  economical  in  one,  and  is  relatively  uneconomical  in  two. 
It  is  probable,  however,  that  further  economy  in  salaries  would 
detract  from  the  quality  of  the  work.  On  the  whole,  Janesville 
does  well  from  all  these  material  points  of  view  in  High  School 
organization  and  support.   • 

Summary. 

1.  The  Problem 

Janesville,  a  city  of  little  more  than  fourteen  thousand  in- 
habitants, has  about  3,800  persons  between  the  ages  of  four  and 
twenty,  and  about  2,000  between  the  ages  of  six  and  fifteen. 
About  500  of  its  children  attend  parochial  schools,  and  about 
2,500  the  public  schools.  Of  the  latter,  about  570,  including  108 
nonresident  tuition  pupils,  are  in  high  school.  The  elementary 
schools  are  decreasing,  and  the  high  school  is  increasing  in  en- 
rollment, although  neithci-  movement  is  rapid.  The  city  does 
not  have  to  meet  the  problem  of  providing  for  material  increases 
in  school  population. 

2.  Means  for  Solving  the  Problem 

In  1916  the  assessed  valuation  of  property  at  Janesville  was 
$15,609,631,  and  the  true  valuation  was  $16,981,097.  The 
Avealth  per  capita  on  the  latter  basis  was  $1,184,  which  was  high- 
est among  the  Wisconsin  cities  of  its  class.  Its  wealth  per  pupil 
in  average  daily  attendance  was  $8,646,  which  placed  it  second 
among  the  same  cities.  It  has,  therefore,  large  resources  from 
Avhich  to  meet  its  educational  problem — nearly,  if  not  quite,  twice 
as  large  as  some  of  the  cities  with  Avhich  it  has  been  compared. 

The  receipts  of  the  Board  of  Education  have  increased  21% 
in  four  years.  The  State  grants  amount  to  about  16%  of  all 
the  receipts,  and  the  proceeds  of  city  tax  to  about  77%.     The 


06  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

amount  from  the  latter  source  was  less  per  pupil  enrolled  than 
in  any  except  two  of  the  twenty  middle  western  cities  watli 
which  comparison  was  made  in  Table  10.  The  middle  cit}'  made 
40%  more    money  available    for  schools  than  did  Janesville. 

3.     The  Way  in  Wlticli  the  Problem  is  Being  Solved 

(a)  Taxes  and  Tax-rates.  The  total  tax-rate  is  lower 
than  in  any  other  Wisconsin  city  of  the  same  population  class, 
and  it  is  low  largely  because  the  school  tax-rate  is  low. 

(b)  Analysis  of  City  Expenditures.  According  to  the 
reports  of  the  Tax  Commission,  Janesville  spends  less  money  per 
capita  for  all  cii[i  purposes  than  any  other  Wisconsin  city  except 
one  in  its  population  class.  Some  of  its  citj^  departmental  ex- 
penditures were  low,  and  others  were  high.  Its  school  expendi- 
tures per  capita  of  the  population  were  outranked  by  five  of  the 
eight  other  Wisconsin  cities.  That  this  low  expenditure  per 
capita  was  not  due  to  financial  inability  is  evident  from  the  fact 
that  the  rank  of  the  city  in  expenditures  per  $1,000  of  wealth 
was  even  lower  than  it  was  on  a  per  capita  basis.  Indeed,  its 
rank  on  the  wealth  basis  was  lower  than  that  of  any  other  city. 
The  school  expenditures  in  relation  to  wealth  were,  likewise, 
markedly  less  than  those  of  any  other  of  the  Wisconsin  cities. 
On  the  better  basis  of  children  enrolled  in  the  public  schools, 
the  amount  spent  at  Janesville  was  much  nearer  the  minimum 
than  the  maximum  amount  for  all  the  cities. 

(c)  Analysis  of  School  Expenditures  by  Items.  When 
the  payments  for  the  past  five  years  are  separated  "into  the  pur- 
poses for  which  the  money  was  spent,  it  is  shown  that  the  larg- 
est increase  has  been  for  high-school  teachers'  salaries.  The  ex- 
pense for  janitors'  salaries,  for  fuel,  and  for  maintenance,  are 
unusually  high,  when  these  are  expressed  on  a  unit  basis.  On 
a  similar  basis,  the  expenditures  for  teachers'  salaries  are  rel- 
atively low,  and  this  may  be^a  serious  defect.  There  is  good 
reason  for  thinking  that  in  spending  school  money  the  city  is 
not  distributing  it  to  the  fullest  advantage. 

(d)  Analysis  of  School  Expenditures  by  Schools. 
Among  the  elementary  schools,  the  cost  per  pupil  varies  greatly, 
being  twice  as  much  (1916-17)  in  one  school  as  in  another.  In 
general,  the  larger  the  school  the  smaller  the  cost.  The  smallest 
school   (Jackson)   is  the  most  expensive.     If  it  were  closed  and 


Financing  (he  School  Sysicvi  97 

the  pupils  transported,   the  city  woukl  save  money,   and   the 
children  would  be  better  taught. 

(e)  Elementary  School  and  High  School.  The  cost  per 
high-school  pupil  is  nearly  twice  that  per  elementary  school 
pupil.  The  latter  cost,  however,  is  growing  more  rapidly,  not 
only  because  the  expenditures  are  increasing  in  the  elementary 
schools,  but  also  because  the  enrollment  is  decreasing.  In  the 
high  school  both  expenditures  and  enrollment  are  increasing, 
and  hence  the  cost  per  pupil  shows  little  increase.  Evidence 
from  teachers'  salaries  tends  to  show  that  Jancsville  is  spending 
an  unusually  large  proportion  of  its  school  money  for  the  high 
school.     The  elementary  schools  are  relatively  under-financed. 

(f)  Teachers'  Salaries.  Salaries  have  been  increasing 
for  the  past  ten  years.  During  that  period  the  average  salary 
of  all  teachers  has  increased  $240,  or  48^%.  Salaries  of  ele- 
mentary school  principals  are  hardly  existent,  being  represented 
by  bonuses  given  to  the  teachers  of  the  highest  grade  in  each 
building.  No  real  supervision  can  be  expected.  The  cost  for 
the  non-instructional  work  of  teacher-principals  is  about  $735 
per  year.  The  average  salaries  of  high-school  teachers  rank  well, 
being  about  50%  higher  than  the  average  salaries  of  elementary- 
school  teachers.  The  latter,  however,  are  little,  if  any,  better 
than  the  salaries  in  cities  throughout  the  country  having  popu- 
lations between  10,000  and  25,000.  Most  of  the  cities  in  pro- 
gressive states  pay  more — some  a  great  deal  more.  Although 
the  variation  among  salaries  is  not  conspicuous,  the  upper  grade 
teachers  in  elementary  schools  are  paid  more  than  the  lower 
grade  teachere,  and  the  larger  increases  in  recent  years  have  been 
in  the  salaries  of  teachers  above  the  third  grade.  The  increase  in 
the  average  salary  of  high-school  teachers  who  have  been  con- 
tinuously in  service  for  the  past  ten  years  has  been  $353.75,  or 
45%.  The  corresponding  increase  for  elementary-school  teach- 
ers who  have  held  the  same  positions  for  the  past  ten  years  has 
been  $203.67,  or  43%. 

(g)  High  School  Costs.  On  a  unit  basis,  certain  sub- 
jects are  costing  more  in  terms  of  teachers'  salaries  than  others, 
and,  by  comparison  with  data  for  other  cities,  are  apparently 
costing  more  than  is  usual.  Such  subjects  are  Greek,  Latin, 
German,  History,  and  Agriculture.  The  classes  in  the  high 
school  at  Janesville  are,  on  the  average,  rather  larger,  though 


98  Edncatioudl  Surveij  of  Janesvillc 

not  conspicuously  so,  than  the  typical  classes  in  those  cities 
from  which  data  are  shown.  The  average  salaries  are  rather 
high,  while  the  number  of  class  hours  of  work  required  of  the 
teachers  is  not  excessive.  On  the  whole,  the  high  school,  though 
it  might  profit  by  some  minor  adjustments,  is  from  the 
point  of  view  adopted  in  this  chapter,  creditably  organized  and 
supported.  There  are  more  evidences  of  weakness  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools. 


Board  of  Education  99 


V     BOARD  OF  EDUCATION 

The  city  of  Janesville  has  sho^vn  itself  to  be  among  the  more 
progressive  cities  with  respect  to  its  form  of  city  administration. 
It  has  at  present  a  commission  form  of  city  government.  Under 
this  system  of  government  the  city's  welfare  is  in  the  hands  of 
men  elected  from  the  city  at  large.  These  men  are  elected  in 
the  interests  of  the  entire  city  rather  than  in  the  interests  of  a 
particular  ward.  This  form  of  city  administration  is  generally 
noted  for  its  efficiency.  Men  are  selected  with  reference  to  their 
ability  to  serve  the  city  without  regard  to  any  artificial  ward 
boundary  lines  within  the  city.  The  fact  that  two  able  men  live 
in  the  same  ward  does  not  automatically  bar  one  of  them  from 
eligibility  to  membership  on  the  commission.  Janesville  is  to 
be  commended  on  the  progressive  step  which  it  has  taken  with 
reference  to  the  administration  of  its  city  affairs.  But  strange 
as  ^t  may  seem  the  city  has  not  adopted  a  similar  policy  ,vith 
reference  to  its  schools.  The  present  method  of  selecting  school 
board  members  is  antiquated.  The  city  charter  provides  for  the 
election  of  two  members  at  large  and  one  member  from  each 
ward,  making  eight  in  all.  This  out-of-date  method  of  selecting 
a  board  of  education  should  be  abolished  at  the  first  opportunity. 

►^election  by  wards  cannot  be  justified  under  the  pretense  that 
the  interests  of  a  given  ward  will  be  better  taken  care  of  under  a 
system  of  ward  representation.  Ward  interests  see  things  vvith 
one  eye  and  that  onlj'^  partly  open.  It  must  not  be  inferred 
from  this  that  the  present  board  has  placed  ward  interests  above 
the  interests  of  the  city  at  large.  The  board  as  a  group  is  public 
spirited  and  aims  to  serve  the  city  to  the  best  of  its  ability. 
But  there  is  no  assurance  that  such  a  state  will  continue.  The 
point  to  be  considered  is  that  the  present  form  of  organization 
lends  itself  well  to  ward  manipulation  and  in  the  hands  of  a  less 
sincere  group  of  men  might  prove  disasterous  to  the  city's  best 
educational  interests. 

Another  condition  resulting  from  ward  selection  which  is 
perhaps  equally  bad  is  that  which  automatically  prevents  the 
selection  of  some  of  the  city's  most  able  men  for  membership 


100  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

on  the  lioard.  Not  infrequently  in  many  cities  a  number-  of  the 
most  able  men  in  the  community  reside  in  the  same  section  of 
the  city.  Under  a  ward  system  of  selection,  however,  not  more 
than  one  of  these  at  a  time  can  become  a  member  of  the  board. 
Janesville  now  selects  two  of  its  board  members  at  large.  It 
should  select  all  of  them  in  that  manner. 

The  electors  of  the  Janesville  school  district  may  provide  for 
the  election  of  members  of  the  board  at  large  under  the  pro- 
visions of  the  general  laws  of  the  state  if  they  so  vote.  Under  the 
provisions  of  section  925 — 113  of  the  General  City  Charter  Law 
electors  of  the  school  district  may  at  a  special  election,  called  and 
held  pursuant  to  the  provisions  of  the  present  city  charter  law 
governing  special  elections  vote  to  change  the  present  system. 
This  would  give  the  city  a  board  of  seven  members.  It  is  recom- 
mended that  the  Board  take  the  necessary  preliminary  steps  to 
submit  this  question  to  the  electors  at  a  special  electum  as 
authorized  by  law.  A  form  of  ballot  similar  to  the  following 
and  in  accord  with  sections  925 — 113m  of  the  General  City 
Charter  Law  should  be  used. 

"Shall  the  board  of  education  be  elected  in  accordance  with 
section  925— 113n" 

Yes 

No 


The  Organization  of  the  Board 

In  the  past  the  board  has  Ijeen  organized  with  one  of  its 
members  as  president  and  with  the  elorical  duties  performed  by 
a  paid  secretary.  The  secretary  in  the  performance  of  his  duties 
is  independent  of  the  superintendent  except  as  each  has  cooper- 
ated with  the  other  of  his  own  accord.  The  board  has  had  four 
standing  committees,  as  follows :  finance ;  buildings  and  grounds ; 
teachers;  and  textbook,  equipment  and  supplies.  The  newly 
organized  board  in  accord  with  suggestions  made  by  members 
of  the  survey  has  decreased  this  number  and  now  has  a  single 
committee  on  teachers.  Regular  meetings  of  the  board  are  held 
each  month.  The  volume  of  business  demanding  the  attention 
of  the  board  is  not  large  in  point  of  importance  but  it  is  fre- 
quently time  consuming. 


Board  of  Education  101 

Committees 

With  a  small  board  there  is  little  need  for  standing  com- 
mittees. The  present  board  is  to  be  commended  for  having  re- 
duced the  number  of  these.  Too  often  committees  undertake 
work  which  should  be  left  to  the  professional  judgment  of  those 
whom  the  board  employs  to  manage  its  school  system.  On 
questions  of  importance  the  board  as  a  whole  should  act. 

When  important  matters  of  policy  such  as  a  building  program, 
methods  of  financing  the  schools,  or  the  extension  of  the  scope 
of  the  schools  activities  arise  it  may  be  advisable  to  appoint 
temporary  committees  with  whom  the  superintendent  may  dis- 
cuss in  a  preliminary  way  his  proposals  in  these  matters  uf 
policy.  The  function  of  a  committee  in  any  case  however  should 
be  that  of  advising  with  the  superintendent,  giving  him  the 
benefit  of  its  group  judgment  and  supporting  him  when  a  pro- 
posed policy  which  it  has  considered  is  placed  before  the  board. 
Under  the  regulations  previously  in  effect  the  most  important 
committee  was  that  on  teachers.  Recommendations  on  the  elec- 
tion of  teachers  were  made  to  the  committee  hy  the  sui)erintend- 
ent  and  then  by  the  committee  to  the  board.  This  is  not  the 
most  satisfactory  method  of  procedure.  The  superintendent  is 
employed  because  of  his  professional  ability  to  judge  the  fitness 
of  teachers  and  to  him  should  be  left  entirely  the  matter  of  rec- 
ommending them.  He  and  not  the  committee  assumes  the  re- 
sponsibility for  their  success  or  failure.  The  function  of  the 
committee  is  more  properly  that  of  discussing  with  the  super- 
intendent the  schedule  of  salaries  and  the  number  of  teachers 
to  be  employed. 

TJie  Relation  of  the.  Board  and  the  Superintendent 

The  superintendent  is  the  chief  executive  whose  services  the 
board  purchases  because  of  his  professional  training  and  ex- 
perience. He  is  the  person  upon  whom  falls  the  responsibility 
for  the  successful  administration  of  the  school  system.  His 
position  is  akin  to  that  of  the  general  manager  of  a  business 
corporation  and  the  board  constitutes  the  directors.  In  success- 
ful business  concerns  the  directors  look  to  the  general  manager 
(1)  to  propose  new  policies,  (2)  to  carry  them  out  when  adopted 
by  the  board,  and  (3)  hold  him  responsible  for  the  success  of 
the  system.     In  a  well-administered  school  system  the  position 


102  Educational  Survey  of  Jane.wille 

of  the  superintendent  parallels  that  of  the  general  manager  of  a 
business  enterprise.  This  means  then  that  the  board  must  give 
the  superintendent  adequate  authority  properly  to  conduct  live 
schools.  He  must  make  such  recommendations  as  he  deems  wi'se 
for  the  further  development  of  the  schools  and  the  board  must 
hold  hnn  responsible,  through  the  reports  it  demands  of  him  and 
his  assistants,  for  the  success  of  the  system. 

The  present  board  is  to  be  commended  for  the  confidence  it 
has  reposed  in  the  professional  judgment  of  the  superintendent. 
Good  results  can  be  secured  only  when  his  authority  is  commen- 
surate with  his  responsibility.  One  of  his  most  important 
duties  is  the  selection  of  teachers.  In  this  his  judgment  must  be 
trusted.  Few  of  us  would  care  to  ride  on  trains  whose  crews 
were  selected  by  the  board  of  directors.  Only  those  judged 
most  fit  by  the  expert  division  su])erintcndents  are  trusted  to 
man  the  crews.  Neither  should  a  board  of  education  attempt 
to  select  the  teachers  who  guide  the  train  of  the  child's  life.  The 
superintendent's  judgment  of  merit  should  be  the  sole  consider- 
ation in  the  selection  of  teachers  and  other  assistants. 

In  return  for  the  confidence  reposed  in  the  superintendent's 
ability  to  suggest  lines  of  action  and  to  carry  them  out  when 
authorized  by  the  board,  it  should  demand  an  adequate  account- 
ing of  past  performances.  Through  such  a  report  it  is  able  to 
assure  itself  that  the  schools  are  well-conducted.  It  should  re- 
quire detailed  and  systematic  reports  based  upon  facts  and  so  in- 
terpreted as  to  indicate  where  the  schools  have  succeeded  and 
where  they  have  failed  together  wdth  the  reasons  therefor. 
These  should  be  the  subjects  of  discussion  at  board  meetings  and 
its  actions  should  be  based  upon  such  reports. 

The  Selection  of  Teachers 

It  is  the  practice  of  the  teachers  committee  to  accept  almost 
without  exception  the  recommendations  of  the  superintendent. 
This  is  commendable.  There  is  however  no  guarantee  that  the 
superintendent's  choice  must  be  selected.  This  should  be  a  part 
of  his  contract  with  the  board.  A  definite  rule  should  be 
adopted  and  considered  binding  during  the  superintendent's 
term  of  office  that  no  teacher  will  be  elected  except  as  recom- 
mended by  him.  Too  often  his  recommendations  to  the  com- 
mittee must  be  made  on  the  basis  of  application  and  personal 


Board  of  Education  103 

recommendations  sent  in  by  teachers  in  search  of  a  position 
rather  than  on  the  basis  of  actual  observation  of  the  prospective 
teacher's  classroom  teaching.  There  is  frequently  the  danger 
under  this  system  that  the  superintendent  will  be  placed  in  the 
position  of  purchasing  a  "cat  in  a  bag"  or  choosing  from  those 
who  make  application  in  person.  Too  many  local  teachers  are 
apt  to  be  found  in  the  system.  The  fact  that  more  than  two- 
thirds  of  the  present  corps  of  grade  teachers  are  local  teachere 
suggests  that  somewhere  in  the  past  a  poor  policy  of  selecting 
teachers  has  existed.  The  board  will  do  well  to  authorize  the 
superintendent  to  visit  the  actual  classroom  teaching  of  promis- 
ing applicants  at  the  board's  expense. 

Teachers  are  elected  annually  without  designation  as  to  the 
building  or  grade  to  be  served.  This  is  as  it  should  be  and  leaves 
the  superintendent  free  to  assign  and  transfer  teachers  in  Avays 
calculated  to  permit  them  to  render  their  best  services. 

Dismissals  are  recommended  by  the  superintendent  to  the 
committee  on  teachers  and  then  to  the  board.  It  is  recom- 
mended elsewhere  in  this  report  that  teachers  be  elected  for  a 
probationary  period.  When  teachers  have  demonstrated  their 
ability  to  teach  successfully  and  have  shown  a  capacity  for 
growth  it  should  not  be  necessary  to  reelect  them  each  year. 
They  should  be  assured  of  their  position  as  long  as  they  con- 
tinue to  exhibit  these  qualities. 

TJie  Annual  Budget 

The  most  important  instrument  through  which  the  board  may 
exercise  its  control  over  the  destinies  of  the  school  children  is 
the  annual  budget  of  expenditures.  At  present  it  is  prepared 
by  the  secretary.  The  superintendent  recommends  the  educa- 
tional items  to  be  included.  In  the  judgment  of  the  survey  this 
method  needs  improvement.  As  stated  previously  the  present 
secretary  is  independent  of  the  superintendent.  This  should  be 
changed,  making  the  superintendent  the  single  administrative 
head  of  the  school  system.  The  budget  should  then  be  prepared 
by  the  secretary  under  the  superintendent's  direction. 

The  proposed  budget  is  the  instrument  then  through  which  the 
superintendent  should  recommend  new  policies  and  through 
which  he  should  be  held  responsible  for  educational  results. 
The  budget  is  the  one  instrument  through  which  the  board  may 


104  Educational  Surveji  of  JanesvWe 

exercise  its  legislative  functions  knowing  definitely  what  policies 
are  to  mean  and  what  is  to  be  achieved  with  the  money  appro- 
priated. The  board  should  require  all  estimates  to  be  in  teni's 
of  unit  specifications  accompanied  by  such  data  as  may  be  neces- 
sary to  show  whether  increases  or  decreases  for  any  given  item 
are  due  to  changes  in  cost,  in  quality,  or  in  amount  of  materials 
or  service  to  be  purchased.  Expenditures  for  each  major  item 
should  indicate  the  per  cent  which  it  represents  of  the  total  ex- 
penditures accompanied  by  similar  figures  for  the  present  and 
preceding  years,  and  for  other  cities  of  the  class  of  Janesville. 
All  expenditures  for  such  items  as  textbooks,  supplies,  adminis- 
trative control,  supervision,  instruction,  fuel,  janitor's  service 
and  supplies  should  be  shown  in  per  pupil  cost  terms.  The  pro- 
posed budget  should  be  accompanied  by  data  showing  the  tax- 
able wealth  per  child,  the  amount  of  indebtedness,  the  tax  rate 
for  all  pi7rposes  and  for  schools  compared  witu  similar  ex- 
penditui'es  in  olher  cities.  Such  analytical  data  should  be  ac- 
companied by  graphic  representations  to  show  the  full  effect  of 
the  proposed  expenditures.  The  proposed  budget  should  be  ac- 
companied by  brief  statements  of  explanation  in  all  instances 
where  significant  changes  from  pj-evious  years  are  proposed. 

Adopting  a  Building  Program 

One  of  the  most  important  matters  now  facing  tlie  board  i? 
the  adoption  of  a  building  program.  In  this  it  should  look  to 
its  superintendent  for  guidance  and  all  architectural  plans  for 
buildings  should  be  first  approved  by  him  to  insurt  their  con- 
formity to  modern  standards  of  schoolhouse  con'^truction. 

the  Duties  Which  the  Board  Shoidd  Perform 

From  what  has  been  said  above  it  may  be  fearea  that  the 
board  will  be  only  a  "rubber  stamp"  for  the  superintendent's 
program.  On  the  contrary  it  will  find  many  matters  of  im- 
portance demanding  its  attention.  An  examination  of  the 
minutes  of  the  board  suggests  that  the  board  and  its  committees 
are  now  devoting  considerable  attention  to  matters  w^hKih  mif^ht 
well  be  disposed  of  by  executive  officers.  For  the  gaiaaiicc  of 
the  board  the  duties  which  in  the  opinion  of  several  hundred 
competent  judges  are  among  those  most  worthy  of  the  boards 
attfcjition  are  given  here. 


Board  of  Education  105 

1.  Select  the  superintendent  and  support  him  in  the  discharge 
of  his  duties. 

2.  Pass  upon  the  annual  budget  for  maintenance  prepared 
by  the  superintendent  and  his  assistants. 

3.  Require  and  discuss  the  reports  of  the  superintendent  and 
his  assistants  concerning  the  progress  of  the  schools  in  terms  of 
the  achievements  of  pupils,  teachers  and  supervisors. 

4.  Require  and  consider  the  report  of  the  business  transacted 
or  pending  and  of  the  financial  status  of  the  system. 

5.  Appoint  upon  nomination  and  recommendation  of  the 
superintendent  teachers,  principals  and  supervisors. 

6.  Advise  with  the  superintendent,  affording  a  group  judg- 
ment on  his  recommendations  for  extensions  or  readjustinents 
of  the  scope  of  educational  activities. 

7.  Represent  the  needs  of  the  schools  before  the  city  council, 
the  legislature  or  the  public. 

8.  Debate  and  pass  upon  recommendations  of  the  superin- 
tendent for  additional  capital  outlays  and  determine  the  meuiis 
of  financing  them. 

9.  Pass  upon  architects  plans,  approved  by  the  chief  ex- 
ecutive and  his  assistants,  for  buildings  that  have  been  autlior- 
ized. 

10.  Determine,  after  consultation  and  discussion  Avith  the 
superintendent,  the  schedule  of  salaries. 

The  most  important  of  these  is  of  course  the  first  mentioned, 
that  of  selecting  the  superintendent  iind  supporting  him  in  the 
discharge  of  his  duties.  Such  matters  as  giving  ear  to  complaints 
find  communications  should  occupy  little  of  the  board's  time. 


106  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


VI     CENSUS.  ENROLLMENT,  AND 
ATTENDANCE 

Census  and  Census-Taking 

A  census  of  the  school  children  between  4  and  20  years  of  age 
is  taken  on  June  30th  of  each  year  in  each  "Wisconsin  school 
district.  This  census  has  two  main  uses.  It  is  taken  primarily 
as  a  basis  for  distributing  state  money,  which  is  apportioned 
according  to  the  number  of  school  children  in  the  state.  An- 
other possible  use  of  the  school  census,  to  which  it  is  not  put  as 
fre(iuently  as  would  be  desirable,  is  that  of  checking  up  compul- 
sory school  attendance  at  the  beginning  of  and  continuously 
during  each  school  year. 

The  Janesville  census  procedure  was  studied  from  three 
points  of  view, —  (1)  the  completeness  of  the  census  taking,  (2) 
the  adequacy  of  present  methods  of  taking  and  recording,  and 
(3)  the  actual  and  the  possible  use  made  of  the  census. 

The  1914,  1915,  and  1916  census  reports  were  studied.  Those 
for  1914  and  1915  were  found  bound  in  alphabetized  form.  The 
1916  census  was  not  bound  nor  alphabetized.  All  three  census 
reports  were  found  to  omit  considerable  data.  Frequently  the 
age  or  date  of  birth  was  lacking,  and  sometimes  even  the  name  of 
the  child. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  children  of  various 
ages  in  the  three  census  reports.  The  accompanying  curve 
shows  these  findings  graphically,  with  curves  for  the  three  years 
superimposed  to  keep  a  given  group  of  children  in  each  of  the 
three  years  on  a  given  line. 

Total 3338 

4  years  old    199 

5 
6 

7 


9 
10 
11 
12 


914 

1915 

1916 

338 

3325 

3066 

199 

180 

162 

235 

195 

184 

210 

231 

196 

219 

210 

226 

202 

231 

203 

234 

198 

209 

232 

222 

196 

213 

238 

218 

226 

213 

226 

Census,  Enrollnn  nl   and  Ailcndancc 


107 


13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 


1914  1915  1916 

217  218  200 

211  208  201 

184  211  165 

204  178  183 

188  214  172 

206  190  173 

158  188  152 


A^3 


340 


300 


160 


rH  130 


eo 


40 


4__5 a 


fl    0   10   11   13  IZ      14   ip  16   17   18   19   30   31 


l'J14 


191 

i9ia 


Fig.    I.    The   Number  of  Chlldrer.  of  Each  Year  Age  as  Indicated  by  the 
School   Census   for  1914,    1915  and  1916. 

Note:     Age    headings   are   as   of  the   1916   census.      E.    j?.,   children   6    of 
1914,  and  7  of  1915,  are  grouped  on  the  8  year  line  of  1916. 


From  this  table  and  curve  it  seems  evident  that  there  is  con- 
siderable error  in  Janesville  census  records. 

For  example,  it  is  not  probable  that  there  are  considerably 
fewer  children  four  and  five  years  old  than  eleven  and  twelve 
years  old,  yet  this  is  what  the  census  seems  to  indicate. 

In  the  1916  census,  the  age  groups  from  15  to  19  inclusive 
show  a  large  degree  of  variation  from  the  corresponding  age 
groups  for  1914  and  1915. 

Further  to  analyze  the  probability  of  the  Janesville  census 
record's  being  accurate,  comparison  was  made  between  the  pro- 
portion of  school  census  to  total  population,  in  Janesville  and 
in  the  cities  of  Wisconsin  in  general.     It  was  found  that  this 


108  Educational  Survey  of  Jancsvillc 

proportion  in  cities  of  the  state  in  general  is  31.8%.  In  Janes- 
yilleitis27.4%. 

It  is,  therefore,  concluded  that  the  Janesville  census  in  all 
probability  shows  a  total  that  is  smaller  than  the  number  of  the 
children  of  school  age  in  the  Janesville  district. 

A  like  conclusion  would  be  inevitable  from  a  study  of  pres- 
ent methods  of  census  taking  and  recording.  This  work  has 
been  entrusted  to  a  single  individual  qualified  by  an  extensive 
experience  and  acquaintance  with  Janesville  and  its  residents. 
It  has  not  been  felt  necessary  to  make  a  complete  house-to-house 
canvass.  The  census  report  of  the  former  year  has  been  used  as 
a  base ;  names  known  to  be  ' '  dead ' '  have  been  stricken  out,  and 
new  names  entered  on  the  basis  of  memory  and  somewhat  ran- 
dom records.  The  ledger  method  of  recording  the  census  has 
been  used,  by  which  the  name  of  each  child  in  a  given  family  is 
written  on  one  line  of  a  page. 

This  method  of  census  taking  and  recording  is  obviously  ob- 
solete and  inefficient.  It  makes  it  impossible  to  record  com- 
pletely, to  alphabetize  accurately,  or,  most  important  of  all,  to 
use  the  school  census  in  administering  the  compulsory  attend- 
ance. 

The  Janesville  school  authorities  have  determined  to  change 
to  the  card  index  system  of  census  taking.  This  course  has  the 
unqualified  approval  of  the  survey  staff. 

A  sufficient  number  of  enumerators  should  be  employed  to 
take  the  census.  Preference  should  be  given  to  principals  of 
ward  buildings  who  are  in  Janesville  through  the  summer  or  to 
teachers  in  the  various  schools.  Remuneration  should  be  made 
probably  at  the  rate  of  four  cents  per  child  enumerated.  Each 
enumerator  should  be  given  a  blank  card  form  to  ascertain  that 
all  necessary  data  is  secured,  and  the  manner  of  taking  the  cen- 
sus should  be  thoroughly  discussed  before  enumerators  go  to 
work. 

Upon  receipt  at  the  central  office  of  notes  of  enumerators, 
census  cards  should  be  filled  out.  This  procedure  will  make  it 
possible  to  use  the  census  records  for  administrative  purposes. 

At  present,  as  has  been  intimated,  the  Janesville  census  has 
no  function  beyond  that  of  a  preliminary  to  reporting  the 
school  population  to  the  state  office.  Its  local  use  as  a  check,  on 
compulsory  attendance  has  not  been  demonstrated,  and  indeed, 


Census,  Em'ollment  and  Attendance  109 

such  use  would  be  impossible  under  past  conditions  and  methods. 
It  is  recommended  that  the  census  cards  for  those  children 
between  the  ages  of  7  and  16  be  taken  from  the  files  by  attend- 
ance officers  at  the  beginning  of  the  school  year,  and  that  these 
cards  be  sorted  by  districts  within  the  city.  They  should  then 
be  checked  carefully  to  determine  the  enrollment  or  nonenroU- 
ment  of  each  child  and  the  cases  of  those  not  enrolled  should  be 
investigated.  It  would  probably  be  well  to  make  a  separate 
group  of  children  14-10  not  enrolled,  for  the  director  of  the  in- 
dustrial school,  and  of  children  who  have  completed  the  eighth 
grade,  for  the  high  school  principal.  Cards  may  be  kept  in 
these  groups  through  the  school  year,  for  convenience  in  use. 
If  a  separate  alphabetized  census  file  is  desired,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  fill  out  cards  in  duplicate. 

Enrollment  and  Attendance 

In  the  public  schools  of  the  state,  the  proportion  of  children 
from  4-20  j^ears  of  age  enrolled  in  school  is  57%  (1915-16). 
Including  incomplete  parochial  school  figures,  it  is  63%.  In 
the  cities,  the  proportion  enrolled  in  public  school  is  55%. 

Comparison  of  this  figure  with  the  records  for  Janesville 
shows  that  the  Janesville  schools  are  serving  an  adequate  pro- 
portion of  the  population  of  school  age.  The  per  cent  of  chil- 
dren enrolled  in  public  school  (1915-16)  is  60.4.  Including  paro- 
chial school  enrollment,  it  is  73.5%.  A  factor  which  inflates 
somewhat  the  figures  for  Janesville  is  the  nonresident  high 
school  enrollment,  which  is  comparatively  large.  This  factor, 
however,  is  fairly  constant  throughout  the  state,  and  will  not  af- 
fect the  fact  that  Janesville  stands  out  well  in  the  proportion  of 
school  population  enrolled  in  school. 

The  high  school  enrollment  has  been  increasing  rapidly,  hav- 
ing gained  19%  in  the  past  four  years.  In  1915-16,  it  was 
21.8%  of  the  total  Janesville  school  enrollment.  Omitting  non- 
residents, this  per  cent  becomes  18.7%. 

If  every  pupil  in  the  grades  finished  12  grades  in  12  years, 
the  high  school  would  contain  33V{j%  of  the  total  school  enroll- 
ment. This  ideal  condition  is  of  course  not  possible  practically. 
The  Janesville  figure  for  high  school  to  grade  enrollment  ranks 
high  with  the  state  as  a  whole,  where  the  figure  is  10%  (cities, 
including  nonresidents,  17%). 


110 


Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


The  following  table  gives  census  and  enrollment  data  for 
Janesville  1915-16.  State  data  are  to  be  found  in  the  Biennial 
Report  of  Wisconsin  Schools  for  1914-lG.  The  Janesville  fig- 
ures are  those  reported  to  the  state  department  office. 


1911-12 

1912-13 

1913-14 

1914-15 

1915-16 

Census  4-20 

3,837 
2,480 
2,959 

(81%) 
421 

(19*) 

64.7 

3,806 
2,567 
2,142 

(83.5%) 
425 

(16.5%) 

67.4 

3,827 
2,517 
2,073 

(82.3%) 

444 

(17.7%) 

65.7 

3,824 
2,470 
1,997 

(80.8%) 
473 

(19.2%) 

64.6 

3,799 

Total  enrollment 

2,298 

Grades 

1,796 

Hig'h  school 

(78.2%) 
502 

Per  cent    of   enrollment  to 
census 

(21.8%) 
60.4 

Parochial  school  enrollment,  1916-17—524. 

SCHOOL  ATTENDANCE 

The  pupil  enrollment  in  Janesville  schools  is  a  high  propor- 
tion of  the  census.  The  attendance,  on  the  other  hand,  is  poor 
in  comparison  with  state  average  or  general  attendance  stand- 
ards. It  will  not  profit  a  child  to  be  enrolled  in  school  if  he 
fails  to  attend.  There  is  an  obvious  need  for  revised  attendance 
supervision  in  Janesville.  This  need  and  suggestions  for  the 
manner  of  meeting  it  are  outlined  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

In  1915-16,  the  proportion  of  average  daily  attendance  to  en- 
rollment in  Wisconsin  cities  was  88%.  In  Janesville.  this  pro- 
portion was  as  follows: 

Enrollment    Attendance     Proportion 

1911-12     2480  2048  82.6% 

1912-13    2567  2146  83.5% 

1913-14    2517  2099  83.5% 

1914-15  2470  2068  83.7% 

1915-16 2298  1964  85.4% 


This  attendance  figure  for  Janesville  means  that  every  day  the 
schools  were  in  session  a  considerable  number  of  children  were 
absent.  Some  of  the  difference  between  2298  and  1964  can  be 
accounted  for  through  pupils  removing  from  the  city  and  ethers 
entering  the  city  after  the  opening  of  the  schools  in  Septem'Der, 
but  only  a  portion.  Certainly  such  a  large  number  of  absences 
daily  from  public  grades  and  high  school  alone  without  count- 
ing the  problems  of  compulsory  school  enrollment,  would  form  a 


Census,  Enrollment  and  Attendance  111 

cause  for  the  employment  of  a  much  more  adequate  attendance 
system  thau  that  at  present  in  use  in  the  Janesville  schools.  The 
experience  of  Kenosha  among  other  cities,  in  the  value  of  ade- 
quate attendance  supervision,  cannot  fail  to  convince  one  of  the 
vital  necessity  of  this  phase  of  school  administration. 

A  full-time  attendance  officer  should  be  employed  for  a  tweJxe- 
months  year.  For  the  school  year,  attendance  duties  will  oc- 
cupy this  person's  full  time.  This  officer  should  supervise  the 
taking  of  the  census.  During  the  remainder  of  the  summer 
months,  the  attendance  officer  will  be  employed  at  various  admin- 
istrative duties,  such  as  hel})ing  in  the  compilation  of  the  annual 
report  to  the  state  office,  keeping  current  track  of  the  arrival  and 
departure  of  resident  families,  working  to  influence  dropped  pu- 
pils to  reenroll  in  school  or  eighth  grade  graduates  to  enter 
high  school,  and  otherwise  aiding  in  planning  for  the  sclicol 
procedure  of  the  following  year. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  school  year  the  enrollment  should  be 
checked  by  the  attendance  officer  through  the  use  of  the  census 
cards  and  all  cases  of  nonenrollment  should  be  investigated 
within  the  first  week  of  school.  This  work  will  also  be  done  cur- 
rently throughout  the  school  year  for  families  newly  arriving  in 
Janesville,  and  for  children  who  may  drop  out  of  school. 

In  checking  daily  school  attendance,  the  cooperation  of  teach- 
ers and  principals  is  vital.  Within  ten  minutes  of  the  opening  of 
each  session,  each  teacher  should  send  to  her  principal  a  list  of 
all  the  children  who  are  absent  from  her  room,  together  with 
I'casons  where  these  are  known  The  attendance  officer  should 
call  each  building  in  turn  at  a  specified  time,  and  receive  all 
names,  with  facts  where  possible.  The  list  of  absences  should 
then  be  made  the  basis  for  investigation,  to  be  made  by  tele- 
phone where  convenient,  and  by  personal  visit  where  necessary 
or  advisable. 

Through  the  year  the  attendance  officer  should  actjuire  as  ex- 
tensive attendance  data  as  possible.  This  should  be  compiled, 
analyzed,  and  studied  for  variation  by  days,  weeks,  or  months, 
causes  of  absence,  etc.  Graphic  representations  should  be 
made,  and  all  material  used  for  talks  before  women's  clubs, 
parent-teacher  associations,  and  teachers'  meetings,  and  for  ar- 
ticles in  local  newspapers. 

In  order  to  discharge  his  or  her  duties  successfully,  the  at- 
tendance officer  should  be  a  person  fitted  to  command  the  re 


112  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

spect  and  cooperation  of  school  and  community.  This  person 
should  have  some  teaching  experience,  preferably,  and  should 
be  able  and  ready  to  give  talks  in  public  concerning  the  work 
of  the  attendance  department.  Experience  in  some  form  of  so- 
cial service  is  almost  indispensable,  and  to  this  list  of  qualifica- 
tions can  be  added  training  and  experience  in  nursing  and  pub- 
lie  health  work.  The  health  side  of  attendance  work  can,  how- 
ever, be  carried  on  separately  if  desired. 

NONRESIDENTS 

The  laws  of  Wisconsin  compel  any  school  district  not  main- 
taining a  high  school  to  pay  tuition  for  any  local  graduate  at- 
tending high  school  in  another  district.  Under  this  law,  there 
are  at  present  over  10,000  nonresident  pupils  in  Wisconsin  high 
schools,  constituting  about  21%  of  the  total  high  school  enroll- 
ment. 

The  Janesville  high  school  is  nearest  and  most  convenient  to 
38  rural  school  districts,  comprising  a  territory  of  over  150 
square  miles.  The  proportion  of  nonresident  to  total  enrollment 
in  1916-17  was  as  follows : 

Of  173  freshmen  27   or  16%   were  nonresident 

Of  150  sophomores  27   or  18%   were  nonresident 

Of  101  juniors  21  or  21%   were  nonresident 

Of     81  seniors  15   or  19%    were  nonresident 

Of     65  graduating-   seniors  11   or  17%   were  nonresident 

Of  505  high  school  students  90   or  18%    were  nonresident 

This  puts  Janesville  slightly  below  the  state  average  for  non- 
resident enrollment.  To  determine  whether  it  would  be  easily 
possible  to  attract  more  rural  school  graduates,  a  study  was 
made  of  the  graduating  classes  of  1914,  1915,  and  1916  in  the 
38  districts  tributary  to  the  Janesville  high  school.^ 

There  were  in  the  classes  of  1914,  1915,  and  1916,  119  di- 
ploma graduates  from  the  rural  schools  in  the  Janesville  high 
school  territory.    Of  these  119, 

64  or  54%   attended  JanesviHe  high   school   one-half  year  or  more 
3   or     2%   attended  county  training  school 

14  or  12%   attended  high  schools   other  than  Janesville 
.5  or     4%   attended   9th  or  10th  grades  in  state  graded  shcools 
2   or     2%   attended  country   school  another   year 

31  or   26%   attended  no  school  after  graduation 


>  "Diploma"    graduates   only    are    included;    that    is,    those    passing   county 
examinations  in  common  school  branches. 


Census,  Enrollment  and  Attendance  113 

Out  of  the  64  at  some  time  enrolled  in  the  Janesville  high 
school,  only  44  were  enrolled  during  the  school  year  1916-17. 
This  means  that  20  of  the  64  dropped  out  within  3  years  or 
less.  It  also  shows  that  only  about  60%  of  the  nonresident  pop- 
ulation of  the  Janesville  high  school  in  1916-17  was  drawn  from 
the  territory  directly  tributary  to  it. 

Two  Recommendations  Rise  From  This  Analysis 

1.  Definite  attempt  should  be  made  through  every  possible  means  to 

induce  rural  school  graduates  to  come  to  the  Janesville  high 
school.  Some  of  this  work  is  carried  on  at  present,  but  it  may 
well  be  extended.  Possible  means  include  lectures,  musical 
programs,  agricultural  demonstrations,  and  other  meetings  at 
rural  centers  and  at  Janesville,  circulars  and  letters  sent  to 
the  list  of  graduates,  articles  on  the  value  of  high  school  edu- 
cation, for  local  papers,  and  commencement  talks  at  rural 
graduating  exercises  by  high  school  principal  and  teachers. 

2.  Attempt  should  be  made  to  keep  nonresident  pupils  from  dropping 

out  of  school.  It  is  sometimes  felt  that  rural  pupils  are  more 
poorly  prepared  for  high  school  work,  and  that  this  fact  causes 
them  to  drop  out.  That  this  is  not  the  case  is  indicated  by  a 
recent  study*  showing  that  rural  pupils  do  as  good  or  better 
work  than  city  pupils  in  most  secondary  subjects,  and  by  the 
fact  that  resident  and  nonresident  eliminations  in  Janesville 
are  practically  equal.  Too  little  effort  to  keep  pupils  in  school 
is  made,  whether  these  pupils  are  resident  or  nonresident. 

HIGH  SCHOOL  GRADUATES  AND  HIGHER   SCHOOLS 

A  study  was  made  of  the  high  school  graduating  classes  of 
1914,  1915,  and  1916,  to  determine  what  proportion  went  on  to  a 
higher  institution  of  learning.  It  was  found  that  graduates 
went  on  to  school  in  the  following  proportions: 

1914  1915  1916 

Total  graduates   55  78  63  . 

Total  going  on  to  school 25  38  20 

Per  cent  going  on  to  school 45%  49%  32% 


Davis:     Educational  Administi-ation  and   Supervision,  Mar.  1916. 


114  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

Students  went  on  to  higher  schools  as  follows: 

1914         1915  1916 

University  or  college 21  29  16 

Normal   school 0  5  1 

County  Training  school 3  0  2 

Special  school  1  4  1 

Total    25  38  20 


This  record  of  graduates  entering  higher  schools  is  com- 
mendable. 

At  present  no  aids  are  given  high  school  graduates  in  the 
way  of  choosing  a  vocation,  or  obtaining  congenial  employment. 
Such  work  as  this  is  coming  to  be  recognized  as  a  legitimate 
function  of  the  schools,  and  would  constitute  a  progressive  activ- 
ity if  carried  on  in  the  Janesville  high  school. 


Part   II 

VII     THE  PROBLEM  OF  INDUSTRIAL 
EDUCATION 

Social  and  Industrial  Conditions 

Janesville  is  a  eity  of  approximately  15,000  population.  Its 
growth  during  the  decade  1900-1910  was  comparatively  small, 
and  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  except  for  some  unusual  and  un- 
foreseen condition  which  may  arise,  its  future  development 
will  not  be  marked  by  any  rapid  groAvth  in  population. 

The  number  of  wage  earners  reported  in  1910  was  1451,  This 
is  approximateh^  10  per  cent  of  the  city's  population.  The  city 
has  an  over-population  of  females,  the  ratio  being  approximately 
9  males  to  10  females.  This  is  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  pres- 
ence of  textile  factories  employing  chiefly  female  labor.  Ap- 
proximately 2000  of  the  city's  population  are  foreign  born. 
These  are  mainly  of  North  European  and  Canadian  stocks,  Eng- 
lish, German,  Irish,  Norwegian,  and  Scotch.  No  other  nation- 
ality was  represented  by  more  than  50  in  1910.  It  will  be  seen 
that  Janesville  is  primarily  an  American  city,  and  it  has  no 
difficult  problem  of  providing  education  for  foreigners. 

The  city  represents  a  combination  of  factors, — agricultural, 
commercial,  manufacturing,  and  residential.  It  is  situated  in  a 
fertile  agricultural  region  less  than  100  miles  from  two  large 
cities,  Chicago  and  Milwaukee.  The  natural  water  power  af- 
forded by  the  Rock  river  has  been  the  direct  cause  of  its  devel- 
opment along  manufacturing  lines.  The  number  of  its  manu- 
facturing establishments  as  reported  by  the  Federal  Census  in 
1910  was  78.  This  number  has  probably  been  somewhat  in- 
creased during  the  period  intervening. 

To  determine  the  educational  needs  of  such  a  city,  it  is  quite 
obvious  that  any  adequate  survey  of  educational  conditions 
must  include  a  survey  of  the  leading  industries  and  occupations. 
Such  a  study  is  necessary  in  order  to  determine  more  fully  the 
types  of  education  needed.  Whether  a  city  school  system  shall 
adhere  closely  to  the  traditional  sul3Jects  or  whether  it  shall  in- 
clude in  its  program  of  education  more  liberal  support  of  the  so- 


116  Educational  Surve]/  of  Janesville 

called  "practical"  subjects  is  a  matter  that  must  be  determined 
by  investigation  of  the  city 's  industries  and  occupations. 

A  survey  of  the  industries,  however,  should  not  be  under- 
taken without  a  recognition  of  the  fact  that  any  type  of  educa- 
tion whether  industrial  or  otlierwise  must  take  into  account  the 
interests  of  the  individual,  the  community,  and  the  state.  The 
individual  desires  to  prepare  himself  to  do  the  thiiigs  which  he 
is  by  nature  and  inclination  best  fitted  to  do.  The  community  de- 
sires boys  and  girls  trained  to  meet  the  social  and  vocational 
needs  of  the  city.  It  desires  that  they  shall  become  citizens  in 
the  best  sense,  and  that  they  shall  contribute  to  the  city's  com- 
mercial and  industrial  development.  These  onlj'  in  a  bi'oader 
sense  are  likewise  the  interests  of  the  state. 

Before  recommendations  can  be  made  as  to  the  kind  of  indus- 
trial education  to  be  offered,  another  group  of  factors  should  be 
considered.  This  is  the  extent  of  the  demand  for  specific  lines 
of  industrial  training  and  the  cost  of  meeting  such  demands. 
Wise  economy  requii-es  that  there  be  a  reasonable  demand  for  the 
specific  type  of  training  and  that  the  type  of  work  be  of  a  kind 
which  is  socially  worth  while  from  the  standpoint  indicated  in 
ihe  paragraph  preceding.  If  an  occupation  is  undesirable  as  a 
vocation,  then  the  school  should  be  unwilling  to  train  for  it. 
This  means  that  the  type  and  scope  of  the  industries  whose 
needs  are  to  be  met  must  be  considered.  They  must  be  consid- 
ered from  three  points  of  view.  These  are:  (1)  the  economic 
standing  of  the  occupation  itself,  i.  e.,  whether  it  is  local  or  gen- 
eral ;  seasonal  or  fluctuating ;  its  probable  future ;  and  the  sup- 
ply and  demand  of  labor  in  that  field;  (2)  the  opportunity 
which  it  offers  the  worker,  educational,  financial,  industrial  and 
social;  (3)  the  conditions  which  surround  it,  health,  social,  and 
moral. 

With  a  view  to  discovering  more  definitely  the  instructional 
needs  of  the  community,  particularly  in  its  industrial  phases, 
nine  representative  factories  were  visited  by  members  of  the 
survey.  These  included  a  fountain  pen  factory,  a  shade  factory, 
a  tobacco  factorj^,  a  machine  factory,  two  machine  shops,  and 
three  textile  factories.  These  factories  employ  more  *than  a 
1000  workers.  When  this  figure  is  compared  with  the  city's  to- 
tal wage  earners,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  group  of  factories  vis- 
ited is  fairly  representative  of  the  city's  leading  industries. 
The  visits  of  the  members  of  the  survey  staff  included  not  only 


Problem  of  Industrial  Ednaiiiott  117 

an  observation  of  the  processes  involved  but  included  interviews 
and  discussions  with  managers,  foremen,  and  workers.  In  the 
course  of  these  interviews,  direct  information  was  sought  on 
such  questions  as  the  number  of  persons  employed  in  various 
branches  of  the  industry,  the  method  of  selecting  employes,  the 
requirements  from  the  standpoint  of  knowledge  and  skill,  the 
time  required  to  learn  the  various  processes,  the  wages  paid,  the 
hours  and  seasons  of  labor,  the  ways  in  which  the  workers  spend 
leisure  hours,  the  frequency  with  which  workers  change  occupa- 
tions, and  their  reasons  for  changing.  In  addition,  the  repre- 
sentatives interviewed  were  questioned  as  to  the  preparation 
which  the  schools  might  offer  to  those  seeking  employment  in  the 
particular  occupation  or  industr\^  They  were  also  questioned 
as  to  how  the  schools  might  help  the  worker  on  the  job. 

In  addition  to  the  visits  to  individual  factories,  a  conference 
was  held  at  the  Commercial  Club  Rooms  with  representatives  of 
various  occupations,  including  l)oth  employers  and  tradesmen. 
At  this  conference,  the  members  of  the  surA'ey  sought  to  discover 
the  educational  needs  of  the  occupations  represented. 

Industries 

The  industries  of  Janesville  are  al3out  equally  divided  between 
those  of  a  textile  nature  and  those  which  might  be  classed  as  in- 
dustrial or  manufacturing.  At  the  present  time,  there  is  a  lim- 
ited demand  for  skilled  workers  for  the  machine  shops,  foundry, 
woodworking  factories,  printing,  and  building  trades.  There 
is  evidently  a  growing  demand  for  highly  specialized  workers 
for  the  textile  factories. 

Textile  Industries 

Almost  all  of  the  work  in  the  textile  factories  is  done  on  au- 
tomatic machines,  which  call  for  speed  in  operation  rather  than 
any  high  degree  of  skill  or  knowledge.  In  the  opinion  of  the 
superintendents  of  the  various  textile  factories  visited,  most 
machines  can  be  operated  at  a  high  speed  in  from  two  to  six 
weeks  and  any  preparation  that  the  school  could  give  other  than 
the  general  preparation  now  given  Avould  be  of  no  material  value 
in  this  work. 

For  the  girls  in  the  factory  it  was  suggested,  however,  by 
some,  that  a  knowledge  of  sewing  might  be  the  most  helpful  of 


118  Educational  Survey  of  Janesvillc 

any  training  of  a  special  nature.  Others  again  said  this  would 
be  of  no  material  value. 

Practically  all  of  the  work  in  the  textile  factories  is  done  under 
the  piecework  system  which  pays  by  the  quantity  of  work  done. 
When  this  amo,unt  falls  below  a  minimum  requirement,  it  is 
concluded  that  the  worker  is  not  adapted  for  that  particular  op- 
eration or  machine  and  an  opportunity  is  given  him  to  try  out 
on  some  other  machine  before  being  counted  a  failure.  Usually 
a  girl  works  at  the  same  machine  or  operation  during  her  employ- 
ment. A  change  of  machine  or  work  usually  means  a  reduc- 
tion, temporary  at  least,  in  the  earnings  of  th?  individual.  It 
is,  therefore,  to  her  advantage  and  especially  to  the  advantage 
of  the  employer  that  she  continue  the  work  on  the  same  machine. 

It  is  but  a  few  years  before  most  of  the  girls  in  these  factories 
marry  and  have  a  home  of  their  own.  Few  of  them  are  pre- 
pared for  the  duties  of  home  life  and  homemaking.  It  is  in  this 
field  that  the  school  should  offer  training. 

Machine  SJiop  Industries 

The  machine  industries  of  Janesvillc  demand  a  number  of 
skilled  tradesmen.  They  also  give  employment  to  a  large  num- 
ber of  what  may  be  called  semiskilled  workers,  who  are  not 
tradesmen,  but  who  have  gained  skill  in  two  or  three  operations. 
The  trained  machinist  is  one  who  is  skilled  in  the  use  of  hand 
tools  and  capable  of  operating  and  understanding  with  a  degree 
of  skill  any  of  the  common  machines  in  the  industries. 

Building  Trades 

The  building  trades  are  represented  by  about  190  Avorkers. 
This  number  includes  bricklayers,  painters,  carpenters,  plumb- 
ers, etc.  It  may  be  said  that  Janesville's  slow  growth  does  not 
make  any  large  demand  for  such  workers. 

Woodworking  Trades 

Two  carriage  factories  and  a  table  factory  are  the  main  wood- 
working concerns.  They  employ  about  80  workers.  The  work 
may  be  said  to  be  characteristic  of  such  factories. 

Specialized  Industries 

Such  work  as  is  carried  on  in  most  of  the  city's  factories  is 
highly  specialized.     Some  of  the  work  in  fact  may  be  said  to 


Problem  of  hidustrial  Education  111) 

be  almost  purely  local.  Inasmuch  as  these  specialized  industries 
and  in  fact  all  of  the  factories,  run  all  the  year  round,  there  is. 
no  problem  of  so-called  seasonable  employment. 

In  cases  where  the  work  is  highly  specialized  the  school  can 
do  but  little  to  train  the  workers  for  the  industry.  Training  in 
this  case  should  be  for  the  responsibilities  of  home  and  citizen- 
ship. 

The  Present  Manual  Training  Work 

Work  of  an  industrial  nature  for  boys  in  the  Jancsville 
schools  begins  in  the  seventh  grade,  and  is  continued  through 
the  high  school.  The  work  is  required  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades  but  is  elective  in  the  high  school.  The  work  of  the  sev- 
enth and  eighth  grades  consists  in  the  making  of  a  series  of 
simple  models  in  wood  that  vary  in  difficulty  of  processes  as  the 
pupil  advances.  These  models  are  of  the  older  stereotyped 
variety  and  do  not  embody  the  newer  ideas  of  manual  training. 

The  high  school  offers  mechanical  drawing,  architectural-  draw- 
ing, advanced  woodwork,  wood  turning,  forge,  and  machine  shop 
work.  None  of  the  work  shows  the  development  it  should. 
There  is  also  an  almost  entire  absence  of  correlation  between  the 
various  courses. 

Pupils  of  the  parochial  schools  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades  attend  high  school  for  manual  training  w^ork,  and  re- 
ceive the  same  privileges  as  the  pupils  of  the  public  schools. 
Woodwork  is  the  medium  used  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades. 

Standard  of  Work 

As  would  be  expected  when  conditions  are  considered,  the 
standard  of  the  work  is  below  fair  for  most  subjects.  In  one 
particular  subject,  however,  (drawing)  it  may  be  classed  as 
very  good.  The  weakness  of  the  work  lies  in  the  fact  that  there 
is  no  definite  policy  outlined,  and  no  correlation  between  depart- 
ments. Each  teacher  works  out  his  own  salvation  independent 
of  the  others. 

Reorganization  of  the  Present  Industrial  and  Manual  Training 

Work 

A  reorganization  of  industrial  and  manual  training  work 
might  be  effected  to  the  advantage  of  both  the  manual  training 
department  and  the  industrial  school.    The  present  woodworking 


120  Educational  Survey  of  Janesvillc 

and  drawing  room  in  the  high  school  could  be  made  into  one 
large  woodworking  room  with  the  woodworking  machines  placed 
at  the  drawing  room  end.  The  present  lathe  and  mill  room  could 
be  used  for  an  electrical  room  and  metal  wo'rking  room.  A  re- 
arrangement of  the  machine  room  would  permit  of  the  addi- 
tion of  more  machines  and  a  drawing  and  a  woodworking  room 
could  still  be  maintained  in  the  industrial  school,  where  all 
drawing  could  be  done  and  where  the  work  for  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  and  the  elementary  industrial  high  school  work 
could  still  be  done.  Pupils  who  are  taking  the  advanced  in- 
dustrial work  could  receive  this  training  at  the  high  school. 
Much  of  the  new  equipment  could  be  made  by  the  industrial 
and  high  school  classes. 

The  Teaclmig  Staff 

There  are  six  teachers  employed  in  the  industrial  and  manual 
training  work — two  give  full  time  to  high  school  work ;  one  one- 
quarter  time  to  high  school  work  and  one  one-quarter  time  to 
industrial  work,  and  one  one-half  time  to  grades ;  two  give  all 
of  their  time  to  industrial  work  and  one  part  time  to  industrial 
school  work  and  part  time  to  grade  work. 

The  present  system,  whereby  the  industrial  school  is  trying  to 
build  up  an  equipment  for  industrial  school  work  in  a  building 
that  is  thoroughly  inadequate  for  such  work,  will  not  i)crmit  of 
the  best  development  of  the  work.  The  recommendation  is  of- 
fered that  the  industrial  school  and  the  high  school  combine 
equipments,  and  place  a  man  in  charge  of  each  subject  so  that 
he  may  be  able  to  teach  classes  all  day.  This  will  permit  of 
high  school  and  industrial  school  pupils  getting  the  benefits  that 
accrue  from  a  combination  of  equipment  and  tools.  Inasmuch 
as  pupils  have  but  to  cross  the  street,  no  real  objection  can  be 
raised  as  to  the  inconvenience  of  this  method.  This  plan  will 
permit  of  a  considerable  saving  to  the  community  and  at  the 
same  time  make  for  better  development  of  high  school  and  in- 
dustrial school  work. 

The  teaching  staff  in  manual  training  and  industrial  work, 
while  perhaps  well-prepared  for  this  work,  lack  forcefulness  or 
''snap"  in  execution.  This  is  probably  due  somewhat  to  the  un- 
inviting condition  of  the  rooms  and  equipment,  but  perhaps 
more  largely  to  the  need  of  a  capable  director  who  should  be 
held  responsible  for  all  industrial  work. 


Problem  of  Industrial  Education    '  121 

Development  Side  of  Manual  Training  and  Industrial  Work 

There  is  need  for  greater  emphasis  on  the  development  or  in- 
itiative side  of  industrial  work.  At  the  present  time,  most  of 
the  emphasis  seems  to  be  placed  upon  the  actual  accomplish- 
ment by  the  hands.  This  does  not  permit  of  the  broadest  de- 
velopment of  the  work.  There  is  also  need  for  supervision  of  the 
industrial  and  manual  training  work,  A  policy  or  plan  should 
be  outlined  and  followed.  Meetings  and  discussions  of  the  work 
at  stated  periods  by  the  teachers  interested  should  be  encouraged. 

THE  PRESENT  EQUIPMENT  FOR  MANUAL  TRAINING 

Equipment  in  Drawing  Room 

The  drawing  tables  are  poor  and  should  be  replaced  by  new 
ones  of  a  type  that  will  house  a  drawing  board  and  the  instru- 
ments of  the  pupils  at  the  same  table  where  the  pupil  works. 
This  type  of  desk  will  eliminate  the  necessity  of  furnishing 
large  lockers  to  take  care  of  the  drawing  boards  and  instru- 
ments and  will  permit  of  more  space.  This  method  also  elim- 
inates confusion  at  the  beginning  and  ending  of  the  class  per- 
iods. The  individual  drawing  equipment  and  material  is  pur- 
chased by  the  pupils. 

Liglit 

In  the  drawing  room,  according  to  the  evidence  of  the  teach- 
er, some  artificial  light  has  to  be  used  about  fifty  per  cent  of  the 
time.  In  the  woodworking  room  and  machine  shop,  the  light  is 
also  far  below  the  minimum  requirements. 

Floors 

The  floor  of  the  drawing  room  is  of  cement.  This  is  a  most 
undesirable  type  of  floor  for  a  drawing  room.  It  is  desirable 
that  this  should  be  covered  with  linoleum.  The  floors  in  the 
other  rooms  are  satisfactory. 

Equipment  in  Woodworking  Room 

The  individual  bench  equipment  is  inadequate  for  the  pres- 
ent needs.  The  general  equipment  also  needs  to  be  considerably 
increased.  It  is  necessary  also  in  connection  with  bench  equip- 
ment to  inaugurate  an  inventory  system  to  keep  account  of  all 
tools. 


122  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

The  woodworking  benches  are  in  a  most  discotiraging  con- 
dition. The  tops  in  many  cases  are  split  and  it  is  impossible  to 
do  work  that  calls  for  any  degree  of  accuracy.  The  making  of 
new  benches  would  make  a  satisfactory  problem  for  the  wood- 
working class.  This  would  be  true  also  in  making  drawing 
tables  for  the  drafting  room. 

Storing  ProMems 

There  is  urgent  need  for  space  to  store  projects  under  con- 
struction. The  present  cupboard  is  totally  inadequate  for  this 
purpose.  Projects  under  construction  have  to  be  placed  around 
the  woodworking  room  from  period  to  period.  This  takes  up  a 
great  deal  of  valuable  floor  space.  No  provision  is  made  for 
wood  finishing.  It  is  practically  impossible  to  finish  any  wood- 
working project  under  existing  conditions. 

Mill  and  Lathe  Room 

A  reorganization  of  the  floor  space  in  the  mill  room  and  the 
removal  of  all  equipment  that  is  not  necessary  would  contribute 
materially  to  the  floor  space.  The  present  wiring  of  some  of  the 
machines  is  not  satisfactory,  and  probably  does  not  conform  to 
the  State  Building  Code  requirements.  The  circular  saw  and 
jointer  should  be  turned  around  so  that  they  will  face  the  light. 
At  the  present  time,  these  machines  cannot  be  used  to  the  best 
advantage.  The  element  of  danger  is  also  considerably  in- 
creased under  existing  conditions.  A  surfacer  added  to  this 
equipment  would  be  of  inestimable  value  in  saving  the  time  of 
the  pupils,  thus  permitting  a  broader  development  of  the  work. 

Machine  and  Forge  Boom 

This  room  has  as  much  equipment  as  is  wise  to  place  in  a 
room  of  this  size.  This  does  not  mean,  however,  that  it  is  over- 
equipped, but  rather  that  it  is  not  large  enough  for  development 
through  the  new  organization  of  the  work.  A  rearrangement  of 
the  motors  and  shafting  would  permit  of  more  light  and  increased 
efficiency.  A  system  of  taking  care  of  tools  and  repairing  them 
should  be  installed  immediately. 

The  condition  of  the  present  equipment  of  tools  and  machines 
is  fair  but  is  inadequate  for  the  proper  development  of  the  work. 
In  the  machine  and  forge  work,  there  is  evidently  little  correla- 


Problem  of  Industrial  Education  123 

tion  with  the  other  subjects.    There  seems  to  be  little  or  no  de- 
velopment work  designed  to  make  the  pupils  think. 

Pupils  taking  the  four-year  industrial  course  should  have  op- 
portunity to  take  machine  shop  work  in  the  junior  year  so  that 
the  student  may  have  the  last  year  for  special  study  in  some  one 
subject. 

Blackboards 

All  of  the  blackboards  in  the  classrooms  are  in  poor  condition. 
They  should  be  replaced  by  slate  boards  at  an  early  date. 

System 

There  is  need  for  the  installation  of  a  business-like  system  to 
take  care  of  the  cost  of  the  projects  made  for  the  school  and  for 
the  individual  pupil.  Such  a  system  offers  many  practical  prob- 
lems in  mathematics. 

Physical  Condition  of  the  Booms 

There  is  need  for  vigilance  on  the  part  of  the  janitor  to  keep 
these  rooms  in  an  inviting  condition.  Removal  of  cases  in  the 
woodworking  room  which  are  little  used,  would  afford  more 
floor  space.  Calcimining  the  walls  would  contribute  materially 
to  the  brightness  of  the  rooms.  This  work  of  altering  and  re- 
pairing might  well  be  done  by  pupils,  with  advantage  to  them 
and  to  the  school. 

Evening  School  Courses 

Courses  offered  in  the  evening  school  of  Janesville  may  be 
divided  into  four  groups :  general ;  including  arithmetic,  Span- 
ish, English  and  spelling:  commercial;  including  penmanship, 
business  English,  commercial  arithmetic,  bookkeeping,  stenog- 
raphy and  typewriting :  industrial ;  including  shop  mathemat- 
ics, telegraphy,  agriculture,  chemistry,  physics,  gas  engine 
work,  electrical  work,  mechanical  drawing,  woodwork,  machine 
work.:  household  arts ;  including  sewing,  cooking,  millinery :  art ; 
including  sketching  and  painting,  and  china  painting:  physical 
culture.  The  total  enrollment  for  the  session  of  1916-17  was 
449.  This  includes  an  afternoon  class  for  mothers  and  a  short 
course  in  agriculture. 


124  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

Enrollment  hy  Departments 

General  45 

Commercial  72 

Industrial  28 

Household  arts  209 

A  short  course  in  agriculture  consisting  of  five  lectures  was 
given  during  the  month  of  March.  This  course  had  an  enrollment 
of  45.  Tlie  enrollment  in  the  afternoon  course  for  mothers  was 
50. 

Time  ScJiedule 

The  evening  school  is  in  session  from  seveurthirty  to  nine- 
thirty,  on  Tuesday  and  Thursday  for  7  months,  beginning  in 
October  and  ending  in  -April.  One  apparent  fact  in  evening 
school  work  is  the  large  number  (one  to  32  of  the  population) 
attending  the  evening  school.  Another  desirable  feature  is  the 
good  attendance  on  the  part  of  those  enrolled.  This  indicates  in 
a  general  way  at  least  that  the  evening  school  of  Janesville  in- 
terests and  meets  the  needs  of  the  community. 

Mother's  Afternoon  Course 

A  course  that  seemed  to  be  particularly  worthwhile  and  com- 
mendable is  the  mother's  afternoon  sewing  course.  This  class 
meets  in  three  sections  of  the  city  one  afternoon  each  week.  The 
course  is  designed  for  mothers  who  are  interested  in  acquiring 
knowledge  of  how  to  make  garments  needed  in  the  home. 

Domestic  Science 

Unfortunately  owing  to  circumstances  it  has  not  been  found 
practicable  to  make  an  extended  survey  of  the  domestic  science 
department  as  originally  planned.  Only  a  cursory  inspection 
was  made  and  only  general  conclusions  reached. 

The  enrollment  in  that  department  was  126  or  41%  of  the 
306  girls  in  the  high  school;  of  these  46  were  first  year;  50 
second  year ;  20  third  year  and  15  fourth  year  students.  This 
is  a  gratifying  showing  and  indicates  a  hearty  interest  in  this 
branch  of  the  school  work.  These  figures  good  as  they  are  do 
not  indicate  the  whole  number  of  girls  who  have  had  this  train- 
ing since  the  majority  have  had  considerably  more  work  in  the 
grades  before  entering  the  high  school. 


Problem  of  Industrial  Education  125 

The  work  includes  the  usual  lines  of  sewing  and  other  types, 
common  in  schools  such  as  Janesville  with  the  additional  fact 
that  it  is  offered  four  years  instead  of  two  as  is  the  case  in  most 
places. 

The  courses  of  study  in  the  different  lines  are  definitely  and 
carefully  outlined  and  the  administration  appears  very  efficient. 
The  annual  exhibit  of  the  work  was  highly  commendable  and  in- 
dicated the  very  practical  nature  of  what  is  being  done. 

The  equipment  is  plain  and  serviceable  and  probably  ade- 
quate though  a  part  of  the  kitchen  apparatus  and  fixtures  is  not 
up  to  the  standard  of  the  newer  schools. 

The  rooms  are  poorly  lighted,  inconvenient,  difficult  of  access 
and  inadequate.  They  are  evidently  an  after  thought  to  meet 
an  emergency  owing  to  a  growth  in  courses  not  originally  pro- 
vided for.  Janesville  was  one  of  the  leaders  among  the  cities  of 
the  state  in  the  introduction  of  the  course  in  domestic  science  in- 
to their  schools  and  naturally  made  the  best  of  accommodations 
then  available  in  its  building,  but  the  time  has  come  when  it 
should  again  be  in  line  in  the  matter  of  facilities  for  efficient 
and  successful  work.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  in  the  near  future 
such  accommodations  can  be  provided. 

The  Industrial  School 

The  industrial  school  had  a  total  enrollment  of  87  pupils 
(1916-17)  in  the  all  day  class  and  218  in  the  permit  class.  The 
permit  class  attend  four  hours  per  week.  The  courses  offered 
to  the  boys  besides  the  academic  work  are  woodwork,  gas  engine 
and  electric  wiring,  work.  The  girls  are  offered,  besides  the 
academic  work,  domestic  science,  and  commercial  work.  All  pu- 
pils must  be  14  years  of  age  or  over.  A  director  and  two  teach- 
ers give  all  of  their  time  to  the  work.  Four  other  teachers  give 
part  time.  The  director  is  a  competent  man  and  is  himself  a 
capable  teacher.  • 

This  school  is  seriously  handicapped  through  the  lack  of  prop- 
er rooms  to  carry  on  laboratory  work,  and  also  for  the  lack  of 
equipment.  There  can  be  little  development  under  the  present 
conditions.  A  development  of  the  work  in  such  lines  as  electri- 
cal, gas  engine,  and  auto  mechanism,  is  highly  desirable.  It 
would  give  added  interest  to  the  work,  and  would  give  the  boy  a 
keener  sense  of  appreciation  of  the  industries. 


126 


Educational  8urvc!j  of  Jancsville 


The  Children  Who  Need  Indithtrial  Education 
In  any  school  system,  there  are  to  be  found  children  who  are 
several  years  overage  for  their  -grade.  These  overage  children 
seldom  complete  the  regular  elementary  grades  in  any  great 
numbers.  The  reasons  for  this  are  several.  Some  of  these 
children  would  in  all  probability  advance  more  rapidly  with  bet- 
ter teaching.  There  are  others  who,  for  some  reason  or  other, 
have  not  attended  school  regularly.  Still  others  are  bored  by 
dry  and  unappealing  subject  matter  in  the  curriculum.  These 
consequently  fail  to  make  normal  progress  because  they  fail  to 
regard  it  as  worth  while. 

There  are  some  who,  by  nature,  are  not  as  capable  of  profiting 
from  certain  types  of  instruction  and  for  whom  other  types  of 
instruction  of  a  manual  nature  must  be  provided.  Finally,  there 
are  children  who  are  normally  bright  and  capable  and  who  ad- 
vance regularly  but  who  express  a  preference  for  industrial 
pursuits. 

At  present,  28.9%  of  the  children  in  the  Jancsville  schools 
are  one  or  more  years  overage.  If  we  take  a  single  age  group; 
the  children  who  were  11  years  old  in  September,  1916,  we  find 
them  distributed  in  every  one  of  the  elementary  grades  from  the 
first  to  the  eighth.  If  we  take  the  14-ycar  olds,  we  find  them 
scattered  from  the  third  grade  to  the  junior  year  of  the  high 
school.  Eleven-year-old  children  ought  normally  to  be  found 
in  the  sixth  and  not  lower  than  the  fifth  grade.  Children  14 
years  of  age  in  September  sliould  have  completed  grade  eight 
and  be  in  grade  nine.  These  facts  will  be  seen  more  definitely 
from  the  f olloAving  table : 

Table  32. — Grades  Completed  by  Children  11  and  H  Years  of  Age. 


Grades  Completed  and  Grades  Now  in 


^  ^ 

, 1 

y 

^ 

i^ 

> 

> 

> 

> 

> 

X 

X! 

- 

: 

• 

- 

■a 

• 

; 

No. 

^ 

c4 

: 

; 

■; 

' 

' 

^ 

2 

X 

of 
chil- 

Age 

-a 

:i; 

h- 1 

> 

> 

> 

> 

> 

Total 

dren 

T3 

-a 

-a 

-a 

•a 

01 

-a 
0 

3J 

<D 

« 

<s> 

a> 

IP 

a 

V 

O, 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a, 

a 

Or 

a 

^ 

fl 

E 

a 

P 

P. 

a 

3 

B 

B 

8 

•^ 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

0 

0 

ai 

o 

o 

o 

O 

o 

o 

O 

o 

0 

0 

11  yr. 

1 

2 

3 

16 

36 

38 

44 

11 

151 

"79" 

14  yr. 

1 

3 

3 

5 

34 

15 

1 

141 

Problem  of  Industrial  Education  ■  127 

Some  of  these  children  who  are  overage  for  their  grade  will, 
doubtless,  remain  long  enough  to  complete  the  course  in  the 
regular  elementary  grades  but  it  is  improbable  that  children 
three  and  four  years  behind  their  normal  grade  will  do  so.  These 
children  frequently  leave  school  before  they  complete  the  fifth, 
sixth  or  seventh  grades.  It  requires  no  argument  to  convince 
any  fair-minded  individual  that  children  who  leave  school  with 
no  more  education  than  that  afforded  by  these  grades  are  not 
Avell  equipped  for  life.  Here  then  is  where  a  distinct  problem 
of  education  arises  and  it  cannot  be  solved  by  any  single  blanket 
panacea.  Some  improvement  can  be  accomplished  through 
better  teaching  of  the  traditional  subjects,  and  revision  of  the 
subject  matter.  Some  additional  improvement  can  be  brought 
about  through  the  organization  of  special  classes  for  exceptional 
children  and  through  the  organization  of  a  junior  high  school 
with  its  provisions  for  prevocational  training,  and  through  offer- 
ing more  definitely  vocational  training  in  the  high  school. 

What  becomes  of  these  children  who  leave  school  early  ?  The 
future  of  the  children  who  will  leave  school  early  must  be  ser- 
iously considered.  A  number  of  them  will  enter  so-called  "blind- 
alley"  jobs  receiving  a  relatively  high  initial  wage,  but  advanc- 
ing little  during  their  normal  working  life.  They  are  quite  apt 
to  become  social  misfits  at  fifty  or  earlier.  Others  will  become 
machine  operators  in  industries  not  requiring  educational  train- 
ing and  emphasizing  speed  rather  than  skill.  These  too  in  the 
course  of  the  few  weeks  or  months  required  to  attain  a  high 
speed  will  receive  a  relatively  high  initial  wage,  and  likewise 
will  advance  but  little  in  pay  or  position.  They  may  expect 
to  find  themselves  displaced  by  younger  workers  rather  early  in 
life.  At  the  present  time,  relatively  few  young  workers  can 
hope  to  pass  through  a  stage  of  apprenticeshij)  and  into  a  trade. 

Some  trades  are  slowly  but  surely  giving  way  to  machine  proc- 
esses and  even  were  it  advisable  to  prepare  definitely  for  certain 
trades  at  this  time  there  is  little  assurance  that  that  trade  too 
will  not  be  largely  displaced  by  machine  labor  a  few  years 
hence.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  home,  consideration  must  be 
given  to  those  young  girls  who  enter  upon  factory  work  and  who 
consequently  lose  the  opportunity  of  an  apprenticeship  in  cook- 
ing and  homemaking  under  the  mother's  supervnsion.  Few  fe- 
male workers  in  Janesville  factories  remain  after  marriage.    The 


J  28  Educatiunal  i^urvcy  of  Janesville 

period  of  factory  labor  for  them  covers  but  a  few  years.  They 
are  suddenly .  faced  with  the  problem  of  managing  a  household 
after  a  period  of  factory  labor  which  has  afforded  them  no 
training  for  the  duties  they  will  be  expected  to  perform.  For 
these,  the  school  must  make  some  provision. 

Educational  Recommendations 

Suggestions  from  Manufacturers  and  Workers 

A  significant  outstanding  fact  resulting  from  the  conference 
with  manufacturers  and  Avorkers  was  the  frequent  small  concern 
of  these  practically  minded  men  for  either  the  knowledge  or  the 
skill  ends  of  school  training.  It  might  be  expected  that  these 
men  representing  the  practical  side  of  everyday  life  would  ex- 
press a  desire  that  boys  and  girls  be  trained  in  doing  things  with 
their  hands.  Much  to  the  surprise  of  the  surveyors,  neither  of 
these  ends  was  emphasized  as  fundamental.  Training  in  the 
fundamental  qualities  of  character  was  mentioned  as  the  primary 
function  of  the  schools.  Personal  habits  of  cleanliness  and 
temperance,  politeness,  thoroughness,  and  accuracy  in  work  at- 
tempted, initiative,  and  originality  are  qualities  necessary  for 
business  or  vocational  success.  Grood  habits  of  thinking,  rather 
than  book  knowledge  or  specific  skill  in  the  manipulation  of 
machinerj^,  the  ability  to  express  thoughts  and  qualities  in  writ- 
ing briefly  and  to  the  point  are  prized  in  the  business  Avorld. 

For  office  workers,  a  good  general  knowledge  is  desirable.  In 
some  of  the  establishments  employing  large  numbers  of  office  as- 
sistants, a  high  school  education  is  required  and  a  university 
education  preferred.  Some  business  training  with  a  good  com- 
mand of  written  and  spoken  Fjuglish  are  important  factors  con- 
tributing to  success.  A  criticism  frequently  encountered  by 
the  surveyors  centered  on  the  poor  preparation  of  the  average 
stenographer  in  Englisli.  More  thorough  training  in  correct 
expression  should  be  given  in  the  schools.  Business  men  desire 
office  assistants  to  whom  they  can  dictate  a  letter  with  an  assur- 
ance that  it  will  not  be  written  and  mailed  containing  errors  in 
expression,  spelling,  or  punctuation.  Accuracy,  rather  than 
speed  so  often  emphasized  by  the  "get-an-education-quick"  type 
of  business  college,  is  preferred. 

In  the  printing  trade,  proficiency  in  spelling,  punctuation, 
and  the  elements  of  composition  were  urged.     Training  should 


Problem  of  Industrial  Education  129 

include  advertising" methods  and  publicity.  These  it  will  be 
noted  are  all  suggestions  calling  for  instruction  in  academic  sub- 
jects. 

For  the  building  trades,  architectural  drawing  and  mathe- 
matics are  desirable.  Painters  in  particular  prefer  in  addition 
to  the  above  training  an  appreciation  of  color  schemes  and  dec- 
oration, and  the  knowledge  of  the  properties,  characteristics 
and  methods  of  treating  common  woods. 

Success  in  telegraphy-  requires  both  a  connncrcial  and  a 
technical  training.     Office  management  is  an  essential. 

For  mechanical  pursuits,  mathematics,  freehand  sketching, 
mechanical  drawing  and  blue  print  reading  are  the  courses 
most  needed. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  the  manufacturers  and  workers  of  Janes- 
^^lle  who  were  questioned  by  members  of  the  survey  who  visited 
the  various  factories,  that  the  need  of  Janesville  is  not  for 
specific  training  for  girls  and  boys  in  any  bi'anch  of  the  in- 
dustries, but  rather  for  a  general  industrial  or  vocational  train- 
ing that  will  train  for  development  and  initiative  within  certain 
fields  so  that  the  pupils  may  readily  adjust  themselves  to  meet 
the  conditions  of  any  kind  of  industrial  or  factory  work  after 
leaving  school,  no  matter  in  what  grade  the  pupil  is  forced  to 
leave  school,  providing  it  is  in  the  upper  grades. 

The  growth  of  industrial  factories  in  Janesville  demanding 
skilled  labor  has  not  been  very  rapid  and  while  there  is  a  steady 
demand  for  a  certain  amount  of  skilled  labor,  there  are  no  large 
industries  springing  up  that  would  call  for  the  establishment  of 
a  trade  school  by  the  city.  The  expense  of  such  a  school  must 
necessarily  be  large,  and  is  not  demanded  by  the  industries  of 
Janesville  at  this  time.  The  demand  for  training  in  any  one 
trade  or  industry  is  not  sufficient  to  warrant  special  training  for 
that  particular  line. 

General  School  Problems 

In  making  provision  for  industrial  education,  three  factors 
are  involved:  (1)  Employment  of  properly  trained  teachere 
under  adequate  supervision  and  who  should  have  facilities  for 
further  training  when  in  service;  (2)  Organization  of  industrial 
courses  with  a  view  of  cooperating  with  the  industrial  estab- 
lishments; (3)  Suitable  rooms  and  necessary  equipment  to  carry 
on  all  the  work  intelligently.  The  question  of  how  much  time 
should  be  devoted  to  industrial  or  vocational  work  in  the  seventh, 


130  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

eighth,  and  ninth  grades  is  one  that  should  be  given  careful  con- 
sideration. If  the  work  is  designed  to  give  a  knowledge  of  the 
industries  and  social  conditions  and  opportunities,  and  an  op- 
portunity for  a  boy  to  find  himself,  it  is  obvious  that  more  time 
(eighty  minutes  per  week,  is  the  amount  of  time  usually  allotted 
to  the  work)  must  be  given  to  this  phase  of  the  work. 

Industrial  Courses 

Prevocational  courses  should  be  offered  in  the  junior  high 
school.  These  should  aim  to  enable  boys  and  girls  to  discover 
their  own  aptitudes.  They  should  help  a  boy  to  find  out  if  he 
is  mechanically  inclined  and  fitted  to  become  an  electrician, 
carpenter,  printer,  or  whether  he  is  better  adapted  to  com- 
mercial, agricultural,  or  professional  ]nirsuits.  Girls  should  be 
given  an  opportunity^  to  learn  something  of  the  various  phases  of 
home  economics  as  well  as  knowledge  of  courses  leading  to  com- 
mercial and  professional  activities.  Industrial  art  courses 
should  be  taught  from  the  fifth  grade  uji  without  any  thought 
of  future  vocation  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  The  work  should 
be  centered  upon  the  development  and  nature  of  the  necessary 
common  industries  of  our  daily  life. 

Work  of  a  prevocational  nature  should  begin  in  the  seventh 
grade.  The  courses  should  be  so  arranged  that  the  boy  and  girl 
may  spend  one.-half  year  at  least  in  several  different  types  of 
work  before  completing  the  eighth  grade.  The  ninth  grade 
might  well  be  used  as  a  year  in  which  the  pupil  may  concentrate 
on  some  special  subject,  if  it  is  necessary  that  he  or  she  should 
leave  school  at  the  end  of  the  ninth  grade.  To  do  this,  it  would 
be  necessary  to  increase  the  time  given  to  industrial  work  and 
to  make  it  a  daily  subject.  The  special  subjects  offered  for 
boys  might  well  be  as  follows : 

For  Boys 
Woodwork. 
Electrical  work. 

Gas  engine  and  general  metal  work. 
Printing,  forge  and  machine  work. 
Agricultural  work. 

For  Girls. 
Cooking. 
Sewing. 
Household  management. 


FrohUm  of  Induslrial  Education  131 

The  industrial  work  of  the  high  school  after  the  ninth  grade 
should  be  such  that  pupils  desiring  an  advanced  technical  train- 
ing, but  who  may  not  go  on  to  college,  may  receive  it  in  the 
three  latter  years  of  the  senior  high  school.  To  do  this  it  will 
be  necessary  for  students  who  intend  to  follow  a  technical 
course  to  spend  about  one-third  of  the  school  day  in  the  school 
shop  (with  the  possibility  of  a  cooperative  arrangement  with 
manufacturers).  Before  specializing  one  year  of  woodwork 
should  be  required  of  all  high  school  students.  The  fact  that 
one-third  of  the  day  is  spent  in  the  shop  by  the  students  who 
are  to  follow  a  technical  course  should  not  interfere  with  the 
work  of  the  pupils  who  are  taking  industrial  work  for  the  gen- 
eral practical  value  and  training  that  is  obtained  from  such  a 
course,  and  designed  to  round  out  a  practical  education.  How- 
ever, the  courses  in  industrial  work  should  be  so  arranged  that 
pupils  who  signify  a  desire  or  are  particularly  adapted  for  such 
courses  are  given  an  opportunity  to  develop  this  work  along 
lines  of  special  interest.  Such  courses  should  be  closelj' 
vocational. 

Opportunities  for  Learning  About  Industries 

The  industrial  classes  should  obtain  first-hand  information  of 
civic  life,  industrial  and  commercial  occupations  by  visiting  in- 
dustrial plants.  Information  on  how  the  city's  business  is 
carried  on,  conditions  under  which  employers  work,  the  nature 
of  the  occupation,  and  the  attractiveness  of  the  work  may  be 
learned  at  close  range.  A  member  of  the  firm  visited  may  be 
asked  to  give  a  talk  to  the  class  before  or  after  the  visit  on  the 
requirements  of  the  particular  work  of  his  firm,  the  type  of 
worker  desired,  the  time  recpiired  to  learn  the  trade  or  occupa- 
tion, the  amount  of  training  and  skill  demanded,  the  wages  and 
opportunities  for  advancement.  Reports  of  what  transpired  dur- 
ing the  visit  may  be  written  as  a  report  for  the  English  work. 
The  girls  may  visit  the  textile  factories  and  other  plants  where 
female  help  is  largely  employed.  A  schedule  of  such  visits 
should  be  made  out  at  the  beginning  of  the  school  year.  A 
series  of  illustrated  lectures  or  talks  about  industry  should  be 
made  a  part  of  each  year's  program. 


132  J'Ah{c((ti())i(iJ  Si(rv€i/  of  Jancsville 

Education  for  Private  Life 

Finally,  one  other  phase  of  education  for  those  who  enter  in- 
dustry needs  to  be  considered.  Suggestions  from  manufacturers 
reveal  a  regard  for  the  particular  knowledge  deemed  necessary 
for  the  workers'  success  in  the  occupation.  They  do  not,  how- 
ever, express  sufficient  concern  for  the  social  and  civic  aspects 
of  the  child's  education.  Not  only  his  immediate  present  but 
his  future  must  be  considered.  Not  only  his  working  hours  but 
the  hours  which  he  will  devote  to  household,  business,  or  civic 
affairs  and  to  leisure  need  attention.  The  children  must  be 
taught  how  to  live.  As  a  man  or  a  woman,  he  will  need  to  knoAV 
how  to  buy  and  sell,  how  to  invest,  how  to  insure  his  own  future 
•comfort.  A  knowledge  of  the  personal  and  eonnnunity  aspects 
of  health  is  a  necessary  part  of  every  child's  equipment.  He 
should  be  equipped  also  wuth  the  means  of  finding  enjoyment 
in  books,  music  and  art  whereby  leisure  hours  may  be  made  a 
source  of  pleasure,  and  profit.  Children  thus  trained  will 
make  not  only  workers  but  American  citizens. 

Summary  of  Recommendations 

A.  Courses  and  Instruction 

1.  That  no  attempt  be  made  in  the  grades  or  the  industrial  school  to 

train  for  any  special  industry  or  trade,  but  rather  that  a  gen- 
eral training  for  ready  adjustment  to  many  occupations  be 
offered. 

2.  That  the  attempt  to  provide  specific  training  for  industries  in- 

clude more  thorough  training  in  English,  practical  courses  in 
drawing,  mathematics,  and  business  practice. 

3.  That  prevocational   courses  planned  to  meet  the  needs   of  boys 

and  girls  in  finding  the  occupations  to  which  they  are  best 
suited  be  organized  under  the  junior  high  school  plan. 

4.  That  industrial  art  courses  begin  in  grade  five. 

5.  That  industrial  work  in  the  high  school  be  made  more  definitely 

vocational  in   character. 

6.  That  the  schools  attempt  to  establish  a  cooperative  arrangement 

with  manufacturers  for  the  training  of  boys  and  girls  in  in- 
dustry. 

7.  That   systematic   visits    to   industrial    and    commercial    establish- 

ments be  made  to  gain  first-hand  information  of  working  con- 
ditions and  be  made  a  part  of  the  program  of  training  for  in- 
dustries. 
.8.  That  the  present  industrial  and  manual  training  work  be  reor- 
ganized under  a  capable  director  responsible  for  this  work. 


Probh))i  of  Indnstriol  Educniiuii  133 

9.  That  a  rearrangement  of  courses  be  made  so  that  industrial 
school  pupils  may  have. the  use  of  a  high  school  cabinet  shop, 
machine  shop,  and  forge  shop. 

10.  That  greater  emphasis  be  placed  upon  the  developmental  or.  in- 

itiative side  of  all  industrial  work. 

11.  That  whenever  possible,  teachers  for  industrial  work  be  experi- 

enced workmen  with  pedagogical  training. 

12.  That  the  director  of  industrial  work  svipervise  teachers  and  con- 

duct teachers'  meetings  at  frequent  periods  for  discussions  on 
the  development  of  the  work. 

13.  That  closer  correlation  between  the  industrial  courses  be  Avorked 

out. 

14.  That  the  courses  offered   in   the  evening  and  industrial   schools 

include   instruction   in   the  care  and  •mechanical  operation  of 
automobiles. 

B.  Equipment  and  Physical  Conditions 

1.  That  better  accommodations  and  equipment  be  provided  for  do- 

mestic science. 

2.  Industrial  school:   there  is  urgent  need  of  new  shop  quarters  for 

the  industrial  school. 

C.  Manual  Training 

1.  That  new  woodworking  benches  and  drawing  tables  be  made  and 

the  present  benches  and  tables  discarded. 

2.  That  much  of  the  new  equipment  required  for  the  reorganization 

of  the  work  be  made  by  the  pupils. 

3.  That  alterations  in  the  woodworking  and  drawing  rooms  be  car- 

ried out  as  suggested  elsewhere  in  this  report. 

4.  That  the  equipment  in  the  mill  room  be  rearranged  to  reduce  the 

danger  hazard. 

5.  That  the  motors  and  other  equipment  in  the  machine  shop   be 

rearranged  to  permit  of  more  light  entering  the  room. 

6.  That   the   present  composition  blackboards  be  replaced   by  slate 

boards. 

7.  That  arrangements  for  better  cleaning  facilities  for  the  manual 

training  rooms  be  made. 

8.  That  the  basement  halls  of  the  high  school  be  not  used  for  stor- 

ing old  equipment. 


134  Educational  Surren  of  Janesville 


VIII     CLASSROOM  INSTRUCTION  IN 
ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Introduction 

1.     The  Importance  of  the-  Elementary  Scliool 

The  elementary  school  is  in  a  special  sense  the*  school  of  tlie 
people.  It  is  this  because  of  the  fact  that  it  reaches  larger 
numbers  than  do  the  higher  schools. 

In  the  1915-16  Biennial  Report  of  the  State  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction,  it  is  stated  that  in  Wisconsin  for  every 
group  of  one  hundi-ed  children  in  the  first  grade  there  are  only 
eleven  graduates  from  the  high  school.  This  shows  the  rela- 
tively small  number  who  receive  the  benefits  of  complete  high 
school  education.  The  Wisconsin  compulsory  education  law 
aims  to  secure  full  school  attendance  for  all  pupils  up  to  the  age 
of  fourteen  and  at  least  partial  attendance  up  to  seventeen  years 
of  age.  This  laAv  justly  and  beneficently  reaches  the  great  mass 
of  eliildren  and  makes  the  grades  the  most  universally  attended 
and  most  democratic  of  our  schools.  Since  the  great  majority 
cf  children  receive  their  only  schooling  in  the  grades,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  favorable  conditions  should  prevail  in  the  elementary 
schools.     Do  they? 

In  the  business  Avorld,  one  criterion  that  is  generally  accepted 
for  measuring  the  value  received  is  the  cost.  How  does  th6 
cost  of  schooling  for  pupils  in  the  Janesville  grades  compare 
with  the  cost  throughout  the  country?  For  the  year  1915-16, 
each  pupil  in  the  Janesville  grades  cost  the  city  $18.40.  The 
1916  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education 
gives  $27.11  as  the  estimated  cost  per  pupil  for  public  elementary 
schools,  which  shows  that  Janesville  spent  $8.71  less  in  1915-16 
for  each  grade  pupil  than  did  the  average  school  in  the  United 
States.  The  importance  of  the  elementary  school  and  the  cost 
fact  should  be  borne  in  mind  when  considering  the  findings  of 
the  staff  of  grade  visitors. 


Cl(i!isro()»i  I)isfi-ucli(>n   in  Elcmtntary  Schools  135 

2.  Methods  of  Presenting  the  Report  on  Classroom  histruction 
Tlie  report  on  instruction  in  the  elementary  grades  is  pre- 
sented in  three  sections.  The  first  of  these  is  devoted  to  a  general 
treatment  of  the  sun-ey  of  instruction.  It  discusses  the  method 
by  which  instruction  was  judged,  the  factors  considered  in  judg- 
ing the  ([uality  of  instruction,  and  includes  a  general  summary 
of  the  findings. 

In  the  second  section  a  more  detailed  consideration  is  given  to 
the  types  of  teaching  witnessed.  From  a  constructive  point  of 
view  any  survey  of  instruction  Avill  quite  likely  be  of  more  help 
to  the  teachers  Avhose  work  the  survey  seeks  to  improve  if  it 
analyzes  quite  fully  and  indicates  specifically  the  particular 
points  of  strength  and  weakness.  Accordingly  the  meml)ei's  of 
the  staff  who  judged  instruction  have  attempted  to  classify  the 
lessons  seen  according  to  recognized  types  in  order  to  determine 
(1)  the  relative  frequency  of  each  of  the  different  types  and  (2) 
the  adaptability  of  the  particular  type  of  presentation  chosen 
to  the  material  in  hand. 

Regardless  of  whatever  criticisms  may  be  made  of  the  general 
character  of  the  instruction  or  of  the  various  types  of  teaching 
there  are  teachers  who  desire  some  indication  as  to  the  merits  of 
their  ways  of  presenting  a  particular  subject  such  as  reading, 
arithmetic  or  spelling.  While  a  teacher  may  see  the  application 
of  certain  teaching  principles  to  certain  subjects  in  the  course  of 
study  she  is  not  equally  capable  of  adapting  them  to  others. 
It  was  not  uncommon,  indeed,  to  find  teachers  who  were  strong 
in  presenting  a  particular  subject,  such  as  geography  or  reading 
but  whose  work  in  other  subjects  was  much  below  this  standard. 
In  view  of  these  facts  those  who  judged  instruction  have  deemed 
it  best  to  present  a  discussion  of  the  quality  of  instruction  with 
reference  to  particular  subjects  of  the  curriculum.  The  third 
section  of  this  chapter  treats  instruction  from  this  point  of  view. 


136  Educational  Survey  of  Jancsville 

SECTION  I. 

General  Observation  of  Classroom  Instruction 

How  Lnstrucfion  was  Judged 

The  grades  were  visited  by  four  supervisors  of  the  State  De- 
partment of  Education  whose  training  and  experience  have  been 
devoted  to  the  problems  of  elementary  education.  Before 
undertaking  the  work,  they  met  with  the  State  Superintendent 
and  discussed  standards  by  which  it  was  to  be  measured.  While 
recognizing  that  a  certain  uniformity  in  standards  is  desirable, 
they  did  not  ignore  the  fact  that  justice  to  teachers  and  pupils 
demands  flexibilit}^  as  well  as  uniformity,  and  they  therefore 
aimed  to  avoid  the  rigidity  that  not  infrequently  accompanies 
the  setting  up  of  fixed  standards.  Furthermore,  to  insure  a 
just  as  well  as  a  critical  estimate  of  each  teacher's  work,  it  Avas 
determined  that  each  should  be  visited  by  more  than  one  member 
of  the  staff.  This  was  done  in  every  case.  p]ach  supervisor 
kept  a  record  of  the  details  of  the  visits  to  individual  teachers; 
each  passed  independent  judgment  upon  what  had  been  seen  be- 
fore entering  into  discussion  with  the  other  members  of  the 
staff.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  survey,  the  supervisors  met  and 
discussed  the  details  of  each  teacher's  work  and  justified  their 
estimations  of  it  by  statements  of  the  reasons  that  led  to  their 
conclusions. 

In  addition  to  the  supervisors'  })ersoual  judgments  on  the 
character  of  the  teaching  and  the  quality  of  the  results  secured. 
standard  tests  were  given  to  the  pupils  in  each  grade  beyond 
the  second.  The  results  of  these  tests  were  not  relied  upon  to 
furnish  a  basis  for  the  judgment  of  each  individual  teacher's 
Avork,  though  the  findings  were  consulted  after  the  teaching  was 
estimated,  and  in  a  numbur  of  cases  it  was  found  that  the  results 
corresponded  very  closely  to  the  judgments  formed  by  the  super- 
visors. The  supervisors  moreover  did  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact 
that  promotions  had  occurred  shortly  before  these  tests  were 
given  and  that  as  a  consequence,  some  grades  were  being  taught 
by  teachers  who  were  but  slightly  responsible  for  the  pupil's 
achievement  or  lack  of  achievement.  However,  the  results  of  the 
tests  by  indicating  the  accomplishments  of  each  grade,  furnished 
a  basis  for  comparison  of  corresponding  grades  in  Janesville,  as 


VJdssnxtm   I )isf)itcf ioit   i)i    FJ(  ))U'Hliini  Schools  I'M 

well  as  for  comparison  with  jirades  of  other  cities  where  similar 
tests  have  been  applied. 

Additional  information  concerning  the  teachers'  potentialities 
and  professional  equipment  were  secured  by  a  questionnaire  deal- 
ing with  professional  problems  which  each  teacher  was  asked  to 
till  out.  Questions  were  of  such  a  nature  as  to  indicate  the 
teacher's  breadth  of  thought,  professional  outlook,  and  attack 
on  professional  problems.  For  illustrative  purposes,  a  few  are 
here  inserted : 

Are  you  consciously  working  this  year  on  one  or  more  definite  prob- 
lems of  instruction  in  connection  with  your  work?  What  is  the 
most  important  of  these  and  tell  what  is  being  done? 

"What  is  the  most  important  thing  that  has  happened  during  this 
year  that  has  made  a  difference  in  the  way  you  teach? 

By  what  standards  do  you  think  your  teaching  should  be  judged? 

What  are  the  chief  difficulties  encountered  in  your  work? 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  after  the  staif  members  had  set- 
tled in  their  ov>'n  minds  the  character  of  a  teacher's  work,  they 
consulted  the  questionnaire  tilled  in  by  the  teachers  and  fre- 
quently found  marked  agreement  between  their  judgment 
of  the  teacher's  work  and  the  teacher's  own  statement  of  her 
understanding  of  an  attack  on  professional  problems.  The 
strong  teachers  were  consciously  working  toward  definite  goals, 
were  aware  of  the  difficulties  to  be  overcome,  and  gave  com- 
mendable standards  by  which  they  thought  their  work  should  be 
judged. 

Factors  Considered  in  Judging  Classroom  Instruction 

The  standards  established  for  the  judgment  of  work  will  de- 
pend largely  upon  the  judges'  conceptions  of  the  aims  to  be  ac- 
complished by  the  school.  The  object  of  the  school  should  be,  of 
course,  to  give  each  child  those  opportunities  for  cultural,  social, 
and  vocational  development  that  are  best  suited  to  his  tastes, 
and  abilities,  and  that  will  therefore  enable  him  to  render  to 
society  his  best  contribution.  Only  recently  has  it  been  recog- 
nized that  the  common  school  has  any  obligations  other  than 
cultural.  For  this  reason,  the  work  along  social  and  vocational 
lines  has  not  been  widely  introduced  in  schools  and  is  largely 
in  the  experimental  stage.  Janesville  has  pursued  a  somewhat 
conservative  policy  and  judgment  of  its  elementary  work,  there- 


138  Educational  Snrvcy  of  Janesville 

fore,  resolved  itself  largely  into  a  judgment  of  the  teachers' 
conduct  of  the  traditional  school  exercises  which  center  upon  a 
study  of  the  connnon  branches  as  treated  in  textbooks,  nnd  tlie 
reaction  of  the  pupils. 

The  investigating  staff  agreed  that  there  are  four  main  factors 
that  determine  the  quality  of  school  work.  These  are  the  pupils, 
the  course  of  study,  the  teachers,  and  the  supervision. 

Pupils.  Before  we  pass  judgment  upon  the  quality  of  in- 
struction and  its  influence  upon  the  pupils,  we  must  take  into 
consideration  the  kinds  of  children  who  are  to  be  instructed. 
Curricula  are  ordinarily  prepared  with  physically'  sound  and 
mentally  alert  children  in  view.  Our  schools,  however,  gather 
in  pupils  of  all  degrees  of  physical  and  mental  strength.  Their 
responses  to  school  work  are  therefore  as  varied  as  are  their 
physical  and  mental  states. 

Janesville  is  not  ministering  adequately  to  the  physical  needs 
of  its  school  children  and  as  the  progress  of  pupils  is  determined 
in  part  by  their  physical  condition,  it  is  clear  that  best  results 
will  not  be  secured  in  the  schools  until  a  thorough  system  of 
health  supervision  is  established. 

Concerning  the  various  degrees  of  mental  ability  represented 
in  the  citj'  schools,  it  should  be  noted  that  following  the  Janes- 
ville grade  inspection  of  1916,  made  by  the  grade  supervisors 
of  the  State  Department,  the  State  Superintendent's  report  to 
the  board  of  education  and  to  the  city  superintendent  drew  at- 
tention to  the  fact  that  at  that  time  there  existed  a  grave  problem 
of  retardation;  that  Janesville  was  not  making  provision  for  the 
varying  needs  of  pupils,  and  was  not  taking  into  consideration 
the  differences  in  their  mental  abilities.  It  was  suggested  that 
measures  be  adopted  to  correct  this  situation. 

In  the  section  of  this  report  dealing  with  retardation.  Chapter 
XV,  it  is  shown  that  the  introduction  of  semiannual  promotions 
has  greatly  reduced  the  percentage  of  retardation.  This  is  a 
most  desirable  reduction,  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  it 
is  as  yet  largely  a  surface  correction.  Semiannual  promotions 
will  work  continuously  against  retardation,  because  promotion 
periods  having  been  reduced  from  one  year  to  a  half  year  it  is 
possible  for  pupils  to  regain  lost  ground  more  readily.  This 
change  is  therefore  a  most  commendable  one,  but  at  present  a 
number  of  children  are  still  below  grade  in  their  acquirements 


ChissrooDi   htslnicti())i    i)i   Kh  m<  ntorn  Schools  139 

thou^li  classified  as  belonging  to  grades  that  arc  ai)i)i'oi)i'iate  for 
their  years.  This  aceonnts  somewhat  for  the  fact  that  in  nam- 
ing the  chief  difficnlties  encountered  in  their  work,  a  number  of 
grade  teachers  listed  the  fact  that  retarded  pupils  require  an  un- 
due proportion  of  their  time  and  thus  interfere  with  the  progress 
of  other  members  of  the  class.  Special  teachers  should  be  em- 
ployed for  ungraded  work,  and  thus  make  provision  for  the 
teaching  of  i)upils  who  recpiire  special  attention.  This  would 
combat  and  in  many  cases  correct  retardation  itself  rather  than 
merely  correct  it  on  the  surface. 

The  establishment  of  summer  schools  is  another  measure  that 
is  being  adopted  in  numerous  cities  to  provide  opportunity  for 
pupils  to  make  up  work  in  which  they  have  failed  and  thus  to 
make  more  rapid  progress. 

Such  measures  as  these  Avill  do  much  to  help  the  normal  child 
Avho  is  in  need  of  individual  instruction,  but  it  nmst  be  re- 
membered that  there  is  another  group  of  children  for  whom  in- 
struction of  a  different  type  should  be  provided.  These  are 
children  who  cannot  progress  at  the  normal  rate,  pupils  who  are 
three  or  more  years  overage  for  their  grades.  Every  school 
system  has  some  such  children  enrolled.  Janesville  undoubtedly 
has  enough  of  these  to  make  imperative  the  establishment  of  a 
special  room  wherein  they  may  be  taught.  The  removal  of  these 
pupils  from  the  regular  grades  would  greatly  imi)rove  working 
conditions  in  the  school. 

Before  the  best  working  conditions  can  prevail  and  best  re- 
sults can  be  secured  in  the  schools,  it  is  necessary  that  a  study 
be  made  of  the  types  of  children  represented  and  that  as  far  as 
possible,  education  suited  to  each  of  these  be  provided. 

Given  children  in  good  health  and  possessing  normal  degrees 
of  ability,  what  responses  are  we  justified  in  expecting"?  This 
is  de{)endent  in  the  majority  of  cases  upon  the  stimuli  offered 
by  the  teachers.  Pupils'  response  maj^  fall  under  the  general 
heads  of  conduct  and  mental  activitj^  Regarding  the  former, 
the  supervisors  agreed  that  on  the  whole,  the  discipline  is  good. 
They  saw  few  instances  that  would  indicate  that  this  is  not  true. 
This  is  a  commendable  matter,  for  good  results  cannot  be  secured 
when  discipline  is  poor.  It  is  evident  that  Janesville  teachers 
recognize  the  importance  of  good  discipline  and  have  consciou.sly 
worked  to  secure  it,  for  in  answer  to  the  question,  "By  what 


140  I'J(]uc(ifi())i(iJ  Siifvcn   "f  JdnvsviJh 

stiiiidai'ds  do  you  think  yoiu-  work  should  be  judged.'""  the  ma- 
jorit>-  listed  discipline  as  one  of  these. 

Just  as  there  was  agreement  among  the  survey  staff  that  the 
school  discipline,  with  few  exceptions,  was  good,  there  was  also 
agreement  that  in  many  cases  the  mental  activity  was  not  the 
best;  that  an  undesirable  passivity  characterized  the  attitude 
of  the  children  in  many  of  the  rooms.  This  may  be  traced  to 
the  fact  that  in  some  cases  the  subject  matter  was  unsuited  to 
the  needs  and  interests  of  the  pupils,  that  no  attempt  was  made 
to  make  it  real  by  linking  it  with  out-of-school  experience  or 
with  present  day  conditions,  and  in  other  cases,  to  the  fact  that 
teaching  aims  and  methods  were  not  the  best. 

Course  of  Study.  The  course  of  study  is  at  present  being  re- 
vised with  a  view  to  eliminating  material  that  is  not  suitable.  A 
detailed  consideration  of  this  factor  in  determining  the  quality 
of  instruction  is  therefore  omitted.  The  organization  of  a 
junior  high  school  recommended  elsewhere  in  this  repoi't  will  in 
itself  call  for  a  course  of  studj'  better  suited  to  the  needs  and 
interests  of  pupils.  The  fact  that  some  of  the  unsatisfactory 
class  work  could  be  traced  directly  to  poor  teaching  brings  us  to 
a  discussion  of  the  work  of  the  teachers. 

Teachers.  The  most  important  factor  in  determining  the 
character  of  school  work  is  the  teacher.  A  teacher's  success  is 
determined  to  a  certain  extent  by  her  natural  mental  endow- 
ments and  character.  Teaching,  however,  is  a  profession  that 
demands  careful  preparation  from  those  who  engage  in  it.  Of 
the  forty-nine  grade  teachers,  twenty-seven  have  been  graduated 
from  normal  school;  one  has  had  a  year's  training  at  normal; 
fifteen  have  had  less  than  the  eciuivalent  of  one  year  beyond  high 
school.  Of  the  fifteen  who  are  only  high  school  graduates,  only 
six  have  attended  summer  school  during  the  past  ten  years.  Of 
those  who  are  normal  school  graduates,  three  have  attended  sum- 
mer .school  during  the  past  five  years.  Of  eighteen  normal  school 
graduates  who  were  graduated  befoi-e  1912,  fifteen  have  never 
attended  as  much  as  a  six  weeks'  summer  session  since  gradua- 
tion. 

It  is  evident  from  these  statements  that  a  number  of  the  grade 
teachers  have  made  very  limited  professional  preparation  for 
their  work.  This  fact,  however,  was  not  taken  into  consideration 
by  the  survey  staff  until  the  classroom  visits  were  made,  and  judg- 


(IdssrooDi   I  list  nu'l  i(>)i   i)t   Kl<  ))K  iilarij  SvJiools  141 

ment  had  been  passed  upon  the  work  observed.  Then  it  was 
found  that  thei'e  was  a  inai'ked  I'ehition  between  the  work  in  prog- 
less  and  the  teaclier's  ])rofessional  training.  For  this  ]'eason, 
attention  is  caDed  to  the  importanee  of  encouraging  increased 
professional  training  and  professional  growth  by  increasing  sal- 
aries of  deserving  teachers.* 

In  judging  the  teachers'  ability,  the  importance  of  a  cheerful, 
patient,  vigorous  and  inspiring  personality  was  taken  into  con- 
sideration. A  successful  teacher  requires  these  characteristics. 
Judgment  was  also  passed  on  the  teachers'  preparation  for  the 
day's  work,  on  her  organization  of  the  subject  matter,  on  her 
teaching  methods,  aiid  on  her  ability  to  develop  initiative  and  in- 
dependence on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  Witli  these  standards 
in  mind,  it  was  judged  that  twenty-two  of  the  forty-nine  teach- 
ers were  doing  vigorous  work.  It  was  well-prepared,  organ- 
ized and  presented,  and  the  pupils  were  acquiring  good  habits 
of  study,  thinking,  and  industry.  These  are  commendable  mat- 
ters, but  unfortunatel}'  they  Avere  not  general  througliout  the 
Janesville  grades.  The  work  of  twenty-seven  of  the  teachers  was 
not  characterized  by  these  traits.  It  was  lacking  in  stimulation 
and  vigor,  and  the  methods  that  were  emi)ioyed  did  not  secure 
the  best  results. 

A  brief  summary  of  the  estimation  of  the  work  of  the  grade 
teachers  is  as  follows : 

There  are  forty-nine  teachci's  in  the  grades:  of  those  four  were 
found  doing  veiy  good  work ;  eighteen  doing  good  work,  twenty- 
two  doing  fair  work,  and  five  doing  poor  work.  Very  good  and 
good  represent  creditable  work;  fair  represents  work  that  is. 
lacking  in  the  stronger  characteristics,  and  poor  represents  work 
that  is  unsatisfactory.  It  is  evident  that  fair  and  poor  are- 
grades  of  work  that  are  below  the  standard  that  a  good  school 
system  should  establisli.  and  that  more  than  507c  of  Janesville 's 
teachers  are  doing  such  work. 

Earlier  reference  has  been  made  to  the  fact  that  the  teachers 
themselves  were  called  upon  to  state  standards  by  wliich  tJiey 
thought  the  work  should  be  judged.  These  statements  show  that 
some  of  the  teachers  have  good  ideals  of  what  should  characterize 
good  work.     These  ideals  however  are  not  generallv  entertained. 


*Note:  Since  the  verbal  report  showing-  the  advisabiHty  of  thi.s  -was 
made  to  the  board  of  education,  a  salary  schedule  has  been  adopted 
■which  has   already   stimulated   professional   study. 


142  Educational  Survey  of  JancsviUe 

The  subject  of  aims  would  therefore  be  a  profitable  one  for  dis- 
cussion at  local  teachers'  meetings  in  order  that  a  better  under- 
standing of  desirable  goals  might  be  established. 

Some  of  the  undesirable  features,  that  were  frequently  ob- 
served are  here  listed : 

a.  Teachers  do  too  much  reciting  and  talking.  The  class 
jicriod  is  primarily  the  pupils'  period  and  should  be  treated  as 
such. 

b.  The  work  was  almost  entirely  memory  work.  Lessons 
were  assigned  by  paragraph,  pages,  or  topics.  This  is  not  in 
ficcord  with  the  newer  conception  of  education  which  supports 
tlie  claims  of  the  problem  method  of  assignment  and  emphasizes 
the  importance  of  independent  thinking  and  judgment  on  the 
part  of  pupils.  The  questions  too  frequently  merely  tested  the 
memory  by  calling  for  textbook  facts  and  seldom  for  the  reaction 
of  the  pupils  on  these.  Many  questions  were  answered  by  single 
words  or  phrases;  too  few  called  for  topical  recitations. 

c.  The  work  failed  to  challenge  the  interest  and  attention  of 
the  majority  of  the  class.  Frequently  only  the  pupil  who  was 
reciting  gave  full  attention.  It  was  also  observed  that  this  lack 
of  interest  carried  over  to  the  study  period  and  that  a  number 
of  pupils  failed  to  make  proper  preparation  for  their  work. 

d.  The  work  was  not  socialized.  Pupils  recited  to  teachers 
and  frequently  so  indistinctly  that  they  could  not  be  heard  by 
other  members  of  the  class.  Under  these  circumstances,  it  neces- 
sarily followed  that  any  comments  or  corrections  that  were  of- 
fered were  made  by  the  teachers.  Greater  effort  should  be  piit 
forth  to  organize  and  present  the  material  in  such  a  way  that 
pupils  will  be  interested  in  class  discussions  and  will  be  stimu- 
lated l)y  this  interest  to  ask  questions  about  doubtful  points,  to 
offer  necessary  corrections,  and  to  contribute  additional  ma- 
terial from  their  observation,  experience,  or  outside  reading. 

Supervision.  The  fact  that  teaching  methods  were  in  many 
cases  ineffective  and  wasteful  leads  to  the  suggestion  that  this 
situation  may  be  corrected  by  making  provision  for  more  grade 
supervision.  This  would  undoubtedly  call  for  the  appointment 
of  a  grade  supervisor.  The  supervision  in  the  grades  has  been 
limited  in  the  past  because  of  the  fact  that  the  superintendent's 
duties  have  been  so  numerous  that  he  has  been  unable  to  give 
a  due  amount  of  time  to  grade  supervision.     It  seems  scarcely 


Classroom  litstntclion  i)i  Elemoiidvy  ScJiools  143 

necessary  to  state  that  the  results  secured  throughout  the  schools 
of  any  system  are  dependent  to  a  great  extent  ui)on  the  quality 
and  amount  of  supervision  that  is  provided.  Able  supervisors 
devoting  a  sufficient  amount  of  time  to  the  supervision  of  the 
schools  greatly  increase  their  efficiency.  When  there  is  in- 
adequate supervision,  there  is  great  variety  in  the  quality  of 
teaching.  Supervision  standardizes  work  and  thus  unifies  the 
teachers'  efforts.  A  due  expenditure  of  money  for  supervision 
is  justified  if  it  secures  and  makes  general,  high  standards, 
definite  aims,  good  methods,  desirable  habits  of  industry,  and 
the  maximum  accomplishment  for  each  pupil. 

Tlie  Eesults  of  Inadequate  Supervision 

1.  ]Mueh  of  the  work  lacked  definiteness.  It  is  true  that  at 
present  teachers  are  preparing  a  new  course  of  study,  but  in  the 
meantime,  they  are  handicapped  by  an  indefinitcness  of  aim, 
for  they  apparently  have  been  thrown  on  their  own  resources 
because  of  lack  of  copies  and  lack  of  suitability  of  the  old  course. 
In  many  cases,  teachers  in  corresponding  grades  were  working  in 
complete  independence  of  each  other.  This  means  that  if  a 
pupil  in  one  school  were  transferred  to  another,  there  would  bo 
nothing  to  insure  that  he  had  had  work  that  would  fit  him  to 
enter  the  class  to  which  he  had  been  transferred.  While  a  rigid 
uniformity  throughout  the  city  is  undesirable,  a  definite  body  of 
knowldege  should  constitute  the  minimum  accomplishment  for 
each  grade. 

2.  Often,  the  subject  matter  was  not  wisely  selected.  One 
of  the  surveyors  noted  that  the  spelling  words  which  one  of  the 
teachers  was  dictating  were  unsuited  to  that  grade  of  children. 
When  she  questioned  the  teacher  concerning  the  selection,  she 
found  that  each  teacher  selected  her  own  list,  regardless  of  the 
selection  that  had  been  made  by  the  preceding  teacher,  or  of 
that  which  would  be  made  by  the  teacher  in  the  following  year, 
or  regardless  of  help  other  than  her  own  judgment.  In  view 
of  the  fact  that  scieutific  studies  and  investigations  of  spelling 
have  been  at  the  disposal  of  the  public  for  several  years,  it 
seems  short-sighted  for  teachers  not  to  have  benefited  from 
them.  It  is  understood  that  this  will  be  corrected  when  the  new 
course  of  study  is  ready. 

Another    illustration    might    be  offered.     The   schools  were 


144-  Educdtiona]  Surveii  of  ■/(uusriJlc 

visited  shortly  after  the  seiniannual  promotions  had  taken  ]dace. 
In  a  number  of  cases,  the  visitors  asked  the  teachers  what  their 
felasses  had  read  before  their  promotion  and  in  each  case,  the 
teacher  was  unable  to  state. 

3.  Many  experienced  teachers  were  employing  wasteful 
methods.  This  was  especially  noted  in  drill  exercises  which  were 
so  conducted  that  only  the  child  reciting  was  receiving  the  bene- 
fit of  the  work.  The  employment  of  better  methods  would 
have  intensified  the  drills  so  that  each  member  of  the  class  would 
have  profited  from  them. 

4.  Study  periods  were  not  properly  supervised.  Some 
teachers  were  attempting  to  supervise  class  study  and  failing  in 
doing  so  because  they  were  not  sufficiently  imbued  with  its 
s])irit  nor  aer[uainted  with  its  technique. 

5.  Some  teachers  were  failing  to  see  and  to  study  their  own 
problems.  One  of  the  questions  put  to  the  teachers  was :  What 
are  the  chief  difficulties  encountered  in  your  work?  Eleven 
teachers  failed  to  list  any. 

In  reply  to  the  question,  "Are  you  consciously  working  on 
one  or  more  definite  problems  of  instruction  in  connection  with 
your  work?"  nine  teachers  failed  to  answer,  which  Avould  indi- 
cate that  they  were  not  doing  so.  Though  a  number  of  teachers 
listed  problems  that  were  i)ertinent  and  well  worth  their  study, 
other  replies  showed  a  lack  of  comi)rehension  of  professional 
])roblems. 

hnprovenioit.s  That  Man  -^^  Effected   Tlirouejli  Closer  Super- 
vision 
Improvements  in  classroom  instruction  could  be  brought  about 
through  closer  supervision : 

1.  By  providing  for  greater  definiteness. 

2.  By  providing  for  more  departmental  and  grade  meetings 
at  which  aims  and  specific  methods  and  results  could  be  dis- 
cussed. At  these  meetings,  demonstration  classes  could  be  con- 
ducted by  the  strongest  teachers,  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating 
good  methods. 

3.  By  making  it  possible  for  each  teacher  to  be  visited  more 
frequently  and  to  profit  from  these  visits  by  individual  con- 
ferences with  the  supervisor  Avho  would  discuss  the  work  with 
her  and  offer  constructive  criticism  and  encouragement. 


Cldssroo))!  Iiislnicfioji  in  EleuK  litorj/  Schools  145 


Recommendations 

1.  That  the  problem   of  pupil  health   be   investigated   and   adequate 

follow-up  measures  provided. 

2.  That  special  teachers  be  supplied  to  give  individual  help  to  those 

children  who  are  in  need  of  this. 

3.  That  a  room  for  exceptional  children  be  provided  for  those  pupils 

who  are  three  or  more  years  overage. 

4.  That  summer  school  work  be  organized  for  grade  pupils  who  de- 

sire the  opportunity  of  making  up  work. 

5.  That  a  grade  supervisor  .be  appointed  to  assist  the  superintendent 

in  supervisory  work. 

6.  That  the  school  be  reorganized  on  the  6 — 3 — 3  plan. 

7.  That  the  salary  schedule  be  based  upon  merit,  preparation  and  pro-^ 

fessional  interest,  so   that  teachers  may  develop  an  interest  in 
professional  study  and  improvement. 


SECTION   II 

Typks  of  Lessons  Obserykd 

"Education  is  worth  just  tlie  dift'erencc  it  makes  in  the 
activities  of  the  individual  who  has  been  educated.  The  ques- 
tion is  not  how  many  1)ooks  did  we  compel  the  child  to. read;  how 
much  does  he  know  of  arithmetic,  geography,  history,  music,  art. 
and  the  like;  but  rather,  what  use  does  he  make  of  his 
knowledge;  how  is  he  different  from  the  person  who  does  not 
possess  this  information ;  and,  still  more  important,  are  these  dif- 
ferences in  his  activity  desirable  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
group  in  which  he  lives." — Strayer. 

AVith  social  efficiency  as  the  aim  of  eciucation,  the  means  em- 
ployed should  always  contribute  something  to  the  end  desired ; 
and  methods  of  teaching  must  be  rated  as  good  or  as  poor  in 
so  far  as  they  lend  themselves  to,  or  fail  to  lend  themselves  to, 
the  self-development  of  the  i)apil. 

The  great  variety  of  ways  in  which  children  learn  has  necessi- 
tated a  varied  procedure  in  the  teaching  process;  therefore,  cer- 
tain types  of  instruction,  though  somewhat  overlapping  in  scope 
and  often  hard  to  define,  have  been  accepted  as  fundamental. 
These  types  .are  all  necessary,  yet  some  are  out  of  place  under 
certain  conditions  and  often  one  type  is  used  by  the  teacher 
when  another  would  be  of  much  greater  benefit  to  the  pupil. 


146  EdHCdtionaJ  Survey  of  Janesville 

True  skill  in  teaching,  then,  calls  for  careful  discrimination  in 
the  use  of  lesson  types.  Those  methods  must  be  at  all  times  en- 
ployed  which  grow  naturally  out  of  the  nature  of  the  subject 
matter  to  be  presented  and  the  desired  results  to  be  obtained. 
Also,  those  means  must  be  used  which  make  for  a  maximum 
amount  of  pupil  activity  on  the  intelligence  plane  and  a  min- 
imum amount  on  the  mere  memory  plane. 

The  instruction  in  the  Janesville  schools  has  been'  analyzed 
with  the  view  of  determining  (1)  the  relative  amounts  of  thought 
and  mere  fact  memory  work  that  ar.e  being  required  of  pupils ; 
and  (2)  the  amount  of  pupil  organization,  of  pupil  initiative, 
and  of  pupil  judgment  that  is  being  encouraged.  This  discus- 
sion also  aims  to  show  the  advantages  of  the  motivated  exercise 
over  the  formal  teacher-dominated  recitation. 

The  genei-ally  recognized  lesson  types  are  as  follows :  the 
inductive  and  deductive  development  lessons,  the  study  lesson, 
the  recitation  lesson,  the  lesson  for  appreciation,  the  drill  lesson, 
and  the  review  lesson.  Others  that  are  sometimes  found  are  the 
object  lesson  and  the  assignment  lesson.  The  surveyors  took 
into  account  the  fact  that  few  actual  teaching  exercises  fall  en- 
tirely into  any  one  of  these  groups,  and  in  all  cases  the  main 
Ijart  of  the  lesson  was  used  as  a  basis  for  the  classification,  hop- 
ing thereby  to  get  a  fair  estimate  of  the  proportion  of  the  teach- 
ing of  each  type  that  was  being  done.  Eleven  of  the  150  lessons 
seen  were  unclassified  because  of  the  fact  that  their  composite 
nature  made  it  difficult  to  determine  which  type  best  defined 
the  instruction  being  given.  The  composite  lesson  is  often 
justifiable  and  the  percentage  of  lessons  of  this  kind  noted  is  an 
evidence  that  the  teachers  make  use  of  this  means  of  instruction 
when  conditions  demand  it. 

The  following  tables  indicate  the  summary  of  the  visits  made 
and  form  the  basis  of  the  conclusions  reached. 

Number  of  lessons  seen 150 

Number  of  lessons  classified 139 

Number  of  lessons  unclassified '. 11 

Classification  by  Tji^e 

Number  of  lessons  classified  as  drill 65 

Formal  drill   51 

Motivated  drill   14 

Number  of  lessons  classified  as  development  lessons 3 

Number  of  lessons  for  appreciation 20 


(U(tss)'(>())ii   Insirucll<t)i   i}i   Elc))teii{(irii  Schools  147 

Number  of  recitation  lessons 41 

Questions    and    answers 19 

Topical    8 

Socialized    1-1 

Nmnber  of  study  lessons 10 

Number  of  review  lessons 0 

(Some  of  the  unclassified  lessons  were  partially  review  lessons) 

Number  of  opening  exercises 0 

(Outside    of    kindergarten) 139 

Classification  by  Siibje<'t 

Reading   33  Music 7 

Language 21  Grammar 6 

Phonics   13.  Art  5 

Arithmetic    12  Physical  Ex 2 

Geography    12  Construction    1 

Kindergarten  10  Nature  Study 1 

Writing 10  Physiology   1 

History    8  Stcreopticon    1 

Spelling  7  

150 

Tlie  Development  Lessori 

By  development  lessons  are  meant  those  commonly  known  as 
inductive  or  deductive  lessons.  These  lessons  are  always  con- 
cerned with  related  ideas.  When  a  lesson  aims  to  find  the  gen- 
eralization or  the  common  element  that  relates  several  ideas, 
it  is  an  inductive  exercise.  To  illustrate:  In  a  primary  grade 
the  following  problems  might  serve  as  a  basis  for  an  inductive 
exercise. 

1.  I  bought  six  apples  for  30  cents.     James  wants  one  of  them.     How 

much  should  he  pay  me  for  it? 

2.  We  needed  10  quarts  of  milk  for  our  school  lunch  today.     Mary 

paid  90  cents  for  it.     What  does  the  milkman  charge  per  quart? 

3.  Fred  brought  3  new  pencils  to  school  this  morning.     He  told  me 

that  they  cost  6  cents.     Who  can  tell  us  how  many  pennies  they 
will  need,  to  buy  one  pencil  like  Fred's? 

After  these  prol)lems  are  solved  by  means  of  skillfully  put 
■questions,  using  the  pupils'  knowledge  as  a  basis  for  each  step, 
the  teacher  may  ask,  "What  did  you  actually  do  in  order  to 
solve  the  first  problem?  The  second?  The  Third?  Did  you  do 
the  same  thing  in  each  case?  AVhat  was  told  in  each  problem? 
What  was  asked?  Who  can  give  us  a  statement  that  will  tell  us 
how  to  solve  all  problems  of  this  kind?"  The  inductive  de- 
velopment lesson,  therefore  is  practical  whenever  new  material, 
regarding  which  numerous  illustrations  may  be  given,  and  about 
which  the  child  has  a  slight  knowledge,  is  to  be  presented.     This 


148  Ednvdiiounl  Survcj/   of  ./(ousviUi 

type  is  also  effective  in  arithmetic  and  grammar  when  the  class 
knows  the  necessary  particular  data  w^ith  which  to  deteraiine 
general  truths  which  are  new  to  them.  These  two  subjects  are 
often  less  advantageously  taught  by  the  deductive  method.  The 
inductive  lesson  calls  for  practically  all  of  the  elements  of  good 
thinking.  A  high  degree  of  pupil  efficiency  may  be  acquired  by 
the  judicious  use  of  this  exercise.  On  the  other  hand,  when 
the  process  is  reversed  and  the  general  truth  or  explanation  is 
applied  to  a  new  case  to  explain  it .  the  deductive  method  is  em- 
ployed. This  can  be  illustrated  by  a  lesson  in  geography. 
Children  learn  by  the  study  of  North  America  that  the  Arctic 
regions  are  cold.  "When  Asia  is  studied,  this  fact  may  be  called 
up  and  the  question  asked:  "What  would  you  expect  th« 
climate  of  Northern  Asia  to  be?  Whyf"  This  is  a  valuable 
type  of  exercise  and  illustrates  what  is  meant  by  the  deductive 
develojiment  process  l)ecause  the  child  really  uses  his  previous 
knowledge  and  thinks  independently  in  arriving  at  a  new  eoii- 
clusiou.  He  may  verify  this  conclusion  by  the  use  of  his  text. 
This  is  a  higher  type  of  thinking  than  is  secured  by  just 
memorizing  the  fact  that  Siberia  is  cold.  The  deductive  de- 
velopment lesson  is  thei-efore  equally  as  effective  as  the  induc- 
tive lesson  when  the  former  is  used  with  intermediate  or  gram- 
mar grade  pupils.  It  is  not  so  often  advantageously  used  with 
young  children  since  they  are  apt  to  have  difficulty  in  making 
inferences  from  abstract  data.  It  wall  be  noticed  from  the  table 
that  out  of  the  150  lessons  "witnessed,  only  three  fell  under  the 
development  classification,  yet  nearly  all  of  the  subjects  of  the 
curriculum  lend  themselves  most  advantageously  to  this  means 
of  teaching. 

The  survey  staff  noted  eases  where  inductive  and  deductive 
lessons  could  have  been  used  in  place  of  the  ones  employed, 
thereby  giving  pupils  more  real  practice  in  thinking.  A  lesson 
in  arithmetic  was  Avitnessed  by  the  obseiwers  in  which  a  problem 
involving  papering  a  room  was  being  discussed.  It  was  evident 
that  the  class  needed  to  know  more  about  the  subject.  Here 
was  an  excellent  oppoi'tunity  for  inductive  work,  but  instead  of 
doing  this,  the  teacher  tried  to  get  the  complete  process  from 
someone  who  remembered  how  to  work  problems  in  papering. 
The  partial  knowledge  of  the  class  could  have  been  used  to  great 
advantage  in  a  develo]iment   exercise  so  that   all  would  have 


CIds.sroo))}  I)tsfn(cll())i   in  EI(  )>i(  }it(iry  Schools  14!) 

I)articii)ate(l  in  the  thought  work.  In  another  instance,  a  study 
lesson  on  Russia  was  being  conducted.  Deduction  would  have 
l)een  very  effective  here,  as  the  ])upils  had  the  necessaiy  data  at 
their  oomnuind.  They  could  have  reasoned  out  approximately  the 
climate,  probable  products  and  occupations  of  Russia  and  could 
have  then  verified  their  conclusions  from  tlieir  texts  and  other 
authorities. 

The  Siudij  Lesson 

The  study  lesson,  when  correctly  planned,  is  productive  of 
much  initiative  and  constructive  training  in  the  thinking  pro- 
cess. The  aim  of  the  lesson,  however,  must  be  clear  to  the 
children;  the  assignment  nuist  be  definite  and  stimulating;  the 
references  must  be  available:  the  means  of  verification  must  be 
at  hand ;  the  organization  must  be  made  ])y  the  pupil ;  and  the 
assimilation  must  be  thorough  if  correct  study  habits  are  to  be 
inculcated.  In  the  main,  the  ciualities  noted,  above  were  not 
characteristic  of  the  study  lessons  observed  by  the  survey  staff. 
The  study  lessons  seen,  in  general,  consisted  of  reading  the  text 
orally  or  silently  and,  in  the  main,  of  answering  the  teachers* 
quesiioHs  upon  what  was  read.  This  plan  denies  to  the  pupils 
training  in  finding  for  themselves  the  necessary  things  to  be 
done  in  order  to  master  a  lesson.  The  ability  to  analyze  the 
situation  and  to  solve  a  real  problem  is  the  sort  of  training  that 
boys  and  girls  need  in  their  school  work.  The  analysis  referred 
to  involves  self-questioning  on  the  pupils'  part,  which  calls  for 
a  very  constructive  type  of  thinking.  In  two  instances  out  of 
the  ten  lessons  seen,  the  teachers  were  endeavoring  to  have  the 
pupil  select  the  main  topic  of  each  paragraph.  This  is  helpful, 
but  it  is  only  one  of  the  elements  of  true  study. 

The  Fecitettion  Lesson 

Therecitation  lesson  is  in  general" a  clearing  house  of  ideas." 
It  may  be  (1)  a  question  and  answer  type  of  lesson,  (2)  the 
topical  method,  or  (3)  the  socialized  recitation. 

1.  The  ([uestion  and  answer  metho.l  was  the  kind  of 
recitation  most  frequently  observed  by  the  survey  staff'.  This 
method  often  defeats  the  valuable  purpose  for  which  it  was 
intended,  in  that  it  fails  to  give  to  the  pupil  sufficient  oppor- 
tunity for  organization,  for  judging  the  relative  work  of  details, 


150  Educational  Survey  of  Jancsvillc 

and  for  acting  upon  his  own  initiative.  Nineteen  lessons  out  of , 
the  total  of  41  recitation  lessons  were  of  the  question  and  answer 
type.  Another  danger  in  the  use  of  this  plan  is  found  in  the 
common  practice  of  directing  rpiestions  to  only  one  pupil  at  a 
time  without  challenging  the  attention  and  effort  of  the  re- 
mainder of  the  class.  It  is  true  that  the  question  and  answer 
recitation  method  is  often  necessary,  but  it  should  not  be  used 
extensively  unless  the  nature  of  the  subject  matter  lends  itself  to 
no  other  type  of  recitation;  and  whenever  it  is  employed,  the 
questions  riuist  be  thought  provoking  and  should  call  forth  real 
effort  on  the  part  of  all  of  the  pupils.  In  several  of  the  lessons 
observed,  the  nature  of  the  cpiestions  asked  was  such  that  they 
could  be  answered  by  facts  memorized  from  the  text.  It  was  also 
noted  that  in  most  cases  the  questions  did  not  call  for  original 
thought  or  for  information  beyond  the  one  text  in  the  hands  of 
the  pupils.  AVhen  this  condition  exists,  the  formal  nature  of 
the  work  robs  this  type  of  exercise  of  its  usefulness. 

The  well  put  question  is  the  greatest  stimulation  to  thought 
activity  that  there  is,  but  to  be  most  effective,  it  should  precede 
study,  as  this  is  the  time  when  the  pupil  is  expected  to  do  his 
thinking  about  the  topic  in  hand.  AVhen  the  question  or  prob- 
lem follows  blind  stud}^  it  is  usually  answered  by  scrappy  bits 
remembered-  from  the  text.  It  thereby  fails  to  provoke  the  de- 
sirable amount  of  constructive  thought  upon  the  subject.  The 
time  to  put  the  main  questions  relative  to  au}^  topic  is  when  the 
assignment  is  made.  They  then  become  the  topics  of  the  reci- 
tation. This  does  not  imply  that  questions  to  stimulate  more 
intensive  thought  or  to  clear  up  hazy  notions  are  out  of  place 
at  any  time. 

2.  The  second  variety  of  recitation  lesson  is  the  topical  meth- 
od. By  topical  method  is  in  no  sense  meant  the  almost  word-for- 
word  recitals  of  textbook  material  called  forth  by  the  announce- 
ment of  'subject  headings  by  the  teacher.  On  the  other  hand, 
this  method  rightly  used  calls  for  such  an  assignment  that  the 
pupil  must  make  his  own  organization  of  the  material  to  be  dis- 
cussed. It  has  its  advantages  over  the  question  and  answer  plan 
in  that  the  pupil  has  greater  opportunities  for  exercising  initia- 
tive and  originality'.  The  student  also  enjoj^s  the  sense  of  power 
that  comes  from  accomplishing  a  complete  unit  of  work.  This 
method  enables  the  pupil  to  see  his  o^vn  growth  through  an  in- 


Classroo))i  Instruction  in  Etcmcntary  Schools  151 

creasing  mastery  of  the  tools  of  knowledge.  He  also  has  an  op- 
Iiortiinity  of  witnessing  his  own  added  facility  and  satisfaction 
in  the  continued  nse  of  these  tools.  There  is  probably  no  more 
effective  way  of  doing  real  teaching  than  through  the  topical 
recitation  rightly  conducted.  There  were  8  lessons  of  tliis  type 
observed  by  the  visitors.  In  most  cases  they  were  of  a  construc- 
tive nature. 

3.  Social  relationships  and  training  for  citizensliip  are  vital 
aims  of  school  activities.  These  features  are  prominent  in  the 
third  kind  of  recitation  lesson  which  is  a  socialized  recitation. 
This  method  combines  the  advantages  of  topical  procedure  with 
added  emphasis  upon  pui)il  direction,  pupil  organization,  and 
general  pupil  responsibilit,y  for  the  conduct  of  the  lesson.  That 
fourteen  of  these  lessons  were  seen  indicates  that  no  little  atten- 
tion is  being  given  to  this  tj^pe  of  instruction.  This  method, 
when  based  upon  a  problem  assignment  calls  forth  the  highest 
type  of  pupil  activity  and  results  in  a  gratifying  amount  of  pu- 
pil growth  and  accomplishment.  The  dangers  of  this  form  of 
recitation  are  apparent  and  of  the  fourteen  lessons  reported  up- 
on, nine  are  characterized  by  the  observers  as  scattering  in 
their  organization  and  five  are  indicated  as  being  uniiied.  How- 
ever, this  type  of  recitation  eliminates  much  of  the  waste  men- 
tioned in  the  discussion  of  the  question-and-answ^er  type,  and 
it  stimulates  good  thinking  and  continuous  activity  on  the  pu- 
pils' part.  It  is  a  very  commendable  type  of  exercise  when  well 
conducted.  It  is  hoped  that  teachers  will  develop  skill  in  the 
management  of  this  means  of  instruction  so  that  it  may  always 
be  a  unified  whole  and  give  to  the  student  a  definite  answer  to 
a  definite  problem  which  he  has  done  his  part  to  solve. 

The  Lesson  for  Appreciation 

Much  of  the  richness  of  life  is  lost  if  one  is  not  able  to  enjoy 
the  beautiful  in  art,  in  music,  in  nature,  and  in  literature. 
Therefore  the  lesson  for  appreciation  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant types.  Its  method  of  necessity  varies  with  every  use  of  the 
exercise.  However,  the  fundamental  pedagogical  principle  upon 
which  this  lesson  is  based  is  that  the  teacher  must  fully  appre- 
ciate whatever  she  is  trying  to  make  appear  beautiful  to  the 
children.  Some  knowledge  of  the  technique  of  the  particular 
subject  being  considered  is  helpful  but  is  not  absolutely  neces- 


152  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

san^  to  true  appreciation.  This  type  of  lesson  tests  to  the  utter- 
most the  teacher's  power  to  inspire;  and  her  personality  is  of  tea 
more  largely  responsil)le  for  her  success  than  is  the  actual  meth- 
od employed.  Twenty  lessons  of  this  type  are  rcjjorted  and  in 
most  cases  they  were  found  to  be  of  such  a  nature  that  tlie 
])upi]s  were  being  made  more  ai)i)reeiative  of  their  environment. 
In  a  few  eases  the  lesson  was  applied  immediately.  A  pai"tieu- 
larly  good  lesson  was  witnessed  in  the  study  of  Hiawatha.  The 
children  read  parts  of  the  selection  and  skillful  questions  put  by 
the  teacher  drew  from  them  answers  which  showed  that  the\ 
had  grasped  the  spirit  and  beauty  of  the  Indian  tale.  Tlie 
teacher  was  particularly  careful  to  compare  the  scenery  w^hich 
these  children  had  observed  with  that  depicted  by  Longfellow"  in 
order  that  they  could  really  visualize  his  beautiful  description. 
The  children  gave  evidence  of  experiencing  real  joy  and  appre- 
ciation from  this  study. 

llie  Drill  Lesson 

The  drill  lesson  has  its  place  and  makes  automatic  certain 
types  of  knowledge.  However,  care  must  be  exercised  lest  ]nai\v 
facts  which  are  seldom  used  and  which  should  in  most  cases 
be  arrived  at  by  the  use  of  principles  and  laws,  when  )ieeded, 
are  not  imposed  upon  pupils.  Often  the  children  have  no  im- 
mediate use  for  these  facts,  and  consequently  do  not  feel  the  need 
of  attacking  them  vigorously  at  the  time  they  are  presented. 
It  is  not  the  isolated  facts  such  as  a  chronological  table  that  con- 
stitute knowledge.  The  memorized  knowledge  that  functions  in 
life  is  organized,  assimilated  knowledge.  The  ability  to  use 
sources,  to  observe  and  to  find  out  related  facts  whenever  they 
are  needed  is  of  the  utmost  value. 

The  waste  caused  by  teaching  only  one  pupil  at  a  time  has 
been  referred  to.  This  waste  even  more  frecjuently  occurs  in 
the  drill  lesson,  and  needs  to  be  constantly  guarded  against. 
One  of  the  survey  staff  reports  that  eight  out  of  sixteen  drill 
lessons  seen  failed  in  this  respect,  as  only  one  pupil  at  a  time 
was  working,  while  large  groups  of  children  remained  idle  until 
their  turn  came.  The  survey  staff  also  observed  that  often  an 
entire  class  was  drilled  upon  facts  wdiich  all  but  a  very  few  of 
the  children  knew.  This  condition  can  be  avoided  by  selecting 
from  the  group  those  pupils  who  need  extra  work,  and  by  giv- 


CIassn)()})i   I xsfniclioii   in   Kh  )n(  iilarii  School!^  153 

ing  the  others  useful  cniph)yni('i!t ;  wliilc  the  sclceted  group  are 
receiving  additional  1  mining.  Another  advantage  in  drill  work 
is  gained  by  taking  out  of  any  package  of  drill  cards  those  facts 
or  words  which  are  known  to  all  of  the  i)upils,  thereljy  giving 
added  repetition  and  emphasis  to  facts  really  needing  more  at- 
tention. If  drill  is  necessary,  it  must  be  motivated  in  some  way 
for  the  pupils,  e.  g.,  by  being  conducted  Avith  a  time  limit,  by 
making  it  a  competitive  game,  or  by  approximating  as  nearly 
as  possible  a  real  situation  in  which  the  knowledge  is  needed. 
Of  the  65  drill  lessons  repoi-ted,  14  wei'e  motivated  drills  and 
the  rest  were  formal  and  not  related  to  child  interests.  In  some 
eases  these  drills  occupied  an  entire  class  period.  A  prolonged 
drill  period,  as  for  example  in  arithmetic  or  spelling,  has  been 
found  by  experiment  to  be  largely  a  waste  of  time.  The  best 
results  are  obtained  by  frequent,  snappy,  and  varied  drills  on 
material  which  is  to  be  used  as  soon  as  possible  in  order  that 
acquired  skill  may  function  Avithout  loss.  Formal  drill  upon 
facts  which  are  not  vital  to  the  cliild  is  not  a  high  type  of  teach- 
ing and  does  not  develop  in  the  pui)il  desirable  habits  of  attack 
upon  any  task.  In  the  judgment  of  the  survey  staff  there  was 
too  much  of  this  kind  of  work  being  done. 

The  Iicvicw  Lessoyi 

The  review  lesson  is  necessary,  and  when  it  means  a  new  vieAv 
of  the  subject  and  calls  for  a  real  use  of  information  previously 
gained,  it  requires  a  very  constructive  type  of  work  upon  the 
pupils'  part.  No  lessons  were  witnessed  which  came  really  un- 
der this  classification  since  mere  repetition  camiot  be  classed  as 
review. 

The  teacher  should  find  many  opportunities  for  review  work. 
To  illustrate,  a  very  profitable  review  period  can  be  spent  after 
studying  the  two  countries  of  Brazil  and. Argentina  by  discuss- 
ing the  ways  in  which  these  countries  are  alike  and  the  ways  in 
which  they  are  different.  This  discussion  calls  forth  a  summary 
of  all  of  the  conditions  existing  in  each,  and  judgment  is  exer- 
cised in  making  each  comparison.  This  affords  a  new  view  of  the 
subject  matter,  and  is  much  more  effective  than  simply  repeating 
the  characteristics  of  either  comitiy.  After  a  class  has  covered  a 
period  of  history,  each  child  may  personify  a  character  who 
helped  to  shape  the  period  or  who  lived  at  that  time  and  knew 


154  .         Educational  Survcii  of  Janesville 

the  conditions.  The  children's  personal  narratives  of  their  ex- 
periences add  a  decidedly  realistic  sense  to  the  information,  and 
this  exercise  confomis  to  the  conditions  expected  in  a  review 
lesson. 

Summary 

1.  Approximately  46  per  cent  of  all  the  lessons  classified  by  the  sur- 

veyors were  of  the  drill  type,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  only  about 
26  per  cent  of  the  lessons  observed  were  in  arithmetic,  spelling, 
writing  and  phonics,  which  are  the  so-called  drill  subjects. 

2.  It  is  also  noticeable  that  although  the  development  method  is  one 

of  the  best  ways  of  promoting  pupil  growth,  only  about  2  per 
cent  of  the  lessons  seen  were  of  this  type. 

3.  It  is  gratifying  to  find  that  about  13  per  cent  of  the  lessons  ob- 

served were  for  appreciation. 

4.  It  would  seem  that  more  efficiency  would  result  from  an  increase 

in  the  number  of  topical  and  socialized  recitations  and  a  cor- 
responding decrease  in  the  amount  of  formal  drill  exercises. 
It  will  be  seen  from  the  table  that  only  22  topical  and  social 
recitations  were  recorded  as  against  51  formal  drills. 

5.  Approximately  6  per  cent  of  the  lessons  seen  were  study  lessons. 

Here  again  a  comparison  of  the  number  of  formal  drill  exercises 
may  lead  to  a  greater  emphasis  upon  and  an  improvement  of 
the  study  exercises. 

6.  Many  more  interesting  comparisons  and  suggestions  for  improve- 

ment can  be  derived  from  the  results  of  this  study.  Among 
these  would  be  a  further  inquiry  into  the  methods  now  being 
used  in  Janesville  with  a  view  to  finding  out  whether  or  not  the 
teachers  actually  make  use  of  all  of  the  recognized  lesson  types, 
thereby  doing  constructive  and  balanced  teaching. 


SECTION  m 

The  Tkachinc  of  Classroom   Sub.jects 

READING 

It  may  be  well  to  state  first  the  aims  to  be  kept  in  mind  in 
the  teaching  of  reading  in  the  elementary  school.  Pupils  should 
get  from  the  study  of  reading  in  the  grades  the  habit  of  rapid 
and  thoughtful  silent  reading  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  use- 
ful information  concerning  many  subjects  of  interest  and  im- 
portance to  people  in  general ;  the  habit  of  going  to  books,  maga- 
zines, and  papers  for  this  information ;  and  a  sufficiently  wide 


Classroom  IitstrucUox   i)i  Eloni  iiiiiyii  Schools  155 

ac'ciiiaintance  with  literatui'c,  in  the  iian'ow  sense  of  the  word, 
to  aequirc  a  genuine  love  for  I'eadinjj;'  books  of  the  highest  order 
of  excellence,  for  purposes  of  entei'taiiuneiit.  inspiration,  and 
guidance. 

The  members  of  the  survey  staff  saw  enough  to  warrant  their 
belief  that  the  teachers  in  Janesville  are  preparing  ])upils  with 
some  measure  of  success  to  acquire  this  information.  Not  a  little 
skill  was  sho^vii  by  the  pupils  of  certain  classes  in  pronouncing 
independently,  rapidly,  and  accurately,  the  words  found  in  the 
reading  lessons.  A  number  of  primary  pupils  have  acquired 
the  ability  to  take  in  several  words  at  a  glance.  These  good 
habits  were  the  product  of  the  Avord  and  phonic  drills  used  by 
teachers  to  prepare  the  pupils  for  studying  each  reading  as- 
signment. The  survey  staff  felt  that  this  vocabulary  work  might 
have  been  strengthened  by  calling  on  pupils  promiscuously,  not 
consecutively ;  by  more  indi\ddual  and  less  concert  Avork ;  by  so 
handling  the  perception  cards  that  all  the  ])upils  in  the  section 
reciting  could  see  them;  by  writing  phrases,  as  well  as  isolated 
words,  in  the  columns  used  for  drill  purposes ;  by  writing  phonic 
words  on  the  blackboard  without  diacritical  or  other  aids;  and 
by  placing  m,ore  responsibility  upon  the  pupils  for  their  pronun- 
ciation. The  teachers  in  many  -cases  gave  too  mucli  help  in 
pronouncing  words. 

In  many  eases  Janesville  teachers  recognize  the  imi)ortance  of 
saving  the  time  of  pupils  by  good  organization  of  the  work  in 
the  mechanics  of  reading.  The  words  for  the  phonic  drills  were 
"written  on  the  blackboard  beforehand  in  order  not  to  take  up 
class  time  for  the  writing.  An  improvement  possible  here  is 
the  use  of  texts  in  hygiene  and  history,  for  silent  reading  and 
discussion,  instead  of  for  purposes  of  oral  reading,  w^hieh  is  the 
curi-ent  practice.  The  use  of  texts  in  hygiene  and  history  is  a 
common  practice  in  Janesville,  owing  to  the  fact  that  these  sub- 
jects are  not  in  the  curriculum  below  the  eighth  grade,  except 
as  they  are  treated  in  connection  Avith  reading.  Another  time 
saver  will  be  found  in  such  record  keeping,  and  visiting  of  one 
grade  by  the  teacher  of  the  next  higher  grade  as  to  make  pos- 
sible a  knowledge  of  the  reading  matter  used  and  the  results  at- 
t-ained  by  the  previous  teacher. 

The  teaching  in  Janesville  is  in  accord  with  the  best  modern 
usage  in  attaching  importance  to  the  value  of  elementary  pupils 


156  E(h(c((fi()H(i]  Snrv<  !i   of  Jancsvinc 

receiving  daily  practice  in  consulting  books  for  information. 
Pupils  were  asked  questions  on  the  content  of  the  reading  matter 
studied ;  in  some  cases  the  preliminarj'  conversation  was  so  di- 
rected as  to  require  pupils  to  use  some  of  the  technical  expres- 
sions or  literary  phrases  of  the  selections  to  be  read,  in  reciting 
their  own  experiences.  HoAvever,  the  survey  staff  are  of  the 
opinion  that  the  teachers  are  somewhat  handicapped  in  not  hav- 
ing access  to  enough  suitable  reference  books  and  supplemen- 
tary material  in  which  they,  as  well  as  the  pupils,  may  look  up 
topics  and  so  contribute  to  the  interest  of  the  reading  recita- 
tion. Pupils  reporting  on  topics  occasionally  confined  them- 
selves to  reading  verbatim  from  paper  what  they  had  copied. 
Lack  of  familiarity  on  the  teacher's  part  with  the  topic  under 
consideration,  was  indicated  by  her  not  asking  questions  which 
would  reciuire  pupils  to  exercise  judgment,  to  weigh  values,  or 
to  challenge  any  statements  made.  Facts  were  too  often  accepted 
without  attention  to  their  relative  importance  and  essential  ac- 
curacy. 

Since  the  material  at  hand  is  so  slight  in  amount,  not  much 
has  been  accomplished  in  stimulating  pupils  to  do  silent  reading. 
Increasing  the  reading  rate  of  pupils  has  not  received  adequate 
attention.  The  use  of  standard  measurements  during  the  pres- 
ent 3'ear,  Avill,  doubtless,  be  of  much  assistance  here.  The  fact 
that  the  supply  of  reading  material  needs  enlargement,  accounts, 
in  all  probability,  for  the  fact  that  classes  fre(iuently  spend  so 
much  time  on  selections,  that  interest  in  the  reading  recitation 
is  no  longer  keen.  Moreover,  a  scanty  supply  of  reading  ma- 
terial prevents  needed  contact  with  an  extensive  vocabulaiy  used 
in  widely  differing  contexts. 

In  regard  to  the  use  of  literary  selections  the  survey  stall'  was 
gratified  to  see  a  number  of  well-selected  stories  and  poems  in 
use.  One  recitation  illustrating  the  kind  to  which  pupils  look 
forward  with  expectancy,  deserves  mention.  The  pupils  sat  in  a 
circle  and  read. with  interest  and  enthusiasm,  a  well-chosen 
dramatic  story.  Their  audience  was  kept  in  mind  by  the  pupils 
reading,  and  the  pleasure  felt  by  the  children  in  the  activity 
in  which  they  were  engaged,  was  unmistakable.  Their  expres- 
sion and  enunciation  were  good,  for  they  had  mastered  the  vo- 
cabulary ;  they  were  not  interrupted  by  the  necessity  of  having 
mistakes  corrected;  and  they  had  been  helped  beforehand  by 


Classroo))!   hislniclion   in  FJcm(  nlaru  ScJiools  157 

the  teacher  to  iiuaj»'iiie  the  situations  depicted.  The  listeners 
could  ]iot  fail  to  note  that  the  pupils  were  reliving  the  experi- 
ences of  the  ehai'acters  in  the  story.  However,  this  kind  of 
class  exercise  was  not  so  coniiuon  as  it  ndght  have  been.  There 
was,  on  the  contrary,  considerable  mere  word  calling. 

An  excellent  illusti-ation  of  the  service  furnished  by  pictures 
was  seen  in  a  few  classes  in  which  the  teachers  were  directing  a 
study  of  the  illustrations  used  in  the  text.  Another  recitation  in 
which  ]nipils  were  exhibiting  laudable  activity  w^as  one  in  which 
each  child  read  aloud  to  the  others  a  short  selection  new  to  his 
listeners.  The  auditors  (juestioned  the  one  reading  and  questioned 
one  another  on  the  subject  matter.  These  two  instances  are  good 
indications  of  the  important  part  which  it  is  possible  for  a  teach- 
er to  play  in  a  reading  recitation.  These  teachers  just  described 
were  not  confining  themselves  to  a  word  of  praise  or  dispraise 
or  to  simply  calling  on  pupils  in  regular  order  to  read. 

In  conclusion  the  survey  staff  believe  that  as  Janesville  teach- 
ers secure  a  larger  supply  of  suitable  books  and  become  more  in- 
timately acquainted  with  the  selections  best  suited  to  children  of 
varying  ages,  capacities,  and  tastes,  they  will  be  able  to  furnish 
more  illustrations  of  the  connnendable  kind  of  work  noted  in 
this  report.  This  definite  preparation,  coupled  with  enough 
reading  material  of  the  right  kind,  will  enable  them  to  use 
question,  comment,  and  suggestion  which  will  put  childi'cn  in  the 
right  mood  and  furnish  a  worth  while  motive  for  the  nuistery  of 
the  mechanics  of  reading.  They  will  enjoy  so  directing  the  pu- 
pils that  these  pupils  will  get  from  the  literature  studied  a  better 
understanding  of  themselves  and  their  schoolmates,  and  a  richer 
appreciation  of  the  fact  that  the  most  commonjdace  expei'iences 
may  be  associated  with  the  incidents  that  come  into  the  lives  of 
favorite  characters  in  literature,  and  so  borrow  dignity  from 
their  association.  This  comparison  and  association  will  lend  sig- 
nificance to  events  depicted  in  books  and  to  happenings  in  eveiy- 
day  life  and  make  both  seem  worthy  of  the  children's  best  effort 
at  interpretation  and  expression. 

ENGLISH 

The  teaching  of  English  in  the  Janesville  grades  may  be 
classified  under  two  broad  heads. — namely,  those  of  language 
and  formal  grammar. 


158  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

It  is  quite  generally  agreed  that  for  the  elementary  school  pu- 
pil, the  more  important  of  these  is  the  study  of  language.  Fa- 
miliarity with  the  laws  of  grammar  does  riot  insure  correct  usage. 
It  is  not  an  unusual  occurrence  to  hear  the  members  of  a  class 
recite  the  grammar  lesson  glibly  and  at  the  same  time  violate 
the  principles  that  they  are  expounding.  Since  the  chief  aim 
of  the  study  of  English  is  to  teach  pupils  to  express  themselves 
effectively,  those  measures  should  be  employed  which  are  best 
calculated  to  secure  this  in  the  shortest  possible  time.  In  pri- 
mary and  intermediate  grades,  well-selected  language  exercises 
are  better  adapted  for  tliis  purpose  than  is  formal  grammar. 
For  this  reason,  it  is  held  that  formal  grammar  should  not  be  be- 
gun before  the  eighth  grade. 

The  survey  staff  found  that  in  Janesville  the  study  of  formal 
grammar  has  its  beginning  in  the  fifth  grade.  This  is  much  too 
early.  It  is  recommended  that  the  new  course  of  study  be  so 
organized  as  to  eliminate  formal  grannnar  in  the  intermediate 
grades. 

The  language  teaching  observed  in  Janesville  concerned  it- 
self chiefly  with  the  phases  here  enumerated : 

Stories — their  narration,  reproduction,  and  dramatization; 

Oral  composition,  current  events,  etc.; 

Language  games; 

Correction  of  errors  and  establishment  of  correct  usage; 

Memorization  of  poems; 

Dictation  exercises; 

Dictionary  work; 

Letter  writing; 

Themes  and  compositions. 

Each  of  these  has  a  place  in  the  language  curriculum  and  if 
properly  developed  is  a  powerful  factor  in  establisliing  correct 
language  habits. 

The  supervisors  saw  individual  cases  of  good  work  in  each  of 
these  fields.     Such  work,  however,  was  not  general. 

Good  points  observed  that  should  be  incorporated  in  the  work 
of  all  rather  than  of  a  few  were  these: 

1.  Recognition  by  teachers  of  the  fact  that  best  results  are  accom- 

plished when  the  language  period  is  a  pleasurable  one  and  when 
the  subject  matter  selected  is  suited  to  the  interests,  experiences, 
and  needs  of  the  pupils. 

2.  Recognition  of  the  fact  that  classes  must  be  conducted  in  a  spirited 

manner  and  that  since  the  class  exercise  is  designed  to  teach  all 


Classroom  Instruciio)i  ni   Ehim  nidyy  Schools  159 

of  its  members,  contributions  should  be  received  from  the  ma- 
jority, if  not  from  all,  rather  than  several  contributions  from  a 
few  pupils. 

3.  Recognition  of  the  fact  that  since  the  language  exercise  is  to  train 

pupils  in  habits  of  correct  English,  the  teacher  must  give  them 
an  opportunity  to  express  themselves  freely  rather  than  do  the 
greater  portion  of  the  oral  work  herself. 

4.  Recognition  of  the  fact  that  careful  and  definite  oral  composition 

should  precede  the  written  work  in  the  intermediate  grades  in 
order  to  insure  successful  accomplishment. 

5.  Recognition  of  the  value  of  definiteness  in  the  work.     The  lessons 

in  grammar  were  on  the  whole  well-conducted.  Teachers  were 
definite  in  their  requirements  and  thorough  in  their  work. 

Some  weaknesses  obsci'ved  were : 

1.  In  a  number  of  instances,  lessons  dependent  for  their  successful 

accomplishment  upon  spontaneity  and  enthusiasm  were  con- 
ducted formally.  One  illustration  of  this  was  a  language  game 
which  failed  to  accomplish  its  aim  because  its  formal  and  unin- 
teresting presentation  made  so  slight  an  impression  upon  the 
pupils.  The  teacher  conducted  it  without  spirit,  did  not  acquaint 
pupils  with  its  purpose,  called  upon  them  in  regular  order,  and 
abruptly  discontinued  the  game  at  the  end  of  the  period.  There 
was  no  effort  made  to  have  pupils  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that 
they  should  endeavor  to  use  the  expression  that  the  game  aimed 
to  teach.  Teachers  must  recognize  that  the  permanent  substitu- 
tion of  correct  for  incorrect  forms  is  dependent  upon  the  force- 
ful presentation  of  the  correct,  upon  a  sufficient  number  of  repe- 
titions to  insure  its  automatic  use,  upon  the  satisfaction  that 
accompanies  the  exercise  and  upon  the  conscious  effort  of  pupils 
to  use  the  correct. 

2.  Drill  exercises  did  not  sufficiently  challenge  the  interest  nor  did 

they  secure  effort  on  the  part  of  the  majority  of  the  class.  Many 
drills  therefore  lacked  intensity. 

3.  In   general,  little  emphasis  appears  to  be  given  to   original  com- 

position, either  oral  or  written.  Most  of  the  oral  composition 
was  reproduction.  It  is  advisable  to  make  provision  for  original 
work.  Training  in  this  respect  may  be  secured  in  connection 
with  suitable  models. 

4.  There  were  but  few  indications  that  pupils  were  receiving  proper 

training  in  the  organization  of  material.  Little  use  was  made 
of  outlines. 

5.  Opportunities  for  the  inspirational  study  of  literature  were  some- 

what neglected. 

6.  Not  enough   recognition   was   given   to   the  fact   that  each   lesson 

should  be  a  language  lesson,  and  consequently  should  train  chil- 
dren in  the  habits  of  good  expression. 


160  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


Recommendations 

1.  It  is  recommended  that  the  strong  as  well  as  the  weak  points  here 

enumerated  be  made  the  subject  of  discussions  at  teachers' 
meetings,  so  that  the  desirable  may  become  general  and  that  the 
undesirable  may  be  eliminated. 

2.  It  is  recommended  that  in  the  new  course  of  study  the  teaching 

of  grammar  be  discontinued  in  the  intermediate  grades  and  not 
introduced  before  the  eighth  grade. 

3.  It  is  recommended  that  the  new  course  of  study  lay  greater  stress 

upon  the  following: 

a.  Oral  composition  in  its  different  phases, — narration,  de- 
scription, exposition,  and  persuasion.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  to  be  valuable,  these  must  be  suited  to  the  pupils'  experi- 
ences and  interests.  Exposition  in  some  of  its  aspects  would 
be  too  difficult  for  grade  pupils,  but  such  an  exercise  as  one 
calling  for  an  explanation  of  how  to  make  a  kite,  or  play  a 
certain  game,  or  make  a  pan  of  fudge  is  well  suited  to  the 
language  needs  of  children  who  are  living  these  experiences. 

b.  The  use  of  models.  We  learn  by  imitation,  and  the  well 
selected  model  is  invaluable  in  the  teaching  of  English. 

c.  Definite  vocabulary  work  (see  the  manual-  of  elementary 
course  of  study,  1916). 

d.  The  selection  of  poems  and  stories.  A  list  of  poems  and 
stories  should  be  prepared  for  each  grade  so  that  the  teachers 
will,  by  occasional  review,  help  pupils  to  retain  the  most  valu- 
able of  these. 

e.  Correction  of  errors.  A  survey  should  be  made  of  errors 
in  English  that  are  common  to  the  children  so  that  each  grade 
may  be  made  responsible  for  the  correction  of  certain  of  these. 
To  be  sure,  each  teacher  will  correct  errors  as  they  occur  in 
pupils'  speech,  but  will  feel  particularly  responsible  for  those 
assigned  for  her  year's  work. 

f.  That  stress  be  given  to  motivating  the  work  in  language 
by  such  means  as  the  following: 

(1)  Literary  clubs; 

(2)  School  entertainments; 

(3)  School  papers; 

(4)  Use  of  local  newspapers  for  the  publication  of  work 

on  timely  subjects; 

(5)  Diaries  and  booklets. 

S-  Emphasis  upon  the  inspirational  side  of  the  work. 


Classroom  Instructio)i  in  Elementary  Schools  161 


SPELlLING 

The  survey  staff  believe  that  not  a  little  progress  has  been 
made  among  some  Janesville  teachers  in  teaching  spelling,  so 
that  it  compares  favorably  with  what  is  considered  good  teach- 
ing of  the  subject. 

A  few  of  the  ways  in  which  modern  methods  of  teaching 
spelling  differ  from  the  methods  once  considered  good  are  the 
following : 

1.  The  source  of  a  good  spelling  list  is  found  in  the  language 

needs  of  children,  both  immediate  and  remote.  Such  in- 
vestigations as  those  made  during  the  last  few  years  by 
Ayres,  Buckingham,  and  Jones  have  helped  in  deter- 
imning  what  words  are  in  most  common  use  in  writing, 
and  hence  are  the  words  whose  spelling  must  be  made 
automatic. 
In  some  cases,  the  words  assigned  to  the  children  in  the 
Janesville  grades  for  study  in  spelling  were  those  al- 
ready in  their  reading  and  speaking  vocabularies.  In 
other  cases,  the  observers' noted  that  the  words  assigned 
were  of  such  a  nature  that  the  teacher  must  necessarily 
have  been  very  uncertain  as  to  whether  or  not  the  pupils 
were  familiar  with  them.  Under  such  circumstances, 
teachers  should  require  pupils  to  furnish  good  sentences 
illustrating  the  use  of  the  words.  There  was  little  of 
this  sentence  illustration  required  from  pupils.  In- 
stead of  this,  teachers  were  frequently  content  with 
technical  definitions  so  worded  as  to  give  the  impression 
that  i^upils  very  frequently  had  only  the  most  hazy 
idea  of  the  meaning  of  words  whose  spelling  they  were 
studying.  It  was  not  uncommon  for  the  teacher  to  fail 
to  require  any  indication  that  the  words  studied  in 
spelling  had  any  significance  for  the  children. 

2.  After  teaching  a  well  chosen  list,  the  next  essential  is  to 

require  the  pupils  to  write  the  words.  This  written  test 
should  preferably  include  considerable  sentence  work. 
In  a  number  of  cases,  the  pupils  were  tested  on  isolated 
words,  either  orally  or  by  means  of  writing ;  in  only  a 
few  cases  were  sentences  containing  the  words  dictated. 
However,  the  dictation  of  sentences  in  the  spelling  ex- 


162  Educdtional  iSurvey  of  Jamsville 

ercises  is  not  enough.  The  real  test  of  spelling  knowl- 
edge is  the  abilitj^  to  spell  words  correctly  when  the  at- 
tention of  the  writer  is  on  the  subject  matter  itself. 
The  surveyors  are  inclined  to  think  that  the  Janes- 
ville  teachers  are  neglecting  to  take  a  very  necessary 
final  step,  viz.,  that  of  emphasizing  the  fact  that  pupils 
study  spelling  in  order  that  they  may  automatically 
spell  words  in  the  written  work  adapted  to  their  lan- 
guage needs.  It  has  become  the  custom  in  many  pro- 
gressive school  systems  to  excuse  pupils  in  any  grade 
from  studying  the  spelling  list  used  in  that  grade,  pro- 
vided their  written  work  bears  testimony  to  the  fact 
that  the  elements  of  the  written  forms  of  the  Avords 
needed  by  these  pupils  in  that  stage  of  their  lives,  have 
been  organized  into  habits.  This  stimulating  custom 
should  become  general.  Certainly  any  pupil  who  spells 
correctly  Avords  embodied  in  sentences  identical  with 
the  complex  situations  of  practical  life  should  not  be 
required  to  waste  his  time  studying  spelling. 

3.  The  number  of  words  assigned  should  be  less  than  ten  in 

order  to  secure  intensive  initial  attention,  and  hence 
enable  the  pupils  to  write  a  list  of  Avords  entirely  free 
from  spelling  errors.  The  number  of  AA'ords  pronounced 
in  one  spelling  lesson  observed  Avas  three;  in  another, 
five ;  in  a  third,  six.  If  adequate  repetition  Avas  later 
provided  for  these  words,  pupils  must  thus  have  built 
up  good  permanent  spelling  habits. 

4.  The  method  used  in  teaching  spelling  should  be  one  Avell 

fitted  to  prevent  errors.  The  Janesville  teachers  evi- 
dently understand  the  importance  of  a  multiform  ap- 
peal. Teaching  exercises  requiring  close  detailed  ob- 
servation for  a  very  limited  time,  folloAved  by  a  sti.U 
shorter  test  period,  were  occasionally  seen.  As  an  il- 
lustration of  this,  pupils  in  one  grade  were  tracing 
AA^ords  in  the  air  before  attempting  to  Avrite  them  on 
paper.  The  Avords  thus  made  an  appeal  to  both  the  eyes 
and  muscular  sense  of  pupils.  In  other  rooms,  Avorcls 
Avere  spelled  aloud  in  concert  during  the  study  period. 
In  a  fourth  grade  observed,  pupils  Avere  discovering  a 
particular  difficulty  in  each  Avord  before  attempting  to 


Cla6^ro(j)ii  litslrucl io)t   i)i   Kh  im  nl<iry  Schools  163 

study  its  spelling.  Tlie  different  Ivinds  of  procedure 
just  noted  deserve  much  commendation.  Unfortunately, 
they  were  not  common. 

The  kinds  of  assignments  mentioned  above  require  more 
time  than  does  the  testing  of  children  on  the  spelling 
of  the  words  so  studied.  It  was  gratifying  to'  note  that 
the  era  of  real  teaching  of  spelling,  according  to  the 
modern  viewpoint  has  arrived  among  some  of  the  grade 
teachers  in  Janesville. 

Well-organized  phonic  work  in  the  primary  grades,  is  one 
of  the  best  preventive  measures,  as  it  secures  the  cor- 
rect and  effortless  spelling  of  all  phonetic  words.  The 
teaching  of  primary  spelling  in  the  Janesville  grades 
did  not  satisfy  the  surveyors  that  the  pupils  are  getting 
sufficient  practice  in  writing  phonetic  word  lists.  Pupils 
will  not,  unaided,  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that  a  list  of 
phonetic  words  presents  no  spelling  difficulty,  provided 
the  common  phonogram  can  be  spelled  and  the  symbol 
for  each  consonant  instantly  called  to  mind.  As  an  il- 
lustration, pupils  who  have  been  taught  to  pronounce 
the  all  words,  recognize  them  instantly.  They  should 
be  equally  certain,  as  soon  as  they  know  the  names  of 
the  letters  which  make  up  all  and  know  the  name  of  the 
consonant  associated  wdth  each  sound,  that  they  can 
spell  automatically,  hall,  call,  fall,  fall,  etc.  No  all 
words  need  hereafter  come  into  a  spelling  list. 

In  one  case,  pupils  were  attempting  to  Avrite  an  extended 
list  with  which  they  were  supposed  to  be  familiar  with- 
out having  been  given  an  opportunity  to  study  the 
spelling  of  the  words.  They  had  been  previously  tested 
on  the  list  and  had  not  attained  satisfactory  standings. 
The  teacher  had  a  very  definite  end  in  mind  in  pro- 
nouncing the  words  a  second  time:  she  desired  to  have- 
pupils  see  for  themselves  that  close  attention  to  words 
as  they  are  pronounced  is  of  great  assistance  to  listen- 
ers. The  experiment  proved  to  teacher  and  pupils  that 
failures  are  lessened  to  quite  an  appreciable  extent 
when  pupils  learn  to  listen  closely.  The  procedure  just 
described  is  not  recommended  for  general  practice,  but 
it  does  demonstrate  the  importance  of  prescribing  for 
the  special  needs  of  a  class. 


164  Educational  Surveij  of  Jancsville 


5.  Records  of  progress  made  by  pupils  arc  perhaps  the  most 

stirring  incentive  possible  in  teaching  spelling.  A  few 
teachers  are  keeping  and  posting  records  in  such  a  way 
that  pupils  are  enabled  to  compare  their  standings  re- 
ceived during  a  considerable  period  of  time,  and  thus 
feel  the  necessity  for  doing  uniformly  good  work. 

6.  Insistence  on  a  minimum  general  list  must  not  be  construed 

to  mean  that  each  grade  should  not  have  its  own  local 
spelling  list.  Nor  must  it  be  forgotten  that  each  pupil 
has  his  own  individual  spelling  problem.  An  impor- 
tant service  rendered  by  a  good  teacher  of  spelling  is 
that  of  helping  every  pupil  discover  the  reason  for  his 
mistakes  in  spelling.  This  should  be  followed  by  in- 
citing him  to  a  feeling  of  responsibility  for  learning  to 
spell  with  facility,  accuracy,  and  dispatch.  In  only  one 
case  did  members  of  the  survey  staff  find  that  pupils 
were  keeping  personal  lists.  This  isolated  instance 
should  become  the  general  practice. 

7.  Spelling  tablets  or  permanent  spelling  books  in  which  to 

write  words,  sentences,  and  paragraphs  are  indispensa- 
ble if  pupils  are  to  continue  to  take  interest  and  pride 
in  good  work.  Excellent  written  spelling  is  seldom 
general  in  classes  in  which  it  is  customary  to  discard 
the  dail}^  spelling  papers  after  they  are  corrected. 
Undoubtedly,  the  results  in  teaching  spelling  in  Jancs- 
ville are  not  so  satisfactory  as  they  should  be,  partly  be- 
cause of  this  lack  of  attention  to  essential  spelling 
equipment. 
In  conclusion,  the  members  of  the  survey  staff  are  of  the 
opinion  that  the  teaching  of  spelling  in  Janesville  will 
reach  a  high  standard  as  soon  as  all  of  the  teachers  put 
into  practice  what  a  few  of  their  number  are  doing 
and  at  the  same  time  guide  and  vitalize  their  efforts  by 
becoming  acquainted  with  the  reports  of  recent  in- 
vestigations. The  essentials  in  teaching  spelling  are 
not  many,  but  they  place  upon  teachers  the  following 
obligations  to  which  they  must  strictly  adhere  if  success 
is  to  crown  their  efforts. 


CJttss)'()(nn  I iisl )■!((■! ion  i)t   Kl(  })i(  ntarij  ScJiools  165 

(1)  To  teach  the  spelling  of  the  words  most  useful  to 

every  one  to  know; 

(2)  To  train  pupils  in  forming  automatic  spelling  habits 

in  all  their  written  work; 

(3)  To  teach  a  few  words  at  a  time  so  as  better  to  secure 

their  permanently  correct  spelling; 

(4)  To  anticipate  rather  than  to  correct  errors; 

(5)  To  systematize  the  keeping  of  spelling  records  for 

purposes  of  comparison  and  stimulation; 

(6)  To  interest  pupils  in  their  individual  spelling  prob- 

lems; 

(7)  To  arouse  in  every  pupil,  by  every  available  means, 

such  a  pride  in  correct  spelling  that  he  will  not 
be  satisfied  with  anything  but  the  correct  auto- 
matic spelling  of  every  word  in  every  sentence  he 
writes. 

GEOGRAPHY 

Formerly  geography  was  defined  as  a  description  of  the  earth, 
I'he  present  understanding  of  the  subject  is,  however,  quite  dif- 
ferent and  today  geography  is  generally  understood  to  mean 
tlie  relation  of  tlie  earth  to  man.  Perhaps  no  other  elementary 
school  subject  contributes  more  to  the  child's  grasp  of  his  en- 
vironment and  to  his  understanding  of  the  life  of  which  he  is  a 
part  than  does  geography.  It  is  fascinating  when  Avell-taught, 
but  flat,  stale  and  unprofitable  when  poorlj^  taught.  It  is  best 
learned  in  the  primarj'^  grades  by  observing  and  studying  nature. 
The  weather,  the  M^nds,  preparation  for  winter,  signs  of  spring, 
etc.,  are  topics  that  lead  the  child  naturally  into  the  study  of  the 
science  of  geography.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  forms  the  basis 
of  geography,  nature  study  as  a.  separate  subject  was  not  found 
b}"  the  survey  staff  to  be  on  the  programs  of  the  Janesville 
schools. 

It  has  been  found  that  even  young  pupils  are  able,  when  ques- 
tioned skillfull}',  to  reason  very  accurately  from  result  to  cause 
in  geography.  Causal  geography,  under  the  teacher's  guidance 
therefore,  is  very  important,  because  it  enables  the  pupils  to 
arrive  at  the  great  fundamental  truths  of  nature  and  later  to 
apply  them,  thereby  eliminating  the  necessity  for  memorizing 
many  isolated  facts  which  are  apt  to  be  confused,  if  not  forgot- 
ten. The  best  geography  teaching  also  concerns  itself  Avith  giv- 
ing to  the  pupil  a  rich  content  regarding  the  conditions  that  ex- 
ist on  the  earth,  always,  however,  through  their  relationslnp  to 
himself.  To  illustrate,  the  child  must  know  Naples  as  a  city 
from  which  tlie  boats  leave  which  bring  him  olives  and  Italian 


166  Edi(((ilio)i(il  Siirv('!i  of  ./(utcsvilh 

chestnuts  which  he  enjoys.  He  must  in  imagination  see  Naples. 
The  stereopticon,  pictures  in  Ms  book,  and  the  National  Geo- 
graphic Magazine,  for  Oct.  1916,  will  make  this  posvsible. 

It  is  tiiie  that  children  must  be  able  to  tell  accurately  where 
places  are  located,  but  the  day  is  past  when  mere  place  informa- 
tion coupled  Avith  the  ability  to  bound  countries,  name  products, 
and  describe  the  courses  of  rivers  is  called  geography.  The 
Tiew^er  texts  in  the  subject  reflect  the  modern  standards  of  what 
geogi-aphy  really  is.  They  are  written  from  the  child's  view- 
point and  Avith  his  interests  in  mind.  They  contain,  to  a  far  less 
•degree  than  the  older  books,  formal  condensed  information  val- 
uable perhaps  to  the  adult  but  wholly  -without  meaning  to  the 
child.  Janesville  is  using  one  of  these  newer  texts,  and  if 
these  books  were  supplemented  by  up-to-date  geographical  read- 
ers, the  National  Geographic  ^lagazine,  and  a  wider  use  of  sterc- 
>opticons  with  well-classified  slides  (to  be  used  by  all  classes  in 
turn)  together  Avith  the  necessary  maps  and  globes,  very  con- 
structive work  would  be  possible.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the 
necessary  reference  material  noted  above  was  not  generally 
found  in  the  schools. 

The  survcyoi's  ixport  that  out  of  the  twelve  geography  lessons 
seen,  none  was  of  the  inductive  or  deductive  type.  In  too  many 
instances  teachers  were  allowing  the  pupils  to  memorize  facts 
without  requiring  them  to  think.  Why  should  probably  be  the 
most  frequently  asked  question  in  this  subject,  because  mere  fact 
answers  are  often  almost  meaningless  to  the  child?  There  was 
real  effort  being  made  to  furnish  a  content  for  some  of  the  Avork. 
One  stereopticon  lesson  on  Belgium  was  witnessed.  It  would 
seem  that  lessons  of  this  nature  could  be  repeated  for  other 
classes  in  nearb}^  schools,  and  that  the  slides  could  then  go  to 
another  part  of  the  city  so  that  all  could  be  benefited  instead  of 
just  one  group  of  pupils. 

Geog]-aphy  is  especially  adapted  to  outside  reference  work. 
The  observers  saw  four  exercises  in  which  outside  reading  had 
been  done.  This  feature  of  the  work,  however,  was  found  to  be 
largely  memory  work  or  reading  from  notes  material  Avhich  was 
not  meaningful  to  the  cliild.  In  two  classes,  the  teacher  showed 
lack  of  familiarity  with  the  subject  that  the  pupil  was  present- 
ing. Greater  care  is  necessary  if  pupils  are  really  to  profit  by 
outside  reference  work.     Thev  must  have  material  which  thev 


CJassr(>o}K  I)t.slnicli())i  in  Elcmfniary  ScJwoJs  167 

can  gras})  or  else  they  must  reeeive  help  "while  preparing  it  if 
they  or  the  class  are  to  be  strengthened. 

CtoocI  assignments  are  particularly  necessary  in  geography, 
and  these  must  at  all  times  stimulate  the  cliild's  interest.  "Know 
the  principal  cities  for  tomorrow"  is  not  stimulating.  Follow- 
ing a  partial  discussion  of  ranching,  the  assignment,  "What 
would  you  need  to  know  about  ranching  before  you  could  man- 
age a  ranch?"  is  much  more  of  a  challenge  to  real  effort. 

The  study  lesson  was  seen  in  three  of  the  twelve  lessons  ob- 
served. These  lessons  consisted  in  reading  and  answering 
questions  on  textbook  material.  Geography  can  be  profitably 
studied  with  the  teacher.  However,  it  seemed  to  the  survey 
staff  that  study  time  would  perhaps  be  more  beneficial  if  de- 
voted to  aiding  the  pupil  in  map  reading  and  in  the  acquiring 
of  tentative  information  by  this  means.  The  children  could 
later  verify  and  reinforce  their  knowledge  from  the  text. 

In  general,  the  elementary  text  in  geography  is  rather  brief 
and  may  be  used  as  a  sort  of  outline  to  be  filled  in  by  the  teacher 
and  pupils  from  outside  sources.  The  advanced  geography 
contains  much  information  which  the  pupil  can  often  infer  for 
himself  with  the  aid  of  skillful  questions  by  the  teacher.  After 
the  pupil  has  spent  the  study  period  on  inference  work,  he  is 
greatly  interested  in  testing  his  inferences  and  adding  to  them 
from  the  text  and  other  sources. 

The  use  of  real  things  as  a  means  of  teaching  is  always  com- 
mendable, and  the  utilization  of  exhibits  of  oil,  coal,  etc.,  was 
noted.  The  teachers  were  not  in  possession  of  sufficient  infor- 
mation about  the  specimens,  however,  to  make  the  lessons  highly 
interesting. 

Two  lessons  of  especial  merit  were  seen  by  the  observ^ers. 
These  were  of  a  socialized  type  and  the  discussions  were  closely 
related  to  child  interests.  The  material  was  made  as  real  as 
possible  to  the  pupils  and  the  organization  of  the  lessons  showed 
careful  preparation. 

On  the  whole,  the  geography  teaching  in  several  instances 
seemed  to  the  surveyors  to  be  lacking  in  vitality.  The  interde- 
pendence of  nations,  the  relation  of  the  individual  to  the  earth, 
the  great  need  for  geographical  knowledge  as  a  requisite  for  a 
successful  business  life,  and  the  opportunity  to  see  geographic 
phenomena  every  day  are  motives  which  every  teacher  can  make 


168  Educational  Sun'cy  of  JancsviUe 

use  of  and  these  larger  views,  with  a  few  exceptions,  were  not 
brought  out  in  the  lessons  witnessed.  Therefore,  the  survey- 
staff  makes  the  following  suggestions: 

1.  That  more  emphasis  be  placed  upon  map  reading  and   inference 

leading  to  the  use  of  fundamental  truths  as  helps  for  acquir- 
ing needed  geographical  information. 

2.  That  visual  instruction   through  the   use  of   the   stereopticon  be 

extended. 

3.  That  additional  references,  maps,  globes,  and  industrial  exhibits 

be  secured  and  used  more  extensively. 

4.  That  the  elementary  text  especially  be  enriched   by  outside  ma- 

terials contributed  both  by  the  teacher  and  the  pupils,  and 
that  the  advanced  geography  be  used  by  the  pupils  as  a  means 
of  verification  as  well  as  an  original  source  of  information. 

5.  That  the  work  whenever  possible  be   motivated  by  making  the 

geography  lesson  satisfy  a  real  need  in  the  child's  life  or  help 
him  to  solve  a  real  problem. 

ARITH.>IETIC 

In  teaching  arithmetic,  it  is  necessary  that  teachers  recognize 
the  fact  that  the  aim  is  practical  efficiency  in  the  numljer  Avork 
that  life  demands.  A  good  course  of  study  in  arithmetic  is  the 
joint  product  of  experience  in  practical  affairs,  vivid  imagina- 
tion, and  intimate  acquaintance  Avith  the  mental  life  of  children. 
In  organizing  a  good  curriculum,  the  compilers  should  also  keep 
in  mind  the  number  situations  common  to  children  and  adults. 
Such  a  course  makes  evident  that  business  situations  must  be 
made  real  through  the  use  of  suitable  material  in  the  hands  of 
pupils:  inch  squares,  paper  money,  a  clock  face,  rulers,  drill 
cards,  tapelines,  model  store  outfits,  time-tables,  and  business 
forms  are  among  the  essentials  required  to  put  into  effect  an 
efficient  course  of  study. 

A  modern  course  of  study  in  arithmetic  needs  reinforcement 
through  the  use  of  well-adapted  texts  in  the  hands  of  all  inter- 
mediate and  grammar  grade  children. 

An  examination  of  such  texts  discloses  that  the  present  and 
future  vocational  needs  of  pupils  have  not  been  foi|!;otten.  In 
the  choice,  organization  and  gradation  of  material,  the  compilers 
emphasize  the  practical  computations  needed  daily  in  the  com- 
mon occupations.  In  general,  in  their  economic  and  social  rela- 
tions, all  hiunan  beings  need  to  make  use  of  counting,  and  of  the 


Classroom  Tnstruciioyi  in  Elementary  Schools  169 

fundamental  operations.  They  need  to  understand  how  to  buy, 
sell,  and  invest  intelligently.  They  find  it  necessary  to  estimate 
distance ;  to  measure  ground,  floors,  and  similar  areas.  They  are 
frequently  required  to  carry  on  transactions  involving  the  loan- 
ing and  borrowing  of  money.  They  are  fortunate  if  they  can 
make  wise  application  of  arithmetic  to  their  own  affairs  in  keep- 
ing accurate  accomit  of  personal  or  household,  or  occupational 
receipts  and  expenditures.  Pupils  should  become  familiar  ^vith 
rhe  use  of  graphs.  They  should  frequently  be  asked  to  draw  to 
a  scale.  Market  reports  and  current  prices  should  be  consulted. 
A  good  text  makes  adequate  provision  for  such  everyday  occur- 
rences. 

Such  a  text  will  not  make  it  unnecessary  for  teachers  to  omit 
from  it  or  add  to  it,  but  it  will  make  it  possible  for  tliem  to  suc- 
cessfully teach  arithmetic  without  doing  either  an  excessive 
amount  of  dictation  work  or  laboring  unduly  in  writing  black- 
board assignments,  both  of  which  are  wasteful  of  a  teacher's 
time,  and,  in  case  of  blackboard  assignments,  frequently  injuri- 
ous to  pupils'  eyes.  It  is  far  easier  to  give  abundant  practice  in 
the  optional  work  for  which  special  credit  can  be  given  to  pu- 
pils with  an  aptitude  for  mathematics,  if  there  is  a  textbook  in 
the  hands  of  pupils. 

The  members  of  the  survey  staff  kept  in  mind  the  require- 
ments of  a  good  course  of  study,  and  the  essential  qualifications 
of  a  good  text  as  well  as  the  various  kinds  of  problems  daily 
arising  in  connection  with  natural  interests  and  activities,  in 
forming  their  judgment  of  the  arithmetic  work  seen  in  the 
Janesville  grades.  There  were  twelve  arithmetic  recitations  ob- 
served. Of  these,  eleven  were  drill  exercises.  The  proportion 
was  large,  in  view  of  the  following  considerations : 

]\Iuch  piactice  should  be  provided  in  stating  the  process  neces- 
saiy  to  the  solution  of  problems  without  manipulating  figures. 
Pupils  should  develop  the  ability  to  ask  themselves  such  ques- 
tions as  will  help  them  to  decide  on  the  processes  to  be  employed. 
Significant  motives  for  learning  new  processes  should  be  en- 
listed. They  should  be  incited  to  gather  data  for  original  jjrob- 
lems.  The  local  industrial  situation  should  be  called  on  to  fur- 
nish many  problems. 

Teaching  exercises  should  alternate  with  those  designed  to 
provide  drill.     The  efficiency  of  both  teaching  and  drills  should 


170  Educational  Survey  of  JanesviUe 

be  tested.  It  is  in  the  test,  carefully  conducted,  that  teachers 
have  an  opportunity  to  measure  pupils'  abilities,  discover  in- 
dividual Aveaknesses,  ai4d  so  are  enabled  to  help  pupils  to  over- 
come their  defects,  and  to  see  that  assignments  adapted  to  both 
the  weak  and  strong  pupils  are  planned. 

Some  of  the  good  features  noted  in  the  arithmetic  Avork  seen 
are  the  following :  The  work  on  the  whole  was  well-graded.  No 
work  generally  regarded  as  obsolete  was  attempted.  The  in- 
terest of  the  pupils  in  the  class  work  was  frequently  good.  In 
some  recitations,  all  of  the  pupils  were  participating.  In  one 
grade,  the  teacher  worked  every  example  herself  in  order  to 
see  whether  or  not  she  could  beat  the  record  of  the  pupils,  and  so 
aroused  much  enthusiasm.  In  two  or  three  rooms,  there  Avas 
a  model  store-keeping  outfit,  which  was  evidently  used.  One 
very  spirited  drill  in  multiplication  and  division  was  seen.  The 
assignments  bear  witness  to  the  fact  that  something  has  Ijeen 
done  in  applying  standard  measurements  and  tests. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  drill  exercises  seen  were  deficient  in 
the  following  ways : 

1.  Too    many    facts    were    used    in    the    drill.     Careful    and    gradual 

elimination  of  facts  which  no  longer  require  drill  and  the  sub- 
stitution of  new  facts  recently  taught  are  necessary  to  keep 
the  drill  effective. 

2.  There  was  not  much  variety  in  the  devices  used.     This  was  partly 

due  to  the  very  scanty  amount  of  equipment  seen.  No  set  of 
well  made  arithmetic  drill  cards  was  observed  in  use. 

3.  Pupils   were    tested   at  the   blackboard    on    work    which    required 

more  teaching.  In  consequence  very  few  pupils  were  able  to 
do  independent  work. 

4.  In  one  room,  four  multiplication  tables  were  on  the  blackboard  in 

view  of  the  pupil  workers  who  might  thus  refer  to  them  in 
doing  their  examples.  It  is  better,  in  case  the  children  are 
temporarily  unable  to  take  the  same  test  or  drill,  to  section 
the  class  and  by  means  of  a  flexible  assignment,  give  the  better 
prepared  section  the  test  or  drill  planned  and  meanwhile  teach 
the  weaker  pupils  what  they  need  to  know. 

5.  A  class  at  work  in  measurements  was  not  required  to  correct  the 

inaccurate  ideas  of  the  pupils  by  having  them  measure  the 
room  in  which  they  were  sitting. 


CIassroo))i  Insirucdon  in  Elcmcntory  Schools  171 


Recommendations 

1.  Certain  indispensable  habits  should  be  emphasized  in  arithmetic 

work. 

a.  Automatic  mastery  of  the  combinations  and  tables 

b.  Neatness  and   order   in   the    arrangement   of   work    and 

materials 

c.  The  cultivation  of  pride  in  accuracy,  speed  and  neatness 

d.  The  ability  to  estimate  and  then   quickly  to  check  the 

estimate 

In  acquiring  these  habits,  it  is  very  helpful  to  have  pupils  list  their 
standings  from  day  to  day,  and  by  comparing  present  with  past  rec- 
ords of  accuracy  and  rapidity,  be  incited  to  do  better  work. 

2.  Teachers  should  become  acquainted  with  the  arithmetic  work  in. 

perspective.  The  teacher  of  each  grade  should  know  in  detail 
what  was  done  in  the  preceding  grade  and  what  is  to  be  dona 
in  the  succeeding  grade. 

3.  The  importance  of  using  worth  while  motives  in  inciting  pupils  toi 

greater  interest  in  the  practical  importance  of  arithmetic  can; 
hardly  be  overestimated. 

4.  So    far   as    possible,    statistics    from    such    studies    as    geography,. 

hygiene,  manual  training,  domestic  science  should  furnish; 
necessary  data  for  much  of  the  applied  arithmetic  supplemen- 
tary to  that  furnished  by  the  best  obtainable  textbook.  Much 
of  this  should  have  a  local  application. 

5.  Extending  the   use   of  the  different  standard   tests   and   measure- 

ments which  have  proven  successful  in  giving  teachers  infor- 
mation regarding  the  arithmetical  ability  of  pupils. 

6.  Continual   study   of   reports   of   investigations   made    in  this    sub- 

ject and  of  books  recording  the  best  practice  in  its  teaching. 

Gexerai.  Recommendations  on  Classroom  Instruction 

1.  That  proper  attention  be  given  to  the  question  of  pupil  health. 

2.  That  adequate  provision  be  made  for  increasing  the  professional 

preparation  of  teachers  and  that  provision  be  made  in  the 
salary  schedule  for  stimulating  such  increased  professional 
preparation  of  teachers. 

3.  That  greater  recognition  be  made  of  individual  differences  through 

such  measures  as  special  classes,  summer  vacation  schools,, 
and  a  junior  high  school. 

4.  That  a  more  adequate  supply  of  teaching  materials  be  purchased. 

5.  That  a  grade  supervisor  be  employed. 

6.  That  methods  of  instruction  be  modified  to  conform  to  the  beat 

current  educational  practices. 


172  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


IX     HIGH  SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION 

I.     Factors  ix  Efficiext  High  School  Teaching 

Several  factors  are  vital  to  effective  instruction  work.  In  the 
estimates  made  by  the  survey  of  the  high  school  work,  the  follow- 
ing have  been  especially  considered :  first,  general  spirit  of  the 
school  as  a  whole ;  second,  effective  personality  and  a  right  atti- 
tude of  mind  on  the  part  of  teachers ;  third,  attitude  of  interest 
v.nd  sympathetic  cooperation  on  the  part  of  pupils ;  fourth,  schol- 
arly command  of  subject  matter  and  materials  of  instruction  by 
teachers;  fifth,  methods  of  presentation  adapted  to  the  needs  and 
capacities  of  pupils  and  to  a  realization  of  the  educational  values 
involved ;  sixth,  effective  organization  of  departmental  work,  and 
finalh^  adequate  supervision.  A  brief  discussion  of  these  points 
may  lielp  in  an  understanding  of  the  particular  comments  which 
follow. 

No  school  can  do  effective  work  without  a  good  spirit  toward 
all  the  activities  of  the  school.  So  far  as  instruction  work  is 
concerned,  this  spirit  should  show  itself  in  what  may  be  called 
a  scholarly  attitude.  Tliis  means  an  atmosphere  of  orderly  pro- 
cedure and  business  like  attention  to  each  day's  Avork.  Pupils 
should  show  a  readiness  and  enthusiasm  in  doing  to  the  best  of 
their  ability  whatever  tasks  are  assigned.  The  whole  school 
should  give  the  impression  of  smooth  and  harmonious  action 
without  indication  of  friction  or  waste  of  time  and  effort. 
Supervisors  nearly  always  form  judgments  in  this  regard  very 
soon  after  entering  a  school,  and  the  difference  between  a  good 
and  a  poor  school  is  almost  sure  to  shoAv  itself  in  this  general 
spirit. 

Everyone  recognizes  the  importance  of  vigorous  and  effective 
personality  on  the  part  of  a  teacher.  This  shows  itself  in  the 
general  attitude  toward  school  and  classroom  problems.  One 
type  is  the  active,  aggressive  teacher  who  shows  mastery  and 
skill  in  handling  these  problems,  while  the  other  is  the  passive, 
inert  type  which  takes  things  as  they  come,  showing  little  ability 
to  shape  and  direct  conditions.  The  first  type  finds  it  easy  to 
stimulate  pupils  to  their  best  efforts  and  to  inspire  them  with  en- 


High  School  Instruction  173 

thusiasm  and  zeal  in  relation  to  the  subject  in  hand.  The  latter 
type  finds  it  necessary  to  resort  to  threat  and  compulsion.  This 
inspirational  power  may  depend  to  some  degree  upon  the  specific 
character  of  tlie  subject  or  upon  special  aptitudes  of  pupils, 
but  to  a  far  greater  degree,  it  depends  on  the  personality  of  the 
teacher.  So  true  is  this  that  the  enthusiasm  of  pupils  is  aroused 
by  certain  teachers  no  matter  what  the  subject  matter  or  ma- 
terial. 

Though  this  power  of  personality  is  largely  a  matter  of  native 
qualification,  it  can  be  cultivated  and  may  be  greatly  improved 
by  well-directed  experience.  A  teacher  should  always  aim  to  be 
at  her  best  at  the  time  of  a  class  period.  Again,  a  careful  study 
of  the  interests  and  sym]nithies  of  pupils,  not  only  in  a  partic- 
ular classroom,  l3ut  in  the  activities  of  home  and  social  life, 
gives  a  teacher  a  most  decided  advantage.  .Likewise,  the 
teacher  who  can  enter  into  the  community  life  and  become  iden- 
tified with  its  civic  and  social  problems,  gains  most  decidedly  in 
his  or  her  influence  as  a  teacher. 

The  third  factor,  that  of  sympathetic  cooperation  on  the  part 
of  pupils,  is  closely  related  to  the  personality  of  the  teacher. 
Recent  changes  in  educational  thought  have  resulted  in  a  largely 
changed  point  of  view  regarding  relations  between  teachers  and 
pupils  in  classroom  instruction.  The  older  idea  regarded  the 
teacher  largely  as  a  task  master  whose  business  it  was  to  force 
something  upon  the  pupils  which  was  supposed  to  be  necessary 
to  the  learning  process,  or  to  extract  something  out  of  pupils  as 
a  test  of  the  study  and  preparation  which  had  been  made.  The 
student  who  goes  to  class  Avith  a  poorly  prepared  lesson,  and  then 
goes  away  at  the  end  congratulating  himself  that  he  escaped  be- 
ing called  upon,  largely  reflects  this  old  idea. 

The  present  viewpoint  is  suggested  by  the  comparatively  re- 
cent expression,  "the  socialized  recitation. "  In  such  a  recita- 
tion, the  whole  class,  including  teacher  and  pupils,  is  whole 
heartedly  active  in  developing  the  special  work  of  the  day.  The 
same  spirit  is  suggested  in  the  following  recent  definition : 
"Education  is  that  school  experience  in  which  the  pupil  is  whole 
heartedly  active  in  acquiring  the  ideas  and  skills  needed  in  meet- 
ing the  problems  of  his  expanding  life."  In  such  a  recitation, 
pupils  are  not  only  interested  and  attentive,  but  are  eager  and 
ready  to  respond  whenever  opportunity  offers,  and  will  indeed 


174  JEducafional  Survey  of  Janesville 

seek  for  chances  to  ask  questions  and  contribute  discussion  along 
the  line  of  topics  in  hand.  There  is  a  special  danger  of  sup- 
pressing or  at  least  of  failing  to  arouse  this  natural  questioning 
•attitude  in  pupils  of  high  school  age.  One  who  has  not  visited 
many  high  schools  can  scarcely  realize  the  difference  in  the  whole 
atmosphere  of  schools  in  this  matter.  In  one  type,  pupils  are  list- 
less and  passive  though  they  may  be  quite  orderly.  They  have 
the  attitude  of  waiting  to  be  quizzed  or  called  upon  to  "recite" 
the  lesson  prepared.  When  questioned,  they  respond  in  a  life- 
less way  and  wuth  formal,  scrappy  answers,  apparently  con- 
tributing the  least  that  will  satisfy  the  teacher.  In  the  other 
type  of  class  exercise,  responses  are  ready  and  generous,  while 
orderly  questioning  and  discussion  by  both  teacher  and  pupils 
are  vigorous  and  enthusiastic. 

Though  well-recognized  in  'our  present  theory,  it  is  often  for- 
gotten in  practice  that  education  is  a  growth  process  which  goes 
•on  within  through  reaction  to  external  materials.  The  work 
-of  the  teacher  is  therefore  largely  that  of  providing  an  atmos- 
phere in  which  the  factors  of  educational  growth  are  present  in 
"the  most  perfect  degree,  and  then  arousing  wholesome  appetites 
which  result  in  healthy  reactions  toward  these  materials.  It  is, 
therefore,  of  essential  importance  for  good  work,  that  the  largest 
interest  should  be  developed  and  that  pupils  should  feel  an  atti- 
tude of  sympathy  and  cooperation  toward  the  work  of  each 
class. 

A  :ain,  it  is  well-recognized  that  every  teacher  should  have  a 
scholarly  knowledge  of  subjects  and  materials  to  be  used  for 
classroom  instruction.  However,  this  scholarship  is  often  too 
largely  limited  to  the  formal  and  traditional  knowledge.  This  is 
the  l)ody  of  knowledge  usually  presented  in  textbooks  in  highly 
organized  form,  and  most  emphasized  in  academic  institutions, 
and  largely  also  in  schools  training  high-school  teachers.  Such 
knowledge  is  usually  stated  in  general  and  abstract  terms  with 
a  minimum  of  the  particular  and  concrete  for  purposes  of  illus- 
tration and  application.  By  the  very  nature  of  the  case,  this 
body  of  material  cannot  be  specially  adapted  to  particular  lo- 
■calities  or  to  special  groups  of  students.  It  must  be  for  general 
Tise. 

AVhile  this  body  of  material  is  of  essential  importance,  the 
practical  and  concrete  materials  of  the  particular  locality  are 


High  School  InsfrucHon  175 

of  even  greater  impurtaiice,  thuuoli  much  iiKjrc  often  neglected 
by  teachers.  These  materials  are  especially  valuable  because 
the  experiences  of  the  pupils  are  almost  wholly  within  this  field. 
It  has  been  quite  generally  held  as  a  matter  of  theory  that  one 
who  has  gained  a  knowledge  of  the  general  principles  of  a  sub- 
ject will  readily  make  applications  of  these  principles  to  any  re- 
lated facts  or  phenomena  which  may  be  observed.  However, 
practice  and  present  day  investigation  have  shown  beyond  cjues- 
tion  that  the  inexperienced  student  or  teacher  has,  as  a  rule, 
little  ]>ower  or  habit  of  maldng  these  applications,  without  con- 
siderable study  of  local  material.  For  this  reason,  the  tendency 
of  the  young  teacher  and  sometimes  of  more  experienced  ones, 
is  to  follow  the  formal  and  abstract  method  of  the  text  and  make 
little  if  any  use  of  the  local  material  and  problems  most  closely 
related  to  the  experiences  of  the  pupils.  For  example,  botany 
teachers  often  have  a  good  general  knowledge  of  the  groups  of 
plants  and  of  the  principles  of  plant  activity,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  have  little  familiarity  with  the  plants  of  the  region  or  of 
the  practical  problems  of  plant  growth  and  propagation  in  the 
community.  A  civics  teacher  may  have  a  fairly  good  knowledge 
of  the  general  organization  of  government,  and  be  almost  wholly 
ignorant  of  the  present  vital  problems  which  are  demanding 
the  attention  of  every  good  citizen,  and  which,  are  finding  ex- 
pression in  the  messages  of  governors  and  president,  and  which 
are  receiving  attention  from  legislatures  and  law  making  bodies. 
This  local  material  should  be  regarded  as  the  most  vital  and 
valuable  teaching  material  of  the  subject,  and  it  is  the  failure 
to  make  use  of  this  material  that  constitutes  one  of  the  greatest 
weaknesses  of  present  high-school  teaching. 

Beyond  this  scholarly  command  of  material,  any  effective 
high-school  teaching  demands  also  a  thorough  command  of 
teaching  methods.  It  is  not  enough  to  know  subject  matter  as 
mere  knowledge,  but  it  must  be  mastered  as  an  instrument  for 
the  teaching  and  training  of  young  people  of  high  school  age. 
The  fallacy  that  all  the  training  needed  for  becoming  an 
efficient  high-school  teacher  is  to  know  the  subject  or  subjects  to 
be  taught,  has  now  been  pretty  well  abandoned.  Over  emphasis 
is.  however,  still  placed  in  some  cjuarters  upon  the  idea  of  special- 
ization in  subjects.  Many  teachers  with  this  notion  in  mind, 
are  very  desirous  of  reducing  the  number  of  subjects  they  have 


176  Educational  Survey  of  JanesviUe 

to  teach  as  much  as  possible,  some  being  anxious  to  teach  a  single 
subject  only,  in  order  that  they  may  be  able  to  specialize  more 
fully  in  this  line.  Such  specialization  is  in  great  danger  of  hav- 
ing a  very  narrowing  effect  in  relation  to  the  really  large  and 
vital  problems  of  secondary  education.  We  need,  in  the  high 
school  at  the  present  time,  specialists  and  experts  in  teaching  far 
more  than  we  need  specialists  and  experts  in  subjects. 

A  good  command  of  methods  demands  a  clear  understanding 
of  the  vital  values  of  secondary  education  and  a  special  recogni- 
tion of  the  relative  values  of  the  various  subjects  of  study  in  re- 
lation to  the  main  problem.  There  is  further  demanded  an 
understanding  and  mastery  of  the  various  forms  of  classroom  ex- 
ercise with  a  discriminating  sense  of  the  purpose  and  place  of 
each  in  relation  to  values  to  be  realized.  The  forms  which 
should  be  kept  most  clearly  in  mind  are — assigning  of  lessons, 
teaching,  testing,  drilling,  and  developing  effective  expression. 
It  is  not  appropriate  here  to  go  into  any  extensive  discussion 
of  these  different  phases  of  teaching,  but  it  Avill  assist  the  pur- 
poses of  this  report  to  point  out  briefly  one  or  two  sources  of 
special  weakness  in  present  high  school  practice. 

In  the  first  place,  too  little  attention  is  often  given  to  a  good 
assignment.  Present  discussion  of  teaching  pupils  how  to  study, 
and  of  supervised  studj^,  is  emphasizing  the  importance  of  di- 
rected study.  Such  study  must  be  directed  toward  definite 
ends  and  these  ends  or  objectives  must  be  put  before  the  pupils 
largely  in  the  form  of  problems  which  become  effective  motives 
for  concentrated  effort,  providing  the  pupil  is  led  to  see  their 
relationship  to  his  world  of  interest  and  experience.  It  is  the 
business  of  the  assignment  to  help  pupils  see  these  worth-while 
problems  in  relation  to  new  materials.  This  means  more  of 
questioning  and  development  and  less  of  mechanical  fixing  of 
pages,  paragraphs  or  topics  in  any  good  assignment. 

The  teaching  process  is  a  natural  continuation  of  the  work 
begun  in  the  assignment.  In  this  part  of  the  work  the  so-called 
"problem  method"  should  be  more  largely  used.  Vital  prob- 
lems always  arise  out  of  the  common  experiences  and  situa- 
tions of  life.  Questioning  should  therefore  begin  Avith  these 
familiar  experiences  rather  than  Avith  the  formal  material  of 
the  text.  Skillful  questioning  should  lead  pupils  from  these 
familiar  things  in  the  direction  of  more  difficult  problems  in  re- 


High  Scliool  I nsi ruction  177 

lation  to  the  topics  of  the  day's  lesson.  The  teacher  should 
then  assist  pupils  by  further  skillful  development  to  organize 
the  knowledge  gained,  bring  this  into  relationship  wnth  the 
formal  knowledge  presented  in  the  text,  and  develop  wider  ap- 
plications. In  connection  with  this  final  organization,  needed 
terms  should  be  applied  to  the  ideas  developed  and  definitions 
should  be  formulated.  Such  a  method  may  be  called  vital  be- 
cause it  deals  Avith  those  materials  and  experiences  which  have 
real  meaning  to  the  pupils  and  because  it  results  in  real  under- 
standing of  the  problems  involved.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  defini- 
tions and  general  statements  are  here  made  the  final  result  of 
the  development  rather  than  the  means  of  approach.  This  prob- 
lem method  is  nothing  more  than  the  application  of  the  familiar 
pedagogy  Avhich  says  that  good  teaching  should  begin  with  what 
is  knoAvn  and  concrete  and  proceed  from  this  to  the  abstract  and 
the  unknown,  and  yet  it  is  the  general  opinion  of  high-school 
supervisors  that  it  is  the  exception  to  find  the  method  here  de- 
scribed skillfully  used  in  high  school  work.  Unfortunately  the 
formal  method  of  the  text  is  far  more  commonly  observed. 

This  so-called  "problem  method"  of  development  can  be  ap- 
plied to  most  if  not  all  of  the  high  school  subjects.  It  is  espe- 
cially applicable  to  the  content  subjects  such  as  science,  civics, 
history,  and  even  to  considerable  extent,  English  and  mathe- 
matics. It  is  the  method  based  upon  the  natural  operation  of 
the  young  mind  in  approaching  any  new  field  of  thought.  In 
fact,  it  is  the  common  method  of  meeting  the  every  day  problems 
of  life.  It  makes  large  use  of  the  reasoning  activity  while  the 
formal  method  overemphasizes  the  use  of  memory.  As  the 
student  accumulates  and  organizes  larger  knowledge  in  any  line, 
he  comes  to  use  more  and  more  the  formal  or  deductive  method, 
but  the  young  student  finds  this  method  difficult  and  through 
its  approach  often  gets  mere  verbal  knowledge  or  at  best  only 
vague  and  confused  ideas,  failing  entirely  to  see  the  real  mean- 
ing of  instruction. 

Skillful  development  should  be  followed  by  abundant  review, 
and  adequate  amount  of  drill  work  and  some  topical  study.  In 
all  the  steps,  and  especially  in  the  organization,  the  review  and 
the  topical  Avork,  there  should  be  well-planned  effort  to  get  good 
English  and  effective  expression  in  all  classes.     Weak  work  here 


178  Educational  ISurvey  of  Janesville 

is  uiidoubtedh'  responsible  for  much  general  weakness  in 
English. 

Effective  drill  work  is  especially  neglected  in  the  high  school. 
The  tendency  is  to  apply  university  ideals  in  this  matter  rather 
than  those  of  the  grades  which  are  much  more  applicable  to 
liigh  school  needs  especially  in  the  earlier  yeai's.  Every  new 
subject  has  a  language  of  its  own  which  is  very  largely  new  to 
the  beginning  student.  Much  of  the  confusion  in  pupils'  minds 
is  due  to  lack  of  familiarity  with  the  vocabulary  of  this  language. 
.  As  new  ideas  are  developed,  they  should  be  labeled  with  proper 
terms  and  then  the  teacher  should  help  pupils  establish  and 
fix  associations  between  symbols  and  meanings  by  first  develop- 
ing as  many  associations  as  possible  and  then  fixing  these  by 
adequate  repetition  through  vigorous  drill  work. 

Again,  skill  in  the  use  of  the  tools  of  knowledge  can  be  gained 
only  by  much  practice.  Such  practice  should  be  furnished  by 
a  large  amount  of  vigorous,  well-varied  drill,  with  the  use  of  as 
many  effective  de\ices  as  the  resourceful  teacher  can  develop. 
Without  question,  skill,  alertness  and  readiness  in  the  applica- 
tion of  knowledge  could  be  brought  to  a  much  higher  standard  in 
most  high  schools,  by  a  more  adequate  amount  of  work  of  this 
kind.  This  general  statement  of  viewpoint  is  made  for  the  pur- 
pose of  showing  the  Ijasis  on  Avhich  high  school  work  is  judged. 

Department  organization  and  adequate  supervision  will  be 
given  fuller  consideration  in  the  section  which  follows. 

II.     Observations  on  High  School  Teaching  in  Janesville 

With  these  considerations  especially  in  view,  a  general  esti- 
mate may  now  be  made  of  the  high  school  instruction  seen  in  the 
survey. 

First  of  all,  the  high  school  is  deserving  of  high  commenda- 
tion for  the  splendid  spirit  of  sympathetic  cooperation  and  busi- 
ness like  attention  to  work,  shown  by  the  school  as  a  whole.  In 
this  respect  the  school  is  ranked  among  the  best  high  schools 
in  the  state.  This  spirit  shows  itself  in  the  orderly  movement  of 
pupils  about  the  building,  in  business  like  attention  to  work  in 
the  study  rooms  and  in  orderly  procedure  throughout  the  daily 
program.  In  a  special  degree  it  manifests  itself  also  in  the  at- 
titude of  students  toward  the  work  of  the  various  classrooms. 


High  Scliool  Instruction  179 

iSucli  a  spirit  contri])utes  very  largely  to  the  general  efficiency 
of  instruction  and  is  much  to  the  credit  of  the  management. 

This  spirit  shows  itself  in  a  special  way  in  the  readiness  and 
■efficiency  of  pujiils  in  their  responses  to  the  problems  and  ques- 
tions of  the  various  classrooms.  Much  of  the  spirit  of  the  social- 
ized recitation  was  observed  throughout  the  classroom  work. 
Along  with  this  spirit  was  manifest  in  the  school  as  a  whole  a 
good  ability  in  the  effective  use  of  English  as  a  means  of  ex- 
pression. There  were  indications  that  some  especially  good 
training  along  this  line  was  being  developed. 

While  the  school  was  strong  in  the  above  points,  the  regular 
instruction  work  itself  was  not  considered  above  the  average 
for  similar  high  schools  throughout  the  state.  Out  of  the 
seventeen  teachers  here  included  (manual  training,  music,  draw- 
ing, physical  training,  and  one  domestic  science  teacher 
omitted) ,  one  was  rated  excellent,  five  very  good,  six  good,  four 
fair  and  one  poor.  It  should  perhaps  be  stated  that  the 
teacher  rated  poor  was  teaching  a  subject  considerably  out  of 
the  line  of  her  regular  work. 

A  number  of  points  of  general  strength  should  be  commended. 
First,  practically  without  exception,  teachers  showed  a  scholarly 
command  of  the  subjects  being  taught,  at  least  on  the  side  of  gen- 
eral or  formal  knowledge  of  the  subject,  i.  e.  such  knowledge  as  is 
commonly  found  in  books.  The  use  of  vital,  local  material  was 
not  so  nmch  in  evidence. 

Again,  teachers  were  generally  getting  good  cooperation  and 
were  showing  a  sympathetic  attitude  in  the  development  of  their 
subjects.  Teachers  Avere  also,  with  few  exceptions,  possessed 
of  vigorous  and  pleasing  personalities  which  gave  evidence  of 
exerting  a  wholesome  and  stinuilating  influence  upon  pupils. 
However,  the  decided  inspirational  power  which  is  desirable, 
while  found  in  a  numl^er  of  cases  to  a  marked  degree,  was  re- 
garded as  the  exceptional  thing  rather  than  the  rule. 

Along  the  line  of  effective  classroom  methods  much  can  be  said 
in  commendation  of  the  work.  Most  of  the  teachers  showed  the 
poise  and  much  of  the  skill  which  comes  from  experience  and 
mastery  of  classroom  practice.  However,  methods  on  the  whole, 
were  regarded  as  showing  more  of  the  formal,  bookish  type  of 
work  than  that  of  the  vital  point  of  view  which  is  the  central 
thought  connected  with  the  present  reorganization  spirit.     The 


180  Educational  Survey  of  JancsviUe 

cxi)ericiiccs  of  pupils,  the  local  problems  of  the  community,  and 
the  eui-rent  world  happenings  might  have  been  utilized  in  muoli 
of  the  work  to  a  far  greater  extent  with  beneficial  results.  In 
man}-  cases  the  questioning  was  adapted  to  tHe  formal  rather 
than  the  problem  or  vital  method  of  approach.  For  example,  in 
one  class  a  good  part  of  a  period  was  consumed  in  trying  to  get 
pupils  to  formulate  an  exact  statement  of  a  definition.  In  the 
social  studies,  so  far  as  seen,  there  was  a  tendency  rather  to  or- 
ganize formal  knowledge  than  to  develop  understanding  by  de- 
veloping relationship  with  present  day  problems.  The  science 
work  seen  M'as  somewhat  stronger  from  this  vital  viewpoint,  but 
there  was  a  tendency  to  develop  a  stereotyped  form  of  labo- 
ratory Avork  which  was  imposed  upon  the  pupil  rather  than  de- 
veloped out  of  the  needs  and  problems  of  his  oavtl  experience 
and  those  of  the  practical  world  about  him.  Some  questioning 
of  several  students  in  connection  with  experiments  which  had 
been  worked  and  were  being  written  up,  indicated  that  these 
pupils  had  done  little  vital  thinking  in  connection  with  the  work- 
ing of  these  experiments.  This  does  not  apply  to  all  work  seen. 
Some  very  good  laboratory  work  was  in  progress  and  in  some 
of  the  class  work  teachers  were  utilizing  the  problem  method  to 
quite  a  degree.  The  criticism  here  speaks  only  of  a  tendency 
which  appeared  to  characterize  too  much  of  the  work. 

A  good  deal  of  strong  work  was  seen  in  connection  vnth.  the 
English  and  foreign  language  departments,  although  in  some- 
cases  the  emphasis  in  the  literature  and  reading  work  appeared 
to  be  too  much  on  logical  organization  of  the  subject  matter 
itself,  rather  than  on  the  more  vital  aim  of  developing  apprecia- 
tion, good  habits  of  thought,  high  ideals  of  action  and  skill  in 
the  use  of  an  elTpctive  tool.  As  previously  suggested,  good  re- 
sults in  oral  and  written  composition  were  especialh'"  noticed. 
Oral  English  which  is  most  often  neglected,  was  regarded  as  es- 
pecially strong. 

Very  little  effective  drill  work  was  seen  in  the  classes 
visited.  While  it  is  entirely  possible  that  much  of  such 
work  is  done  at  various  times,  it  is  nevertheless  believed  that 
general  results  in  most  classes  might  be  greatly  improved  by  a 
larger  amount  of  such  work.  High-school  teachers  might  profit 
greatly  by  taking  opportunity  to  visit  some  strong  grade  teacher 
occasionallv  for  the  studv  of  devices  for  effective  drill  work. 


High  School  Inslruction  181 

'Such  devices  could  often  be  applied  advantageously  with  very 
little  modification  to  high  school  work.  Such  drill  work  to  be 
effective  must  be  vigorous  enough  to  arouse  interest  in  the  very 
activity  itself ;  it  should  have  good  variety ;  it  should  stimulate 
a  wholesome  spirit  of  rivalry ;  it  should  be  adapted  to  the  slower 
as  Avell  as  the  keener  pupils  of  the  class;  and  it  should  ])e  brief 
but  frequent. 

The  departmental  plan  of  limiting  each  teacher's  work  to  one 
■or  at  most  two  subjects,  seems  to  have  been  pretty  closely  fol- 
lowed in  the  arrangement  of  all  the  instruction  work.  While 
this  is  probably  desirable  as  a  general  plan  in  as  large  a  high 
school  as  Janesville,  nevertheless,  there  is  a  decidedly  narrowing 
effect  in  too  close  adherence  to  this  plan.  There  is  much  danger 
■of  teachers  coming  to  have  the  viewpoint  of  teaching  subjects 
rather  than  emphasizing  the  viewpoint  of  developing  young 
people.  From  the  latter  point  of  view,  training  should  be  broad 
rather  than  intensive,  and  teachers  should  therefore  keep  them- 
selves broad  with  reference  to  many  subjects  rather  than  one 
only.  It  is  therefore  regarded  as  very  wise  policy  frequently 
to  give  teachers  work  in  several  lines.  It  is  even  wise  with 
strong  teachers  occasionally  to  give  them  some  new  subject  as 
a  source  of  fresh  material  and  new  enthusiasm.  Such  a  plan 
nearly  always  results  in  better  appreciation  of  the  pupils'  view- 
point and  a  greater  understanding  of  their  difficulties. 

While  this  is  true  from  the  standpoint  of  individual  teaching, 
there  is  need  for  systematic  organization  of  all  the  work  of 
each  department  under  a  strong  centralized  plan.  It  is  believed 
that  it  would  be  a  source  of  greater  strength  in  the  Janesville 
high  school,  if  departments  such  as  English,  social  studies, 
mathematics,  and  science  were  organized  with  greater  unity  of 
plan.  This  would  require  a  thoroughly  strong  teacher  who 
should  act  as  head  of  each  department  and  who  should  be  re- 
sponsible for  all  the  work  of  the  department,  which  should  of 
course  be  planned  under  the  direction  of  this  head  in  conference 
with  the  assistants  and  with  the  principal  or  superintendent. 
This  plan  is  here  suggested  as  a  possible  improvement  which 
should  receive  careful  consideration. 

Finally,  strong  instruction  work  in  a  school  as  large  as  Janes- 
ville depends  in  a  large  degree  upon  wise  and  effective  super- 
vision.    A  good  deal  of  this  has  no  doubt  been  given  in  the  past. 


182  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

However,  after  considerable  conference  and  discussion  witli 
the  teachers  and  the  principal,  the  surveyors  concluded  that  this 
supervision  could  be  much  strengthened.  This  could  be  accom- 
plished through  more  frequent  visits  by  principal  and  superin- 
tendent and  also  by  a  careful  follow-up  plan  by  wiiich  the 
newer  teachers  might  receive  frequent  visits  followed  by  confer- 
ences on  their  work  until  they  had  fully  caught  the  viewpoint 
of  the  school  and  had  perfected  their  methods  of  work,  after 
which  less  frequent  visits  would  be  necessary.  It  is  a  very  gen- 
eral conviction  that  such  helpful  supervision  is  a  very  large 
factor  in  developing  strong  teachers  and  in  unifying  the  ideals 
of  a  school.  It  is  recommended  that  a  more  perfect  organiza- 
tion of  this  phase  of  the  work  be  given  careful  consideration. 

Summary  of  Kecommendatioxs 

1.  A  general   effort  on  the   part  of  the  teaching  force  to  iitil'ze  in 

larger  degree  the  vital  and  current  practical  material  which  is 
most  closely  related  to  the  life  of  the  pupils  and  the  community. 

2.  A  further  effort  to  use  more  largely  the  problem  or  vital  method 

in  developing  the  subjects  of  instruction. 

3.  More  vitalized  drill  work  in   connection  with  class  instruction. 

4.  Greater  unification  of  the  work  of  each  general  department  of  in- 

struction in  the  high  school  to  the  end  of  correlating  the  work 
of  all  the  teachers  in  the  department  as  closely  as  possible  about 
common  purposes. 

5.  More  frequent  and  more  systematic  visiting  of  the  work  of  differ- 

ent teachers  for  the  purpose  of  helpful  supervision. 


special  Courses  and  Special  Subjects  183- 


X    SPECIAL  COURSES  AND  INS!  RUCTION 
IN  SPECIAL  SUBJECTS 

SECTION    I— Music 
The  Procedure. 

During  the  nioniiiig  Mr.  Dykenia,  observed  by  his  three  assist- 
ants, conducted  a  test  in  a  first  grade  room.  After  this,  four 
upper  grade  rooms  were  tested,  each  one  by  an  investigator  work- 
ing alone.  In  the  afternoon  all  went  to  the  high  school,  to 
observe  the  work  of  the  high  school  chorus;  then  the  three 
assistants,  observed  by  Mr.  Dykema,  carried  on  tests  in  three 
grades, — two  lower  and  one  higher,  and  finally  Llr.  Dykema, 
observed  by  all,  concluded  the  day  by  a  test  in  a  6th  grade. 
Four  buildings  were  visited.  A  complete  test  would  entail 
working  with  all  or  nearly  all  of  the  children  at  least  once  and 
visiting  some  of  them  at  least  twice. 

The  Maierml  Used  for  the  Survey. 

The  work  done  in  testing  followed  closely  the  outline  pre- 
pared in  advance,  which  is  given  below: 

Notes  for  Survey  of  School  Music. 
1.  Purpose: 

(a)  General 

(1>  To  ascertain  what  effect  the  teaching  of  school  music 
is  having  on  the  life  of  the  children  both  In  and 
out  of  school. 

(2)  To    determine    what    aspects    of    the    school    music 

teaching  are  particularly  valuable  so  as  to  rein- 
force these  and  also  wha^  ^--'vt'^  ''re  weak  and  need 
either  strengthening  or  eliminating. 

(3)  Insofar  as  possible  to  determine  the  causes  for   (1) 

and  (2)  and  to  make  such  constructive  criticisms 
as  will  assist  in  giving  music  its  proper  place  in 
the  school. 

(b)  Specific: 


•  In  the  observations  on  school  music  Professor  Dykema  was  as- 
sisted by  three  of  his  students.  Miss  Maude  G]ynn,  Miss  Frances  Leibing, 
and  Miss  Hilda  Mayer.     The   observations   were   made,   June    8,   1917. 


184  Educafioxal  Survey  of  Janesville 

Our  inquiries  v.ill  proceed  along  four  lines,  aiming  to  determine: 

(1)  the  function  of  music  in 

(a)  the  school 

(b)  the  home 

(c)  the  community  at  large 

(2)  the  spirit  or  interest  in  which  the  children  enter  into 

the  music  work 

(a)  in  performance 

(1)  of  songs  learned 

(2)  of  new  songs  to  be  learned 

(a)  by  rote 

(b)  by  note 

A  similar  test  will  also  be  applied  to  the  question  of  exercises. 

(b)  in  listening  to  music 

(3)  the  knowledge 

(a)  of   general   music   history   and   biography    (in 
very  elementary  form) 

(b)  technical  facts  about  music  notation 

(4)  the  technical  power  of  the  children  as  manifested  in 

their  ability  to  attack  new  material,  especially 
that  to  be  done  by  note. 

II.  Procedure: 

In  this  first  test,  all  that  will  be  attempted  will  be  under  two  head- 
ings: 

A.  Written   Work — B.  Singing.     These   will    be   subdivided    as 
follows: 

A.  Written  Work 

(1)   for  function 

(a)  school  (b)   home  (c)  community  as  above 

,„,    .       1  ,    ,  (       these  to  combine  material 

2       or  knowledge  ^^^^^  knowledge, 

(3)    for  appreciation     /      ^^^,  technical  power  above 

B.  Singing 

While  most  of  the  singing  will  be  by  the  class  as  a  whole,  there 
will  also  be  some  attempt  to  have  individual  tests  if  time  allows. 
The  tests  in  singing  will  endeavor  to  bring  out 

(1)  Spirit 

(1)  in  songs  which  the  children  choose 

(2)  in  songs  which  the  teacher  chooses 

(2)  Repertoire,  with  divisions  as  above 

(3)  Ability  both  in  rote  and  note  material 

The  points  to  be  looked  for  here  are: 

(a)  tone 

(b)  correctness 

(c)  interpretation,  involving  phrasing  and  general 

beauty  of   delivery,   including   clear  vjusical 
enunciation. 


Special  Courses  and  Special  Siihjects  .   185 

III.  Special  Questions: 

Intended  to  cover  most  of  the  above  headings. 

A.  (1)   Questions  for  the  pupil:  to  be  written  if  possible 

a.  If  you  could  arrange  the  program  in  your  room, 

would  you  give  more  or  less  time  to  music  than 
is  now  given,  or  would  you  leave  it  just  as  it 
is?     Why? 

b.  Do  you   ever  use   at  home   anything  you   have 

learned  in  the  music  period  at  school?     Tell 

just  what  if  anything. 

c.  What  songs  that  you  learned  at  school  have  you 

ever  sung  out  of  school?   Which,  where,  when? 

d.  Name  the    five   songs   you   like    best   to   sing — 

these  need  not  be  school  songs  if  you  like 
others  better.  Indicate  where  you  learned  each 
of  the  songs. 

e.  Tell  what  other  music  than  singing  you  like  very 

much.  Name  some  particular  pieces  and  the 
instruments  that  play  them. 

(2)   Questions  for  the  Room  Teacher: 

(a)  What  effect,   if  any,   does   the  music   given   in 

the  school  have  upon  the  general  work  of 
the  school?     Be  as  specific  as  possible. 

(b)  If  music  is  ever  used  in  your  room  other  than 

during  the  music  period,  tell  when,  how 
often,  for  what  reason,  and  what  the  effects 
are. 

(c)  When     the    supervisor    of    music    visits    your 

room,  are  the  benefits  to  the  children  greater 
when  you  teach  the  lesson  and  receive  crit- 
icisms from  the  supervisor  or  when  the  su- 
pervisor teaches  the  lesson?     How  and  why? 

(d)  If   you    could    arrange    the    program    in    your 

room,  would  you  give  more  or  less  time  to 
music  than  is  now  given  or  would  you  leave 
it  just  as  it   is?     Why? 

B.  Knowledge 

(1)  For  the  pupil 

Place  a  quarter  note  where  both  high  and  low  doh 
or  the  keynote  are  to  be  found  after  each  of  the 
following  signatures:     (three  will  be  given) 

(2)  Place  the  bars  in  tUe  proper  places  of  the  following 

music:  (Material  of  increasing  difBculty  through- 
out the  grades  will  be  given.) 

C.  Performance 

(1)   Learning  a  song  by  rote: 

Song  to  be  taueht  grades  1.  2.  3,  and  4:  "The 
Tailor  and  the  Mouse."  Observation  will  be  on  the 
number  of  times  required  to  sing  it  to  the  children 
before  the  class  as  a  whole  can  reproduce  it  cor- 
rectly. 


186 


Ediicdl hnuil  Snrveji  of  JancsviUe 


The  song   for  grades   5,   6,   7,  and  8  is   "Under   the 

Greenwood  Tree." 

Both  of  these  are  found  in  "Grammar  School 
Songs"  by  Farnsworth,  published  by  Scribners' 
Sons. 

(2)  Sight  Reading:  An  exercise  to  be  placed  upon  the 
board  or  on  a  chart.  The  exercises,  presented  on 
large  charts,  were  these: 


EvEfiC/SES       USED       FOR         S/GHT      SlNGlUG      TeST 

rwf  Gumis  J  X  4 


^3 


^ 


5 


^ 


5 


i 


^^ 


Z±l 


!^Uf1HER      IS  COHIH/a , 

'■^^  fi/f  Guns  S kb 


^  ^  ^j  I  '   ^T  I  r  ^ 


■>00N       WELL     BE     RT       PLffY. 


j         "^         J        I     Jlj 


s 


Heru   the.  sono  wz    siwG  TO   Thee 


HenR   us,  SEnK    F/itmer, 


The    birds    am  the   flowers   all    feel    thpj    it    is 


dfc 


J.-^^v^- 


^^^=^^ 


pp 


^?±=f 


5~r    T  f  f    rt 


Sps/nc     Come  jo/n  th£   glrb  r"o»i;s,     CotiE  i^hu  the  echoes  ii"'c. 

(3)  For  grades  5,  6,  7,  and  8 

Of  what   songs   are   these   notes   the  beginning? 
(Well  known  songs  will   be   selected.) 

(4)  Give  the  scale  names  of  the  tones  in  the  two  above 

examples. 

(5)  Write  from  heating  six  times  the  exercise  which  is 

dictated  to  you — a  different  one  for  each  grade. 


Summary  of  Wliat  Wa.^  Expected. 

From  the  outline,  it  is  evident  that  the  investigatoTS  hoped 
to  find 

(1)   That  music  was  playing  an  important  part  in  the  lives  of  the 
children    both    in   and    out   of    school,    adding  pleasure   and 


Special  Courses  and  ISpccial  Subjccis  187 

significance  to  many  hours  besides  those  specifically  as- 
signed to  music  study. 

(2)  That,  inspired   by  the  love  of  song,   the  children  were  gaining 

steadily  individual  command  of  the  simpler  technical  de- 
tails so  that  at  the  end  of  the  grammar  school  course  each 
child  would  be  able  to  sing  alone  his  part  in  any  com- 
paratively simple  music,  such  as  an  ordinary  hymn  tune. 

(3)  That  some  guidance  was  systematically  being  given  to  help  the 

children  to  know  and  enjoy  the  better  kinds  of  music  when 
they  hear  them. 

(4)  Although  not  mentioned  in  the  notes  above,  it  was  hoped  that 

there  might  be  found  at  least  preliminary  steps  for  the 
introduction  of  systematic  instrumental  instruction  in  the 
grades. 

The  Report 

The    brief   time,  one    da3%  taken   for   observing   the   work    in 

the  schools  and  the  somewhat  unsettled  condition  of  the  school 

music,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  day  for  visiting  fell  near  the 

end  of  the  year  and  just  before  a  special  music  festival,  which 

for  some  two  weeks  or  more  preceding  had  occupied  most  of  the 

nuisic  periods,  makes  this  report  somewhat  fragmentary;  in  fact, 

hardly  more  than  a  beginning  of  a  real  study  that  might  well 

be  carried  ou,t  with  profit. 

I 

llie  General. Attn ude  Toward  the  Music 

The  music  in  the  schools  seems  to  have  the  approval  of  the 
teachers  and  pupils  to  a  very  large  extent.  Most  of  the  teachers 
feel  that  the  time  allotment  at  present  is  about  the  right  one.  The 
majority  of  the  children  would  welcome  more  time  given  to 
music.  The  main  help  that  the  teachers  mention  is  the  change 
and  recreation  which  singing  affords  in  connection  with  the 
other  studies. 

A  Contrast  Between  School  and  Life 

The  music  seems  to  stress  more  than  is  necessary  the  school 
music  aspect,  i.  e.,  it  is  not  of  a  type  that  enters  vitally  into 
the  life  of  the  child  outside  of  the  music  period.  There  were 
few  evidences  of  music  being  used  in  other  subjects,  few  in- 
stances of  its  being  used  as  a  recreation  at  times  other  than  the 
music  period.  Moreover,  although  it  was  encouraging  to  find 
much  evidence  of  the  knowledge  and  frequent  use  of  patriotic 


188  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

songs,  and  possibly  this  is  all  one  can  expect  under  present  con- 
ditions, there  seemed  too  little  mention  of  the  music  learned  in 
the  school  being  used  in  the  home  ov  the  community  at  large. 
This  may  be  explained  by  the  small  amount  of  folk  songs  Avhich 
are  taught  to  the  children  and  also  the  lack  of  songs  of  a  rol- 
licking and  highly  rhythmic  nature.  In  other  words,  the  school 
does  not  seem  to  supply  material  which  competes  successfully 
with  children's  interest  in  popular  songs. 

Children  are  Interested 

The  interest  of  the  children  in  their  music  work  seemed  to  b& 
good  throughout  the  system  from  the  lower  grades  through  the 
high  school.  While  as  is  natural,  they  are  more  interested  in 
the  songs  than  they  are  in  technical  w^ork,  especially  exercises, 
they  attack  this  latter  material  in  good  shape.  This  final  state- 
ment applies  only  to  the  grades,  because  there  is  practically 
no  technical  study  carried  on  in  the  high  school. 

No  Training  in  Listenhig 

Moreover,  the  entire  statement  applies  practically  to  the  per- 
formance by  the  children  only.  They  are  singularly  lacking  in 
training  and  knowledge  in  music,  to  which  they  are  to  listen. 
There  is  apparently  an  entire  lack  of  information  concerning 
the  great  composers  of  instrumental  music  and  a  knowledge  of 
compositions  by  them. 

Knowledge  of  a  Fair  Average 

The  children  manifest  a  fair  degree  of  knowledge  about  the 
technical  facts  of  music  notation  insofar  as  these  are  necessary 
for  the  reading  and  singing  by  note.  It  is  probable  that  the 
means,  we  used  of  testing — that  of  Avriting  and  interpreting 
written  music  by  eye  rather  than  voice,  is  strange  to  the  children. 
Although  much  writing  of  music  is  unnecessary,  some  training 
is  very  "desirable. 

Tcclinical  Ability — i.  e.  Singing  by  Note 

The  technical  power  in  the  rendering  of  music  by  the  children 
has  reached  a  good  standard  so  long  as  unison  singing  is  carried 
on.  The  part  work,  however,  is  hardly  up  to  grade,  at  least  in 
the  attack  of  new  material.     We  are  glad  to  say,  however,  that 


Spcciul  Coiiraes  and  ISpecial  ISuhjecis  189 

^ye  heard  some  excellent  part  singing  of  learned  material  in 
the  7th  grade.  The  main  faults  in  the  sight  singing  seem  to 
be  along  rhythmic  lines.  The  children  lack  independence, 
surety,  and  the  ability  to  attack  new  problems.  We  are  not 
sure  that  they  have  been  given  enough  intellectual  drill  in  con- 
nection with  their  "rhythmic  patterns"  to  enable  them  to  use 
their  patterns  in  new  and  strange  combinations.  The  dotted 
quarter  followed  by  an  eighth  note  seemed  to  trouble  several 
grades. 

Tlic  Tone  is  Good  Except  in  Upper  Grades 

The  tone  used  by  the  children  is  good  in  the  "lower  grades, 
but  rather  poor  in  the  period  where  the  changed  voices  of  the 
boys  appear.  The  eighth  grade  which  we  heard  was  quite  un- 
satisfactory from  the  point  of  view  of  tone.  Moreover,  the 
treatment  of  the  boy  with  the  changed  voice  has  not  been  given 
sufficient  attention. 

.Suggestions  for  Improvement 

The  main  points  of  attack  in  improving  the  work  will  be 
along  three  lines :  1st,  better  and  more  varied  material  for 
singing ;  2nd,  the  introduction  of  opportunities  to  listen  to  music 
•other  than  that  which  the  children  themselves  produce ;  3d,  a 
•change  in  the  spirit  of  the  instruction.  We  shall  deal  with 
these  somewhat  at  length. 

1.  Material.  The  series  of  books  now  in  use  throughout 
the  school  is  quite  inadequate  from  either  the  point  of  view  of 
song  material  or  method  of  technical  development.  It  is  one 
of  the  older  series  and  does  not  reflect  the  modern  spirit  of 
school  music  teaching  which  emphasizes  the  need  of  a  large 
amount  of  attractive  song  material  so  arranged  that  the  technical 
powers  of  the  children  can  be  largely  developed  in  connection 
^vith  song.  This  would  mean  the  replacing  of  the  present  book 
-by  one  of  the  newer  and  i)referably  by  two  of  the  newer  series  of 
music  books.  We  say  two  because  the  teaching  of  music  read- 
ing to  children  is  very  similar  to  the  teaching  of  children  to 
read  litei-ature,  with  this  important  additional  point,  that 
practically  every  home  either  through  its  own  resources  or 
through  the  public  library  can  ])rovide  the  child  with  reading 
■other  than  his  story  ])ook  at  school.   The  supplementary  idea  is  in 


190  Educational  Survey  of  JancsviUe 

fact  more  important  in  music,  if  possible,  than  in  literature. 
Janesville  should  be  so  provided  with  music  books  that  each 
child  should  own  one  which  he  could  and  would  gladly  take 
home  with  him  for  use  there, — a  condition  which  apparently 
does  not  obtain  at  present ;  and  this  should  be  supplemented 
by  a  different  book  w^hich  the  school  Avould  supply  for  reading 
(singing)   in  the  classroom. 

In  deciding  upon  these  books,  it  is  essential  that  much  at- 
tention be  given  to  the  inclusion  of  folk  song  material.  This 
is  a  field  which  is  just  being  opened  up  now,  and  we  are  realiz- 
ing that  the  child  is  entitletl  to  the  heritage  of  folk  music.  This 
same  principle  may  be  stated  in  connection  with  the  material 
which  the  supervisor  uses  for  rote  songs.  It  should  be  much 
more  largely  folk  material  rather  than  the  made  songs  by 
modern  composers  for  children.  Moreover,  if  the  material  is 
to  appeal  to  the  boy,  especially  so  that  it  Avill  satisfy  that  need 
that  is  now  met  by  the  singing  of  ragtime,  it  must  be  of  a  more 
vigorous  and  hard}'  character  than  is  usual  in  the  modern-made 
song.  Tlie  rollicking  song  which  we  used  for  the  primary  grades, 
— ''The  Tailor  and  the  Mouse,"  with  its  nonsensical  chorus  but 
with  its  vigorous  rhythm  throughout,  is  the  type  of  song  that  we 
have  in  mind  as  the  new  element  to  be  added  to  the  children's 
repertoire. 

2.  Listening  Material.  The  Janesville  schools  are  back- 
ward in  the  matter  of  giving  the  children  the  opportunity  to 
listen  to  music  other  than  that  which  they  themselves  produce. 
We  have  only  to  mention  the  fact  that  progressive  schools  all 
over  the  country  are  making  it  possible  for  children  to  hear  fre- 
quently during  their  regular  school  hours  and  in  the  classroom 
a  large  amount  of  material  that  is  adapted  to  them  and  that 
they  love  intensely.  We  refer  to  the  introduction  of  the  phono- 
graph as  a  part  of  the  music  instruction.  We  should  be  re- 
luctant, however,  to  see  this  introduced  and  have  it  result  in  a 
reduced  amount  of  time  now  given  to  the  present  type  of  music. 
The  children  need  all  the  time  the.y  now  have  for  learning  to 
perform.  It  ought  to  be  possible,  however,  to  find  five  minutes 
additional  a  daj^  in  which  the  children  could  become  acquainted, 
through  appropriate  material  and  proper  guidance,  with  some 
of  the  world's  great  treasures  Avhich  the  phonograph  is  waiting 
to  give  them!     While  it  is  also  valuable  to  have  concerts  by 


Special  Courses  and  Special  Su1)jects  191 

the  supervisor,  by  talented  teacliers,  and  by  other  musicians 
(here  shoukl  be  mentioned  as  especially  valuable  organ  recitals 
at  monthly  intervals  given  in  some  of  the  larger  churches  of 
the  city),  these  are  less  easy  to  obtain  regularly,  and,  moreover, 
have  certain  extraneous  personal  elements  which  compare  un- 
favorably with  the  impersonality  of  the  phonograph. 

3.  A  Change  in  the  Spirit.  We  wish  to  commend  the  energy 
and  devotion  which  the  supervisor  has  succeeded  in  imparting 
to  l)(>th  teachers  and  pupils.  The  new  si)irit  which  we  have  in 
mind  is  one  that  is  difficult  to  describe,  l)ut  is  so  important  that 
we  shall  attempt  it. 

Insofar  as  the  i)resent  conditions  are  unfortunate,  they  arise, 
we  believe,  from  the  feeling  of  pressure  which  almost  harries  the 
supervisor.  With  her  desire  to  accomplish  large  results  in  the 
comparatively  short  time  allotted  to  music,  she  has  possibly  at- 
tempted to  do  more  Avork  than  is  wise.  It  is  an  open  ques- 
tion as  to  whether  there  Avould  be  a  gain  if  the  supervisor  were 
to  do  less  actual  teaching  and  Avere  to  have  monthly  meetings 
with  the  teachers  in  classes, — the  primary  teachers  in  one  group, 
intermediate  in  another,  or  in  some  such  selective  arrangement. 

Two  results  have  folloAved :  First,  the  supervisor  has  been 
I>ushed  and  has  constantly  applied  a  goad  to  the  children;  and 
secondly,  she  does  not  give  enough  time  and  thought  to  leading 
the  children  to  appreciate  the  beauty  of  music  and  to  allowing 
it  time  to  impress  itself  upon  their  minds.  As  a  result,  the 
children  are  lacking  in  independence  and  a  deep  love  for  music. 

Every  supervisor  needs  to  accomplish  two  things  in  herself, 
namely,  the  increasing  of  her.  own  delight  in  music,  and  the 
learning  to  believe  that  power  is  more  important  in  children 
than  the  getting  over  any  certain  amount  of  material.  These 
conditions  Avill  be  retlected  in  the  pupils  by  getting  them  to 
take  time  to  enjoy  music, — both  in  producing  and  in  listening 
to  it,  and  by  making  them  more  self-reliant,  more  independent, 
more  able  to  Avork  out  their  material  alone.  It  ought  to  be  a 
common  part  of  the  music  Avork  for  the  supervisor,  and  the 
grade  teacher  also,  in  her  absence,  to  give  the  children  their  key 
note,  tell  them  to  sing  a  ncAv  song  or  exercise  through,  and  then 
actually  leave  them  alone  until  they  have  gone  through  with  it. 

An  exemplification  of  the  faults  AA-ill  be  found  in  the  matter 
of  the  tAvo-part  singing.     Both  oui-  oAvn  tests  and  such  informa- 


192  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

tion  as  we  obtained  through  conversation  leads  us  to  believe 
that  tlie  usual  way  of  carrying  on  new  ])art  work  in  Janesville 
is  to  take  first  one  part  and  then  the  other  so  that  two-part  sing- 
ing is  practically  the  putting  together  of  two  melodies  compara- 
tively unrelated  at  first.  The  children  should  have  simple 
enough  two-part  material  at  first  so  that  they  can  sing  the  two 
parts  at  the  same  time  and  still  appreciate  the  lovely  effect  that 
is  produced  when  two  tones  are  sung  simultaneously. 

Music  in  tlie  High  Scliool 

While  we  saw  very  little  of  the  music  in  the  high  school  and 
while  we  realize  the  difficulties  of  this  problem,  it  seems  to  us 
unfortunate  that  no  arrangements  are  made  for  carrying  on 
systematically  the  good  work  which  has  been  begun  in  the 
grades.  The  high  school  ought  to  offer  more  advanced  singing 
for  those  children  who  have  done  well  in  the  grades.  It  ought 
to  offer  opportunities  for  appreciation  work  which  should  con- 
tinue that  which  we  have  advocated  for  the  grades  and  which  at 
the  present  time  should  attcniy)t  to  remedy  the  pitable  lack  of 
training  along  these  lines.  There  ought  also  to  be  some  provi- 
sion made  for  technical  musical  study,  presumably  in  harmony, 
for  students  who  may  wish  to  do  something  ^vith  music  later 
in  life. 

Possibilities  in  Instrumental  Music 

The  commendable  assistance  given  to  the  high  school  chorus 
by  a  group  of  instrumentalists  brings  up  the  question  of  a  con- 
siderable extension  of  purely  instrumental  work.  These  high 
school  players  would  Avith  careful  preparation  fomi  the  nucleus 
of  an  orchestra  which  could  add  a  fine  element  to  the  musical 
life  not  only  of  the  school  but  of  the  entire  community.  The 
dignifying  of  such  an  organization  would  necessitate  for  its 
perpetuation  a  systematic  plan  for  preparing  players  in  the 
grades.  This  would  mean  the  introduction  with  the  grades  of 
some  of  the  plans  for  instrumental  work  in  the  grades  which 
are  now  being  pushed  vigorously  by  a  large  number  of  the 
progressive  public  school  systems  throughout  the  country. 

Conclusion 

The  above  report  is  by  no  means  complete  and  is  certainly 
not  to  be  considered  as  an  entirely  satisfactory  analysis  of  the 
situation.     It  is  submitted  with  considerable  hesitation  because 


Special  Courses  and  Special  Subjects  193 

we  realize  that  our  observations  are  based  upon  an  insufficient 
knowledge  of  affairs  Avhich  was,  moreover,  obtained  at  a  time 
that  was  not  typical  of  the  year's  work.  But  we  have  felt  it 
worth  while  to  submit  these  impressions  because  the  work  in 
music  in  the  Janesville  schools  shows  such  progress  already  and 
gives  such  hope  for  improvement  that  it  can  profit  by  such 
queries  and  suggestions  as  we  have  presented. 

SECTION  ir 

Drawing 

Art  Education  in  public  schools  is  comparatively  a  new 
feature.  The  forty  or  more  years  in  which  it  has  been  tried 
in  this  country  indicate  the  demand  which  has  arisen  for  it. 

Briefly  stated,  there  are  four  aims  in  teaching  art: 

1.  To  develop  ability  of  the  child  to  express  himself.     Such  ability 

is  developed  by  two  types  of  work.  One  is  the  free  illus- 
tration in  the  lower  grades,  which  helps  the  child  visualize. 
This  process  of  graphic  expression  serves  to  clarify  his  ideas. 
The  second  type  of  drawing  portrays  facts  in  science, — 
biology,  physiology,  and  geography.  Usually  a  drawing  of 
this  type  is  more  enlightening  than  words,  both  to  the  one 
who  draws  and  to  the  one  who  inspects  the  drawing. 

2.  To  cultivate  taste  in  design  and  color,  and  to  produce  beauty  in 

both.  Art  education  is  a  failure  if  it  does  not  result  in  a 
demand  for  beauty  in  dress,  in  the  home,  and  in  the  com- 
munity, and  in  efforts  to  meet  this  demand. 

3.  To  create  an   interest  in   and   appreciation   of  beauty   in   nature 

and  in  one's  environment,  and  an  appreciation  of  the  accom- 
plishment of  artists  who  have  expressed  themselves  in  vari- 
ous mediums.  Art  teaching  from  this  standpoint  should  in- 
clude the  study  of  architecture,  painting,  and  sculpture. 

4.  To  cultivate  , ability  to  read  working  drawings  and  to  make  such 

drawings  for  construction  problems  made  in  manual  and  in- 
dustrial  arts  classes. 

In  making  a  study  of  a  course  in  Art  Education,  with  the 
above  mentioned  aims  in  mind,  one  examines  the  work  to  dis- 
cover if  the  essentials  that  form  a  basis  for  accomplishing  these 
aims  have  been  observed  in  teaching.  In  each  type  of  drawing 
there  is  a  sequence  in  the  steps  that  lays  a  foundation  for 
effective  results.  These  fundamentals  should  form  the  back- 
bone of  a  flexible  course  that  may  be  adjusted  to  suit  individual 
pupils  and  classes  in  various  localities. 


194  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

Two  days  were  spent  by  the  writer  in  observing  the  teaching 
of  drawing  in  Janesville.  The  work  of  both  the  supervisor  and 
of  the  grade  teachers  were  examined.  Some  time  was  spent  in 
conference  with  these  instructors.  A  request  was  made  for 
three  sets  of  drawings,  each  set  to  represent  work  from  all  of 
the  eight  grades.  Each  was  to  illusti-ate  one  of  the  three  types 
of  drawing  in  whieli  the  pupils  had  been  taught. 

Table   33. — Distribution   of  Scores   in   Drawing — Set   I   Paper  Cutting 

Quality 


No.  of 

Grade 

pupils 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

33 

9 

23 

1 

II 

21 

2 

11 

8 

III 

39 

2 

2 

4 

25 

6 

IV 

24 

8 

12 

4 

V 

34 

14 

3 

12 

5 

VI 

23 

5 

2 

3 

13 

VII 

24 

1 

4 

5 

9 

5 

VIII 

19 

5 

3 

2 

4 

5 

Total  217  27         40       38       53         21         24  9  5 

The  specimens  in  the  set  of  drawings  graded  in  Table  33 
were  decorations  done  in  paper  cutting,  either  borders,  or  cir- 
cular or  square  designs.  The  exercise  was  similar  in  all  grades. 
The  cutting  was  freehand  and  the  repeats  made  by  cutting  the 
paper  folded.  The  specimens  were  sorted  by  the  writer  into 
groups  which  in  her  judgment  represented  increasing  merit, 
each  group  differing  from  the  next  by  approximately  equal 
steps.  Class  A  has  the  least  merit  and  Class  H  is  made  up  of 
drawings  by  no  means  perfect,  but  the  best  submitted.  The 
judgment  of  excellence  was  based  upon  quality  of  design,  as 
to  shapes  and  spacing  and  upon  technique. 

Table  34. — Distribution  of  Drawing  Scores — Set  II — Nature  Drawings 

Quality 


No.  of 

Grade 

pupils 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

38 

14 

24 

II 

27 

3 

16 

8 

III 

29 

11 

15 

3 

IV 

38 

12 

12 

9 

5 

V 

36 

4 

18 

13 

1 

VI 

38 

17 

13 

8 

VII 

29 

2 

3 

4 

15 

5 

VIII 

26 

1 

11 

8 

6 

Total     261     17    67    53   44    23    23    23    11 


Special  Courses  and  Special  Subjects 


195 


Table  34  the  result  of  a  similar  process  of  assorting  a  set 
of  nature  drawings,  done  in  colored  crayons,  a  tulip  being 
used  as  the  subject  in  grades  1-4  and  vegetables  or  fruit  in 
grades  5-8.  The  basis  for  the  judgment  of  excellence  in  these 
were  form,  color,  light  and  shade,  and  technique.  As  in  Table 
33  Class  A  comprises  the  poorest  drawings  and  H  the  best, 
the  variation  from  one  class  to  another  being  about  equal. 


Table    35. — Distribiiiion    of    Drawing    Scores — Set    III. 


Part 

1. 

Part  2. 

Quality 

Quality 

No.   of 

No.  of 

Grade 

Pupils 
17 

A 

S 

B 

9 

C 

D 

Grade 

Pupils 

A 

B 

C 

D 

I 

V 

25 

15 

8 

1 

1 

II 

26 

4 

14 

8 

VI 

39 

23 

10 

6 

III 

27 

2 

8 

14 

3 

VI] 

32 

11 

7 

10 

4 

IV 

30 

8 

18 

4 

VIII 

28 

4 

3 

10 

11 

Total 


100 


14       39       40       7  Total 


124 


53       28       27      16 


Table  35  shows  the  results  from  assorting  a  set  made  up  of 
two  kinds  of  drawings,  showing  the  appearance  of  objects.  The 
first  four  grades  did  a  free  illustration  of  a  game  of  ball,  and 
the  four  higher  grades  drew  a  flower  pot  from  the  object  when 
placed  below  the  level  of  the  eye.  The  writer  -wished  a  record 
of  drawings  of  these  types,  and  selected  these  subjects  because 
free  illustration  is  usually  taught  in  lower  grades  and  drawing 
from  the  object  in  higher  grades. 

In  assorting  this  last  set  the  Thorndike  scale  was  of  assist- 
ance as  it  is  made  up  of  drawings  of  these  kinds.  The  degrees 
of  merit,  however,  were  not  estimated  according  to  that  scale, 
but  by  letters  to  accord  with  Tables  33  and  34.  The  classes 
are  lettered  from  A  to  D  only,  as  the  two  kinds  were  assorted 
separately,  A  representing  the  poorest,  and  D  the  best  in  each. 
The  merits  correspond  approximately  to  those  of  the  Thorndike 
scale  as  given  below: 


Table  35,  Part  1. 

A — 2.4  degrees  of  merit 
B— 3.9         "  "       " 

C— 6.5         

D— 8.6         "  "       " 


Table  35,  Part  2. 

A — 10.5  degrees  of  merit 
B— 12.6         "  "       " 

C— 14.4         "  "       " 

D— 16  "  "       '• 


196  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

There  is  an  increase  of  approximately  two  degrees  of  merit 
from  class  to  class. ^ 

From  a  study  of  these  tables  it  will  be  seen  that  the  greater 
number  of  drawings  possess  intermediate  qualities  of  merit,  and 
that  just  as  good  work  is  done  by  some  pupils  in  lower  grades 
as  by  others  in  higher  grades.  Overlapping  of  abilities  in 
drawing  is  quite  marked.  It  will  also  be  seen  that  progress  is 
not  continuously  sustained,  the  number  of  pupils  attaining  the 
higher  degrees  of  excellence  being  very  small.  This  may  be  the 
result  of  wide  variations  in  native  ability  within  a  grade  tending 
to  retard  the  progress  of  all,  if  all  are  taught  the  same  thing  at 
the  same  time. 

These  observations  lead  to  two  conclusions:  1.  The  course 
surveyed  is  not  arranged  and  carried  out  so  that  the  rate  of  prog- 
ress increases  uniformly.  2.  If  children  as  now  classified 
differ  so  much  in  ability  that  progress  cannot  be  sustained  to  a 
greater  degree,  the  drawing  lesson  should  be  arranged  so  that 
children  of  more  nearly  equal  ability  may  work  together.  If 
the  need  for  readjustment  of  classes  according  to  ability  can- 
not be  met  in  a  large  way,  at  least  pupils  within  one  classroom 
may  be  taught  in  groups,  according  to  their  ability. 

Conclusions  and  Recommendations 

Opportunity  for  initiative  was  afforded  especially  in  the 
higher  grades.  Technique  was  not  insisted  upon  at  the  expense 
of  the  child's  originality.  The  criticism  given  pupils  was  such 
that  they  were  encouraged  to  further  effort.  Furthermore 
pupils  showed  unusual  power  of  attack. 

The  course  can  be  improved  by  relating  it  more  directly  to 
other  phases  of  education.  Too  much  of  the  material  of  the  pres- 
ent course  is  unrelated  to  the  needs  of  the  children.  This  con- 
dition can  be  remedied  by  more  careful  supervision.  The 
supervisor  should  keep  closely  in  touch  with  what  the  children 
are  doing  in  other  subjects.  She  should  enlist  the  cooperation 
of  the  teachers  in  her  efforts  to  correlate  drawing  with  the 
other  subjects.  Besides  having  a  good  art  training  the  super- 
visor should  be  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  principles  of 
teaching  and  of  psychology.     The  addition  of  construction  prob- 


>  The  Thorndike  scale  could  not  be  used  in  assorting-  the  other  types 
of  drawing  represented  in  Tables  33  and  34  for  as  stated  by  the  author 
himself  iri  his  "Measurement  of  Achievement  in  Drawing,"  the  scale  is 
not  adapted  for  use  with  these  types  of  drawing. 


Special  Courses  and  Special  Subjects  191 

lems  to  the  present  coiirise  would  afford  an  oppoi'tvmity  for  ap- 
plying principles  of  design  and  color.  The  work  in  illustrative 
drawing  could  well  be  associated  with  the  reading,  language, 
geography,  and  history.  Poster  making  could  be  an  outgrowth 
of  the  need  for  announcements  and  advertisements  for  the 
school. 

Mechanical  drawing  might  well  be  taught  to  the  grades  that 
take  bench  work  in  manual  training.  Boys  may  be  taught 
this,  while  the  girls  are  given  applied  design  in  connection  with 
household  arts. 

The  essentials  of  the  different  types  of  drawing  should  be 
more  thoroughly  emphasized  in  the  course  than  at  present. 

It  would  be  desirable  to  have  in  each  building  enough  models 
so  that  prints  and  copies  need  not  be  used.  Sufficient  illustra- 
tive material  is  desirable  to  create  ideals  in  design  and  color 
and  to  permit  adequate  study  of  the  technique  of  all  varieties  of 
work. 

The  proper  distribution  of  the  supervisor's  time  is  a  difficult 
problem  in  a  city  of  this  size  in  which  she  spends  much  of  her 
time  in  actual  teaching.  If  a  supervisor  does  one-third  or  one- 
half  of  the  teaching  the  grade  teacher  is  likely  to  lose  sight  of 
the  larger  relations  of  the  problem  and  to  fail  to  comprehend 
the  needs  in  drawing 

It  would  be  better  therefore  if  the  supervisor  were  to  do  less 
teaching  of  pupils  than  she  now  does.  She  should  spend  more 
time  in  observing  the  drawing  teaching  of  the  regular  teachers 
to  see  whether  drawing  is  being  taught  as  it  should  be  taught 
and  if  it  is  not  to  indicate  how  it  should.  This  is  the  kind  of 
supervision  of  drawing  for  which  she  is  being  paid.  When  she 
devotes  her  entire  time  to  teaching  children  she  is  merely  a 
teacher  of  drawing  and  in  no  sense  a  supervisor.  It  is  not  to  be 
understood  that  she  should  never  teach  a  class  of  pupils.  On 
the  contrary  she  should  do  this  frequently  but  for  the  purpose 
of  demonstrating  to  the  teacher  how  to  teach  a  particular  type 
of  lesson.  Teaching  of  this  sort  should  be  preceded  by  con- 
ference with  the  teacher  in  which  the  aims  of  the  lesson,  the  prin- 
ciples to  be  illustrated  and  the  method  to  be  used  are  carefully 
discussed.  The  lesson  should  be  followed  by  a  similar  confer- 
ence with  the  teacher  to  make  certain  that  she  has  grasped  the 
essential  points  of  the  demonstration.     The  supervisor  will  need 


198  Educational  Survey  of  Janesvitte 

to  spend  more  time  in  careful  sympathetic  constructive  super- 
vision and  in  conducting  teachers'  meetings  where  art  teaching 
is  the  subject  of  discussion  than  she  now  does.  More  attention 
should  be  given  to  assisting  teachers  to  adjust  the  course  to 
meet  the  individual  needs  of  pupils  and  classes.  Finally  the 
supervisor  should  form  a  class  in  art  instruction  for  the  teachers 
of  drawing.  This  should  be  a  part  of  her  supervisory  program. 
The  class  should  meet  ijeriodically. 


SECTION  III 

Agricultural  Department 

Growth  of  Agricultural  Departments  in  Cities 

An  idea  has  been  prevalent  that  an  agricultural  course  is 
adapted  only  to  the  needs  of  the  rural  high  school.  There  has 
been,  however,  a  growing  tendency  in  the  last  few  years  to  de- 
velop departments  for  this  kind  of  work  in  city  high  schools  as 
well  as  those  in  the  country.  Three  arguments  may  be  advanced  in 
favor  of  agriculture  in  cities.  First,  a  steadily  increasing 
number  of  tuition  pupils  from  the  comitry  have  been  asking 
admission  in  city  high  schools.  Agriculture  is  an  especially  de- 
sirable line  of  work  for  these  pupils,  most  of  whom  will  go  back 
to  the  farms.  Again,  many  city  pupils  are  very  easily  inter- 
ested in  agriculture  and  many  of  them  may  be  led  to  seek  farm- 
ing as  their  vocation,  thus  helping  to  overcome  the  effect  of  the 
rapidly  growing  tide  from  the  country  to  the  city.  Farming 
offers  a  most  desirable  occupation  to  many  of  these  city  boys 
and  girls.  ' 

A  third  important  value  of  an  agricultural  course  in  a  city 
high  school  lies  in  its  beneficial  effect  upon  the  entire  rural  prob- 
lem of  the  region.  Everything  that  can  be  done  to  raise  the 
general  intelligence  and  efficiency  of  the  farming  industry  and 
to  elevate  the  ideals  of  living  among  rural  people,  has  a  very  di- 
rect helpful  influence  upon  the  city  or  town  which  forms  the 
commercial  center  of  the  region,  as  well  as  upon  the  rural  people 
themselves.  This  is  true  not  mereh"  as  a  matter  of  general  so- 
cial uplift  but  because  the  more  prosperous  and  cultured  a  rural 
population  in  any  region  becomes  the  more  will  this  population 
enter  into  trade  and  business  relations  with  the  town  or  city 


Special  Courses  and  Special  Suhjects  199 

Which  is  able  to  supply  its  higher  needs.  Thus  by  sending  out 
an  intelligent  and  well-trained  class  of  young  people  to  the 
farms  an  agricultural  course  may  be  made  a  most  directly  help- 
ful business  asset  to  the  city. 

Growing  appreciation  of  these  benefits  has  led  an  increasing 
number  of  cities  to  develop,  during  the  last  few  years,  agricul- 
tural departments  in  connection  with  their  high  schools.  In  ad- 
dition to  Janesville,  the  following  Wisconsin  cities  may  be  cited 
as  examples  of  this  tendency:  Green  Bay,  Marshfield,  Neenah, 
Waupaca  and  Chippewa  Falls.  Three  of  these  have  organized 
agricultural  departments  within  the  last  two  years.  Outside  the 
state,  the  same  tendency  is  shown  in  many  city  high  schools. 
Cleveland  has  just  established  a  special  agricultural  course  in 
connection  with  both  her  technical  high  schools  and  the  number 
taking  these  courses  is  rapidly  increasing.  The  Gary  schools  are 
just  beginning  to  give  special  attention  to  an  agricultural  course 
for  the  high  school,  a  specially  trained  teacher  for  this  subject 
having  been  employed  during  the  last  year  for  the  first  time. 

Favorable  Situation  of  Janesville 

A  survey  of  Janesville  conditions  shows  this  city  to  be  espe- 
cially well  situated  for  a  course  of  this  kind.  The  city  is  located 
in  the  center  of  a  large  and  remarkably  fruitful  fanning  region, 
of  which  the  Janesville  high  school  forms  the  natural  educa- 
tional center.  Land  in  this  area  brings  from  150  to  200  dollars 
per  acre.  The  average  distance  of  the  five  nearest  high  schools 
surrounding  Janesville  is  about  fifteen  miles.  Assuming  that 
half  this  distance  should  naturally  belong  to  the  Janesville  ter- 
ritory, we  should  get  a  farming  area  of  somewhere  between  one 
hundred  fifty  and  two  hundred  square  miles.  As  shov^Ti  in  an- 
other part  of  this  report,  there  are  thirty-eight  rural  districts 
in  this  area.  During  the  years  1914,  1915  and  1916  there  were 
graduated  from  the  eighth  grades  of  these  districts  119  pupils, 
who  then  were  eligible  to  enter  the  high  school.  During  the 
last  year  there  were  actually  01  tuition  pupils  in  the  Janesville 
high  school.  A  very  large  per  cent  of  these  rural  pupils  are  go- 
ing back  to  the  farm  and  therefore  need  a  training  adapted  to 
the  needs  of  that  work.  Likewise  this  rich  and  fruitful  region 
offers  unusual  attractions  to  those  city  young  people  whose  in- 
terests naturally  turn  in  that  direction.     That  the  providing 


^00  I^ducational  Survey  of  Jancsvitie 

of  a  good  agricultural  training  in  the  Janesville  high  school  will 
result  in  a  great  benefit  to  this  great  farming  region  and  indi- 
rectly to  all  the  business  interests  of  Janesville,  few  people  will 
doubt  and  especially  after  carefully  noting  the  results  of  this 
survey  in  relation  to  this  course. 

Growth  of  the  Course 

The  agricultural  course  was  introduced  in  1910.  The  number 
of  pupils  taking  the  course  has  steadily  increased  as  shown  in 
following  figures : 

Enrollment  by  Years 

1910-11—11  pupils                                 1913-14—28  pupils 

1911-12—15       "                                         1914-15—53  " 

1912-13—19       "                                        1915-16—60  " 

1916-17—71  " 

This  shows  an  average  annual  increase  of  approximately  38% 
while  the  average  annual  increase  in  the  entire  high  school  en- 
rollment has  been  but  3.8%.  These  figures  show  a  wholesome 
growth  of  interest  in  the  course  since  the  work  is  entirely  elec- 
tive on  the  part  of  students.  The  enrollment  of  71  during  the 
past  year  is  a  good  showing  in  comparison  with  other  special 
departments  when  it  is  considered  that  the  interests  of  pupils 
are  so  large^v  urban  in  such  a  school  as  Janesville.  With  the 
attraction  of  a  larger  number  of  the  eligible  rural  pupils,  else- 
where recommended  in  this  report,  there  ought  to  be  a  contin- 
ued growth  in  this  course  for  at  least  a  number  of  years. 

Occupation  Represented  in  Enrollment 

It  was  interesting  to  find  that  a  very  large  per  cent  of  pupils 
in  this  course  come  from  homes  where  farming  or  some  phase 
of  agricultural  work  such  as  truck  gardening,  is  the  occupa- 
tion. The  total  number  of  separate  pupils  who  have  been  in 
the  course  at  any  time  is  168.  Out  of  these  73  or  43.5%  came 
from  farm  homes.  Out  of  the  73,  56  were  tuition  pupils.  The 
following  table  shows  the  classes  of  occupations  represented: 

From  farm    homes 73 

From  professional  occupations    (doctor,  clergyman,  etc.)..  3 

From  commercial  occupations 18 

From  trades  (machinist,  painter,  tailor) 19 

From  laboring  class  20 

Undetermined  35 

Tuition  pupils    56 


Special  Courses  and  Special  Subjects  20l 

These  figures  indicate  rather  strikingly  that  this  course  is 
contributing  strongly  to  the  needs  of  the  pupils  from  rural 
homes.  It  is  also  attracting  a  good  many  pupils  from  the  homes 
of  laboring,  trade  and  commercial  classes  who  live  in  the  city. 

As  previously  suggested,  such  training  for  city  pupils  whose 
interests  lie  in  this  direction  is  exceedingly  desirable  and  the 
showing  here  given  speaks  well  for  the  results  of  the  course, 
so  far  as  this  point  is  concerned. 

What  Pupils  Do  After  LeoAjing  the  Course 

Out  of  the  168  separate  pupils  who  have  entered  the  course, 
71  were  still  in  the  course  at  the  end  of  the  last  school  year. 
This  leaves  97  who  have  left  the  course.  Of  these  16  were  still 
in  school  though  taking  no  agricultural  work.  Six  have  gone 
to  higher  institutions  for  study  in  lines  other  than  agriculture. 
Of  the  remaining  75  who  have  gone  out  into  industry,  35  or 
47%  have  taken  up  some  line  of  agricultural  work.  Nearly  all 
of  these  have  gone  directly  to  the  farm,  though  two  of  them 
have  gone  to  take  up  advanced  study  at  the  agricultural  col- 
leges and  will  later  take  up  some  phase  of  farm  work.  This  is 
regarded  as  a  very  good  showing  as  to  the  vocational  value  of 
the  course.  The  training  given  is  actually  being  utilized  imme- 
diately and  effectively  by  a  large  number  of  the  pupils  taking 
the  work. 

A  good  many  concrete  examples  were  found  to  show  that  the 
work  has  actually  aroused  new  interest  and  resulted  in  more 
efficient  methods  of  farming.  One  boy  since  finishing  the  course 
has  been  given  the  management  of  his  father's  two  hundred 
acre  farm,  and  conspicuous  improvement  has  resulted.  In  an- 
other case,  the  father  purchased  a  farm  through  the  interest  of 
the  boy  and  the  latter  has  now  gone  to  the  agricultural  college 
to  get  a  better  training  for  the  management  of  the  new  project. 
Another  boy  has  gone  to  manage  his  uncle 's  farm ;  one  has  taken 
up  official  cow  testing  work,  while  many  others  are  now  work- 
ing on  the  home  farm. 

Length  of  Time  Devoted  to  Course 

Four  units  or  years  of  agricultural  work  are  offered  in  the 
course.  It  was  found  that  only  a  small  number  of  those  enter- 
ing completed  the  full  four  years'  work.    A  very  large  number 


SOS  Educational  Survey  of  JanesvilU 

took  one  year  or  less.  Of  the  97  pupils  who  have  left  the  cour^e^ 
8  took  4  years'  work;  7  took  3  years'  work;  7  took  2  years'  work 
and  75  took  1  year's  work  or  less.  This  would  make  the  aver- 
age taken  by  these  pupils  less  than  IV2  years.  A  somewhat  bet- 
ter showing  is  made  among  the  pupils  still  in  the  course.  The 
present  freshman  class  has  had  a  chance  to  take  only  one  year. 
In  the  sophomore  class  with  22  members,  10  have  taken  2  years ; 
1  has  taken  II/2  years,  and  10  have  taken  but  one  year.  In  the 
present  junior  class  of  15,  1  has  taken  4  years;  5  have  taken  3 
years;  4  have  taken  2  years;  3  have  taken  IV2  years  and  2  have 
taken  1  year.  In  the  present  senior  class  of  6  members,  none 
have  taken  more  than  1  year. 

It  is  by  no  means  to  be  expected  that  all  students  entering 
this  course  must  necessarily  complete  the  full  four  years  of 
work.  It  is  desirable  that  the  course  should  be  open  to  those 
who  wish  to  try  out  the  work  and  test  their  interest  and  adapta- 
bility in  this  line.  The  course  should  be  flexible  enough  to  allow 
such  pupils  to  take  a  year  or  even  two  years  and  then  shift  to 
other  courses  if  this  seems  wise  after  due  conference  with  super- 
visors. However,  the  figures  here  given  indicate  rather  too  great 
a  tendency  to  dabble  in  the  course.  It  would  be  desirable  in  the 
judgment  of  the  survey  that  a  much  larger  per  cent  of  pupils 
should  complete  the  course  or  at  least  continue  the  work  over  a 
longer  period.  The  question  is  raised  whether  pupils  have  not 
been  left  too  much  to  their  own  whims  and  to  passing  notions  as 
to  what  work  they  would  like  to  elect.  It  is  strongly  urged  that 
decided  effort  be  made  to  see  that  pupils  are  given  adequate 
advice.  They  should  not  be  allowed  to  drop  out  of  the  course 
until  this  seems  wise  for  the  pupil  in  the  judgment  of  superin- 
tendent or  principal  after  careful  investigation.  It  is  believed 
that  the  efficiency  of  the  course  might  be  much  strengthened  by 
holding  pupils,  as  a  rule  at  any  rate,  for  a  longer  time  in  the 
course. 

Equipment 

The  equipment  found  indicates  that  the  school  authorities 
have  been  fairly  liberal  in  providing  for  the  material  needs  of 
the  work.  However,  it  is  thought  that  the  equipment  for  agri- 
culture is  somewhat  scant  in  comparison  with  that  provided  In 
other  special  courses,    such    as    manual    training,    commercial 


Special  Courses  and  Special  Subjects  203 

work  and  domestic  science.  While  the  fann  itself  furnishes  a 
large  part  of  what  is  needed  in  the  way  of  laboratory  work, 
nevertheless,  a  good  deal  of  equipment  is  needed  for  suitable 
demonstration  and  experiment  work  in  direct  connection  with 
the  school. 

The  room  now  provided  for  this  work  is  adapted  to  many  of 
the  needs,  but  it  would  be  a  great  advantage  to  have  another 
room  which  could  be  used  for  storing  corn  and  other  materials 
and  for  carrying  on  .such  i)ractical  farm  operations  as  milk  sepa- 
ration, incubator  work  etc.  This  need  should  be  especially  kept 
in  mind  in  connection  with  any  new  building  plans. 

Again,  while  a  school  farm  is  not  a  necessity  and  perhaps  not 
even  desirable,  there  is  great  need  of  a  small  plot'  of  ground 
which  can  be  used  for  demonstration  and  experimental  purposes. 

It  would  be  a  distinct  advantage  if  a  plot  of  at  least  two  acres 
could  be  supplied  as  near  as  possible  to  the  school.  Work  in 
connection  with  this  plot  would  not  at  all  take  the  place  of  the 
home  project  work  which  is  a  fundamental  necessity.  How- 
ever, much  instruction  work  needs  to  be  done  in  relation  to  ac- 
tual practice  which  can  be  provided  for  on  a  school  plot.  Of 
the  90  agricultural  departments  in  Wisconsin  high  schools, 
nearly  half  operated  small  plots  in  1915-16  and  this  work  was 
considered  of  great  value  in  every  case.  Green  Bay,  the  city 
nearest  the  size  of  Janesville,  operating  a  high  school  agricul- 
tural department,  has  had  school  plots  in  both  high  schools  for 
a  number  of  years.  On  the  west  side  the  plot  has  grown  from 
two  acres  to  twenty-two  acres  as  the  work  has  developed. 

Methods  of  Woi'k 

The  methods  of  work  found  in  operation  in  this  course  were 
regarded  on  the  whole  as  very  effective.  Much  practical  work 
is  being  done.  Home  projects  were  receiving  main  attention,  al- 
though incubator  work,  seed  testing,  etc.  have  been  extensively 
carried  on  as  group  projects  at  school.  In  the  freshmen  class  8 
boys  were  carrying  on  incubator  work;  4  garden  work;  8  keep- 
ing milk  records ;  1  raising  a  calf ;  2  building  and  setting  up 
bird  houses,  and  1  was  caring  for  an  orchard. 

In  the  sophomore  class,  3  pupils  were  doing  orchard  pruning ; 
1  raising  baby  beef ;  4  testing  seed  com  at  home ;  2  doing  incu- 
bator work;  4  raising  gardens;  3  caring  for  chickens;  1  raising 


204  Educational  Survey  of  JdnesvilU 

ducks;  1  keeping  a  poultry  record,  and  2  managed  hotbeds. 
Two  had  dropped  from  school  and  3  had  not  organized  any 
project  work. 

In  the  junior  class,  1  was  doing  landscape  work  on  home 
grounds;  3  were  managing  hotbeds;  1  incubator  work;  3  test- 
ing cows;  1  care  of  chickens;  3  no  project.  All  of  the  6  in  the 
senior  class  were  doing  landscape  work  on  home  grounds. 

Successful  completion  of  these  projects  requires  summer  su- 
pervision. The  plan  now  in  operation  of  employing  the  agri- 
cultural teacher  during  practically  the  whole  year  in  order  to 
provide  this  necessary  supervision  is  highly  commended.  The 
teacner  should  visit  each  student  of  the  department  at  least  five 
times  during  the  vacation  and  proper  instruction  should  be 
given  in  relation  to  each  project.  This  project  work  is  not 
something  that  should  be  left  to  the  choice  or  whim  of  the  pupil. 
It  should  be  considered  the  most  essential  part  of  this  course, 
and  students  who  do  no  such  work  should  not  expect  credit  in 
the  work.  A  careful  system  of  reports  should  be  kept  in  con- 
nection with  the  projects.  Reports  should  include  those  by  the 
agricultural  teacher  to  the  school  board  and  by  the  pupils  to  the 
instructor. 

Classroom  instruction  in  this  course  is  generally  commended. 
Pupils  showed  good  interest  and  a  business-like  attitude.  The 
only  suggestion  in  this  connection  is  that  the  work  might  be 
somewhat  strengthened  by  a  fuller  discussion  and  rounding  up 
of  fundamental  scientific  principles  in  connection  with  class- 
room presentation.  This  does  not  mean  a  technical,  severely 
scientific  treatment  of  topics,  but  it  does  mean  as  full  an  or- 
ganization of  material  as  is  possible  within  the  capacity  of  pu- 
pils and  the  establishing  of  scientific  relationships  and  wide 
applications  of  scientific  knowledge  gained  by  the  pupils  in 
other  science  studies,  to  the  agricultural  problems  in  hand. 

Exhibits,  Contests  and  General  Activities 

Exhibit  and  contest  work  has  been  given  considerable  atten- 
tion for  a  number  of  years.  A  district  stock  judging  contest 
has  been  held  annually  for  two  years  in  connection  with  the 
State  Stock  Judging  Contest.  In  1916-17  Janesville  secured 
third  place  in  the  district  contest.  An  exhibit  of  the  high  school 
agricultural  department  was  held  at  the  Rock  County  Fair  in 


Special  Courses  and  Special  Subjects  205 

1916,  and  many  prizes  were  taken  by  the  boys.  At  the  same 
event  a  stock  judging  contest  was  held  at  which  most  of  the 
prizes  were  secured  by  boys  in  this  course.  A  school  exhibit  was 
held  in  May  of  this  year  at  which  incubator  work,  rope  tying 
and  corn  testing  demonstrations  were  prominent  features.  The 
domestic  science  department  participated  in  this  exhibit.  These 
activities  are  of  great  value  in  arousing  interest  and  in  rounding 
up  results  of  practical  work  in  such  a  way  as  to  lead  both  pu- 
pils and  community  to  see  that  the  course  is  worth  while.  A 
fall  exhibit  is  especially  important  as  a  means  of  showing  the 
results  of  the  students'  project  work.  This  exhibit  ought  to  be 
made  a  prominent  feature  for  the  whole  school  and  community. 

It  has  already  been  shown  that  the  results  of  the  course  have 
been  most  helpful  to  the  whole  farming  community  about  Janes- 
ville.  This  has  come,  first  of  all,  through  the  work  with  the  pu- 
pils and  through  them  to  their  homes.  There  have  also  been 
carried  on  a  number  of  helpful  activities  which  have  reached 
the  rural  community  directly.  During  the  last  year  or  two 
about  twenty  farmers,  largely  fathers  of  boys  in  the  course, 
have  been  advising  quite  regularly  about  their  farm  problems 
with  the  agricultural  director.  An  agricultural  column  has  been 
maintained  for  five  years  in  the  Janesville  Gazette  under  the 
direction  of  the  department.  In  1915-16,  3000  ears  of  com,  and 
in  1916-17  400  ears,  were  tested  by  pupils  for  local  farmers. 
This  was  done  at  school  as  a  part  of  the  regular  work.  Another 
activity  which  aroused  unusual  interest  in  1917  was  a  debate 
between  four  teams  in  Rock  county  on  the  subject,  "Resolved 
that  the  Holstein  Cow  is  the  Most  Profitable  for  the  Rock  County 
Parmer."  All  these  activities  are  most  valuable  and  should  be 
encouraged  as  far  as  possible. 

A  phase  of  work  which  is  exceedingly  valuable  in  connection 
with  an  agricultural  department  does  not  seem  to  have  received 
much  systematic  attention  at  Janesville.  This  is  a  type  of  man- 
ual training  especially  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  farm.  The 
regular  manual  training  course  demands  too  much  time  and 
usually  deals  with  much  general  work  which  is  not  of  special 
value  to  the  farm  boy.  It  is  therefore  very  desirable  that  spe- 
cial classes  be  organized  for  agricultural  pupils  and  that  the 
work  should  be  planned  with  special  reference  to  farm  needs, 
dealing  with  such  problems  as  rough  carpentry,  forge  work, 


206  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

farm  building  construction  etc.  Two  double  periods  a  week 
would  furnish  enough  time  for  a  good  line  of  work  of  this  kind 
and  agricultural  pupils  could  easily  carry  this  in  addition  to 
the  regular  four  study  program.  If  the  full  time  of  a  regular 
study  is  given,  the  work  should  in  any  case  be  of  a  distinctly 
agricultural  type  closely  related  to  direct  farm  needs. 

The  report  may  be  summarized  in  the  following  points  and 
recommendations : 

1.  The  practical  character  and  general  efficiency  of  the  work  of  this 

course  are  highly  commended. 

2.  The  course  has  had  an  encouraging  growth  since  its  organization 

and  the  work  has  contributed  much  to  the  rural  problems  and 
through  this  help  has  benefited  the  city  as  well. 

3.  The  great  majority  of  pupils  in  the  course  have  come  from   the 

farm  and  almost  50%  of  the  boys  on  leaving  the  course  take 
up  farming  pursuits.     This  number  includes  many  city  boys. 

The  following  recommendations  are  submitted : 

1.  That  special   effort   be  made  to   hold  pupils   in   the  course   for  a 

longer  time  and  that  they  be  allowed  to  give  up  the  work  only 
after  very  careful  advice  and  confei-ence  with  superintendent 
or  principal. 

2.  That  in  connection  with   new  building  plans  larger  accommoda- 

tions be  provided  for  this  course  including  a  second  room 
which  should  be  adapted  to  much  of  the  practical  work. 

3.  That    as    liberal    provision    as    possible    be    made    for    additional 

equipment  during  the  next  year  or  two. 

4.  That  special  classes  in  farm  manual  training  be  organized  for  the 

agricultural  pupils  and  the  work  be  made  distinctly  agricul- 
tural in  type. 

5.  That  a  school  plot  of  at  least  two  acres  be  secured  if  possible  to  be 

operated  in  connection  with  this  course  for  demonstration, 
practical  experiment  and  for  securing  adequate  illustrative 
material. 

6.  That  the  employment  of  the  agricultural  teacher  for  at  least  an 

eleven  months'  year  be  continued  as  a  permanent  policy  and 
that  a  systematic  plan  of  reports  be  developed  in  connection 
with  the  project  work  especially  during  the  summer  vacation. 


Special  Courses  and  Special  Subjects  207 

SECTION  IV 

School  Gardening 

Considerable  Avoi^k  in  gardening  has  been  a  regular  part  of 
ike  agricultural  projects.  A  more  special  effort  has  been  made 
in  this  line  during  the  last  two  years  in  connection  with  the  city 
grades.  In  view  of  the  present  war  emergency,  the  work  has 
been  given  more  attention  during  the  present  year.  The  agri- 
cultural director  who  is  now  employed  for  an  eleven  and  one- 
half  month's  year  has  for  part  of  his  work  the  supervision  of 
the  gardening.  Special  supervision  is  provided  during  the  va- 
cation months. 

The  following  plan,  worked  out  by  the  director  in  coopera- 
tion with  the  mayor  and  some  of  the  business  firms  of  the  city, 
is  now  in  operation.  B}^  running  a  notice  in  the  local  paper 
and  by  doing  some  direct  solicitation,  103  vacant  lots  were  se- 
cured. Each  lot  is  approximately  120  feet  by  50  feet  and  eon- 
tains  about  one-seventh  of  an  acre.  These  lots  have  been  appor- 
tioned to  grade  pupils  who  could  not  get  land  at  home.  Alto- 
gether, 184  pupils  have  started  gardens.  As  a  means  of  holding 
enthusiasm  and  emphasizing  the  motive  in  the  work,  a  garden 
picnic  and  celebration  have  been  planned  for  the  fall  when  re- 
sults will  be  rounded  up.  No  special  prizes  have  been  offered 
by  the  school,  but  some  of  the  pupils  are  working  for  prizes 
which  have  been  offered  by  the  Janesville  Machine  Company, 
the  Eock  River  Cotton  Company,  and  the  Parker  Peii  Company. 

The  suggestion  is  here  offered  that  this  phase  of  the  work 
might  be  given  more  emphasis.  A  special  school  exhibit  as  a 
means  of  rounding  up  garden  results  is  regarded  as  very  valu- 
able. In  connection  with  this,  clubs  and  contests  should  be  or- 
ganized. Although  in  the  present  crisis  every  effort  ought  to 
be  made  to  arouse  patriotism  as  the  highest  motive  in  this  work, 
nevertheless  such  a  motive  may  well  be  reinforced  by  the  mo- 
tive which  always  appeals  strongly  to  children, — that  of  excell- 
ing in  competition  with  others  of  their  own  group.  The  keep- 
ing of  a  careful  account  of  all  financial  operations  in  connec- 
tion with  the  work  should  receive  special  attention. 

No  doubt  many  other  grade  children  besides  the  184  who  are 


208  Educational  Survey  of  Jane.wille 

working  under  the  supervision  of  the  agricultural  director  are 
carrying  on  some  garden  work.  Some  data  were  gathered  from 
the  different  ward  schools  to  determine  definitely  just  how 
much  of  such  work  was  being  done.  HoAvever,  the  limits  of  time 
and  space  have  prevented  the  organization  of  this  data  or  the 
drawing  of  any  definite  conclusions.  While  184'  pupils  is  a 
good  many  in  the  aggregate,  and  makes  a  very  favorable  show- 
ing, nevertheless,  Avith  640  pupils  in  the  grades  from  5  to  8  in- 
clusive, it  would  seem  that  this  work  might  easily  be  very  much 
extended  if  adequate  supervision  could  be  pro\dded.  It  is 
doubtful  if  any  phase  of  manual  or  industrial  training  has  more 
value  than  this  garden  work.  It  would  be  verj''  valuable,  at 
least  as  group  or  class  work,  in  grades  below  the  fifth.  Of 
course,  it  would  be  impossible  for  the  agricultural  director  to 
handle  all  this  work  if  it  became  general  among  all  the  pupils 
even  of  the  upper  grades. 

This  leads  to  the  suggestion  that  a  distinct  forward  movement 
would  be  made  possible  in  Janesville  by  emplojang  a  special 
teacher  especially  qualified  to  supervise  such  work.  This  teach- 
er would  be  able  also  to  organize  nature  work  in  all  the  grades, 
a  kind  of  work  sadly  neglected  in  view  of  its  fundamental  edu- 
cational value.  A  number  of  American  cities  are  meeting  with 
remarkable  results  from  the  operation  of  such  a  plan.  The  city 
of  Cleveland,  where  a  special  supervisor  of  garden  work  has 
been  employed  for  a  number  of  years,  has  come  to  have  a  very 
wide  reputation  for  its  wonderful  gardens,  which  include  both 
practical  flower  and  vegetable  gardens  and  also  landscape  decora- 
tion of  school  and  home  grounds.  The  cities  of  Madison,  Su- 
perior, and  Milwaukee  have  been  carrying  on  a  systematic  plan 
of  garden  work  for  a  nunxber  of  years  with  excellent  results. 

This  leads  the  way  to  a  little  fuller  discussion  of  the  ques- 
tion of  good  landscape  planting  about  school  and  home  grounds. 
Very  little  of  this  work  has  been  done  about  the  grounds  of  the 
various  schools  of  Janesville.  Pupils  in  the  agricultural  course 
of  the  high  school  have  done  a  little  on  some  of  the  homes  of 
the  city.  However,  the  whole  city  offers  a  great  opportunity  for 
more  work  of  this  kind.  It  would  be  very  easy  to  popularize 
this  work  throughout  the  whole  city  so  that  JanesAalle  might 
become  known  for  its  attractive  yards,  not  only  those  of  the 
well-to-do  class,  but  also  those  among  the  people  of  every  class. 


Special  Courses  and  Special  Subjects  209 

The  town  of  Harvard,  Illinois,  is  an  excellent  example  of  how 
such  an  ideal  may  find  expression  everywhere  in  the  commu- 
nity through  systematic  effort  under  good  leadership.  Why 
should  not  the  school  above  any  other  civic  agency  furnish  such 
leadership?  The  city  of  Wausau,  Wisconsin,  is  a  fine  example 
of  hoAV  such  work  can  be  developed  as  a  form  of  civic  biologJ^ 

The  school  grounds  should  receive  special  attention.  School 
children  are  entitled  to  as  beautiful  surroundings  as  are  the  in- 
sane or  the  county's  dependents.  Yet  few  school  yards  compare 
in  attractiveness  with  the  grounds  of  asylums  and  hospitals. 
There  is  need  of  definite  landscape  plans  for  each  school  yard, 
worked  out  by  those  who  have  had  training  in  this  art.  When 
carefully  made  plans  have  been  secured,  a  number  of  yeai*s 
may  then  be  taken  for  realizing  the  complete  plan,  but  when  it 
is  finished  it  becomes  a  source  of  beauty  and  enjoyment  for  all 
future  years,  not  only  for  the  school  but  for  the  whole  com- 
munity. This  influence  of  attractive  school  grounds  upon  the 
spirit  of  the  whole  community  is  appreciated  altogether  too 
little. 

It  is  recommended  that  greater  attention  be  given  to  the  idea 
of  decorative  planting  in  connection  with  both  the  school 
grounds  and  the  homes  of  the  city.  The  school  garden  movement 
should  also  be  more  fully  developed.  This  is  a  particularly  op- 
portune time  for  adequate  provision  for  this  work,  since  the 
great  world  food  crisis  has  roused  everyone  as  never  before  to 
the  great  need. 


210  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


XI     LIBRARY  WORK 

Two  aims  are  given  prominent  attention  when  the  purposes 
of  education  are  discussed.  One  of  these  is  the  development  of 
good  reading  tastes  which  shall  function  throughout  life;  the 
other,  training  in  the  ability  to  find  information  when  it  is 
needed.  These  two  aims  constitute  the  basis  of  this  survey  of 
the  library  work  in  the  Janesville  schools. 

Method  op  Survey 

A  visit  was  made  to  the  high  school,  to  some  of  the  grade 
buildings,  and  to  the  public  library,  to  get  a  general  idea  of  the 
situation.  A  questionnaire  was  then  sent  to  the  superintendent, 
asking  for  specific  data  as  to  books,  library  equipment,  etc.,  in 
the  grades  and  high  school.  Later,  a  test  in  general  reading 
and  a  test  in  ability  to  use  references  was  given  to  the  fresh- 
man class  in  the  high  school,  and  to  all  the  eighth  grades,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Washington  School,  which,  for  lack  of  time, 
could  not  be  reached  on  the  day  the  tests  were  given. 

General  Reading 

By  general  reading  is  here  meant  the  reading  of  books  not 
connected  Avith  class  work,  but  which  is  done  for  its  own  sake 
and  largely  on  the  voluntary  basis.  Such  reading  in  school  has 
the  twofold  purpose  of  developing  a  taste  for  good  reading  and 
training  in  the  wise  selection  of  reading  matter.  That  which  we 
want  to  have  done  voluntarily  throughout  life  we  must  plan  to 
have  done  without  compulsion  in  school,  otherwise  it  will  be 
dropped  like  any  other  task  work  when  the  compulsion  of 
school  requirements  ceases.  The  purpose  of  this  survey  of  gen- 
eral reading,  then,  is  to  determine  to  what  extent  good  volun- 
tary reading  is  being  done  and  what  reading  tastes  are  being 
developed. 

That  much  good  reading  is  being  done  in  the  Janesville  pub- 
lic schools  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  over  half  of  the  grade 
pupils  and  300  of  the  530  high  school  students  are  reading  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Wisconsin  Young  People's  Reading  Circle. 


Library  Work  211 

Grade  pupils  who  are  not  reading  under  such  auspices  are  re- 
quired to  report  on  other  reading  done  from  lists  provided. 

The  circumstance  that  over  ninety  per  cent  of  the  pupils  in 
the  three  upper  grades  and  four  out  of  every  five  high  school 
students  hold  borrowers'  cards  from  the  public  library  is  also 
significant  in  the  direction  of  good  voluntary  reading. 

To  throw  some  light  on  the  development  of  reading  tastes 
and  training  in  selection  of  reading,  a  test  on  general  reading 
was  given  to  the  eighth  grades  and  to  the  high  school  freshmen 
class. 

Number  of  Books  Read 

As  will  be  seen  by  referring  to  the  questions  of  the  test,  page 
215,  the  first  question  relates  to  the  number  of  books  drawn 
by  the  pupils  from  the  public  library.  In  these  figures  were  in- 
cluded books  draAvn  from  classroom  libraries.  They  include  the 
outside  reading  done  from  the  beginning  of  school  in  September 
until  the  time  the  tests  were  given  in  April. 

Since  neither  the  grades  nor  the  high  school  have  libraries 
of  their  own  for  general  reading  and  since  reading  of  worth 
while  books  from  other  sources  on  the  part  of  pupils  is  usually  a 
negligible  factor,  the  figures  with  regard  to  books  borrowed  from 
the  public  library  (including  classroom  libraries)  are  made  the 
basis  for  the  following  remarks  on  the  amount  of  reading  done. 

The  answers  to  question  1,  give  the  following  results: 

Average  number  of  books  borrowed  and  read  by  grade  children,  17: 
Adams  school,  16;  Garfield,  18;  Jefferson,  15;  Lincoln,  25.  Average 
for  High  School  freshmen,  12. 

Eighth  Grades  Freshmen 

Drew  no  books 9 18 

"     from     1  to     5 18 22 

6  to  10 20 22 

"      11  to  15 8. 18 

"      16  to  20 8 7 

"      21  to  30 19 21 

"      31  to  50 6 3 

"     over  50 5 1 

In  the  eighth  grades,  one  drew  55  books;  two  60;  one  85;  and  one 
90. 

It  will  be  noted  in  the  above  tabulation  that  9  (9.6%)  of  the 
eighth  graders  and  18  (15.8%)  of  the  freshmen  drew  no  books; 
also  that  18  (19.2%)  of  the  eighth  graders  and  22  (19%)  of  the 


212  Educational  Swvey  of  Janesville 

freshmen  drew  only  from  1  to  5  books.  These  pupils  presum- 
ably did  but  little  Avorth  while  general  reading  during  the 
school  year. 

While  compulsion  in  general  reading  is  scrupulously  to  be 
avoided  whenever  possible,  yet  it  would  seem  that  these  non- 
readers  ought  to  be  reached  in  some  way  that  will  give  them 
the  stimulus  and  training  that  good  reading  fosters.  The  lowest 
satisfactory  limit  set  in  marking  the  papers  was  eight  books. 

It  is  difficult  to  draw  the  line  between  a  reasonable  and  an 
excessive  amount  of  general  reading.  More  than  one  book  a 
week,  however,  is,  in  most  instances,  excessive.  This  limit  is  ex- 
ceeded by  eight  pupils  in  the  eighth  grades  and  by  only  three 
freshmen  in  the  high  school.  Hence  it  is  not  a  serious  problem, 
at  least  so  far  as  the  reading  of  books  drawn  from  the  public  li- 
brary is  concerned.  More  discussion  among  pupils  and  with  the 
teacher  about  the  books  read  will  have  a  tendency  to  reduce  ex- 
cessive reading  by  giving  the  reader  a  motive  for  paying  more 
attention  to  the  content  of  his  reading  and  taking  time  for  some 
independent  thinking  about  what  he  reads.  It  will  probably 
also  be  found  that  excessive  reading  is  largely  fiction.  By  wid- 
ening the  reading  interests,  the  tendency  to  haste  and  superfi- 
ciality will  be  lessened. 

Effect  of  Distance  from  the  Library 

Does  distance  from  the  public  library  make  any  considerable 
diiference  in  the  amount  of  reading  done? 

Pupils  were  asked  to  indicate  on  their  test  papers  the  num- 
ber of  blocks  from  their  homes  to  the  public  library.  In  the 
following  tabulation,  the  pupils  in  each  school  were  divided  into 

Table  36 


GROUP  FARTHER  FROM;  GROUP  NEARER  TO 

LIBRARY  LIBRARY 

Adams   15              J5.3  11  13  8  22 

Garfield   7              12.7  12  8  7  10 

Jefferson   12              10.5  18  14  3..'t  12 

Lincoln    12              15.2  24  12  7.6'  28 

High    School 56               19  10  56  6.2  15 


Library  Work  213 

two  equal  or  nearly  equal  groups,  in  one  of  which  were  placed 
those  farther  from  the  public  library  and  in  the  other  those 
nearer  to  tlie  library. 

It  will  be  sQen  that  in  the  Adams  and  Lincoln  schools  and  in 
the  high  school,  the  groups  nearest  to  the  library  drew  decidedly 
the  largest  number  of  books;  in  the  Adams  school,  100%  more; 
in  the  Lincoln  school,  16%  ;  and  in  the  high  school,  50%.  In 
the  Jefferson  and  Garfield  schools,  the  groups  nearest  the  library 
drew  the  feAvest  books.  This  is  perhaps  explainable  on  the  the- 
ory that  those  nearest  the  library  in  these  schools  are  so  near 
the  library  that  they  do  more  reading  in  the  library  and  so  draw 
fewer  books.  It  will  be  noted  that  these  two  schools  are  nearest 
to  the  public  library. 

Possibly,  too,  the  home  influences  which  bring  about  a  satis- 
factory amount  of  general  reading  are  not,  on  the  whole,  so  ef- 
fective in  the  parts  of  the  city  nearest  to  the  library  as  in  those 
parts  with  which  comparison  is  made. 

We  may,  then,  conclude  that  increasing  distance  from  the  li- 
brary rapidly  decreases  the  amount  of  reading  of  library  books. 
Since  most  homes  depend  ©n  the  public  library  for  their  gen- 
eral reading,  this  means  that  as  the  distance  from  the  public  li- 
brary increases,  the  amount  of  general  reading  decreases,  even 
when  there  is  close  cooperation  between  schools  and  library,  as  is 
the  case  in  Janesville. 

Classroom  Libraries 

In  view  of  this  fact,  classroom  libraries  sent  to  the  different 
schools  by  the  library  are  of  great  importance.  They  help  to 
equalize  conditions  with  respect  to  general  reading  and  to  give 
to  all  the  pupils  equal  opportunities  in  the  development  of  good 
reading  habits  and  tastes. 

The  following  tabulation  of  figures  relating  to  classroom  li- 
braries provided  by  the  public  library  for  the  grades  and  for 
use  in  the  high  school  during  the  school  year  1916-17  was  pro- 
vided by  the  librarian  of  the  public  library. 


214 


Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


The  following  grade  schools  received  books  from  the  library: 
School  Grade        Sent  in  Fall        Sent  in  Spring  Total 


Washington   . 

2nd 

0 

0 

3rd 

29 

29 

" 

4th 

31 

31    . 

" 

5th 

30 

30 

7th 

32 

32 

" 

8th 

31 

31 

306 

Adams 

1st 

0 
0 
30 
29 
0 
0 
0 
0 

30 
8 
30 
29 
0 
0 
0 
0 

2nd 

.< 

3rd 

.. 

4th 

" 

5th 

.. 

6th 

" 

7th 

.. 

8th 

156 

Jefferson    .... 

2nd 

0 

15 

" 

3rd 

0 

0 

" 

4th 

0 

0 

"            ... 

5th 

0 

0 

"            ... 

6th 

0 

0 

" 

7th 

0 

0 

8th 

0 

0 

15 

Douglas 

2nd 

0 

11 

"         

3rd 

29 

29 

4th 

31 

31 

131 

Grant    

...1st  &  2nd 

0 

15 

'« 

.  .  .3rd  &  4th 

27 
29 
29 

27 
29 
29 

.. 

. . .  5th  &  6th 

« 

6th 

185 

Jackson    

. .  .1st  &  2nd 

14 

14 

.  ..3rd  &  4th 

25 

25 

78 

Lincoln    

3rd 

0 

0 

"          

4th 

0    . 

0 

" 

7th 

0 

0 

8th 

0 

0 

0 

Garfield   

5th 

29 

29 

"          

6th 

30 

30 

"          

7th 

32 

32 

8th 

31 

31 

244 

Webster   

2nd 

0 

0 

5th 

27 

27 

54 

Final 

total 

1169 

Library  Work  215 

In  all  the  grades  above  the  second  grade  the  books  were  re- 
turned to  the  library  and  a  new  set  issued  in  February. 

Forty-two  classroom  libraries  were  sent  out,  including  1169 
books. 

These  school  libraries  were  retained  an  average  of  about  three 
months. 

Iltgli  School 

To  the  high  school,  the^e  were  sent  from  the  public  library  a 
total  of  209  books.  These  were  sent  to  individual  teachers  at 
their  request.  Teachers  of  the  folloAving  subjects  received  thc^c 
))ooks,  the  number  to  each  teacher  ranging  from  3  to  84  books: 
History  (117),  English  (32),  Science  (11),  Mathematics  (9), 
Manual  Training  (7),  Physical  Training  (7),  Latin  (5),  Do- 
mestic Science  (4),  Agriculture   (3),  Miscellaneous   (14). 

JDistrihution  of  the  Classroom  Libraries 

The  marked  unevenness  of  distribution  of  the  classroom  li- 
braries which  a  cursory  inspection  of  the  above  tabulation  dis- 
closes is  due  in  part  to  the  policy  of  sending  more  such  libraries 
to  the  schools  farthest  from  the  public  library.  It  is  expected 
that  the  pupils  in  the  schools  nearer  the  library  will  more  often 
visit  the  public  library  and  so  not  have  as  much  need  for  class- 
room libraries. 

However,  there  are  apparently  a  number  of  inconsistencies  in 
the  carrying  out  of  this  policy.  The  Lincoln  and  Garfield 
schools  are  approximately  the  same  distance  from  the  library, 
yet  the  former  had  no  classroom  libraries  for  its  124  pupils, 
while  the  latter  had  8  classroom  libraries  supplying  244  books 
for  its  100  pupils.  The  Adams  school  had  no  classroom  libraries 
for  its  four  upper  grades,  although  it  is  farther  from  the  library 
than  the  Garfield  school  which  had  244  volumes  for  the  same 
grades. 

Further  discussion  of  classroom  libraries  is  given  on  page  217 
in  connection  with  the  comments  on  the  standings  in  general 
reading. 

Test  in  General  Beading 

Following  is  the  test  given  in  general  reading,  to  which  refer- 
ence has  already  been  made. 

1.   How  many  books  have  you  drawn  fiom  the  public  library  and 
read  this  school  year? 


216  Educational  Surven  of  Jan(.TvUh 

2.  Title  of  the  work  of  fiction  read  within  the  last  two  years  that 

you  liked  best. 

3.  Other  books — not  fiction — read  within  the  last  two  years  that 

you  liked  best. 

4.  Title  of  work  of  fiction  which  you  have  not  yet  read,  but  which 

you  are  anxious  to  read  soon. 

5.  Other   book — not   fiction — which   you    have   not   yet   read,    but 

which  you  are  anxious  to  read  soon. 

6.  What  two  magazines  do  you  like  best  to  read? 

The  Standings  in  General  Reading 

It  is  of  course  a  difficult  matter  to  grade  papers  in  general 
reading  so  as  to  express  by  percentages  the  condition  with  re- 
spect to  the  development  of  reading  tastes  and  habits.  The 
standings  tabulated  below  should  be  looked  upon  only  as  approx- 
imations, with  liberal  allowance  for  the  fact  that  the  test  was 
given  without  previous  warning  and  that  it  is  a  kind  of  test  with 
which  the  pupils  are  very  likely  unfamiliar.  The  questions  were 
rated  as  of  equal  value. 

With  the  above  in  mind,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  standings 
should  l)e  given  a  higher  estimate  than  the  figures  given  usually 
receive.  We  may  consider  90  or  over  as  excellent ;  80  to  89,  very 
good;  70  to  79,  good;  60  to  69,  fair;  50  to  59,  poor;  below  50, 
very  poor. 

Table  37. — Result  of  Test  in  General  Reading 
Standings   on   a    Scale   of   100 


SCHOOLS 

No.  of 

High 

Adams 

Garfield 

Jefferson 

Lincoln 

Standings 

School 

90-100 

4 

1 

5 

1 

80-  89 

3 

6 

9 

5 

23 

15 

70-  79 

5 

4 

7 

7 

23 

18 

60-  69 

4 

5 

3 

12 

22 

50-  59 

6 

1 

3 

3 

13 

21 

40-  49 

5 

2 

2 

9 

17 

30-  39 

3 

1 

4 

9 

20-  29 

1 

2 

3 

8 

10-  19 

1 

1 

3 

0-  9 

1 

1 

Average 

56.6 

81.8 

68 

.6 

62.4 

65.7 

57. 

Median 

56.7 

84.2 

73, 

.6 

71.4 

71.7 

59.5 

Library  Work  217 

Comments  on  Standings  in  General  Reading 

The  standings  in  general  reading,  with  the  exception  of  those 
in  the  Garfield  school,  are  considerably  lower  than  might  reason- 
ably be  expected,  in  view  of  the  good  showing  as  to  the  amount 
of  reading. and  the  circumstances  under  which  it  is  done.  The 
following  suggestions  are  made  with  a  view  to  accounting  for 
and  improving  this  condition. 

A  clear  idea  of  what  books  read,  please  and  help  us  most  and 
why,  is  an  essential  element  in  good  reading  tastes  and  habits. 
Informal  discussion  by  the  pupils  in  groups,  with  the  teacher 
as  leader,  and  informal  conversations  between  the  teacher  and 
individual  pupils  based  on  books  read  are  among  the  best  means 
of  developing  this  clarity  with  respect  to  reading  done. 

The  answers  to  questions  4  and  5,  relating  to  books  which  the 
pupil  has  not  yet  read,  but  which  he  is  anxious  to  read  soon, 
show  that  many  have  no  "waiting  list"  of  worth  while  books, 
and  so,  when  left  to  themselves,  are  too  likely  to  take  up  with 
"trashy"  reading  which  happens  to  attract  their  attention. 
Developing  the  habit  of  having  such  a  waiting  list  is  an  effective 
means  of  ])romoting  good  choice  of  books  throughout  life.  Here 
again  the  discussions  mentioned  in  the  preceding  paragraph  are 
to  be  recommended. 

The  average  standings  are  considerably  lowered  by  the  stand- 
ings of  those  who  drew  the  fewest  books  from  the  public  library. 
The  group  of  47  pupils  in  the  eighth  grades  Avho  borrowed  from 
0  to  11  books  each  have  an  average  standing  of  61.2%  ;  the  group 
of  46  pupils  who  borrowed  12  or  more  books  each  have  an  aver- 
age standing  of  71.4%.  In  the  high  school  freshmen  class,  the 
group  of  63  who  borrowed  from  0  to  10  books  each  received  an 
average  standing  of  48.8%  ;  the  group  of  51  who  borrowed  more 
than  10  books  each  averaged  67%. 

It  may  be  objected  that  the  number  of  books  drawn  was  in 
and  of  itself  a  factor  in  determining  standings.  Since,  however, 
this  was  only  one  of  six  questions,  it  does  not  affect  the  stand- 
ings enough  to  make  any  difference  in  the  conclusion  that  the 
group  who  drew  the  fewest  books  have  achieved  the  poorest  re- 
sults in  the  development  of  good  reading  tastes  and  habits. 

The  figures  given  on  page  211  show  that  twenty-nine  per  cent 
of  the  eighth  graders  and  thirty-five  per  cent  of  the  high  school 
freshmen  drew  either  no  books  or  not  to  exceed  five  books.    This 


218  Educatioudl  Survcji  of  Ja)usviU( 

fact,  in  connect  ion  with  the  above  considerations,  leads  to  the 
suggestion  that  special  efforts  should  be  made  to  get  all  i)upils 
to  do  at  least  a  reasonable  niininiuni  of  reading. 

The  average  standing  of  the  eighth  graders  in  the  Garfield 
school,  it  will  be  noted,  is  very  much  higher  than  that  of  any  of 
the  other  grade  schools  in  which  the  test  was  given.  ■  This  is  the 
only  one  of  these  schools  which  is  shown  by  the  tabulation  on 
page  214  to  have  received  classroom  libraries  for  the  upper 
grades.  This  may  possibly  be  only  a  coincidence.  It  is  likely, 
however,  that  the  use  of  classroom  libraries  in  the  Garfield 
school  is  also  to  a  considerable  extent  a  cause  of  the  difference 
of  standings  in  favor  of  that  school. 

Classroom  libraries  give  teachers  frequent  opportunity  to  pro- 
mote worth  while  reading.  When  interest  has  been  awakened 
by  reading  from  the  books,  by  book  reports,  or  otherwise,  the 
books  are  at  hand  to  be  loaned  while  the  desire  to  read  them  is  at 
its  height.  Classroom  libraries  also  give  opportunity  for  fre- 
quent ''broAvsing"  among  good  books,  and  this  is  conceded  to 
be  one  of  the  best  means  of  developing  good  reading  tastes.  The 
limited  number  of  books  in  such  libraries,  compared  with,  the 
large  collection  in  the  public  library,  gives  prominence  to  the 
very  books  among  which  the  pu])il  should  select  his  reading,  thus 
greatly  increasing  the  likelihood  of  wise  selection. 

It  is,  therefore,  recommended  t'hat  classroom  libraries  be  pro- 
vided for  every  grade  in  all  the  grade  buildings,  irrespective  of 
the  distance  of  the  building  from  the  library.  Pupils  should, 
however,  be  encouraged  and  expected  to  make  frequent  visits  to 
the  public  library,  in  order  that  they  may  make  use  of  its  larger 
collections  and  get  into  the  habit  of  drawing  upon  its  resources. 

Standings  of  the  High  School  F)-csh)ncn 

The  lower  standing  of  the  high  school  freshmen  as  compared 
with  the  eighth  grades  in  all  except  one  school  is  a  puzzling 
feature. 

It  was  thought  that  possibly  the  nonresident  freshmen,  who, 
coming  mostly  from  rural  communities,  presumably  had  had 
fewer  library  advantages,  might,  in  part,  account  for  the  result. 
That  such  is  not  the  case,  however,  is  revealed  by  a  comparison 
of  the  average  standing  of  the  nonresident  freshmen  with  the 
average  standing  of  both  residents  and  nonresidents  who  took 
the  test.     The  average  standing  of  the  nonresident  freshmen  is 


Lihranj  Work  219 

56.7%,  and  that  of  all  freshmen,  56.98%,  a  difference  of  less 
than  one-third  of  one  per  cent. 

The  average  standing  of  the  eighth  graders  in  the  Garfield 
school  was  81.8  as  compared  with  56.98  in  the  case  of  the  high 
school  freshmen.  Perhaps  some  contrasting  conditions  between 
the  two  may  give  a  clue. 

During  the  school  year  1916- '17,  there  were  sent  from  the 
public  library  to  the  Garfield  school  two  classroom  libraries  to 
each  grade.  The  total  number  of  books  thus  sent  was  244  for 
the  100  pupils  enrolled.  These  books  were  for  the  general  read- 
ing of  the  pupils,  largely  in  connection  with  the  Young  People's 
Reading  Circle.  There  were  sent  from  the  public  library  to 
thii'teen  of  the  high-school  teachers  for  use  of  students  in  their 
classes  and  for  their  own  use  as  teachers  209  volumes.  This  is 
all  the  books  sent  to  the  high  school  for  its  530  students.  Most 
of  these  books  were  presumably  for  collateral  reading  or  refer- 
ence in  connection  with  the  subjects  taught.  Since,  too,  the  high 
school  library  supplies  but  little  in  the  way  of  general  reading, 
we  may  conclude  that  the  pupils  of  the  Garfield  school  were 
much  better  provided  with  good  general  reading,  in  a  way  which 
made  a  direct  appeal,  than  were  the  high  school  freshmen.  It  is 
altogether  likely  that  this  accounts  to  a  considerable  extent  for 
the  better  showing  by  the  Garfield  school  as  compared  with  the 
freshmen  in  the  high  school. 

The  establishment  of  a  good  sized  well-organized  high  school 
library  containing,  in  addition  to  reference  material  and  books 
for  collateral  reading,  a  well-selected  lot  of  books  for  general 
reading,  will  decidedly  improve  the  condition  as  to  general 
reading  by  high  school  students.  The  books  for  general  reading 
may  well  be  provided  by  the  public  library,  somewhat  as  class- 
room libraries  are  supplied  to  the  grades. 

As  has  already  been  stated,  page  211,  15.8%  of  the  high  school 
freshmen  drew  no  books  from  the  public  library  and  19%  from 
one  to  five  books  each.  This  is  a  total  of  35%  who  fell  below  a 
reasonable  minimum  of  reading.  This  fact,  doubtless,  contrib- 
uted largely  to  the  low  average  standing  of  the  freshmen.  One 
of  the  remedies  is  suggested  above,  namely,  bringing  the  books 
to  the  students  through  the  high  school  library.  This,  together 
with  some  geneiwl  requirements  as  to  outside  reading  which 
will  reach  all  high  school  students,  is  a  conclusion  clearly  indi- 
cated by  the  facts  of  the  case. 


220 


Educational  Survey  of  Janesvilla 


Magazine  Reading 

Magazines  offer  as  wide  a  variety  of  general  reading  as  books 
and  they  are  read  by  many  people  who  seldom  read  books.  It  is 
of  importance,  therefore,  that  schools  should  acquaint  their  pu- 
pils with  the  best  magazines  and  develop  a  taste  for  reading 
them.  Only  a  beginning  can  be  made  in  the  upper  grades  and 
the  first  year  of  the  high  school,  but  upon  that  beginning,  the 
future  reading  of  many  pupils  will  depend. 

The  following  tabulation  was  made  of  the  answers  to  ques- 
tion 10  in  the  test  on  general  reading;  namely,  What  two  maga- 
zines do  you  like  best  to  read  ? 


Most  Popular  Magazines.  Eighth  Grades  and  Freshmen 


Mag'azlne 

Eighth 
Graders 

Fresh- 
men 

Magazine 

Eighth 
Gradei's 

Fresh- 
men 

Ad  venture 

1 
1 

26 

1 
1 

1 

1 
4 
2 

America 

American 

4 

"i 

1 

National  Gpographic. . 

5 

American  Boy 

American  Continent.., 

Outing 

1 

Boy's  Life 

People's  Home  .lournal 

People's  Magazine 

Photoplay 

9 

i 

3 

Boy's  Mag-azine 

Campaign  Survey 

1 

Classmates 

1 

3 

Pictorial  Review 

I'opular  Magazine  ...... 

Popular  Mechanics 

Popular  Science 

Red  Boole 

8 
1 

19 
1 

4 

Colliers 

1 

1 

2 

1 

•  2 

2 

Comfort 

88 

Cosmopolitan 

4 

7 

Countrv  Gentleman,.. 

1 

Delineator 

2 

i 

1 
1 

Review  of  Reviews 

3 

Desifrner 

St.  Nicliolas 

21 
1 
2 

16 

Detective 

2 

2  '" 

2 

Electric  Experimenter 
Everytaoclv's 

Saturda.v  Evening  Post 

1 

Gentlewoman 

Scientific  American..   . 
Something-to-do. 

i"  ■ 

1 

Geoeriapliic  Survey 

1 

1 
........ 

Good  Housclieepins. . . . 

2 

1 

Sunday  Sch'i  Advocate 

Technical  World 

To-day's  Magazine 

1 

1 
1 

Hearst's 

2 

Health 

1 

Hearth 

1 

V 

Hearthstone 

1 

2 
1 

10 
2 

i  Woman's  Home  Corn- 

5 
1 

1 
1 

Home 

■  ■-■■■ 

14 

3 

1 
12 

1 

Illustiatefl  World 

Woman's  World 

World's  Magazine 

World's  Outlook 

World's  Worlv 

1 

Leslie's , 

Life 

6 

McCall's        

9 

1 
1 

Young  Chur'-hman 

Yoving  People's  Maga- 

1 

1 
22 

3 
7 

Mechanics  Magazine. . . 

2 

Metropolitan 

Youth's  Companion 

No  magazines  read 

Only  1  magazine  read 

21 

Modern  Priscilla 

Monthly  Masrazine 

1 
1 
3 

2 

Mother's  Magazine  .... 

6 

P  A  few  of  ths  abDve  titles  cannot  be  found  in  magazine  lists:  it  is  lilcel.ythat  most 
of  these  are  incorrectly  given  titles  of  magazines  read. 


Library  Work  221 

The  first  five  magazines  in  favor,  with  the  number  of  votes  for 
each,  are  as  follows: 

Eighth   Grades  High    School    Freshmen 

1.  American  Boy 26  1.  Popular    Mechanics 38 

2.  Youth's   Companion 22  2.  American  Boy   22 

3.  St.  Nicholas 21  3.  Youth's  Companion : 21 

4.  Popular  Mechanics 19  4.  St.  Nicholas 16 

5.  Ladies'  Home  Journal 10  5.  Ladies'  Home  Journal 14 

Considering  the  age  and  stage  of  the  readers,  these  favorites, 
with  the  exception  of  the  fifth  on  the  list  some  will  say,  testify 
to  good  choices  in  magazine  reading.  However,  there  are  too 
many  scattering  votes  for  periodicals  which  have  little  or  no 
merit  to  recommend  them.  On  the  other  hand,  some  of  the  scat- 
tered choices  are  very  good,  as  witness:  Colliers,  Good  House- 
keeping, National  Geographic  Magazine  (9  votes),  Review  of  Re- 
views, Scientific  American,  World's  Work.  One  misses  in  these 
scattering  choices  the  Independent,  Literary  Digest,  and  Outlook. 

It  is  recommended  that  some  system  be  adopted  by  which  the 
leading  magazines  will  come  regularly  to  the  high  school  and  a 
carefully  selected  minimum  to  each  of  the  grade .  buildings 
housing  the  granmiar  grades,  and  that  the  ne(3essary  equipment 
for  facilitating  and  encouraging  magazine  reading  be  installed. 
The  public  library  might  well  be  made  the  center  for  magazine 
distribution  to  the  various  schools. 

Ability  to  Find  Information  ;  Reference 

Education  is  sometimes  defined  as  the  ability  to  find  informa- 
tion when  you  need  it.  While  this  is  only  a  partial  definition, 
yet  it  expresses  the  fundamental  importance  of  this  function  of 
education.  If  pupils  are  trained  to  use  reference  sources  effect- 
ively, they  will  increasingly  demand  less  of  the  teacher's  time, 
will  not  need  to  be  loaded  down  with  information  which  they 
can  find  when  they  need  it,  and  will  leave  school  with  a  train- 
ing that  they  can  put  into  practice  throughout  life. 

Equipment  in  tJie  Grades 

In  order  that  reference  work  may  be  properly  carried  on,  it 
is  necessary  that  there  be  certain  easily  accessible  reference  ma- 
terial in  the  different  grade  buildings  and  in  the  high  school. 

To  secure  data  as  to  reference  equipment  in  the  grades,  the 


222  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

following  questionnaire  was  filled  out  by  the  Superintendent  at 
the  request  of  the  department. 

Grade  Libraries 

1.  In  how  many  of  the  grade  buildings  housing  grades  above 

the  fifth  is  there  a  copy  (in  at  least  fair  condition)  of: 

a.  Webster's  New   International  Dictionary?      No  New  Web- 

ster's   International    Dictionaries;    several    old    ones. 

b.  An    up-to-date    yearbook,    such    as    the    World    Almanac? 

None. 

c.  An  up-to-date  (within  five  years  of  present  date)   encyclo- 

pedia of  six  or  more  volumes?      None. 

d.  Champlin's   Cyclopedia  of   Common  Things?      None. 

e.  Champlin's  Cyclopedia  of  Persons  and  Places?     None. 

f.  Champlin's   Cyclopedia  of  Literature  and  Art?      None. 

g.  Champlin's   Cyclopedia  of   Natural   History?      None. 
h.   The  latest  Wisconsin  Blue  Book   (1915)?      None. 

i.   An  up-to-date  atlas    (within    five  years  of  present   date)? 

None, 
j.   Robert's  Rules  of  Order?      None. 

2.  How  many  grade  buildings  housing  grades  above  the  fifth 

grade?     Six. 

3.  In  how  many  grade  rooms  of  the   5th,   6th,   7th,   and  8th 

grades  are  there  a  number  of  smaller  dictionaries  for* 

reference'?    ^4  of  total. 

Which  dictionaries  are  used  for  this  purpose?     Webster's 

Collegiate. 

4.  In  which  grades  does  each  pupil  have  a  copy  of  a  smaller 

dictionary  at  his  seat?     Nearly  all  from  4th  up. 

5.  To  how  many  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grade  rooms  does 

at  least  one  daily  newspaper  come  regularly?    None. 

6.  How  many  of  such  grade  buildings  have : 

a.  A    filing    system    for    pamphlets    and    clippings,    including 

pamphlet  boxes?      None. 

b.  A  reading  table  for  each  of  the  three  upper  grades,  with 

chairs  around  it,  for  use  in  reference  work,  etc.?    None. 

c.  A  bookcase  in  each  grade  room?      All. 

d.  A  conveniently  located  dictionary  holder  (a  stand  fastened 

to  the  wall  or  a  definite  place  on  a  reading  table  or  a 
holder  on  its  own  stand)  in  each  of  the  three  upper 
grade  rooms?      Only  a  few  rooms  so  equipped. 


Lihnirii   Work  223 

8.  In  how  many  of  the  grade  buildings  are  definite  lessons  given 

in  reference  work,  including  a  course  in  the  use  of  the 
dictionary,  lessons  on  the  use  of  the  encyclopedia,  year- 
book, an  atlas,  care  of  books,  printed  parts  of  a  book,  Wis- 
consin Blue  Book,  quotations,  magazines,  the  daily  news- 
paper?    Only  incidental  teaching  along  this  line. 

9.  How  many  of  the  eighth   grade  classes   are  given  definite 

instruction  in  the  use  of  the  public  library,  including  a 
practice  lesson  in  the  library  building?     All. 
If  such  instruction  is  given,  liow  many  lessons  does  each 
class  receive?     One  per  year,  eighth  gi-ade  only. 

It  will  be  seen  by  a  perusal  of  the  above  questions  and  an- 
swers that  the  most  obvious  reference  material  and  equipment 
are  to  a  large  extent  lacking  in  the  grade  buildings. 

There  is  no  copy  of  an  ui)-to-date  unabridged  dictionary,  such 
as  Webster's  New  International  Dictionary,  which  was  issued  in 
1909.  The  previous  edition,  mentioned  as  being  in  some  of  the 
buildings,  was  issued  in  1900  and  hence  is  very  much  out-of-date  ; 
but  even  that  is  not  at  hand  in  all  the  schools. 

There  are  no  reading  tables  on  which  reference  books  may 
be  spread  out  and  around  which  pupils  may  be  seated  in  prox- 
imity to  shelves  holding  the  reference  books ;  and,  which  is  per- 
haps more  to  the  point,  inviting  and  attracting  the  pupils  to 
make  use  of  reference  material. 

There  is  no  up-to-date  encyclopedia,  none  of  the  smaller  one- 
volume  encyclopedias  by  Champlin,  no  up-to-date  yearbook,  no 
up-to-date  Blue  Book,  no  up-to-date  Atlas,  no  copy  of  Robert's- 
Rules  of  Order.  These  with  an  up-to-date  unabridged  dic- 
tionary are  a  very  modest  minimum  of  reference  material  for 
the  upper  grades. 

There  is  much  material  in  the  form  of  pamphlets  and  clippings 
valuable  for  reference  which  can  be  easily  accumulated.  There 
should  be  some  system  of  pamphlet  boxes  and  folders  for  filing 
such  material  where  pupils  and  teachers  can  readily  find  it  when 
it  is  needed. 

One  or  more  good  representative  daily  newspapers  coming 
regularly  to  each  building  would  be  valuable  for  reference  in 
current  affairs  and  would,  besides,  be  of  use  in  teaching  how  to 
read  newspapers  quickly  and  effectively. 


224  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

Instruction  in  Reference  Work  in  Grades 

Learning  what  reference  material  to  use  and  how  to  use  it  re- 
quires much  systematic  study  as  well  as  material  with  which  to 
work.  Every  one  will  remember  how  slowly  and  with  what 
effort  he  learned  to  get  information  from  textbooks  even  though 
definite  pages  were  usually  assigned  for  study.  Now,  learning 
to  use  reference  material  is  a  more  complex  matter,  and  definite 
instruction  in  a  systematic  course  of  lessons  is  necessary  to  get 
satisfactory  results.  This  is  only  beginning  to  be  realized  in  our 
educational  system.  In  fact  schools  have  but  recently  had  the 
library  facilities  to  serve  as  laboratory  material  for  this  in- 
struction. Tests  in  reference  work  held  in  a  number  of  city  and 
village'  schools  the  past  school  year  have  given  uniformly  poor 
results.  And  this  is  to  be  expected  wherever  definite  lessons  are 
not  given  in  reference  work.  The  State  Department  of  Educa- 
tion has  published  a  course  of  such  lessons  for  the  guidance  of 
teachers,  and  can  supply  one  to  each  teacher  in  the  system. 

Library  Work 

By  the  answer  to  question  8,  it  will  be  seen  that  only  inci- 
dental instruction  is  given  in  the  grades  in  finding  information 
in  reference  sources. 

The  use  of  the  public  library  is  of  the  highest  importance  in 
reference  work.  Upper  grade  pupils  will  need  five  or  more  les- 
sons on  its  use  in  order  to  become  fairly  well  able  to  use  its  re- 
sources for  reference.  A  start  has  been  made  in  that  each 
eighth  grade  is  given  one  lesson  by  the  public  librarian.  This 
should  be  increased  to  at  least  five  lessons;  and  it  would  be 
well  to  give  them  in  the  sixth  grade  so  that  the  public  library 
may  be  used  as  a  reference  source  throughout  the  upper  grades. 
These  lessons  will  supplement  reference  lessons  given  in  the 
schools,  but  cannot  even  begin  to  be  a  substitute  for  the  very 
many  more  lessons  which  should  be.  given  by  the  teachers. 

Beference  work  in  the  High  School;  Equipment 

The  reference  work  in  the  high  school  requires  much  more  in 
the  way  of 'books  and  other  material  than  is  the  case  with  the 
grades.  This  comes  from  the  more  advanced  studies  pursued  and 
the  larger  share  that  the  student  should  take  in  the  learning  of 
assigned  lessons  and  the  study  of  topics  upon  which  reports  are 


Library  Work  225 

to  be  made.  lie  should  now  learn  how  to  work  u])  a  topic  inde- 
pendently ;  and,  in  order  to  do  this,  he  must  know  how  to  use  ref- 
erence sources. 

A  good-sized,  well-selected  reference  library  which  each  year 
receives  new  material,  and  from  which  out-of-date  material  is 
promptly  removed,  is  a  necessity  in  the  modern  high  school.  Its 
resources  should  be  supplemented  by  those  of  the  public  library, 
but  the  latter  cannot  be  a  successful  substitute  for  the  former. 

We  understand  that  the  establishment  of  an  effective  high 
school  library  has  been  decided  upon  for  some  time,  but  that  the 
crowded  condition  of  the  high  school  has  prevented  the  execu- 
tion of  the  project. 

It  is  therefore  unnecessary  to  go  into  any  great  detail  as  to 
library  conditions  in  the  high  school  at  the  present  time. 

There  are  approximately  500  volumes  in  the  high  school  li- 
brary', scattered  in  fourteen  different  rooms,  including  the  as- 
sembly room.  Since  a  considerable  proportion  of  these  books 
are  out-of-date,  the  usable  part  of  the  library  is  very  small  com- 
pared Avith  the  1500  to  3000  volumes  needed  in  a  good  high  school 
library  in  a  city  of  the  size  of  Janesville. 

The  books  in  the  assembly  room,  which  presumably  represent 
the  core  of  the  library,  are  arranged  in  no  definite  order,  and 
give  no  indication  by  their  character,  numbers  or  condition,  of 
the  importance  of  reference  work  as  a  part  of  the  functions  of 
a  high  school.  The  lack  of  organization  is  illustrated  by  the 
fact  that  there  is  no  accession  book. 

Teachers  are  privileged  to  draw  books  from  the  public  library 
for  use  in  connection  with  reference  work  or  collateral  reading 
in  the  subjects  which  they  teach  and  apparently  this  privilege  is 
made  use  of  to  a  considerable  extent.  This,  of  course,  greatly 
supplements  the  meager  resources  of  the  high  school  library. 
The  city  appropriates  $500  per  year  to  the  city  library  for  school 
purposes.  In  addition  some  reference  w^ork  is  done  at  the  public 
library,  though  the  distance  between  school  and  library  is  so 
great  that  the  loss  of  time  necessitated  in  doing  reference  work 
at  the  public  library  acts  as  a  deterrent. 

The  reference  Avork  is  apparently  largely  that  in  which  cer- 
tain pages  in  certain  books  are  given  out.  That,  of  course,  must 
be  done  to  an  extent.  But  if  there  were  a  well-organized  high 
school  library,  independent  reference  Avork  on  assigned  topics 


226  Educaiional  Surveij  of  Janesvillv 

could  more  often  be  done  and  to  the  great  advantage  of  all  con- 
cerned. 

The  principal  of  the  high  school,  in  replying  to  the  question 
as  to  how  the  need  of  a  high  school  library  has  made  itself  felt, 
said: 

"It  is  difficult,  in  the  fall  and  winter,  for  young  children  to 
find  time  to  go  to  the  library  excepting  on  Saturday.  They  can- 
not be  sent  from  the  study  room  or  the  classroom  to  look  up  a 
reference.  It  is  impossible  for  them  to  become  as  familiar  with 
card  indexes,  files,  etc.,  as  they  might  in  the  school  library  under 
the  direction  of  a  teacher  librarian." 

Instruction 

There  is  no  definite  course  of  instruction  in  reference  work  in 
the  high  school.  Some  instruction  is  given  on  the  reading  of 
magazines.  Indeed  it  would  be  difficult  to  give  such  instruction 
without  a  fairlj^  well-organized  high  school  library,  at  least  be- 
yond what  should  be  given  in  the  grades. 

There  ought  to  be  some  lessons  given  on  the  use  of  the  public 
library  to  all  in  the  freshman  English  class.  This  should  be 
done  by  the  public  librarian,  at  least  until  there  is  a  trained 
librarian  in  charge  of  the  high  school  library.  A  minimum  of 
five  lessons  should  be  given,  and  to  those  students  who  have  had 
no  previous  lessons  on  the  use  of  the  public  library,  at  least  ten 
lessons  should  be  given. 

Test  in  Beferencc  Work 

In  order  to  determine  the  condition  with  respect  to  training 
in  finding  information,  the  following  test  was  given : 

Note:    Do  not  mention  textbooks. 

1.  In  what  book  would  you  look  for  a  map  showing  what  counties 

constitute  the  congressional  district  in  which  you  live? 

2.  In  what  book  would  you  find  how  many  bushels  of  wheat  were 

raised  in  the  U.  S.  in  1915? 

3.  Where  would  you  look  to  find  out  who  the   present  governor  of 

Colorado  is? 

4.  If  you  were  asked   to  go  to  the  public  library   and  get   material 

for  an  account  of  the  Life  of  General  Joffre,  and  were  not 
permitted  to  ask  for  the  help  of  the  librarian,  what  helps  \vould 
you  use?     Name  at  least  two. 

5.  Where  could  you  most  quickly  look  up  the  year  of  the  birth  and 

the  year  of  the  death  of  Patrick  Henry? 

6.  Where  would  you  ascertain  whether  or  not  it  is  good  English  to 

say,  "If  a  young  rran  is  to  succeed,  he  must  always  be  on 
the   square?" 


Lihrarij   ^S'ovl; 


227 


7.  If  you  were  going  to  preside  at  a  public  meeting  and  wanted  to 

have    a   book    at   hand    as    a    guide    in   putting    motions,    etc., 
what  book  would  probably  best  answer  the  purpose? 

8.  Where  would  you  look  for  a  short  account  of  the  Boxer  rebellion? 

(Rebellion  in  China  in  the  year  1900.) 

9.  If,  in  reading  a  news  item  of  the  European  War,  you  saw  men- 

tion of  the  Camonica  valley,  where  could  you  quickly  get  in- 
formation as  to   its  location? 

10.  In  what  kind  of  a  book  could  you  learn  who  wrote? 

"Peace  hath  her  victories 
No  less  renowned  than  war." 

From  what  has  been  said  above,  it  was  to  be  expected  that  the 
standings  in  reference  Mork  would  show  but  little  ability  in  the 
finding  of  information.  Little  or  no  reference  equipment  and 
only  incidental  instruction,  following  no  definite  course  ac- 
count for  the  results  of  this  test,  of  which  the  following  is  a 
tabulation : 

Table   38. — Test  in  Reference 

Distribution  of  Standings   (Scale  of  100) 


Schools 

Total 

for 

these 

grades 

High 

Adams 

Garfleld 

.lelfersoii 

Li  11  coin 

school 

Over  70 

60-6) 



50    59        

1 

40    49 

2 

2 

I 

3 

isl 

1.5.5 
0 

1 

2 

3 
6 

10 
48 

27 

11.5 

14.6 

22 

7 

80    39 

•> 
I 

n 

8 



12.2 
,4.6 

14 

:jo    29 

k 
16 

5 

7.1 

14.4 
10 

36 

10    19 

n 
11 

iTi 

10.94 
5 

39 

0    9 

17 

~20^00~ 

20.3 

Number  of  zeros 

5 

Note:  At  ihe  left,  in  the  above  tabulation,  is  ihe  rarge  of  standings,  atthe  right 
of  which  is  given  the  number  of  pupils  of  eacheiglith  grade  who  received  standings 
within  that  range  and  the  'otal  number  for  all  the^e  grades,  also  the  number  of  high 
snhool  freshmen  within  that  range  of  standings.  Tt.is  is  followed  by  the  "average," 
"median."  and  the  number  who  received  zero  on  the  test. 


To  those  who  inspect  the  above  tabulation,  we  would  repeat 
what  is  said  above  to  the  effect  that  poor  results  have  been  ob- 
tained in  all  public  .schools  where  the  same  test  was  given  this 
school  year,  and  that  until  there  are  definite  courses  in  reference 
work,  we  cannot  expect  any  better  resitlts.  These  figures  put 
the  condition  before  us  in  black  and  white  and  should  bring 
about  such  a  change  in  the  curriculum  as  shall  substitute  for 
such  lack  of  results  at  least  as  good  standings  as  we  expect  in 
geography,  history,  and  other  traditional  school  subjects. 


228  Educational  Survey  of  JanesviUe 


Summary   of   Recommendations   With   Respect   to   Library 
Work 

GENERAL  READING 

1.  Continue  and  extend  the  good  work  of  the  reading  circles. 

2.  Provide  classroom  libraries  for  each  grade  in  all  the  graded 

schools. 

3.  Provide  a   well-organized   high  school    library    with    a   trained 

librarian  in  charge.  In  this  library,  have  a  well-chosen  col- 
lection of  books  for  general  reading. 

4.  Arrange    for    more    informal    conversations    and    discussions 

about  books  read,  these  to  be  participated  in  by  the  pupils 
in  groups,  the  teacher  acting  as  leader.  (Reading  classes 
make  good  groups  for  this  purpose.) 

5.  Supplement  present  arrangements  for  outside  reading  so  that 

all  the  students  in  the  high  school  as  well  as  in  the  grades 
above  the  third  do  at  least  as  much  outside  reading  as  is  pre- 
scribed in  the  Wisconsin  Young  People's  Reading  Circle 
lists. 

6.  Provide  magazines  in  the  grammar  grades  and  High  School; 

also  one  or  more  good  daily  newspapers. 

7.  Get  pupils  interested  in  good  general  reading  connected  with 

the  subjects  studied.      For  example,  books  of  travel  and  ad- 
venture in  connection  with  geography;   biography  and  histori- 
cal fiction  in  connection  with  history. 

REFERENCE 

1.  For   the   grammar    grades,   provide    at   least   the    minimum    of 

reference  books  and   equipment  mentioned   in  the  question- 
naire on  page  222. 

2.  Provide  a  well-organized  high  school  library  especially  strong 

in  reference  material. 

3.  Introduce  a  definite  course  in  reference,  both  in  the  grades  and 

in  the  freshman  English  class  in  the  high  school.  In  this 
course  give  the  lessons  in  the  publication  of  the  State  Depart- 
ment of  Education  entitled  Lessons  on  the  Use  of  the  School 
Library,  or  their  equivalents. 

4.  Give  at  least  five  lessons  on  the  use  of  the  public  library  to  all 

sixth  grades. 

5.  Give  at  least  five  lessons  on  the  use  of  the  public  library  to  the 

freshman  English  class  in  the  high  school. 

6.  Much  of  the  reference  work  should  be  done  independently  by 

the  pupils  after  the  necessary  reference  lessons  have  been 
given.  Page  references  should  be  much  less  exclusively 
used. 


Time  Allotments  and  Course  of  Study  229 


XII     TIME  ALLOTMENTS  AND  COURSE  OF 

STUDY 

Time  Allotments 

The  apportionment  of  the  time  avaihable  to  each  of  the  various 
subjects  in  the  curriculum  is  a  matter  which  all  too  frequently 
receives  little  serious  consideration.  The  problem  of  proper  time . 
allotments  is  one  which  is  not  easily  solved.  A  diversity  of 
opinion  prevails  as  to  the  most  satisfactory  apportionment.  This 
has  resulted  in  wide  variations  in  the  time  given  to  each  subject 
among  cities.  Several  factors  contribute  to  this  w^ide  variation. 
These  include  differences  in  opinion  as  to  the  relative  worth  of 
each  subject  offered,  the  subjects  which  should  be  taught,  the 
extent  of  the  subject  matter  to  be  included  in  a  given  subject, 
the  standard  of  proficiency  which  should  be  attained  in  what  is 
taught,  the  time  required  to  reach  such  standards,  and  the  age  at 
which  children  should  be  introduced  to  a  given  subject,  or  the 
grades  in  which  particular  subjects  should  be  stressed.  Still  an- 
other factor  to  be  considered  is  the  eliaracter  and  needs  of  the 
children  in  a  particular  school.  Each  of  these  factors  doubtless 
has  its  influence  in  deciding  the  time  to  be  allotted  to  each  subject. 
In  common  practice,  however,  there  are  certain  fundamental 
principles  upon  which  school  administrators  are  fairly  well 
agreed.  Nearly  every  one  admits  that  reading  especially  in 
lower  grades  is  one  of  the  most  important  subjects  of  the 
curriculum.  AYe  know  too  that  it  requires  less  time  to 
attain  a  satisfactory  degree  of  proficiency  in  cooking  or 
drawing  than  it  does  in  reading  or  arithmetic.  It  is 
commonly  considered  advisable  to  devote  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  time  in  the  primary  grades  to  reading  and 
onlv  in  the  advanced  grades  should  such  subjects  as  manual 
training,  domestic  science,  physiology  and  history  be  strongly 
emphasized.  At  present  our  only  accepted  guide  as  to  the 
proper  distribution  of  the  time  available  is  that  of  the  average 
city.  What  is  the  average  time  given  to  arithmetic,  to  reading, 
and  to  the  various  other  subjects  in  a  large  number  of  cities? 


230 


Educational  Survey  of  JanesvUh 


Schools  which  differ  radically  from  the  average,  or  the  general 
tendency,  may  well  be  asked  to  account  for  such  divergence.  It 
is  not  infrequently  found  that  schools  within  the  same  city  differ 
widely.  While  uniformity  may  not  ahvays  be  desirable,  the 
variation  found  is  often  more  than  differences  in  the  needs  of 
the  different  groups  of  children  Avould  warrant. 

To  discover  the  amount  of  time  allotted  to  each  subject  in  the 
elementary  grades  in  Janesville,  each  teacher  was  asked  to  sub- 
mit a  copy  of  her  daily  program  and  to  indicate  carefully  the 
number  of  minutes  devoted  to  both  study  and  recitation  periods 
in  each  subject.  It  is  quite  noticeable  that  there  are  marked 
variations  in  the  time  allotted  to  various  sul)jects  in  different 
buildings.  Extreme  variations  within  the  same  grade  and  for 
which  little  justification  can  be  found,  do  exist.  Reading,  ex- 
clusive of  phonics,  varies  in  the  first  grade  from  150  to  400 
minutes  per  week,  and  in  the  second,  from  150  to  300. 
Geography  in  the  third  grade,  and  spelling  in  the  fourth,  vary 
from  75  to  175  minutes.  The  degree  of  variation  which  occui-s 
in  the  group  of  subjects  which  includes  reading,  phonics,  mem- 
orization of  poems,  word  study  and  language,  may  be  seen  in 
Table  39.  This  group  may  be  designated  as  the  "language" 
group,  and  in  a  city  as  homogeneous  as  Janesville,  it  might  be 
expected  that  there  would  be  little  variation  in  the  attention 
given  these  subjects. 


Table  39. — Miniviwn,  Maximum,  and  Average  Time  Allotted  Per  Week 

to  Reading,  Phonics.  Memorization  of  Poems.  M'ord  Study, 

and  Language  in  Grades  I-IV 


Grade 

Total  of 

I 

11 

III 

IV 

Grades  I-IV 

Minimum 

325 

730 
585 

525 

300 
630 
435 

485 

400 
600 

555 

435 

500 
600 
530 

400 

1,625 

Maximum 

2,635 

Averaije , 

Averageof  50  American  cities 

2,185 

1,845 

The  table  gives  the  minimum,  maximum,  and  average  time  al- 
lotted per  week  to  this  group  of  subjects  in  the  first  four  grades, 
for  each  grade,  and  for  the  four  grades  of  a  building  combined. 


Time  Allotments  and  Course  of  Study 


231 


Avora.iios  for  50  Amoricau  cities  arc  also  included.  It  will  bo 
seen  that  in  the  first  two  grades  more  than  twice  as  nuich  time 
is  assigned  in  some  buildings  as  in  others.  This  difference  de- 
creases in  the  third  and  fourth  grades.  A  pu])il  who  passes 
through  these  grades  in  the  school  giving  the  largest  amount  of 
time  to  these  subjects,  spends,  on  the  whole,  about  60%  more  time 
on  them  than  does  the  pupil  Avho  attends  the  school  giving  the 
smallest  amount  of  time  to  these  subjects.  Certainly  no  justi- 
fication for  such  variation  in  Janesville  can  be  found.  A  more 
reasonable  basis  of  apportioning  time  to  these  subjects  could  be 
reached  by  taking  either  the  average  or  the  average  for  50 
American  cities  as  a  guide. 

In  Table  40  both  the  average  and  the  median  number  of 
minutes  allotted  per  week  to  each  subject  is  shown.  These 
numbers  include  both  study  and  recitation  periods.  In  com- 
puting these  figures  for  any  given  subject  only  those  schools 
were  considered  which  reported  time  given  to  that  subject.  How 
practice  in  Janesville  compares  with  the  average  of  50  American 
cities,  may  be  seen  by  comparing  Tables  40  and  41. 

Table  40. — Average  and  Median  Nnmher  of  Minutes  Per  Week  Allotted 

to  Each  Sut)ject 


I 

II 

III 

IV 

'  V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

•32 

Av. 

45 

345 

65 

M 

50 
400 
65 

Av. 

185 
220 

50 

M 

175 

200 

50 

Av. 

230 
245 

M 

250 
250 

Av. 

245 
240 

M 

250 
250 

Av. 

260 
250 

M 

250 

250 

Av. 

250 
245 

M 

250 
250 

Av. 

250 
215 

M 

250 
240 

Av. 

M 

II 

245 
220 

250 
225 

1710 

1980 

115 

Meniorizalioii  of 

65 
70 

215 
80 
95 

120 

•65 
75 

250 
75 

100 

100 

75 
65 
245 
90 
125 
190 

100 

75 
250 
ICO 
100 
200 

60 

50 

40 

40 

60 

60 

~300 

100 
100 
80 
40 

75 

100 

75 

50 

90 
105 
80 
85 

50 
100 

75 
100 

325 

245 
90 
80 

255 

250 

100 

75 

250 

255 
80 
85 

250 

250 

75 

75 

■250 

245 
65 
85 

235 

250 
70 
75 

250 

235 

70 
70 

250 
70 
75 

1645 

Writintr 

635 

SpelUii? 

665 
1050 

250 
135 

100 
140 
135 
95 
50 

"115 

1725 
1720 

250 
125 

100 
80 
75 

125 
50 

'ioo 

250 

155 

Drawing:     and     con- 
struction   

90 

100 

95 

100 

110 

100 

100 

100 

125 

125 

120 

125 

110 
140 
140 
IOC 
35 
25 
125 

1690 

1660 

100 
90 
85 

125 
25 
25 

100 

850 

Manual  trainintr 

280 

Domestic  science 

27S 

Music 

80 
40 
50 
110 

1145 

1570 

75 

40 

40 

125 

85 

45 

30 

115 

uFs 

1600 

75 

50 

25 

110 

95 
35 
40 
145 

1545 

1680 

100 
25 
40 

150 

105 
40 
50 

140 

mo 

1670 

100 

40 
50 
150 

125 

30 
40 
130 

1690 

1655 

125 

2^1 
40 
140 

115 
45 
35 

145 

1665 
1660 

125 

50 

25 

150 

800 

Physical  ex 

Opening  ex 

Recess 

Total 

Average  of  50  Ameri- 
can cities 

320 
270 
1025 

12355' 

13165 

Note:    Only  schools  givin?  all  itments  are  considered. 
(■)  Domestic  science  not  included. 


232 


Educational  Survey  of  Janegville 


Table  41. 


-Average  Amount  of  Time  Allotted  Per  Week  to  Each  Sub- 
ject in  50  American  Cities 


I 

95 
410 

'11 

85 

25 
40 
55 
150 
65 

70 
70 
60 
135 

120 

11 

111 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

Total 

Arithmetic 

1.50 
363 
1:0 
95 
100 

10 
50 

6.: 

85 
75 

130 

65 

60 

130 

100 

205 
290 
145 
80 
115 

75 
55 
60 
85 
60 

75 
60 
60 
130 
135 

1,630 

230 
235 
165 
80 
105 

130 
90 
55 
80 
70 

75 

60 

55 

120 

120 

225 
195 
180 
75 
95 

160 

105 

55 

75 

75 

70 
60 
50 
115 
120 

1^655 

225 
180 
185 
75 
90 

165 
110 
60 
75 

85 

70 
60 
50 
110 
120 

T.'eeo 

215 
150 
210 
60 
80 

150 

140 

70 

75 

110 

70 
60 
50 
100 
120 

lieeo 

220 
150 
220 
55 
80 

120 
180 
90 
75 
115 

70 

60 

50 

100 

133 

T720 

1,565 

Readinsr 

1,975 

Lang-uasje 

1,340 

Writiogr 

595 

Spelling  

750 

Geography 

8S5 

Histor.v    

Science 

770 
510 

Art  and  construction 

700 

Manual  Training 

655 

Music 

630 

Physical  training 

495 

Opening  exercises 

435 

Recess 

940 

Miscellaneous 

970 

Total 

1,570 

1,600 

13,165 

Note:  Reading  includes  phonics.  Lterature,  dramatics,  story-telling,  memoriza- 
tion of  poems,  etc.;  language  includes  compjjition,  grammar,  word  study,  etc.; 
aritlimetic  includes  algebra:  history  includes  civics;  science  includes  nature  study, 
elemontary  science,  physiology  and  hygiene;  drawing  includes  picture  study,  art' 
etc.:  manual  training  includes  industrial  training,  liandwork:,  etc.:  physical  train- 
ing includes  athletics,  gymnastics,  folk  dancing. 
1  Arranged  from  Holmes'  8tudy  in  14th  YearbDok  National  Society  for    the  Study 

of  Education. 


It  should  be  noted  that  the  list  of  subjects  in  the  two  tables 
is  not  identical.  In  the  table  representing  50  American  cities, 
reading,  phonics  and  memorization  of  poems  are  combined  and 
recorded  as  reading.  Word  study  is  similarly  combined  with 
language.  Science  in  Table  41  includes  physiology,  nature 
study  and  elementary  science.  This  fact  should  be  taken  into 
account  when  making  comparisons. 

From  a  comparison  of  the  two  tables,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
averages  for  Janesville  do  not  differ  verj^  radically  from  those  in 
50  American  cities  in  the  more  fundamental  branches.  To  the 
fundamental  subjects  of  arithmetic,  reading,  language,  geog- 
raphy and  writing,  Janesville  devotes  somewhat  more  than  the 
average  amount  of  time.  Spelling  receives  slightly  less  than  the 
average  time.  History  and  science  receive  much  less  attention 
than  the  average  of  50  American  cities.  On  the  whole,  Janes- 
ville cannot  be  accused  of  neglecting  the  fundamental  subjects, 
and  any  failures  to  secure  satisfactory  results  in  the  teaching 
of  these  subjects  cannot  be  attributed  to  lack  of  time.  The  city 
is  not  overemphasizing  the  newer  subjects,  such  as  music,  draw- 
ing, manual  training,  domestic  science  and  physical  training. 


I'wie  AUoti)icnts  and  Course  of  ISIudy  233 

This  may  be  noted  more  particnlarly  when  the  total  of  the 
average  time  by  grades  in  any  of  these  subjects  is  compared  with 
the  total  allotted  to  such  subjects  as  reading,  arithmetic  and 
.language.  The  subjects  of  draAving  and  construction,  manual 
training  and  domestic  science,  music  and  physical  exercises  to- 
gether take  up  only  18%  of  the  total  time.  This  is  slightly  less 
than  the  pj'oportion  in  fifty  American  cities.  The  combined 
studies  of  arithmetic,  reading,  language,  (including  phonics, 
memorization  of  poems  and  word  study),  writing  and  spelling 
take  up  nearly  60%  of  the  time  in  Janesville.  These  same 
subjects  in  fifty  American  cities  receive  slightly  more  than 
47%.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  grand  total  number  of  minutes 
upon  the  weekly  program  for  all  grades  coml)ined,  is  less  than 
that  for  fifty  American  cities.  The  reason  for  this  difference  is 
to  be  found  in  the  first  and  second  grades.  The  school  day  in 
Janesville  for  these  grades  is  less  than  average  length.  In  view 
of  the  fact  that  a  longer  rather  than  a  shorter  school  day  is  being 
advocated  by  progressive  educators,  the  superintendent  and  the 
board  should  consider  the  wisdom  of  the  present  practice.  These 
grades  begin  work  at  9  A.  M.  in  the  morning,  and  at  1 :15  P.  M. 
in  the  afternoon.  The  morning  session  closes  at  11  A.  M.  and 
the  afternoon  session  at  3  :10  P.  M.  This  makes  an  unusually 
short  day  and  it  is  reconnnendcd  that  the  morning  session  be  in- 
creased by  thirty  minutes,  and  the  afternoon  by  twenty  minutes. 
This  would  add  250  minutes  to  the  weekly  schedule  of  each  of 
these  grades.  The  function  of  the  school  is  to  reach  the  child 
rather  than  to  get  rid  of  him.  More  time  can  well  be  given  to 
construction  Avork  and  to  directed  play.  The  time  allotted  to 
recess  and  physical  training  in  these  grades  at  present  is  less 
than  the  average  of  50  American  cities.  No  time  is  given  to 
geography,  history  and  physiology.  In  these  grades  the  work 
in  these  subjects  would  consist  principally  of  nature  study  and 
stories.  This  should  receive  some  attention  in  these  grades  and 
in  others.  History  and  science  are  neglected  in  nearly  every 
grade.  Time  for  the  teaching  of  these  subjects  can  be  found  by 
reducing  the  excessive  amount  allotted  to  some  of  the  funda- 
mental subjects.  Pland  training  receives  too  little  attention  in 
the  primary  grades.  No  time  is  assigned  under  the  heading  of 
manual  training  and  that  given  to  drawing  and  construction  in 
these  grades  is  less  than  the  average  for  fifty  American  cities. 


234  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

The  Elementary  Course  of  Study 

No  attempt  has  been  made  to  pass  upon  the  course  of  study 
in  detail  for  the  reason  that  the  course  in  use  previous  to  1916- 
17  has  been  in  the  process  of  revision.  Due  to  the  absence  of  a 
modern  and  definite  course  of  study,  a  somewhat  chaotic  condi- 
tion with  reference  to  the  subject  matter  to  be  taught  has  existed. 
Teachers  have  had  to  rely  upon  their  own  judgment  as  to  what 
to  include  and  what  not  to  include.  As  stated  elsewhere  in  this 
report,  this  has  resulted  at  times  in  a  duplication  of  effort  from 
one  grade  to  the  next.  At  the  same  time  there  has  been  little 
assurance  that  certain  essentials  would  be  taught  at  all.  Further- 
more, in  the  absence  of  a  course  of  study,  teachers  have  been 
without  the  suggestions  on  methods  of  presenting  particular 
topics  which  good  courses  contain. 

The  teachers  and  the  superintendent  have  realized  the  need 
€f  an  up-to-date  course  of  study.  For  the  past  year  they  have 
heen  engaged  in  preparing  a  new  course  of  study  in  several 
subjects.  This  is  commendable.  The  teachers  have  been  or- 
ganized into  groups.  Eacli  group,  under  the  direction  of  the 
superintendent,  has  devoted  its  efforts  to  a  particular  subject. 
These  groups  have  included  a  course  for  the  kindergarten  de- 
partment, and  courses  in  arithmetic,  geography,  language  and 
grammar,  history  and  spelling.  The  progress  made  thus  far 
indicates  that  the  teachers  and  the  superintendent  have  at- 
tempted to  prepare  courses  which  embody  modern  educational 
ideals  in  curriculum  making.  In  each  case  the  course  includes 
a  preliminary  statement  of  aims,  suggestions  of  general  method 
to  be  used  in  teaching,  and  the  subject  matter  to  be  taught.  In 
the  judgment  of  those  who  have  examined  the  tentative  courses, 
much  more  remains  to  be  done  in  formulating  more  definitely 
the  aims  or  ends  to  be  accomplished  and  the  methods  of  teaching 
which  may  be  employed.  In  many  respects,  the  suggested  sub- 
ject matter  indicates  a  Avholesome  desire  to  modernize  tlie  ma- 
terial of  instruction.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  teachers  will 
regard  the  progress  thus  far  accomplished  merely  as  preliminary. 

The  amount  of  time  available  for  the  survey  has  made  it  im- 
possible to  consider  each  of  the  tentative  courses  of  study  in  de- 
tail. Numerous  suggestions,  however,  which  may  be  applied 
to  the  course  of  study  will  be  found  by  a  careful  reading  of  the 


Time  Allotments  and  Course  of  Study  235 

-chapters  of  this  report  dealing  with  the  quality  of  instruction  and 
the  measurement  of  results  in  school  subjects.  Further  sug- 
gestions of  a  general  nature  for  grammar  grade  teachers  will 
be  found  under  the  discussion  of  the  proposed  junior  high  school 
organization. 

Certain  suggestions  as  to  the  method  of  preparing  these 
courses  may,  however,  be  made  here.  In  general,  those  en- 
trusted with  this  work  will  need  to  give  careful  thought  to  the 
■civic,  moral,  social,  vocational,  or  aesthetic  values  which  train- 
ing in  any  given  subject  should  aft'ord.  This  requires  a  con- 
sideration of  the  needs  of  the  children  and  of  the  values  of  par- 
ticular subject  matter  for  producing  the  kind  of  efficiency  de- 
sired. Individual  differences  among  children  must  be  taken 
into  account.  The  brightest  children, — those  who  give  promise 
of  becoming  leaders  in  life,  can  by  no  reasonable  measure  of 
justice  be  expected  to  suffer  by  requiring  them  to  cover  the 
same  subject  matter  or  to  spend  the  same  amount  of  time  in 
mastering  it  as  the  backward  pupils.  They  are  capable  of 
grapi)ling  with  new  and  more  difficult  sul)ject  matter  and  should 
be  permitted  to  do  so.  Neither  should  the  less  capable  children 
be,  expected  to  become  as  proficient  in  all  or  the  same  material 
of  instruction  that  is  expected  of  the  most  capable.  Variations 
and  options  should  be  permitted,  not  only  to  meet  differences  in 
ability,  but  in  taste  or  probable  life  vocation. 

Not  only  the  question  of  selection,  but  of  arrangement  must  be 
considered.  The  arrangement  or  organization  must  be  adapted 
to  the  teaching  process.  The  ease  with  which  particular  methods, 
such  as  that  of  the  problem,  may  be  applied  is  conditioned  upon 
the  organization  of  the  subject  matter  of  the  course  of  study. 
Certain  organizations  of  subject  matter  make  it  next  to  im- 
possible for  any  but  the  very  best  teachers  to  secure  good  teach- 
ing results. 

In  apportioning  the  work  of  preparing  the  course  of  study 
in  the  various  subjects,  it  will  be  well  to  include  in  each  group 
those  especially  skilled  in  teaching  the  particular  subject  and 
those  possessing  a  rich  knowledge  of  the  subject  itself.  The 
results  of  scientific  investigations  in  each  field  should  be  care- 
fully considered.  Illustrations  of  several  successful  methods 
of  teaching  various  phases  of  a  subject,  together  with  lesson 
plans  and  suggested  sources  of  reference  material,  should  be 


236  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

included.  Wherever  possible,  it  Avill  be  well  to  submit  the  ten- 
tative course  in  any  subject  to  recognized  specialists  in  the  prep- 
aration of  courses  of  study  for  criticism.  Courses  should  then 
be  given  actual  trial  to  determine  their  suitability  and  to  dis- 
cover needed  revisions  before  adoption  by  the  board.  Even  then 
continued  improvement  should  be  permitted.  Provision  should 
be  made  for  incorporating  new  ideas  and  needs  or  improved 
methods.  The  course  of  study  should  be  in  loose  leaf  type- 
written form  so  that  revised  pages  may  be  readily  substituted. 


Measuring  Results  in  School  Subjects  237 


XIII     MEASURING  RESULTS  IN  SCHOOL  SUB- 
JECTS 

Arithmetic 

In  measuring  the  achievement  of  Janesville  children  in  arith- 
metic three  series  of  tests  were  used.  The  Woody  series  A  and 
Courtis  series  B  tests  were  used  in  testing  the  Avork  in  the  funda- 
mentals— addition,  subtraction,  multiplication  and  division. 
The  Stone  Reasoning  test  was  used  to  measure  ability  of  the 
children  to  solve  written  problems. 

THE  WOODY  TESTS 

The  nature  of  the  Woody  tests  for  each  of  the  fundamental 
operations  may  be  seen  from  the  following: 


Add^ 

(1) 

'tion 

(2)           (3) 

(4; 

1 

(5) 

(6) 

(7) 

(8) 

(9) 

2 

2      1 

7 

53 

72 

60 

3  +  1  ^ 

2+5  +  1: 

= 

20 

3 

4 
3 

- 

45 

'lii 

37 

10 
2 

30 
25 

(10) 

(11) 

(12) 

(13) 

(14) 

(15) 

(16) 

(17) 

(18) 

21 

32 

43 

23 

25  +  42  : 

100 

9 

199 

2563 

88 

59 

1 

25 

33 

24 

194 

1387 

35 

17 

2 

16 

45 

12 

295 

4954 

13 

"■ 

201 
46 

15 

19 

156 

2065 

(19) 

(2(1) 

(21) 

(22) 

(24) 

(25) 

81.75 

$12.-50 

$8.00 

547 

(23) 

4.0125 

i  +  i 

i  +  i 

+  J  = 

.25 

16.75 

5.75 

197 

i  +  i 

= 

1.5907 

.49 

15.75 

2.33 

685 

4.10 

4.16 

.94 

6.32 

678 
456 
393 
525 
240 
152 

8.673 

(26) 

(27) 

(28) 

(29) 

(30) 

(31) 

(32) 

12J 

4  +  i  + 

i  = 

I  +  i  = 

4} 

2i 

113.46 

J  +  i  +  i 

— 

62i 

2i 

61 

49.6097 

12i 

5i 

3i 

19.9 

37i 





9.87 

"^ 

.0086 
18.253 
6.04 

238 


Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


Addition — Continued. 


(33 
.40 
.28 
.63 
.95 
1  69 

(34) 

2 
3 
4 

(35) 
ft.  6  in. 
ft.  5  in. 
ft.  9  i-. 

(36) 

2  .\i.  5 

3  >  r.  6 

4  XT.  9 

5  jr.  2 

6  .\  r.  7 

(.'i7 
mo.                                 16i 
mo                                  1  i 
n  o.                                   214 
mo.                                 323 
mo.                                 — 

.22 
.33 

36 

1.01 

.56 

88 
.75 
.56 
1.10 
.18 
.56 

(3-!) 
25.091  +  100.4  +  25  +  98.28 

+  19.3614  = 

Suhtraction 

(1) 

8 
5 

(2) 
6 
0 

(3) 
2 

1 

(4) 
9 
3 

(5) 
4 
4 

(6) 
11 

7 

(7) 
13 
8 

(8)           (9) 
59           78 
12           37 

(10)                (11) 
7  -  4  =            76 
60 

(12) 
27 
3 

(13) 
16 
9 

(14) 
50 
25 

(15) 
21 
9 

(16) 
270 
190 

(17) 
393 
178 

(18) 
1000 
537 

(19)                  (20) 
567482           23  -  1  = 
106493 

(21) 

10.00 

3.49 

3i 

(22) 

(23) 
80836465 
49178036 

(24) 
U 
53 

(25) 
27 
121 

(;6) 

4  .\ds.  1  ft.  6  in. 
2  yds.  2  ft    3  in. 

5  .vds. 
2  yds. 

(27) 

1  ft.  4  in. 

2  ft.  8  in. 

10 

1912 
1910 

(28) 
-  6.25 

(32) 

6  mo 

7  mo.  : 

8  da. 
15  da. 

(29) 
753 
52  i 

5 

(33) 
2 

(.30) 
9.80B3  -  9.019  = 

7.8  - 

(31) 
.  3.00081 

= 

(34)                 (35) 
6J            3i  -  H  = 

2S 





12 

10 

— 

Multiplication 


(V 
3X7  = 

( 
5  X 

2) 
:  1 

=             2 

(3) 
X  3 

=            4 

(4) 
X  8  = 

(5) 
23 
3 

(6) 

310 

4 

(7) 
7X9  = 

(8) 

50 

3 

(9) 

254 

6 

(10) 
623 

7 

(11) 

103<i 

8 

(12) 

5096 

6 

(13) 
8754 

8 

( 

;i4)                (15) 
165                  235 
40                   23 

(16) 

7K88 
9 

(17) 
145 
206 

(18) 
24 
234 

(19) 

9.6 

4 

(20) 
287 
.05 

(21) 
24 

2i 

(22) 
8  X  53  = 

(23) 
U  X  8  = 

(24) 
16 

2i 

(25) 

i  X  3  = 

= 

(26) 

9742 

59 

(27) 
6.25 
3.2 

(58) 

.0123 

9.8 

(29) 

+  X  2  = 

(30) 

2.49 

36 

(31) 
12       15 

—  X  — 

(32) 
6  dollars  49  cents 
8 

(33) 
24  X  34 

= 

(34) 
4X4  = 

— 

25 

32 

— 

- 

(35) 

987J 

25 

(36) 

3  ft.  5 

5 

in. 

2J 

(37) 

X  44  X  14 

= 

(38) 

.0963* 

.084 

(39) 

8  ft.  94  ir. 

9 

Measuring  Results  in  School  Subjects  239' 

Division 


(1) 

3]T 

(2) 
»Tl7 

(3) 

4  728 

(4) 

1  "iT 

(5) 
9  "36 

(6) 
3  1  39 

(7) 

(8) 

(9) 

(10) 

(11) 

(12) 

4+  2  = 

91  0 

11  1 

6  X  =  30 

2!  13 

2  H-  2  -= 

(13) 

(14) 

875856 

J 

(15) 
of  128 

(16) 
=               681  2108 

(17) 
50  - 

7  = 

4  1  24  lbs.  8oz. 

(18) 

(19) 

(20) 

(21) 

(22) 

131  65065 

248  -s- 

7  = 

2.l72i72 

251  9750 

21  13.50 

(23) 
23ri«9^ 

(24) 
751  2250300 

- 

(25) 
24001  504000 

(26) 

127^76 

(27) 

(28) 

(29) 

(30) 

*  of  624  = 

.0031 

.093e 

1 

3i  -  9  = 

3  H-  5  = 

(311 
5       3 

Is"" 

(32) 
98  H-  3J  = 

33) 
21  375(5 

(34) 
62.50  -  li  = 

(35) 
5311  37722 

(36) 

91  69  IbsTooz. 

The  tests  in  this  series  are  so  arranged  as  to  present  a  gradu- 
ated scale  of  difficulty.  The  first  problem  in  each  test  is  a  very 
simple  problem  and  the  next  is  slightly  more  difficult.  Each 
succeeding  problem  increases  in  difficulty  and  the  achievement 
of  the  class  is  measured  by  the  degree  of  difficulty  of  the  problems 
which  the  group  can  solve.  A  reasonable  length  of  time,  twenty 
minutes,  is  allowed  for  each  test  in  the  series.  Not  more  than 
two  of  the  tests  were  given  in  any  half  day.  The  tests  in  ad- 
dition, subtraction  and  multiplication  were  given  in  all  ele- 
mentary grades  beginning  with  the  third.  Division  was  given 
in  grades  four  to  eight. 

Uniform  directions  were  given  in  each  room\  After  the 
headings  had  been  filled  in  the  person  giving  the  test  in- 
structed the  class  as  follows:  "This  is  to  be  an  exercise  in  di- 
vision, (in  case  of  division).  The  game  is  to  see  how  many 
problems  you  can  divide  and  get  right  in  twenty  minutes.  Every 
problem  on  this  sheet  is  a  division  problem,  an  'into'  problem. 
Work  as  many  of  them  as  you  can  and  be  sure  you  get  them 
right.  If  you  come  to  one  you  cannot  work  leave  it  out  and  go 
on  to  the  next.  Do  all  of  your  Avork  on  this  sheet  and  don't 
ask  anybody  any  questions.     Begin."     Each  teacher  was  given 


^  These  are  practically  identical  with  those  recommended  by  Dr.  Woody. 


240 


Educational  Survey  of  Janesmlle 


an  answer  sheet  for  use  in  correcting  the  papers.  She  was  in- 
structed to  check  each  paper  twice.  The  answers  were  then 
rechecked  by  a  second  person. 

The  Di.strihufion  of  Scores 

The  distribution  of  the  scores  made  by  the  children  in  each 
grade  in  the  four  fundamental  operations  is  shoAvn  in  the  ac- 
companying table : 


■Distribution    of    Scores    in   Woody    Arithmetic    Series   A — 
Table  42  Addition  Table  43  Subtraction 


No.  proijlems 
coriecl 

Ill 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

No.  Problems 
correct 

0 

1 

2 

Ill 

1 

2 
4 
3 

IV 
1 

V 

VI 

VM 

VIII 

0                

1                

2 
3 
3 
6 

7 
7 
4 
12 
13 
7 

11 
26 
23 
13 
11 
12 
14 
3 
4 
1 
1 

2             



2 

3                 

1   3  

i   4 

4            

1 

5:::::.:::::::: 
6 

1 

3 

6        -         

.   . . 

1 

1 

7                

7       

9 
5 
6 

20 
19 
12 
20 
16 
8 

13 
12 
5 
'0 

.5 
1 
1 

3 

2 
2 
4 
2 
7 
3 
12 
9 

11 

18 

19 

2S 

19 

18 

5 

1 

1 

1 

8             

1 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

9      

10    

2 

11              .     ... 

1 

1 

2 

1 

6 

3 

12 

12 

15 

31 

19 

13 

15 

4 

2 

2 

12           

2 
5 
5 
13 
9 

18 
24 
16 
16 
25 
12 
12 
6 
4 
2 
2 

1 

13      

1 

1 

13 

14 

15     

14 

15             

"i 
4 

4 
9 
9 

10 

5 
21 
10 

16 
17 
13 
10 

8 
6 
2 
4 
3 

1 

\ 

3 
4 
4 

12 
4 

10 

\l 

11 

8 
13 
14 
12 
14 
5 
4 

Ifi           

3 

5 

6 

6 

14 

15 

Iri 

17 

15 

9 

10 
4 

1 

2 
5 

1 

16  

17         

17 

IS  

18      

19           

2 
5 
6 
8 
10 
9 

10 

5 

9 

11 

23 

11 

14 

8 

11 
10 
7 
1 
2 

19     

20      

2 
1 
3 
2 
4 

2 

6 
9 
6 

11 
11 
20 
9 
15 
23 
14 
7 

...... 

3 
3 
1 

3 

5 

8 

4 

5 

10 

23 

13 

13 

17 

12 

'1 

20 

1 

21       

21 

22 

23     ..!.       ..... 

3 

22 

23           

4 

2 

24    

24 

25 

25     . . . 

1 

26    

26 

16 

27      

27 

13 

28     

28 

17 

29     

29 

17 

30           

30     

18 

31           

31 

12 

32     

32 

11 

33           

1 

33     

7 

34      

34     

6 

35     

1 

35 

2 

36             

36      

37       

37 

38     

38 

39 

39 

40 

40 

l87 
16.6 
14.5 
15.7 

T74 
19.5 
18.3 
20.2 

"1T3 
23.3 
23.1 
22.7 

Total 

.Janesville 
Median 

Woody's 
Standard 
Median 

Wisconsin 
Median 

"180 
13.4 
11.2 
13.3 

169 
18.4 
15.7 
18.1 

I43 
-0.5 
20.4 
20.8 

I53 

147 

Total 

162 
29.3 
29.8 
28.4 

149 
32.8 
32.4 
31.9 

136 
33.2 
34. 

33.1 

139 

Janesville 
Median 

Woody's 
Standard 
Median 

Wisconsin 
Median 

25.2 

25. 

25.6 

28.7 
28.5 
28.4 

29.2 
31.7 
30.4 

Mcasui\)u/  Results  in  School  Subjects 


241 


Distribution  of  Scores    in    Woody    AritJwietic    Series    A — 
Table  44  Multiplication  Table  45  Division 


No.  problems 
correct 

[II 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

No.  problems 
correct 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

0 

17 
5 
6 

10 

14 

8 

16 
13 
14 

■1 

12 
12 

■! 

3 

i 

0 

1                  

1 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

1 
1 

3 
3 
8 

14 
18 
25 
17 
19 
7 

15 
4 
5 
10 
5 
3 
5 
2 

4                  

■■■4 
2 
3 
a 
4 
7 
9 

12 
13 
11 
9 

16 

21 

27 

10 

12 

3 

2 

1 

1 

1 

4 

5 

6 

3 

6 

7 

1 
4 
3 
4 
6 
6 
12 
11 
8 
11 
10 
10 

u 

13 
12 
4 
5 
5 
4 

7                 



1 

g 

.... 

1 
2 
4 
4 
5 
9 

10 

13 

18 

18 

27 

10 

5 

2 

3 

5 

3 

2 

8 

9 

9 

10 

10 

1 

11 

11 

12 

12 

13 

13 

14 

1 

2 

7 

8 

8 

9 

5 

11 

9 

13 

13 

13 

10 

13 

9 

3 

7 

5 

2 

1 

2 

2 

1 

14 

15 

15 

2 

1 
1 

\ 

6 
4 
8 
9 

17 

14 

13 

16 

16 

11 

2 

11 

6 

2 

•> 

i 

1 

16 

1 
1 
4 
6 
6 

16 
8 
7 
6 

13 
6 

11 

12 
8 

10 
9 

12 
9 
6 

Id 

17 

2 
1 
I 

17 

18                

1 
1 

:::::: 

■■■I 

18 

1 

19 

19 

20 

1 

20 

3 

21                 ... 

21 

4 

22 

•)■) 

5 

23 

\ 

3 
7 
3 
11 

14 
14 
11 

14 
19 
13 

13 

9 
6 

5 

1 

■■■■3' 

2 

6 

9 

11 

9 

16 

21 

15 

11 

12 

12 

1        4 

2 

1 

23  

2 

9 

24 

7 

25             .  . 

25 

7 

26 

11 

27 

i  27 

1 
.... 

17 

28:::: :. 

29 

16 

29 

1 

12 

30 

31 

1        15 

31 

17 

32 

6 

33 

33 

!  34 

3 

1 

35 

1 

1  33 

2 

i 

2 

1 

36 

1 

37 

1 ..  . 

37 

1 

38 

1 

30     

39 

148 

154 

40 

1 

Total 

Janesville 

Median 

Woody's 

Standard 

Median 

Wisconsin 

Median 

168 

142 

154 

I4S 

169|  172 

15^ 

{    139 

139 

Median 

Standard 
Wisconsin 

7.7 

4.7 
6.S 

1 
16.4 

11.1 
15.2 

19.2 

1 

18. S 
19.2 

27.5 

26.1 
27.r 

32.;: 

30. 
30. 

1 
32.4 

i 
)   32.9 

):  33.2 

11. e 

9.t 
13..^ 

16. E 

16. E 
19. f 

)     23.2 

)     23.* 
)     25. 

27. f 

27.- 

28.^ 

)     28.2 

1     30.1 
I     30. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  results  in  other  subjects  certain  facts 
are  revealed  by  these  distribution  tables.     We  may  note : 

(1)  Progress  from  grade  to  grade. 

(2)  An  overlapping  of  grade  abilities. 

(3)  Large  variations  within  eacti  grade. 

(4)  Tlie  medians  of  actiievement  for  Janesville. 

(1)  Progress  from  grade  to  grade — A  distinct  progress  from 
grade  to  grade  is  to  be  seen  from  the  greater  number  of  increas- 
ingly difficult  problems  solved.  Progress  may  be  observed 
roughly  from  the  general  movement  of  the  figures  toward  the 


242  Educational  Survcij  of  Jancsvilh 

lower  extremes  of  the  distribution  sheets  as  we  proceed  from 
grade  to  grade.  This  progress  is  especially  noticeable  in  the 
lower  grades  but  is  less  evident  in  upper  grades  where 
problems  are  of  course  more  difficult.  A  more  definite  idea  of 
the  improvement  which  takes  place  from  grade  to  grade  may  be 
gained  by  reference  to  the  graphical  representation  of  tl  ;  dis- 
tribution table  for  division  in  Fig.  II.  In  the  graph  for  each 
grade  the  number  of  children  is  reduced  to  a  basis  of  100%. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  these  tests  in  the  fundamental  oper- 
ations reveal  progress  from  grade  to  grade,  since  the  problems 
gradually  grow  more  difficult.  Lower  grade  pupils  soon  found 
that  some  of  the  problems  were  beyond  their  ability.  This 
was  to  be  expected.  The  number  of  examples  which  children 
are  expected  to  solve  increases  steadily  from  grade  to  grade. 
This  is  especially  true  in  the  lower  grades.  In  the  upper 
grades,  however,  the  degree  of  accuracy  attained  in  processes 
with  which  pupils  are  supposedly  familiar  rather  than  dif- 
ficulties offered  by  the  complexity  of  the  problems  is  a  decided 
factor  effecting  the  amount  of  progress,  e.  g.  few  processes  in- 
volved in  the  division  test  are  commonly  introduced  later  than 
grade  six.  Decimals,  fractions,  denominate  numbers  and  re- 
duction of  fractional  remainders  which  are  the  processes  on 
wliich  pupils  most  frequently  fail  on  the  test  are  all  processes 
Avhieh  pupils  in  upper  grades  have  usually  been  taught. 

(2)  The  overlapping  of  grade  ahilities — In  any  uniform 
test  which  contains  problems  so  eas.y  that  the  poorest  child  in 
any  grade  can  solve  some  of  them  and  also  problems  that  are 
difficult  for  even  the  most  capable  pupils  in  every  grade  we 
may  expect  to  find  a  degree  of  overlapping.  The  best  fourth 
grade  pupils  will  solve  more  problems  than  a  number  in  the 
fifth  grade  or  even  the  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  grades.  This 
overlapping  of  abilities  is  serious  only  when  it  becomes  very 
marked.  That  it  is  quite  marked  in  Janesville  is  evident.  If 
a  line  be  drawn  in  the  graph  showing  the  distribution  of  di- 
vision scores  at  probem  15,  Fig,  II,  it  will  be  seen  that  no  small 
number  of  fourth  graders  made  a  score  better  than  that  of  the 
poorest  eighth  grade  score.  Ten  per  cent  of  the  eighth  graders 
did  poorer  than  the  best  fourth  graders  in  division.  In  ad- 
dition and  subtraction  some  third  grade  children  excelled  some 
eighth  graders. 

(3)  The   variation   within   grades — In    every   grade   in   each 


Measuring  Results  in  Scliool  Subjects 


24^ 


,sr 


0 

SoorlO 


Fig. II.  Distribution  of  Division  Scores  by  Grades 


244  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

of  the  four  tests  there  is  a  wide  range  between  the  scores  made 
by  the  best  and  the  poorest.  This  is  represented  in  the  distribu- 
tion table  of  the  scores.  For  division  it  is  represented  graphically 
in  Fig.  II  by  the  width  of  the  areas  enclosing  the  scores  of  each 
grade.  A  more  satisfactory  condition  would  be  represented  by 
less  width  and  greater  height  near  the  center  of  the  class  areas  in 
each  case.  Extreme  variations  in  the  scores  made  by  pupils  in 
the  same  grade  should  receive  the  careful  attention  of  teachers 
and  supei^v'isors.  It  is  difficult  to  understand  why  some  children 
in  nearly  every  grade  solved  fewer  than  ten  subtraction  prob- 
lems correctly  or  why  some  children  as  far  advanced  as  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades  should  solve  less  than  half  of  the  total 
number  of  problems  in  division.  Children  who  make  a  score 
far  below  the  median  for  the  class  should  be  made  the  subject 
of  individual  study  by  the  teacher.  When  10%  of  the  eighth 
'grade  children  show  poorer  results  in  division  than  the  best 
fourth  grade  pupils  some,  attention  to  drill  in  the  fundamentals 
ijs  necessary  for  these  children.  Children  who  make  unusually 
liigh  scores  for  their  grades  should  be  considered  as  possible 
candidates  for  early  promotion  to  the  next  higher  grade,  par- 
ticularly if  their  work  in  other  subjects  shows  a  similar  pro- 
ficiency. A  better  teaching  economy  may  be  accomplished  by 
requiring  less  time  to  be  devoted  to  the  subject  by  these  pupils. 
When  children  in  any  grade  can  solve  more  difficult  problems 
than  75%  of  the  children  in  the  next  higher  grade,  it  is  not 
usually  profitable  for  them  to  spend  much  time  on  that  type 
of  work.  See  table  45.  There  may  be  other  subjects  to  which 
these  children  could  well  devote  more  time. 

More  satisfactory  results  in  teaching  can  be  secured  by 
grouping  children  with  others  of  a  similar  degree  of  proficiency. 
Children  who  may  be  counted  upon  to  leave  school  before  they 
have  progressed  very  far  should  be  given  work  of  a  type  that 
is  suited  to  their  interests  and  needs.  It  is  not  necessary  that 
they  be  required  to  complete  the  same  course  of  study  as  do 
others  who  exhibit  a  fondness  for  the  subject. 

(4)  The  Medians  of  Achievement  for  Janesville — -A  com- 
mon method  of  judging  whether  results  are  satisfactory  is  to 
compare  the  median  or  middle  performance  of  each  grade  with 
the  standard  median  for  that  grade.  The  median  refers  to  the 
mark  that  one-half  of  a  class  or  grade  exceeds  and  that  the 
other  half  fails  to  reach.     If  the  median  scores  for  Janesville 


Measunng  Results  in  School  Subjects 


245 


are  compared  with  Woody 's  standard  medians  the  lower  grades 
do  very  well.  When  compared  with  scores  made  by  several 
thousand  Wisconsin  children  the  results  are  not  so  flattering, 
particularly  in  division  where  they  fall  below.  The  fifth,  sixth 
and  seventh  grades  differ  but  little  from  Woody 's  standards  ex- 
cept in  nuiltiplieation  where  Janesville  children  are  somewhat 
superior.  These  grades  compare  favorably  with  those  of 
other  Wisconsin  cities  except  in  division.  The  showing  of 
the  eighth  grade  is  unsatisfactory.  It  is  particularly  weak  in  sub- 
traction and  division. 

From  these  results  it  would  seem  that  the  fundamentals  are 
not  underemphasized  in  the  lower  grades.  That  the  advantage 
decreases  in  succeeding  grades  and  is  in  fact  lost  in  the  eighth 
would  indicate  that  teachers  cannot  be  content  to  rest  upon 
their  oars  at  any  time.  Even  in  advanced  elementary  grades  a 
certain  amount  of  Avell-conducted  drill  based  upon  the  needs  of 
the  children  in  the  class  is  necessary. 

The  unusual  proficiency  in  the  lower  grades  becomes  more 
striking  still  when  we  compare  the  scores  in  multiplication 
made  by  the  pupils  who  were  given  special  promotion  at  the 
time  the  system  of  semiannual  promotions  was  instituted  with 
those  who  remained  in  the  grade.  The  comparative  scores  in 
multiplication  made  by  two  classes  selected  at  random  from 
each  grade  are  given  below. 

Table    46. — Scores   Mode    by    Promoted   and    Nonpromoted    in    Multi- 
plication 


;\Iedian 


Class  1. 
Class  2. 
Combined 


in 


P    N.  P. 


No.  pupils  represe'ted  21 
Standard  I 


9.8 
9.7 


4.7 


IV 


P    N.P, 


12.5 
12.2 
12.2 
31. 


18.4 
18.9 
18.6 
37. 


11.1 


16.5 

18. 

17.2 

29. 


N.P. 


16.5 
18.5 
17.3 
24. 


18.3 


VI 


P    N.P. 


25.5 
19.9 
21.6 
33. 


28.3 
31.9 
30.2 


26.1 


VII 


P    N.P. 


33.7 
31.8 
32.8 
29. 


29.8 
31.5 
30.8 
35. 


30.6 


VIII 


P    N.  P. 


31.0 
32.8 
31.9 
25. 


32.1 
33. 
32.5 
36. 


32. a 


Were  it  not  for  the  presence  of  these  specially  promoted  pu- 
pils in  grades  three  and  four  the  class  scores  for  these  grades 
would  be  even  higher.  On  the  other  hand  it  cannot  well  be 
said  that  the  presence  of  these  children  in  the  upper  grades  has 
very  materially  reduced  the  class  scores  as  far  as  results  iu 


246 


Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


multiplication  may  be  taken  as  an  index.  Indeed,  the  pro- 
moted groups  in  grade  seven  for  the  schools  here  represented 
made  the  better  scores.  In  the  sixth  grade  the  promoted  pu- 
pils did  less  than  the  expected  standard.  The  fact  that  some 
promoted  groups  made  a  good  showing  and  others  a  poor  one 
seems  to  indicate  that  as  far  as  ability  in  the  fimdamentais  of 
arithmetic  is  concerned  the  pupils  were  not  always  well  selected 
for  the  special  promotion.  It  appears,  however,  to  have  been 
amply  justified  in  most  cases. 

Additional  facts  as  to  the  achievements  in  arithmetic  are  re- 
vealed when  we  examine  the  scores  made  in  each  building.  On 
the  surface  results  for  any  entire  grade  of  the  city  may  appear 
fairly  satisfactory.  Unusual  proficiency  in  certain  rooms  tends 
to  offset  extreme  weakness  in  others. 

Variation  in  Median  Scores  by  Buildings 

The  variations  within  the  same  grade  in  the  different  build- 
ings for  each  of  the  tests  in  fundamentals  may  be  seen  from  the 
accompanying  table. 


Table  47. — Median  Scores  in  Woody  Arithmetic  Scries  A— By  Buildings 


Buildings 

Janes- 
ville 
Median 

16.6 
19.5 
23.3 
-   29.3 
32.8 
33.2 

13.4 

18.4 
20.5 
25.2 
28.7 
29.2 

7.7 
16.4 
19.2 
27.3 
32.3 
32.4 

Standard 

Addition 
Grade  III 

1 

17. 

17.4 

20.2 

31.7 

.33.8 

35. 

14.2 

19.4 

19.3 

26.4 

26. 

29.9 

9.1 
16.3 
16.8 
29.8 
3?.l 
34.3 

2 



14. 
21.1 

13. 
17.3 

9.5 
17.5 

3 

'26.8 
27.9 
32. 
32.7 

'26!5 
21.9 
26 
28.7 

■26!3 
27.5 
30. 
31.3 

4 

12.8 
18.8 
24.5 
28.1 

5 

20. 
21. 

6 

12.3 

19.3 

23. 

29.3 

32.9 

32. 

12. 

17. 

21.2 

25.1 

29.3 

30. 

5.7 
13.7 
20.7 
25.6 
31.5 
31.7 

7 

16.7 
21.7 

8 

19. 

19.3 

23.5 

9 
'24!' 

Median 
14  5 

IV 

18.3 

V 

23.1 

VI 

29.8 

VII 

31.5 

32.9 

11.4 

19.4 

55.1 
33.5 

15. 
17.4 

20.4 

'20;4 

32.4 

VIII 

34. 

Subtraction 
Grade  III 

11.5 

19.8 
21  3 
24.9 

19.3 
20.1 

11.2 

IV 

15  7 

V 

20.4 

VI 

25 

VIT 

29.3 

28.8 

6.8 
16.8 

■31.5 
31.7 

31.4 

27.9 

6  3 
16.5 
18. 

'is.'i 

28.5 

VIII 

31.7 

Multiplication 
Grade  III 

2.5 
12.3 
19.3 
27. 

12.2 
19. 

4  7 

IV 

11.1 

V  

18.3 

VI 

26.1 

VII 

.34  2 
33.2 

30.6 

VIIl 

Division 
Grade  III 

32  9 

IV 

9.9 
12.9 
26.8 
26. 
27.9 

13.5 

'ik'.i 
22.3 

26.5 
27.7 

10.9 
20.5 
22.5 

18. 

10.9 
19.5 
23  7 
27.3 
'8  ? 

12.6 

10.1 
15.3 

■]5'.3 

11.6 
16.5 
23  2 
27.5 

28.2 

9.9 

V 

16  5 

VI 

23.8 

VII 

27.1 

28.8 

27.5 
28.2 

27.4 

VIIT 

30.1 

Pleasuring  Results  in  ScJiool  Subjects  247 

Why  the  children  of  certain  rooms  should  be  consistently 
high  and  others  low  in  all  of  the  fundamentals  is  a  matter  de- 
manding supervisory  attention.  It  is  a  striking  fact  that  in 
grade  seven  the  children  in  building  number  eight  excel  in  ev- 
ery one  of  the  four  fundamentals.  This  is  not  to  be  explained 
by  the  amount  of  time  spent  on  arithmetic  in  this  room  for  it 
spends  no  greater  amount  than  any  other  seventh  grade. 
There  are  rooms,  however,  such  as  grade  four  in  building  seven 
of  the  table  where  unusual  results  are  explained  by  the  large 
amount  of  time  devoted  to  the  subject.  In  the  main,  however, 
time  and  results  bear  little  relation. 

As  may  be  expected  with  tests  including  problems  of  differ- 
ent degrees  of  difficulty  and  requiring  familiarity  with  a  vari- 
ety of  processes  certain  types  of  problems  proved  more  trouble- 
some to  pupils  than  others. 

Examples  Which  Proved  Difficult 

The  scores  made  by  the  pupils  on  each  of  the  tests  in  the 
fundamentals  were  recorded  in  such  a  manner  as  to  indicate  the 
frequency  with  which  each  particular  example  was  solved  cor- 
rectly and  incorrectly.  The  accompanying  table  indicates  the 
number  of  children  in  each  grade  who  took  the  test  and  the 
number  of  times  each  problem  in  division  was  solved  correctly. 
A  study  of  the  table  reveals  the  particular  problems  which 
proved  difficult  for  each  grade. 

The  table  exposes  some  facts  as  to  the  teaching  which  are  in- 
teresting to  say  the  least.  It  should  be  a  matter  of  concern  to 
teachers  when  pupils  miss  examples  as  easy  as  a  number  of 
those  on  the  test.  There  was  only  one  problem  which  was  not 
missed  at  least  once  in  every  grade.  It  is  difficult  to  understand 
why  more  than  one-half  of  the  fourth  grade  children  should  miss 
an  example  like  No.  6,  which  is  3)39  or  why  only  54  of  the  129 
pupils  in  grade  VI  can  solve  the  example  2.1)25.2.  However 
much  one  may  be  surprised  at  the  showing  made  by  lower  grade 
pupils  on  some  problems,  this  is  not  so  striking  when  viewed  in 
the  light  of  the  scores  made  by  eighth  grade  pupils  on  the  same 
examples.  Some  of  the  more  difficult  problems  for  eighth  grade 
pupils  may  be  seen  from  the  table  following.     The  table  indi- 


248                     Educational  Survey  of  Jan 

Table  48. — Number    of    Papiis    Solving  Each 
Division  Correctly 

csi'illc 

Particular  Example  in 

Problems 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

1 

3)6~  

151 
161 

145 

162 

159 

152 

165 

136 

146 

145 

146 

150 

125 

122 

98 

112 

89 

87 

86 

00 

73 

87 

58 

71 

63 

57 

47 

41 

13 

17 

15 

14 

.6 

10 

9 

6 

1 

123 

127 

126 

126 

128 

120 

122 

117 

122 

121 

117 

111 

85 

117 

99 

97 

90 

85 

91 

54 

73 

83 

95 

68 

62 

71 

64 

32 

32 

27 

24 

19 

17 

10 

8 

4 

129 

147 

147 

145 

145 

148 

145 

141 

136 

137 

146 

143 

113 

128 

136 

135 

117 

129 

117 

117 

102 

112 

128 

102 

109 

107 

124 

105 

80 

63 

68 

42 

72 

49 

60 

36 

28 

148 

135 

2 

9)27      

138 

3 

4)28         

155 

154 

159 

76 

113 

137 

148 

1S9 

98 

88 

38 

78 

35 

40 

38 

21 

16 

42 

13 

33 

24 

9 

6 

3 

6 

138 

4 

1)~5~  

136 

5 

9)  36         

136 

6 

3)39          

137 

4  ^  2  -     

136 

8 

9)0~  

128 

9 
10 

1J1~   

6  X      .   .  =  30 

127 
137 

11 

2)13         

136 

12 

2  -  2  =  

100 

13 

4)24  lbs  8  oz  

114 

14 

8)5856      

133 

15 

i  of  128  — 

138 

16 

68)2108      

123 

17 

50  -!-  7  —  

116 

18 

13)65065        

107 

19 

248  -  7  —  

108 

20 

2.1)25.2         

94 

21 

25)9750         

108 

22 

2)13.50        

119 

23 

23)469        

111 

24 

75)2250300      

111 

25 

2400) 504000      

104 

26 

12)2.76       

113 

27 

I  of  624  —  

121 

28 

.003)  0936    

74 

29 

3i  +  9  —  .'      

47 

30 

1  H-  5  —  

71 

31 

5i    s-    %   —      

47 

32 

91  H-  3J  — 

53 

2 

33 

52)3756      

63 

34 

62.50  -  li  —  

68 

35 

531).37722        - 

39 

36 

9)  69  lbs  9  oz      

25 

Number  of  children  takintr  test 

168 

167 

139 

Measuring  Results  in  School  Subjects 


249 


cates  the  score  in  per  cent  for  the  entire  grade  and  each  eighth 
grade  separately  on  ten  examples. 

Table  49. — Ten  Troublesome  Examples  in  Grade  VIII 


Per  cent  of  pupi 
correctly- 

Is  who  solved  each  of  ten 
-for  the  city  and  by  building 

examples 

s 

Example 

Cit.v 

Buildings 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

2  -i-  2  —         

71.9 
67.6 
77.7 
53.2 
33.8 
51.1 
33.8 
45.3 
28.1 
18. 
139 

64.5 
61.3 
74.2 
35.5 
35.5 
48.4 
38.7 
38.7 
26.8 
35.5 
31 

61.1 
66.7 
77.8 
55.6 

5.6 
27.8 
16.7 
61.1 
33.3 

5.6 
18 

89.7 
65.5 
79.3 
65.5 
.34.4 
51.7 
34.5 
41.4 
27.6 
3.5 
29 

71.4 
75. 
82.1 
46.4 
42.9 
64.3 
32.1 
57.1 
32.1 
25. 
28 

69.7 

2  1)25  2             

69.7 

25)9750             

003)  0936        

72.7 

3i  -!-  9  —        

39.3 

J  -i-  5  —         

54.5 

*/4  -    3    5—   

39.4 

52)3;'5d              

36.3 

531)37722          

24.2 

9)69  lbs.  9  oz 

15. 

No. pupils  taking-  test 

33 

Some  of  the  facts  revealed  by  the  table  are  astonishing  in- 
deed. It  is  almost  inconceivable  that  only  72%  of  the  pupils  in 
grade  eight  solved  the  example  2-^2=:  correctly.  Incorrect  an- 
swers often  given  were  2  and  0.  In  building  two  only  61.1% 
of  the  class  solved  this  problem  correctly.  A  problem  like 
31/2  H-  9  =  is  beyond  two-thirds  of  the  eighth  grade  children. 
But  what  is  even  worse  is  the  fact  that  only  45.3%  of  the  eighth 
grade  can  obtain  the  correct  answer  to  the  problem  52)3756, 
Too  many*  failed  to  reduce  the  fractional  remainder  in  this 
example. 

A  striking  difference  in  the  effectiveness  with  which  differ- 
ent processes  are  taught  by  different  teachers  is  revealed  by  a 
comparison  of  the  scores  made  by  each  eighth  grade  class  on 
lliese  problems.  Building  two  makes  the  poorest  showing  ou 
five  of  the  ten  problems  while  building  four  makes  the  boi^t 
score  obtained  on  four  of  the  ten  examples.  The  class  m 
building  two  contains  only  two  i^upils  who  have  not  been  in  the 
grade  since  September,  while  that  in  building  four  is  almost 
evenly  divided  between  those  who  entered  the  grade  in  Septem- 
ber and  those  who  entered  in  January. 


250  Educational  Survey  of  JanesviUe 

Particular  Processes  Which  Proved  Difficult 

The  results  found  from  a  study  of  the  ten  problems  above 
suggests  the  need  of  specific  drill  upon  particular  processes. 
Quite  contrary  to  a  common  opinion  that  a  poor  showing  by  any 
group  of  children  on  problems  in  division  is  to  be  remedied  by 
devoting  more  attention  to  drill  in  division  or  that  improvement 
in  multiplication  is  to  be  brought  about  by  drill  upon  that 
phase  of  arithmetic,  the  table  suggests  that  the  weakness  may 
be  in  certain  forms  of  division  exercises.  In  that  event  drill 
upon  division  as  a  whole  rather  than  upon  certain  processes  in 
which  the  pupils  are  weak  would  be  poor  economy.  To  dete)"- 
mine  more  fully  specific  processes  in  Avhich  Janesvilie  pupils 
aie  weak  an  analysis  was  made  of  the  errors  which  were  made 
by  seventh  and  eighth  grade  pupils  in  the  division  test. 

The  different  forms  of  errors  found  among  1500  that  were 
analyzed  are  given  below  together  with  the  frequency  with 
^7llich  each  occurred.  The  relative  frequency  of  each  may  be 
judged  from  the  length  of  the  bar  opposite  in  each  case. 

FIGURE  III 

No.       %  4%      i°/,     n'/.     16'/. 


1.  Incorrect  Inverting  or  Failure  to  Invert  277  18.46 

2.  Incorrect    Division     246  16 . 4 

3.  Incorrect    placing,  of,    or    omitting    of  189  12.6 

decimal  point 

4.  Failure   to   reduce   or   incorrect   reduc-  133  8.87 

tion  of  remainder  or  answer 

5.  Incorrect  division  of  denominate  num-  132  8.8 

bers 

6.  Omitting  or  adding  cipher   in  quotient  101  6.73 

7.  Not    completing   division 92  6  .  13 

8.  Incorrect    subtraction     81  5.4 

9.  Incorrect    multiplication     61  4.07     B 

10.  Using     incorrect     denominator    of     re-  36  2.4       ■ 

mainder  "^ 

11.  Failure   to   classify  result 35  2.33    B 

12.  Failure  to  employ  both    parts  of  frac-  29  1.93    H 

tion 

13.  Incorrect    placing  or   bringing  down..  28  1.87    ^ 

14.  Incorrect  reduction   of  mixed   numbers  28  1.87    ^ 

15.  Failure  to  lecognize  the  sign  of  opera-  15  1.         ■ 

tion  ■ 

16.  Incorrect  addition    7  .47    | 

17.  Error    in    copying 4  .27    | 

18.  Illegible  answer   4  .27    | 

19.  Incorrect     cancellation     2  .13    | 

Total    1500  lOO'^o 


Measuring  Results  in  Scliool  Subjects  251 

In  this  analysis  of  errors  in  division  it  is  to  be  noted  that 
there  is,  of  course,  a  difference  in  the  number  of  possibilities 
for  making  each  of  the  various  type  errors.  Among  those  proc- 
esses offering  a  greater  chance  for  error  are  those  of  simple 
subtraction,  multiplication,  division  and  placing.  Decimals  oc- 
cur in  only  five  of  the  thirty-six  exercises  and  a  familiarity  with 
the  process  of  inverting  is  necessary  in  five.  These  two  proc- 
esses, however,  are  among  those  on  which  pupils  most  fre- 
quently fail. 

It  should  be  clear  to  any  observer  that  the  need  of  the  chil- 
dren who  made  the  1500  errors  in  the  test  in  division  is  not  drill 
in  pure  division  alone.  The  greatest  source  of  weakness  on  the 
part  of  these  children  occurs  in  connection  Avith  examples 
which  involve  such  processes  as  inverting,  the  use  of  decimals, 
the  reduction  of  a  remainder,  denominate  numbers,  and  the 
placing  of  a  cipher  in  the  quotient.  This  does  not  mean  that  a 
few  lessons  for  the  entire  class  need  necessarily  be  devoted  to 
drill  upon  each  of  these  particular  processes.  For  a  portion  of 
the  class  this  might  be  a  waste  of  valuable  time.  Some  children 
who  are  weak  in  one  or  two  processes  may  be  strong  in  others. 
That  drill  will  probably  be  most  effective  which  affords  each  in- 
dividual well  directed  practice  upon  those  operations  in  which 
he  or  she  is  weak.  When  individual  drill  is  not  feasible  group 
drill  lessons  may  be  utilized.  This  will  require  more  thinking, 
more  study  of  individual  and  class  needs,  and  more  careful 
planning  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  but  if  well  done  it  should 
mean  more  economy  in  time,  achievement,  and  interest  on  the 
part  of  the  pupil. 

A  desirable  habit  to  be  cultivated  in  all  teaching  of  arithme- 
tic is  that  of  forming  a  quick  rough  estimate  of  the  answer  in 
every  operation.  When  eighth  grade  pupils  divide  469  by  23 
and  obtain  2-i  as  manv  did,  it  is  certain  that  those  children 
have  not  formed  the  habit  of  estimating  answers.  To  show  a 
pupil  that  he  has  omitted  a  cipher  in  the  quotient  and  even  to 
drill  him  thoroughly  upon  that  process  is  not  sufficient.  It 
does  not  prevent  him  from  accepting  absurd  answers  in  other 
problems.  It  is  the  general  habit  of  estimating  answers  that 
should  be  aimed  at  here  and  not  alone  the  highly  specialized 
one  of  the  particular  i)rocess  of  putting  down  ciphers. 

Another  habit  which  many    Janesville    children    have    not 


252 


Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


"formed  is  that  of  checking  all  answers.  Many  errors  are  trace- 
able to  this  fault.  No  competent  business  man,  bookkeeper, 
banker,  or  statistician  thinks  of  accepting  a  statement  of  figures 
totally  unchecked.  To  do  so  would  spell  failure.  Teachers 
should  not  be  unmindful  of  the  fact  that  boys  and  girls  expect 
to  share  in  such  responsibility  later  in  life  and  no  opportunity 
should  be  lost  to  train  them  for  it. 

THE  COURTIS  TESTS 

The  Courtis  Tests  in  Fundamentals  Series  B  were  given  in 
two  buildings,  the  Jefferson  and  Washington  as  i-epresentative 
of  the  city.  The  test  in  each  fundamental  consists  of  several 
easy  examples  of  presumably  equal  difficulty.  A  selected  sam- 
ple from  each  test  is  given  below. 


Addition 

Subtraction 

Multiplication 

Division 

136 

340 

988 

75088824 

5368 

49)284:0 

386 

57406394 

95 

353 



904 

547 

192 

439 

A.  definite  amount  of  time  was  given  for  each  test ;  addition 
and  division  eight  minutes  each,  subtraction  four,  and  multi- 
plication six.  Each  test  purposely  contains  more  problems 
than  any  pupil  can  solve  in  the  time  allowed.  The  test  thus 
becomes  one  of  speed  and  accuracy. 

The  average  of  the  scores  for  each  building  and  the  standard 
of  achievement  for  each  grade  and  test  in  both  speed  and  ac- 
curacy may  be  seen  from  the  table  following. 


Measuring  Results  in  ScJiool  Subjects 
Table  50. — Average  Results  on  Courtis  Tests 


253 


Addition 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

V 

I 

>, 

>> 

tt 

>» 

u 

o 

o 

u 

u 

c« 

eS 

a 

CS 

e* 

13 

t-, 
a 
o 
o 

-a 

a 

u 

S 

w 

o 

a 

3 
o 
o 

9.3 

3 

y 

o 
<1 

■a 

a 

S- 
o 
u 

< 

Average  of  two  buildings 

5.5 

1.9 

7.4 

4..') 

8.6 

5.2 

6.2 

10.2 

8-. 

Standard  average , 

7.4 

4.7 

8.6 

6. 

9.8 

7.2 

1U.9 

8.2 

11.6 

8.8 

Subtraction 


Average  of  two  buildings 
Standard  average 


6.4 

.'J.I 

9.7 

7.1 

8.6 

5.2 

11.2 

8.9 

12.6 

7.4 

5.9 

9. 

7.5 

10.3 

8.8 

11.8 

10. 

12.9 

11. 

11.2 


Multiplication 


Average  of  two  buildiiigs 
ytaiulard  average 

6.5 
6.2 

2.7 
4.2 

7.2 

7.5 

5.2 

5.6 

8.6 
9.1 

5.2 
7.1 

8.3 
10.2 

6. 
8.2 

10.7 
11.5 

8.^ 
9.3.i 

Division 

Average  of  two  buildings 
Standard  average 

2. 
4.6 

.6 

5.8 
6.1 

4.1 
4.7 

8.6 
8.2 

5.2 
7.1 

8.6 
9.6 

7.1 
8.6 

10.6 
10,7 

».8 

9.T 

Speed  here  refers  to  the  number  of  problems  attempted  and 
accuracy  to  the  number  correct.  As  far  as  the  results  from 
the  two  schools  tested  are  representative  of  the  school  system 
it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  children  did  not  do  as  well  as  was  to  be 
expected  in  either  the  number  of  examples  attempted  or  the^ 
number  correct.  Only  grade  four  in  multiplication  and  grade: 
five  in  subtraction  reached  the  standard  for  speed.  Only  grade 
eight  in  division  reached  the  standard  for  accuracy.  The  lower- 
grades,  which-  it  will  be  recalled,  did  well  on  the  Woody  tests^. 
did  not  show  unusual  ability  on  the  Courtis  tests.  This  indi- 
cates  lack  of  sufficient  emphasis  upon  rapid  and  accurate  calcu- 
lation in  the  schools. 

While  June  standards  may  be  criticised  as  being  somewhat 
high  certainly  classes  which  do  not  exceed  the  standard  of 
children  one  grade  lower  are  by  no  means  to  be  excused.  This- 
occurred  in  at  least  six  of  the  twenty  eases.  The  standard 
scores  include  both  A  and  B  children.  All  of  the  pupils  here 
represented  in  grade  six  are  A  pupils  i.  e.,  children  who  have 
been  in  the  grade  since  September.  These  should  be  expected 
to  exceed  the  standard,  but  they  failed  to  do  so  on  the  test. 


254 


Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


THE    STONE    REASONING   TEST 

Even  though  a  school  system  may  be  securing  satisfactory 
results  in  the  fundamental  operations  it  may  or  may  not  be 
achieving  satisfactory  results  in  problems  requiring  a  careful 
analysis  and  selection  of  the  various  operations  which  must  be 
performed.  Quite  frequently,  though  not  necessarily,  it  occurs 
that  proficiency  in  the  fundamentals  is  accompanied  by  pro- 
ficiency in  thought  or  reasoning  processes.  When  a  child  has 
acquired  such  a  degree  of  attainment  in  performing  the  funda- 
mental operations  that  many  of  them  may  be  spoken  of  as 
"automatic"  he  should  be  less  absorbed  with  the  mechanical 
side  of  the  work  and  freer  to  devote  attention  to  the  analysis  of 
a  problem.  This  is  a  common  assumption,  which  is  not  with- 
out some  foundation  in  fact.  The  achievement  of  the  pupils  in 
the  fundamentals  it  will  be  recalled  was  not  on  the  w^iole  above 
the  average  of  children  in  other  school  systems.  Hence  it  will 
aiot  be  surprising  if  we  find  no  better  than  an  average  showing 
on  the  test  in  reasoning  problems.  A  copy  of  the  test  used 
together  with  the  value  assigned  to  each  problem  may  be  seen 
below. 


Problem        Solve    as   many  of  the   follo^vins  problems   as  you  have  time 
Value       for;  VFork  them  in  order   as  numbered: 

1.0  1.   If    you   buy   2   tablets   at  7    cents  each   and   a  book   for   65 

cents,  how  much  change  should  you  receive  from  a  two-dollar 
bill? 

1.0  2.  John  sold  4  Saturday  Evening  Posts  at  5  cents  each.     He 

kept  %  the  money  and  with  the  other  %  he  bought  Sunday 
papers   at    2   cents   each.     How   many    did   he    buy? 

1.0  3.   If  James  had  4  times  as  much  money  as  George,  he  would 

have    $16.     How  much  money  has  George? 

1.0  4.   How  many  pencils  can  you  buy  for  50  cents  at  the  late  of 

2  for  5  cents? 

1.0  5.   The    uniforms    for    a    baseball   nine    cost    $2.50    each.     The 

shoes  cost  $2  a  pair.  What  was  the  total  cost  of  uniforms 
and  shoes   for   the   nine? 

1.4  6.   In    the    schools    of   a   certain    city   there    are    2.200    pupils; 

Vi  are  in  the  primary  grades,  14  in  the  grammar  grades,  Va  in 
the  High  School  and  the  rest  in  the  night  school.  How  many 
pupils   are    there    in    the    night   school? 

1.2  7.   If  31/2  tons  of  coal  cost  $21.  what  will  51/2  tons  cost? 

1.6  8.   A    news    dealer    bought     some    magazines    for     $1.     He    sold 

them  for  $1.20,  gaining  5  cents  on  each  magazine.  How  many 
magazines   were  there? 

2.0  9.  A  girl  spent   %  of  her  money  for  car  fare,  and  three  times 

as  much  for  clothes.  Half  of  what  she  had  left  was  80  cents. 
How  much  money    did  she   have  at   first? 

2.0  10.   Two    girls    receive    $2.10    for    making    button-holes.     One 

makes  42,  the  other  28.     How  shall  they  divide  the  money? 

2.0  11.  Mr.   Brown  paid   one-third  of  the  cost  of  a  building;  Mr. 

Johnson  paid  %  the  cost.  Mr.  Johnson  received  $500  more  an- 
nual rent  than  Mr.  Brown.     How  much    did   each   receive? 

2.0  12.   A    freight   train    left  Albany  for  New   York   at   6   o'clock. 

An  express  left  on  the  same  track  at  8  o'clock.  It  went  at  the 
rate  of  40  miles  an  hour.  At  what  time  of  day  will  it  over- 
take the  freight  train  if  the  freight  train  stops  after  it  has 
gone  56   miles? 


Measuring  Results  in  School  Subjects  255 

Exactly  fifteen  luiiiutes  were  allowed  for  the  test.  Each 
problem  Avas  marked  on  the  basis  of  right  or  wrong  answers. 
No  credit  was  given  for  solutions  that  were  only  partly  correct. 
While  it  maj'  be  held  by  some  that  this  was  unfair  it  should  be 
noted  that  the  conditions  were  exactly  similar  to  those  observed 
in  the  surveys  of  other  cities  with  w^hich  comparisons  are  made. 
More  than  that  an  attempt  to  score  the  papers  by  allowing 
credit  foi-  answers  partly  correct  did  not  prove  satisfactory. 
Papers  which  gave  answers  only  could  not  then  be  used.  This 
suggested  a  comparison  of  the  scores  attained  by  pupils  who 
performed  tlie  operations  mentally  and  put  down  answers 
only  with  those  of  pupils  who  wrote  out  the  work  of  each  step. 
A  random  selection  of  i)apers  from  each  group  was  made  and 
results  tabulated.  The  results  were  in  favor  of  those  who  put 
down  answers  only  and  the  method  of  scoring  part  "corrects" 
was  therefore  rejected. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  puj^ils  who  do  not  write  out  an  elab- 
orate analysis  of  each  problem  did  not  do  as  well  as  those  who 
wrote  answers  only  it  is  evident  that  a  grave  question  is  raised 
as  to  the  relative  merits  of  the  teaching  method.  Teachers  will 
need  to  observe  classroom  I'esults  from  day  to  day  to  discover 
when  it  is  no  longer  profitable  to  continue  an  elaborate  analysis 
of  each  problem  solved.  Teachers  should  rememljer  that  it  is  a 
habit  of  thinking  which  is  desired  and  not  a  methodical  form 
for  exhibiting  the  child's  work.  If  a  pupil  has  acquired  such 
a  degree  of  proficiency  that  he  analyzes  the  problem  and  per- 
forms the  operations  mentally  it  is  clear  that  any  method  which 
continues  to  require  him  to  write  out  an  elaborate  analysis  of 
each  step  is  wasteful.  Elaborate  statements  are  sometimes  use- 
ful in  teaching  a  new  process  but  a  careful  observation  of  re- 
sults is  necessary  to  determine  when  such  ])rocedure  is  no  long- 
er profitable. 

The  Median  Scores — Reasoning  Problems 

The  showing  of  Janesville's  children  is  not  satisfactory  in 
this  phase  of  arithmetic.  This  may  be  seen  by  comparing 
Janesville  medians  with  those  for  Butte  and  Salt  Lake  included 
in  the  table  showing  the  distribution  of  scores  in  the  reason- 
ing test.  The  standing  for  each  grade  as  compared  with  Butte 
and  Salt  Lake  for  each  grade  is  shown  in  graphic  form  in  Fig. 
IV. 


256 


Educational.  Survey  of  Janesville 


Table  51. — Distribution  of  Scores  in  Stone  Reasoning  Test 


No.  Problems  Correct 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

0   

34 
25 
36 
32 

10 

7 

1 

8 

26 
31 

42 
24 
20 
6 
1 
2 

2 

3 

6 

13 

34 

31 

23 

13 

6 

11 

1 

1   

1 

2   

3   

5 

8 

4    

18 

5   

6   

7   

28 
24 
10 

8   

12 

9   

11 

10   

4 

11 

2 

1 

6 

12    

1 

13   

5 

14   

15   

1 

16   

17   

2 

18   

Total 

145 

2.4 

4.3 

2.7 

160 

3.4 

6.9 
4.1 

145 

5.5 

9.1 
6.3 

137 

6  3 

Salt  Lake  Median 

11. 

8  2 

In  no  grade  did  Janesville  children  do  as  well  as  the  children 
of  either  Butte  or  Salt  Lake.  It  should  be  observed  that  the 
test  in  each  of  the  latter  cities  was  given  approximately  two 
months  later  in  the  year.  This  is  not  however  a  sufficient  ex- 
planation as  to  why  the  scores  for  the  sixth  grade  in  Janesville 
should  be  lower  than  that  of  the  fifth  in  Salt  Lake  or  Avhy  the 


V                                                          V 

I                                                     V 

11                                                  VII 

21 

10 

^^-- 

q 

fl 

,--''" 

7 

6 

,,  -  '  ' 

^ 

^ 

^,-'' 



4 

^— —      ^^ — --"' 

7: 

-—-    ' 

Salt   Lake 

?. 

1- 

Butte 

1 

Janesville 

0 

Figure  IV  Mellan  Reasoning  Scores  in  Janesville, Butte  and  Salt  Lake 

scores  for  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  should  be  lower  than 
those  of  Salt  Lake  for  grades  six  and  seven.  In  the  judgment 
of  the  survey  staff  this  phase  of  the  work  in  arithmetic  is  not 
well  done  in  Janesville. 


Measuring  Results  in  School  Subjects 


257 


As  to  whether  or  not  certain  rooms  do  not  do  much  better 
than  others  may  be  judged  from  the  accompanying  table.  With 
few  exceptions  the  results  in  the  several  classes  for  each  grade 
are  fairly  uniform.  No  seventh  or  eighth  grade  class  reaches 
the  score  of  either  Butte  or  Salt  Lake  for  these  grades,  two  ex- 
ceed that  of  Butte  in  grade  five.  None  reach  that  of  Salt  Lake. 
The  score  for  grade  six  in  building  three  includes  two  classes. 
In  one  all  of  the  children  entered  the  grade  in  January  and  in 
the  other  all  had  entered  in  September.  The  respective  medi- 
ans for  the  two  classes  are  3  and  4.6.  The  latter  while  a  pure 
sixth  exceeds  but  little  the  score  for  Butte  which  is  made  up  of 
both  A  and  B  classes. 

Table  52. — Median  Scores  by  Buildings — Stone  Reasoning  Test 


Grades 

Building-s 

V 

VI 

VU 

VIII 

1 

0.8 
2.1 
2.5 
2.8 

3.6 
3.1 
3.6 
3.1 

4.8 
5.6 

7  3 

2 

5  6 

3 

4 

5 

5.8 
5.4 
5.6 

6.1 
6  3 

6 

2.3 
2.9 

2.3 
4.3 

2.7 

6  2 

7 

Janes  ville 

Salt  Lake 

3.4                 5.5 
6.9                 9,1 
4  4                R  -^ 

6.3 
21 

Butte 

S  2 

Progress  From  Grade  to  Grade 

The  amount  of  progress  from  grade  to  grade  is  small  and  a 
marked  degree  of  overlapping  is  evident.  This  may  be  seen 
both  from  the  table  showing  the  distribution  of  reasoning 
scores  and  Fig.  IV.  Some  children  in  every  grade  failed  to 
solve  a  single  problem  correctly.  44%  of  the  eighth  grade  pu- 
pils did  not  do  as  well  as  the  best  fifth  grade  pupil.  The  high- 
est 25%  of  the  fifth  grade  did  better  than  a  considerable  pro- 
portion of  the  children  in  grades  above.  These  fifth  grade  pu- 
pils made  a  higher  score  than  51.9%  of  the  pupils  in  grade  six. 
They  did  better  than  11.4%  of  the  seventh  grade  and  better 
than  7.6%  of  the  eighth  grade. 

The  effect  of  instituting  semiannual  promotions  upon  the 
scores  in  the  reasoning  test  may  be  judged  from  the  table  below. 


258 


Educational  Survey  of  JanesviUe 


The  table  gives  the  median  scores  for  each  group  of  two  classes 
in  each  grade  selected  at  random. 


Table  53. — Median  Stone  Reasoning  Scores  by  Promoted  d-  Non-Pro- 
moted Sections 


Medians 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

P. 

N.  P. 

P. 

N.  P. 

P. 

N.  P 

P- 

N.  P. 

Class  I 

3.2 
2.4 
2.6 
29 

2.6 
2. 
2.4 
19 

3. 
3.8 
3.2 
31 

4.6 
3.6 
4. 
52 

6.3 
4.9 
5.3 
26 

5.8 
4.7 
5.4 
37 

I    6.3 
5.8 
6. 

'    24 

1 

6. 

Class  II 

6.4 

6.2 

37 

In  six  of  the  eight  cases  the  promoted  pupils  excelled  the 
scores  of  those  who  had  spent  an  entire  year  in  the  grade.  In 
no  case  did  the  promoted  groups  score  less  than  the  group  which 
remained  in  the  grade  below.  The  poor  showing  on  the  test 
cannot  be  explained  by  the  i)eculiar  condition  existing  from 
the  introduction  of  semi-annual  promotions. 

One  of  the  difficult  tasks  before  the  teachers  and  supervisors 
as  revealed  by  the  test  on  reasoning  problems  is  to  secure  im- 
provement in  this  imiKirtant  phase  of  arithmetic.  Some  of  the 
suggestions  made  for  the  improvement  of  the  w^ork  in  the  fun- 
damental operations  can  be  applied  here  as  w^ell.  As  stated  in 
the  chapter  on  Instruction  children  should  be  trained  to  read 
problems  for  the  thought  of  the  statements  and  conditions.  At 
times  it  may  even  be  advisable  to  use  the  arithmetic  text  as  a 
reader.  Conditions  should  be  visualized  from  matter  of  habit. 
Pupils  will  do  this  more  readily  when  problems  are  such  as 
come  directly  within  their  own  experience,  when  they  appeal 
to  them  as  worth  while,  and  when  the  answer  appeals  to  them 
as  Avorth  knowing.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  same  problems 
be  solved  by  all. 

Pupils  should  be  habituated  in  the  matter  of  forming  ([uick 
mental  estimates  of  the  answers  not  only  to  the  problem  itself 
but  to  the  various  parts.  They  should  be  so  taught  that  they 
will  not  be  satisfied  Avith  answers  that  have  not  been  checked. 
Elaborate  w^'itten  analysis  should  be  employed  judiciously. 
Frequent  short  tests  of  a  single  example  or  two  for  the  purpose 
of  analyzing  teaching  needs  will  serve  to  guide  the  teacher. 


Mcdsuring  Hesulfs  in  School  Subjects  259 

More  careful  study  of  the  achievements  of  each  child  and  less 
fretting  over  failures  will  do  much  to  economize  teaching  ef- 
forts. As  a  stimulus  to  the  teaching  of  arithmetic,  plans  for 
supervision  might  well  include  some  experimental  teaching  by- 
some  of  the  school >  most  capable  teachers  to  test  the  validity 
of  different  methods  of  teaching  i)articnlar  processes. 

Reading 

Results  in  reading  were  tested  by  use  of  the  Kansas  Silent 
Reading  Test.  This  test  was  chosen  in  preference  to  others 
that  might  have  been  used  because  of  its  simplicity.  It  is  a  test 
of  the  child's  ability  to  grasp  the  thought  of  selected  para- 
graphs as  shown  by  his  answers  to  questions  on  each  paragraph. 
The  time  allowed  for  the  test  is  five  minutes.  Each  paragraph 
has  an  assigned  value  and  the  pupil's  score  is  the  combined 
value  of  the  passages  correctly  interpreted  in  the  time  allotted. 

While  it  may  be  desirable  to  test  certain  other  phases  of  read- 
ing achievement  in  and  of  themselves  such  as  pronunciation, 
expression,  and  rate  of  reading,  it  was  decided  to  confine  the 
testing  of  reading  to  the  particular  phase  of  the  subject  gener- 
ally considered  most  important — the  ability  to  get  information 
from  the  printed  page  rapidly  and  accurately. 

No  matter  how  far  a  child  may  progress  in  school  or  later  in 
life  his  success  will  depend  in  no  small  measure  upon  his  ability 
to  glean  thought  from  the  printed  page.  In  the  busy  world  of 
affairs  most  of  our  information  comes  to  us  from  newspapers, 
magazines  and  books.  In  the  immediate  schoolroom  environ- 
ment of  the  child  his  success  depends  largely  upon  his  ability 
to  read  with  a  clear  understanding  the  thought  of  problems  in 
arithmetic  or  the  subject  matter  of  history,  geography,  science 
and  literature.  Whether  his  pronunciation  be  accurate  or  his 
expression  good,  when  put  to  the  test  is  of  minor  importance 
for  his  own  future  progress.  Unless  he  be  trained  in  the  man- 
ner indicated  he  will  derive  little  pleasure  in  reading,  either 
for  entertainment  or  information  and  the  quality  of  the  read- 
ing matter  which  appeals  to  his  tastes  will  scarcely  be  such  as 
to  contribute  materially  to  his  mental  growth  and  equipment. 

The  nature  of  the  test  used  may  be  seen  from  the  following 
representing  a  portion  of  the  test  for  grades  III,  "IV  and  V. 


260 


Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


No.  8. 


■\"alue 
2.6 


Here  are  two  squares.  Draw  a  line  from  the  upper  left-hand 
corner  of  the  small  suuare  to  the  lower  right-hand  corner  of  the 
large  square, 


D       D 


Xo.  9. 

A  farmer  puts  one-half  the  hay  from  his  field  Into  the  first  stack, 
a  f?  then  two- thirds  of  what  is  lett  into  a  second  stack,  and  the  remain- 

'•"  derin  a  third  stack.     Which  stack  is  the  largest? 


No.  10. 

Below  are  two  squares  and  a  circle.    If  the  circle  is  the  largest 
Value      '       of  the  three,  put  a  cross  in  it.    If  one  square  is  smaller  than  the 
3.9  circle,  put  a  cross  in  the  large  square.    If  bothsquares  are  smaller 

than  the  circle,  put  a  cross  in  the  small  square. 


□  O  D 


No.  11. 


Value 
4.0 


"The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting-  day, 

The  lowiny  herds  wind  slowly  o'er  the  lea. 

The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way. 

And  leaves  the  world  to  darluiess  and  to  me."'—  (Gray) 

Study  the  above  quotation  carefully.  The  author  lets  us  know  his 
feeling  about  the  coming  of  night.  If  you  think  his  feeling  is  one 
of  fear  and  dread,  underscore  curfew.  If  his  feeling  is  one  of  peace 
and  gladness,  underscore  ploughman . 


No.   12 


Value 
4.0 


Read  these  carefully: 
Bears  are  larger  than  bugs. 
Houses  are  larger  than  bears. 
Mountains  are  larger  than  houses. 
Then  bugs  are  not  as  large  asmountains. 

I  have  tried  to  make  no  false  statement  among  these  four.  If  I 
have  succeeded,  underline  the  word  success.  If  I  have  failed,  un- 
derline the  word  failure. 


success 


failure 


Measuring  Results  in  School  Subjects 


261 


There  are  three  separate  tests  in  the  series.  Test  I  is  used  in 
grades  III,  IV  and  V;  Test  II  in  grades  VI,  VII  and  VIII, 
and  Test  III  in  the  high  school.  Each  test  is  similar  in  nature 
to  each  of  the  others  but  somewhat  more  difficult.  These  tests 
have  been  given  to  over  100,000  children  in  other  cities  and  the 
median  or  middle  scores  obtained  by  combining  the  results  of 
all  cities  can  be  taken  as  standard  performance. 

The  scores  made  in  each  grade  for  the  city  as  a  whole  may  be 
seen  from  the  following  table  showing  the  distribution  of  read- 
ing scores.  The  table  reads,  e.  g.  in  grade  III  there  were  twen- 
ty-three pupils  who  scored  less  than  one.  Twenty-three  scored 
between  1 — 1.9,  fifteen  scored  between  2 — 2.9,  etc. 


Table   54. 


-Distribution   of  Scores   in   Kansas   Silent   Reading    Test — 
Janesville 


Grades 

scores  fall  between 

Ill 

23 

23 
15 
12 
19 

28 
28 
9 
7 
9 
6 
1 

IV 

1 

3 

■■-•• 

6 
2.5 
35 
34 
23 
15 
13 

1 

1 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

IX 

X 

XI 

XII 

0       9              

1 

1 

2 

1 

6 

11 

Hi 

21 

20 

29 

21 

6 

3 

1 

1 

1    1  q            

! 

2-  2  9  

1 

'"2" 
5 

17 
15 
18 
20 
22 
20 
10 

9 

5 

6 

3-3  9                        .... 

i 

...... 

6 

9 
13 
23 
20 
18 
13 
12 

4 
10 

2 

"i" 
1 
3 
4 
10 
12 

26 
13 
25 

19 

8 
9 

1 

1 

1 

4    4  9                    

5-6  9.'           

3 

3 
7 

11 
10 
28 
27 
20 
32 
16 
25 
6 
7 

1 
2 

4 
3 
20 
15 
12 
17 
10 
21 
6 
4 
2 
3 

7     8  q 

9  10  9 

1 

4 
4 
7 
6 
9 
14 
11 

m 

4 

I 
5 

1 

1 

11  12  9 

13-14  9 

3 

15-17  9 

5 

18  20.9 

10 

21-23  9 

3 

24-26  9 

14 

27-29  9 

6 

30  34  9 

13 

35  39  9 

3 

40-44  q 

5 

45-49  9                 

50-59  9     

0 

60-09  9  

70-79  q 

1 
2 

199 

Above  80 

::::::i::::.'.: 

1 

12: 

1 

1 

166 

139 

132 

Total 

180 

140 

150 

94 

G6 

Janesville  Median 

4.9 
5.3 

9.2 
9.5 

12.1 
13.2 

13  9 

16  5 

16  2 

20  1 
19.2 

22.4 
22.7 

24.4 
24.7 

27  6 
26.1 

26.4 

Standard  Median 

28  3 

Certain  facts  with  reference  to  reading  ability  may  be  noted 
from  this  table:  (1)  The  scores  indicate  first  of  all  a  wide 
range  of  ability  within  each  grade.  In  the  third  grade  there 
were  some  children  who  did  not  interpret  a  single  sentence  cor- 
rectly, and  others  who  scored  as  high  as  18  or  better.     (2)  They 


262 


Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


indicate  that  there  are  some  ehiklren  in  the  fourth  and  fifth 
grades  who  did  no  better  on  the  same  test  than  some  of  the 
children  in  grade  three.  Indeed,  few  children  in  those  two 
grades  did  better  than  the  best  third  grade  children.  Nine- 
teen in  the  fourth  and  eleven  in  the  fifth  grades  did  no  better 
than  the  median  or  middle  score  of  the  third  grade.  This  over- 
lapping of  abilities  is  likewise  evident  in  the  three  upper  ele- 
mentary grades,  in  which  test  II  Avas  given.  (3)  A  third  point 
indicated  by  the  table  is  seen  when  we  compare  the  median 
scores  with  the  standard  median.  .From  this  standpoint  it  will 
be  noted  that  the  children  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  and 
the  eleventh  grade  of  the  high  school  read  better  than  the 
standard  representing  the  median  scores  of  100,000  children 
selected  from  many  states.  The  children  of  the  remaining 
grades  do  not  read  as  well  as  children  in  other  states. 

That  several  of  the  grades  did  not  do  as  well  as  they  should 
is  due  in  part  to  several  causes:  The  recent  introduction  of 
semi-annual  promotions,  the  scarcity  of  suitable  reading  matter, 
and  mediocre  teaching  of  reading.  .Each  of  these  factors  is 
treated  elsewhere  in  this  report.  It  may  be  said  here,  however, 
that  the  teachers  will  need  to  devote  careful  thought  to  ways 
of  securing  good  work  in  silent  reading.  A  discussion  of  meth- 
ods of  securing  improvement  in  thought  reading  might  well  be 
made  the  subject  of  discussion  at  teachers'  meetings. 

(4)  A  more  striking  result  than  any  so  far  indicated  is  the 
variation  between  schools.  The  table  following  indicates  the 
median  scores  attained  by  the  several  elementary  grades  of 
each  school.  Median  scores  exclusive  of  the  model  department 
of  the  Jefferson  school,  which  has  but  few  pupils  in  any  grade, 
vary  Ijy  grades  as  follows: 

Table  55. 


Ill 

g 

1.3 

5.3 

IV 

10.7 
7.4 
9.5 

V 

14.5 

9.5 
13.2 

VI 

15.6 
11.8 
13.9 

VII 

19.5 

14. 

16.2 

VIII 

Hiffhest 

Lowest 

Standard  

24.8 

IS. 

19.2 

Measuring  Iiesults  in  Scliool  Subjects  263 

Tablk  56. — Median  Scores  in  Kansas  Silent  Reading  Test 


Buildintr 

Ill 

4.3 
6.7 

IV 

8.8 
10.7 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

1 

10 

15.6 

16.5 

18.5 

2 

3 

13.2 
14.5 

14.8 
13.7 

19. 

24.8 

4 

1.3 
8. 
7.7 
4.1 
3  6 

8.7 
10. 
9  9 
9.8 
7.4 

6 

7 

14.1 

15. 

16.1 

14. 

19.5 

18.8 
18. 

8 

9.5 

9.8 

12.1 

13.2 

21.9 

9  

J  anesvilleMedian 
Standard  Median. 

4.9 
5.3 

9.2 
9.5 

Kt.7 
13.9 

16.5 
16.2 

20.1 
19.2 

It  is  evident  that  some  of  the  classes  in  every  grade  can  read 
better  than  the  standard  expected  and  it  is  also  evident  that 
there  are  some  classes  in  nearly  every  grade  whose  work  is  much 
below"  the  standard.  The  achievements  of  those  making  the  high- 
est scores  might  well  serve  as  a  mark  worthy  of  emulation  for 
those  who  did  not  do  as  well.  It  is  also  noteworthy  that  not 
more  than  one  of  the  best  median  performances  is  to  be  found 
in  any  one  building.  Why  exceptionally  good  reading  and  un- 
usually poor  reading  are  to  be  found  in  the  same  building  is  a 
matter  demanding  .supervisory  attention. 

At  this  point  some  reference  should  be  made  to  the  scores 
made  by  the  pupils  who  were  promoted  at  the  Ijeginning  of  the 
present  semester.  These  pupils  it  will  be  remembered  had  spent 
only  one  semester,  except  for  those  who  had  failed  of  promotion 
the  preceding  June,  in  the  grade  below.  A  tabulation  of  the 
median  scores  made  by  classes  selected  at  random  from  those 
promoted  and  those  who  remained  in  the  grade  is  given  below\ 

Table    57. — Median     Reading    Scores    hy    Promoted    d    Ncyiipromoted 

Sections 


Ill 

IV      1 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

Medians 

Class  1 

"      2 

"        3 

P 

4.5 

7. 

N  P 

4.3 
7.5 

P 

8.7 
6. 

N.P. 

6.7 
10. 

P 

14 
9.5 

N.P.i 

H.2 
11 

P 

14.6 
10.3 

N.P. 

18.8 
IB 
15  5 

P 

21. 
16.1 

N.P. 

21. 
16.5 

P 



19  5 
16  5 

2i.8 
18. 

34. 

li: 

V.P. 

17.8 
21.4 
?1  1 

Combined 

No.  puuils  repre- 
sented   

Standard 

5.3 
19. 

6 

4  9 
37. 
3 

8. 
15. 
0 

7.7 
28. 
5 

11. 

28. 
1; 

13.3 

30.   1 
2 

13. 
42. 

15.9 

71.   j 
.9 

17.4 
31. 
It 

18. 
32. 
.2 

20.3 
53. 
.2 

264  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

The  standard  score  is  given  by  way  of  comparison.  It  should 
be  noted  that  the  standard  score  represents  a  combination  of 
the  scores  of  pupils  who  have  been  in  the  grade  one  and  two 
semesters  respectively.  The  children  who  were  not  promoted  in 
January  and  who  were  thus  well  along  in  the  second  semester's 
work  for  the  grade  should  exceed  the  standard. 

Suggestions  for  Improving  Work  in  Reading 

For  suggested  changes  in  method  and  selection  of  reading 
material  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  section  on  reading  in  the 
chapter  of  this  report  devoted  to  Instruction.  Practice  in  rapid 
silent  reading,  motivation  of  the  work  in  reading  through  such 
means  as  dramatization,  reading  for  the  entertainment  or  infor- 
mation of  other  members  of  the  class,  and  discussion  of  the 
most  interesting  sections  of  the  reading  lesson,  systematic  train- 
ing in  getting  the  thought  accurately  and  a  sufficient  supply  of 
supplementary  reading  material  will  do  much  to  bring  about 
improvement. 

The  results  of  the  test  in  reading  indicate  a  positive  correla- 
tion between  the  amount  of  subject  matter  read  during  the 
year  and  the  scores  made  on  the  tests.  In  the  main  the  classes 
which  read  more  books  did  better  than  those  that  did  not  read 
as  many.  As  suggested  in  the  chapter  on  Instruction  the  board 
should  take  immediate  steps  to  provide  a  sufficient  supply  of  in- 
teresting supplementary  reading  material.  The  first  requisite 
to  good  reading  is  interesting  material.  Too  much  time  is  de- 
voted at  present  to  material  that  does  not  appeal  directly  to 
the  child's  interests. 

Training  in  the  ability  to  gain  thought  from  the  printed 
page  as  stated  elsewhere  is  a  vital  aim  in  all  reading  work. 
Training  to  this  end  should  include  the  frequent  choice  of  well 
selected  paragraphs  for  practice  work  in  rapid  and  accurate 
thought  getting.  Questions  may  be  placed  upon  the  blackboard 
and  the  children  be  given  a  limited  amount  of  time  to  read  the 
paragraphs  and  write  the  answers  to  the  questions.  Mimeo- 
graphed sheets  containing  selected  paragraphs  and  questions 
for  practice  work  in  particular  grades  on  certain  days  might 
well  be  sent  out  from  the  superintendent's  office.  To  ask  the 
meanings  of  words  as  teachers  frequently  do  is  not  sufficient. 
Children  require  practice  in  independent  interpretation  if  they 


Measuring  Results  in  School  Subjects 


265 


are  to  acquire  the  facility  in  thought  getting  necessary  to  read 
rapidly  and  understandingly  the  kind  and  amount  of  material 
which  today  forms  our  greatest  means  of  communication. 

Spelling 

The  achievements  of  the  schools  in  the  subject  of  spelling 
were  tested  by  use  of  both  the  Ayres  and  Buckingham  tests. 
The  Ayres  test  included  four  groups  of  25  Avords  each  of  ap- 
proximately equal  difficulty  selected  from  Dr.  Ayres'  list  of 
the  1000  words  most  commonly  used.  The  four  lists  included 
one  for  grade  two,  a  second  for  grades  three  and  four,  another 
for  grades  five  and  six,  and  a  fourth  for  grades  seven  and 
eight.  These  words  were  pronounced  by  the  teachers.  Teach- 
ers were  instructed  to  illustrate  the  use  of  each  word  with  a 
sentence.     The  Avords  are  given  below. 


2 

nine 

miss 

tree 

got 

white 

foot 

block 

river 

cut 

■\\  inter 

free 

page 

end 

feet 

back 

paper 

each 

came 

show 

yet 

give 

letter 

after 

thing 

than 

The  Buckingham  test  was  given  in  the  form  of  dictated  sen- 
tences. The  test  covered  50  words  in  grade  two,  60  in  grades 
three  and  four,  65  in  grades  five  and  six  and  65  in  grades  seven 
and  eight. 


T?ie 

Ayres  Words 
Grades 

3&4 

5&6 

7&8 

cash^ 

sometimes 

meant 

warm 

engage 

earliest 

clothing 

terrible 

distinguish 

able 

period 

consideration 

suit 

employ 

assure 

watch 

select 

probably 

fell 

firm 

foreign 

buy 

convict 

responsible 

walk 

command 

beginning 

soap 

crowd 

difficulty 

email 

publish 

finally 

summer 

term 

develop 

express 

relative 

issue 

lesson 

entire 

luaterial 

father 

measure 

mere 

table 

serve 

senate 

talk 

remember 

respectfully 

right 

effort 

agreement 

road 

due 

unfortunate 

next 

running 

majority 

four 

position 

elaborate 

power 

ledge 

citizen 

because 

primary 

"ecessary 

country 

Saturday 

divide 

another 

information 

receive 

^This  word  should  have  been  "catch." 


266 


Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


THE  RESULTS  ON  THE  AYRES  TEST 

The  Average  Scores 

The  results  in  spelling  on  the  Ayres  test  are  not  satisfactory. 
When  the  average  for  the  words  used  in  each  grade  is  compared 
with  the  average  for  84  cities,  we  find  that  Janesville  does  not 
attain  an  average  standing  in  any  grade.^ 

Table  58 


II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

Average  of  84  cities 

73 

73 

88 

73 

84 

73 

84 

J  anesville's  average 

42.9 

66.9 

82.1 

56.3 

74.9 

62.6 

71.1 

The  weakness  of  certain  grades  is  evident.  Grades  six  and 
eight  were  tested  on  the  same  lists  of  words  that  were  used  for 
children  one  grade  lower  in  each  case.  It  is  to  be  noted  that 
the  eighth  does  not  reach  the  standard  for  grade  seven.  Grade 
six  is  only  slightl.y  above  the  standard  for  grade  five.  The 
showings  made  by  the  second  and  fifth  grades  are  unusually 
poor.  The  most  satisfactory  showing  is  made  in  grades  three 
and  four.     When  compared  with'  other  cities  in  Wisconsin  the 


Table  59. — Average  Ayres  Spelling  Scores  in  Twelve  Wisconsin  Cities 


Wisconsin 
cities 

Date 
tested 

Sec- 
tion 
test- 
ed 

R 
K 

B 
|{ 
H 
H 
H 
K 
A 
B 
B 

A&B 

11 



42.9 

III 

IV 

68.4 

7!).  3 

.50.2 

77,8 

74.5 

01. 

76  1 

74.2 

75.2 

68.8 

71.1 

78.5 

82.1 

V 

46.4 

49 

29.5 

57.3 

46.8 

57.3 

54.5 

.54.9 

54.6 

59. 

54.3 

47.6 

56.3 

VI 

75.4 

66.3 

76.1 

69.8 

70.6 

64.8 

69.7 

77.. 

71.3 

74.2 

70.2 

74.2 

74.9 

VII 

62.5 

60.9 

72  1 

.57.3 

50.6 

.50.7 

65. 

61.9 

60.6 

40.7 

66  3 

52.6 

62.6 

VIII 

69.6 
75.9 
72.4 
62.6 
78.9 
56.2 
81.4 
70  9 
80.  !1 
72.2 
64.4 
64.7 

71.1 

Numijer 

children 

tested 

1 

10    3  16 
2/  5/17 
10/2516 
12     8   16 
9  28   16 
10  20  16 
10/25   16 
10/26, 16 
1/  V/17 
10,    8/16 
10  20/16 
12/  8   16 

3   29    17 

38.5 
61.1 

2S.9 
49.8 
38.9 
42.:^ 
68.8 
51.1 
41.8 
46.8 
28.1 
.58.6 

66.9 

529 

2 

'i'.'.'.'.'..'.'.'.'.".'.'.'.'.'. 
4 

1,868 
195 
439 

5 

248 

6 

470 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

Janesville 

211 

2J8 
2,075 
201 
386 
307 

1,087 

1  Ayres'  standard  averages  are  based  upon  scores  made  by  "children  who  had  com- 
pleted just  half  of  the  work  of  each  grade."  Approximately  one-third  of  the  children 
in  Janesville  were  promoted  in  January.  Since  the  test  was  given  during  the  last  week 
of  March  this  third  of  the  children  had  completed  approximately  one-fourth  of  the 
work  of  the  grade  Avhile  the  remaining  two-thirds  had  completed  three-fourths  of  the 
work  of  the  grade.  On  the  average  then  the  children  in  Janesville  had  completed 
slightly  more  than  half  of  the  work  of  the  grade  at  the  time  the  test  was  given,  and 
valid  comparisons  may  therefore  be  made. 


Measuring  Results  in  School  Subjects 


267 


results  are  not  as  poor  in  comparison.  This  is  a  reflection  on 
teaching  of  spelling  in  Wisconsin  rather  than  a  cause  for  ela- 
tion in  Janesville. 

The  Variation  of  Spelling  Achieveme7it  Within  Grades 

Poor  spellers  and  good  spellers,  when  in  the  same  class,  prove 
a  vexing  problem  to  the  teacher.  Both  are  found  in  every  grade 
in  Janesville.  This  may  be  seen  by  dividing  the  children  into 
three  divisions  according  to  the  scores  made  on  the  test.  The 
following  table  shows  the  number  who  made  an  average  of 
40%  (i.  e.  10  words)  or  less,  those  who  did  better  than  40%  but 
less  than  Ayres  standard  for  84  cities,  and  those  who  reached  or 
exceeded  Ayres  standard.  The  expected  average  is  19  or  more 
words  correct  in  grades  two,  three,  five  and  seven,  22  or  more 
in  grade  four,  and  21  or  more  in  grades  six  and  eight. 


Table  60. — The  Number  of  Children  Making  an  Average  o/  -J0%  or  Less, 

Those  Between  ^0%  and  Ayres  Standard,  and  Those  Reaching  or 

Exceeding  Ayres  Standard 


II 

Ill 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

23 
69 

61 

143 

VIII 

40%  01  less   

Between  40%  and  Ayers  Stand- 
ard   

Ayres  Standard  or  better 

Total  children  tested 

74 
37 

43 

is?" 

34 

72 

77 
183 

10 
t)7 

97 

itjT 

46 
48 

4! 
138~ 

16 
7.5 

70 

11 
74 

49 

134 

The  table  serves  to  indicate  the  problem  facing  the  teachers 
and  supervisors  in  Janesville.  There  are  many  more  in  each 
grade  except  the  fourth  who  fell  below  the  expected  standard 
than  there  are  of  those  who  reach  or  exceed  it.  Nearly  half  of 
the  second,  and  a  third  of  the  fifth  grade  children  did  not  spell 
more  than  10  (i.  e.  40%)  of  the  25  words  correct.  Yet  in  each 
of  these  two  grades  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  children 
are  at  least  average  or  better  than  average  spellers.  Grade 
four  shows  a  large  number  of  good  spellers  and  only  a  small 
number  of  very  poor  ones.  In  grade  eight  there  are  some  very 
poor  spellers,  a  large  number  of  mediocre  ones,  and  an  insuf- 
ficient proportion  of  good  ones.     Grades  two,  five,  seven,  and 


268 


Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


eight  have  a  relatively  small  proportion  of  good  spellers.  To 
adapt  the  teaching  of  spelling  to  meet  the  needs  of  groups 
showing  such  different  achievements  as  the  three  groups  of  the 
table  represent,  is  a  problem  which  should  be  squarely  faced  by 
teachers  and  supervisors. 

To  discover  something  as  to  the  effect  of  instituting  semi- 
annual promotions  upon  the  scores  in  spelling,  separate  aver- 
ages were  computed  for  each  group  for  three  classes  each  of 
the  second,  fifth,  and  eighth  grades  selected  at  random.  The 
average  scores  made  by  each  are : 

Table  61 


II 

v 

VIII 

Promoted 

Non- 
Promoted 

1    Promoted 

Non- 
Promoted 

Promoted 

Noil- Promoted 

32.3 

65. 

60.7 

59.6 

67.1 

71.5 

Undoubtedlj'  the  promoted  children  have  had  a  marked  ef- 
fect upon  the  spelling  results  in  the  second  grade.  In  the  other 
grades  its  effect  was  not  so  marked. 


THE  RESULTS  ON  THE  BUCKINGHAM  TEST 

Since  the  tests  arranged  b.t  Dr.  Buclvingham  have  been  so 
standardized  that  the  percentage  of  the  pupils  in  a  given  grade 
who  should  spell  each  of  the  words  is  known,  the  words  used, 
together  with  the  expected  score  and  the  Janesville  score  for 
each,  are  reproduced  here. 


Measuring  Results  in  ScJiool  Subject.-. 


269 


Table  62. — Percentage  of  Children  in   The  Second  Grade  Who  Spelled 
Each  of  the  Given  Words  Correctly 


Words 

Standard 
score 

Janes  ville 
score 

48.7 
41.6 
53.9 
32.5 
29.2 
12.3 
65. 
29.9 
24.7 
40.9 
28.6 
23.4 
55.2 
68.2 
61. 
35.1 
25.3 
45.5 
41.6 
47.4 
29.2 
26. 
9.1 
16.2 
30.5 
37. 

Words 

Standard 
score 

Janesville 

score 

baby 

72.5 

61.4 

76.4 

48.4 

38.0 

29.0 

67.3 

44.0 

38.1 

63.1 

51.8 

30.3 

75.5 

83.2 

79. 

51.4 

42.5 

54.1 

79.6 

60.8 

56.1 

46.5 

27.5 

20.9 

43.4 

40.9 

50.0 
33.4 
37.4 
80.8 
67.5 
86.9 
25.4 
59.8 
48.7 
54.5 
54.5 
49.4 
52.3 
45.1 
21.8 
51.7 
58.6 
75.9 
27.5 
52.4 
38.1 
61.3 
67.3 
52.9 

52.6 

23  4 

Kreal 

22.1 

oak 

tree 

21.4 

63  6 

close 

lather 

41  6 

76 

climb 

14  3 

city 

very 

31  2 

high 

22  7 

eats 

1  fortrot 

name 

42.9 
39  6 

street  

35  7 

girls 

\\i?e\) 

cent, 

20.1 
25  3 

earn 

1.3 
39  6 

j  here 

1  nice    

30  5 

late 

auple 

55  8 

9  7 

sits 

low 

chair 

white 

cloud 

locks 

46.1 
33.8 
42  2 

sew 

big- 

,  boat 

1 

Average 

57  8 

gentle 

stands 

33.8 
35.8 

Table  63. — Percentage  of  Children  in   the   Third  and  Fourth   Grades 
Who  Spelled  Each  of  the  Given  Words  Correctly 


Words 


pitcher . . . 

half 

goose 

searclied  . 

food 

hang 

linen 

curtain  .. . 

space 

aliove 

stairs  

where 

Queen 

shining .. . 
bracelet .. 

clo-e 

knife 

leave  

w  agon  . . . 

bread  

cheese 

breakfast 

pagle 

floated 

breeze  

flour  ....'. 

wheat 

noticed . . . 

oar 

canoe 

tin.v 


Ill 

1 
IV 

aj 

« 

"H 

T3 

cd  0) 

>  aj 

i4  « 

>  u 

■a  ^ 

■ji  fc. 

'O   tH 

en  t^ 

a  o 

o 

(U  O 

5" 

5^ 

g^ 

m 

^i 

■n 

1-5 

48.4 

19.6 

60.9 

36.6 

68.4 

57. 

88.5 

75.4 

61.1 

53.8 

85.7 

62.3 

23.2 

14.7 

47.6 

32. 

83.9 

78.8 

95.9 

93.1 

72.3 

50.5 

89.8 

81.7 

39.9 

15.2 

63.2 

36.6 

35.7 

9.8 

.55.8 

34.9 

59.4 

36.4 

86. 

64. 

57.4 

42.9 

80.5 

73. 

61.3 

43.5 

80.5 

65.7 

,    79.9 

73.4 

91.6 

76.9 

65.9 

46.7 

86.5 

73.7 

48.1 

25.5 

55.5 

40. 

24.7 

10.9 

42.2 

21.1 

77.1 

52.2 

90.6 

70.1 

68.1 

48.4 

82.4 

66.9 

54.2 

25. 

79.5 

47.4 

62.1 

59.8 

84.3 

73.7 

83.4 

79.9 

95.3 

86.3 

60.5 

38.6 

79.7 

6r,.7 

1    54. 

44.0 

75.4 

64.6 

1    42.9 

42.4 

74.2 

69.1 

38.7 

23.4 

60.7 

36.6 

45.8 

26.6 

71. 

37.1 

58.1 

38. 

76.9 

63.4 

60. 

53.8 

84.4 

74.3 

27.6 

13.6 

56.1 

27.4 

32.2 

9.8 

55.8 

19.4 

27.3 

14.1 

55. 

17  7 

59.1 

48.9 

78. 

59.4 

III 


Words 


stream  . . 

reacli 

great  

broad 

sea 

brother.. 

wrote 

cheerful. 

aunt 

rich 

lady 

paid 

high 

price  . . . . 
clothes  . . 

tried 

walk 

crowd  . . . 

color 

fancy. . . . 

waist 

blue 

climl)  .. . 

pole 

fasten  . . . 

rope 

sew 

earn 

living 


Average.. 


54.9 
66.3 
69.9 


78. 

74. 

47.1 

73.8 

68.9 

48.2 

49.7 

74.5 

30.4 

58.2 

48.6 

35.7 

75  2 

51.9 

67.1 

52.1 

66. 

53.4 

56.8 

50.9 

56.7 


39.1 

52.2 

51.6 

34.8 

77.2 

81.5 

29  4 

28.8 

33,7 

71.2 

66.8 

31. 

51.6 

47.8 

28.8 

32.1 

71.2 

28.8 

.34.8 

21.2 

25. 

67.4 

34.8 

48.9 

25. 

56.5 

23.9 

32.6 

31.5 

40.9 


IV 


78.7 

87.7 

87.7 

71  8 

95.8 

92.5 

71.8 

64.2 

82.7 

92.5 

91.2 

65.8 

89.4 

86.6 

65.9 

69.4 

88.4 

50.1 

71.8 

68. 

64.7 

89.8 

73.9 

87. 

75.7 

86.8 

71.2 

84.1 

72.9 

76.5 


60.1 

76. 

74.3 

53.7 

88.6 

79.7 

51.4 

38.3 

57.7 

85.7 

80. 

50.9 

73.1 

69.8 

49.1 

49.7 

85.7 

34.3 

57.1 

45.7 

42.3 

86.3 

56  fi 

78  9 

■37.7 

84.6 

45.7 

63.4 

55.4 

59.3 


270 


Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


Table  64.- 


-Percentage  of  Children  in  the  Fifth  and  Sixth  Grades  Who 
Spelled  Each  of  the  Given  Words  Correctly 


\ 

VI 

Words 

\ 

' 

VI 

Words 

Siand- 

Janes- 

stand- 

Janes- 

Sland- 

Janes- 

Stai d- 

Janes- 

ard 

ville 

ard 

ville 

aj  d 

ville 

ard 

ville 

t<core 

.Score 

."  cor«- 

Score 

:^i.ore 

Score 

Score 

Score 

restrain  . . . 

76.7 

63.6 

89. 

77.4 

noticed  . . . 

69.5 

51.7 

80.6 

63.6 

grief 

6.5.5 

58. 

76.3 

73.6 

debts 

57. 

39.2 

74.3 

61.6 

double 

72.9 

66.4 

82.9 

72.3 

continued. 

60.8 

50.3 

77.6 

64.8 

77.4 

49.7 

83.6 

68.6 

source 

41.4 

32.9 

64.4 

42.1 

icicle  

38. 

17.5 

43.3 

31.5 

trouble 

72.3 

64.3 

81.9 

76.2 

high 

94.4 

86. 

95. 

95. 

repair 

76.9 

53.1 

8/.1 

70  4 

90. 

77.7 

95. 

89.3 

canvas 

51. 

54.5 

63.5 

71.1 

64.2 

77. 

31.5 
49.7 

74.1 

85.8 

60.4 
67.9 

;  curtain 

needle  .. . 

71.4 
75.2 

63.6 
62.2 

81.7 
84.7 

V4.2 

canoe 

71.1 

aunt 

88.2 

73.4 

92.8 

80.5 

thread  

83.2 

71.3 

91.3 

91.2 

purchased. 

49.1 

21. 

68.4 

52.2 

sew 

73. 

60.8 

76.2 

69.2 

bracelet . . . 

62.2 

21.7 

63.1 

35.2 

j  lining 

64.2 

58. 

71.4 

62.3 

bargain 

61.6 

46  2 

75.3 

57.9 

sleeve 

.56.6 

43.4 

69.3 

51.6 

repeals 

78.3 

62.2 

86.2 

74.8 

j  holiday  ... 

79.2 

48.3 

84.6 

77.4 

dailv... 

87.7 

78.4 

92.3 

88.7 

approaches 

37.4 

18.2 

49.8 

24.5 

promise 

74.3 

49. 

85.8 

71.1 

exercise. . . 

55.5 

28. 

70.7 

36.5 

Quiet 

69. 

49.7 

71.1 

71.1 

breathe . . . 

48.8 

31.5 

54.7 

37.7 

beggar  

55. 

35. 

71. 

53.5 

season 

91. 

68.5 

96.1 

90.6 

searched  . . 

62.4 

37.8 

69.3 

61. 

oysters 

84.2 

51. 

90.7 

74.2 

village 

83.7 

70. 

88.4 

81.1 

course.  ... 

66.6 

51.7 

76.4 

62.3 

clothes 

75.2 

58.7 

77.3 

70.4 

excuse  

82.7 

60.8 

91.6 

84:3 

complete  . . 

64.2 

42.7 

81.6 

61.6 

women 

80.8 

59.4 

86.9 

74.8 

calm 

55.6 

28.7 

73.6 

54.1 

paid 

77.6 

67.8 

80.2 

78.6 

lying 

71.8 

59.4 

82.3 

67.3 

cocoa 

.58.7 

32.2 

67.2 

40.3 

pitcher  . . . 

67.1 

40.6 

68. 

.56. 

hominy,... 

22. 

17.5 

46.5 

29.6 

contains. . . 

84. 

70. 

91.3 

81.1 

cheese  

87.8 

78.3 

91.3 

91.8 

hone.v 

88.4 

72. 

91. 

86.8 

celery 

63.7 

18.9 

77.5 

49.1 

thumb 

68.1 

58. 

75.2 

72.3 

behavior.. 

51  9 

10.5 

73.8 

23.3 

bruised 

41. 

34.3 

60.5 

50.9 

burglar ... 

51.1 

33.6 

52.1 

51.6 

rinsed 

21. 

20.3 

23.1 

23.3 

truly 

71.5 

67.8 

76.3 

74.8 

dried 

62. 
80.5 

47.6 
64.3 

70.8 
87.8 

66. 
77.4 

dangerous 

57.8 

43.4 

81.9 

62.9 

absence 

51.9 

21.7 

64.1 

45.9 

Average 

66.7 

49.1 

76.4 

64. 

lawyer 

57.5 

37.1 

77.5 

49.7 

Measuring  Results  in  ScJiool  Subjects 


271 


Table  65. — Percentage  of  Children  in  the  Seventh  and  Eighth  Grades 
Who  Spelled  Each  of  the  Given  Words  Correctly 


Words 


secrecy  . 
wretch  . 
gallows, 
treason , 
vehicle  . 
accommodate 

valise 

sceiier.v 

enthusiasm.. . 

yacht 

vaguely 

discernible  . .. 

recipe 

marmalade, 
accuracy  . .. 
apparent. . . . 

science 

beneficiaJ. .. 
discoveries . 
sacrifici' .... 
endeavor . .. 
eliminate. . . 
distillery  ... 

vicinity 

solemn 

reverence.. . 

reigrn  

heir 

achieve 

persevere. . . 

tortoise 

resign 

volunteer. . . 
mortgage... 


Vll 

Vlll 

stand- 

Janes- 

Stand- 

Janes- 

ard 

ville 

ard 

ville 

score 

score 

score 

score 

.51.5 

33.8 

68  5 

47.1 

67.5 

59.2 

82.9 

61. 

77.8 

69. 

88.7 

72.8 

84.9 

65.5 

93.1 

83.8 

62.4 

38.7 

76  6 

.52.9 

39.9 

16.2 

47.9 

14.7 

51.7 

33  8 

70.1 

41.9 

73.3 

59.9 

85.7 

68.4 

40.1 

11.3 

68.9 

27.9 

62. 

33.1 

75.1 

48.5 

27.5 

28.9 

43.3 

50. 

5.3 

5.6 

13.9 

5.2 

37.2 

29.6 

50.1 

34.6 

42.8 

43.7 

54  1 

44.1 

45.4 

35.2 

67.4 

39. 

60.8 

44.4 

77.1 

57.4 

56.3 

35.2 

79.3 

50. 

48. 

23.9 

64.2 

25. 

70.7 

51.4 

84.3 

58.8 

E.6.6 

38.7 

69.2 

46.3 

43.4 

35.9 

54.6 

41.9 

38.5 

24.6 

.55.2 

39.7 

53.6 

41.5 

65, 

45.6 

.59..'} 

42.3 

75.7 

54.4 

57  8 

47.2 

70.7 

46.3 

69.1 

52.1 

77.7 

62.5 

70. 

56.3 

87.4 

62.5 

67.9 

47.9 

87.!) 

71.3 

72.3 

48.6 

81.9 

55.1 

52.5 

41.5 

70.6 

49.3 

33.9 

31.7 

60.4 

26.5 

85.1 

77.5 

93.8 

88.2 

61.3 

39.4 

74. 

49.3 

31.3 

32.4 

70.5 

45.6 

Words 


debt 

peiceived 

responsible 

embaiiassmenl 

musii-ian 

rehearse 

celer.» 

moisel 

confectionery. . 

purcha.«ed 

souvenir 

behavior 

resemlilance 

treaci  eiy 

promise 

release 

s  ege 

biscuits 

restaurant 

dige«iit)le 

snjgeon 

appendicitis 

dispensary 

interfere 

wre>tle 

discipline 

dissension 

investigation.. . 

reveal 

desirable 

resources 

Average 


VII 


VIII 


Stand- 
ard 
score 


88.3 
40.6 
61.1 
14.6 
64.9 
72.7 
81.4 
65.3 
48.6 
79.2 
13. 
79.9 
.50.5 
53. 
92.7 
83.2 
63.3 
69.4 
45.5 
40.1 
35 

12  5 
19.6 
63.8 
73.6 
30.5 
4.2 
73.4 
82.3 
57.5 
56.1 

•55.0 


Janes- 
ville 
score 


78.9 
32.4 
53.5 

5.6 
44.4 
57.7 
65.5 
45.1 
16  2 
65.5 

3.5 
47.9 
32.4 
47.2 
84.5 
65.5 
31. 
52.1 
16.2 
18.3 
41.5 
12.7 
11.3 
56.3 
71.8 
29.6 

1.4 
62.7 
64.8 
33.1 
50.7 

TiT 


stand- 
ard 
score 


94.9 
58.5 
78.8 
30.2 
73.5 
79.5 
88  9 
67.4 
52.9 
86.7 
22  2 
82.7 
61.3 
65.7 
95,7 
88.2 
60.8 
76.9 
53. 
46.1 
65.9 
35.3 
39.8 
74.4 
75.3 
47.8 
5.8 
84.8 
88,8 
70.4 
65.4 

67y 


Janes- 
ville 
score 


90.4 
26.5 
58.8 

7.4 
48.5 
65.4 
75.7 
40.4 

5.9 
84.6 
.7 
47.8 
43.4 
55.9 
69.1 
70.6 
44.9 
64. 
12.5 
37.5 
56.6 
14.7 
11. 
65.4 
68.4 
53.7 

2.2 
68.4 
79.4 
55.9 
43.4 


The  achievenient  of  the  children  may  be  seen  more  strikingly 
by  summarizing  the  facts  in  table  form.  The  table  following 
indicates  the  number  of  words  in  the  tests,  for  each  grade,  the 
number  of  words  on  which  Janesville  children  exceeded  the  ex- 
liected  average  and  the  number  on  which  they  did  not  do  as 
well. 

Table  66 


II 

III 

IV 

v 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

Number  of  words  in  test 

50 
0 

60 

60 

65 

65 

65 

65 

No.  on  which  Janesville  children  equalled 
or  exceeded  standard 

1 

0 

1 

4 
61 

6 

2 

No.  on  which  Janesville  children  are  below 
stand  ard 

50 

59 

60 

64 

59 

63 

272 


Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


This  is  indeed  a  severe  indictment  of  the  work  in  spelling. 

The  65-word  test  used  in  grades  seven  and  eight  was  likewise 
given  to  the  high  school.  The  median  number  of  words  correct- 
ly spelled  for  each  high  school  grade  and  for  grades  seven  and 
eight  are  given  below. 

Table  67 


Median  score. 


VH 


25.2 


viir 


33.2 


rx 


40.6 


47.7 


jl.2 


XI  [ 


This  indicates  some  progress  from  the  grammar  grades  to 
the  high  school  even  though  spelling  is  not  a  regular  high 
school  subject.  There  are  pupils  in  every  grade  including  the 
12th,  however,  who  do  not  exceed  the  median  33.2  attained  by 
the  eighth  grade. 


The  Words  WliicJi  Children  Spell 

A  part  of  the  responsibility  for  the  poor  results  in  spelling 
undoubtedly  may  be  attributed  to  the  lack  of  a  course  of  study. 
The  teachers  have  realized  tliis  disadvantage  and  for  the  past 
year  have  been  engaged  in  the  preparation  of  new  courses.  The 
tentative  outlines  indicate  a  wholesome  desire  to  take  advantage 
of  the  more  recent  studies  of  Ayres,  Jones  and  others  on  the 
words  in  common  use  and  words  commonly  misspelled.  They 
will  need  to  be  cautious  however,  in  not  making  the  lists  of 
words  to  be  studied  too  narrow. 

Among  the  questions  asked  with  reference  to  the  Avork  in 
spelling  was  one  asking  for  the  proportion  of  words  derived 
from  each  of  the  various  sources.  The  proportion  of  words  tak- 
en from  the  readers  ranges  from  none  at  all  to  90%.  This  cer- 
tainly represents  extremes  in  practice.  The  motives  for  so  do- 
ing should  be  carefully  examined  by  supervisors.  One-half  of 
the  36  teachers  I'eporting  select  50  or  more  per  cent  of  the 
spelling  words  from  readers.  Teachers  who  are  accustomed  to 
selecting  such  large  proportions  of  the  Avords  from  reading 
texts  will  profit  by  a  careful  study  of  the  actual  needs  of  the 
children  as  indicated  by  their  writing  and  speaking  vocabu- 
laries. Twelve  teachers  report  one-half  or  more  as  selected 
from  spelling  texts.     It  is  clear  that  reading  and  spelling  texts 


Measuring  Results  in  School  Subjects  273 

serve  as  the  course  of  study  in  spelling  and  that  the  spelling 
needs  of  the  children  are  not  necessarily  considered. 

It  is  bad  practice  to  select  a  large  number  of  the  words  for 
spelling  from  the  reading  text.  The  words  used  in  the  language 
of  the  readers  are  not  those  in  which  the  child  does  his  thinking 
and  which  he  needs  to  know  how  to  spell.  In  fact  the  reading 
vocabulary  is  often  considered  as  about  two  years  or  more  in 
advance  of  the  spelling  vocabulary.  Too  often  the  words  of  the 
reader  are  those  used  by  adults.  The  language  of  the  child  is 
relatively  simple  and  consists  of  relatively  common  and  simple 
words. 

Slavish  adherence  to  the  spelling  text  may  be  a  contributing 
factor  to  poor  spelling  results  in  some  cases.  Most  spelling 
texts  like  reading  texts  contain  many  words  which  children 
will  rarely  be  called  upon  to  spell.  Words  when  taken  from 
spellers  must  be  such  as  are  most  commonly  used  and  which 
children  need  to  be  taught  how  to  spell. 

The  teachers  will  do  well  to  continue  their  examinations  of 
the  more  recent  studies  of  spelling  vocabularies.  In  addition 
to  those  of  Jones  and  Ayres,  the  works  of  Buckingham,  Pryor, 
Cook  and  O'Shea,  Eldridge,  Chancellor  and  others  should  be 
consulted.  Perhai>s  no  more  fruitful  work  could  be  under- 
taken by  the  teachers  with  reference  to  the  course  in  spelling 
than  to  make  a  tabulation  of  the  \\ords  which  Janesville  chil- 
dren use  in  their  written  and  spoken  English.  When  the  re- 
sults of  the  individual  tabulations  made  by  each  teacher  have 
been  brought  together  into  a  single  list  it  will  be  well  to  com- 
pare them  with  several  of  the  spelling  studies  referred  to  above 
for  additions  which  it  may  appear  wise  to  make. 

In  order  to  meet  more  nearly  the  needs  of  the  individual 
children  the  teachers  should  adopt  the  practice  of  having  each 
child  keep  an  individual  spelling  list  made  up  of  words  which 
he  misspells.  These  are  the  words  for  the  learning  of  which 
lie  has  a  motive.  Each  child  should  be  systematically  drilled 
upon  his  own  list.  A  further  discussion  of  the  subject  of  the 
words  spelled  and  of  a  number  of  the  topics  treated  in  the  re- 
maining pages  of  this  chapter  will  be  found  in  the  chapter  on 
Instruction. 


274  Educational  Survey  of  JanesvUle 

The  Time  Devoted  to  Spelling 

The  cause  of  poor  spelling  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  time  de- 
voted to  the  subject.  In  grade  two  the  time  ranges  from  50 
to  100  minutes  per  week.  The  highest  average  score  made  by 
any  second  grade  73.2  per  cent  was  made  by  a  class  which  de- 
votes 50  minutes  per  week  to  spelling  and  a  class  of  which  one- 
third  of  the  pupils  entered  in  January.  Another  class  which 
devotes  100  minutes  to  the  subject  contains  only  pupils  who  en- 
tered the  grade  in  September.  This  class  made  an  average  of 
only  52.5  per  cent.  In  the  sixth  grade  the  lowest  score  is  made 
in  a  school  which  gives  100  minutes  per  week  to  spelling  and 
the  highest  by  one  that  gives  only  75.  In  general  it  may  be 
said  that  time  and  results  bear  little  relation  in  spelling.  A 
large  amount  of  time  devoted  to  the  subject  is  no  assurance  of 
success.  The  time  devoted  to  spelling  in  Janesville  is  not  ex- 
cessive. More  than  one-half  of  the  rooms  tested  reported  75 
minutes  as  the  time  given  per  week.  This  is  a  sufficient  amount 
for  securing  good  results  if  the  subject  is  well  taught. 

Organization  of  the  Teaching 

When  very  good  and  very  poor  spellers  are  found  in  the 
same  classes  as  they  are  in  Janesville  it  is  poor  economy  to  as- 
sign the  same  spelling  lesson  and  the  same  number  of  minutes 
for  study  to  every  pupil  in  the  class.  For  this  purpose  it  will 
be  well  to  discover  whether  children  already  know  some  of  the 
words  in  the  day's  lesson  before  they  are  assigned.  Words 
which  children  know  may  well  be  omitted  for  those  children 
and  the  time  devoted  to  other  words  or  other  subjects.  Wher- 
ever feasible  within  a  building  the  daily  program  may  be  so 
arranged  as  to  permit  all  of  the  spelling  to  come  at  the  same 
period  of  the  day.  Children  may  then  take  spelling  in  some 
grade  other  than  their  own  and  where  the  spelling  taught  is 
more  nearly  at  their  level  of  ability.  Under  this  form  of  ar- 
rangement children  would  not  be  retained  an  additional  year  in 
any  grade  because  of  poor  spelling  ability. 

The  number  of  new  words  taught  per  week  should  receive  im- 
mediate supervisory  attention.  Good  practice  recommends  two 
new  words  daily.  This  will  permit  of  the  direct  teaching  of  ap- 
proximately 2500  words  during  the  elementary  school  course. 
The  median  number  of  new  words  taught  per  week  in  Janesville 
at  present  is  somewhat  more  than  20  or  double  the  number  recom- 


Measuring  Results  in  School  Subjects  275 

mended.  It  ranges  from  5  in  one  third  grade  to  60  in  one  of 
the  seventh  grade  classes.  Three  rooms  teach  10  words  per 
week  and  all  others  teach  more.  Poor  results  and  a  large  num- 
ber of  words  seem  to  go  hand  in  hand.  More  attention  should 
be  devoted  to  teaching  well  the  words  that  are  taught,  and  ta 
a  careful  selection  of  words  to  be  taught. 

Teaching  the  Children  to  Spell 

Some  children  are  by  nature  capable  of  learning  with  little 
effort.  Others  will  make  good  spellers  only  with  great  effort. 
Each  teacher  should  attempt  to  diagnose  the  spelling  ability  of 
each  individual  in  the  class  early  in  the  year. 

Not  ^11  words  require  an  equal  effort  for  mastery.  The 
studies  particularly  of  Dr.  Buckingham  and  others  have  proved 
this  beyond  question.  Differences  in  the  difficulty  of  the  words 
used  in  the  Buckingham  tests  for  each  grade  may  be  noted^ 
from  the  differences  in  the  standard  expected.  The  results  of 
such  studies  should  be  made  available  for  the  teachers  by  the 
central  office,  in  order  that  they  may  have  some  idea  of  tha- 
teaching  eft'ort  required  for  different  words.. 

In  teaching  new  words  care  should  be  exercised  to  associate 
each  word  with  the  child's  past  experience  so  that  it  will  have 
meaning  to  him  and  become  a  part  of  his  thinking  vocabulary. 
To  illustrate — the  word  ''parade"  as  it'  occurs  in  the  text  may 
mean  little  until  associated  with  circus;  "salary"  may  have  no 
significance  until  associated  with  an  elder  brother.  When  a 
word  is  associated  with  some  of  the  child's  own  experiences  and 
when  he  sees  that  it  will  help  him  to  express  some  of  his  own- 
ideas  more  clearly  and  forcefully  he  has  an  impelling  reason 
for  learning  how  to  spell  that  word.  Some  children  will  learn 
more  readily  through  the  eye  and  others  through  the  ear.  Some 
will  learn  to  spell  a  word  by  pronouncing  it,  and  others  are 
aided  by  tracing  the  letters  or  writing  the  word.  It  is  well  to 
make  use  of  all  of  these  means.  Words  may  be  learned  more 
readily  if  the  child  acquires  the  habit  of  looking  at  a  word  in- 
tently for  a  brief  period  then  looking  away  and  attempting  to 
picture  it  mentally.  Children  should  be  taught  to  analyze  a 
word  into  parts  as  habitually  as  they  do  the  steps  in  a  problem 
in  arithmetic  to  discover  the  peculiar  combinations  of  letters 
or  syllables  that  offer  a  difficulty. 

A  systematic  plan  for  reviewing  words  taught  in  previous 
lessons  should  be  developed.    Words  taught  today  should  be  re* 


276 


Educatio7ial  Survey  of  Janesville 


viewed  tomorrow,  again  next  week  and  a  third  or  even  fourth 
time  a  month  or  several  months  later. 

Each  child  should  keep  a  record  of  his  own  performances  in 
spelling  whereby  he  may  note  how  his  own  record  improves 
and  how  it  compares  with  the  average  for  his  grade,  whether 
he  is  above  the  average  of  a  grade  higher  or  below,  that  of  a 
grade  lower. 

Writing 

Results  in  writing  were  measured  for  both  quality  and  speed. 
Pupils  were  asked  to  write  on  unruled  paper  the  series  of  words 
"One,  two,  three"  etc.,  as  far  as  they  could  go  in  the  time 
alloAved.  In  grades  lower  than  the  fourth  they  were  asked  to 
write  this  series  of  words  to  ' '  four ' '  and  then  to  repeat  as  often 
as  time  permitted.  Pupils  were  instructed  to  write  well.  Two 
minutes  were  given  for  the  test.  The  papers  were  scored  by  ad- 
'vanced  students  of  the  Rock  County  Training  School,  without 
'knowledge  of  the  particular  grade  to  which  any  paper  belonged. 
Scoring  papers  for  speed  required  merely  a  computing  of  the 
.number  of  letters  written  per  minute.  In  the  scoring  for  qual- 
ity the  Thorndike  Handwriting  Scale  was  used.  Some  time 
was  devoted  to  preliminary  practice  in  the  use  of  the  scale  by 
rating  writing  sample?  of  standardized  value.  This  was  done 
under  the  direction  of  a  member  of  the  survey  staff. 

The  Quality  of  Hmidwriiing 

The  distribution  of  the  scores  for  quality  of  handwriting  may 
be  seen  from  the  table  below. 

Table  68. — Distribution  of  Scores  for  Quality  of  Handwriting — Thorn- 
dike  Scale 


Quality 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

4 

4 
15 

26 
42 
33 
17 
7 
13 

1 
9 
25 
40 
43 
45 
5 
5 
1 

5    

1 

2 
7 

29 
48 
18 
19 
9 
4 

i 

$ 

10 
20 
32 
56 
26 
20 
3 
1 

7 

3 

19 
52 
18 
33 
15 
8 
1 

2 
9 
44 
23 
44 
10 
8 
1 

1 

8 

4 

9 

27 

10 

17 

n 

35 

12 

26 

13 

1 

12 

14          

8 

15 

1 

16 

2 

Total ._. 

Median  .... 

158 
7.3 

174 

7.8 

168 
8.9 

137 
9.1 

149 
9.5 

142 
10.2 

133 
11 

Rated 
at 


Measuring  Results  in  ScJiool  Subjects  277 

^yyU     -^^^^      ^<^u^^ 


xo 


u 


^-<f>L/    /tM^^tr    ;tA/xM.     .^Cfi-UA^  ./^^-^^^  /LA^)^    /l£^V>^ 
12  ^^Wt)-  JVL^xjUi^  -^VuxL/  ^^^L-i^^tf,  ..<L-<-^;*>- 

Fig.   V   Specimens  of  Each  Quality  of  Handwriting 


:278  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

Variations  in  Quality 

The  Thorndike  scale  consists  of  a  series  of  samples  ranging 
from  one  which  is  scarcely  legible  as  handwriting  to  one  which 
is  near  perfect.  The  poorest  is  valued  at  4  and  the  best  at  18. 
Each  step  improves  in  quality  by  an  approximately  equal 
amount.  From  the  distribution  table  above  it  will  be  seen  that 
poor  writers  and  good  writers  were  found  in  every  grade.  Any 
piece  of  writing  which  scores  less  than  quality  nine  on  the 
Thorndike  Scale  is  read  with  difficulty.  On  the  other  hand 
children  who  write  a  hand  better  than  quality  twelve  may  be 
regarded  as  fairly  good  writers.  Some  idea  of  the  quality 
which  the  different  steps  of  the  scale  represent  may  be  gained 
from  Figure  V.  In  this  figure  the  specimens  of  handwriting 
are  arranged  in  order  of  merit  from  4  to  16  as  judged  by  the 
scorers.  With  the  exception  of  the  sample  rated  as  14  and  the 
sample  rated  as  16  which  are  taken  from  the  Thorndike  scale  it- 
self, the  specimens  represent  writing  produced  by  Janesville 
children. 

The  proportion  of  poor  writers  as  may  be  seen  by  reference 
to  the  distribution  table  of  scores  is  large  while  the  proportion 
of  unusually  •  good  writers  (i.  e.  those  who  write  as  well  as 
quality  15  or  better)  is  very  small.  Only  three  children  at- 
tain this  degree  of  merit.  The  Avriting  of  many  of  the  children 
in  every  grade  is  unsatisfactory.  From  a  teaching  standpoint 
some  of  the  problems  to  be  faced  are:  What  shall  be  done  for 
the  children  in  upper  grades  who  write  no  better  than  many 
of  the  children  in  the  second  or  third  grade?  Plow  much  writ- 
ing shall  be  required  of  children  in  the  second,  third  and 
fourth  grades  who  already  write  as  well  or  better  than  the  me- 
dian eighth  grade  child?  How  can  instruction  in  writing  be 
made  to  fit  the  needs  of  children  in  the  same  grade  where 
writing  ability  ranges  from  that  which  is  scarcely  legible  to 
that  which  approaches  nearly  perfect  penmanship? 

TTie  Median  Achievements  in  Quality 

The  median  score  in  each  grade  together  with  similar  figures 
from  cities  of  Wisconsin  and  elsewhere  may  be  seen  from  the 
table  following.  The  figures  for  other  Wisconsin  cities  were 
obtained  from  tests  given  under  the  same  uniform  directions 
as  were  observed  in  Janesville.  The  median  scores  for  Janes- 
ville indicate  improvement  from  grade  to  grade.     They  indi- 


Measuring  Results  in  School  Subjects 


279 


cate  that  in  the  quality  of  handwriting  the  children  write  about 
as  well  as  average  children  in  Wisconsin.  Teachers  should  not 
however,  be  satisfied  with  average  writing.  Present  writing 
averages  in  Wisconsin  are  mediocre  and  are  not  commensurate 
with  the  time  devoted  to  the  subject. 


Table  69. — Median  Scores  in  Qtiality  of  Handwriting  for  Wisconsin  and 
Other  Cities — Thorndike  Scale 


Date 
Tested 

Wisconsin  Cities 

" 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

9—28    16 

1                       

9.4 

9.2 

9.2 

7.9 

8.9 

9.3 

8.7 

8. 

9.4 

8.9 

9.1 

8.9 
8.4 
11.2 
9.3 

10  1 
10. 

9.3 
9  5 
9.4 
8.8 
10.3 
10.5 
9.1 
8.9 
8.7 
9.4 

9.5 

11.6 

8.9 
12.1 

9.8 

11. 

10.4 

10-  9-16 
10-23-16 
12—  5—16 

? 

3 

4     

7.6 
8.6 
8.2 
8.8 

s.-e 

7.7 
8  5 
7.8 

8.2 

7.8 
8.0 
7.3 

10.7 
8.2 

8.8 
8.8 

8  9 

9.2 

8.6 

9. 

9.2 

8.1 

8  S 

8.4 

8.8 

8.9 

8.8 
8.1 
10.9 

8.7 

9.6 
9.4 

i6.9 

11.3 
9.2 

10. 

10.7 

11.2 
8.9 
9.4 

10.2 

10.3 

11.2 
9.5 
12.1 
10.4 

11.7 
11. 

10.8 
8.8 
9.8 

12—  8-16 

9.7 

3—  8-17 

6 

8.3 

8. 

6.8 

12.1 

4    10—17 

9.4 

4-12—17 

8     

12. 

5—10—17 

9 

7.7 

7.3 

8.2 

10.4 

3—23    17 

11. 

Bultp 

12.1 

Sept  .... 

10. 

Salt  Lake 

9.3 
7.5 

8.2 
8.3 

13.1 

Starch's    standard   . 
(')  Freeman's  st  am  1- 

10.9 
12.1 

(')  Iowa 

11.5 

(1)  Converted  from  A.vres  to  Thorndike  units  li.r  Kelly's  method  of  eauating  the 
two  scales.  ""Each  Thorndike  unit  equals  7.9  as  great  a  distance  as  an  Ay  res 
unit". 


Janesville  children  on  the  whole  do  not  write  as  well  as  the 
children  in  other  cities  from  which  comparative  data  were 
obtained.  The  Iowa  scores  represent  rural,  village,  and  city 
children  and  are  not  too  high  to  be  reached  by  any  city  in  which 
writing  is  well  taught.  Freeman's  standard  representing  the 
better  half  of  56  cities  is  a  mark  that  any  good  school  may  well 
strive  to  attain,  and  which  the  teachers  of  Janesville  should 
set  out  to  reach  in  the  immediate  future.  What  may  be  accom- 
plished where  a  city  really  does  well  in  writing  may  be  seen  by 
reference  to  the  scores  for  Salt  Lake. 

The  quality  of  handwriting  in  Janesville  as  compared  with 
the  average  of  Wisconsin  cities,  the  Iowa  scores  and  Freeman's 
standard  are  represented  graphically  in  Fig  VI. 


280  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

IV V VT vn VIII 


12 

11 

10 
9 


,,^'-' 

.--''" 

-^ 

;^-^'^^ 

^^'^^" 

^^-^ 

^ 

Freeman's   S 
Iowa   Star.da 

tandarl     55 
rd    -    38,000 

Cities 
Children 

Janesville 

Fig. VI.  The  Quality  of  Handwriting  in  Janesville  Coir.pared  with  thi 
Freeman  and  Iov.'a  Standards 


Good  teaching  in  penmanship  is  more  essential  than  time. 
This  may  be  made  plain  from  the  scores  made  in  a  number  of 
rooms.  In  the  Webster  building  150  minutes  per  week  are  de- 
voted to  writing  in  the  first  grade  and  100  in  the  second.  In 
the  Adams  and  Jefferson  the  time  is  75  minutes  for  each  grade. 
The  median  second  grade  score  for  the  Webster  is  much  below 
that  of  the  Jefferson.  The  question  is  where  are  the  results 
which  account  for  the  extra  50  minutes  per  week. 


Table  70 


Webstor 

Adams 

Jefferson 

A  V.  time  for  writing-  per  week  first  two  years. . 

12.5 

75 

75 

Median  second  grade  score 

7.35 

6.9 

9.1 

Measuring  Results  in  ScJiool  Subjects 


281 


A  child  who  passed  through  the  entire  eight  grades  in  the 
Adams  school  would  devote  on  an  average  about  10  minutes  more 
time  per  week  to  writing  each  year  than  if  he  passed  through  the 
same  grades  in  the  Jefferson  building.  Yet  in  six  of  the  eight 
grades  the  children  in  the  Jefferson  excell  those  in  the  Adams. 

Median  Quality  Scores  Measured  by  tlie  Ayres  Scale 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  some  of  the  teachers  in  Janesville  are 
using  the  Ayres  scale  in  the  classroom  and  in  order  that  results 
may  be  compared  with  other  schools  which  are  doing  so,  the 
writing  scores  as  determined  by  the  Thorndike  scale  have  also 
been  converted  to  Ayres  units.  The  median  scores  for  Janes- 
ville and  other  cities  may  be  seen  from  the  table  following: 

Table  71.— Median   Scores  in  Qiialit)/   of  Handwriting    (Ayres  Scale) 


11 

1 

in 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

Iowa  (28,000  children) 

35.7 

39.8 
26. 

44.5 
31. 

49.1 

38. 

45. 

51.7 

52.1 

,50.1 

41.9 

52.3 
43. 

48. 
58.3 
57.3 
56  6 
45.1 

57. 
51. 
50. 
61.4 

62.8 
62  3 
50.7 

61. 

.57. 

55. 

29.4 
29.9 
35. 

27.7 

34.5 
31.7 
39.3 
31.6 

44.4 
36.8 
45.6 
40.3 

68.4 

74.2 

Freeman's  Standard  (56cilies). 
Janesville  *   

65.8 
56.9 

*Converted  from  Thorndike  to  A.vres  units  by  Kelly's  m-^thod,  in  which    each 
Thorndike  unit  is  considered  as  euual  to  7.9  as  great  a  distance  as  an  Ayres  unit. 


THIRTEEN 

Variation   in  Speed 

In  the  table  showing  the  distribution  of  writing  scores  ac- 
cording to  speed  pupils'  scores  have  been  recorded  according  to 
the  number  of  letters  written  per  minute.  Slow  writers  and 
rapid  writers  are  found  in  each  grade.  There  are  some  chil- . 
dren  in  every  grade  who  write  more  than  three  times  as  fast 
as  others  in  the  same  grade.  The  proportion  of  slow  writers 
in  the  lower  grades  is  unusually  large.  Some  pupils  evidently 
develop  a  slow  habit  early  in  their  school  life  and  they  con- 
tinue to  be  slow  writers  throughout  their  course.  A  glance  at 
the  table  showing  the  distribution  according  to  speed  reveals 
children  in  grades  six,  seven,  and  eight  who  do  not  write  half 
as  rapidly  as  the  most  rapid  writers  several  grades  lower. 
Teachers  should  attempt  to  develop  early  the  habit  of  writing 
at  a  fair  rate  of  speed. 


282 


Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


Table  72. — Distribution  of  Scores  for  Speed  of  Handivriting 


Speetl  in  letters 
per  minute 

11 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VJII 

0— 10 

6 

27 

58 

37 

23 

2 

1 

3 

1 

1 
7 

22 
40 
37 
39 
12 
8 
6 

11_20 

1 

10 
33 
28 
53 

15 

7 
1 

1 

1 

5 

20 
28 
36 
16 
20 
6 
3 
1 

2 
6 
14 

19 
47 

34 
22 
4 
1 

1 

1 

2 

7 

18 

25 

34 

26 

14 

8 

4 

2 

21—30 

1 

31    40 

1 

41—50 

3 

51    60 

14 

61—70 

19 

71    80 

31 

81-90 

91    100 

28 
26 

101    110 

8 

111-120 

1 

1 

121    130 

1 

1 

131-140 

1 

141—150 

. 

151—160 

1 

Total 

158 
26.1 

174 
45.5 

168 
56.3 

137 
56.5 

149 
56.6 

142 

75.6 

133 

Median(') 

77  5 

(')  Medians  were  computed  from  a  more  detailed  distribution  than  that  shown 
above. 

Tlie  Median  Scores  in  Speed 

The  median  scores  for  speed  of  handwriting  are  marked  by 
a  large  increase  from  grade  two  to  grade  three.  There  is  no 
appreciable  improvement  from  grade  four  to  grade  six.  The 
seventh  grade  makes  a  creditable  showing  in  improvement  over 
grade  six.  How  Janesville  children  compare  with  children 
elsewhere  in  speed  of  their  handwriting  may  be  seen  in  the 
table  following: 


Table   73. — Median   Scores   in  Speed   of  Handwriting 


II 

Ill 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

Jaiie!«ville 

ae.i 

39.2 

45.5 

49.6 

56.3 

61.9 

56.5 

65.5 

60. 

54. 

64.9 

66. 

57. 

65. 

56.6 

72.6 

70. 

63. 

73. 

70. 

65. 

72. 

75.6 

75. 

76. 

66. 

77.9 

75. 

75. 

80. 

77.5 

Iowa  (28, 000  children) 

76.5 

Cleveland 

80. 

Denver 

36. 
50.1 
57. 
38. 

48. 

50. 
59.3 
64. 
47. 

56. 

69. 

Grand  Rapids 

33.5 

31. 

31. 

36. 

84.3 

St.  Louis 

73. 

Starch's  standard 

83. 

Freeman's  standard 

(56  cities) 

90. 

Compared  with  these  cities  Janesville  children  are  about  aver- 
age performers  in  grades  three,  four,  seven  and  eight,  but  they 
do  not  write  as  rapidly  as  children  elsewhere  in  the  second, 


Measuring  Results  in  School  Subjects 


283 


fifth  and  sixth  grades.  The  low  rate  of  writing  in  these  grades 
can  scarcely  be  attributed  to  anything  else  than  a  lack  of  em- 
phasis on  speed  by  teachers  in  these  grades. 

The  scores  made  by  Janesville  children  may  be  compared 
graphically  with  those  made  by  children  in  Iowa  and  in  the 
better  half  of  the  56  cities  tested  by  Professor  Freeman  in  the 
figure  following. 


II      I 

ri        IV         \ 

r        VI        VII      VIII 

90 

fln 

,  - ' 

70 

--'--^ 

— ^^^ 

fiO 

— j"^'"^ 

■<i''^' 

// 

^ 

^' 

y 

sn 

40 

^ 

"^n 

Freeman' 8  St 

andard  -  56 

:ities 

/ 



Iowa  Standai 
Janesville 

1  -  38,000  C 

lildren 

an 

in 

0 

Flg.Vil   The  Speed  of  Handwriting  in  Janesville  Conpared  rith 
Freeman  and  Iowa  Standards 


Speed  and  Quality  in  Janesville  as  Compared  with  Freeman's 

Standard 

In  Figure  VIII  the  results  for  both  speed  and  quality  have 
been  represented  upon  a  single  graph.  Speed  is  represented 
horizontally  and  quality  vertically.  The  small  numbers  at  in- 
tervals along  the  curve  indicate  the  location  of  each  of  the  re- 
spective grades.  For  example  beginning  with  grade  two  the 
position  of  Janesville  is  located  at  quality  7.3  and  speed  at 
26.1.  The  Freeman  standard  is  8.2  for  quality  and  36.6  for 
speed  in  the  same  grade.  The  amount  which  any  given  Janes- 
ville grade  falls  below  the  standard  in  speed  is  represented  by 
the  length  of  the  small  dotted  horizontal  line  bearing  the  num- 
ber of  the  grade.  The  similar  dotted  vertical  line  indicates 
the  amount  which  a  grade  falls  below  the  Freeman  Standard 
in  quality.     From  this  it  will  be  noted  that  grades  two,  five,. 


284 


Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


six  and  eight  are  the  most  serious  offenders  in  speed.  In  point 
of  quality  grades  three,  five,  six,  seven  and  eight  are  farthest 
from  the  standard  established  by  Professor  Freeman.  Taking 
speed  and  accuracy  together  grades  six,  and  eight  are  seen  to 
be  notably  weak  in  both.  The  sixth  grade  has  attained  nearly 
fourth  grade  standard  in  quality  and  in  speed.  The  eighth 
has  not  quite  reached  sixth  grade  quality  and  seventh  grade 
speed. 


/2- 

3-  -^    8 

/o 

6; 

^/" 

^    '     - 

8 

M 

? 

^life^ 

.-.r.vj-'" 

-4, 

7 

a 

:;i 

2-- 

^i 

7 

2— 

2 

-3 

^ 
i.i^ 

•< 
J- 



Freei 

iGLn'a  Bta 

ulard 

i 

vllle 

O                  7 

0             : 

a              f 

0                    j 

Speed 
0                s 

0                fe 

0                  7 

0                t 

0             ^i; 

Fig. VIII.    Speed  and  Quality  of   Har.d7.Tlt ing  as   Compared  with 
Freeman's   Standard 


TJie  Relation  Between  Speed  and  Quality 

It  is  desirable  that  children  shall  learn  to  write  a  good  hand 
at  a  fair  rate  of  speed.  Quality  is  not  to  be  sacrificed  en- 
tirely for  the  sake  of  speed  nor  vice  versa.  As  a  matter  of  fact 
it  is  not  the  usual  thing  to  find  children  who  are  rapid  writers 
producing  handwriting  which  is  poor  in  quality.  In  general 
we  may  expect  rapid  writers  to  be  good  writers  and  slow  writers 
to  be  poor  writers.  The  results  showing  both  speed  and  quality 
for  the  same  children  for  grade  seven  are  given  in  Table  74. 
The  table  reads: 


Measuring  Results  m  School  Subjects 


285 


Table  74. — Distribution  of  Handwriting  Scores  in  Speed  and  Qualitp, 

for  Grade  Seven 


Speed 

Quality 

0-40 

41- 

50 

51- 

60 

61- 

70 

71- 

80 

81- 
90 

91- 
100 

101- 
110 

Ill- 
no 

121- 
130 

Total 

5 

1 

1 

6 

7 

1 
1 
6 
1 
5 
1 
,    3 

1 
3 
6 
5 
10 

2 

8 

' 

1 
3 

1 

"2" 

1 
8 

10 
8 
3 
3 
1 

■■i2'" 

2 
9 
3 

i 
5 

2 
5 

1 

2 
3 

1 
2 

9 

9 

44', 

10 

23: 

11 

2 

2 

44- 

12               

10' 

13               

1 

1 

8 

14 

1 

4"~ 

7" 

Total 

18 

25 

34 

26 

14 

8 

4 

2 

142 

16.2 



1 

One  pupil  wrote  as  good  as  quality  5  on  the  Thorndike  scale 
at  a  speed  of  40  letters  or  less  per  minute,  etc.  From 
the  table  it  will  be  seen  that  some  of  the  very  poorest  writers 
are  among  the  slowest  and  that  some  of  the  best  writers  are 
among  the  most  rapid.  The  relation  between  speed  and  quality 
however  is  not  as  marked  as  one  might  expect. 


Measures  for  Improving  Results  in  Handwriting 

In  view  of  the  present  unsatisfactory  showing  in  handwriting 
some  attention  should  be  devoted  to  improving  the  efficiency  of 
the  instruction  in  the  subject.  An  improvement  in  quality  of 
less  than  4  steps  on  the  Thorndike  scale  (7.3  to  11)  from  grade 
two  to  grade  eight  does  not  speak  well  for  six  years  of  effort.. 
Good  writing  is  more  readily  obtained  when  the  teacher  is 
a  good  writer.  Some  improvement  can  be  brought  about  by 
the  setting  up  of  definite  goals  to  be  reached  in  each  grade  in 
both  speed  and  quality  and  the  frequent  measuring  of  results, 
so  far  achieved.  The  standard  established  by  Freeman  repre- 
senting the  average  scores  derived  from  the  better  half  of  56> 
cities  represents  a  standard  that  is  not  too  high  for  Janesville- 
to  strive  to  attain.  Teachers  will  derive  profit  by  a  care- 
ful examination  of  the  studies  of  Freeman  and  others  on  the- 
teaching  of  handwriting.  Children  should  be  taught  system- 
atically to  measure  and  to  analyze  their  own  handwriting  frona 


286  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

time  to  time.  Each  child  should  be  led  to  discover  the  par- 
ticular factors  in  his  own  handwriting  which  effect  its  quality. 
Shape  of  the  letters,  spacing  of  letters  and  words,  uniformity 
of  slant  and  height,  openness  of  the  letters,  fineness  and 
smoothness  of  the  lines,  and  alignment  all  enter  in.  The  chil- 
dren need  to  discover  first  in  which  of  these  respects  their  own 
writiig  is  good  or  faulty  and  second  the  best  method  of  remedy- 
ing each  particular  weakness. 

COMPqSITION 

As  a  test  of  ability  in  written  English  all  children  beginning 
with  grade  three  and  including  grade  ten  of  the  high  school 
were  asked  to  write  a  composition  on  the  subject  ''How  I 
Should  Like  to  Spend  Next  Saturday."  Twenty  minutes  were 
allowed  with  the  instruction  that  not  over  one  page  was  ex- 
pected. The  Hillegas,  Thorndike  and  Trabue  scales  were  used 
in  grading  the  composition.  The  former  was  used  as  a  basic  scale 
:and  the  latter  two  were  used  as  guides  in  deciding  the  exact 
"value  to  be  assigned  to  each  composition.  The  scoring  of  the 
papers  in  the  elementary  grades  was  done  by  the  teachers  after 
an  evening  spent  in  preliminary  practice  and  discussion  of 
methods  of  marking.  The  papers  for  the  high  school  were 
scored  by  psychology  students  of  the  Whitewater  Normal 
School  under  the  direction  of  a  memljer  of  the  faculty.  Each 
paper  was  marked  independently  at  least  twice.  Papers  on 
which  the  values  assigned  by  each  of  the  two  judges  did  not 
agree  were  marked  by  a  third  judge.  In  case  two  of  the  three 
judgments  agreed  the  mark  assigned  by  them  was  taken  as  the 
final  value.  "Whenever  each  of  the  three  judges  assigned  a 
different  mark  to  a  paper  the  highest  and  lowest  were  both  re- 
jected and  the  middle  mark  taken  as  the  final  mark. 

The  distribution  of  the  scores  made  by  each  grade  in  com- 
position is  indicated  in  the  table  following.  The  medians  for 
Janesville  as  well  as  those  attained  in  other  cities  in  Wisconsin 
and  elsewhere  are  given  in  Table  76. 


Measuring  Results  in  School  Subjects  287 

Table  75. — Distribution  of  Composition  Scoi'es  by  Grades 


Value 

Ill 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

IX 

X 

0 

31 

95 
33 

9 

3 

69 

50 

27 

8 

1 

9 

39 
34 

28 

18 

8 

1 

1 
3 

19 
42 
31 
23 
11 
5 

1.8 

14 
36 
47 
36 
10 
6 
3 

10 
28 
54 
31 
13 
3 
2 

1 

2.6  

3.6  

6 

50 
66 
52 
19 

4.7 

18 

5  8     

17 

6  7 

41 

7.7 

29 

8  3                  

15 

Total 

Median    

168 
1.65 

161 

2.38 

137 

2.78 

152 

3.74 

141 

3.79 

135 
4.31 

194 

5.9 

120 
6  87 

Tablk  76. — Median  Composition  Scores 
I.  — Wisconsin  Cities 


Wisconsin 
cities 

Date 
of 

test 

Sec. 
test- 
ed 

B 
B 
B 
B 

n 

B 

B 
A 

A 

A 
B&A 
B&A 

B&A 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

IX 

X 

XI 

XII 

1  

1916 
9-28 
10-  3 
10—  9 
10-23 
11-27 
12-  5 

1917 
1-  9 
3-  8 
4-10 
4-12 
6-  4 
6-  6 

3-24 

2  

2.43 

i!93' 
2.57 

2.'dz" 

1.72 
1.72A 

1.65 

3.97 

2.7 

2.89 

3.33 

2.26 

2.5 

2.86 

2.13 

2.97 
2.92 
3.18 

2.38 

4.35 
2.97 
3.68 
4.47 
2.43 

3.9 
3.68 
3.92 
3.51 
3.60B 

2.78 

4.87 
3.74 
4.19 
4  3 
4.19 

4.2 
4.4 
4.19 

4.18 

4 .77  A 
3.74 

5.55 
4.17 
4.55 
5.97 
4.41 

5.35 

4.22 

4.08 

3.77 

5.27B 

4.49A 

3.79 

5. 

4.29 

5.26 

3 

4  

5  

4.76 

5.66 

6.67 

6  

4.36 
4.9 

8  

9 

4.51 
4.27 
5.41B 
5. 55  A 
1 
4.31 

10  

11  . 

4.92 

5. 

5.44 

5.44 

12  ..• 

Janesvllle. 

5.9 

6.87 

II.— Cities  Outside  of  Wisconsin     (') 


Median  score  attained  in  grades 

School  System 

IV 

V 

VT 

VII 

VIII 

5.57 
5.27 
5.74 
5.29 
6.87 
4.11 
4.56 
5.62 

1st 

2nd     3rd 
High  School 

4th 

Lead,  So.  Dakota 

Newark,  N.J.  (one  school) 

Ethical  Culture  School,  N.Y.C 

Chatham,  N.  J 

Salt  LakeCitv,  Utah , 

3.57 
2.39 

3.58 
2.34 
2.76 
2.31 
3.20 
3.31 

4.11 
2.51 
4.01 
2.85 
3.84 
2.80 
3.42 
2.55 
3.91 
3.85 

4.64 
3.-56 
4.72 
4.10 
4.61 
3.41 
3.82 
3  78 
4.34 
4.60 

5.01 
4.. 83 
5.39 
4.02 
5.16 
3.77 
4.18 
4.75 
4.22 
4.95. 

Butte,  Montana 

Nassau  Count.v,  N ,  Y 

South  River,  N.  .1 

5.00 
5.18 
5.56 
6.69 
4.99 

6.0 

5.25  1  5.68 
5  02     ^  0?; 

5.94 
6  30 

Mobile  County,  Ala 

Mobile.  \la 

6.38 
6.93 

5.88 

6.5 

6.05 
7.24 
6.38 

6.9 

6.77 
7  54 

54  high  schools 

6  69 

Tentative  Standard  Medians  . . 

3.5 

4.0 

4.5 

5.0 

5.5 

7.2 

(')    From  Trabue 
Jan.  1917. 


"Supplementin!?  the  HiUegas   Scale."    Teachers  College  Record 


288 


Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


The  Median  Scores  for  the  City  as  a  Whole 

The  median  scores  indicate  that  the  children  make  a  poor 
si:howing  in  every  elementary  grade.  This  may  be  seen  more 
strikingly  if  we  consider  how  Janesville  ranks  when  compared 
with  the  cities  represented  in  the  table  above. 

Table  77 


Ill 

TV 

V 

VI 

VII 

Vlll 

IX 

X 

No.  schools  represented  for  each  grade 

7 

7 

1 

21 
16 

8 

21 

18 

3 

21 

18i 
8 

22 
19 
19 

18 
I.') 
13.5 

8(") 
2 

8('> 
2 

Rank  of  Janesvilie's  best  classes 

*  Seven  Schools  and  one  group  of  54  schools. 

If  the  highest  scores  made  by  any  class  in  each  of  the  grades 
are  taken  it  will  be  seen  that  the  language  work  of  the  schools 
is  not  uniformly  poor  in  all  classes  except  in  grades  seven  and 
eight.  Here  no  class  attains  even  the  average  rank  for  gram- 
mar grades  in  cities.  The  median  or  middle  score  for  the 
seventh  grade  (3.79)  was  judged  as  being  no  better  than  the 
sample  below  taken  from  the  Trabue  scale  rated  at  3.8. 

I  would  like  to  go  out  in  the  after  noon  and  play  catching  the  ball. 
Go  over  to  Bertha's  house  and  have  a  few  girls  to  come  with  me  and 
be  on  each  others  side.  I  have  a  tennis  ball  too  play  with.  The  game 
is  that  one  person  should  stand  quite  aways  from  another  person  and 
throw  the  ball  too  one  then  another.  Someone  has  to  be  in  the  middle 
and  try  too  get  the  ball  a  way  from  someone  then  she  takes  this  per- 
sons place  who  she  caught  the  ball  from.  Then  till  every  person  has 
a  chance. 


This  is  an  unsatisfactory  average  performance  for  grades 
that  far  advanced  in  the  elementary  school  course.  Only  in  the 
liigh  school  grades  do  the  scores  attain  the  expected  level. 

In  the  judgment  of  those  who  observ^ed  the  classroom  instruc- 
tion the  poor  results  obtained  in  English  composition  partic- 
ularly in  the  grammar  grades  are  to  be  explained  by  the  over- 
emphasis upon  formal  grammar. 

Too  much  emphasis  on  the  mere  formal  and  fact  side  of  teach- 
ing in  all  subjects  and  not  enough  of  that  kind  of  teaching 
which  develops  good  thinking  characterizes  the  instruction  in 
Janesville.  The  effect  of  this  formalized  teaching  is  reflected 
in  the  lack  of  ideas  shown  by  pupils  when  asked  to  express 
themselves  in  written  English.     The  subject  assigned  was  one 


Measuring  Results  in  Scliool  Subjects  289 

which  should  appeal  to  the  imagination  but  too  often  the  re- 
sponse was  a  mere  cataloging  of  matter  of  fact  and  common- 
place activities  in  serial  order.  Few  wrote  compositions  which 
contained  a  central  thought  or  idea  to  which  all  else  that  was 
said  related.  Few  papers  showed  that  vivid  imagination  and 
fluency  of  thought  and  expression  characteristic  of  good  work 
in  composition  and  which  should  result  from  effective  teaching 
of  the  subject. 

Progress  and  Variation  Within  Grades 

The  progress  in  English  from  grade  to  grade  is  an  insufficient 
return  for  the  time  and  energy  now  spent  in  teaching  it.  The 
median  achievement  is  low  in  grade  three  and  continues  to  be 
low  in  grade  eight.  In  the  high  school  the  effect  of  more  con- 
centrated and  sj^stematic  training  in  English  is  marked  by  the 
improvement  shown  over  grammar  grades  and  the  close  ap- 
proximation to  the  expected  standard.  The  improved  showing 
in  the  high  school  is  probably  due  in  part  to  a  selection  of 
pupils.  The  less  capable  students  commonly  drop  out  of  school 
in  greater  numbers  than  do  the  brighter  class.  This  would 
tend  to  raise  tlip  general  level  of  these  grades.  In  the  elementary 
grades  this  factor  is  not  so  evident  because  some  of  the  less 
capable  students  continue  in  school  until  the  high  school  is 
reached. 

In  every  elementary  grade  there  were  pupils  whose  papers 
were  rated  as  possessing  a  merit  not  better  than  the  first  step 
on  the  Hillegas  scale,  or  the  sample  valued  at  1.9  on  the  Trabue 
Scale  shown  below. 

one  next  S  aturday  I  expect  to  go  to  the  city  leve  next  G  aturday  to 
see  my  ofriend  archie  king  I  am  going  to  grow  to  the  baning  balys 
circus  with  hime  next  S  aturday  fefore  I  go  I  have  to  do  my  jobs 
feedsing  the  cows  ard  horse  ard  chinkens  and  geese  next  Saturday 
My  friend  is  a  very  good  fellow  to  go  and  see  So  my  mother  S  aid  "If 
I  do  my  work  during  Easter  week  vacation  I  can  go  to  the  barning 
baley  circus  with,  hime 

On  the  other  hand,  compositions  such  as  those  from  which  an 
extract  is  given  below  were  found  in  the  grades  indicated. 

Grade  III  Rated  as  3.7 

I  should  like  to  have  a  birthday  party  next  Saturday  for  my  little 
brother  for  he  is  going  to  be  five  years  old  Then  I  hope  that  he  will 
invite  M.  P.  and  M.  F.  and  D.  F.  and  of  course  he  has  to  invite  me. 


290  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

Because,  Mamma  saids,  so  I  hop  to  have  ice  cream  and  cake  and  cream 
potatos  beans  and  many  other  good  things  to  eat.  I  hope  that  paper 
will  bring  home  some  animal  crackers  and  then  we  can  hunt  them  I 
think  that  is  fun  last  year  I  remember  that  M.  F.  got  the  moste  Mamma 
said  this  year  the  one  that  found  the  moste  was  going  to  get  a  price. 
The  reason  M.  F.  got  the  most  was  because 

Grade  IV  Rated  as  4.7 

Next  Saturday  H.  and  myself  are  going  up  a  mile  from  our  place  and 
get  some  pussy  willows.  We  are  going  to  take  some  baskets  and  get 
a  lot  of  them.  H.  is  going  to  come  up  in  the  morning  and  we  are  not 
going  till  the  afternoon.  I  wish  H.  would  come  up  Friday  night  and 
go  to  school  monday  morning  with  me.  When  H.  comes  out  we  will 
have  so  much  fun. 

Grade  V  Rated  as  5.8 

Next  Saturday  I  would  like  to  go  to  Spaldings  pond  on  a  hike.  I 
would  take  my  dinner  and  cook  it  over  a  fire.  After  dinner  I  would 
fix  some  set  lines  for  bullheads  and  take  a  tramp  in  the  woods  and  see 
if  I  could'nt  shoot  some  Snipes. 

Grade  VI  Rated  as  6.7 

If  it  were  summer  I  would  like  to  go  to  Lake  Koshkonong  fishing.  I 
and  my  father  would  start  out  early  in  the  morning.  Four  o'clock 
would  be  early  enough.  We  would  go  to  the  livery  and  hire  a  horse 
and  buggy.  When  the  sun  comes  up  we  would  be  about  to  Milton  Junc- 
tion. I  would  fall  asleep  riding  and  wake  up  to  find  my  self  in  a 
strange  place.  My  father  would  be  coming  to  unharness  the  horse  and 
the  sun  would  be  quite  high  by  this     *     *     * 

Grade  VIII  Rated  as  6.7 

I  would  like  to  spend  next  Saturday  playing  Robin  Hood. 

We  go  deer  hunting  by  having  one  boy  for  a  deer  and  the  others  for 
Robin  Hood  and  his  hunters.     We  shoot  at  the  deer  with  blunt  arrows. 

When  the  deer  has  been  shot  we  go  to  our  trysting  tree  and  capture 
some  other  boy  in  the  band  for  the  sheriff  of  Nottingham.  When  we 
have  the  sheriff  we  make  him  stay  to  our  make  believe  feast  and  rob 
him. 

Teachers  may  bring  about  improvement  by  building  upon  the 
work  of  these  good  writers  among  the  children.  Their  work 
may  serve  as  a  level  of  expectancy  for  others  in  the  class  to 
attain.  Teachers  will  do  well  to  analyze  the  productions  of 
the?e  children  carefully  to  determine  the  elements  which  make 
them  superior  to  those  of  other  children.  Well-known  stand- 
ard scales  should  be  employed  frequently  to  facilitate  analysis 
and  to  measure  the  amomit  of  improvement  over  a  given 
period.  Such  analysis  should  stimulate  teachers  to  a  thoughtful 
study  of  the  whole  subject  of  composition,  its  purposes  and  pos- 
sibilities. They  will  do  well  to  observe  the  work  of  good  live 
language  teachers  elsewhere.     This  should  be  supplemented  by 


Measuring  Results  in  ScJiool  Subjects  291 

reading  and  group  discussion  of  the  best  professional  books  on 
the  teaching  of  English  composition. 

The  Qualities  Valued  in  Cotnposition 

Preliminary  to  grading  the  children's  papers  the  teachers 
were  asked  to  name  qualities  which  they  considered  in  marking 
composition  papers.  These  were  made  the  subject  of  a  group  dis- 
cussion. Qualities  commonly  considered  may  be  listed  some- 
what as  follows: 

Unity  Vividness  Sentence  structure 

Coherence  Imagination  Punctuation 

Emphasis  Choice  of  words  Spelling 

Life  Visualization  Paragraphing 

Maturity  of  thought  Color  Use  of  capitals 

Originality  Figurative  language  Grammar 

The  first  twelve  of  these  belong  more  purely  to  the  thought 
or  expressional  side  of  composition.  They  consider  the  ideas 
which  the  child  has  to  express  and  the. tone  in  which  they  are 
expressed.  The  latter  six  represent  the  more  purely  mechan- 
ical features  of  the  composition.  Several  of  them  would 
scarcely  be  considered  were  a  child's  compo.iiition  given  orally. 
Strange  as  it  may  seem  the  mechanical  or  formal  qualities  were 
among  those  to  be  mentioned  first  by  the  teachers.  This  is, 
however,  in  accord  with  the  formal  grammar  teaching  so  com- 
mon in  the  Janesville  schools.  As  previously  mentioned  in  the 
chapter  on  Instruction  the  teachers  of  Janesville  will  need  to 
devote  more  thoughtful  effort  to  the  development  of  the  ex- 
pressional side  of  language.  Children  must  be  led  to  develop 
ideas  in  connection  Avith  all  subjects.  They  must  be  taught 
primarily  to  think  and  to  express  more  so  than  to  memorize 
facts  and  rules.  There  are  few  children  whose  life  is  not  rich 
with  first  hand  experiences,  e.  g.  those  with  pets  and  other  an- 
imals, friends,  adventures,  plays  and  games,  pleasures,  fears 
and  observations  of  nature.  These  they  love  to  tell  about  when 
properly  encouraged.  It  is  the  task  of  the  teacher  to  discover 
these  experiences  and  to  train  the  children  to  express  them  ef- 
fectively both  in  oral  and  written  form.  This  is  a  far  differ- 
ent procedure  from  that  which  requires  them  to  memorize 
grammatical  forms  and  rules  of  syntax  and  then  gives  little  or 
no  occasion  for  their  use.  The  child  must  be  taught  first  to 
desire  to  express  ideas  and  only  secondly  will  he  need  to  search 


292  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

for  the  mechanical  form  in  which  to  state  them.  Then  it  is 
that  forms  cease  to  be  "dry  bones"  for  him  and  have  a  useful 
purpose.  He  has  a  motive  for  learning  those  forms  which  h& 
needs  to  know  while  those  which  serve  but  to  discourage  him. 
with  school  itself  may  be  left  untouched. 

Recommendations 

1.  That  teachers  devote  less  time  to  formal  grammar  teaching  and 

more  to  the  development  of  the  thought  and  expressional  side 
of  language  work. 

2.  That  the  amount  of  formal  and  fact  teaching  in  all  subjects  be 

decreased  and  that  more  attention  be  devoted  to  the  thought 
content  of  each.  Every  lesson  should  afford  training  in  lan- 
guage expression. 

3.  That  the  best  composition  work  in  each  grade  be  carefully  studied 

for  its  merits  and  that  it  serve  as  a  level  to  be  reached  by 
others. 

4.  That  the  teachers  make  frequent  use  of  standard  scales  to  measure 

the  degree  of  attainment  and  the  amount  of  improvement. 

5.  That  teachers  observe  successful  language  teaching  elsewhere. 

6.  That  the  teaching  of  language  be  made  the  subject  of  study  and 

discussion  at  teachers'  meetings. 

The  Trabue  Language  Tests 

The  Trabue  Language  Completion  Tests  B  and  C  were  given 
in  all  elementary  grades  beginning  with  the  second.  The  na- 
ture of  the  test  may  be  seen  from  the  reproduction  of  the  C 
test  below.     Each  test  offers  approximately  equal  difficulty. 

Write  only  one  word  on  each  blank 
Time  Limit:      Seven  minutes 

Name 


TRABUE 
LANGUAGE  SCALE  C 

2.   The   sky   blue. 

5.  Men   older  than  boys. 

12.  Good  boys kind , their  sisters. 

19.  The  g-irl  fell  and    her  head. 

24.  The   rises   the  morning  and 

at  nig-ht. 


Measuring  Results  in  School  Subjects  293 

30.   The   boy   who    ,.  .     hard    do    well. 

37.   Men    nioi  e    to    do    heavy    work 

women. 


44.   The    sun    is    so     that    one    can    not    

directly    caus- 
ing- great  discomfort  to   the  eyes. 

53.  The  knowledge  of use  Are  is 

of    important   things    known    by 

but   unknown    animals. 

56.   One    ought    to    .  ., great    care    to     the 

right   of    for  one  who    

bad  habits    it    to  get   away    from 

them. 

The  tests  measure  the  child's  command  of  language  through 
the  aptness  shown  in  filling  out  sentences  from  which  some 
words  have  been  omitted.  They  afford  an  indication  as  to  the 
general  maturity  and  richness  of  the  child's  thinking  and  as 
such  furnish  a  very  satisfactory  measure  of  his  general  intelli- 
gence. Children  who  do  well  on  this  test  are  quite  likely  to  do 
well  on  any  other  test  of  good  social  qualities.  If  general  in- 
telligence and  maturity  of  thought  are  to  be  considered,  as  they 
should  be,  in  making  promotions  and  organizing  class  groups 
these  tests  furnish  a  valuable  aid  in  making  such  selection. 
These  tests  afford  very  desirable  means  of  discovering  such  facts 
as  the  variation  of  abilities  within  grades,  the  progress  from 
grade  to  grade  and  the  overlapping  of  abilities  from  one  grade 
to  another. 

Seven  minutes  Avere  given  to  each  of  the  two  tests.  The 
papers  were  scored  by  the  teachers.  Each  paper  was  checked 
by  a  second  person  and  in  case  any  change  was  made  by  the 
second  person  they  were  passed  upon  by  a  member  of  the  sur- 
vey. Two  points  were  allowed  for  each  sentence  correct,  (i.  e. 
making  perfect  sense),  one  point  for  each  almost  correct,  (i.  e. 
making  sense  but  not  the  very  best),  and  no  value  to  those  in- 
correct or  incomplete.     The  highest  possible  score  on  each  is  20. 

The  distribution  of  the  scores  on  each  test  will  be  seen  from 
the  distribution  tables  following: 


294 


Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


Distribution  of  Scores  in  Trabiie  Language 
Table  78  Scale  C  Table   79  Scale  B 


Score 

ir 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

Score 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

0 

20 

0 

1 

i    2 

3 

32 

2 

21 

V 

1 

1 
17 

2 
33 

2 
7 
3 
22 
7 

39 
13 
30 
12 
25 
6 
12 
4 

.... 

•> 

31 
3 

27 
7 

22 
7 

18 
4 

10 
5 
1 
1 

1 

1 

"l 

3 

4 

8 
3 

2 

4 42 

5 4 

6                     sfi 

4 
1 

16 
11 
20 
15 
41 
22 
22 
11 
8 

■"i 

2 
1 
3 
3 
17 
14 
25 

5 

91 

5 

6 

28'    17 

6 
6 

22 
13 
23 
19 
27 
12 
5 

3 
1 

7 

13 
20 
25 
34 
28 
22 
4 
3 

1 
2 
5 
2 

10 
12 
25 
29 
25 
20 
10 
7 

7 

9 

26 

22 

16 

14 

6 

2 

1 

9 

30 
21 
29 
22 
12 
13 
7 
2 
1 

2 
3 

10 
16 
14 

28 
23 
24 
11 

10 
2 

1 
1 

...... 

3 

9 

14 
27 
22 
23 
13 
13 
6 
4 
1 
1 

137 

13.7 
13.3 

7 

9 

8 

1 
1 
g 

9 

9                                     5 

10 , 

10 

1 

11 

11 

1 

15      "1 

10 
21 

12 

12 

25 
21 
8 
5 

"i 

1 

30 
39 
20 
8 
6 
2 

13 

13. 

21 

14 

14, 

20 

15 

15 

IS 

16 

16 

20 

17 1... 

17 

g 

18 1.... 

18 

7 

19 

19 

2 

20 1.. ..:.... 

20 

■" 

Total..    156    183 
Median....    ^.9   7.5 

Its 

9  9 
8.0 

lil 

10.9 
9.6 

lei 

12.3 
11. 0 

T46 

13. 
12.3 

Total. 

Median... 
Standard. 

~155 

4.5 
3.0 

l83 

7.9 
6,0 

Its 

10.2 
8.0 

Til 

11.3 
9.6 

l62 

12.8 
11. 0 

l48 

13.6 
12.3 

'  lii 

14.3 
13.3 

The  schools  make  a  good  showing  in  every  grade  on  both 
tests.  No  single  grade  falls  below  the  standard  median  on  either 
test.  Janesville  children  do  not  show  a  lower  ability  in  lan- 
gange  and  general  intelligence  than  children  elsewhere  in  the 
same  grades.  From  this  standpoint  it  appears  that  the  special 
promotions  made  in  February  were  justified. 

There  is  a  decided  overlapping  of  abilities  from  one  grade 
to  another  as  in  other  tests.  The  best  pupils  in  grade  two  ex- 
cel some  of  the  children  in  each  of  the  other  grades.  It  is 
more  striking  in  the  case  of  test  C.  Here  the  best  10  per  cent 
of  the  second  grade  did  about  as  avcII  as  the  poorest  10  pc  cent 
of  the  eighth  grade.  The  pupils  who  make  high  scores  pa7'- 
ticularly  in  lower  grades  will  bear  watching  throughout  the 
course.  Many  of  these  will  very  probably  be  able  to  progress 
more  rapidly  through  the  grades.  On  the  other  hand  children 
who  made  low  scores  on  these  tests  will  bear  watching  in  a 
different  respect.  These  will  fill  the  ranks  of  the  overage  chil- 
dren in  years  to  come  unless  determined  efforts  are  made  to 
adapt  the  teaching  and  teaching  material  to  their  level  of  abil- 
ity.    It  is  recommended  that  the  records  made  by  individual 


Pleasuring  Kcsults  in  ScJiool  Suhjects  295 

children  on  these  and  other  tests  be  carefully  preserved  and  ex- 
amined from  time  to  time.  Those  who  made  especially  good 
scores  and  those  who  made  poor  scores  are  in  evident  need  of 
individual  attention.  Records  of  individuals  in  the  tests  of 
general  intelligence  should  be  compared  with  the  records  of  the 
same  individuals  in  other  tests.  This  will  serve  to  discover 
whether  a  child  shows  marked  aptitude  or  weakness  in  certain 
subjects.  The  scores  in  these  tests  should  be  freely  referred  to 
in  organizing  classes  for  a  junior  high  school. 

Summary 

The  schools  as  a  whole  show  satisfactory  attainments  in  the 
lower  grades  in  the  fundamental  operations  of  arithmetic  when 
measured  by  the  AVoody  tests.  In  these  grades,  Janesville  chil- 
dren do  much  better  than  Woody 's  expected  standard.  They  do 
somewhat  better  than  other  Wisconsin  children,  except  in  di- 
vision. In  advanced  grades,  the  results  are  not  so  gratifying. 
Apparently  teachers  cannot  expect  proficiency  attained  in 
earlier  years  to  persist  throughout  the  course  without  some  at- 
tention to  drill  in  later  years.  Wide  variations  in  the  per- 
formances of  children  of  the  same  grade  and  marked  overlap- 
ping of  abilities  from  grade  to  grade  suggest  the  need  of  care- 
ful study  of  the  individual  needs  of  children  on  the  part  of 
the  teachers.  The  fact  that  some  classes  in  the  same  grade 
were  consistently  high  and  others  consistently  low  in  each  of  the 
fundamental  operations  indicates  the  need  of  a  study  of  the 
methods  in  use  by  different  teachers. 

Analysis  of  the  particular  types  of  examples  which  proved 
difficult  reveals  that  certain  processes  are  more  potent  causes 
of  failure  than  others.  In  division,  this  is  indicated  by  the 
greater  frequency  of  error  in  upper  grades  on  examples  which 
involve  inverting  the  divisor,  decimals,  reduction  of  re- 
mainders, placing  a  cipher  in  the  quotient,  and  denominate 
numbers.  Failures  result  not  only  from  marked  weakness  in 
ability  to  manipulate  certain  processes,  but  from  the  absence 
of  well  formed  general  habits  of  estimating  answers  and  check- 
ing results.  When  results  in  the  fundamental  operations  are 
measured  by  the  Courtis  tests,  requiring  rapid  calculation,  the 
children  do  not  exhibit  superior  attainments  even  in  the  lower 


296  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

grades.  This  can  be  accounted  for  by  a  lack  of  emphasis  on 
rapid  and  accurate  calculation. 

On  the  thought  side  of  arithmetic,  i.  e.,  in  written  examples 
requiring  reasoning,  the  children  make  a  very  poor  showing. 
There  is  small  progress  from  grade  to  grade.  The  poor  re- 
sults are  fairly  uniform.  Only  in  a  very  few  cases  do  classes 
exceed  standards  attained  in  other  cities. 

This  condition  of  a  satisfactory  attainment  in  the  funda- 
mental operations  and  poor  ability  in  reasoning  processes  sug- 
gests the  need  of  greater  economy  in  teaching.  Increased  pro- 
ficiency may  be  attained  through  emphasis  upon  abbreviated 
forms  of  analysis,  better  training  in  reading,  practice  in  vis- 
ualizing the  conditions  called  for,  and  careful  analysis  of  in- 
dividual needs  of  pupils  to  determine  their  teaching  needs. 

The  results  in  reading  indicate  that  in  grades  seven,  eight, 
and  eleven,  Janesville  children  read  better  than  average  chil- 
dren, but  in  the  remaining  grades,  they  do  not  read  as  well. 
It  would  be  far  from  the  truth,  however,  to  say  that  all  of  the 
children  in  any  grade  are  poor  readers.  A  study  of  the  results 
by  buildings  indicates  that  the  city  has  some  classes  in  every 
grade  that  read  far  better  than  the  average.  The  marked  dif- 
ferences found  between  classes  of  the  same  grade  in  different 
buildings  should  be  a  cause  for  careful  study  of  the  methods 
of  teaching  reading  now  in  use.  Some  of  the  causes  which 
may  be  offered  in  explanation  of  the  low  scores  in  some  grades 
and  classes  are:  (1)  the  fact  of  the  recent  introduction  of 
semiannual  promotions;  (2)  a  scarcity  of  suitable  reading  ma- 
terial; (3)  a  lack  of  sufficient  emphasis  on  thought  reading; 
and   (4)    mediocre  teaching. 

The  schools  did  not  do  well  in  either  of  the  spelling  tests. 
No  grade  reached  or  exceeded  the  expected  average  on  the  Ayres 
test.  There  are  very  few  words  in  the  Buckingham  test  on 
which  the  children  exceeded  the  expected  average.  They  were 
below  on  most  of  them.  The  poor  showing  in  spelling  is  not 
due  to  lack  of  time  devoted  to  the  subject.  It  is  probal^ly  due 
to  several  causes.  Among  the  possible  causes  are:  (1)  the 
lack  of  a  definite  course  of  study  which  results  in  a  poor  selec- 
tion of  words  taught;  (2)  the  selection  of  too  large  a  proportion 
of  Avords  taught  from  reading  and  spelling  texts;  (3)  the  fail- 
ure to  ada])t  the  selection  of  words  to  the  needs  of  individual 
children  on  the  basis  of  their  own  need  for  knowing  how  to 


Measuring  Results  in  ScJiool  8ul)jects  297 

spell  them;  (4)  the  attempt  to  teach  too  many  words;  (5)  the 
failure  to  recognize  differences  in  the  difficulty  of  words  and 
consequent  differences  in  the  effort  required  for  mastery ;  and 
(6)  inadequate  methods  of  teaching. 

The  schools  have  a  large  proportion  of  children  who  are  poor 
writers  and  only  a  small  proportion  of  those  who  are  good 
writers.  The  children  write  about  as  well  as  average  Wisconsin 
children,  but  not  as  well  as  Iowa  children  nor  as  well  as  the 
children  in  most  of  the  large  cities  outside  of  Wisconsin  with 
whom  comparisons  may  l)e  made.  In  point  of  speed,  there  are 
both  rapid  and  slow  writers  in  every  grade.  The  proportion 
of  slow  writers  in  the  lower  grades  is  unusually  large.  It  is 
probable  that  this  is  due  to  a  lack  of  sufficient  emphasis  upon 
speed  in  these  grades.  In  the  upper  grades,  Janesville  children 
attain  a  speed  more  nearly  equal  to  that  of  other  large  cities 
and  to  the  Iowa  standard.  In  every  grade,  however,  they  are 
much  below  the  Freeman  standard  representing  the  average  of 
the  better  half  of  54  cities. 

Satisfactory  results  in  writing  are  not  to  be  attained  through 
giving  more  time  to  the  subject.  While  considerable  variation 
was  discovered  in  the  time  allotted  to  writing  in  different  build- 
ings, the  results  do  not  vary  proportionately.  There  is  a  need 
of  setting  up  definite  goals  in  both  speed  and  quality  of  hand- 
writing which  teachers  and  pupils  should  consciously  attempt 
to  reach. 

Poor  results  in  composition  are  evident  in  each  of  the  ele- 
mentary grades.  There  is  little  progress  from  grade  to  grade. 
The  high  school,  on  the  other  hand,  does  well  in  composition. 
When  the  results  are  compared  with  other  cities,  Janesville 
ranks  well  up  among  high  schools,  but  she  ranks  near  the  foot  of 
the  list  among  elementary  schools.  It  is  not  to  be  under- 
stood from  this  that  Janesville  grade  children  are  uniformly 
poor  in  composition.  In  every  grade  except  the  seventh  and 
the  eighth,  some  classes  rank  well  up  with  the  best.  The  work 
of  these  best  classes  and  of  the  best  composition  writers  in  every 
class  may  well  serve  as  standards  which  a  large  proportion  of 
the  children  in  any  given  grade  can  hope  to  attain.  The 
cause  of  the  poor  results  in  composition  is  evidently  due  to  too 
great  an  emphasis  upon  the  formal  and  fact  side  of  teaching 
in  all  subjects,  and  to  a  lack  of  stress  upon  that  kind  of  teach- 
ing which  developes  good  thinking.     Emphasis  on  the  formal 


298  Educational  Survey_  of  Janesville 

and  mechanical  phases  of  the  subject  characterize  the  teaching 
in  composition. 

On  the  whole,  the  achievement  of  the  children,  as  shown  by 
the  tests  in  various  subjects,  is  not  satisfactory. 

Eecom  mendations 

1.  A  definitely  outlined  course  of  study  which  shall  include  a  state- 

ment of  aims,  minimum  requirements  of  subject  matter,  sug- 
gested variations  and  options,  and  successful  methods  of  pre- 
senting various  topics. 

2.  More  careful  provision  for,  and  grading  according  to,  individual 

needs.  This  can  be  accomplished  through  varying  the  con- 
tent of  the  course  of  study,  promotion  of  unusually  capable 
pupils  at  irregular  intervals,  and  special  classes. 

3.  The  establishment  of  definite  standards  of  attainment. 

4.  Analysis  and  critical  study  of  the  methods  of  teaching  in  use. 

5.  A  greater  emphasis  upon  training  children  to  think  and  to  exer- 

cise judgment  in  all  subjects  and  less  upon  formal  facts. 

6.  Additional  preparation  on  the  part  of  the  teachers. 

7.  Closer  supervision  of  instruction  in  all  subjects. 


Supervision  of  Instruction  299 


XIV    SUPERVISION  OF  INSTRUCTION 

Skillful  supervision  of  classroom  teaching  is  the  most  ef- 
fective single  means  of  increasing  the  efficiency  of  a  school 
system.  The  results  secured  throughout  any  system  of  schools 
are  dependent  to  a  great  extent  upon  the  quality  of  the  super- 
vision that  is  provided.  The  efficiency  of  the  schools  is  in- 
creased because  of  the  fact  that  intelligent,  professional  super- 
vision (1)  establishes  better  educational  ideals  among  teachers, 
(2)  establishes  definite  and  valuable  aims,  (3)  improves  teach- 
ing methods,  (4)  insures  greater  economy  of  effort  on  the  part 
of  teachers,  and  (5)  consequently  stimulates  greater  interest 
and  effort  on  the  part  of  the  pupils. 

Successful  achievement  of  the  aims  just  indicated  requires: 

(1)  A  high  grade  professional  preparation  on  the  part 
of  those  who  supervise  instruction. 

(2)  An  adequate  amount  of  time  to  devote  to  the  busi- 
ness of  supervision. 

(3)  Good  organization  of  the  system  of  supervision. 

Preparation  for  Supervising  Instruction 

Ability  to  supervise  grade  instruction  successfully  implies 
that  the  supervisor  should  possess  an  intimate  knowledge  of 
the  amount  and  kind  of  work  that  should  be  expected  from  the 
elementarj^  schools.  It  implies  also  that  the  supervisor  should 
be  familiar  with  the  best  methods  of  accomplishing  such  re- 
sults and  finally  it  implies  the  ability  to  secure  such  skill  on 
the  part  of  the  teaching  corps  as  will  bring  about  the  desired 
results.  In  the  judgment  of  the  survey  staff,  the  present  super- 
intendent is  prepared  to  carry  on  the  work  of  supervision  but 
he  is  handicapped  by  the  lack  of  time  at  his  disposal. 

Time  for  Supervision 

It  is  the  chief  business  of  the  superintendent  of  schools  to 
bring  about  efficient  teaching  and  supervision.  At  present  in 
Janesville,  as  in  other  cities,  office  work,  answering  corres- 
pondence and  telephone  calls  and  preparing  records  occupy  a 


300  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

large  portion  of  his  time.  "While  the  success  of  a  superintend- 
ent in  the  eyes  of  the  public  is  often  measured  by  his  success 
in  managing  the  business  affairs  of  the  schools,  it  is  a  costly 
method  of  conducting  the  school  business  when  the  major  por- 
tion of  the  superintendent's  time  is  given  to  office  work.  There 
is  a  difference  betw^een  "keeping  school"  and  "teaching 
school"  and  there  is  a  difference  between  routine  office  w^ork 
and  supervising  instruction.  At  present  the  amount  of  office 
work  demanding  the  superintendent's  attention  prevents  him 
from  giving  sufficient  time  to  supervision.  Sufficient  high 
grade  office  assistance  should  be  furnished  so  that  he  may  be 
free  to  devote  much  more  time  to  supervisory  activities. 

The  number  of  teachers  employed  and  the  wide  distribution 
of  buildings  in  Janesville  makes  it  impossible  for  one  person 
even  devoting  all  of  his  time  to  supervision,  to  do  all  that  needs 
to  be  done.  When  we  consider  that  more  than  50%  of  the  ele- 
mentary teachers  were  rated  as  doing  work  that  was  no  better 
than  fair,  the  need  is  evident. 

Present  Organization  of  Supervision  in  Janesville 

While  some  time  is  devoted  to  personal  conferences  with 
teachers  in  the  classroom,  the  limited  time  available  has  made 
it  necessary  to  conduct  much  of  the  supervision  through  the 
medium  of  teachers'  meetings  and  bulletins.  During  the  past 
year  the  number  of  meetings  held  included  12  general  teachers' 
meetings,  6  principals'  meetings  and  6  departmental  meetings. 
The  plan  for  the  coming  year  includes  for  each  month  one  meet- 
ing of  a  general  nature,  one  of  principals  and  one  for  each  de- 
partment. This  number  is  none  too  great.  Provision  should 
be  made  so  that  teachers  will  not  be  required  to  take  all  of  the 
time  necessary  to  attend  meetings  from  after  school  hours. 
School  can  be  closed  at  least  thirty  minutes  early  for  those  very 
remote  from  the  central  meeting  place,  and  fifteen  minutes  be- 
fore regular  dismissal  time  for  those  near  by,  enabling  all  to 
reach  the  meeting  at  the  same  time. 

The  general  quality  of  the  bulletins  sent  out  from  the  central 
office  during  the  past  year  indicates  a  high  degree  of  super- 
visory ability  on  the  part  of  the  superintendent.  These 
bulletins  on  instruction  included  the  following  timely  topics : 

The  general  conduct  of  the  recitation 
What  is  meant  by  a  good  instructor 


Supervision  of  Instruction  301 

Matters  considered  important  in  the  conduct  of  the  recitation 
Suggestions  on  examinations  and  marking  papers 
Provisions  for  self-activity  at  home  and  at  school 
The  approximate  memory  spans  in  syllables  for  meaningful  sen- 
tences for  children  at  each  age 
A  list  of  expressions  and  verses  valuable  in  enunciation  drills 
Games  for  primary  children 
A  suggested  list  of  books  on  hygiene 
A  suggested  list  of  topics  on  morals  and  mannei's 
Suggestions  on  the  preparation  of  the  course  of  study 

A  nmiiber  of  these  were  made  the  svibject  of  discussion  at 
teachers'  meetings. 

Where  the  Need  of  Supervision  is  Urgent 

The  need  of  more  supervision  in  Janesville  is  made  more 
pressing  and  its  difficulties  are  increased  owing  to  the  absence 
of  a  course  of  study.  The  work  of  preparing  a  new  course  in 
a  number  of  subjects  upon  which  the  teachers  and  superintend- 
ent have  been  engaged  during  the  past  year  needs  to  be  con- 
tinued. A  good  course  of  study  will  indicate  the  aims  which 
the  teaching  of  each  subject  strives  to  accomplish  and  it  will 
likewise  give  some  indication  as  to  the  relative  importance  of 
each.  It  will  contain  a  minimum  of  subject  matter  to  be  taught 
together  with  suggested  variations  and  optional  choices  of 
material  which  may  be  used.  It  will  include  also  some  of  the 
most  successful  methods  used  by  teachers  in  presenting  various 
topics  and  sources  of  reference  material.  At  present  these  aids 
to  teachers  are  largely  lacking.  As  a  result  aims  in  teaching 
the  various  subjects  and  conceptions  of  what  should  be  ac- 
complished are  indefinite  and  varying.  Teachers  work  inde- 
pendently of  each  other  and  there  is  little  assurance  that  one 
teacher  will  not  duplicate  the  efforts  of  another.  A  definite 
course  of  study  would  remedy  such  conditions  as  found  in  the 
case  of  spelling,  referred  to  in  the  chapter  on  Instruction,  in 
which  each  teacher  selects  her  own  list  of  spelling  words  with- 
out reference  to  selections  made  by  the  teachers  in  grades  below. 

The  effectiveness  of  the  teaching  in  Janesville  would  be  very 
much  increased  were  teachers  familiar  with  the  technique  of 
teaching  children  how  to  study.  The  present  efforts  of  some  of 
the  teachers  to  supervise  class  study  do  not  meet  with  a  marked 
degree  of  success  because  of  this  lack  of  training  in  teaching. 
This  condition  could  be  remedied  through  closer  supervision. 


302  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

Wasteful  and  uneconomical  methods  of  instruction  now  in 
use  need  to  be  eliminated.  Such  practice  as  conducting  drill 
exercises  so  that  only  the  child  reciting  benefits,  when  all  are  in 
need  of  being  helped,  or  of  requiring  all  to  spend  time  on  proc- 
esses that  are  already  familiar  to  most  of  the  class,  are  per- 
nicious since  they  tend  to  destroy  interest. 

Conditions  can  be  improved  through  closer  supervision.  Much 
good  will  result  by  capitalizing  the  efforts  of  the  most  success- 
ful teachers  for  this  purpose.  It  should  be  possible  for  the 
supervisor  to  have  the  services  of  either  the  office  or  advanced 
student  stenographers  at  times  so  that  unusually  good  recita- 
tions may  be  taken  down  verbatim.  Copies  can  then  be  pro- 
vided for  each  teacher.  The  report  of  a  well-taught  lesson 
may  be  made  the  basis  of  a  discussion  at  teachers'  meetings 
and  its  particular  elements  of  strength  made  evident. 

The  teachers  are  in  need  of  being  taught  to  see  the  impor- 
tant problems  in  their  own  teaching.  "When  some  teachers  re- 
port no  difficulties  encountered  in  their  work  as  eleven  did 
there  is  an  evident  lack  of  progressiveness.  The  most  success- 
ful teachers  are  continually  finding  new  teaching  difficulties 
demanding  a  solution.  They  are  continually  experimenting 
with  new  methods  of  attack.  It  is  significant  that  a  number  of 
teachers  failed  to  answer  the  question:  "Are  you  consciously 
working  on  one  or  more  definite  problems  of  instruction  in 
connection  with  your  work,"  and  that  others  failed  to  list  pro- 
fessional problems  of  any  particular  merit. 

Remedying  Existing  Conditions 

In  justice  to  the  school,  the  community,  and  the  teacher,  it  is 
to  be  desired  that  each  teacher  render  the  best  servdee  of  which 
she  is  mentally  and  physically  capable.  In  the  judgment  of 
the  surveyors,  the  capacity  of  the  teachers  of  the  city  to  render 
a  high  grade  of  service  has  by  no  means  reached  its  highest 
level.  The  quality  of  the  teaching  can  be  much  improved 
through  more  supervision  of  the  best  kind.  It  will  be  neces- 
sary for  supervisors  to  make  use  of  all  the  means  at  their  com- 
mand. Teachers  must  be  kept  grooving  mentally  and  profes- 
sionally through  proper  stimulus  and  guidance. 

Neither  the  board  nor  those  in  charge  of  the  immediate  super- 
vision can  afford  to  lose  any  opportunity  whereby  teachers  may 
become  imbued  with  new    and    improved    ideas,  an    enlarged 


Supervision  of  Instruction  303 

scope  of  view,  and  a  more  scientific  attitude  toward  teaching 
and  teaching  products.  Some  of  the  means  of  supervision  in- 
cluding those  at  present  utilized  and  others  which  the  super- 
visor should  employ  are  these: 

1.  Preparation  of  a  modern  course  of  study  containing  statements  of 

aims;  suggested  subject  matter  and  optional  variations  thereof; 
together  with  illustrations  of  successful  methods  of  presenta- 
tion. This  should  be  carried  on  with  the  assistance  of  the 
teachers. 

2.  Special  attention  given  to  observation  and  analysis  of  classroom 

teaching  by  the  supervisor.  In  each  case,  this  should  be  fol- 
lowed by  individual  conference  with  the  teacher  for  discus- 
sion of  the  exercise  and  the  making  of  constructive  suggestions 
for  improvement. 

3.  Careful  directions  for  making  daily  programs  in  each  classroom 

together  with  later  discussion  and  correction.  This  should  in- 
clude the  subjects  to  be  taught,  their  proper  sequence,  and  the 
time  to  be  allotted  each  subject. 

4.  Demonstration  teaching  by  the  supervisor  or  the  superintendent 

or  by  successful  teachers  to  illustrate  a  given  method  or  prin- 
ciple of  educational  practice.  This  should  include  both  teach- 
ing before  the  individual  teacher  and  teaching  before  groups 
of  teachers.  In  each  case,  the  teaching  should  be  followed  by 
a  careful  discussion  of  the  particular  points  which  the  demon- 
station  sought  to  illustrate. 

5.  Provisions  for  visiting  periods  whereby  not  only  weak  but  strong 

teachers  ma*y  visit  successful  teaching  in  other  grades,  build- 
ings, or  cities.  These  should  be  accompanied  by  conferences 
both  before  and  after  the  visit  at  which  the  supervisor  or 
superintendent,  the  teacher  whose  work  is  to  be  observed,  and 
the  teacher  who  is  to  make  the  observation  are  present. 

6.  The  application  of  standard  tests  and  measurements  for  the  pur- 

pose of  discovering  such  matters  as  the  degree  of  success  at- 
tained, the  variation  between  the  individuals  within  a  class, 
or  between  the  same  grades  in  different  buildings,  and  the 
seriousness  of  the  overlapping  of  abilities  from  one  grade  to 
another.  The  application  of  standard  tests  should  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  careful  study  and  interpretation  of  the  conditions 
revealed  and  a  discussion  of  remedial  measures. 

7.  Frequent  department  and  single  grade  teachers'  meetings  for  the 

discussion  of  principles,  methods,  and  results  of  classroom 
procedure. 

8.  Promotion  of   school  exhibits,  parents'   days,  social  center  work, 

professional  reading,  summer  school  attendance,  and  partici- 
pation in  the  meetings  of  local  and  state  teachers'  associations. 


304  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

9.  Careful  supervision  of  plan,  books  in  which  each  teacher  outlines 
a  problem  or  topic  (for  example  in  geography,  or  history)  ex- 
tending over  several  lessons  together  with  an  indication  of 
the  methods  of  presentation  she  intends  to  use.  The  super- 
vision of  lesson  plans  should  include  the  distribution  of  plans 
for  the  teaching  of  a  particular  lesson  or  series  of  lessons  pre- 
pared by  the  supervisor  and  also  the  preparation  of  copies  of 
the  most  successful  lesson  plans  worked  out  by  teachers  within 
the  system.  It  should  include  also  bulletins  of  information, 
sources  of  material,  and  the  results  of  successful  experiments 
conducted  by  local  teachers  and  teachers  elsewhei'e. 

It  may  be  readily  seen  from  tlie  topics  indicated  that  super- 
vision is  complicated  and  that  it  requires  much  time  and  en- 
ergy. The  second  means  mentioned,  classroom  visitation,  if 
efficient,  requires  that  the  superintendent  visit  at  least  a  whole 
lesson  unit.  This  observation  should  be  followed  by  a  careful 
study  of  the  lesson  and  its  aims  by  the  superintendent.  He 
is  then  ready  for  a  thoughtful,  friendly  analysis  of  it  with  the 
teacher.  He  must  show  her  if  need  be  the  relation  of  this  par- 
ticular lesson  to  basic  principles  of  education.  Free  discus- 
sion by  both  teacher  and  observer  must  follow  if  benefit  is  to 
result.  This  necessary  procedure  implies  that  the  supervisor, 
except  in  primary  grades,  must  remain  in  the  classroom  at 
least  thirty  minutes  to  see  the  lesson.  He  may  need  to  spend 
some  little  time  in  thoughtful  study  of  just  how  best  to  help 
this  teacher  to  discover  the  strong  points  in  her  own  teaching 
and  to  see  her  errors,  and  how  to  aid  her  to  grow  and  improve. 
He  will  often  be  obliged  to  remain  until  after  school  to  do  this. 
This  plan  of  class  visitation  gives  real  help  to  teachers,  and  en- 
courages them  to  study  earnestly  their  own  problems  and  con- 
sequently to  increase  their  skill  from  year  to  year. 

The  short  visit,  the  written  criticism,  the  general  meeting  are 
stimulating,  but  they  do  not  get  at  the  individual  causes  of 
strength  or  weakness  nor  do  they  insure  the  required  amount 
of  improvement  in  teaching  practices.  The  plan  outlined  for 
effective  classroom  visitation  can  be  carried  on  only  wlien  the 
superintendent  or  supervisor  can  visit  each  teacher  often 
enough  to  keep  in  touch  with'her  ivork  arid  to  have  her  feel  his 
personal  interest  in  her  problems. 

As  has  been  said,  Janesville  is  too  large  a  city  for  this  type 
of  work  to  be  accomplished  by  one  person.     Either  of  two  plans 


Supervision  of  Instruction  305 

for  improvement  is  possible.  Each  building  may  have  a  super- 
vising principal  who  does  the  kind  of  supervision  suggested, 
under  the  general  direction  of  the  city  superintendent  or  an 
assistant  supervisor  may  be  employed  to  extend  the  super- 
vision from  the  main  office.  The  latter  plan  is  recommended 
by  the  survey  staff. 

The  employment  of  an  expert  grade  supervisor  who  will  co- 
operate with  the  superintendent  in  carrying  out  all  of  the 
agencies  of  supervision  has  been  planned  for  the  coming 
year.  It  may  be  found,  however,  that  there  will  be  need 
for  still  more  supervision  later,  in  order  to  vitalize  the 
teaching  service  in  Janesville  to  such  a  degree  that  each 
teacher  in  the  system  will  be  doing  the  most  constructive  kind 
of  teaching  of  which  she  is  capable.  Adequate  supervision  does 
not  make  the  Avork  of  the  regular  teacher  more  difficult.  On 
the  contrary,  it  makes  teaching  more  of  an  art  and  more  of  a 
joy  to  the  teacher  who  is  able  to  realize  her  own  continued  im- 
provement and  increased  capability  for  service.  It  often  hap- 
pens that  school  boards,  not  appreciating  the  difficulty  and 
complexity  of  real  supervision,  take  a  teacher  from  the  system 
for  this  work,  or  secure  some  one  from  outside,  who  has  not 
had  the  best  modern  training.  This  would,  of  course,  be  in  the 
case  of  Janesville  a  grevious  mistake. 


306  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


XV    PROGRESS  AND  CLASSIFICATION  OF 

PUPILS 

Age-Gradi<:  Study 

The  age-grade  conditions,  like  the  elimination  statistics,  in 
Janesville,  have  been  much  affected  by  the  system  of  semi- 
annual promotions  installed  in  mid-year  1916-17.  The  follow- 
ing method  was  used  in  installing  the  system:  Grades  were 
divided  into  advanced  and  slow  sections.  The  advanced  sec- 
tions were  designated  as  the  A  section  and  were  promoted  to 
the  B  section  of  the  grade  above  at  the  middle  of  the  year. 
Thus,  the  2B  grade  would  consist  of  those  pupils  who  had 
entered  the  first  grade  school  in  September  1916,  but  had 
shown  themselves  able  to  do  a  good  grade  of  work  during  the 
half  year  of  their  school  life.  The  2A  section  would  consist 
of  those  pupils  who  had  been  in  school  a  year  and  a  half,  but 
who  had  not  made  an  unusual  record  of  accomplishment  dur- 
ing the  first  semester  of  their  second  year. 

The  result  of  this  change  as  affecting  the  first  8  grades  is 
shown  in  retardation  figures  for  1013-14,  as  compared  to  those 
for  the  second  semester  1916-17. 

Underage  Normal  Overage 

State  average,   1913-14 13%  34%  53% 

Janesville   1913-14 16%  39%  45% 

Janesville  1916-17  (2d  half) 36%  35%  29% 

The  detailed  table  for  the  12  grades  of  the  Janesville  schools, 
according  to  age-grade  conditions  found  in  March  1917,  is  as 
follows : 


Progress  and  Classification  of  Pupils 


307 


Table  80. — Age-Grade  Distributions 
March,  1917 


Total 

Total 1880 

Grade  1 171 

Grade  II 176 

Grade  III 202 

Grade  fV 186 

Grade  V   156 

Grade  VI 179 

Grade  Vll 159 

Grade  V[]  I 146 

Grade  IX 173 

Grade  X 150 

Grade  XI 101 

GradeXfl 81 


4    5      6      7      8 

9  10    11     12 

13 

14 

15    16    17 

18 

19    20 

3  39  175  183  157 

78  146  151  170 

122 

141 

117  128  107 

44 

U 

3  "4    106~l6"     6 

6      1      1 

59,    70    29 

8      1      2 

10    801   65 

29    13      3      1 

I 

17    49 

61    30    16      9 

4 

8 

47    42    36|   14 
27    461   38    54! 

6 
11 

3 
3 

13    44    53 

41 

5 

2            1 

11    391 

50 

34 

10      2 

~~8| 

79 

501   29      6 

1 

? 

l5j 

46    56|   27 

4 

1 

9    32    44 

12 

3 

9    29 

"271 

15      1 

Tho  followiii'.r  table  intorprets  these  fif^'iires: 

Table  81 


Total 

1880 

171 

176 
202 
186 
156 
179 
1"9 
146 
173 
150 
101 
81 

Underage 

Normal 

1  yr. 
No. 

446 

16 
29 
29 
30 
36 
54 
41 
34 
50 
56 
44 
27 

Over 
age 

% 

24 

9 
17 
14 
16 
23 
30 
26 
23 
29 
37 
43 
33 

2yr 
and 
up 
No 

Over 
age 

No 

536 

35 
66 
90 
66 
55 
73 
57 
50 

8 
17 
10 

9 

* 

28 

21 
37 
45 
35 
35 
41 
36 
34 
5 

11    i 

10 

11 

No. 

671 

106 

70 

Ki 

61 
42 
38 
53 
50 
79 
46 
32 
29 

% 

36 

62 
40 
32 
33 
27 
21 
33 
34 
45 
31 
32 
36    i 

% 

Tjli 

GradK  I    

227 

14 
11 
18 
29 
23 
14 
8 
12 
36 
31 
15 
16 

12 
12 

Grade  11 

Grade  II' 

Grade  IV 

6 
9 
16 

Grade  V 

15 

Grade  VI  

Grade  VII  

8 
5 

Grade  VIII 

GradelX 

Grade  X 

Grade  XI 

9 
21 
21 
15 

Grade  XII 

20 

The  outstanding  facts  which  appear  from  this  study  are 
three.  (1)  There  is  an  unusually  low  proportion  of  age  re- 
tardation, as  technically  defined,  in  the  Janesville  public 
schools.  (2)  The  proportion  of  pupils  of  normal  age  is  also 
unusually  low.  (3)  Retardation  in  the  high  school  does  not 
reflect  the  low  proportion  found  in  the  grades, 


308  Educational  Survey  of  Jancsville 

1.  Retardation  in  the  Janesville  schools  is  technically  low. 
This  is  accounted  for  in  large  part  by  the  recent  inauguration 
of  semiannual  promotions.  The  correction  has  been  in  part  but 
a  surface  correction,  and  while  this  was  perhaps  inevitable,  still 
the  fact  constitutes  a  problem  for  future  solution.  It  will 
be  easier  to  bring  grades  up  to  standard  under  present  con- 
ditions and  there  is  every  indication  that  the  future  will  es- 
tablish and  continue  the  progress  which  has  thus  far  been 
made. 

2.  It  is  probable,  from  the  age-grade  analysis,  that  the 
pupils  advanced  through  the  semiannual  pi'omotion  system 
were  largely  the  normal  and  the  underage  pupils.  The  result  is 
a  very  small  proportion  of  pupils  of  normal  age  in  the  various 
grades.  As  the  system  works  out,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  both 
the  underage  and  retarded  groups  will  decrease  so  that  the 
majority  of  pupils  will  be  of  normal  age,  and  the  underage 
and  overage  groups  will  continue  approximately  equal  to  each 
other. 

3.  Retardation  in  the  high  school  is  large  (54.5%).  Part 
of  this  is  due  to  past  grade  conditions,  and  to  retardation  in 
rural  schools.  A  large  part,  however,  is  remediable.  Too  many 
high  school  students  take  five  years  to  finish  as  is  shown  in  the 
section  on  High  School  Mortality,  p.  309,  or  are  failed  in 
high  school  work  (see  "Students  Dropped,  Failed,  and  Pro- 
moted," p.  311.)  Too  few  students  (none  in  1915-16  and 
1916-17)  finish  in  less  than  four  years,  or  are  encouraged  to 
try  to  do  so.  It  is  recommended  that  activity  looking  toward 
the  correction  of  these  conditions  be  instituted  in  the  Janes- 
ville high  school. 

A(je-Progress  Study 

In  addition  to  the  age-grade  study,  an  age-progress  study  was 
made,  correlating  the  age  of  the  pupil  with  the  number  of  years 
he  had  spent  in  school.  For  the  purpose  of  this  study,  one  year 
only  per  grade  was  reckoned  as  normal,  i.  e.  six  years  old  for 
the  first  grade,  seven  years  old  for  the  second,  and  so  on.  In 
the  table  following,  children  who  have  made  rapid  progress  are 
listed  as  rapid ;  those  who  have  made  normal  progress,  as  nor- 
mal ;  and  those  who  have  made  slow  progress,  as  slow.  The 
summary  of  findings  is  as  follows : 


I'rofjrcss  and  ('[(issificulion   of  pKpils 


309 


Table  82 


Age 


Progress 


Total 


Young, 


but 
Normal,  and 


Old 


and  have  made  rapid    progress, 
normal 
slow 

rapid  " 

"      normal 
"      slow  " 

rapid 
normal 
slow 


but 
and 


but 


Number 

Per  cent 

1.375 

100.0 

309 

22.5 

170 

12.4 

13 

0.9 

41 

3.0 

36fi 

26.fi 

7X 

5.7 

14 

1,0 

115 

8.4 

269 

19.5 

A  table  showing  the  coiiil)iiicd  results  for  the  eight  grades  as 
a  whole  follows: 

TABiJi  83. — Age-Progress,  Jancsville,  March,  1917 


The  showing  of  this  study  is  practically  the  same  as  that  of 
the  age-grade  study.  The  analysis  was  not  extended  to  the 
high  school.  It  is  not  necessary  to  analyze  results  in  detail ; 
they  show  good  conditions  as  to  slow  progress,  and  an  unusually 
small  proportion  of  "normal-normal"  progress. 


High  School  Mortality 

V  It  is  essential  to  the  maintenance  of  a  successful  high  school 
system  that  as  many  eighth  graders  as  possible  enter  and  pro- 
gress normally  through  the  four  high  school  years.  To  form 
grounds  for  an  opinion  on  the  success  of  the  Jancsville  high 
school  in  this  regard,  a  study  was  made  of  the  1912-13  eighth 


310  Educational  Survey  of  Jancsville 

grade  class,  together  Avith  their  subsequent  record  of  school  at- 
tendance.    153  pupil  records  were  investigated,  comprising 
17,  or  11%,  who  dropped  out  of  school  during  8th  grade. 
17,  or  11%,  who  failed  of  promotion  to  high  school  in  1913. 
32,    or   21%,    who    received   average    8th    grade    scholarship 

marks  of  73--80. 
41,  or  27%;,  who    received    average    8th    grade    scholarship 

marks  of  81-85. 
46,  or  30%,  who    received    average    8th    grade    scholarship 

marks  of  86-94. 
The  following  tal)le  shows  the  history  of  the  136  eighth  grade 
students    who    attended    8th    grade    through    the  school  year 
1912-13 : 

Table  84 

"Lost"  between  8tli  gi-ade  and  H.  S 33 

One  year  of  high  school 14 

Two  years  of  high  school 19 

Two  years  of  high  school  (sophomore  1916-17) 1 

Three  years  of  high    school 8 

Three  years  of  high  school    (junior  1916-17) 4 

Four  years  of  high  school  (junior  1916-17) 17 

Four  years  of  high  school  (seniors  1916-17) 36 

Went  to  school  away  from  Janesville 4 

Total 136 

Never  entered  high  school 33  or  24     % 

Dropped  before  completing 41  or  30     % 

Retarded  two  years 1  or  1     % 

Retarded  one  year 21  or  15.5% 

Normal   progress    36  or  26.5% 

Entered  other  high  schools 4  or  3     % 

Total 136  or  100     % 

This  table,  interpreted  by  percentages,  is  as  follows : 
The  result  of  this  study  points  to  a  high  mortality  and  a  large 
amount  of  retardation  within  the  Janesville  high  school.  Upon 
correlating  scholarship  records  with  subsequent  history  it  was 
found  that  there  was  the  connection  to  be  expected  between 
scholarship  and  high  school  progress.  Records  for  the  four 
scholarship  groups  follow : 

1.   Pupils   failing  of  promotion 

Never  entered  high  school 8  or  47     % 

Dropped  before  completing 4  or  23 . 5% 

Retarded  2  years 1  or  6     % 

Retarded  1  year 4  or  23.5% 

Total 17  or  100     % 


Progress  and  Classification  of  Pupils  311 


2.  Pupils  marked  73-80 

Never  entered  high  school 9  or  28% 

Dropped   before  completing 13  or  41% 

Retarded   1   year , . , , 5  or  16% 

Normal  progress 3  or  9% 

Entered  other  high  schools 2  or  6% 

Total 32  or  100% 

3.  Pupils  marked  81-85 

Never  entered  high  school 10  or  24% 

Dropped  before  completing 14  or  34% 

Retarded  1  year 7  or  17% 

Normal    progress 9  or  22% 

Entered  other  high  schools 1  or  3% 

Total 41  or  100% 

4.  Pupils  marked  86-94 

Never  entered  high  school 6  or  13% 

Dropped  before  completing 10  or  22% 

Retarded   1   year 5  or  11% 

Normal  progress 24  or  52% 

Entered  other  high  schools 1  or  2% 

Total 46  or  100% 

The  recommendation  arising  from  this  study  is  increased  at- 
tention to  the  problem  of  keeping  children  in  school  and  of 
making  it  possible  for  every  child  to  make  normal  school  prog- 
ress. The  establishment  of  a  Junior  High  School  is  no  doubt 
desirable  in  this  connection. 


Students  Dropped,  Failed,  and  Promoted  in  High  School 

Subjects 

During  the  school  year  1916-17,  a  study  was  made  in  the  de- 
partment of  public  instruction  to  find  the  proportion  of  high 
school  students  dropped,  failed,  and  promoted,  in  each  of 
fifteen  high  school  subjects.  Results  were  published  in  the 
Biennial  Report  for  1914- '16,  and  also  in  "Educational  Ad- 
ministration and  Supervison,"  January  1917. 

The  Janesville  records  show  a  considerable  variation  from  the 
norm  of  the  seventy-five  Wisconsin  high  schools  studied.  A 
comparison  follows: 


312  Educational  Sarvcij  of  Jancsvillc 

Table   S5.— Seventy-five   Wisconsin  High   Schools  J91'i-'15 


Total 

English 
1st  year. 
2nd  year 
4th  y«  ar. 


Mathematics 
Algebra. — 
Ueomeiry.. 


Science 

Physics 

Physical  Geography 

Ancient  History 


German 
1st  year. 
2nd  year 

Latin 
1st  year. , 
2nd  year , 


Dom»'stic  Science 

C!ooUlng 

Sewing 


Manual  Training. 


Total 

Diopped 

Fai 

led 

Piom 

No. 

No. 

Pir  ct. 

No. 

Per  ct. 

No. 

38,640 

3.703 

9.6% 

3,408 

8.8% 

31,529 

5,432 
4,136 
1,781 

566 
367 
86 

10% 
9% 

5% 

544 

308 

48 

10% 

7% 
3% 

4,322 
3,461 
1,647 

5.966 
3,542 

716 
415 

12% 
12% 

1        847 
,       448 

14% 
13% 

4,403 
2,679 

1.988 
2,446 

89 
217 

4% 
9% 

56 
249 

3% 
10% 

1,843 
1,980 

3,317 

349 

10% 

329 

10% 

2,639 

2,276 
1.380 

262 
71 

12% 

5% 

235 
65 

10% 
5% 

1,779 
1,244 

1,030 
572 

115 

27 

11% 

5% 

122 
39 

12% 

7% 

793 
506 

1,S63 
1,723 

128 
177 

7% 
10% 

41 

38 

2% 
2% 

1,694 
1,508 

1,188 

118 

10% 

39 

3% 

1,931 

Per  ct. 


81.6% 

80-0 
84 '0 
92% 


74% 
75% 


93% 
81% 


80% 
78% 


77% 
88* 


91% 
88% 


87'?^ 


Seventy-five  Wisconsin  High  Schools  1915-16 


Total 


English 
1st   year. 
2nd  year. 
4th  year. 


Mathematics 

Algebra  

Geometry  .. 


Science 

Physics 

Physical  Geo  .. 

Ancient  History 


German 
1st  year  . 
2nd  year . 


Latin 
1st  year. 
2nd  year . 


Domestic  Science. 

Cooking  

Sewing 


Manual  Training 


Total 

Dropped 

Fa 

led 

No. 
40,071 

No. 

Perot. 

No. 
3,538 

Perct 

9% 

3,878 

10% 

5,885 
4,143 
2.029 

698 
409 
102 

12% 

10% 
5% 

634 
372 

59 

11% 

9% 
3% 

6,058 
3,612 

764 
372 

13% 

11% 

778 
466 

13% 
13% 

1,894 
2,160 

97 
164 

5% 

7% 

71 
230 

4% 
11% 

2,855 

267 

9% 

329 

12% 

2,141 
953 

244 
81 

11% 
6% 

180 
61 

9% 
4% 

1,188 
675 

150 
39 

13% 
6% 

142 
51 

12% 

7% 

2,359 
2,215 

158 
177 

7% 
8% 

67 
69 

3% 
3% 

1,421 

156 

11% 

29 

2% 

Promoted 


No. 


32,655 


4,5.i3 
3.362 

1,868 


4,516 
2,774 


l,72o 
1,766 


1,717 
1.298 


S92 
585 


2.134 
1,969 


1,236 


Per  ct. 


81% 


77% 
81% 
92% 


74% 
76% 


91% 
h2% 


90% 
75% 


90% 

89% 


I'royrcss  mid  Classified tioii  of  Pupils 


113 


Janesville  1915-'16 


Total 


No. 


Dropped 


No 


Per  ct. 


Failed 


No. 


Perct. 


Promoted 


No, 


Per  ct. 


Total 


English 
1st   year. 
2nd  yfar. 
4th  year. 


Mathematics 

Algebra 

Geometry.. 


Science 

Physics 

Physical  Geo. 


Ancient  History 


German 
1st   year. 
2nd  year. 


Domestic  Science 

Cooking  

Sewing 


Manual  Trainins 


1.356 


184 
131 
38 


215 
105 


119 


153 
159 


52 


96 


7.1% 

5% 
11% 
3% 

5% 

5% 

5% 
7% 

7.5% 
10% 


9% 
9% 

12% 


138 


22 


10.2% 


10% 


11% 
16% 


3% 
20% 


18.5% 


22% 
17% 


6% 


1,122 


156 
105 
37 


181 
83 


130 
135 


82.7% 


80% 
97% 


84% 
79% 


92% 

73% 


74% 


68% 
83% 


A  comparison  of  these  tables  reveals  that  Janesville  ranks 
slightly  higher  than  the  average  of  the  seventj^-five  high  schools 
in  the  per  cent  of  pupils  promoted  at  the  end  of  the  school 
year  in  high  school  subjects.  This  standing,  however,  is  true  in 
only  six  of  the  thirteen  high  school  subjects  studied.  In  the 
other  seven,  the  results  show  that  Janesville  is  distinctly  below 
the  average  in  the  number  of  students  failed. 

In  the  study  of  high  school  mortality,  page  309,  it  was  noted 
that  a  considerable  number  of  pupils  took  five  years  to  graduate 
from  high  school.  This  was  to  be  expected  from  the  large  pro- 
portion of  failures  in  high  school  subjects. 

Causes  for  failure  should  be  studied,  and  teachers  should  be 
impressed  with  the  fact  that  an  undue  number  of  students 
failing  constitutes  a  reflection  on  their  teaching  powers.  The 
subjects  in  which  most  work  needs  to  be  done  are:  geometry, 
physical  geography,  ancient  history,  and  German. 


ol-i  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 


XVI     PROVISIONS  FOR  SPECIAL  CLASSES 

Exceptional  children  for  whom  special  classes  should  be  pro- 
vided may  be  divided  into  two  groups.  In  one  group  will  be  in- 
cluded those  children  of  superior  ability  who  are  able  to  pro- 
gress much  more  rapidly  than  the  average  pupil,  and  in  the 
other  group  are  included  all  pupils  who,  for  various  reasons, 
are  unable  to  progress  as  rapidly  as  the  average  child. 

This  second  group  may  be  divided  into  two  large  classes; 
namely,  the  socially  comj)etent  and  the  socially  incompetent. 
The  first  includes  children  who  are  deaf,  blind,  crippled,  back- 
ward, or  suffering  from  other  physical  handicaps.  These 
children,  through  the  agency  of  the  special  class,  may  be  greatly 
benefited,  and  a  large  percentage  of  them  enabled  to  take  their 
place  in  society. 

The  second  class  of  this  group  includes  the  mentally  deficient 
who  should  have  the  opportunities  offered  by  special  classes 
but  most  of  whom  cannot  be  fitted  to  take  their  places  as  self- 
supporting  individuals  in  society  except  under  competent 
supervision. 

The  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the  formation  of  special 
classes  may  be  considered  from  two  standpoints;  that  of  chil- 
dren remaining  in  the  regular  classes  and  that  of  children  placed 
in  the  special  classes.  The  most  serious  problems  of  the  class 
teacher  usually  center  about  children  who  are  so  much  superior 
to  the  average  of  the  class  that  they  can  do  the  required  work, 
and  still  have  considerable  spare  time  to  spend  in  mischief 
making;  or  children  who  are  so  hopelessly  out  distanced  by 
the  class  that  they  have  lost  all  interest  in  the  work  and  devote 
very  little  time  to  the  work  of  the  class,  except  under  the  im- 
mediate direction  of  the  teacher.  Children  of  these  types  not 
only  fail  to  profit  by  the  work  given  in  the  class,  but  interfere 
with  others  for  whom  the  instruction  may  be  well  suited. 

Investigations  show  that  in  pi'actically  every  class  a  con- 
siderable number  of  children  are  capable  of  progressing  at  a 
rate  more  rapid  than  that  of  the  average  class.  It  is  also  found 
that  there  are  some  children  who  are  incapable  of  keeping  pace 


Provisions  for  Special  Classes  315 

with  the  avera^'e  class.  Of  the  latter  group,  a  number  var- 
iously estimated  at  from  one-half  per  cent  to  one  per  cent  of  the 
total  enrollment  of  the  school  system  are  positively  deficient 
mentally,  so  they  do  not  profit  by  the  instruction  given  in  tlie 
regular  class.  Removal  of  these  misfits,  whether  they  be  of  in- 
ferior or  superior  ability,  leaves  the  teacher  free  to  devote  her 
time  and  energy  to  the  instruction  of  children  for  whom  the 
instruction  is  well  adapted.  This  improvement  must  neces- 
sarily I'csult  in  the  smaller  number  failing  of  promotion,  which 
means  a  reduction  in  overage  pupils.  The  child  of  superior 
ability,  placed  in  a  special  class,  and  provided  with  special  in- 
struction, may  be  enabled  thereby  to  complete  the  school  course 
in  less  than  the  usual  time.  Besides  the  saving  of  time  affected, 
the  child  who  is  thus  afforded  an  opportunity  to  work  up  to 
liis  full  capacity,  develops  a  keener  interest  in  the  work  and 
will  acquire  hal)its  of  attention  and  industry  wliich  are  of  more 
value  than  mere  inasteiy  of  subject  matter.  The  child  who  is 
merely  backward  or  slow  may,  through  the  agency  of  the 
special  class,  or  the  special  help  teacher,  be  strengthened  in  his 
work  so  he  may  again  take  his  place  in  the  regular  class.  He  is 
thus  not  only  prevented  from  being  a  failure,  but  has  increased 
interest,  confidence,  and  self-respect,  and  a  better  attitude 
toward  the  work  of  the  school. 

The  feeble-minded,  the  mentally  deficient  child,  cannot  profit 
except  to  a  limited  degree,  bj^  the  kind  of  instruction  given  in 
the  regular  class.  He  should  be  placed  in  a  special  class  where 
the  w^ork  given  is  adapted  to  his  needs  and  capacities.  He  will 
not  only  derive  more  profit  fi-om  such  instruction,  but  will  be 
much  happier  than  when  in  the  regular  class. 

In  a  school  system  in  a  city  the  size  of  Janesville,  there  is  not 
a  sufficient  number  of  children  in  need  of  special  instruction  to 
make  it  practicable  to  form  all  of  the  various  special  classes 
needed  in  a  larger  school  sj^stem.  The  results  of  tests  in  school 
subjects  indicate  that  there  is  need  of  special  provision  for  the 
children  who  are  decidedly  superior  or  decidedly  inferior  to 
the  general  average  in  various  subjects,  and  classes  for  pupils 
who  show  marked  retardation  in  all  or  practically  all  of  their 
school  work. 

Tests  that  were  given  in  grades  2-8  inclusive,  in  the  differ- 
ent schools,  showed  a  wide  range  of  ability  in  each  subject  in 


316  Educational  ISurvcy  of  JanesviUc 

every  grade.  (See  Chap.  1-4).  While  the  results  of  the  tests 
show  that  the  situation  is  not  such  as  to  demand  extraordi- 
nary measures,  it  was  found  that  there  were  individual  cases 
in  some  of  the  classes  where  the  pupils'  retai-dation  was  so 
marked  as  to  make  it  urgent  that  a  special  class  or  special 
classes  be  provided  to  relieve  the  situation.  Cases  were  found 
where  a  pupil  had  been  in  the  same  grade  for  three  years,  and 
was  still  rated  by  the  teacher  as  the  poorest  in  the  class.  It 
was  not  practicable  to  give  all  of  these  children  intelligence 
tests  to  determine  their  mental  status,  but  tests  were  given  in 
a  few  cases,  and  the  results  considered  in  connection  with  the 
marked  retardation  of  those  tested  point  strongly  to  mental 
deficiency. 

A  consideration  of  the  ({uestion  of  establishing  si)ecial  classes 
involves  consideration  of  the  cost  incurred  thereby.  The  ad- 
dition of  the  special  teachers  in  charge  of  these  classes  Avould 
at  first  appear  to  be  an  increase  in  the  cost  of  instruction,  but 
there  are  other  factors  entering  into  this  question  which  great- 
ly reduce,  if  they  do  not  entirely  eliminate,  this  apparent  in- 
crease. 

On  the  basis  of  average  daily  attendance,  the  per  capita  cost 
in  Janesville  in  the  grades  below  the  high  school  for  the  year 
ending  June  30,  1917,  Avas  $36.59.  Every  child  who  fails  of 
promotion  must  after  each  failure,  repeat  the  work  of  a  half 
year.  This  means  a  proportionate  increase  in  the  cost  of  edu- 
cating this  child. 

The  annual  report  of  the  city  superintendent  for  the  above 
named  year  showed  105  children  in  the  elementary  grades 
failed  of  promotion  at  the  end  of  the  year.  This  will  give  an 
idea  of  the  increased  cost  to  the  city  resulting  from  failures. 
On  the  other  hand,  every  child  of  superior  ability  who  com- 
pletes the  course  in  less  than  the  required  time  means  a  corres- 
ponding saving  to  the  city. 

The  work  of  the  special  classes  will  not  only  decrease  the 
number  of  pupils  failing  of  promotion,  but  will  also  increase 
the  number  who  complete  the  course  in  less  than  the  usual 
time.  When  all  of  these  factors  are  considered,  it  becomes  evi- 
dent that  even  from  the  standpoint  of  dollars  and  cents, 
a  special  teacher  would  have  to  prevent  a  comparatively  small 
number  of  failures  in  order  to  save  the  city  as  much  as  she  re- 
ceives in  salary. 


Provisions  for  Sjyecial  Classes  317 

111  the  ease  of  a  teacher  doins'  corrective  speech  work,  the 
aid  received  from  the  state  has  been,  and  probably  will  continue 
to  be,  sufficient  to  pay  the  entire  salary  of  the  teacher.  The 
state  will  also  pay  one-third  of  the  salary,  not  to  exceed  $300, 
of  one  teacher  employed  to  ^\\e  instruction  to  exceptional 
children. 

Recommendations 

1.  That  one  class  be  formed  for  children  who  are  mentally 
deficient.  The  survey  indicates  that  this  class  would  have  a 
membership  of  from  10  to  15  or  possibly  more.  The  location 
of  this  class  should  be  determined  by  the  geographical  distri- 
bution of  the  pupils  enrolled  therein,  and  the  available  room 
for  the  accommodation  of  such  class.  All  children  placed  in 
this  class  should  be  thoroughly  tested  and  their  mental  status 
determined  as  accurately  as  possible  before  they  are  assigned 
to  the  class.  The  supervisor  employed  by  the  state  in  the 
Department  of  Public  Instruction  can  assist  greatly  in  this, 
and  the  State  Superintendent  will  supply  full  instructions  as 
to  how  this  class  shall  lie  oi'tianizel  and  conducted  in  order  to 
receive  the  special  aid  from  the  state. 

2.  The  employment  of  at  least  two  special  help  teachers  for 
the  slow  children  and  specially  gifted  children.  A  class  es- 
tablished in  the  Washington  or  Jefferson  building  would  be 
sufficient  to  meet  the  needs  of  these  schools.  One  class  should 
be  established  in  a  school  on  the  west  side  of  the  river.  To  de- 
termine the  location  of  this  class  would  I'equire  consideration  of 
available  room  and  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  pupils 
belonging  in  such  class.  On  account  of  the  rather  wide  dis- 
tribution of  the  school  poi)ulation  on  this  side  of  the  river,  it 
may  be  found  advisable  to  have  this  teacher  take  charge  of  a 
class  in  one  building  in  the  forenoon  and  a  class  in  another 
building  in  the  afternoon,  the  pupils  of  these  classes  attending 
the  regular  classes  when  the  special  class  to  which  they  belong 
is  not  in  session. 

3.  The  continuation  of  corrective  speech  work.  As  time 
goes  on,  it  may  be  found  that  the  corrective  speech  work  will 
not  demand  the  full  time  of  a  teacher,  and  in  that  event,  such 
spare  time  might  be  devoted  to  the  gifted  or  slow  pupils. 

4.  For  the  class  for  mentally  deficient  children,  a  teacher 
should  be  employed  whose  training  and  experience  meets  the 


318  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

requirements  fixed  by  the  State  Superintendent  in  the  regula- 
tions governing  such  classes.  The  teacher  in  charge  of  cor- 
rective speech  work  must  have  had  special  preparation  for  this 
work,  and  it  is  desirable  that  she  shall  have  had  considerable 
experience  in  teaching,  so  as  to  understand  the  problems  of 
the  regular  classroom.  The  teachers  in  charge  of  the  classes 
for  the  retarded  and  slow  children  should  be  teachers  with 
good  training,  and  with  several  years  of  successful  experience. 
It  is  perhaps  needless  to  add  that  all  of  the  teachers  employed 
in  special  classes  should  be  alert  and  thoroughly  alive  to  the 
trend  of  the  best  thought  on  educational  problems  generally, 
and  on  the  special  problems  related  to  their  respective  fields  of 
special  work.  It  is  not  deemed  necesasry  nor  advisable  that 
teachers  in  these  classes  be  paid  salaries  disproportion- 
ately high  as  compared  with  salaries  received  by  teachers  in 
the  regular  classes.  These  teachers  being  chosen  on  account  of 
their  superior  ability,  training  and  experience  must,  of  course, 
]>e  paid  a  higher  salary  than  the  average  grade  teacher  on  ac- 
count of  the  limited  supply  of  such  specially  fiualified  teachers. 
This  superior  ability,  training  and  added  experience  should  con- 
stitute the  basis  for  determining  the  salary,  not  the  mere  fact 
that  they  are  employed  as  teachers  in  special  classes. 


Home  Cooperation,  Health  and  Recreatio7i  319 


XVII     HOME  COOPERATION,  HEALTH,  AND 
RECREATION 

Home   Cooperation   and  Recreation 

Much  of  the  success  of  the  school  depends  upon  the  cooper- 
ation that  exists  between  it  and  the  home.  Each  of  these 
agencies  supplements  the  other  in  the  training  that  it  gives 
the  child,  and  each  is  helped  by  the  understanding  and  cooper- 
ation that  it  receives  from  the  other.  That  an  appreciation  of 
this  relation  is  becoming  more  general  throughout  the  country 
is  evident  from  the  rapid  growth  of  parent-teacher  associations, 
— organizatiors  which  exist  for  the  express  purpose  of  promot- 
ing better  understanding  between  the  school  and  the  home  and 
appreciation  ou  the  part  of  the  parents  of  the  new  ideals  of 
education,  and  as  a  consequence,  better  working  conditions  in 
the  schools. 

Investigation  of  the  extent  of  the  cooperation  that  has  been 
developed  in  Janesville  reveals  the  fact  that,  in  general,  a  good 
feeling  exists  between  the  home  and  the  school.  A  number  of 
teachers  report  visits  from  parents  for  the  purpose  of  observing 
regular  school  work,  and  others  report  a  good  attendance  at 
school  entertainments.  Probably  nothing  gives  the  parents  a 
better  understanding  of  the  progress  that  their  children  are 
making  than  visits  to  the  school  with  the  opportunities  that 
these  afford  for  comparing  the  ability  and  efforts  of  their  chil- 
dren with  those  of  other  members  in  the  class.  Not  only  do 
such  visits  dispel  the  erroneous  idea  of  teacher-favoritism  that 
some  parents  hold  when  their  children  are  not  doing  well  in 
school,  but  they  also  materially  assist  teachers  in  their  under- 
standing of  the  pupils.  Even  a  slight  acquaintance  with 
parents  enables  teachers  to  better  understand  pupils  and  con- 
sequently to  work  more  sympathetically  and  intelligently  for 
the  promotion  of  their  best  interests.  Moreover,  the  parents' 
visits  usually  give  teachers  an  assurance  of  cooperation  that  is 
very  bracing  to  them  in  times  of  discouragement.  For  these 
reasons,  means  should  be  taken  to  encourage  closer  acquaintance 
-Jbetween  parents  and  teachers.     Some  teachers  have  undertaken 


320  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

to  visit  the  homes.  One  reports  having  called  at  the  home  of 
each  child  in  her  school.  This  is  an  excellent  record,  but  one 
Ihat  is  sometimes  difficult  for  teachers  to  achieve.  Parents 
should  not  make  it  necessary  for  teachers  to  take  the  initiative 
in  this,  but  should  recognize  the  burden  that  such  an  effort 
places  upon  them,  and  should  relieve  them  of  the  necesity  of 
it  by  visiting  the  school  early  in  the  fall  so  that  the  best  under- 
standing may  be  promptly  established. 

It  is  the  feeling  of  the  surveyors  that  though  the  parents 
have  by  their  attendance  at  school  programs  responded  well, 
in  the  main,  to  the  school's  efforts  to  get  in  touch  with  them, 
they  have  not  been  as  active  as  is  desirable  in  creating  oppor- 
tunities to  understand  and  better  school  conditions.  For  this 
reason,  it  is  suggested  that  the  parents  of  each  school  form  a 
parent-teachers'  association  and  undertake  a  consideration  of 
work  for  the  benefit  of  the  school.  Excellent  work  has  been 
done  in  many  cities  by  such  organizations. 

The  presidents  of  these  associations  might  be  made  an  ad- 
visory council,  together  with  the  city  superintendent,  high 
school  principal,  and  one  or  two  school  board  members,  to  talk 
over  school  conditions  and  needs,  make  suggestions  for  the  work 
of  ward  associations,  and  bring  recommendations  for  action 
before  the  superintendent. 

Many  problems  will  present  themselves  for  study.  Two 
very  important  lines  of  work  that  might  profitably  be  under- 
taken for  the  first  year  are  the  subjects  of  health  supervision 
and  recreation  of  children.  The  need  for  the  first  of  these  has 
been  mentioned  elsewhere  in  this  report.  The  need  for  the 
second  is  evident  to  anyone  who  gives  the  matter  thought. 

Nature  intends  that  children  develop  physically  and  mentally 
through  play.  Frequently  the  opportunities  for  play  offered  by 
the  school,  home,  and  community  are  too  meager.  It  is  felt  that 
this  is  at  present  the  condition  in  Janesville.  Playground  ap- 
paratus and  play  space  are  urgent  needs  of  the  grades  and  the 
high  school.  Some  of  the  grade  teachers  have  taught  their 
pupils  games  and  have  frequently  gone  on  the  playground  with 
them  to  supervise  their  play.  This  condition,  however,  is  not 
general.  While  it  is  asking  considerable  of  teachers  to  expect 
them  to  go  to  the  playground  with  their  pupils  at  each  school  in- 
termission, it  is  not  asking  too  much  to  expect  that  in  each  build' 


Home  Cooperation,  Health  and  Recreation  321 

ing  play  supervision  will  be  so  organized  and  so  distributed 
among  the  members  of  the  teaching  body  that  provision  may 
be  made  that  will  result  in  a  general  pupil  participation  in 
play.  The  social  spirit  of  upper  grade  pupils  may  be  de- 
veloped by  calling  upon  them  for  assistance  in  directing  the 
play  of  the  younger  children.  The  problem  of  directing  play 
would  be  simplified  to  some  extent  were  an  adequate  amount 
of  playground  apparatus  supplied.  A  beginning  has  been 
made  by  placing  some  equipment  on  the  grounds,  but  addi- 
tional apparatus  is  needed. 

The  above  suggestions  have  reference  to  the  play  periods 
that  are  directly  connected  with  school  sessions,  but  children 
have  longer  unoccupied  periods  for  recreation  for  which  pro- 
vision should  be  made.  Provision  for  these  is  considered 
so  vital  that  a  number  of  cities  are  employing  recreational 
supervisors  for  the  entire  year.  Such  organizations  as  Boy 
Scouts  and  Campfire  Girls  Avithout  doubt  offer  as  complete  and 
desirable  programs  for  the  leisure  of  adolescent  boys  and  girls 
as  can  be  obtained.  It  is  felt  that  in  Janesville  not  enough 
thought  has  been  given  to  the  needs  of  these  children.  To  be 
sure,  certain  churches  have  Boy  Scouts,  Campfire  Girls,  and 
other  clubs,  but  these  do  not  begin  to  enroll  all  of  the  young 
people  who  are  in  need  of  the  opportunities  that  such  clubs 
give  for  personal  development,  healthful  recreation,  and  service. 

It  is,  therefore,  suggested  that  school  patrons,  through 
parent-teachers'  associations,  women's  clubs,  or  other  suitable 
agencies  make  a  study  of  the  needs  of  the  young  people  and  of 
the  recreational  opportunities  offered,  with  a  view  of  providing 
the  maximum  amount  of  wholesome  recreation  for  them.  In 
this  way,  a  great  deal  will  be  done  to  safeguard  the  lives  of  the 
young  people  and  to  lead  them  to  a  useful  citizenship. 

England  "has  been  diligently  studying  the  problem  of  the 
rapidly  increasing  numbers  of  juvenile  delinquents.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  main  causes. 

1.  Relaxation  of  domestic  discipline. 

2.  The  absence  of  fathers  of  families  on  military  service. 

3.  A   great   demand   for   adolescent   labor   and   preposterously   high 

wages. 

4.  The  inevitable  withdrawal  of  influences  making  for  the  social  im- 

provement of  boys  and  girls. 


322  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

5.  The  accentuation   of  tendencies   adversely   affecting  the   develop- 

ment of  character  and  efficiency. 

6.  The  harmful  effect  of  moving  picture  shows. 

7.  Disregard  of  responsibility  for  their  children  shown  by  parents. 

It  is  also  stated  that  there  was  a  sad  lack  of  parental  control 
before  the  war  began,  but  the  situation  is  worse  now.  It  is 
stated  that  teachers  and  others  agree  that  leaders  of  juvenile 
gangs  are  alert  and  precocious  boys  rather  of  supernormal 
than  subnormal  intellects.  Duller  children  are  led  into  mis- 
chief. 

Evil  influences  are  bad  literature,  the  penny  dreadful,  down 
grade  posters  and  postcards,  crime  films,  dark  streets,  and 
plenty  of  money  to  spend.  All  are  agreed  that  the  pleasures 
and  occupations  which  have  attracted  the  London  children  from 
the  street^  to  the  play  centers  in  ever  increasing  numbers  are, — 
handwork,  such  as  cooking,  both  for  boys  and  girls,  sewing, 
knitting,  basket  Avork,  carpentry,  clay  modeling,  painting, 
drawing,  dancing  combined  with  old  English  song  and  nursery 
rhymes,  musical  drill,  gymnastics,  games,  acting,  and  the  chil- 
dren's library  of  story  and  picture  books. 

The  school  needs  the  cooperation  of  parents  and  parents 
need  the  cooperation  of  teachers  in  the  effort  to  prevent  chil- 
dren from  falling  into  evil  ways  and  to  enable  them  to  occupy 
their  time  in  a  profitable  and  pleasurable  way  while  the  school 
is  not  in  session. 

Health 

In  the  not  remote  past,  a  community  felt  that  when  it  had  sup- 
plied the  school,  the  equipment  and  the  teacher,  its  responsibility 
had  been  adequately  met.  The  results  of  medical  inspection 
throughout  the  country  show  that  "in  each  school  system,  no 
matter  where  it  may  be  located  or  to  what  social  classes  its 
patrons  may  belong,  from  50  to  85  per  cent  of  its  pupils  are 
suffering  from  one  or  more  physical  defects  serious  enough  to 
require  skilled  attention."*  This  being  true,  it  is  clear  that 
supplying  school  equipment  does  not  completely  discharge  a 
community's  obligations.  It  is  a  matter  of  vital  importance 
for  it  to  concern  itself  with  means  for  correcting  poor  physical 
conditions  of  children,  thus  making  possible  their  best  develop- 


•  Hoag  and  Terman,   "Health   Work    in   Schools,"   page   2. 


Hom-e  Cooperation,  Health  and  Recreation  323 

ment.  Since  the  progress  of  school  children  is  determined  in 
large  part  by  their  physical  conditions,  it  is  evident  that  it  is 
shortsighted  to  neglect  the  correction  of  defects  when  by  so 
doing  pupils'  progress  would  be  accelerated  and  their  enjoy- 
ment of  life  and  work  increased. 

The  subject  of  pupil  health  has  not  been  given  proper  at- 
tention in  the  Janesville  schools.  Medical  inspection  of  school 
children  should  be  incorporated  as  part  of  each  year's  pro- 
gram. A  forward  step  was  taken  last  year  when  dental  in- 
spection was  introduced  and  provision  made  to  give  treatment 
to  those  children  whose  parents  were  unable  to  pay  for  the 
work.  This  is  a  commendable  measure  that  should  be  con- 
tinued. There  is  undoubtedly  not  a  more  important  school 
matter  at  present  demanding  the  attention  of  the  Board  of 
Education  than  that  of  health  supervision.  It  is  recom- 
mended, therefore,  that  this  subject  be  taken  under  advisement, 
with  a  view  to  the  permanent  establishment  of  medical  and 
dental  inspection  with  a  thorough  system  of  follow-up  work. 
This  follow-up  work  will  call  for  the  continuance  of  the  dental 
clinic  and  for  the  employment  of  a  school  nurse.  In  the  past, 
the  city  nurse  has  not  been  expected  to  attend  to  the  school's 
needs  and  would  doubtless  find  it  impossible  to  do  so  in  con- 
nection with  her  regular  city  duties. 

A  questionnaire  was  sent  to  the  teachers,  asking  for  the 
number  of  pupils  in  their  rooms  who  appeared  to  be  suffering 
from  removable  physical  defects.  It  was  not  expected  that  the 
teachers  would  be  able  to  locate  all  of  these,  but  that  they 
would  recognize  those  whose  cases  were  extreme.  They  re- 
ported 177  children  in  present  need  of  attention.  This  un- 
doubtedly represents  but  a  smaU  percentage  of  the  number.  It 
may  be  safely  assumed,  however,  that  these  are  cases  that  are 
in  urgent  need  of  attention.  One  member  of  the  survey  staff 
noted  that  from  a  group  of  15  children  who  were  reported  as 
making  unsatisfactory  progress  in  their  work,  7  were  without 
doubt  victims  of  adenoids.  A  thorough  inspection  by  people 
trained  to  pass  judgment  would  reveal  many  more  in  need  of 
corrective  measures.  For  these  reasons,  it  is  urged  that  this 
subject  be  given  the  immediate  attention  of  the  board. 

A  phase  of  health  work  frequently  overlooked  but  demanding 
more  and  more  attention  on  the  part  of  progressive  school  sys- 


S24  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

terns  is  the  matter  of  proper  nourishment.  Some  who  cannot  go 
home  for  the  noonday  meal  must  eat  cold  lunches.  Others  are 
under  nourished  or  anemic  when  they  come  to  school.  At  pres- 
ent it  is  the  custom  in  the  high  school  to  serve  warm  lunches  dur- 
ing the  winter  months  for  the  benefit  of  nonresident  pupils  and 
others  bringing  their  lunches  to  school.  This  is  a  good  begin- 
ning. The  work  should  be  further  extended  to  include  warm 
lunches  for  grade  children. 


I 


Sum)nary  325 


XVIII    SUMMARY  OF  CONCLUSIONS  AND 
RECOMMENDATIONS 

The  conclusions  reached  in  the  preceding  pages  are  •  based 
upon  facts  which  those  intrusted  with  passing  upon  the 
efficiency  of  the  school  system  regard  as  obvious.  They  have 
attempted  throughout  to  give  the  school  district  the  benefit  of 
their  unbiased  judgment  as  to  the  present  efficiency  of  its 
schools  and  the  reforms  which  are  needed.  The  object  in  view 
has  been  the  improvement  of  school  conditions  in  Janesville 
and  other  Wisconsin  cities  to  which  portions  of  this  report  will 
apply  equally  well. 

In  making  the  remommendations  which  follow  the  members  of 
the  survey  have  not  been  unmindful  of  the  fact  that  any  recom- 
mendations of  merit  must  lie  within  the  bounds  of  the  city's 
ability  to  carry  them  out.  They  have  endeavored  to  make  no 
recommendations  which  might  appear  idealistic  or  which  in- 
volve radical  reforms.  On  the  otlier  hand  they  have  felt  that 
they  would  be  negligent  in  their  duty  were  they  not  to  point 
out  the  most  obvious  and  urgent  needs  of  the  schools  which  they 
believe  the  school  district  is  in  position  to  carry  out.  The 
recommendations  are  therefore  those  which  the  surveyors  re- 
gard as  representing  needs  that  are  vital  and  which  can  with 
reasonable  effort  be  carried  out. 

Organization 

The  present  organization  in  the  upper  grammar  and  lower 
high  school  grades  does  not  permit  a  grouping  of  children  of 
similar  tastes  and  abilities.  It  is  recommended  that  a  junior 
high  school  including  grades  seven,  eight  and  nine  be  estab- 
lished to  meet  this  situation. 

Buildings 

The  city  has  an  unusually  large  niun.ber  of  small  and  out- 
worn buildings.  The  present  high  school  building  is  over- 
crowded and  inadequate.  To  meet  the  present  high  school 
needs  one  of  two  building  courses  should  be  pursued : 

a.     The  provision  of  a  high  school  plant  with  an  athletic 
field  and  a  building  especially  constructed  and  large 


326  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville 

enough  to  accommodate  both  a  junior  and  a  senior 
high  school, 
b.  An  alternative  plan  which  would  continue  the  present 
high  school  building  as  a  senior  high  school  and  which 
would  provide  for  a  junior  high  school  on  the  present 
Lincoln  site. 

To  meet  the  needs  of  grades  below  the  seventh  a  compre- 
hensive future  building  program  calling  ultimately  for  four 
grade  buildings  which  shall  be  centrally  located  with  reference 
to  each  of  the  four  quarters  of  the  city  should  be  adopted. 

Buildings  Avhich  are  to  be  continued  in  use  should  be  suf- 
ficiently remodeled  to  make  them  conform  to  reasonable  re- 
quirements for  safety  and  sanitation. 

Teacliers  and  Salaries 

The  teachers  for  the  most  part  are  experienced  but  poorly  paid. 
The  present  salaries  in  the  elementary  grades  do  not  command 
teachers  with  sufficient  preparation.  It  is  recommended  that 
provision  be  made  in  the  salary  schedule  for  stimulating  further 
professional  preparation  on  the  part  of  teachers.  It  is  recom- 
mended that  the  number  of  kindergarten  teachers  be  reduced 
from  five  to  three. 

Costs  and  Finance 

The  number  of  children  to  be  trained  does  not  show  a  marked 
rate  of  increase  and  has  not  done  so  in  recent  years.  Janes- 
ville's  wealth  is  relatively  large.  Its  appropriations  for  educa- 
tion are  relatively  small.  The  expenditures  for  education  are  less 
than  is  typical  among  cities  of  its  population  class  whether  these 
expenditures  are  related  to  the  number  of  pupils  to  be  trained, 
the  number  of  persons  in  the  population  or  the  wealth  of  the 
city.  The  city  should  provide  more  money  for  its  schools  and 
distribute  its  school  expenditure  to  better  advantage.  Many 
of  the  recommendations  of  this  report  cannot  be  carried  out 
without  additional  expense. 

Board  of  Education 

The  city  is  handicapping  itself  by  persisting  in  a  ward  method 
of  selecting  members  of  the  board  of  education.  The  electors 
of  the  school  districts  should  adopt  the  provisions  of  the  general 
charter  law  whereby  the  board  of  education  shall  consist  of 
seven  members  elected  at  large. 

Census,  Enrollment  and  Attendance 

The  present  method  of  recording  the  school  census  is  anti- 
quated and  inefficient.  The  sj'stem  of  census  taking  should  be 
reorganized  and  pro\'ision  made  for  modern  and  continuous 
census   records. 


Summary  327 

The  proportion  of  children  of  school  age  enrolled  in  Janes- 
ville  is  as  large  as  in  other  Wisconsin  cities.  The  enrollment  in 
the  high  school  has  increased  steadily  in  late  years. 

The  average  daily  attendance  is  low  and  reveals  the  need  of 
more  adequate  attendance  supervision.  It  is  recommended 
that  a  full  time  attendance  officer  be  employed. 

Records  and  Reports 

The  schools  are  without  a  modern  and  efficient  system  of 
records  and  reports.  When  the  results  of  the  investigation  of 
record  forms  for  city  school  systems  now  under  way  become 
available  a  new  system  of  school  records  should  be  adopted. 

Industrial  Education 

Better  quarters  should  be  provided  for  the  teaching  of  man- 
ual and  industrial  arts.  This  applies  to  the  work  in  the  ele- 
mentary grades,  the  high  school  and  the  industrial  school. 

The  work  in  industrial  and  manual  training  in  the  grades 
and  in  the  high  school  should  be  reorganized  under  a  single 
director  acting  as  head  of  the  department.  More  adequate 
supervision  should  be  provided  for  the  teachers  of  industrial  and 
manual  training. 

There  is  no  urgent  demand  on  the  part  of  manufacturers, 
laborers  or  other  citizens  for  specialized  industrial  training. 
There  is,  however,  a  need  for  prevocational  courses  in  the  upper 
elementary  and  lower  high  school  grades.  It  is  recommended 
that  prevocational  courses  be  organized  under  the  junior  high 
school  and  that  industrial  work  in  the  senior  high  school  be 
made  more  definitely  vocational  in  character, 

Instrtiction 

The  quality  of  instruction  in  the  high  school  is  on  the  average 
good.  In  the  elementary  grades  it  is  fair.  In  both  the  high 
school  and  the  elementary  grades  there  are  some  teachers  whose 
work  is  much  superior  to  the  average  and  others  who.se  work 
is  far  from  satisfactory. 

There  is  urgent  need  of  a  more  adequate  supply  of  teaching 
materials. 

Special  Subjects  and  Courses 

Music.  The  series  of  books  now  in  use  is  inadequate  from 
the  point  of  view  both  of  song  material  and  of  technical  method. 
Better  and  more  varied  material  should  be  provided.  More 
frequent  opportunities  should  be  given  for  the  pupils  to  listen 
to  good  music.  The  supervisor  should  spend  a  larger  proportion 
of  her  time  in  supervision  of  the  instruction  by  the  classroom 
teacher. 

The  high  school  instruction  in  music  should  be  planned  to 
continue    systematically    the    work    begun  in  the  grades,  and 


328  Educational  Survey  of  JanesvUle 

should  include  both  the  development  of  appreciation  and  of 
technical  power. 

Drawing.  There  is  need  of  correlation  between  courses  in 
dra^ving  and  courses  in  other  subjects.  A  larger  proportion 
of  the  drawing  supervisor's  time  should  be  spent  in  supervising 
the  drawing  teaching  of  other  teachers. 

Agriculture  and  School  Gardening.  The  schools  have  made 
commendable  progress  in  development  of  school  gardening  and 
courses  in  agriculture.  It  is  recommenlled  that  a  school  plot  of 
at  least  two  acres  be  secured  for  demonstration  and  practical 
«xperiment  in  agriculture  and  that  special  classes  in  farm  man- 
ual training  be  organized  for  argicultural  pupils. 

Library  Work 

Some  good  reading  circle  work  is  being  done  by  the  children. 
There  is,  however,  insufficient  stress  upon  the  development  of 
good  taste  in  reading.  There  is  urgent  need  of  a  high  school 
library.     This  should  be  placed  in  charge  of  a  trained  librarian. 

Course  of  Study  and  Time  Allotments 

The  length  of  the  school  day  in  the  primary  grades  should 
be  increased  to  confonn  more  nearly  to  the  average  in  other 
American  cities.  The  schools  in  the  past  have  been  severely  handi- 
capped by  the  absence  of  a  modern  and  definite  elementary 
course  of  study.  The  commendable  beginnings  that  have  been 
made  in  the  formulation  of  a  new  course  should  be  continued. 

Results  in  School  Subjects 

As  measured  by  the  tests  in  a  number  of  the  fundamental 
subjects  the  children  are  achieving  results  that  are  not  above 
fair.  This  is  not  true  of  all  children,  however,  for  a  wide  range 
of  proficiency  from  good  to  poor  was  found  in  every  grade  and 
subject  tested.  There  is  a  need  of  establishing  definite  ob- 
jective standards  of  attainment,  a  careful  analysis  of  the  teach- 
ing methods  in  use  and  a  more  careful  grading  of  the  children. 

Supervision 

An  insufficient  amount  of  high  grade  supervision  is  provided 
in  the  elementary  grades  and  in  the  high  school.  It  is  recom- 
mended that  the  work  of  each  general  department  of  instruction 
in  the  high  school  be  organized  under  a  competent  head.  Each 
department  head  should  be  immediately  responsible  to  the  prin- 
cipal under  the  general  direction  of  the  superintendent.  It  is- 
recommended  that  an  elementary  grade  supervisor  who  shall 
perform  her  duties  under  the  immediate  direction  of  the  super- 
intendent be  employed. 


Summary  329 

Progress  and  Classification  of  Pupils 

Due  in  large  measure  to  the  recent  introduction  of  semi- 
annual promotions  the  proportion  of  overage  children  is  rela- 
tively low,  while  the  proportion  who  are  underage  for  their 
grade  is  large.  The  number  of  normal  age  children  is  low. 
Janesville  ranks  slightly  higher  than  the  average  of  Wisconsin 
high  schools  in  the  percentage  of  pupils  promoted  at  the  end  of 
the  year  in  high  school  subjects. 

Provisions  for  Special  Classes 

The  city  is  to  be  commended  for  its  effort  to  care  for  children 
with  defective  speech  but  there  is  an  insufficient  provision  for 
other  exceptional  children.  It  is  recommended  that  a  class  be 
organized  for  mentally  unfortunate  children  and  that  special 
classes  or  special  help  teachers  be  provided  to  care  for  the  chil- 
dren of  superior  ability,  and  also  for  the  children  who  are  of 
normal  mentality  but  who  show  marked  retardation  in  one  or 
more  school  subjects.  In  addition  a  summer  vacation  school 
should  be  established  to  permit  backward  childi'cn  to  make  up 
work  and  strong  pupils  to  do  advanced  work. 

Home  Cooperation,  IlealtJi  and  Recreation 

Parents  on  the  whole  exhibit  a  wholesome  desire  to  cooperate 
with  the  teachers  and  the  schools.  The  problems  of  pupil  health 
and  recreational  activities  are  in  need  of  immediate  attention. 
A  thorough  study  of  the  matter  of  health  supervision  should  be 
made  with  a  view  to  the  permanent  establishment  of  medical 
and  dental  inspection  and  the  employment  of  a  school  nurse. 


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